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REPORT
OF THE
FIFTY-SEVENTH MEETING
OF THE
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE
HELD AT
MANCHESTER IN AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER 1887.
LONDON :
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1888.
Office of the Association: 22 ALBEMARLE Street, Lonpoy, W.
He
‘ Page
Monsmors and Miles Of the: Association ..............ssseesescescsecovcescsboneseees XXX1
Places and Times of Meeting and Officers from commencement ............... xli
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from com-
RITE voc sane iss - =o oaclevins covactsocecscsentaceseeccescsecccsenieers xlix
MURA 20.2 co. 2 22a 55 sons nnsesecncnectcnneesccceusescavesccoasscsenee scenes Ixiv
Lectures to the Mpdratave Classes .......ceseccsesovecessvscessccsescenseesssccess ees Ixvi
Officers of Sectional Committees present’at the Manchester Meeting ......... Ixvili
IM foo cc.) fcra. acdsee ssalcssscedesSecetecscssesesssoseesccbaces XX
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at the Annual Meetings ...... Ixxii
MMP GMEIPT TSO (—89 .......0-000-<<+noed-nsscnrscesncicsccnsbesscccscasesees Ixxiv
Report of the Council to the General Committee ..............0.:ceseeeeeeeeees Ixxv
Recommendations adopted by the General Committee for Additional
Reports an SRR AC Oc sett e lnk: S032 0i.c0nadsececencesivs¥oe spaces Ixxvii
Synopsis of Brais SNPS) ease ee cannes secceaeerontsiinsedesepdeisde< Ixxxvi
Places of Meeting in 1888 and 1889 ..........scssssssssesesssseseseseseeessesesens Ixxxvii
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of Grants
for Scientific MMPPOREE 2.catsscccsgescecasescncaseanscconsscncssnese connssanecerecases Ixxxvili
Arrangement Gio General Mectings ..........c.cssssssssceseesceseaseeccessenes c
Address by the President, Sir Huyry E. Roscor, M.P., D.C.L., LL.D. .
TRE E11 fia cnc. deaieno nae stsecncesivecccceannvacsdeerevessereasocawenl 1
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors A. JoHnson (Secre-
_ tary), J. G. MacGrueor, J. B. Currrman, and H. T. Bovey and Mr. C.
_ CaRPMAEL, appointed for the purpose of promoting Tidal Observations in
, ‘Canada...... MOEN can ete as can at nn vc cho ca's opis isn soc we’n dass adnies 04 nate elcme'soviasdens 31
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor BALFouR STEWART
(Secretary), Professor Sroxes, Professor Scuusrer, Mr. G. JoHnsTonu
Stonry, Professor Sir H. E. Roscor, Captain Apney, and Mr, G. J.
Symons, appointed for the purpose of considering the best methods of re-
cording the direct Intensity of Solar Radiation ...........0..:seeceseeeceeeeeceeees 32
4
iv CONTENTS.
Page
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Crum Brown (Secretary),
Mr. Mitre Hous, Mr. Joun Murray, Lord McLaren, and . BUCHAN,
appointed for the purpose of co-operating with the Scottish Meteorological
Society in making Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis .........+++-++++.
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Batrour StHwaRrr
(Secretary), Mr. J. Kwox Laveuron, Mr. G. J, Symons, Mr. R. H. Scorr,
and Mr. G. Jounstong Stoney, appointed for the purpose of co-operating
with Mr. E. J. Lows in his project of establishing on a permanent and
scientific basis a Meteorological Observatory near Chepstow .........--...+++
Final Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. H. Scorr (Secretary),
Mr. J. Norman Locryur, Professor G. G. Sroxes, Professor Batrour
Srewanrt, and Mr. G. J. Symons, appointed in August 1881, and reappointed
in 1882-3 and 4, to co-operate with the Meteorological Society of the
Mauritius in the publication of Daily Synoptic Charts of the Indian Ocean
for the year 1861. (Drawn up by Mr. Ropert H. Scorm) «.............-....--
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of General J. T. Warker, Sir
Wirt1am THomson, Sir J. H. Lerroy, General R. StrRAcHEY, Professors
A. S. Herscuer, G, Curystat, C. Nrvey, J. H. Poynrre (Secretary), A.
Scuustrer, and G. H. Darwin, and Mr. H. Tomntson, appointed for
the purpose of inviting designs for a good Differential Gravity Meter in
supersession of the pendulum, whereby satisfactory results may be obtained
at each station of observation in a few hours, instead of the many days over
which it is necessary to extend pendulum observations ...... —_Agouatocedaggeenee
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors WILLIAMSON, ARMSTRONG,
Dixon, Trnpen, Rerorp, J. Perry, O. J. Lopez, Bonney, SrrRxrNe,
Bower, D’Arcy THompson, and Mines Marswaun and Messrs. W. H.
PrrEcE, VERNON Harcourt, Crooxss, Torrey, and E. F. J. Love (Secre-
tary), appointed for the purpose of considering the desirability of combined
action for the purpose of Translation of Foreign Memoirs and for reporting
HELE Olle scrapie ct setedeen tins dans vais nenialy dee taeieelea el aaa Be iisentivcesicscse.
Report of a Committee, consisting of Professors McLrop and Ramsay and
Messrs. J. T. CunpaLi and W, A. Sarnstoner (Secretary), appointed to
further investigate the Action of the Silent Discharge of Electricity on
39
40
41
4]
Oxygenvandiofher| Gases) f........s..7assseneeorens iets ston ean is aa cenre ‘COE » 42
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors TiLpny and W. CHANDLER
RoseErts-A vsren and Mr. 1’. TuRNER (Secretary), appointed for the purpose
of investigating the Influence of Silicon on the Properties of Steel. (Drawn
Tp) by Mit TP URNER) | 0%... oveescescesrems emcees teen ‘hose. Ron bapaBadeees
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor G. Forsns (Secretary),
Captain Anyzy, Dr. J. Hopkinson, Professor W. G. ApaMs, Professor G. C.
Fostsr, Lord Rayieren, Mr. Prescer, Professor SomustHr, Professor Dnwar,
Mr. A. Vernon Harcourt, Professor Ayrton, Sir JAMES Dovenass, and
a B. Dixon, appointed for the purpose of reporting on Standards of
WGN cesineccesevesescesescesecseneciedinabest (hess ssear¥ece es ttee nin ees
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors RAMSAY, TILDEN,
MaArsHALL, and W. L. Goopwin (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of
investigating certain Physical Constants of Solution, especially the Hxpan-
sion of Saline Solutions ........ siuges Rhone tosses tboeees omme be aéteesveiond
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Trtpmn, Professor Ramsay,
and Dr. W. W. J. Nrcou (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of inyes-
tigating the Nature of Solution................0.escsescesencnsewe Fe. nsacuorinnooee
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors TrtpEn, McLnop, PickER- ©
in@, and Ramsay and Drs. Youne, A. R. Leups, and Nicoz (Secretary),
appointed for the purpose of reporting on the Bibliography of Solution......
43
or
or
57
CONTENTS.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Ray LAanxuster, Mr. P. L.
CLATER, Professor M. Foster, Mr. A. Sepewrcx, Professor A. M. Mar-
SHALL, Professor A. C. Happon, Professor Mosrnery, and Mr. Percy SLADEN
_ (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of making arrangements for assisting
the Marine Biological Association Laboratory at Plymouth.................64
Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. Erurripen, Dr. H.
Woopwarp, and Professor T. Rupprr Jones (Secretary), on the Fossil
Phyllopoda of the Paleeozoic Rocks, 1887 ...........eseseeeeecnneeeeeseeeeeeneees
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Joun Corpraux (Secretary),
Professor A. Newron, Mr. J. A. Harviz-Brown, Mr. Wittram Eacin
Crarxe, Mr. R. M. Barrineron, and Mr. A. G. Mors, reappointed at Bir-
mingham for the purpose of obtaining (with the consent of the Master and
Brethren of the Trinity House and the Commissioners of Northern and
Trish Lights) observations on the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and
Lightvessels, and of reporting on the same..............:.s2sseeeeeseeeeeeneee eens
Report of the Committee, consisting of Messrs. H. Srrsoum, R. Trrmen, W.
Carrutuers, and P. L. Scuarer (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of
investigating the Flora and Fauna of the Cameroons Mountain ...............
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Ray Lanxester, Mr. P. Te
Sctater, Professor M. Foster, Mt. A. Sepawick, Professor A. M. Mar-
SHALL, Professor A. C. Happon, Professor Mosrtry, and Mr. Prrcy
Stapen (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of arranging for the occu-
pation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples .........sssseesseeeeeeeens
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor McKEnprick, Professor
Srrutuers, Professor Youne, Professor McIntosu, Professor A. NICHOL-
son, Professor Cossar Ewart, and Mr. Joun Murray (Secretary), appointed
for the purpose of aiding in the maintenance of the establishment of a
Marine Biological Station at Granton, Scotland — ............sebeeseeeeeeeee neers
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Tu1serton Dyer (Secretary), Mr.
Carruruers, Mr. Bat, Professor Ortver, and Mr. Forses, appointed for
the purpose of continuing the preparation of a Report on our present know-
ledge of the Flora of China ..........:..cccccesceenecseseeeesseeenereceesesssaeceeaens
Report of the Committee, consisting of Canon A. M. Norman, Mr. Il. B.
Brapy, Mr. W. Carruruers, Professor HerpMan, Professor W. C.
_ M‘Intosu, Mr. J. Murray, Professor A. Newron, Mr. P. L. Scrater, and
Professor A. C, Happon (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of con-
sidering the question of accurately defining the term ‘ British ’ as applied to
the Marine Fauna and Flora of our Islands ........6...c.csseeee ences etter sree ens
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor M. Fosrrr, Professor BayLby
-Barrovr, Mr. Tatseiron-Dyrr, Dr. Trimen, Professor Bownr (Secretary),
Professor Marsuatt Warp, Mr. Carruruers, and Professor Haxroe,
appointed for the purpose of taking steps for the establishment of a
Botanical Station at Peradeniya, Ceylom.............ccecceeeeeecneee nese eer eneene eee
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor VALENTINE Batt, Mr. H. G.
‘ORDHAM, Professor Happon, Professor HinnHovse, Mr. Joun Hopkinson,
Dr. Macrarzanp, Professor Mrrwes Marswatt, Mr. F.T. Morr (Secretary),
Dr. TrAqvarr, and Dr. H. Woopwarp, appointed for the purpose of pre-
paring a Report upon the Provincial Museums of the United Kingdom......
First Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor H1LLHoUse, Mr. E. W.
_ Banerr, and Mr. A. W. WI1x1s, for the purpose of collecting information as
to the Disappearance of Native Plants from their Local Habitats. By Pro-
fessor HILLHOUSE, Secretary...............ccccsccssessnesneneccceeecansceesensaseanons
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor McKxrnprick, Professor
Crutanp, and Dr. McGrecor-Roserrson (Secretary), appointed for the
purpose of investigating the Mechanism of the Secretion of Urine ...... ee
Vv
Page
60
73
77
91
94
95
96
97
130
131
vi CONTENTS.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. E. Bipwern, Professor Borp
Dawkins, Professor Briper, Mr. A. H. Cocks, Mr. E: pp Hamet, Mr. J. E.
Hartine, Professor Mitnes MarsHatt, Dr. Murrueap, Dr. Scratsr,
Canon TrIsTRAM, and Mr. W. R. Hues (Secretary), appointed for the
purpose of preparing a Report on the Herds of Wild Cattle in Chartley
Parkiand other Parks in Great Britain 1c. ...cscc0cccsecocucceescvessavecueeeaenae
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors ScHAFER (Secretary),
Micsart Fosrrr, and Lankester and Dr. W. D. HaLirpurton, ap-
pointed for the purpose of investigating the Physiology of the Lymphatic
PON RLS ITM caclote de ohne ts as shtae'canbacinseicciea cian ep easier nto aatena cds semergt *> ages Senet teecean
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of General J. T. Warxknr,
General Sir J. H. Lurroy (Reporter), Professor Sir W. Tomson, Mr.
ALEXANDER Bucuan, Mr. J. Y. Bucnanan, Mr. Jonn Murray, Dr. J.
Raz, Mr. H, W. Bares (Secretary), Captain W. J. Dawson, Dr. A.
SELwyn, and Professor C. CARPMAEL, appointed for the purpose of report-
ing upon the Depth of Permanently Frozen Soil in the Polar Regions, its
Geographical Limits and Relation to the present Poles of greatest cold.
Drawn up by General Sir J. H. Lurroy, R.A., K.C.M.G. (Reporter) ......
Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rey. Canon Carver, the Rev.
H. B. Georen, Sir Dovetas Gatton, Professor Bonney, Mr. A. G.
Vernon Harcourt, Professor T. McKrnny Hueuss, the Rev. H. W.
Watson, the Rev. E. F. M. McCartuy, the Rey. A. R. Varpy, Professor
ALFRED NEwton, the Rey. Canon Tristram, Professor Mosprey, and Mr.
E. G. Ravenstern (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of co-operating
with the Royal Geographical Society in endeavouring to bring before the
authorities of the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge the advisability of
promoting the study of Geography by establishing special Chairs for thé
PURPOSE Mise Se stn we ca cdae ed cb cdecssusna tere staecoctierdencdrsantture eoutds ett aeeaaenaEae
Final Report of the Committee, consisting of General J. T. Watknr, General
Sir H. Lerroy, Sir Witttam THomson, Mr. Atnx. Bucuan, Mr. J. Y.
Bucwanan, Mr. H. W. Bares, and Mr. E. G. RavenstEern (Secretary),
appointed for the purpose of taking into consideration the combination of
the Ordnance and Admiralty Surveys, and the production of a Bathy-
hypsographical Map of the British Islands ................scesssscecessceeesaeeeess
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. J. H. Guapsronn (Secretary),
Professor Armstrone, Mr. StepHen Bourne, Miss Lypra Becker, Sir
Joun Lussock, Bart., Dr. H. W. Crosskry, Sir Ricoarp TEmpre, Bart.,
Sir Henry FE. Roscor, Mr. James Heywoop, and Professor N. Story
MASKELYNE, appointed for the purpose of continuing the inquiries relating
to the teaching of Science in Elementary Schools ..............sseeeeeeeeseaseesee
Report cf the Committee, consisting of Sir Jon Lussocr, Dr. Joun Evans,
Professor Boyp Dawxrns, Dr. Ropert Munro, Mr. Payentty, Dr. Henry
Hicks, Dr. Murra, and Mr, Jamus W. Davis, appointed for the purpose
of ascertaining and recording the localities in the British Islands in which
evidences of the existence of Prehistoric Inhabitants of the country are
found. (Drawn up by Mr. James W. Davis) ..... SEAS Torchic sons esa.
Report of the Committee, consisting of General Pirt-Rivers, Dr. Brppor,
Professor Frowrer, Mr. Francis Garton, Dr. E. B. Tytor, and Dr.
Garson, appointed for the purpose of editing a new Edition of ‘ Anthropo-
logical Notes and Queries,’ with authority to distribute gratuitously the
unsold copies of the present Edition ............+ BOR Tap EREICECOS SCRMPE EDs
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. E. B. Tytor, Dr. G. M.
Dawson, General Sir J. H. Lurroy, Dr. Danret Witson, Mr. R. G.
Hatisurton, and Mr. Grorer W. Broxam (Secretary), appointed for
the purpose of investigating and publishing reports on the physical cha-
racters, languages, and industrial and social condition of the North-western
dzibesiof tho DominionvatWatiads <2... -..1.s+0csecsqcensegd-Seeneacdarsensyesueeee
135
145
160
163
168
—
ST
bo
CONTENTS. vil
; Page
‘Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Garson, Mr. PENGELLY,
Mr. F. W. Rupter, and Mr. G. W. Broxam (Secretary), appointed for the
purpose of investigating the Prehistoric Race in the Greek Islands
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor G. Canny Fosrmr, Sir
; Wirt1am THomson, Professor Ayrton, Professor J. Perry, Professor W.
G. Apams, Lord Rayreren, Dr. O. J. Lopez, Dr. Joun Horxinson, Dr.
A. Murraeap, Mr. W. H. Preece, Mr. Herpert Taytor, Professor EVERET’,
Professor ScuusrER, Dr. J. A. Fremra, Professor G. F. Frrzgeratp,
Mr. R. T. Giazesroox (Secretary), Professor CurysraL, Mr. H. Tomirn-
son, Professor W. GARNnEtr, Professor J. J. THomson, Mr. W. N. Suaw,
and Mr. J. T. Borromixy, appointed for the purpose of constructing and
’ issuing practical Standards for use in Electrical Measurements ..............+ 206
‘Supplement to a Report on Optical Theories. By R. T. Guazesroox, M.A.,
RM IMM oe ON, desde erste tov poe op 1 oon sees onccaderesveddavastvobucnees ee 208
' First Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. Erueriner, Dr. H.
Woopwarp, and Mr. A. Bett, for the purpose of reporting upon the
Pate TAVEIS OL DWV OXTOLG na cter vetoes -satesny siaselr wa esvwadessesacaden tsbanmaakee 209
Seventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. KR. Erneripes, Mr. THomas
Gray, and Professor Jon Mitne (Secretary), appointed for the purpose
of investigating the Volcanic Phenomena of Japan. (Drawn up by the
EEE GSU BGT) encase pncatsnvessascniecsesdunnnaeuindsle nese sobs cencaseewsseneeseuedagesnes 212
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. H. Baverman, Mr. F. W. RuptEr,
Mr. J. J. H. Teawt, and Dr. Jonnston-Lavis, for the investigation of the
Voleanic Phenomena of Vesuvius and its neighbourhood, (Drawn up by
Fv. JoHNStTON-Lavis, M:D.; B.G.S., Secretary) .........0.00.0.c.cecensdenpecoas 226
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. W. T. Branrorp, Professor
J. W. Jupp, Mr. W. Carruruers, Dr. H. Woopwarp, and Mr. J. 8.
GARDNER, for the purpose of reporting on the Fossil Plants of the Tertiary
and Secondary Beds of the United Kingdom. (Drawn up by the Secretary,
SN Ry ARPES ) ue oe Acces pa Pwcacvostedncscces deste rccentnseatodaccseesocsnetnass 229
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. J. J. H.
‘eaLL, and Professor J. F. Brake, appointed to undertake the Micro-
scopical Examination of the Older Rocks of Anglesey. (Drawn up by
SEPP PREOR TE! TAKE, SSGCLOUALY ) ..csencossden02 +n occceaisndenbeaissseccemehinaablen 230
‘Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors Tmmprn and ARM-
_ srRrone (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of investigating Isomeric
Naphthalene Derivatives. (Drawn up by Professor ARMSTRONG) ...........- 231
- Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. C. WiLLtamson and
_ Mr. Casu, for the purpose of investigating the Carboniferous Flora of
Halifax and its neighbourhood. (Drawn up by Professor W. C.
MMBEEAMSON) orto ele cveseicosescace vor ckanerrnonewnsetetaes vanced taVnoet eect «dcee-ccnee 235
Fifteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors J. PRustwicuH,
_ W. Boyp Dawxrys, T. McK. Hueuus, and T. G. Bonnzy, Dr. H. W.
Crosskry (Secretary), and Messrs. C. E. Dz Rancr, H. G. Forpuam,
DD. Macerytosn, W. Peneenty, J. Prant, and R. H. TippEMAN, appointed
_ for the purpose of recording the position, height above the sea, lithological
characters, size, and origin of the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and
_ Treland, reporting other matters of interest connected with the same, and
‘taking measures for their preservation. (Drawn up by Dr. Crosskry,
BSPCTCLARY) \ cnagades secs ssp ORCDCCEEEEE OEE EEE OME Ree COME corm eee bon conepo: 236
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. S. Bournz, Mr. F. Y. Epen-
wortH (Secretary), Professor H. 8. Foxwext, Mr. Roserr Girren, Pro-
fessor ALFRED Marswatt, Mr. J. B. Martin, Professor J. S. NIcHOLSON,
Mr. R. H. Inverts Parerave, and Professor H. Sipewicx, appointed for
the purpose of investigating the best methods of ascertaining and measur-
viil CONTEN1S.
Page
ing Variations in the Value of the Monetary Standard. (Drawn up by the
SOULE LAL Y cectt ach oats s eaciseemgad sole sete divgbistibe gotindee pelea Shes Aceh eabiaatdeese see ema 247
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor T. McK. HueHess,
Dr. H. Hicks, Dr. H. Woopwarp, and Messrs. E. B. Luxmoors, P. P.
Pennant, Epwin Morean, and G. H. Morton, appointed for the purpose
of exploring the Cae Gwyn Cave, North Wales. (Drawn up by Dr. H.
Hioxs, Secretary) ............+. Milage aie scale te dae Ramen rec STEN Ca ade Wea «ook ee ees 301
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Srpawick, Professor Fox-
wet, Mr. A. H. D. Actanp, the Rev. W. CunnineHAM, and Professor
Mowro (Secretary), on the Regulation of Wages by means of Lists in the
AP Ot OM ON GOUS EI sac es pat ee weaeles wad csvtce «etter svemes Hetane Maa cewenece eee te emer 303.
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor BaLrour STEWART
(Secretary), Professor W. G. Apams, Mr. W. Lanz Carpenter, Mr. C. H.
CaremazL, Mr. W. H. M. Curistiz (Astronomer Royal), Professor G.
CurystaL, Staff Commander Creax, Professor G. H. Darwin, Mr.
WittraAm Enis, Sir J. H. Lerroy, Professor 8S. J. Perry, Professor
Scuuster, Sir W. THomson, and Mr. G. M. Wuippte, appointed for the
purpose of considering the best means of Comparing and Reducing Magnetic
Observations. (Drawn up by Professor BALFOUR STEWART) .........ceeeeeee 320:
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors ARMsTRoNG, LopGE,
Sir Wittiam Tomson, Lord Rayieien, Firzcreratp, J. J. THoMsoN,
Scuustaer, Poyntrine, Crum Brown, Ramsay, FRANKLAND, TILDEN,
Harriey, 8. P. Tuomrson, McLxop, Roperts-Austen, Ricker, REINOLD,
and Carry Fostrr, Captain Asney, Drs. GLuapstonn, Hopkinson, and
Fremine, and Messrs. Crookes, SHELFORD BipweLt, W. N. SHAw,
J. Larmor, J. T. Borrominy, H. B. Dixon, R. T. Guazesroox, J. Brown,
HK. J. Love, and Joun M. Tuomson, for the purpose of considering the
subject of Electrolysis in its Physical and Chemical Bearings. (Hdited by
RO ENV AOD OD GE) g's scoss sdeioeaesa castle asneco> neta» desias piedee gwaisnnnese sae tent ae een 3386:
Thirteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Drs. E. Hur and
H. W. Crosskny, Sir Dovetas Gatton, Professors J. Presrwicnh and
G. A. Lepovur, and Messrs. JAMEs GLAIsHeR, E. B. Marren, G. H.
Morton, W. PENGELLY, JAMES Prant, I. Roperts, T. S. Strooxzn, G. J.
Symons, W. Toptny, Tytpen-Wricut, E. WrrarreD, W. WHITAKER,
and C. H. Dr Rance (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of investigating
the Circulation of Underground Waters in the Permeable Formations of
England and Wales, and the Quantity and Character of the Water supplied
to various Towns and Districts from these Formations. (Drawn up b
een RANGE, Repatter) iiasc 4 1ch.sueteseceeets 0d oiviesvsdnavecadees eee
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. H. Woopwarp, Mr. H. Knerine,
and Mr. J. Srarkin GARDNmR, appointed for the purpose of exploring the
Higher Eocene Beds of the Isle of Wight. (By the Secretary, J. S.
REARDN UR) This siaiiadyin iene» viysiduabvaeaundugeaeh cubs iwnere cs ayh uk eee caveat ee ae 414
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. W. H. Bartow, Sir F. J. Bram-
WELL, Professor Jamus THomson, Sir D, Gatton, Mr. B. Baxer, Professor
W.C. Unwin, Professor A. B. W. Kennepy, Mr, C. Bartow, Professor
H. 8S. Here Suaw, Professor W. C. Roperts-AusTen, and Mr. A. T.
ATCHISON (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of obtaining information
with reference to the Endurance of Metals under repeated and varying
stresses, and the proper working stresses on Railway Bridges and other
structures subject to varying loads ........c..c.s.cccsssessccssseesccessecceasseeenses 424.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. F. Gatron, General Prrr-
IVERS, Professor FLownr, Professor A. MAcALIster, Mr. F. W. Rupisr,
Mr. R. Sruarr Poors, and Mr. Broxam (Secretary), appointed for the pur-
pose of procuring, with the help of Mr. Frrypers Perris, Racial Photo-
graphs from the Ancient Egyptian Pictures and Sculptures. (Drawn up by
MRIPEDRIE)) 12. a¢ceetadaeeeees Ae Saaraieiaiais olan eSuibewetbne cuabre ashe uname dedications wee ARD
358
CONTENTS. ix.
Page-
Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee, consisting of Mr. FRANcIs
Gatton (Chairman), Professor A. W. WixttaMson, Sir Dovetas Garon,
Professor Boyp Dawxins, Sir Rawson Rawson, Dr. J. @. Garson, Dr. J.
Evans, Mr. J. Hopxinson, Professor R. Mutpona (Secretary), Mr. W.
Wairaker, Mr. G. J. Symons, General Prrt-Rivers, Mr. W. TOPLEY,
MroH. G. Forpuam, and Mr. WiGEIAM WHITE ............ccccccsccseceseesceece 459
On the Vortex Theory of the Luminiferous Aither. (On the Propagation of
Laminar Motion through a turbulently moving Inviscid Liquid.) By Sir
EE MCR OMAOR, Babs DD. TRIG, ch ink ss oaeac sv0dee se cov cs deccaaverdscvastaoadeess 486
On the Theory of Electric Endosmose and other Allied Phenomena, and on
the Existence of a Sliding Coefficient fora Fluid in contact with a Solid.
Seeeeteessor Honson Taw, MA. FURS, s....ccccccs.sscccucsonvodedanaevcecueccocs 495
Gold and Silver: their Geological Distribution and their Probable Future
Production. By Witrt1am Toptzy, F.G.S., Assoc.Inst.0.E., Geological
Survey of England and Wales, Recorder of Section C (Geology) 510
Recent Illustrations of the Theory of Rent, and their Effect on the Value of
mE YET, BATTEN SAMERSON fr se oy siidivesacdinws-cecaacsnesneaasscangridoss 536
On Certain Laws relating to the Régime of Rivers and Estuaries, and on the
Possibility of Experiments on a small scale. By Professor OsBorne
IRE NR GEELT CE JKL Sun.adtie deve iea uVisoese'oceahs oot. seccuascdeesaccvecesorttin 555.
Experiments on the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat on a large scale. By E.
Eeeemmreateies ANG WW, AUNDEBSGN .0, <2c.c0.cc..ncecetecsesencesecesecancccusavsvsvesasaecs 562
On an Electric Current Meter. By Professor G. Forsrs, M.A., F.R.S.
IE tetas cat eet nea eacs anh els Pep nties qesacscccaesexscesscerabincebennns 564
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1,
Page
Address by Professor Sir R. S. Batt, M.A., LL.D., F.RS., F.R.AS.,
Th.
9
=<
Cr
M.R.I.A., Astronomer Royal for Ireland, President of the Section .........
Third Report of the Committee for promoting Tidal Observations in
Canada
eee eee eee eee ee eee ee eee eee eee eee ee eee eee eee ee eee)
Conduction of Electricity through Gases. By Professor A. ScHustTEr,
HESSD s Bickbatte, ve caciabvex apie csteOesecodetane ch nablssscacsaphtteay cdi ueesa pea eee
. Instruments for Stellar Photography. By Sir Howarp Gross, F.R.S....
. On the Nature of the Photographic Star-Discs and the Removal of a
Difficulty in Measurements for Parallax. By Professor C. PrrrcHaRp,
D.D., F.B.S.
- On the Turbulent Motion of Water between Two Planes. By Professor
ina We POMBO; Mild ME EUGSs, sicoesivsuupciems vows oao0sas ocd tcsaye vies aoe
. On the Theory of Electrical Endosmose and other Allied Phenomena, and
on the Existence of a Sliding Coefficient for a Fluid in contact with a Solid.
iy, Professor HlorAgw Taw, MAG BURRS) co.cc -0.-cscssts sconoccessenmeenanaene
. On the Vortex Theory of the Luminiferous Ether. By Professor Sir
We DEOMSON, Ila, D),, i) buSsescesasnreence .
er eee eee eee eee eer eee eee eee ee ee
. On the Ratio of the Two Elasticities of Air. By Professor Sirvanus P.
TxHomeson, D.Sc
FORO emer eee eee eee H EEE EEE O EEE E HOHE HHH HEHEHE EEE HEHEHE eEe EE ee eens
. A Null Method in Electro-calorimetry. By Professor W. Stroup, D.Sc.,
B.A., and W. W. Hatpane Guz, B.Sc. .......
seeeeeeee seen
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2.
. Fourth Report of the Committee for considering the best methods of re-
cording the direct Intensity of Solar Radiation
Ree eee eee eterna eee
. Third Report of the Committee for considering the best means of com-
paring and reducing Magnetic Observations ©......... vedaripgunsosesuse commeeaanT
. New Electric Balances. By Professor Sir W1tL14m THomson, F.R.S. ...
. Supplement to a Report on Optical Theories. By R. T. GuazeBroox,
M.A., F.BS.
CORO OO ERE Eee HEHE HEHE EEE HOE REEEE HEE EE ESE E EEE EEF ESE EHH HEE EEE EES
. Description of a Map of the Solar Spectrum. By Professor H. A.
HVOWDANDisctescoeacectecee Saaelon bob G aT esi sind oes Aalaee cones easeelnere eecee oct eae eee
Exhibition of Negatives of Photographs of the Solar Spectrum. By
Guo. Hiees
eee eeeeesersoes POOP Re eee eee e ee Tee eE ETOH THEE HEHE SE EOE ESE OEE SEH HEHEHE EEE OOE
CONTENTS. xi
Page
7. On the Period of Rotation of the Sun as determined by the Spectroscope.
PE MMERII ILI 5555 cu hsntue wn seus addi evan icp ich vies soasn scene somites ensataeayecnee 583
8. On the Diffraction Bands near the Edge of the Shadow of an Obstacle.
Hayetmorossor GH. HITZGERATD, HRS: wcysereeseeessicesecevscissnesess socansees 584
9. Recent Determinations of Absolute Wave-lengths. By Lours Brtt...... 584
10. Twin-Prisms for Polarimeters. By Professor Sinvanus P. Tompson,
CMM Rein seiside os ce eon aincai at vawatla Dae’ soondoamocsueaedvenisssnddsssaeteasye ree arta 585
11. On the Existence of Reflection when the Relative Refractive Index is
niinyemee ty: Word HAN UEC li. DD). , SOCRsS. is. .c0ds0cccadesenssseedeecaes 585
12. On the Magnetisation of Iron in Strong Fields. By Professor J. A.
iiwrve,.B:Se;, FR.S. and. WILLIAM LOW «45.40: 0ccsesscscceesencsessaes coosee 586
13, On the Magnetisation of Hadfield’s Manganese Steel in Strong Fields.
By Professor J. A. Ewine, B.Sc., F.R.S., and Witt1am Low............... 587
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.
1. Second Report of the Committee on Electrolysis............cc0ssseceeceeeensenes 588
2. On some points in Electrolysis and Electro-convection. By Professor
IEE IIIES OSE cae cittaitasaa.s tas Abe nUpa ys ai asic as MADE RS a> de nden se Ries clacene thas 589
3. On Ohm’s Law in Electrolytes. By G. F. Frrzemrarp, F.R.S., and Frep.
BREDUINON, <.c.scvernsacoes Seesesghsseeks: Sleaan seers uaa cg ean gacusaxitiaus wtiaascirapaaanena 589
4, Further Researches concerning the Electrolysis of Water. By Professor
PS er)
TSSS THUSIAD PETITE 5 SR aR a a aR SA VeRO Ie el Fn Pn he 589
. Experiments on the possible Electrolytic Decomposition of Alloys. By
NstaIeRsOLr a W.-C LLOBRRTS=AUSTEN, Pics cscvovsasaseoss voveeendasccewedsscucess 589
. Experiments on the Speeds of Ions. By Professor O. J. Lopes, F.R.S.... 589
. On Chemical Action in a Magnetic Field. By Professor H. A. Rownanp 589
. On the Action of an Electric Current in hastening the Formation of
Lagging Compounds. By Dr. J. H. Guapstonn, F.RS. ..........ceeeeee eee 589
. Experiments on Electrolysis and Electrolytic Polarisation. By W. W.
Hatpanr Gus, B.Sc., Henry Hoxtpen, B.Sc., and Cuartes H. Lexs,
eee a iia caste arck nfo Vina sido ad wiganjone aid ine wine Hana degeah anders <aae 589
10. On the Electro-deposition of Alloys. By Professor Srrvanus P. THomp-
STi US Ca W Aka es eae ee caer ae ane ee dade REL AGN ee 590
11. On the Action of the Solvent in Electrolytic Conduction. By T. C.
MUR ZTPAIIRT OK: o Flot tiaees i. sneet suede etceeh ete iene bc aedec cee ee ites 590
12. On the Industrial Electro-deposition of Platinum. By Professor SItvanus
EMA OMEBON tL) OCIMataet senetaneceeece asus eden actu ecceeeecs otcvne ceadouucnontneees 590
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
On the Princeton Eclipse Expedition. By Professor C. A. Youne, Ph.D.,
Sa I es A oie dhicn vneinsy Haan opeaoe de sesiaencaBicineuh agri oie 590
. Observations of Atmospheric Electricity. By Professor Leontr WesEr.. 592
The General Bibliography of Meteorology and Terrestrial Magnetism.
Compiled by the Signal Office at Washington. By Crnvenanp ABBE ... 593
. Fourth Report of the Committee appointed to co-operate with Mr. E. J.
Lowe in his project of establishing on a permanent and scientitic basis a
Meteorological Observatory near Chepstow...........seccseeees Rates setae 594
xii
CONTENTS
Page
. Second Report of the Committee appointed to co-operate with the Scottish
Meteorological Society in making Meteorological Observations on Ben
BN EIG ceri de chase «a5 vases ous cdi a onlaseid abhi deieSs hAG SCOR EaR een ea RTS tae de 594
}, On the Hygrometry of Ben Nevis. By H. N. DIckson...............0c0.00+ 594
- On the Thermal Windrose at the Ben Nevis Observatory. By ANeGus
ILUANIKGIN Weiaiss's ofije« sida’ 2 dadsicacyoavasttetes see eeteers eee eee ee eee ee 595
. On a Peculiarity of the Cyclonic Winds of Ben Nevis. By R. T. Omonn 595
. Final Report of the Committee appointed to co-operate with the Meteoro-
logical Society of the Mauritius in the publication of Daily Synoptic
Charts of the Indian Ocean for the year 1861 .............. Lissa iwn ROoR ts 595
. On the Effect of Continental Lands in altering the Level of the adjoining
Oceans. By Professor Epwarp Hutt, LL.D., F.R.S, .......csseccceeeeseoees 596.
. On some Variations in the Level of the Water in Lake George, New South
gevates:- ByvEL. An ERUGSWhdi «.. ssussocennctevenctecuseee eemnoatncasesnaeteerees vee OOM
. On the different kinds of Thunderstorms, and on a Scheme for their
Systematic Observation. By the Hon. RatpH ABERCROMBY, F’..Met.Soc. 597
MATHEMATICAL SuB-SECTION.
1. On the Criteria for Discriminating between Maxima and Minima Solutions
. in the Calculus of Variations. By E. P. CULVERWELL, M.A...........000+ 598
2. Some Notice of a new Computation of the Gaussian Constants. By Pro-
ORS Ds (C, AMAMS: (HERS gs. nokeeey ccarec seen voc cntcos cusccces ha ecccdeteceiaes 600
3. On the Umbral Notation. By the Rey. Roperr Hartey, M.A., F.R.S.... 600
4, On Criticoids. By RoBERT RAWSON, F\R.A.S. ......ccccssececsssescecesesceees 604
5. Complete Integral of the z-ic Differential Resolvent. By the Rev.
enon HAncay, MA BS ccs dvedesscatesss caciass +0508 0esensiiine cee 606
6, Note on the General Theory of Anharmonics. By A. Bucuuerm, M.A... 607
7. Transformations in the Geometry of Circles. By A. Larmor, B.A. ...... 607
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
1. On the Magnetic Properties of Gases. By Professor QUINCKE...........0+++ 608
2. Report of the Committee for constructing and issuing Practical Standards
for use in. Wlectrical Measuraments \..y.ncapssassqeseaswne«ssosesseneeoaosecuatipen 608
3. On the Permanence of the B.A. Standards of Resistance. By R. T.
GUAZ BROOK ol FUSm «ke saake tee teraneete te tants tas oe tinals so Pas na nai soisss owe paktes 608
4, Final Value of the B.A. Unit of Electrical Resistance as determined by
9
9.
the American Committee. By Professor H. A. ROWLAND ...........esee00 609
- On the Specific Resistance of Commercial Iron. By W. H. Prezcs,
BCRGS, ....sssnasess scboes s (eeceea ee Rees Mises aii Ran oi aalegistnevgy cca 609
- On the Influence of a Plane of Transverse Section on the Magnetic
Permeability of an Iron Bar. By Professor J. A. Ewrye, B.Sc., F.R.S.,
and: Wiratant TOW sci. 5..cccacc-deecensan Pisinoncedialivecaeseautasbecequusiionnseint + 609
- On the Physical Properties of a nearly Non-Magnetisable (Manganese) Steel.
ByaProfessot W.. 0, Baciennn .2sscscciceielen Chats cou bee k goth eee 610
On the Application of the Centi-ampere or the Deci-ampere Balance for
the Measurement of the E.M.F. of a Single Cell. By Professor Sir
WittiamM THomson, F.R.S. ........0...08 sinlaa eva ee eae ses Aa sae omisata -OaIE See Aree sll:
On Induction between Wires and Wires. By W. H. Preece, F.R.S....... 611
CONTENTS. xiii
Page
10. On the Coefficient of Self-Induction in Telegraph Wires. By W. I.
Lu EADS, LnLiehS w Ssgnit sels a ii a ei eo A ne 612
11. On the General Theory of Dynamo Machines. By Epwarp Hopxryson,
11S". -: ner@Ogdd Agee se USnedbbas Goascbntar (heron cAnCere >. Reet ease eae eae 612
12. On the Production of a Constant Current with Varying Electromotive
Boresiroma Dynamo, By A.'P. Trorrer, B.A. .2............c0cccccceenseere 616
13. Description of an Induction Coil. By Grorer Hiaes ................00..0008 616
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
. Third Report of the Committee on Standards of Light ...............cceeeeeee 617
. On a Standard Lamp. By A. Vernon Harcovrt, M.A., F.R.S. ......... 617
3. Second Report of the Committee for inviting designs for a good Differential
area MVM CUCL necmrass cenonsdesecet cence os cesch fos catesseenchn's daisissne ins cnianssanenacae 618
tS &
4, Report of the Committee for considering the desirability of combined action
for the purpose of Translation of Foreign Memoirs ..............cseceeeeeeeee 618
4. Contributions to Marine Meteorology from the Scottish Marine Station.
‘By Huen Rosuer Mruz, D.Sc., FLRS.H., FICS. ..........ccccesccnsenessonnese 618
6. The Direction of the Upper Currents over the Equator in connection with
the Krakatoa Smoke-stream. By Professor E. DouaitAs ARCHIBALD ... 619
7. On a Comparison-magnetometer. By W. W. Hatpane Ger, B.Sc. ...... 620
8. On Expansion with Rise of Temperature in Wires under Elongating Stress.
va ee sO TTOMTMY, MAY, “EE ScBi, VOUS, c... 0.8.6 scqcessctecerceclecesees 620
9. On the Electrolysis of a Solution of Ammonic Sulphate. By Professor
“WIGS LASDDS LPRIUES Beano ease See esc ae ge as Seat pe aes a ie ean pom 621
10, Compensation of Electrical Measuring Instruments for Temperature-Errors.
a MEPRIMERI LIEN Fs ofou cantons «co sta ts.aracaunas 4. vanctessocecuanevenctsnadeeee coseeend 621
ie Musical Slide Rule. By J. SWINBURNE ...............scccscocoscccostasccnses 621
12. On a certain Method in the Theory of Functional Equations. By Professor
MEM PRMMIEEIIE Tha fan aecsaces tenneatececnasecsnesarocscnetaardesstenetes ante hate 2
13. On the Nomenclature of Elementary Dynamics. By Joun WAtMsLry,B.A. 622
44, Exhibition and Description of Henry Draper Memorial Photographs: of
: Stella Spectra. By Professor E. C. PICKERING ...........ccce.-ssecseesceoes ses 622
Section B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE,
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.
1. Report of the Committee for preparing a new series of Wave-length Tables
mepne mpectra of the Hlemoenta , ...é.cnicsscccccscdsctocce¥oossceickveese.secesoesecs 624
. Report of the Committee for investigating the Influence of Silicon on the
Properties of Steel
. Third Report of the Committee for investigating certain Physical Constants
of Solution, especially the Expansion of Saline Solutions..................... 624
. Report of the Committee for investigating the Nature of Solution ......... 624
. Report of the Committee on the Bibliography of Solution ...............008 624
Address by Epwarp Scuuncx, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President of the Section 624
_ §. Preliminary Notice of a Re-determination of the Atomic Weight of Gold,
: with some remarks on the present State of our Knowledge as to the
: Determination of Atomic Weights in general. By Professor J. W.
| GTNETEIEN'TE) 195 5 8 OG a eee een ee ee sasalldbaatidalds 635
xiv
bo
CONTENTS.
. The Atomic Weight of Zirconium. By G. H. Bairey, D.Sc., Ph.D. ...... 636
. Torsion Balances. By Dr. A. SPRINGER......... Dota aechsaphnite« Na'claiceeas mene 636.
. Integral Weights in Chemistry. By T. Srmrry Hunt, LL.D., F.R.S. ... 637
. On the Action of Light on the Hydracids of the Halogens in the presence
ot Oxygen. By ARrnuR RICHARDSON, PhD.) s. 0. cc.esecus+<scoscertesovssnl 638
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2
. On the Present Position of the Alkali Manufacture. By Atrrep E.
HRBTOHER: DB. Cas.5 KL. Ose s. s.\saacmenstecter ecm renccuen aman tnan andere: eectinasds Seats 658
. On the Composition of some Coke Oven Tars of German Origin. By
FEROTCSSOLALTUINGE > fos ecds siccinticn secesunie se ce Suc at tecemen eurdeialain ca be-cie we uicneeeeeaen oe 640
. On the Constituents of the Light Oils of Blast-Furnace Coal Tar from
Gartsherrie Works, By WATSON SMUD cece-menblepesesiwcie.ctse.satemoctanesss 640
. On the Utilisation of Blast-Furnace Creosote. By Atrrep H. Aten,
PDOs nissee cies oSosiee foeeious ss sale nanos AeGets oalveO neeiemenee aeCnie lee vies Jina Set eee eet 640
. A new Apparatus for Condensing Gases by Contact with Liquids. By
HATOLESSOL LLLUNGE Saccoscnavecsesagaccuneshhe ces satieae aene sine Sanenis +33. 640
. The Extent to which Calico Printing and the Tinctorial Arts have been
affected by the Introduction of Modern Colours. By Cuartzs O’Nurtt... 640
. Exhibition of a new class of Colouring Matters. By Dr, C. A. Marrius 641
. The oat of the Cotton Fibre. By F. H. Bowman, D.Sc., F.R.S.E.,
BGS, BSL: | ec ssa sags tess scwgcetendeseshiacwssercassweslebnesssascesascosacaemmerceee 641
Sus-Section B.—OrcGanic CHrmistry.
. Second Report of the Committee for investigating Isomeric Naphthalene
Derivatives ......... gas Geb nic cade idee nutaectitiiecaevciep e's osicc stan eseadaewoae ac eeeeeaeeme 642
. Isomeric Change in the Phenol Series. By A. R. LING ..............ece een 642
. The Constitution and Relationship of the Eurhodine and Saffranine Classes
of Colouring Matters, and their Connection with other Groups of Organic
Compounds, By Dr OsNe WRU seccrscsesn cess EROnoDnpOsor® chines --s3tstioe 642
. On the Constitution of Azimido-Compounds. By Drs. Nonnrine and
IAURTY ss caescos sees Vi lewne Goa Geaweeowa tons ou teeta leaeei's's slae's sisindals curemepied Soe eeeeieeitea ea 642
. On the Constitution of the Mixed Diazoamido-Compounds. By Drs.
INOEDTING and BOVDER (. 25.5 ccs socnac cot maoacies cee Suet caer Salsescee hans aaace eee eetiane 643
. On Methylene Blue and Methylene Red. By Professor BrrNTHSEN ...... 645,
. On some Xenoene or Diphenyl Products and Reactions. By Professor W.
Opting, M.A. EU R.S;, and’ J. Bo MamsH, Bian iii. 0. iiadcadecs decuetcenceuen 646
. On the Rate of Velocity of Formation of Acetic Ether. By Professor
646
SME WaT SET D ICT ches os viors chase sistctoe SIR ere ter tora norare o ate Satara ets telctsolstetel et itis es « Ua OMe
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
. The Relation of Geometrical Structure to Chemical Properties, By Pro-
fessor WiISLICENUS ics scaeiccis seese si Sa see cee ater ee » ceeeacsb eee aces. ee 64
. Note on Valency, especially as defined by Helmholtz. By Professor
647
ARMSTRONG, FYRUS. oc. cnn G8s dass oats cane spisaielasien es Settee Gis ee oelsele eels o,s'e eae
The Solubility of Isomeric Organic Compounds. By Professor CaRNELLEY,
MiSe,*and Dr. A. THOMSON ivecvcrntaveecmnnscneeee es opeeeesbeb ates ties tr tesco eeeame 647
a
J
- CONTENTS. xv
Page
4, The Melting Points of Organic Compounds in relation to their Chemical ~
Constitution. Part I—Influence of Orientation in Aromatic Compounds.
EMERG CARNEGLERY, USC. 5.2 n 0 cuca meant cence ecaaneivonsbevescdss ananaseans 647
“5. Alcohol and Water Combinations. By Professor MENDELEEF ............ 647
6. On the Constitution of Atropine. By Professor LADENBURG............... 647
7. The Reduction-products of the Nitro-paraffins and Allyl Nitrites. By
erotessor DUNSTAN and "Ts S. DYMOND: ....ic.sscescelssccecsacsevcocscesecedecs 649
8. On the Second Monobromo-benzene. By Professor FIrrica ..............0000 649
9. Saccharine, the new Sweet Product from Coal-tar. By Dr. Faunpere ... 649
10. On a Partial Separation of the Constituents of a Solution during Expan-
sion by Rise of Temperature. By Professor J. W. Matter, F.R.S. ...... 649
Sus-SectioN B.—CuHeEmicaL Science.
rl
. The Chemical Structure of some Natural Silicates. By F. W. Crarxn... 650
. Apparatus for Measuring the Volume of Gas evolved in various Chemical
Actions, with or without the Application of Heat, with proposed Exten-
sion to Organic Analysis, and to the Continuous Determination of Abnormal
to
Wapour Densities. By F. W. WATKIN, M.A. © .c2.....0..c0sscsescccsneceveeces 650
8. On the Teaching of Chemistry. By M. M. Parrison Murr, M.A. ......... 651
4. Suggested Amendment of Chemical Nomenclature. By Professor A.
9S UU TED VT BBS CoM sores Rees nce Sey BRE NEL TT pre att ee ieee i are Se 652
5. A Study of the Action of Nitric Acid on Benzene. By Professor LorHar
MMMM irae I Reza ULL sald. 90) cars as sady Syohe sets mneWastabals duce ccuoepndewee cu 653
. On Professor Ramsay’s Method of determining Specific Volumes. By
Harosenso ral O TIA YM YEE 2+ sicascacctoes vostesttacertcanssdarscsosccbecaccetterects 653
6.
7. The Reduction of Nitrates by Micro-organisms. By R. Warreron, F.R.S. 653
8
.» A new Method for determining Micro-organisms in Air. By Professor
Rare et AL PEGS. WILKON. 2.005015 0cesenrdecussasevevee’scoseecesstinvvaves's 654
: TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
1. Report of the Committee for further investigating the Action of the Silent
Discharge of Electricity on Oxygen and other Gases ..............cesceeeeeeees 654
2. The Absorption Spectra of Rare Earths. By G. H. Barney, D.Se., Ph.D. 654
3. The Absorption Spectra of the Haloid Salts of Didymium. By G. H.
PSE EN BUD SO MRE LDN, aa nsdv thes eta lseedévd se eedteceenete dsc scconkca.convoe dion icoeeccn 654
»@ On Solution. By Wittiam Durwan, F.R.S.E. ...........ccccccsseccesesccoece 655-
5. On the Thermal Phenomena of Neutralisation and their bearing on the
Nature of Solution. By W. W. J. Nicox, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E, ......... 656
6. On a probable Manifestation of Chemical Attraction as a Mechanical
Borees. (By Professor JOHN W. LANGLEY ...........2.+c0ccceuscccssseceoersanec 657
7. Notes on some peculiar Voltaic Combinations, By C. R. ALpER Wrieur,
Pee ere, and C. THOMPSON, BOS. 22. 5hésecccciceccosscousnpensueansarecolcs 657
8. On the present Aspect of the Question of the Sources of the Nitrogen of
Vegetation. By Sir J. B. Lawzs, F.R.S., and Professor J. H. GrcpeErr,
sealers een ater erase ose ta ere estes anscageesccscscéeabeougevsesuceuapeeecccenetes 660»
9. Dispersion Equivalents and Constitutional Formule. By Dr. J. H. Guav-
sTONE, F.R.S,
‘xvl
CONTENTS.
Page
. On a new and rapid Method of Testing Beer and other Alcoholic Liquors.
Sys WV LERTAMAIS OTT sc. scccccccceccoscease se s-casuu4ee sua peeeneeieeneress <ctaa—ae 660
. On some Organic Vanadates. By JoHNn A. HALL .............c0cec--esesceesee 660
. On some Organo-silicon Compounds. By W. B. Harr, A.LC. ............ 661
. A new Process for the Preparation of Aconitine. By JoHN WILLIAMS,
Ce Ch nT. 665
. Some new Cinnamic Acids. By Professor Perxr1n and Dr. J. B. Cowen... 667
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 7%,
. The Antiseptic Properties of Metallic Salts in relation to their Chemical
Composition, and the Periodic Law. By Professor CARNELLEY and Miss
EIGER JOHNSTON \.......0055-s00---0s ue eb 00 susecon sla sin alta mMMeERaenn JeandeReRians ack 667
2. On the Antiseptic Properties of some of the Fluorine Compounds. By
Wanner THomson, E.R.S.E.,, B.C.S.rc...p,-caegeatseeanee tts seess cee eee ee 667
8. On the Composition of Water by Volume. By ALexanpER Scorr, M.A.,
Vy ECE Se epncesnensnosesovnsonesqnshu as qatie eis m ammEReReee ashes Us oem ree 668
4, On some Vapour Densities at High Temperatures. By ALExanpER Scort,
Wi boales, 1D) sto Do fas Bl D RamaRaeBeR CBee enacic er co Peeeecnat Bees ations oe saens ee 668
5. On the Estimation of the Halogens and Sulphur in Organic Compounds,
Byki. PLIMPTON, PDD). scccqcecscscqy abe shen enesee eet Reet esses? x ci eeeeee 669
6. Vacuum Injector Pumps for use in Chemical Laboratories. By T. Farriny 669
7. Description of a Shortened Self-acting Sprengel Pump. By Dr. W. W.J.
DEO ids cepesas ovnnrnsngersne noo snosiss ones Oia te aman nAnd isin as: ei aaa 669
8. On the Derivatives and the Constitution of the Pyrocresols. By Wim11am
Bort, Ph-D,, B.C.S., and Professor, Ths SORWARZ 5 ..s1 soncccses cons saneeueearead 669
9. Apparatus for the Examination of Air, By Dr. Ransome .............0.. ., 672
10. Apparatus for demonstrating the Explosion of Nitro-Glycerine. By P.
BRAHAM, BUGS. 2.20: 00e+000 00500 cenceeaebemenewaasaassssiws «ssh = saacseaaheoneeeeees 672
Section C.—GHOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.
Address by Henry Woopwarp, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., President of the Section 673
Il:
2.
3.
4,
On the Geography of the British Isles in the Carboniferous Period. By
Professor,"W: Boyp DAWKINS, E.RS. caeecccesss nth <sasscesrantevewcessees seecss O04
On the Structure of the Millstone Grit of the Pennine Chain. By Pro-
fessor W>BorD DAWKINS, FURS; ‘.c.seeucessceetie- se eees pee anasseneck eee 636
On Foreign Boulders in Coal Seams. By Marx Srrrrvp, F.GS. ......... 686
On the Organic Origin of the Chert in the Carboniferous Limestone Series
of Ireland and its Similarity to that in the Corresponding Strata in North |
‘Wales and Yorkshire. By Gzrorar Jennines Hinpg, Ph.D. ............... 688
. On the Discovery of Carboniferous Fossils in a Conglomerate at Moughton
Fell, near Settle, Yorkshire. By Rosert Law, F.G.S., and James
WEQRSRATD, 6... tiacercc cn cevectesessodecs suse ccet paces sete toca REET daca cae a eee 690
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2.
1. Fifteenth Report on the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland... 690
io
. Note on a few of the many remarkable Boulder-stones to be found along
the Eastern Margin of the Wicklow Mountains. By Professor Epwarp
Pipe dD. EF RS., BIG By .....c0cceessencsacaneees dee teeeeeeeeesercaeeeee ---- GOL
OE
3.
4,
CONTENTS. XVli
Page
The Terminal Moraines of the Great Glaciers of England. By Professor ‘
US aren arcs Jann akydenvanens vis oct ese sinagueteveesenzaeseveneannaaaegs 691
On some important Hxtra-Morainic Lakes in Central England, North
America, and elsewhere, during the Period of Maximum Glaciation, and
on the Origin of Extra-Morainic Boulder-clay. By Professor H. CARVILL
OST caseetcobeastigecanoadesidnd oes: caaage aide a aR leiei th oA PP AUS Se a tat 692
. A comparative Study of the Till or Lower Boulder-clay in several of the
Glaciated Countries of Europe—Britain, Scandinavia, Germany, Switzer-
land, and the Pyrenees. By Hueu Mirimr, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Assoc.
Ns Sno Th Yt Yn hdsotl, Haletcch xe 16) 420) sas suczaeck!. gilda cvs cindea? 694.
. Second Report of the Committee for exploring the Cae Gwyn Cave, North
MURAL EHamaee ech siotisidds wath se de sek tes teesbatihwe ra cWey is tdeed= davdecdche seacgtudaye donate 694
On the Discovery and Excavation of an Ancient Sea-beach, near Brid-
ae Quay, containing Mammalian Remains. By Jamms W, Davis,
Nears acre tas Seca ok edad erat eae ci ncenais a sacedenaeuscasteesaig 694
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.
. On the Discovery of the Larval Stage of a Cockroach, Etoblattina Peachit _
(H. Woodw.), from the Coal-measures of Kilmaurs, Ayr shire. By Henry
Perseus ESN TAM Dea oRts (Sign ENGIN? vas ene nctedeaseistass ss cescassunsesceuvaganpercese 696
. On a new Species of Eurypterus from the Lower Carboniferous Shales,
- Eskdale, Scotland. By Henry Woopwarp, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. ...... 696
Lae
id
. On the Discovery of Trilobites in the Upper Green (Cambrian) Slates of
the Penrhyn Quarry, Bethesda, near Bangor, North Wales. By Hunry
My HOnAaRn | Lila; Ht SiGe as eave ctestete dod na soweels ecules azar cteaieedl 696
Fifth Report on.the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleeozoic Rocks ............ 697
. On the Mode of Development of the Young in Plestosaurus. By Professor
EVER aS TOPIGELY, EE, Sad, a4 eaciessadies Sava cas sean Rite aek ee dee’ bomekbere Lio ceede tors ol 697
On the reputed Clavicles and Interclavicles of Zguanodon. By Professor
REARS EMBED VSP LERCH, 2 «200 bo.< uted e Oe sa Me Sat oe Oia Aaa a. beens sinanib eains ofoededewenns 698
On Cumnoria, an Iguanodont Genus founded upon the Iguanodon Prest-
wicht, Hulke. By Professor H. G. SEELEY, FLR.S. ...........cccecceeseeeeeee 698
. The Classification of the Dinosauria. By Professor H. G. Speier, F.R.S. 698
Sus-Section C.
La Caleédoine enhydrique de Salto Oriental (Uruguay) et son véritable
Pisemont. “By Professor VIGANOVA :0.0it..cec-.ccesesdescosecvecsecessuvcdendeel 699
On the Phyllites of the Isle of Man. By Professor W. Boyp Dawkins,
PERRET Seated S25 B os A LSED VON Jah IRIE catia iis cals owes ndevs ciel MRR TR 700
» On Thinolite and Jarrowite. By Professor G. A. Lusour, M.A., F.G.S. 700
. A Shropshire Picrite. By W. W, Warts, M.A., F.G.S, ........0.ceeeeeeeee 700
. On the Mineralogical Constitution of Calcareous Organisms. By VaucHAN
PENIS GN Ee HROY PF . KCRNDAL Es. cc cescsecsceseevestcsstbacadcarcenaccsssseceess 700
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
On new Facts relating to Eozoon Canadense. By Sir J. Witri1am
Dawson, LL.D., TS RE EY Pa nee: | 702
- Gastaldi on Ttalian Geology and the Crystalline Rocks. By T. Srmrry
Pdr TTS) Eu. Sean bias ate tak ctu aldo Say? 0's av eMiascetse te wud do 205 Sopoatiete «Bay 703
1887. a
XVill CONTENTS.
10.
a
. On the Genus Picoceras, Salter, as eluci lated by examples lately discovered
Page
. Elements of Primary Geology. By T. Srerry Hunt, LL.D., F.R.S....... 704
. Preliminary Note on Traverses of the Western and of the Eastern Alps
made during the Summer of 1887. By Professor T. G. Bonney, D.Sc.,
| 0s 0 pe el BA gt GO ee AE oo ok eM Bays 705
. Some Effects of Pressure on the Sedimentary Rocks of North Devon. By
Jeti. Man, MUA... BGS, . 0.0. ..ss0nssis ae nuetessueneneeeeeseesa> sees eeee ee eaanae 706
. Report of the Committee appointed to investigate the Microscopical Struc-
ture of the;older Rocks of Angleses.....52--.ceesessenesaecadaes sakdees eases ebaneie 706
. Notes on the Origin of the Older Archzan Rocks of Malvern and Angle-
sey. By CaaRiEs CALLAWAY, D.Sc., F.GiS. ..c-sesscnqeseucpossornntisseneennde 706
. The Origin of Banded Gneisses. By J. J. H. Twat, M.A., F.G.S.......... 707
. On the Occurrence of Porphyritic Structure in some Rocks of the Lizard
District. By Howarp Fox and ALEX. SOMERVAIL ...........csccecereeeeeees 708
Some preliminary Observations on the Geology of Wicklow and Wexford.
By Professor Soutas, LL.D., D.Sc. <2 sccvasessnanateeweresescectas ceeee eee 708
On Archean Rocks. By G. H. Kinawan, M.R.LA,...........ccceceeseececeees 709
Sus-Section C.
. Recent Researches in Bench Cavern, Brixham, Devon. By WiLram
PENGHLLY, | ERS. PGS. sc. ceases cgeosessafcer einen aesenp ass thay deasabane hae 710
. The Natural History of Lavas, as illustrated by the Materials ejected
from Krakatoa. By Professor J. W. Jupp, F.R.S., Pres.G.S. ........0e0 711
. Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius and its neighbourhood ... 712
. Seventh Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of Japan .............seceeeeeees 712
. The Sonora Harthquake of May 3, 1887. By T. Srprry Hvnz, LL.D.,
FR:S.,'and Jawns-DouGras; MiA\~capeserasestsssssisctessaccccdtcctecheeseeeoaem 712
. The History and Cause of the Subsidences at Northwich and its neigh-
bourhood, in the Salt District of Cheshire. By Tomas WaRrbD............ 715
. Places of Geological Interest on the Banks of the Saskatchewan. By
Professor: J. Horus Panton, MvAlSiE.G.S.cccscuaeesse: «> .:c2.-- eve sleebeseeeeee 714
. The Disaster at Zug on July 5, 1887. By the Rev. E. Hirt, M.A. ...... 715
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
. On the Permian Fauna of Bohemia. By Professor Anton FRITSCH ...... 716
. Report of the Committee for investigating the Carboniferous Flora of
Halifax and. its neighbourhood, xs. .:ssusphergseedaeeseeae Sen uenetreaenepeamaeaed 716
. On the Affinities of the so-called Torpedo (Cyclobatis, Egerton) from the
Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon. By A. Suite Woopwapb, F.G.S., F.Z.S. 716
wii wieleflsuie Sn de Signs olgoas so oS'sels «a-fuuill ops waco nee Lene eee eee eRe Renata eee eee 716
. Thirteenth Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters............... 717
- Notice du Dinotheriwn, deux espéces trouvées en Espagne. By Professor
VIEASOVA .isci 0 eedessarangesitlecennnas <0 5nd eee 717
in Nort: America and in Scotland. Ly Arruur H. Foorp, F.G.S....... 717
. Report on the Fossil Plants of the Tertiary and Secondary Beds of the
United ingdom in. 0h sae) ides’ jo wales ep apelnel iee nanan ae 717
. First Report on the ‘Manure’ Gravels of Wexford.......cecsecseceeceeeeeceeeee 717
CONTENTS. xix
. Page
10. The Pliocene Beds of St. Erth, Cornwall. By Ropert GxrorcE BEL,
Sa RIER ET ence i, os Sos sefcb clans aches eerie «a's sivsis Gin inte onié budje don Saino waive anne pn ole 718
11. Report on the Higher Eocene Beds of the Isle of Wight ..................... 719
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
1. The Triassic Rocks of West Somerset. By W. A. E. Ussusr, F.G.S. ... 719
2. The Devonian Rocks of West Somerset on the Borders of the Trias. By
OT as TERALOASSTETCTE RTO GAS ie ORS aR a 720
3. The Matrix of the Diamond. By Professor H. Carvitr Lewis ............ 720
. Observations on the Rounding of Pebbles by Alpine Rivers, with a Note
on their Bearing upon the Origin of the Bunter Conglomerate. By Pro-
BBRSOnEE Gs DONNEY, DSC. trli)., BRS, FG... .o.scccccaneccecsctuccens ns 721
. On the Present State of the Channel Tunnel, and on the Boring at
Shakespeare Cliff, near Dover. By Professor W. Boyp Dawxrns, F.R.S. 722
. On the Extension of the Scandinavian Ice to Eastern England in the
Glacial Period: By Professor OTTo TORBLL ............scccccccoscscsscccescecs 723
. On the Terminal Moraine near Manchester. By Professor H. Carvitt
RR Nee earn eat coe Not as 5 oath renasespenesagansacceassancncucdewonterceeds 724
. Upon a simple method of projecting upon the screen Microscopic Rock
Sections, both by ordinary and by polarised light. By E. P. Quinn...... 725
Section D.—BIOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.
Address by ALFRED Newron, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., V.P.Z.S., &c., Professor
: y.
of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in the University of Cambridge,
SEA Birt OLS ISOGRION | {fa vaceni3 Falaales « tis Saale dn met odauius ob cceeta volves Awad eancewss cee 726
1. Report of the Committee on Migration .................ssccscssscesccseccesceves 733
2. Report of the Committee on the Fauna and Flora of the Cameroons
PONS SUARTIN ses Sela ade sisi is Ag SONS Ca asad iss Gaivnlv od inv a0 sigs edu es Sovewases Loto po cise. 733
3. Report of the Committee to arrange for the Occupation of a Table at the
Meminrical seation At NApledic.....-.cpyocescnsascsec Wess tesdasarssensceanncaceecsce 733
4. Report of the Committee on the Zoological Station at Granton ............ 733
5. Report of the Committee on the Marine Biological Association Laboratory
10.
ils
Seer LVATOUIY Ac eget, - ssosnaa care sskaewedecmpisdmnee ndlden surases «vais vs oaldsoe nceead? 733
. The Exploration of Liverpool Bay and the neighbouring parts of the
Trish Sea by the Liverpool Marine Biology Committee. By Professor
ae EEER MAN 21): 9G! SE. Luimemrecennaaeccsonbeccseeersr ites cs'sscnaxdescwcveceeees 733
. On some Copepoda new to Britain found in Liverpool Bay. By Isaac C.
MAFPEME ONG EPR VES). mene we acactsews «aie ccdasiilenesseanerasenatmaedusrcnesslssacatece cas 734
. Marine Zoology in Banka Strait, North Celebes. By Srpney J. Hicx-
BURNEY Ne ree Serine enetaeteesccaccca ccocdncsayecagecsss seSaeuRceiecet ance cutie ans 735
. Proposed Contributions to the Theory of Variation. By Patrick Grppxs 735
On the Early Stages in the Development of Antedon Rosacea. By H.
BESTHIAVa dis Pinre gill Wliscec Sewer ctvccrccseds .savdscncscesseesies secs seeks connliaensteriaien 735
On the True Nature and Function of the Madreporic System in Echino-
dermata. By Dr. M. Harvroe ..... eeu aaeaehaacduntdenecetectetadecees center steeaere 736
a2
xx CONTENTS.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2.
: Page
1. Discussion in conjunction with Section C on the ‘Arrangement of
IMTIGSO UMS? iase>wseoeass ds cnseidts Jonsene denmeevebe oc aneeeee sEtn sence cats santa 736
2. On the Vascular System and Colour of Arthropods and Molluscs. By
IPTOfessOT, LUANK ESTER. 150: seancipnssrnpsectareenceoatameneansecedetospesdeie stone eae 736
3. Notes on the Genus Phymosoma. By W. F. R. Watpow............. ee 736
4, On the Degeneration of the Olfactory Organ of certain Fishes, By Pro-
fEESOL WV IEDERSHEDM sc >arconcarceatseoeteeeesetesn presibssabets, siireueseeeh Oe . 736
5. On the Torpid State of Protopterus. By Professor WIEDERSHBIM ......... 738
6. The Larynx and Stomach of Cetacean Embryos. By Professor D’Arcy
THOMPBON © 562 hse hee ee ee ee eee 740
. On Haplodiscus Piger, By W. F. R. Wetpon, M.A., Fellow of St. John’s
Moller; Cambridger.cs......ascecsessce socgsacenscecermesetsuscaraswaitt cneeeeeeee we... 740
. The Blood-corpuscles of the Cyclostomata. By Professor D’Arcy THomp-
BON? Socccue loots cs seve ccsenncucseecs sosnlouse ee eperceee tet Con aS e Ce eR ete aE aeaee ne .-. 740
Sus-Section Borany.
1. Report on the Disappearance of Native Plants ............ssscsscerscnereaseces 740
2. Report of the China Flora Committec..............cssecesecssreeccsscsseess sieeacs €40
3. Cocoa-nut Pearls. -By S. J. HICKSON %....:.....s.ssc.scsaceneee Sisbewuaeneeene - 740
4, Note on the Nitrogenous Nutrition of the Bean. By 8. H. Vuvzs, D.Sc.,
RAS eer pesca iyetatees cence erm sBogapeehar tre eattans acs ldua ve -paseceeeneen TAL
5. On the Movement of the Leaf of Mimosa Pudica. By 8. H. Vrvzs, D.Sc.,
HERS eigen s avenue siixnspeiine ace < apsapee aaeeaeioa seine eee aetna cD sees co eee 742
6. On Flagella of Calamus. By Professor F.O. BoWER..............c.:0sseceeeee 743
7. Note on the Stomata and Ligules of Selaginella. By Professor McNas,
MG DY SEALS. 0. oiecvie coincnae acetate epee eRe Benet tes aot oye ae ear 743
8. On the Adventitious Buds on the Leaves of Lachenalia pendula. By Pro-
fessor MON ABS MCD! EBS. ide cmeunettntness. cs Sscsecte sus tees see eee eee 744.
9. On the Root-spines of Acanthorhiza aculeata,H. Wendl. By Professor
IMGNABP MLDS, BLS) 255 252. Soe aie toca esse eeetinn ede teces tana 744
10. On the Gramineous Herbage of Water Meadows. By Professor W.
Brean, B.SejHiG.S4 FiGuse (siiaiees, neesetes seis og teeth cree eee 744
11. Juncus Alpinus, Vill.,as new to Britain, By Cuartzs Barer ............ 745
12. Studies on some New Micro-organisms obtained from Air. By Mrs.
Percy FRANKLAND and Percy F. Franxkianp, Ph.D., B.Sc. (Lond.),
H.O:S., .H.00., Assoc. Royal School of Mauness........ccssstaccs-accemerteeaees 745
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.
. Recent Researches on Earthworms. By W. B. Brennan, D.Se............. 749
. The Problem of the Hop-plant Louse (Phorodon humuli, Schrank) in
Huropeand America. By C. V. Ritey, MA‘, Ph Wim......0c..o.sseeceeeees 750
. Arteries of the Base of the Brain. By Brerrram C. A. WrInpze,
M.A., M.D. (Dublin), Professor of Anatomy in the Queen’s College,
BAPEOING HAM | oo..0+0s +s vegeeeacsradnvs pase onss'pseadas eta ae ere emeeeet en yea tne 753
. On Alteration of Iliac Divarication and other Changes of Pelvic Forms
during Growth. By Professor CLELAND, F.R.S, .......cc..sssecseecseseeveensees 754
—
—
CONTENTS. xxl
Page
5. The Brain Mechanism of Smell. By Dr. ALEX. HILL ............c0e-cee cece 754
6. The Nature and Development of the Carotid System. By JoHn YuLE
MAMAS, MD), ...cnncsensoceresonncsecesvcccacarecansesssecevscceeevercesseneacessases 754
. The Development of the Supra-renal Capsules in Man. By Dr. C. 8.
BUBERIUTONES 55 Caine cazsiocecsteccekedaees ae aa Te mace Puaa ence ven odie aan ROR nadaaeeee 755
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
. Discussion on ‘ Are Acquired Characters Hereditary ?’ in which Professor
LanxEsTER, Professor WEISMANN, Professor HuBRECHT, PATRICK GEDDES,
M. Hartoe, and E, B. PouLTon took part .....s..sseeeseeeceeeseeseneneseeenens 755
2. Further Experiments upon the Colour-relation between Phytophagous
co
Larvee and their Surroundings. By E, B. POULTON .........-...ssseeseeeneers 756
. Some Remarks on the Recent Researches of Zacharias and Dr, Boveri upon
the Fecundation of the Ascaris Megalocephala. By Professor J. B.
CaRnoy, of the University of Louvain ..........ce.ccseeeeeseeeceesseeseeeeseees 756
4. The Spermatogenesis of the Acarians and the Laws of Spermatogenesis
in general. By Professor GILSON ..e..ssesseceseeseeecessseeesesectenaeesesseees 758
5. On the Nesting Habit of Atypus Niger, a Florida, Spider. By Dr.
Ue eet cascarcinanipnfete= a csdenwdacyos tyes ncensdsiarcaveecmae gents canes . 759
6G. On Cephalodiscus, By S. F. HARMER........c.:::sseeeeeeeeseeeseereeeeeeseanenns 759
7. On some new types of Madreporarian Structure. By G. Hersertr
FOWLER, B.A., Ph.D, ........sssseseececscescdaccsecescesccscesscceeeeeceeeeseesess 759
8. The Réle of the Heart in Vertebrate Morphology. By Dr. C.S. Mrvor, 760
9. On the Structure of the Human Placenta. By Dr. C. S. Mrnov............ 760
10. A New Species of Virgularia. By Major PLANT .........cceseesseeeeeeeeenees 760
11. On some Rare and Remarkable Marine Forms at St. Andrews Marine
Laboratory. By Professor MCINTOSH .........sssseeneesseeseseeeseeeesesenaee eas 760
12. On the Development of the Ovary and Oviduct in certain Osseous Fishes.
By EDWARD E, PRINCE ......:csccecsseeeenseeessensesaneeseaeeceeeneceeenees har aspees 760
13. On the Luminous Larviform Females in the Phengodini. By Professor
MOV, BRGY: coc cccesccncccecmnencscsscndenssncsendesvepevensonassasccsssevecvecsoncbens 760
Sus-Szcrion Borany.
1. On Cramer’s Gemme borne by Trichomanes alata. By Professor F, O.
BN oe caded adi pnp Oeiasonaaeiouhasescosnassansonssankevscnrso.~swwcaasp das ccneseseqs 761
2. On some points in the process of Secretion in Plant-glands. By WaLrER
NGARDINGR Socceserccecccscacesseqe-senscnencasosensensessnc-roncncccospeasiovooserssnsaus 761
3. On Bennettites, the Type of a new group between Angiosperms and
Gymnosperms. By Count SotMs-LAUBACH ......ssseeeeeeeserneseeneeeteenenee 76
4, On the Presence of Callus-plates in the Sieve-tubes of certain gigantic
: Laminarias. By F. W. OLIVER -......cceseceeeeeeeecceeeseseeseneecsenteaneneane 761
5. On the Physiology of some Pheophycee. By Tuomas Hick, B.A.,
> DEUS EAE REN i erect 5 | Qa REEPDCOCEDC) ACT TOCC Dee DUERERBONG 761
6. On Assimilation and the Evolution of Oxygen by Green Plant Cells. By
~—- Professor PRINGSHEIM .......scsececeeceececenccsccecaeceesseceecsssseeseneecu sense 763
7. Some Words on the Life-history of Lycopods. By Dr. M. TREUB......... 763
8. On a point in the Morphology of Viola Tricolor. By Professor BAYLEY
BONRECOUIES eens fo censancrneceness nereptpery hone Aeon Ruane peateeen te teeaere 763
xxii CONTENTS.
9.
Page
On the Morphology of some Czesalpinexe and the Value of Morphological
Criteria. By Professor HARTOG .............:cscseceeececsensesceeneasensnonen aaa
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
. Discussion on the Present Aspect of the Cell Question ...........sssesseeeeee 763
. On Polar Bodies. By Professor WuismMann, and by Professors Lan-
KESTER and Krauss, and Messrs. GARDNER, Sepawick, H. M. Warp,
CANON and BV TLARTOG vi biecwstdesesgcesarcnnsoe enceseesesc.necksdagpmemeaRapattess 763
3. Report of the Committee on the Herds of Wild Cattle in Chartley Park
and‘ other Parks in Great Britain: ..........0.....ci. ce evencodesetutetteesal dubhes ts 763
4, Further Experiments upon the Protective Value of Colour and Markings
in Insects, By E. B. PoULTON .......c0ccsssceeesseeee Rr dat ate - 163
5. The Secretion of Pure Aqueous Formic Acid by Lepidopterous Larvee for
the purpose of defence. By E. B, PoULTON ...........s..ssecssnesecneesecetes 765
6. On Icerya Purchasi, an insect injurious to Fruit Trees. By Professor
Are ee ene, PN ORES LL, cel coe cba Seb eamadtlede od le culate nite Cel be Nn ERE ania
. On a Luminous Oligochete. By Professor Artun Harker, F.L.S. ... 767
. On the Hessian Fly, or American Wheat-midge, Cectdomyta destructor,
Say, and its appearance in Britain. By Professor W. Frram, B.Sce., 4
NSH eG Srscccastetestocssansaccaiasaee sncndives ot se ccc «cileh on ARUSERCUELWOUMIDROR IES 767
. Note on the Hectocotylisation of the Cephalopoda. By Wuiitram E.
15 indy bbHe noe See eco EE SSE EEE EERE EEE EPPEPE err meet Sano atc 768
. On the so-called Luminous Organs of Maurolicus Pennantw (the British
iPeanl-sides)s > (By ED! BL PRIN... 2.054. sds seid dds sasch «hie «vss beeeagee -AgeNee 769
. On the Ova of Tomopteris onisciformis, Eschscholz. By Ep. E. Prince... 769
. On a Ciliated Organ, probably Sensory, in Tomopteris onisciformis. By
TE DMEV INC vasscp soos eceaye esp onsee dacvduseausemonnapunidesst ones «aces epETeMane 769
Report of the British Marine Area Committee ............ccsseseeeesecneeeene 769
A Forgotten Species of Peripatus. By Professor F. Jerrrey Brett, M.A.,
SURE Sc iins cess ss sueodseclideecodles ddvesesback. dulirsseneees estes bacteels booeen ee . 769
. A Note on the Relations of Helminth Parasites to Grouse Disease. By
Professor F', JEFFREY BEL, M.A., Sec.R.MLS. ...........cccccceeessscevsossees 770)
The Distribution of the Nightingale in Yorkshire. By J. Lister ......... 770
. Report of the Committee on Provincial Museums ............sssceeeeeseeeeeees 770
. On the Muga Silkworm and Moth (Antherea Assama) of Assam, and
other Indian silk-producing species. By THomas WARDLE............0000+5 770
Note on a Point in the Structure of Fratercula Arctica. By FRanx E.
BepparD, M.A., Prosector to the Zoological Society of London............ 771
On the Development of the Ovum in Eudrilus. By Frank E. Bepparp,
M.A., Prosector to the Zoological Society of London ..............seeseeseee 771
Sous-Section Borany,
. Alternation of Generations in Green Plants. By J. Rrynotps Varzzy... 771
On a Curious Habitat of certain Mosses. By C. P. Hopxrrx, F.LS....... 772
Report of the Peradeniya Committee .............c.ssecssscnccesceccossosetseeses 772.
On the Constitution of Cell-walls and its relation to Absorption in Mosses.
ESV id RACEVNOLDS! VAIZHY | cuiesccsceces'sscssoncescnctvocccotaccesen ee sac mentee nae SUKRS
CONTENTS. Xxiil
Sus-Section Paysionoey.
Page
1. Report of the Committee for the Investigation of the Secretion of Urine. 773
2. Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of investigating the
Physiology of the Lymphatic System ...........0..sscesssssssesseesenesecsecesecs 773
3. On the Development of the Roots of the Nerves and on their Propagation
to the Central Organs and to the Periphery. By Professor His............ 773
4, The Morphology and Physiology of the Limb-plexuses. By A. M.
OASIS NIE D Son trome=stcokee snd sceoccncuscscsaececs coe vee aster aerate 775
5, The Normal Phenomena of Entoptic Vision distinguished from those pro-
duced by Mechanical Causes. By Brarrice Linpsay, Girton College,
Cambridge .............. RORSEE Sie eete eee emelOn caps dacedons she aceiacwaesVaantsoohhe oats 779
Optical Ilusions of Motion; conflicting theories referred to the test of
certain hitherto undescribed entoptical phenomena. By Buarrice Linp-
Begnitton) OollesesOampridge weed. socepeshicens sxoweneiansansbievaeandenptaee sh 781
7. The demonstration of a new Myographion. By Professor McKrnprick .. 783
6
_ 8. A new Physiological Principle for the Formation of Natural Bodies. By
HSEIORSGT: He) TAGE Oe Secs Be cnet co eda cac hues eee ee Rees Sab A, TRL TORE 783
9. A new Geometry for the Bodies of Man and Animals. By Professor
MII NRA R 1r9-bse eidowapsonsioaijelectadaciecukmupnepdsnda nae tb yagaha sotite wbatelied «ahora 783
10. Further supplementary remarks on Supposed Cycloidal Rotation of
Arterial Red Discs. By Surgeon-Major R. W. Woo.tcomst............... 783
Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER |.
Address by Colonel Sir Coartes Warren, R.E., G.C.M.G., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.,
RR NA hat AE ACLAR a ce A I 0 «nrc dic dade seine sin nh wo a vide mm mannprbe cian otnp 785
1. Explorations on the Upper Kasai and Sankuru. By Dr. Lupwie
EE arg CNS Seeitacon a le sblan ja Aes dapigescaaUynat cies cope tvenesay 798
2. The Bangala, a Tribe on the Upper Congo. By Captain Coaurnaat ...... 798
3. The Congo below Stanley Pool. By Lieutenant Lu MARmNEL............... 798
4. Notice sur l’Etat indépendant du Congo. By M. van EnrvELpe............ 798
5. The Lower Congo: a Sociological Study. By R. C. Purtzirs ............ 798
6. A Visit to Diogo Cao’s ‘Padrio’ at the Mouth of the Congo. By R. E.
onion tps ceciaptnereianrensr one duduebtodypa secs sab} oc de oy bdo. ->,gnhpenar 799
mem Acclimatication, By Dr, A. OPPLER.:...c<15s.0cs..002-sseseeneesed econ enti 799
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2.
1. The Raian Moeris. By Cope WHITEHOUSE, M.A............scceseecssetenneee 799
2. The Feasibility of the Raian Reservoir. By Colonel Arpacu, R.E.,
eens ea ae ae tem tcp na stent Sedov eventos naacnuinen esos tiaiieon vdsacaunens 800
8. The Desert from Dahshur to Ain Raian. By Captain Conyers Surrers 801
4. The Bahr Yusuf. By Captain R. H. BRown, R.E. ........c.cccceeseeeeeeeees 801
5. Between the Nile and the Red Sea. By E. A. FLOYER ..........cc.:0ceee0e 801
6, Trade Prospects with the Sudan. By Major Watson, R.E., O.M.G. ...... 801
7. Account of a recent Visit to the ancient Porphyry Quarries of Egypt.
ESV REVISING EU MSie ac losonaceossascasce esse casi sce satsaselessiecsncmecaserat 801
XXxiv CONTENTS.
8.
9,
10.
11.
12.
Page
nl the ed Sea Trade, By A, B. WYLDE «........:c00:sscnsnccsosensceeuneennen 802
Matabeleland and the Country between the Zambezi and the Limpopo.
By Oaptam. 1, Haynes, RB. .2:90.2.s0scs0s5éncceacqsepmecsade<shoscbmecenens . 802
A Note on Houghton, the African Traveller. By Major Sir Herserr
PO akg hFo act kn 8 5n- Gena e noo nan'ya anders cou snanonb an ebeeuae spnestense hues scene 803
Western Australia, By JoHN FoRREST, C.M.G. ........ceccsccscecsescecesees 803
Second Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of reporting
upon the Depth of Permanently Frozen Soil in the Polar Regions .........
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
. The Beginning of the Geography of Great Britain. By Professor W.
IBOMD EDA WINS WPVIRIG.. 225002005. civectececuets ondseaccsee, tite RMesee meee ea Reeeae 803
. Report of the Committee for co-operating with the Royal Geographical
Society in endeavouring to bring before the authorities of the Univer-
sities of Oxford and Cambridge the advisability of promoting the study of
Geography by establishing special Chairs for the purpose.................+06 803
3. Geography at the Universities. By H. J. Mackrnpmr, M.A. ...........0008 803
4, The Ruby Mines of Burma, By J. SKELTON STREETER ............cceeeeeee 803
Pesan. «doy, MOO ARTY « 1.45 cccves decustst 00 towdcasenesacnadotenencnsstaneananane 804
6. The Valley of the Rio Déce (Brazil). By Witt1am Jomn STeArns ...... 804
7. On South-Eastern Alaska. By Professor LIBBEY ...........scccccesesesceeees 804
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
1. Final Report of the Committee on the production of a Bathy-hypso-
graphical Map of the British Islands ...............csscossececcenscenccesstecvens 804
. On some Defects of the Ordnance suryey. By S. H. Witxuvsoy, M.A... 804
. On the Utilisation of the Ordnance Survey. By Colonel Sir CHarnes
Wy ss0N, KC B.- ERIS.” 20.0. SR ee Pee... 212. 804
4, On the United States Geographical and Geological Survey. By JostaH
SHER Fu 5 cea Soaks Ses vnsagneecees eUaeb a «oe. 08s 00k oe
5, On a Bathy-orographical Map of Scotland. By H. R. Mu, D.Se. ...... 804
6. A Plea for the Metre. By E. G. RavensTein, F.R.GS. .........ccesseseeees 805
7. Second Report of the Committee for drawing attention to the desirability
of further Research in the Antarctic Regions .........csssssssccesenseeeeeens 805
@.) Bormosn. By Az-R-- COLQUHOUN! 1. <c0cvsysnesusavabucarevareenecechasecd ae 805
9. On the Study of the Natural Divisions of the Earth, rather than the
National ones, as the Scientific Basis of Commercial Geography. By
eben WSN TD), <2 5. vswtgiecouebow apne eee yopageuenct hee 805
10. On a Natural Method of Teaching Geography. By Joun J. CARDWELL... 805
11. The Teaching of Geography in the Elementary Schools of England. By
PEAR WORE de, Aiea hae nacik ta 5.1 ace d Pebld os cuekt Ab aeap ote eee 805
Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.
Address by Roperr Gurren, LL.D., V.P.S.S., President of the Section......... 806
1. Limited Isability. By G. Autpyo JAMIRSON....,....:..+-1-secssses enna 826
2. The Economie Policy of the United States. By Professor Leone Levi,
Pe pibuMetee sts ss.2tSo ecg soeasdogsiesesihisc2is.tsssien eee eres 829
L
CONTENTS. XxV
d FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2
Page
Report of the Committee on the methods of ascertaining and measuring
Variations in the Value of the Monetary Standard ...............:...cseeeeee 829
Monetary Jurisprudence. By S. Dana Horton .................ceeeeee eee eeeees 829
Some Notes on Money. By Sir T. FARRER .........sccsecccseccececescereecees 830
Changes in Real and in Money Prices. By Wynnarp Hooper, M.A. ... 880
. Graphic Llustrations of the Fall of Prices in Belgium, France, and
Bnpland, “By Professor DENIS © .-.......cc5.cscen-eseneen-cetassnsocscescncesseers 832
. Effective Consumption and Effective Prices in Ha As shee ranula
Statistical Relations. By Hyp Ciarke, F.S.8. ..........cceeeeeeeees eee eee 832
. The Battle between Free Trade and Protection in Australia. By
NUMGENTANT “VV RATGARTH: ...00c0s07scccee.besasdecescestecateceeess PEO OShee cocsenee 833
Sus-Secrion F.
. Preventible Losses in Agriculture. By Professor W. Fream, B.Sc.,
1
eta EG ing ESSA tivwtecccncbcbdecqchduceukndetavh sseeGescsseesccesaceesshdnas 834
2, On the Future of Agriculture. By W. Bothy .........0c0ss0ssceccevecsioes .. 835
8. Recent Illustrations of the Theory of Rent, and their Effect on the
Valueioteland: « By G. -AvLDIO TAMEESON ciiedencs-8e coe cesedeonsseyenseesees 835
4, On Depreciation of Land as caused by recent Legislation. By CouRTENAY
MMMERLUAN (TE Nes antee ava nadslenan Salers oasioestaetceauarsecaaerdivascccssdsvesaeendactecssane se. 835
4, Land Tenure in Bosnia and the Herzegovina. By Miss IRsy ............++. 837
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.
1. A Plan for County Councils. By J. TAYLOR KAY...........c000-scneeseeesneee 837
2. On, the Distribution of Wealth in Scotland. By Ratpm Ricwarpson,
a
PETE et eset seiecsatecaegecrs nes tcnanetoneaasoncnsaqnauendedsotecstorsiens Ni dvmnciea ash 840
. On the Application of Physics and Biology to Practical Economics. By
IM TTORS PIII KIS Paka dcee banc tae odhckhe desea kewae toh SeUL AT cktets aceecsancsesaaes 841
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
. Report of the Committee for continuing the inquiries relating to the
teaching of Science in Elementary Schools..........cseesssseeeeeeseereeeeseees 841
'2. Schools of Commerce. By Sir PHILIP MAGNUS...........0..00ceeseeeneeeeeeees 841
3. Manual Training a Main Feature in National Education. By WILLIAM
Maruer, M. 1179 © aR ee eR oa
. Technical Education: the Form it should take. By Epwarp J.
PP RIEET ICE EON cate y (6 ae aes ch ae mins wotene cae ct ewetes aa casececesaelaneacscsagentes 844
. Manual Training: an Experiment at Keswick. By the Rev. H. D.
SEBACUUIN SEES Seater n elec nas cortaa rae rics nese wares sseatedccoemasoes penrenpesceatitere cen 846
. Home Education in its Bearing on Technical Education. By Miss C. M.
SPEIER, mercies riesiattnat Nata ch « do itde.<hlae' Seales viailse sRinyrs 4uian¥ ash n'vaip sop ese vas rasa we. 846
Sus-Secrion F.
The Classification of the Exports of Cotton Piece Goods in Board of ©
Trade Returns. By FRANK HARDCASTLE, M.P. .........ccscceeecoeeeeeeeeees 847
. The Statistics of our Foreign Trade, and what they tell us. By A. E.
PAUMISMTACUEP RS Seb eae rsa Tote see tecetaccreretencccetedescsneeedssurenness saoedaenteseens
XXVi CONTENTS.
3.
4.
5.
Page
Report of the Committee on the Regulation of Wages by means of Lists
in the Cotton Industry ..52.......00.s..s0s0+eees Bion occcisescnnco soca Eporros o0. 848
Expenditure of Wages. By D. CHADWICK. ..........scsecscssseseecncessensecees 849
History of the Cotton Trade. By W. ANDREWS ...........cececsscneceeeseers 849
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
. Gold and Silver; their Geological Distribution and their probable Future
Production.) sy Wis LOPLBY, HGS. ic scesscsnesseeemanee ec eees eeceece rr are 849
. An Attempt to bring the Issue between those who are called ‘ Mono-
metallists’ and those who are called ‘ Bi-metallists’ into such Terms that
an Intelligent Public Opinion may be formed thereon. By Epwarp
PAUDKGTINS ON - Wastssicne ceva getisscwaceosewes sic cos orers so teen ee nGee RET aE teeee Ae Ran aeons 849
. On the Solution of the Anglo-Indian Monetary Problem. By Professor
ATV ASIBIAIS Woo. cis stcsistec sete 's's wim alec SOLE DAMS TRE RAS Slob ciclo ae Eee ee EO eres 849
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
1. Food as an Aid to Elementary Education. By Grores Hersert
RU AUR GAIN ateyiseleciaic'acceocietes oa Ucones cahirch tbmeblt + detain seteneeBtnt cee Seuue es aEReieene 851
2. Phthisis Centres in Manchester and Salford. By ArtHur RANsomf...... 852
3. On some important Statistics relating to the Silk Industry. By THomas
\WHATHIYHID) IEESES Gaampennanaodasact ceed beacon sensors saensechite sparse ccs. seen e sn teeeenne 852
AsOnBimetallism; By J. NICHOLSON: <«.c..s0sedeweewss seeuavascds-bee~ se serepaeeer 852
5. On the Position of Economics in Holland. By Professor GREVEN ......... 852
Gsecocialism:, ‘By Professor Wi. GRAGANG.....5.-0hcane-soc-sttki ence teat eee pe 852
7. On the Increase of Wealth and Population in Lancashire. By WiILLlAM
PAS ARON Ae AR BI ce sect Oe LCR cad hin TORRE do aie els IUCR PU Tits es 852
Section G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.
Address by Professor Ossorne Ruynoxps, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.,
President of the Section /.)/..652.chccessbebnceassseaeauoeee eee eine Sone ass cnet 855.
1. The Iron Mines of Bilbao. By Juremran Heap, M.Inst.C.E......:......068 861
2. Improvements in the Manufacture of Portland Cement. By Frepx.
HVAINSOM Mites ascasncsesssersceesncens Oa oaGSaDDLAncacnacrdondabonubtroson Beaqgdoe ce -. 864
a. Iie Severn Tunnel. By,'T..A. WAEKER \45).-ivicssscssenesss-nonkeseuteeeane . 865
2
.
ob
4,
5.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2.
. On certain Laws relating to the Régime of Rivers and Estuaries, and on
the possibility of Experiments on a small scale. By Professor OsBornE
REYNOLOS, LD. RSS Le ee ee eee 867
Improvement of the Access to the Mersey Ports. By W. SHELFORD,
PMTs OB rsa sen nuns. scSenne eth »oicscVSes chet eed eee sc ada neat eee eas ee
The Manchester Ship Canal. By E. LEADER WILLIAMS ........00.serecceens 868
Experiments on the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat on a large scale. By
HA. Cowrer and W.. ANDERSON ...........-,.-0sesraamogseeest pease 869
What isa Drought? By G. J. Symons, F.R.S...........s000eseeees syoessereeed 869
CONTENTS. XXVll
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.
‘1, The Forth Bridge Works. By A. S, BIGGART .,.cccsssseesessecsneescsee eens 870
2.
3. On a High-speed Steam or Hydraulic Revolving Engine. By ARTHUR
RIGG.....0.ccecesseeeeeeeees pavesucens Be jespeppsenepaPaceaccbrdastoecesenecobannchnensseang 871
4, An improved Steel Railway Sleeper, with Chairs pressed out of the Solid.
By HENRY WHITE.......00.cccceseecccessssseeeesssenesensnssseesenneasesesonsssnsees 872:
5. Specimens of Steel produced by skidding Railway Wheels, By JERE-
MIAH HEAD, M.Inst.C.E. .....cccseccssecenescnneeeensssanseonsecessenecersn ees seseee 872
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
1, On Copper Wire. By W. H. PREECE, F.R.S. ..csseeessssseeseeseesseeeeeneees 874
2, Fast Speed Telegraphy. By W. H. PREECE, F.RS. ......sscssseereeseesrsees 874
8. Underground Conductors for Electric Lighting, &e. By Professor G,
Forpes, M.A., F.R.S. Li. & E. .....ccecssescenenessaneccsunnecesenensecaesscnansnees 875
4, On an Electric Current Meter. By Professor G. Forsus, M.A., F.R.S.
EW patra ytbendde ss caveisencsnarosdoveph ent eqneesaW¥ouseSencanenn séecdendy<oggnnen 876
5. On the Condition of Maximum Work obtainable from a given source of
alternating Electromotive Force. By GIsBERT KAPP ........sseeeeeeeeeneene 876
6. Distribution by Transformers and Alternate Current Machines. By C.
H. W. Biaes and W. H. SNELL ........cccececceeeseeceseeeoe nen eeeeeceneenennne 878
7. The Telemeter System. By F. R. UPTON .....:.ccccuseceseeeeeenereeeneneess ... 878
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
1. Report of the Committee on the Endurance of Metals under repeated and
Varying Stresses .......seseeecessseecccepeseescneneeresssasaccccssaeasecsscsuaneeeeeses 879
2, On the Resistance of Stone to Crushing, as affected by the material on
which it is bedded. By Professor W. C. UNWIN, FLRS. .......:sseeeeeees 879
3. Expansive Working in Direct-acting Pumping Engines. By HENRY
DAVEY, M.Inst.C. BH, .......ccceeecessesnseeensccnsersanseterssopnseesscsueensarsoeeees 880
4, Reinforcing Electrical Contacts so as to increase their Reliability, with
Example of Application to Reeling Silk from the Cocoon. By E. W.
SBERRELL, JUD. ........cceceeeecceeccceeenannsneonececsnecsesseeassanenseaeecesaseces 881
5. A new Form of Secondary Battery. By Kinirvewortu Hepazs ......... 882
6. Underground Electrical Work in America. By F. BREWER ...........++- 882°
7. Improvements in Lifeboats. By J.T. MORRIS .........--.seeeeeessessseeseeees 882
8. Link Motion for Steam Engines. By J. M. McOuLnoct ...........-----++++ 882
9. On the Communication of Motion between bodies moving at different
Velocities. By J. WALTER PEARSE ......sces.s.cseeeeeeeeseeecen seen eessneenes
10, The Tangye Gas Hammer. By DUGALD CLERK...........000sesseeeeeesseeeees 883.
11. On the British Association Standard Screw Gauge. By W. H. Preecn,
ONS, Peto er tute ds Sone ete etter cen caecavacevavehscsescnercnsecunapanvoserssnouatee 884
12. A’ Fire-damp Indicator. By J. WILSON SWAN ........eseeeeseseeeeeereeeereess 884
13, On an improved Railway Reading Lamp. By W. H. Prescr, F:B,S., ... 884
The City of London and Southwark Subway. By J. H. GreatHzap,
IVIPITEEOLB:, 02. evo sanapececearonesnecadewoorsanacnpeseencdscdsercuseaioonspbebaskses= sees 870
XVili CONTENTS.
Srction H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.
Page
Address by Professor A. H. Saycu, M.A., President of the Section ............ 885
1. The Primitive Seat of the Aryans. By Canon Issac Taytor, LL.D.,
MDa tey tus cacvesecdescecccarsscasdousoelsanecsrcescaneneconnctnursessen uy cctrettee enna 895
2. The Non-Aryan and Non-Semitic White Races, and their Place in the
History of Civilisation. By J.S. Stuart-Grennre, M.A, .............000 . 898
3. On the Picture Origin of the Characters of the Assyrian Syllabary. By
PMORELGV.e VV «LOUGHTON aee.cccctssdcccasasscutestececpatsedeseenee te oamee meres -. 898
4, Wusum and other Remains in Egyptian Arabia. By Corr Wuutts-
HOUSE NIGAS cciycacessedesecessececedsi sna seu sceetwoetunt enters haat otro ntEe Eee eEn 898
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2.
. Report of the Committee for procuring Racial Photographs from the
Ancient Epyptian Pictures and Sculptures ...........0..-sececcsessccsscnsesnsce 899
. Notes on the Accuracy of the Sculptures and Paintings of Races on the
Egyptian Monuments. By W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE ...........ccsccssceeeees 899
3, Studies on some Groups of Mr. W. M. Flinders Petrie’s Casts and Photo-
graphs of Ethnographic Types from Egypt, 1887. By the Rey. Hmnry
GORGE TOMBS S 255558. ..UsieavtlWencees sue ddoutWosceesktedeusessCricer ene Ona mnneES 899
4, Boat-shaped Graves in Syria. By Groren Sr. Crair, F.G.S...........00. 900
5. On 108 Skulls from Tombs at Assouan. By W.S. MELSOME ...........0066 900
6. Account of a ‘ Witch’s Ladder’ found in Somerset. By Dr. Epwarp B.
DML OR (abt sDrivaevenserorcscovecsirecedlntte sbouetentscteesaseetected, conti tC teen naEe 900
7. The Effect of Town Life upon the Human Body. By J. Mitner ForuEr-
GETTS ME Dee ced sich. occ dh soasm uae Sh us we Abe ache ee aae nee Tage eb oc oe Si GEE Re ee 900
8. On the Bosjes Pelvis. By Professor CLELAND, F.RAS. .........ccsssccsecenees 902
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.
1. The Experimental Production of Chest-types in Man. By G. W.
PTAMBLBTON S, 5000555 os sevee stu svdete ladon aprecedaasenttGss odvs scaaneeli tas seen 908
2. The Scientific Treatment of Consumption, By G. W. Hamsierron......... 903
3, Ancient and Modern Methods of Arrow Release. By Professor E. S.
TMQHSH 6: icenasasn0ssascsesenqconsseannssanseesengueneessxs¥¥ucesstars?oisea- cr mann 904.
A, Tattooing. By Miss-A. W. BUCKLAND ..,.,.0a»sssseccccasesessxcson sheen 904
5. Report of the Committee appointed to edit a new Edition of ‘ Anthropo-
IE
logical Notes and Quorieg ’22..):.s+:9)ssass«sansegessdtyenaannsker-psdss52 Cee 905
. Third Report of the Committee for investigating and publishing reports
on the physical characters, languages, and industrial and social condition
of the North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada.,...........csee0eee 905
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
Second Report of the Committee for investigating the Prehistoric Race
Met atts rep MSLATGS o..c5.<s5)<c;:an+axaeiemenue a) ecaecan mney neat Penne: . 905
SSTHIED eee oes cesccese sess: secoercheodeeerelesiht es eee 905
CONTENTS. XXi1x
Page
8, The Origin of Totemism. By C. STANILAND WAKE ......ccccceeeseeeeseeseees 906:
4, Observations on Mr. Petrie’s Ethnological Casts from Egypt. By Dr.
ERENT oreo n.peretde veer cece inantaeccaetisdkedeaaSanarqadsaensedancteyewnes 907
5, Certain Degenerations of Design in Papuan Art. By 8. J. Hicxson..,... 907
. On the Occurrence of Stone Mortars in the Ancient (Pliocene?) River-
gravels of Butte Co., California. By Sypney B. J. Skerrcuty, F.G.S.... 907
On Inscribed Stones from Mevagh and Barnes, Co. Donegal. By G. H.
COPA EN ETA cut pce cplacnanens oct teacsccrpacccescines<soecenccesecavevepoccapes 908
Gipsies, and an Ancient Hebrew Race, in Sus and the Sahara. By R. G.
MR MINT SBIR ad Deca eae nese ye oa ot suey Tees Ne neae ves enn a's henpaNena nena 908
, Colour-names amongst the English Gipsies. By Witiiam E. A. Axon... 909
. The Seneca Indians of North America: their present Customs, Legends,
and Language. By Jon WENTWORTH SANBORN, A.M. ........:00:0seeeeeee 910
. Contributions to the Remote History of Mankind, By Axrn KAroty .,, 911
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
Report of the Committee for ascertaining and recording the localities in
the British Islands in which evidences of the existence of Prehistoric In-
bahitanta.of the country. are found: ,.00.s...crasiencisconertnssenssnepasrconnteones 912
. On the Migrations of Pre-Glacial Man, By Henry Hicks, M.D., F.R.S, 912
The Early Neolithic Floor of East Lancashire. By H. Contry Marcu,
ee, See dati sus BG A ain eu gs Spgs sels tOAy <b inne Sdawaoedng 912
. On recent Researches in Bench Cavern, Brixham, Devon. By W. Pxn-
“na Thc) LRU A yee SoBe BeAeecr Badr PRC EDRF EPR REED OEP RO CL? Mie aie 2 oan BEB Rs 912
. Observations on Recent Explorations made by General Pitt-Rivers at
imesmmore, “By J.'G, Ganson, M.D., V.P-A. Instr... s.scseenssssebsnoneeesensn 912
. Note on the Ethnic Type of the Inhabitants of the Evolena Valley in
PeeeerlanGre sesy VTS NIGHT einc.ccccccenesosepscceecrnarne=-eprs Stepossser=s ne 914
. On Berber and Guanche Tradition as to the Burial-place of Hercules. By
MAEM EL ANT INTS ESTOS Ne Se eee cttes Sclok, de oe cs de tled Nee a eset dud ods halen dp atensiijenies 914.
ExKX LIST OF PLATES.
Lisl OF PEAT Ee.
PLATES I. ann II,
Tlustrating the Report of the Committee for Considering the best means of Com-
paring and Reducing Magnetic Observations,
PLATES IIL, IV., anv V.
Illustrating the Report of the Committee for Exploring the Higher Eocene Beds
of the Isle of Wight.
PLATES VI., VII., VIIL, anp IX.
Mlustrating Mr, William Topley’s Communication, ‘Gold and Silver: their Geo-
logical Distribution and their Probable Future Production,’
PLATE X.
Tllustrating Messrs. EK. A. Cowper and W. Anderson’s Communication,
* Experiments on the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat on a large Scale.’
wee
OBJECTS AND RULES
OF
THE ASSOCIATION.
—-4+—
OBJECTS.
Tux Association contemplates no interference with the ground occupied
by other institutions. Its objects are:—To give a stronger impulse and
_ amore systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the inter-
course of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British
: Empire, with one another and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a
more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any
disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress.
RULES.
Admission of Members and Associates.
All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to
become Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to
conform to its Rules.
The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical
Societies publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled,
in like manner, to become Members of the Association.
The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees,
of Philosophical Institutions shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.
All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Coun-
il or Managing Committee shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.
Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the
nmeral Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Asso-
iation, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the
approval of a General Meeting.
Compositions, Subscriptions, and Privileges.
Lire Mempers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They
ll receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be
mblished after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the
ffices of the Association.
Awnnval SupscriBeErs shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive
XXXll RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this subscription in any par-
ticular year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and
all future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association
gratis: but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any
subsequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the
sum of One Pound. They are eligible to all the Offices of the Association.
Assoctatus for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.
The Association consists of the following classes :—
1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.
2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on
admission Ten Pounds as a composition.
3 Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to
the payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership
after intermission of Annual Payment. |
4. Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the
payment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each
following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of
Annual Payment. |
5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.
6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.
And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’)
price, according to the following specification, viz. :—
1. Gratis —Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further
sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845,
a further sum of Five Pounds.
New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a composition.
Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.
2. At reduced or Members’ Price, viz., two-thirds of the Publication Price.
—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a composi-
tion for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a Book
Subscription.
Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Subscription.
Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for
that year only. ]
3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any :
of the volumes of the Reports of the Association up to 1874,
of which more than 15 copies remain, at 2s. 6d. per volume.!
Application to be made at the Office of the Association, 22 Albemarle
Street, London, W.
Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can
only be issued by direction of the Council.
Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.
1 A few complete sets, 1831 to 1874, are on sale, £10 the set,
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXX1li
Meetings.
The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The
_ place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee two
_ years in advance; and the arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the
Officers of the Association.
General Committee.
The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons :—
Crass A. PERMANENT MEMBERS.
1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association, and Presi-
dents of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of
Reports in the Transactions of the Association.
} 2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers have fur-
thered the advancement of those subjects which are taken into considera-
tion at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. With a view of sub-
mitting new claims under this Rule to the decision of the Council, they must
be sent to the Secretary at least one month before the Meeting of the
Association. The decision of the Council on the claims of any Member of
the Association to be placed on the list of the General Committee to be final.
Crass B. Temporary Mempers.!
1. Delegates nominated by the Corresponding Societies under the
conditions hereinafter explained. Claims wnder this Rule to be sent to the
Secretary before the opening of the Meeting.
2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not ex-
ceeding three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place of
Meeting. Olaims wnder this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries
before the opening of the Meeting.
3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and
who are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by
the President and General Secretaries.
4, Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections.
Organizing Sectional Committees.?
The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sec-
tions are nominated by the Council, and have power to act until their
names are submitted to the General Committee for election.
{ From the time of their nomination they constitute Organizing Com-
mittees for the purpose of obtaining information upon the Memoirs and
Reports likely to be submitted to the Sections,’ and of preparing Reports
1 Revised by the General Committee, 1884.
2 Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871.
3 Notice to Contributors of Memoirs——Authors are reminded that, under an
arrangement dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which
they are to be read, are now as far as possible determined by Organizing Committees
for the several Sections before the beginning of the Meeting. It has therefore become
necessary, in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the
b
XXX1V RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
thereon, and on the order in which it is desirable that they should be
read, to be presented to the Committees of the Sections at their first
meeting. The Sectional Presidents of former years are ea officio members.
of the Organizing Sectional Committees.'
An Organizing Committee may also hold such preliminary meetings as.
the President of the Committee thinks expedient, but shall, under any
circumstances, meet on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting, at
11 a.m., to nominate the first members of the Sectional Committee, if
they shall consider it expedient to do so, and to settle the terms of their
report to the General Committee, after which their functions as an
Organizing Committee shall cease.”
Constitution of the Sectional Committees.°
On the first day of the Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presi-
dents, and Secretaries of each Section having been appointed by the
General Committee, these Officers, and those previous Presidents and
Vice-Presidents of the Section who may desire to attend, are to meet, at
2 p.M., in their Committee Rooms, and enlarge the Sectional Committees
by selecting individuals from among the Members (not Associates) present
at the Meeting whose assistance they may particularly desire. The Sec-
tional Committees thus constituted shall have power to add to their
number from day to day.
The List thus formed is to be entered daily in the Sectional Minute-
Book, and a copy forwarded without delay to the Printer, who is charged
with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on the next day in the Journal of
the Sectional Proceedings.
Business of the Sectional Committees.
Committee Meetings are to be held on the Wednesday at 2 P.m., on the
following Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Monday, and Tuesday, from 10 to
11 a.m., punctually, for the objects stated in the Rules of the Association,
and specified below.
The business is to be conducted in the following manner :—
1. The President shall call on the Secretary to read the minutes of
the previous Meeting of the Committee.
2 No paper shall be read until it has been formally accepted by the
several Communications, that each Author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir,
of a length suitable for insertion in the published Transactions of the Association,
and that he should send it, together with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or
CLOT Etats dee es see. aes ea ak , addressed thus—‘ General Secretaries, British Associa-
tion, 22 Albemarle Street, London, W. For Section .......... If it should be incon-
venient to the Author that his paper should be read on any particular days, he is
requested to send information thereof to the Secretaries in a separate note. Authors —
who send in their MSS. three complete weeks before the Meeting, and whose papers
are accepted, will be furnished, before the Meeting, with printed copies of their
Reports and Abstracts. No Report, Paper, or Abstract can be inserted in the Annual
Volume unless it is handed either to the Recorder of the Section or to the Secretary,
before the conclusion of the Meeting.
1 Added by the General Committee, Sheffield, 1879.
2 Revised by the General Committee, Swansea, 1880.
3 Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871.
4 The meeting on Saturday was made optional by the General Committee at
Southport, 1883.
XXX1V RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
thereon, and on the order in which it is desirable that they should be
read Pepa ces Se AD.
mee'
of tk
a EE ere
—s
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXV
Committee of the Section, and entered on the minutes accord-
ingly.
3. Papers which have been reported on unfavourably by the Organiz-
ing Committees shall not be brought before the Sectional
Committees. !
At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of
last year’s proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis
of Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association and
printed in the last volume of the Transactions. He will next proceed to
read the Report of the Organizing Committee.2 The list of Communi-
cations to be read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general
distribution of business throughout the week shall be provisionally ap-
pointed. At the close of the Committee Meeting the Secretaries shall
forward to the Printer a List of the Papers appointed to be read. The
Printer is charged with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on Thursday in
the Journal.
On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days,
the Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers
which have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed
to be read on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early
in the day as possible to the Printer, who is charged with printing the
same before 8 A.M. next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one
of the Secretaries of each Section (generally the Recorder) should cail
at the Printing Office and revise the proof each evening.
Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily
in the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of
the Committee.
Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts
of Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the
Sectional Meetings, to the Secretary.
The Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ew officio
temporary Members of the General Committee (vide p. xxxiii.), and will
receive, on application to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets
entitling them to attend its Meetings.
The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may
be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are
specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association and the com-
munications made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of
Selecting definite points of research to which individual or combined
exertion may be usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the ~
‘State and progress of which Reports are wanted; to name individuals or
Committees for the execution of such Reports or researches ; and to state
whether, and to what degree, these objects may be usefully advanced by
the appropriation of the funds of the Association, by application to
Government, Philosophical Institutions, or Local Authorities.
_ _ in case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science,
it is expedient that all Members of the Committee should be named, and
one of them appointed to act as Secretary, for insuring attention to business.
" These rules were adopted by the General Committee, Plymouth, 1877.
* This and the following sentence were added by the General Committee, 1871.
b 2
XXXV1 RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assist-
ance they may require.
The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to
be registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of
each is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Secretary for presentation
to the Committee of Recommendations. Unless this be done, the Recom-
mendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association.
N.B.—Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sec-
tions must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they
can be referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by
the General Committee.
The Committees of the Sections shall ascertain whether a Report has
been made by every Committee appointed at the previous Meeting to whom
a sum of money has been granted, and shall report to the Committee of
Recommendations in every case where no such Report has been received.!
Notices regarding Grants of Money.
Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money have been
entrusted by the Association for the prosecution of particular researches
in science, are required to present to each following Meeting of the
Association a Report of the progress which has been made; and the
Individual or the Member first named of a Committee to whom a money
grant has been made must (previously to the next Meeting of the Associa-
tion) forward to the General Secretaries or Treasurer a statement of the
sums which have been expended, and the balance which remains dispos-
able on each grant.
Grants of money sanctioned at any one Meeting of the Association
expire a week before the opening of the ensuing Meeting: nor is the
Treasurer authorized, after that date, to allow any claims on account of
such grants, unless they be renewed in the original or a modified form by
the General Committee.
No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices
of the British Association without special permission from the General
Committee to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended except in
accordance with the rules of the Association.
In each Committee, the Member first named is the only person entitled
to call on the Treasurer, Professor A. W. Williamson, University College,
London, W.C., for such portion of the sums granted as may from time to
time be required.
In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contem-
plate the payment of personal expenses to the members.
In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the con-
tinuation of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named is
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, whatever balance may remain
unpaid on the former grant for the same object.
All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Associa-
tion are to be deposited at the Office of the Association, 22 Albemarle
Street, Piccadilly, London, W., when not employed in carrying on scien-
tific inquiries for the Association.
1 Passed by the General Committee at Sheffield, 1879.
at
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXVii
Business of the Sections.
The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation from
10 to 11 daily. The Section Rooms and approaches thereto can be used for
no notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the Association.
At tT precisely the Chair will be taken,! and the reading of communi-
cations, in the order previously made public, commenced. At 3 p.m. the
Sections will close.
Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications
delivered in may render such divisions desirable.
A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which
originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of
the Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author.
Duties of the Doorkeepers.
1.—To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are
appointed during the whole time for which they are engaged.
2.—To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the ex-
hibition of a Member’s, Associate’s, or Lady’s Ticket, or Reporter’s
Ticket, signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the
Secretary.
3.—Persons unprovided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted
to any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room.
No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the
Association whose names are printed in the programme, p. Ll.
Duties of the Messengers.
To remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed dur-
ing the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed on
messages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms.
Committee of Recommendations.
The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee,
which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional
Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which
they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science.
All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the
Committee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the
General Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of
ecommendations.
Corresponding Societies.”
_ (1.) Any Society is eligible to be placed on the List of Corresponding
Societies of the Association which undertakes local scientific investiga-
tions, and publishes notices of the results.
_ |! The meeting on Saturday may begin, if desired by the Committee, at any time not
earlier than 10 or later than 11. Passed by the General Committee at Southport, 1883.
* Passed by the General Committee, 1884.
XXXViii RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
(2.) Applications may be made by any Society to be placed on the
List of Corresponding Societies. Application must be addressed to the
Secretary on or before the lst of June preceding the Annual Meeting at
which it is intended they should be considered, and must be accompanied
by specimens of the publications of the results of the local scientific
investigations recently undertaken by the Society.
(3.) A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be annually nomi-
nated by the Council and appointed by the General Committee for the
purpose of considering these applications, as well as for that of keeping
themselves generally informed of the annual work of the Corresponding
Societies, and of superintending the preparation of a list of the papers
published by them. This Committee shall make an annuai report to the
General Committee, and shall suggest such additions or changes in the
List of Corresponding Societies as they may think desirable.
(4.) Every Corresponding Society shall return each year, on or before the
Ist of June, to the Secretary of the Association, a schedule, properly filled
up, which will be issued by the Secretary of the Association, and which will
contain a request for such particulars with regard to the Society as may
be required for the information of the Corresponding Societies Committee.
(5.) There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the Association
a list,in an abbreviated form, of the papers published by the Corre-
sponding Societies during the past twelve months which contain the
results of the local scientific work conducted by them; those papers only
being included which refer to subjects coming under the cognisance of
one or other of the various Sections of the Association.
(6.) A Corresponding Society shall have the right to nominate any
one of its members, who is also a Member of the Association, as its dele-
gate to the Annual Meeting of the Association, who shall be for the time
a Member of the General Committee.
Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies.
(7.) The Delegates of the various Corresponding Societies shall con-
stitute a Conference, of which the Chairman, Vice-Chairmen, and Secre-
taries shall be annually nominated by the Council, and appointed by the
General Committee, and of which the members of the Corresponding
Societies Committee shall be ex officio members.
(8.) The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by the Secretaries
to hold one or more meetings during each Annual Meeting of the Associa-
tion, and shall be empowered to invite any Member or Associate to take
part in the meetings.
(9.) The Secretaries of each Section shall be instructed to transmit to
the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates copies of any recommen-
dations forwarded by the Presidents of Sections to the Committee of
Recommendations bearing upon matters in which the co-operation of
Corresponding Societies is desired ; and the Secretaries of the Conference
of Delegates shall invite the authors of these recommendations to attend
the meetings of the Conference and give verbal explanations of their
objects and of the precise way in which they would desire to have them
carried into effect.
(10.) It will be the duty of the Delegates to make themselves familiar
with the purport of the several recommendations brought before the Confer-
ence, in order that they and others who take part in the meetings may be
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXX1X
able to bring those recommendations clearly and favourably before their
respective Societies. The Conference may also discuss propositions bear-
ing on the promotion of more systematic observation and plans of opera-
tion, and of greater uniformity in the mode of publishing results.
Local Committees.
Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association
‘to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.
Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers
those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.
Officer's.
A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries,
and a Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.
Cowneil.
In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall
‘be managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The
Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week
-of the Meeting.
(1) The Council shall consist of !
. The Trustees.
. The past Presidents.
The President and Vice-Presidents for the time being.
. The President and Vice-Presidents elect.
The past and present General Treasurers, General and
Assistant General Secretaries.
. The Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the ensuing
Meeting.
7. Ordinary Members.
(2) The Ordinary Members shall be elected annually from the
General Committee.
(3) There shall be not more than twenty-five Ordinary Members, of
whom not more than twenty shall have served on the Council,
as Ordinary Members, in the previous year.
(4) In order to carry out the foregoing rule, the following Ordinary
Members of the outgoing Council shall at each annual election
be ineligible for nomination :—l1st, those who have served on
the Council for the greatest number of consecutive years ; and,
2nd, those who, being resident in or near London, have
attended the fewest number of Meetings during the year
—observing (as nearly as possible) the proportion of three by
seniority to two by least attendance.
5) The Council shall submit to the General Committee in their
Annual Report the names of the Members of General Com-
mittee whom they recommend for election as Members of
Council.
Passed by the General Committee, Belfast, 1874.
xi RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
(6) The Election shall take place at the same time as that ot the
Officers of the Association.
Papers and Communications.
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to.
reserve his right of property therein.
Accounts.
The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors:
appointed by the General Committee.
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PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. xlix
{ MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS.
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1832. Oxford...... Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S./ Rev. H. Coddington.
1833. Cambridge | Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ....../Prof. Forbes.
1834. Edinburgh }| Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S. | Prof. Forbes, Prof. Lloyd.
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
1835. Dublin...... ReveDupRobinson’ ..2.00s.0.0s Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof.
Wheatstone.
1836. Bristol...... Rey. William Whewell, F.R.S.| Prof. Forbes, W. S, Harris, F. W.
Jerrard.
1837. Liverpool...}Sir D, Brewster, F.R.S. ......]W. S. Harris, Rev, Prof, Powell,
Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine,
Prof. Stevelly.
J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof.
Stevelly,
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly,
Arch, Smith,
Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev.
W. Scoresby.
Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R.LA. ...|J. Nott, Prof, Stevelly.
The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ...|Rev. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly.
The Very Rev. the Dean of|Rev. H. Goodwin, Prof, Stevelly,
Ely. G. G. Stokes.
Sir John F. W. Herschel,|John Drew, Dr. Stevelly, G. G.
Bart., F.R.S. Stokes,
1838. Newcastle |Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
F.R.S.
1839. Birmingham Rev. Prof, Whewell, F.R.S....
1840. Glasgow ...|Prof, Forbes, F.R.S.............
1841. Plymouth
Rev. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S. ......
1842. Manchester
Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D.,
F.R.S.
| 1843. Cork.........
1844. York.........
1845. Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
ton.
1847. Oxford......
Rev. Prof. Powell, M.A.,|Rev. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G.
F.R.S. Stokes.
1848. Swansea ...| Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. ......| Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes.
1849. Birmingham | William Hopkins, F.R.S....... Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes, W.
Ridout Wills.
W.J.Macquorn Rankine,Prof.Smyth,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
S$. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
1850. Edinburgh |Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S.,
Sec. R.S.E.
--.|Rev. W. Whewell, D.D.,
F.RS.
851. Ipswich
852. Belfast...... Prof. W. Thomson, M.A..,| Prof. Dixon, W. J. Macquorn Ran-
F.R.S. L. & E. kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall.
853. Hull......... The Very Rey. the Dean of|B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt,
Ely, F.B.S. Prof, Stevelly, J. Welsh.
Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec.| J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof.
R.S. Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh.
Rev. Prof. Kelland, M.A.,|Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof.
F.R.S. L. & E. Tyndall.
Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S.|C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull.
Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.,| Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A,
F.R.S., M.R.I.A. Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly.
855. Glasgow ...
856. Cheltenham
7. Dublin......
58. Leeds ...... Rev. W. Whewell, D.D.,|Rev. S. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy ,
V.P.R.S. Prof. Stevelly, H.J.S.Smith, Prof.
Tyndall.
359. Aberdeen...|The Earl of Rosse, M.A.,K.P.,|J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H.
F.R.S. J. S. Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
60. Oxford......|Rev. B. Price, M.A., F.B.S....| Rev. G. C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison,
Prof. Steyelly.
1887. 2
Date and Place
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.
1866.
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872,
1873.
1874,
1876.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
F.RB.A.S.
1865. Birmingham | W. Spottiswoode,M.A.,F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.
Nottingham|Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Dundee ...|Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.,
F.RB.S.
Norwich ...|Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D.,
F.RB.S.
Exeter...... Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D.,
F.RB.S.
Liverpool...|J. Clerk Maxwell,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Edinburgh |Prof. P. G. Tait, F.R.S.E. ...
Brighton ...]W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Bradford ...| Prof. H. J. S. Smith, F.R.8.
Belfast...... Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett, M.A.,
M.R.LA.
Bristol...... Prof. Balfour Stewart, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Glasgow ...|Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
D.C.L., F.RB.S.
Plymouth...| Prof, G. C. Foster, B.A., F.R.S.,
Pres. Physical Soc.
Dublin...... Rev. Prof. Salmon,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sheffield ...|George Johnstone Stoney,
M.A., F.R.S.
Swansea ...| Prof. W. Grylls Adams, M.A.,
F.R.S.
VOLK es adeete Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Southamp-
ton. M.A., F.R.S.
Southport
Montreal ...
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
REPORT—1887.
Presidents
Secretaries
Manchester|G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L.,
F.RB.S.
Cambridge
F.R.S.
Newcastle
C.E., F.R.S.
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S
Aberdeen...|Prof. G. Chrystal,
F.R.S.E.
Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A.,
Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Cayley, M.A., F.B.S.,
Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev.N. Ferrers, Prof.Fuller, F.Jenkin,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. C. T. Whitley.
Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G.
Buckle, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G.
S. Mathews, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith,
J. M. Wilson.
Fleeming Jenkin, Prof. H.J.S.Smith,
Rev. S. N. Swann.
Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster,
Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan.
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley,
R. B. Hayward.
Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,
W. K. Clifford.
Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford,
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen
Whitworth. :
Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D.
Everett, Rev. R. Harley.
Prof. W. K. Clifford, J. W. L.Glaisher,
Prof. A. S. Herschel, G. F. Rodwell.
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J.
W.L. Glaisher, Prof. A. 8. Herschel.
J. W. L. Glaisher, Prof. Herschel,
Randal Nixon, J. Perry, G. F.
Rodwell.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J.W.L. Glaisher}
GC. T. Hudson, G. F. Rodwell.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. G. Forbes, J. W. L. Glaisher,
T. Muir.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
J. W. L. Glaisher, F. G. Landon.
Prof. J. Casey, G. F. Fitzgerald, J.
W. L. Glaisher, Dr. O. J. Lodge.
A. H. Allen, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr.
O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
W. E. Ayrton, J. W. L. Glaisher,
Dr. O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, Prof. 0. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Rev. W. Routh.
Rt. Hon. Prof. Lord Rayleigh,|W. M. Hicks, Prof. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Rev. G. Richardson.
Prof. 0. Henrici,Ph.D.,F.R.S.,|W. M. Hicks, Prof. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Prof. R. C. Rowe.
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,|C. Carpmael, W. M. Hicks, Prot.A.
Johnson, Prof. O. J. Lodge, Dr. D.
MacAlister.
M.A.,|R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
W. M. Hicks, Prof. W. Ingram.
Birmingham|Prof. G. H. Darwin, M.A.,|R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
LL.D., F.R.S.
J. H. Poynting, W. N. Shaw.
Manchester | Prof. Sir R. S. Ball, M.A.,|R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
LL.D., F.R.S.
H. Lamb, W. N, Shaw.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. li
CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, Il.—CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY.
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1832. Oxford......| John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. |James F. W. Johnston,
1833. Cambridge | John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. | Prof. Miller.
1834. Edinburgh | Dr. Hope..............cescecssesees Mr. Johnston, Dr Christison.
SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.
1835. Dublin...... Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S. ......| Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston.
1836. Bristol...... Rev. Prof, Cumming ........, Dr, Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera-
path.
1837. Liverpool...| Michael Faraday, F.R.S....... Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr,
N Reynolds.
1838. Newcastle | Rev. William Whewell,F.R.S.|Prof. Miller, H. L. Pattinson, Thomas
Richardson.
1839. Birmingham| Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. Dr. Golding Bird, Dr. J. B. Melson.
1840. Glasgow ...| Dr. Thomas Thomson, F, R.S.|Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr, T. Clark
Dr. L. Playfair.
,
1841. Plymouth...) Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S. ......... J. Prideaux, Robert Hunt, W. M,
Tweedy.
1842. Manchester |John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. | Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham.
1843. Cork......... Prof. Apjohn, M.R.LA.........|R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.
1844. York......... Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ......| Dr. L, Playfair, E. Solly, T. H. Barker.
1845. Cambridge | Rev. Prof. Cumming ......... R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof, Miller,
E. Solly.
1846. Southamp- |Michael Faraday, D.C.L., | Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall.
ton F.R.S.
1847. Oxford...... Rev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A.,|B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly.
F.R.S.
1848. Swansea ...| Richard Phillips, F.R.S. ......|T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams.
1849. Birmingham|John Percy, M.D., F.R.S....... R. Hunt, G. Shaw.
1850. Edinburgh | Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E. Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson.
1851. Ipswich ...| Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.S.|T. J. Pearsall, W. 8S. Ward.
1852. Belfast...... Thomas Andrews,M.D.,F.R.S.| Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof.
Ronalds.
1853. Hull......... Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,|H. 8. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J.
F.B.S. Pearsall.
1854, Liverpool |Prof.W. A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.| Dr.Edwards, Dr.Gladstone, Dr.Price,
1855. Glasgow ...| Dr. Lyon Playfair,C.B.,F.R.S.| Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E, Roscoe.
1856. Cheltenham] Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ...|J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley, Prof.
Voelcker.
1857. Dublin...... ete A vishD, M.D., F.R.S.,| Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul-
M.R.1 livan.
1858. Leeds ...... Sir J. F. We Herschel, Bart.,| Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey-
D.C.L. nolds.
1859. Aberdeen...! Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B.,F.R.S.|J.S. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D.
Liveing, Dr. Odling.
1860. Oxford...... Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S......]A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing,
A. B. Northcote.
1861. Manchester] Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.|A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing.
1862. Cambridge | Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.|H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof.
Roscoe.
1863. Newcastle |Dr. Alex. W. Williamson,} Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C.
' F.R.S. Stevenson.
1864. Bath.,....... W.Odling, M.B.,F.R.S.,F.C.S.| A.V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing,R. Biggs.
865. Birmingham ad _ A. Miller, M.D.,|A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof,
B.S. Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills.
866. Nottingham}H. vies Jones, M.D., F.R.S.|J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J.
Russell, J. White.
c32
hii REPORT—1887.
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1867. Dundee ...|Prof. T. Anderson, M.D.,|A. Crum Brown, Prof, G. D. Liveing,
F.R.S.E. W. J. Russell.
1868. Norwich ...|Prof. E. Frankland, F.R.S.,|Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus-
F.C.S. sell, F. Sutton.
1869. Exeter...... Dr. H. Debus, F.R.S., F.C.S. |Prof. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J.
Russell, Dr. Atkinson.
1870. Liverpool...|Prof. H. E. Roscoe, B.A., Prof, A. Crum Brown, A. E. Fletcher,
F.R.S., F.C.S. Dr. W. J. Russell.
1871. Edinburgh |Prof. T. Andrews, M.D.,¥.R.S.|J. T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T.
E. Thorpe.
1872. Brighton ...|Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S....|Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr.
W. J. Russell, Dr. T. Wood.
1873. Bradford ...|Prof. W. J. Russell, F.R.S....| Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe.
1874. Belfast...... Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D.,| Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand-
F.R.S.E., F.C.S. ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe.
1875. Bristol...... A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A.,| Dr. H. E. Armstrong, W. Chandler
F.R.S., F.C.S. Roberts, W. A. Tilden.
1876. Glasgow ...|W. H. Perkin, F.R.S. .........)W. Dittmar, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson, W. A. Tilden.
1877. Plymouth...|F. A. Abel, F.R.S., F.C.S. ...|Dr. Oxland, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson.
1878, Dublin...... Prof. Maxwell Simpson, M.D.,|W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thom-
F.R.S., F.C.S. son, Dr. C. R. Tichborne, T. Wills.
1879. Sheffield ...|Prof. Dewar, M.A., F.R.S. H. S. Bell, W. Chandler Roberts, J.
M. Thomson. ,
1880. Swansea ...|Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D.,|P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon, Dr.
E.R.S. W. R. Eaton Hodgkinson, J. M.
Thomson.
WSS. Vorky. sss. Prof. A. W. Williamson, Ph.D.,|P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
F.R.S. T. Gough.
1882. Southamp- |Prof. G. D. Liveing, M.A.,|/P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
ton. F.R.S. J. L. Notter.
1883. Southport |Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S...|Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B-
Dixon, H. Forster Morley.
1884. Montreal ...| Prof. Sir H. E. Roscoe, Ph.D.,| Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
LL.D., F.R.S. T. McFarlane, Prof. W. H. Pike.
1885, Aberdeen...|Prof. H. E. Armstrong, Ph.D.,| Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
E.BS., Sec. C.S. H.ForsterMorley,Dr.W.J.Simpson.
1886. Birmingham] W. Crookes, F.R.S., V.P.C.S. |Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley, W. W-
J. Nicol, C. J. Woodward.
1887. Manchester | Dr. E. Schunck, F.R.S., F.C.S.| Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. Forster
Morley, W. Thomson.
GEOLOGICAL (anv, unt 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, III.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
1832. Oxford...... R. I, Murchison, F.R.S. ......| John Taylor. \
1833. Cambridge./G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. ......| W. Lonsdale, John Phillips.
1834. Edinburgh .| Prof. Jameson .................. Prof. Phillips, T. Jameson Torrie,
Rev. J. Yates.
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
1835. Dublin...... Rei JG mUnthy.. 5 f52,.¢5.dce necees Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie.
1836. Bristol ...... Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—| William Sanders, 8S. Stutchbury,.
. Geography, R.1.Murchison,| TT. J. Torrie.
wtbeWe
:
1857. Dublin
1858. Leeds
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
Date and Place
1837. 1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle...
1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...
1841. Plymouth...
1842, Manchester
1843. Cork
Beate MOCK. 0.0s
1845. Cambridge.
a | Presidents
Geography, G. B. Greenough,
C. vipell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.—
Geography, Lord Prudhope.
Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—
res ie a G.B. Greenough,
R.S.
Chats Lyell, F.R.S.— Geo-
graphy, G. B. Greenough,
F.R.S.
\H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S.
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.
‘Richard E. Griffith, F.R.S.,
M.R.LA.
'Henry Warburton, M.P., Pres.
Geol. Soc.
Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A.,
1846. Southamp-
ton.
1847. Oxford......
1848. Swansea...
F.RB.S.
Leonard Horner, F.R.S.— Geo-
graphy, G. B. Greenough,
F.K.S
Very Rev.Dr.Buckland,F.R.S.
Sir H. T. De la Beche, C.B.,
F.R.S.
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh!
-1851. Ipswich ...
1852. Belfast......
1853, Hull
tee en eens
1854. Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham
1859. Aberdeen...
Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
Sir Roderick I. Murchison,
F.RB.S.
Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.—
liif
Secretaries
Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.—G@eo-
graphy, Captain H. M. Denham,
R.N.
W.C. Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock,—
Geography, Capt. Washington.
George Lloyd, M.D., H. E. Strick-
land, Charles Darwin.
‘W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh
Murray, H. E. Strickland, John
Scoular, M.D.
. W.J. Hamilton, Edward Moore, M.D.,
R. Hutton.
. E. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R
Lloyd, H. E. Strickland.
‘Francis M. Jennings, H. E. Strick-
land.
Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury.
Rev. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay,
Rev. W. Thorp.
Robert A. Austen, Dr. J. H. Norton,
Prof. Oldham.— Geography, Dr. C.
T. Beke.
Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C.
Ramsay, J. Ruskin.
Starling Benson, Prof.
Prof. Ramsay.
J. Beete Jukes, Prof. Oldham, Prof.
A. C. Ramsay.
A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller,
Prof. Nicol.
Oldham,
SECTION © (continuwed).—GEOLOGY.
WilliamHopkins, M.A.,F.R.S.
Lieut.-Col. Portlock, R.E.,
F.R.S.
Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.........
Prof. Edward Forbes, F,R.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S....
Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S...
The Lord Talbot de Malahide
William Hopkins,M.A.,LL.D.,
F.R.S.
Sir Charles Lyell,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
LL.D.,
C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod,
Searles Wood.
James Bryce, James MacAdam,
Prof. M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol.
Prof. Harkness, William Lawton.
John Cunningham, Prof, Harkness,
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.
James Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof.
Nicol.
.|Rev. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hep-
worth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall,
T. Wright.
Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders,
Robert H. Scott.
Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, EH. W.
Shaw.
Prof. Harkness, Rev. J. Longmuir,
H. C. Sorby.
1 At a meeting of the General Committee held in 1850, it was resolved ‘ That
the subject of Geography be separated from Geology and combined with Ethnology,
to constitute a separate Section, under the title of the “Geographical and Ethno-
logical Section,”’’ for Presidents and Secretaries of which see page lviii.
liv REPORT—1887.
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1860, Oxford...... Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D..| Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, Capt.
F.R.S., F.G.S. D. C. L. Woodall.
1861. Manchester |Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,| Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T.
LL.D., F.B.S. Rupert Jones, G. W. Ormerod.
1862. Cambridge |J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S.|Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert
Jones, H. C. Sorby.
1863. Newcastle |Prof. Warington W. Smyth,|E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C.
E.B.S., F.G.S. Sorby, Thomas Sopwith.
1864. Bath......... Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,]W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C.
E.R.S., F.G.S. Sorby, W. Pengelly.
1865.Birmingham|Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart.,|Rev. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rev. E.
K.C.B. Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly.
1866. Nottingham|Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D.,|R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil-
FE.R.S. son, G. H. Wright.
1867. Dundee ...|Archibald Geikie, F.B.S.,]Edward Hull, W. Pengelly, Henry
E.G.5. Woodward.
1868. Norwich ...|R. A. ©. Godwin-Austen,|Rev. O. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W.
F.R.S., F.G.S. Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood.
1869. Exeter ...... Prof. R. Harkness, F.R.S.,)W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins,
F.G.S. Rey. H. H. Winwood.
1870. Liverpool...|Sir Philipde M.Grey Egerton,| W. Pengeliy, Rev. H. H. Winwood,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S. W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton.
1871. Edinburgh | Prof. A. Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S.]R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, T. McKenny
Hughes, L. C. Miall.
1872. Brighton...|R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,|L. C. Miall, George Scott, William
F.RB.S., F.G.S. Topley, Henry Woodward.
1873. Bradford ...|}Prof. J. Phillips, D.C.L.,|/L. C. Miall, R. H. Tiddeman, W.
F.R.S., F.G.S. Topley.
1874. Belfast...... Prof. Hull, M.A., F.R.S.,|)F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes,
F.G.S. R. H. Tiddeman.
1875. Bristol...... Dr. Thomas Wright, F.R.8.E.,|L. C. Miall, E. B. Tawney, W. Top-
F.G.8. ley.
1876. Glasgow ...|Prof. John Young, M.D.......{|J. Armstrong, F. W. Rudler, W.
Topley.
1877. Plymouth...|W. Pengelly, F.B.S.......+008. Dr. Le Neve Foster, R. H. Tidde-
man, W. Topley.
1878. Dublin...... John Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S.,}E. IT. Hardman, Prof. J. O’Reilly,
F.S.A., F.G.S. R. H. Tiddeman.
1879. Sheffield ...| Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B.,| W. Topley, G. Blake Walker.
F.B.S., F.G.S.
1880. Swansea ...|H. C. Sorby, LL.D., F.R.S.,]W. Topley, W. Whitaker.
F.G.S. ’
1881. York......... A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S., |J. E. Clark, W. Keeping, W. Topley,
E.G.S. W. Whitaker.
1882. Southamp- |R. Etheridge, F.R.S., F.G.S. |T. W. Shore, W. Topley, E. West-
ton. lake, W. Whitaker.
1883. Southport |Prof. W. CC. Williamson,/R. Betley, C. E. De Rance, W. Top-
LL.D., F.R.S. ley, W. Whitaker.
1884, Montreal ...|W. T. Blanford, F.R.S., Sec.|F. Adams, Prof. E. W. Claypole, W.
G.S. Topley, W. Whitaker.
1885. Aberdeen ...| Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., Sec.|C. E. De Rance, J. Horne, J. J. H.
G.S. Teall, W. Topley.
1886. Birmingham| Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc.,]W. J. Harrison, J. J. H. Teall, W..
LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Topley, W. W. Watts.
1887. Manchester | Henry "Woodward, LL.D.,|J. E. Marr, J. J. H. Teall, W. Top-
E.R.S., F.G.S8. ley, W. W. Watts.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. lv
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY.
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1832. Oxford...... Rev. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. ...| Rev. Prof. J. 8S. Henslow.
1833. Cambridge'| Rev. W. L. P. Garnons, F.L.S.|C. C. Babington, D. Don.
1834. Edinburgh .|Prof. Graham..................60. W. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett.
SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.
1835. Dublin...... PTUVANIIILE senses stusccsrenceces J. Curtis, Dr. Litton.
1836. Bristol...... Rev. Prof. Henslow ........... J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, S.
Rootsey.
1837. Liverpool...) W. S. MacLeay.......s.ssssesees C. C. Babington, Rev. L. Jenyns, W.
Swainson.
1838. Newcastle |Sir W. Jardine, Bart. ......... J. E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen,
. Dr. Richardson.
1839. Birmingham | Prof. Owen, F.R.S. ...........- E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson.
1840. Glasgow ...|Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D....... Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat-
terson.
1841. Plymouth...| John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.|J.Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson.
1842. Manchester | Hon. and Very Rev. W. Her-|Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A.
bert, LL.D., F.L.S. Turner.
1843. Cork.<<..:... William Thompson, F.L.S..../G. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R.
Patterson.
1844, York......... Very Rey. the Dean of Man-| Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr, King,
chester. Dr. Lankester.
1845. Cambridge | Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S...,| Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston.
1846. Southamp- |Sir J. Richardson, M.D., |Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H.
ton. F.R.S. Wooldridge.
1847. Oxford...... H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S.|Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V.
Wollaston.
SECTION D (continued).—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.
[For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Subsec-
tions and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. lviii.]
1848. Swansea ...| L. W. Dillwyn, F.R.S.......... Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen-
frey, Dr. Lankester.
1849, Birmingham! William Spence, F.R.S. ...... Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell.
1850. Edinburgh | Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L.& E. Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan.
1851. Ipswich ...|Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A., Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E.
F.R.S. | Lankester.
1852. Belfast...... Wig Opal yD ccsansh cash aay cerasda se Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr.
Edwin Lankester.
1853. Hull......... C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S. Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester.
1854. Liverpool...| Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S.... Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.
1855. Glasgow ...| Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E. William Keddie, Dr. Lankester.
1856. Cheltenham | Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres,L.S. Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof, Buckman,
| Dr. Lankester.
1857. Dublin...... Prof. W. H. Harvey, M.D., Prof. J.R.Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester,
F.R.S. | Robert Patterson, Dr. W.E. Steele.
1858. Leeds ...... C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.. Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. EH.
Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
1859. Aberdeen...|Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E. | Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. HE. Lankester,
Dr. Ogilvy.
1 At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee,
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. lviii.
lvi
REPORT—1887.
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1860. Oxford......| Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S8....)W. S. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P.
L. Selater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
1861. Manchester | Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S.|Dr. T. Aleock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr.
1862. Cambridge | Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath......... Dr, John E. Gray, F.R.S.
1865. Birmingham|T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S.
P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....| Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H.
B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.
...|H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T.
Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
...|Dr. J. Anthony, Rev. C. Clarke, Rev.
H. B. Tristram, Dr. EH. P. Wright.
SECTION D (continued),—b1oLoey.!
1866. Nottingham | Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.|Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H.
—Physiological Dep., Prof.
Humphry, M.D., F.R.S.—
Anthropological Dep., Alf.
R. Wallace, F.R.G.S.
1867, Dundee
—Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
George Busk, M.D., F.R.S.
1868. Norwich ...
—Dep. of Physiology, W.
H. Flower, F.R.S.
1869, Exeter......
—Dep. of Bot. and Zool.
C. Spence Bate, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Ethno., EB. B. Tylor.
1870. Liverpool...} Prof.G. Rolleston, M.A.,M.D.,
F.R.S., F.L.S.—Dep. of
Anat. and Physiol., Prof. M.
Foster, M.D., F.L.S.—Dep.
of Ethno., J. Evans, F.R.S.
Prof. Allen Thomson, M.D.,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Bot. and.
Zool.,Prof.WyvilleThomson,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
Prof. W. Turner, M.D.
Sir J. Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Dr. Burdon Sanderson,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
Col. A. Lane Fox, F.G.S.
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ...
1873, Bradford ...
Anat.and Physiol.,Prof. Ru-
therford, M.D.—Dep. of An-
thropol., Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S.
1874. Belfast ......
Zool. and Bot., Dr. Hooker,
C.B.,Pres.R.S.—Dep. of An-
throp., Sir W.R. Wilde, M.D.
P. L. Sclater, F.R.S.— Dep. of
Anat.and Physiol.,Prof.Cle-
land, M.D., F.R.S.——Dep. of
Anthropol., Prof. Rolleston,
M.D., F.B.S.
1875, Bristol ......
B. Tristram, W. Turner, E. B.
Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright.
.| Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.|C. Spence Bate, Dr. 8. Cobbold, Dr.
M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rey. H.
B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.
Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.| Dr. T. S. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr.
M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H. T.
Stainton, Rey. Dr. H. B. Tristram,
Dr. E. P. Wright.
George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S.| Dr. T. S. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster,
E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tris-
tram.
Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans,
Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H.
T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram,
C. Staniland Wake, E. Ray Lan-
kester.
Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee,
E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake,
Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne
King.
Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, H. T. Stainton,
Prof. Lawson, F. W. Rudler, J. H.
Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, EH. Ray
Lankester, Dr. Pye-Smith.
Prof. Allman, F.R.S.—Dep. of|Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson,
R. M‘Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E.
Ray Lankester, F. W. Rudler, J.
H. Lamprey.
Prof. Redfern, M.D.—Dep. of| W.T.Thiselton-Dyer, R. O. Cunning-
ham, Dr. J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H.
Pye-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F. W.
Rudler.
E. R. Alston, Dr. McKendrick, Prof.
W. R. M‘Nab, Dr. Martyn, F. W.
Rudler, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, Dr.
W. Spencer.
) At a meeting of the General Committee in 1865, it was resolved :—‘ That the title
of Section D be changed to Biology ;’ and ‘That for the word “Subsection,” in the
rules for conducting the business of the Sections, the word “ Department” be substituted.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. lvii
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1876. Glasgow ...|A. Russel Wallace, F.R.G.S.,]E. R. Alston, Hyde Clarke, Dr.
F.L.S.—Dep. of Zool. and| Knox, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Dr.
Bot., Prof. A. Newton, M.A.,}| Muirhead, Prof. Morrison Wat-
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anat. and| son.
Physiol., Dr. J. G. McKen-
drick, F.R.S.E.
1877. Plymouth...|J.GwynJeftreys, LL. D.,F.R.S.,|E. R. Alston, F. Brent, Dr. D. J.
F.L.S.—Dep. of Anat. and| Cunningham, Dr. C. A. Hingston,
Physiol.,- Prof. Macalister,} Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, J. B. Rowe,
M.D.—Dep. of Anthropol.,| EF, W. Rudler.
Francis Galton, M.A.,F.R.S.
1878. Dublin ...... Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.—| Dr. R. J. Harvey, Dr. T. Hayden
Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.) Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Prof. J. M.
Huxley, Sec. R.S.—Dep.| Purser, J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler.
of Anat. and Physiol. R.
McDonnell, M.D., F.RB.S.
1879. Sheffield ...)Prof. St. George Mivart,| Arthur Jackson, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,| J.B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler, Prof.
E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S.| Schéfer.
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-
siol., Dr. Pye-Smith.
1880. Swansea ...|A. C. L. Giinther, M.D.,F.R.S.|G. W. Bloxam, John Priestley,
| —Dep. of Anat. and Phy-| Howard Saunders, Adam Sedg-
| siol., F. M. Balfour, M.A.,} wick.
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
F. W. Rudler, F.G.S8.
MOS1. VOrK.c.....0. Richard Owen, C.B., M.D.,)}G. W. Bloxam, W. A. Forbes, Rev.
F.R.S.—Dep.of Anthropol.,| W. C. Hey, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
Prof. W. H. Flower, LL.D.,} W. North, John Priestley, Howard
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anat. and| Saunders, H. HE. Spencer.
Physiol., Prof. J. 8. Burdon
P Sanderson, M.D., F.R.S. :
4882. Southamp- | Prof. A. Gamgee, M.D., F.R.S.|G. W. Bloxam, W. Heape, J. B
ton. — Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,| Nias, Howard Saunders, A. Sedg-
Prof. M. A. Lawson, M.A.,| wick, T. W. Shore, jun.
F.L.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins,
. M.A., F.R.S.
1883. Southport! | Prof. E. Ray Lankester, M.A.,|G. W. Bloxam, Dr. G. J. Haslam,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,| W. Heape, W. Hurst, Prof. A. M.
W. Pengelly, F.R.S. Marshall, Howard Saunders, Dr.
: G. A. Woods.
1884. Montreal?...|Prof. H. N. Moseley, M.A.,| Prof. W. Osler, Howard Saunders, A.
\ P.RS. Sedgwick, Prof. R. R. Wright.
1885. Aberdeen ...| Prof. W. C. McIntosh, M.D.,|W. Heape, J. McGregor-Robertson,
LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E. J. Duncan Matthews, Howard
; Saunders, H. Marshall Ward.
“1886. Birmingham|W. Carruthers, Pres. L.S.,|Prof. IT. W. Bridge, W. Heape, Prof.
F.R.S., F.G.S8. W. Hillhouse, W. L. Sclater, Prof.
H. Marshall Ward.
1887 Manchester | Prof. A. Newton, M.A., F.R.S.,|C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, S. F. Har-
F.L.S., V.P.Z.S. mer, W. Heape, W. L. Sclater,
Prof. H. Marshall Ward.
1 By direction of the General Committee at Southampton (1882) the Departments
of Zoology and Botany and of Anatomy and Physiology were amalgamated.
2 By authority of the General Committee, Anthropology was made a separate
Section, for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. lxiii.
lvili REPORT—1887.
ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1833. Cambridge |Dr. Haviland................++--. Dr. Bond, Mr. Paget.
1834. Edinburgh |Dr. Abercrombie .....-.....+0++ Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson.
SECTION E (UNTIL 1847).—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.
1835. Dublin ...... POT AMEEUUCNATO. coe tvacct ooneea's ane Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart.
1836. Bristol ...... DrMROgety EH AH.S: scccassccscones Dr. Symonds.
1837. Liverpool...| Prof. W. . Clark, ESD iiceesae ae Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long,
Dr. J. R. W. Vose. ,
1838. Newcastle |T. E. Headlam, M.D. ......... T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose.
1839. Birmingham|John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S....|Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland.
1840. Glasgow ...|James Watson, M.D. ......... Dr. J. Brown, Prof. Couper, Prof.
| Reid.
SECTION E.—PHYSIOLOGY.
1841. Plymouth... P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S. |Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. R. S.
Sargent.
1842. Manchester | Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S.| Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. S. Sargent.
1843. Cork ........+| |Sir James Pitcairn, M.D. ...|Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
1844. York......... |J. C, Pritchard, M.D. ......... I. Erichsen, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
1845. Cambridge | Prof. J. Haviland, M.D. ...... Dr. R. S. Sargent, Dr. Webster.
1846. Southamp- | Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...|C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sar-
ton. gent.
1847. Oxford! ...|Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S. ......]Dr. Thomas K. Chambers, W. P.
Ormerod.
PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
1850. Edinburgh |Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E.
1855. Glasgow ...|Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S. |Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers.
1857. Dublin...... Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. ...... Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern.
1858. Leeds ...... Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart.,|C. G. Wheelhouse.
F.R.S.
1859. Aberdeen...|Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.S.|Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern.
1860. Oxford...... Prof.G.Rolleston,M. D. FL. S. Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith.
1861. Manchester | Dr. John Davy, F. B.S. L. & E.|Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith.
1862. Cambridge |G. E. Paget, M.D.............005 G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith. |
1863. Newcastle | Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S.|Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner.
S64 a Bulls bee sas « Dr. Edward Smith, LL.D.,|J.S. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner.
F.R.S. .
1865. Birming- |Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D.,|Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop,
ham.? F.R.S. Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner.
GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
el Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C,
p- lii.
ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
1846.Southampton| Dr. Pritchard.................6065 Dr. King.
1847. Oxford...... Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A. ...|Prof. Buckley.
SAS. (IS WAMSER AIS Pidesw odes cies trcaes d'ocsesuessteeess G. Grant Francis.
ESA AVN NANT eon sy owccer innate esasersrusceseers ee Dr. R. G. Latham.
1850. Edinburgh | Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm! Daniel Wilson.
1 By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were
incorporated under the name of ‘Section D—Zoology and Botany, including Phy-
siology’ (see p. lv.). The Section being then vacant was assigned in 1851 to
Geography. 2 Vide note on page lvi.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. liz
SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1851. Ipswich .../Sir R. L Murchisod, F.R.S.,|R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr.
Pres. R.G.S. Norton Shaw.
1852. Belfast...... Col. Chesney, R.A., D.C.L.,{R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton
F.B.S. haw.
Sebo. Hull),........ R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S. |R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr.
Norton Shaw.
1854. Liverpool...|Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,| Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr.
F.R.S. Ihne, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1855. Glasgow ...|Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,|Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr.
F.R.S. Norton Shaw.
1856. Cheltenham/Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson,/R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H.
K.C.B. Rumsey, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1857. Dublin...,... Rey. Dr. J. Henthorn Todd,/R. Cull, S. Ferguson, Dr. R. R.
Pres. RBA: Madden, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1858. Leeds ...... Sir R.I. Murchison, G.C.St.S.,]R. Cull, Francis Galton, P. O’Cal-
F.R.S. laghan, Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas.
Wright.
' 1859. Aberdeen...}Rear - Admiral Sir James|Richard Cull, Prof. Geddes, Dr. Nor-
Clerk Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S. ton Shaw.
1860. Oxford...... Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,|Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C.
F.R.S. Lempriére, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1861. Manchester|John Crawfurd, F.R.S.......... Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode.
1862. Cambridge |Francis Galton, F.R.S.......... J.W.Clarke, Rev. J.Glover, Dr. Hunt,
Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.
1863. Newcastle |Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,|C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield,
F.R.S. C. R. Markham, R. $8. Watson.
1864. Bath......... Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,]H. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt.
F.R.S. R. M. Murchison, T. Wright.
1865. Birmingham|Major-General Sir H. Raw-|H. W. Bates, S. Evans, G. Jabet, C.
linson, M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S.| R. Markham, Thomas Wright.
1866. Nottingham|Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,|H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, R.
LL.D. H. Major, ‘Clements R. Markham,
D. W. Nash, T: Wright.
1867. Dundee ...|Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S. |H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, Clements
R. Markham, S. J. Mackie, R.
Sturrock.
1868. Norwich ...|Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N.,|T. Baines, H. W. Bates, Clements R.
F.R.S. Markham, T. Wright.
SECTION E (continuwed).—GEOGRAPHY.
1869. Exeter ...... Sir Bartle Frere, K.C.B.,|H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham,.
LL.D., F.R.G.S. J. H. Thomas.
1870. Liverpool...) Sir R.I.Murchison, Bt.,K.C.B.,| H.W.Bates, David Buxton, Albert J.
LL.D.,D.C.L., F.B.S., F.G.8.| Mott, Clements R. Markham.
1871. Edinburgh | Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S. | A. Buchan, A. Keith Johnston, Cle-
ments R. Markham, J. H. Thomas.
_ 1872. Brighton .,.| Francis Galton, F.R.S.......... H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Rev. J. Newton, J. H. Thomas.
1873. Bradford ...|Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B.|H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,.
Clements R. Markham.
1874. Belfast...... Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S.,|E. G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye, J. H.
F.R.G.S. Thomas. .
1875. Bristol...... Lieut. - General Strachey,|H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, F. F-
R.E. ae ,F.R.S.,F.R.G.S.,| Tuckett.
F.LS.,
E.G. Ss.
. 1876. Glasgow .. 7 . Evans, C.B., F.R.S... H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, R. Oliphant
ve" Wood.
Ix
REPORT— 1887.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1833.
1834.
1835.
1836.
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1877. Plymouth...|Adm. Sir E. Ommanney, C.B.,|H. Ww. Bates, F. E. Fox, E. C. Rye.
F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S,
1878. Dublin...... Prof. Sir C. Wyville Thom-|John Coles, E. C. Rye.
son, LL.D., F.R.S.L.&E.
1879. Sheffield ...|Clements R. Markham, C.B.,|}H. W. Bates, C. E. D. Black, BE. C,
H.RS., Sec. R:G.S. _- Rye.
1880. Swansea ...|Lieut.-Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy,|H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye.
C.B., K.C.M.G., R.A., F.RB.S.,
F.R.G.S.
ASB! Worke....-3:. Sir J. D. Hooker, K.C.S.L.,|J. W. Barry, H. W. Bates.
C.B., F.R.S.
1882. Southamp- |Sir R. Temple, Bart., G.C.S.I.,| E. G. Ravenstein, E. C, Rye.
ton. F.R.G.S.
Southport |Lieut.-Col. H. H. Godwin-|John Coles, E. G. Ravenstein, HE. C.
Austen, F.R.S. Rye.
Montreal ...}|Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy, C.B.,| Rev. Abbé Laflamme, J.S. O'Halloran,
K.C.M.G., F.B.8.,V.P.2.G. S E. G. Ravenstein, J. F. Torrance.
Aberdeen...|Gen. J. T. Walker, C.B., R.E.,|J.S. Keltie, J. 8. O'Halloran, E. G.
LL.D., F.R.S. Ravenstein, Rev. G. A. Smith.
Birmingham | Maj.-Gen. Sir. F. J. Goldsmid,|F. T. S$. Houghton, J. 8S. Keltie,
K.C.S8.1., C.B., F.R.G.8. E. G. Ravenstein.
Manchester|Col. Sir C. Warren, R.E.,| Rev. L. C. Casartelli, J. S. Keltie,
G.C.M.G., F.RB.S., F.R.G.S. H. J. Mackinder, E. G. Raven-
stein.
STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—STATISTICS.
Cambridge Prof. Babbage, F.R.S. . J. E. Drinkwater.
Edinburgh | Sir Charles Lemon, Batt... apes a Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean.
SECTION F.—STATISTICS.
Dublin...... Charles Babbage, F.R.S. . W. Greg, Prof. Longfield.
Bristol...... Sir Chas. Lemon, Bart., ERS. Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp,
James Heywood.
1837. Liverpool...| Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon......... W. R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.
1838. Newcastle |Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. .........|W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W.R. Wood.
1839. Birmingham| Henry Hallam, F.R.S..........| F. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.
1840. Glasgow ...|Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon, M.P.,|C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W.
E.R.S. Rawson.
1841. Plymouth...| Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S....... Rev. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R.
W. Rawson.
1842. Manchester |G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S. ...|Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr.
W. C. Tayler.
1843. Cork......... Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ...|Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
1844. York......... Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S.,|J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Lay-
F.L.S. cock.
1845. Cambridge | Rt. Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam|J. Fletcher, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
1846. Southamp- |G. R. Porter, F.R.S. ............ J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W.
ton. C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott.
1847. Oxford...... Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S.|Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G.
P. Neison.
1848. Swansea ...|J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.R.S. ...|J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede.
1849. Birmingham | Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton...... Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F. G. P.
Neison.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
lx?
Date and Place
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich
1852, Belfast......
1853, Hull
1854, Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow .
...|Sir John P. Boileau, Bart.
Presidents
Secretaries
Very Rev. Dr.
V.P.R.S.E.
John Lee,|Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J.
Stark.
.|J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock.
His Grace the Archbishop of | Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James:
Dublin.
MacAdam, jun.
James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S.| Edward Cheshire, W. Newmarch.
Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. .........
.|R. Monckton Milnes, M.P....
EK, Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H.
Duncan, W. Newmarch.
J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-
march, Prof. R. H. Walsh.
SECTION F (continwed).—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
1856. Cheltenham|Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P. | Rev. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr..
1857. Dublin
1858. Leeds
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford
ee eeee
1861. Manchester
1862, Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864, Bath.........
1865. Birmingham
1866, Nottingham
1867. Dundee .....
1868, Norwich....
1869. Exeter...
see
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.
Liverpool...
Edinburgh
Brighton ...
Bradford ...
Belfast......
1875,
1876. Glasgow ...
1877.
1878.
Plymouth..
Dublin
seenee
1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin, M.R.LA.
Edward Baines
Col. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S. ......
Nassau W. Senior, M.A. ......
William Newmarch, F.R.S....
Edwin Chadwick, C.B. ..
.| William Tite, M.P., F.B.S. ...
William Farr, M.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,
M.P.
Prof, J. ET. ROP ETS... sasncesss
M. E. Grant Duff, M.P. .......
Samuel Brown, Pres, Instit.
Actuaries.
Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-
cote, Bart., C.B., M.P.
Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A.
Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves
Prof. Henry Fawcett, M.P....
ee eeweee
Rt. Hon. W. E. Forster, M.P.
Tord OPAASAM cc .oncecccsvessaes
James Heywood, M.A.,F.R.S.,
Pres.S.S.
Sir George Campbell, K.C.S.L,
M.P.
.|Rt. Hon. the Earl Fortescue
se J. K. Ingram, LL.D.,
M.R.LA.
G. Shaw Lefevre, M.P., Pres.
8.5.
G. W. Hastings, M.P........
W. N. Hancock, W. Newmarch, W.
M. Tartt.
Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W.
Newmarch.
T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, S. Brown,.
Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang.
Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M,
Smith, Dr. John Strang.
Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch,.
Rey. Prof. J. E. T. Rogers.
David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie,.
E. Macrory, Rev. Prof. J. E. T-
Rogers.
H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory.
dtl Doubleday, Edmund Macrory,.
Frederick Purdy, James Potts.
E. Macrory, E. T. Payne, F. Purdy..
G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston,.
E. Macrory.
R. Birkin, jun., Prof. Leone Levi, E.
Macrory,
Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J-
Warden.
Rey. W.C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi.
E. Macrory, F. Purdy, ©. T. D-
Acland.
(Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, E, Macrory,
J. Miles Moss.
& G. Fitch, James Meikle.
iJ. G. Fitch, Barclay Phillips.
J. G. Fitch, Swire Smith.
Prof. Donnell, F. P. Fellows, Hans
MacMordie.
F. P. Fellows, T. G. P. Hallett, BH.
Macrory.
A. M‘Neel Caird, T.G. P. Hallett, Dr.
W. Neilson Hancock, Dr. W. Jack.
W. F. Collier, P. Hallett, J.T. Pim:
W. J. Hancock, ©. Molloy, J. T. Pim.
Prof. Adamson, R. EH. Leader, C.
Molloy.
.| N. A. Humphreys, C. Molloy.
Axi
REPORT—1 887.
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
1881.
York...
1882. Southamp-
ton.
1883. Southport
1884. Montreal ...
1885. Aberdeen...
Rt. Hon. M. E. Grant- Duff,
M.A., F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. G. Sclater-Booth,
M.P., F.R.S.
R. H. Inglis Palgrave, F.R.S.
Sir Richard Temple, Bart.,
G.C.S.1., C.LE., F.R.G.S.
Prof. H. Sidgwick, LL.D.,
Litt.D.
1886. Birmingham|J. B. Martin, M.A., F.S.S.
1887. Manchester
1836.
Bristol
1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
Robert Giffen, LL.D.,V.P.S.8.
C. Molloy, W. W. Morrell, J. F.
Moss.
G. Baden-Powell, Prof. H. §. Fox-
well, A. Milnes, C. Molloy.
Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. 8.
Foxwell, J. N. Keynes, C. Molloy.
Prof. H. 8. Foxwell, J.S. McLennan,
Prof. J. Watson.
Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. 8.
Foxwell, C. McCombie, J. F. Moss.
F. F. Barham, Rev. W. Cunningham,
Prof. H. 8. Foxwell, J. F. Moss,
Rev. W. Cunningham, F. Y. Edge-
worth, T. H. Elliott, C. Hughes,
Prof. J. E. C. Munro, G. H. Sar-
gant.
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.'|T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West.
Rev. Dr. Robinsor
Charles Babbage, F.R.S.......;R. Hawthorn,
seebeteaness ‘Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
C. Vignoles, T.
Webster.
Prof. Willis, F.R.S., and Robt.| W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, T.
Stephenson. Webster.
1840. Glasgow ....)Sir John Robinson ............. J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod,
| C. Vignoles.
1841. Plymouth |John Taylor, F.R.S. ..........0+ Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster.
1842. Manchester] Rev. Prof. Willis, F.R.S. ......|J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J.
Thomson, Charles Vignoles.
1843. Cork......... Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.IA....|James Thomson, Robert Mallet.
MGSA VOLK «se os05 John Taylor, F.R.S. .......... Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
1845. Cambridge |George Rennie, F.R.S.......... Rev. W. T. Kingsley.
1846. Southamp- | Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.| William Betts, jun., Charles Manby.
ton. i
1847. Oxford...... Rev. Prof. Walker, M.A.,F.R.S.|J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier.
1848. Swansea ...| Rev. Prof.Walker, M.A.,F.R.S.|R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé.
1849. Birmingham) Robt. Stephenson, M.P., F.R.S.|Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall.
1850. Edinburgh | Rev. R. Robinson ............... Dr. Lees, David Stephenson.
1851. Ipswich .....| William Cubitt, F.R.S.......... John Head, Charles Manby.
1852. Belfast...... John Walker, C.E., LL.D.,|John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock,
E.R.S. Charles Manby, James Thomson.
A853. Bulls tics: William Fairbairn, OC.E.,|James Oldham, J. Thomson, W.
F.R.S. Sykes Ward.
1854. Liverpool...|John Scott Russell, F.R.S. ...!John Grantham, J. Oldham, J.
Thomson.
1855. Glasgow ...|W. J. Macquorn Rankine,|L. Hill, jun., William Ramsay, J.
C.E., F.R.S. Thomson.
1856. Cheltenham|George Rennie, F-.R.S. .........)C. Atherton, B. Jones, jun., H. M.
Jeffery.
1857. Dublin...... Rt. Hon. the Earl of Rosse, | Prof. Dawainst W.T. Doyne, A. Tate,
F.R.S. James Thomson, Henry Wright.
1858. Leeds ...... William Fairbairn, F.R.S. ...} J. C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright.
1859. Aberdeen...| Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A.,F.R.S.|R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H.
Wright.
1860. Oxford ...... Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine, | P. Le er Foster, Rev. F. Harrison,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Henry Wright.
1885. Aberdeen...
1884. Montreal...
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES
Date and Place Presidents
OF THE SECTIONS. lxili
Secretaries
1861. Manchester |J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S....
1862. Cambridge
1863, Newcastle
Wm. Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A.,F.R.S.
1864. Bath......... J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S. ....
1865. Birmingham | Sir W. G. Armstrong, LL. D.,
F.R.S.
1866. Nottingham | Thomas re sae V.P.Inst.
C.E., F.G.S8.
1867. Dundee...... Prof. W. r. “Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
1868, Norwich ...}G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.R.G.S.
1869. Exeter
1870, Liverpool...
C. W. Siemens, F.R.S......
Chas. B. Vignoles, C.H., F.R.S.
senses
1871. Edinburgh | Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S.
1872. Brighton ...
1873. Bradford
F. J. Bramwell, C.E.
errr rrr
...| W. H. Barlow, F.R.S. ..
1874. Belfast ......| Prof. James Thomson, LL.D.,
C.E., F.R.S.E.
1875. Bristol ...... W. Froude, C.E., M.A., F.R.S.
1876. Glasgow ...|C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S. ......
1877. Plymouth...| Edward Woods, C.B.
1878. Dublin ...... Edward Easton, C.E. .........
1879. Sheffield ...|J. Robinson, Pres. Inst. Mech.
Eng.
1880. Swansea ...|James Abernethy, V.P. Inst.
C.E., F.R.S.E.
1881. York......... Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B.,
HDS DCL... F.R.S.
1882. Southamp- |John Fowler, C.E., F.G.S.
ton.
1883. Southport |James Brunlees,
Pres.Inst.C.E.
Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S.,
V.P.Inst.C.E.
B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E. .......
F.B.S.E.,
1884. Montreal...
1886. Birmingham|Sir J. N. Douglass, M.Inst.
C.E
1887. Manchester | Prof. Osborne Reynolds, M.A.,
LL.D., F.B.S.
P. Le ices Foster, Jobn Hobineen!
H. Wright.
W. M. Fawcett, gE he Neve Foster.
P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott,
J. F. Spencer.
.|P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt.
P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea, W.
P. Marshall, Walter May.
P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M
O. Tarbotton.
P. Le Neve Foster, John P. Smith,
W. W. Urquhart.
P. Le Neve Foster, J, F. Iselin, C.
Manby, W. Smith.
----|P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.
H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T.
King, J. N. Shoolbred.
H. Bauerman, Alexander Leslie, J.
P. Smith.
H. M. Brunel, P. Le Neve Foster,
JAGe Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
.+.++.|Crawford Barlow, H. Bauerman,
E. H. Carbutt, J.
J. N. Shoolbred.
As T: Atchison, J . N.Shoolbred, John
Smyth, jun.
W. R. Browne, H. M. Brunel, J. G.
Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
W. Bottomley, jun., W. J. Millar,
J. N. Shoolbred, J. P. Smith.
A. T. Atchison, Dr. Merrifield, J. N.
Shoolbred.
A. T. Atchison, R. G. Symes, H. T.
Wood.
A. T, Atchison, Emerson Bainbridge,
H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, H. T. Wood.
C. Hawkshaw,
A. T. Atchison, J. F. Stephenson,
H. T. Wood.
.|A. T. Atchison, F. Churton, H. T.
Wood.
A. T. Atchison, E. Rigg, H. T. Wood.
A. T, Atchison, W. B. Dawson, J.
Kennedy, H. T. Wood.
..|A, T. Atchison, F. G. Ogilvie, E.
Rigg, J. N. Shoolbred.
C. W. Cooke, J. Kenward, W. B.
Marshall, E. Rigg.
C. F. Budenberg, W. B. Marshall,
E. Rigg.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE.
SECTION
E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S....
1885. Aberdeen...! Francis Galton, M.A., F.R.S.
H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
G. W. Bloxam, W. Hurst.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.
Hurst, Dr. A. Macgregor.
lxiv REPORT—1887.
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1886. Birmingham |Sir G. Campbell, K.C.S.L,|G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W..
M.P., D.C.L., F.R.G.S. Hurst, Dr. R. Saundby
1887. Manchester |Prof. A. H. Sayce, M.A. ......|G@. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
A. M. Paterson.
LIST OF EVENING LECTURES.
Date and Place Lecturer Subject of Discourse
1842. Manchester | Charles Vignoles, F.R.S...... The Principles and Construction of
Atmospheric Railways.
Sir M. I. Brunel ..........00008 The Thames Tunnel.
RB, Les Murchison s.4...cas+s+ones a The Geology of Russia.
1843. Cork ......00: Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S....... The Dinornis of New Zealand.
Prof. E. Forbes, F.R.S..........| The Distribution of Animal Life in
the Aigean Sea.
Dr. Robinson .......0s-2eeeeeeeeee The Earl of Rosse’s Telescope.
1844. York......... Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........|Geology of North America.
Dr, Falconer, F.R.S.......+2000- The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik
Hills in India,
1845. Cambridge G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron.Royal| Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......|Geology of Russia.
1846. Southamp- | Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S._ ...| Fossil Mammaliaof the British Isles.
ton, Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........| Valley and Delta of the Mississippi.
W. R. Grove, F.R.S.............| Properties of the Explosivesubstance
discovered by Dr. Schonbein; also
some Researches of his own on the
Decomposition of Water by Heat.
1847. Oxford...... Rey. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S. |Shooting Stars.
Prof. M. Faraday, F.R.S.......| Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno-
mena.
Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.S....|The Dodo (Didus ineptus).
1848. Swansea ...|John Percy, M.D., F.B.S.......| Metallurgical Operations of Swansea
and its neighbourhood.
W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S....| Recent Microscopical Discoveries.
1849. Birmingham| Dr. Faraday, F.R.S. .......-.++ Mr. Gassiot’s Battery.
Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.|Transit of different Weights with
varying velocities on Railways.
1850. Edinburgh |Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D.,|Passage of the Blood through the
F.R.S.E. minute vessels of Animals in con-
nexion with Nutrition.
Drs Mantell; HOR:S. ...sscccesss Extinct Birds of New Zealand.
1851. Ipswich ...| Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. Distinction between Plants and Ani-
mals, and their changes of Form.
G.B.Airy,F.B.S.,Astron. Royal} Total Solar Eclipse of July 28, 1851.
1852. Belfast...... Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L.,| Recent discoveries in the properties:
E.R.S. of Light.
Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.|Recent discovery of Rock-salt at
Carrickfergus, and geological and
practical considerations connected
with it.
ielaeig 18 bel bl ee sopoe Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.,;Some peculiar Phenomena in the
F.G.S. Geology and Physical Geography
of Yorkshire.
Robert Hunt, F.RB.S............. The present state of Photography.
1884. Liverpool...|Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. |Anthropomorphous Apes.
Col. E. Sabine, V.P.R.S. ......] Progress of researches in Terrestrial
Magnetism,
~ Date and Place
LIST OF EVENING
LECTURES. lxv
Lecturer
Subject of Discourse
1855.
1856.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham
Aberdeen...
Oxford <....<.
Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle
BB SUD! ve esses os
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.
Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson
Col. Sir H. Rawlinson .........
Warba Grove Wh. St deccessclecit
Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.S. ...
Rev. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L.
Prof, J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L....
Rev. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. ...
Rev. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ...
Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N.
Prof.W. A. Miller, M.A., F.R.S.
G.B.Airy, F.R.S.,Astron. Royal
Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
rote Odlane SH URS: ..sscsesces<
Prof. Williamson, F.R.S.......
James Glaisher, F.R.S.........
Prob ROSGOe i R.Ssscseccenscas
Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S. ......
1865. Birmingham|J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S..........
1866, Nottingham |William Huggins, F.R.S.
1867. Dundee......
1868. Norwich ...
1869. Exeter ......
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ...
1873. Bradford ...
1887.
Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S.......
Archibald Geikie, F.R.S.......
Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S.
J. Fergusson, F.R.S...........+-
Draw Odling HIR.Ss ..cecsc00
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.
J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S....
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof.W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.B.S.
Peace a Oly Hy Spre va cmpueeseg
Dish bya (eel Males merece
Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B.,
E.R.S.
IPTOLS We Kee Cla Ord cas jae sascss
Prof. W. C.Williamson, F.R.S.
‘Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S.
Characters of Species.
.| Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities
and Ethnology.
Recent Discoveries in Assyria and
Babylonia, with the results of
Cuneiform research up to the
present time.
Correlation of Physical Forces,
The Atlantic Telegraph.
Recent Discoveries in Africa.
The Ironstones of Yorkshire.
The Fossil Mammalia of Australia.
Geology of the Northern Highlands.
Electrical Discharges in highly
rarefied Media.
Physical Constitution of the Sun,
Arctic Discovery.
Spectrum Analysis.
The late Eclipse of the Sun.
The Forms and Action of Water.
Organic Chemistry.
The Chemistry of the Galvanic Bat-
tery considered in relation to
Dynamics.
The Balloon Ascents made for the
British Association.
The Chemical Action of Light.
Recent Travels in Africa.
Probabilities as to the position and
extent of the Coal-measures be-
neath the red rocks of the Mid-
land Counties.
-|The results of Spectrum Analysis
applied to Heavenly Bodies.
Insular Floras.
The Geological Origin of the present
Scenery of Scotland.
The present state of knowledge re-
garding Meteors and Meteorites.
Archeology of the early Buddhist
Monuments.
Reverse Chemical Actions.
Vesuvius.
The Physical Constitution of the
Stars and Nebule.
The Scientific Use of the Imagina-
tion. :
Stream-lines and Waves, in connec-
tion with Naval Architecture.
--|Some recent investigations and ap-
plications of Explosive Agents.
The Relation of Primitive to Modern
Civilization.
Insect Metamorphosis.
The Aims and Instruments of Scien-
tific Thought.
Coal and Coal Plants.
Molecules.
lxvi
Date and Place |
REPORT—1887.
Lecturer
Subject of Discourse
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879,
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1872.
1873.
1874,
JQ75.
Belfast
caetee
Bristol ....
Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
eeneee
Sheffield ...
Swansea ...
Southamp-
ton.
Southport
Montreal...
Aberdeen...
Birmingham
Manchester
'Sir John Lubbock,Bart.,M.P.,
| F.R.S.
Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.
eee eeeeee
en a
F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S...
Prof. Tait, F.R.S.E. :
Sir Wyville Thomson, F. R. S.
W. Warington Smyth, M.A.,
F.B.S.
Prof. Odling, F.R.S.............
|G. J. Romanes, F.L.S. .........
Prot. Dewar, HR.Se ese.cescenee
W. Crookes, F.R.S.
Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F. R. 8.
Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins,
F.R.S.
Francis Galton, F.R.S..........
| Prof. Huxley, Sec. R.S.
|W. Spottiswoode, Pres. R.S.
Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson, F.R.S.
Prof. H. N. Moseley, F.R.S.
Prot Ras) Bally i R-S., cones
‘Prof. J. G. McKendrick,
F.R.S.E.
Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc. ......
| Rev. W. H. Dallinger, F.R.S.
Prof. W. G. Adams, F.R.S....
|John Murray, F.R.S.E.........
A. W. Riicker, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D...
Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S.
Col. Sir F. de Winton,
K.C.M.G.
Common Wild Flowers considered
in relation to Insects.
The Hypothesis that Animals are
Automata, and its History.
The Colours of Polarized Light.
.| Railway Safety Appliances.
. | Force.
|The Challenger Expedition.
|The Physical Phenomena connected
with the Mines of Cornwall and
Devon.
The new Element, Gallium.
Animal Intelligence.
Dissociation, or Modern Ideas of
Chemical Action.
..|Radiant Matter.
Degeneration.
Primeval Man.
Mental Imagery.
The Rise and Progress of Paleon-
tology.
The Electric Discharge, its Forms
and its Functions.
Tides.
Pelagic Life.
Recent Researches on the Distance
of the Sun.
Galvani and Animal Electricity.
Dust.
The Modern Microscope in Re-
searches on the Least and Lowest
Forms of Life.
The Electric Light and Atmospheric
Absorption.
. |The Great Ocean Basins.
Soap Bubbles.
. |The Sense of Hearing.
... |The Rate of Explosions in Gaxes,
Explorations in Central Africa.
LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES.
Liverpool...
Brighton ...
Bradford ...
Belfast ......
Bristol ......
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D.,F.R.S.
.|Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Miller, M.D., F.R.S. ...
Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,M.P.,
F.R.S.
W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.
C. W. Siemens, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. Odlange, HORS. 25. ec ece
| Dr. W. B. Carnenter, F.R.S.
Matter and Force.
A Piece of Chalk.
Experimental illustrations of the
modes of detecting the Composi-
tion of the Sun and other Heavenly
Bodies by the Spectrum,
Savages.
Sunshine, Sea, and Sky.
Fuel.
The Discovery of Oxygen,
A Piece of Limestone.
LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES. lxvii
_ Date and Place Lecturer Subject of Discourse
1876. Glasgow ...|Commander Cameron, C.B.,|A Journey through Africa.
R.N.
Sevgeeblyrnouun....| WE. PreeCe...c.....ceceeessenes Telegraphy and the Telephone.
1879. Sheffield -...)} W. EH. Ayrton .......cccsssceeee Electricity as a Motive Power.
- 1880. Swansea ...|H. Seebohm, F.Z.S. ............ The North-Hast Passage.
GLa VOLK... .0c000e Prof. Osborne Reynolds,| Raindrops, Hailstones, and Snow-
F.R.S. flakes.
1882. Southamp- |John Evans, D.C.L. Treas.R.S.| Unwritten History, and how to
ton. read it.
1883. Southport | Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S. ...| Talking by Electricity—Telephones.
1884. Montreal ...| Prof. R. S. Ball, F.R.S..........|Comets.
1885. Aberdeen ...|H. B. Dixon, M.A. ............ The Nature of Explosions.
_ 1886. Birmingham | Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,)/The Colours of Metals and their
F.R.S. Alloys.
1887. Manchester |Prof. G. Forbes, F.R.S._ ......| Electric Lighting.
az
Ixviii REPORT—1887.
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE
MANCHESTER MEETING.
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
President.—Professor Sir R. S. Ball, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
M.R.1.A., Astronomer Royal for Ireland.
Vice-Presidents.—Professor J. C. Adams, F.R.S.; Dr. John Hopkinson,
F.R.S.; Professor the Rev. Bartholomew Price, V.P.R.S.; Professor
Lord Rayleigh, Sec.R.S.; Professor H. A. Rowland; Professor
Schuster, F.R.S.; Professor Balfour Stewart, ¥.R.S.; Professor
Sir W. Thomson, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—Robert E. Baynes, M.A. (Recorder); R. T. Glazebrook,
F.R.S.; Professor H. Lamb, F.R.S.; W. N. Shaw, M.A.
SECTION B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
President.—Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Professor ©. Schorlemmer, F.R.S.; Professor T. E.
Thorpe, F.R.S.; Sir F. A. Abel, C.B., F.R.S.; W. Crookes, F.R.S. ;
Professor Dewar, F.R.S.; Professor H. B. Dixon, F.R.S.; Dr. W.
J. Russell, F.R.S.; Professor A. W. Williamson, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—Professor P. Phillips Bedson, D.Sc. (Recorder) ; H. Forster
Morley, D.Sc. ; W. Thomson.
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.
President.—Henry Woodward, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.8.
Vice-Presidents. — Professor Bonney, F.R.S.; Professor Comm. G.
Capellini, Sc.D.; Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.; Dr. T.
Sterry Hunt, F.R.S.; Professor J. W. Judd, F.R.S.; Professor
T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S.; Professor Otto Torell, Ph.D.; Professor
F. Zirkel, Ph.D.
Secretaries.—J. EK. Marr, M.A.; J. J. H. Teall, M.A.; W. Topley, F.G.S.
(Recorder) ; W. W. Watts, M.A.
SECTION D.—BIOLOGY.
President.—Professor Alfred Newton, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., V.P.Z.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Professor Asa Gray, LL.D.; Professor M. Foster,
Sec.R.S.; Professor EH. Ray Lankester, F.R.S.; Professor A.
Milnes Marshall, F.R.S.; Professor J. S. Burdon Sanderson, F.R.S.;__
W. TT. Thiselton-Dyer, C.M.G., F.R.S.; Rev. Canon Tristram,
F.R.S.; Professor W. C, Williamson, F.R.S.
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. lxix
BSecretaries.—C. Bailey, F.L.S.; F. E. Beddard, M.A.; S. F. Harmer,
M.A.; Walter Heape, M.A. (Recorder); W. L. Sclater, B.A.;
Professor H. Marshall Ward, M.A.
SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY.
President-—Colonel Sir Charles Warren, R.E., G.C.M.G., F.B.S.,
F.R.G.S.
Vice-Presidents—H. W. Bates, F.R.S.; Dr. John Rae, F.R.S.; Henry
Lee; Admiral Sir Erasmus Ommanney, C.B., F.R.S.; General Sir
H. HE. L. Thuillier, C.8.1., F.R.S.; General J. T. Walker, C.B., F.R.S.;
Colonel Sir C. W. Wilson, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Secretaries.—Rev. L. C. Casartelli, M.A.; J. S. Keltie; H. J. Mackinder,
Nees BG: Ravenstein (Recorder).
SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
President—Robert Giffen, LL.D., V.P.S.S.
Vice-Presidents—Professor H. 8. Foxwell, V.P.S.8.; D. Chadwick;
G. H. Gaddum; Professor Leone Levi, F.S.S8.; William Mather,
M.Inst.C.H.; T. B. Moxon; Sir Rawson W. Rawson, K.C.M.G.;
Swire Smith; T. R. Wilkinson.
Secretaries—Rev. W. Cunningham, D.Sc. (Recorder); F. Xs Edgeworth,
M.A.; T. H. Elliott, F.S.S.; C. Hughes, B.A.; Professor J. E. C.
Munro, LL.D.; G. H. Sargant.
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
President.—Professor Osborne Reynolds, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents—Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S.; E. H. Carbutt, Pres.
Inst.M.E.; T. Hawksley, F.R.S.; Jeremiah Head, M.Inst.C.H. ;
W. H. Preece, F.R.S.; J. Robinson, M.Inst.C.E.
Reeretaries. —C. F. Budenberg, B.Sc.; W. Bayley Marshall; Edward
Rigg, M.A. (Recorder).
SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
President.—Professor A. H. Sayce, M.A.
_ Vice-Presidents—John Evans, Treas.R.S.; H. H. Howorth, M.P.; Pro-
fessor H. N. Moseley, F. BA. ; ; William Pengelly, F. RB. a5 General
Pitt-Rivers, F.R.S.; Dr. E. B. Tylor, F.R.S.
Secretaries—G. W. Bloxam, M.A. (Recorder); J. G, Garson, M.D.;
A. M. Paterson, M.D.
lxx
Dr.
1886-87.
REPORT—1887.
THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR
THE GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT
RECEIPTS.
Seon:
By Balance of account rendered at Birmingham Meeting ...... 1869 5 5
» Receipt of Life Compositions to date ..,.....scecsecsseescersensees 320 0 0
» Receipt of Annual Subscriptions to date ...........sseseseeeeees 648 0 0
puNew Annual) Memberships <<.<0c.<csccesssesesuesseeBegghrastectteve 356 0 0
, Associates’ Tickets at Birmingham Meeting...... sweets pete 1067 0 0
;, Ladies’ Tickets at Birmingham Meeting ...... deestteLonneneene 429 0 0
Pe SalerOL WPUDMCATIONS: ........¢sncsseecnnsacseravonescresceenteet einen 49 15 2
ulnterest ‘on Hxchequer Bills! 7. s0..cc. tesacven cevecscrs cocedocseavenee 43 10 0
PPD IiVIGenaSON WONSOIS' <.. ss2sccoensevecstecepecsnuee sacar usaneeeeeeete 247 0 8
,, Amount of Rent received from London Mathematical Society,
year ending September 29, 1886 ..............sscecssecsnsssnncss 12 15 0
», Unexpended balance of grant made to the Chepstow Obser-
Wabory COmMMIbbeC...:..1 1. .sdeevadssvecarhersdidcccweoeeuseesteeweuena 25 0 0
,, Unexpended balance of grant made for investigation of
Tymphatic Systent .<...5..scascsucadopesecnsnsnoscehendatvereueatarae 14 0 0
£5081 6 3
:
-_
BALANCE SHEET, 1886-87. lxxi
THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
(not including receipts at the Manchester Meeting). Cr.
1886-87. PAYMENTS.
. ae ee: 2
To Messrs. Spottiswoode & Co. for printing, &c. (1885-86) ...... 1286 11 6
y eeayment Of Salaries (1886-87), .....c..cc0ccosevesccnsnces eedetnan 545 0 0
s, Rent of Office, &c., in Albemarle Street (1886- '87) cana cron ered Ln) eee
», Expenses of Birmingham Meeting, including Printing and
Advertising, also incidental and petty cash expenses, kc. 227 6 8
GRANTS.
£& s. d.
Voleanic Phenomena of Japan (1886 grant)...... Cece weene - 500 0 0
Standards of Light (1886 grant)........ ..cecsscsceccevees 20 0 0
Silent Discharge of Electricity..........c.cscessccscccevcs 20 0 0
Exploration of Cae Gwyn Cave, North Wales.............. 20 0 0
Investigation of Lymphatic System .............. sivectoe ae i O
GTanton Biological BARON @Z..dscic.ess sameness sccecvacp es 75 0 0
VET ETAT GET LS Be SA anys coe aoe SOC DO encis Care 100 0 0
Yea ieee Sten Nee tetarte ceiatsisis's atelecansiainide niaasieuniaceiz'e afee nis afaicie 75 0 0
AT TETS GTI OL EUTOIE Yele Sava aia a)se-ele C'eialaialele wale o's's Selatace'ee ce vie 20 0 0
Influence of Silicon on Steel..........scceeeeeee APN ch 30 0 0
Plymouth Biological Station .. so cmdesanweisme 60) 0° 0
Naples Biological Station ..... > - 100 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius Salone s ae er! Lak | a
ROCIO OLN EEN seal sivicics We cin bcldens saaticawnsednemccdts 10 0 0
Microscopic Structure of the Rocks of Anglesey .......... 10 0 0
PGRN Gy is COREE VBUGNY dias eisirgicis visisis/0isievelsic iin)vicis aie .sicise iss 75 0 0
Prehistoric Race of Greek Islands ...............cceeeees > ao-O: 0
Flora and Fauna of the Cameroons...........00--.eeee tive ee O
EXOVICIAY MUSeuRy BepOTtS «cies waeic's oss endo acssccce cee ope 8
Harmonic Analysis of Tidal Observations ..............48 15 0 0
Cite P Tarts OF Aten ore otc cc we. sale Sareecos ide elaciioes 25 0 0
Exploration of the Eocene Beds of the Isle of Wight ...... 20 0 0
Maprctic ObservahiOus, eiacai’s ho<cs5suire dss cous set eat ae 26.2. 0
e Manure, GrAvelsio£ WiGXtOTG ac... os omisierieis aeaeie cceceeaas 10 0 0
HOLGOHKGLVEIS tes slscacae ce dastse's.s eae aan ee see ne Leu OT
MOnstiePinvllanadaset cle ae nate ds Sees oes esroecclnussde eo omae 20 0 0
Racial Photographs, Ty ee es fe OU SDE iecece 20 0 0
: Standards of Light (1887 grant) .......eeececeeeeeeeeeeees 10 0 0
. ING PATIO ITO atte c ee ccc cate ate ninco ete a tenia noel 30 0 0
. - Volcanic Phenomena of J: apan (1887 grant)... .......ee..05 50 0 0
PNCCRTICAL PATI ORITIG Hausen ants alacaise aiv's Ohare a welalomistow as 50 0 0
Bathy-hypsographical Map ‘of Behe Teese aaa «no nin wero 7 6 0
CASINOS SSIOCGER, oo oc an as o.ac eee e acne dines ere telayere alate raresetate 40 0 0
Olen HAMAION CU erst jos aule alchreioa ae wane ee ale Oo aielerealteoee 1810 0
Circulation of Underground Waters .......... apierent Cee 5 0 0
Erratic Blocks ...........+. Aor ae oak leiae ain os Sen me 10 0 0
os AL IS6 USO
By Balance at Bank of England, Western Branch 1636 4 10
», Deposit in Manchester and Salford Bank, Man-
CHEBNETI « oseb eseveeee sh eeeesee een Be poroneces ecto! MOLLOP SO
LFLS AO) A
Plus Consols, £8,500; Exchequer Bills, £2,000.
£5081 6 3
ALEX. W. WILLIAMSON.
lxxii
REPORT— 1887.
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts
Date of Meeting Where held Presidents Old Life
Members
1831, Sept. 27 ...] York .....ssssseseeeeee The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L.
S32 sune 19 ...|\ Oxford ...c3.ss.ceree The Rev. W. Buckland, F.R.S.
1833, June 25 ...| Cambridge ......... The Rev. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S.
1834, Sept. 8 ...| Edinburgh ......... Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L.......
1835, Aug. 10 ...| Dublin ............... The Rey. Provost Lloyd, LL.D.
1836, Aug. 22-...| Bristol ............60 The Marquis of Lansdowne ...
1837, Sept. 11 ...| Liverpool ............ The Harl of Burlington, F.R.S.
1838, Aug. 10 ...] Newcastle-on-Tyne| The Duke of Northumberland
1839, Aug. 26 ...! Birmingham......... The Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt
1840, Sept. 17 ...| Glasgow ........++. The Marquis of Breadalbane... oe
1841, July 20 ...| Plymouth ............ The Rev. W. Whewell, F.RB.S. 169
1842, June 23 ...| Manchester ......... The Lord Francis Egerton...... 303
Sep PANIE SLT seal) COTK wc .sencecs¥eseecss The Harl of Rosse, F.R.S....... 109
S44, Sept. 26...) VOrk ....ccsscoeeeeseee The Rev. G. Peacock, D.D. ... 226
1845, June 19 ...| Cambridge ......... Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. 313
1846, Sept. 10...) Southampton ...... Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart. 241
NSf 7, Une 2d vs) OXLOLA ssesecscncosses Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart....... 314
1848, Aug. 9 ...| Swamsea |........+06. The Marquis of Northampton 149
1849, Sept. 12 ...| Birmingham......... The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. 227
1850, July 21...) Edinburgh ......... Sir David Brewster, K.H....... 235
1851, July 2 ...| Ipswich............... G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal 172
1852, Sept. 1 ...| Belfast .......c0c0c00. Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S. 164
WS Ho Oe Mint, ace MELUUL ES cases cokeni'e «| William Hopkins, F.R.S8. ...... 141
1854, Sept. 20 ...| Liverpool ............ The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S. 238
1855, Sept. 12 ...] Glasgow ............ The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. ... 194
1856, Aug. 6 ...} Cheltenham ......... Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D. 182
W57, Aue. 26...) Dublin .......35..0..¢ The Rev.Humphrey Lloyd, D.D. 236
1858, Sept. 22 ...| Leeds.............5.006 Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L.... 222
1859, Sept. 14 ...| Aberdeen ............ H.R.H. the Prince Consort .... 184
1860, June 27 ...| Oxford ............... The Lord Wrottesley, M.A. ... 286
1861, Sept. 4 ...| Manchester ......... WilliamFairbairn,LL.D.,F.R.S. 321
1862, Oct. 1 ...| Cambridge |......... The Rev. Professor Willis, M.A. 239
1863, Aug. 26 ...; Newcastle-on-Tyne| Sir William G. Armstrong, C.B. 203
TSGE. SePU.Ueiast| DAU, <..ccesecrsesccss Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A. 287
1865, Sept. 6 ...| Birmingham......... Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D. 292
1866, Aug. 22 ...) Nottingham ......... William R. Grove, Q.C., F.R.S. 207
1867, Sept.4 ...| Dundee ............... The Duke of Buccleuch, K.C.B. 167
1868, Ans: 19e.:| Norwich .....c.0.. Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S. 196
HBG69, Aus. 18. ..2| Hxeter ....0.ccc.ccce. Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L....... 204
1870, Sept. 14 ...} Liverpool ............ Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D....... 314
1871, Aug. 2 ...| Edinburgh ......... Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D. 246
1872, Aug. 14 ...| Brighton ............ Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. ... 245
1873, Sept. 17 ...| Bradford ............ Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S. 212
UST Ade: LOi ee BCLAStT ca sccssecres ss Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. 162
Si perAUP 4 2D-..s| IOTISLOL, fy ocesceseecess SirJohn Hawkshaw,C. E. »F.R.S 239
1876, Sept. 6 ...| Glasgow ............ Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S. 221
Si, Aug. 15 -.,|| Plymouth <...:.....0. Prof. A. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S8. 173
Sie, up aye. | mbm! \ oc... .cccece ss W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.R.S. 201
1879, Aug. 20 .,.) Sheffield ............ Prof.G. J. Allman, M.D., F.R.S. 184
1880, Aug. 25 ...] Swansea ............ A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S.... 144
SST PAIS Ol vs, c| MOT vissscceccveveees« Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R. S. 272
1882, Aug. 23 ...) Southampton ...... Dr. C. W. Siemens, ERS. is 178
1883, Sept. 19...] Southport ............ Prof. A. Cayley, D.C.L., FBS. 203
1884, Aug. 27 ...| Montreal ............ Prof. Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S. ... 235
1885, Sept. 9 ...| Aberdeen ............ Sir Lyon Playfair, K.C.B.,F.R.S. 225
1886, Sept. 1 ...| Birmingham......... Sir J.W. Dawson, C.M.G.,F.R.S. 314
1887, Aug. 31 ...} Manchester ......... Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L.,F.RB.S. 428
* ‘Ladies were not admitted by purchased Tickets until 1843.
+ Tickets of Admission to Sections 0
New Life
Members
ATTENDANCE AND RECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS. Ixxili
wal Meetings of the Association.
Attended by pete ae paid on
1% | received eee.
New ees ae during the| Grants for | Year
(mnual | Annual : Ladies : Total (Cyrne Me! Scientific
fembers| Members| ©2¢¢S 7 pie ha ape te Purposes
x 2 ey GN eerie po | 1851
Ss site SI loess OP es eee | 1832
iY j Cri ill cone IN| Melek 3 ce. 1833
: , TA9G cil tee £20 0 0 | 1834
ae - Sere “atl bien prepa: 167 O O | 1835
an as PEGN |), deaaneas 435 0 0 | 1836
e = his VERO ete 922 12 6 | 1837
at oe 1100* ae D406 aM len ieee 8 932 2 2] 1838
ve ” 2 34 14368 °) eee eee 1595 11 0 | 1839
ee “A a 40 Wabi el) aiesccee te 1546 16 4 | 1840
317 Ae 60* ae GOLie sled ateosees 2 1235 10 11 | 1841
376 33t 331* 28 kd 1 a meee 1449 17 8 | 1842
185 ~: 160 ae CHR Bal i aescr ders 1565 10 2 | 1843
190 9T 260 ae Pre ¥ Conse 981 12 8 | 1844
22° 407 172 35 LOTO ob, secoguctns 831 9 9 | 1845
39 270 196 36 Obi. || Deteseesce 685 16 0O | 1846
40 495 203 53 ERA OF yaten sks 208 5 4 | 1847
25 376 197 15 819 |£70700]| 275 1 8 | 1848
33 447 237 22 1071 963 00] 15919 6 | 1849
42 510 273 44 1241 1085 0 0 345 18 0 | 1850
47 244 141 37 710 62000] 391 9 7 | 1851
60 510 292 4 1108 1085 0 0 30f 6 7 | 1852
57 367 236 6 876 903 00] 205 0 0 | 1853
121 765 524 10 1802 1882 0 0 380 19 7 | 1854
101 1094 543 26 2133 | 231100] 48016 4 | 1855
48 412 346 M 1115 1098 0 0 734 13 9 | 1856
120 900 569 26 2022 2015 0 0 507 15 4 | 1857
91 710 509 13 1698 1931 0 0 618 18 2 } 1858
179 1206 $21 22 2564 | 278200] 684 11 1 | 1859
59 636 463 47 1689 1604 0 0 766 19 6 | 1860
125 1589 791 15 3138 3944 0 0] 1111 5 10] 1861
57 433 242 25 1161 1089 0 0} 1293 16 6 | 1862
209 1704 1004 25 3335 3640 0 0 | 1608 3 10! 1863
103 1119 1058 13 2802 2965 00 | 1289 15 8 | 1864
149 766 508 23 1997 | 222700 | 1591 7 10 | 1865
105 960 771 11 2303 2469 0 0 | 1750 13 4 | 1866
118 1163 771 7 2444 | 2613 00|1739 4 O | 1867
117 720 682 45t 2004 2042 0 0 | 1940 O O |} 1868
107 678 600 17 1856 1931 0 0 | 1622 0 O} 1869
195 1103 910 14 2878 3096 0 0 | 1572 O O |} 1870
127 976 754 21 2463 | 2575 00 | 1472 2 6 | 1871
80 937 912 43 2533 2649 00] 1285 O O| 1872
99 796 601 11 1983 2120 00 | 1685 O 0O| 1873
85 817 630 12 1951 | 19790 0| 1151 16 0 | 1874
93 884 672 17 2248 2397 0 0 960 O 0 | 1875
1265 712 25 2774 +| 302300] 1092 4 2 | 1876
59 446 283 11 1229 | 126800] 1128 9 7 | 1877
93 1285 674 17 2578 | 261500| 72516 6 | 1878
74 529 349 13 1404 1425 0 0 | 1080 11 11 | 1879
41 389 147 12 915 899 00| 731 7 7 | 1880
1230 514 24 2557 2689 0 0 476 3 1] 1881
79 516 189 21 1253 | 1286 0 0] 1126 1 11} 1882
952 841 5 2714 +| 236900] 1083 3 3 | 1883
219 $26 74 |26&60H.§} 1777 | 1538800] 1173 4 0 | 1884
1053 447 6 2203 2256 00] 1385 9 O | 1885
1067 29 11 2453 253200] 995 O 6] 1886
1985 493 92 3838 4336 0 0 | 1186 18 0O | 1887
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1887-88.
PRESIDENT.
SIR H. E. ROSCOE, M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS,
His Grace the DuKE oF Drvonsuire, K.G., M.A,,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.
The Right Hon. the Hart or Drrsy, K.G., M.A.,
LL.D., F.B.S., F.R.G.S.
The Right Rev. the Lorp BisHor or MANCHES-
TER, D.D.
The Right Rev. the BisHop OF SALFORD.
The Right Worshipful the Mayor or MAN-
CHESTER.
The Right Worshipful the Mayor oF SALrorD.
The VicE-CHANCELLOR of the Victoria University,
Manchester.
The Principat of the Owens College, Manchester.
Sir WILLIAM Rosperts, B.A., M.D., F.R.S.
THOMAS ASHTON, Esq., J.P., D.L.
OLIVER Hrywoop, Esq., J.P., D.L.
JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, Esq., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S.
PRESIDENT ELECT.
SIR FREDERICK J. BRAMWELL, D.C.L., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
The Right Hon. the EARL OF CORK AND ORRERY, |
K.P., Lord Lieutenant of Somerset.
The Most Noble the Marquis or BATH. |
The Right Hon. and Right Rev. the Lorp BIsHoP
oF BATH AND WELLS, D.D.
The Right Rey. the BisHop or CLIFTON.
The Right Worshipful the MAyor OF Batu.
The Right Worshipful the Mayor oF BRISTOL.
Sir F. A. ABEL, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
The Venerable the ARCHDEACON OF BATH.
(Nominated by the Council.)
The Rev. LEONARD BiLomurreLp, M.A., F.L.S.,
F.G.S,
Professor MicHAEL Fostpr, M.A., M.D., LL.D.,
Sec.R.5., F.L.S., F.C.S.
W.S. Gorr-Laneton, Esq., J.P.
H. D. SKRINE, Esq., J.P.
Colonel R. P. LAuRtm, M.P.
E. R. WoprEHOUuSE, Esq., M.P.
JEROM MurcuH, Esq., J.P.
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT BATH.
W. Pumeurey, Esq. |
J. L. SroTHErt, Esq. |
B. H. Watts, Esq.
LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT BATH.
JOHN STONE, Esq.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
ABNEY, Capt. W. DE W., F.R.S.
BALL, Sir R.S., F.R.S.
Bartow, W H., Esq., F.R.S.
BLANFORD, W. T. Esq., F.R.S.
CROOKES, W., Esq., F.R.S.
Darwin, Professor G. H., F.R.S.
DawkKuys, Professor W. Boyp, F.R.S.
Drwak, Professor J., F.R.S.
Doveuass, Sir J., F.R.S.
FLowER, Professor W. H., 0.B., F.R.S.
GLADSTONE, Dr. J. H., F.R.S.
GopWIN-AusTEN, Lieut.-Col. H. H., F.R.S.
HEnRIcI, Professor O., F.R.S.
JuDD, Professor J. W., F.R.S.
M‘LEOD, Professor H., F.R.S
MARTIN, J. B., Esq., F.S.8.
MOSELEY, Professor H. N., F.R.S.
OMMANNEY, Admiral Sir E., C.B.,
ROBERTS- AUSTEN, Professor W.
ScHAFER, Professor E. A., F.R.S.
ScHUSTER, Professor A., F.R.S.
Smewick, Professor H., M.A.
THISELTON-DyER, W. T., Esq., C.M.G.,
E.R.S.
TuorpE, Professor T. E., F.R.S.
Woopwarp, Dr. H., F.R.S.
., FBS.
GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Capt. Sir Doveias Gatton, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D.
, F.R.S., F.G.S., 12 Chester Street, London, 8.W.
A. G. VERNON Harcourt, Esq., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Cowley Grange, Oxford.
SECRETARY.
ARTHUR T. ATCHISON, Esq., M.A., 22 Albemarle Street, London, W.
GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor A. W. WILLIAMSON, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., University College, London, W.C.
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. f
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and
Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting. —
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).
Sir Joun Luspock, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Pres. L.S.
The Right Hon. Lord RAYLEIGH, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec.R.S., F.R.A.S.
The Right Hon. Sir Lyon Piayrarr, K.C.B., M.P., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.
The Duke of Devonshire, K.G. Prof. Stokes, D.C.L., Pres. R.S. Sir A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S.
Sir G. B. Airy, K.C.B., F.R.S. Prof, Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S.
The Duke of Argyll, K.G., K
aT Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson, LL.D. Prof. Cayley, LL.D., F.R.S.
Sir Richard Gwen, K.C.B., F.R.S. | Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S. Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., Sec.R.S,
Lord Armstrong, C.B., LL.D. Prof. Tyndall, D.C.L., F.R.S. Sir Lyon Playfair, K.C.B.
Sir William R. Grove, F.R.S. Sir John Hawkshaw, F.R.8. Sir Wm. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S.
Sir Joseph D. Hooker, K.C.S.1. Prof. Allman, M.D., F.R.S.
GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.
Dr. Michael Foster, Sec. R.S. P. L. Sclater, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S.
George Griffith, Esq., M.A., F.C.S. | Prof. Bonney, D.Sce., F.R.S.
F., Galton, Esq., F.R.S.
Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S.
AUDITORS.
Dr. W. H. Perkin, F.R.S. | W.H. Preece, Esq., F.R.S. |
Prof. W. G. Adams, I'.R,S.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.
Report of the Council for the year 1886-87, presented to the General
Commutiee at Manchester, on Wednesday, August 31, 1887.
The Council have received reports during the past year from the
General Treasurer, and his account for the year will be laid before the
General Committee this day.
Since the Meeting at Birmingham the following have been elected
| Corresponding Members of the Association :—
Dr. Finsch. Professor Leeds.
Dr. O. W. Huntington, Professor H. Carvill Lewis.
Dr. A. Konig. Professor John Trowbridge.
Lieut. R. Kund.
The Council have nominated Mr. Oliver Heywood a Vice-President ot
the meeting at Manchester.
An invitation for the year 1889 will be presented from Newcastle-
upon-Tyne; but the invitations from Melbourne and Sydney have been
withdrawn.
The following resolutions were referred by the General Committee to
the Council for consideration, and action if desirable :—
(a) ‘ That the Council be requested to consider the question of
rendering the Reports and other papers communicated to the Association
more readily accessible to the members and others by issuing a limited
number of them in separate form, or in associated parts, in advance of
the annual volume.’
The Council, after careful consideration of the question, are of opinion
that a certain number of copies of the more important Reports presented
o the Sections of the Association should be kept in stock and sold
separately, the number of copies printed and the price of each Report to
e fixed by the Secretaries after communication with the officers of the
several Sections.
(6) ‘That the Council be requested to consider the advisability of
selling publicly the Presidential Addresses.’
The Council have considered the question, and are of opinion that it
is desirable that printed copies of the addresses of the President and the
Presidents of Sections should be stitched together and sold.
That a number of copies not exceeding 1,000 should be printed, and
that these should be placed on sale, at the price of one shilling, through
agents or otherwise, as may be considered most suitable.
(c) ‘That the Council be requested to consider the advisability of
alling the attention of the proprietor of Stonehenge to the danger in
which several of the stones are at the present time from the burrowing
jot rabbits, and also to the desirability of removing the wooden props
)which support the horizontal stone of one of the trilithons ; and in view
yof the great value of Stonehenge as an ancient national monument to express
the hope of the Association that some steps will be taken to remedy these
sources of danger to the stones.’
The Council have carefully considered the question, and having had
the advantage of perusing the detailed report recently prepared by a
deputation of the Wilts Archwological and Natural History Society on
the condition of the whole of the stones constituting Stonehenge, are of
opinion that the proprietor should be approached with the expression of
Ixxvi REPORT—1887.
a hope that he will direct such steps to be taken as shall effectually pre-
vent further damaze.
(d) ‘That the Council be requested to consider whether a memorial
should be presented to Her Majesty’s Government, urging them to
undertake and supervise Agricultural Experiments, and to procure
further and more complete Agricultural Statistics.’
_ The Council have considered the question, and are not prepared to
memorialise the Government on the subject.
The question of the re-arrangement of the journal has been brought
before the Council by Mr. J. B. Martin, and after careful consideration
the Council are of opinion that it is unnecessary to print in each number
of the Journal the list of the papers read on the previous day ; also that
it would be well to place the list of officers of each Section at the head of
the list of papers to be read in that Section. The Council wish to obtain
the sanction of the General Committee to these alterations.
The Council, having considered a letter addressed to them by Mr. R.
H. Scott, are of opinion that it should be an instruction to the secretaries
of all committees, other than committees of Sections, to send notices of all
meeting's to each member of a committee, and that the draft report of the
committee should first be sent in proof to each member, and then sub-
mitted to a meeting of the committee specially called for the purpose.
The Corresponding Societies Committee, consisting of Mr. Francis
Galton (Chairman), Professor A. W. Williamson, Sir Douglas Galton,
Professor Boyd Dawkins, Sir Rawson Rawson, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr. J.
Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Professor R. Meldola (Secretary), Mr. W.
Whitaker, Mr. G. J. Symons, and General Pitt-Rivers, having by an
oversight not been reappointed at Birmingham last year, the Council
have requested these gentlemen to continue the work of their Committee,
and now nominate them for re-election, with the addition of the names
of Mr. W. Topley, Mr. H. G. Fordham, and Mr. William White. The
report of the Corresponding Societies Committee is herewith submitted
to the General Committee.
In accordance with the regulations the five retiring Members of the
Council will be:— »
Mr. W. Pengelly.
Sir R. Temple.
Dr. De La Rue.
Sir F. J. Bramwell.
Mr. J. C. Hawkshaw.
The Council vecommend the re-election of the other ordinary Members —
of Council, with the addition of the gentlemen whose names are distin- —
guished by an asterisk in the following list :—
Abney, Capt. W. de W., F.R.S.
Ball, Sir R. §., F.R.S.
Barlow, W. H., Esq., C.E., F.R.S.
Blanford, W. T., Esq., F.R.S.
Crookes, W., Esq., F.R.S.
Darwin, Prof. G. H., F.R.S.
Dawkins, Prof. W. Boyd, F.R.S.
Dewar, Prof. J., F.R.S.
*Douglass, Sir James, F.R.S.
Flower, Prof. W. H., C.B., F.RS.
Gladstone, Dr. J. H., F.R.S.
Godwin-Austen, Lieut.-Col. H. H., F.R.S.
Henrici, Prof. O., F.R.8.
Judd, Prof. J. W., F.B.S.
Martin, J. B., Esq., F.S.8.
M‘Leod, Prof. H., F.R.8.
Moseley, Prof. H. N., F.R.S.
Ommanney, Admiral Sir E., C.B., F.R.5.
Roberts-Austen, Prof. W. C., F.R.S.
*Schuster, Prof., F.R.S.
*Sidgwick, Prof. H.
*Schifer, Prof., F.R.S.
Thiselton-Dyer, W. T., Esq., C.M.G., ~
E.R.S. :
Thorpe, Prof. T. I., F.R.S.
*Woodward, Dr. H., F.R.S.
Ixxvii
RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE
Mancuester Mertinc in Avucust anp SeprampBer 1887.
[When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the
Secretary, except there is a specific nomination. ]
Involving Grants of Money.
That Sir R. S. Ball, Dr. G. Johnstone Stoney, Professors Everett,
Fitzgerald, Hicks, Carey Foster, O. J. Lodge, Ewing, Poynting, Mac-
gregor, Genese, W. G. Adams, and Lamb, Messrs. Baynes, A. Lodge,
Fleming, W. N. Shaw, Glazebrook, Hayward, Lant Carpenter, Culver-
well, and Greenhill, Dr. Muir, and Messrs. G. Griffith and J. Larmor bea
Committee for the purpose of considering the desirability of introducing
a Uniform Nomenclature for the Fundamental Units of Mechanics, of co-
operating with other bodies engaged in similar work, and of reporting to
the next meeting of the Association; that Mr. E. P. Culverwell be the
Secretary, and that the sum of 10/. be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.
That General J. T. Walker, Sir William Thomson, Sir J. H. Lefroy,
General R. Strachey, Professors A. S. Herschel, G. Chrystal, C. Niven,
J. H. Poynting, A. Schuster, and Mr. C. V. Boys be a Committee for the
purpose of inviting designs for a good Differential Gravity Meter in
supersession of the pendulum, whereby satisfactory results may be ob-
tained at each station of observation in a few hours instead of the many
days over which it is necessary to extend pendulum observations; that
Professor Poynting be the Secretary, and that the sum of 10/. be placed
at their disposal for the purpose.
That Professor Crum Brown, Mr. Milne-Home, Mr. John Murray,
Mr. Buchan, and Lord McLaren be reappointed a Committee for the
purpose of co-operating with the Scottish Meteorological Society in
making meteorological observations on Ben Nevis; that Professor Crum
Brown be the Secretary, and that the sum of 150]. be placed at their
disposal for the purpose.
That Professor G. Carey Foster, Sir William Thomson, Professor
Ayrton, Professor J. Perry, Professor W. G. Adams, Lord Rayleigh,
Dr. O. J. Lodge, Dr. John Hopkinson, Dr. A. Muirhead, Mr. W. H.
Preece, Mr. Herbert Taylor, Professor Everett, Professor Schuster, Dr.
J. A. Fleming, Professor G. F. Fitzgerald, Mr. R. T. Glazebrook, Professor
Chrystal, Mr. H. Tomlinson, Professor W. Garnett, Professor J. J.
Thomson, Mr. W. N. Shaw, Mr. J. T. Bottomley, and Mr. Thomas Gray
be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of making experiments for
improving the construction of practical Standards for use in Electrical
Measurements; that Mr. Glazebrook be the Secretary, and that the sum
of 80/. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Professors Balfour Stewart and Sir W. Thomson, Sir J. H.
_ Lefroy, Professors G. H. Darwin, G. Chrystal, and S. J. Perry, Mr. C. H.
Ixxvili REPORT—1887.
Carpmael, Professor Schuster, Mr. G. M. Whipple, Captain Creak, the
Astronomer Royal, Mr. Wiiliam Ellis, Professor W. G. Adams, and Mr.
W. Lant Carpenter be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of con-
sidering the best means of comparing and reducing Magnetic Observa-
tions ; that Professor Balfour Stewart be the Secretary, and that the sum
of 15/7. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Professor G. Forbes, Captain Abney, Dr. J. Hopkinson,
Professor W. G. Adams, Professor G. C. Foster, Lord Rayleigh, Mr.
Preece, Professor Schuster, Professor Dewar, Mr. A. Vernon Harcourt,
Mr. H. Trueman Wood, Sir James Douglass, and Professor H. B. Dixon
be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of reporting on Standards of
Light ; that Professor G. Forbes be the Secretary, and that the sum of
1001. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That the Committee consisting of Professors Armstrong and Lodge,
Sir William Thomson, Lord Rayleigh, Fitzgerald, J. J. Thomson,
Schuster, Poynting, Crum Brown, Ramsay, Frankland, Tilden, Hartley,
S. P. Thompson, McLeod, Roberts-Austen, Riicker, Reinold, Carey
Foster, and H. B. Dixon, Captain Abney, Drs. Gladstone, Hopkinson, and
Fleming, and Messrs. Crookes, Shelford Bidwell, W. N. Shaw, J. Larmor,
J. T. Bottomley, R. T. Glazebrook, J‘ Brown, E. J. Love, and John M.
_ Thomson be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of considering
the subject of Electrolysis in its Physical and Chemical bearings; that
Professor Armstrong be the Chemical Secretary and Professor Lodge the
Physical Secretary, and that the sum of 50]. be placed at their disposal
for the purpose, of which not more than 20/. is to be spent in printing
and postage.
That Professors Balfour Stewart, Schuster, and Stokes, Mr. G.
Johnstone Stoney, Sir H. E. Roscoe, Captain Abney, and Mr. G. J.
Symons be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of considering the
best methods of recording the direct intensity of Solar Radiation; that
Professor Balfour Stewart be the Secretary, and that the sum of 10J. be
placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Professors Armstrong, Meldola, and Smithells, Drs. Gladstone,
Russell, and Vernon Harcourt, Messrs. J. T. Dunn, Francis Jones, M. M.
Pattison Muir, and W. A. Shenstone, and Professor Dunstan be a Com-
mittee for the purpose of inquiring into and reporting on the present
methods adopted for teaching chemistry; that Professor Dunstan be the
Secretary, and that the sum of 10]. be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.
That Professors W. A. Tilden and H. E. Armstrong be reappointed a
Committee for the purpose of investigating Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva-
tives; that Professor H. K. Armstrong be the Secretary, and that the sum
of 251. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Dr. Russell, Captain Abney, Professor Hartley, and Dr. A.
Richardson be a Committee for the purpose of investigating the action
of light on the Hydracids of the Halogens in Presence of Oxygen; that
Dr. A Richardson be the Secretary, and that the sum of 201. be placed at
their disposal for the purpose.
That Professors McLeod and Ramsay, Mr. J.T. Cundall, and Mr. W. A.
Shenstone be reappointed a Committee for the further investigation of
the Influence of the Silent Discharge of Electricity on Oxygen and other
gases; that Mr. W. A. Shenstone be the Secretary, and that the sum of
101. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
—
YJ
.
4 .
d
a
|
RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Ixxix
‘That Professors Tilden and W. Ramsay and Dr. W. W. J. Nicol be
reappointed a Committee for the purpose of investigating the Properties
of Solutions; that Dr. W. W. J. Nicol be the Secretary, and that the
sum of 25/1. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Professors Dewar, Odling, and Frankland, Mr. Crookes, and
Professor P. F. Frankland be a Committee for the purpose of conferring
with a Committee of the American Association with a view of forming a
Uniform System of Recording the Results of Water Analysis ; that Pro-
fessor P. F'. Frankland be the Secretary, and that the sum of 102. be
placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Professors Tilden and W. Chandler Roberts-Austen, and Mr. T.
‘Turner be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of investigating the
Influence of Silicon on the Properties of Steel ; that Mr. T. Turner be
the Secretary, and that the sum of 20/. be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.
That Messrs. H. Bauerman, F. W. Rudler, J. J. H. Teall, and H. J.
dohnston-Lavis he reappointed a Committee for the purpose of investi-
gating the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius and its neighbourhood ; that
Dr. H. J. Johnston-Lavis be the Secretary, and that the sum of 20J. be
placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Professor W. C. Williamson and Mr. W. Cash be reappointed
a Committee for the purpose of investigating the Flora of the Carboni-
ferous Rocks of Lancashire and West Yorkshire; that Mr. Cash be the
Secretary, and that the sum of 25/. be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.
hat Mr. J. W. Davis, Mr. W. Cash, Dr. H. Hicks, Mr. G. W. Lamp-
lugh, Mr. Clement Reid, Dr. H. Woodward, and Mr. T. Boynton be a
Committee for the purpose of investigating an Ancient Sea-beach near
Bridlington ; that Mr. G. W. Lamplugh be the Secretary, and that the
sum of 20/. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
_ That Dr. J. Evans, Professor W. J. Sollas, Dr. G. J. Hinde, and Messrs.
. Carruthers, R. B. Newton, J. J. H. Teall, F. W. Rudler, W. Topley,
. Whitaker, and E. Wethered be reappointed a Committee for the
purpose of carrying on the Geological Record; that Mr. W. Topley be
the Secretary, and that the sum of 50/. be placed at their disposal for the
urpose.
That Mr. R. Etheridge, Dr. H. Woodward, and Mr. A. Bell be re-
ippointed a Committee for the purpose of reporting upon the ‘ Manure’
sravels of Wexford ; that Mr. A. Bell be the Secretary, and that the sum
f 101. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
_ That Messrs. R. B. Grantham, C. E. De Rance, J. B. Redman, W.
lopley, W. Whitaker, and J. W. Woodall, Major-General Sir A. Clarke,
idmiral Sir KE. Ommanney, Sir J. N. Douglass, Captain Sir George
lares, Captain J. Parsons, Captain W. J. L. Wharton, Professor J.
restwich, and Messrs. EH. Haston, J. 8. Valentine, and L. F. Vernon
larcourt be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of inquiring into
Rate of Erosion of the Sea-coasts of England and Wales, and the
nfluence of the Artificial Abstraction of Shingle or other material in that
ction ; that Messrs. De Rance and Topley be the Secretaries, and that
ae sum of 15/. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Professors J. Prestwich, W. Boyd Dawkins, T. McK. Hughes,
nd T. G. Bonney, Dr. H. W. Crosskey, and Messrs. C. E. De Rance,
i. G. Fordham, D. Mackintosh, W. Pengelly, J. Plant, and R. H.
Oo
Ixxx REPORT—-1 887.
Tiddeman be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of recording the
position, height above the sea, lithological characters, size, and origin
of the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland, reporting other
matters of interest connected with the same, and taking measures for —
their preservation ; that Dr. Crosskey be the Secretary, and that the sum —
of 101. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Professor E. Hull, Dr. H. W. Crosskey, Captain Sir Douglas
Galton, Professor J. Prestwich, and Messrs. James Glaisher, H. B. Marten,
G. H. Morton, James Parker, W. Pengelly, James Plant, I. Roberts, Fox
Strangways, T. S. Stooke, G. J. Symons, W. Topley, Tylden-Wright,
E. Wethered, W. Whitaker, and C. E. De Rance be reappointed a Com-
mittee for the purpose of investigating the Circulation of the Under-
ground Waters in the Permeable Formations of England, and the Quality
and Quantity of the Waters supplied to various towns and districts from
these formations; that Mr. De Rance be the Secretary, and that the sum
of 51. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Dr. H. Woodward, Professor T. R. Jones, Mr. W. Pengelly,
Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Mr. R. Etheridge, and Professor Wiltshire
be a Committee for the purpose of assisting the Paleontographical
Society in the publication of Monographs of British Fossils; that Pro-
fessor Wiltshire be the Secretary, and that the sum of 501. be placed at
their disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. R. Etheridge, Mr. T. Gray, and Professor John Milne be
reappointed a Committee for the purpose of investigating the Volcanic
Phenomena of Japan; that Professor J. Milne be the Secretary, and that
the sum of 50/. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. R. Etheridge, Mr. W. H. Hudleston, Professor J. W.
Judd, and Mr. R. G. Bell be a Committee for the purpose of preparing a
Monograph upon the Molluscan Fauna of the Pliocene Beds of St. Erth ;
that Mr. R. G. Bell be the Secretary, and that the sum of 501. be placed
at their disposal for the purpose.
That Professors Schiifer, M. Foster, and Lankester and Dr. W. D.
Halliburton be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of investigating —
the Physiology of the Lymphatic System ; that Professor Schafer be the
Secretary, and that the sum of 25/. be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.
That Professors McKendrick, Struthers, Young, McIntosh, A. Nichol-
son, and Cossar Ewart and Mr. John Murray be reappointed a Committee
for the purpose of aiding in the Biological Researches carried on at the
Marine Biological Station at Granton, Scotland; that Mr. John Murray
be the Secretary, and that the sum of 50/. be placed at their disposal for
the purpose.
That Professor Foster, Professor Bayley Balfour, Mr. Thiselton-Dyer,
Dr. Trimen, Professor Marshall Ward, Mr. Carruthers, and Professor
Hartog be a Committee for the purpose of taking steps for the establish-
ment of a Botanical Station at Peradeniya, Ceylon; that Professor Bower
be the Secretary, and that the sum of 50/. be placed at their disposal for
the purpose.
That Professor Lankester, Professor Milnes Marshall, Mr. Sedgwick, —
and Mr. G. H. Fowler be a Committee for the purpose of investigating
the Development of the Oviduct and connected structures in certain fresh-
water Teleostei; that Mr. G. H. Fowler be the Secretary, and that the
sum of 15/. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Ixxxi
That Professors McIntosh, Allman, Lankester, Burdon Sanderson,
Cleland, Ewart, Stirling, McKendrick, Dr. Cleghorn and Dr. Traquair,
be a Committee for the purpose of carrying on researches on the develop-
ment of Fishes at the St. Andrews Marine Laboratory ; that Professor
McIntosh be the Secretary, and that the sum of 50l. be placed at their
disposal for the purpose.
That Professors Newton and Flower, Mr. Carruthers, Mr. Sclater, and
Mr. Thiselton-Dyer be a Committee for the purpose of reporting on the
present State of our Knowledge of the Zoology and Botany of the West
India Islands, and taking steps to investigate ascertained deficiencies in
_ the Fauna and Flora; that Mr. Thiselton-Dyer be the Secretary, and that
_ the sum of 100. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Messrs. W. Carruthers, W. F.R.Weldon, J.G. Baker, G.M. Murray,
and W. T. Thiselton-Dyer be a Committee for the purpose of exploring
_ the Flora of the Bahamas ; that Mr. W. T. Thiselton-Dyer be the Secretary,
' and that the sum of 1001. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Professor E. Ray Lankester, Mr. P. L. Sclater, Professor M.
‘Foster, Mr. A. Sedgwick, Mr. Walter Heape, Professor A. C. Haddon,
Professor Moseley, and Mr. Percy Sladen be reappointed a Committee for
the purpose of making arrangements for assisting the Marine Biological
Association Laboratory at Plymouth; that Mr. Percy Sladen be the
Secretary, and that the sum of 1001. be placed at their disposal for the
urpose.
“That Mr. John Cordeaux, Professor A. Newton, Mr. J. A. Harvie-
Brown, Mr. W. E. Clarke, Mr. R. M. Barrington, and Mr. A. G. More be
reappointed a Committee for the purpose of obtaining (with the consent
of the Master and Elder Brethren of the Trinity House and the Com-
missioners of Northern and Irish Lights) Observations on Migration of
Birds at Lighthouses and Lightvessels, and of reporting on the same;
that Mr. Cordeaux be the Secretary, and that the sum of 301. be placed at
their disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. Thiselton-Dyer, Mr. Carruthers, Mr. Ball, Professor Oliver,
od Mr. Forbes be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of continuing
the preparation of a report on our present knowledge of the Flora of
hina; that Mr. Thiselton-Dyer be the Secretary, and that the sum of
751. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
_ That Professor Ray Lankester, Mr. P. L. Sclater, Professor M. Foster,
Mr. A. Sedgwick, Professor A. M. Marshall, Professor A. C. Haddon,
Professor Moseley, and Mr. Percy Sladen be reappointed a Committee for
the purpose of arranging for the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological
Station at Naples ; that Mr. Percy Sladen be the Secretary, and that the
um of 1001. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
_ That General J. T. Walker, General Sir J. H. Lefroy, Professor Sir
Villiam Thomson, Mr. Alexander Buchan, Mr. J. Y. Buchanan, Mr.
ohn Murray, Dr. J. Rae, Mr. H. W. Bates, Captain W. J. Dawson, Dr.
. Selwyn, and Professor C. Carpmael be reappointed a Committee for
he purpose of reporting upon the Depth of the permanently Frozen Soil
o the Polar Regions, its geographical limits, and relation to the present
oles of greatest cold; that Sir Henry Lefroy be the Reporter and Mr.
d. W. Bates the Secretary, and that the sum of 51. be placed at their
disposal for the purpose.
_*That Mr. S. Bourne, Mr. F. Y. Edgeworth (Secretary), Professor H.
5. ae Mr. Robert Giffen, Professor Alfred Marshall, Mr. J. B.
1887. e
lxxxli REPORT—1887.
Martin, Professor J. S. Nicholson, Mr. R. H. Inglis Palgrave, and Pro-
fessor H. Sidgwick be a Committee for the purpose of inquiring and
reporting as to the Statistical Data available for determining the amount
of the precious metals in use as money in the principal countries of the
world, the chief forms in which the money is employed, and the amount
annually used in the arts; that Mr. F. Y. Edgeworth be the Secretary,
and that the sum of 20/7. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. S. Bourne, Mr. F. Y. Edgeworth (Secretary), Professor H.
S. Foxwell, Mr. Robert Giffen, Professor Alfred Marshall, Mr. J. B.
Martin, Professor J. S. Nicholson, Mr. R. H. Inglis Palgrave, and Pro-
fessor H. Sidgwick be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of con-
tinuing to investigate the best method of ascertaining and measuring
-yariations in the Value of the Monetary Standard ; that Mr. F. Y. Edge-
worth be the Secretary, and that the sum of 10/1. be placed at their dis-
posal for the purpose.
That Professor Osborne Reynolds, Sir F. J. Bramwell, Sir James
Douglass, Professor J. Thomson, Professor W. C. Unwin, and Messrs.
W. Topley, J. Abernethy, E. Leader Williams, W. Shelford, J. A. Froude,
J. N. Shoolbred, G. F. Deacon, G. F. Lister, A. R. Hunt, and W. H.
Wheeler be a Committee for the purpose of investigating the Action of
Waves and Currents on the Beds and Foreshores of Estuaries by means
of Working Models; that Professor Osborne Reynolds be the Secretary,
and that the sum of 2001. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Sir Rawson Rawson, General Pitt-Rivers, Mr. Francis Galton,
Dr. Muirhead, Mr. C. Roberts, Dr. J. Beddoe, Mr. H. H. Howorth, Mr.
F. W. Rudler, Mr. G. W. Hambleton, Mr. Horace Darwin, Mr. G. W.
Bloxam, Dr. Garson, and Dr. A. M. Paterson be a Committee for the
purpose of investigating the effects of different ocenpations and employ-
ments on the Physical Development of the Human Body; that Mr.
Bloxam be the Secretary, and that the sum of 251. be placed at their
disposal for the purpose.
That Dr. E. B. Tylor, Dr. G. M. Dawson, General Sir J. H. Lefroy, Dr.
Daniel Wilson, Mr. R. G. Haliburton, and Mr. George W. Bloxam be-
reappointed a Committee for the purpose of investigating and publishing
reports on the physical characters, languages, and industrial and social
condition of the North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada; that
Mr. Bloxam be the Secretary, and that the sum of 100/. be placed at their
disposal for the purpose.
That Dr. Garson, Mr. Pengelly, Mr. F. W. Rudler, Mr. G. W. Bloxam,
Mr. J. Theodore Bent, and Mr. J. Stuart Glennie be reappointed a Com-
mittee for the purpose of investigating the Prehistoric Race in the Greek
Islands; that Mr. Bloxam be the Secretary, and that the sum of 200.
be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That General Pitt-Rivers, Dr. Beddoe, Professor Flower, Mr. Francis
Galton, Dr. E. B. Tylor, and Dr. Garson be reappointed a Committee for
the purpose of editing a new edition of ‘ Anthropological Notes and
Queries’ ; that Dr. Garson be the Secretary, and that the sum of 501. be
placed at their disposal for the purpose.
Not involving Grants of Money.
That Mr. John Murray, Professor Chrystal, Dr. A. Buchan, Rev. C.
J. Steward, the Hon. R. Abercromby, Mr. J. Y. Buchanan, Mr. David
:
RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Ixxxiii
Cunningham, Mr. Isaac Roberts, Dr. H. R. Mill, and Professor Fitz-
gerald be a Committee for the purpose of arranging an investigation of
the seasonal variations of temperature in lakes, rivers, and estuaries in
various parts of the United Kingdom in co-operation with the Local
Societies represented on the Association, and that Mr. John Murray be
the Secretary.
That Lord Rayleigh, Professors Rowland, Liveing, Dewar, Everett,
W. Grylls Adams, J. J. Thomson, and Schuster, and Messrs. Marshall
Watts, and Glazebrook be a Committee for the purpose of taking such
steps as may lead to the adoption of an International Scale of Wave-
lengths for the Solar Spectrum; and that Professor Schuster be the
Secretary.
That Sir F, J. Bramwell, Mr. E. A. Cowper, Mr. G. J. Symons, Professor
G. H. Darwin, Professor Ewing, Mr. Isaac Roberts, Mr. Thomas Gray,
Dr. John Evans, Professor Lebour, Professor Prestwich, Professor Hull,
Professor Meldola, Professor Judd, and Mr. J. Glaisher be a Committee
for the purpose of considering the advisability and possibility of estab-
lishing in other parts of the country observations upon the prevalence of
' Earth Tremors, similar to those now being made in Durham in connec-
tion with Coal-mine Explosions; and that Professor Lebour be the
Secretary. ;
That Professor Barrett, Professor Fitzgerald, Professor Balfour
Stewart, and Mr. Trouton be reappointed a Committee for the purpose
of reporting on certain Molecular Phenomena connected with the Mag-
netisation of Iron ; and that Professor Barrett be the Secretary.
That Mr. John Murray, Professor Schuster, Sir William Thomson,
the Abbé Renard, Mr. A. Buchan, the Hon. R. Abercrombie, and Dr. M.
~Grabham be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of investigating
the practicability of collecting and identifying Meteoric Dust, and of
considering the question of undertaking regular observations in various
localities ; and that Mr. John Murray be the Secretary.
That Professors A. Johnson, Macgregor, J. B. Cherriman, and H. J.
Bovey, and Mr. C. Carpmael be reappointed a Committee for the purpose
of promoting Tidal Observations in Canada; and that Professor Johnson
_ be the Secretary.
_ That Professor Cayley, Sir William Thomson, Mr. James Glaisher,
and Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher (Secretary) be reappointed a Committee for
the purpose of calculating certain tables in the Theory of Numbers
connected with the divisors of a number.
That Professor G. H. Darwin, Sir W. Thomson, and Major Baird be
a Committee for the purpose of preparing instructions for the practical
work of Tidal Observation ; and that Professor Darwin be the Secretary.
That Professor Sylvester, Professor Cayley, and Professor Salmon be
reappointed a Committee for the purpose of calculating Tables of the
Fundamental Invariants of Algebraic Forms; and that Professor Cayley
be the Secretary.
That Professors Everett and Sir William Thomson, Mr. G. J. Symons,
Sir A. C. Ramsay, Dr. A. Geikie, Mr. J. Glaisher, Mr. Pengelly,
Professor Edward Hull, Professor Prestwich, Dr. C. Le Neve Foster,
Professor A. S. Herschel, Professor G. A. Lebour, Mr. A. B. Wynne,
_ Mr. Galloway, Mr. Joseph Dickinson, Mr. G. F. Deacon, Mr. E. Wethered,
ard Mr. A. Strahan be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of
investigating the Rate of Increase of Underground Temperature down-
e2
Ixxxiv REPORT—1887.
wards in various Localities of Dry Land and under Water; and that Pro-
fessor Everett be the Secretary.
That Professor G. H. Darwin and Professor J. C. Adams be reap-
pointed a Committee for the Harmonic Analysis of Tidal Observations ;
and that Professor Darwin be the Secretary.
That Professors Ramsay, Tilden, Marshall, and W. L. Goodwin be
a Committee for the purpose of investigating certain Physical Constants
of Solution, especially the expansion of saline solutions; and that Pro-
fessor W. L. Goodwin be the Secretary.
That Professors Tilden, McLeod, Pickering, and Ramsay, and Drs.
Young, A. R. Leeds, and Nicol be a Committee for the purpose of re-
porting on the Bibliography of Solution; and that Dr. Nicol be the
Secretary.
That Captain Abney, General Festing, and Professors W. N. Hartley
and H. E. Armstrong be a Committee for the purpose of investigating the
Absorption Spectra of Pure Compounds ; and that Professor Armstrong
be the Secretary.
That Sir H. E. Roscoe, Mr. Lockyer, Professors Dewar, Liveing,
Schuster, W. N. Hartley, and Wolcott Gibbs, Captain Abney, and
Dr. Marshall Watts be a Committee for the purpose of preparing
a new series of Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements ;
and that Dr. Marshall Watts be the Secretary.
That Dr. W. T. Blanford, Professor J. W. Judd, Mr. W. Carruthers,
Dr. H. Woodward, and Mr. J. S. Gardner be reappointed a Committee
for the purpose of reporting on the Fossil Plants of the Tertiary and
Secondary Beds of the United Kingdom; and that Mr. Gardner be the
secretary.
That Dr. H. Woodward. Mr. H. Keeping, and Mr. J. S. Gardner be.
reappointed a Committee for the purpose of exploring the Higher Hocene
Beds of the Isle of Wight; and that Mr. J. S. Gardner be the Secretary.
That Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. J. J. H. Teall, and Professor J. F.
Blake be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of investigating the
Microscopic Structure of the older Rocks of Anglesey ; and that Professor
J. F. Blake be the Secretary.
That Mr. R. Etheridge, Dr, H. Woodward, and Professor T. R. Jones
be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of reporting on the Fossil
Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks; and that Professor T. R. Jones be
the Secretary.
That Professor Valentine Ball, Mr. H. G. Fordham, Professor Haddon,
Professor Hillhouse, Mr. John Hopkinson, Dr. Macfarlane, Professor
Milnes Marshall, Mr. F. T. Mott (Secretary), Dr. Traquair, and Drak
Woodward be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of preparing
a Report upon the Provincial Museums of the United Kingdom ; and
that Mr. Mott be the Secretary.
That Sir Joseph D. Hooker, Sir John Lubbock, Sir George Nares,
General J. T. Walker, Sir Leopold McClintock, Admiral Sir George H. ~
Richards, Professor Flower, Professor Huxley, Dr. Sclater, Professor
Moseley, Mr. John Murray, General Strachey, and Sir William Thomson
be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of drawing attention to the
desirability of prosecuting further research in the Antarctic Regions ;
and that Admiral Sir Erasmus Ommanney be the Secretary.
That Dr. J. H. Gladstone, Professor Armstrong, Mr. 8. Bourne, Miss
Becker, Sir J. Lubbock, Dr. Crosskey, Sir R. Temple, Sir H. E. Roscoe,
RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. lxxxv
Mr. J. Heywood, and Professor N. Story Maskelyne be reappointed a
Committee for the purpose of continuing the inquiries relating to the
teaching of Science in Elementary Schools ; and that Dr. J. H. Gladstone
be the Secretary.
That Sir John Lubbock, Dr. John Evans, Professor Boyd Dawkins,
Dr. R. Munro, Mr. Pengelly, Dr. Hicks, Mr. J. W. Davis, Professor
Meldola, and Dr. Muirhead be reappointed a Committee for the purpose
of ascertaining and recording the localities in the British Islands in which
Evidences of the Existence of Prehistoric Inhabitants of the Country are
found; and that Mr. J. W. Davis be the Secretary.
That the Corresponding Societies Committee, consisting of Mr. Francis
Galton (Chairman), Professor A. W. Williamson, Sir Douglas Galton,
Professor Boyd Dawkins, Sir Rawson Rawson, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr. J.
Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Professor R. Meldola (Secretary), Mr. W.
Whitaker, Mr. G. J. Symons, General Pitt-Rivers, Mr. W. Topley, Mr.
_ 4H. G. Fordham, and Mr. William White, be reappointed.
That Mr. W. N. Shaw be requested to draw upa Report on the present
state of our knowledge in Electrolysis and Electrochemistry.
That Mr. P. T. Main be requested to continue his Report on our
experimental knowledge of the Properties of Matter with respect to
volume, pressure, temperature, and specific heat.
That Mr. Glazebrook be requested to continue his Report on Optics.
That Professor J. J. Thomson be requested to continue his Report on
Electircal Theories.
Communications ordered to be printed in extenso in the Annual
Report of the Association.
Sir W. Thomson’s paper ‘On the Vortex Theory of the Luminiferous
- Aither.’
Professor H. Lamb’s paper ‘ On the Theory of Electrical Endosmose
and Allied Phenomena, and on the existence of a Sliding Coefficient for a
Fluid in contact with a Solid.’
Mr. W. Topiey’s paper ‘On Gold and Silver: their Geological Distri-
bution and their probable Future Production.’
Mr. G. Auldjo Jamieson’s paper entitled ‘ Recent Illustrations of the
‘Theory of Rent and their Effect on the Value of Land,’ and a Memoran-
dum ‘On the Methods of Ascertaining Variation in the Value of the
ecious Metals.’
Professor Osborne Reynolds’s paper ‘ On certain Laws relating to the
Régime of Estuaries and on the possibility of Experiments on a small
Scale’ (with the necessary illustrations).
Messrs. E. A. Cowper and W. Anderson’s paper ‘On the Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat’ (with the necessary illustrations).
‘Mr. G. Forbes’s paper ‘On an Hiectric Current Meter’ (with the
necessary illustrations).
Resolutions referred to the Council for Consideration, and Action if
desirable.
_ That the Council be requested to take such action as they may think
most expedient in order to bring before the Signal Office of the United
States a statement of the high value which British meteorologists attach
4
to the manuscript bibliography prepared by the Signal Office.
lxxxvi REPORT— 1887.
Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Pur-
poses by the General Committee at the Manchester Meeting
in August and September 1887. The Names of the Members
entitled to call on the General Treasurer for the respective
Grants are prefixed.
Mathematics and Physics.
£
*Brown, Professor Crum.—Ben Nevis Observatory ...........- 150
*Foster, Professor G. Carey —Hlectrical Standards ............ 80
*Stewart, Professor Balfour.—Magnetic Observations ......... 15
*Forbes, Professor G.—Standards of Light...........-..:..+-01++ 100
*Armstrong, Professor.—Hlectrolysis .......--.60-ssceseeereeeee ees 50
*Stewart, Professor Balfour.—Solar Radiation .............-.++ 10
Walker, General.—Differential Gravity Meters .............++++- 10
Ball, Sir R. 8.—Uniform Nomenclature in Mechanics ......... 10
Chemistry.
*McLeod, Professor—The Influence of the Silent Discharge
of Hlectricity on Gases ........-seecseee cer eer eee eenrerseeeen ees
*Tilden, Professor.—Properties of Solutions .........-..-.++++++ 25
Dewar, Professor.—Recording Water Analysis Results ...... 10
*Tilden, Professor.—Influence of Silicon on Steel .........--- ++ 20
Armstrong, Professor.—Methods of Teaching Chemistry ... 10
*Tilden, Professor.—Isomevic Naphthalene Derivatives ...... 25
Russell, Dr.—Oxidation of Hydracids in Sunlight ........... 20
Geology.
Davis, Mr. J. W.—Sea Beach near Bridlington ............+9 20
*Eyvans, Dr. J.—Geological Record ............-..:1:ssseeeseeeeeees 50
*Etheridge, Mr. R.—‘ Manure ’ Gravels of Wexford ............ 10
*Grantham, Mr. R. B.—Erosion of Sea Coasts .......-.--.+2+++ 15
*Prestwich, Professor J.—Hrratic Blocks ..........-.+++++++s++9 10
*Hull, Professor E.—Circulation of Underground Waters ... 9
Woodward, Dr. H.—Paleontographical Society Monographs 50
*Htheridge, Mr. R.—Volecanic Phenomena of Japan ...........- 50
Etheridge, Mr. R.—Pliocene Molluscan Fauna of St. Erth 50
*Williamson, Professor W. C.—Carboniferous Flora of Lanca-
shire and) Westeviorsslire 1 ..0 onset oe <a ice ic siton es oie =v e/slotetents
*Bauerman, Mr. H.—Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius ...... 20
Garrediforwards oe cacnenn cme cee soot ees tess ecier £605
* Reappointed.
‘
Sor So Oro)
OS Oro SS Gre) Ora 1)
oo
cooocoooon
coooosce Scooacs So;
S'oo ooo e oe 9Se9O
-
SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY. Ixxxvil
PANE SOPWALC (5)... i ccc ccescesccdes So. MMMcedsecnces seeneeae 605 0 0
Biology.
Newton, Professor.—Zoology and Botany of the West India
Pee 2 Fy c0 2 os soda ate Win TERRI SEE ose sos nck ane sas 100
Carruthers, Mr. W.—Flova of the Bahamas..................... 100
McIntosh, Professor.—Development of Fishes, St. Andrews 50
*Lankester, Professor E. Ray.—Marine Laboratory, Plymouth 100
*Cordeaux, Mr. J.—Migration of Birds .................. 0.050000. 30)
*Thiselton-Dyer, Mr.—Flora of China ................0ccc0ccseeeees 75
*Lankester, Professor E. Ray.—Naples Zoological Station ... 100
Schafer, Professor—Physiology of the Lymphatic System... 25
ooooocoeooco
(=) Toye) (a) SS ay =) (ie)
*McKendrick, Professor.—Marine Station, Granton............. 50
*Foster, Professor.—Peradeniya Botanical Station............... 50
Lankester, Professor—Development of the Oviduct in
PME PDaaAE st Soret Sag ALD Selva. 51 «in. PRA Wee be adie Ssbac es Ls ‘Ord
Geography.
*Walker, General J. T.—Depth of Frozen Soil .................. 5 0 0
Economic Science and Statistics.
Bourne, Mr. 8.—Precious Metals in Circulation ............... 20)..00 40
_ *Bourne, Mr. S.—Variations in the Value of the Monetary
EE eS eo 5 050 Me Samoan aeeek hey s racign oes teu ing 10 0 0
Mechanical Science.
Reynolds, Professor O.—Investigation of Estuaries by
MME PIRRMITINE IS 0), cee Set erat Son cee eee Pee erensaetaaapiece AOOY OF)
Anthropology.
Rawson, Sir R.—Effect of Occupations on Physical Develop-
“TASER ap CHR O0 COOH EOS ER ACO HE ar Core See Rape cea acre Rlaleie( aot :e/e\ ere msaida 25 0 0
*Tylor, Dr. E. B.—North-Western Tribes of Canada............ [00:0 "O"=
*Garson, Dr.—Prehistoric Race in the Greek Islands ......... 20 pO saa O,
*Pitt-Rivers, General.—Anthropological Notes and Queries... 50 0 0
. £1975 0 0
* Reappointed.
The Annual Meeting in 1888.
The Meeting at Bath will commence on Wednesday, September 5.
Place of Meeting in 1889.
The Annual Meeting of the Association will be held at Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Ixxxviii
REPORT— 1887.
General Statement of Swms which have been paid on account of
Grants for Scientific Purposes.
£ s. d,
1834.
Tide Discussions ......+ Pte 202, 0710
1835
Tide Discussions .......s++++++ 62:0) 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0
£167 O O
1836.
Tide Discussions ....+-..++ tive LOGA OSD
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0
Thermometric Observations,
REGIME Ucetuescuaccanietsens«seseree 50 0 0
Experiments on long-con-
tinued Heat .......... Peeecee ile
Rain-Gauges ....esccseceees sade: del ainO
Refraction Experiments ...... fb OF 10
Lunar Nutation..........c.s0e0e. 60 0 0
Thermometers .....sceecsseeeees LS Gy 10
£435 0 0 |
1837
Tide Discussions ..... Sashes 284 1 0
Chemical Constants ............ 2413 6 |
Danan Nutation.....:0..:0sp.sese 70 0 0
Observations on Waves ...... 100 12 0 |
RIGES ty BLISHOl. ssetnsseaseeeraont 150 0 0
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature...........- 93 3 0
Vitrification Experiments ... 150 0 0
Heart Experiments ............ 8 4 6
Barometric Observations ...... 30 0 0
PALOMICLCIS wn sescsesbanesseseat sine Li 18) 36
£922 12 6
So
1838.
Tide Discussions .............+ 29 05 6
British Fossil Fishes............ 100 0 O
Meteorological Observations
and Anemometer (construc-
HIG) )\ Sas ong Renae oace EDR 100 0 O
Cast Iron (Strength of) ...... 60 0 0}
Animal and Vegetable Sub-
stances (Preservation of)... 19 1 10
Railway Constants ............ 41 12 10
(Basho WAS seevecasas svkecceee ss b0y Ope
Growth of Plants .............. (yen een)
INIT FI BRAVES) vse etenycemnneeea 3. .6076
Education Committee ......... 50 0 0)
Heart Experiments ........... & SeiDane
Land and Sea Level............ 267,18 7
Steam-vessels..........c.2ssceces 106 0 0|
Meteorological Committee ... 31 9 5 |
——
1839.
Fossil Ichthyology ............ 10-0 0
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth, &¢. ......ss00 6310 0]
£.* 8... a.
Mechanism of Waves ......... 144 2 0
Bristol! TiGes eece.cnscees seseseae 35 18 6
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature............ 2111 0
Vitrification Experiments .. 9 4 7
Cast-Iron Experiments......... 103 0-0
Railway Constants ......... css 2S) Hee
Land and Sea Level............ 274. 1 4
Steam-vessels’ Engines ...... 100 0 0
Stars in Histoire Céleste ...... 171 18 6
Stars'in Lacaille. ...scssneses0ds LL 0.40
Stars in R.A.8. Catalogue 166 16 6
Animal Secretions..........2.... 1010 0
Steam Engines in Cornwall... 50 0 0O
Atmospheric Air ..........s0008 16, 1.0
Cast and Wrought Iron ...... 40 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 3.0 «0
Gases on Solar Spectrum...... 22 0 0
Hourly Meteorological Ob-
servations, Inverness and
RAN PUBBIC~ rasczenew enneeopeenen 49 7 3
Fossil Reptiles via. ss-cseccaneesae 118 2 9
Mining Statistics ............6+ 50 0 O
£1595 11° O
1840.
Bristol Tides ...... meg ery ». 100 -O:10
Subterranean Temperature... 13 13 6
Heart Experiments .........+ ony, LOMO gEO)
Lungs Experiments ........++.. 813 0
Tide Discussions: .. i.s2.v-snewe 50 0 O
Land and Sea Level...... Peer et! al
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 242 10 O
Stars (Lacaille))........ssew«ss rp a: Melee 1
Stars (Catalogue) ...... Uastee ses 264 0 0
Atmospheric Air ........sceeeee 1515 0
Water on. Tron: cc ..s0sccsssenes 10 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... i, O%0
Meteorological Observations. 5217 6
Foreign Scientific Memoirs... 112 1 6
Working Population ............ 100 0 O
School Statistics ...........0++. 50 0 0
Forms of Vessels) ~....0..+ssaven 184!) 7210
Chemical and Electrical Phe-
MOWICMA,,. soaecsteacemoenree as wast p20) \040
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth .........cer.s000s 80 0 0
Magnetical Observations...... 185 13. 9
£1546 16 4
1841.
Observations on Waves ...... 30 0 O
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature.........+.. 8 8 0
Actinometers)<...c-.<ecsseoesseat LO OO
Earthquake Shocks ........... Sop! (cect te 3)
ACrIGNPOISOUE, 0s. ceasersnen see os, 88 LOTR
Veins and Absorbents ...... ‘ 3. 0550
Mud in Riversiiescessesseseesee oN ON
Satie
GENERAL STATEMENT.
Revision of the Nomenclature
- of Stars
fn Shas
Marine Zoology ....... “serch isso 15.12 8
Skeleton Maps .............0000 20 0 O
Mountain Barometers ......... 618 6
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 185 0 0
Stars (Lacaille)..............0 eee 1)
Stars (Nomenclature of) ...... 17 19ee 6
Stars (Catalogue of)............ 40 0 0
WV 26Er OMITON , oc. cecccsteco eens 50 0 0
Meteorological Observations
EE PPUTEVEETIONS \eacsscisecocerened 20 0 0
Meteorological Observations
(reduction of) ...........0008 25 0 0
Migaail Reptiles: J..6i....ceeccenss 50 0 0
Foreign Memoirs ......./....... 62 0 6
Railway Sections ............... 38 1 0
Forms of Vessels .............++ 193 12 0
Meteorological Observations
BRVELYMOUEH © .....00ccececceee's 55 0 0
Magnetical Observations...... 6118 8
Fishes of the Old Red Sand-
EME vavacceteknsceccveune cs 100 0 O
Tidesat Leith .....,.......0...- 50 0 0
Anemometer at Edinburgh... 69 1 10
Tabulating Observations ...... 9 6 3
RRO VION os ccna sepescessose oO: 0
Radiate Animals ............. me oe Om
£1235 10 11
eedlb-nes SS Se
1842,
Dynamometric Instruments.. 113 11 2
Anoplura Britannie ............ 5212 0
IGG AG BTISHOL ....10scscccesese 59 8 0
Gasesion Light ............-..00 30.14 7
Chronometers.................s000 2617 6
Marine Zoology.....:.....0.ss000 i Lae ne
British Fossil Mammalia...... 100 0 0
Statistics of Education......... 20 0 O
Marine Steam-vessels’ En-
EMMI he caries cox c0s 'e'ece'e 28 0 0
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 59 0 O
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of)... 110 0 0
Railway Sections ............... 161 10 0
British Belemnites .. ......... 50 0 0
Fossil Reptiles (publication
GEPEEPOLL), ..<c0..snedsenesseiee ALO 6,0
)Horms of Vessels ............... 180 0 0
Galvanic Experiments on
BRIBES ha, con csuscstasscedkesoas 5 8 6
Meteorological Experiments
at Plymouth. ...... ........... 63'2.0. 50
Constant Indicator and Dyna-
mometric Instruments ...... 90:0" 0
Worce of Wind ............000 10», 0710
Light on Growth of Seeds ... 8 0 O
Wital Statistics ...........c0008 =o OO R0G'O
egetative Power of Seeds... 8 1 11
uestions on Human Race... 7 9 O
£1449 17 8
Se
Reduction of Stars, British
Association Catalogue ......
Anomalous Tides, Frith of
Forth
Hourly Meteorological Obser-
vations at Kingussie and
Inverness
Meteorological Observations
atePiymoath cg ieyeati aces
Whewell’s Meteorological
Anemometer at Plymouth .
Meteorological Observations,
Osler’s Anemometer at Ply-
mouth
Reduction of Meteorological
Observations
Meteorological
and Gratuities
Construction of Anemometer
at Inverness
Magnetic Co-operation.........
Meteorological Recorder for
Kew Observatory
Action of Gases on Light......
Establishment at Kew Ob-
servatory,. Wages, Repairs
Furniture, and Sundries ...
Experiments by Captive Bal-
loons
HERR e eee eee eee eeee
Peer eer eee rere err es
Instruments
eee wee eeeeeee
RRUIWAVS shop onddecteseVavecsese
Publication of Report on
Fossil Reptiles ...............
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
Way Sections, ........0000.s.00-
Registration of Earthquake
PAGES ics speeetcced «less. sas ahe
Report on Zoological Nomen-
OlabUTe ise iiess es sxoszeecethdacen
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester ......
Vegetative Power of Seeds ...
Marine Testacea (Habits of) .
Marine Zoology
Marine Zoology
Preparation of Report on Bri-
tish Fossil Mammalia
Physiological Operations of
Medicinal Agents
Vital Statistics
Additional Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels
Additional Experiments on
the forms of Vessels
Reduction of Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels
Morin’s Instrument and Con-
stant Indicator
Experiments on the Strength
of Materials
eee eneaeseeeseece
eee
eee e weet ewwene
Peewee eewenreee
£1565 10
£ 6s
25 0
120 0
77 12
55: 0
10 0
20
30 0
39 6
56 12
10 8
50 0
18 16
133 4
81 8
20 0
40 0
147 18
30 0
10 0
4 4
5 3
10 0
10 0
2 14
100 0
20 0
36 5
70 0
100 0
100 0
69 14
60 0
it
SE ee oe OO Oe SOO eS. See. LO On es
i
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REPORT—1887.
XC :
£ s. d.|
1844,
Meteorological Observations
at Kingussie and Inverness 12 0 0
Completing Observations at
Ply MO UbHGMesseaenesstce=santi 35 0 0
Maenetic and Meteorological
Co-operation ..............0606 25 8 4
Publication of the British
Association Catalogue of
ISIZIWS) | Gacoosccobuguancdunecicneend 35 0 0
Observations on Tides on the
East Coast of Scotland 100 0 0
Revision of the Nomenclature
(Gif SL-Gies) Beneeercoececdeoce 1842 2 9 6
Maintaining the Establish-
ment in Kew Observa-
LO Tay aaentetes saeieamorees em cote erie aisle aD RS 133
Instruments for Kew Obser-
ETEOTS ice eC oe LeSe DE ODOSDE aoc 56 7 3
Influence of Light on Plants 10 0 0
Subterraneous Temperature
REET ATIC cane cscoceinsneeeraste 5 0 0
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
WA MSCCULONS....escacscersscne Mayet hee
Investigation of Fossil Fishes
ofthe Lower Tertiary Strata 100° 0 0
Registering the Shocks of
Harthquakes ..:......... 1842 23 11 10
Structure.of Fossil Shells ... 20 0 O
Radiata and Mollusea of the
Aigean and Red Seas 1842 100 0 0
Geographical Distributions of
Marine Zoology......... 1842 010 0
Marine Zoology of Devon and
@ornivalllieirs.sccvasesocevusate 10; 0) 0
Marine Zoology of Corfu...... 10 0 0
Experiments on the Vitality
OL SCCOS!,cevtscwedsdsscaprorcres 9 0 0
Experiments on the Vitality
GUMS CCAS ie icccscts seewast 1842: 8 aS
Exotic Anoplura ............... 15 0 0
Strength of Materials ......... 100 0 0
Completing Experiments on
the Forms of Ships ......... 100 0 0
Inquiries into Asphyxia ...... 107080
Investigations on the Internal
Constitution of Metals...... 50 0 0 |
Constant Indicator and Mo-
rin’s Instrument ...... 1842 10 0 0
£981 12 8
1845.
Publication of the British As-
sociation Catalogue of Stars 351 14 6
Meteorological Observations
aly TIVEINIERSS eee. sctvecse cece ee 30 18 11
Magnetic and Meteorological
Co-operation)... Jr....-2c0se. +s 1616 8
Meteorological Instruments
at Edinburgh.................. TNS) TAL)
Reduction of Anemometrical
Observations at Plymouth 25 0 0
i 8. OG,
Electrical Experiments at
Kew Observatory .......-.+.- 43 17 8
Maintaining the Establish-
ment in Kew Observatory 149 15 0
For Kreil’s Barometrograph 25 0 0
Gases from Iron Furnaces... 50 0 O
The Actinograph .............0- LbY 040)
Microscopic Structure of
Shells (.seveses Sicebecste tices 20 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1843 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1843) 12), Ona
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 7 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall. 10 0 O
Physiological Action of Medi-
GINESI eos tusces oases ise eager eee 20 0 0
Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York.. ......... 20 0 0
Earthquake Shocks ...... 1843 1514 8
£831 9 9
1846.
British Association Catalogue
OL Shary., ..sctencssmaseness 1844 211 15 0
Fossil Fishes of the London
Caisse) cots sisnewastee cutscenes 100 0 0
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1829 ......... b 06-0
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 146 16 7
Strength of Materials ......... 60 0 0
Researches in Asphyxia ...... 616 2
Examination of Fossil Shells 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 2 15 10
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1846 712 3
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Britain... 10 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1844 25 0 0
Expenses attending Anemo-
IMELCTS: soo cevessc oceaues rece anes eel
Anemometers’ Repairs......... 2 S16
Atmospheric Waves ............ pete eh
Captive Balloons ......... 1844 819 8
Varieties of the Human Race
1844" 7 6 3
tatistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York...........- 12 0 0
£685 16 0
1847.
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1829............ 50 0 0
Habits of Marine Animals... 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medi-
CIN CSc auaesphecenasnb swansea 20 0.0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0
Atmospheric Waves ..........-. 6 9 3
Vitality of Seeds ............+ os a (ent
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 107 8 6
£208 «5 4
GENERAL STATEMENT.
£8. a.
1848.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 171 15 11
Atmospheric Waves .........+4. 310 9
Vitality of Seeds ............+4+ Sib r0
Completion of Catalogue of
RYEHED) Gactcckiasecesetcctes sams TOin08::0
On Colouring Matters ......... 5 0 0
On Growth of Plants ......... 15 0 0
£275 1 8
1849.
Electrical Observations at
Kew Observatory ............ BOO" 0
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Citt0..........cs.ee-- 76 2 5
Vitality of Seeds ............... 5 8 1
On Growth of Plants ......... a0 0
Registration of Periodical
IPRENOMENS.......2....020..c0n00 TO OF 20
Bill on Account of Anemo-
metrical Observations ...... tie 0
£15919 6
1850.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 255 18 0
Transit of Earthquake Waves 50 0 O
Periodical Phenomena......... Ly Oe,
Meteorological Instruments,
PEZOLES| sac desscucesacsetevcevesses 25 0 0
£345 18 O
1851.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(ineludes part of grant in
DUM crdscsscasacasssetsceecoes 309 2 2
Micon Or Heat ...........0ces.00 20) | a
Periodical Phenomena of Ani-
mals and Plants.......:...... BOs. 0
Vitality of Seeds ............... 5 6 4
Influence of Solar Radiation 30 0 0
Ethnological Inquiries......... 12 0 0
Researches on Annelida ...... 10 0 O
£391 9 7
. 1852.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(including balance of grant
Pe Nie S923) eahcins c's daniine sienia noosa 233 17 8
_ Experiments on the Conduc-
tion Of Heat ...........sa.000s Deed ao
Influence of Solar Radiations 20 0 0
Geological Map of Ireland... 15 0 0
Researches on the British An-
PTA Dive canlak «-danmenciing 308s aias LORONLO
Vitality of Seeds ..........5.... TD ae
Strength of Boiler Plates...... 1050 £0)
£304 6 7
x¢i
£ 3. d.
1853.
Maintaining the UHstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory 165 0 0
Experiments on the Influence
of Solar Radiation ......... Lpe05 0
Researches on the British
PARITICITC waa psckeasteaeesccuenss 10 0 0
Dredging on the East Coast
GP Neotland! come msevecsoedesss= 10,30) 10
Ethnological Queries ......... 5 0 0
£205 0 0
1854.
Maintaining the LEstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(including balance of
former Srant)..........ceseceee 3380 15 4
Investigations on Flax......... 1 10550
Effects of Temperature on
Wrought Iron..........-+..0+0+ LOR TORO
Registration of Periodical
PHENOMENA. .......00s00200000s0s 10 0 0
British Annelida ..........0+0+. 10° 50,.0
Vitality of Seeds ............004+ 5S es
Conduction of Heat ............ 4 2 0
£380 19 7
1855.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 425 0 0O
Earthquake Movements ...... 10 0 0
Physical Aspect ofthe Moon 11 8 5
Vitality of Seeds: ..............5 TOM Fut
Map of the World...-...:....... 16 OG
Ethnological Queries ......... ti, (G)
Dredging near Belfast......... Oe 10
£480 16 4
1856.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observa-
tory :—
1854......... £75 0 0
ABBA oae. BO OCU Ee
Strickland’s Ornithological
Si giloyah «11 )s Boa eee corer 100 0 O
Dredging and Dredging
i onriats| Petey Beoceeg ec oneepacnan 913 0
Chemical Action of Light ... 20 0 0
Strength of Iron Plates ...... 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical
PHENOMENA ssn cossenee'staeasenee 10 0 0
Propagation of Salmon......... LO" 0710
£734 13 9
1857.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 350 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experi-
TANTO Ge sensd atest do nearenoce 40 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 10> 10,0
Dredging on the West Coast
GM SCObANG nascre comapels sec 10 0 0
xell
£ 3. a.
Investigations into the Mol-
lusca of California ......... LO O20
Experiments on Flax ......... 56 0 0
Natural History of Mada-
SSCA esnscccssscensenceesaeecras 20 0 0
Researches on British Anne-
Wideiveee one ees eaene apace teagts ss 22 25 0 0
Report on Natural Products
imported into Liverpool... 10 0 0
Artificial Propagation of Sal-
TPEGY 8. goodie dag a aoOnne pe OeOue TOMIOS0
Temperature of Mines......... cese0
Thermometers for Subterra-
nean Observations.........++. 5 7 4
PIEO“DOABUS tres escrsecsceeecaenssase DeA0 a0
£507 15> 4
1858.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Earthquake Wave LExperi-
RRise Doe ce tease dis onicsninasesicnnese 25 0 O
Dredging on the West Coast
DUS CORAMNG cos vskerccosaesne css LO"-O820
Dredging near Dublin......... SOO
Witality Of Seeds ............c0 5 5 0
Dredging near Belfast......... Lessa 2
Report on the British Anne-
Widaieesv..s aecerienecusecuetes acs 25 0 0
Experiments on the produc-
tion of Heat by Motion in
TALC | iocoacenoneceeoneons at Scooe 20 0 0
Report on the Natural Pro-
ducts imported into Scot-
WANG eccestees eos de Apr eine popocees 10 0 0
£618 18 2
1859.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0
Dredging near Dublin......... 15 0
Osteology of Birds ............ 50 0
TTS MEO TUCATA) fos scsdugnsecee ove 5 0
Manure Experiments ......... 20 0
British Meduside ............... 5 0
Dredging Committee ......... 5 0
Steam-vessels’ Performance... 5 0
Marine Fauna of South and
Wiesihoh Irelands. . css ccmceones 10 0
Photographic Chemistry ...... 10 0
Lanarkshire Fossils ............ 20 0
Balloon Ascents.......:........ 39 11
£684 11
1860.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 16 6 0
Dredging in Dublin Bay...... 15) (OF 0
Inquiry into the Performance
of Steam-vessels ............ 124 0 0
Explorations in the Yellow
Sandstone of Dura Den 20° 0)0
Sono cd cSsceoe oo's
REPORT—1887.
£3. da.
Chemico-mechanical Analysis
of Rocks and Minerals...... 25 0 0
Researches on the Growth of
BIAMUS 5 seuasr eas doasetesnecr ses 1.0)..0430
Researches on the Solubility
OL PALES en. caer eomeweet> apie 30 0 0
Researches on theConstituents
Of “Miamutes* fstedudeerse. code 25 0 0
Balance of Captive Balloon
ACCOUNTS .¢.225250000- Ro ecne eee si ee)
£766 19 6
1861.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 500 0 0
Earthquake Experiments...... 25 0-0
Dredging North and East
Coasts of Scotland ......... 23 0
Dredging Committee :—
1860......£50 0 0 ee
1861......£22 0 0 8
Excavations at Dura Den...... -20 0 0
Solubility of Salts. ............ 20 0 0
Steam-vessel Performance ... 150 0 O
Fossils of Lesmahago \........ 15 0 O
Explorations at Uriconium... 20 0 0
Chemical Alloys ....... aewneeers 20 0 0
Classified Index to the Trans-
BCULONS: ssecencovecsscndelane rae 100 0 90
Dredging in the Mersey and
ID GEtiecr: cwcssmaaVenebwetecsoees <n) SOU Oe O
DIpl@inelo ras cccsevsseeestevesane 30 0 0
Photoheliographie Observa-
UOT) cae wacvestewancunea svece aes 50 0 O
Prison Diet ..S.ccct socv-neves coast Ome,
Gauging of Water............00 10 0 0
Alpine Ascents ........ Sechnde eas op One OULO
Constituents of Manures...... 25 0 0
#1111, 5 10
1862.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Patent (Laws) sc.scVesntsnenesenae ot "Gy ®
Mollusca of N.-W. of America 10 0 O
Natural History by Mercantile
Marine <.i.esses paeceass seme 5 0 0
Tidal Observations ............ 25 0 O
Photoheliometer at Kew ...... 40 0 0
Photographic Pictures of the
OUD: obs ceccnecmeeenenteate see gee REDUEEO) AO)
Rocks of Donegal.............. 25 0 0
Dredging Durham and North-
amberland! [irtcs..cccssceroeee 25 0 0
Connexion of Storms ......... 20 0.0
Dredging North-east Coast
of Scotland ‘tk-...:ceaeeseees 6.49 6
Ravages of Teredo ............ 311 0
Standards of Electrical Re-
SIStANCE {..dsscqeecoes ces taeee 50 0 0
Railway Accidents ............ 10 0 0
Balloon Committee ..... Spe serie 200 0 0
| Dredging Dublin Bay ......... 10 0 0
GENERAL STATEMENT.
£ 3. d.
Dredging the Mersey ......... 5ei000
PPPIBOM DICT sccecrcsssescasceeels 20/070
Gauging of Water .............0. 1210 0
Steamships’ Performance...... 150 0 0
Thermo-Electric Currents ... 5 0 O
£1293 16 6
1863.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Balloon Committee deficiency 70 0 0O
Balloon Ascents (other ex-
ERIC CH iipniesccsacsscs-scdeneesns 25 0 0
PAE AOIANE SS Raids Sas ne secis's eatas da sais 2B. 10 0
MIIMHGSSINS: Wiisizsses-racececsevec 20 0 O
BE RMUGS hon. cu seetsesessececsendsne 20 0 0
Granites of Donegal............ 5 0 0
MEMIROUUDIOL | (sapesacssdsessecees 20 0 O
Vertical Atmospheric Move-
PETA By cenied soaps arsae Sdectn nce 13 0 0
Dredging Shetland ............ 50 0 0
Dredging North-east coast of
RIND orc sianiawcavcGanac'esacsas 25 9-0
Dredging Northumberland
ABGASDULNAM —.....sc00.ce.0seae 17 310
Dredging Committee superin-
HEOGEICO o.5svesnnsosscesaac 10.040
Steamship Performance ...... 100 0 O
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Carbon under pressure ......... 1050.0
Volcanic Temperature ......... 100 0 0
Bromide of Ammonium ...... 8 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 0
Electrical Construction and
PISETIDULION ...020.-cccseceses 40 0.0
Luminous Meteors ............ LZ .0~'0
Kew Additional Buildings for
Photoheliograph .........208 100 0 0
Thermo-Electricity ............ 15, 0- 0
Analysis of Rocks ............ Ss 0) 0
ARIUS cone a's cccsceccsacctcocaces 10 0 O
£1608 3 10
eer eee
1864.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Coal Fossils ..... Sanwa dadeaasine te 20.0 0
Vertical Atmospheric Move-
LO ELL D AechBgoeasde-poccn- Aacee 20 0 0
Dredging Shetland ............ 75 0 0
Dredging Northumberland... 25 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Carbon under pressure ...... 10 0 0
Standards of Electric Re-
SHEE MPIGE) ..cnaaeananareswcs eodsn 0 0
Analysis of Rocks 0 0
SPEYALOIOA ...ctcceossncessocicccess 0 0
Askham’s Gift .......... 0 0
Nitrite of Amyle 0 0
Nomenclature Committee ... 5 0 9
PReaNT= GAUL CS... accocescssedsses Lo as
Cast-Iron Investigation ...... 20 0 0
£ sd.
| Tidal Observations in the
RUUBER csvisatereadksvececasces 50 0.0
SPeChTalWRAyS...cessapccsassenen-6 45 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 20 0 O
£1289 15 8
1865.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory... 600 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 100 0 0
ELV OOMGE: waste eeedindnas shee aaa 13... 0.40
Rain-Gaugees...issscscccessosneas 30 0 0
Tidal Observations in the
MMper, 52 .c05.¢-cesastcesere on 6.8) 0
Hexylic Compounds ............ 20 0 0
Amyl Compounds ............... 20 0 0
righ: Wlorays...casseseenas-tecneres 25 0 0
American Mollusca ..........0. 39) 10)
Oreanie; Acids) <a.cseeexss tee eee 20 0 0
Lingula Flags Excavation... 10 0 0
ID Ty PLerUs c... acne saetseere each 50 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 O
Malta Caves Researches ...... 50 0 0
Oyster Breeding ............008 25 0 0
Gibraltar Caves Researches... 150 0 0O
Kent’s Hole Excavations...... 100 0 O
Moon’s Surface Observations 35 0 0
Marine /Haunh) fescnseteane "scree 25 0 0
Dredging Aberdeenshire ...... 25 0 0
Dredging Channel Islands ... 50 0 0
Zoological Nomenclature...... 5 0 0
Resistance of Floating Bodies
AO VWichieD se scewaesteaesossannsse 100 0 0
Bath Waters Analysis ......... 8 10 10
Luminous Meteors. ............ 40 0 0
£1591 7 10
1866.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory... 600 0 0
Lunar Committee............... 6413 4
Balloon Committee ............ 50 0 O
Metrical Committee............ 50 0 O
British) Rainfall......0ss0.c0ssse« 50 0 0
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 1G AOsa0
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed... 15 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 50:0),,.0
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 20 0 0
Chemival Constitution of
Cast Iron ....... eB siscrtonee DO OO
Amyl Compounds ............... 25.0. 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 O
Malta Caves Exploration ...... 30 0 0
Kent’s Hole Exploration ...... 200 0 0
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon
and Cornwall’.....csscvcssesses 25 0 0
Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast 25 0 0
Dredging Hebrides Coast 50 0 0
Dredging the Mersey ......... 57 0.40
Resistance of Floating Bodies
TPE WALCE eaves avcascastcevcees 50 0 0
Polycyanides of Organic Radi-
Cals@sccorpes np aeaseene baneyenee For ce ee,
XCiv
£
Rigor Mortis ....escceeserereeeees 10
Trish Annelida ........sseeceeere 15
Catalogue of Cramia........+.-- 50
Didine Birds of Mascarene
iisieyoretSaAecre ss DO
Typical Crania Researches | ae!)
Palestine Exploration Fund... 100
“£1750 1
1867.
Maintaining the Hstablish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600
Meteorological Instruments,
PAILESEINIG sc. <eccsscsseccescrcees 50
Lunar Committee .........--.00s 120
Metrical Committee .........c++ 30
Kent’s Hole Explorations 100
Palestine Explorations......... 50
Insect Fauna, Palestine ...... 30
British Rainfall.............sc0e0 50
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 25
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed . 25
Luminous Meteors ........+--+ 50
Bournemouth, &c., Leaf-Beds 30
Dredging Shetland sestaeteende 75
Steamship Reports Condensa-
GION secced cacsas cles dacens cvevease 100
Electrical Standards.........+. 100
Ethyl and Methyl series ...... 25
Fossil Crustacea .......+.:sce+. 25
Sound under Water ........+++. 24
North Greenland Fauna ...... 75
Do. Plant Beds 100
Tron and Steel Manufacture... 25
Patent; LAWS! Tes sccedusascsoswen a 30
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8.
0
0
0
0
0
0
13
d.
0
0)
0
0
0
0
a 4
|
1868.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600
Lunar Committee .........2-.066 120
Metrical Committee............ 50
Zoological Record.......++....+ 100
Kent’s Hole Explorations 150
Steamship Performances ...... 100
IBTitiSH RAINFALL... .ctecsreesecce 50
Luminous Meteors...........000. 50
Organic ACIDS .......:.sseeeesee 60
Fossil Crustacea.......6+-scscceee 25
Methyl Sevies.....:.scccescseserns 25
Mercury and Bile .............«. 25
Organic Remains in Lime-
stone Rocks); <2...<:sessccsssn 25
Scottish Earthquakes ......... 20
Fauna, Devon and Cornwall.. 30
British Fossil Corals ......... 50
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ............ 50
Greenland Explorations ...... 100
Ossi MlOraneenssscarescses secs ne 25
Tidal Observations ............ 100
Underground Temperature... 50
Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances
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REPORT—1887.
mesa.
Secondary Reptiles, &c. .....- 30 0 0
British Marine Invertebrate
AUN, cecceatucsscsscoscvcoscnts 100 0 0
£1940 0 O
1869.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Lunar Committee........sscrscseee 50 0 0
Metrical Committee..........ss00+ 25 0 0
Zoological Record ........+--++++ 100 0 0
Committee on Gases in Deep-
well Water .......sscccsccsers so pone OO
British Rainfall...........0.s000s 50 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of Iron,
fe yen peu EEE EEE ICE 20 30 0 0
Kent’s Hole Explorations...... 150 0 0
Steamship Performances ...... 30 0 0
Chemical Constitution of
Cast Troms. .2....:.cccccevecseene 80 0 0
Tron and Steel Manufacture 100 0 0
Methyl] Series...........22+s-ee00. 30 0 0
Organic Remains in Lime-
stone ROCKS.....s...sssssseseree 1000
Earthquakes in Scotland ...... LOM OMG
British Fossil Corals ......... 50 0 O
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ............ 30 0 0
MOSS WIOLE sarts ress «sees euch 25 0 0
Tidal Observations .........+«- 100 0 0
Underground Temperature... 30 0 0
Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances weaeee 500
Organic ACidS .........seeeeeeee 12020
Kiltorcan Fossils .........0+++0. 20 0 0
Chemical Constitution and
Physiological Action Rela-
LOUS:, x iaccocmscncensenseseaneae 15 0 0
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 0
Utilization of Sewage ......... 10 0.10
Products of Digestion ......... 10 0 0
£1622 0 0
1870.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory 600
Metrical Committee............ 25
Zoological Record.........s.000+ 100
Committee on Marine Fauna 20
Ears in Fishes ...... suv eciteehtdee 10
Chemical Nature of CastIron 80
Luminous Meteors ............ 30
Heat in the Blood............... 15
British Raintall,....2s:.\.cveees 100
Thermal Conductivity of
TVOD) O6CoPaiencce neds occ cencieteene 20
British Fossil Corals............ 50
Kent’s Hole Explorations 150
Scottish Earthquakes ......... 4
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ...........+ 15
OSSi Hl Ona; tovewss owes cee cn eens 25
Tidal Observations ............ 100
Underground Temperature... 50
Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils ... 20
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GENERAL STATEMENT.
CoE DCE
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 0
Utilization of Sewage ......... bOV0n 0
Organic Chemical Compounds 30 0 0
Onny River Sediment ......... 3 104 0
Mechanical Equivalent of
ERSTE RatA ckicis wcaiqeoseescdeeses 50 0 0
£1572 0 0
1871.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory 600 0 0
Monthly Reports of Progress
in Chemistry .......cc.eseeeeee 100 0 0
Metrical Committee............ 25 0 0
Zoological Record...........++5 100 0 0
Thermal Equivalents of the
Oxides of Chlorine ......... OF 'O?"0
Tidal Observations ........... 100 0 0
PP SRMIP EOLA Sa cecrcsccsscccceseece 25 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
British Fossil Corals ......... 25 0 0
Heat in the Blood............... 2 PO
SP VGISH IMAL, . to. .cc accesses 50 0 0
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150 0 0
Fossil Crustacea .........ssseee 25 0 0
Methyl Compounds ............ 25 0 0
Dima OjECts ........ccsecceses 20 0 0
Fossil Coral Sections, for
Photographing ............0++ 20 0 0
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ..........+. 20 0 0
Moab Explorations ............ 100 0 0
Gaussian Constants .........+++ 40 0 0
£1472 2 6
es ae
1872.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory oe
Metrical Committee............
Zoological Record............... ie
Tidal “Committee Ranvenettascex 200
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25
Organic Chemical Compounds 25
Exploration of Moab............ 100
Terato-Embryological Inqui-
Me cea eadessscinetsccevesensse 10
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100
Luminous Meteors ............ 20
Heat in the Blood............... 15
Fossil Crustacea .............66 25
Fossil Elephants of Malta ... 25
MRAMAR MOD TECIS .....0.-.s.peeecse 20
Inverse Wave-Lengths......... 20
British Rainfall.......... Serpico 100
Poisonous Substances Antago-
PRISER cen e esses cates tect oct ces c 10
Essential Oils, Chemical Con-
BUPHELBLON, BCriccceccteskcesce oes 40
Mathematical Tables ......... 50
Thermal Conductivity of Me-
Pulses codscseacsee siecle ccetes 25
£1285
colo oO SGC scoooeosoooo osooocece
clo o8 o0 cooooocooooo cooooooe
XCcV
=.
£ 8. a.
1878.
Zoological Record...........000« 100 0 0
Chemistry Record.............0 200 0 O
Tidal Committee ............... 400 0 0
Sewage Committee ............ 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25 0 0
Fossil Elephants ............... 25 0 0
Witves ene ths: © ccaceedcs see ve 160 0 0
BMibIsh, Halntalll: wres.cc.oeacesee 100 0 0
Bisson tial Oils: 3 /..cdcccaseacessns 30 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 100 0 0
Gaussian Constants ..,.......0. 10° 0-0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 0
Underground Temperature... 150 0. 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Fossil Flora, Ireland............ 20 0 0
Timber Denudation and Rain-
UEC) coos eShepeneemODA gD eaccac 20 0 0
Luminous Meteors............... 30 0 0
£1685 0 O
1874.
Zoological Record .........e.e.e. 100 0 0
Chemistry Record............... 100 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 100 0 0
Elliptic Functions............... 100 0 0
Lightning Conductors ......... LO} On. 0
Thermal Conductivity of
RAGES ch incipé feccaxchtowins one 10) Oe. 6
Anthropological Instructions,
CEO ROMA Pinas ass eisaxciscasense ie 50 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... Lb» 9'O gall)
British) Rainfall. .....c.ccescsesed 100 0 0
MSSentaMI IOUS, . sccecPaddevedrass 10 <0'.:0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Mauritius Meteorological Re-
BEARGIN wc soniceres teats anentverns 100 0 0
Magnetization of Iron ......... 20 0 0
Marine Organisms.............. 30 0 0
Fossils, North-West of Scot-
MATER ceoeess vsinzccetsustecee¥etoe 210 0
Physiological Action of Light 20 0 0
Trades MMOS: ccss2ssectarmenees 25 0 0
Mountain Limestone-Corals 25 0 0O
MTTAIC TE IGCKS) cs ccsveceaseaenaes 10 0 0
Drédging, Durham and York-
Shine COaAStS Witesasssdcceees 28 5 0
High Temperature of Bodies 30 0 0
Siemens’s Pyrometer ......... 38 6 0
Labyrinthodonts of Coal-
Measuresistcs sicneassssecuraneas 715 0
£1151 16 O
1875.
Elliptic Functions ............ 100
Magnetization of Iron ......... 20
British Rainfall... ....03..0.0.c0 120
Luminous Meteors
Chemistry Record
xevi
£ 8. a.
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric ACid............+++ LOM OF 10
Isometric Cresols ..........+..+. 20 0 0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50°00
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 15 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Development of Myxinoid
INH GHGS wae sviesee ae sclses ooe|ns<see'e 20 0 0
Zoological Record..........-.++ 100 0 0
Instructions for Travellers... 20 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 20 0 O
Palestine Exploration ......... 100 0 0
£960 0 0
1876.
Printing MathematicalTables 159 4 2
IBsriish) Raintall, .5s..5.st..s0-cn 100 0 0
TAS LA ssee «ceis'esitie ots telemian a 9 L540
Tide Calculating Machine ... 200 0 0
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
Tsomeric Cresols ............... 10 0 0
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-
rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-
ACCUALES.., wdslssccasecsesscwecnae bOMOMG
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid............... 13 0 0
Exploration of Victoria Cave,
ENH Gyntansd pecs desde nator ae 100 0 0
Geological Record...........+++- 100 0 O
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Thermal Conductivities of
ROCKS ie doc ovvice ecunwede as'ce vette 10 0 O
Underground Waters ......... 10. 0 0
Earthquakes in Scotland...... L100
Zoological Record............+6+ 100 0 0
Olaseelhimn esses. ccvtces esses st sens 5 0 0
Physiological ActionofSound 25 0 0
Zoological Station.............-. 15 QO
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15 0 0
Physical Characters of Inha-
bitants of British Isles...... 13 15 0
Measuring Speed of Ships ... 10 0 0
Effect of Propeller on turning
of Steam Vessels ............ 5 00
£1092 4 2
1877.
Liquid Carbonic Acids in
WIN CTIALS Seceena sue outs <segenses 20 0 0
Elliptic Functions ............ 250 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of
TROVE Aeeatener bei ago eo EO REEe bp
Zoological Record.............0. 100 0 0
Kent's i@avern) ......2ce0sc.sss0. 100 0 0
Zoologica] Station at Naples 75 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Elasticity of Wires ........... 3 L00)1/0:' #0
Dipterocarpz, Report on...... 20 0 0
REPORT— 1887.
Ns ds
Mechanical Equivalent of
TL Calliteswisesscewsseseass >= ¥emeten 35 0 0
Double Compounds of Cobalt
and Nickellte...cesecesscnteus SOG
Underground Temperatures 50 0 O
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 100 0 0
Underground Waters in New
Red Sandstone ........ ...+2- 10 0 0
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-
rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-
ACETATES ~........cnccescescnesse 10, 0.0
British Earthworks ............ 25 0 0
Atmospheric Elasticity in
1baVhiec yy Gaesaancboosanscnte sae cer 16. 0. 20
Development of Light from
Coallemas’ sites cavenceesnstenseine 20 0 0
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid.........0-0 nap It: ae
Geological Record............ =«.100';.0, 0
Anthropometric Committee 34 0 0
Physiological Action of Phos-
phoric Acid, &G.......:..cssss- 15 0 0
£1128 9-7
1878.
Exploration of Settle Caves 100 0 0
Geological Record..........0+. 100 0 0
Investigation of Pulse Pheno-
mena by means of Syphon
@COrd Or ac. cccnecscatavere cone 10) 10 R50)
| Zoological Station at Naples 75 0 O
Investigation of Underground
WWVGETS nok tsanssseecdwsccseateeaa ib: (OO
Transmission of Electrical
Impulses through Nerve
DELUCLUTE.......scssecccevncscvers 30 0 0
Calculation of Factor Table
of Fourth Million............ 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 66 0 0
Chemical Composition and
Structure of less known
Alkaloids?s...2--.saen»scssodenns 25 0 0
Exploration of Kent’ s Cavern 50 0 O
Zoological Record .......-+...s0. 100 0 0
Fermanagh CavesExploration 15 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of
IROGKS sencaeeeteosce@sanas cence 416 6
Luminous Meteors..........0000« 10 07,0
Ancient Earthworks ............ 25 0 0
£725 16 6
1879.
Table at the Zoological
Station, Naples ............... 13:08 LO
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of the North of Ireland 20 0 0
Illustrations for a Monograph
on the Mammoth ............ 17 0 0
Record of Zoological Litera-
ULILE oceanside sss see eeeneeeeeehaeas 100 0 0
Composition and Structure of
less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0 0
GENERAL STATEMENT.
1887.
£ 8. da.
Exploration of Caves in
Borneo © ....ccseees als aittetaiolatole 50 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Record of the Progress of
SCOOT Y tress cen weswsecennatssee. 100 0 0
FermanaghCavesExploration 5 0 0
Electrolysis of Metallic Solu-
tions and Solutions of
Compound Salts.............+- 25 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 50 0 0
Natural History of Socotra... 100 0 0
Calculation of Factor Tables
for 5th and 6th Millions... 150 0 0
Circulation of Underground
IWVELCTS.. ...2.-0rsorcecsescecree oO O30
Steering of Screw Steamers... 10 0 0
Improvements in Astrono-
eA OLOCKS| js ssoasses ssa e0e 30 0 O
-Marine Zoology of South
ARC a2. sotesesecesesnaesu ses 20 0 0
Determination of Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat ........ LD
Specific Inductive Capacity
of Sprengel Vacuum......... 40 0 0
ables of Sun-heat Co-
GHICICNES ....2c.csessesveeneceens 30 0 0
Datum Level of the Ordnance
RYRVEY) cctesmiie nc dctev'dweseesvcvice's LON 70! 0
Tables of Fundamental In-
variants of Algebraic Forms 36 14 9
Atmospheric Electricity Ob-
servations in Madeira ...... 1oreOr 0
Instrument for Detecting
Fire-damp in Mines ......... 22 0 0
Instruments for Measuring
the Speed of Ships ......... ie ds 8
Tidal Observations in the
English Channel ............ 10 0 0
£1080 11 11
1880.
New Form of High Insulation
RGESUME Ene neath eadapananasiseosss 10" -0)..0
Underground Temperature... 10 0 0
Determination of the Me-
chanical Equivalent of
PRG AUN R ccsascasosasecsasscsssecss $b :0
Elasticity of Wires ........,... 50 0 O
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30 0 0
Fundamental Invariants ...... 8520
Laws of Water Friction ...... 20> (0-70
Specific Inductive Capacity
of Sprengel Vacuum......... 20 0 0
Completion of Tables of Sun-
_ heat Coefficients ............ 50 0 0
Instrument for Detection of
Fire-damp in Mines......... LOE 0).20
Inductive Capacity of Crystals
and Paraffines ............... AT aad
Report on Carboniferous
IEGUEZOdavasasteeiarescitesseces! LO! O20
Bows.” ae
Caves of South Ireland ...... TORO) 0
Viviparous Nature of Ichthyo-
REISITG: - seceMaC BBactasenese cence 10 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 50 0 0
Geological Record...........+... 100 0 0
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of North Ireland ............ 16 0 0
Underground Waters of Per-
mian Formations ............ 5 0 0
Record of Zoological Litera-
MELEE ease setaneres ae ccna ede eeeeae 100 0 O
Table at Zoological Station
BIEN DLS irene csesocsaderanence doe) £0)
Investigation of the Geology
and Zoology of Mexico...... 50 0 0
Anthropometry .........seceeeee. 50 0 0
Pafent eA wWS) caccnonnacesdsaserep 5 0.0
LTSden fe 7,
1881.
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30 0 0
Underground Temperature... 20 0 0
High Insulation Key....... Pte ee BD)
Tidal Observations ............ 10 0 0
FOSSIL PolyZOan ..scesseceoeesses 10 0 0
Underground Waters ......... AO) 20w0
Earthquakes in Japan ......... 25 0 0
Tertiary Pore. «..csteesosscesced 20 0 0
Scottish Zoological Station... 50 0 0
Naples Zoological Station 754.0! (0
Natural History of Socotra... 50 0 0O
Zoological Record...........066+ 100 0 0
Weights and Heights of
Human: Beines *iisievewess 30 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 25 0 0
Anthropological Notes and
Queries Meacenserece: cn-usnceee ee)
Specific Refractions .........:.. Uebice ol
£476 3 1
1882.
Tertiary Flora of North of
Reise ate ondess.seneeceanareenes 20 0 0
Exploration of Caves of South
GiuEe leaaile ste anyeneverces eras LO O-0
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 15 0 0
Fundamental Invariants of
Algebraical Forms ......... ow ee
Record of Zoological Litera-
ULI aoe eRoesocence Scacoonoonedaon 2 LOO
British PolyZ0a, ...<2..-2csesseese TOS ORO
Naples Zoological Station ... 80 0 0
Natural HistoryofTimor-laat 100 0 0
Conversion of Sedimentary
Materials into Metamorphic
ROCKS eswenaems eebbasenenseeins sa 10 0 0
Natural History of Socotra... 100 0 0
Circulation of Underground
Wi AHERS oncncane em tenas sh aaie ince 15 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 15 0 0
Earthquake Phenomena of
DApPAN/< hedibapemcaesasrasetnenee: 6 2D) OLMO
f
xeviii
£ 8. d.
Geological Map of Europe ... 25 0 0
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise...........+.+- 50 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 50 0 0
Photographing Ultra- Violet
Spark Spectra .....-.-+-.+6++ 25 0-0
Hxploration of Raygill Fis-
SUTGesattsctecscsssssasarnssnseas 20 0 0
Calibration of Mercurial Ther-
MOMELETS .......ceereeeeeeeees 20 0 0
Wave-length Tables of Spec-
tra of Hlements........-.0++++ 50 0-0
Geological Record......+++.++++ 100 0 0
Standards for Electrical
Measurements ....-..-+.s000+ 100 0 0
Exploration of Central Africa 100 0 0
Albuminoid Substances of
SELUM ........sccrccccecscsececes 10 0 90
£1126 1 11
1883.
Natural History of Timor-laut 50 0 0
British Fossil Polyzoa ......... 10) 50750
Circulation of Underground
WAateTs....c..cececcscscerserecees 15 0 0
Zoological Literature Record 100 0 0
Exploration of Mount Kili-
+ TMA-NjALO,.....cccceseseressones . 500 0 0
Erosion of Sea-coast of Eng-
land and Wales ......s0...+++« 10, 40570
Fossil Plants of Halifax...... 0 0 0
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise..........--+2- 38: 43. 23
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
VALIVES .stscchesssocstbeousvensents 15 0 0
Zoological Station at Naples 80 0 0
Investigation of Loughton
(WANN Teco sesecacnpseeqeekectiabee 105 FOO
Earthquake Phenomena of
PEA Bcc ccstensascsuesescsee 50 0 0
Meteorological Observations
On) Ben ‘NEVIS ).......csaecsnece 50 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzo-
ZONC TROCES J evendassqvssnudeees =< 25 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 20 0 O
Geological Record..........+-++- 50 0 0
Exploration of Caves in South
GE MMeland! Sesv.:.censwoctsseese LOO SO
Scottish Zoological Station .. 25 0 0
Screw Gauges.......... Forcdersae yO OMEED
£1083 3 3
1884.
Zoological Literature Record 100 0 0
Mossil PolyZ0atc..20.-pes-scossees Lor 10 0
Exploration of Mount Kili-
ma-njaro, Hast Africa ...... 500 0 0
Authropometric Committee... 10 0 0
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 150" 0
International Geological Map 20 0 0
Erratic Blocks of England ... 10 0 0
’ Natural History of Timor-laut 50 0 0
REPORT— 1 887.
£
Coagulation of Blood............ 100
Naples Zoological Station ... 80
Bibliography of Groups of
Invertebrata 1......002.-creees 50
Earthquake Phenomena of
Sapa eosaeeetreaee des -<sseseues 75
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzo-
zoic Rocks ..... Pacaeee es ceeeee 15
Meteorological Observatory at
CHepstOWicccscccccsevecsconsnens 25
Migration of Birds.............-- 20
Collecting and Investigating
Meteoric Dust...........+2s0++- 20
Circulation of Underground
Walters, ...c-scescetdnseesse=e hes 5
Ultra-Violet Spark Spectra... 8
Tidal Observations.........,..+++ 10
Meteorological Observations
On’ Ben! Nevis’ ..s:sscqseenee eee 50
£1173
| o [ere ta eo o.¢ So sooc=
S$ oom
1885.
Zoological Literature Record. 100
Vapour Pressures, &c., of Salt
SOLUPIONS oyecess<nkepacessenenere
Physical Constants | of Solu-
Recent Polyzoa ........0..5
Naples Zoological Station
Exploration of Mount Kilima-
NUJALO | cccscsvaccbatiacseussdstats 25
Fossil Plants of British Ter-
tiary and Secondary Beds .
Calculating Tables in Theory
OL Numbers... .c..csstansreveal® 100
Exploration of New Guinea... 200
Exploration of Mount Ro-
TAMING |) oh ycnwaswee ens tpasnacnom sels 100
Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis ...........-s+0+s - 50
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
WAUS,. 5 caasate emer etince testhecenaas 25
Biological Stations on Coasts
of United Kingdom ......... 150
Meteoric Dust ...........ssee00+ 70
| Marine Biological Station at
Granton yecsecca.¢<+-ausseavaeae . 100
Fossil Phyllopoda of Paleozoic
ROCKS. caccueteten nn kn SCOCEe com 20
Migration of Birds ...........- 30
Synoptic Chart of Indian
OCGA Po -eoesteesesscenen areas 50
Circulation of Underground
Waters ...--ss6 eras «sina ancnee 10
Geological Record ..............+ 50
| Reduction of Tidal Observa-
ODS ...<-ssceuenersnscnseeesencess 10
Earthquake Phenomena of
JAPAN ....c.sacnncacccesesneveccs 70
Raygill Fissure ....... neon ewes cre liz,
£1385
Bloe suas so. eo 42 6a ,0" © on oe; <<. & Seeiy1o Ss
Bisoee SOc SO oO Sono SOT Se" 0S (S19 SIS) os '9
GENERAL STATEMENT.
1886. BES nd
Zoological Literature Record. 100 0 0
Exploration of New Guinea... 150 0 0
Secretion of Urine............... 10 0 0
Researches in Food- Fishes and
InvertebrataatSt. Andrews 75 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 40 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesnu-
REE Ph erecine sin bi-S<saspaanactse 30 0 0
Naples Zoological Station...... 50 0 0
Meteorological Observations
OBEEPDUNGVIS' <<... .cccccrcseer 100 0 0
Prehistoric Race in Greek
MEENA peclscust ascceccversesss 20 0 0
North-Western Tribes of Ca-
SRAM tee. descr ccsccoes cscs 50. 0 0
Fossil Plants of British Ter-
tiary and Secondary Beds... 20 0 0
Regulation of Wages under
Blidine Scales” ........+....8 LOTOF 0
Exploration of Caves in North
ON SE oconacepeeeeenpoer HeapeopeD 25 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 30 0 O
Geological Record............... 100 0 0
Chemical Nomenclature ...... 5 O°'0
Fossil Phyllopoda of Paleozoic
RGUKE Stat votctioxs cc thble beceées 15 0 0
Solar Radiation...............64 910 6
Maenetic Observations......... 10 10 0
Tidal Observations ............ 50 0 0
Marine Biological Station at
RPEAIELOE (osececensoesesccoesscase 75 0 0
Physical and Chemical Bear-
ings of Electrolysis ......... 20 0 0
£995 0 6
1887.
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
(PSSOISTANT) 2. 2...cccecsevess 50 0 0
Standards of Light (1886
PIEAEUD) avin asoncsscosevenesscsces 20 0 0
Silent Discharge of Elec-
IMR ewe Santi cas <cceee ssincssess 20 0 0
Exploration of Cae Gwyn
Cave, North Wales ..... ate
areas
Investigation of Lymphatic
SYSUCMIpecccostisashectincacts ass 25 0 0
Granton Biological Station... 75 0 0
Zoological Record ..........0.... 100 0 0
MloravOl Chix ae wscccecteasets 75 0 0
Nature of Solution ............ 20 0 0
Influence of Silicon on Steel 30 0 O
Plymouth Biological Station 50 0 0
Naples Biological Station ... 100 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
VES caacsese eects act skcneseess 20 0 0
Regulation of Wages ......... 10 0 0
Microscopic Structure of the
Rocks of Anglesey............ 10 0 0
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 75 0 0
Prehistoric Race of Greek
TSIAHIGS nos cersctkesccocectrenscces 20 0 0
Flora and Fauna of the
C@amMenoongs.7. seks kesscsesetcs 75.0.0
Provincial Museum Reports 5 0
Harmonic Analysis of Tidal
Observations, ..4.cs.s.es- sees 15 0 O
Coal Plants of Halifax......... 25 0 O
Exploration of the Eocene
Beds of the Isle of Wight... 20 0 0
Magnetic Observations......... 26 2 0
‘Manure’ Gravelsof Wexford 10 0 0
NSeproly sist. sasg-caneereencass cae 30 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda ............... 20 0 O
Racial Photographs, Egyptian 20 0 0
Standards of Light (1887
(RGN) ig enconigeicogprocenenonscGnc 10 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 30 0 O
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
(CUS eranb) We -easaseesanevous 50 0 O
Electrical Standards ............ 50 0 O
Bathy-hypsographical Map of
British Uslesie ss. sc. cesses @ 6-0
Absorption Spectra ............ 40 0 0
Solar Radiation .............00++ 18 10 0
Circulation of Underground
Wide, snccseeeccensssesacsese 5 0 0
Hrratic Blacks) \..sseccsse<s0s0 10707 0
0
£1186 18
xcix
General Meetings.
On Wednesday, August 31, at 8 p.m., in the Free Trade Hall, Prin-
cipal Sir J. William Dawson, C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., F.B.S., F.G.S.,
resigned the office of President to Sir H. E. Roscoe, M.P., D.C.L., LL.D.,
Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S., who took the Chair, and delivered an Address,
for which see page |.
On Thursday, September 1, at 7.30 p.m., a Soirée took place at the
Royal Jubilee Exhibition.
On Friday, September 2, at 8.30 p.m., in the Free Trade Hall, Pro-
fessor H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on ‘ The Rate of
Explosions in Gases.’
On Monday, September 5, at 8.30 P.M., in the Free Trade Hall,
Colonel Sir Francis de Winton, K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S., delivered a Discourse
on ‘ Explorations in Central Africa.’
On Tuesday, September 6, at 7.30 p.m., a Soirée took place in the
Town Hall.
On Wednesday, September 7, at 2.30 p.m., in the Chemistry Lecture
Theatre, Owens College, the concluding General Meeting took place,
when the Proceedings of the General Committee and the Grants of
Money for Scientific purposes were explained to the Members.
The Meeting was then adjourned to Bath. [The Meeting is appointed
to commence on Wednesday, September 5, 1888. |
_ PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.
“4 poy
. > a
Li
t suid
=H Lg
ve atiy of a
va a
ADDRESS
BY
SIR HENRY E. ROSCOE,
MP., D.C.L., LL.D., Px.D., F.R.S., V.P.CS.,
PRESIDENT.
Mancuester, distinguished as the birthplace of two of the greatest
iscoveries of modern science, heartily welcomes to-day for the third time
the members and friends of the British Association for the Advancement
of Science.
On the occasion of our first meeting in this city in the year 1842 the
President, Lord Francis Egerton, commenced his address with a touching
msion to the veteran of science, John Dalton, the great chemist, the
discoverer of the laws of chemical combination, the framer of the atomic
theory upon which the modern science of chemistry may truly be said to
be based. Lord Francis Egerton said: ‘ Manchester is still the residence
of one whose name is uttered with respect wherever science is cultivated,
vho is here to-night to enjoy the honours due to a long career of perseyer-
ng devotion to knowledge, and to receive from myself, if he will con-
escend to do so, the expression of my own deep personal regret that
ncrease of years, which to him up to this hour has been but increase of
visdom, should have rendered him in respect of mere bodily strength un-
ble to fill on this occasion an office which in his case would have received
nore honour than it could confer. I do regret that any cause should have
grevented the present meeting in his native town from being associated
ith the name’—and here I must ask you to allow me to exchange the
lame of Dalton in 1842 for that of Joule in 1887, and to add again in the
rords of the President of the former year that I would gladly have served
is a doorkeeper in any house where Joule, the father of science in Man-
hester, was enjoying his just pre-eminence.
For it is indeed true that the mantle of John Dalton has fallen on the
shoulders of one well worthy to wear it, one to whom science owes a debt
B2
4 REPORT—1887.
of gratitude not less than that which it willingly pays to the memory of
the originator of the atomic theory. James Prescott Joule it was who,
in his determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat, about the very
year of our first Manchester meeting, gave to the world of science the
results of experiments which placed beyond reach of doubt or cavil the
greatest and most far-reaching scientific principle of modern times,
namely, that of the conservation of energy. This, to use the words of
Tyndall, is indeed a generalisation of conspicuous grandeur fit to take
rank with the principle of gravitation, more momentous, if that be possible,
combining as it does the energies of the material universe into an organic
whole, and enabling the eye of science to follow the flying shuttles of the
universal power as it weaves what the Hrdgeist in ‘ Faust’ calls ‘the
living garment of God.’
It is well, therefore, for us to remember, in the midst of the turmoil
of our active industrial and commercial life, that Manchester not only well
represents the energy of England in these practical directions, but that
it possesses even higher claims to our regard and respect as being the seat
of discoveries of which the value not only to pure science is momentous,
but which also lie at the foundation of all our material progress and all our
industrial success. For without a knowledge of the laws of chemical com-
bination all the marvellous results with which modern industrial chemistry
has astonished the world could not have been achieved, whilst the know-
ledge of the quantitative relations existing between the several forms of
energy, and the possibility of expressing their amount in terms of ordinary
mechanics, are matters which now constitute the life-breath of every
branch of applied science. For example, before Dalton’s discovery every
manufacturer of oil of vitriol—a substance now made each week in thou-
sands of tons within afew miles of this spot—every manufacturer had his
own notions of the quantity of sulphur which he ought to burn in order
to make a certain weight of sulphuric acid, but he had no idea that only
a given weight of sulphur can unite with a certain quantityof oxygen
and of water to form the acid, and that an excess of any one of the com-
ponent parts was not only useless but harmful. Thus, and in tens of
thousands of other instances, Dalton replaced rule of thumb by scientific
principle. In like manner the applications of Joule’s determination of the
mechanical equivalent of heat are even more general; the increase and
measurement of the efficiency of our steam engines and the power of our
dynamos are only two of the numerous examples which might be adduced
of the practical value of Joule’s work.
If the place calls up these thoughts, the time of our meeting also
awakens memories of no less interest, in the recollection that. we this
year celebrate the Jubilee of her Most Gracious Majesty’s accession to
the throne. It is right that the members of the British Association for
the Advancement of Science should do so with heart and voice, for
although science requires and demands no royal patronage, we thereby
express the feeling which must be uppermost in the hearts of all men of
ADDRESS. 5
science, the feeling of thankfulness that we have lived in an age which
has witnessed an advance in our knowledge of nature, and a consequent
improvement in the physical and, let us trust, also in the moral and
intellectual well-being of the people hitherto unknown; an age with
which the name of Victoria will ever be associated.
To give even a sketch of this progress, to trace even in the merest
outline the salient points of the general history of science during the
fifty momentous years of her Majesty’s reign, is a task far beyond my
limited powers. 1t must suffice for me to point out to you, to the best
of my ability, some few of the steps of that progress as evidenced in
_ the one branch of science with which I am most familiar, and with which
Iam more closely concerned, the science of chemistry.
In the year 1837 chemistry was a very different science from that
existing at the present moment. Priestley, it is true, had discovered
oxygen, Lavoisier had placed the phenomena of combustion on their true
basis, Davy had decomposed the alkalis, Faraday had liquefied many of
the gases, Dalton had enunciated the laws of chemical combination by
weight, and Gay Lussac had pointed out the fact that a simple volumetric
relation governs the combination of the gases. But we then possessed no
knowledge of chemical dynamics, we were then altogether unable to
explain the meaning of the heat given off in the act of chemical combina-
tion. The atomic theory was indeed accepted, but we were as ignorant
of the mode of action of the atoms and as incapable of explaining their
mutual relationship as were the ancient Greek philosophers. Fifty years
ago, too, the connection existing between the laws of life, vegetable and
animal, and the phenomena of inorganic chemistry, was ill understood.
The idea that the functions of living beings are controlled by the same
forces, chemical and physical, which regulate the changes occurring in
the inanimate world, was then one held by only a very few of the foremost
thinkers of the time. Vital force was a term in everyone’s mouth, ap
expression useful, as Goethe says, to disguise our ignorance, for
Wo die Begriffe fehlen,
Da stellt ein Wort zur rechten Zeit sich ein.
deed the pioneer of the chemistry of life, Liebig himself, cannot quite
shake himself free from the bonds of orthodox opinion, and he who first
laced the phenomena of life on a true basis cannot trust his chemical
rinciples to conduct the affairs of the body, but makes an appeal to vital
orce to help him out of his difficulties; as when in the body politic an
unruly mob requires the presence and action of physical force to restrain
it and to bring its members under the saving influence of law and order, so
00, according to Liebig’s views, in the body corporeal a continual conflict
between the chemical forces and the vital power occurs throughout life,
in which the latter, when it prevails, insures health and a continuance of
ife, but of which defeat insures disease or death. The picture presented
to the student of to-day is a very different one. We now believe that no
6 REPORT—1887.
such conflict is possible, but that life is governed by chemical and
physical forces, even though we cannot in every case explain its phenomena
in terms of these forces ; that whether these tend to continue or to end,
existence depends upon their nature and amount, and that disease and
death are as much a consequence of the operation of chemical and physical
laws as are health and life.
Looking back again to our point of departure fifty years ago, let us for
a moment glance at Dalton’s labours, and compare his views and those of
his contemporaries with the ideas which now prevail. In the first place it
is well to remember that the keystone of his atomic theory lies not so
much in the idea of the existence and the indivisible nature of the
particles of matter—though this idea was so firmly implanted in his mind
that, being questioned on one occasion on the subject, he said to his friend
the late Mr. Ransome, ‘Thou knowst it must be so, for no man can split
an atom ’—as in the assumption that the weights of these particlés are
different. Thus whilst each of the ultimate particles of oxygen has the
same weight as every other particle of oxygen, and each atom of hydrogen,
for example, has the same weight as every other particle of hydrogen, the
oxygen atom is sixteen times heavier than that of hydrogen, and so on
for the atoms of every chemical element, each having its own special
weight. It was this discovery of Dalton, together with the further one
that the elements combine in the proportions indicated by the relative
weights of their atoms or in multiples of these proportions, which at
once changed chemistry from a qualitative to a quantitative science,
making the old invocation prophetic, ‘Thou hast ordered all things in
mueasure and number and weight.’
The researches of chemists and physicists during the last fifty years
have not only strengthened but broadened the foundations of the great
Manchester philosopher’s discoveries. It is true that his original
numbers, obtained by crude and inaccurate methods, have been replaced
by more exact figures, but his laws of combination and his atomic
explanation of those laws stand as the great bulwarks of our science.
On the present occasion it is interesting to remember that within a
stone’s-throw of this place is the small room belonging to our Literary
and Philosophical Society which served Dalton as his laboratory. Here
with the simplest of all possible apparatus—a few cups, penny ink bottles,
rough balances, and self-made thermometers and barometers—Dalton
accomplished his great results. Here he patiently worked, marshalling
tacts to support his great theory, for as an explanation of his laborious
experimental investigations the wise old man says: ‘ Having been in my
progress so often misled, by taking for granted the results of others, I
have determined to write as little as possible but what I can attest by
my own experience.’ Nor ought we, when here assembled, to forget that
the last three of Dalton’s experimental essays—one of which, on a new
method of measuring water of crystallisation, contained more than the
germ of a great discovery—were communicated to our Chemical Section
ADDRESS. |
in 1842, and that this was the last memorable act of his scientific life.
In this last of his contributions to science, as in his first, his method of
procedure was that which has been marked out as the most fruitful by
almost all the great searchers after nature’s secrets, namely the assump-
tion of a certain view as a working hypothesis, and the subsequent in-
stitution of experiment to bring this hypothesis to a test of reality upon
which a legitimate theory is afterwards to be based. ‘ Dalton,’ as Henry
well says, ‘valued detailed facts mainly, if not solely, as the stepping-
stones to comprehensive generalisations.’
Next let us ask what light the research of the last fifty years has
thrown on the subject of the Daltonian atoms: first, as regards their
size ; secondly, in respect to their indivisibility and mutual relationships ;
and thirdly, as regards their motions.
As regards the size and shape of the atoms, Dalton offered no opinion,
for he had no experimental grounds on which to form it, believing
that they were inconceivably small and altogether beyond the grasp of
our senses aided by the most powerful appliances of art. He was in the
habit of representing his atoms and their combinations diagrammatically
as round discs or spheres made of wood, by means of which he was fond of
illustrating his theory. But such mechanical illustrations are not without
their danger, for I well remember the answer given by a pupil to a
question on the atomic theory : ‘Atoms are round balls of wood invented
by Dr. Dalton.’ So determinedly indeed did he adhere to his mechanical
method of representing the chemical atoms and their combinations that he
could not be prevailed upon to adopt the system of chemical formule
introduced by Berzelius' and now universally employed. In a letter
addressed to Graham in April 1837 he writes: ‘Berzelius’ symbols are
horrifying. A young student in chemistry might as soon learn Hebrew
‘as make himself acquainted with them.’ And again: ‘They appear
to me equally to perplex the adepts in science, to discourage the learner,
as well as to cloud the beauty and simplicity of the atomic theory.’
But modern research has accomplished, as regards the size of the
atom, at any rate to a certain extent, what Dalton regarded as impossible.
Thus in 1865 Loschmidt, of Vienna, by a train of reasoning which i
cannot now stop to explain, came to the conclusion that the diameter of
an atom of oxygen or nitrogen was wm Of a centimetre. With the
highest known magnifying power we can distinguish the wm part of a
centimetre ; if now we imagine a cubic box each of whose sides has the
above length, such a box when filled with air will contain from 60 to 100
millions of atoms of oxygen and nitrogen. A few years later William
Thomson extended the methods of atomic measurement, and came to the
‘conclusion that the distance between the centres of contiguous molecules
is less than sma and greater than mong Of a centimetre; or, to put
it in language more suited to the ordinary mind, Thomson asks us to
imagine a drop of water magnified up to the size of the earth, and then
tells us that the coarseness of the graining of such a mass would be
8 REPORT—1887.
something between a heap of small shot and a heap of cricket-balls. Or
again, to take Clifford’s illustration, you know that our best microscopes
magnify from 6,000 to 8,000 times ; a microscope which would magnify
that result as much again would show the molecular structure of water.
Or again, to put it in another form, if we suppose that the minutest organ-
ism we can now see were provided with equally powerful microscopes,
these beings would be able to see the atoms.
Next, as to the indivisibility of the atom, involving also the question
as to the relationships between the atomic weights and properties of the
several elementary bodies.
Taking Dalton’s aphorism, ‘ Thou knowst no man can split an atom,’
‘as expressing the view of the enunciator of the atomic theory, let us see
how far this idea is borne out by subsequent work. In the first place,
Thomas Thomson, the first exponent of Dalton’s generalisation, was torn
by conflicting beliefs until he found peace in the hypothesis of Prout, that
the atomic weights of all the so-called elements are multiples of a com-
mon unit, which doctrine he sought to establish, as Thorpe remarks, by
some of the very worst quantitative determinations to be found in chemi-
cal literature, though here I may add that they were not so incorrect as
Dalton’s original numbers.
Coming down to a somewhat later date, Graham, whose life was devoted
to finding what the motion of an atom was, freed himself from the bond-
age of the Daltonian aphorism, and defined the atom not as a thing which
cannot be divided, but as one which has not been divided. With him, as
with Lucretius, as Angus Smith remarks, the original atom may be far
down.
But speculative ideas respecting the constitution of matter have been
the scientific relaxation of many minds from olden time to the present. In
the mind of the early Greek the action of the atom as one substance
taking various forms by unlimited combinations was sufficient to account
for all the phenomena of the world. And Dalton himself, though up-
holding the indivisibility of his ultimate particles, says: ‘We do not
know that any of the bodies denominated elementary are absolutely in-
decomposable.’ Again Boyle, treating of the origin of form and quality,
says: ‘ There is one universal matter common to all bodies—an extended
divisible and impenetrable substance.’ Then Graham in another place
expresses a similar thought when he writes: ‘It is conceivable that
the various kinds of matter now recognised as different elementary sub-
stances may possess one and the same ultimate or atomic molecules exist-
ing in different conditions of movement. The essential unity of matter
is an hypothesis in harmony with the equal action of gravity upon all
bodies.’
What experimental evidence is now before us bearing upon these
interesting speculations ? In the first place, then, the space of fifty years
has completely changed the face of the inquiry. Not only has the number
of distinct well-established elementary bodies increased from fifty-three in
‘se
. ADDRESS. 9
1837 to seventy in 1887 (not including the twenty or more new elements
recently said to have been discovered by Kriiss and Nilson in certain rare
Scandinavian minerals), but the properties of these elements have béen
studied, and are now known to us with a degree of precision then undreamt
of. So that relationships existing between these bodies which fifty years
ago were undiscernible are now clearly manifest, and it is to these relation-
ships that I would for a moment ask your attention. I have already stated
that Dalton measured the relative weights of the ultimate particles by
assuming hydrogen as the unit, and that Prout believed that on this
basis the atomic weights of all the other elements would be found to be
multiples of the atomic weight of hydrogen, thus indicating that an inti-
mate constitutional relation exists between hydrogen and all the other
elements.
Since the days of Dalton and Prout the truth or otherwise of Prout’s
law has been keenly contested by the most eminent chemists of all
countries. The inquiry is a purely experimental one, and only those who
have a special knowledge of the difficulties which surround such in-
quiries can form an idea of the amount of labour and self-sacrifice borne by
such men as Dumas, Stas, and Marignac in carrying out delicate researches
on the atomic weights of the elements. What is, then, the result of these
most laborious experiments ? It is that, whilst the atomic weights of the
elements are not exactly either multiples of the unit or of half the unit,
many of the numbers expressing most accurately the weight of the atom
approximate so closely to a multiple of that of hydrogen that we are con-
strained to admit that these approximations cannot be a mere matter of
chance, but that some reason must exist for them. What that reason is,
and why a close approximation and yet something short of absolute iden-
tity exists, is as yet hidden behind the veil ; but who is there that doubts
that when this Association celebrates its centenary this veil will have been
lifted and this occult but fundamental question of atomic philosophy
-shall have been brought into the clear light of day ?
But these are by no means all the relationships which modern science
has discovered with respect to the atoms of our chemical elements. So
long ago as 1829 Dobereiner pointed out that certain groups of elements
exist presenting in all their properties strongly marked family character-
istics, and this was afterwards extended and insisted upon by Dumas. We
find, for example, in the well-known group of chlorine, bromine, and
iodine, these resemblances well developed, accompanied moreover by
a proportional graduation in their chemical and physical properties.
Thus, to take the most important of all their characters, the atomic
weight of the middle term is the mean of the atomic weights of the two
extremes. But these groups of triads appeared to be unconnected in any
way with one another, nor did they seem to bear any relation to the far
larger number of the elements not exhibiting these peculiarities.
Things remained in this condition until 1863, when Newlands threw
fresh light upon the subject showing a far-reaching series of relation-
10 REPORT— 1887.
ships. For the first time we thus obtained a glance into the mode in
which the elements are connected together, but, like so many new dis-
coveries, this did not meet with the recognition which we now see it de-
serves. But whilst England thus had the honour of first opening up this
new path, it is to Germany and to Russia that we must look for the con-
summation of the idea. Germany, in the person of Lothar Meyer, keeps,
as it is wont to do, strictly within the limits of known facts. Russia, in
the person of Mendelejeff, being of a somewhat mere imaginative nature,
not only seizes the facts which are proved, but ventures upon prophecy.
These chemists, amongst whom Carnelley must be named, agree in placing
all the elementary bodies in a certain regular sequence, thus bringing
to light a periodic recurrence of analogous chemical and physical pro-
perties, on account of which the arrangement is termed the periodic
system of the elements.
In order to endeavour to render this somewhat complicated matter
clear to you, I may perhaps be allowed to employ asimile. Let us, if you
please, imagine a series of human families, a French one, represented by
Dumas, an English one, by name Newlands, a German one, the family of
Lothar Meyer, and lastly a Russian one, that of Mendelejeff. Let us next
imagine the names of these chemists placed in a horizontal line in the order
Ihave mentioned. Then let us write under each the name of his father,
and again, in the next lower line, that of his grandfather, followed by that
of his great-grandfather, and so on. Let us next write against each of
these names the number of years which has elapsed since the birth of the
individual. We shall then find that these numbers regularly increase by
a definite amount, ‘.e., by the average age of a generation, which will be
approximately the same in all the four families. Comparing the ages of
the chemists themselves we shall observe certain differences, but these are
small in comparison with the period which has elapsed since the birth of
any of theirancestors. Now each individual in this series of family trees
represents a chemical element; and just as each family is distinguished
by certain idiosyncrasies, so each group of the elementary bodies thus
arranged shows distinct signs of consanguinity.
But more than this, it not unfrequently happens that the history and
peculiarities of some member of a family may have been lost, even if the
memory of a more remote and more famous ancestor may be preserved,
although it is clear that such an individual must have had an existence.
In such a case Francis Galton would not hesitate from the characteristics
of the other members to reproduce the physical and even the mental
peculiarities of the missing member; and should genealogical research
bring to light the true personal appearance and mental qualities of the
man, these would be found to coincide with Galton’s estimate.
Such predictions and such verifications have been made in the case
of no less than three of our chemical elements. Thus, Mendelejeff pointed
out that if, in the future, certain lacune in his table were to be filled,
they must be filled by elements possessing chemical and physical pro-
ADDRESS. 11
perties which he accurately specified. Since that time these gaps have
actually been stopped by the discovery of Gallium by Lecoq de Boisban-
dron, of Scandium by Nilson, and of Germanium by Winkler, and their
properties, both physical and chemical, as determined by their discoverers,
agree absolutely with those predicted by the Russian chemist. Nay,
more than this, we not unfrequently have had to deal with chemical
foundlings, elements whose parentage is quite unknown to us. A careful
examination of the personality of such waifs has enabled us to restore them
to the family from which they have been separated by an unkind fate, and
to give them that position in chemical society to which they are entitled.
These remarkable results, though they by no means furnish a proof of
the supposition already referred to, viz., that the elements are derived
from a common source, clearly point in this direction, and lend some
degree of colour to the speculations of those whose scientific imagination,
wearying of dry facts, revels in picturing to itself an elemental Bathybius,
and in applying to the inanimate, laws of evolution similar to those which
rule the animate world. Nor is there wanting other evidence regarding
this inquiry, for here heat, the great analyser, is brought into court. The
main portion of the evidence consists in the fact that distinct chemical in-
dividuals capable of existence at low temperatures are incapable of exist-
ence at high ones, but split up into new materials possessing a less com-
plicated structure than the original. And here it may be well to empha-
sise the distinction which the chemist draws between the atom and the
molecule, the latter being a more or less complicated aggregation of
atoms, and especially to point out the fundamental difference between the
question of separating the atoms in the molecule and that of splitting
up the atom itself. The decompositions above referred to are, in fact, not
confined to compound bodies, for Victor Meyer has proved in the case of
iodine that the molecule at high temperatures is broken to atoms, and
J.J. Thomson has added to our knowledge by showing that this breaking
up of the molecule may be effected not only by heat vibrations, but
likewise by the electrical discharge at a comparatively low temperature.
How far, now, has this process of simplification been carried? Have
the atoms of our present elements been made to yield? To this a negative
answer must undoubtedly be given, for even the highest of terrestrial
temperatures, that of the electric spark, has failed to shake any one of
these atoms in two. That this is the case has been shown by the results
with which spectrum analysis, that new and fascinating branch of science,
has enriched our knowledge, for that spectrum analysis does give us
most valuable aid in determining the varying molecular conditions of
matter is admitted by all. Let us see how this bears on the question ot
the decomposition of the elements, and let us suppose for a moment that
certain of our present elements, instead of being distinct substances, were
made up of common ingredients, and that these compound elements, if
I may be allowed to use so incongruous a term, are split up at the
temperature of the electric spark into less complicated molecules. Then
12 REPORT—1887,
the spectroscopic examination of such a body must indicate the existence
of these common ingredients by the appearance in the spark spectra of
these elements of identical bright lines. Coincidences of this kind have
indeed been observed, but on careful examination these have been shown
to be due either to the presence of some one of the other elements as an
impurity or to insufficient observational power. This absence of coinci-
dent lines admits, however, of two explanations—either that the elements
are not decomposed at the temperature of the electric spark, or, what
appears to me a much more improbable supposition, each one of the
numbers of bright lines exhibited by every element indicates the existence
of a separate constituent, no two of this enormous number being identical.
Terrestrial analysis having thus failed to furnish favourable evidence,
we are compelled to see if any information is forthcoming from the
chemistry of the sun and stars. And here I would remark that it is not
my purpose now to dilate on the wonders which this branch of modern
science has revealed. It is sufficient to remind you that chemists thus
have the means placed at their disposal of ascertaining with certainty the
presence of elements well known on this earth in fixed stars so far dis-
tant that we are now receiving the light which emanated from them
perhaps even thousands of years ago.
Since Bunsen and Kirchhoff’s original discovery in 1859, the labours
of many men of science of all countries have largely increased our know-
ledge of the chemical constitution of the sun and stars, and to no one
does science owe more in this direction than to Lockyer and Huggins in
this country, and to Young in the New England beyond the seas.
Lockyer has of late years devoted his attention chiefly to the varying
nature of the bright lines seen under different conditions of time and
place on the solar surface, and from these observations he has drawn
the inference that the matching observed by Kirchhoff between, for
instance, the iron lines as seen in our laboratories and those visible in
the sun, has fallen to the ground. He further explains this want of
uniformity by the fact that at the higher transcendental temperatures of
the sun the substance which we know here as iron is resolved into separate
components. Other experimentalists, however, while accepting Lockyer’s
faets as to thé variations in the solar spectrum, do not admit his conclu-
sions, and would rather explain the phenomena by the well-known differ-
ences which occur in the spectra of all the elements when their molecules
are subject to change of temperature or change of position.
Further, arguments in favour of this idea of the evolution of the
elements have been adduced from the phenomena presented by the
spectra of the fixed stars. It is well known that some of these shine with
a white, others with a red, and others again with a blue light; and the
spectroscope, especially under the hands of Huggins, has shown that the
chemical constitution of these stars is different. The white stars, of
which Sirius may be taken asa type, exhibit a much less complicated
spectrum than the orange and the red stars; the spectra of the latter
ADDRESS. 13
remind us more of those of the metalloids and of chemical compounds
than of the metals. Hence it has been argued that in the white, presum-
ably the hottest, stars a celestial dissociation of our terrestrial elements
may have taken place, whilst in the cooler stars, probably the red, com-
bination even may occur. But even in the white stars we have no direct
evidence that a decomposition of any terrestrial atom has taken place;
indeed we learn that the hydrogen atom, as we know it here, can endure
unscathed the inconceivably fierce temperature of stars presumably many
times more fervent than our sun, as Sirius and Vega.
Taking all these matters into consideration, we need not be surprised
if the earthbound chemist should, in the absence of celestial evidence
which is incontestable, continue, for the present at least, and until fresh
evidence is forthcoming, to regard the elements as the unalterable founda-
tion stones upon which his science is based.
Pursuing another line of inquiry on this subject, Crookes has added a
remarkable contribution to the question of the possibility of decomposing
the elements. With his well-known experimental prowess, he has
discovered a new and beautiful series of phenomena, and has shown that
the phosphorescent lights emitted by certain chemical compounds, espe-
cially the rare earths, under an electric discharge in a high vacuum ex-
hibit peculiar and characteristic lines. For the purpose of obtaining his
material Crookes started from a substance believed by chemists to be
homogeneous, such, for example, as the rare earth yttria, and succeeded
by a long series of fractional precipitations in obtaining products which
yield different phosphorescent spectra, although when tested by the
ordinary methods of what we may term high temperature spectroscopy,
they appear to be the one substance employed at the starting point. The
other touchstone by which the identity, or otherwise, of these various pro-
ducts might be ascertained, viz., the determination of their atomic weights,
has not, as yet, engaged Crookes’ attention. In explanation of these sin-
gular phenomena, the discoverer suggests two possibilities. First, that
the bodies yielding the different phosphorescent spectra are different ele-
mentary constituents of the substance which we call yttria. Or, if this
be objected to because they all yield the same spark spectrum, he adopts
the very reasonable view that the Daltonian atom is probably, as we have
seen, a system of chemical complexity ; and adds to this the idea that
these complex atoms are not all of exactly the same constitution and
_ weight, the differences, however, being so slight that their detection has
hitherto eluded our most delicate tests, with the exception of this one of
phosphorescence in a vacuum. To these two explanations, Marignac, in
a discussion of Crookes’ results, adds a third. It having been shown
by Crookes himself that the presence of the minutest traces of foreign
bodies produces remarkable alterations in the phosphorescent spectra,
Marignac suggests that in the course of the thousands of separations
which must be made before these differences become manifest, traces of
_ foreign bodies may have been accidentally introduced, or, being present
14 REPORT—1887.
in the original material, may have accumulated to a different extent in
the various fractions, their presence being indicated by the only test by
which they can now be detected. Which of these three explanations is
the true one must be left to future experiment to decide.
We must now pass from the statics to the dynamics of chemistry ; that
is, from the consideration of the atoms at rest to that of the atoms in
motion. Here again we are indebted to John Dalton for the first step
in this direction, for he showed that the particles of a gas are constantly
flying about in all directions; that is, that gases diffuse into one another,
as an escape of coal gas from a burner, for example, soon makes itself
perceptible throughout the room. Dalton, whose mind was constantly
engaged in studying the molecular condition of gases, first showed that
a light gas cannot rest upon a heavier gas as oil upon water, but that an
interpenetration of each gas by the other takes place. It is, however, to
Graham’s experiments, made rather more than half a century ago, that
we are indebted for the discovery of the law regulating these molecular
motions of gases, proving that their relative rates of diffusion are inversely
proportional to the square roots of their densities, so that oxygen being 16
times heavier than hydrogen, their relative rates of diffusion are 1 and 4.
But whilst Dalton and Graham indicated that the atoms are in a con-
tinual state of motion, it is to Joule that we owe the first accurate deter
mination of the rate of that motion. At the Swansea Meeting in 1848,
Joule read a paper before Section A on the Mechanical Equivalent of
Heat and on the Constitution of Elastic Fluids. In this paper Joule
remarks that whether we conceive the particles to be revolving round
one another according to the hypothesis of Davy, or flying about in
every direction according to Herapath’s view, the pressure of the gas will
be in proportion to the vis viva of its particles. ‘Thus it may be shown
that the particles of hydrogen at the barometrical pressure of 30 inches
at a temperature of 60° must move with a velocity of 6225'54 feet per
second in order to produce a pressure of 14-714 lbs. on the square inch ;’
or, to put it in other words, a molecular cannonade or hailstorm of parti-
cles, at the above rate—a rate, we must remember, far exceeding that
of a cannon ball—is maintained against the bounding surface.
We can, however, go a step further and calculate with Clerk Maxwell
the number of times in which this hydrogen molecule, moving at the rate
of 70 miles per minute, strikes against others of the vibrating swarm,
and we learn that in one second of time it must knock against others no
less than 18 thousand million times.
And here we may pause and dwell for a moment on the reflection that
in nature there is no such thing as great or small, and that the structure of
the smallest particle, invisible even to our most searching vision, may be
as complicated as that of any one of the heavenly bodies which circle round
our sun. ,
But how does this wonderful atomic motion affect our chemistry ?
Can chemical science or chemical phenomena throw light upon this
ADDRESS. 15
motion, or can this motion explain any of the known phenomena of our
_. science? Ihave already said that Lavoisier left untouched the dynamics
of combustion. He could not explain why a fixed and unalterable amount
of heat is in most cases emitted but in some cases absorbed when
chemical combination takes place. What Lavoisier left unexplained
Joule has made clear. On August 25, 1843, Joule read a short communi-
cation, I am glad to remember, before the Chemical Section of our
Association, meeting that year at Cork, containing an announcement of
a discovery which was to revolutionise modern science. This consisted
in the determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat, in proving by
accurate experiment that the expenditure of energy equal to that developed
by the weight of 772 pounds falling through one foot at Manchester, the
temperature of one pound of water can be raised 1° Fahrenheit. In
other words, every change in the arrangement of the particles is accom-
panied by a definite evolution or an absorption of heat. In all such cases
the molecular energy leaves the potential to assume the kinetic form,
or vice versé. Heat is evolved by the clashing of the atoms, and this
amount is fixed and definite.
Thus it is to Joule we owe the foundation of chemical dynamics and the
basis of thermal chemistry. As the conservation of mass or the principle
of the indestructibility of matter forms the basis of chemical statics,
_ so the principle of the conservation of energy! constitutes the foundation
of chemical dynamics. Change in the form of matter and change in the
form of energy are the universal accompaniments of every chemical
operation. Here again it is to Joule we owe the proof of the truth ot
this principle in another direction, viz., that when electrical energy is
developed by chemical change a corresponding quantity of chemical
energy disappears. nergy as defined by Maxwell is the power of doing
work, and work is the act of producing a change of configuration in a
system in opposition to a force which resists that change. Chemical
action produces such a change of configuration in the molecules. Hence,
as Maxwell says, ‘a complete knowledge of the mode in which the
potential energy of a system varies with the configuration would enable
us to predict every possible motion of the system under the action ot
given external forces, provided we were able to overcome the purely
mathematical “difficulties of the calculation.’ The object of thermal
chemistry is to measure these changes of energy by thermal methods,
and to connect these with chemical changes, to estimate the attractions
of the atoms and molecules to which the name of chemical affinity has
been applied, and thus to solve the most fundamental problem of
chemical science. How far has modern research approached the solution
of this most difficult problem? How far can we answer the question,
1 <The total energy of any material system is a quantity which can neither be
increased nor diminished by any action between the parts of the system, though it
may be transformed into any of the forms of which energy is susceptible. —Max-
WELL.
16 REPORT—1887.
what is the amount of the forces at work in these chemical changes ?
What laws govern these forces? Well, even in spite of the results with
which recent researches, especially the remarkable ones of the Danish
philosopher Thomsen have enriched us, we must acknowledge that we
are yet scarcely in sight of Maxwell’s position of successful prediction.
Thermal chemistry, we must acknowledge, is even yet in its infancy ; it
is, however, an infant of sturdy growth, likely to do good work in the
world, and to be a credit to him who is its acknowledged father, as well
as to those who have so carefully tended it in its early years.
But recent investigation in another direction bids fair even to eclipse
the results which have been obtained by the examination of thermal
phenomena. And this lies in the region of electrical chemistry.
Faraday’s work relating to conductivity of chemical substances has been
already referred to, and this has been since substantiated and extended
to pure substances by Kohlrausch. It has been shown, for example, that
the resistance of absolutely pure water is almost an infinite quantity.
But a small quantity of an acid, such as acetic or butyric acid, greatly
increases the conductivity ; but more than this, it is possible by determi-
nation of the conductivity of a mixture of water with these two acids to
arrive at a conclusion as to the partition of the molecules of the water
between the acids. Such a partition, however, implies a change of
position, and therefore we are furnished with a means of recognising the
motion of the molecules in a liquid, and of determining its amount.
Thus it has been found that the hindrance to molecular motion is more
affected by, the chemical character of the liquid than by physical
characters such as viscosity. We have seen that chemical change is
always accompanied by molecular motion, and further evidence of the
truth of this is gained from the extraordinary chemical inactivity of pure
unmixed substances. Thus pure anhydrous hydrochloric acid does not
act upon lime, whereas the addition of even a trace of moisture sets up a
most active chemical change, and hundreds of other examples of a similar
kind might be stated. Bearing in mind that these pure anhydrous com-
pounds do not conduct, we are led to the conclusion that an intimate
relation exists between chemical activity and conductivity. And we need
not stop here; for a method is indicated indeed by which it will be
possible to arrive at a measure of chemical affinity from determination
of conductivity. It has indeed been already shown that the rate of
change in the saponification of acetic ether is directly proportional to the
conductivity of the liquid employed.
Such wide-reaching inquiries into new and fertile fields, in which we
seem to come into nearer touch with the molecular state of matter, and
within a measurable distance of accurate mathematical expression, leads
to confident hope that Lord Rayleigh’s pregnant words at Montreal may
ere long be realised: ‘It is from the further study of electrolysis that we
may expect to gain improved views as to the nature of chemical reactions,
and of the forces concerned in bringing them about; and I cannot help
ADDRESS. Be
thinking that the next great advance, of which we already have some
foreshadowing, will come on this side.’
: There is, perhaps, no branch of our science in which the doctrine of
the Daltonian atom plays a more conspicuous part than in organic chemis-
_ try or the chemistry of the carbon compounds, as there is certainly none
in which such wonderful progress has been made during the last fifty
years. One of the most striking and perplexing discoveries made rather
more than half a century ago was that chemical compounds could exist
_ which, whilst possessing an identical chemical composition, that is con-
taining the same percentage quantity of their constituents, are essentially
distinct chemical substances exhibiting different properties. Dalton was
the first to point out the existence of such substances, and to suggest that
the difference was to be ascribed to a different or to a multiple arrange-
ment of the constituent atoms. Faraday soon afterwards proved that
this supposition was correct, and the research of Liebig and Wohler on
the identity of composition of the salts of fulminic and cyanic acid gave
further confirmation to the conclusion, leading Faraday to remark that
‘now we are taught to look for bodies composed of the same elements in
the same proportion but differing in their qualities, they may probably
multiply upon us.’ How true this prophecy has become we may gather
from the fact that we now know of thousands of cases of this kind, and
that we are able not only to explain the reason of their difference by
virtue of the varying position of the atoms within the molecule, but even
to predict the number of distinct variations in which any given chemical
compound can possibly exist. How large this number may become will
be understood from the fact that, for example, one chemical compound,
a hydrocarbon containing thirteen atoms of carbon combined with twenty-
eight atoms of hydrogen, can be shown to be capable of existing in no less
than 802 distinct forms.
Experiment in every case in which it has been applied has proved the
truth of such a prediction, so that the chemist has no need to apply the
cogent argument sometimes said to be used by experimentalists enamoured
‘of pet theories, ‘When facts do not agree with theory, so much the worse
for the facts!’ This power of successful prediction constitutes a high-
water mark in science, for it indicates that the theory upon which such a
power is based is a true one.
But if the Daltonian atom forms the foundation of this theory, it is
upon a knowledge of the mode of arrangement of these atoms and on a
recognition of their distinctive properties that the superstructure of
modern organic chemistry rests. Certainly it does appear almost to
erge on the miraculous that chemists should now be able to ascertain
ith certainty the relative position of atoms in a molecule so minute
hat millions upon millions, like the angels in the schoolmen’s dis-
cussion, can stand on a needle’s point. And yet this process of orientation
is one which is accomplished every day in our laboratories, and one which
more than any other has led to results of a startling character. Still, this
1887. C
» a
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:
2
18 REPORT—1887.
sword to open the oyster of science would have been wanting to us if we
had not taken a step farther than Dalton did, in the recognition of the
distinctive nature of the elemental atoms. We now assume on good
grounds that the atom of each element possesses distinct capabilities of
combination ; some a single capability, others a double, others a triple,
and others again a fourfold combining capacity. The germs of this theory
of valency, one of the most fruitful of modern chemical ideas, were
enunciated by Frankland in 1852, but the definite explanation of the
linking of atoms, of the tetrad nature of the carbon atoms, their power of
combination, and of the'difference in structure between the fatty and aro-
matic series of compounds, was first pointed out by Kekulé in 1857; though
we must not forget that this great principle was foreshadowed so long ago
as 1833 from a physical point of view by Faraday in his well-known
laws of electrolysis, and that it is to Helmholtz in his celebrated Faraday
lecture that we owe the complete elucidation of the subject; for, whilst
Faraday has shown that the number of the atoms electrolytically deposited
is in the inverse ratio of their valencies, Helmholtz has explained this by the
fact that the quantity of electricity with which each atom is associated is
directly proportional to its valency.
Amongst the tetrad class of elements, carbon, the distinctive element
of organic compounds, finds its place; and the remarkable fact that the
number of carbon compounds far exceeds that of all the other elements
put together receives its explanation. For these carbon atoms not only
possess four means of grasping other atoms, but these four-handed carbon
atoms have a strong partiality for each other’s company, and readily ~
attach themselves hand in hand to form open chains or closed rings to
which the atoms of other elements join to grasp the unoccupied carbon
hand, and thus to yield a dancing company in which all hands are locked
together. Such a group, each individual occupying a given position with
reference to the others, constitutes the organic molecule. When, in
such a company, the individual members change hands, a new combination
is formed. And as in such an assembly the eye can follow the changing
positions of the individual members, so the chemist can recognise in his
molecule the position of the several atoms, and explain by this the fact —
that each arrangement constitutes a new chemical compound possessing
different properties, and account in this way for the decompositions which
each differently constituted molecule is found to undergo.
Chemists are, however, not content with representing the arrangement
of the atoms in one plane, as on a sheet of paper, but attempt to express
the position of the atoms in space. In this way it is possible to explain
certain observed differences in isomeric bodies which otherwise baffled our
efforts. ‘To Van t’Hoff, in the first instance, and more recently to
Wislicenus, chemistry is indebted for work in this direction, which throws
light on hitherto obscure phenomena, and points the way to still further
and more important advances.
It is this knowledge of the mode in which the atoms in the molecule
are arranged, this power of determining the nature of this arrangement,
ADDRESS. 19
which has given to organic chemistry the impetus which has overcome
so many experimental obstacles, and given rise to such unlooked-for
results. Organic chemistry has now become synthetic. In 1837 we were
able to build up but very few and very simple organic compounds from
their elements ; indeed the views of chemists were much divided as to
the possibility of such a thing. | Both Gmelin and Berzelius argued that
organic compounds, unlike inorganic bodies, cannot be built up from
their elements. Organic compounds were generally believed to be special ©
_ products of the so-called vital force, and it was only intuitive minds, like
those of Liebig and Wohler, who foresaw what was coming, and wrote in
1837 strongly against this view, asserting that the artificial production in
_ our laboratories of all organic substances, so far as they do not constitute
a living organism, is not only probable but certain. Indeed, they went a
_ step farther, and predicted that sugar, morphia, salicine, will all thus be
_ prepared ; a prophecy which, I need scarcely remind you, has been after
fifty years fulfilled, for at the present time we can prepare an artificial
sweetening principle, an artificial alkaloid, and salicine.
In spite of these predictions, and in spite of Wohler’s memorable
discovery in 1828 of the artificial production of urea, which did in
_ reality break down for ever the barrier of essential chemical difference be-
tween the products of the inanimate and of the animate world, still, even
up to a much later date, contrary opinions were held, and the synthesis of
_ urea was looked upon as the exception which proves the rule. So it came
to pass that for many years the artificial production of any of the more
complicated organic substances was believed to be impossible. Now the
belief in a special vital force has disappeared like the ignis fatwus, and
no longer lures us in the wrong direction. We know now that the same
laws regulate the formation of chemical compounds in both animate and
inanimate nature, and the chemist only asks for a knowledge of the con-
stitution of any definite chemical compound found in the organic world
in order to be able to promise to prepare it artificially.
But the progress of synthetic organic chemistry, which has of late
been so rapid, was made in the early days of the half-century only by
feeble steps and slow. Seventeen long years elapsed between Wohler’s
discovery and the next real synthesis. This was accomplished by Kolbe,
who in 1845 prepared acetic acid from its elements. But then a splendid
harvest of results gathered in by chemists of all nations quickly followed,
a harvest so rich and so varied that we are apt to be overpowered by its
wealth, and amidst so much that is alluring and striking we may well
d it difficult to choose the most appropriate examples for illustrating
lhe power and the extent of modern chemical synthesis.
Next, as a contrast to our picture, let us for a moment glance back
gain to the state of things fifty years ago, and then notice the chief steps
y which we have arrived at our present position. In 1837 organic
hemistry possessed no scientific basis, and therefore no classification of a
haracter worthy of the name. Writing to Berzelius in that year, Wohler
c 2
20 REPORT—1887.
describes the condition of organic chemistry as one enough to drive a man
mad. ‘It seems to me,’ says he, ‘like the tropical forest primeval, full of
the strangest growths, an endless and pathless thicket in which a man
may well dread to wander.’ Still clearances had already been made in
this wilderness of facts. Berzelius in 1832 welcomed the results of Liebig
and Wobler’s research on benzoic acid as the dawn of anew era; and such
it really was, inasmuch as it introduced a novel and fruitful idea, namely
the possibility of a group of atoms acting like an element by pointing out
the existence of organic radicals. This theory was strengthened and con-
firmed by Bunsen’s classical researches on the cacodyl compounds, in
which he showed that a common group of elements, which acts exactly as
a metal, can exist in the free state, and this was followed soon afterwards
by isolation of the so-called alcohol radicals by Frankland and Kolbe. It
is, however, to Schorlemmer that we owe our knowledge of the true con-
stitution of these bodies, a matter which proved to be of vital importance
for the further development of the science.
Turning our glance in another direction we find that Dumas, in 1834,
by his law of substitution threw light upon a whole series of singular
and unexplained phenomena by showing that an exchange can take place
between the constituent atoms in a molecule. Laurent indeed went ~
farther, and assumed that a chlorine atom, for example, took up the posi- —
tion vacated by an atom of hydrogen and played the part of its displaced
rival, so that the chemical and physical properties of the substitution-
product were thought to remain substantially the same as those of the
original body. A singular story is connected with this discovery. Ata
soirée in the Tuileries in the time of Charles X. the guests were almost
suffocated by acrid vapours which were evidently emitted by the burning
wax candles, and the great chemist Dumas was called in to examine into
the cause of the annoyance. He found that the wax of which the candles
were made had been bleached by chlorine, that a replacement of some of —
the hydrogen atoms of the wax by chlorine had occurred, and that the
suffocating vapours consisted of hydrochloric acid given off during the
combustion. The wax was as white and as odourless as before, and the
fact of the substitution of chlorine for hydrogen could only be recognised
when the candles were destroyed by burning. This incident induced
Dumas to investigate more closely this class of phenomena, and the re-
sults of this investigation are embodied in his law of substitution. So
far indeed did the interest of the French school of chemists lead them that —
some assumed that not only the hydrogen but also the carbon of organic
bodies could be replaced by substitution. Against this idea Liebig
protested, and in a satirical vein he informs the chemical public,
writing from Paris under the nom de plume of S. Windler, that he has |
succeeded in substituting not only the hydrogen but the oxygen and
carbon in cotton cloth by chlorine, and he adds that the London shops
are now selling nightcaps and other articles of apparel made entirely of
chlorine, goods which meet with much favour, especially for hospital use!
>
ADDRESS. 21
But the debt which chemistry, both inorganic and organic, thus owes
to Dumas’ law of substitution is serious enough, for it proved to be
the germ of Williamson’s classical researches on etherefication, as well
as of those of Wurtz and Hofmann on the compound ammonias, inves-
tigations which lie at the base of the structure of modern chemistry.
Its influence has been, however, still more far-reaching, inasmuch as
upon it depends in great measure the astounding progress made in the
wide field of organic synthesis.
It may here be permitted to me to sketch in rough outline the prin-
ciples upon which all organic syntheses have been effected. We have
already seen that as soon as the chemical structure of a body has been
ascertained its artificial preparation may be certainly anticipated, so that
the first step to be taken is the study of the structure of the naturally
occurring substance which it is desired to prepare artificially by resolving
it into simpler constituents, the constitution of which is already known.
In this way, for example, Hofmann discovered that the alkaloid coneine,
the poisonous principle of hemlock, may be decomposed into a simpler sub-
stance well known to chemists under the name of pyridine. This fact
having been established by Hofmann, and the grouping of the atoms
approximately determined, it was then necessary to reverse the process,
and, starting with pyridine, to build up a compound of the required
constitution and properties, a result recently achieved by Ladenburg
in a series of brilliant researches. The well-known synthesis of the
colouring matter of madder by Graebe and Liebermann, preceded by the
important researches of Schunck, and that of indigo by Baeyer, are other
striking examples in which this method has been successfully followed.
Not only has this intimate acquaintance with the changes which
occur within the molecules of organic compounds been utilised, as we
have seen, in the synthesis of naturally occurring substances, but it has
also led to the discovery of many new ones. Of these perhaps the
most remarkable instance is the production of an artificial sweetening
agent termed saccharin, 250 times sweeter than sugar, prepared by a
complicated series of reactions from coal-tar. Nor must we imagine
that these discoveries are of scientific interest only, for they have given
rise to the industry of the coal-tar colours, the value of which is measured
by millions sterling annually, an industry which Englishmen may be
proud to remember was founded by our countryman Perkin.
Another interesting application of synthetic chemistry to the needs
of everyday life is the discovery of a series of valuable febrifuges,
amongst which I may mention antipyrin as the most useful. An im-
portant aspect in connection with the study of these bodies is the
physiological value which has been found to attach to the introduction
of certain organic radicals, so that an indication is given of the possibility
of preparing a compound which will possess certain desired physiological
properties, or even to foretell the kind of action which such bodies may
exert on the animal economy.
Bo REPORT—1887.
But it is not only the physiological properties of chemical compounds
which stand in intimate relation with their constitution, for we find that
this is the case with all their physical properties. It is true that at the
beginning of our period any such relation was almost unsuspected, whilst
at the present time the number of instances in which this connection has
been ascertained is almost infinite, Amongst these perhaps the most
striking is the relationship which has been pointed out between the
optical properties and chemical composition. This was in the first place
recognised by Pasteur in his classical researches on racemic and tartaric
_acids in 1848; but the first to indicate a quantitative relationship and a
connection between chemical structure and optical properties was Glad-
stone in 1863. Great instrumental precision has been brought to bear on
this question, and consequently most important practical applications
have resulted. I need only refer to the well-known accurate methods
now in everyday use for the determination of sugar by the polariscope,
equally valuable to the physician and to the manufacturer.
But now the question may well be put, is any limit set to this
synthetic power of the chemist? Although the danger of dogmatising
as to the progress of science has already been shown in too many in-
stances, yet one cannot help feeling that the barrier which exists between
the organised and unorganised worlds is one which the chemist at pre-
sent sees no chance of breaking down.
It is true that there are those who profess to foresee that the day
will arrive when the chemist, by a succession of constructive efforts, may
pass beyond albumen, and gather the elements of lifeless matter into
a living structure. Whatever may be said regarding this from other
standpoints, the chemist can only say that at present no such problem lies
within his province. Protoplasm, with which the simplest manifestations
of life are associated, is not a compound, but a structure built up of com-
pounds. The chemist may successfully synthesise any of its component
molecules, but he has no more reasdn to look forward to the synthetic
production of the structure than to imagine that the synthesis of gallic
acid leads to the artificial production of gall-nuts.
Although there is thus no prospect of our effecting a synthesis of
organised material, yet the progress made in our knowledge of the
chemistry of life during the last fifty years has been very great, and so
much so indeed that the sciences of physiological and of pathological
chemistry may be said to have entirely arisen within this period.
In the introductory portion of this address I have already referred
to the relations supposed to exist fifty years ago between vital phenomena
and those of the inorganic world. Let me now briefly trace a few of
the more important steps which have marked the progress of this branch
of science during this period. Certainly no portion of our science is of
greater interest, nor, I may add, of greater complexity, than that which,
bearing on the vital functions both of plants and of animals, endeavours
to unravel the tangled skein of the chemistry of life, and to explain the
ADDRESS. 733)
principles according to which our bodies live, and move, and have their
being. If, therefore, in the less complicated problems with which other
portions of our science have to deal, we find ourselves, as we have seen,
often far from possessing satisfactory solutions, we cannot be surprised to
learn that with regard to the chemistry of the living body—whether
vegetable or animal—in health or disease we are still farther from a
complete knowledge of phenomena, even those of fundamental importance.
It is of interest here to recall the fact that nearly fifty years ago
Liebig presented to the Chemical Section of this Association a com-
munication in which, for the first time, an attempt was made to explain
the phenomena of life on chemical and physical lines, for in this paper he
admits the applicability of the great principle of the conservation of
energy to the functions of animals, pointing out that the animal cannot
generate more heat than is produced by the combustion of the carbon
and hydrogen of his food.
‘The source of animal heat,’ says Liebig, ‘has previously been
ascribed to nervous action or to the contraction of the muscles, or even
to the mechanical motions of the body, as if these motions could exist
without an expenditure of force [equal to that] consumed in producing
them.’ Again he compares the living body to a laboratory furnace in
which a complicated series of changes occur in the fuel, but in which the
end-products are carbonic acid and water, the amount of heat evolved
being dependent, not upon the intermediate, but upon the final products.
Liebig asked himself the question, Does every kind of food go to the
production of heat; or can we distinguish, on the one hand, between the
kind of food which goes to create warmth, and, on the other, that by
the oxidation of which the motions and mechanical energy of the body
are kept up? He thought that he was able to do this, and he divided
food into two categories; the starchy or carbohydrate food is that, said
he, which by its combustion provides the warmth necessary for the
existence and life of the body. The albuminous or nitrogenous constituents
of our food, the flesh meat, the gluten, the casein out of which our
muscles are built up, are not available for the purposes of creating
- warmth, but it is by the waste of those muscles that the mechanical
energy, the activity, the motions of the animal are supplied. We see,
said Liebig, that the HEsquimaux feeds on fat and tallow, and this
burning in his body keeps out the cold. The Gaucho, riding on the
pampas, lives entirely on dried meat, and the rowing man and pugilist,
trained on beefsteaks and porter, require little food to keep up the tem-
perature of their bodies, but much to enable them to meet the demand
for fresh muscular tissue, and for this purpose they need to live on a
strongly nitrogenous diet.
Thus far Liebig. Now let us turn to the present state of our know-
ledge. The question of the source of muscular power is one of the greatest
interest, for, as Frankland observes, it is the corner-stone of the physio-
logical edifice and the key to the nutrition of animals,
24 REPORT—1887.
Let us examine by the light of modern science the truth of Liebig’s
view—even now not uncommonly held—as to the functions of the two
kinds of food, and as to the cause of muscular exercise being the oxida-
tion of the muscular tissue. Soon after the promulgation of these views,
J. R. Mayer, whose name as the first expositor of the idea of the con-
servation of energy is so well known, warmly attacked them, throwing
out the hypothesis that all muscular action is due to the combustion of
food, and not to the destruction of muscle, proving his case by showing
that if the muscles of the heart be destroyed in doing mechanical work
the heart would be burnt up in eight days! What does modern research
say to this question? Can it be brought to the crucial test of experi-
ment? Itcan; but how? Well, in the first place we can ascertain the
work done by a man or any other animal; we can measure this work in
terms of our mechanical standard, in kilogramme-metres or foot-pounds.
We can next determine what is the destruction of nitrogenous tissue at
rest and under exercise by the amount of nitrogenous material thrown off
by the body. And here we must remember that these tissues are never
completely burnt, so that free nitrogen is never eliminated. If now we
know the heat-value of the burnt muscle, it is easy to convert this into its
mechanical equivalent, and thus measure the energy generated. What is
the result ? Is the weight of muscle destroyed by ascending the Faulhorn
or by working on the treadmill sufficient to produce on combustion heat
enough when transformed into mechanical exercise to lift the body up to
the summit of the Faulhorn or to do the work on the treadmill ? Careful
experiment has shown that this is so far from being the case that the
actual energy developed is twice as great as that which could possibly be
produced by the oxidation of the nitrogenous constituents eliminated
from the body during twenty-four hours. That is to say, taking the
amount of nitrogenous substance cast off from the body, not only whilst
the work was being done but during twenty-four hours, the mechanical
effect capable of being produced by the muscular tissue from which this
cast-off material is derived would only raise the body halfway up the
Faulhorn, or enable the prisoner to work half his time on the treadmill.
Hence it is clear that Liebig’s proposition is not true. The nitro-
genous constituents of the food do doubtless go to repair the waste of
muscle, which, like every other portion of the body, needs renewal, whilst
the function of the non-nitrogenous food is not only to supply the animal
heat, but also to furnish, by its oxidation, the muscular energy of the body.
We thus come to the conclusion that it is the potential energy of the
food which furnishes the actual energy of the body, expressed in terms
either of heat or of mechanical work.
But there is one other factor which comes into play in this question
of mechanical energy, and must be taken into account; and this factor we
are as yet unable to estimate in our usual terms, It concerns the action
of the mind upon the body, and, although incapable of exact expression,
exerts none the less an important influence on the physics and chemistry
i ADDRESS. . 25
of the body, so that a connection undoubtedly exists between intellectual
activity or mental work and bodily nutrition. In proof that there isa
marked difference between voluntary and involuntary work, we need only
compare the mechanical action of the heart, which never causes fatigue,
with that of the voluntary muscles, which become fatigued by continued
exertion. So, too, we know well that an amount of drill which is fatiguing
to the recruit is not felt by the old soldier, who goes through the evolutions
automatically. What is the expenditure of mechanical energy which accom-
panies mental effort, is a question which science is probably far removed
from answering. But that the body experiences exhaustion as the result
of mental activity is a well-recognised fact. Indeed, whilst the second law
of thermodynamics teaches that in none of the mechanical contrivances
for the conversion of heat into actual energy can such a conversion be
complete, it is perhaps possible, as Helmholtz has suggested, that such
a complete conversion may take place in the subtle mechanism of the
animal organism.
The phenomena of vegetation, no less than those of the animal world,
have, however, during the last fifty years been placed by the chemist on
an entirely new basis. Although before the publication of Liebig’s cele-
brated report on chemistry and its application to agriculture, presented
to the British Association in 1840, much had been done, many funda-
mental facts had been established, still Liebig’s report marks an era in
the progress of this branch of our science. He not only gathered up in a
masterly fashion the results of previous workers, but put forward his own
original views with a boldness and frequently with a sagacity which gave
a vast stimulus and interest to the questions at issue. As a proof of this
I may remind you of the attack which he made on, and the complete
victory which he gained over, the humus theory. Although Saussure and
others had already done much to destroy the basis of this theory, yet the
fact remained that vegetable physiologists up to 1840 continued to hold
to the opinion that humus, or decayed vegetable matter, was the only
source of the carbon of vegetation. Liebig, giving due consideration to
the labours of Saussure, came to the’conclusion that it was absolutely im-
possible that the carbon deposited as vegetable tissue over a given area,
as for instance over an area of forest land, could be derived from humus,
which is.itself the result of the decay of vegetable matter. He asserted
that the whole of the carbon of vegetation is obtained from the atmospheric
carbonic acid, which, though only present in the small relative proportion
of 4 parts in 10,000 of air, is contained in such absolutely large quantity
that if all the vegetation on the earth’s surface were burnt, the proportion
of carbonic acid which would thus be thrown into the air would not be
sufficient to double the present amount.
That this conclusion of Liebig’s is correct needed experimental proof,
at such proof could only be given by long-continued and laborious experi-
ment, and this serves to show that chemical research is not now confined
to laboratory experiments lasting perhaps a few minutes, but that it has
26 REPORT—1887.
invaded the domain of agriculture as well as of physiology, and reckons
the periods of her observations in the field not by minutes, but by years.
It is to our English agricultural chemists Lawes and Gilbert that we
owe the complete experimental proof required. And it is true that this
experiment was a long and tedious one, for it has taken forty-four years
to give the definite reply. At Rothamsted a plot was set apart for the
growth of wheat. For forty-four successive years that field has grown
wheat without addition of any carbonised manure; so that the only
possible source from which the plant could obtain the carbon for its
growth is the atmospheric carbonic acid. Now, the quantity of carbon
which on an average was removed in the form of wheat and straw from
a plot manured only with mineral matter was 1,000 pounds, whilst on
another plot, for which a nitrogenous manure was employed, 1,500
pounds more carbon was annually removed; or 2,500 pounds of carbon
are removed by this crop annually without the addition of any carbona-
ceous manure. So that Liebig’s prevision has received a complete ex-
perimental verification.
May I, without wearying you with experimental details, refer for a
moment to Liebig’s views as to the assimilation of nitrogen by plants— ~
a much more complicated and difficult question than the one we have
just considered—and compare these with the most modern results of
agricultural chemistry ? We find that in this case his views have not
been substantiated. He imagined that the whole of the nitrogen required
by the plant was derived from atmospheric ammonia; whereas Lawes
and Gilbert have shown by experiments of a similar nature to those just
described, and extending over a nearly equal length of time, that this
source is wholly insufficient to account for the nitrogen removed in the
crop, and have come to the vonclusion that the nitrogen must have been
obtained either from a store of nitrogenous material in the soil or by
absorption of free nitrogen from the air. These two apparently contra-
dictory alternatives may perhaps be reconciled by the recent observations
of Warrington and of Berthelot, which have thrown light upon the
changes which the so-called nitrogenous capital of the soil undergoes, as
well as upon its chemical nature, for the latter has shown that under cer-
tain conditions the soil has the power of absorbing the nitrogen of the air,
forming compounds which can subsequently be assimilated by the plant.
Touching us as human beings even still more closely than the fore-
going, is the influence which chemistry has exerted on the science of
pathology, and in no direction has greater progress been made than in
the study of micro-organisms in relation to health and disease. In the
complicated chemical changes to which we give the names of fermentation
and putrefaction, the views of Liebig, according to which these pheno-
mena are of a purely chemical character, have given way under the
searching investigations of Pasteur, who established the fundamental
principle that these processes are inseparably connected with the life of
certain low forms of organisms. Thus was founded the science of bacte-
ADDRESS. 27
_tiology, which in Lister’s hands has yielded such splendid results in the
treatment of surgical cases; and in those of Klebs, Koch, William Roberts,
and others, has been the means of detecting the cause of mary diseases both
in man and animals; the latest and not the least important of which is the
remarkable series of successful researches by Pasteur into the nature and
mode of cure of that most dreadful of maladies, hydrophobia. And here
I may be allowed to refer with satisfaction to the results of the labours on
this subject of a committee, the formation of which I had the honour of
moving for in the House of Commons. These results confirm in every
respect Pasteur’s assertions, and prove beyond a doubt that the adoption
of his method has prevented the occurrence of hydrophobia in a large ©
proportion of persons bitten by rabid animals, who, if they had not been
subjected to this treatment, would have died of that disease. The value
of his discovery is, however, greater than can be estimated by its present
utility, for it shows that it may be possible to avert other diseases besides
hydrophobia by the adoption of a somewhat similar method of investiga-
tion and of treatment. This, though the last, is certainly not the least
of the debts which humanity owes to the great. French experimentalist.
Here it might seem as if we had outstepped the boundaries of chemistry,
and have to do with phenomena purely vital. But recent research indi-
cates that this is not the case, and points to the conclusion that the
microscopist must again give way to the chemist, and that it is by chemical
rather than by biological investigation that the causes of diseases will be
discovered, and the power of removing them obtained. For we learn
that the symptoms of infective diseases are no more due to the microbes
which constitute the infection than alcoholic intoxication is produced by
the yeast-cell, but that these symptoms are due to the presence of definite
chemical compounds, the result of the life of these microscopic organisms.
So it is to the action of these poisonous substances formed during the
life of the organism, rather than to that of the organism itself, that the
special characteristics of the disease are to be traced; for it has been
shown that the disease can be communicated by such poisons in entire
absence of living organisms.
If I have thus far dwelt on the progress made in certain branches of
pure science it is not because I undervalue the other methods by which
the advancement of science is accomplished, viz., that of the application
and of the diffusion of a knowledge of nature, but rather because the
‘British Association has always held, and wisely held, that original investi-
gation lies at the root of all application, so that to foster its growth and
encourage its development has for more than fifty years been our chief
aim and wish. ;
Had time permitted I should have wished to have illustrated this de-
pendence of industrial success upon original investigation, and to have
pointed ont the prodigious strides which chemical industry in this country
has made during the fifty years of her Majesty’s reign. As it is I must
be content to remind you how much our modern life, both in its artistic
28 ; REPORT—1887.
and useful aspects, owes to chemistry, and, therefore, how essential a
knowledge of the principles of the science is to all who have the industrial
progress of the country at heart.
This leads me to refer to what has been accomplished in this country _
of ours towards the diffusion of scientific knowledge amongst the people
during the Victorian era. It is true that the English people do not
possess, as yet, that appreciation of the value of science so characteristic
of some other nations. Up to very recent years our educational system,
handed down to us from the middle ages, has systematically ignored
science, and we are only just beginning, thanks in a great degree to the
prevision of the late Prince Consort, to give it a place, and that but
an unimportant one, in our primary and secondary schools or in our
universities. The country is, however, now awakening to the necessity
of placing its house in order in this respect. and is beginning to see that
if she is to maintain her commercial and industrial supremacy the
education of her people from top to bottom must be carried out on new
lines. The question as to how this can be most safely and surely ac-
complished is one of transcendent national importance, and the statesman
who solves this educational problem will earn the gratitude of generations
yet to come.
In conclusion, may I be allowed to welcome the unprecedentedly large
number of foreign men of science who have on this occasion honoured the
British Association by their presence, and to express the hope that this
meeting may be the commencement of an international scientific organi-
sation, the only means nowadays existing, to use the words of one of the
most distinguished of our guests, of establishing that fraternity among
nations from which politics appears to remove us farther and farther by —
absorbing human powers and human work, and directing them to pur-
poses of destruction? It would indeed be well if Great Britain, which
has hitherto taken the lead in so many things that are great and good,
should now direct her attention to the furthering of international organi- —
sations of a scientific nature. A more appropriate occasion than the
present meeting could perhaps hardly be found for the inauguration of
such a movement.
But whether this hope be realised or not, we all unite in that one
great object, the search after truth for its own sake, and we all, there-
fore, may join in re-echoing the words of Lessing: ‘The worth of man
lies not in the truth which he possesses, or believes that he possesses,
but in the honest endeavour which he puts forth to secure that truth ;
for not by the possession of truth, but by the search after it, are the
faculties of man enlarged, and in this alone consists his ever-growing
perfection. Possession fosters content, indolence, and pride. If God
should hold in His right hand all truth, and in His left hand the ever-
active desire to seek truth, though with the condition of perpetual error,
I would humbly ask for the contents of the left hand, saying, ‘ Father,
give me this; pure truth is only for Thee,”’’
REPORTS
ON THE
STATE OF SCIENCE.
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REPORTS
ON THE
STATE OF SCIENCH.
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors A. JOHNSON
(Secretary), J.G. MacGrucor, J. B. Cozurrman, and H. T. Bovey
and Mr. C. CarpMAEL, appointed for the purpose of promoting
Tidal Observations in Canada.
Tue Committee have much pleasure in reporting that although a grant
for establishing stations for continuous tidal observations has not yet
been made by the Dominion Parliament, yet preliminary steps have been
taken under the direction of the Minister of Marine (the Hon. G. E.
Foster) which point to their early establishment.
At an interview with the minister in May, in which the President of
the British Association (Sir J. William Dawson) took part, it was stated
that, althongh the Hudson Bay Expedition had ended, yet another source
of expenditure had taken its place, as the Canadian Government had
undertaken to pay half the cost of a re-survey of the Gulf of St. Lawrence
by the Admiralty. When this work, which would probably occupy two
years, was finished, it was hoped that a special grant would be made for
systematic tidal observations. Meanwhile, authority had been given to
Lieut. Gordon, R.N., commanding one of the Dominion cruisers, to make
some preliminary observations, and to spend some small sums of money
in getting assistance in making them.
In the course of the interview, the minister said that directions would
be given to Lieut. Gordon to put himself in communication with Prof.
Darwin. This has since been done.
The Minister of Marine is conscious of the facilities offered in con-
nection with the Association, and by the use of the ‘tide-predicter’ of
the Indian Government, for the reduction of the observations. The
importance of the harmonic analysis has been fully dwelt on. Under
these encouraging circumstances the Committee consider that the pro-
spects of the speedy establishment of stations for continuous observations
are hopeful.
32 REPORT—1887.
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor BALFOUR
Stewart (Secretary), Professor Stokes, Professor SCHUSTER,
Mr. G. JOHNSTONE STONEY, Professor Sir H. E. Roscor, Captain
Asney, and Mr. G. J. SyMons, appointed for the purpose of
considering the best methods of recording the direct Intensity
of Solar Radiation.
In the last report of this Committee a description was given of a copper
enclosure which had been constructed by them.
This consisted of a copper cube 35 inches square outside, the faces of
which were 2ths of an inch thick. The cube was packed round with felt
+,ths of an inch thick, and the whole was faced outside with thin
polished brass plates.
Thermometers were inserted into that side of the cube intended ulti-
mately to face the sun, and into the opposite side, by means of which the
temperature of these sides could be accurately determined. Finally, a
thermometer was placed in the vacant space in the very centre of the
enclosure.
This last thermometer occupies the position that will ultimately be
occupied by the internal thermometer, upon which the sun is to fall
through a hole; only at this stage the hole had not been constructed. It
is obvious that when the instrument is finally in action, with a beam of
solar rays (condensed by means of a lens so as to pass through the hole)
falling upon the bulb, this thermometer will be subject to a heating
effect from two separate causes,
(a) It will, first of all, be subject to radiation and convection from
the surrounding enclosure, which is gradually (let us suppose) getting
hot through exposure to the sun.
(b) It will, secondly, have a beam of solar rays of constant size and
of constant intensity (except as to variations arising from atmospheric
absorption, seasonal change in the sun’s apparent diameter, or change in
the sun’s intrinsic radiation) continuously thrown upon it through the
hole.
In fine days when there is no abrupt variation of the sun’s intensity
the temperature of the internal thermometer will remain sensibly con-
stant, or at least will only vary slowly with the sun’s altitude; and this
temperature will be such that the heat lost by radiation and convection
from the internal hot thermometer will be equal to the heat which it gains
from the sources (a) and (b), save as to a small correction, calculable
from the slow variation of the temperature of the thermometer.
Now, our object being to estimate accurately the intensity of source
(b), we must be able, notwithstanding the gradual heating of the enclo-
sure, to determine how much heat the internal thermometer gains from
source (a). That is to say, we must be able to tell what would be the
temperature of the internal thermometer if the instrument were still
made to face the sun, but without any aperture. For the solid angle
subtended by the hole at any point of the bulb is so small that we may
regard it as a matter of indifference whether there be a hole or not
except as to the admission or exclusion of direct solar radiation.
It was suggested by Professor Stokes that a simple practical method
of doing this would be to expose the instrument, without a hole, to an
* Sr
:
ON SOLAR RADIATION, 33
artificial source of heat, such as a fire or a stove, the intensity of which
might likewise be made to vary. By this means the conditions of the
instrument when facing the sun might be fairly represented.
Experiments of this nature were made at Manchester by Mr. Shep-
herd, acting under the superintendence of Professor Stewart, and these
were reduced by Professor Stokes.
It was ascertained from these experiments that the internal thermo-
meter represented with great exactness the temperature of the cube
such as it was 34 minutes before; in other words, there was a lagging
time of the internal thermometer equal to 3} minutes.
We may thus find what would be the reading of the internal thermo-
meter if the balance were perfect between the gain of heat by direct
solar radiation and the loss of heat by communication to the environ-
ment; and as the latter is approximately proportional to the difference
of temperature of the envelope and internal thermometer, and the devia-
tion from exact proportionality admits of determination by laboratory
experiments, we have the means of measuring the former. We must
bear in mind that the lagging time of the final thermometer may be
different from that of the thermometer with which these experiments
were made.
It was likewise ascertained that the difference between the tempera-
ture of the internal thermometer and that of the case need not exceed
20° Fahr., and that a comparatively small lens and hole would suffice for
obtaining this result.
In consequence of this preliminary information, we have made the
following additions to the instrument described in our last report :—
(1) We have had it swung like the ordinary actinometers with a mo-
tion in altitude and azimuth, and with two moderately delicate adjusting-
screws, one for azimuth and another for altitude adjustments.
(2) We have had a thermometer centrically placed in the interior.
The graduation of the stem is very delicate, and extends from 20° to
120° Fahr., the reading being taken from one of the sides. The bulb is
of green flint, and the stem of colourless glass.
(3) We have also had a small plate of quartz cut and polished and
mounted so as_to cover the hole, and to be easily removed and replaced.
The object of the plate is to prevent irregularities arising from irregular
issue of heated air through the hole, entrance of cooler air blown in by
wind, &c., and the choice of material was influenced by the wish to per-
mit of frequent cleaning without risk of alteration by scratching.
We ought to mention that as it would be difficult to procure the loan
of a good heliostat, and expensive to make one, we resolved that in the
preliminary experiments the adjustments to keep the sun’s image on the
hole should be made by the observer. Hence the necessity for the
adjusting-screws already described.
The Committee have expended £18 10s., and return to the Associa-
tion a balance of £1 10s.
They suggest that they should be reappointed, and that the sum of £10
be placed at their disposal to defray the expense of further experiments
connected with the instrument.
1887, b
34 REPORT—1887.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Crum BRowN
(Secretary), Mr. MILNE Home, Mr. Jonn Murray, Lord McLaren,
and Mr. BUCHAN, appointed for the purpose of co-operating with
the Scottish Meteorological Society in making Meteorological
Observations on Ben Nevis.
THE observing work by Mr. Omond and his assistants of the Ben Nevis
Observatory for the past year has been carried on with the same intelli-
gence, enthusiasm, and completeness as in previous years, none of the
hourly observations, by night and by day, inside and outside the observa-
tory having been omitted down to the close of last month, except the
outside observations of temperature on two of the hours of December 8,
when the weather was too stormy to be faced. The five daily observa-
tions at the sea-level station at Fort William have also been made with
the greatest regularity.
For the year 1886 the following were the mean pressures and temper-
atures at the Ben Nevis Observatory and at Fort William :—
Mean Presswres in Inches.
| | fir
Jan. | Feb. | Mar.| Apr. | May | June July Aug. Sept. | Oct. Nov. | Dec. | Year
| |
}
——— — | ———— |__| —_}
B ‘een ale DA Se ea eR SS
claim | 24-944) 25°398] 25-234) 26-273] 25°322) 25-417) 25-319) 25-382 25395 25266) 25-213) 24-960) 25-260
Fort William | 29°544) 30:07] 29'875) 29°864 29'880) 29°940| 29°810) 29°865! 29-916 29°780) 29°783] 29°558) 29°824
| 4673) 4641) 4°591) 4°558) 4523) 4-491 4°483) 4:521| 4514) 4°570] 4°598] 4564
Difference .| 4:600
Mean Temperatures.
Ban Nevis «) ° ° rs) ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° o °
evis ; 21+ 99+ ’ 5 =| 36" a : a, 6 : . 29:
Observatory | 19°38 | 211 | 22:0 | 268 |30°5 (36:0 |385 |39°9 | 364 |34°6 | 29:5 |20:2 | 29°6
Fort William |35°5 |348 |387 |440 |482 |53:3 |55°6 |55°3 [51:3 |494 |43:7 |34:3 | 45°3
Diff -{15°7 137 [167 |17°2 7e7 17-3 |171 |154 |149 |148 | 14:2 te 15°7
}
The pressures at Fort William are reduced to 32° and sea level; those
at the observatory only to 32°.
With the two exceptions of October and November, the temperature
at Fort William was every month below its normal. The extreme de-
partures from the normal were December 4°:7, January 3°°4, and Feb-
ruary 3°'9 under, and, on the other hand, October 2°6 above the normal.
The annual mean 45°°3 was 1°°8 below the average of the twenty-four
years ending 1880.
Atmospheric pressure at Fort William was very nearly the normal on
the mean of the year, being only 0:012 inch under it.
The maximum pressure for the year at the observatory was 26-093
inches on November 24, and the minimum 23°454 inches on December 8, -
during the memorable storm that swept over the country at that time.
A still lower pressure, viz., 23°173 inches, was observed on January 26,
1884, when pressure at 32° and sea level fell at Ochtertyre, Perthshire, to
27°333 inches ; and as the centre of this great storm passed only a short
way to the south of the observatory, this may be considered as the lowest
pressure likely to be noted at the observatory.
The maximum temperature for the year was 55°-8 in September, and
the lowest 8°-4 in December, thus giving an absolute range of 47°-4.
§ ON METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 35
;
The following are the yearly extremes of temperature since the
observatory was opened :—
Maximum Minimum
° °
1884 60-1 9:9
1885 60:0 111
1886 55'8 8-4.
1887 (to August) 67:0 9-0
The most noteworthy feature of these figures is the close approach the
annual minima make to each other, the close agreement of the four, and
the by no means low temperature they indicate in view of what occurs at
lower levels. This may be explained by the observatory being built on
the very top of the mountain, thus minimising the effects of terrestrial
radiation during the winter months. Previous to June 1887 the highest
temperature was 60°'1. But in that month this temperature was several |
times exceeded, and on the 24th of the month the registering thermo-
meter recorded a maximum of 67°0. The mean temperature of the
month was 45°'4, or 9°-2 higher than that of June 1886. The absolutely
lowest temperature was 31°°0, and of July following 30°8, In these two
months, therefore, temperature fell but little below the freezing point,
thus indicating for this height in the atmosphere a more prolonged period
of relatively high temperature than has taken place since the cbservatory
was founded.
The records of the sunshine recorder commenced in the end of J: anuary
1884. As regards the two complete years for which there are now obser-
vations, there were 680 hours in 1885 and 576 hours in 1886, being 16
and 14 per cent. of the possible sunshine of these years. From J anuary
to July of the present year the percentage of possible sunshine has been
23, a result largely due to the comparatively large amount of sunshine in
April, May, and June, which amounted to 31 per cent. of the possible
sunshine. Up to May 31, 1887, the largest number of hours of sunshine
in any month was 162 in July 1885; but during last June there were
206 hours, or nearly 40 per cent. of the possible sunshine. In J uly
following there were only 58 hours of sunshine, being little more than a
fourth of the sunshine of June. The distribution of the sunshine during
the hours o ithe day was similar to the results obtained for previous years,
as detailed in the Committee’s report for last year.
As respects the rain and snowfall, it is desirable to keep in mind that
some uncertainty will always necessarily attach to the recorded amounts,
owing to the snow-drifts, the breaks that occur in the returns in con-
sequence, and the general uncertainty of the estimates formed for the
periods of these breaks.
During 1885 the amount of the rainfall was 146°50 inches, bein
the
first whole year observed; but in 1886, the amount was only 107-843 .
nches,
The amounts for the months of 1886 were, beginning with January, in
inches :—12°76, 2°84, 5°91; 4°59, 6-25, 7°60; 10-99, 10-16, 13-03; 816,
» 1457, 10°98; and for 1887 to July inclusive, 17°80, 13-30, 5-90 ; 753)
3°97, 751; and 14°54. The number of days during 1886 on which the
precipitation was less than 0:01 inch were 97 days, and from J: anuary to
July 1887, 87 days. The largest monthly rainfall of these nineteen months
was, therefore, 17°80 in January 1887, and the smallest 2°84 inches in
é D2
36 REPORT—1887.
February 1886. The month with the largest number of. days on which
less than 0°01 inch was recorded was 18 in June last, and the smallest no
days in July 1886.
It is expected that the hourly observations, given in extenso, of the Ben
Nevis Observatory to the end of 1886, and those of the sea-level station at
Fort William, referred to in the Committee’s last report as im the press
as an extra volume of the ‘Transactions of the Royal Society of Edin-
burgh,’ will be ready for delivery at the end of the year.
In preparing new isothermal and isobaric charts of the globe for the
‘Challenger’ Expedition Report, Mr. Buchan has constructed tables of
corrections for height above the sea up to 8,000 feet for the different air
temperatures and sea-level pressures that occur, which are based on the
results arrived at regarding the rate of diminution of temperature, and of
pressure with heights for different air temperatures and sea-level pres-
sures. The results of charting from these tables offer the strongest cor-
roboration of the great value in practical meteorology and in physical
geography of this piece of work already accomplished from the data
furnished by the Ben Nevis and Fort William observations.
In the meantime, and in addition to the regular work of the observa-
tory, Mr. Omond, superintendent; Mr. Rankin, first assistant; and Mr.
Dickson, who has repeatedly relieved the regular observers at the obser-
tory, are engaged in carrying on original researches. Of these the
following may be mentioned :—
Mr. Omonp.—1. A second paper on the rainfall of Ben Nevis in
relation to the winds, in which the observations of 1886 are dealt with.
The most important result is in corroboration of the results deduced from
the observations of 1885, viz., of all winds N.W. winds are much the
wettest while they blow; and he can now state explicitly that the rule
holds good both as regards cyclonic and anti-cyclonic winds, which is a
valuable contribution to the theory of storms.
2. The diurnal variations in the direction of the summer winds on
Ben Nevis.
3. On a peculiarity of the cyclone winds of Ben Nevis (which is to be
read at the meeting).
4, Glories, halos, and coronz seen from Ben Nevis Observatory, being
in continuation of a paper on the subject published in the ‘ Proceedings of
the Royal Society of Edinburgh’ of last year. The new facts brought
forward in these papers, for which the observatory affords peculiar
facilities for observing, necessitate important modifications of the ex-
planations hitherto given of these phenomena.
5. Temperatures at different heights above ground at Ben Nevis
Observatory.
Mr. A. Ranxiy.—l. The thermic wind-rose at the Ben Nevis Obser-
vatory, to be read at the meeting. For the coming year Mr. Rankin
has undertaken the laborious work of prosecuting the inquiry still
further by sorting the winds and the temperatures in cyclonic and anti-
cyclonic areas, and also into the two opposite sides of these areas.
2. He has also recently detected a connection between an increased
darkness of one of the lines of the spectrum and a mass of air of an
unusually low temperature over the observatory, and no opportunity will
be Jost next year in accumulating observations bearing on the point.
Mr. Dicxson.—1l. A continuation of his hygrometric work, to be
read at the meeting.
———————— a
ON METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 37
2. Observations on earth-currents in Ben Nevis Observatory telegraph
cable.
Copies of these papers so far as published are submitted with this
report.
rithe plotting of the observations of storms made at the whole of the
sixty-six Scottish lighthouses, showing graphically the hours of the day
and night during which the wind blew with the force of a gale or storm
at each lighthouse, is now far advanced; and on the same sheets have
been entered for the. respective districts all cases where storm signals
have been hoisted under direction of the Meteorological Office. The re-
sults show a very large number of failures, both of storms which have
occurred of which no warning had been sent, and of warnings issued with
no accompanying or following storm. These failures are at present being
investigated by the Ben Nevis observations in connection with the obser-
vations at Fort William and other low-lying stations in that division of
Scotland. It is expected that a report of the results of this investigation
will be ready to be submitted to the next meeting of the Association.
Arrangements are thus made by the Directors of the observatory for
the next twelve months for the investigation, in various directions, of the
relations of the Ben Nevis observations to weather, and particularly
storms, the workers being Messrs. Omond and Rankin at the observatory,
and Messrs. Buchan and Dickson in the office of the Scottish Meteoro-
logical Society.
We do not require to inform Section A that we ground our claim on
the countenance and assistance of the British Association on the scientific
work of the observatory. One is surprised to meet occasionally in the
daily press and scientific literature of the day statements to the effect that
Ben Nevis is expected of and by itself, and without the help of synchro-
nous low-level observations, to frame warnings of coming storms, and
that if this is supposed not to be done, there is no hesitation in adding
that the establishment does not deserve public assistance. It is unneces-
sary to say that this Association has always been conspicuous in never
having withheld moral and material support from investigations until it
was shown that the results could be turned to practical purposes.
Your Committee, however, from the first, while assuming that the
claim of the Observatory for support is the scientific work done by it,
_ have in each of their annual reports expressed their opinion that, as ob-
servations accumulate, and as the very laborious discussion of them pro-
ceeds, the high expectations they had formed as to the practical value of
these high-level observations in forecasting weather and storms have been
more than realised.
At last year’s meeting at Birmingham it was stated in Section A, as
an argument against supporting the Ben Nevis Observatory, that its ob-
servations were found to be useless in forecasting weather, but the grounds
of this opinion were not given. A single statement will show that any
such opinion must rest on imperfect information.
The Directors of the observatory and your Committee in their reports
have from the very outset insisted with some earnestness and strength
of language on the absolute necessity of combining the double observation
for all forecasting purposes—in other words, of combining the observation
at the top of Ben Nevis with that made at the same instant at Fort
William. The reason is obvious, it being by vertical gradients, and not
by horizontal gradients, that the observations at high-level observa-
38 REPORT—1887.
tories can be turned to their proper and fullest account in forecasting
weather.
Now, when the observatory was opened in December 1883 the hours
for observation at Fort William were arranged so as to embrace the
hours adopted by the Meteorological Office, viz., 8 a.m. and 2 and 6 p.m. ;
and one of the first acts of the Directors was absolutely to place at the
service of the Meteorological Office weather telegrams for these three
hours both from the top and bottom of the mountain. This offer was
declined on the ground of the expense for the transmission of the tele-
grams, and until Mr. Buchan shall have thoroughly discussed the ob-
servations, and deduced inferences from them from which the Meteoro-
logical Office might learn how to use the observations in forecasting
weather.
Since, in fact, none of the sea-level observations at Fort William
from the founding of the observatory in the end of 1883 down to the
present time are in the Meteorological Office, or indeed anywhere but
in the office in Edinburgh, the opinion that the Ben Nevis observations
are useless in forecasting falls to the ground.
On the evening of August 23 there was a discussion in Parliament on
the vote for the Learned Societies, and in that discussion the next morning
newspapers reported that Mr. Jackson, of the Treasury, Sir John Lubbock,
Sir E. Birkbeck, and others, argued against any grant to the observatory
on the ground that the Meteorological Council, composed of men of the
very highest scientific standing, had given it as their opinion that the
practical results to be obtained from the Ben Nevis Observatory did not
warrant the grant asked for from: the Treasury.
A word as to this opinion. The Meteorological Council recently
printed a memorandum ‘On Occasional Telegrams from Ben Nevis,’
signed Frederick Gaster, which was forwarded to the Treasury some time
before the discussion came on in Parliament. A copy was also sent to
the Directors of the observatory by instructions from General Strachey.
The memorandum concludes thus : ‘ In their existing form the telegrams
[from Ben Nevis] are absolutely useless.’
The whole question turns on the meaning of the phrase ‘ their existing
form,’ which a few sentences will explain.
When in December 1883 the offer of the Directors to send daily
telegrams from the top and bottom of the mountain was declined, the
Meteorological Office asked instead for occasional telegrams in these
words: ‘ We wish Mr. Omond to use his own discretion, and telegraph
to us whenever any very striking change of conditions or a special
phenomenon of great interest is recorded.’ It will be noted that the
Meteorological Office made no mention whatever of storms. Since
December 1883 Mr. Omond has sent such telegrams as appeared to him
to be wished, and no application has been made for upwards of three
years for more frequent telegrams or any other information, only that
some time ago a request was forwarded that every effort be made that
the telegrams do not exceed the sixpenny charge.
The request, it will be noted, was for telegrams ‘ whenever any very
striking change of conditions’ was recorded. Now, as a matter of fact,
no telegram has been sent with reference to all those storms, forming the
immense majority of storms, which have not been preceded or accom-
panied by a very striking change of conditions. But, further, several
telegrams were sent because it seemed to Mr. Omond that the very
ee
ON METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 39
striking change of conditions which occurred prognosticated settled
weather. Now in drawing up the memorandum for the Treasury all
these, as well as the other telegrams sent, were classed together by the
Meteorological Office and treated as if they had been intended by Mr.
Omond to be prognostic of storms, and the nineteen telegrams sent were
assumed to be all the warnings of storms which the observatory could
send to the office in London. From these data, so arranged for and
collected and interpreted, the decision was come to that ‘in their exist-
ing form the telegrams from Ben Nevis are absolutely useless.’ It might
have been predicted before a single telegram was received that no other
than such a decision could possibly have been arrived at.
While the statement that ‘in their existing form the telegrams are
absolutely useless ’ is thus unquestionably correct, it is nevertheless void of
all meaning as respects the matter in hand. What has been done is not
an investigation, and it is not science. But the statement underwent a
transforming process in its passage to the House of Commons, appearing
in this form, viz., ‘The Ben Nevis observations are absolutely useless in
forecasting weather ’—a statement of which it is enough to say that it
is incorrect. The Meteorological Office has yet to take the first step
towards commencing an investigation into the utility of the Ben Nevis
observations for forecasting purposes.
On the other hand the Council of the Scottish Meteorological Society,
strengthened as regards the Direction of the observatory by representa-
tives of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh and the Philo-
sophical Society of Glasgow, includes men of equal scientific merit with
any other Meteorological Council in the country ; and after some years’
investigation their opinion is that the Ben Nevis observations are of the
highest utility in the development of meteorology and in framing forecasts
of storms and weather for the British Islands.
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor BALFouR
Stewart (Secretary), Mr. J. Knox Laueuton, Mr. G. J. Symons,
Mr. R. H. Scort, and Mr. G. Jounstone Stonny, appointed for
the purpose of co-operating with Mr. E. J. Lows in his project
of establishing on a permanent and scientific basis a Meteoro-
logical Observatory near Chepstow.
Txis Committee met at 22 Albemarle Street on March 26, and passed the
following resolution :—-
‘As your Committee have heard no further results from the action
referred to by Mr. Lowe in his letter quoted in their last report, and there
thus appears to be an absence of local support, they see no prospect of
the scheme ever being carried out. The fundamental idea presiding over
the establishment of the observatory was that it should be one of perma-
nence, and hence it is obvious that adequate endowment is essential. To
provide this, and properly equip the observatory, several thousand pounds
are needed; but the Committee have no assurance that anything at all
approaching the necessary amount has yet been subscribed or even
promised. As they have now been in existence for between three and
40 REPORT— 1887.
four years with this negative result, they are of opinion that the Com-
mittee should now be dissolved.’
In consequence of this resolution the Committee have not drawn
the 20/. voted at Birmingham, and they do not now request their
reappointment.
Final Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. H. Scorr
(Secretary), Mr. J. Norman Lockyer, Professor G. G. Sroxkus,
Professor BaLrour Stewart, and Mr. J. G. Symons, appointed
im August 1881, and re-appointed in 1882-3 and 4 to co-operate
with the Meteorological Society of the Mauritius in the publica-
tion of Daily Synoptic Charts of the Indian Ocean for the
year 1861. (Drawn up by Mr. Roser H. Scort.)
Your Committee have to report that the sum of 50. originally granted
in 1881 has now been expended, and they enclose herewith a receipt for
the amount, showing its disposition, from the Treasurer of the Mauritius
Meteorological Society.
Dr. Meldrum, in a letter to the Secretary, dated June 4, 1887, says: ‘I
am requested by the President and Council of our Meteorological Society
to convey to yourself and the British Association their very best thanks,
and to say that the Society will forward to the Association, through you,
two copies of each of the publications that have been issued.’
The following is a list of these publications :—
1. Daily Synoptic Weather Charts of the Indian Ocean for the months
of January, February, and March, 1861. The charts for the remainin
months of 1861, and remarks to accompany the months already published,
are in preparation.
2. Tabular Statements of the number of Gales experienced monthly
between the parallels of 20°S. and 46° S., and the meridians of 0° and
120° EK. during the last 39 years.
Dr. Meldrum further states that the following works are nearly ready
for publication :—
I. Synoptic Weather Charts of the Indian Ocean for January 1860, in
the course of which month a typical tropical cyclone took place.
II. The Tracks of the Tropical Cyclones in the Indian Ocean, south of
the Equator, from 1848 to 1886, as far as is known, together with the
observations from which the tracks have been deduced.
III. The Mean Pressure and Temperature of the Indian Ocean for five
degrees square, in the months of January and July.
IV. Synoptic Charts of the Indian Ocean for each day, during the last
39 years, in which it is known that a cyclone existed.
V. The Average Limits in the Indian Ocean of the South-East Trade
= each month, and of the North-West Monsoon from November to
lay.
ON A GOOD DIFFERENTIAL GRAVITY METER. 41
Second Report of the Comnvittee, consisting of General J. T.
Watker, Sir WILLiam TuHomson, Sir J. H. LeErroy, General
R. SrracHey, Professors A. S. HERSCHEL, G. CHRYSTAL,
C. Niven, J. H. Poyntine (Secretary), A. SCHUSTER, and
G. H. Darwin, and Mr. H. Tomurnson, appointed for the
purpose of inviting designs for a good Differential Gravity
Meter in supersession of the pendulum, whereby satisfactory
results may be obtained at each station of observation in a few
hours, instead of the many days over which it is necessary to
extend pendulum observations.
Since the last report the Committee have received an account of a
proposed instrument from Mr. C. V. Boys. Mr. Boys has lately found
that quartz threads, which he is able to draw from melted quartz, are
remarkably free from ‘fatigue,’ and he intends to make use of this in
constructing a torsion gravimeter. In the form which seems to be most
promising a quartz thread is stretched horizontally, and to the middle of
it is attached one end of an arm going out at right angles with a mass at
the other end. The thread is twisted and the arm is drawn ont of the
horizontal position till it is nearly in unstable equilibrium, and the
arrangement is exceedingly sensitive to small changes in the weight of
the mass. In principle the instrument resembles other applications of
horizontal torsion, such as those in some forms of Sir W. Thomson’s
attracted disc electrometers. As Mr. Boys is engaged in experimenting
on the best form of instrument, we do not give more than the foregoing
sketch of his proposals.
As the metal spring which Sir William Thomson proposed to use
(described in last year’s report) appears to be subject to ‘fatigue’ in a
much greater degree than Mr. Boys’s quartz threads, he is awaiting the
results of Mr. Boys’s experiments before proceeding with the construction
of a complete instrument.
The Committee ask for reappointment, with the addition of Mr. Boys,
and they apply for a grant of 10/. to aid in the construction of an
instrument.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors WILLIAMSON,
ARMSTRONG, Dixon, TILDEN, REINOLD, J. Perry, O. J. LODGE,
Bonney, Srirtinc, BowEr, D’Arcy THompson, and MILNES
MARSHALL, and Messrs. W. H. PREECE, VERNON HaARcOURT,
Crookes, TopLey, and E. F. J. Love (Secretary), appointed
for the purpose of considering the desirability of combined
action for the purpose of Translation of Foreign Memoirs and
for reporting thereon.
HIs Committee have held two meetings, and carefully discussed the
ubject submitted to it by the British Association. The result of the
iscussion is expressed in the following resolution of the Committee :—
‘That, owing to the difficulty of making suitable selection of the
42 REPORT-—1887.
papers, and in view of the probable heavy cost of such an undertaking,
it is not considered by the Committee possible for the British Association,
either alone or acting in concert with the special scientific societies, to
undertake the translation of entire papers from foreign journals,’
It was mentioned in the course of the discussion that no complete
set of abstracts of papers in physics is published in English; and the
advantage of such abstracts being generally recognised, Professor Reinold
undertook, at the request of the Committee, to bring the subject before
the Council of the Physical Society of London and report the result to
the Committee.
Professor Reinold reports as follows :—
‘The Council of the Physical Society have decided that they are not
at present in a position to undertake so vast a work as the publication
of abstracts of foreign physical papers or even to assist in any adequate
manner in such an undertaking. It has been decided, however, to
publish from time to time translations im extenso of important papers
appearing in foreign journals.’
The Committee have found it unnecessary to expend any portion of its
grant.
Report of a Committee, consisting of Professors McLEop and
Ramsay and Messrs. J. T. CUNDALL and W. A. SHENSTONE (Secre-
tary), appointed to further investigate the Action of the Silent
Discharge of Electricity on Oxygen and other Gases.
Tue work of this Committee has been actively continued during the past —
year. An apparatus has been constructed for the preparation and storage ~
of gases in a pure state. This apparatus has been put together entirely —
before the blowpipe, and has no taps nor joints except such as are protected
by mercury, and therefore affords the best guarantee of the purity of
the gas prepared and stored within it at present attainable. The con- —
structing of this apparatus has occupied a considerable period, and has
prevented the execution of so much of the work that it is proposed to
carry out as would otherwise have been possible ; nevertheless consider-
able progress has been made in several directions. Oxygen has been
prepared which, from the mode of preparation, may be presumed to con-
tain not more than one part of nitrogen in two hundred million parts of
the gas ; and, though it is not possible to obtain reagents ofa similar degree
of purity, by acting on the gas with specially purified phosphorus it has
been established by experiment that the gas is undoubtedly in avery pure
state.
Very pure oxygen has been enclosed with phosphorus pentoxide in
sealed tubes for periods of many weeks and subsequently submitted to
the action of the silent discharge of electricity. The results of repeated
experiments show that such oxygen is freely convertible into ozone.
Whether pure and dry oxygen is more capable of ozonification than
oxygen in a less pure state has, however, still to be decided by repeti-
tions of the experiments with various forms of apparatus. But the
variable efficiency of ozone-generators under apparently identical condi-
tions has to be overcome before the results of quantitative experiments can
be compared one with another; therefore the Committee are at present
ON THE SILENT DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICITY. 43
unable to report more fully on this point and on the main object of their
work, viz., the influence of heat, pressure, &c., on the formation
of ozone. Further progress has been made in the examination of the
character of the silent discharge of electricity, and in the study of the
actions of ozone and mercury on each other. It has been ascertained
that ozone, pure and dry, except for the presence of oxygen, affects the
surface-tension of mercury in the well-known manner, and is itself presently
reconverted into oxygen. This change, however, is not accompanied by
oxidation of the mercury, such as occurs even when only a trace of
moisture is present.
The experiments on the chemical action of ozone on mercury and
other substances are being continued, and, though their progress must be
slow, considerable advance may be hoped for during the coming year.
The other work undertaken by the Committee is also being actively con.
_ tinued, and it is proposed that the Committee shall be reappointed.
Notre.—No experimental details are introduced into this report, as
a full description of the work done has already been published in a paper
printed in the ‘ Journal of the Chemical Society’ for July 1887.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors TILDEN and W.
CHANDLER Rosgerts-AusteN and Mr. T. Turner (Secretary),
appointed for the purpose of investigating the Influence of
Silicon on the Properties of Steel. (Drawn wp by Mr. T. TURNER.)
Wuen the above Committee were appointed at the last meeting of the
Association a series of experiments had already been commenced, and a
preliminary notice of these appeared in the Report for last year. This
series of experiments has been completed, and full details have been
published (‘Jour. Chem. Soc.’ 1887, p. 129). A second set of observations
in continuation of the work has also been commenced, and the results are
so far advanced that it is hoped to publish details in a few months.
In the paper in the ‘ Journal of the Chemical Society’ a short account
is given of the results hitherto obtained by other observers, and it is
believed that the present state of our knowledge may be summarised as
follows :—
1. Ingot iron. Silicon promotes soundness; it resembles carbon in
‘increasing the tenacity and hardness; it should not exceed 0°15 per cent.
if the metal has to be rolled; and in some cases it produces brittleness
when cold.
2. In steel castings. Silicon promotes soundness; it is, however, re-
garded as a necessary evil, and excess should be avoided as tending to
brittleness and low extension ; about 0°3 per cent. is generally recom-
mended.
3. In crucible steel. A few hundredths per cent. is necessary to pro-
duce soundness; it is generally agreed that considerable quantities of
silicon may be present without injury to the material.
_ 4, Manganese appears to be capable of neutralising the ill effect due
to silicon.
The first series of experiments was undertaken to determine the
effect of silicon on the properties of specially pure iron. For this purpose
Chemical analysi
R (By Mr. J. P. Walton)
Hot tests
gi. |S.
0:027
————| ——|———_
0:02 |:0098\0:039
0:03
0028
Worked
or
0-034
0:035|0°03
0°:039/0°08
0:08 |0:036
0°117}0°015
REPORT—1887.
well at
welding
heat; red
short at
dull red
heat.
Do. Do.
Taste A.—Genera
Tons {Pounds
48,850
13°25
13°39
48,810
46,410
12°77 | 42,940
16°30 | 49,040
19-19 | 48,410
15:11 | 51,920
16°28 | 51,430
15°22
17°63 | 53,670:
17°92 | 54,280
15°53 | 52,050
50,640) 2
Tons | break
21°80} 0-586
21°79] 0°608
20°72] 0°646
19°17] 0°666
21°89] 0:744
21°61] 0°888
24-231 0-739
23°24] 0-668
17°73 | 61,490, 27-45} 0-646
0°638
25°77] 0°721
25°59} 0°710
ON THE INFLUENCE OF SILICON ON THE PROPERTIES OF STEEL.
45
Extension
per cent.
on 10 in,
bo
i
x
Reduction
of area
per cent.
Relative
hardness
Remarks
30°7
19°5
18-4
a
o
Oo
778
43-4
37:3
63°7
711
30:0
33°7
363
39:1
46°0
43°'8
19:7
33°9
—
ioe)
17
17
20
21
Silky.
Very finely silky.
Fracture irregular ; about 60 per cent.
silky ; the remainder in patches and
pipes of crystal.
Very unsound and faulty; irregu-
lar crystalline spots; surface ex-
tremely distressed all over.
Fracture silky, but full of pipes and
reedy holes in part filled with crys-
talline siliceous matter; some small
specks of crystal.
Very finely silky, but with three large
and about 20 small round pipes,
filled with siliceous matter, which
flew out in a cloud of dust on frae-
ture ; surface reedy.
Fracture irregular, with unsound
pipes or fissures; mostly crystalline
granular; edges silky.
Like No. 6, but more irregular, and
surface a good deal distressed.
Fracture irregular and not entirely
sound; about 30 per cent. finely
crystalline, rest silky.
Irregular; mostly silky, but with
crystalline spots; in places unsound
and reedy ; surface reedy.
Silky, but with irregular crystalline
specks and pipes.
Silky but irregular, with crystalline
spots and pipes; surface a little
distressed.
Fracture 65 per cent. finely crystal-
line, the rest half finely granular ;
half silky ; surface very much dis-
tressed on one side. ,
Fracture about 65 per cent. finely
crystalline, the rest irregular, for
the most part silky; surface a good
deal distressed.
Silky; specked with crystals and
silica (yellowish crystalline mate-
rial), a little reedy on surface.
Somewhat irregular, silky—with flat-
tened pipes containing crystalline
siliceous matter; surface a little
distressed.
46 REPORT—1887.
molten iron was taken from the Bessemer converter at the end of the
‘blow’ and before any addition of ferromanganese had been made. This
was mixed in a crucible with various proportions of melted cast iron con-
taining about 10 per cent. of silicon, and the product was afterwards
examined. The composition of these materials was as follows :—
|
| © Si. | s. Mn. P. |
Bessemer Iron... | 0-02 0:0098 0-039 0-06 0-04
Silicon Pig ‘| 1-96 | 10°30 0-02 1:90 O17
In Table A is given a general summary of the results obtained. The
mechanical tests were conducted by Professor A. B. W. Kennedy, and
duplicate experiments gave concordant results. The mean values de-
duced from these experiments are given in Table B. The letter D is
used to indicate that in these cases it is doubtful if thorough mixture was
obtained. Other ingots were prepared containing more silicon, but as
these could not be rolled no mechanical tests were performed.
Taste B.—Mean Results of Tensile Tests. Professor Kennepy.
Limit of | Breakin : Extension ;
No Si. p.c. | elasticity. load. ‘ are per cent. epg Relative
ahh: found Tons per | Tons per Petals | on 10 5 t hardness
| sq. in. sq. in. - inches esl
| ‘ :
| 1 00098 13°01 21:80 0:597 27:7 77-0 18
2 0:02 13°08 19°95 0656 | 176 40:3 16
D3 0:027 17-75 21°75 0861 | 26:0 67'4 15
d 0°035 15°69 23°07 0-680 16°3 31°8 17
5 0-039 16°42 23°28 0-704 | 182 377 17
6 0:08 16°72 23°77 O-7704._| 24:2 44-9 20
7 O117 18:00 28°05 O'G42 } | 156 26°8 21
| D8 013 18°37 25°68 0-715 18°8 41:9 20
The relative hardness was determined, as in my experiments on cast
iron, by means of the weight in grams necessary to produce a scratch
with a diamond on drawing its point over the smooth surface of the
metal. The following list will illustrate the values obtained on applying
such a method of examination to various substances. On comparing the
values given in Table B it will be seen that the relative hardness was not
very greatly influenced by the proportion of silicon added.
Substances. bata
Steatite 4
Lead (commercial) 1
Tin AF é : é 4 ; , ; : 2°5
Rock salt . : : : : : : : : ‘ i 4
Zinc (pure annealed) . 6
Copper (pure annealed) . z : : , ; : : 8
Calcite F : ; : : : . ; ; ; 12
Softest iron : . : : ; : : i . : 15
Fluor-spar . : : : : : : 2 . ; : 19
Mild steel . : : ; : : ; : ‘ 5 , 21
Tyre steel . : : : 3 Se F ; . 20-24
Goodcastiron . : , . : : 3 Sh les
Bariron . : : : 2 2 ; % 3 24
’
s ON THE INFLUENCE OF SILICON ON THE PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 47
:
Substances. Relative
3 : hardness.
, Apatite . : - : : : : > 2 : : 34
ti Hard cast-iron scrap . ; ; : : : ; ; : 36
i Window glass . E A 3 F ( 3 ¢ 5 60
: Good razor steel. : : s ; : : : i é 60
p Very hard white iron. 3 : ; : . ’ : : 72
4 The following are the general conclusions arrived at from this series
_ of experiments. On adding silicon, in the form of silicon pig, to the
3 purest Bessemer iron, the following results are obtained :—
The metal is quiet in the mould when even a few hundredths per
cent. of silicon are added. The metal is originally red short, especially at
a dull red heat, though it works well at a welding temperature; the red
shortness is increased by silicon. In all cases examined, the metal was
_ tough cold, and welded well, silicon having little or no influence. Silicon
increases the elastic limit and tensile strength, but diminishes the elonga-
tion and the contraction of area, a few hundredths per cent. having a
remarkable influence in this respect. The appearance on fracture by
tensile force is changed from finely silky to crystalline, while the fracture
produced by a blow gradually becomes. more like that of tool steel as
silicon increases. The hardness increases with the increase of silicon, but
_appears to be closely connected with the tenacity. With 0-4 per cent. of
silicon and 0°2 per cent. of carbon, a steel was obtained difficult to work
at high temperatures, but tough when cold, capable of being hardened in
water, and giving a cutting edge which successfully resisted considerable
hard usage. In some cases silicon was present in the oxidised condition ;
the effect is then very different, and the mechanical properties of the
metal more nearly resemble those of the original Bessemer iron.
In the second series of experiments various proportions of silicon have
been added to ingot metal, containing manganese and carbon, as ordina-
rily met with in commerce. The results are not yet quite ready for
publication, but they show that manganese greatly modifies the effect of
silicon in producing red shortness, and hence enables the metal to be
readily rolled and otherwise worked, even in presence of several tenths
per cent. of silicon. The low extension, however, though not nearly so
marked as before, is still observed, despite the presence of manganese ; and
hence, for the majority of the applications of mild steel, silicon does not
appear to be advantageous.
hird Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor G. Forpes
(Secretary), Captain ABNEY, Dr. J. Hopkinson, Professor W. G.
Apams, Professor G. C. Foster, Lord RayieicH, Mr. Preece,
Professor ScHUSTER, Professor DEwar, Mr. A. VeRNon Harcourt,
Professor AYRTON, Sir JAMES DouGLass, and Mr. H. B. Drxon,
appointed for the purpose of reporting on Standards of Light.
Tut Committee have been anxious during the past year to carry out com-
arative experiments on the various standards of light hitherto proposed,
ut have been prevented by want of funds from doing much. Professor
. G. Adams, however, has presented a report to the Committee on pre-
48 REPORT— 1887.
liminary experiments made by him, and the Committee are fully convinced
that, if provided with funds, they will be able during the next year to
complete experiments which will lead to recommendations, which, if
adopted, will place the question of authorised standards on a satisfactory
footing.
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors Ramsay,
TILDEN, MarsHaLL, and W. L. Goopwin (Secretary), appointed
for the purpose of investigating certain Physical Constants of
Solution, especially the Expansion of Saline Solutions.
Tu experiments on invaporation described in our last report have been
continued, and new series have been begun. The process of invaporation
is so slow that our report each year must necessarily be imperfect in many
points. Of all the experiments set up (and some of these have been going
on for nearly two years) only four are completed. The method formerly
employed, of sealing in glass tubes and opening by breaking the tubes,
was found inconvenient, several interesting experiments having been
spoiled by various accidents in sealing and opening. We next tried the
so-called ‘ Gem’ and ‘Crown’ jars, used a great deal in America for seal-
ing up fruits, &c. They are closed by means of a glass cap, the rim of
which is pressed down upon a flange on the neck of the bottle by means
of a metallic screw-ring working upona thread below the flange. A ring
of caoutchouc lies upon the flange and is pressed upon by the rim of the
cap. Out of a dozen carefully selected specimens of these jars only two
were found to be even approximately tight when tested by the invapora-
tion process. For example, experiment 6:2 shows a loss of 1:2661 gram —
of water in 133 days. Still, the jars answer their original purpose, and
can be closed tightly enough to prevent the entrance of putrefactive and
fermentative germs. The rate of invaporation was found to be very much
slower when the jars were used, although larger tubes were employed,
and thus larger invaporating surfaces secured. A comparison of A.2 and
C.2 brings out this difference in rates. In A.2 half the quantity of
sodium chloride invaporates in 111 days six times as much water as is
invaporated by the sodium chloride of C.2 in 133 days. Of course, this
is to be explained, in part at least, by the lower vapour tension due to the
escape of moisture from the imperfectly closed jar. But, that there is
another cause seems to follow from the case of C.3. The jar in this case
was almost air-tight, allowing the escape of only 0:2592 gram of water
in 131 days. The total water invaporated during this period was 0:8689
gram, as compared with 1:435 gram invaporated in 56 days by smaller
quantities of salts inclosed in a sealed tube (see A.1). The jars were
very much larger than the sealed tubes, and doubtless this circumstance
retarded invaporation when the jars were used. The jars were rejected
in favour of wide-mouthed stoppered bottles, the stoppers of which were
greased with lard. The loss of water from these bottles was found to be
scarcely appreciable.
In the following tables Ma = mass in grains, Mo = relative numbers _
of molecules, P = period of invaporation in days, reckoning from the
beginning of the experiment, Q = masses of water in the small tubes,
R = relative numbers of molecules of water in the small tubes.
49
ON THE EXPANSION OF SALINE SOLUTIONS.
| LF-66 = GL-66 _ ¥1:66 = 9F-66 = 7 = == = =
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51
ON THE EXPANSION OF SALINE SOLUTIONS,
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REPORT—1887.
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53
ON THE EXPANSION OF SALINE SOLUTIONS.
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54 REPORT—1887.
A.1 is evidently completed. The condition at the end of 314 days is
practically the same as that at the end of 460 days. The potassium
chloride retains only a few milligrams of water. At the end of 534
days the potassium chloride has gained 1:4 milligram, while the sodium
chloride has lost 2‘8 milligrams. These numbers represent the change
between the 260th and the 534th day. The quantities are so small that
they may be due to unavoidable errors of experiment. It is to be noted,
however, that the period is a hot one, including as it does the month of
July, during which the average daily minimum was 66° F., and the
average daily maximum 78° F. Other observations made in the course
of these experiments have led us to believe that the distribution of the
water is appreciably affected by the temperature. It has been shown by
Willner (Jahresber., 1860, 47-49), that the effect of salts in solution
in decreasing vapour tension is increased by rise of temperature. From
this it follows that invaporation is more powerful at high than at low
a dh a and we would expect this effect to be different for different
salts.
A.2 is still in progress, but invaporation from the potassium chloride
to the sodium chloride is proceeding so slowly (a little over one centigram
during the last 221 days!) that the limit must be nearly reached.
A.3 is not yet completed. Water is still passing from the potassium
chloride to the sodium chloride.
A.4 is almost, if not quite, in equilibrium, and it is to be observed
that the ratio in which the water is divided does not depart far from
unity.
A.5, in progress for a year, shows that after sufficient dilution,
potassium chloride invaporates more rapidly than sodium chloride.
Series B includes the experiments made to show the effect of in-
creasing the relative proportion of sodium chloride. A comparison of
B.1 with A.2 shows that increasing the relative proportion of sodium
chloride causes more rapid invaporation, and, when the quantity of water
is small, more complete desiccation of the potassium chloride. The
quantity of water remaining with the potassium chloride after the 131st
day is fairly constant, and it is to be observed that the maxima come
immediately after the hot months (vide supra).
Series D includes experiments V., VI., and VIL., of our previous
report (see D.1, D.2, and D.3). A study of D.4 shows that, after a
certain degree of diluteness is attained, sodium chloride invaporates more
rapidly than lithium chloride, and it seems probable that, given enough
water, sodium chloride would invaporate as much as, if not more than,
lithium chloride.
A check experiment was made by using two equal weights of sodium
chloride placed in tubes of nearly the same diameter, and allowing them
to invaporate water. If the conditions were the same in the two tubes,
and did not vary from part to part of the enclosed space, invaporation
would go on at the same rate in the tubes. The small differences
observed are easily explained. In tube No. 68 a small quantity of the
salt remained as fine powder on the sides of the tube. This, deliquescing
rapidly, exposed a large invaporating surface, and thus during the first
period No. 68 gained water more rapidly than No. 67. This advantage
disappeared as soon as the solution adhering to the walls became very
dilute. Then, during the second period, No. 67 invaporated more
rapidly than No. 68. This was owing to the fact that the diameter of
—
*
No. 67 was slightly greater than that of No. 68, so that the solution in
No. 67 exposed a larger invaporating surface. This second cause of
variation is not so great as the first.
An interesting comparison could be made between the results of
invaporation experiments and the vapour tensions of the corresponding
saline solutions; but it will be necessary to await the completion of a
sufficient number of experiments to permit the plotting of curves, in
_ order that the comparison may be advantageously made.
ON THE EXPANSION OF SALINE SOLUTIONS. 55
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor T1npun, Professor
Ramsar, and Dr. W. W. J. Nicon (Secretary), appointed for the
| purpose of Investigating the Nature of Solution.
Supersaturation of Salt Solutions.\—The various physical constants of
supersaturated and non-saturated solutions were examined in two ways.
(1) Starting with a non-saturated solution of a salt at.a high tempera-
ture it was allowed to cool and thus to become more and more concen-
trated till it reached its saturation point, while on further fall of tempera-
ture it became supersaturated; (2) solutions of the salt were prepared
of definite strengths, extending equal distances on either side of the
saturation point, and their physical properties were examined at a definite
temperature (20° C.). The salts examined were the following :—
Sodium sulphate, sodium phosphate, sodium thiosulphate, sodium
carbonate, zinc sulphate, magnesium sulphate.
The physical constants examined were—
Rate of expansion, specific viscosity, molecular volume, and electrical
conductivity.
In no case did the curves representing the change in the value of the
physical constants with temperature or concentration exhibit the slightest
change in direction above or below the saturation point.
These experiments show that there is no marked change in the physi-
eal properties of a solution when it becomes supersaturated either through
fall of temperature or by the addition of salt. Non-saturated, saturated,
and supersaturated solutions have therefore the same constitution; they
differ only in degree, not in kind.
Specific Viscosity of Salt Solutions.—The experiments in this direction
are incomplete, but new forms of apparatus have been devised which have
yielded highly satisfactory results.
Preliminary experiments have been made with NaCl, KCl, NaNOs,
and KNO, in different strengths of solution, the general result being to.
cast doubts on some of the results obtained by Hannay as to the propor-
tionality of the retardation of flow and the amount of salt present.
The forms of the curves for the sodium salts are essentially the same,
but differ completely from those for the corresponding potassium salts,
the latter having a minimum time of flow at a strength of 2 to 3 molecules
of salt per 100 water molecules and approximately the same rate as pure
water when n=5 for KNO, and KCL.
A large number of further experiments will be required before the
1 Journ. Chem. Soc. 1887, p. 389.
56 REPORT—1887.
work is sufficiently advanced to justify the drawing of general conclusions
from it.
Change of volume on the precipitation of barium sulphate by various
sulphates.
Two series of experiments have been completed, one with solutions
containing one equivalent of the salts in 50 molecules of water, the other
with solutions of half this strength. The results are as follows :—VC. is
the change of volume in cubic centimetres resulting on the mixture of the
solution of barium chloride containing 1 gram equivalent with excess of
the precipitant.
BaCl,«H,O + Excess. MSO,¢H,0.
M. x=100 vc. M. x=200 vc.
i? ns aks eae ef a i iO ym
Na, . : ; : - 407 | Na,. é ; ¢ . 43:5
K, ate ee ee PAR eat eae
Ce : ; : ~ ore 4 Cd... : : : . 40°4
Mg. 3 : : . 362 | Mg. 5 : - Fil!
an: : : : i SS | Ni Sule . ; : . 386
Cor: : 5 ; on an, Cor. “ ‘ ‘ . 38:3
Cu . 5 ; : . 348 Cu. 5 ; ; 2 eoetl
Nip: : : : . 34:5. Ni+. : : : ~ B68
Hew: F : : . 25:0 | He . ; : : =
Mn. ; : : . 35:0 | Mn. : - ; _ =
the mean difference between corresponding members of the two series
being 3°1, due to the different dilutions.
It is to be noted that the first three metals yield closely agreeing
results, and are marked off by a gap of 3°4—3'5 from the others, while
these are all comprised within 2°8—2°6. It is probable that this different
behaviour of the magnesian sulphates is due to the presence of water of
constitution, cadmium forming a connecting link between this group and
that of the alkali metals.
Vapour Pressure of Salt Solutions. —The work done has been confirmed
to a great extent by Emden (Wied. ‘Ann.’ 1887, xxxi. 145), who employed
the barometric method of experiment. He, however, maintains the truth
of von Babo’s law, that the vapour pressure of a solution at different
temperatures always bears the same proportion to that of pure water,
or p=AP; where p=pressure from salt solution, P = from pure
water, and A= a constant. This point is a most important one, for
unless A varies with the temperature, there would be no reason why a
salt should change in solubility with rise of temperature, or at any rate
why the solubility of all salts should not vary equally with change of
temperature.
In order to settle this question new apparatus has been devised
whereby water and salt solution can be compared under precisely similar
conditions, and it is proposed to extend the observations from ordinary
temperatures up to 100° C., advantage being taken of Professors Ramsay’s
and Young’s methods of maintaining constant temperatures by means of
the vapour of liquids boiling under definite pressures.
-
a ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOLUTION. 57
; Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors TILDEN, McLEop,
PickERING, and Ramsay, and Drs. Youna, A. R. LeEeps, and
Nico. (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of reporting on
the Bibliography of Solution.
A CIRCULAR was issued to the members of the Committee, enclosing a
proposed classification and list of journals, and asking for suggestions as
to alterations, additions, &c. As a result of the answers to this circular,
the following classification was adopted :—
CLASSIFICATION.
Cuiass A.—Theoretical.
Section 1. Without original experimental work.
» 2 With original experimental work.
» B.—Determination of Solubilities.
Section 1. Solids
» 2. Liquids in liquids.
» 3» Gases
» C.—Physical Properties of Solutions.
Section 1. Densities and molecular volumes.
. Dilatation.
. Freezing-points.
. Vapour pressures and boiling-points.
. Capillarity.
Diffusion.
. Refraction and dispersion.
. Rotatory power.
. Magnetic rotatory power.
», 10. Absorption spectra.
COO ID orm oto
5, D. -Thermo-chemical Data.
Section 1. Specific heat.
» 2. Heat of solution, precipitation, &c.
NoTE.—Papers not coming under any of the above will be included under
Miscellaneous.
The list of journals is as follows :—
List oF JOURNALS.
To be referred to by number in classifying slips.
. ‘American Journal of Science and Arts.’
. ‘Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.’
. Proceedings of the above.
‘Annals of Philosophy.’
. § Philosophical Magazine.’
The ‘ Edinburgh Journal of Science’ (Brewster).
. Nicholson’s ‘ Journal of Natural Philosophy.’
. The ‘ Chemical Gazette.’
. The ‘Chemical News.’
10. The ‘ Laboratory.’
11. ‘Nature.’
12. The ‘ Pharmaceutical Journal.’
13. ‘ Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry.’
14. ‘ Philosophical Transactions,’ R.S.L.
WOAURD TU WOE
58 REPORT—1887.
LIsT OF JOURNALS—(continued),
15. Proceedings of the above.
16. ‘ Philosophical Transactions,’ R.8.E.
17. Proceedings of the above.
18. ‘ Memoirs of the Royal Irish Academy.’
19. ‘ Journal of the Chemical Society of London.’
20. Liebig’s ‘ Annalen.’
21. Gilbert’s, Poggendorff’s, and Wiedemann’s ‘ Annalen.’
22. Schweigger’s ‘ Journal.’
23. Kolbe’s ‘Journal fiir Practische Chemie.’
24, Fresenius’ ‘ Zeitschrift.’
25. Carl’s ‘ Repertorium.’
26. § Chemisches Centralblatt.’
27. ‘Sitzung berichte d. k. Acad. der Wissen. Wien.’
28. ‘ Berichte d. Deut. Chem. Gesellschaft. Berlin.’
29. ‘ Annales de Chimie et de Physique.’
30. ‘ Bulletin de Pharmacie.’
31, ‘ Journal de Pharmacie.’
32. ‘Comptes Rendus.’
33. ‘ Bulletin de la Société Chimique de Paris.’
34, ‘Gazetta Chimica Italiana.’
The following members of the Committee undertook to look over the
following journals :—
Professor TILDEN.—‘ Annales de Chimie et de Physique,’ the ‘ Pharmaceutical
Journal.’
Professor McLEOD.--‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society.’
Professor PickKERING.—‘ Transactions of the Royal Societies of London and
Edinburgh,’ ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society, Edinburgh.’
Professor RAMSAY.—‘ Journal of the Chemical Society,’ ‘ Comptes Rendus.’
Dr. Youna.—Liebig’s ‘ Annalen.’
Dr. Nicot.—‘ Annals of Philosophy,’ ‘ Philosophical Magazine,’ the ‘ Edinburgh
Journal of Science,’ Nicholson’s ‘ Journal of Natural Philosophy,’ ‘ Journal
of the Society of Chemical Industry,’ Gilbert’s, Poggendorff’s, and Wiede-
mann’s ‘ Annalen,’ Schweigger’s ‘ Journal,’ Carl’s ‘ Repertorium.’
The classification and list of journals was issued to the members who
had undertaken work along with the classification slips.
Directions FOR FILLING UP THE CLASSIFYING SLIPs.
The titles of papers are to be given in full in the original language.
Other references will, as a rule, be left blank, but may be used for the
original reference when the paper is a translation.
Papers on electrical constants of solutions, unless they come under
Class A, are to be passed over.
Papers containing experimental work, unless professedly theoretical,
will come in classes B, C, and D.
The volume number is to be given in ordinary, not Roman figures.
The periodical is to be referred to by its number in the accompanying
list.
With the following circular enclosed :—
BIRMINGHAM, March 21, 1887.
B. A. Commitren.—Bibliography of Solution.
Dear Sir,—I have sent you by this post a number of classifying slips,
and enclose a revised list of journals and classification. I wish also to
;
-
ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOLUTION. 59
draw your attention to the directions to be followed in filling up the slips
which you will find on the other side of this.
If you will kindly send me the slips in small batches as they are filled
up it will greatly facilitate the work of filling in the other references.
Yours truly,
W. W. J. Nicot, Secretary.
The result of the work up to the present has been that the whole of
the following journals have been searched :—
‘ Annals of Philosophy.’
‘Edinburgh Journal of Science.’
(‘ Brewster,’ ‘ Jameson,’ and the ‘ New Edinburgh Philosophical Journal.’)
Nicholson’s ‘ Journal.’
Schweigger’s ‘ Journal.’
Gilbert’s ‘ Annalen,’ Wiedemann’s ‘ Annalen,’
Carl’s ‘ Repertorium.’
In all 369 volumes.
Portions of the following have been searched :—
‘ Philosophical Magazine.’
Poggendorff’s ‘ Annalen.’
Liebig’s ‘ Annalen.’
‘Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society, Edinburgh.’
In all 219 volumes.
These 588 volumes contained the following papers :-
hss I FAP é ; : . . : ° «23
Peles). 22) S—3l : , ‘ ‘ ; “ oy iS
foe o6-os 0) ool oe p= peo 20st =o Oo)
9=1; 10=2 . a a ale se oe th Avr eC
D. 1=14;2=16 . : - ; ‘Sate ps0 bg «30
Miscellaneous . - : : : . b ; : gry 69
otalesmengoase . ; Se ot . 355
The Committee would recommend as members of the Committee
other gentleman who have access to the journals on the list, and who
would be willing to take an active share in the work.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Ray LANKESTER,
Mr. P. L. Scuater, Professor M. Fostzr, Mr. A. Sepewicx,
Professor A. M. Marswart, Professor A. C. Happon, Professor
Mosetey, and Mr. Percy Stapen (Secretary), appointed for
the purpose of making arrangements for assisting the Marine
Biological Association Laboratory at Plymouth.
Your Committee have pleasure in stating that the building for the
Laboratory of the Marine Biological Association at Plymouth is approach-
ing completion.
Your Committee report that they have paid to the Marine Biological
60 REPORT- 1887.
Association the sum of 501., placed at their disposal for that purpose; and
they hope that the Council will continue their support to this national
undertaking, and that the grant may be not only renewed but increased
for the ensuing year.
Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. Erxerince,
Dr. H. Woopwarp, and Professor T. Rupert Jones (Secretary),
on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks, 1887.
§ I. Ceratiocaris tyrannus and C. | § III. Dithyrocaris.
patula. 1. Upper-Carboniferous Species.
§ II. Scandinavian Phyllocarida. 11. Lower-Carboniferous Species
1. Ceratiocaris Angelini, sp. n. and Specimen formerly re-
2. C. Bohemica, Barrande. ferred to Dithyrocaris.
3, 4,5. C. Bohemica, varieties. 111. Devonian Species of Dithy-
6. Ceratiocaris, sp. nov. rocaris.
7. C. concinna, sp. nov. Iy. Silurian Specimens formerly
8. C. Scharyi, Barr., var. referred to Dithyrocaris.
9. C. pectinata, sp. nov. § IV. Leaia.
10, 11. Phasganocaris pugio (Barr)., List of known Species of Leaia.
var. serrata, Nov. § V. Paleozoic Species of Lstheria.
§ I. CyrAtiocaRris TYRANNUS and C. paruLa.—Continuing our researches
on the Ceratiocarides, especially with a view toa monograph in preparation
for the Paleontographical Society, we have found that the species which
we proposed to name Ceratiocaris attenuata (Fourth Report, Brit. Assoc.
Rep. for 1886, p. 230) is really the same as C. tyrannus, Salter MS., and
of course we adopt the latter name.
The term lata having been already applied to a species of Ceratiocaris,
we use the designation patwla for the little Lower-Ludlow form named
lata in our Fourth Report.
§ II. Scanvrnavian Puyttocaria-Some Phyllocarida from the
Silurian strata of Scandinavia (Sweden and the island of Gothland) are
represented by specimens in the State Museum at Stockholm. Draw-
ings, casts, or the specimens themselves have been shown to us by our
friend Professor Gustav Lindstrém, F.C.G.S., and we have arrived at
the following conclusions as to their relationships [all except the first
(Ceratiocaris Angelini) are from Upper-Silurian strata] :—
1. Ceratiocaris Angelini, sp. novy.—A long, stout, trifid caudal append.
age, consisting of the style or telson (145 mm. long, and 17 mm. broad at
the top) and two stylets (each 75 mm. long) lying close together. One
of the latter has been broken across by a crush, and the former is not quite
perfect at the tip (possibly 15 mm. longer or more originally). The
lower (ventral) surface only is shown. The articulation of the stylets
with and beneath the shoulders of the style—that is, under the backward
extension or overhanging hinder edge of its head or proximal end—is
very distinct. The upper edge of this part of the style (the surface arti-
culating with the ultimate segment) has an undulated profile, with two
small, projecting, asymmetrical, curved, horn-like processes.
The style on thisits lower aspect has a deep groove along the middle —
ed
ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALZOZOIC ROCKS. 61
of its upper moiety (obscured at the top), becoming narrow lower down.
A slight groove on each side is also present. No delicate ridging is seen,
nor any pits for bases of prickles. The stylets are smooth, and apparently
subtriangular in section, each bearing one strong ridge on the upper part
of the under face (as exposed).
In these features this form differs from C. Bohemica,! Barrande, the
_ telson of which is not deeply furrowed on its ventral (under) face; and
the latter species has longer stylets, oval in section, and neatly ridged
throughout.
The Scandinavian specimen occurs, as an impression, in hard black
shale (‘Brachiopod-Skiffer’) from the Lower-Silurian (Upper-Caradoc)
of Westergotland (Westrogothia), a province in the western part of the
mainland of Sweden. It has been badly figured in Angelin’s unpublished
‘Tab. LIII.’ (figs. 18 and 19).
All the following are from the Upper-Silurian :—
2. C. Bohemica, Barr.—Portions of the shafts of straight, strong styles
(telsons), similar to that of C. Bohemica, and chiefly from the middle
and lower parts of the styles. In section these Scandinavian specimens
are not so oblong as in Barrande’s figs. 7 and 9 (pl. 19, ‘Syst. Sil.
Bohéme,’ vol. i. Suppl.), and the ridging on the lower face is somewhat
stronger. (One piece=fig. 5 of Angelin’s unpublished Table B.)
From the cream-coloured limestone (Wenlock Shale) of Eksta, Goth-
land.
3. A piece of telson of the same kind as the above. Shown bya
drawing from Stockholm. From the (Wenlock Shale) Sandstone of
Bursyik, South Gothland.
4, O. Bohemica, Barr., var.?—A fragment of strong thick telson in
cream-coloured limestone, differing from C. Bohemica: (1) in being curved
(the convexity being dorsal, on the upper surface), (2) in having the
two pitted ridges lower down on the side, and (3) in the under surface
being more strongly ridged than in O. Bohemica. In some respects it
approaches C. valida, J. and W. In whitish limestone with Strophomena,
Trilobites, Tentaculites, Encrinites, &c. (Wenlock Limestone), from
Rone, Gothland.
5. C. Bohemica, var.?—A small fragment from Lau, Gothland, in
cream-coloured fossiliferous limestone (Wenlock). It tapers rather rapidly,
bears several thin ridges, and is oval in section. It may be a part of a
stylet of some variety of C. Bohemica, for that species has its stylets
ridged throughout.
6. Ceratiocaris, sp. nov. ?—A fragment of a style or a stylet. It is
somewhat like the last (5), but the ridges are fewer, broader, and
rounded. This is a drawing sent from Stockholm, The specimen
(Mus. Geol. Survey, Sweden) was from Fréjel, Gothland (Wenlock
Shale).
7. Ceratiocaris coneinna, sp. nov.—A small portion of a straight, rapidly
tapering style, convex on the upper, and concave along the lower face, with
a half-moon-shaped section in the upper, and more oblong in the lower
part. Two rows of small pits along the back, one on each side of the raised
middle. The test isofa dull, light chesnut tint; it is hollow and filled
with limestone. From Frdjel, Gothland. This tapering telson (7 mm.
broad at the top, and 4; mm. at the end of the fragment 15 mm. long)
1 Syst. Sil. Bohéme, vol. i. Supplement, p. 447, pl. 19, figs. 1-13.
62 REPORT—1 887.
differs from any we know of, though it approaches that assigned to C.
patula, J. and W. It is very neat in aspect and might be called concinna.
8. O. Scharyi, Barrande, var.—Seven abdominal segments (first and
last imperfect), some with the test, some shown only by impressions ;
crushed laterally, and showing the whole half from the back to the epimeral
border. In shape they are not unlike those of C. Scharyi, Barrande. They
are ornamented with a strong leaf-like lattice-pattern, as in that species,
but the lattice-pattern dies out into irregular oblique lines on the lower
part of each segment (as in O. stygia, &c.), instead of being continued all
over it as in (. Scharyi; nor is the smaller (secondary) lattice-work inside
each leaf-mark so distinct as in that species, but presents merely a wrinkled
appearance. (This is part of fig. 1 in Angelin’s unpublished Table B.)
In hard blue micaceous shale (Ludlow), from the lake Ringsjén,
Scania.
9. Ceratiocaris pectinata, sp. nov.—A portion of an ultimate segment
(14x 6 mm.), with a telson (fragment 30 mm.) and one stylet (not quite
perfect, 22 mm.). The segment retains scarcely any of the test, but shows
traces of an ornament of irregular small tubercles and interrupted lon-
gitudinal lines, and the distal margin of the segment has a coarse
comb-like fringe, consisting of a regular set of thin elongate tubercles,
reminding us of the drop-like tubercles on marginal parts of some
Eurypterids. (Fig. 2 in Angelin’s unpublished Table B.)
The head of the telson is wrinkled longitudinally, and both the style
and the stylet are ridged and furrowed. This form is new to us. Its
comb-like fringe suggests the name pectinata.
In earthy micaceous blue-grey limestone, from the Ringsjén, Scania.
10. Phasganocaris, Novak.—Phasganocaris pugio (Barr.), var. serrata,
noy.—Flattened pieces of tapering, riband-like telsons, with a central
line, sometimes raised, but usually sunken, which. was originally a ridge
in all probability. From it, on each side, numerous parallel, oblique,
sigmoid lines pass downwards and outwards, and these end at the edges
with sharp upward curves, defining the small subtriangular teeth of a
serrated fringe. This is of varying strength, and is sometimes backed
by a slight ridge. Except in the serrated edges these specimens cor-
respond in essential particulars with the dorsal aspect of the triangular
or bayonet-like lower portion of the telsons referred by Barrande to
Eurypterus,! but by O. Novak, lately and with precision, to his new
genus Phasganocaris.?
The fragments, dark brown and chitinous in appearance, are in an
earthy yellowish grey limestone (Lower-Ludlow) from Vattenfallet (the
Waterfall), near Wisby, Gothland.
11. Phasganocaris pugio (Barr.), var. serrata, nov.—A longer and
narrower piece of a telson, badly preserved, much crushed and wrinkled,
but retaining some convexity, and its upper end showing a slightly
triangular section. Dark brown and chitinous, in a blue-grey, calcareous,
and finely micaceous shale (Ludlow), from the Ringsjén, Scania.
§ III. Drrayrocaris.*—This genus, as recognised by its carapace and
abdominal appendages, is now known in three of the Paleozoic formations,
1 E. pugio, Barr., Sil. Syst. Bohéme, vol. i. Suppl. p. 564, pl. 26, figs. 25-34, and pl.
34, figs. 7-9.
2 Ph. pugio, Novak, Sitzwngsb. k. bohm. Gesell. Wissensch., 1886, pp. 1-4, pl. 1.
3 Referred to in the First Report, 1883, Brit. Assoc. Reports for 1883, p. 216.
ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALZOZOIC ROCKS. 63
} namely, the Upper and the Lower Carboniferous (especially in the latter),
and the Devonian, of Europe, the British Isles, and North America,
The following list indicates the geological horizons and the localities.
There are two species from the Coal-measures of the United States,
_ twelve from the Lower-Carboniferous of the Continent and British Isles
(chiefly from Lanarkshire in Scotland), and six Devonian species.
Dirnyrocaris, Scouler, 1843.
Argas, Scouler, ‘Records of General Science’ (Thomson’s), vol. i.
- 1835, p. 136.
es
.
Dithyrocaris, Scouler in Portlock’s ‘Geol. Report Londonderry, &c.,’
1843, p. 313.
Dithyrocaris, M‘Coy, ‘ Ann. M. N. H.’ ser. 2, vol. iv. 1849, p. 395.
Dithyrocaris, Morris, ‘ Catal. Brit. Foss.,’ 1854, p. 107.
Dithyrocaris, Woodward and Etheridge, 1870, 1873, 1879, &c.
Dithyrocaris and Argus [Argas], Packard, ‘ Monogr. Phyll. Americ.,’
1883, p. 451.
I. Upper-CarBonirerous Species or Dirnyrocaris.
1. Dithyrocaris carbonaria, M. and W., 1873.
Dithyrocaris (?) carbonarius, Meek and Worthen, ‘Geol. Survey of
Illinois,’ vol. v. (Geology and Palxontology), 1873, p. 618, pl. 32,
f. la, 10.
D. carbonaria, Miller, ‘ Catal. Pal. Foss. Amer.,’ 1877, p. 217.
Carboniferous.—Middle Coal-measures, Danville, Illinois.
2. Rachura [probably Dithyrocaris| venosa, Scudder, 1878, ‘ Proceed.
Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.,’ vol. xix. pp. 296, 297, pl. 9, f. 3, 3a; Packard,
‘Monogr. N.-Amer. Phyll.,’ 1883, p. 452.
Carboniferous —Coal-measures ; Danville, Illinois.
II.—Lower-CARBONIFEROUS SPECIES OF DiTHYROCARIS.
1. Dithyrocaris tricornis, Scouler, 1835.
Argas tricornis, Scouler, ‘ Records of General Science’ (Thomson’s),
vol. i. 1835, pp. 137, 141, fig. 2.
Dithyrocaris tricornis, Morris, ‘ Cat. Brit. Foss,’ 1854, p. 107.
D. tricornis, W. and E., ‘Mem. Geol. Surv. Bootl., Expl. Sheet 23,’
1873, p. 99; ‘Geol. Mag.,’ 1873, pp. 483, 486, pl. 16, f. 2 and 3.
Lower-Carboniferous.—One mile south-east of Paisley, Renfrewshire ;
East Kilbride, Lanarkshire.
2. Dithyrocaris testudinea, Scouler, 1835.
Argas testudineus, Scouler, ‘ Records of General Science’ (Thomson’s),
vol. i. 1835, pp. 137, 141, f. 3.
ee ore, Scoulert, M‘Coy, ‘Syn. Carb. Foss. Irel.,’ 1844, p. 163,
1, 23, f. 2.
Be rdiions, Morris, ‘ Catal. Brit. Foss.,’ 1854, p. 107.
D. testudineus, W. and E., ‘Mem. Geol. Surv. Scotl., Expl. Sheet
23,’ 1873, p. 98; ‘Geol. Mag.,’ 1873, p. 482, pl. 16, f. 1.
D. testudineus, Etheridge, ‘Q. J. G.S.,’ xxxv. 1879, p. 465, pl. 28,
£1
Lower-Carboniferous.—Near Paisley, Renfrewshire; Hast Kilbride,
, Lanarkshire; New Castleton, Roxburghshire.
3. Dithyrocaris Colei, Portlock, 1843.
‘Geol. Report Londonderry, &c.,’ 1843, pp. 314, 565, 570, &e., pl. 12.
64 REPORT— 1887.
36 36
(Specimens.) Mus. Pract. Geol. — = f.4and f. 5; = f. 1 and f. 6.
Mus. Pract. Geol. D = = £. 2; ‘Catal. Sil. Cambr. Foss., M. P. G.,’
1865, p. 116.
Lower-Carboniferous.—Tyrone Shales ; Clogher, Ireland.
Derry Shales; Ballynascreen, Ireland.
Carboniferous Limestone, Lower Shales ; Clogher, Tyrone.
Lower-Carboniferous ; Craigenglen, near Glasgow ; fide ‘Catal. W.-
Scot. Foss.,’ 1876, p. 45.
4, Dithyrocaris orbicularis, Portlock, 1843.
‘Geol. Report Londonderry, &c.,’ 1843, p. 316 (not figured).
Lower-Carboniferous.—Ballynascreen Shale; Whitewater River, Derry.
5. Dithyrocaris tenuistriata, M‘Coy, 1844.
Avicula paradowoides ? De Koninck, ‘ Descript. Anim. Foss. Carb.,’
1842, p. 139, pl. 6, f. 6.
Dithyrocaris tenuistriatus, M‘Coy, ‘Synops. Carbonif. Foss. Ireland,’
1844, p. 164, pl. 23, f. 3.
D. tenuwistriatus, H. W., ‘ Report Brit. Assoc.,’ August 1871. ‘ Geol.
Mag.,’ 1871, p. 106, pl. 3, f. 4.
Morris, Packard, &c.
(Specimens.) Lower-Carboniferous._-Visé, Belgium; Robroystone,
Lanarkshire.
Lower-Carboniferous.—Ireland (no locality given) ; Robroystone (?) and
. Auchenbeg, Lanarkshire, Scotland-; Mountain-limestone, Settle,
West Yorkshire.
6. Dithyrocaris lateralis, M‘Coy, 1852.
‘Brit. Pal. Foss. Cambridge Mus.,’ 1852, p. 182, pl. 3.1, f. 36.
The figure here referred to does not well represent the specimen in the
Cambridge University Museum (W. Hopkins, Coll.).
Lower-Carboniferous—From the black bands over the main limestone
of Derbyshire.
7. Dithyrocaris granulata, Woodward and Etheridge, 1873.
‘Mem. Geol. Surv. Scotl., Expl. Sheet 23,’ 1873, p. 99.
‘Geol. Mag.,’ 1874, p. 108, pl. 5, f. 2 and 3.
Lower- Carbonferous.—Kast Kilbride, Lanarkshire.
8. Dithyrocaris glabra, W. and E., 1873.
‘Mem. Geol. Surv. Scotl, Expl. Sheet 23,’ 1873, p. 99.
‘Geol. Mag.,’ 1874, pp. 108, 109, pl. 5, f. 4 and 5.
Lower-Oarboniferous.—Hast Kilbride, Lanarkshire ; and Ardross Castle,
Fife.
9. Dithyrocaris ovalis, W. and E., 1873.
‘Mem. Geol. Surv. Scotl., Expl. Sheet 23,’ 1873, p. 100.
‘Geol. Mag.,’ 1874, p. 107, pl. 5, f. 1.
Lower-Carboniferous.—EKast Kilbride, Lanarkshire.
10. Dithyrocaris, sp. indet. Etheridge, ‘Q. J. G. 8.,’ xxxv. 1879, p. 465.
Lower-Carboniferous—Wardie Shales of the Calciferous-sandstone
series, near Edinburgh.
11. Dithyrocaris, sp. indet. Etheridge, ‘Q. J. G. S,,’ xxxy. 1879, p. 466,
pl. 23, f. 2 and 3.
Lower-Carboniferous—Cement-stone group, near New Castleton, Rox-
burghshire.
ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALMOZOIC ROCKS. 65
?
4
7
.
12. Dithyrocaris, sp. indet. Etheridge, ‘Q. J. G. S.,’ xxxv. 1879, p. 467.
Lower- Carboniferous —Cement-stone group, near New Castleton, Rox-
burghshire.
Specimen Formerty REFERRED TO DITHYROCARIS.
[Dithyrocaris] pholadomya, Salter MS., 1863, ‘Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soe.,’ vol. xix. 1863, p. 92, note.
D. pholadomyia, Packard, ‘Monogr. Phyllop. N. America,’ 1883, p.
452.
(Specimen.) Mus. Pract. Geol. D Ee marked ‘ Dithyrocaris pholadi-
formis, Salter MS. In a dark micaceous sandstone of the Lower-Car-
boniferous Limestone, Berwick-upon-Tweed. ‘Catal. Sil. Cambr. Foss.
M. P.G.,’ 1865, p. 116.
This specimen is probably allied to Saccocaris, Salter (1868 and 1873),
First Report ‘ Pal. Phyll.,’ 1883, p. 219.
III. Devontan Species oF DiTHYROcARIS.
1. Dithyrocaris ? striata, W. and E., 1873.
‘Mem. Geol. Surv. Scotl., Expl. Sheet 23,’ 1873, p. 100.
‘Geol. Mag.,’ 1874, pp. 109, 110, pl. 5, f.6.
‘ Catal. W.-Scot. Foss.,’ 1876, p. 27.
Devonian.—Lower Old Red Sandstone ; Carmichael Burn, 435 miles
| S.E. of Lanark.
2. Dithyrocaris Belli, H. Woodward, 1871.
D. striata, H. W., ‘ Brit. Assoc. Rep.,’ 1870, sect. p. 90.
OD. Belli, H. W., ‘Geol Mag.,’ 1871, p. 106, pl. 3, f. 5.
—— ‘Brit. Assoc. Report,’ August 1871.
Miller, ‘ Catal. Pal. Foss. Amer.,’ 1877, p. 217.
D. striata, Bigsby, ‘ Dev.-Carb. Thesaurus,’ 1878,»p. 27.
D. Belli, Packard, ‘Monogr. N.-Amer. Phyll.,’ 1883, p. 452.
Devonian.—Middle-Devonian ; Gaspé.
It is possible that the figure represents two opposite valves, reversed
and overlapping on their inner margins.
3. Dithyrocaris Neptuni, Hall, 1863.
‘ Sixteenth Annual Report New-York State Museum,’ 1868, Appendix
Wp. 7o, pl: 1, £9.
‘Palesont. New York,’ vol. v. Part II.; ‘Illustrations of Devonian
Fossils,’ 1876; pl. 22, f. 1-5, carapace and spines, Portage Group ;
pl. 23, f. 1-6, tail-spines, Hamilton and Portage Groups.
Miller, ‘ Catal. Pal. Foss. Amer.,’ 1877, p. 217, ‘ Chemung Group.’
Packard, ‘Monogr. N.-Amer. Phyll.,’ 1883, p. 452, woodcut, f. 73.
Upper (and Middle ?) Devonian.—Hamilton and Portage Groups.
. Dithyrocaris Kochi, Ludwig, 1864.
‘ Paleontographica,’ vol. xi. p. 309, pl. 50, fyla, 18, Le. 4 /
Devonian.—Near Herborn, in the Dillthal, Nassau. af
. Dithyrocaris breviaculeata, Ludwig, 1864.
‘ Palzontographica,’ vol. xi. p. 310, pl. 50, f. 2.
Devonian.—Spirifer-sandstone Series, near the Butzbach, Nassau.
. (Specimen.) Near D. tenuistriata, M‘Coy; from the Cypridinen-
Schiefer, near Saalfeld.
1887. F
——
66 REPORT-—1887.
TV. Srnurtan Specimens Formerty Rererrep to DITayRocaris,
1. [Dithyrocaris| aptychoides, Salter, 1852
' == Peltocaris aptychoides, Salter, 1863. See the Second Report on the
Palzozoic Phyllopoda, 1884, p. 92.
Silurian.—Moffat, Scotland.
2. [Dithyrocaris| Murchisoni, Geinitz, 1853.
Ceratiocaris Murchisoni (Agass.). See the Third Report on Palzoz.
Phyllop., p. 340.
Silurian.—Saxony.
3. [Dithyrocaris ?] longicauda, D. Sharpe, 1853.
D.? longicauda, D. Sharpe, ‘Q. J. G. S.,’ vol. ix. p. 158, pl. 7, f. 3.
Ceratiocaris ? longicauda, Jones and Woodward. Third Report on
Paleoz. Phyllop. 1885, p. 354.
Silurian.—Near Bussaco, Portugal.
4, [Dithyrocaris|] Jaschei, F. A. Romer, 1855.
‘ Paleontographica,’ vol. v. p.8, t. 2, f. 13; and vol. xiii. 1866, p. 219, |
referring to Romer’s‘ Beitrag III. 17.15’ (misspelt ‘ Ditryocharis ’).
[Dithyrocaris | Jaschei, Romer. Kayser, ‘ Abhandl. Geol. Speciilkarte —
von Preussen und Thiiringischen Staaten,’ vol. ii. Heft 4, 1878, p.
7, t. 1, f. 13, 130. ;
Silurian.—Near Isenberg, Hartz.
Referring to Roémer’s ‘ Beitrag III., p. 120, t. 17, f. 2,’ and giving ©
more correct figures of the exterior and section. Doubtfully like a portion
of a bivalved carapace, filled with matrix and broken across.
Kayser, ilid. p. 8, t. 1, f. 14, also describes and figures a dubious
fossil from the oldest Devonian rocks of the Hartz (the limestone of the —
Upper Sprakelbach), which, Kayser says, looks like a tail-spine of a —
Ceratiocaris ; such, for instance, we may add, as OC. perornata, Salter ; see
our Third Report, p. 352. It may, however, have belonged to a Placoid —
fish, as Kayser observes. A fragment of what may have been the
valve of a Nothozoe (ibid. p. 9, t. 1, f. 15) was found in the same lime- —
stone.
§ IV. Leata.—Since the genus Leaia (mentioned in our First Report, —
1883, p. 217) was established in the ‘Monograph of Fossil Estherie,’
Pal. Soc., 1862, Appendix, p. 116, some other forms besides L. Leidyi
have been recorded; and several additional localities have been noticed,
both for that species and L. Williamsoniana and L. Salteriana, described
originally as varieties. The original description of the genus and of
Leaia Leidyi (Lea) has been reproduced in Dr. A. S. Packard’s ‘ Mono-
graph of North-American Phyllopod Crustacea,’ 1883, pp. 356-358.
In 1870 the history and nature of the genus Leaia were fully treated of
by H. Laspeyres in the ‘ Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Gesellsch.,’ vol. xxii. pp.
773, &c., with definite descriptions and good figures of five forms as_
specific ty pes, distinguished by shape, proportions, and ornament—namely,
L. Leidyi, Lea, p. 743, t. 16, £.3 L. Williamsoniana, Jones, p. 743
t. 16, f.4; L. Baentschiana, Beyr. and Gein., p. 744, t. 16, f. 2; L. Wet-
tinensis, Laspeyres, p. 745, t. 16, f 1; and L. Salteriana, Jones, p. 744,
t. 16, f. 5, the second, third, and fifth having previously been treated as
varieties by their describers. This paper is noticed in the ‘Neues Jahrb.,’
1870, p. 922, 3
ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALMOZOIC ROCKS, 67
Goldenberg, in his ‘ Foss. Thiere Steinkohl. Saarbriicken,’ Heft. IT.
1877, redescribed, with some figures, L. Leidyi and varr. Williamsoniana
and Salteriana, Jones, p. 45, t. 2, f. 22, 33, adding an account of other forms.
In 1879 R. Etheridge, jun., gave a synopsis of the foregoing genus
and species, with full references, in the ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,’ ser. 5,
vol. iii. p. 262, with the addition of the species DL. Jonesii.
All the known species of Leaia have been found in the Carboniferous
series or in strata in close apposition above or below, as shown in the
following list :—
1. 1862.—Coa!l-measures of South Wales, and the Lowest-Carboni-
ferous or Uppermost-Devonian of Pennsylvania.
Leaia Leidyi (Lea), Jones, ‘Monogr. Foss. Esth. Pal. Soc.,’ 1862,
Appendix, p. 116, pl. 5, f. 11, 12. Figured also by Laspeyres and
Goldenberg.
2. 1862.—Ooal-measures near Manchester and South Wales.
Leaia Williamsoniana, Jones. As a variety of ZL. Leidyi, ibid.
p. 117, pl. 1, f. 19, 20. Figured also by Goldenberg.
3 1862.—Coal-measures of South Wales (?), and Lower Carboniferous
of Fife.
Leaia Salteriana, Jones. As a variety of L. Leidyi. Ibid. p. 119,
pl. 1, fig. 1. Figured also by Laspeyres and Goldenberg.
In the ‘ Geol. Mag.,’ vol. vii. 1870, p. 219, doubts were expressed
as to these forms being specifically distinguishable, but in view of H,
Laspeyres’ careful conclusions it may be right to treat the so-called
varieties as distinct species.
4, 1864.— Lower Permian (‘Lower Dyas’); Werschweiler, near
Neunkirchen, not far from Saarbriicken, in the Treves district, Rhenish
Prussia.
Leaia Bentschiana, Beyrich and Geinitz, was so named asa variety
of L. Leidyi by Beyrich, and as a species by Geinitz independently in
1864; Beyrich’s note, ‘ Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Gesellsch.,’ vol. xvi.
1864, p. 364, bearing a rather earlier date than Geinitz’s descriptive note
in the ‘Nenes Jahrb.,’ 1864, p. 657, and his fuller description in the
*N. Jahrb ,’ 1865, p. 389, t. 2, f. 24, a, & 3a, a.
In his paper on Von Dechen’s Geological Map of the Saarbriicken Coal-
field, &c, Dr. Weiss first noticed this fossil as being either a Posidonomya
or an Estheria, of a peculiar goose-foot shape, ‘ N. Jahrb.,’ 1864, p. 656.
In 1870 this species was carefully redescribed and well figured by
H. Laspeyres, ‘ Zeitschr. d. g. Ges.,’ vol. xxii. p. 744, t. 16, f. 2, as D.
Bentschiana.
In 1873 and 1877 M. Goldenberg included this interesting fossil in
his ‘ Fauna Sarepontana fossilis,’ Heft I. p. 24, t. 1, f. 20,21, and Heft
II. p. 46, t. 2, f. 24, as a variety of L. Leidyi.
Iu his ‘Handbuch der Paliontologie,’ vol. i. Part 8, 1885, p. 568, fig.
758, Zittel gives both’ Leaia Leidyi, J. (after Jones), and L. Beentschi-
ana, Geinitz (after Goldenberg), but they are wrongly referred to in
the text.
5. 1868.—Ooal-measures. Illinois. Lewia tricarinata, Meek and
Worthen, ‘Geol. Survey Illinois,’ vol. ili, Geology and Palxontology,
pp. 541-43, woodeuts on p. 540 (with Colpocaris), figs. B], B2, B38, and C.
6. 1870.—Coal-measwres. Wettin, Prussian Saxony, on the Saale.
Leaia Wettinensis, Laspeyres, ‘ Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Gesellsch.,’ vol.
xxii. p. 745, t. 16, f. 1; ‘N. Jahrb.,’ 1870, p. 922.
F2
68 7 REPORT— 1887.
7- 1873 and 1877.-— Coal-measures. Saarbriicken, Rhenish Prussia.
Leaia Leidyi, var. Klieveri, Goldenberg. ‘ Fauna Sareep. foss.’ or ‘ Foss,
Thiere Steinkohl. Saarbriicken,’ Heft I. 1873, p. 24, t. 1, f. 22; ZL.
Klieveriana, ibid. Heft II. 1877, p. 46, t. 2, f. 20, 21.
8. 1879.—Lower- Carboniferous series (Wardie Shales), near Edinburgh.
Leaia Jonesti, R. Etheridge, jun., ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,’ ser. 5, vol. iii.
p. 260, woodcuts, figs. 1 and 2.
9, Other localities for Leaia (all in the Lower-Carboniferous series) have
been noticed :—
Tronstone of the Wardie Shales, near Edinburgh, ‘ Geol. Surv. Scotl.,
Expl. Sheet 32,’ 1861, pp. 30, 31; ‘Geol. Mag.,’ viii. 1871, p. 96;
‘Report Brit. Assoc.’ for 1871, sections, p. 109; ‘Q. J. G.S.,’ vol. xxxiv.
p. 5, 23.
Tronstone at Clifton (under the eastern end of York Crescent, near the
Post Office), Bristol. de Mr. R. 8. Roper and Mr. W. Adams.
Ironstone near (north of) Wemyss, Fife. ‘Geol. Mag., 1874,
. 480.
Lower-Carboniferous Shales, Nova Scotia, ‘ Geol. Mag.,’ vol. ii. 1865,
p-. 60; ‘ Acadian Geology’ (J. W. Dawson), Ist edit. 1868, and 3rd edit.
1878, pp. 131 and 256, fig. 78 e. Leaia Salteriana ?
§ V. Patmozorc Estaerta.—The following species are known :—
1. PeRMIAN.
Estheria exigua (Hichwald, 1846), Jones, 1862. Russia,
E. tenella (Jordan, 1850), Jones, 1862. Saxony; Russia.
E. nana (Ludwig, 1861), Geinitz, 1864. Not H. nana (De Koninck).
Germany.
E. Portlockii, Jones, 1862. Ireland.
E. rugosa, Giimbel, 1864. Thuringia.
2. Upper-CARBONIFEROUS.
Estheria striata (Minster, 1826), Jones, 1862. Bavaria; Belgium;
England.
Estheria nana (De Koninck, 1842), Geinitz, 1864. Liége, Belgium.
HB. tenella (Jordan, 1850), Jones, 1862. England; Scotland;
South Wales ; France (?); Germany ; Spain.
EB. striata, var. Beinertiana, Jones, 1862. England; Silesia.
—— var. Binneyana, Jones, 1862, England.
EB. Adamsii, Jones, 1870. South Wales.
Hi, Wimbaia, Goldenbare, 1977. ‘Saarbriicken, Rhenish Prussia. The
E. rimosa, Goldenberg, 1877.
coal-beds here are regarded by some
geologists as of Permian age.
E. Freysteini, Geinitz, 1879. Saxony.
3. LowsER-CARBONIFEROUS.
E. striata, var. Beinertiana Jones, 1862. Lanarkshire, Scotland.
var. Tateana, Jones, 1862. Berwickshire, Scotland.
E. punctatella, Jones, 1865. Lanarkshire, Scotland.
B. Dawsoni, Jones, 1870. (Not H. Dawsoni, Packard, 1881 and
1883.) Nova Scotia.
ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALAOZOIC ROCKS. 69
E. Peachii, Jones, 1870. Edinburgh, Scotland.
E. striata, var. tenwipectoralis, Jones, 1883. Western Siberia.
E. Nathorsti, Jones, 1883. Possibly of Upper-Devonian age. Spitz-
bergen.
4, DEVONIAN.
Eetheria membranacea (Pacht, 1849), Jones, 1862.
E. pulex, Clarke, 1882. Western part of the State of New York.
This last-mentioned Hstheria is very small, but in shape it is some-
what like the recent E. compressa, Baird. In its shape it also approximates
to E. rimosa, Goldenberg, ‘ Foss. Saarbriick.,’ Part II. t. 2, f. 18; and to
Ei. triangularis, Emmons.
Professor Dr. F. M‘Coy long ago intimated that some fossils described
as belonging to the Mollusca may really be Entomostraca, ‘Synops.
Carbonif. Foss.-Ireland,’ 1842, p. 164. Some suggestions in this direc-
tion were offered in the ‘ Monogr. Foss. Estheriz,’ 1862, p. 13.
It may be useful to notice that it is highly probable that, as Geinitz
has suggested (‘Neues Jahrb.,’ 1864, p. 654), the Cardinia nana of
De Koninck, ‘ Foss. Carbonif. Belg.,’ p. 71, t. 1, f. 6 a, b, is an Hstheria
(referred to also in the ‘Monograph Esth.,’ /.c.). It was taken from the
coal-shale at the Battery Coal-pit, near the citadel at Liége.
The Cyclas nana, Ludwig, ‘ Paleontographica,’ vol. x. 1861, p. 21, t. 3;
f. 10, from strata regarded as Permian (Dyadic) by Giimbel, near Mane-
bach, not far from Ilmenau in Sachsen-Weimar, is also probably an
Estheria. See Geinitz, ‘N. Jahrb.,’ 1864, p. 654; also Karl von Fritsch,
‘Zeitschr. d. g. Ges.,’ vol. xii. 1860. This little fossil Ludwig thought to
be the same as the Cardinia nana of De Koninck; but it is evidently very
different in shape, being nearly orbicular, whilst the other is obliquely
sub-elliptical.
Pullastra ? striata in Portlock’s ‘Report Geol. Londonderry, &c.,’ p.
440, t. 36, f. 13, has somewhat the aspect of an Hstheria. This form will
have to be carefully studied in connection with H. Adamsti, H. punctatella,
and other punctate shells, formerly looked upon as Molluscan, before
definite conclusions can be arrived at.
ADDENDUM.
Professor ©. Malaise, of Gembloux, has to-day shown us several
specimens of Caryocaris! Wrightii (?) from the Lower-Silurian (Cambrian)
slates of Hny and Nanuine, Belgium; and with one of them is an un-
doubted trifid candal appendage. Each of the three spines is sharpiy
lancet-shaped, and they are of nearly equal size——August 17, 1887.
1 See the First Report, 1883, pp. 217 and 221.
70 REPORT— 1887.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Joun CorpEaux (Secre-
tary), Professor A. Newton, Mr. J. A. Harvin-Brown, Mr.
WILLIAM EaGLE CiarkE, Mr. R. M. Barrinaton, and Mr. A.
G. Morn, reappointed at Birmingham for the purpose of
obtaining (with the consent of the Master and Brethren of the
Trinity House and the Commissioners of Northern and Irish
Lights) observations on the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses
and Lightvessels, and of reporting on the same.
Tux General Report’ of the Committee has been printed in a pamphlet
of 174 pages, and includes observations from 126 stations out of a total
of 198 supplied with schedules, letters of instruction, and cloth-lined
envelopes for wings; altogether 280 schedules have been sent in. In the
last report attention was particularly directed to those main highways or
lines of migration by which birds approach the east coast of Scotland both
in the spring and autumn. Two chief lines seem to be clearly indicated,
by the Pentland Firth and Pentland Skerries, also by the entrance of the
Firth of Forth as far north as the Bell Rock Lighthouse. Continued
observations also indicate that on the east coast of England the stream
of migration is not continuous over the whole coast line, but seems to
travel along well-established lines, which are persistently followed year
by year.
i On the east coast of England there seems to be a well-marked line, both
of entry and return, of the Farn Islands, on the coast of Northumherland.
Scarcely second to this in importance is the mouth of the Tees, both in
the spring and autumn. The North Yorkshire coast and the elevated
moorland district from the south of Redcar to Flamborough, including the
north side of the headland, is comparatively barren, few birds appearing to
come in. Bridlington Bay and Holderness to the Spurn and Lincolnshire,
as far as Gibraltar Point, on the coast of Lincolnshire, give, perhaps, the
best returns on the east coast. The north of Norfolk is poor, but there
are indications, in the heavy returns annually sent from the Llynwells,
Dudgeon, Leman and Ower, and Happisburgh Lightvessels, that a dense
stream pours along the coast from E. to W., probably to pass inland b
the estuary of the Wash and the river systems of the Nene and Welland
into the centre of England, thence following the line of the Avon valley
and the north bank of the Severn and Bristol Channel, and crossing
the Irish Sea to enter Ireland at the Tuskar Rock, off the Wexford coast.
This is apparently the great and main thoroughfare for birds in transit
across England to Ireland in the autumn. Large numbers of migrants
also which pass inland from the coasts of Holderness and Lincolnshire
may eventually join in with this great western highway by the line of
the Trent, avoiding altogether the mountainous districts of Wales. The
Norfolk seaboard between Cromer and Yarmouth and the corresponding
lightvessels show a large annual immigration, but the returns are much
less, and comparatively meagre between Yarmouth and Orfordness. The
coast of Essex, with the northern side of the Thames, is fairly good ; but
the coast of Kent, between the North and South Forelands, including
1 Report on the Migration of Birds in the Spring and Autumn of 1886. McFar-
lane & Erskine, 19 St. James’s Square, Edinburgh, price 2s.
a
ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. al
the four Goodwin and the Varne lightships, is a barren and pre-eminently
uninteresting district for arrivals, both as regards numbers and species,
the chief migrants seen being such as are apparently following the coast
to the south.
Such migrants, both local and otherwise, which in the autumn follow
the east coast from north to south, seem, as a rule, to pass directly from
the Spurn to the Lincolnshire coast without entering the Humber; and
there are no indications that they follow the shores of the Wash in and
out, but shape their course from about Gibraltar Point to the Norfolk
coast. The well-filled schedules sent in annually from the Shipwash,
Swin Middle, Kentish Knock, and Galloper Lightships indicate that a
stream passes from the south-east coast of Suffolk across the North Sea
in the line of these stations, to and from the Continent, both in the spring
and autumn.
Autumn migrants approaching the Humber from the sea do not appear
to follow the course of the river into the interior, that is, from S.E. to N.W.
The line would seem to cross the river diagonally, and is from E.S.E. to
W.N.W. This course is so persistently followed that year by year, on
such days when migration is visible, birds are observed to cross the same
fields and at the same angle. Supposing this course to be continued, they
would strike the Trent at or near Gainsborough.
Much information has been obtained from the legs and wings sent
in the envelopes provided for that purpose; and by this means already
several rare and unusual wanderers have been recorded, not the least
interesting being the occurrence of a small Asiatic species, the yellow-
browed warbler, at Sumburgh Head, Shetland, on September 25, and
an immature example of the American red-winged starling, at 3 A.M.
on October 27, at the Nash Lighthouse, Bristol Channel. This station,
situated on the coast of Glamorgan and on the north side of the Bristol
Channel, lies directly in the track of the great highway followed by
migrants from England to Ireland. The black redstart was killed at the
Nash Lighthouse on the night of October 29; and another interesting
occurrence was that of the green woodpecker, seen on October 26, with
many other birds at sunrise passing to the S.H.! The black redstart
was also received from the Fastnet, co. Cork, found dead on October 30.
It is also recorded at four other stations on the south coast of Ireland,
and its regular occurrence in the winter on the south and east coasts of
that island has now been fully established by this inquiry. The regular
occurrence in migration of the black redstart both off and on the east coast
of England, as well as the example from the Nash Lighthouse, are sugges-
tive of the route followed annually by some small portion of this Con-
tinental species, which curiously select as their winter quarters the south-
west coasts of the British Islands. From the Irish coasts the rarities
received were numerous, including the second Irish specimen of the wry-
neck from Arran Island, co. Galway, killed striking 2 a.m. on October 6.
1 My. H. Nicholas, of the Nash [East] L. H., under date of September 3, has
recorded an enormous arrival of small birds—the greatest number ever seen there at
any one time. These include four nightjars at 2.10 A.m., one killed; fifteen to
twenty common buntings from 2.15 to 3 A.M., eight killed; fifty to sixty greater
whitethroats from 2.15 to 3 A.M., twenty-fcur killed; twenty to thirty willow wrens
from 2.30 to 3.20 A.M., seventeen killed; six young cuckoos at 3 A.M., two killed;
fourteen house sparrows and one robin killed at 3 A.M.; thirty to forty wheatears
at 3.10 A.M. two killed; three blackbirds from 3 to 3.15 A.M., one killed.
ie, REPORT—1887.
From the Tearaght, co. Kerry, a pied flycatcher was caught at the
lantern, September 21, the species only having once before occurred in
Treland—in April 1875. The repeated occurrence of the corncrake,
several miles from shore—killed striking agaiast lanterns between 100 —
to 200 feet above sea-level—must satisfy the sceptical that this well-
known species can fly at a high level with great power and velocity.
The waterrail, which seems so unwilling to fly, was received from the
Fastnet and Tuskar on’ October 26 and 28; also from Spurn L. V.,
November 1, one; Llyn Wells L. V., November 4, two; and Coquet
Island L. H., same date, one; showing a widely extended migratory
movement of this species during the last week in October and early in
November.
The great spotted woodpecker occurred in considerable numbers in
the eastern counties of Scotland about the middle of October. Almost
all the specimens examined were either old birds or with very slight
traces of immaturity. This immigration extended southward to the
coast districts of Lincolnshire, where very considerable numbers were
obtained in the antumn and winter.
At Rathlin O’Birne (West Donegal) immense flocks of birds—star-
lings, thrushes, and fieldfares—passed west from December 18 to 23.
The nearest land to the west of this rocky island is America. This is
not an isolated occurrence. The westerly flight of land-birds at stations
off the west coast of Ireland has been noticed on other occasions; the
movement is apparently as reckless as that of the lemmings.
The autumnal passage of quails from England is shown by their
occurrence at the Smalls L.H., September 3, and the Eddystone on
October 5; also a wing from the Shipwash L.V., off the Essex coast,
obtained on October 26.
An enormous rush of immigrants is recorded from the east coast of
England on October 4, 5, and 6, with easterly and south-easterly winds,
pressure system cyclonic, but the adverse meteorological conditions
during this period slowly passing away. Much fog and thick weather
_at the time, which in a great measure may account for the immense
numbers of birds seen at the lanterns of lighthouses. The moyement was
less apparent on the east coast of Scotland, the winds being E.N.E. and
N.E., having a tendency to crush down migration, giving it a more
southerly direction. On the west coast of Scotland, during the same
period, at the majority of stations the rush of birds was enormous; but
the movement was much less accentuated on the west coast of England,
and to a less degree still on the Irish coasts. The rush is by far the
largest ever recorded since the opening of this inquiry.
As usual on the east coast of England, rooks, daws, hooded crows,
starlings, and larks occupy a considerable portion of the returned
schedules. Chaffinches have crossed the north sea in extraordinary num-
bers. They are always numerous, but this autumn the immigration has
been in considerable excess of previous years. With these exceptions,
however, there has been a singular and very marked falling off in the
migration of some species whose breeding range lies chiefly in the north
of Europe. This has been especially noticeable in the small arrivals
recorded of fieldfares, redwings, ring-ousels, bramblings, snow-buntings,
short-eared owls, and woodcocks.
Kight reports have now been issued by your Committee, and the
stations have again been supplied with the necessary papers for the re-
J
ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 73
turns of the observations in the present year. It seems highly desirable
that an attempt should shortly be made to analyse, classify, and digest
the large mass of facts brought together in these reports, so as to show,
statistically and otherwise, the actual results which have been arrived at
by the inquiry. Itis intended that this shall be carried out at as early
a date as possible.
The Committee respectfully request their reappointment.
Report of the Committee, consisting of H. SEEBOHM, R. TRIMEN,
W. CarruTaeErs, and P. L. ScuaTer (Secretary), wppointed for the
purpose of investigating the Flora and Fauna of the Cameroons
Mountain.
THE Committee have the pleasure of reporting that a successful ascent
of the Cameroons Mountain was made by Mr. H. H. Johnston, F.Z.S.,
F.R.G.S., H.B.M. Vice-Consul for the Cameroons, on their behalf in the
_ autumn of 1886. Mr. Johuston encamped at Mann’s Spring, at an altitude
_ of 7,350 feet, about 300 feet above the forest region of the mountain, and
remained there several weeks. A popular account of his expedition has
been published with illustrations in the ‘ Graphic’ newspaper.!
Mr. Johnston made considerable collections in zoology and botany.
The zoological collections have been worked out by specialists in different
branches, to whom the collections were referred by the Committee, and
the results published in a series of papers in the ‘Proceedings of the
Zoological Society of London,’ of which the following are the titles :—
1. ‘List of Mammals from the Cameroons Mountain, collected by
Mr. H. H. Johnston.’ By Oldfield Thomas, Proc.Z.8., 1887, p. 121.
2. ‘On a Collection of Birds made by Mr. H. H. Johnston on the
Cameroons Mountain.’ By Capt. G. H. Shelley, F.Z.S., Proc.Z.S., 1887,
p. 122.
3. ‘List of the Reptiles collected by Mr. H. H. Johnston on the
Cameroons Mountain.’ By G. A. Boulenger, Proc.Z.S., 1887, p. 127.
4, ‘On the Mollusca collected at the Cameroons Mountain by Mr. H.
H. Johnston.’ By Edgar A. Smith, Proc.Z.S., 1887, p. 127.
5. ‘On some Coleopterous Insects collected by Mr. H. H. Johnston
on the Cameroons Mountain.’ By Charles O. Waterhouse, Proc.Z.S.,
1887, p. 128.
§ It will be observed that although the collections are small they are by
no means devoid of interest. Out of eighteen species of birds of which
examples were obtained four were new to science, and a new land shell,
of the genus Gibbus, was also discovered.
The zoological specimens have been placed in the collection of the
British Museum.
The botanical specimens collected by Mr. Johnston were sent by the
Committee to the Kew Herbarium, where they were placed in Prof.
Oliver’s hands for determination. As was to be expected, although the
Specimens were in many cases acceptable, they have added very little to
our knowledge of the flora of the Cameroons Mountain, With few ex-
1 See ‘An Ascent of the Cameroons Mountain.’ By H. H. Johnston, F.R.G:S.,
F.Z.8., ke. (G@raphic.)
74, REPORT—1887.
ceptions all Mr. Johnston’s species, of which a complete list is given in
the appendix to this report, are enumerated in Sir Joseph Hooker’s paper
on Mann’s Plants of the Cameroons, published in the ‘ Journal of the
Linnean Society’ in 1864, (Bot. vol. vii. p. 181.)
A complete set of the duplicates has been deposited in the Botanical
Department of the British Museum, and a second set of duplicates has
been sent to the Royal Museum of Berlin.
The sum of 75/., granted to the Committee at Birmingham, has been
paid to Mr. Johnston as a contribution towards the expenses of his
expedition.
The Committee ask to be reappointed, and a further sum of 1001.
placed at their disposal, as Mr. Johnston will in all probability be able to
undertake a second expedition up the Cameroons Mountain in the course
of the present autumn.
APPENDIX.
List of Plants from the Upper Slopes of the Cameroons received at Kew from Vice-
Consul H. H. Jounston, December 1886.
I. PHANEROGAMS.
Clematis simensis, Fres.
Thalictrum rhynchocarpum, A. Rich.
Polygala tenuicaulis, Hook. f.
Silene Biafree, Hook. f.
Cerastium africanum, Oliv.
Hypericum lanceolatum, Lam.
Geranium simense, Hochst.
_ > var. glabrior.
Vitis Manni, J. G. Baker.
Adenocarpus Mannii, Hook. f.
Trifolium simense, Fres.
Indigofera atriceps, Hook. f.
Desmodium scalpe, DC. (D. strangulatum, Wight and Arn.)
Rubus pinnatus, Wight and Arn.
Crassula abyssinica, A. Rich. (C. Manni, Hook. f.)
Cotyledon Umbilicus, L.
Sanicula europea, L.
Peucedanum sp. nov. ? (material inadequate)
Pimpinella ? * -
Caucalis melanantha, Bth. and Hook. f. (Agrocharis, Hook. f.)
Pentas occidentalis, Bth. and Hook. f. (Vignaldia, Hook. f.)
Diodia (D. brevisete, Benth. var. ? no fruit).
Galium Biafre, Hiern (G. rotundifoliwm, Hook. f.).
» Aparine, L. var.
Dichrocephaia chrysanthemifolia, DC.
Anisopappus africanus, O. and H.
Achyrocline Hochstetteri, S. Bip.
Helichrysum chrysocoma, S. Bip., var. angustifolium.
op fetidum, Cass. var. (H. Mannii, Hook. f.)
zs ? sp. nov. Technical character of Gnaphalium.
Coreopsis monticola, O. and H. (Verbesina, Hook. f.)
Gynura vitellina, Bth., var. gracilis.
Senecio Burtoni, Hook. f.
_ ON THE FLORA AND FAUNA OF THE CAMEROONS MOUNTAIN. 75
Senecio Clarenceana, Hook. f. ;
_ Crepis Hookeriana, O. and H. (Anisoramphus, Hook. f.)
_ Lactuca capensis, Thbg. ? inadequate.
Probably Sonchus angustissimus, Hook. f., inadequate.
Waklenbergia arguta, Hook. f.
Agauria salicifolia, Hook. f.
Hricinella Mannii, Hook. f.
Bleria spicata, Hochst.
Sebeea brachyphylla, Griseb.
Swertia Mannii, Hook. f.
», Clarenceana, Hook. f.
Oynoglossum lancifoliwm, Hook. f.
“5 micranthum, Desf.
Myposotis intermedia, Link.
Solanum nigrum, L., forma (of Sir. J. Hooker’s Enumeration of Mann's
plants of Cameroons) an sp. diversa ?
Solanum nigrum, L. var.
Bartsia abyssinica, Hochst., small form.
Alectra senegalensis, Benth.
Sopubia trifida, var. madagascariensis, Hook. f., l.c.
Veronica Mannii, Hook. f.
» africana, Hook. f.
Celsia densifolia, Hook. f. var. pedicellis longioribus
Isoglossa =Mann, 2009.
* =Mann, 1972.
Oreacanthus Mannii, Benth.
Pycnostachys abyssinica, Hook. f., non Fresenius ?
Plectranthus, sp. nov. ? inadequate.
3 decumbens, Hook. f.
‘4 glandulosus ? Hook. f., imperfect.
55 ramosissimus, Hook. f.
Coleus glandulosus, Hook. f., inadequate.
Micromeria punctata, Benth.
Calamintha simensis ? Benth. (inadequate), forma.
a simensis, Benth.
Nepeta robusta, Hook. f.
Stuchys aculeolata, Hook. f.
Leucas oligocephala, Hook. f.
Achyranthes argentea, L.
Cyathula cylindrica, Moq., var.
Rumex abyssinicus, Jacq.
Piper capense, Li. f. (Coccobryon, K1.)
Lasiosiphon glaucus, Fres.
Thesium tenuissimum, Hook. f.
Thonningia sanguinea, Vahl.
Euphorbia ampla, Hook. f.
Phyllanthus sp. (fragment)
Pilea quadrifolia, A. Rich.
Parietaria mauritanica, L. var.
Calanthe corymbosa, Lindl. ? (our type is not so much advanced ; it is
hardly comparable)
‘Angrecum arcwatum, Lindl.’ (of Sir J. Hooker’s Enumeration of
Mann’s plants).
-
REPORT—1 887.
Polystachya elegans, Reichb. f.
= Mann, 13389.
Disa alpina, Hook, f.
Holothriz (Peristylus tridentatus, Hook, f.).
Habenaria attenuata, Hook. f.
“ microceras, Hook. f. ? (type in fruit)
Pa Mannii, Hook. f.
sp. (not identified)
Renealmia africana, Bth. ? in fruit.
Hypowis villosa, L., var. recurva.
Hesperantha alpina, Bth. (Getssorhiza, Hook. f.)
Romulea camerooniana, Baker.
Commelina sp. nov. ? but required with ripe capsules.
Cyanotis Manni, C. B. Clarke.
Luzula campestris, L. var.
Scirpus atrosanguineus, Bkler. (Isolepis scheenoides of Hook, f.; Enu-
meration of Mann’s Cameroons plants)
Cyperus, apparently young state of Mann’s 1358, sub nom. OC. ingrata,
th.
Kyllingia cylindrica, Nees.
Oplismenus africanus, Beauv.
‘ Pennisetum riparioides, Hochst. ?’ of Mann’s Enumeration.
Trisetum (Aira pictigluma, Steud.).
Avena Neesii, Hook. f.
II. Cryprogams.
Cyathea Manniana, Hook.
Hymenophyllum ciliatum, Sw.
Trichomanes radicans, Sw.
Cheilanthes farinosa, Kaulf.
Pteris aquilina, L.
» quadriaurita, Retz.
Ss : var. ludens, Beddome.
» Orevisora, Baker.
Asplenium lunulatum, Sw.
ee furcatum, Thunb.
rs brachypteron, Kunze.
iS cicutartum, Sw.
anisophyllum, Kunze (high mountain form).
x Thunbergii, Kunze.
serra, Langsd. and Fisch.
7 protensum, Schrad.
Fihix feemina, Bernh.
Didymochlena lunulata, Desv.
Aspidium angulare, Sw.
Nephrodium Filiz mas, Rich., var. N. elongatum, H. and G.
re cicutarium, Baker.
a: sp. near Spekei, Baker ? (too incomplete)
punctulatum, Baker.
Nephrolepis cordifolia, Presl.
Gymnogramme javanica, Blume.
Acrostichum spathulatum, Bory.
Acrostichwm sorbifolium, L. ? (too imperfect)
‘Diss
teem ‘ys
|
|
ON THE FLORA AND FAUNA OF THE CAMEROON MOUNTAINS. 77
Polypodium lineare, Thunb.
Marattia frazinea, Sm.
Lycopodium fertile, Baker.
4 dacrydioides, Baker.
Selaginella Vogelii, Spring.
Usnea barbata, f. florida, Fr.
Stereocaulon, sp. probably ramulosum, Ach.
Neckera pennata, Hedw.
Bryum Commersonii, Brid.
Meteorium imbricatum (Schw.).
Leptodontium pungens, Mitt.
Plagiochila dichotoma, Nees.
Metzgeria myriapoda, Lindbg.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Ray LanKester,
Mr. P. L. Scuater, Professor M. Foster, Mr. A. Srepewick,
Professor A. M. Marsnatz, Professor A. C. Happon, Professor
MosexEy, and Mr. Percy Siapen (Secretary), appointed for the
purpose of arranging for the ocewpation of a Table at the
Zoological Station at Naples.
Your Committee report that the table at their disposal has been fully
_ occupied during the past year, and they beg to direct attention to the
_ subjoined reports of the naturalists to whom it has been granted as evi-
dence of satisfactory work done, which probably could not have been
_ undertaken elsewhere with equal success.
The general efficiency and good organisation of the Zoological Station
at Naples is too well known to need recapitulation. The institution con-
tinues in its course of steady development, and its sphere of action will
shortly be still further extended by the opening of the physiological
laboratory. The new building, which is now rapidly approaching com-
pletion, is expected to be in working order before the close of the year.
This addition will probably greatly increase the number of workers at the
Station, in consequence of the exceptional facilities that physiological
students will there find for carrying out a systematic course of experiments.
It may be of general interest to state that the Zoological Station has
recently carried out, at the instigation of the Italian Ministry of Agri-
culture and Commerce, a number of investigations of a practical bearing
on the fishery industry. One of the most important in a commercial
point of view has reference to the question of trawl-fishing. Trawl-
fishing, as is well known, has been alleged to be hurtful to the propaga-
tion of food-fishes, by destroying the eggs, which are deposited on the
sea-bottom. This question has been made the subject of careful research
by the Station; and the results arrived at may be briefly summarised in
_ the statement that positive evidence has been procured that thirty-five
species of food-fishes, which include those most important in a commer-
cial point of view, produce pelagic or floating eggs ; and that consequently
the supposed injurious effect of trawl-fishing is, in the case of these forms,
_ proved to be an illusion ; and that legislative restriction of trawl-fishing,
based on these reasons, can safely be abandoned. The Italian Ministry
78 REPORT—1887,
has fully recognised the importance of these researches, which will be —
published in ewtenso before the end of the year. : ,
Some time ago the Italian Government made arrangements with the ©
Station for the instruction of naval officers in the proper modes of col. |
lecting and preserving marine organisms, and it will be remembered that
several important collections have been made by officers thus qualified. The
Russian navy has now adopted the same course, and has just concluded ~
a special contract with the Station for the instruction of officers belonging
to that service. The important scientific gains which are likely to accrue
to any country whose officers are thus practically acquainted with the
technical methods of preserving animals for histological investigation are
too obvious to need exposition. ;
The British Association Table—Two naturalists have occupied the
British Association Table during the past year. Hitherto the table has
been occupied only by zoologists; but your Committee have this year
the pleasure to.report a deviation from this custom, the use of the table
having been granted to a botanist-—Mr. John Gardiner, late Scientific —
Adviser to the Board of Agriculture of the Bahamas. As Mr. Gardiner |
travelled from the West Indies for the purpose of carrying out certain |
special investigations at Naples, permission was given to him by your
Committee to hold the table for the period of twelve months—the
current year. Mr. Gardiner’s intermediate report, which is annexed, will
fully justify the expediency of granting the table for this extended term, |
and will also bear testimony to the interesting results which are likely to
reward Mr. Gardiner’s further labours if he is permitted to complete his
term of occupancy. Your Committee would also venture to direct atten-
tion to Mr. Gardiner’s remarks on the Zoological Station in general, and
on the claim which the British Association Table has for continued support.
The use of a table was also granted to the Rev. Canon A. M. Norman. |
This your Committee were able to do by the favour of Prof. Dohrn, who
with great kindness placed at their disposal a second table in considera-
tion of the fact that in previous years the British Association Table had
for some months remained unoccupied. Dr. Norman worked at Naples —
for five weeks and has furnished a report, which is annexed.
Two other applications for the British Association Table were received
by the Committee during the past year, which the Committee were
unable to grant.
For the next year a preliminary inquiry for permission to use the |
table has already been made by an able naturalist, who wishes to com-
mence work in January. As Mr. Gardiner’s term of occupancy will not |
terminate until December, if the lease of the table is renewed, this would
ensure a continuance of occupation.
With these facts before them and the satisfactory character of the —
present report, your Committee feel justified in expressing the hope that
the Council will renew the grant (100/.) for the ensuing year. ‘
The Publications of the Station.—The progress of the various works®
undertaken by the Station is here summarised :— 4
(1) Of the ‘Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel’ the following
monograph has been published since the last Report :—XIV. J. Fraipont, —
‘ Polygordius.’
The following works are in the press, and will probably be published —
in 1887 :—H. Eisig, ‘ Capitellide,’ and G. von Koch, ‘ Gorgoniide.’ b
(2) Of the ‘Mittheilangen aus der Zoologischen Station zu Neapel’ —
vol. vil. part ii. has been published.
:
———————— el
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 79
(3) Of the ‘ Zoologischer Jahresbericht’ for 1885 Parts II. and Iil.
are published. The remainder will be out shortly.
Extracts from the General Report of the Zoological Station.—The officers
of the Station have courteously furnished lists (1) of the naturalists
who have occupied tables since the last report, (2) of the works published
during 1886 by naturalists who have worked at the Zoological Station,
(3) of the specimens sent out by the Station during the past year. These
details show an increase in the number of naturalists who have worked
at the Station, and in the total value of the specimens distributed, as
compared with the previous year.
I. Report on the Occupation of the Table, by Mr. Joun Garpiner.
The Committee of the British Association having kindly granted me
the use of their table at the Naples Zoological Station for the year 1887,
T arrived at Naples on February 1. For the first two months my work
was much hindered, partly by frequent indisposition, due to the very in-
clement weather, partly by delay in the arrival of my microscope, &c.
During this time I occupied myself mainly in familiarising myself with
the algal flora of the gulf, in which work I was much aided by the her-
barium made by Dr. G. Berthold, and by Sig. Lo Bianco, the conservator
of the Station.
The first research I made was suggested to me by a fellow botanist at
the Station, who pointed out to me the surprising statements made by
Berthold in his monograph on the Bangiacee, as to their resistance to dry-
ing and to the action of variousreagents. I thought the statements were
worth testing, and accordingly repeated Berthold’s experiments, with
others of my own, upon Bangia fusco-purpurea and Porphyra leucosticta.
My results, except with regard to drying, are entirely at variance with
Berthold’s. He says that in fibres of Bangia kept in concentrated glyce-
rine for several months many cells still remained alive, and considers
it probable that the cells in some preparations made three years before
were still alive. J made experiments with thoroughly dried material, and
with material from which only the superfluous moisture had been re-
moved, immersing it in concentrated glycerine in a watch-glass. In
various periods, from a few minutes to an hour, the fibres assumed a
bright reddish-brown colour when seen against a black surface, and under
the microscope all the cells were found to be much contracted, and
reddish-brown by reflected, green by transmitted, light. On washing and
returning to sea-water no change was visible, even after several days.
The same reddish-brown colour is seen when the plant dies after being
kept for some time in sea-water. On immersing fresh fibres for a minute
or a little more in glycerine, washing and returning to sea-water, most of
the cells were, as a rule, found to have resisted the glycerine and to be
still alive. In one case young fibres resisted it for half-an-hour. I con-
clude from these experiments that while Bangia does resist the action of
- concentrated glycerine, such resistance is very limited in its duration.
Alcohol of 30, 50, and 70 per cent. kills at once, producing the
_ reddish-brown colour and contraction of the cells. In 90 per cent. alcohol
the cells contracted greatly, but retained their green colour both by re-
flected and transmitted hght, the contents being granular; on carefully
drying and returning to sea-water, the cells swelled again, but the con-
q
80 REPORT— 1887.
tents became homogeneous, and after keeping in sea-water for some days
showed no sign of life. Berthold states that in Bangia kept for several days
in absolute alcohol, and then brought into sea-water, many cells showed
the same appearance as in the living plant, while others were completely
killed and decolourised. I took great care in this experiment to avoid
diluting the alcohol by any moisture in the fibres, and my results were
curious. The fibres shrivelled up, cells contracted, and contents became
homogeneous, but the green colour remained, except at the torn end of a
fibre, where six or seven cells lost their chlorophyll, and showed the red
colour. Hven when specimens were kept in alcohol for a week, the green
colour remained in many cells; sometimes cells towards the middle of a
fibre were decolourised, while those on both sides remained green. In no
case did the cells resume their normal appearance after being carefully
freed from alcohol by drying and returned to sea-water.
In nature Bangia lives on the rocks above high-water mark, dashed
by the spray. This may explain the curious fact that I was able to keep
it alive in freshwater for eight days, while it died in four or five days
when kept in sea-water. In nature it is often exposed to heavy rain,
sometimes almost continuously for some days, and this probably accounts
for its resistance. I believe that if, instead of keeping the plant immersed
in water, it were simply kept moist by a spray of fresh water, it would re-
main alive for a still longer time, though not so long as if moistened by a
spray of sea-water. Its quick death in sea-water I take to be due to its
immersion.
The ordinary reagents used for killing—osmic acid, picric acid, subli-
mate, iodine—killed Bangia very quickly, producing considerable changes
in its appearance.
Porphyra leucosticta showed similar phenomena, but its resistance is
considerably less than that of Bangia. It dies very quickly in fresh
water.
The resistance of Bangia to reagents appears to be due mainly to the
cuticle which surrounds the fibres, which is insoluble in sulphuric
acid. Porphyra appears not to possess such a cuticle. Very young
plants of Porphyra, however, resisted glycerine for nearly an hour,
the cells gradually, from the base to the tip, becoming disorganised.
The hypha-like prolongations of the basal cells of Bangia which form
the rhizoids, as a rule, pass down inside the tube to the base; occasion- -
ally, however, lateral roots are found; and when this is the case the
rhizoid, surrounded by a thick membrane, pushes its way through the
cell wall and cuticle in a manner analogous to that of the roots of higher
lants.
f Bangiacee are not available in summer here; in autumn and winter I
hope to do further work at them.
I did a considerable amount of work on Acetabularia mediterranea,
following up its development from the state of a simple unbranched thallus
to the final development of the pileus. The memoirs of De Bary and
Strasbiirger, and of Woronin are not in the library ; consequently when at
last I saw them I found that most of my results had already been described.
But I found a few things which I take to be new. The branched hairs,
which in the young stage are in whorls round the stem, and in older stages
form a tuft in the centre of the pileus, are usually described and drawn as
consisting of distinct cells. I find, on the contrary, that the cavities of
the branches always during life remain in communication with one another
:
and with that of the main stem; the branches are developed as hollow
processes of the mother cell, and these constrictions are formed by thicken-
ing of the cell-wall at the points branching, but the lumen does not close
during life, though it is reduced to a very narrow opening. When the
stem of a vigorous plant is cut, the contents flow out of the opening, and
_ the protoplasm contained in the basal branches of the hairs can be observed
to flow into the stem, while in the smaller hairs the contents, so to speak,
endeavour to do so, collecting at the base of the branch, but not being able
to pass through on account of the constriction. When the hairs die off,
the smaller hairs die first, the contents apparently passing down into the
_ cell below, and a membrane being formed across the opening, and so on
down to the basal cell. I have only observed this in the case of the basal
cells, but I conclude that it applies to the others, for the basal cells at this
time are crammed full of protoplasm and other cell-contents, so that they
are almost opaque, while their minor branches have disappeared. The
membrane formed across the opening into the stem is thin at first, but
_ becomes thicker by the deposit of layers of cellulose. The hairs appear
to be analogous to the branches of the West Indian Rhipocephalus and
Corallocephalus. Their function I could not determine; they contain a
small amount of chlorophyll and the red oil found in the chlorophyll
_ bodies, but too little to be of much use, except. perhaps in the basal
branches. Perhaps they are reduced organs ; it is conceivable that at one
time they may have been important organs of assimilation, as the branches
of the West Indian forms mentioned are still, and that their fanction may
have been taken from them by the greater development of the pileus.
Talso investigated the mode of formation of the pileus. The cell-
wall at the end of the stem is very thick just before it begins to be formed.
The inner layers of cellulose appear to be absorbed at definite points,
while the outer ones are pushed out, the cell being intensely turgid at this
time, and form the walls of the branches. There is no organic connection
between the branches ; at their bases they are distinct, and when decal-
cified the branches can be readily separated from one another; in the
slightly calcified A. crenulata of the West Indies they are often separate
during life. ‘The branches of the pileus would appear to be more or less
homologous with the hairs.
I also made some experiments on the brown ethereal oil found in the
chlorophyll bodies of the majority of young Acetabularia, which it colours
a rich red brown, and even in many full-blown ones. I could find no
starch in the brown specimens, while there was a good dval in the green
ones, and I thonght it possible that the oil might be a product of assimi-
lation, especially as some species of Vuucheria, Musa, and other plants are
said to contain oil instead of starch. My experiments gave no result, posi-
tive or negative; partly, at any rate, owing to the difficulty of keeping
Acetabularia alive in an aquarium. There seems, however, to be a pre-
sumption in favour of the theory that the oil is a product of assimilation.
I hope, in the autumn, to be able to make some observations on the
sinking of the cell-contents into the basal part of the stem, the death of
the upper parts, and the condition of the plant during the winter.
One of the main objects of my coming to Naples was the study of the
Siphonee, and especially Caulerpa. I have studied in addition to Acetabu-
laria and Caulerpa, the genera Oodiwm, Valonia, Udotea, Bryopsis, and
Dasycladus. My results with Caulerpa are perhaps worth stating, though
they are by no means complete. As a means of inducing the plant to
1887. G
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 81
:
82 REPORT—1887.
produce spores, I starved it by depriving it almost entirely of light, and
after a while by aérating the water only at intervals. As a result, after
some weeks, long (4 to 6 cm.), thin (‘5 to°75 mm.), cylindrical processes,’
pointed at the end, grew out from the rhizome and leaves, pointing perpen-
dicularly upwards to a hole in the top of the box, through which a little
light came. These processes and the rhizome were very dark green in
colour, almost black, but usually white at the tips, while some were
dark green the whole length. When put into fresh sea-water those with
white tips burst at the tips, emitting a little cloud. On examining this, it
appeared to consist of protoplasm and chlorophyll bodies ; but the latter
were in very active oscillating motion, even when apparently quite freed
from the protoplasm. The motion differed from ordinary molecular
motion of particles in a fluid, in that there was very marked change of
relative position. It continued for some hours, when a damp chamber was
used. The bodies were of oval form, and in various stages of formation ;
groups of two, four, eight, and large balls of them, apparently consisting
of thirty or forty, were seen. 1 would have thought the balls due to the
contact of the protoplasm with the water, but I have since seen them in
the interior of processes preserved, stained, and cut with the microtome.
It appeared as if I had found the long-sought zoospores of Caulerpa, and
I cannot yet decide whether they were chlorophyll bodies or zoospores. In
specimens kept in a damp chamber I observed bodies of different sizes,
the larger having more active motion than the smaller. I watched one
large one sailing about through the drop, and saw it come in contact with
a smaller one which was oscillating quietly. They coquetted with each
other for some minutes, and then appeared to become united in some
way, oscillated together for a while, and then stopped. I kept them under
observation for three days, but no further change took place, and the
rapid growth of bacteria in the drop appeared to kill them. Iodine killed
these bodies, stopped their motion, and rendered evident what I took to
be two cilia, but which may have been simply particles of protoplasm. I
have made many experiments, and have seen several apparent instances
of conjugation like the ahove, but have not been able to obtain further
development. The chlorophy!l bodies of normal Caulerya move so long
as any currents continue, but when these are prevented stop atonce. The
processes, which were dark green throughout, and the rhizome did not
burst in a change of water, and when cut no protoplasm flowed out. Their
contents consisted of a dense mass of these chlorophyll bodies, or zoospores,
which showed the same movements when pressed out into water. Later
I found that a specimen of Cawlerpa which had been kept in an ordinary
tank in ordinary light had produced a number of processes of a similar
kind, some of which burst spontaneously, with the same results as noted
above. Others became detached from the parent, developed rhizoids at
the previously attached end, flattened out to a leaf-like form, and are
growing well: these were branched considerably before becoming de-
tached. Some Caulerpa brought to me in the beginning of May from
the usual locality, the Magellina, showed profuse proliferation, the young
leaves arising from a narrow base and gradually expanding and branching
dichotomously, the branches also being flattened; some of this material
which I have kept has continued branching, until at present a leaf about
9 em. long has some 250 branches, up to the tenth order. The branches
produced in the aquarium are mostly long, thin, and cylindrical. The
material I have been receiving for some time past shows only the ordinary
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 83
proliferation. It might appear, therefore, that the ‘ processes’ of which
I have spoken merely indicated an occasional special mode of prolifera-
tion, and that my ‘ zoospores ’ were no zoospores, the later conclusion being
& priori possible, on account of my want of experience in these matters.
But I am quite positive about my observations on the apparent conjuga-
tion, and my lurking conviction that the moving green bodies will turn
_ out to be really zoospores is strengthened by the fact that I am told by
_ the authorities here that a botanist who had formerly studied here had
seen the zoospores of Caulerpa but had not been able to work at them. I
_ trust to make some decisive observations in the great breeding period for
many alge which is approaching.
At present, while keeping an eye on Caulerpa, I am working mainly
at the reproduction and development of Sargassum. My observations are
as yet too incomplete for me to give a connected account of them. I
have not seen the discharge of the antherozoids nor the process of
_ fertilisation, though I have followed the development of the antherozoids
and of the oospore. I have also succeeded in obtaining a tolerably com-
_ plete series of embryos, including nearly all the early stages in the
division of the egg. The difficulty in the earliest stages is to determine
what is normal and what is abnormal (owing to artificial conditions)
_ division ; I have some embryos with the same number of cells, having
L these cells arranged in quite different ways. I hope, however, to conquer
this difficulty and to be able to present a complete account of the deve-
lopment of Sargassum at the meeting of the Association in 1888. So far
as I can see at present, the development is much like that of Cystosira.
I am also collecting material for a study of the development of the con-
ceptacles in Sargussum.
As yet I have not published, or prepared for publication, any of my
work, because I consider that I serve my own ends and those of the
Association in appointing me to this table better by devoting all my
working time while at Naples to the actual business of research and of
collecting material for future work.
I have to thank the staff and my fellow-workers at the Station for
much valuable information as to methods of preservation, staining, &c., in
use among zoologists, which I thought might be serviceable in botany
also. I have devoted a good deal of time to the study of these methods,
and hope to publish an account of my conclusions when I leave the
Station, if not before.
Besides completing my work on the plants already mentioned, I
hope to be able to make some researches into the alge growing in the
hot mineral springs of Ischia, and into the algal flora of Lake Avernus ;
and I expect to find much to observe in the autumn when many alge
reproduce very actively.
Before concluding, may I be permitted to call the attention of the
Committee to the great claims which the Station has upon the support of
scientific men in England as well as on the Continent? I would speak
ith special reference to England, because England, though second to no
Continental country in the amount and value of the biological work she
produces, has only two tables at the Station, and even these two she
_ shows some inclination to give up. The advantages which the Station
offers to the student, whether he be zoologist, botanist, or physiologist, are
these: the best arranged marine laboratory in Europe; a staff of distin-
_ guished men at the head of it, ever ready and willing to assist the student
G2
84 | REPORT—1887.
in every way, but never interfering with his methods or theories until
asked for advice, while all the time interesting themselves in the work of
each individual; a perfectly disciplined staff of servants and fishermen,
trained by the experience of years to supply all one’s wants at the shortest
notice and to the fullest extent; and a large library, excellent, so far as
zoology is concerned, if rather weak in botanical works. It may be said,
I believe it 7s said, ‘we have zoological stations in England and Scotland :
why spend money on a Station established by foreigners in a foreign
country?’ The answer is that it will be many years before the British
Stations can possibly attain to the perfection of the Naples one, if they
ever do; directors and servants must acquire that experience in the
working details on which so largely depends the value of such a Station ;
a library must be gradually formed; and in the meantime what are
Englishmen, who require to study in a well-appointed laboratory, to do?
When we have as good, or nearly as good, a laboratory as the Naples one,
by all means let us give up our tables at Naples and spend the money on
our own Stations; but till then let us retain our privilege of sending
men tostudy at a laboratory whose at present unrivalled advantages we
rather grudgingly, other nations more willingly and generously, admit.
We ought to have enough biologists in England to keep our Naples
tables filled, and yet have many to attend to the development and
improvement of our own Stations. Furthermore, the tropical luxuriance
of the Mediterranean fauna and flora must always be an inducement to
many Englishmen to study at Naples as well as in their own country.
I may have expressed myself rather strongly, but my reasons for doing
so are partly a feeling of injured national pride that England should have
only two tables and grudge the money for them, while Germany willingly
pays for about a dozen, and Italy, which Englishmen are wont to regard
as hardly more than semi-civilised, for about half that number; but
mainly a vivid sense of the advantages I myself have derived from my
stay here. And ifa botanist derives so much good, much more must a
zoologist, for the botanist has to contend with the disadvantage of a not
very good library, and the want of an assistant, and the zoologist has not.
Tn this connection I would remark that it is the fault of botanists them-
selves that the library is not better. If more of them came, the library,
by the help of their suggestions, would soon improve. At present there
is no botanical assistant, for the same reason. I fancy that botanists —
generally do not know that they are admitted willingly, even desired, at
this so-called Zoological Station. And they do not know, I think, of the
perfect freedom they would have in their work. While occupying a
table here, a man may work at the phanerogamic flora of the district, or
at freshwater alge, or marine alge, or allof them. There is absolutely
no restriction placed upon him. It is much to be desired that more —
botanists should come to the Station, though a fair number of Germans
have been here, including two during part of this year. I believe I am —
the first Englishman who has studied botanical questions at the Station, —
but I hope I shall by no means be the last.
In concluding this first report on my occupancy of the table of —
the British Association, I wish to express my gratitude to the Committee
for nominating me, and for so long a period. Ialso wish to thank Pro- —
fessor Dohrn, Dr. Hisig, Signor Lo Bianco, and the rest of the staff of
the Station for the constant courtesy and kindness I have experienced at
their hands, and for the help they have in many ways given me. .
Hiatt pore ae
¥
ye
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 85
II. Report on the Occupation of the Table, by the Rev. Dr. Norman.
It had long been my desire to pay a visit to the Zoological Station at
Naples, and during the past spring an opportunity having presented
itself, five weeks in the months of March and April were spent there.
The British Association Table was at this time occupied, but on the appli-
cation of your Committee Dr. Dohrn placed a second table at my dis-
posal. I should be most ungrateful if I did not testify to the great
kindness and attention which I received from the whole staff of the
- Station during my most pleasant and profitable stay at Naples. The
management of the establishment seems to have been brought to perfec-
tion. The admirable tone, good nature, and courtesy which pervade the
entire staff; the smooth, quiet, and efficient working of the establishment
—these, combined with the extreme richness of the sea around Naples in
representatives of almost every section of marine animals, and pre-
eminently of the surface fauna, the calmness of the Mediterranean waters
which renders dredging at almost all times practicable, form a combina-
tion of essentials to the success of a Zoological Station which perhaps
can never be equalled and certainly not excelled elsewhere. Pleasure
was anticipated from my visit, but my anticipations were much more
than realised.
My object in visiting the Station was, first, to see in life certain groups
of animals which are unknown in North European seas; secondly, to
take a general review of the fauna as compared with that of the North
Atlantic ; and, lastly, to study more especially, so far as the very limited
time at my disposal would allow, certain groups of the great class
_ Crustacea, which had not been worked out by South European carcino-
logists. I had in view such orders as the Mysidea, Cumacea, Ostracoda,
_ &c.; but after a few days I was surprised to find how much remained to
be done in every order of the Crustacea. Dr. Dohrn kindly placed at
my disposal from the museum unexamined material of several groups
which it seemed well to study; while the fishermen daily supplied me
with far more animals than it was possible to work out. Time sufficed
_ for little more than the collecting, roughly examining, and preserving
_ for more close investigation hereafter the things of interest which passed
through my hands. Since my return my time has been so fully occupied
with other matters that there has not been opportunity so much as to
open the bottles which contain the.product of the trip. This report,
however, is of course not supposed to be exhaustive. In almost every
section of the Crustacea,—Brachyura, Anomura, Macrura, Mysidea,
Isopoda, Amphipoda, Ostracoda, Copepoda, and Cirripedia—forms were
detected either altogether new or interesting as not hitherto recognised
in the Mediterranean at large or at Naples in particular. Hven among
the Brachyura results were important. An Inachus, very abundant in
the bay close to the Station, and often taken in company with J. dorset-
tensis, though nearly related to, is manifestly distinct from, the latter
species, and is either still undescribed or possibly the I. mawritanicus of
Lucas, which authors have synonymised with dorsettensis. From the
deep water were two species, which have recently been figured by Milne-
_ Edwards from the ‘ Travailleur’ Expedition, Hrgasticus Clouei, Milne-
Edwards, and Heterocrypta Mariowis, Milne-Edwards ; together with a
86 | REPORT—1887.
third fine form which appears to be altogether new and belonging to a
genus allied to the last. The Hrgasticus, I may mention, was also taken
by the ‘ Porcupine’ Expedition off the Spanish coast; and of the Hete-
rocrypta I possess specimens given me previously by the Marquis de
Folin, which were taken by the ‘Trayailleur’ Expedition in the Fosse
de Cap Breton.
With this brief review of the more interesting Brachyura, I must
pass by the remaining groups and only notice one remarkable crustacean
of excessive interest. My friend, Professor Sars, to whom I sent a
specimen, writes to me on it: ‘ The interesting parasite detected by you at
Naples is certainly a highly remarkable and perplexing form, and the
discovery of this animal would alone, I believe, fully recompense your
voyage to Italy.’
In 1882 a memoir on an extraordinary parasitic crustacean discovered
by Professor Lacaze-Duthiers was published by the Institut de France,
illustrated with eight quarto plates.
The parasite thus described, Laura Gerardi, Lacaze-Duthiers, lives
in one of the Antipatharian Actinozoa, which was made the type of a
genus by Lacaze-Duthiers, Gerardia Lamarcki, Haime; and that author
regarded the parasite found by him as an aberrant member of the
Cirripedia, and constituted a new section to receive it, named Ascotho-
racida.
-It is to this genus that the form now discovered appears to have closer
relationship than to any other. The Neapolitan parasite, for which I
propose the name Synagoga' mira, is also a parasite on an Antipatharian,
Antipathes lariz, Ellis, but while Laura is buried beneath the tissues of
the host, being completely covered, except in one minute spot by the
sarcosome of Gerardia, Synagoga is an external parasite attached to the
surface of the Antipathes. At first sight the latter looks very unlike the
former, and, with the naked eye might easily be mistaken for one of the
Cypridinidee, inasmuch as the body of the animal i is covered by two nearly
circular valves; these valves (‘ carapace,’ Lacaze-Duthiers) are in Laura
of enormous size and three times the length of the body, but in Synagoga
they are shorter than the body. In Laura the antenne are weak, feeble
structures ; here they are strongly developed grasping organs ; the mouth
organs in both cases are formed for piercing and sucking, and follow the
same type. In both genera the adductor muscle which passes through
the body into the valves is similar; and in both, as in the Ostracoda,
the organs of reproduction are extended on either side into and beneath
the valves. Both genera are furnished with six pairs of limbs posterior
to the oval members and a caudal bifurcation ; but while in Laura these
members are simple, apparently unjointed, and somewhat rudimentary, in
Synagoga they are two branded, jointed, and freely setose, and the laminz
of the candal furca are much longer, spined on the edges, and provided
with long sete. It will thus be obvious that Synagoga is a type of much
less retrograde character than Lawra. Upon its relations I will only say
at present that while, on the one hand, there is much in its structure
which reminds us of the Cypris-condition of a larval Cirriped, there are
also features which recall strongly to us the much disputed genus Nebalia,
' Surwywyn, a meeting-spot.
———————
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES.
87
II. A List of Naturalists who have worked at the Station from the end of
June 1886 to the end of June 1887.
Ra oe aan et a Duration of Occupancy
ber on Naturalist’s Name whose Table
List was made use of
Arrival Departure
359 | Dr. P. de Vescovi Italy Aug. 1,1886/ Sept. 7,1886
360 Dr. G. Rovelli ” ” ils ” ” 4; ”
361 | Prof. F. Gasco . a9 3) glo axial ROCTOMLOE Ms
362 | Dr. D. Carazzi . 39 poe ee ae
363 | Prof. S. Trinchese PA 35 ly Seem DeG loam.
364 | Dr.C.Crety . Ay ssa as ae oles
365 | Prof. C. Emery . ae ny as sy, LOS ee Ooty 19s S
366 | Prof. C. Chun Berlin Academy 55 BD. 55 sie Lidisies
Boe Dr, kK. Brandt . ” » Oct. =b: 5; Mar. 1,1887
368 | Dr. J. M. Janse Holland . $1 22s) os) | Ol Lor
369 | Mr. G. Bidder Cambridge » 24 > | aune2Z9oy 5
370 | Dr. E. Fraas Wiirtemberg INOW. iS. Las Dec. 31, 1886
371 | Dr. 8. Apathy Hungary . ss bie Secale —
372 | Mr. H. Bury Cambridge » 10, 5, | May 29,1887
373 | Lieutenant Saxe Russian Navy . Se ey nae sae Li Daman
374 | Dr. F. Noll Baden A eas, peony Ee
375 | Dr.G.Jatta . Italy Jan. 1, 1887] June25, ,,
376 | Dr. J. Raffaele . & bres (LS ” —
377 | Prof. 8. Trinchese % : ; - ayes Latiies —
378 | Dr. F. 8. Balsamo Province of Naples . poe ee, —
379 | Dr. F. 8. Monticelli . ce a iin bess —
380 | Prof. A. G. de Linares | Spain < ‘ » 14, , | Junel2,1887
381 | Mr. J. Gardiner British Association. | Feb. 2, ,, --
382 | Dr. Fleischmann Bavaria aaa Osi” 53) | Nlay? Sl S8i
383 | Mr. E. Penard . Switzerland Bay bea Sar lsciss
384 | Dr. P. Pelseneer Belgium . - a ly, oy) atlas +5
385 | Prof. J. Steiner Berlin Academy Suneoias ost ADELE Gs uiias
386 | Dr. von Schréder Strasburg Mars il.” .5. |) Way de.
387 | Sr. Madrid Moreno Spain Ped Aer Pe Yay mee
388 | Dr. A. Fischer . .| Saxony . Se ges. taste [NDE Noes 19
389 | Dr. J. W. van Wijhe. | Holland . eee -—
390 | Dr. G. Motti . | Italy ssi Ost 98 =
391 | Stud. Med. Marcuse, | Prussia . - LOS selOUBe ae ae
392 | Prof. C. Rabl . | Zoological Station . Fe AE wenn eerste ee
393 | Rev. Dr. A.M. Norman | British Association . pas}: ee May, 15);
394 | Dr. von Davidoff Bavaria . $e, Zoos ACAD LOS as,
395 | Dr. A. Korotneff Russia 2 es eh eA DE hin 50) Mayelios 5,
396 | Dr. Reichenbach Zoological Station . Re Dae ee a ies
397 | Dr. B. Rawitz . . | Prussia May 16, ,, —
398 | Prof. A. della Valle . | Italy June23, ,, -—
399 | Prof. Repiachoft Russia ay Aaah ee —-
IV. A List of Papers which have been published in the year 1886 by the
Naturalists who have occupied Tables at the Zovlogical Station.
Dr. J. Frenzel
Prof. E. Metschnikoft
Prof. J. Steiner
Mikrographie der Mitteldarmdriise der Mollusken. I. Theil,
‘Nova Acta K. Leop. Carol. Akad. der Naturforscher,’
Bd. xlviii. Halle, 1886.
Embryologische Studien an Medusen. Wien, 1886.
Ueber das Centralnervensystem des Haifisches und des
Amphioxus lanceolatus, und iiber die halbcirkelférmigen
Canale des Haifisches. ‘Sitz.-Ber. K. Pr. Akad. Wis-
sensch., Berlin.’ Bd, xxviii. 1886,
88
Prof, J. Steiner
Dr. W. J. Vigelius .
Dr. W. Patten
Dr. E. von Daday
Dr. W. Repiachoff .
Dr. J. Walther
P. Schirlitz
Prof. C. Chun
Prof. G. von Koch .
Dr. F. Raffaele
Dr. J. H. Wakker .
Prof. G. Colasanti .
Dr. E. Rohde.
Prof. W. Krause
Dr, C. Hartlaub
Prof. C. Emery
Dr. F. Albert .
Prof. W. Preyer
Dr. A. Onodi .
und
Cand. K. Wenkebach
Cand. J. L. Dobberke
V. A List of Naturalists to whom Specimens have been sent from the end
REPORT—1887.
Functioneller Beweis fiir die Richtigkeit der morpholog.
Ansicht von der Entstehung des asymmetrischen —
Baues der Pleuronectiden. Heidelberg, Festschrift, 1886,
p. 127.
Zur Ontogenie der marinen Bryozoen.
Station,’ Bd. vi. 1886.
Eyes of Molluses and Arthropods. bid.
Hin kleiner Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Infusorien-Fauna
des Golfs von Neapel. Tbid.
Zur Anatomie u. Entwickelung von Discophilus gyroci-
liatus. ‘Verh. Neuruss. Nat. Ges. Odessa,’ 1886.
Studien zur Geologie des Golfs von Neapel. ‘Zeitschr.
Deutsch. Geol. Gesellschaft,’ Jahrg. 1886.
Ueber Bau u. Entwickelung der Siphonophoren. Dritte
Mitthlg. ‘Sitz.-Ber. K. Pr. Akad. Wiss. Berlin,’ Bd.
XXXViii. 1886.
Untersuch. iiber das Wachsthum von Antipathes. ‘Festschr.
der technischen Hochschule Darmstadt,’ 1886.
Papille ed organi di senso cutanei nei Pleuronettidi del
genere Solea. Estr. ‘Rivista Ital. Sc. Nat. pubbl. dal
Circolo degliaspiranti Naturalisti,’ Napoli, Anno IT. 1886.
Die Neubildungen an abgeschnittenen Blattern von
Caulerpa prolifera. ‘Verslagen en Medeelingen Kon.
Akad. van Wetenschap. Afd. Naturk,’ 3de Reeks, Deel
II. 1886.
Il Pigmento blu delle Idromeduse. Estr, ‘ Atti. R. Accad.
medica di Roma,’ (2) vol. xii. 1886.
Histol. Untersuchungen iiber das Nervensystem der Che-
topoden. ‘Sitz.-Ber. K. Pr. Akad. Wissensch. Berlin,’
Bd. xxxix. 1886.
Die Nervenendigung im elektr. Organ.
Monatsschrift,’ Bd. iii. 1886.
Ueber die Folgen der Resection der elektrischen Nerven
des Zitterrochen. ‘Sitz.-Ber. K. Pr. Akad. Wissensch.
Berlin,’ Bd. xxxviii. 1886.
Ueber den Bau der Elentheria. ‘Zool. Anzeiger,’ 1886.
La Régénération des Segments Postérieurs du Corps. ‘ Arch.
Ital. de Biologie,’ t. vii. 1886.
Ueber die Fortpflanzung von Haplosyllis spongicola, Grube.
‘Mitth. Zool. Station Neapel,’ Bd. vii. 1886.
Ueber die Bewegungen der Seesterne. I. Hilfte. bid.
Neurologische Untersuchungen an Selachiern. ‘Internat.
Monatsschrift f. Anatomie u. Histologie,’ Bd. iii. 1886.
Beitriige zur Entw. Geschichte der Knochenfische. ‘ Arch.
Mikr. Anat.’ Bd. xxviii. 1886.
Verslag der Onderzoekingen, verricht aan de Nederlandsche
Tafel in het Zodlogisch Station, etc. ‘ Nederland.
Staatscorr.’ 1886.
‘Mitth. Zool.
‘Internationale
Oe ae ee ee ee ee
of June 1886 to the end of June 1887. j Fy
ire c.
1886. July 4 Mr. E. Marie, Paris . A Various 83:05
> 5 Mr. Weber-Sulzer, Winterthur Corallium, Isis 37°45
» 7 Conte Peracca, Turin Elaphis 25°
7 » Mr. A. Blume, Iver P . Collection 122°
» 12 Dr. Kerbert, Aquarium, Am-
sterdam . < , . Living Murena . 25°
» 13 Mr. J. Tempére, Paris : Various 15:10
ri » Dr, A. Andres, Milan : . Actinia 7:70
» 14 Prof. Ussow, Zootom. Cabinet, ;
Kasan . ; 5 ; Collection 619-15
20 Prof, A. C. Haddon, Dublin Collection 295:45 =
ig he ee eye
Sate
1886.
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES.
Mr. W. Schliiter, Halle-on-Saale
Exhibition connected with the
Meeting of German Natura-
lists and Physicians, Berlin .
Prof. Stepanoff, Charkov .
Prof. A. Froriep, Tiibingen <
Mr. H. M. Gwatkin, Cambridge.
Prof. Kollmann, Bale -
P. Rousseau and Co., Paris
"Mr. J. Honegger, Ziirich .
Physiological Institute, Ziirich .
Dr. Riickert, Munich.
Prof. Krause, Gottingen
Morphol. Labor. Cambridge
Prof. Gravis, Liége
Obergymnasium, Tarajevo
Prof. Kollmann, Bale
Dr. Amans, Montpelier
Prof. Leuckart, Leipzig
Dr. Barrois, Lille .
Maison de Santé, Schéneberg
Dr. A. Corona, Sassari
Owens College, Manchester
Mr. H.C. Chadwick, Manchester.
Societa Tecnica, Florence .
Instituto Tecnico, Naples .
Prof. Barrois, Lille
Morphol. Labor., Cambridge
Mr. E. Rigby, Blackburn .
Mr. C. Jefferys, Tenby
Dr. Carazzi, Spezia
Dr. P. Pelseneer, Brussels .
Prof. C. Vogt, Geneva
Mr. F. 8. Oliver, Kew Z
Dr. Kihlmann, Helsingfors
Dr. J. Vajela, Klausenburg
Prof. A. Carruccio, Museo Zoo-
logico, Rome .
Prof. A. Della Valle, Modena
Mr. T. G. Nicholson, London
Dr. J. W. van Wijhe, Almelo
Rev. Dr. Norman, Burnmoor
Rectory . 2
Prof. Uljanin, University, “War-
saw :
University College, London
Mr. J. Tempére, Paris
Mr. W. Schliiter, Halle
Dr. J. Vajela, Klausenburg
Dr. O. Hamann, Géttingen
Capt. Dannevig, Flodevig, Nor-
way ¢ ‘
Prof. Moseley, Oxford
Grossh. Museum, Darmstadt ;
Dr. Amans, Montpelier
Prof. Landois, Greifswald .
Mr. H. Putze, Hamburg
Dr. Rawitz, Berlin .
Dr. Schuchardt, Gérlitz
University, Philadelphia
Swarthmore Coll., Swarthmore.
Various 2 A
4 Collections for school
purposes .
2 Collections
Embryos of Torpedo .
Mollusca A
Embryos of Dog fish
Various E
Brains of ‘Acanthias,
Heptanchus
Brains of Dogfish ¢
Yolk-sacks of Dogfish .
Embryos of Torpedo .
Bonellia, Sipunculus,
ben.
Posidonia
Small Collection .
Embryos of oa,
Various
Collection
Paleemonetes
Collection :
Aplysia . :
Collection . :
Collection
Various
Collection
Orchestia . ‘ ‘
Sepia . : ‘ 5
Collection
Crustacea
Collection
Tiedemannia
Terebratula.
Caulerpa
Caulerpa
Collection
Collection
Collection
Amphioxus . - °
Amphioxus .
Collection
Collection 5 ;
Mollusca . a 5
Various
Collection
Tapeworms.
Brissus :
Crustacea .
Embryos and Various
Octopus
Dactylopterus
Collection ~
Various
Lima, Pecten, &e.
Gelidium . j
Collection . ;
Collection
90
1886.
1887.
Dec,
”
”
REPORT—1887.
Conte Peracca, Turin :
Prof. C. Chun, K6nigsberg
Mr. W. Schliiter, Halle
I. R. Educatorio, Naples .
HN
Zootom. Cabinet, St. "Petersburs
Prof. Richiardi, Pisa .
Dr. Lahille, Toulouse. §
Morphol. Lab., Cambridge .
Prof. Hertwig, Munich
Prof. Hensen,’Kiel .
Dr, E. Fraas, Stuttgart
Prof. Lankester, London
Prof. Vogt, Geneva
Miss Heath, Plymouth
Cav. Brogi, Siena
Prof. A. Lang, Jena .
Mr. E. Marie, Paris
Prof. Gasco, Rome
Dr. O. Hamann, Gottingen :
Prof. Wilson, Brynn Mawr Coll.
Prof. Batelli, Perugia
Mr. O. Fric, Prague
Prof. Rabl, ‘Prague ;
Dr. J. W. van Wijhe, ‘Almelo
Dr. Carazzi, Spezia .
Mr. Th. Wardle, Leek
_ Mr. E. Marie, Paris
Collegium, Szekely Udverhely :
Oberrealschule, Kecskemét
Mr. G. Maclaine, Lochbine
Zoolog. Museum, Charkoff .
Zoolog. Institute, Charkoff
Dr. Barrois, Lille 3 :
Dr. F. Lahille, Toulouse
Prof. Dames, Berlin . :
University College, London
Dr. Janse, Leyden :
Mr. J. Krause, Glogau
Prof. Hubrecht, Utrecht
Staatsgymnasium, Munkacs
Societa Tecnica, Florence .
Prof. Giglioli, Florence
Mr. G. Maclaine, Lochbine
Dr. Lampert, Stuttgart
Prof. A. M. Marshall,
chester 5 5
Prof. Hensen, Kiel
Prof. Menzbier, Univer. Moscow
Dr. O. Harmann, Gottingen
Labor. d’Anat. Comp., Geneva .
Accademia Navale, Leghorn
University College, Nottingham
National Museum, Budapest
Dr. A. Appelléf, Upsala
Mr. H. Knorr, Munich
Conte M. Peracca, Turin . ;
Rev. Heinersdorff, Elberfeld
Mr. P. L. Trico, Trino
Count Rose, Baden-Baden
Geol. Mineral. Inst. Freiburg i/B
Prof. G. Frizzi, Perugia
Mr. C, Redlich, Briinn
Man-
Lacerta
Pelagia : 5
Various . ‘ >
Various 3
Various : 4
Collection .
Various
Ascidiz
Various
Collection A
Heads of Fish . C
Echinoderms .
Amphioxus .
Pteropoda . :
Various ‘ ‘
Various
Sepia .
Torpedo
Various
Spatangus .
Collection
Various
Various
Oikopleura .
Embryos of Dogfish
Brains of Dogfish
Living Murex -
Various : ‘ c
Collection .
Collection .
Various
Collection .
Collection .
Pinna nobilis
Actiniz
Orthagoriscus
Various
Alge .
Various
Torpedo, Petromyzon . 2
Collection :
Various : :
Orthagoriscus
Various . E
Various : 3 =
Corallium
Hyes of Pecten
Collection .
Brissus
Amphioxus .
Collection
Collection
Siphonophora
Sepia .
Various ; 5
~ Lacerta 5 5
Sepia, Corallium
Amphioxus
Collection .
Collection .
Fish
Various
169°35
se
1887. April 17
Wp
bo Ors
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION
Prof. S. Lovén, Stockholm
Cons. F. Nausen, Bergen, Nor-
way 3
Mr. Weber- ‘Sulzer, Winterthur :
Mr. G. Schneider, Bale
Dr. A. Kaufmann, St. Gall
Dr. L. Eger, Vienna .
Mr. A, Kreidl, Prague
Prof. G. Macloskie, Princeton
Prof. Kupffer, Munich
Prof. W. Krause, Gottingen
Prof. Béraneck, Acad. Neuchatel
Prof. Moseley, Oxford j
Mr. A. de Baranowski, Moscow
Rev. Dr. A. M. Norman, Burn-
moor Rectory. : :
Mr. Perepelkin, Moscow
Prof. A. Goette, Strassburg
Dr. Doederlein, Strassburg
Prof. Salensky, Odessa.
Dr. C. F. Jickeli, Hermannstadt
Mr J. Tempére, Paris :
Prof. Mitsukuri, Tokio
Prof. M. Braun, Rostock ;
Prof. Matarazzi, 8. Maria, Capua
Vetere ‘
Dr. Riickert, Munich
Mr. E. Marie, Paris
Prof. C. Rabl, Prague
Prof. Kupffer, Munich
Prof. C. Vogt, Geneva A
Mr. R. O. Cunningham, Belfast
Mr. A. Amrhein, Vienna
Conte Abbate Castracane, Rome
Prof. Giglioli, Florence
Prof. Hertwig, Munich
Mr. H. Marie, Paris
Sottoprefetto Martelli, Asti
Mr. J. Chalon, Namur
Dr. C. Hartlaub, Nizza
Mr. A. Wenke, Jaromer
Prof. Koehler, Nancy
Mr. Ch. Jefferys, Tenby
Mr. J. Chalon, Namur
Dr. Irao ITjima, Science Coll.,
Tokio
AT NAPLES.
Arbacia
Amphioxus
Collection .
Various
Physophora
Various
Various
Various
Ascidize
. Amphioxus
Collection .
Various
Various
Various
Various
Various
Various
Distaplia
Amphiura .
Various
Collection .
Helix .
Collection .
Embryos of Dogfish
Collection .
Embryos of Doetish
Petromyzon
Cerianthus .
Amphioxus, Torpedo .
Diatomee .
Diatomez .
Fish
Actiniz
Eggs of Octopus, &e. .
Amphioxus
Elaphis
ladonema
Mollusca
Collection .
Mollusca
Elaphis
Collection
870°
90,572°05
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor McKenprick, Pro-
fessor StrutHERS, Professor Youne, Professor McInrosu, Professor
A. Nicnoxson, Professor Cossar Ewart, and Mr. Joun Murray
(Secretary), appointed for the purpose of aiding in the main-
tenance of the establishment of a Marine Biological Station
at Granton, Scotland.
Tue Committee have received the following reports from Mr. Cunningham,
the superintendent, on the zoological work carried on at the Granton
Laboratory and at Millport, and from Dr. Mill, the Physicist of the station,
‘regarding work done on the Clyde sea area.
92 REPORT— 1887.
Report on the Scottish Marine Station for the year 1886-87.
Since the last meeting of the British Association the principal work
carried on at Granton has been the systematic study of the Polycheta of —
the Firth of Forth. Mr. G. A. Ramage, Vans Dunlop Scholar of Edin-
burgh University, was associated with myself in this undertaking. We —
collected all the species we could find, more especially those living near
the Laboratory in the littoral zone, and we found that the Polycheta,
more particularly the sedentary forms, were abundant in the neighbour-
hood both in individuals and in species. We carefully determined the
systematic position of each form, and investigated, as far as opportunities
allowed, its life-history, anatomy, and histology. One of the most in-
teresting results of our work was the elucidation of the peculiar structure
and relations of the nephridial system in Lanice conchilega (Malmgren),
an account of which was communicated by myself to the Royal Society
of Edinburgh, and afterwards published in ‘ Nature’ (June 16,1887). A f
more complete paper, illustrated with several plates, on various points in
the anatomy of the Polychzeta was prepared by me for publication in
the ‘ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,’ and will appear shortly
in that periodical : it is now in the press. A memoir, in which the results
of our investigations are fully described and illustrated, was presented
in July to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and will be published in the
coming autumn in the Transactions of that Society.
In the course of the spring Mr. Rupert Vallentin, at Mr. Murray’s
suggestion, undertook to make an investigation of the phosphorescent
organs of Nyctophanes norvegica (G.O. Sars) (a species of the Euphausiide),
which occurs abundantly in certain deep areas in the Forth of Clyde.
Mr. Vallentin paid several visits to Millport, and made excursions on the
steam yacht ‘Medusa’ in order to obtain specimens of the animal. He
afterwards made experiments on the phosphorescence in the living animal _
in the small laboratory at Miilport, and brought preserved material to
Granton, where he investigated the histology of the luminous organs. I
afterwards joined him in preparing the results of this work for publica-
tion, and we communicated a short account of the subject to the Royal
Society of Edinburgh. A more complete and illustrated paper on the ©
subject will be published shortly in the ‘Quarterly Journal of Micro- —
scopical Science.’
My own inquiries into the reproduction of Myzine glytinosa were :
continued from time to time during the winter and spring, but I was not
successful in obtaining fertilised ova or embryos. I was able, however, to
obtain evidence which increased the period during which I was certain
that oviposition took place: the additional evidence is recorded in the
‘ Zoologischer Anzeiger.’
During June and July observations on the reproduction of oysters in |
the Firth of Forth were resumed. Steps were being taken to plant oysters
and collect spat off the shore at Preston Pans, and the resources and ex-
perience available at the Granton laboratory were placed at the disposal —
of those engaged in this enterprise. Oysters were imported from Holland,
as well as collected in the Firth, healthy spat was obtained, and arrange-
ments were made in the aquarium at Granton for keeping this spat alive
in captivity, and, if possible, securing its fixation on collectors.
The above is a sketch of the work carried on. I have now to report
on the extent to which the organisation has been made use of by zoologists
:
ON THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT GRANTON, SCOTLAND. 93
not attached to it.. Mr. Ramage was working at Granton for a little more
than a year, from June 1886 to July 1887. During the latter month he
left in order to proceed to the island of Fernando Norotiba, as arrange-
ments had been made through me that he should join a scientific expedi-
_ tion to that place, organised by Mr. Ridley, of the botanical staff of the
British Museum.
Mr. R. Vallentin came to Granton on January 1, 1887, and worked
there, with occasional visits to Millport, until July.
Two students of Edinburgh University, Messrs. McBryde and Kerr,
spent some time in March and April in studying at the Granton
laboratory.
Mr. J. Arthur Thomson, lecturer on zoology in the Extra-Mural Medi-
cal School of Edinburgh, with Mr. Murray’s permission, arranged to give
a vacation course in zoology at the Granton laboratory to school teachers
and others in August and September. The class met on August l. It
had been arranged that I should assist in conducting this course, but I
was unable to be present after the first two days, having accepted the
post of naturalist at the Plymouth laboratory. The class consisted of
eleven persons, and is still meeting daily at Granton.
Mr. Bury, an undergraduate at Cambridge, began to carry on
_ zoological studies at Millport in the middle of July, and is still working
__ there.
My own connection with the Scottish marine station is now ter-
minated, but I still take a strong interest in its prosperity, and may state
here my conviction that the existence of the Granton laboratory is of the
greatest importance in exciting a healthy interest and activity in zoologi-
cal science in Edinburgh. J. T. CunnivcHam.
Report on the Physical Work of the Station.
In conuection with the physical work of the Scottish Marine Station
I have, since last meeting of the Association, carried on regular tempera-
ture cruises on the Clyde sea area at intervals of about one month. On
two occasions Mr. John Murray extended these excursions to the deep
lochs of the west of Scotland. In many of the observations the fauna
was studied in relation to the physical conditions of the water, and much
information of a new and interesting nature has been collected.
Observations on the fresh-water lakes in Scotland have been continued.
I have acted with Mr. Cunningham in his operations regarding the oyster
culture experiment at Preston Pans, and inaugurated observations on the
temperature of the sea margin there.
All the physical observations made in connection with the station are
being prepared for publication. The whole of the temperature work up
to July 9, 1887, is passed for press, and will appear in the forthcoming
‘Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society.” The observations of
density will be given in a later number.
The improved thermometers and water-bottles were exhibited at the
Exhibition of Marine Meteorological Instruments held by the Royal
Meteorological Society in March last, and several have subsequently been
supplied to zoologists in various parts of the country for use on dredging
excursions.
% My principal papers since last year have been—(1) ‘ On the Physical
_ Conditions of Water in the Clyde Sea Area,’ read to the Philosophical
t
7
94. REPORT—1887.
Society of Glasgow in February, and published in abstract with additions —
in ‘Nature,’ vol. xxxvi. pp. 37-39, 56-58. (2) ‘Marine Temperature
Observations,’ read to the Royal Meteorological Society in March, and
about to be published in their ‘ Quarterly Journal.’ (3) ‘On the Salinity —
and Temperature of the Moray Firth,’ read to the Royal Society of Edin- .
pa
burgh in July last, and to appear in the next part of the ‘ Proceedings.’
(4) ‘ Recent Physical Research in the North Sea,’ a criticism of the work of
the German gunboat ‘ Drache,’ in the ‘ Scottish Geographical Magazine’
for August; and (5) ‘Contributions to Marine Meteorology resulting from
the three years’ work of the Scottish Marine Station,’ read to the Scottish
Meteorological Society in July and to Section A of the present meeting,
Hucu Roserr Mitt, D.Sc.
The Committee beg to recommend that a further grant of 1001. be
made by the Association to aid in the maintenance of the Scottish Marine
Station during the ensuing year; and that Mr. John Murray, Dr. Alex.
Buchan, Professor McKendrick, and Professor Chrystal be the Committee,
Mr. John Murray to be Secretary.
JOHN Murray, Secretary.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. THISELTON DyEr (Secre- —
tary), Mr. CarruTHers, Mr. Batt, Professor OLIVER, and Mr. —
Fores, appointed for the purpose of continuing the preparation
of a report on our present knowledge of the Flora of China.
Tue grant made by the Association has enabled the Committee to proceed
with this important work, the third part of which, carrying the ennmera-
tion down to the end of the Rosacez, is now in the hands of the printer,
and the fourth part has been commenced. Since'the work was begun,
about two years ago, several collections of dried plants have been received
at Kew from China; notably, a very exiensive one from Dr. A. Henry,
made in the little known district of Ichang, in the province of Hupeh, in
the very centre of China. And the trustees of the British Museum have
acquired the herbarium of the late Dr. Hance, containing the types of the
large number of species published by him from time to time during a
long residence in the country. Dr. Henry’s collection includes a large
number of novelties, besides the addition of many Himalayan and Japan-
ese forms not previously knows, from China; and Dr. Hance’s herba-
rium greatly facilitates the limitation of the species where comparisons
with his types are necessary. The published parts of the report have
been freely distributed among English residents in China, and have no
doubt been the means of stimulating some of them to greater activity now
that they perceive that there is a probability of the results of their exer-
tions being promptly published. Dr. Henry is specially interested in the
origin of the numerous drugs used in Chinese medicine, and, aided by
our determinations of the plants, we may assume that he will be able to
make a substantial addition to our knowledge of the Chinese pharmaco-
peia. Mr. Ford, too, the Superintendent of the Hong Kong Botanic
Garden, takes a lively interest in the work, and has rendered valuable assist-
ance, doubtless with advantage to the establishment under his charge.
Several eminent foreign botanists have alluded to the work as of great
ee
7 ON THE FLORA OF CHINA. 95
interest and importance, and the Committee have much satisfaction in
reporting that circamstances are now favourable to more rapid progress
in the future than hitherto. Simultaneously with the appearance of our
Index Flore Sinensis, a French botanist, M. Franchet, is publishing a
very extensive collection of plants made by French missionaries in Yun-
"nan, a province from which there is almost nothing in the London her-
“aria ; hence his labours supplement ours and cover a distinct floral
“region.
The Committee recommend their reappointment, and that a further
_ grant of £100 be placed at their disposal.
‘ -
y
Report of the Committee consisting of Canon A. M. Norman, Mr.
H. B. Brapy, Mr. W. CaRrRUTHERS, Professor HERDMAN, Pevicsane
W.C. M‘Intosu, Mr. J. Murray, Professor A. Newton, Nit, Ps
L. ScuaTer, and Professor A. C. Happon (Secretary), appointed
for the purpose of considering the question of accurately defin-
. ing the term ‘ British’ as applied to the Marine Fauna and
_ ~Flora of our Islands.
_A CIRCULAR giving in detail alternative boundaries for a British marine
area, and maps and sections illustrating the same, was distributed to the
members of the ‘ British Marine Area Committee,’ as well as to a large
and representative number of naturalists interested in marine zoology.
_ As was to be expected, the replies showed that great diversity of opinion
_ exists not only as to the desirability of limiting a British marine area, but
"also as to how far such an area should extend.
A tabulation of the replies was subsequently forwarded to the members
_of the Committee, and the following statements appear to express the
_ views of the majority.
It may be desirable, for the convenience of curators of museums and
the compilers of faunistic works, to limit a marine area which may be
more particularly described as ‘ British.’
| The British Marine Area may be conveniently subdivided into a
shallow-water and into a deep-water district.
The 100-fathom contour is a natural boundary line for the former off
the north and west coasts of the British Islands for the following reasons :
1. It is defined on all charts; 2. The Admiralty soundings are very com-
plete down to that depth; 3.-The 100-fathom line roughly corresponds
with the beginning of the declivity of the continental plateau ; 4. There
is a marked change in the fauna about that limit; 5. Most of the dredg-
ings of British naturalists have been taken within that contour.
The only boundary on the south and east is the half-way line between
Great Britain and the Continent: this should include the Dogger Bank.
The above district may be termed ‘The British Marine Shallow-
ater District.’
The deep-water district of the British Marine Area may be regarded
extending from 100 to, say, 1,000 fathoms—that is, to the commence-
ent of the abysmal floor of the ocean. As these depths occur only off
he north and west coasts, this region may be termed ‘ The British Atlantic
Slope District.’
The Channel Islands lie outside the British Marine Area proper.
96 REPORT—1887.
Report of the Committee consisting of Professor M. Foster, Pro-
fessor BAYLEY BaLrour, Mr. THISELTON-DyER, Dr. TRIMEN, Pro-
fessor Bower (Secretary), Professor MaRSHALL WarD, Mr. CaR-
RUTHERS, and Professor HartoG, appointed for the purpose of —
taking steps for the establishment of a Botanical Station at
Peradeniya, Ceylon.
Tue Committee for the purpose of taking steps for the establishment of a
botanical station at Peradeniya, Ceylon, report that they have communi-
cated with Dr. Trimen since his return to his duties at Peradeniya, and
that he has provided them with the following memorandum on Pera-
deviya as a site for a botanical station :—
‘Ceylon is the only British colony in the tropics which possesses a
botanic garden of importance, provided also with a good library and her-.
barium, arranged, and available for reference and study.
‘Though the immediate neighbourhood of Peradeniya gardens is
mostly land which has been or is now under cultivation, and thus does
not exhibit the natural wild vegetation of the Hastern tropics in a very
characteristic manner, yet there are within easy reach by railway and
road all descriptions of country, including high mountains, and the south
and west coasts ; and on the whole Peradeniya is favourably placed for
the study and collection of tropical plants of all types (the contents of the
gardens themselves being also taken into consideration).
‘There is no special laboratory for microscopic and other work here,
but a large room in the museum building is well suited for the purpose.
There is at present no apparatus there. In the gardens themselves there —
is no suitable accommodation for students, but in the close neighbour-
hood are several bungalows, some of which are generally unoccupied.
That in which Professor Bower lived in 1886 is quite close to the gardens ~
and could easily accommodate two men. It is possible that if there were
any prospect of a succession of students this little house might be acquired
by the Government, and furnished with the few requisites for tropical life.
‘The climate is very healthy; elevation 1,540 feet above the sea;
mean annual temperature about 77° F.; rainfall about 90 inches, pretty
evenly distributed throughout the year, December to April being ee
driest months.
‘ (Signed) Heyry Trimen, Director.’
In addition to the advantages, thus noted by Dr. Trimen, which Pera-
deniya possesses over alternative sites, it may be mentioned that it is the
residence of the permanent director of the gardens in Ceylon; also that
the extensive garden would supply large quantities of material suitable
for research ; further, that a large number of the plants in the garden are
labelled, while attempts are being made to arrange the plants as far as
possible according to their natural affinities. Again, there is attached to
the gardens a body of experienced native collectors, whose duty it is to
bring in plants from remote districts, and thus access is gained to plants
which would not otherwise be readily obtained. These are facts of im-
portance which contribute to make Peradeniya a most fitting place for the
visits of students who have not had any previous experience of a tropical
flora; and this, it must be remembered, will be the position of most of
those who will wish to study there. On these grounds your Committee
_
ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A BOTANICAL STATION AT CEYLON. 97
are of opinion that Peradeniya is a most suitable place for the establish-
ment of a botanical station in the Eastern tropics. From the memorandum
of Dr. Trimen it would appear that laboratory accommodation is already
supplied, and a comparatively small outlay would be required to provide
apparatus. The Committee therefore request that they be reappointed,
and that a grant of 501. be placed at their disposal to provide this ap-
paratus.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor VALENTINE BALL,
Mr. H. G. ForpxHam, Professor Happon, Professor HILLHouss,
Mr. Joun Hopkinson, Dr. Macrartane, Professor Mitnes Mar-
SHALL, Mr. F. T. Morr (Secretary), Dr. Traquarr, and Dr. H.
WoopwarD, appointed for the purpose of preparing a Report
upon the Provincial Museums of the United Kingdom.
WE propose to treat the subject entrusted to us under the following
sectional headings, viz. :—
. Preliminary Sources of Information.
. Methods adopted for obtaining correct Statistics.
. Tables of General Statistics.
. Discussion of Details,
. The Ideal Museum.
. Practical Suggestions for approaching the Ideal.
We include in our inquiry all Museums out of London to which the
public can obtain access.
Dok wn
1. Pretimmnary Sources or InFrorMArTION.
(a) A ‘List of Museums in the United Kingdom,’ prepared in 1876
by the Science and Art Department, a copy of which was supplied to us
on application to the Department. This was stated to be ‘incomplete,’
but it contained the names of 158 museums, exclusive of those in London.
() A return to an Order of the House of Commons in 1884, giving
a list of 41 museums established under the Public Libraries Act.
(c) A list of local scientific societies contained in the Report of the
Local Scientific Societies Committee, presented to the Association at
Southport in 1883, and published in the annual volume for that year.
This list indicates those societies which were known to possess
museums.
(d) Acircular posted to the town clerks of all the municipal boroughs
in the United Kingdom (240), asking for the names of all museums in
their respective towns and districts. To nearly the whole of these circu- ~
lars we received very courteous replies, with the names of many museums
previously unknown to us.
(e) Information from the members of the Committee and friends.
2. METHODS ADOPTED FOR OBTAINING CORRECT STAaTISTICs.
From the various sources of information enumerated above a prelimi-
nary list of museums was drawn up and printed, containing, in—
England . ie v= ete 196
Wales . } F ; 8
Scotland. ; . 97} Total, 240.
Ireland ; ; : 15
Ys REPORT—1887.
Some of these were afterwards found to have been sold or otherwise
dispersed. Some had never been actually established. Some were erro-
neously named; others were art galleries only; and in a few cases two
museums in the same town had been united into one. As a final result
we have found 211 museums which seem properly to come within the
scope of our inquiry. .
In addition to this preliminary list we drew up a series of questions
arranged in two schedules, A and B. Schedule A contained seven ques-
tions relating to primary statistics, intended to be incorporated in a
published list. Schedule B contained thirty-six questions on matters of
detail. These schedules were printed with space for replies, and posted,
with copies of the preliminary list of museums and a printed circular
explaining the object in view, to ‘ The Curator’ of nearly every museum
on the list.
Schedule A.
1. Name of town and county. 2. Name of museum and street or building in
which it is situated. 3. Date of foundation or opening. . Name and address of
curator or other principal officer. 5. List of collections and of subjects illustrated,
viz. :—
General collections,
including local specimens,
unless these are kept
separately, or distinguished
by special labels
Local and special collections.
If kept separately, or
distinguished by special
labels, not otherwise
Loan collections
Approxi- Approxi- Approxi-
Subjects i se of Particulars » ans of From whom eee of
specimens : specimens specimens
Geology.
Zoology .
Botany .
Archeology
Anthropology.
6. On what terms and at what hours is the museum open to the public? 7. Re-
marks.
Date, Signature of Curator,
Schedule B.
4. By whom was the museum founded? 2. To whom does it now belong? 3. How
is it supported?, 4. How is it governed? 5. State in round numbers the annual
cost of maintenance, viz. :—Rent and taxes; salaries and wages; cases; purchase of
specimens ; mounting of specimens; other expenditure. 6. What is the staff em-
ployed? and during what hours? 7. Under what tenure and from what owner are
the buildings or rooms held? &. State the number of rooms or galleries, their
length, breadth, and height, and how lighted and warmed. 9. State the general
arrangement of the cases in the principal rooms, either in words or by a rough
sketch. 10. How are the cases made dust-proof? 22. State any special details of
fittings. 12. State any special methods adopted for preserving or exhibiting the
specimens. 123. Are the natural history specimens set up pictorially with rock,
grass, water, &c., showing their mode of life, or merely on separate pegs or stands?
14. Is any attempt made to exhibit the family life of birds and animals, showing
male, female, young, eggs, nest, &c., grouped together? 25. Are the natural history
specimens generally in good condition, or dirty and grub-eaten and requiring re-
ibis
a
ON THE PROVINCIAL MUSEUMS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 99
newal? 216. Are all the specimens illustrating each group—whether skeletons,
stuffed, or bottled—arranged together, or are the skeletons and the bottles kept
apart from the stuffed specimens? 27. Are the fossils arranged zoologically with
the recent specimens, or stratigraphically? 18. If there are any purely local
collections, give some further account of these than in the answer to Question 5,
Schedule A, and say whether they are kept apart from the other specimens, or only
distinguished by special labels. 29. State the principal specialities in your district
which ought to be represented by special collections but are not so at present.
20. Are there any collections especially arranged for educational purposes? If so, state
method of arrangement or classification. 21. Have you any technical or industrial
department in the museum? 22. Are there any classes or any arrangements for
systematic teaching at the museum? 23. Is the museum much used for study by
local naturalists, or archzologists, or medical students? 24. Are any facilities
offered to students, such as private rooms, tables, or microscopes; and are they
allowed, under any conditions, to handle the museum specimens? 25. Are the
rooms used for any other purposes when the museum is not open? 26. Are there
any aquaria or vivaria in the museum? 27. What catalogues or handbooks of the
museum have been published? (Please inclose copies.) 28. How are the duplicates
and surplus stores kept and arranged? Have you any large stock of duplicates?
29. If the museum belongs to the public, and any local society is in any way con-
nected with it, say what benefit the museum receives from such connection.
30. Are there many donations of specimens to the museum annually, and from
what class of persons chiefly? 31. What style of labelling is adopted? (If you
have a special form of label, please attach a specimen.) 32. If the museum has a
library of scientific or archzological works for the use of the curator or students,
state about the number of volumes and the average annual increase. 33. Can you
give any estimate of the average weekly number of visitors? How is the estimate
arrived at? 34. Is the museum centrally situated, or otherwise, in reference to the
population? 35. At what time of the day is the museum most visited, and how is
it affected by public holidays? 36. Make here any remarks upon matters not
included in the foregoing inquiries, or any suggestions of your own as to improve-
ments in the general management of provincial museums.
Name of Museum. Signature of Curator,
Date.
The returns came in slowly. Some of them were very full and satis-
factory ; others were extremely meagre. A large book was prepared in
which to enter up in tabular form the replies to the various questions as
they arrived.
Two months after the schedules had been distributed a printed post-
card was sent to each curator who had made no return, and a month later
another card, marked ‘ Urgent,’ was posted to those still in arrear. Many
had to be specially written to for important details omitted in their replies,
and there are still eight museums from which we have been unable to
get any information.
Some asked for duplicate schedules in order to keep copies of their
replies. In many cases the schedules had miscarried, owing probably to
there being no recognised ‘curator’ to a number of the smaller museums.
On information of this fact being received, fresh copies were forwarded to
the secretary or other officer.
The statistics finally obtained afford sufficient data for comparing the
size and special characteristics of the various museums, and have enabled
us to arrange them into four classes, taking into consideration the super-
ficial area of the rooms, the size and character of the collections, the
annual cost, the staff, and the number of visitors.
A few of the museums have been personally visited by members of
the Committee, but it has not been found practicable at present to carry
out this method on any extensive or systematic plan.
H2
100
No.| Town and County
10
ll
NotE.—The collections are named in the order of their numerical importance in ea
Name and Locality of Museum
ENGLAND—
Aldborough, Yorks | ‘ M. Isurianum, Aldborough
Manor, near Boroughbridge
Alnwick, North- | The Castle M., Alnwick Castle .
umberland
The ‘Curtis’ M., Mechanics’ In-
stitute
The Institute M., Bridge Street .
Alton, Hants . ;
Andover, Hants .
Aylesbury, Bucks . Bucks Architectural and Archzo-
logical M., Church Street
Bukewell, Derby- Bingham’s M., Bath Street .
shire
Barnard Castle,| The BowesM. ~. + -
Durham
Bath, Somerset . M. of the Royal Literary and
Scientific Institution, Terrace
Walks
Berwick-on-Tweed, | Berwick M., High Street.
Durham
Birmingham, War- | M.and Art Gallery ° 5 3
wickshire
oe : Aston Hall M., Aston Park. -
at 35 M. of the Natural History and
Microscopical Society, Mason
College
Blackburn, Lanca- | Public Library and M., Library
shire Street
Bolton, Lancashire | The Chadwick M., Park Road
Bootle, Lancashire | Free Public Library and M., Oriel
Road
Bradford, Yorks graben Library and Art M., Darley
treet
Brighton, Sussex . | Free Library BHM Siew sf Je
4 “9 . | M. of British Birds, Dyke Road .
Bristol, Gloucester- |M. and Library, Queen’s Road .
shire
REPORT—1887.
Foun-
\dation
1825
1869
1885
-E. T. Booth, Owner . : .
3. TABLES ¢ :
TABLE 1.—Jist
M. stan
Name and Address of Curator,
Principal Officer, or Owner
A. S. Lawson, Esq., Owner, Ald-
borough Manor
Duke of Northumberland, Owner
William Curtis, Cur., Alton . s
Ernest Collier, Cur., The Vicarage
Robert Gibbs, Cur., Aylesbury .
L. F. Bingham, Owner, Bakewell
Owen S. Scott, Cur., Bowes M.,
Barnard Castle
T. F. Plowman, Gen. Secretary .
John Scott, Cur., 103 High Street
ce Wallis, F.R.G.S., Direc-
or
Alfred J. Rodway, Cur., Aston
Hall
W.N. Wilkinson and W. P. Mar- |
shall, Hon. Secs.
David Geddes, Cur. . a A
W. W. Midgley, Cur., Museum.
Butler Wood, Cur., 1 Scott Street |
Benjamin Lomax, F.LS., Cur.
Edward Wilson,
F.G.S., Cur.,
Museum
seum.
Museum.
General
h. (Egyptian, &c.),
Geo., Zoo,, Anth.
a B00 ,Arch,, Anth.,
5 cdi, Geo., Sub-
marine cables, &e.
Shells,
+0., Bot., Anth., Arch.
10. (few), Zoo. (few),
Arch. (few)
‘t (industrial
decorative)
and
0., Geo., Art (indus-
., Geo., Arch., Bot.,
‘ech. Art (industrial
nd fine)
0., Geo. (purchased
from Royal Institu-
tion, Liverpool)
geo., A
0.5 Nae et, Arch.,
nth., Porcelain
(British birds
Anth.,
Arch., Bot., Egyptian
Ant., Materia Medica
Zo0.,
Collections
ual and fine),
NERAL STATISTICS.
ovincial Museums.
Arch. (Roman re-
mains, &c.)
Arcn «. °
Geo., Zoo., Arch.,
Bot,
Arch., Geo., Anth.
Geo. (coll. of C.
Moore, F.G.S. &W.
Lonsdale, F.G.S.),
Zoo. (Duncan and
Lockey colls.), Bot.
(Rev. L. Blome-
field’s coll.)
Bot., Zoo.,
Arch,
Geo.,
Anth . 7 =
Geo. ° . .
Geo., Zoo, . ie
No. of
Supported by | Visitors
weekly
Duplicates
ON THE PROVINCIAL MUSEUMS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.
Terms of
for Exchange | Admission
Owner.
The Institute
and Fees
The Institute 2
Local Society os
Owner. 100
Endowment _
The Institu- 140
tion and
Fees
Town Sub- 30
scription
and Fees
Rate . 22,000
“ 2,000
Local Society a
Rate . -| 1,200
a 3,500
” a al
6,000
A 1,500
Owner and =
Fees
Subscription,| 240
Endowment
and Fees
Geo. and Zoo,
Geo. and Zoo,
Geo., Bird
skins and
eggs, &e,
Givenaway.
Geo. é
Free on ap-
plication
Free on
order
2d. daily .
Free daily
Free on ap-
plication
Free
Free on ap-
plication
Free, 4
days ; 6d.
2 days
ld. daily .
Free daily,
and Sun-
days 2 to 5
Free daily
Members
only
Free daily
”
Free daily
1s, daily
2d. 3 days;
6d.3 days
101
When two dates are given, the second refers to removal to present premises.
Remarks
Private
”
Good for
small town
Small and
neglected
Grand de-
sign,but in-
complete
at death of
founder,
and not yet
formally
opened
Intended to
be purely
local
Open on
Sunday ;
loan from
8.K,
An old
mansion
Very small
Legacy of
5,0007. to-
wards
building
Not yet
opened
Loan from
S.K.
Good of its
kind
102
Town and County
ENGLAND—cont.
Burslem, Stafford-
shire
Burton - on- Trent,
Staffordshire
Bury-St.-Edmunds,
Suffolk
Caerleon,
mouth
Cambridge, Cam-
bridgeshire
Canterbury, Kent .
Carlisle,
land
Chard, Somerset
Chatham, Kent
Cumber-
Chelmsford, Essex
Cheltenham, Glou-
cestershire
Chester, Cheshire .
Chesterfield,
byshire
Chichester, Sussex
Der-
Cirencester, Glou-
cestershire
” ”
Coalbrookdale,
Shropshire
Colchester, Essex .
Croydon, Surrey
Darwen, Lanca-
shire
Derby, Derbyshire.
Devizes, Wiltshire.
Devonport, Devon .
Dorchester, Dorset
Dover, Kent .
Dudley . . .
Dulwich, Surrey
Durham, Durham.
Eastbourne, Sussex
Eton, Bucks . a
Mon-
REPORT—1887.
Name and Locality of Museum
Wedgwood Institute, Queen Street
M. of the Nat. History and Arche-
ological Society, The Institute,
Union Street
_Bury-St.-Edmunds M., The Athe-
neum, Angel Hill
Caerleon M. . : z
M. of General and Local Arche-
ology, Little St. Mary’s Lane
The Woodwardian M. Trin. Coll. .
The FitzWilliam M., Trumping-
ton Street
Mineralogical M., New Museums .
Botanical M. and Herbarium
Canterbury M. . 2
Carlisle M., Finkle Street .
Chard M,
M. “on Sehod) of Military ‘Engineer-
afer and Chelmsford M. . .
The Pierson M., Cheltenham (ol-
lege
The Grosvenor M., Grosvenor
Road
M. of Chesterfield and Mid-Coun-
ties Institution of Engineers
M. of the Literary Society and
Mechanics’ Institute, South
Street
The Corinium M., Tetbury Road.
M. of Royal Agricultural College.
M. of the Literary and Scientific
Institution
Colchester Free M., The Castle .
M. of Surrey Arch, Society, Public
Hall
Public Library and M., Church
Street
Derby Free M., Wardwick . 5
Wilts Arch, and Nat. Hist. M.,
Long Street
Free Public Library and M., Duke
Street
Dorset County M., High West
Street
Dover M., Market Square .
M. of Geol. Soc. and Field Club .
Dulwich College M., College.
University M.. c 3 . .
The Caldecott M. . 5 4
Eton College M, .
dation
TABLE J.—LIST OF PROVI
Name and Address of Curator,
Principal Officer, or Owner
Thomas Hulme, Hon, Cur., Wood-
leigh, Longport
Frank E. Lott, Hon, Cur., Bridge
Chambers
Henry Rigg, Hon. Cur., Babwell
Priory
F. J. Mitchell, Esq., J.P., Hon.
Sec., The Grange, Llanfechfa,
Caerleon
Baron Anatole Von Hiigel, 53
Chesterton Road
Prof. T. McKenny Hughes, M.A.,
F.G.S., Cur.
C. Waldstein, M.A., Ph.D., Direc-
tor, King’s College
Prof, W. J. Lewis, Cur.
Prof. 0. '0. Babington, M. IN
F.R.S., Cur., 5 Brookside
A.D. Blaxland, Cur. & .
R. S. Ferguson, M.A., Hon. Cur.,
Sowther Street
Rey. R. E. Bartlett, Hon. Cur.
Charles Pierson, Hon. Cur., 3
Blenheim Parade
Robert Newstead, Cur. . A :
Rev. J. M. Mello, M.A., F.G.S.,
Hon, Cur,
Joseph Anderson, Jun,, Hon, Cur.,
Aere Villa
Christopher Bowley, Hon, Cur.,
Siddington House
Rev. J.B. McClellan, M.A,, Prin-
cipal of the College
Isaac Dunbar, Cur, . ° zi
Frederick Spalding, Cur. .
Thomas Milbourn, Hon, Sec., 12
Beaulieu Villas, Finsbury Park
E. Neville, Cur. . & A .
W. Crowther, Cur.,, Wardwick .
Henry Cunningham, Hon. Cur.,
Devizes
Charles R. Rome, Librarian.
H. J. Moule, Cur., Dorchester .
E. F. Astley, M.D,, Hon. Cur., 29
Parade
W. Madeley, Sec. . . . .
H. M. Stewart, Hon. Cur., Dul-
wich College
J. Cullingford, Cur., Palace Green
eel Muller, Trustee, 4 Bolton
oa
F. Drew, F.G.S., Hon. Cur., Eton
College
Class.
es tm ow eR tw
ON THE PROVINCIAL MUSEUMS OF THE
t MuskuMs—continued.
Collections
General
tery only .
), (few), Zoo. (few) .
», Bot., Arch., Zoo.,
th.
Anth., Arch.,
00,, Bot.
Geo., Arch.,
»., Zoo., Bot., Arch.,
od. Art
iy ZOO, » «
Arch, a as
, Zoo., Bot., Arch.,
nth.
»., Bot, Chem.,
gri., Surg., Zoo,
Zoo., Arch.,
nth.
Zoo., Bot., Arch.,
nth.
Zoo., Bot. .
Geo., Arch. .
, Zoo, . '
Local
Bot,, Arch., Anth,
Arch. (Roman) .
Arch.. . =
Geo. P a :
Geo., Zoo., Bot.,
Arch,, Anth,
Zoo., Arch. .
Geo. 2 a ‘
Arch,(Roman) .
Geo... . .
Geo. . . J
Geo., Zoo., Bot.,
Arch.
Geo., Zoo., Bot.,
Arch,
Archie. J 3 -
Zoo. ° .
Geo. = A
Bot., Arch. .
Zoo,, Bot., Arch.
Zoo., Anth. ,
Supported by
Rate . .
Local Society
Borough
Funds
Local Society
The Univer-
sity
Rate .
Boro’ Fund
and Fees
Boro’ Fund .
The Crown
Local Society
and Fees
The College.
Subscriptions
and Fees
The Institu-
tion
The Institu-
tion
The College.
The Institu-
tion and
Fees
Boro’ Fund .
Local Society
Rate .
”
Local Society
and Fees
Rate . .
Subscriptions
and Fees
Rate . .
Local Society
Subscriptions
The Univer-
sity
Subscriptions
and Fees
. | The College .
UNITED KINGDOM.
Duplicates
for Exchange
Geo., Zoo.,
Bot.
Geo., Zoo.
Anth, . .
Geo. .
Minerals
Geo. .
Few .
Birds .
Geo. .
Arch. . .
Few .
Geo. . .
Geo: «2
163
Terms of
Admission
Free daily
Free
order
by
Free daily
Free daily
2d. daily
Free daily
Free on ap-
one
day ; 6d.
five days
Free daily
3d. daily .
Free daily
Free to vi-
sitors
Small
charge
Free daily
Free on
order
Free daily
” ”»
Free one
day ; 6d.
five days
Free daily
2d. daily
Free five
days
Free on ap-
plication
Free to
visitors
2d. daily
3d. 3 days
Free on ap-
plication
Remarks
Loan from
S.K.
Loan from
Ss. K.
Very small
Private
104
REPORT—1887.
No.
Town and County
ENGLAND—cont,
Exeter, Devon
Folkestone, Kent .
Frome, Somerset .
Giggleswick,
Yorks.
Glastonbury,
merset
Gloucester,
cestershire
Gosport, Hants. .
So-
Glou-
Greenwich, Kent .
Haileybury, Herts.
Halifax, Yorks. .
” ”
Hereford,
fordshire
Huddersfield, Yorks.
Here-
” ”
Hull, Yorks. .
Huntingdon,
Hunts
Ipswich, Suffolk
Kendal, Westmore-
d
an
Keswick, Cumber-
and
King’s Lynn, Nor-
folk
Kirkleatham,
Yorks.
Laneaster, Lanca-
shire :
Launceston, Corn-
wall
Leeds, Yorks.
Leek, Stafford.
Leicester, Leices-
tershire
Lewes, Sussex
Lichfield, Staff,
Liverpool, Lanca-
shire
Ludlow, Shropshire
|
Name and Locality of Museum
Albert Memorial M., Free Library
Public Library and M. .
M. of the Literary and Scientific
Institution
Giggleswick School M. .
Glastonbury M., Town Hall .
County M., Brunswick Road
Haslar Hospital M. : .
Naval M., Royal Naval College
Haileybury College M. .
M. of Literary and Phil. Society .
Mr. J. W. Davis’s M., Chevinedge
Hereford Free Library and M.,
Broad Street
Beaumont Park M., Woodside
Road
M. of Technical School and Me-
chanics’ Institute
M. of Literary and Scientific In-
stitution, Institution Hall
Ipswich M. . 5 5 ’ :
M. of the Literary and Scientific
Institute, Strickland Gate
M. of Local Nat. Hist., Town Hall
King’s Lynn M., Atheneum
Buildings
Kirkleatham M., Turner Hos-
pital
Mechanics’ Institute M.
M. of the Scientific and Historical
Society
Corporation M., Municipal Build-
ings
M. of the Philosophical and Liter-
ary Society, Park Row
M. of Yorkshire College Medical
Department, Park Street
M. of Yorkshire College Biologi-
cal Department, College Road
M. of the Architectural Society,
Infirmary Buildings
Nicholson Institute M., Stockwell
Street
Town M., New Walk . i
M. of the Sussex Arch. Society,
The Castle
Free Library and M., Bird Street
Free Public M., William Brown
Street
M. of the Royal Instit., Colquitt
Street
Zoological M. of University Col-
lege, Ashton Street
M. of Natural History Society,
Mit’ Street
Date
of
Foun-
dation
Name and Address of Curator,
Principal Officer, or Owner
James Dallas, F.L.S., Cur. 21
Wonford Road
Henry Ullyett, B.Sc., Hon. Cur.,
Lyell House
G. A. Daniel, Hon. Sec. . 5 ‘
Rey. G. Style, M.A., Head Master
G. L. Bulleid, Hon. Sec. .
W. G. Lucy, F.G.S., Hon. Cur.,
Brookthorpe
Dr. Walter Reid, Fleet Surgeon,
Director
Wm. Rees, R.N., Hon. Cur., 23
Park Place
A. de. M. Hemsley, College . .
J. W. Davis, F.G.S., Hon. Cur.,
Chevinedge
J. W. Davis, F.G.S., Owner . .
A, M.D. Gott, Cur. ' “ ‘
S. L. Mossley, Owner, Museum .
Austin Keen, Secretary
Wm. Bryant, Hon. Cur., Hunting-
don
Dr. J. E. Taylor, F.L.S., Cur.
Joseph Severs, Hon. Sec.
John Birkett, Hon. Cur., Market
Place
E. A. Atmore, Hon, Cur., High
Street
Trustees for the heir of the Kirk-
leatham Estate
George Kelland, Hon. Sec. .
W. Wise, Hon, Cur., Broad Street
James Yates, Cur., Public Library
Professor L. C. Miall, F.G.8., Cur.,
Yorkshire College.
E. H. Jacob, M.D.,Cur., Yorkshire
College
L. F, Hicks, Cur., Infirmary Build-
ings
William Hall,
Institute
Montagu Browne, F.Z.8., Cur.,
Aylestone Road
Robert Crosskey, Hon. Cur., The
Castle
J.P. Roberts, Cur. . .
Cur., Nicholson
T. J. Moore, Cor. Mem. L.S.L.,
Cur., Museum
Edward Doling, Cur., Royal Insti-
tution
Prof. W. A. Herdman, D.Sc., Cur.,
University College
Charles Fortey, Hon, Cur., Abbey | 3
Villa
Pree gut
General
O-» ia Arch., Bot.,
- 4 T0.
0., Zoo., Arch. .
0., Zoo. .
..,Surgery,Anth. .
ddels of Ships, Dock-
ards, &c.
10., ZOO... °
0., Geo., Arch. . é
.0., Zoo., Bot., Arch. .
eh., Anth. b
0.,Z00. .
0., Zoo., Bot., Arch.
dustrial and Fine Art
0. Geo., Arch., Anth.,
: Anatomy
| care
ilding appliances
ustrial and Fine Art
9., Geo., Arch., Bot.,
Anh, Ind, Art
P-» Zoo., Bot., Arch.,
Geo., Arch., Bot.,
Historic Art
asures
D ., Zoo., Arch. . 3
L MuseumMs—continued.
Collections
and Fees
ON THE PROVINCIAL MUSEUMS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 105
No, of P
F Se Duplicates Terms of
Supported by ee for Exchange | Admission | Remarks
Local y
Geo., Zoo., Arch. Rate 500 Geo., Zoo. Free daily
Geo., Zoo. Rate — _— Free daily
_ Local Society 5 —_ Free on
order
—_ The School . = — Free
Arch. Local Society = _ 4d. 5 days,
2d. 1 day
Geo., Zoo., Arch. re ri — — Small
charge
_— The Admi- 60 —_ Free daily
ralty
— The Crown — — Free 5 days
— The College .} — = — . | For teach-
ing only
Geo., Zoo., Bot., | Local Society 400 — ld. daily
Arch.
Geo. ° . | Owner. 20 _ Free onap-
plication
Geo., Zoo., Arch. .| Rate . — — Free daily
— The Owner . _ ZOO.) -« 1d. daily
— The Insti- — _ _
tute
= Local Society = = Members
only
Zoo., Geo., oe .| Rate . 1,500 _ Free daily
Bot. s Local Society 40 | Geo. Free daily
Geo., Zoo., Bot., | LocalSociety 40 — 1s, daily
Arch. and Fees ’
Zoo,, Bot. : Subscriptions) 80 | Few Free daily
— The Owners a = »
_- The Insti- — _ —_ Small and
tute neglected
— Local Society = — =
- Rate 2,500 — Free daily | Loan of 4
cases from
8.K. only
— Local Society 500 | Few . . | 1d. daily
| and Fees
— The College — — Free to | For College
visitors students
— ” —— az 3” ”
— Exhibitors’ — — Free daily
Rents
Geo., Zoo. . . | The Institute 200 _- 1d. daily . | Loan from
S.K.chiefly
Geo., Zoo. Bot.,} Rate . . | 2,000 | Geo., Zoo. .| Free daily | Loan from
Arch. S.K.
PATCH. os . . | Local Society -—— — Small
and Fees charge
— Rate _— _— Free daily
Zoo.,Geo. . aq “ 7,000 | Geo. Zoo., os
Bot.
_ Local Society — — Free one
day
_— The College _— Free on ap-
plication
_ Local Society 50 Geo. 3d, daily
106
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
lil
112
113]
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122 |
.| Town and County
ENGLAND—cont.
Macclesfield,
Cheshire
Maidstone, Kent
Malton, Yorkshire
Malvern,
tershire
Manchester,
cashire
Worces-
Lan-
Marlborough, Wilts.
Melton Mowbray,
Leicestershire
Middlesborough,
Yorks.
Newbury, Berks.
Newcastle-on-Tyne,
Northumberland
” ”
Newport, Isle ‘of
Wight
Northampton,
Northamptonshire
Northwich, Che-
shire
Norwich, Norfolk
Nottingham, Not-
tinghamshire
” ”
Oldham, Lanca-
shire
Oxford, Oxford-
shire
Penrith, Cumber-
land
Penzance,
wall
Corn-
Peterboro’, North-
amptonshire
Plymouth, Devon .
Poole, Dorset A
Preston, Lanca-
shire
Reading, Berks.
REPORT—1887.
Name and Locality of Museum
School of Art M., Park Lane
M. & Public Library, Faith Street
M. of Field Naturalists and Scien-
tific Society, Yorkersgate
Malvern College M. 3 Fy
Manchester M., Owens College .
Art Museum, Ancoats Hall .
Queen’s Park M. and Art Gallery,
Queen’s Park
Marlborough College M. :
Melton M., The Bede House °
Middlesborough
Road
Newbury M. . P
Castle and Blackgate Ms. of the
Antiquarian Society
M., Zetland
M. of the Natural History Society,
St. James’s, Barras Bridge
Isle of Wight M., Quay Street
Northampton M., Guildhall Road
The Brunner Free Public Library
and M., Wilton Street
Norfolk and Norwich M., St. An-
drew’s Street
Free Natural History M., Univer-
sity College
Art M., the Castle . ~ 5
Free Library, M., and Art Gallery,
Union Street
Bodleian LibraryandM. .
University M. 2 : 5
Ashmolean M. . . é
M. of Magdalen College 5
Penrith M. . - - 5
M. of the Royal Geological Society
of Cornwall
M. of Nat. History and Anti-
quarian Society, Public Build-
ings
The Carne M., Carne, Penzance .
Peterborough M., Minster Close .
M. of Plymouth Institution and
Devon and Cornwall Nat. His-
tory Society, Atheneum
‘Poole M., High Street . .
Free M., Cross Street .
Free Public M., Blagrave Street .
Date
of
Foun-
dation
1883
1858
1880
Name and Address of Curator,
Principal Officer, or Owner
Edward Bartlett, Cur., Museum .
S. Chadwick, Hon, Cur., Norton .
George E. Mackie, Hon. Cur., 1
College Grounds
Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A.,
F.R.S., Owens College
Henry Brooke, Cur., Ancoats Hall
C.G. Virgo, Cur., 2 Green Mount,
Queen’s Park
Rev. T. N. Hart Smith, Hon. Cur.,
The Green
W.Y. Veitch, Hon. Cur.,37 Grange
Road
M. Palmer, Surgeon, Hon. Cur.
Robert Blair, I'.S.A., Hon. Sec.,
South Shields
Richard Howse, Cur., Museum
John Wood, Hon. Cur., The Ce-
dars, Carisbrooke
Thomas J. George, F.G.S., Cur., 1
Hazlewood Road
F. A. Howe, Cur., Free Library
James Reade, Cur., Clarence Road,
Thorpe Hamlet
J. W. Carr, B.A., F.G.S., Cur.,
University College
G. H. Wallis, F.S.A., Director,
The Castle
Thomas W. Hand, Cur., 169 Wind-
sor Road
G. B. Nicholson, Librarian, Bod-
leian Library
Edward B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
Keeper
J. H. Parker, C.B., Keeper . A
E. Chapman, F.L.S., Hon, Cur. .
J. Stuart, Librarian . i
G. B. Millott, Hon. Sec., Penzance
John Symons, M.R.C.S., Hon.
Cur., Penzance
Charles C. Ross, Owner, Carne,
Penzance
J. W. Bodger, Hon. Cur., 18 Cow-
gate
J. C. Inglis, Hon. Sec., Athenzeum
W. Penney, A.L.8., Hon. Cur. .
Rev. J. Shortt, Hon. Cur., Museum
Joseph Stevens, Hon. Cur, . ‘
General
strial and Fine Art
., _Anth.,
-y Geo.
- Zoo., Bot., Arch.,
th .
Zoo., Arch, .
Zoo., Bot., Arch.,
th
3 rial and Fine Art
Zoo.,
Zoo., Bot., Arch.,
th., Industrial and
ve Art
Zoo., Geo., Arch.,
‘th.
Geo., Arch., Anth.
e0., Bot., Anth. .
., Anth., Industrial
1 Fine Art
TT a
(50,000) . .
Zoo., Arch., Anth.
Te e0., Zoo., Arch. .
MuvsEums—continued.
Collections
Local
Geo., Arch., Bot.,
Zoo., Anth,
Geo., Zoo.,
Arch.
Bot.,
Bot., Zoo., Geo.
Arch.
Geo., Arch. . 5
Arch., Anth. .
Bot., Geo., Zoo.
Geo.
Geo., Zoo., Arch,
Geo., Zoo., Bot.,
Arch.
Zoo., Bot., Geo.
Anth. .
Geo., Zoo., Bot.
Zoo.,Geo. .
Zoo., Anth, , 5
Supported by
School of Art
Rate . .
Local Society
The College
” »
Subscriptions
Rate .
The College
Subscriptions
and Fees
Rate
Local Society
Local Society
and Fees
” ”
Local Society
Rate
Subscriptions |
Rate .
Rate and
Fees
Rate
The Univer-
sity
” ”
Endowment
and Fees
The College
Rate .
Local Society
” ”
The Owner .
Local Society
and Fees
Local Society
No. of
Visitors
weekly
1,000
1,000
1,000
Duplicates
for Exchange
Geo. .
Geo., Zoo.
Geo., Zoo.,
Bot.
Few .
Few
Geo
Geo., Zoo.,
Bot.
Geo. .
Geo., Zoo,
LOG. ove
Geo
Few .
Shells .
ui ON THE PROVINCIAL MUSEUMS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM,
Terms of
Admission
Free daily
”
Free daily
Free 1 day
Free 3 days
Free daily
Free on ap-
plication
6d. daily
Free
6d. Castle,
3d. Black-
gate
3d. daily
Freé daily
”
Free 2 days
Free 5 days
6d..1 day,
1d. 4 days,
Free 1 day
Free daily
”
Free on ap-
plication
Free daily
Free daily
”
Free on ap-
plication
6d. daily ;
ld. one
night
6d. 5 days;
free one
day
Free onap-
plication
Free daily
»
107
Remarks
Loan from
S.K.
Open on
Sundays,
2to5
Loan from
S.K.
Not yet open
Loan from
S. K.
Loan from
S. K.
Not yet open
108
156
157
Town and County
ENGLAND—cont.
Richmond, Yorks. .
Ripon, Yorks.
Ryde, I. of Wight .
Saffron
Essex
Salisbury, Wilts. .
Walden,
Salford, Lancashire
Scarborough, Yorks.
Sheffield, Yorks.
Shrewsbury, Shrop-
shire
Southampton,Hants
Southport, Lanca-
shire
South Shields, Dur-
ham
Stafford, Stafford-
shire
Stalybridge,
cashire
Stamford, Lincoln-
shire
St. Neots, Hunting-
Lan-
don
Stockport, Cheshire
Stoke- upon -Trent,
Staffordshire
Stratford-on-Avon,
Warwickshire ,
Sunderland, Dur-
ham
Taunton, Somerset
Torquay, Devon
Truro, Cornwall .
Tynemo uth, North-
umber land
Wakefield, Yorks.
Warrington, Lanca-
shire =
Warwick, Warwick-
shire
Watford, Herts .
Wenlock, Shrop-
shire
Whitby, Yorks. .
Winchester . 5
Windsor, Berks. .
Wisbech,
bridgeshire
Cam-
Wolverhampton,
Staffordshire
Woolwich, Kent .
REPORT—1887.
Name and Locality of Museum
M. of Naturalists’ Field Club
M. of the Naturalists’ Club, Park
Street
Ryde M. . ; - 5 5
Saffron Walden M., Museum
Street ;
Salisbury and Blackmore M.
Royal Free M. and Library, Peel
Park
M. of the Philosophical and Arch-
seological Society
Public M., Weston Park
Free Library and M., Old Gram-
mar School
M. of the Hartley Institution
Botanic Gardens M., Botanic Road,
Churchtown
Free Public M., Ocean Road
The Wragge Free Public M., Free
Library
Park M., Stamford Park
M. of Literary and Scientific Insti-
tution, St. Peter’s Hill
Victoria M. The Literary and
Scientific Institute
Vernon Park M., Vernon Park
Free Library and M., London
Road
Shakespeare’s Birthplace M., Hen-
ley Street
Borough M. . P . .
M. of Archeological and Nat.
Hist. Society, Taunton Castle
M. of Natural History Society
M. of the Royal Institution of
Cornwall
Free Library and M., Howard
Street
M. of the Naturalists’ Society,
Westgate
Warrington M., Bold Street .
Warwick M., Market Square
Public Library and M.
Wenlock M., Corn
Buildings
M. of the Lit. and Phil. Society,
The Pier
The City M., Guildhall Free Li-
brary
M. of the Albert Institute .
Exchange
Wisbech M., Lit. Institution,
Museum Square
Municipal Art Gallery and
M., Lichfield Street
Rotunda M., Royal Artillery Insti-
tution
TABLE I.—LIST OF PRO
Name and Address of Curator,
Principal Officer, or Owner
W.D. Benson, Hon. Cur. . 3
B. M. Smith, Hon, Sec., 31 Princes
Road
B. Barrow, Pres. of School of
Science and Art, Ryde
G. N. Maynard, Cur.. . 2 3
Major John Plant, F.G.S., Cur. .
J. H. Phillips, Hon. Sec., 22 Albe-
marle Crescent
E. Howarth, F.R.A.S., Holly Bank,
Northumberland Road
A. C. Phillips, Libarian, Free Li-
brary
T. W. Shore, F.G.S., Executive
Officer, Hartley Institution
W. Fish, F.R.H.S., Cur., Botanic
Gardens
L. Inkster, Secretary, Public Li-
brary
C. J. Calvert, Librarian i a
W. Bardsley, Cur., Stamford Park
H. Mitchell, Cur., The Institution
John Tym, Cur., The Museum
Alfred Caddie, Librarian and Cur.,
Free Libarary
Richard Savage, Secretary,
West Street
Robert Cameron, Cur., 4 St. Bede’s
Terrace
W. Bidgood, Cur., The Castle .
59
W. Newcombe, Cur, . A ‘
G. Tidy, Librarian . ‘ .
W. Rushforth, Hon. Sec., Horbury
Charles The |
Museum
Rey. P. B. Brodie, F.G.S., Hon.
Cur., Vicarage, Rowington
Dr. Brett, Hon. Cur. . ‘ *
Mrs. 8. Landon, Cur. . . oll
Madeley, Cur.,
Martin Simpson, Cur., Stakesley
Vale
J. F. Burchett, Librarian . 2
Joseph Lundy, J.P., President, ia
Windsor
George Oliver,Cur. . Fi .
W. J. Wheddon, Cur. . ars
Major Harman,Sec, . oil
|
t-
ON THE PROVINCIAL MUSEUMS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 109 ;
MusEumMs—continued.
Collections Wo. of
fa) .
bute Duplicates Terms of
Supported by eas for Exchange | Admission Remarks
General Local y
7200 « . _ — — _— Small
charge
1, Geo., Zoo., Bot.. | Arch. . Local Society 10 — 2d. daily
_— Geo., Zoo., Bot. Subscriptions _ _— Free on ap-
plication
, Geo., Bot., Arch., | Geo., Arch. . Endowment& 200 | Geo., Zoo., =
h., Subscriptions Bot.
a., Areh.. . — — — = Free on
application
, Geo., Bot., Arch., | Zoo., Geo., Bot., | Rate 7,000 | Given away. | Free daily
ath. Arch., Anth.
; Zoo., Bot., Arch., _ Local Society | 6,000in — 3d. daily
ath, and Fees |summer
, Arch., Zoo., Bot., — Rate 2,000 | Geo. . Free daily
noth.
, Zoo., Arch.,Geo.. | Arch. . ° os — Few és
% Z00. Bot., Arch., | Bot. Endowment. 500 | Geo. . Free 5 days
oth.
, Geo., Bot., Arch., | Zoo. A . «| BotanieGar- | 2,500 _ 4d. daily . | With the
nth. dens Co. gardens
, Geo., Arch. . Arch. Rate 1,000 | Arch . Free daily
, Geo., Arch., Anth. _— Rate . 400 _ Free daily
mBot. . Peers [Ges . . Endowment — — Free daily
and Rate
:, Bot., Arch., Zoo. . _— Local Society “50 _ 6d. daily
., Zoo., Arch., Anth. — The Institute} 200 — Free daily
Geo. Art . — Rate . . 600 _ Free daily ei from
; 8. K.
ustrial and Fine Art = ” = = » »
_ Shakespeare Relics | Fees . — = 6d. daily .
ds Pen Bot., Arch., | Geo. Rate 1,800 | Geo., shells | Free daily
nth. :
)., Zoo., Bot., Arch., | Geo., Arch., Anth, | Local Society 100 — 2d. 5 days,
th. 1d. 1 day
., Geo., Bot., Arch. . _ Subscriptions 60 | Few Free 1 day
6d. 5 days
., Zoo., Bot., Arch. . _— Rate 200 = Free 1 day
mebOty Ged. . . _ Local Society} — = — Only open
on special
. occasions
‘4 oat, Geo., Bot., | Arch. . ‘ Rate . 5 600 Shells . . | Free 3days | Loan from
th. le
, Zoo., Bot., Arch., | Geo F Subscriptions| 100 | Geo., shells . | Free 2 days
th.
., Geo., Art, Anth. . | Bot., Geo., Zoo Local Society | Few — Free daily | Loan 8. K.
,Arch., Bot. . _.| Geo. eks . | Subscriptions 30 Geo. . .| Free daily
i
, Bot., Zoo., Arch. .| Geo. Zoo. . . | Local Society 30 = 6d. daily
and Fees
Zoo., Arch. . — Rate 100 — Free daily
) ., Zoo., Arch., Anth., _ The Institu- — = Free on ap-
. Art tion plication
, Arch., Bot., Zoo., | Geo., Zoo., Arch, . | Endowment Few — 6d. daily
th., Art and Sub-
; scriptions
ustrial and Fine _ Rate . A 700 _ Free daily
and Trophies _— Government _ _ ef
110
REPORT—1887.}
‘| 168
170
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
.| Town and County
ENGLAND—cont,
Worcester,
Worcestershire
York, Yorks. .
ScorLanp *—
Edinburgh, Mid-
Lothian
” ”
Aberdeen, Aber-
deenshire
Abbotsford, Rox-
burghshire
Alloa, Clackman-
nan
Banff, Banffshire .
Dumfries, Dum-
friesshire
» ”
Dundee, Forfar-
shire
”» ”
Elgin, Elgin . 5
Forres, Elgin
Glasgow, Lanark-
shire
Greenock, Ren-
frewshire
Hawick, Rox-
burghshire
Inverness, Inver-
ness-shire
Kelso, Roxburgh-
shire
Kilmarnock . 5
Kirkeudbright,
Kirkeudbright-
shire
Largo, Fifeshire
Montrose, Forfar-
shire
Paisley, Renfrew-
shire
Perth, Perthshire.
” »
Name and Locality of Museum
Date
of
Foun-
dation
Name and Address of Curator,
Principal Officer, or Owner
The Hastings M., Public Library
M. of Yorkshire Phil. Society .
M. of Science and Art, Chambers
Street
National M.
Princes Street
of Antiquities,
University M. . =
The Abbotsford M. , 5
M. of the Society of Nat. Science
and Archeology, Church Street
Banff M.. , c -
The Observatory M. .
M.of Nat. Hist. and Antiquarian
Society, Church Crescent
Albert Institute M. .
University College M. . 4 .
Elgin M., High Street .
Falconer M., Tolbooth Street
The Hunterian M., The Univer-
sity
Anderson College M. . ‘I
Kelvingrove M. . 2 F .
M. of Geol. Society . 5 .
Greenock M. . : ; 5 -
M. of the Archeolog. Soc., Buc-
cleugh Memorial Building
M. of Tweedside Physical and
Antiquarian Society, Roxburgh
Street
Burns’ Monument M. .
Kirkcudbright M., Town Hall i
M. of Field Naturalists’ Society .
M. of the Nat. History and Anti-
quarian Society
Free Library and M., High Street
M. of Literary and Antiquarian
Society, George Street
M. of Society of Natural Science,
Tay Street
* The Museums of Edinburgh and Dublin, being Metropolitan Institutions, é Bi
1837
1881
George Reece, Cur. ~ .
H. M. Platnauer, Cur., Low Royd,
St. Olave’s Road
Colonel R. M. Smith, R.E., Direc-
tor
Joseph Anderson, LL.D,, Keeper .
Prof. H. <A. Nicholson,
Director
Hon. Mrs. Maxwell Scott, Owner,
Abbotsford
J. Ferguson Lyon, Hon. Cur.,
Greenfield Place
M.D.,
James Watt, Hon. Sec. . . .
P. Dudgeon, Chairman, Cargen .
J. Wilson, Hon. Sec., 3 Norfolk
Terrace
John MacLauchlan, Cur. : °
Prof. D'Arcy Thompson, B.A., Cur,
John Gatherer,Cur. . . .
J.D. Davidson, Secretary, Forres
Prof, J. Young, M.D., Cur. . :
James Paton, F.L.8.,Cur, .
W. F. Dunlop, Cur. : = .
D. Watson, Treasurer . . .
Edward Johnson,
Tweed Bank
Secretary,
Geo. Hamilton, Hon. Sec. . =
E. Kennedy, Sec., Bayview . .«
Robert Barclay, Hon. Sec. . .
Morris Young, F.E.S., Cur., The
Museum
A. R. Urquhart, M.D., Hon. Sec. .
1 at the heads of their respective columns, not in the alphabetical arrangement.
e ON THE PROVINCIAL MUSEUMS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 111
, MusEUMs—continued.
Collections
Supported by Visitors | ,Duplicates | Termsof | p k:
a ; ae PP! Scie for Exchange | Admigsion Ee
enera ocal :
& Eo Bot., Arch., Gee. oo Bot., | Rate . < = -— Free daily
mth. ch
[200% Bot., Arch., | Geo., Arch. Local Society} 500 | Geo, . . | 1s. daily
«» Zoo., Ind. Art, — Government | 7,000 | Few . Free 3
ch., Anth. days; 6d.
3 days
h., Anth.. 5 . | Arch., Anth Endowment | 2,000 _— Free 34
days; 6d.
24 days
i» Bot. - . . . The Univer- — — Free one
sity day
1our and Antiquities _ The Owner — — ls, daily
and Fees
., Geo., Bot., Arch., — Local Society — — Small
\s charge
daily
., Zoo., Anth. . . | Geo., Zoo., Anth. . | Fees 20 = 6d. 3 days,
3d.3 days
., Zoo., Arch., Anth. | Geo., Zoo., Arch. .| Subscriptions| 150 — 6d. 5 days,
and Fees 3d. 1 day
— We Siac Zoo., | Local Society = Few Free on
ch. application
hy Vad Bot., Arch., | Zoo., Geo., Bot. .| Rate . 5,000 | Few . - | Free daily | Art Gallery
4 inclnded
fppot. .. . . _ The College _ Few . + | Freeonap-| For teach-
plication ing only
, Geo., Arch., Anth. | Geo., Zoo., Bot. . | Local Society 20 — 6d. daily
and Fees
, Zoo., Bot., Arch. | Zoo., Bot., Arch. Endowment 10 = 6d. daily
and Fees
. Geo., Zoo., Bot. _ The Univer- - — 6d. daily
sity
ty Z00., Bot. . « = The College — — — Collections
packed
’ away
«,Geo., Bot., Arch. | Zoo, Bot. . .| Rate . .| 4,000 _ Free daily
rr Geo. . . Local Society _—-: — — Collections
. packed
away
_ — Endowment 280 a Free daily
», Z00., Arch. >. - Local Society — — 2d. 1 day.
and Fees
, Zoo., Geo., Arch. — Local Society _ _ —
= = ae = = Small charge
l eres Bot., Geo., | Bot., Zoo., Arch. . a cea ating 25 Geo., Zoo. . | 6d. daily Loan from
e and Fees Ae,
, Zoo., Arch. . Bes lls Bot., | Local Society 5 — Free daily
reh.
., Zoo., Bot., Arch., | Geo., Zoo., Bot. . | Local Society — Geo., Zoo. 6d. daily ;
th. and Fees working
class Ld.
Saeed Bot., — Rate . 900 Zoo. . Free daily Loni. trom
+ Ind. . $.K
Z00., Bot., Arch., | Zoo. s ‘ - | Local Society 38 =s ae
112
No.
189
190
194
Town and County
REPORT—1887.
Date
Name and Locality of Museum of
TABLE I—List oF P
Name and Address of Curator,
Principal Officer, or Owner
James Aiken, Hon. Cur., 11 Ja-
maica Street
Thomas Walker, Cur., The Mu-
James Sword, Cur., Smith Insti-
T. B. Grierson, M.D., Owner. :
Prof. V. Ball, M.A., F.R.S., Direc-
Prof. A.C. Haddon,Cur. .
H. W. Macintosh, Cur., School of
Physic, Trinity College
Dr. E. P. Wright, Keeper . .
R. MacEniry, Cur., 19
Dawson Street
A. B. McKee, M.B., Royal College
of Surgeons
G. R. Johnson, Hon. Sec., The
W. Darragh, Cur., The Museum .
R. 0. Cunningham, M.D., Cur., 17
College Gardens
Professor Marcus M. Hartog, Cur.,
The College :
R. J. Anderson, Cur., The College
J.G. Robertson, Hon.Cur, . .«
Peter Williams, Cur. . z °
John Stoorie, Cur., 6 Queen’s
Place, Crockherbtown
~
Q
Hort. Huxham, Hon. Sec., Swan-
E. Lawes, Hon. Sec. . . a
Foun-
dation
ScoTLAND—cont.
Peterhead, Aber- | Arbuthnot M., Chapel Street 1851
deenshire
St. Andrews, Fife- | University M. 2 . . - | 15th
shire cen- seum
tury,
1837
Stirling, Stirling- | Stirling M., Smith Institute . 1874
shire tute
Thornhill, Dum- | Thornhill M., New Street . 1872
friesshire
IRELAND—
Dublin, Dublin Science and Art M., Kildare Street | —
tor
5 “A M. of Royal College of Science —
“5 A - | M. of Geology, Trinity College _
= “3 M. of Anatomy and Zoology, Tri- | 1777
nity College
“5 Aj Herbarium, Trinity College . _—
7 a M. of Royal Irish Academy, 19 | 1786 | Major
Dawson Street
SS os M. of Royal College of Surgeons, | 1789,
Stephen’s Green 1820
Armagh, Armagh . | M.of Nat. History and Philosophi- | 1851
cal Society, The Mall College
Belfast, Antrim . | Belfast M.,College Square, North. | 1821,
1831
re oA . | M. of Queen’s College . . . | 1847
Cork, Cork . M. of Queen’s College 1851
Galway, Galway M. of Queen’s College . F 1849
Kilkenny,Kilkenny | M. of Royal Historical and Arch- | 1849
zological Society of Ireland
WALES—
Aberystwith, Car- | M. of University College = 1874
diganshire
Bangor, Carnar- | M.and Reading Room . a . | 1873
vonshire
Cardiff, Glamor- | Free M., Trinity Street . - 1867,
ganshire 1883
Carnarvon, Carnar- _ —
vonshire
Neath, Glamorgan- | M. of Mechanics’ Inst. . > ~-
shire
Swansea, Glamor- | M. of the Royal Institution of §. | 1835,
ganshire Wales 1883 sea
Tenby, Pembroke . | Local M., The Castle . . 1878
Welshpool, Mont- | Powys-Land M. and Library and | 1874
gomeryshire
School of Art, Salop Road
Morris C. Jones, F.S.A., Hon. Cur., |
Gungrog Hall
ON THE PROVINCIAL MUSEUMS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 1138
;.
MusEuMs—continued.
Collections
= Supported b Widios Duplicates | Terms of | pomark
; PP! y ky | for Exchange | Admission BEES
_ General Local WEEE
‘Arch., Geo., Bot., — Boro’ Fund 20 — 2d. daily
5 and Fees
‘Zoo., Bot., Arch., | Zoo., Marine Labo- | University — Marine Zoo., | Free daily
th. ratory and Local
Society
'Zoo., Bot., Arch., | Zoo. : Endowment.| i00 _ a
Geo., Bot., Arch. | Arch., Anth.. .|The Owner .| 20 - 6d. daily
ch.
., Bot., Arch., | Geo., Zoo, : Government.| 4,000 | Geo., Zoo., | Free daily Open on Sun-
. Ind. Art Bot day. Loan
from §.K. |
tt, Geo., Zoo., Bot. ~ Government.| — is a as
— _— The College. — = = |
omp. Anatomy . — The College. — Few Free daily |
. ‘ ° - The College . — — =
|
— Arch. Anth.. .|TheAcademy| — _ >
and Govern-
ment
A , _ The College . 50 Pathology . | Free on ap-
plication
e0., Bot., Arch. . | Zoo. . Local Society _— Geo., Zoo. Free daily
|
Arch., Bot., Geo., | Geo., Zoo, .srch., | Local Society 25 Geo., Zoo., | 6d. daily
Bot. and Fees Bot.
3 es — The College. — Geo., Zoo., | Freeonap-
Bot. plication
0., Zoo., Arch., | Geo., Zoo., Bot. . » ee — Geo. ._ Free daily
mecoemrcn, | Geo, . . «| » » _ = »
; . | Arch,, Anth. . Subscriptions|} Few — Free on ap-
plication
Zoo., Bot., Arch., | Geo., Zoo., Bot. The College — _ Free on ap- |Lately burnt
: plication down
‘oo., Arch., Anth. _ Rate . — — Free daily
, Bot., Arch., | Zoo., Bot., Arch. . 2 3s — _— Free five | Loan from
Fine Art days Ss. K.
, - — The Institute — — —
., Bot., Arch., — Subscriptions| 250 Few - | 1d. daily
1., Ind, Art and Fees
—_ Geo., Zoo., Bot., | Subscriptions 20 _ 6d. daily
Anth. and Fees
rch., Geo., Bot. . | Zoo., Bot. . . | LocalSociety| Few | Shells . | 3d. daily
and Fees
| Loan
114
REPORT—1887.
TABLE II.
Approximate Estimate of the Number of Specimens contained in the
Collections Geology Zoology | Botany
Provincial Museums.
Arche- | Anthro-
ology | pology
General. . | 2,000,000 | 1,000,000 | 500,000 | 250.000 | 50,000
THOCANRN 200,000 100,000 | 20,000 | 100,000 5,000
10,000 5,000 5,000 3,000 1,000
2,210,000 | 1,105,000 | 525,000 | 353,000 | 56,000
Number of Museums estimated as First class .
” ” ” Second class
” ” » Third class
” ” > Fourth class
No information
Museums consisting entirely of General Collections
” ”
” ”
No information
Museums in which the largest Collections are Geological
» ” 3 Zoological
” » St Botanical
” ” ” Archeological
” ” ” Art
Miscellaneous and not sufficiently reported : :
Provincial Museums in England
a . Scotland
> - Ireland. é - : :
Wales : : : - >
Provincial Museums supported by Special Rate
Pe 3 =f General Borough Funds d
PS Pe 5 Local Societies.
Local Institutions
es es Annual Subscriptions
Colleges
Government
Private Owners
Endowment
Unknown .
entirely or chiefly of Local Collections :
of both Local and General Collections .
Sundries Art
50,000 | 20,000
5,000 | —
1,000 | 15,000
56,000 | 35,000
ON THE PROVINCIAL MUSEUMS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. ICV:
Museums Free to the Public daily . a s ; hse:
es » on certain days only . : : ee
= Charging Entrance Fees daily, from 1d. to 1s. : . +46
“ on certain days only : : 8
53 Free on Special Order or Application . : : Se ei
— Open on Sunday . Z : : 4
= Receiving Loans from South Kensing ton : - ra wh
TABLE III.
List of Collections of Special or Local Interest which are distributed about
the country, with the Museums in which they are preserved.
This list might probably be greatly extended. Many Museums did
Collection of Agostino Scilla, 1670
Barrande
. Forbes Young
Fletcher
Leckenby
Walton :
Montagu Smith .
Dr. Daubeney
“A Dr. Grindrod
Professor Harkness
Clifton Ward
Traill .
Geology of the Fens °
Be Yorkshire f
» Hast Yorkshire
oe Treland .
Rs West Ireland .
53 Ulster .
S Isle of Wight .
Somerset
yy eermian .
Wi Jurassic .
bs Chalk (Willett)
a Trias
3 Hampshire Basin Tertiaries
oy Coal :
AS Dorsetshire
x Skiddaw Slates ( Harrison)
4, Greensand (Griffiths)
°. Paris Basin (Davidson) .
Ss Lias
. Post-glacial deposits -
Old Red Sandstone Guiye)
inerals, fine collections
yi Carne collection
A Keate collection
Agates, India, &c.
Scotch pebbles, unique
Gooey.
Dr. Woodward, 1695- 1727
Fossils of Paleozoic and Mesozoic Si Strata
5 Upper Chalk, Crag, ‘and Drift
not make any return of their special collections.
Cambridge, Woodwardian M.
Oxford, Magdalen College.
» University M.
Carlisle.
”
Liverpool, Royal Institute.
Wisbech.
York,”
Scarborough.
Dublin.
Galway.
Belfast.
Newport.
Bath.
Eastbourne ; Dudley.
Sunderland.
Middlesborough.
Brighton.
Saffron Walden.
Warwick.
Southampton.
Newcastle Nat. Hist.; Staly-
bridge ; Liverpool Free M. ;
Chesterfield.
Dorchester.
Keswick.
Brighton,
”
Leicester ; Whitby; Warwick,
Liverpool, Free M.
Forres.
Truro ; Devonport ; Montrose.
Penzance.
Giggleswick.
Eastbourne.
Montrose.
116
Cave remains, Victoria Cave .
3 Creswell Caves
- Mendip Hills .
* Kent’s Cavern
ZOOLoGy.
Mammalia, pictorially mounted
a of Ireland .
Ay of Ulster
o _ of Munster
if Elephas primigenius, { from Siberia
Birds, British, nearly complete
» Hancock collection
» Raptorial (Gurney)
» of Kent (Hornby)
» of Devon
», of the Tay Valley
5, Gurney collection
», the extinct Great Auk
» Huropean, skins
of Ceylon (Lord Wimborne) ;
, British, skeletons (Strickland) .
», of New Guinea (Stone)
Skeletons of extinct Moa .
Fish, British . ;
- Australian, Ceratodi .
,, development of the salmon .
Invertebrates, fine collection
. European, Coleoptera
ne Treland ; .
of the Tay Valley . :
re Lancashire insects (Gibson) .
it British Lepidoptera (Cooke) .
a of Devon : : ; :
“ recent shells, foreign (Sir G.
Whitmore) . F ; : .
a recent shells
-. FA British
Marine fauna : : :
Teeth
Injurious insects
Botany.
British herbaria
Flora of Hampshire
,, Hertfordshire .
» Isle of Wight
» Somerset, Bp: (Blomefield)
Balfour Botanical collection
Mosses of Cornwall (Curnow) :
Flora of Cape of Good Hope ae Capensis)
Freshwater Algz (Bates)
Roman, from Wilderspool
» BHboracum
REPORT—-1887.
ARCHAOLOGY.
Giggleswick.
Derby.
Taunton.
Torquay.
Liverpool Free M.; Leicester.
Dublin.
Belfast.
Cork.
Cheltenham.
Leeds; Leicester; Durham;
Sunderland ; Coalbrookdale;
Devizes; Wisbech; Elgin; —
Brighton Dyke Road M.;
Scarboro’.
Newcastle, N. H. Society.
Norwich.
Dover.
Exeter, Plymouth.
Dundee.
King’s Lynn.
Norwich.
Leeds.
Poole.
Worcester.
Leicester.
Manchester, Owens College.
Wisbech.
Bristol.
Perth.
Liverpool
tingham.
Bootle.
Dublin ; Belfast ; Cork.
Dundee.
Salford.
Liverpool.
Plymouth.
Free M.; Not-
Worcester,
Stockport.
Wisbech. ‘
St. Andrews; Liverpool College.
Cirencester
Huddersfield.
Dublin (T. Coll.) ; Cork ; Cam-
bridge ; Thornhill ; Norwich ;
Nottingham,
Southampton.
Watford.
Ryde.
Bath.
Perth.
Penzance.
Dublin, Trinity Coll.
Leicester.
Warrington.
York. ,
+
ON THE PROVINCIAL MUSEUMS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 117
Roman, from Isurium . : / i ‘ . Aldborough, Yorks.
A » Hampshire ; A ‘ : . Andover.
3) spe EEA : : : F : - Bath.
. » Chester . : ; : : . Chester.
As , Winorium . 3 : ; : . Durham.
* ry datce : : ; : . Leicester,
> a ;, North of England ‘ ; ; . Newcastle; Carlisle.
ms » Ripon : i ; ‘ ‘ . Ripon.
on », Uriconium ? : : - . Shrewsbury.
3 South Shields . Y : : . South Shields.
Trish antiquities, es gold ornaments . . Dublin, R. I. Academy.
Scotch 3 : : : 5 ‘ . Edinburgh, R. Institution.
Kentish x . ; ; 2 : ; . Maidstone.
Glastonbury ,,- 3 z , - : . Glastonbury.
Dorset a , ; ‘ : ; ; . Dorchester.
Forfarshire ,, sculptured stones : ; . Montrose.
General British to Medizval . % : , . Wisbech; Devizes; Sheffield.
Egyptian : : ‘ : i } : . Bristol; Alnwick.
Disney marbles. é . Cambridge, Fitzwilliam M.
Central American sculpture (Maudsley) : ; = %
Coins (Leake) - ; . : : : 5 5A
» British silver é ‘ : ; F - Marlborough College.
» very large collection . i - 4 . Oxford, Bodleian.
ANTHROPOLOGY.
The Pitt-Rivers collection . : . : nO xtord,
Stapenhill a ‘ : : : . Burton-on-Trent.
General 55 large . : 5 . Liverpool, R. Inst. M.
Pre-historic aot) ; : : : . Exeter; Eton; York; Chelten-
ham; Preston; Reading; Scar-
borough; Manchester, Owens
College.
Mummies, unrolled - ; : , : . Brighton.
& Peruvian : : - J ; Haslar Hospital.
Pacific Islands : : ; - : : . Cambridge, Fitzwilliam M.
Indian and Chinese : § : : . Newcastle, Blackgate M.
Cyprian pottery (Anderson) . : F : . Dumfries, Observatory M
Anglian cinerary urns , ; : ; 2) York.
Military weapons . : ; : - Woolwich.
Unique amber cup, from a barrow. , = . Brighton.
-Musicalinstruments . : : ; : . Manchester, Queen’s Pk. M.
Shakespeare relics . : ‘ : : : . Stratford-on-Avon.
p Bewick hier P j : F . Newcastle, Nat. Hist. M.
‘Walter Scott le 3 p 5 , . Abbotsford.
MISCELLANEOUS.
‘The Mayer collection of historical art treasures
(very fine) : . +. Liverpool, Free M.
_ Silk production, breeding, manufacture, &e. . Nottingham,
‘ood materials B = : Z : . Manchester, Queen’s Pk. M.
omparative anatomy . : : : : . Dublin, Trin. Coll. M.
Pathology . and Leeds.
ictures of buildings and scenery round Manchester Manchester, Ancoats Hall M.
4, Discussion oF DETAILS.
The questions in Schedule B are here taken seriatim.
. Note.—In the references to various groups of museums in the follow-
ng pages the numbers given are not absolutely accurate, owing to the
incompleteness of the statistics.
1, 2, 3, 4. Foundation, Ownership, Support and Governnent.—About
one-half of the existing museums of the country were originated by local
Lean
118 REPORT-—1887.
societies, and one-half of these have been since handed over either to
municipal corporations or to bodies of trustees for the benefit of the pub-—
lic, the remainder being still the property of the local societies.
About one-fourth of the existing museums were originated by indi-
vidual collectors, but only about a dozen of these remain in private hands. —
About 55 museums are now the property of municipal corporations, and —
are nearly all supported by local rates levied under the Public Libraries Act. —
About thirty belong to public institutions, universities, or schools, —
and are supported by those institutions or by Government grants. About —
half a dozen belong to and are entirely supported by the Imperial
Government. About a dozen museums were established prior to the ©
beginning of this century, about 100 were established between 1800
and 1870, and nearly 100 have been opened during the last sixteen years.
The Public Libraries Act requires that the public shall have free
admission to all institutions, libraries, museums, or art galleries esta- —
blished under its authority. In a Bill introduced to amend the Act, a few —
years ago, it was proposed to modify this clause, giving corporations ~
power to make acharge on certain days, and also to raise the maximum ~
rate from a penny to twopence. This Bill, however, has not been passed. —
Several towns have obtained power to levy a twopenny rate by clauses
inserted in their local Acts.
The charges for admission to museums which are not rate-supported —
vary from one penny to one shilling. Frequently the charge for two —
persons or for a party is ona reduced scale, and schools and children ~
are often admitted at a still lower price. |
The usual amount realised by entrance-fees varies from 51. to 1001. per
annum. A very few museums obtain 150/. or 200/. from this source. —
There are four whose receipts from fees are probably from 500/. to 1,000/.
a year, viz., Nottingham Art Museum, York, Scarborough, and South-
port. In all these cases the pictures and the gardens are additional —
attractions.
5. Cost of Maintenance.—In a large proportion of the municipal
museums the cost of maintenance is mixed up with that of a free library ~
or an art gallery, and cannot be separately stated. It appears, however,
that no first-class public museum while in a growing condition can he-
efficiently conducted for less than about 800/. a year, and that the very
large national museums in Edinburgh and Dublin cost about 10,0001. a
year each.
Second-class museums may be taken to cost from 100I. to 5001 a year ; —
third-class from 25/. to 1001. ; fourth-class museums are mostly in a neg- —
lected condition, and the money spent upon them is trifling.
6. Staff and Hours.—A first-class museum requires at least 1 curator |
at a minimum salary of 150/., 1 assistant curator at a minimum salary of —
30/., and 2 caretakers or workpeople at a minimum salary of 251. each.
The large science and art museums in Edinburgh and Dublin have
each 1 director, 7 curators and assistants, about 30 porters and work-
people, including women, and pay 5,000/. a year each in salaries.
A second-class museum has usually a salaried curator, and a workman
or caretaker. é
Third and fourth class museums have frequently only a caretaker.
In addition to the paid officers, however, there is a large amount of
supervision, and of actual work done in provincial museums by honorary
curators, especially in the second, third, and fourth classes.
ON THE PROVINCIAL MUSEUMS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 119
First-class museums, being more efficiently officered, do not require
so much outside assistance, and in many cases the position of the curator
is such that he could not submit to the supervision of an amateur.
Where the museum is in connection with a free library, the two
- offices of librarian and curator are frequently combined. This may be
an economy, but it is rarely satisfactory for the museum. The library
is usually regarded as the more important institution; the officer is
chosen as a librarian chiefly, the larger proportion of space and funds
are devoted to the library, and the museum is not conducted with the
necessary vigour, and often falls into disrepute. On the other hand, there
is considerable advantage in having the two institutions under the same
roof, as the library is then available for the staff and the students of the
museum, and the museum is as a book of plates close at hand to illus-
trate the volumes in the library.
Museums belonging to local societies are often without any paid staff
or even an attendant, the whole work being performed by members, but
with the regular admission of the public comes, of course, the necessity of
regular and therefore of paid attendance.
Rate-supported museums are generally open to the public five or six
days a week. It is necessary to close them at intervals for cleaning,
and there is much variation in the arrangements made for this purpose.
Some museums take two days quarterly, some one day monthly or weekly,
some open later in the morning and get the cleaning done day by day
without closing, some close one room at a time only, others open only
- four days a week for the general public and two days for students, and
most of the cleaning can be done on the comparatively quiet students’
days.
The usual hours of opening are from 10 till dusk if the museum has
no artificial light, from 10 till 8 or 9 if there is gas. The longest hours
are reported from Canterbury, where the museum is open from 9 A.M.
till10 pu. In museums belonging to local societies the hours vary
greatly, many being only open to the public on two or three afternoons
weekly. Malvern College admits the public to its museum for two hours
only on Thursdays ; but generally in these semi-private museums admis-
sion may be obtained by special application. In first-class museums the
staff are generally in attendance for an hour or two before the time of
opening to the public, and where the museum belongs to the corpora-
tion, one or two policemen are frequently on duty either all day or at
certain hours, in addition to the regular staff. The bye-laws of some
museums authorise the curator to exclude young children either alto-
gether or except in proper charge.
From Birmingham comes a suggestion that the staff of every large
museum ought to be regularly drilled as a fire-brigade.
7. Tenure of Buildings——The great majority of provincial museums of
all kinds are lodged in freehold buildings, about twenty hold their pre-
mises on lease and twenty as annual tenants, nearly the whole of these
museums being the property of societies or individuals. In only two
reported instances are rate-supported museums kept in rented buildings,
and in these the arrangement is not intended to be permanent.
8. Superficial Area—There is some difference of opinion as to the
respective advantages of large halls and of rooms of moderate size for
museum purposes. Museums have been erected on both systems. Tn the
majority of the newer buildings the large-hall system has been adopted,
120 REPORT—1887.
often surrounded by one or two tiers of galleries, each affording as much
wall space and about half as much floor space as the hall itself. One
objection to galleries is that they obstruct the light on the walls, and the
remedy for this is to pierce the walls with windows, and to place the cases
at right angles to the wall instead of flat against it. In the small-room
system the principal rooms vary in size from about 30x17 to about
60x25. In the large-hall system the principal halls run from about
60 x30 to about 250x 70. A first-class museum must have at least 5,000
square feet of floor space. The majority of these have from 5,000 to
10,000, a few have between 10,000 and 50,000, and the Edinburgh Museum
of Science and Art provides 100,000 square feet, including the galleries.
Second-class museums have generally from 2,500 to 5,000 feet of
superficial area, third-class from 1,000 to 2,0U0, and fourth-class from
250 to 750.
For the lighting of the rooms by day a top-light is generally preferred
where it can be got, but in buildings of more than one storey side lights
are inevitable on the lower floors. In afew modern museums, built in
ornate Gothic style, the windows come within a few feet of the ground, and
have their heads filled with heavy tracery, thus supplying light under the
worst possible conditions. There can scarcely be too much light in a
museum room, especially in the upper part, but it is desirable to exclude
direct sunshine, as it rapidly destroys the colours of organic objects. Side
windows should, therefore, be placed in north walls wherever this is
practicable.
For lighting by night, gas is of course the usual means. Several
museums have adopted the Wenham light, and several of the larger ones
are lighted by electricity, asat Birmingham, Leeds, and Brighton. There
can be no doubt that the fumes of open gaslichts are injurious to many
objects. ‘Sun-lights’ get rid of the fumes, but being near to the ceiling,
and thus as far as possible from the cases, the waste of light is very large.
The Wenham light can be suspended at any distance from the ceiling, and
the fumes are conducted away, but this burner is liable to be blown out
or much disturbed by a down draft, and moreover the light is too concen-
trated, and casts black shadows. Doubtless, for museum purposes, the
electric incandescent light is the best, but there is some hope that the new
incandescent gas-light may prove to be a valuable substitute.
For warming museums a number of different systems are in use, Viz.,
open fires, coal and gas stoves of various designs, hot air, and hot water.
For small rooms open fires have some advantages, particularly in securing
ventilation. Gas stovesare now made to condense the whole products of
combustion ; thus they require no chimney, and are useful auxiliaries. Hot-
water pipes are too often hidden under cases and desks, and their heating
power minimised. It may be good for thecases to be kept warm and dry,
but extra power must be provided if the air of the room is also to be
efficiently warmed. Coils of hot-water pipes standing out in the rooms
away from the walls are as effective as anything.
The ventilation of rooms in which many persons congregate is often
very troublesome. Tobin ventilators are good, but quite useless unless a
rapid egress of air from the room is first secured, and many methods which
are supposed to secure this fail in practice. In lighting a museum either
by day or night it is most important to arrange the incidence of the
light so that the source of it shall not be reflected from the glazed cases to
the eyes of the visitors.
on, i
ON THE PROVINCIAL MUSEUMS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 121
9. Oases.—Vertical wall-cases and horizontal table-cases are used in
all museums. Some have also upright detached cases glazed all round,
and some have upright pillars, from which glazed frames project, hinged
to the pillar, and movable like the leaves of a book. These are good for
_ photographs, engravings, textile fabrics, &c., or for dried plants, and even
for insects. Vertical wall-cases should not be more than eight or nine
feet high ; a division into bays of about five feet wide is convenient. These
should be glazed with plate glass, either in one sheet or divided by narrow
strips of wood or metai horizontally into two or three squares, the divi-
sions corresponding with the edges of shelving inside. Drawers should
be provided under all the horizontal table-cases, but should not come quite
to the ground, unless they are recessed, otherwise they are in the way of
the feet of visitors. Table-cases are often made with an upright glazed
compartment along the centre. This gives additional space, but interferes
somewhat with the view of objects beneath it. Whether it is better to
run the wall-cases round the room with their backs to the wall, or to have
side windows and cases between them projecting from the wall at right
angles, is stillan open question. The latter arrangement does not show
_ the classification so clearly to the eye, and does not favour an easy cir-
culation of visitors, but it may sometimes afford better light and more
space.
10. Dust.—The exclusion of dust from the cases is a very important
matter in all museums. Most of the older cases are very defective on this
point, but those more recently built have all joints deeply rabbeted and
lined with cloth, velvet, rubber, or cotton-wool, and all the lids and doors
closely screwed up with some special kind of screw. Some paste paper
over all the joints. At Nottingham a small tin gutter runs under the
_ joint to catch any dust which may get through. The Birmingham
Museum and Art Gallery finds a ‘double rabbet’ successful. From
Norwich ‘ Brown’s Patent’ is reported to have stood sound for fifteen
years. This consists of a hollow tube of cloth. The Rev. H. H. Higgins, of
_ Liverpool, who has had much experience, says that nothing will absolutely
~exclude dust in a public museum where hundreds or thousands of visitors
tramp over the floors daily, but that the objects must be tenderly dusted
by hand at short intervals.
11. Fittings —These are made of various woods and in various colours.
In the best museums plain oak, polished mahogany, or ebonised bay-
wood are generally used. Ebonised wood has a handsome appearance,
and is not obtrusive, but is undesirable for table-cases, as the stain wears
off by friction. Polished mahogany is handsome and durable, but has
perhaps too heavy an appearance. Plain oak, neither coloured nor
varnished, is cheerful and wears well. In small museums birch and
deal stained, varnished, or painted, are used for the sake of economy.
For shelving within the cases plate-glass is now much used, as it makes
less shadow than opaque material. Many experiments have been tried
in the internal colouring and lining of the cases. At Liverpool a rich
dark blue has been found effective as a background in the wall-cases.
Other museums line with white or tinted paper. For archeological and
art specimens the cases are often lined with cloth of various hues—
maroon, olive green, Turkey red, &c. As the natural history collections
come more and more to be set up pictorially the difficulty will disappear
in their cases, as the backgrounds will form part of each pictorial
group.
422 REPORT—1887.
The best museums have many ingenious devices contrived by their
own Officers, such as special fasteners for the cases, supports for open
lids, blinds for protection from light, stands for specimens and labels,
cements, &c. At Brighton some cases full of very valuable objects are
protected by electric alarms. At Montrose coins are exhibited in locked
cases, through which run a number of narrow wire frames turning on
pins which project through the sides of the case. On these frames the
coins with their labels are fastened, and thus both sides are readily seen.
At Peterhead the coins are mounted in circular holes cut out of sheets of
cardboard which are glazed on both sides. These glazed sheets are kept
in a cabinet. At the Dublin Museum of Anatomy osteological specimens
are mounted in revolving spindles, so that students may examine every
part. The Cork Museum reports that ‘slit gun-barrel has been largely
used for the insertion of stands, &c.’ Fragile objects are exhibited in
glass-topped boxes of various sizes, from the small pill-box upwards ;
these are often partly filled with cotton-wool. Shallow glazed drawers
are frequently used for the exhibition of insects, eggs, &c., which are
injured by light. They are thus much better protected than in table-
cases, even with blinds over them, as the blinds are removed by visitors
and frequently not replaced. The glazed drawers can be drawn out by
the public, but a stop prevents them from being removed, and each
drawer is locked. This system saves much space.
12. Methods of Preservation—Camphor is the usual preservative
against moths, and is effectual if freely supplied. At King’s Lynn pure
carbolic acid on cotton-wool is found entirely to prevent mould in the
insect-cases. The vapour of benzine seems to be of much value in the
cases of stuffed animals. At Bolton bird-skins are cured with three
parts burnt alum and one part saltpetre, and washed inside with a
solution of mercuric chloride. The plumage is also washed with a very
weak solution of the same. At Aston Hall, Birmingham, all natural
history specimens are preserved by a private chemical process. At
Cirencester iron antiquities are soaked in very hot white paraffin. In
the medical department of the Yorkshire College many delicate patho-
logical specimens are preserved in glycerine jelly:
At Leicester modelling is largely used. A new method of modelling
fish has been introduced which is light, of good texture, and takes colour
better than a plaster cast. Many museums have collections of Blaschka’s
glass models of invertebrates, and of opaque white models of foraminifera
on a magnified scale. Fossils, shells, &c., are commonly fastened to
tablets made of wood or thick millboard or plate-glass and covered with
tinted paper. Cements of various kinds are used, but these often fail,
and after a time the specimens get loose. At York fine wire is preferred.
At Liverpool many specimens are kept in their ‘places by several short
pins only, and these may be so arranged as to lift small specimens
nearer to the eye. At Owens College, Manchester, recent shells are laid
on a bed of fine sand, which has a natural appearance and holds them in
place. A workshop for the curator and his assistants is an essential
feature in all good museums.
13 and 14. Mouwnting—The teaching power of natural history speci-
mens depends very largely upon the manner in which they are placed
before the eye. A single bird stuffed in an unnatural position teaches
very little. Well stuffed it teaches a good deal more, even though it
stand alone on a mere wooden peg. A family group of birds, comprising
— ss =
ON THE PROVINCIAL MUSEUMS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 123
the male and female, the young in several stages, the nest and eggs, set
up with their natural surroundings of plants, stones, water, &c., the nest
-in its natural position, the birds in the usual attitudes of active life,
feeding, building, &c., teaches more than can be learnt from books or
even from the casual observation of nature. This fact is now beginning
to be recognised, and many museums are making small attempts in this
direction. But it is a slow and costly process to reconstruct a collection
which has been formed on the old-fashioned plan. At Leicester this has
been done, however, to some extent, and a striking effect is produced.
But as the object in this case was rather to attract than to teach, the
result is disappointing. An attempt has been made to illustrate the
vertebrate fauna of the whole world in a range of wall-cases scarcely 200
feet long, and this is done simply by setting up single specimens of a few
forms in each order with pictorial surroundings. The scenery is cleverly
constructed, and shows some of the habits of a few species. It is
unfortunate that it was not started on a better principle. A less
ambitious attempt more thoroughly worked out would be far more
valuable. A collection of local birds is now being got together at
Leicester, and a somewhat better system is adopted. A family group of
each species is represented, but at present the great teaching value of
comparison is ignored. At the Natural History Museum at South
Kensington the same mistake is made. Family groups excellently set
up in separate cases are placed at a distance from each other and from
all related forms. They would teach more if they were less isolated, and
if there were single specimens of foreign allied types close at hand for
comparison. The value of this system is strongly urged by the curator
at Exeter. Mr. Moore, of: Liverpool, was probably the first to adopt the
pictorial family group arrangement.
15. Condition of Specimens——The most perishable contents of a
museum are its specimens of natural history. Unless they have been
well cured and are carefully excluded from damp, from infection, and
from too much direct sunlight, they will rapidly deteriorate. About 100
museums report their natural history collections as in good condition; in
about 25 they require more or less renewal. The cleaning of stuffed
specimens which have become dirty is a process requiring care and know-
ledge. Many are spoilt by well-meant but ignorant attempts.
16 and 17. Arrangement.—In all good natural history collections there
will be, in addition to the stuffed vertebrates, a number of skeletons and
of specimens preserved in bottles. About thirty museums report that
the skeletons and bottles are grouped with the stuffed specimens, in about
forty-five they are kept separately. In some no regular system is adopted,
in others the skeletons and bottles are too few to be considered.
The usual system of arranging fossils is to group them stratigraphi-
cally in the first instance, and zoologically within the stratigraphical
groups. About a dozen museums, not of the lowest class, report that their
fossils are not arranged at all.
A phylogenetic arrangement of organic forms is advocated by some
authorities. Professor Herdman, of Liverpool, has elaborated a plan for
such a collection, but it has not yet been carried out.
In furnishing a new museum it is wise to determine upon a scheme,
to provide cases sufficient to carry this out, to place all specimens in their
permanent places, and to fill up the blanks gradually.
18, 19. Local Collections.—About one-half of the provincial museums
124 REPORT—1887.
have some distinct local collections; in the remainder no distinction is
made. Only sixteen museums are reported to be entirely or chiefly de-
voted to local collections. At Hereford and at Dumfries no foreign
specimen is admitted, but in most of these sixteen there are foreign types
or small foreign collections.
That provincial museums should chiefly devote themselves to the
thorough and complete working out of the productions of their own dis-
tricts is now the opinion of the great majority of competent authorities,
and the same view is urged by the curators of many of the leading
museums, as Liverpool, Cambridge, Bristol, Brighton, Exeter, &c. In
no single instance has this yet been accomplished. To do it in a satis-
factory manner would task to the utmost the resources of any average
first-class museum; but the interest, the novelty, and the immense
scientific and social value of such work would much better repay the
cost and labour than the fragmentary and often aimless collections which
are now gathered from all quarters of the globe.
The leading character of such local collections as now exist depends
partly on the locality and partly on the favourite pursuits of the curator
or of the amateurs of the district. In some places the local geology is
well worked up while the zoology is neglected, or the archeology and
the shells may be looked after while there is no one to take much interest
in the geology, the botany, or the birds and insects. This is the conse-
quence of trusting to amateur collecting and of the want of a definite
ideal to work up to.
To exhibit the local productions as completely as possible, showing
very distinctly what groups are not represented in the district, and to
supplement these collections by well-selected types of foreign species for
comparison and for carrying the observer’s mind beyond the narrow
limits of his own country, carefully arranging these types so that com-
parison shall be easy—this seems to be the best which museums can do
in this direction.
20. Hducutional Collections.—A number of museums report that their
collections are arranged throughout with an educational purpose. The
museums attached to some of the large provincial colleges are, however,
designed for the special illustration of certain text-books or certain
courses of lectures, and are therefore more definitely educational. Some
of the larger museums have prepared sets of specimens illustrating
different branches of science for lending to the surrounding schools, and
at Liverpool a system of small circulating museums has been established
with excellent results. At Leicester there is a useful osteological col-
lection, showing by colour on a series of skulls, &c., the various forms
assumed by the same bone in different animals. Truro is one of the few
of the smaller museums which possess a laboratory and theatre with
chemical and physical apparatus.
21. Industrial and Technical Collections.—Only about thirty museums
appear to have given any attention to this department. Some of these
have provided collections illustrating the manufactures of the districts,
showing materials, processes, and results. Others have collected foreign
examples of the local manufactures, or choice designs of art-work for the
assistance of local workmen. At the Edinburgh Science and Art Museum
Industrial Art is made a leading feature. At Dublin a new building is
being erected especially for such collections. At the Queen’s Park
Museum, Manchester, there is a general collection of substances used as
ON THE PROVINCIAL MUSEUMS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 125
food. At Beaumont Park Museum, Huddersfield, there is a collection of
injurious insects. The Ancoats Hall Museum at Manchester, which is
especially devoted to the culture of the sense of beauty in nature and art,
has some interesting collections of furniture and of art processes.
22. Classes—Hxcept at the museums connected with the universities
and large schools there appears to be very little class work carried on in
these institutions. At two or three places regular courses of lectures
by certificated science teachers are held either in the museum or in rooms
adjoining. Several museums provide a series of popular scientific lectures
during the winter evenings, and at several others short explanatory
addresses are delivered at stated times in the museum rooms by the curator
or the honorary curators. A few of the local societies hold classes in
their own museums. Beyond these there are no actual teaching arrange-
ments, though these institutions seem to offer so many advantages for that
purpose.
23. Local Students.—About fifty museums report that they are used
for frequent reference and study by local naturalists, archeologists, and
medical and art students. Nearly an equal number state that there is
unfortunately very little use made of them by such persons.
24. Facilities for Study—Many museums report that they would wel-
come students and give them every assistance, but that none apply. About
twenty museums have private rooms which they would gladly place at the
disposal of students, and about thirty can provide tables though not rooms.
In a few instances local students avail themselves of these facilities to a
considerable extent. Microscopes for students are provided in about
twenty-five museums. In about fifty museums the handling of specimens
is distinctly allowed, generally under supervision, while in twenty it is as
distinctly forbidden.
25. Other Uses of Musewm Rooms.—Museums belonging to local socie-
ties are frequently kept in rooms which are used for the society’s meetings.
In a few public museums evening lectures and concerts are given, but in
the great majority of cases the rooms are not used for any other than their
legitimate purpose.
26. Aquaria and Vivaria.—These interesting and instructive con-
trivances appear to be generally neglected. Not more than abouta dozen
museums have anything of the kind. The Liverpool Free Museum seems
to be the only one which makes an important department of them. Here,
however, in the basement, between forty and fifty tanks and cases ot
various sizes have been kept up fora long period. ‘One large salt-water
tank has been in continuous use for over twenty-five years. Fish have
been kept for ten years in the medium-sized tanks, and in a smaller glass
vessel a blind crayfish from Kentucky has lately died, after fourteen years’
confinement therein.’ The value of such arrangements for studying the
life-histories of many organisms must be very great. It is possible to
keep even marine aquaria in inland towns. Some years ago a salt-water
tank with a fine collection of sea-anemones, &c., was maintained for
several years at Leicester.
27. Handbooks.—It is perhaps undesirable to publish ‘ catalogues ’ of
growing museums, as they are so soon out of date; but catalogues of all
completed and of all special collections should undoubtedly be published.
This is generally done by the best museums, and sometimes in a very
sumptuous and elaborate style. The handsome illustrated quarto volumes
forming the ‘ Descriptive Catalogues’ of the Woodwardian Museum at
126 REPORT—1887.
Cambridge were prepared by such authorities as Sedgwick, McCoy, and
Salter. The Blackgate Museum, Newcastle-on-Tyne, issues a catalogue
of inscribed and sculptured stones, illustrated by nearly 200 admirable
woodcuts. The catalogue of the Duke of Newcastle’s Museum at
Alnwick Castle is richly illustrated. The Saffron Walden Museum has
also a rather costly illustrated catalogue. The Hdinburgh National
Museum of Antiquities has issued an illustrated catalogue at the price of
sixpence, of which nearly 20,000 copies have been sold.
The Liverpool Museum has several illustrated catalogues of the Mayer
Collection of Art Treasures, and has issued a series of ‘ Museum Reports’
upon some special collections of mollusca and lepidoptera, illustrated by
coloured plates. Besides the above, only about twenty museums appear
to possess permanent catalogues, not illustrated, about an equal number
publish handbooks and guides, which are sold at various prices from one
penny to sixpence, and a somewhat larger number issue Annual Reports,
in which the progress of the museum and the donations of the year are
registered. Some of the handbooks and guides are exceedingly well
done, giving a vast amount of information in a terse and popular style.
Those issued by the Liverpool Museum; the Marlborough College; the
York Philosophical Society ; the Albert Institute, Windsor; the Free
Museum, Nottingham ; the Sheffield Public Museum ; and the Agricultural
College, Cirencester, are particularly good. The Liverpool Museum has
published a ‘Museum Memorandum Book,’ prepared by the Rev. H.
H. Higgins, ‘ containing plans showing the main features in the Natural
History Department of the Liverpool Free Public Museum, with ruled
spaces for memoranda invited to be made on the spot, price one penny ;
pencils ready pointed, one halfpenny ; millboard tablets for writing on,
one halfpenny.’ This is a novel and very interesting experiment, and
shows that the authorities of this museum are devoting thought and
labour to the task of making their museum as widely educational as
possible.
28. Duplicates—The large number of duplicates which accumulate
in many museums and are stored away for years in drawers or boxes
might be of considerable value if they were distributed. Curators often
feel this, but the distribution is difficult to accomplish. Many of the
duplicates were gifts, and there is an unreasonable idea that gifts must
not be given away elsewhere; many, being little cared for, lose their
labels and become valueless. Moreover, there is much difficulty in
ascertaining where particular duplicates are wanted aud what can be got
in exchange. About fifty museums report that they have large collec-
tions of duplicates, and about twenty-five have a small number. At
Birmingham, Brighton, Nottingham, Salford, and Cardiff a large number
of duplicates are distributed to schools or other museums as fast as they
come in. The Dublin Science and Art Museum is organising its dupli-
cate department for the purpose of periodical distributions to other Irish
museums.
A well-understood system of exchange is much wanted. Suggestions
have been made that museum inspectors should be appointed, charged,
among other duties, with that of arranging exchanges. Others have
suggested the formation of a society of curators, meeting periodically.
29. Help from Local Societies—Many of the museums now belonging
to the public and supported by the rates were originated by local socie-
ties. In some of these cases the societies still render valuable assistance,
ON THE PROVINCIAL MUSEUMS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 127
but there is sometimes a disposition to eliminate this element as trenching
on the domain of the regular officers ; and sometimes the societies, feeling
that they are no longer responsible for the maintenance of the museum,
lose interest in it. ‘Only about a dozen of the rate-supported museums
report that they are receiving any assistance from local societies.
30. Donations.—Nearly all museums, except the smallest and the
most neglected, receive donations from time to time, though many report
that these are ‘mostly worthless.’ The donations come from all classes
of the community. Many are sent from old inhabitants now living
abroad ; sea-captains and sailors carry home many objects which they
present to the museums of various ports ; artisan naturalists bring in the
fossils or the eggs or the insects which they find in the neighbourhood.
Hitherto this desultory method of accumulating a promiscuous mass of
objects has been almost the only resource of a large number of museums.
It has its advantages, and should by no means be ignored or discouraged ;
but if museums in the future are to do the scientific work of which they
are capable and which waits to be done, this must only be relied on as
supplemental to a much more systematic method of collection.
31. Labels.—A museum without labels is like an index torn out of a
book ; it may be amusing, but it teaches very little. It is true that, when
vertebrates are set up pictorially, labels injure the picturesque effect,
but picturesqueness is not the chief object of a museum. The Leicester
Museum, having set up all its vertebrates in pictorial style, has made an
attempt to do without labels, and the result is instructive. Instead of
labels or numbers there is a small coloured sketch of each group with
small numbers near each figure. The figure of the specimen of which
the name is required has to be found on this sketch, the number noted
and carried to a separate printed card in rather small type; here the
number has to be found, and the name and particulars are then cbtained.
Afterwards the specimen has to be found again in the stuffed group, and
if any of the information is forgotten the process must be repeated. This
is much too complicated and wastes too much time. The cases are a
little more showy than they would be if labels were dotted all over them,
but the sacrifice is far too great.
A few old museums still preserve the practice of numbering their
specimens and registering them in a manuscript catalogue which is open
to visitors. Such a register should always be kept as a check, but should
not be allowed to take the place of labels. Effective labelling is an art
to be studied; it is like style in literature. A good writer conveys his
meaning clearly, tersely, artistically. The reader grasps the thought
with the least possible effort and with a pleasing sense of elegance and
harmony. A good labeller produces the same effect. It is to be attained
by a combination of well-chosen words, expressing well-arranged ideas
in carefully selected type on paper of appropriate colours. In the
smaller museums the labels are generally written by hand, and in a good
many larger ones this system is still continued; many have printed
headings and fill up the details with the pen; the best museums have
nearly everything fully printed. Some have set up small printing-
presses on the premises, with which the curator prints his own labels,
but in most cases this is not a success—the work is done too roughly.
In some museums the English name is always placed first in the
boldest type; in others the scientific name takes the lead in genera,
the English in species. Some museums possessing classical collections
128 REPORT—1887.
indicate on the labels those specimens which have been figured. The
Elgin Museum indicates geographical distribution by a system of tinted
labels. At the Queen’s College Museum, Cork, the minerals are mounted
on thick wooden blocks, painted white and with the front upper edge
bevelled to receive the label.
The best museums are not now content with labelling the specimens,
but place also with each group printed tablets describing in popular lan-
guage the generic or family characters, so that they become museums and
libraries combined, and a student may get at once almost all the infor-
mation he needs.
The Nottingham and Manchester Museums have introduced an effec-
tive style of large-type labelling, the letters being punched out of white
cardboard and glued upon a black ground.
It is important to consider the amount of description or information
which can be got upon a label without overloading it. The more the
better, so that the type is clear and not too crowded, and the label not
too large.
32. Libraries.—Nearly half of the rate-supported museums are at-
tached to free libraries and use the books there provided. A good many
other museums are attached to colleges, schools, and institutions which
possess libraries. But where there is no such accommodation, a library
of reference on the spot is absolutely essential to every active museum.
About sixty museums report that they possess such libraries, varying in
number of volumes from 10 to 10,000; but only a few of them appear
to be adding annually to their contents, and many of these volumes are
bound Reports of various societies, which though valuable are not
the most available sources of information for a working curator. A good
museum should have at least 500 volumes of the best standard works
of reference on all branches of zoology, geology, botany, and archeo-
logy.
"33. Visitors.—There are few museums in the country of any value
from which visitors are entirely excluded, but if they can only be seen by
special application their value to the public is greatly restricted.
Some of the smallest museums are not visited by moré than two or
three persons in the course of a week. About twenty-five museums
admit that their visitors do not exceed thirty per week. About fifty
record them at 500 and upwards. Liverpool, Edinburgh, and Salford
give their weekly average as 7,000. Where all visitors pay for
admission, even if it be only one penny, the numbers never exceed 500
weekly, and rarely reach half that number, unless there be public
gardens or other attractions included. Art museums with art galleries
are largely attended, but the pictures are the great attraction. The
Birmingham Art Gallery has reached an average of over 20,000 for some
weeks in succession. Some museums are open free on certain days in
the week and make a charge on the other days. The charge rarely
exceeds sixpence each for admission to a museum only. About a dozen
museums, several of them large ones, state that no record of visitors is
kept, and that they are unable to estimate the numbers. Various
methods are used for recording or estimating the weekly attendance.
The most efficient is the automatically recording turnstile, which costs
however about 50/., and does not appear to be in use at more than twenty
museums throughout the country. The larger museums which are
without turnstiles employ some person either at irregular intervals, or
=
ON THE PROVINCIAL: MUSEUMS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 129
for a week together at several times of the year, to count the numbers
who enter, and from this imperfect record an estimate for the year is
made. Smaller museums have a visitors’ book, in which each must sign
his name on entering. Where an admission fee is charged the money
taken indicates the number. In the few cases in which museums are
opened on Sunday afternoons they appear to be largely attended.
34, Sitwation—The great bulk of the public museums are centrally
situated in the midst of the populations for whose benefit they are in-
tended. The few which are not so are either included in public parks
and botanic gardens or are attached to institutions erected in the sub-
urbs. It is not easy, therefore, to estimate the effect of this difference,
but there seems to be some evidence that while a suburban situation
deters visitors during the working days, it tends to attract them on
holidays. The curator at Cardiff reports that his museum ‘is too central,
in the heart of tae smoke and dust,’ and that a new building is in pro-
gress. Dusty and noisy situations are undoubtedly objectionable.
39. Busiest Time—In museums generally the busiest time is the after-
noon, and next to that the evening, while only about half-a-dozen record
their busiest time as the morning, several of these being at fashionable
watering-places. A large number are crowded on public holidays, while
a few state that they are not affected by holidays at all, and about half-a-
dozen close their doors on those days. Those which are open on Sunday
afternoons give this as one of their busiest times. '
36. Remarks.—Suggestive remarks were made by many curators under
this head. Some of them have been already referred to. Many urge the
importance of provincial museums giving their chief attention to local
collections. Several speak of the great want of workrooms; of the
necessity of fully descriptive labels, and explanations of words and names
such as ‘ majolica,’ ‘ vertebrates,’ &c.; of the desirability of collections of
scientific apparatus, of a good supply of seats in the rooms, and of the
importance of getting some alteration in the law of treasure-trove. One
thinks that Sunday opening is not required ; another wishes he could per-
suade his committee to adopt it.
Several point out the importance of having museums controlled by
scientific curators, not by town councils or amateurs, and urge that at
least the committees of town councils should associate with themselves
some gentlemen of scientific reputation, which is in fact done by a consider-
able number of such committees. Several others feel the need of some
organisation among curators, either nationally or in districts, for mutual
help and co-operation.
The great question of funds is a perpetual source of complaint.
Societies are nearly always short of money ; and when a town adopts the
Public Libraries and Museums Act it generally tries to get both institu-
tions, and often an art gallery as well, out of the penny rate. The con-
sequence is that, except in very large towns, all are crippled. In a
town of 100,000 inhabitants the penny rate will raise on an average per-
haps 1,5007. This would be sufficient to carry on only one of these institu-
tions in a vigorous and successful manner. It is not nearly sufficient for
two, and is useless when divided among three. Several towns have now
obtained in private Acts the power to levy twopence for these purposes.
There is a considerable feeling of disappointment that the trustees of the
Great Exhibition Fund have refused any assistance to provincial museums,
although much of that fund was derived from provincial sources.
1887. K
130 -REPORT—1887.
The present Report includes only four of the six sectional headings
under which we proposed to treat the subjects entrusted tous. Want of
time and of data have made it impossible for us to consider with suffi-
cient seriousness the questions of the ideal museum, and of the best prac-
tical methods for approaching it. Yet, as the answering of these questions
forms the chief object of our inquiry, we ask to be reappointed for another
year, that we may have the opportunity of collecting information by two
other important methods which are at present practically untried, viz., the
personal visitation of a number of museums in different parts of the country,
and inquiries respecting those which exist in Hurope and America;
and that thus, with the whole statistics before us, we may endeavour
to formulate such a scheme for the working of provincial museums as
would bring out their fullest capacity for educational purposes.
First Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor H1ILLHOUSE,
Mr. E. W. Bapcer, and Mr. A. W. WILLS, for the purpose of
collecting information as to the Disappearance of Native Plants
from their Local Habitats. By Professor HILLHOUSE, Secretary.
THE question of the extirpation of native plants from many localities
was brought before the members of the Birmingham Natural History
and Microscopical Society in 1884 by Mr. A. W. Wills, and an article on
the subject communicated by him to the ‘Midland Naturalist’ for
August of that year.) At the meeting of the Midland Union of Natural
History Societies at Birmingham in June 1885, Mr. Wills, in conjunction
with the other two members forming this present Committee, brought
the matter up; in the first instance before the Council of the Union, and
afterwards, with their cordial approval, before the Conference of Delegates
from the societies constituting the Union. An ‘appeal,’ passed by this
Conference, and circulated amongst scientific societies, was, by request of
the then secretaries, laid by the writer of this Report before the Com-
mittee of Section D of the British Association at its meeting at
Aberdeen, 1885, and by it referred, with cordial approval, to the Con-
ference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies. (See the proceedings
of this Conference in the Report for the Birmingham meeting, 1886.) -
Between the dates of the Aberdeen and Birmingham meetings a
considerable mass of information bearing upon this question was collected
from different sources, and letters of approval were received from various
quarters, including one expressing the full sympathy of the President and
Council of the Royal Society with the efforts of the Midland Union for
the preservation of the native flora of Great Britain; and finally, at the
Birmingham meeting, 1886, these initial labours were crowned with their
highest possible reward in the constitution of the present Committee.
For the purpose of carrying out its objects the Committee have
addressed to local Natural History Societies and Field Clubs, and to local
botanists, a circular asking the following questions :—
1. Have any plants, of comparative rarity or otherwise, disappeared
from your local flora in recent years? If so, kindly enumerate them,
1 Vol. vii. p. 209.
ON THE DISAPPEARANCE OF NATIVE PLANTS, 131
specifying the original habitat of each, and giving the cause, or probable
cause, of extirpation so far as known to you.
2. Asabove, but referring to partial instead of complete disappearance.
3. If you know personally of any cases of extirpation, partial or
complete, in localities other than your own, please give them.
For convenience in collating, it is requested that answers under these
three heads may be given separately in schedule form as follows, and that
the plants may be arranged with the names, numbers, and sequence of the
latest edition of the London Catalogue.
No. in London
Cause of Disappearance
Catalogue
(or of Diminution)
Name of Plant Habitat
4. To what extent do you think that the partial or complete dis-
appearance of plants from any localities known to you was, or may be
made in the future, subject to public or private control ?
The Committee do not consider it any part-of their present duty to
express opinions or make suggestions. Not until the fallest possible
information upon the disappearance of plants from their local habitats,
and the causes thereof, has been obtained upon personal and sufficient
authority, can the question of remedy be taken into consideration, if,
indeed, investigation should show that remedial action is necessary or
possible; and the Committee are not without hope that the awakening of
local societies to the importance of the subject may lead to the gradual
formation of such a healthy tone of public opinion as will render further
action unnecessary. Nevertheless, it is considered desirable to ask the
above question No. 4, in order to elicit the views of diverse and widely
distributed correspondents.
In order to avoid undue demands upon time and space, and to
minimise the clerical labour involved in such an extended investigation as
this, the Committee propose to spread it over a short series of years,
confining its attention in each year to some well-defined area. At
present they are limiting their inquiries to Scotland, and propose to collate
the results for the meeting of the Association in 1888,
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor McKENpRICK,
Professor CLELAND, and Dr. McGRrecor-Ropertson (Secretary),
appointed for the purpose of investigating the Mechanism of
the Secretion of Urine.
Your Committee have to report that they have conducted a series of ex-
periments having specially in view the desire to discover, if possible, any
new evidence regarding (1) the mechanism of the separation of the watery
constituents of the urine, (2) the mechanism of the separation of the
nitrogenous constituents, and (3) any cause of the appearance of
albumen.
A few experiments previously made by one of us seemed to indicate
that the influence of atropine on the kidney would aid in such an inquiry,
K2
132 REPORT— 1887.
and it was, indeed, because of such an indication that the investigation
was undertaken. The animals hitherto experimented on were cats and
rabbits. The method employed was as follows :—
The animal was confined in a large cage, supplied with a double
bottom of zine. The false bottom was perforated, allowing the passage
of urine, but retaining the feeces. At one end of the real bottom a tube
conducted into a receiver, where the urine was collected. The urine was
collected once in twenty-four hours, and was usually quite clear and free
from foreign admixture. In order to simplify the experiment and avoid
as far as possible variations due to different quantities of food, the animal
was fed on a stated quantity of porridge, made of a weighed quantity of
meal, and there was added a measured quantity of milk. The animal was
in all cases kept for a week or more on the regulation diet before the
observations began, until the urine, in regard to total quantity and to
constitution, became steady. Variations were thus easily observed, and
the risk of error in assigning the cause much diminished.
After the urine had become steady, and a record of the quantity and
amount of nitrogen present had been taken for a number of days, atropine
was injected hypodermically and its effects on the urine observed. The
total nitrogen was estimated by the method of Knop and Hiifner, a large
number of estimations of urea by the method of Liebig having led to its
abandonment.
Some of the results are given in tabular form as obtained from the
cat. They are a fair sample of the results obtained in every one of a
large number of observations on the cat.
The first table gives the results of two consecutive experiments on the
same cat.
TABLE I.— Cat.
Total Urine 5
in 24 hours Total N. in Remarks
in ccs. Sunk
190 1-786
175 1°802
Half a grain of atropine injected.
179 1:950
148 2-490 Bare trace of albumen.
175 1:837
200 1:800
170 1:700
One grain of atropine injected.
132 1:973
98 2°352 None of the food eaten.
50 2-920 Only 190 grms. of a total of 270 grs. food supplied eaten.
205 2-665 Trace of albumen. 230 grms. of total food eaten.
170 2:210 Faint trace of albumen. All food eaten.
The table shows that after the injection of atropine the total quantity
of urine falls and the total N. rises: this is more marked with the larger
dose of atropine. The increased elimination of N. occurs in spite of
a lessened consumption of food. In two or three days after the injection
ON THE SECRETION OF URINE. Mae
a great increase occurs in the total quantity of urine, while at the
same time the elimination of N. is diminishing. In some of the experi-
ments, though not shown in this table, the total N. fell below the
average, while the total quantity of urine rose much above the average.
As tested by the specific gravity, the other solid constituents of the
urine did not seem to vary.
Where no remark regarding food is made, it must be understood to
have been all consumed.
The following tables give the results of a single experiment with two
different cats :— ;
Taste II.—Cat.
Total Urine Total N. in
ee ig grms, Remarks
ae ar Each day a small quantity of food left; about the
204 2531 same quantity each day.
One grain of atropine injected.
185 5457 Of a total of 460 grms. food supplied only 190 grms.
eaten.
140 4-270 230 grms. food eaten.
246 2°509 410 grms. food eaten,
206 2884 Food all eaten.
235 2°232 Trace of albumen. Food all eaten.
306 2°754 Trace of albumen disappeared.
TasLe II1.—Cat.
Total Urine Total N.i
in 24 hours = Remarks
in ¢.cs. ere
250 1-850
232 1°856
Injected one grain atropine.
192 2°899 Only 195 grms. food (of total 370 grms.) eaten.
186 2°641 130 grms. food eaten.
212 1759 230 grms. food eaten.
290 2436 Trace of albumen. Food increased to 400 grms, ; all
eaten.
These tables show results similar to table I. After injection the
nitrogen rises in spite of the greatly diminished consumption of food,
while the total urine falls. Two or three days later the total urine rises,
while the N. falls. At the same time the ability of the animal to take
the usual quantity of food is returning. The changes that have been in-
dicated are markedly shown in table IT.
A series of experiments was conducted on rabbits. While supplying
no results contradicting any of those mentioned, none confirming them to
a satisfactory extent was obtained. This seemed to be due to the marked
134 REPORT—1887.
insusceptibility of rabbits to the influence of atropine. Under the influence
of one grain of atropine, and even of half a grain, cats are markedly ex-
cited, are unable to take food, and exhibit evidences of serious disturbance.
Rabbits show no such symptoms. Even a dose of 4 grains of atropine
seemed to have little disturbing effect, but with that dose results as
regards the urine indicating an approach to those of the cat were
obtained.
As regards the appearance of albumen, in the majority of instances
traces of albumen were obtained some time after the injection of atropine;
in a few, quite distinct evidence of its presence in very small amount
The evidence was usually most distinct at the time when the total urine
was rising and the total N. falling. But regarding albumen, no results
were obtained definite enough to allow of any conclusions being drawn as
to its relation to the separation of nitrogen.
Tn cats on whom several experiments had been made there seemed to
be some degree of tolerance of the drug; but though a few experiments
were tried directly in relation to albumen they yielded nothing definite.
The Committee next considered whether a method could be adopted which
would admit of microscopic examination of kidneys of animals submitted
to the influence of atropine.
For this purpose a number of rabbits were injected with a solution of
indigo-carmine, after the method of Heidenhain. The rabbits were first
of all injected with atropine in varying doses and at varying intervals ;
after its administration the indigo-carmine was injected. It was thonght
that if any marked influence were exerted on the renal epithelium, it might
be indicated by variations in the extent to which the colouring matter
was picked up by the cells. Though the injections were satisfactorily
enough accomplished, the experiments yielded no information beyond
what might have been expected from Heidenhain’s description of what
normally occurs. It may be, however, that the insusceptibility of rabbits
to the influence of atropine renders them unsuitable subjects for such an
experiment. The Committee think it probable that this method might
yield some results with cats or other animals, and a further set of trials
in this direction may yet be conducted by one of the members.
Your Committee think that what evidence has been obtained strongly
supports the view that the mechanism for the separation of the watery
constituents of the urine is different from that for the separation of the
specific constituents. The effects of atropine which the experiments
demonstrate could be explained by a stimulating action on the renal
epithelium, followed by a paralysis or state of exhaustion. This, at least,
would account for the great increase in the elimination of N., followed
by a decrease. It would also account for the diminution of water,
followed by an increase, if the cells were supposed to possess the function
of absorbing water to any extent. The meagre results relating to albu-
men do not justify the offering of any suggestion regarding its ap-
pearance.
Your Committee think that a continuation of the experiments on the
lines of some of the methods indicated, as well as on others, might elicit
further facts of value. One of their number hopes to be able himself to
pursue the subject further, and if he obtains any results to communicate
them to some future meeting of this Association. In view of this the
Committee respectfully suggest they might now be discharged,
a
ON THE HERDS OF WILD CATTLE IN THE PARKS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 135
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. E. Bipwett, Pro-
fessor Boyp Dawxins, Professor Bripazk, Mr. A. H. Cocks,
Mr. E. pe Hamer, Mr. J. E. Hartina, Professor Mitnes Mar-
SHALL, Dr. Murrueap, Dr. Scrater, Canon Tristram, and Mr.
W. R. Hueues (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of pre-
paring a Report on the Herds of Wild Cattle im Chartley Park,
and other Parks in Great Britain.
Any inquiry into the origin of the Wild White Cattle would be beyond the
scope of the present Report, and this question, however interesting in
itself, must be dismissed in a very few words.
The Urus (Bos prinvigenius) was probably the only indigenous wild
ox,! not only in this country, but throughout the Palearctic region, and
the source of all our domestic breeds, as well as of the White Park Cattle ;
and we may fairly trace these park herds back to the Bubali or Tauri
sylvestres, which are mentioned” as occurring down to medieval times ;
but whether these animals were genuine Uri, or feral cattle, admits of
some doubt.
The original Urus was a huge beast, while the park cattle, as we
know them, are smaller than many domestic breeds ; but deterioration in
size would be a natural result of their way of life and long-continued
in-breeding.
The prevailing white colour of the park herds, with a tendency to
throw black calves, which still exists in most of the herds, and. which is
especially the case when any admixture of blood takes place, is probably
the result of the same cause, and not the original coloration of the
Urns. White cattle had a special value, according to the Welsh laws of
Howell Dha, and as is also proved by the present sent by Maud de Breos
to appease King John.
This report does not include extinct herds, but as one herd—that in
Lyme Park—has only very recently ceased to exist, and as this is the first
account of the wild cattle published since that catastrophe, it has been
thought well to include a short notice of that ancient stock.
The following list includes all the herds now remaining in the British
Isles, arranged according to the probable order in time of their arrival at
their present abode. In the detailed account of the different herds further
on, they are arranged to some extent geographically, from north to
south.
Chartley Park, near Uttoxeter, Staffordshire (the Earl Ferrers),
appears to have been enclosed by the middle of the thirteenth century.*
Chillingham Park, near Belford, Northumberland (the Earl of Tan-
kerville), seems to have been enclosed before the latter part of the same
century, and probably as early as (or even before) 1220; and should there-
fore, perhaps, have been placed first.
Lyme Park, near Disley, Cheshire (W. J. Legh, Esq.), at the latter
part of the fourteenth century.
Cadzow Park, Hamilton, Lanarkshire (the Duke of Hamilton, K.T.).
1 7.E£., of the genus Bos ; there was in addition the bison.
2 By Matthew Paris, Fitz-Stephen, and others.
* For these dates vide authorities quoted by Harting, Extinct British Animals.
136 REPORT—1887.
Date of enclosure unknown, but the present park occupies a portion of
the old Caledonian Forest, in which Robert Bruce is traditionally stated
to have hunted the wild bull in 1320, and where in 1500, James IV. of
Scotland took part in the same wild sport.
The above are probably the only herds remaining on the ground in
which they were originally enclosed.
Somerford Park, near Congleton, Cheshire (Sir Charles W. Shakerley,
Bart., C.B.) The cattle cannot be traced here more than about 200 years,
though it is possible they have been there since the original enclosure of
the park; it is perhaps more likely that they were brought in the seven-
teenth century from Middleton Park, Lancashire, which herd in turn is
supposed to have come from Whalley Abbey.
The Middleton Herd is now represented by offshoots (to some extent
cross-bred, however, and now, like the Somerford herd, domesticated) at
Blickling, near Aylsham, Norfolk (the Marchioness of Lothian), and at
Woodbastwick Hall, near Norwich (A. Cator, Esq.). The cattle were
removed from Middleton about 1765 to Gunton Park, Norwich (Lord
Suffield), where they became extinct in 1855 ; but some had meanwhile—
viz., between 1793 and 1810 !—been introduced to Blickling, and others
in 1840 were sold to Mr. Cator of Woodbastwick.
The herd at Vaynol, near Carnarvon (G. W. Duff-Assheton-Smith,
Esq.), was started in 1872 from stock purchased from Sir John Powlett
Orde, of Kilmory House, Argyllshire. This stock (now somewhat crossed)
was originally at Blair Athol, Perthshire. In 1834 the herd was sold to
the Marquis of Breadalbane, Taymouth, and to the Duke of Buccleuch,
Dalkeith. When the latter herd was broken up, the late Sir John Orde
purchased the only survivor and transported it to Argyllshire. In 1886
the entire remainder of the Kilmory herd was transferred to Vaynol, and
added to the cattle already there.
At Hamilton, Chartley, and Somerford persons who have known the
herds for a number of years have expressed the opinion that the cattle
have somewhat deteriorated in size within their recollection; but there is
nothing to prove this, and it must be recollected that by degrees things
appear smaller than the recollection of the first impression received as
children.
At Chillmgham, Chartley, and Hamilton, the wild cattle’s heads seem
slightly larger in proportion to their bodies than in ordinary cattle, the
feet larger and broader, and the legs stouter. May not these be taken as
indications of a certain amount of deterioration in their size P
At Chillingham the cattle have a ‘fine-drawn’ almost ‘ washed-out’
appearance, which may be considered the result of close breeding, and the
fact of more male than female calves being born is probably the effect
of the same cause.
It is interesting that in the semi- or wholly-domesticated herds at
Vaynol, Somerford, and Woodbastwick the calves are extremely shy
when first born, and only become accustomed to human beings by
degrees.
“If it is not beyond our province to make a suggestion, it would be
extremely interesting if the noble owners of the three ancient herds would
co-operate with some other owner of a large park—if haply such could be
found—willing to undertake the following experiment :—Namely, that all
calves which would ordinarily be converted into veal or steers should
1 Storer, Wild White Cattle, p. 307.
.
ON THE HERDS OF WILD CATTLE IN THE PARKS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 137
instead be sent to build up a new herd, which, combining the blood of the
only remaining ancient herds, and with no artificial selection exercised,
might be expected to revert more nearly to the aboriginal wild type than
could be achieved in any other manner.
Hamilton (Cadzow).—On August 22 last the herd was made up
somewhat as under :—Bulls: 2, six years old; 1, five years old; 2, three
years old; 6, two years old; five calves; total, 16 bulls. Females: 25
cows, four years old and upwards; 10 heifers, two years old ; 9 yearlings
and calves; total, 44 females. Total, 60 head (against 54 at the beginning
of the year).
The coloration and markings are tolerably uniform, though ten years
ago, at any rate, there was a variety in the amount of black on the out-
side of the ears, and in a slight degree in the amount on the muzzle.
Any that are defective in their points are slaughtered or made into steers ;
there are none of the latter at the present moment in the park, but two
were shot last October, and some of the young bulls will be operated on
in the fall.
There is-a good deal of black on the forelegs in this herd, the hoofs
are black, also tips of horns, roof of mouth, and circle round eyes; black
calves are frequently born, ten years ago the average was about three
annually.
Three years ago a bull, which was considered as a Highland bull,
arrived from Kilmory ; it was marked precisely like the Hamilton cattle,
but one of its progeny was white all over, and another was black, so the
bull and all its stock were killed.
The new blood was introduced in consequence of an idea prevailing
that the breed was deteriorating from too close breeding.
Last year (1886) a bull was procured from Chillingham, and perhaps
greater interest attaches to the result of this admixture of blood than any
other event in connection with the White Herds of recent years. The
first two calves were born in March last, and three others somewhat later.
Four of these were males, and only one a female. Three of the bull
calves took after their sire in having brown ears, and have been destroyed.
The remaining bull calf is described as beautifully marked, with black
points after the Hamilton pattern.
The heifer calf has her ears slightly tipped with a few brown hairs,
but the keeper thinks she may throw well-marked calves by a Cadzow
bull.
There is no certain evidence of new blood having previously been
introduced into this herd, however unlikely it is (as shown by Storer)
that a small number of cattle could have been continually bred only
inter se for centuries, and the herd still exist. But Sir John Orde! was
told that one, if not two, Highland bulls bred in the herd some years ago.
With regard to what has been recorded as to this herd being formerly
polled, the following appears to be fresh evidence :—Joseph Dunbar, a
labourer who has been in the ducal service for about fifty years, says that
forty-five years ago (say, 1842) the cattle were all hornless, and the
present duke’s grandfather caused all showing the least appearance of
being horned to be killed.
The calves are all born here in spring and early summer ; to ensure
this the bulls are kept in a run apart from the cows during the greater
part of the year. At the present time the Chillingham bull is in a third
1 Storer, Wild White Cattle, p. 342.
138 REPORT—-1887.
enclosure with seven cows (in March the Chillingham bull was by him-
self, and the ten calves then in existence in a fourth enclosure).
__ When the grass is scanty, hay and turnips are given, and the cows in
addition get a little cotton-seed cake.
The keeper (Scott), who has known them for upwards of twenty
years, says they are much less wild and dangerous now than formerly, in
consequence of being visited by so many people of late years.
Chillingham.—In October last the herd numbered 60 animals; this
has been the average number during the last twenty-three years (Lord
Tankerville wishes to raise the number to 70, which is sufficient for the
extent of the park). During the above period 113 male calves and 105
females have been dropped, averaging over nine a year. The deaths have
averaged about ten annually. The causes of death, besides the shooting of
oxen and an occasional aged or sickly bull or cow, include old age, drown-
ing, injuries received in fighting, rupture, cancer, fall, and other injuries ;
poverty and want of food ; and, in calves, the failure of the dams’ milk.
The cattle live on good terms with the red deer, but they will not
tolerate fallow deer or sheep in the park, possibly because they eat the
pasture too close, or more probably from the fact of the red deer being
like themselves primzval denizens of the forest.
They will never touch turnips. During the last few winters ensilage
has been given them along with the hay. For a long time none of them
would touch the ensilage. They sniffed at it and turned away. Even
when all the hay had been eaten the ensilage remained untouched. At
length a young bull was seen to try the ensilage; he went back to the
herd, and they returned to the ensilage with him. Since then the ensilage
is always finished before the hay is attacked. It is not thought prudent
to give very much ensilage, as it appears to stimulate the milk in the cows
too much for a time, and it afterwards fails.
One difficulty in increasing the herd is, that the cows continue to
suckle their calf even after a second calf is born, and the latter is
consequently left to starve. The calves dropped in winter suffer from
want of milk.
The herd is subject to sudden panics, owing to strangers frightening
them purposely to see them run, and several calves have been trodden to
death in these stampedes.
Drowning in the marshes has been a frequent cause of death in wet
winters and during thaws.
It is denied that any calves are dropped coloured otherwise than the
correct white, with black extending very slightly beyond the naked part
of the nose, and red ears, though in Bewick’s time (towards the end of
last century) there were some with black ears, and from the steward’s
book in 1692 there were not only several animals with black ears, but
some were apparently entirely black and one brown.!
It is believed that Culley’s celebrated shorthorns at the beginning of
this century were bred by a cross secretly obtained with a Chillingham
wild bull.”
1 Storer, Wild White Cattle, p. 154; and Harting, Hatinct British Animals, p.
234. Bewick, Quadrupeds, 8th ed. 1824, in a foot-note, p. 39: ‘About twenty years
since there were a few at Chillingham with BLACK EARS, but the present park-
keeper destroyed them, since which period there has not been one with black ears.’
2 Bewick, op. cit. p. 41 (foot-note) : ‘Tame cows, in season, are frequently turned
out amongst the wild cattle at Chillingham,’ &c.
ON THE HERDS OF WILD CATTLE IN THE PARKS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 139
During the last ten years Lord Tankerville has been trying the
experiment of strengthening the domestic breed by crossing wild cattle
and shorthorns. He commenced with a wild bull and two shorthorn
cows. They produced a heifer and bull calf respectively, on June 10 and
17, 1877. Both the calves had red noses, though the male’s was smutted
with black; while the heifer (her dam’s first calf) was the more correctly
marked about the ears. The bull calf, being the first male of this new
race, was named ‘ Adam.’
In April 1878 Adam’s dam, a shorthorn cow, produced a bull calf
by Adam. This bull when 3} years old measured 56 inches at the
shoulder. In the following year Adam became the father of two more
bull calves out of shorthorn cows.
In 1877 a wild yearling heifer was shut off from the herd, and the
following year a second one, in continuation of this experiment. The elder
one dropped a calf by a shorthorn bull in 1880, but it died ; its fertility
was afterwards at least temporarily impaired by a remarkable contingency,
but in October 1881 both were supposed to be in calf to a shorthorn
bull. None of these were to be added to the wild herd, nor were the
wild cows to be ever readmitted.
Iyme.—Mr. W. J. Legh, writing on June 3 last, states that this ‘ herd
ceased to exist about four years ago.’
It will be of interest, therefore, to mention what state it was in ten
years ago, since which time we have no particulars of it.
The herd being on the decline as long ago as the year 1859, Mr. Legh
purchased in October of that year the last surviving cow and calf from
the Gisburne herd, and added them to his at Lyme.'! The latest account
published of this herd appeared in the ‘ Zoologist ’’ for August 1878, and
refers to a visit paid in June 1877. Correcting one or two obvious errors
by comparing this account with Mr. Storer’s, taken in August 1875, the
following list includes the animals that were nearly, or quite, the last
representatives of this ancient and interesting herd :—
~ One old bull, said in 1877 to be dying of old age, and to be eleven or
twelve years old, though referred to by Mr. Storer in 1875 as three
years old; one bull, brought from Chartley as a yearling, in 1877 was
probably rising or upwards of seven years; one cow, aged about ten;
one cow, out of the above cow, by the old bull, died previous to
August 1875; one bull, out of the last-named cow, probably by the
Chartley bull, sent to Chartley ; one cow, black, out of the old cow first
mentioned, by the Chartley bull, was in 1877 rising or turned five probably ;
one heifer, about two years old, by the old bull, out of the old cow, both
first mentioned ; one heifer, about eighteen months old, out of the black
cow, by the old bull; one heifer calf, by the Chartley bull, out of a
domestic cow; one heifer calf, from Vaynol.
Somerford.—In July last the herd consisted of thirty animals, made
up as follows :—3 bulls—viz., one born about April 1885, one born about
March 1886, one born about June 21 last; 18 cows of all ages, the
youngest being about two years old; 5 heifers—viz., one about two years
old, one born about February 1886, one born about May 1886, one born
about June 1886, one born about September 1886 ; 4 heifer calyes—viz.,
one born January, two born about end of April or beginning of May,
one born July 21; total, 30.
No steers are reared ; all surplus bull calves are fed for veal.
1 Storer, Wild White Cattle, p. 290.
140 REPORT—1887.
Three calves born this year have died—viz., one male from quinsy,
two females born prematurely.
Two heifers were due to calve in September and four cows in
October.
This will make a total of fourteen births during the year, from which
we may infer that this herd is in no danger of extinction from shy
breeding.
These cattle weigh up to fifteen scores to the quarter when fed for
beef. They are thoroughly domesticated, and allow one to move freely
among them, and the second bull permitted two visitors and Mr. Hill
(the agent) to handle him simultaneously. The cows are all regularly
milked. The butter made from them is pronounced the best in the
county, and they are as a rule excellent milkers. The highest record
(fide Mr. J. Hill) is thirty-three quarts per diem, but the drain on this
cow’s constitution proved fatal in about four months, notwithstanding
everything possible being done in the way of feeding.
These cattle are polled, and no exception is known to have occurred.
They are black pointed, but there is considerable range in the markings
—far more than in any of the other herds. When Mr. Hill became agent,
some nine years ago, he found the herd somewhat uncared for, and many
of the cows so aged as to be past breeding, and he has therefore during
that interval of time been keeping every good heifer calf, without
weeding out too stringently on account of irregular markings.
About 1876 or 1877 a young bull was exchanged with the Marchioness
of Lothian (Blickling). This cross succeeded fairly well; a peculiarity
in this strain being that many are born with the ears square-tipped, ag if
the animal had been marked by cropping.
About the year 1879 a young bull was exchanged with A. Cator, Esq.
(Woodbastwick). This bull was brown pointed, but threw calves with
red ears and muzzles, which were the first so marked known to have
occurred at Somerford.
Of the twenty-three cows and heifers, eleven have either very little
black fleckings about the body or even none at all; while about six have
a good deal of black in thickly grouped fleckings, spots, and small patches;
two or three have probably fully one-third of the entire hide black. One
cow, about ten years old, may be described as a blue-roan, black and white
hairs being placed almost alternately over the greater portion of her body,
which give her a blue-grey coloration. The fronts of her forelegs below
the knees are black, and also the whole outside of her ears, instead of as
usual from one-third to a half at the distal end. This cow was (accord-
ing to Mr. Hill) giving twenty-four quarts of milk per day.
One cow is red pointed, and slightly flecked on the neck with the
same colour. The black on the nose in the majority extends evenly round
the whole muzzle, including the under jaw, but some have merely the
naked part of the nose black, and in one or two even this is rusty
coloured and not perfectly black. All, with the exception of the red-
pointed cow, have a narrow rim of black round the eyes. The animals
with the least black about them appear to have the finest bone and
smallest heads. This may be following the old‘strain, while the others
perhaps more nearly follow the cross-strains.
The red-pointed cow and one of the quite white ones have small knobs
or excrescences on either side of the frontal bone, like budding horns, but
they do not protrude through the skin,
ON THE HERDS OF WILD CATTLE IN THE PARKS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 141
One of the handsomest of the cows is almost entirely white, and is the
daughter of a cow that died this year at the extraordinary age of twenty-
three (at Chillingham they rarely reach ten) years. She was very dark,
although of the old strain, and had withstood infection during the cattle
plague epidemic.
The bulls (though both immature) are very strongly made, very
broad across the thighs, short on the legs, and with remarkably broad,
thick-set heads. Both are plentifully flecked with black, and in the
younger of the two the fleckings extend to the lower part of his face,
while the black on his muzzle is broader than in probably any other
example of park cattle.
The old bull, aged eleven, was consigned to the butcher this spring,
as he had become dangerous, having nearly killed the cattle-keeper.'
One of the cows and the younger bnuil have some black in their tail
tassels, in all the rest it is quite white.
The bull calf and three of the heifer calves have very little black
about them beyond their ears and muzzles, while the fourth is the blackest
individual in this herd, having probably more black than white about it,
in spots and patches with ill-defined boundaries.
The cows produce their first calf when from two to two and a half
years old. The bulls run with the herd throughout the year, but, in order
to in some degree regulate the birth of calves, individual cows are tem-
porarily shut up.
The udders of the cows here, are as large as ordinary domestic cows’,
which is not the case in the herds which are not milked.
In winter all the cattle, especially the bulls, develop long hair on the
poll and neck, which divides along the central line and covers them like
a mane. The hairs decrease in length backwards to the withers, where
they cease somewhat abruptly.
About 180 acres of the park are allotted to the cattle, consisting of
excellent upland turf sloping down to the river Dane. It is said that the
whole herd will sometimes gallop to a pond in their enclosure, and go in
so deep that little but their heads remains visible.
In dry seasons, when the river Dane has become unusually low, in-
stances have occurred of cattle of both sexes crossing the river both ways;
but calves produced by the park cows are kept if correctly marked, &c.,
even when the sire was probably a common bull.
The cattle are housed at night during winter, and supplied with hay.
Chartley.— The herd in July last was made up as follows :—Bulls :
1, nine years old; 1, six; 1,four; 1, three; 1, yearling ; 4 calves; in all, 9.
Females: 6 cows, aged ; 2 cows, four years old ; 2, three; 2, two; 6 year-
lings; 2 calves; in all, 20. Bullocks: 1, four years old ; 1, three ; 3, two ;
in all, 5. Total, 34.
This is the largest number recorded during recent years. An idea or
tradition prevailed that the number could not be raised beyond 21, so the
late Earl tried the experiment, and succeeded in April 1851 in getting
the number up to 48. The late Mr. E. P. Shirley,” in November 1873,
recorded 27; the late Rev. John Storer,*® in July 1874, found 25, and
apparently an increase of two or three in the December following. In June
1 This was no doubt the ‘big calf, eight or nine months old,’ seen by Storer on
August 6, 1875 (Wild White Cattle, pp. 258 and 259).
2 Storer, Wild White Cattle, p. 220.
3 Loc. cit. p. 222.
142 REPORT—1887.
1877, Mr. A. H. Cocks ' found the number reduced to 20. Mr. J. R. B.
Masefield,? whose visit was apparently about 1884, remarks that ‘a few
years ago the number was reduced to 17’; but at the time of his visit the
aumber was 28, and three had been recently killed. Mr. E. de Hamel,? in
May 1886, found 30.
This herd’s existence seems to be traceable further back even than
Chillingham—namely, to 1248-49, according to Sir Oswald Mosley
(‘ Hist. Tutbury, co. Stafford,’ 1832).
The colour is uniform—white, with black noses, ears and feet, some-
times ticked. Occasionally black calves are born, but are not kept. An old
tradition says that the birth of a black calf means a death in the family of
Ferrers.
The number of calves reared annually would average about half the
number of breeding cows.
There is no evidence or knowledge of fresh blood having at any time
been introduced.
Lay cows were formerly admitted to the park, and crosses with the
wild bulls obtained, but this was stopped twenty years ago. The result
of these crosses was very good meat, but the cross-breds were very awk-
ward to milk or handle.‘
The animals in this herd are heavier in front and lighter behind
than any of the other herds; in general shape and character, both of
bodies and horns, they closely resemble the old domestic breed of Staf-
fordshire longhorns.
The udders of the cows are remarkably small, and incline forwards at
an angle—very unlike the huge gland of a domestic cow.
In winter the cattle are fed on hay in sheds.
The park is nearly 1,000 acres, and is in its natural, original con-
dition. It has never been manured, or broken up, or seeds sown, and
contains a very great variety of wild plants.
Vaynol_—In August the herd consisted of 53 animals—namely, 1 old
bull, 2 young ditto, about 20 cows, and about 30 heifers and calves of
both sexes.
They are short-legged, straight-backed animals, all white with black
muzzles, black tips to the ears, and more or less black about the hoofs,
varying, however, in individuals, some being only faintly marked in this
way. They all have horns, not very long, sharp, and turned up at the
ends, but not quite uniform.
In winter they are fed with hay, but are never housed, and none of
the cows are ever milked. The beef is of excellent quality.
The original importation of this herd from Kilmory took place in 1872,
consisting of 22 head—namely, 1 bull, 9 cows, 6 heifers rising two years,
6 yearling steers.
In May 1882 the herd numbered 37 or 38, including 8 young calves,
and 1 bull, which would be killed when three years old.
In August 1886 the remainder of the Kilmory herd were brought here
' Zoologist, 1878, p. 276.
2 Proceedings N. Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club, 1885, p. 33.
a * Handbook prepared for the use of the British Association when visiting Birming-
m, 1886
‘ A heifer calf was born in 1875 out of a domestic cow by a wild bull; the heifer
was said to resemble the wild animals very closely. Seen in the distance the clear
white, characteristic of the young of the park herds, was conspicuous.
ON THE HERDS OF WILD CATTLE IN THE PARKS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 143
—namely, 2 yearling bulls, 14 cows and heifers, 8 two-year-old heifers, 8
yearling heifers; 32 in all.
The average number of calves born per year (previous to the addition
_ of the remainder of the Kilmory herd) was about 14, of which perhaps
half a dozen were reared, the remainder being killed for veal.
Some time within six or eight years of the first instalment of cattle
coming to Vaynol a black bull calf was born.
. Very few deaths occur, and only among the calves, of which now and
_ then one dies of ‘ scouring.’
The cattle, although never handled, nor housed in winter, are not
: fierce, and will allow a near approach (except when they have calves)
without showing any signs of impatience or alarm.
Since the arrival of this herd at Vaynol in two instalments, no fresh
blood has been introduced, nor have any exchanges been effectual; never-
theless, Mr. Assheton-Smith is of opinion that the cattle have improved
both in size and weight.
Sir John Orde! says that, shortly before he parted with the herd, he
obtained two young bulls from Hamilton, with a view tochanging the blood,
but they proved quite useless, and both met with accidents and had to be
destroyed.
Sir John Orde wished to have fresh blood, owing to an opinion that
the cattle were deteriorating in bone and horn from close breeding, and
_ also slightly in fertility.
| The origin of the Kilmory herd, as gathered by Storer, is that the late
Sir John Orde in 1838 purchased a bull, the only survivor of the Duke of
Buccleuch’s (Dalkeith) section of the old Athol herd. This was used
with Kyloe (West Highland) cows, carefully selected. After some few
years this bull and Lord Breadalbane’s (Taymouth) were exchanged, and
the latter was used with good results until 1852, when a West Highland
bull calf was bought, and this sire was supposed to have much improved
the stock. No further crosses were made up to the time Mr. Storer’s
book was published, 1879; but since then the present Sir John Orde, in
the above quoted letter, says that they had had at various times, crosses
with ordinary Highland, Ayrshire, and Indian cattle. The first named
was the only one found desirable, the produce of some cows recently, that
proved infertile with the wild bull, being very satisfactory in everything
except colour; the cattle show traces of their Kyloe extraction.
About 200 acres of the park are allotted to the cattle, consisting of
old (artificial) pasture, bordering a lake. This run is shared by red and
fallow deer, and there are a few roe deer in the plantations round the
park, descended from Scotch and German stock. A doe was seen in the
middle of August last with two fawns.
Blickling.—In July last this herd comprised :—Bulls: 1, five years old;
2, two years old; 1lcalf. Cows: 9; 2 yearling heifers; 6 calves. Total, 21.
Only the two young bulls and the two heifers were in the park; the
others were kept up.
Storer says that these cattle were introduced from Gunton about the
beginning of the present century, and that they were nearly destroyed a
few years since by the rinderpest, which killed off all but three or four,
and since then the herd has been somewhat made up, and consequently
somewhat altered in its characteristics.
1 Letter, dated Junel 1887.
144 REPORT—1887.
The cattle here are black-pointed (muzzles, ears, and hoofs); some-
times the points are red; sometimes there is no colour about them at all.
They are frequently spotted like flea-bitten Arab horses. The six heifer
calves born this year are irregular in their markings. Two have black
ears, but no spots; while one has red ears, and the other has white ears.
All calves with black points are preserved, amounting to about five or
six ina year. The herd is low at present—only numbering about twenty
altogether, ranging from five years old to calves of this year.
There has been a large proportion of bull calves during the last year
or two. The individual animals are finer at the present time than when
Mr. Storer made his report, but they are not as large as they were pre-
vious to the rinderpest, which destroyed the whole herd except a few
calves.
By the advice of Mr. Storer a cross was obtained from Somerford, two
young bulls being sent thence, one of which had an incipient horn. There
was another cross about five years ago with a cow from Yorkshire, which in
appearance was like the cows in the Blickling herd—it was out of a white
shorthorn by a black Galloway.
No horns have appeared among its descendants, though one cow
always throws black calves (which are never reared), and in some of the
others the black points have been more than usually pronounced.
As soon as the animals are adult, and are taken into the dairy herd,
they no longer range in the park, but are fed in meadows. The land is
light, and they are given cotton cake all through the summer; in winter
this is supplemented by hay, but no roots are given. In cold weather
they are housed at night.
Woodbastwick.—The herd in August last contained:—1 bull; 12
cows, aged from nine to two years ; and about the same number of young
animals.
Ten calves have been born this year, of which three have died.
There is also a white shorthorn bull, which was used for breeding
purposes last year.
Originally all these cattle had red ears and red muzzles. Latterly,
however, from want of fresh blood, it has been impossible to maintain the
red points. A red-pointed bull, received in exchange from Somerford
(about 1879), proved useless. Mr. Cator was therefore obliged to use a
black and white bull sent from Somerford, which had (as was supposed)
some black Angus blood in him. The stock by this strain have nearly all
had black points, though some few have them of a dark chocolate colonr,
and a few others are red pointed.
This bull had a good deal of black on his back, and the calves at first
took after him, being in most cases more or less spotted with black. As
he got older, however, the calves took after the cows, and in 1883, which
was the last year he was used, all the calves came pure white, with black
ears and noses.
The next bull used was a son of the last, and the result was satisfactory
as regards markings, although more calves were black- than red-pointed.
The present bull is a son of this one, and is a splendid animal and
beautifully marked. Though a little light behind, as all this breed seem
to be, they are very heavy in the withers.
At different times some three or four different shorthorn bulls have
been used, the last occasion being last year (1886). This was done with
a view to improving the hindquarters, which are rather light. They are —
ON THE HERDS OF WILD CATTLE IN THE PARKS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 145
inclined to be weak in the loins, and their coats had been getting very
fine. This last cross has not proved very successful as regards marking,
all the calves turning out pure white, ears and all, and a few will have
horns, while the character of the head differs from the old type, which
was short, and broad between the eyes. The cattle, from interbreeding,
had become delicate and thin in the coat, but the shorthorn cross has
much improved the coat. The white of the shorthorn looks yellow by the
side of the pure white of the park breed.
Though the cattle are not considered hardy, they are good milkers
when well fed.
This herd originated from Gunton stock. Storer says that the late
Mr. A. Cator bought one cow at a sale about 1840.1 This cow produced
a bull calf, and at various times subsequently the herd was recruited by
red-pointed calves from Blickling.
The cattle here are kept in fields, and do not enjoy the wider range of
a park. The soil is poor and gravelly. They are stalled all the winter
and fed on turnips. In the exceptionally protracted bad weather of last
winter they were given oil cake in addition.
In conclusion, the Committee request that the thanks of the British
Association be conveyed to the following noblemen and gentlemen for the
assistance they have kindly rendered in the preparation of this Report,
and that a copy of this Report may be forwarded to each of them :—
The Dowager Marchioness of LOTHIAN, Blickling Hall, Norwich.
The Earl FERRERS, Chartley Castle, near Stafford.
The Earl of TANKERVILLE, Chillingham Castle, Belford, Northumberland.
Sir JoHN W. P. CAMPBELL-ORDE, Bart., Kilmory, Loch-Gilp-Head, N.B.
Sir CHARLES W. SHAKERLEY, Bart., C.B., Somerford Park, Congleton, Cheshire,
and his Agent, J. HILL, Esq., Smethwick Hall, Congleton.
G. W. Durr-AsSsHETON-SMITH, Esq., Vaynol Park, Bangor, N. Wales.
A. CATOR, Esq., Woodbastwick Hall, near Norwich, and his son JOHN CATOR,
Esq., Woodbastwick Hall, near Norwich.
D. C. BARR, Esq., Chamberlain to his Grace the Duke of Hamilton, Hamilton,
Lanarkshire.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors ScHAFER (Secre-
tary), MicHaEL Foster, and LANKESTER, and Dr. W. D.
HALLIBURTON, appointed for the purpose of investigating the
Physiology of the Lymphatic System.
Tue Committee appointed for the purpose of investigating the physiology
of the lymphatic system are not at present able to present a complete
report; the chemical physiology of the lymphatic glands is the only
subject upon which they feel prepared this year to make a definite com-
munication. This investigation has been carried out in the Physiological
Laboratory, University College, London, by Dr. Halliburton. The
following is his report :—
The animals employed in the research have been mostly cats; ina
few cases the lymphatic glands of dogs have been also examined, which
entirely corroborate the more complete observations upon cats’ glands.
The method employed in the research was as follows:—The animal was
1 Mr. A. Cator, the present proprietor, and son of the above, says in a letter,
‘about the year 1832.’
1887. Ls
146 REPORT—1887.
chloroformed and killed by bleeding from the carotids; the thorax
was then opened, and a cannula inserted into the aorta; a stream of
salt solution (2 per cent.) was then passed at considerable pressure
through the vessels by this means ; in about a minute the large veins
entering the heart were opened, and the mixture of blood and saline
solution allowed to escape; in from five to ten minutes the vessels were
entirely free from blood, and the fiuid came through colourless. The abdo-
minal glands were then removed, and dissected from surrounding fat and
connective tissue ; as much also of the capsule was removed as possible
and the glands were cut into small pieces, and ground up in a ones
‘with saline solution. By this means the lymph-cells were freed almost
entirely from the remaining portions of the gland capsules, which were
removed. The fluid, with the cells suspended in it, was poured into
test-tubes, the cells in a short time settling to the bottom and forming a
yellowish-white deposit. This process of settling was hastened by centri-
fugalising ; the supernatant liquid was poured off, and the cells again
washed with saline solution in a similar way. By this method the cells
were quickly freed from any lymph which might still have been in con-
tact with them. Microscopical examination of the cells showed that
they still possessed their normal appearance, except for a small amount
of shrinkage. The supernatant saline liquid was found to contain in
small quantities the same proteids that were afterwards found in the cells
a certain amount of their proteid constituents having thus entered cane
solution. :
The lymph-corpuscles collected by this means were further examined
in order to determine qualitatively the kinds of proteids that they con-
tained. LLymph-corpuscles being typical animal cells, this research was
in other words directed to the determination of the varieties of proteid
that oceur in protoplasm.
The methods adopted for this investigation consisted in extracting
the cells with various saline solutions, and then of examining these
extracts by the methods of precipitation by neutral salts, and of fractional
heat-coagulation.
Although it appears that this subject has not been investigated before
in the same way, it should be mentioned that a very similar research was
undertaken by Miescher ! on the proteids of pus cells. He found that
these cells contained five proteids, as follows :—
. An alkali-albumin.
. A proteid coagulable by heat at 48°-49° C.
. Serum-albumin.
4, A proteid formerly considered to be myosin, which swells up into
a jelly-like substance on admixture with solutions of sodium
chloride.
. A proteid insoluble in water, and in sodium chloride solution, and
soluble with difficulty in dilute hydrochloric acid.
Miescher also investigated the properties and composition of the
mucin-like substance called nuclein, which composes in main the sub-
stance of the cell nuclei, and which remains undigested in artificial gastric
juice, and can be thus separated from the investing protoplasm.
‘Although pus cells are in origin white blood corpuscles, yet on account of
the degenerative changes they undergo while in an abscess cavity they
1 Miescher, ‘ Ueber die chemische Zusam i ?
Seyler, Med. Chem. Untersuchungen, p. 441. aimee Wisi
Cpe
Cor
ON THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. 147
cannot be regarded as consisting of normal protoplasm. Many of the
results obtained in this research, however, corroborate Miescher’s facts.
The liquid which was found the best to dissolve the proteids of lymph
cells was a partially saturated solution of sodium sulphate. Such a
_ solution was prepared by mixing a certain volume of saturated solution
of that salt with nine times its volume of distilled water. After
_ thoroughly shaking the cells with this solution they dissolved to a very
| great extent, and microscopical examination of the débris showed that it
consisted chiefly of nuclei, with apparently pieces of shrunken protoplasm
_ adhering to or separate from the nuclei.
The proteids present in such an extract were as follows :—
1. A globulin which coagulates at 48°-50°. C.
2. A globulin which coagulates at 75° C.
3. An albumin which coagulates at 73° C.
4, An albumin which coagulates at 80° C.
5. Certain varieties of aloumose and peptone.
: 6. A proteid similar to that described by Miescher in pus, which
swells up into a jelly-like substance when mixed with solutions
: of sodium chloride and magnesium sulphate. It is the presence
of this proteid which makes a solution of sodium sulphate a
better liquid with which to extract the lymph-cells than either a
solution of sodium chloride or magnesium sulphate, as sodium
sulphate does not produce this peculiar phenomenon.
It will now be convenient to take these proteids one by one, and
describe each in detail.
1. The globulin which coagulates at 48°-50° C.—On heating the sodium
sulphate extract of the cells, faintly acidified with weak acetic acid, to 45°,
the liquid becomes opalescent, and at 48° to 50° C. a distinct flocculent
precipitate separates out. In one or two cases the temperature of heat-
coagulation was somewhat higher, in one case as high as 55°. The precipi-
tate, collected on a filter, has the usual characters of coagulated proteid.
There are comparatively few proteids which coagulate at so low a tempe-
rature as this. The one which it most resembles is the proteid occurring
in muscle plasma, which coagulates at 47°-48° C.; this proteid has been
named paramyosinogen, and its properties are described elsewhere.!
This proteid in lymph-cells resembles it in many particulars, but differs
from it in certain others, which, however, are of minor importance. It
resembles paramyosinogen in being a proteid of the globulin class, i.e.
soluble in unconcentrated saline solutions, precipitable from them by
dialysing out the salt from such solutions, and precipitable by excess of
such a neutral salt as sodium chloride or magnesium sulphate, It differs
from paramyosinogen in being precipitable with great readiness by weak
acetic acid from its saline solutions, and in requiring for its complete
precipitation with a neutral salt, like the above-mentioned, complete
saturation with such a salt. The name I should propose for this proteid
is cell-globulin a.
2. The globulin which coagulates at 75° C.—On heating the liquid from
hich cell-globulin a has been removed by heating to 50°C. and filtering,
it becomes opalescent at about 66° C., and a flocculent precipitate begins
0 separate at about 73° C.; this is increased by heating to 75°C. This
s because an albumin is present which coagulates at the former tempera-
ture, and a globulin at the latter. The temperatures are, however, so
* Halliburton, ‘On Muscle Plasma,’ Journ. Physiology, 1887.
L2
148 REPORT—1887.
close together that it is not possible to separate them by fractional heat-
coagulation. The separation is effected as follows: the sodium sulphate
extract is saturated with magnesium sulphate; this precipitates the
globulins, leaving the albumins in solution. Magnesium sulphate also
causes the swelling-up of the proteid numbered 6 in the foregoing enu-
meration of the proteids of lymph-cells; but on complete saturation
with this salt, the swollen-up lumps become somewhat shrunken, and
can be removed by filtration with the globulins. The precipitate on
the filter is then washed with saturated solution of magnesium sulphate
until the washings do not give the proteid reactions, and distilled water
is then added to the filter. The salt adhering to the globulins enables
them to dissolve in the water, while the jelly-like proteid remains un-
dissolved. In this solution of globulins the a variety can be removed by
heating to 50° and filtering, the second globulin remaining in solution.
This second globulin, for which I should propose the name cell-globulin
8, resembles serum-globulin in all its properties. It coagulates at 75° C.,
is precipitated by dialysis, is also precipitated completely by saturation
with magnesium sulphate, and incompletely by saturation with sodium
chloride. That white blood-corpuscles are a source of serum-globulin
was first pointed out by A. Schmidt,' who showed that on their disinte-
gration in shed blood, two of the products resulting are paraglobulin and
fibrin ferment. The name paraglobulin is now almost abandoned; the
term serum globulin is hardly applicable to a proteid existing in lymph-
cells; hence it seems necessary to multiply terms and provisionally to
designate this globulin by a new name.
3. The albumin which coagulates at 73° C.—This is present in small
amount, being, on heating to 73°, often not more than a cloudiness in
the liquid from which the globulins have been removed by saturation
with magnesium sulphate and filtration. In those cases in which a larger
amount than this was present, it was found to be identical in its properties
with serum-albumin. It has been found, however, that the serum-
albumin of warm-blooded animals can by fractional heat-coagulation be
separated into a, B, and y varieties coagulating respectively at 73°, 77°,
and 83° 0.2 This albumin of lymph-cells is therefore identical with
serum-albumin «a; but, for the reasons just specified, it seems advisable
here again to introduce a new term and provisionally to speak of this
proteid as cell-albumin a.
4, The albumin which coagulates at 80° C.—This is, except for the dif-
ference in a few degrees of its heat-coagulation temperature, identical
with seram-albumin y. It is present in exceedingly minute quantities,
and is often altogether absent. It may be named, in symmetry with the
other proteids, cell-albumin f.
5. Albumoses and Peptone. — After filtering off all the foregoing
proteids which are precipitable by heat, a certain amount of proteid
material still remains in solution. This is not the peculiar mucinoid
proteid to which allusion has already been made. That is carried down
by and removed with the heat coagulum, as will be fully explained in the
next section: but this proteid residue consists of albumoses, the} name
given by Kiihne and Chittenden to those substances which are_inter-
mediate between ordinary proteids, and peptones. The amount of
albumose, or perhaps proteose would be a better name, varies consider-—
1 Schmidt, Pfliiger’s Archiv, vol. vi. p. 445.
2 Halliburton, ‘ Proteids of Serum,’ Jowrn. of Physiology, 1885.
ll
ON THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. 149
ably. In some cases a doubtful trace is all that is present: in other
cases the amount is considerable, the precipitate produced by adding
nitric acid being a fairly thick clond. On examining the matter more
closely, it was found that in those preparations rapidly made from glands
removed immediately after death, the amount of albumose was all but
imperceptible ; while in those which had been allowed to remain for an
hour or more at a summer temperature before they were extracted with
a saline solution, the amount was more considerable. The same result
was obtained by preparing these albumoses in another way: the glands
from several cats were chopped up finely, and placed under absolute
alcohol for four months; by this means the ordinary proteids were
rendered insoluble; the glands were then dried over sulphuric acid, and
powdered. Aqueous extracts of this powder contained no proteids which
were coagulable by heat, but varying quantities of albumose. In those
cases in which the glands had been removed with great expedition and
placed immediately under alcohol, the amount of albumose present was
very small; but in those in which there had been delay, the amount of
albumose was considerable, and was easily separated into proto albumose
(i.e. an albumose precipitable by nitric acid in the cold, the precipitate
dissolving on the application of heat, and reappearing when cooled, not
precipitable by dialysis, and precipitated by saturation with sodium
chloride) and deutero-albumose (7.e., an albumose which is not preci-
pitated by dialysis, nor by saturation with sodium chloride, and which
gives the nitric acid test just described only when its solution is saturated,
or nearly saturated, with a neutral salt like sodium chloride). Hetero-
albumose was not identified ; it is exceedingly difficult to separate this
substance from a mixture of proteids, as it is precipitated by heat, and
converted into an insoluble albumose—dysalbumose—by alcohol. In
only one case was peptone present; in all other cases, no proteid re-
mained in solution after saturating the solution with ammonium sulphate ;
that is, peptone was absent.
‘ These observations suggested that the presence of these substances
was due to some post-mortem change in the proteids of the protoplasm.
This surmise was strengthened by the further observation that, although
the natural reaction of the lymphatic glands is alkaline, in a very few
' minutes, usually under a quarter of an hour after death, they become
faintly acid. A. Hirschler! has shown that this acid is sarko-lactic acid.
_ Briicke showed that pepsin is present in various tissues, and accounted for
its presence by saying it was absorbed from the alimentary canal. It
does not exert any digestive function in the tissues because of their alka-
line reaction. When, however, the reaction of a tissue becomes acid, there
is no reason why, as in this case, the ferment should not exert its proteo-
lytic action. That this explanation is probably the correct one, was shown
_ by a few experiments performed as follows: the glands were quickly
removed from the animal, cut into small pieces, and then divided into
_ two halves; one half was extracted immediately with a weak solution of
_ ammonium sulphate ; this extract was saturated with ammonium sulphate,
and the precipitate so produced filtered off. The filtrate contained no
peptone, and the precipitate contained a mere trace of proto-albumose.
The other half of the glands was placed in distilled water: on testing’ the
reaction of this half an hour later, it was found to be distinctly acid ;
_thymol was added to prevent putrefaction, and the whole kept in an
; 1 A. Hirschler, Zeit. Physiol. Chemie, vol, xi. p. 41.
bd
ft
150 REPORT—1887.
incubator at 36° C. for six hours. The pieces of gland were then filtered
off, and the filtrate saturated with ammonium sulphate; the precipitate so
produced was collected on a filter. The filtrate contained abundance of
peptone, and the precipitate contained a small amount of deutero-albumose ;
the action having presumably been sufficiently great, so that digestion had
advanced beyond the proto-albumose stage.
6. The mucin-like proteid.—This proteid, which was first described by
Miescher in the protoplasm of pus cells, is also present in the cells of
lymphatic glands. It forms, in fact, the largest proteid constituent of
those cells. When the cells are extracted with a five- or ten per cent.
solution of either sodium chloride or magnesium sulphate, the result is a
slimy mass, very much resembling mucus in its appearance. It may be
obtained free from other proteids by pouring this mixture into a large
excess of distilled water; this peculiar proteid then extends in cohesive
strings throughout the water, and in time these contract and settle at
the bottom of the water. This is then washed by decantation with
2 per cent. sodium chloride solution, in which it is very slightly soluble.
The following are its chief properties :—
(a) It is insoluble in water.
(b) It is slightly soluble in 2 per cent. sodium chloride solution. If
the lymph-cells be extracted with this solution, a small amount of all the
proteids described goes into solution, and among them this one. Suchan
extract is not, however, slimy ; it becomes slimy when the proportion of
salt is increased to a strength of 5 per cent.
(c) When a 10 per cent. sodium chloride solution, with this proteid in
suspension, is heated to 50° C. the mucnus-like strings shrink, and can
be easily filtered off. In the case of sodium sulphate extracts of glands
it is apparently carried down with the cell-globulin a, which coagulates
at this temperature. When the sodium chloride solution is boiled, the
shrunken flakes which formed at 50° C. break up and dissolve; they are
‘not, however, reprecipitated on cooling. Itis, however, precipitated once
more when poured into water, and also by the addition of acetic acid.
(d) Saturation with neutral salts. Saturation of a sodium sulphate
extract of cells with sodium sulphate causes little or no precipitation of
the proteids contained therein; nor does it cause any mucinous appear-
ance. In avery weak sodium chloride solution (? per cent.), there is
also no mucin-like appearance ; this only comes on when the strength of
the solution reaches 5 per cent.; saturation with sodium chloride causes
a small amount of shrinkage of this proteid, and renders filtration easier.
Magnesium sulphate acts in a similar way. Ammonium sulphate acts
similarly ; saturation with this salt, however, causes the proteid to lose
almost altogether its resemblance to mucin, and precipitates it as whitish
flakes.
(e) It is precipitable by absolute alcohol, by basic lead acetate, by
dilute sulphuric acid, and by solution of tannin.
(f) It is precipitated by acetic acid in strings like mucin ; like mucin
it is also soluble in baryta or lime-water ; from which solution it is again
precipitable by acetic acid, and not soluble in moderate excess of that
reagent.
Ii is thus seen that this substance is very like mucin in its reactions,
and in its physical characters. The question arises: Is it mucin? The
substance nuclein, of which the cell-nuclei are made up, has been described
as very similar to mucin; but it is not this substance with which we have
+ +e %
ON THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. 161
to deal, as the cell-nuclei are exceedingly insoluble, and are not attacked
at all by such reagents as ? per cent. sodium chloride; this proteid, which
assumes a mucinoid appearance on treatment with sodium chloride, is
undoubtedly a constituent of the cell protoplasm: and the question, Is it
mucin ? is not an idle one, as the degeneration of cell protoplasm into
mucin is one which is constantly taking place, in such situations as the
submaxillary gland, or the epithelium cells of the respiratory and ali-
mentary tracts, to form goblet cells.
I think, however, that this proteid is not mucin, but only resembles it
in certain physical characteristics, as well as in a few tests : it is precipi-
tated by tannin, which does not precipitate mucin; the best proof, how-
ever, of its identity or non-identity would be an elementary analysis; this
I have not made as yet. My present chief ground for believing this
substance not to be mucin is that it is not a glucoside, like mucin, or at
least that prolonged boiling with sulphuric acid does not cause it to yield
any substance which has a reducing action on cupric hydrate. I look
upon this substance as a globulin, but one which is much more readily
precipitated by neutral salts than most other globulins are ; a proportion
of 5 per cent. of sodium chloride, for instance, in its solutions rendering
it insoluble. The precipitate, moreover, is not of the usual fine flocculent
character, but a slimy, mucus-like one. In my investigation on muscle
plasma, I showed that the precipitate of the proteid called myosinogen
is of a similar slimy appearance, though to a much less degree. The
name I propose for this proteid is mucinoid globulin.
The question which I have in the last place investigated is whether
there exists in lymph-cells any substance like myosin. Myosin is the
_ substance which separates from muscle plasma after death, in the same
way that fibrin separates from blood plasma. In the case of muscle this
coagulation is accompanied by the formation of a lactic acid. Now we
have in the case of the lymph cells seen that there is a formation of acid;
is there any simultaneous formation of a solid proteid analogous to myosin
or fibrin? I have tried to answer this question by experiments similar
to those by which Kiihne obtained muscle plasma from frogs, and which
I have lately extended to mammals. But hitherto this question has been
answered in the negative. By employing strong pressure upon the glands
_ frozen immediately after removal from the body, I have been able to
express from them a juice; but one, however, which underwent no spon-
taneous coagulation on exposure to a temperature of 35°-40° C. Similarly
extracts of the frozen glands with solutions of sodium sulphate of various
strengths, did not undergo coagulation when subsequently diluted to
various extents with water, and exposed in an incubator to the tempera-
ture of 36° C. In other words, such experimental methods that enable
one to study the coagulation of blood or of muscle, lead in the case of the
lymph-cells to an entirely negative result. Miescher in his examination
of pus cells came to an exactly similar conclusion.
This research is at present incomplete ; up till now all that has been
attempted is a separation and recognition of the various proteids in the
cells which can be extracted by saline fluids. A very important point is
the determination of the influences these various constituents have upon
the coagulation of the blood, on account of some recent observations by
Dr. | ec To this question I hope to be able next year to apply
- myself.
W. D. Hauisvrton,
152 REPORT—1887.
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of General J. T.
WALKER, General Sir J. H. Lerroy (Reporter), Professor Sir W.
THomson, Mr. ALEXANDER BucHan, Mr. J. Y. BucHANAN, Mr.
Joun Murray, Dr. J. Rar, Mr. H. W. Bates (Secretary), Captain
W. J. Dawson, Dr. A. SELWyN, and Professor C. CARPMAEL,
appointed for the purpose of reporting upon the Depth of Per-
manently Frozen Soil in the Polar Regions, its Geographical
Limits and Relation to the present Poles of greatest cold. Drawn
wp by General Sir J. H. Lerroy, R.A., K.C.M.G. (Reporter).
Tur Committee have received a valuable communication from Dr. Percy
Matthews, LL D., coroner for the North-west Territories of the Dominion
of Canada, and resident medical officer at York Factory, on Hudson’s Bay,
of which an analysis is subjoined :—
York Factory, lat. 57° N., long. 92° 26’ W. (No. 9 of Report of 1886).
Surface about 51 feet above sea-level.
I. Positive Evidence of the Depth of Penetration of Frost.
(1) 1879-1886. By the mean of seven measurements in the channel
of Hayes river, at the mouth of which the factory is situated. Thickness
of ice in January, February, and March, 6 feet 6 inches. Hayes river has
been, on the average of the last thirty years, closed to navigation on
November 26, and reopened on May 17.
|
| Alluvial Ree Frozen
No. Soil. | thaw, | _Soil.
Inches | |, ches | Luches
(3) April 14, 1885 514 | 22 None 33 Boring continued to 17
feet. Very dry soil.
| (4) May 4, 1886 Li heel 2 48 | Boring continued to 17
| feet. Wet soil. 20
inches of snow on
surface.
(5) May 28 ,, S197 a Lad 23 40 Wet soil.
(6) June 4 , 521 23 7 30 Boring continued to 18
| feet. Dry soil.
(7) June 23 C=» 526 21 14 31 Boring continued to 18
feet.
(8) June 25 ,, BOTer es b= 65 | 68 A stratum of 3 inches
| | | of frozen water was
found at 65 inches,
| resting on clay.’
(9) June 26 ,, 528 | — 1a 4+ 96 Boring continued to 21
| | feet.”
(10) July 23, 1881 14 20 28 38 Boring continued to 10
| feet. Dry soil.
1 The M8. gives ‘ frost penetration 3 inches,’ with the explanation, ‘ a lodgment
of 3 inches of frozen water over clay bed at 65 inches.’ Evidently, therefore, the frost
had got down 68 inches. The boring was continued to 183 feet.
2 Dr. Matthews adds the following note to this observation :—Taken in a clearing,
the barestand most bleak in the neighbourhood of York, It is nearly at all times
DEPTH OF PERMANENTLY FROZEN SOIL IN THE POLAR REGIONS. 153
(2) 1882-83. By the mean of 485 measurements made in the course
of a survey of the bed of Nelson river (about seven miles north of York
Factory), under direction of Mr. H. Jukes, C.E., for the Winnipeg and
Hudson’s Bay R.R. Company. Thickness of ice, or penetration of frost,
in December, January, and February, 5 feet 10 inches.
On July 1, 1886, the soil of No. 528 was only thawed 20 inches, and in
another spot within the clearing, 37} inches. On September 6 following,
at 140 yards north of this spot, the soil was frozen toa depth of 102 inches,
with 51 inches of thawed ground at the surface. And at 140 yards south
of the same spot to a depth of 94 inches, with 42 inches of thawed ground
(Nos. 602, 603). Other measurements of the thawed ground, September 4
and 10, gave respectively 50 and 52 inches.
II. Examples of Excavation or Boring without finding Frozen Soil,
and of Superficial Thaw.
1870, August, September. In excavating a dry dock at York no frost
down to 36 feet.
1879, August 25. Nos. 8-10. 300 yards W.; 300 yards N.W.; 300 yards
S. of York. In a swamp, no frost found down to 33 feet.
1880, August 10. Nos. 11-13. 100 yards 8.; 300 yards S.; and 100
yards S.W. as before. No frost found down to 33 feet.
1882, August 30 (see below, Severn river).
»» September 10. Nos. 16-22. Six graves opened in an old Indian
burial-ground. Depth of alluvial soil 48 inches. No frost down
to 10 feet. The burial-place in question has been disused for
fifty years, and the results in surrounding ground which has
never been disturbed are the same.
1884, July 30. Nos. 519-513. Four graves opened; depth of alluvial
soil 40 inches. Thin sandy clay; no frost down to 16 feet.
1886, May 28. No. 518. Ina garden at York, thaw 7} to 9 inches.
Landslips, Hayes River.
1884, July 15. No. 509. The thawed soil was 36 inches in depth.
1885, June 18. No. 515. The thawed soil was 29 inches in blue clay,
37 inches in white clay.
1886, June 14. No. 523. The thawed soil was 28 inches.
1883, Sept. 10. No. 508. Ona much exposed portion of the bank of
Hayes river, dry soil, there was no frost down to 16 feet.
The following are also given as observed depth of thaw in or near York
Factory, that of the frost below not having been measured.
freed from its winter's snow by the action of fierce winter gales sweeping over Hud-
son’s Bay. So that its soil is fully exposed to the greatest degree of frost-penetration
possible, not only from above downwards, but from its position, laterally ; therefore,
having selected this, the most exposed site obtainable, 1 had a trench dug 10 feet in
length down to the non-frozen subsoil. This experiment, together with subsequent
ones, is in my opinion conclusive, inasmuch as I consider it indicates the greatest
depth of frost-penetration in and around York of late years, and may certainly be
ranked as perpetual ice, but upon a scale so small as to be wholly comprised, as far as
my experience goes, within ten acres. To give an idea of quarrying in frozen ground
in June, I may mention that I had an Indian working hard for three days to obtain
the above information.
154 REPORT—1887.
1886, May 28. No. 518. Garden at York, in dry soil, 75 inches ; in wet
soil, 9 inches.
» May 31. No. 520. In aswamp 1,000 yards south of the factory,
10 to 12 inches.
June 14. No. 525. Garden at York, average 18 inches.
» duly 1. No, 529. In the swamp, 36 inches.
, 93 No. 5381. After two days’ rain, 37 inches.
» Aug. 2. Nos. 533-545. In the swamp, 48 inches, 12 borings.
2. Open ground, 40 inches, 9 borings.
15. Nos. 555-570. In the swamp, 49 inches, 15 borings.
. ,, 20. Nos. 571-583. . 15) Od ral) = v
is » 20. Nos, 584-596. # 11 feet 12 ‘3
» Sept. 1. Nos. 597-600. 5 IRS as 3 », after
heavy rain.
A » 8. Nos, 604-607. 3 30” ©, 3 borings.
The general summary of the author from eight years’ observation
is—
The greatest depth at which the soil was found frozen was 102 inches:
of thaw having frozen soil below it was 52 inches.
» reached without finding frost, 33 feet.
The mean temperature by nine years’ observations is 17-4° F,
Mean rainfall 22-98 inches.
» snowfall 47:91 ,,
1882-83. At the river Severn, lat. 56°, or 1° south of York Factory, in
making a cutting for a jetty, in December and January, no frost
was found at 15 feet down. It is not stated how far it was frozen
(as it must have been nearer the surface).
9 ”? ”?
To his tabular statement the author has added the following ‘ Notes
on the table of experiments for ascertaining the depth of frost and thaw,
penetration, York Factory, Hudson’s Bay’ :—
‘In briefly examining the accompanying list of experiments, it will at
once be realised that so many variable conditions have to be taken into
consideration in connection with frost-penetration that it is impossible to
form any estimate other than that based upon a series of experiments
carried over a number of years. For, in the first place, the extent of the
winter’s frost must be dependent upon locality (including soil, exposure,
drainage), season, and certainly, from my experience, upon the snowfall,
be it early or late, much or little; evenas the depth of the summer’s thaw,
though subject in a negative sense to like conditions, is to a great extent
dependent upon the rainfall. . For instance, reverting to six experiments
(Nos. 14, 514, 517, 519, 521, 526) carried out in the York churchyard (a
site which is protected by surrounding willows, palisading, &c., and so
thoroughly in the lee that, when the country lying beyond is bare, it main-
tains its covering of certainly 20 inches of snow throughout the winter), .
the soil is there found to be frozen to an average depth of three feet only,
whereas, within 350 yards, Experiments Nos. 528, 602, and 603 tell us that
under exactly opposite conditions a depth of upwards of eight feet of
frost is attained. Again, on the same principle, if the snowfall is late, the
soil will naturally be found to be frozen far deeper than when it early
covers the ground, even as the rainiall, if great during the summer, inde-
‘DEPTH OF PERMANENTLY FROZEN SOIL IN THE POLAR REGIONS. 155
pendently of season, exercises a considerable influence in determining
both the rapidity and penetration of the thaw. ,
‘In venturing to offer some explanation of Sir John Richardson’s
statement ‘‘that the soil was found frozen to a depth of nearly 20 feet at
WHITE LAY=2—=SAND:
[4rAPOIN = ; = EIN E=0 F==8 LUE=CLAY
i a = —————
SS ENARR OWING) E=1CE=PENET-RATION=OWING=TO=IN CREASED=
» es ee
Rough Diagram of Landslip in Hayes River: apparent frost-penetration of over 14 feet
proved to be only 4 feet.
thawed surface, leaving a deceptive frost-line far below the true one, which
upon a cursory examination leads to the supposition that the ice-pene-
tration is greater than it really is.. Though this is conjecture as regarding
the statement in question, I have the rather endeavoured to illustrate not
only what I have witnessed myself, but that which may be an explanation
of the depth of frost alluded to in this particular instance.!
‘ But in further reference to Sir John Richardson’s statement “ that
the soil was found frozen to a depth of nearly 20 feet at York Factory,”
I must not omit the fact that Mr. George Gladman, a chief factor of the
Hudson’s Bay Company’s service, in his evidence before the Select Com-
mittee of the House of Commons in 1857, says, “‘ Pits were dug there
(York) with a view of ascertaining the depth of ground thawed during
Summer ; repeated diggings showed about three feet of thawed ground,
whilst the perpetually frozen ground was found to be fifteen feet deep.”
In this connection, although fully admitting its corroborative force, I
cannot but point out a discrepancy of nearly five feet (4 feet 10 inches)
1 It is to be observed of the above diagram that if the line of fracture, instead of
being only some four or five feet back from the edge of the bank, had been twice or
thrice that distance, the whole frozen part would have disappeared and the section
have disclosed the real depth of the frost, provided the slip occurred, as they usually
do, at a period of the year too advanced for the new face to freeze to any depth.
156 --REPORT—1887.
existing between Sir John Richardson’s experiment and those carried out
by Mr. Gladman, the same year, plainly indicating that the site of Sir
John Richardson’s experiments must have been exceptional, as I have
before inferred. In passing on to Mr. Gladman’s experiments, it must be
noted that the climate of York has undergone a considerable change,
even within the last fifty years; indeed, quoting from Mr. Gladman’s
later evidence, he says that “turnips and garden-stuff failed at York on
account of the nearness of the sea, the severity of the seasons, and
summer frosts.”” Whereas now, speaking from a personal experience of
upwards of eight years, I may say that no difficulty whatever exists
in providing the establishment with very passable potatoes, excelleut °
turnips, and several kinds of “ garden-stuff,”’ and that many kinds of
flowering plants thrive in the open air. The country surrounding York
fifty years ago was thickly wooded, and more swampy than it now is;
evidence of its being so is present to-day in the innumerable grassy
hillocks dotted around the settlement, formed by the decayed stumps of
trees forced up out of the ground by the compressive action of frost.
Therefore, under these altered conditions, not only would the frost-
penetration be deeper, the thaw be less, but “perpetual ice’’ would
extend at a greater depth over a much larger area than it now does.
Something may also be attributed to a disposition which prevailed among
the older generation of fur-traders to minimise the suitability of the
North West for agricultural settlement.
‘J am not in a position to offer any very satisfactory explanation as to
the frost-penetration being so relatively small at York, considering the
mean temperature of the year, beyond stating that the surrounding
country contains numerous springs, which may be readily tapped at any
time, during the winter; that the subsoil is clay, though this perhaps
hardly bears upon the question when closely examined. Doubtless the
inconsiderable height above the sea-level, and “the immediate vicinity of
a large body of unfrozen water,” are important factors, and do exercise a
great influence upon the surrounding country, although I must not omit
the more immediate bordering of some miles of frozen water for upwards
of five months in the year. As to whether the peaty formation of much
of its soil has any appreciable influence in absorbing and accumulating
the intense tropical heat of summer is a question beyond my humble ken ;
but that the frozen subsoil acts as a “ provision ’’ in the earlier part of
summer in counteracting the effects of such heat as regarding vegeta-
tion is a fact that can be, in my opinion, incontestably proved in some
parts of the country immediately surrounding York.’
In a second communication, dated July 27, 1887, Dr. Matthews, in
answer to questions, reiterates his belief that no permanently frozen
ground now exists at York Factory, with the slight qualifications stated
on p. 152 :—
‘The climate has unquestionably changed, and the surface vegetatio
equally. The presence of grass, superseding moss, of itself would mate-
rially influence frost-penetration, but with the drying up of the country,
owing to many causes (uprising of the land, &c.), the frost-penetration
would be less. The surface vegetation is, in my opinion, a more
important factor than water.’
He quotes Indian testimony as well as comparison of records to prove
that the rivers open about a week earlier and close about a week later
than they did 50 years ago.
hemo
DEPTH OF PERMANENTLY FROZEN SOIL IN THE POLAR REGIONS. 157
The Committee are indebted to Dr. J. Rae for the following commnu-
nication :—The station in question is only a little north and east of No. 20
in the first report.
Ice in Grouwnd.—By Frederick C. Baker, Binscarth, Manitoba.—
Twenty-three observations taken in the prairie lands of Manitoba.
Approximate position—lat. 50° 40’ N., long. 101° 20’ W.; east of
Assiniboine river.
@. How deep does frost penetrate the ground, and how is depth
affected by greater or less quantity of snow on ground ?
A. On May 20 last year (1886) frost was found whilst digging a cellar
5 feet below surface. High ground near a prairie. In June 1883, whilst
digging a cellar of the Binscarth Company’s store, frost was met with at
a depth of 9 feet.
On April 20 last year (1886) we drove fence-posts 2 feet into ground
without touching frost.
Cannot say exactly how far depth of snow affects penetration of frost,
but our creek got frozen tothe bottom this winter (1886-87) for want of
a good supply of snow on first ice ; therefore suppose that want of,snow
on ground would facilitate the deeper penetration of frost.
Dr. Rae adds here :—‘ From my own knowledge, the bottom of pools
which have been in winter frozen to the bottom, remain solid ice for a
long time after much of the ice is thawed out of the land not covered by
water.’
Q. Have you heard of or seen any frost in ground in autumn ?, If so,
how far down in the earth has it been ?
A. Never heard of any of the old stock of ice remaining so long.
@. At what time of the year does the ground become quite free from
frost ?
A. If you mean for farming operations, ploughing can generally be
got at between April 10 and 15.!
Q. How far have you usually, in your district, to dig for water ?
A. Everything depends upon the locality. When shale is known to be
underground, water is sure to be got when it is reached, and good water
too; seams of shale vary as to their depth. Wells range from 9 to 200
feet in depth. A well of the latter depth (200 feet) has just been dug at
Birtle (March 1887), on the Manitoba and N.W. Railway, through all
clay; but it is on the high banks of the Birdtail river or creek, where a
person would expect to have to go deep. At Binscarth station the well
is 84 feet deep through clay ; this is also near the banks of a creek My
well is now 61 feet, also on the bank, with the creek 64 feet below. We
struck a very slight spring at this depth, which gives us only about six
inches of water, through a hard clay. We intend going down until a
good spring is reached, which we expect to find below the level of the
creek, at least. So much for the deep wells.
I know lots of wells about here from 9 to 40 feet. I think one may
say the average is 30 feet.
There is never much difficulty in getting water at a reasonable depth
on the ordinary level prairie about here. During the summer of 1883 we
used water from a well not over six feet deep, but that was not a dry
ear.
4 Q. Do you know any explanation of the working of the willow in
finding springs ?
} That is not what was meant.—[J. RAE.]
158 REPORT—1887.
A. Both the openings of the well of Birtle and Binscarth were found
by this method, and a number of others.!
This evidence that Rhabdomancy has sincere believers in the Canadian
prairies is not without curiosity.
No expense has been incurred. The Committee recommend that they
be reappointed.
Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. Canon Carver, the
Rev. H. B. Groraez, Sir Dovetas Gatton, Professor Bonney, Mr.
A. G. Vernon Harcourt, Professor T. McKunny Huauss, the Rev.
H. W. Warson, the Rev. E. F. M. McCarruy, the Rev. A. R.
Varpby, Professor ALFRED NeEwton, the Rev. Canon Tristram, Pro-
fessor Mosetzy, and Mr. E. G. Ravenstern (Secretary), appointed
for the purpose of co-operating with the Royal Geographical
Society in endeavouring to bring before the authorities of the
Universities of Oxford and Cambridge the advisability of pro-
moting the study of Geography by establishing special Chairs for
the purpose.
Tur Committee beg leave to report that, at a meeting held on January
12, 1887, at the office of the Association, the following resolutions were
adopted :—
1. That the Committee fully recognise the educational value of the
scientific study of geography, and are agreed in thinking that geography
should occupy a place among the subjects of study at the Universities of
Oxford and Cambridge.
2. That the Council of the British Association be requested to give
their support to the representations and offers made to the Vice-Chan-
cellors of the two Universities by the Council of the Society in letters
dated July 9 and December 9, 1886, of which copies are enclosed.
London: July 9, 1886.
My pear Vicz-CHancetLor,—The Council of the Royal Geographical
Society have on two previous occasions (in 1871 and 1874) addressed
memorials, of which copies are enclosed, to your predecessors, urging
the claims of geography to further recognition by the Universities.
They have recently undertaken an inquiry into the position of geo-
graphy in English and Continental education. The result has been
unfavourable to England; and there has been a general concurrence of
testimony, according with their own strong conviction, that the most
effectual step towards the removal of our inferiority would be the estab-
lishment in our Universities of Chairs or Readerships similar to those
held in Germany—viz., by Karl Ritter at Berlin, and Professors Peschel
and Richthofen at Leipzig.
So much of human knowledge and human interests is bound up with
the relations and interaction of the physical conditions of the earth, the
study of which is practically embraced in geography, that there are few
1 This is scarcely an answer to the question. As both these wells were deep (84
and 200 feet) possibly water might have been found at these depths without the
‘ willow method’ being used to discover the spring.—[J. RAE. ]
ON THE PROMOTION OF THE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY. 159
branches of education which do not present a geographical aspect, and
which do not therefore offer a field for instruction in geography in com-
bination with some other subject.
It is unnecessary to insist upon the close connection of history and
geography, or upon the importance of a knowledge of the physical con-
ditions of the various regions of the world, to those who engage in the
conduct of our political affairs.
Without the comprehensive study of the earth, for which Englishmen,
as a people, have the largest opportunities and the least preparation,
physical students would fail to grasp the true character and relations of
the various sciences of observation, such as anthropology, geology, botany,
meteorology, &.
As geography already holds a statutable place in the studies of the
University, it seems to us that the courses of a Reader or Professor in
_ Geography might easily, by consultation with the examiners, be so
arranged as to fit in with the requirements of scholars in the Honour
_ Schools, their establishment serving rather to complete the present
University system of instruction than to introduce a new element
into it.
The Council of the Royal Geographical Society are so fully convinced
of the national importance of placing geographical science on a sound
footing, and of the necessity of some action at the Universities in order
to obtain this result, that they have approved the proposals submitted
by their Education Committee, enclosed herewith, which they beg you to
take into your favourable consideration, and to submit at the earliest
opportunity to the proper authorities.
The length of time for which the Society should undertake to make
a contribution out of its funds towards a Geographical Chair or Reader-
ship will be further considered whenever your University may be pre-
pared to accept our proposition in principle, and to discuss in detail the
plans proposed.
i
Believe me, my dear Vice-Chancellor,
Sincerely yours,
ABERDARE, President.
~
To the Vice-Chancellor of the University of Oxford.
December 9, 1886.
Sir,—The Council of the Royal Geographical Society have on two
previous occasions (in 1871 and 1874) addressed memorials, of which
copies are enclosed, to your predecessors, urging the claims of geography
to further recognition by the Universities,
They have recently undertaken an inquiry into the position of geo-
graphy in English and Continental education. The result has been un-
favourable to England; and there has been a general concurrence of
_ testimony, according with their own strong conviction, that the most
effectual step towards the removal of our inferiority would be the estab-
lishment in our Universities of Chairs or Readerships similar to those
held in Germany—viz., by Karl Ritter at Berlin, and Professors Peschel
and Richthofen at Leipzig.
So much of human knowledge and human interests is bound up with
the relations and interaction of the physical conditions of the earth, the
study of which is practically embraced in geography, that there are few
branches of education which do not present a geographical aspect, and
160 REPORT— 1887.
which do not therefore offer a field for instruction in geography in com-
bination with some other subject.
It is unnecessary to insist upon the close connection of history and
geography, or upon the importance of a knowledge of the physical con-
ditions of the various regions of the world, to those who engage in the
conduct of our political affairs.
Without the comprehensive study of the earth, for which English-
men, as a people, have the largest opportunities and the least preparation,
physical students would fail to grasp the true character and relations of
the various sciences of observation, such as anthropology, geology, botany,
meteorology, &c.
It seems to us that the courses of a Reader or Professor in Geography
might easily, by consultation with the examiners, be so arranged as to fit
in with the requirements of scholars in the Honour Schools, their esta-
blishment serving rather to complete the present University system of
instruction than to introduce a new element into it.
The Council of the Royal Geographical Society are so fully convinced
of the national importance of placing geographical science on a sound
footing, and of the necessity of some action at the Universities in order to
obtain this result, that they have approved the proposals submitted by
their Education Committee, enclosed herewith, which they beg you to
take into your favourable consideration, and to submit at the earliest
opportunity to the proper authorities.
The length of time for which the Society should undertake to make a
contribution out of its funds towards a Geographical Chair or Reader-
ship will be further considered whenever your University may be pre-
pared to accept our proposition in principle, and to discuss in detail the
plans proposed. A similar proposal has already been laid before the
Vice-Chancellor of Oxford, and is now under the consideration of the
Hebdomadal Council.
Tam, &c.,
(Signed) Ricuarp Srracuey, Vice-President.
To the Vice-Chancellor
of the University of Cambridge.
Final Report of the Committee, consisting of General J. T. WALKER,
General Sir H. Lerroy, Sir WILLIAM THomson, Mr. ALEX.
Bucuan, Mr. J. Y. Bucnanan, Mr. H. W. Bates, and Mr. E. G.
RAVENSTEIN (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of taking
into consideration the combination of the Ordnance and
Admiralty Surveys, and the production of a Bathy-hypso-
graphical Map of the British Islands.
1. Your Committee desire to draw attention to the absolute necessity
of making the contours of the land and of the adjoining ocean-bed to cor-
respond with each other. The method of drawing contours on the land
at one set of intervals and on the sea at another set is objectionable and
unscientific, more especially if the land and sea contours are referred to
different datum planes.
2. With reference to maps of particular localities on a larger scale,
| ON A BATHY-HYPSOGRAPHICAL MAP OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 161
a
your Committee are of opinion that the existing Ordnance maps should be
utilised. A combination of the Ordnance map with the Admiralty charts
presents no difficulties, and in doubtful or difficult cases a co-operation of
our two Survey Departments would speedily lead to satisfactory results.
Your Committee are happy to be able to report that Sir Charles Wilson,
the present Director of the Ordnance Survey, is arranging to insert
contours showing the configuration of sea bottom upon the contoured
edition of the one-inch Ordnance map, and is prepared to extend this
system to the whole of the Survey as soon as the means necessary for that
purpose shall have been granted by Government. This extension will
necessitate a certain amount of bathymetrical survey for delineating the
eds of lakes and river channels which has not yet formed part of the
operations of the Ordnance Survey.
3. With reference to general maps on small scales, the Secretary of
your Committee has prepared contoured maps of the Loch Linnhe region
(including Ben Nevis), and of the country on the Lower Medway, these
two districts presenting the extreme features which have to be taken into
consideration when preparing a bathy-hypsographical map of the whole
of the British Islands. These maps have been tinted experimentally.
4, Your Committee are of opinion that no adequate representation of
the vertical configuration of the lowlands, the lower hill ranges, and of
the ocean-bed can be obtained on the proposed scale of 1 : 200,000 unless
the contours, up to a height and down to a depth of 1,000 or 1,200 feet,
are drawn at intervals not exceeding 100 feet. In some localities it may
even become necessary to introduce supplementary contours. These
contours, whether they refer to the land or to the ocean-bed, would have
to be referred to a fixed datum level, such as that of the Ordnance Survey
of Great Britain.
In the more mountainous parts of the country, contours at intervals of
500 feet (as on the one-inch Ordnance map) appear to yield fairly satis-
factory results.
5. The larger lakes would have to be contoured as if they had been
drained, a faint horizontal shading indicating their character as lakes.
6. In some foreign maps (including the new one of the United States,
on a scale of 1 : 250,000) the contours are printed in brown, and by this
means a fair idea of the configuration of the land may be obtained,
especially if the intervals between the contours are small.
7. Your Committee are, however, of opinion that the intelligibility of
he proposed map would be very much increased by the employment of
tints. In selecting these tints it must be borne in mind that the map is
to embrace the whole of the British Islands with the surrounding seas,
and that a system of colouring suited to the highlands might utterly fail
when applied to the more gentle undulations of the greater part of the
country. It may at once be admitted that none of the systems of tinting
employed or suggested hitherto has proved thoroughly satisfactory.
8. The ‘natural’ method of tinting a map of this description, and
that which most readily suggests itself, is to apply one colour to the sea
and another to the land, and either to increase the depth of the tints
with the height (or depth), or to apply the deepest tints to the least
elevated parts of the country. A reference to Maps 1 and 2 proves that
very fair results are attainable by this method. In the one case the low-
lands and valleys are emphasised ; in the other the mountain-tops become
the ta prominent points on the map. When tinting a map in this way
1887. M
162 REPORT—1 887.
care must, of course, be taken that even the deepest tints do not obscure
the underlying outline and lettering.
In practice it will be found that this system of tinting, whilst tho-
roughly applicable either to a country of hills or to a mountain region, is
not well suited to a map embracing both low hill ranges and lofty moun-
tain chains. Ona map of the British Islands tinted on this system the
lower hill ranges would merge almost completely into the surrounding
plains, so as to be hardly recognisable.
9. Hence a ‘regional’ system of tinting has generally been applied
to maps of countries presenting great variety of surface configuration.
If we apply distinct colours, presenting striking contrasts, to each stratum
of elevation, as in Map 5, the various strata or regions can be readily
traced, but the map assumes a highly artificial appearance, and hence we
are unable to recommend this arbitrary system of colouring.
10. It appears to us that all practical and scientific requirements can
be met by limiting the number of regions to be distinguished by colours.
On Maps 3 and 6 only two regions are distinguished, viz., lowlands
up to 500 feet, and the more elevated parts of the country. The former
are shown in five shades of green, the latter in brown, growing paler
with the elevation.
On Map 7 three regions are distinguished, viz., lowlands up to 500
feet, shown in green; hills and uplands, between 500 and 1,000 feet,
shown in orange or red; and the mountainous regions, which are coloured
brown, the depth of colour increasing with the height.
A yellow tint is introduced on Map 8 for lowlands up to 100 feet ; the
effect, however, is far from pleasing.
We believe that a map tinted on the principle adopted in Maps 4 and
7 would best meet all reasonable requirements.
11. Should it be desired, for special reasons, to distinguish a larger
number of regions, the tints of Map 9 recommend themselves for adop-
tion. In this instance the colours of the prism have been employed in
regular succession, viz., brown, red, orange, yellow, and green for the
land, and blue, indigo, and eventually violet and lavender-grey for the
sea. This succession of colours, whilst presenting fair contrasts easily
caught by the eye, affords at the same time a natural gradation from
the darker to the lighter tints, supposing, of course, that the shades of
the various colours employed are judiciously selected.
It should be stated that the specimen maps which accompany this
report have been coloured by hand, and that maps tinted by the litho-
graphic process would present better facilities for identifying each tint by
a reference to the scale of colours attached to the map.
12. One other method of colouring hypsographical maps remains to
be attended to, viz., the employment of a double scale of tints—one for
valleys and level ground generally, the other for uneven ground. This
system has been applied with much effect to maps of the Alps, but its
application to the whole of the British Islands would undoubtedly lead to
confusion and indistinctness. In our opinion the contrast between even
and uneven ground could be more clearly exhibited by shading the hills
on the system in ordinary use.
13. The map should not be crowded with names. Altitudes and
depths—the former in upright, the latter in sloping characters—should
be freely and judiciously inserted.
14. Your Committee think it desirable that the bathy-hypsographical
Class Subjects 1882-3 1883-4 | 1884-5 1885-6
English . : . (Departments) 18,363 19,080 | 19,431 19,608
Geography . J “ii 12,823 12,775 12,336 12,055
| Elementary Science : 48 51 45 43
| History . ; s is | 367 382 386 375
| Drawing : . » = = = 240
Needlework . ‘ “ 5,286. 5,929 - > 6,499 6,809
ON A BATHY-HYPSOGRAPHICAL MAP OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 163
map should be accompanied by a general map, showing boundaries and
political features, and engraved on the same scale.
15. Your Committee are of opinion that the production of a bathy-
hypsographical map of the British Isles, such as they recommend, together
with that of an accompanying political map, both on the scale of 1 : 200,000
(about three miles to the inch), should be left to private enterprise, the
production of maps on a larger scale being entrusted to the Ordnance
Survey Department.
[A set of the nine maps designed by Mr. HE. G. Ravenstein in illustra-
tion of this report can be seen in the library of the Royal Geographical
Society. ]
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. J. H. GLApDsTonE
(Secretary), Professor ARMSTRONG, Mr. STEPHEN Bourne, Miss
Lyn1a BECKER, Sir JoHN Lussock, Bart., Dr. H. W. Crosskey,
Sir Ricwakp TrempLe, Bart., Sir Henry E. Rosco, Mr. James
Heywoop, and Professor N. Story MAsKkELYNE, appointed for
the purpose of continuing the inquiries reluting to the teaching
of Science in Elementary Schools.
Your Committee, in continuing their periodic reports upon this subject,
have to state that nothing has been done this year in the shape of actual
legislation, but that great advance has been made in regard to the public
appreciation of the importance of scientific and technical instruction.
The only alteration in the code of this year that at all bears upon the
matter is that drawing is withdrawn from the list of class subjects, which
gives an advantage to the claims of geography and elementary science
by removing a powerful competitor in those schools that can only take
two class subjects.
The return of the Education Department for this year shows that the
diminution previously noted in the teaching of science subjects still
- continues.
The statistics of the class subjects for four years are given in the
subjoined table, which shows an actual decrease in geography and
elementary science, notwithstanding the increase in the number of
departments examined. It will be seen that drawing begins to figure in
this year’s return, but the effect of it will be much more apparent in that
for next year.
| 18,524 19,137 19,266 19,522
M2
164 REPORT— 1887.
The return of passes in the scientific specific subjects on the individual
examination of children shows again an actual falling off in the total, and
either an actual or relative falling off in every subject except Mechanics,
A. ‘The large increase in the teaching of mechanics is due to the carry-
ing out of the peripatetic method of teaching it by the School Boards of
Liverpool, Birmingham, Nottingham, and London. The figures are given
in the following table :—
Specific Subjects 1882-3 | 1883-4 1884-5 1885-6
Algebra : . . (Children) | 26,547 | 24,787 25,347 25,393
Euclid and Mensuration A 1,942 | 2,010 1,269 1,247
Mechanics, A : : es 2,042 | 3,174 3,527 4,844
a B 5 : 5) — 206 239 128
Animal Physiology . 35 22,759 | 22,857 20,869 18,523
Botany . A = F + 3,280 2,604 2,415 1,992
Principles of Agriculture a 1,357 1,859 1,481 1,351
Chemistry . : : % 1,183 1,047 1,095 1,158
Sound, Light, and Heat oy 630 1,253 1,231 1,334
Magnetism and Electricity ,, 3,643 3,244 2,864 2,951
Domestic Economy . ‘ 19,582 | 21,458 19,437 19,556
82,965 84,499 79,774 78,477
Number of Scholars in Standards V., | 286,355 325,205 352,860 393,289
VI, VIL.
bo a ee
The rapid and serious decrease of attention paid to these science
subjects is shown by the percentage of children who have passed as
compared with the number of scholars that might have taken these
subjects, viz. :
In 1882-3 - : é : : 29:0 per cent.
wings Me. 1 260 oe
» 1884-5 226 5,
», 1885-6 19°9
and it must be remembered that when children have passed in two of
these subjects they count twice over.
Of course a good deal of scientific instruction is given in many element-
ary schools under the name of object lessons, not only in the infants’, but
also in the boys’ and girls’ departments ; but this is neither examined by
Her Majesty’s inspector nor encouraged by a grant except in the few
cases where it comes in as a class subject under the name of elementary
science. These object lessons are therefore very apt to be neglected.
The same remark applies in the case of pupil teachers. It may be worthy
of record that in the pupil teachers’ schools of the London Board natural
history and the principles of physics are tanght systematically in the
junior division, and this year an examination has been held by the Board
inspectors, and certificates of proficiency are to be awarded.
The Royal Commission appointed to inquire into the working of the
Education Acts of England and Wales issued their first report in August
last, from which it appears that two of the points of inquiry bore directly
upon the scope of this Committee. The one was ‘Elementary Science :
to what extent can it be taught in elementary schools?’ The other,
‘Technical Instruction : as grants are made in girls’ schools for needle-
Ee
ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 165
work, why not for mechanical drawing and handicraft in boys’ schools ?’
Another instalment of the evidence was issued in June last.
With reference to the first-named subject of inquiry, Her Majesty’s
inspectors and others who were examined appear not only of opinion that
elementary science is of importance, but some maintain, with Matthew
Arnold, that ‘ Naturkunde should be a necessary part of the programme.’
Most of them agree with the view expressed by this Committee, that the
absolute preference given to English as a class subject should be
abolished, and the choice thrown perfectly open.
With reference to the second subject of inquiry, the evidence of
Sir Philip Magnus, Dr. Crosskey, Mr. Hance (Clerk to the Liverpool
School Board), and others is distinctly in favour of it, showing that it is
both desirable and practicable.
It appeared to your Committee that the British Association should
contribute its views on these subjects to the Royal Commission, and they
accordingly passed a resolution to thateffect. This met with the approval
of the Council. Two of the members of the Committee have since given
evidence. The Rey. Dr. Crosskey enforced strongly the importance of
elementary science and technical instruction, and more recently Sir
Henry Roscoe, as the mouthpiece of the Committee, presented a series of
the reports of this Committee and a memorial emphasising the two points
of special importance, viz., as to the absolute preference given to English,
and as to the want of provision for ensuring the instruction of pupil
teachers in any kind of elementary science. The memorial also repeated
their approval of the recommendation of the Royal Commission on Tech-
nical Instruction, ‘That proficiency in the use of tools for working in wood
and iron be paid for as a specific subject, arrangements being made for
the work being done, so far as practicable, out of school hours. That
special grants be made to schools in aid of collections of natural objects,
casts, drawings, &., suitable for school museums.’
An important meeting of gentlemen interested in popular edu-
cation was held at the house of Mr. George Dixon at Birmingham
last November, at which some of your Committee were present. This
has led to several courses of action. The resolutions come to at this
meeting were adopted in the following form by the School Board for
Birmingham :—
I. That it is desirable that an enabling Bill should be introduced
into Parliament to give School Boards power to provide and maintain
schools in connection with the Science and Art Department, in which a
course of instruction extending over a period not exceeding three years
may be given in accordance with its regulations, such schools to be open
eed o scholars who have passed the sixth standard in public elementary
schools.
II. That in Article 113 of the Code of Regulations of the Education
Department, affecting evening schools, Paragraphs IV., V., and VII. of
sub-section (b) should be omitted. These paragraphs read thus:—‘IV. No
scholar may be presented for examination in the additional subjects alone.
V. No scholar may be presented for examination in more than two of the
additional subjects. VII. Scholars presented for examination in the
third or fourth standard, if they take one additional subject, must take
English ; if they take two, the second subject must be drawing, geography,
or elementary science.’
III. That the words in Article 13 of the Code of Regulations of the
166 REPORT—1887.
Education Department, which exclude scholars who have passed the
seventh standard from the number of grant-earning scholars, and also
the words in the Instructions to Her Majesty’s Inspectors which bear on
this part of the said article of the code, should be expunged.
These were afterwards brought before the Education Department
on December 14 by a deputation of the Birmingham, Leicester, and
Nottingham Boards, which was unofficially joined by members of the
London Board. Two Bills have been brought into Parliament, and have
passed their first reading. The one introduced by Sir Henry Roscoe
relates to technical education (day schools), and embodies the substance
of the above resolution, No.1. The other is introduced by Professor
Stuart, and relates exclusively to evening continuation schools, embody-
ing the substance of Resolution No. 2. Sir Richard Temple, the Vice-
Chairman of the London School Board, also propounded a scheme by
which technical and commercial instruction might be given in Board
Schools. Quite recently the Government have brought in a Bill dealing
with the same subject, which has been read the first time.!
In consequence of the Government having given notice of their inten-
tion to introduce such a bill this session, Mr. George Howell withdrew
the resolution of which he had previously given notice—‘That in the
opinion of this House it is essential to the maintenance and development
of our manufacturing and agricultural industries, in view of the rapidly
increasing competition of other nations, both at home and abroad, and in
consequence of the almost universal abandonment of the system of
apprenticeship, that our national scheme of education should be so
widened as to bring technical instruction, the teaching of the natural
sciences, and manual training within the reach of the working classes
throughout the country.’
The Brighton School Board has opened an ‘Organised Science School,’
under the sanction of the Science and Art Department; but the official
auditor has decided that all expenses incurred in respect of it are illegal,
and has surcharged the Board with the balance not covered by the
receipts. Appeal will be made to the Local Government Board against
the decision of the auditor.
The experiment in manual instruction at Beethoven Street School was
considered by the London School Board so successful that it was resolved
to open five more classes of the same kind, but they were suspended in
consequence of the official auditor having in the meantime surcharged
the Board with the costs incurred for the workshop and tools. Appeal
was made in November last against the surcharge of the auditor, but no
answer has yet been received from the Local Government Board. The
instruction is now being continued at Beethoven Street School, as a
specific subject, with the concurrence of the inspector. That this subject
finds favour with the elementary teachers is manifest from the fact that
eighty of them have availed themselves of the opportunity offered by the
City and Guilds of London Institute of qualifying themselves to give
instruction in the use of tools, and many more applied who could not be
accommodated.
The British and Foreign School Society have started a joinery class
* This Bill of Sir Wm. Hart Dyke was read a second time with little opposition,
though with some suggestions of amendment; but it had to be abandoned on
August 18, on account of press of business, It is intended, however, to proceed with
the Scotch Bill.
ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 167
_ at their Training College in the Borough Road, which is attended by all
the senior students, in which instruction is given both in the theory and
practice of carpentry.
The London School Board on May 19 adopted, by a very large
majority, the motion of the Rev. C. D. Lawrence— That, in the opinion
of this Board, it is necessary to introduce into elementary schools some
regular system of manual training,’ and the matter was referred to a
special committee on the subjects and modes of instruction in the Board’s
schools, which is now sitting.
The first examination by the Science and Art Department in the
alternative first stage of chemistry has taken place, and may be considered
to mark a great advance in the teaching of that subject. That the
teachers were eager for such instruction is evident from the fact that as
many applied for permission to attend Professor Armstrong’s course of
lectures established by the City and Guilds of London Institute as that
institution could be made to accommodate.
There has recently been formed a ‘ National Association for the Pro-
motion of Technical Education,’ which includes the leading politicians
who have given special attention to the subject of education. The
following are the objects proposed :—
(a) The promotion in our primary schools of the better training of
the hand and eye by improved instruction in drawing, in the elements of
science, and the elementary use of tools.
(6) The introduction of such changes in the present system of pri-
mary instruction as may be necessary to enable children to take advan-
tage of technical teaching.
(c) The more extended provision of higher elementary schools, where
technical education may be provided for those who are fit to take advan-
tage of it.
(d) The reform of the present system of evening schools, with special
provisions for the encouragement of technical (including commercial and
agricultural) instruction.
(e) The development, organisation, and maintenance of a system of
secondary education throughout the country, with a view to placing
the higher technical education in our schools and colleges on a better
footing.
(f) The improvement of the training of teachers, so that they may
take an effective part in the work which the Association desires to for-
ward.
The Association was inaugurated at a meeting at the Society of Arts
on July 1, when the Marquis of Hartington, who occupied the chair, was
appointed President of the Association.
From this review of the present situation it would appear that the
_ action of the Education Department tends positively to frustrate the
efforts of those who desire to increase the teaching of natural science in
elementary schools ; but your Committee do not believe that that is the
intention of those in authority, and feel sure that the great advance in
public opinion will ultimately lead to a knowledge of the elements of
Science being made an essential part of all State-aided education.
168 REPORT—]1 887.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Jon Luppock, Dr.
Joun Evans, Professor Boyp Dawkins, Dr. RopErtT Munro, Mr.
PeNGELLY, Dr. Henry Hicks, Dr. Murraeap, and James W.
Davis, appointed for the purpose of ascertaining and recording
the localities in the British Islands in which evidences of the
existence of Prehistoric Inhabitants of the cowntry are found.
(Drawn up by JaAMEs W. Davis.)
THE objects sought to be attained by your Committee consist in recording
and mapping the prehistoric remains of Great Britain; it is suggested
that such remains may be best tabulated under the following groups :—
1. Caves and caverns.
2. Camps and earthworks.
3. Lake-dwellings and crannoges.
4, Menhirs and dolmens.
5. Barrows, tumuli, and other burial-places.
In mapping the localities of such remains it is proposed that dis-
tinctive signs shall be used to indicate the several groups.
Localised groups of objects formed in connection with the above or
scattered over larger areas, such as flint or bronze implements, pottery,
and other similar objects, may be classified, as far as possible, according to
the following periods :—
1. Paleolithic stone age.
2. Neolithic stone age.
3. Bronze age.
4. Iron age.
It will be neither necessary nor possible to tabulate and record all
the instances in which flint implements have been found, but it is
suggested that records should be made of the discovery of hoards of
implements, of localities where manufactories have been found, and in
localities where the flints occur abundantly summarised lists of the
objects should be given.
The information may be tabulated under the following heads :—
. Object.
. Locality.
. Date when found.
. If previously described cite authority.
. Where the object is at present deposited.
. Remarks.
The objects and information regarding them being necessarily of a
very diversified character, it is difficult to suggest any form which shall
meet every case, and the recorders will use a discretionary power in
making their reports.
It is considered that the objects of the Committee may be best served
by securing the assistance of one or more competent persons who shall
represent a certain area-district or county, and record the occurrence in
that area of any prehistoric objects which have been or may be found.
The following gentlemen have kindly undertaken to form lists for the
areas appended to their names :—
rok Oo De
ON THE PREHISTORIC INHABITANTS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 169
Professor G. A. Lebour, for Northumberland and Durham.
Rev. J. Magens Mello, for Derbyshire.
Capt. L. P. Oliver, for Hampshire.
W. Cole, Esq., Hon. Sec. Essex Field Club, for Essex.
Dr. Henry Laver, for Essex.
Thomas Boynton, Esq., Norman House, Bridlington, for East
Riding, Yorkshire.
John Holmes, Esq., Leeds, for 8.W. Riding, Yorkshire.
Dr. Robert Munro, for West Scotland.
William Horne, Leyburn, for Wensleydale. ;
Rey. C. H. Drinkwater, Shrewsbury, for Salop.
Dr. Henry Hicks, Hendon, London, for Wales.
Charles P. Hobkirk, Dewsbury, for West Riding, Yorkshire.
Lists have been received from Mr. Thomas Boynton of bronze imple-
ments, mostly in his own collection, found in the Hast Riding of York-
shire, and from Mr. John Holmes a record of prehistoric objects has been
received ; both are appended. The remainder are being prepared, and
there is much valuable material promised for a future report.
Your Committee will be glad to receive assistance from those interested
in its objects, and consider that it is desirable that recorders should be
connected with it in every county or district in the kingdom.
I.—List of Bronze Implements, by Thos. Boynton, Bridlington Quay.
N.B.—The numbers in the first column refer tothe illustrations in Dr. Evans’
‘ Bronze Implements of Great Britain.’
Previous
Name of . 4 Where
Type Object Locality Date rs Deposited Length Remarks
16 | Celt . . | Staxton - | 1886 — Own Col-| 4gin. | Has ten waveson the blade
lection and cable pattern on
flanges.
12 a . . | Driffield .| — _— fa 33in. | The flanges are very
slightly raised, and it
has not the fluted pat-
tern as described in
Evans.
53 os 5 . | Gransmoor . | 1862 _ _ 7d in. | Weight 21 oz.
50 gfe ts. » cot Ulxome - | 1879 — A 5Zin. | Has very slight stop ridge
and plain blade.
55 Eh avieys - 3 _ — ee 5} in.
56 a + «| Kilham + | 1882 — cf 5gin. | There is a slight vertical
ridge on the lower part
of the blade.
76 | Palstave .| Leven |) — 5 5iin. | Pocketed at thestop ridge
4 in. deep.
55 | Celt . - | Barmston . | 1881 — a 43 in. | The edge has been ham-
mered out.
120 | Socketed Celt | Leven . -| — _— PA 4in. Rim imperfect.
116 a Gainsboro’ .| — — cb 4h in,
164 ” ” =F BR ” 33 in.
169 a Harpham . | 1876 — co 3 in.
125 a Hutton-Hang} — —_ os 33 in.
195 ee Ulrome - | 1877 — * 3 in.
136 is Skipsea 1885, == = 43in. | The chevron pattern is
Brough much closer than the
Winwick specimen, and
it has four horizontal
lines on each side, like
138, Evans’ ‘ Ancient
Bronze Implements of
Great Britain.’
a4 Spear-head . | Ulrome . | 1860 _ 3 4h in.
9
2 . sss . ” — » 62 in.
REPORT—1887 A
Type
386
114
499
Name of
Object Locality
Date
Previous
Descrip-
tion
Where
Deposited
Length
Remarks
Spear-head . | Brigham
A - | Leven. .
a . | Skipsea
~ - | Carnaby .
oF . | Lake-dwell-
ing, Ulrome
Socketed Celt) Barmston
Button Near Bever-
ley
Earring .
Near Bever-
ley
” Ls ”
Bracelet
1880 |Evans,‘Br.
1885
188
188:
188
North Burton| 1876
Inpts.,’
p. 327
0 es
2 ==
6 —
Own Col-
lection
63 in.
as 74 in.
» 42 in.
> 5} in.
2 4h in.
PA 2k in.
Dr. Evans has erroneously
described this as found
near Lowthorpe.
Imperfect, the socket be-
ing broken.
A portion of the shaft still
in the socket.
There are traces of orna-
mentation on the socket,
probably done with a
chisel or punch. Unfor-
tunately the boy who
found it struck it against
his plough and broke the
point.
Appeared to have been
struck into the floor of
the structure and broken
from the shaft; a portion
of the shaft (with the
pin) yet remains in it.
Caught by the workman’s
spade and broken. ;
Found embedded in peat
near the supposed site of
a lake-dwelling. The top
of the socket has been
imperfectly cast, and it is
filled with fragments of
metal preparatory to re-
casting.
The loop spans the entire
diameter, and is bow-
shaped. Plain,increasing
in thickness downwards;
circular.
The bracelets are made of
wire, plaited, and were
purchased from Mr.Sum-
ner’s collection, Wood-
mansey, Beverley, de-
scribed as being found in
the locality.
II.—List of Objects fownd near Leeds, by John Holmes, Roundhay, near Leeds.
Reference to
previous De-
scription
Where De-
posited
1746 | Wardell, ‘ Anti-
Date
Object Locality when
Found
Lum. . Broughton —_
2. Brass lance ' - “his
3. Hone * oh of —
4. Hammer’ . “ —
5. Bone imple- oA —
ment *
6. Um. « Leeds .
7. Stone ham- cs z Sh Tey
mer
8. Socketed Bramham Moor
celts
Thoresby, ‘Du-
catus Leodien-
sis” p. 565
» DP. 566
tiquities of
Leeds, 1853
” ”
1709 | Thoresby, ‘ Du-
catus Leodien-
sis’
Remarks
British; 10 in. in dia-
meter.
3 in. in length.
Bluish-grey stone; 3 in. in
length.
6 in. in length; speckled
marble, polished.
Having holes bored in one
end, and pointed like a
bodkin at the other.
12 in. in height; British,
with rudely incised en-
circling rows of undula-
tions.
Found in the urn last men-
tioned ; both are figured
in the work cited.
5 or 6 in number; ploughed
up ; 3 to 43 in. in length,
1 to 23 in breadth.
1 Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5 were found inside the urn No. 1.
ON THE PREHISTORIC INHABITANTS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
Object
9.Celt .
10. Celt, &c. .
11. Bronze im-
plements
12, Spear-head .
13. Bronze wea-
pons
14, Palstave
15, Palstave .
16. Bronze dag-
ger
17. Bronze dag-
ger
18. Bronze Celt
19. Stag - horn
pickaxe
20.Socketed &
looped celt
(bronze)
21. Celt . .
22. Gold torque
23. Bronze celt.
24, Pottery
25. Bronze celt .
26, Flint spear-
head & ar-
row-heads
27.Urmm . fs
28. Dagger
29,Hammer .
30. Flint arrows,
&e.
31, Arrow-heads,
&e.
32. Hammer
33. Stone celt .
Locality
Bolton - in -Bol-
land
MixendenMoor,
near Halifax
Hunslet, near
Leeds
Hunslet :
Churwell, near
Leeds
Morley .
Churwell .
5 miles N.E. of
Wakefield
Stanley Ferry .
Wakefield, San-
dal Magna
Tikley .
Roundhay, near
Leeds
Yeadon
”
Wakefield
Oulton . :
Leeds c
Adel, nr. Leeds
Halifax . ‘
Leeds 3
Iikleymoor
Adel, nr. Leeds
. | Potter-Newton,
near Leeds
Shadwell .
TABLE II.—continued.
Date | Reference to
when| previous De-
Found scription
— | Thoresby, ‘ Du-
catus Leodien-
sis,’ p. 565
1776 |Whitaker,‘Loides
and Elmeti,’
p. 373
1881 | Holmes, ‘Proc.
Yorksh. Geol.
& Polyt. Soc.’
vol. vii. p. 405 |
|
1878 Ms 5 }
1846 » p. 406
— | Wardell, ‘ His-
torical Notes,’
p. 42, 1869
Holmes, op. cit.
p. 406
Holmes, ‘ Proc.
Yorksh. Geol.
& Polyt. Soc.’
vol. vii. p. 406
” ”
Denny, ‘Proc.
Yorksh. Geol.
& Polyt. Soe.’
Thoresby, ‘ Du-
catus Leodien-
sis,’ p. 565
F, A. Leyland,
*Rem. of An-
tiq. of York-
shire,” p. 26,
1855
Op. cit. p. 39
Where
Deposited
171
Remarks
Public Museum,
Leeds
Museum Lit.
and Phil. Soc.
Leeds
PublicMuseum,
Leeds
PublicMuseum,
Leeds
British Museum
Rev. R. Burrell,
Stanley, near
Wakefield
Museum of Lit.
and Phil. Soc.
Leeds
Public Museum,
Leeds
F. W._ Fison,
Esq., Iikley
Museum Lit. &
Phil. Soc.,
Leeds, and at
Public Mu-
seum, Leeds
Public Museum,
Leeds
7in. long, 24 broad; bronze
with lateral flanges ; se-
veral similar ones have
been found at Morley,
near Leeds.
A miscellaneous collection;
bronze, with stone and
other objects.
A hoard, consisting of 9
implements, under 10 ft.
6 in. of clay ; there are 8
of the palstave and | of
the socketed celt type.
l1mileS.E. of the preceding.
3 spears and 6 palstaves.
7 in. in length.
Similar to palstaves in No.
At a depth of 22 feet be-
neath silt, &c., with oak
trees.
Together with solid oak
canoe, now in the York
Museum.
58 in. long; early type,
finely palmate.
Others have been found
near the same place.
4in. long ; slightly flanged
and well patinated.
British; pierced at the
sides,
Basalts.
2 in. long, smooth, arrows
barbed.
3 in. long, 24 broad ; asso-
ciated with a number of
black oak piles near the
margin of the R. Aire.
Numerous flint flakes are
found, rarely associated
with arrow-heads.
Flakes, arrow-heads, scra-
pers, &c., in large num-
bers ; apparently a manu-
factory.
8? in. long by 3} thick;
two others found at same
place.
4in. by 2 in., beautifully
worked and finished.
172
“REPORT—1887.
TABLE II.—continued.
Date | Reference to Where
Object Locality when| previous De- Deposited Remarks
Found scription P
34. Stone celt .| Roundhay, near | 1884 — Mr. Buckton, | 4 in., cutting edge 24 in.
Leeds Leeds decreasing to 1} in.
35. * .| Patterton, near | — — Jno, Holmes, | Similar to the two prece-
Leeds Roundhay ding.
36. Flint imple-| Stanley Ferry, | 1860-| ‘Remains of An-| Rev. R. Burrell, | Large numbers of arrow-
ments ur. Wakefield | 1887 | tiq.in Yorksh.’| Stanley, near| heads, flakes, scrapers,
Leeds, 1855 Wakefield and other objects.
Report of the Committee, consisting of General Pirt-RIvErs, Dr.
BeppoE, Professor FLower, Mr. Francis Gatton, Dr. E. B.
TyLor, and Dr. Garson, appointed for the purpose of editing
a new Edition of ‘ Anthropological Notes and Queries, with
authority to distribute gratuitously the unsold copies of the
present edition.
Tue Committee found that the cost of printing and publishing the
first edition of ‘ Anthropological Notes and Queries’ was defrayed partly
out of the grant voted by the British Association for that purpose in 1874
and partly by General Pitt-Rivers, who edited the work. The first set of
copies printed was paid for by the Association, and was exhausted a few
years after publication. Additional copies being then required, they were
printed at the expense of General Pitt-Rivers, who generously placed
them at the disposal of the Association. It was for the distribution of
what remains of these copies that the Committee had to arrange. Fifty
of them have been placed at the disposal of the Anthropological Institute
of Great Britain and Ireland for gratuitous distribution to such persons
as the Council of that institute may deem advisable in the interests of
anthropological research. Prof. Flower and Dr. E. B. Tylor have also
undertaken to distribute copies to travellers and others willing and
desirous to supply information wanted for the scientific study of anthro-
pology at home. The Committee consider that the plan it has adopted
for the distribution of unsold copies is such as will make the work more
widely known than heretofore, and probably create a greater demand for
the new edition when it is published than there might otherwise be.
The Committee, after carefully considering the question of how the
preparation of the new edition can be most efficiently done, strongly
recommend that the work be entrusted to the Anthropological Institute
of Great Britain and Ireland. That being a body specially and perma-
nently organised for the purpose of advancing the various branches of
Anthropology, and, as such, having many facilities not possessed by a com-
mittee, as well as a Council which meets regularly, and at short intervals,
during the greater part of the year, it is peculiarly well fitted to carry
out the necessary arrangements for a thorough revision of the work, and
after it is published to bring it under the notice of those for whom it is
intended. The Committee have reason to believe that the Anthropological
ON ‘ ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES AND QUERIES.’ 173
Institute would be willing to undertake the task and to proceed with the
work during the ensuing winter.
The Committee have not required to draw any of the money placed at
its disposal last year by the Association, as its work has hitherto been
entirely that of making preliminary arrangements.
The Committee ask to be reappointed, and, as during the course of
next year money will be required for printing and publishing, they request
that the sum of 50/. be placed at their disposal for that purpose. The sum
asked for is the same as was contributed by the Association towards the
publication of the first edition in 1874.
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. E. B. Tytor,
Dr. G. M. Dawson, General Sir J. H. Lerroy, Dr. DaNrIEen
Witson, Mr. R. G. Hatisurton, and Mr. GrorGE W. BLoxam
(Secretary), appointed for the purpose of investigating and
publishing reports on the physical characters, languages, and
mdustrial and social condition of the North-western Tribes of
the Dominion of Canada.
Tue following ‘ Circular of Inquiry’ has been drawn up by the Com-
mittee for distribution amongst those most likely to be able to supply
information :—
At the meeting of the British Association at Montreal in 1884 the
subject of Canadian anthropology came frequently under public and
private discussion. The opinion was strongly expressed that an effort
should be made to record as perfectly as possible the characteristics and
condition of the native tribes of the Dominion before their racial pecu-
liarities become less distinguishable through intermarriage and dispersion,
and before contact with civilised men has further obliterated the remains
of their original arts, customs, and beliefs.
Two considerations especially forced themselves on the attention of
anthropologists at Montreal: first, that the construction of the Canadian
Pacific Railroad, traversing an enormous stretch of little known country
on both sides of the Rocky Mountains, has given ready access to a number
of native tribes whose languages and mode of life offer a field of inquiry
as yet but imperfectly worked; secondly, that in the United States, where
the anthropology of the indigenous tribes has for years past been treated
as a subject of national importance, not only have the scientific societies
been actively engaged in research into the past and present condition of
the native populations, but the Bureau of Ethnology, presided over by
the Hon. J. W. Powell (present at the Montreal meeting), is constituted
as a Government department, sending out qualified agents to reside among
the western tribes for purposes of philological and anthropological study.
Through these public and private explorations a complete body of infor-
mation is being collected and published, while most extensive series of
specimens illustrative of native arts and habits are preserved in the
museums of the United States, especially in the National Museum at
Washington. If these large undertakings be compared with what has
hitherto been done in Canada, it has to be admitted that the Dominion
174 REPORT—1887.
Government, while they have taken some encouraging steps, as by the in-
stallation of an anthropological collection in the museum at Ottawa, have
shown no disposition to make the study of the native populations a branch
of the public service. Anthropologists have thus two courses before them
in Canada—namely, to press this task upon the Government and to carry
it forward themselves. Nowit is obvious that agitation for public endow-
ment will not of itself suffice, as involving delay during which the material
to be collected would be disappearing more rapidly than ever. If, how-
ever, a determined attempt were at once made by anthropologists, result-
ing in some measure of success, public opinion might probably move in
the same direction, and a larger scheme might, before long, receive not
only the support of Canadians interested in the science of man, but the
material help of the Dominion Government.
On these and other considerations the General Committee of the
British Association appointed Dr. E. B. Tylor, Dr. G. M. Dawson, General
Sir J. H. Lefroy, Dr. Daniel Wilson, Mr. Horatio Hale, Mr. R. G. Halli-
burton, and Mr. George W. Bloxam (Secretary) to be a committee for
the purpose of investigating and publishing reports on the physical
characters, languages, industrial and social condition of the north-western
tribes of the Dominion of Canada, with a grant of 50/. This committee
the next year sent ina ‘ Preliminary Report on the Blackfoot Tribes,’
drawn up by Mr. Hale. Their action in other districts was, however,
much delayed by the difficulty of making plans by correspondence, and
the committee were reappointed at Birmingham in 1886, in the hope that.
during the ensuing year Mr. Hale might be able personally to visit some
of the tribes.
It has now been arranged to collect information, as far as possible, over
the vast region between Lake Huron and the Pacific, the materials thus
obtained being edited and presented in successive reports, as they shall
be from time to time received, by Mr. Hale, whose experience and skill
in such research are certified to by his volume embodying the ethno-
graphy of the Exploring Expedition under Captain Wilkes and by his
subsequent publications relating to Canada. As a means of obtaining
data, the present memorandum has been drawn up for circulation among
Government officers in contact with the native tribes, medical practi-
tioners, missionaries, colonists, and travellers likely to possess or obtain
trustworthy information. The results gained from the answers will be
incorporated with those of a personal survey to be made in some of the
most promising districts by the Rev. E. F. Wilson, who has been named
on the recommendation of Mr. Hale, and will act under his directions.
SuccEsTions FOR INVESTIGATION.
Physical Characters.—Tables of anthropological measurements é&e.
from Canada being extremely deficient, schedules drawn up by medical
men and other qualified anatomists and naturalists will be highly accept-
able. The following headings comprise the chief points on which infor-
mation is needed in this department: stature, girth, proportions of trunk
and limbs, cranial indices, facial angle, &c., brain capacity, peculiar bodily
forms and features, special attitudes and movements, muscular force, &c.,
colour of skin, eyes, and hair according to Broca’s colour-tables, form and
growth of hair, skin odour. Statistics are required as to age of maturity and
decline, periods of reproduction and lactation, longevity. Especial import-
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 175
ance attaches to the examination of mixed races, especially crosses of North
American Indian with European and African, the resemblances and differ-
ences between the offspring and the parent stocks, the number of generations
during which inherited race-characteristics are distinguishable, and the
tendency to revert to one or other of the ancestral types. Both as to
native tribes and cross-breeds pathological observations are of value, as
to power of bearing climate, liability to or freedom from particular
diseases, tendency to abnormalities, such as albinoism &c., and the here-
ditary nature of abnormal peculiarities. Medical men have also better
opportunities than others of observing artificial deformations practised by
native tribes, especially by compression of the skull in infancy. Pacific
North America has been one of the regions of the world most remarkable
for this practice among the Flatheads (thence so named) and various other
peoples ; so that it may still be possible to gain further information on two
points not yet cleared up, viz. first, whether brain-power in after-life is
really unaffected by such monstrous flattening or tapering of the infant
skull; and second, whether the motive of such distortion has been to
exaggerate the natural forms of particular admired tribes, or, if not,
what other causes have led to such ideas of beauty.
To those concerned in these inquiries it may be mentioned that the
* Notes and Queries on Anthropology’ issued by the British Association
. contains a series of Broca’s colour-tables, together with descriptions of
the approved modes of bodily measurement &c.!
Senses and Mental Characters.—With the bodily characters of the
Canadian tribes may advantageously be combined observations as to their
powers of perception and ratiocination. The acuteness of sight, hearing,
and smell, for which the wilder races of man are justly famed, may be
easily tested, these being capabilities which rude hunters display readily
and with pride, so that they may even serve as an easy introduction to
other measurements and inquiries which savages cannot see the reason of,
and reluctantly submit to. The observer’s attention may be especially
directed to settling the still open question, how far these sense-differences
are racial at all, and how far due to the training of a hunter’s life from
infancy. As to mental capacity, among the means of convenient trial are
to ascertain facility in counting, in drawing and recognising pictures and
maps, and in acquiring foreign languages. Evidence is much needed to
confirm or disprove the view commonly held that children of coloured
races (Indian, negro, &c.), while intelligent and apt to learn up to
adolescence, are then arrested in mental development, and fall behind the
whites. Few points in anthropology are more practically important than
this, which bears on the whole question of education and government of
the indigenes of America, living as they do side by side with a larger
and more powerful population of Huropean origin. No amount of pains
would be wasted in ascertaining how far mental differences between races
may be due to physical differences in brain-structure, how far the less
advanced races are lower in mind-power by reason of lower education and
circumstances, and how far the falling-off at maturity in their offspring
brought up with whites (if it actually takes place) may be due to social
causes, especially the disheartening sense of inferiority.
Language.—Introductory to the investigation of language proper are
1 This work is now out of print, and a new edition is being prepared by a Com-
mittee of the British Association, appointed in 1886.
176 REPORT—1887.
certain inquiries into natural direct means of expressing emotions and
thoughts. Preliminary to these are conditions of face and body which
are symptoms of emotion, such as blushing, trembling, sneering, pouting,
frowning, laughter, and smiles ; there being still doubtful points as to how
far all races agree in these symptoms, it is desirable to notice them care-
fully. They lead on to intentional gestures made to express ideas, as
when an Indian will smile or tremble in order to convey the idea of
pleasure or fear either in himself or some one else, and such imitations
again lead on to the pretences of all kinds of actions, as fighting, eating,
&c., to indicate such real actions, or the objects connected with them, as
when the imitation of the movement of riding signifies a horse, or the
pretence of smoking signifies a pipe. The best collections of gesture-
language have been made among the wild hunters of the American
prairies (see accounts in Tylor’s ‘Harly History of Mankind,’ and the
special treatise of Mallery, ‘Sign-language among the North American
Indians’). There is still a considerable use of gesture-language within
the Dominion of Canada as a means of intercourse between native tribes
ignorant of one another’s language, and any observer who will learn
to master this interesting mode of communication, as used in the wild
districts of the Rocky Mountains, and will record the precise signs
and their order, may contribute important evidence to the study of
thought and language. The observer must take care that he fully under-
stands the signs he sees, which through familiar use are often reduced to
the slightest indication ; for instance, a Sioux will indicate old age by
holding out his closed right hand, knuckles unpward—a gesture which a
European would not understand till it was more fully shown to him that
the sign refers to the attitude of an old man leaning on a staff. The
sequence of the gesture-signs is as important as the signs themselves, and
there is no better way of contributing to this subject than to get a skilled
sign-interpreter to tell in gestures one of his stories of travelling, hunt-
ing, or fighting, and carefully to write down the description of these
signs in order with their interpretations.
Coming now to the philological record of native languages, it must be
noticed that small vocabularies &c., drawn up by travellers, are useful as
materials in more thorough work, but that the treatment of a language is
not complete till it has been reduced to a regular grammar and dictionary.
As to several Canadian languages this has been done, especially by the
learned missionaries Fathers Barraga, Lacombe, Cuoq, and Petitot, who
have published excellent works on the Ojibway, Cree, Iroquois, and Atha-
pascan (Denedinjie) languages respectively ; while Howse’s Grammar is
a standard Algonkin authority, and it is hoped that the knowledge of
Mr. McLean and others of the Blackfoot language may be embodied in
a special work. On the other hand, the study of languages west of
the Rocky Mountains is in a most imperfect state. Nothing proves
this better than the volume of ‘Comparative Vocabularies of the Indian
Tribes of British Columbia,’ by W. Fraser Tolmie and George M.
Dawson, published by the Geological and Natural History Survey of
Canada. These vocabularies of the Thlinkit, Tshimsian, Haida, Kwakiool,
Kawitshin, Aht, Tshinook, and other languages are important contributions
to philology, well worth the pains and cost of collecting and printing ; but
the mere fact that it was desirable to publish these vocabularies of a few
pages shows the absence of the full grammars and dictionaries which ought
to be found. This want is felt even in districts where there are white
a”
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 177
missionaries using the native languages, and native teachers acquainted
with English, so that the necessary philological material actually exists,
and only the labour of writing it down is required to preserve it from
destruction. A general effort, if now made, would save the record of
several dialects on the point of disappearance. It is suggested by the
Committee that inquiry should be made for lists of words &c. hitherto
unpublished ; that the terms and phrases possessed by interpreters should
be taken down; that sentences and narratives should be copied with the
utmost care as to pronunciation and accent, and translated word by
word.
Particular attention is asked to two points in the examination of these
languages. Care is required to separate from the general mass of words
such as have a direct natural origin, such as interjections expressing
emotion, and words imitating natural sounds, as, for instance, the names
of birds and beasts, derived from their notes or cries. It is desirable in
such words to notice how close the spoken word comes to the sound
imitated, for resemblances which are obvious from the lips of the native
speaker are apt to be less recognisable when reduced to writing. It is
also of interest to notice the significance of names of places and persons,
which often contain interesting traces of the past history of families and
tribes.
An ethnographic map, based on language, and showing as nearly as
possible the precise areas occupied by the various tribes speaking distinct
idioms, is a desideratum, and, if properly completed, will be an acquisi-
tion of the greatest value. Several partial maps have been published,
mostly of the region west of the Rocky Mountains. Among these may
be specially mentioned two maps by Mr. W. H. Dall, given in the first
volume of the ‘ Contributions to North American Ethnology,’ published
by the United States Government—one of which relates to the tribes of
Alaska and the adjoining region, and the other to the tribes of Washing-
ton Territory and the country immediately north of it. These are con-
nected through British Columbia by the excellent map which accom-
panies the Comparative Vocabularies of Drs. Tolmie and Dawson. A
small map, by Dr. Franz Boas, in ‘ Science’ for March 25, 1887, with
the accompanying report, adds some useful particulars concerning the
coast tribes of that province. With the additions which different ob-
servers can supply for the various portions of the country, a complete
tribal and language map of the whole Dominion might soon be con-
structed. In forming such a map, it is desirable that the various lin-
guistic ‘stocks,’ or families of languages, completely distinct in grammar
and vocabulary, should be distinguished by different colours. Hast of
the mountains the number of these stocks is small, but west of them it is
remarkably large. Besides showing the distinct stocks, the map should
also show the several allied languages which compose each stock. Thus,
of the widespread Algonkin family, there are in the territories west of
Lake Superior at least three languages, the Ojibway, the Cree, and the
Blackfoot, all materially differing from one another. If, in the proposed
map, the Algonkin portion should be coloured yellow, the subdivisions in
which these separate languages are spoken might be marked off by
boundary lines (perhaps dotted lines) of another colour, say blue or red.
It would be proper to give the areas occupied by the different tribes
as they stood before the displacements caused by the whites. Following
the ae set by Gallatin in his Synopsis, it will be well to select
1887. N
178 REPORT—1887.
different dates for different portions of the map. The middle of the last
century might be taken for Ontario, Quebec, and the Hastern Provinces,
and the middle of the present century for the rest of the Dominion. If
each observer is careful to give the tribal and linguistic boundaries in
his own district, as he can learn them from the best informed natives and
from other sources, the separate contributions can be combined into a
general map by the editor of the report.
Arts and Knowledge-—The published information as to the weapons
and implements, clothing, houses, and boats, and the rest of the numerous
appliances of native life on both sides of the Rocky Mountains is not so
deficient as the knowledge respecting other matters already mentioned ;
and their intellectual state, as shown in such arts as the reckoning of
time, the treatment of wounds, &c., is also to some extent known from
books of travel. Still every observant traveller finds something in savage
arts which has escaped former visitors, and there are a number of points
on which further inquiry is particularly invited. Though the practical use
of stone implements has almost or altogether ceased, there are still old
people who can show their ways of making them, and inquiry may prob-
ably show that stone arrow-heads, hatchets, d&c., are still treasured as
sacred objects, as is the case among tribes in California, who carry in
their ceremonial dances knives chipped out of flint and mounted in handles
—relics of the Stone Age among their fathers. Notwithstanding the
general introduction of iron and steel tools by the whites, it is possible that
something may still be learnt as to the former use of native copper and of
meteoric iron (or iron supposed to be meteoric). With regard to native
weapons, the spliced Tatar bow being usual in this part of America (having
probably come over from Asia), it is desirable to examine farther the
modes of making and using it, the forms of arrows, &c. Any game-traps
on the bow principle, if apparently of native origin, are worth describing,
as possibly bearing on the early history of the bow. The art of cooking
by water heated by dropping in red-hot stones having been characteristic
of the western region, any traces of this should be noticed, while the
native vessels carved out of wood or closely woven of fir root &c. are
still interesting. The native mode of twisting or spinning thread or yarn,
and the manufacture of a kind of cloth, not woven but tied across like
that of New Zealand, require fuller description. Especial attention is
required to the ornamental patterns of the region, which are of notable
peculiarity and cleverness. To a considerable extent a study of them on
hats and blankets, coats and pipes, é&c., shows, in the first place, actual
representation of such natural objects as men or birds, or parts of them,
which have gradually lost their strictness and passed into mere ornamental
designs ; but the whole of this subject, so interesting to students of art,
requires far closer examination than it has yet received, and especially
needs the comparison of large series of native ornamented work.
Music and Amusements.—The ceremonial dances, especially those in
which the performers wear masks and represent particular animals or
characters, deserve careful description, from the information to be gained
from them as to the mythology and religion embodied in them. The
chants accompanying the dances should be written down with musical
accuracy—a task requiring considerable skill, though the accompaniments
of rattle and hollowed wooden drum are of the simplest. Several of the
games played among the Indians before the coming of the Europeans are
of interest from their apparent connection with those of the Old World.
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 179
This is the case with the ball-play, now known by the French name ‘la
crosse, which belonged to the EKuropean game familiar to the French
colonists. It is worth while to ascertain in any district where it is played
what form of bat was used, what were the rules, and whether villages or
clans were usually matched against each other. The bowl-game, in which
lots such as buttons or peach-stones blackened on one side are thrown
up, has its analogues in Asia; the rules of counting and scoring belong-
ing to any district should be carefully set down. It is in fact more diffi-
cult than at first sight appears to describe the rules of a game so as to
enable a novice to play it. Among other noticeable games are that of
guessing in which hand or heap a small object is hidden, and the spear-
and-ring game of throwing at a rolling object.
Constitution of Society—Highly valuable information as to systems of
marriage and descent, with the accompanying schemes of kinship, and
rules for succession of offices and property, has in time past been obtained
in Canada. Thus in 1724 Lafitan (‘Mceurs des Sauvages Amériquains,’
vol. i. p. 552) described among the Iroquois the remarkable system of
relationship in which mothers’ sisters are considered as mothers, and
fathers’ brothers as fathers, while the children of all these consider them-
selves as brothers and sisters. This is the plan of kinship since shown by
Mr. L. H. Morgan to exist over a large part of the globe, and named by
him the ‘classificatory system.’ J. Long also in 1791 gave from Canada
the first European mention of the Algonkin totem (more properly otem),
which has become the accepted term for the animal or plant name of a
clan of real or assumed kindred who may not intermarry; for example,
the Wolf, Bear, and Turtle clans of the Mobawks. These historical
details are mentioned in order to point out that the lines of inquiry thus
opened in Canada are far from being worked out. The great Algonkin
family affords a remarkable example of a group of tribes related together
in language and race and divided by totems, but with this difference,
that among the Delawares the totem passed on the mother’s side, while
among the Ojibways it is inherited on the father’s side. Some Blackfeet,
again, though by language allied to the same family, are not known to have
totems at all. To ascertain whether this state of things has come about
by some tribes having retained till now an ancient system of maternal
totems, which among other tribes passed into paternal and among others
disappeared, or whether there is some other explanation, is an inquiry
which might throw much light on the early history of society, as bearing
on the ancient periods when female descent prevailed among the nations
of the Old World. It is likely that much more careful investigation of the
laws and customs, past and present, of these tribes would add to the scanty
information now available. On the Pacific side of the Rocky Mountains,
where the totem system and female descent are strongly represented, such.
information is even scantier ; yet careful inquiry made before the passing
away of the present generation, who are the last depositories of such
traditional knowledge, would be sure to disclose valuable evidence. How
large a field for anthropological work here lies open may be shown by a
single fact. Among the characteristics of tribes, such as the Haidas of
Queen Charlotte’s Island, has been the habit of setting up the so-called
‘totem posts,’ which in fact show conspicuously among their carved and
painted figures the totems of families concerned, such as the bear, whale,
frog, &c. Such posts, which are remarkable as works of barbaric art,
are often photographed, and Judge James G. Swan, of Port Townsend,
n 2
180 REPORT—1887.
has published, in vol. xxi. of the ‘ Smithsonian Contributions,’ an interest-
ing study of them, as relating to episodes of native mythology, in which
the animal-ancestors represented are principal figures. More investiga-
tion is required to work out this instructive subject, and with the help of
the older natives will doubtless well repay the not inconsiderable trouble
it will cost.
Among the special points to be looked to in the condition of the
Canadian tribes both at present and previously to civilised influence may
be noticed the modes of marriage recognised—whether the husband enters
the wife’s family or clan, or vice versd ; what prohibited degrees and other
restrictions on marriage exist ; what is the division into families, clans,
and tribes ; and how far do totems or animal names answer this purpose ;
what are the regulations as to position of first or chief wife, household
life, separation or divorce; how relationship is traced in the female and
male lines; rules of succession to chiefship and inheritance of property.
It is desirable to draw up tables of terms of relationship and affinity
in the native language according to the usual sehedules, or by setting
down the relationships which a man and a woman may have for
three generations, upward and downward. In doing this it is desir-
able to avoid the ambiguous use of English terms, such as cousin,
uncle, and aunt, under which a number of different kinds of relation-
ship are confused, even brother and sister being used inexactly to express
whole brother and paternal or maternal half-brother, &c. In fact,
the published schedules of kinship are imperfect in this respect. It
is desirable to interpret each term into its strict meaning, expressed by
father and mother, son and daughter, husband and wife; for instance,
father’s father’s daughter, mother’s son’s wife, &c. This scheme of
relationship will often be found to constitute a classificatory system, as
mentioned above, and in respect of which it will be necessary to observe
the use of the term of relationship rather than the personal name as a
form of address, and the distinction between elder and younger brothers,
sisters, and other kinsfolk. Customs of avoiding certain relatives, as
where the husband affects not to recognise his wife’s parents, are of
interest as social regulations.
Government and Law.—When it is noticed how the system of chief-
ship, councils, &c., among the Iroquois, on being carefully examined by
visitors who understood their language, proved to be most systematic and
elaborate, it becomes likely that the scanty details available as to groups
of West Canadian tribes might be vastly increased. Such old accounts
as Hearne has left us of the Tinneh or Athapascans (whom he calls
Northern Indians), and Carver of the Sioux, are admirable so far as they
go; but in reading them it is disappointing to think how much more the
writers might have learnt had they thought it worth the trouble or that any
readers would care to know it. Even now, though old custom has so
much broken down, present and past details of savage political life may
be gained among the western tribes, on both sides of the Rocky
Mountains.
The prominent points are the distinction between the temporary war-
chief and the more permanent peace-chief; the mode of succession or
election to these and lower offices; the nature of the councils of old men
and warriors; personal rights of men and women of different classes ;
the rules of war and peace; the treatment of captives and slaves; the
family jurisdiction, with especial reference to the power possessed by the
————
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 181
father or head of the household and others ; the law of vengeance and its
restrictions ; the tribal jurisdiction in matters, especially criminal, concern-
ing the community ; the holding of land and other property by the tribe
or family; personal property, and the rules of its distribution and
inheritance ; the law of hospitality. The observer will in such inquiries
frequently come into contact with forms of primitive communism, not
only as to food, but as to articles of use or wealth, such as guns and
blankets, which are of great interest, as is the custom of obtaining social
rank by a man’s distributing his accumulated property in presents. All
these matters, and far more, are, as a matter of course, known with legal
accuracy to every grown-up Indian in any tribe which is living by native
rule and custom. In the rapid breaking-up of native society it remains
for the anthropologist at least to note the details down before they are
forgotten.
Religion and Magic.—The difficulty of getting at native ideas on these
matters is far greater than in the rules of public life just spoken of. On
the one hand the Indians are ashamed to avow belief in notions despised
by the white man, while on the other this belief is still so real that they
fear the vengeance of the spirits and the arts of their sorcerers. It is
found a successful manner of reaching the theological stratum in the
savage mind not to ask uncalled-for questions, but to see religious rites
actually performed, and then to ascertain what they mean. The funeral
ceremonies afford such opportunities; for instance, the burning of the
dead man with his property among Rocky Mountain tribes, and the practice
of cutting off a finger-joint as a mourning rite, as compared with the actual
sacrifice of slaves for the deceased, as well as the destruction of his goods
among the Pacific tribes. Here a whole series of questions is opened up—
whether the dead man is considered as still existing as a ghost and coming
to the living in dreams, of what use it can be to him to kill slaves or to cut
off finger-joints, why his goods should be burnt, and so on. In various
parts of America it has long been known that funeral rites were connected
with the belief that not only men but animals and inanimate objects,
such as axes and kettles, had surviving shadows or spirits, the latter
belief being worked out most logically, and applied to funeral sacrifices,
by the Algonkins of the Great Lakes. It is probable that some similar
train of reasoning underlies the funeral ceremonies of the Rocky Moun-
tain and Columbian tribes, but the necessary inquiries have not been
made to ascertain this. More is known of the native ideas as to the
abode of the spirits of the departed, which is closely connected with the
theory of souls. There is also fairly good information as to the pre-
valence in this region of the doctrine, only just dying out in the civilised
world, of diseases being caused by possession by devils, that is, by the
intrusion of spirits into the patient’s body, who convulse his limbs, speak
wildly by his voice, and otherwise produce his morbid symptoms. Books
of travel often describe the proceedings of the sorcerer in exorcising these
disease-demons ; and what is wanted here is only more explicit information
as to the nature of such spirits as conceived in the Indian mind. Even
more deficient is information as to how far the ghosts of deceased rela-
tives are regarded as powerful spirits and propitiated in a kind of ancestor-
worship, and the world at large is regarded as pervaded by spirits whose
favour is to be secured by ceremonies, such as sacred dances, and: by
sacrifices. The images so common on the Pacific side are well known as
to their material forms, but anthropologists have not the information
182 REPORT—1 887.
required as to whether they are receptacles for spirits or deities, or merely
symbolical representations. The veneration for certain animals, and
prohibition to kill and eat them, partly has to do with direct animal-
worship, but is mixed up in a most perplexing way with respect for the
totem or tribe-animal. In fact, many travellers, as, for instance, Long the
interpreter, already mentioned, have confused the totem-animal with the
medicine-animal, which latter is revealed to the hunter in a dream, and
the skin or other part of which is afterwards carried about by him as a
means of gaining luck and escaping misfortune. Above these lesser
spiritual beings greater deities are recognised by most tribes, whether
they are visible nature-deities, such as Sun and Moon, Heaven and Earth,
or more ideal beings, such as the First Ancestor, or Great Spirit. There
is still great scope for improving and adding to the information
already on record as to the religious systems of the tribes of the
Dominion, and hardly any better mode is available than the collection
of legends.
Mythology——As is well known, most Indian tribes have a set of
traditional stories in which are related the creation of the world, the
origin of mankind, the discovery of fire, some great catastrophe, especially
a great flood, and an infinity of other episodes. Such, for instance, are
the legends of Quawteaht, taken down by Sproat among the Abts, and
the Haida stories of the Raven published by Dawson. These stories,
written down in the native languages and translated by a skilled interpreter,
form valuable anthropological material. It is true that they are tiresome
and, to the civilised mind, silly; but they are specimens of native language
and thought, containing incidentally the best of information as to native
religion, law, and custom, and the very collecting of them gives
opportunities of asking questions which draw from the Indian story-
teller, in the most natural way, ideas and beliefs which no inquisitorial
‘cross-questioning would induce him to disclose.
In studying the religion and mythology of the various tribes, and
also their social constitution, their arts, their amusements, and their
mental and moral traits, it is important to observe not only how far
these characteristics differ in different tribes, but whether they vary
decidedly from one linguistic stock to another. Some observers have
been led to form the opinion that the people of each linguistic family
had originally their own mythology, differing from all others. Thus the
deities of the Algonkins are said to be in general strikingly different
from those of the Dakotas. Yet this original unlikeness, it is found, has
been in part disguised by the habit of borrowing tenets, legends, and
ceremonies from one another. This is a question of much interest. It
is desirable to ascertain any facts which will show whether this original
difference did or did not exist, and how far the custom of borrowing
religious rites, civil institutions, useful arts, fashions of dress, ornaments,
and pastimes extends. Thus the noted religious ceremony called the
‘sun-dance’ prevails among the western Ojibways, Crees, and Dakotas,
but is unknown among the eastern tribes of the Algonkin and Dakota
stocks. It would seem, therefore, to be probably a rite borrowed by
them from some other tribe in the vicinity of those western tribes. The
Kootanies of British Columbia, immediately west of these tribes, are
said, on good authority, to have practised this rite before their recent
conversion by the Roman Catholic missionaries. If it is found, on
inquiry, to have prevailed universally among the Kootanies from time
EE
EE O_—_
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 183
immemorial, the presumption would seem to be that this tribe was the
source from which the others borrowed it. Careful inquiry among the
natives will frequently elicit information on such points. Thus the
Iroquois have many dances which they affirm to be peculiar to their own
people. They have also a war-dance which differs in its movements
entirely from the former. This dance they declare that they borrowed
from the Dakotas, and the statement is confirmed by the name which
they give it—the Wasiasé, or Osage dance.
Apart from the mythological legends, the genuine historical traditions
of the different tribes should be gathered with care. In obtaining these
it must be borne in mind that, commonly, only a few Indians in each
tribe are well informed on this subject. These Indians are usually chiefs
or councillors or ‘medicine men,’ who are known for their intelligence,
and who are regarded by their tribesmen as the record-keepers of the
community. They are well known in this capacity, and should always
be consulted. Ordinary Indians are frequently found to know as little
about their tribal history as an untaught English farm labourer or French
peasant commonly knows of the history of his own country. This fact
will account for the mistake made by some travellers who have reported
that the Indians have no historical traditions of any value. More careful
inquiry has shown that the Iroquois, the Delawares, the Creeks, and
other tribes had distinct traditions, going back for several centuries.
These are often preserved in chants, of which the successive portions or
staves are sometimes recalled to mind by mnemonic aids, as among the
Delawares (or Lenapé) by painted sticks, and among the Iroquois by
strings of wampum. The Creeks and the Dakotas kept their records by
means of rude pictographs painted on buffalo skins. Such records
should be songht with care, and the chants should be taken down, if
possible, in the original, with literal translations and all the explanations
which the natives can give. Colonel Mallery’s memoir on ‘ Pictographs
of the North American Indians,’ in the Fourth Annual Report of the
United States Bureau of Ethnology, and Dr. Brinton’s volume on ‘ T'he
Lenapé and their Legends,’ might be referred to as aids in this inquiry.
Tt would be very desirable that the music of these chants should be taken
down by a competent musician.
Conclusion.—In this brief series of suggestions some published works
relating to the Canadian Indians have happened to be mentioned, but
many more have been left unnamed. These, however, are not left un-
noticed, but every available publication is now consulted for anthropological
purposes, and those who collect information in reply to the present
circular may feel assured that all evidence contributed by them will be
duly recognised in the study of savage and barbaric culture, which
furnishes data so important for the understanding of the higher civilised
life.
The Rey. E. F. Wilson has furnished the Committee with the follow-
ing report of his proceedings :—
Report on the Blackfoot Tribes. Drawn up by the Rev. Edward F. Wilson,
and supplementary to that furnished in 1885 by Mr. Horatio Hale.
Before proceeding with my report I would like just to say, by way of
explanation, that I have been working nineteen years among the Ojibway
Indians of Ontario as a missionary, have two institutions for Indian
184 REPORT—1887,.
children at Sault Ste. Marie, and during the last three summers (since
the C. P. Railway was opened) have been visiting the Cree, Saulteaux,
Sioux, and other tribes in Manitoba and the North-West, in the hope of
inducing those Indians to send some of their children to our institution.
Last summer six Sioux boys and six Ojibway boys from the north-west
came to us, and this summer I have succeeded in bringing down two
young Blackfeet from their prairie home at the foot of the Rockies. We
have in our homes at present 52 Indian boys and 27 Indian girls. Mr.
Hale, hearing of my projected visit to the Blackfeet Indians, asked me to
act in his place in furnishing the following report; and, as I am quite
unused to this sort of undertaking, I hope that any blunders I may make
in my style of writing or in the putting together of the material which
came into my hands will kindly be overlooked. I think I may vouch
for it that whatever I have offered in the following pages is the result
either of what I have seen with my own eyes or have gained from the lips
of reliable Indians or from missionaries living on the spot.
The Blackfoot Indians, as Mr. Hale mentioned in his report of 1885,
consist of three tribes, united in one confederacy, speaking the same
language, and numbering in all about 6,000 souls. The common name by
which they call themselves is Sokitapi, the prairie people. Siksikaw,
Blackfeet, is a title given to the northern tribe by those living in the
south (i.e. the Bloods and Péigans) on account of the black earth, which
soils their feet; where the Bloods and Péigaus live (50 miles or so to the
south) the land is gravelly or sandy, so that their feet are not made black.
The Bloods call themselves Kéinaw (meaning unknown). The Péigans
call themselves Pekaniu (meaning unknown). By the white people they
are all called, in a careless way, Blackfeet.
WHENCE THEY CAME.
Chief Crowfoot (Sapomakseka), the head chief of the whole confederacy,
with whom I had a long and interesting interview, was very positive in
asserting that his people for generations past had always lived in the same
part of the country that they now inhabit. He entirely scouted the idea
that they had come from the Kast, even though I cautiously omitted any
reference to the theory that the Crees had driven them. ‘I know,’ he
said, ‘the character of the soil in all parts of this country. The soil of
Manitoba I know is black, but that proves nothing, for this soil where we
are now living is black also, and hence our friends to the south call us
Blackfeet : our true name is “‘ Sokitapi,” the prairie people.’ In answer
to further inquiries, Chief Crowfoot said that there were no people west
of the Rockies in any way related to them. His people crossed the
mountains sometimes to trade with the British Columbia Indians, but
their language was quite different, and they were entire strangers to them.
He informed me, however, that there were a people a long way to the
south in the United States who were related to them, and spoke the same
language as they did. One of his wives, he said, came from that tribe.
The woman was present in the teepee, and he pointed her out and ordered
her to tell me what she knew. I questioned and cross-questioned the
woman closely, the Rev. J. W. Sims, who has been four years among the
Blackfeet, and is well acquainted with their language, interpreting for
me. The information I drew from the old woman appeared to me most
interesting. She said it was a journey of about thirty days’ distance, and,
ee
————EOe
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 185
by putting together certain names which she mentioned and the character
of the country as she described it, we found that the tribe to which she
alluded lived in New Mexico or Arizona, and were in close contiguity to
the domains of the curious Moqui Indians, who build their houses on the
cliff tops. The name of the tribe she said was ‘ Nitsipoie,’ and they were
near to a people called Moqui-itapi (the Moqui people). It may possibly
be from this quarter that the Blackfeet derive their worship of the sun.
While travelling among them I saw very few people, whether men or
women, who had not suffered the loss of one or more fingers (some as
many as four) cut off at the first joint, the severed member having been
offered to the sun. The second chief under Crowfoot is named Natzisi-
apiw (old sun), and these people during my short visit (six days) did me
the honour of adopting me into their nation and giving me the name
Natusi-asamiu, which means ‘the sun looks upon him.’
I thought it might further help to decide whence these Blackfeet
originally came if I asked what other hostile tribes they had fought with.
These are the names of the tribes:—The Kostenai, or River Indians; the
Flatheads ; the Kouminétapi, or Blue Indians; the Matuydkawai, or
grasshouse Indians; the Aksémini Awaksetcikin, or gum getters (said to
rub gum on the bottom of their feet instead of wearing moccasins) ; the
Apiksinamai, or flat bows; the Pitséksinditapi, or Snake Indians; the
_ Piétapi, or strangers; the Atokipiskaw, or long earring Indians; the
Istsitokitapi, or people in the centre; the Awdksaawiyo, or gum eaters.
All these they say either live or used to live in and about the Rocky
Mountains. Their enemies have also been the Sioux, Crows, Crees, and
Nez Perces.
The fact that these people neither build boats nor canoes, nor eat fish,
seems to me another proof that they have not come from the Lake region
to the east.
Some OF THEIR TRADITIONS.
Chief ‘Big Plume,’ another minor chief in the Blackfoot camp, gave
me the following information. I have put it down word for word as it
was interpreted to me :—
How Horses originated.—A long time ago there were no horses. There
were only dogs. They used only stone for their arrows. They were
fighting with people in the Rocky Mountains. Those people were Snake
Indians. They took a Blackfoot woman away south. There were a great
number of people down there, and they tied the woman’s feet, and tied
her hands behind her, and a cord round her waist, and picketed her to a
stake near the big salt water. And they cried across the lake, ‘See,
here is your wife!’ Then they all retreated and left her. These big lake
people did not see her at all; but the waters rose and covered her; and
when the waters abated, there was no woman there, but there were lots
of horses. The Snake Indians caught these horses, and that is how horses
began.
The Creation.—It had been long time night. Napi the Ancient said,
‘Let it be day,’ and it became day. Napi made the sun, and told it to
travel from east to west. Every night it sinks into the earth, and it
comes out of the earth again the next morning. Napi is very old every
winter, but he becomes young every spring. He has travelled all along
the Rocky Mountains, and there are various marks on the mountains
which remain as relics of his presence. Napi said, ‘We will be two
186 REPORT— 1887.
people.’ He took out the lower rib from his right side, and he said, ‘ It
shall be a woman,’ and he let it go, and he looked on it, and he saw a
woman. He then took a rib from the left side, and said, ‘ Let it be a boy,’
and it was a boy. Napi also made a number of men with earth. Napi
and the men went one way, the woman went another way. And the
woman made women of earth in the same way as Napi had made men.
At Morley, opposite the Rev. John Macdougall’s house, and down the
river, said Big Plume, there is a little stream ; they call it the men’s
krail or enclosure; on one side of the stream is a cut bank and big stones;
this was the men’s boundary, beyond which they were not to pass. They
used to hunt buffalo, and drive them over the cut bank; they had plenty
of meat; they had no need to follow the buffaloes ; they hid themselves
behind the big stones and uttered a low cry; this guided the buffalo to the
cut bank, and when they were over the bank they shot them with their
stone arrows and ate the meat.
One day Napi went out ona long journey. He got as far as High
River. There he saw lots of women together, with the woman made from
his rib, who acted as their chief. There were no men and no boys there.
There were a great number of teepees. Napi was alone. He told the
women, ‘I have come from the men.’ The woman chief said to him, ‘ Go
home; bring all your men; stand them all on the top of this stone ridge ;
our women shall then go up one by one, and each take a man for a
husband.’ When they were all up there, the chief woman went up first
and laid hold on Napi to take him, but Napi drew back; the chief woman
had put on an old and torn blanket, and had rubbed all the paint off her
face, and had no ornaments on her. Napi did not like her appearance,
and so he rejected her addresses. He did not know that she was the
chief woman. She then went back to the women, and, pointing to Napi,
said, ‘ Don’t any of you take him.’ She then dressed herself in her best,
and painted her face, and put on her ornaments, and went and chose
another man. All the women did the same. Thus all the men had wives,
and Napi was left standing alone. The chief woman then cried aloud,
‘Let him stand there alone like a pine tree.’ Napi then began breaking
away the stony ridge with his heel, till there was only very little of it
left. The woman then shouted, ‘Be a pine tree.’ And the pine tree
stands there now alongside the big stones, and they still call it the
women’s kraal. Napi’s flesh is in the pine tree, but his spirit still
wanders through the earth.
The boy made from Napi’s left rib fell sick. The woman took a stone
and threw it in the water, and she said, ‘If the stone swims the boy will
live,’ but the stone sank and the boy died; and so all people dienow. If
the stone had floated, all people would have lived.
First Appearance of the White Man.—The Sai-u (Sioux?) were the first
‘to see the white men. The Crees first brought the news to the Blackfeet.
That was the first time they saw axes and knives and tobacco. The Crees
said they heard guns firing. The white men were shooting buffaloes with
guns. The white men took them to their teepees, and showed them their
guns and knives. The white men came from the far east. They call
white men ‘ Napi-ikun,’ but cannot tell whether this has any reference to
Napi the Ancient.
Eclipse of the Sun.—They say that the sun dies, and that it indicates
that some great chief has either just died or is just going to die.
How their Arts originated.—Napi gave them the first specimens of
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 187
every article they use, and they make the copies. They never try to
make new things, unless instructed to do soin adream. Nevertheless,
: they make no difficulty about using things made by white people.
:
RELIGION.
These people, notwithstanding that missionaries of the Roman
Catholic Church, the Church of England, and the Methodist Com-
munions have been working among them for several years past, are still,
nearly all of them, with scarcely an exception, heathen. They seem to be
more than any other north-western tribe opposed to adopting either the
customs or religion of the white man. Their own system of religion has
been already well explained by Mr. Hale, but I may perhaps add a few
additional items of interest which I have gathered. The following is from
the lips of ‘ Big Plume ’ :—
‘Young men go up on to a hill, and ery and pray for some animal or
bird to come to them. Before starting out they wash themselves all
over and put off all their clothing and ornaments except a blanket. For
five or six days they neither eat nor drink, and they become thin. They
take a pipe with them and tinder and flint, and a native weed or bark for
smoking (not matches or tobacco). When the pipe is filled they point
_ the stem to the sun and say, “Pity me, that some animal or bird may
come to me!’’ Then they address the trees, the grass, the water, and the
stones in the same manner. If anyone crosses their path while so
engaged, they call aloud to them to warn them off, saying, “I am living
alone. Do not come near!” While in this state they dream, and what-
ever animal or bird they see in their dream becomes their medicine or
guardian through life. They are told also in a dream what description
of herbs or roots to gather as their medicine, and this they collect and
put carefully into a small bag to keep as a charm. They also kill the
animal that they dreamed of, and keep its skin as a charm. No one
knows what is the medicine they have gathered; it is kept a profound
secret. The little bag is kept in the tent, and no one may touch it but
the owner. Other Indians would be afraid to meddle with it. There is
no particular age for young men to engage in the above rites. They start
away in the evening—only in summer. Some go of their own accord,
others are bid to do so by their fathers or elder brothers. If they do not
go, any sickness that comes upon them will certainly be fatal, or if shot
by an enemy they will certainly die.’
Tasked ‘ Big Plume’ what did he think became of the soul after death ?
He replied that the souls of all Blackfeet Indians go to the sandhills north
of the cypress hills (this would be to the east of the Blackfeet country).
What proof had he of that ? I asked. ‘ At a distance,’ said the chief, ‘ we
can see them hunting buffalo, and we can hear them talking and praying
and inviting one another to their feasts. In the summer we often go
there, and we see the trails of the spirits and the places where they have
been camping. I have been there myself, and have seen them and heard
them beating their drums. We can see them in the distance, but when
we get near to them they vanish. I cannot say whether or not they see
the Great Spirit. I believe they will live for ever. All the Blackfeet
believe this ; also the Sarcees, Stonies, Atsinds, and Crees. The Crees
after death will go to the sandhills farther north. There will still be
fighting between the Crees and the Blackfeet in the spiritual world. Dogs
188 ; REPORT—1887.
and horses go to the sandhills too; also the spirits of the dead buffaloes.
We hand these traditions down to our children. We point out to our
children various places where Napi slept, or waiked, or hunted, and thus
our children’s minds become impressed.’
From inquiries I have made I am able to corroborate all that Mr.
Hale has said in regard to the sun-dance and the amputation of their
fingers and offering them as a sacrifice to the sun. Both these customs,
on account of the cruelties accompanying them, are now discountenanced
by the Canadian Government, and are likely before long to fall into disuse.
GOVERNMENT &c.
The head chief of the Blackfeet is Sapomakseka (Crowfoot). Under
him are ‘ Old Sun,’ chief of the Northern ‘Blackfeet ; ‘Red Crow,’ chief
of the Bloods; ‘ North Axe,’ chief of the Péigans. Over the southern
Blackfeet, Crowfoot is himself the chief. There are also three or four sub-
chiefs belonging to each tribe. The position is not hereditary, but, it
would seem, is assumed by the man who possesses the most talent, tact,
and power in the tribe. At present the chiefs are paid a small annual
pittance by Government, 5/. to each principal chief, and 3/. each to the
minor chiefs. The power of a chief is not defined ; he is in fact a czar,
possessing an absolute control over his camp. He has a number of young
men employed as soldiers to execute his commands. If the order is given
to move camp or to come to a sun-dance and any disobey, the soldiers go
round and violently strip the covering from the teepee, tear it to pieces,
scatter the contents to the winds, and sometimes kill the dogs.
Tomahawks are not much used by the Blackfeet Indians. Their
weapons are a bow and arrows, a war club, a scalping-knife, and, for
defence, a circular skin shield ornamented with feathers. Many of them
have also guns or rifles. They will not fight openly, and are regarded by
other tribes as cowardly. Their tactics are to avoid the enemies’ missiles
by jumping from side to side, and they have a hole in the shield through
which they look and try to deceive the enemy by putting the shield to one
side of their persons, as a mark to aim at, instead of in front. They
always scalp their foes when fallen.
I cannot discover that there are any clans or gentes existing among
these people, but they have various orders connected with their dances, and
those who belong to the order have to imitate the bird or animal whose
name they have adopted as their totem. Young unmarried men wear a
badge of beadwork and hair on each shoulder to show that they are
available for marriage.
Foon.
The principal and almost only food of these people was formerly
buffalo meat. A man would eat on an average about eight lbs. a day.
White people who have lived on it say that there is something very appe-
tising about buffalo meat, and that it is no hardship to eat it alone without
bread or vegetables. It is very different, they say, to eating beef. The
Blackfeet Indians have never grown any corn, and never knew what bread
was until the white man came among them. When in camp it was
usually their practice to boil the meat, but when out on a hunting expedi-
tion, without any cooking utensils, they would put the flesh on spits
before a large fire and roast it. It used to be a common practice to make
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 189
youths who had not yet been on the warpath hold the meat while roast-
ing, so as to harden them to endure suffering. The Indians never used
salt before the white man came, but are now very fond of it. They seem
to like strong-tasting food, and sometimes make a mixture of strong black
tea, tobacco, and ‘ pain-killer,’ which they drink with great relish. The
Blackfeet seldom, if ever, eat fish; I am told that they regard it as
unclean. They preserve berries by drying them in the sun. Principal
among these are the Saskatoon berry and the choke cherry. The latter
they pound up when newly picked, and spread it on sheets of parchment
to dry; then they powder it up and put it in skin bags. It is called by
white people ‘choke cherry pemmican,’ and is said to be very palatable.
These people, in common with other nomad Indians, usually eat two meals
a day—breakfast and supper. The latter, however, is often prolonged to
an indefinite period after a successful day’s hunt. When they get up in
the morning the first thing they do is to wash. The Blackfeet Indians
are very particular about this, even in the depth of winter. For soap
they use ashes from the fire, and they usually rinse out their mouths
thoroughly with water. It is acommon practice to take a deep draught
of cold water on first awakening in the morning. Directly after break-
fast the usual thing is either to move camp or to start on a hunting
expedition. The little fetish, or charm, shaped out of stone like some
animal or bird, and wrapped round with roots, herbs, clay, and beads, is
placed on end the night before, and in whichever direction it has fallen
that is the direction in which to look for the buffalo. The hunt occupies
the day, and in the evening, when work is over, they will eat a heavy
and long-continued meal. For the above information I am indebted
principally to the Rev. John Macdougall, of the Methodist Missionary
Society, who has for many years past been labouring among these and
neighbouring tribes of Indians. Now that the buffaloes are all gone, these
people would be forced to starve were it not for the Government rations
which they receive. Each individual receives one pound of good beef and
half a pound of flour per diem. The buffalo disappeared in 1879-80. Before
that time they might be counted by thousands. Their sudden disap-
pearance has never yet been satisfactorily accounted for. None now
remain in Canada, and only very few are to be found in the United
States.
MEDICINE.
I bad no opportunity of talking to the Blackfeet Indians themselves
about this, and had I done so they would probably have been unwilling
to reveal their secrets. 1 however gathered from Mr. Macdougall the
names of some of their most frequently used medicines. (1) Minweg
(Cree), a vegetable; little short sticks; a strong, pleasant aromatic
flavour, like celery; used for headache, catarrh; also for smoking.
(2) Bear root; tastes like liquorice; used for colic. (3) Rat food; a
flag root, with a sharp, pungent taste ; they grind it up and drink it like
hot tea; used for various diseases. Bleeding is done with a piece of
sharp flint fastened into a stick like a veterinary surgeon’s fleam. They
bind the arm till the vein is swollen, put the edge of the flint on the vein,
and strike it witha stick. Cupping is done by scarifying the part with
a flint or pricking it with needles and then drawing the blood to the
surface by sucking through a horn. Amputation of a limb is never
resorted to, but they will patch up a bad wound, and often succeed in
effecting a cure where an English surgeon would have amputated. These
190 REPORT—1887.
things are not done by the professional ‘medicine men,’ but by any man
or woman in the camp who is clever enough. The ‘medicine men’ resort
only to witchcraft in attempting their cures.
Dwetiines, Occupations, &C.
While sitting in ‘ Old Sun’s’ teepee I mentally took its dimensions
and noted down its contents. It was about sixteen feet in diameter on
the floor and about eighteen feet high in the centre, formed by fifteen
"poles, their feet on the line of the circle and their upper ends meeting in
a bunch at the top, the framework covered over with white tent canvas,
yellowed and browned with the smoke. In the centre was a circlet of
smooth stones, two and a half feet in diameter, forming the fireplace, and
over the fire was a tin pot, suspended by three sticks—gipsy fashion.
Overhead hung some pieces of dried beef on a string. The interior of
the teepee, unlike those of the Crees and Sioux, was divided into four
partitions by sloping back-resters, called ‘stopistikiska,’ and made of
wickerwork ; their basis, about twenty inches wide, rested on the ground,
and their tops, which tapered to three or four inches in breadth, were
secured to the sloping poles which supported the tent about four feet from
the ground. The teepee also had its sides lined with quilts and blankets
to a height of four feet from the ground, which gave it a warm, comfort-
able appearance. Back in the angle made by the sloping sides of the
tent were packed away all the valuables which the family possessed—
blankets, packsaddles, guns, &c.—and on the front of these partitions,
towards the fire, a neat finish was made to each couch by a clean-shaved
pole lying on the ground. The teepee had no floor, only the grass of the
prairie, but the couches between the partitions were carpeted with skins
and blankets. All the feather ornaments, headdresses, shields, buckskin
dresses, &c., were neatly folded up and packed away in skin cases made
to contain them. There was an air of neatness and cleanliness about the
whole arrangement. ‘Old Sun’ exhibited to us some of his valuables.
There was a circular shield, twenty inches in diameter, made of skin
stretched over a wooden frame and ornamented with red cloth and crim-
son-dyed feathers. On the face of the shield was a rude picture of a
buffalo and some marks like this which we were told represented
the buffalo trail. We were also shown a skin helmet, mounted at the top
with a buffalo horn studded with brass nails. The helmet was one mass
of weasel tails, hanging in every direction, and the point of the horn,
which pointed backwards and downwards, had a tuft of crimson feathers.
There was also a very elaborate headgear for a horse to wear when going
to battle. One part of it covered the head like a mask, holes being left
for the eyes, and was fitted with a pair of horns; the other part was a
sort of banner, to be suspended to the lower jaw ; both parts were profusely
decorated with red, yellow, and blue feathers. We were told that such a
headdress as this was, in Indian estimation, worth a couple of ponies.
These Blackfeet seem to live in teepees such as I have described in the
summer, but in the winter it is now their custom to dwell in little log
huts plastered over with mud, which they have learnt to construct, in
imitation, it is thought, of the lumberer’s shanty. It seems to me, how-
ever, after seeing models of the Moqui and Pueblo Indians’ houses at the
Smithsonian Institute, that it is quite as likely that they had this style
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 191
of dwelling previous to the coming of the white man. I enclose a sketch
of both the exterior and interior of one of these mud huts. The sides are
made of logs, plastered over with mud; the roof is almost flat, made of
poles, covered first with prairie grass and then earth. There is always a
fireplace, not built into the wall, but standing a little way from it. It is
just a-long, mud, rudely constructed chimney, reaching from a foot-above
the roof down to the ground inside the hut, a little widened at the base,
and an arched opening in front for the fire. Sometimes the hut has a
little square hole for a window, but more often the only aperture is the
doorway. The floor is partly covered witb poles, flattened on the upper
surface. A few sticks stuck into or between the logs serve for pegs. The
occupants of two or three teepees usually unite for the winter, and occupy
one mud hut between them. The hut would not be more than twelve by
eighteen feet in size.
CLOTHING AND ORNAMENTS.
. A man’s dress consists of a breech cloth; a pair of leggings made of
coloured blanket or cloth, with a fringe of long loose strips down the outer
side of each leg ; a pair of buckskin moccasins ornamented with beads ;
and over his shoulders a white, scarlet, or parti-coloured blanket. This
is his whole dress. He wears no hat. His blanket is wrapped round his
shoulders, or up around his head, or slipped down to his waist—according
to the temperature of the weather or the whim of the moment. His neck
is encircled by several necklaces, made of twisted brass wire, large bright-
coloured beads, bones of a deer’s tail, the small bones of a deer’s foot, or
the claws of a bear. He has earrings, made of brass, wire, beads, or
shell (brought from the Pacific coast). Generally he wears a coil or so of
brazen rings on his fingers. Sometimes bis wrists or arms are tattooed,
but not often. Usually his face is painted either with crimson or ochre.
He does not wear feathers in the head as a general thing. These are kept
rather for special occasions. His hair is allowed to grow long and is
plaited ; usually a plait on each side of the face, hanging vertically, and
one or two more plaits at the back; the hair is sometimes twisted into a
knot at the point known as the scalp-lock. A man has the greatest ob-
jection to his hair being cut short ; he wears it, it would seem, in defiance
of his enemies, and boasts that none shall cut it off while he is alive.
The dress of the woman resembles that of her European sister, but is very
roughly constructed and shorter in the skirt. She has no under garments,
but wears leggings like the men and a blanket over her dress. Her neck,
arms, fingers, and ears are profusely ornamented with brass, bead, and
bone rings. Little children under four years of age sometimes have
nothing on but a little apology for a shirt, reaching barely to the waist,
but their little arms and necks are loaded with ornaments and charms.
There is never any indecent exposure on the part of either sex. They are
always particularly careful about this. The women, however, make no
attempt to hide their breasts when suckling their infants.
The Blackfeet women do not use board cradles for their babes like the
Ojibways. Board cradles are seldom seen west of Lake Superior. The
Blackfeet babes are wrapped up warmly and laced into a bag, which the
mother carries on her back.
A chief’s dress sometimes has marked on it a record of his exploits.
Chief Crowfoot bade us count the black lines on his buckskin rope—they
amounted to 143—and he said that he had been in 148 fights.
192 REPORT—1887.
MANUFACTURES.
The Blackfeet have the name of being a lazy people, and, beyond
making the ornaments which adorn their persons and the saddles for
their ponies, they certainly do not seem to do much in the way of manu-
facture. They make no boats or canoes, no baskets, no articles of metal.
The most that they attempt to do in this line is to fashion a few rude
wooden bowls and platters, and horn spoons, and plaited ropes.
MARRIAGE.
The Blackfeet are polygamous, some of the men having as many as
ten wives. Girls mature early, and become wives as early as at twelve
years of age, and are sometimes mothers at fourteen. The families average
five or six children. The women are strong, and undergo but little incon-
venience in bringing their children into the world. Mr. Macdougall has
known a woman when travelling to go aside from the trail, and in little
more than an hour to be on her pony again with an infant in her arms.
There is no marriage ceremony; so many ponies or other presents are
given by the intending husband to the parents of the bride, and then he
takes her away.
GAMES AND AMUSEMENTS.
The Blackfeet have no regular ball game. They sometimes engage in
feats of strength, wrestling, and foot-racing, but their chief amusements
are horse-racing and gambling. For the latter of these they employ dice
of their own construction—little cubes of wood, with signs instead of
numbers marked upon them—these they shake together in a wooden dish.
Holding some small article in the hand under a blanket, and rapidly
passing it from one hand to another, leaving the second party to guess in
which hand it is left, is another method. They have*also a little wheel
made of metal, covered over with cloth, three or four inches in diameter,
which they roll towards two arrows stuck in the ground, and see towards
which it will fall the nearest. There is always heavy betting on a horse
race; each chooses his favourite, and then they begin throwing down in
a heap the articles they wish to stake—blankets, guns, lines (representing
ponies), tents, &c. Those who win take the whole heap, and divide it
among themselves; even their wives are sometimes gambled away in this
manner.
BuRIAL OF THE Drab.
The Blackfeet never bury their dead below the surface of the soil ;
they think it a horrible practice to expose the body to the worms and
vermin that live in the ground. They either deposit the bodies on a hill-
top or place them inatree. Perhaps, being sun-worshippers, their idea is
that the sun should still shine upon them after they are dead. When the
body is placed in a tree it is wrapped in blankets and put up on a rudely
constructed platform. When deposited on a hill-top or cliff a rough
kind of box is made, three times the size of a coffin, and into it are put,
besides the body, all that belonged to the dead person—blankets, saddle,
gun, kettles, and everything; it is then nailed down, dragged by a pony
on a travoie to the appointed spot, and there deposited. Sometimes a few
logs are piled round it to keep off the dogs and wild animals, but often
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 193
_ nothing is to be seen but the rudely made box and some kind of a flag
_ flying above it. When a chief dies his favourite pony is brought and
killed at the door of his tent; his body is then laid out in his own teepee,
often in a sitting position, and all his possessions are spread around him;
the edges of the tent are wedged down and secured with stones, then the
_ teepee is closed and left. This is called a ‘death teepee.’ Travellers
sometimes come across a solitary teepee with no signs of life around it,
_ and on looking in are horrified to see a decomposing corpse. There is
_ great grief when a person dies. The people weep and howl over the dead
_ bodies of their friends. It is usual also for the friends to throw their
_ blankets and other valuables into the coffin before it is closed. A mother
4 has been known to wrap her last remaining blanket around her dead infant,
_ even in the middle of winter. Mr. Tims told me of a father walking
_ several miles barefoot through the snow to bury his little child, having
_ given his moccasins to the dead infant. The graves of the dead are
_ visited by the living; the people often come and hold a feast with the
(| departed spirits, setting aside portions of food for them. The Blackfeet
seem to have no dread of ghosts or spirits, and do not mind handling
dead bodies. It is not an unusual thing for a ‘ death teepee’ even to be
rifled by those bent on plunder.
PuysicAL DEVELOPMENT.
I picked ont, as nearly as I could, an average Blackfoot Indian—his
name was Boy Chief, aged 44 or 45—and measured him from head to foot,
the result being as follows :—
1. Height from ground to vertex :
i Ay meatus auditorius
3. 5 5 chin . y : 1 ii
4. » - top of sternum 7h
a ” ” elbow (bent) 52
5. » : umbilicus 48
“WG as of fork . E F 4 ‘ 7 3
12. 9 “ tip of finger (hanging vertically) 2h
> 7 knee-cap joint .
16. Circumference of chest at armpit .
os mammez
at haunches .
”
18. Fh 4
26. Span—outstretched arms 11
27. ,, _ thumb to middle finger 2
28. Length of thumb : : 2
rr foot . : 104
13. Height— sitting on the ground : ;
30. Head—greatest circumference (over glabella)
BFROrPNOOCOUNNNHENNWWhREOAAS
e
AY 5 length of face, root of nose to chin 45
Be are meatus audit. over head to chin . 24
Sow 5, ,, root of nose to inion ‘ . : 7 P 2
33) ae » over glabella : : 1 02
The hair of the Indians is black, straight, somewhat fine, and abundant
quantity ; it grows to about 3 feet in length, and is put up in large
laits, one on each side of the face, and generally one or more at the
ack. There is no hair on the face; if any grows it is very little. The
ew stray hairs that appear are plucked out with small iron tweezers. The
colour of the skin, not exposed to the air, is No. 21 (two other persons
agreed with me on this point), and of the eye, No. 1 towards the centre,
and No. 16 towards edge of iris.
1887. re)
194 REPORT— 1887.
INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY.
As no children of this tribe have, as yet, been induced to remain even
for a few consecutive weeks at school, it is impossible to report at present
on this head. I have, however, succeeded in inducing two boys to return
with me to our Shingwauk Home(1,500 miles distant from their reserve),
and it will be very interesting to see in the course of a year what progress
they make, in comparison with boys from other tribes. The Blackfeet
have all the appearance of being an intelligent people; and I saw two
boys at the mission who were evidently beginning to understand intelli-
gently the use of the letters of the alphabet, for they had several times sug-
gested to Mr. Tims alterations in his mode of spelling Blackfoot words ;
one of them, I found, had in his possession a list of Blackfoot and English
words, evidently trying to teach himself the English language. Like all
other Indian tribes, they learn very quickly to write a good hand, and
many of the children show a taste for drawing.
Tur LANGUAGE.
I entirely endorse Mr. Hale’s view that the Blackfeet language is a
branch of the Algonkin stock, having a near affinity to that spoken by the
Ojibways and Crees ; the grammatical construction is almost precisely the
same, and a good many of the words are similar. The Sioux language,
spoken by some 2,000 Indians in the North-West Territory, is an entirely
distinct language, both in structure and vocabulary, but the other lan-
guages south of the Saskatchewan Valley, viz. Cree, Blackfoot, Saulteaux,
and Ojibway, are clearly all of one common stock. Following are a few
words in the three principal tongues which bear some resemblance to one
another :—
Ojibway Cree Blackfoot
Man inini iyiniw nin’nau
woman ikwe iskwew » akew
name ijinikésowin ijihikasowin inikasim
my daughter nidanis niténis niténa
wood o7 tree mitik mistik mistis
I nistoa, -ni niya, -ni nin, -ni
thou kistoa, -ki kiya, -ki kin, -ki
yes A A A
my leg nikad niskat nokatsi
kettle akik askik iska
But it is in the grammatical construction of the three languages that the
resemblance is the most marked. I shall notice eleven points in order :—
1. The distinction between animate and inanimate plurals.
In Ojibway animate nouns make their plurals in g, ig, og ; inanimate in an, wn.
In Cree % 3 oh, ak = a
In Blackfoot ,, x AD, Wy O00 3 lis in esto, isto.
Tn all three languages an animate noun must be followed by an animate
verb, and vice versd.
2. In all three languages a distinction is observed between the first
person plural exclusive and the first person plural inclusive. Thus :—
Ojibway Cree Blackfoot
Our house (excl.) niwigiwdéminan niwaskahiganinan nokoanan
(incl.) kiwigiwaminan kiwaskahiganinau kokoanan
”
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 195
3. Distinct endings to express the second third person and the third third
person im @ sentence.—This rule is peculiar to Ojibway and Cree, but I
could not ascertain whether or not the Blackfeet observe the same
distinction.
4. The adjective 1s placed before the nown in these three languages. In
some other Indian languages, e.g. Sioux, it follows the noun.
5. All adjectives (with the exception of adjectival particles used only
as prefixes) can be transformed, with but very little alteration, into im-
personal verbs; thus (Blackfoot) agsi, good; agsiu, itis good. This is
similar to Ojibway and Cree.
6. Personal and possessive pronowns.—The first and second persons,
singular and plural, as shown in Mr. Hale’s report, have the same first
syllable and nearly the same plural endings in all three languages, viz.
ni, 1, my; ki, thou, thy. Plural endings—nan, we, our; wa, waw, you,
your.
7. The objective.case of the pronown is in all three languages embodied
in the verb. Thus :—
Ojibway Cree Blackfoot
I love thee kisagiin kisakihitin kitakomimo
thou lovest me kisagi kisakihin kitakomimok
thou lovest us kisagiimin kisakihinan kitakomimokipinan
he loves us nisagligonan _nisakihikonan nitakomimokinau
8. The simplest form (and often the root) of the verb is the singular
imperative. Thus :—
Ojibway Cree Blackfoot
Sleep thou nibin nipa okat
give it to him mij miy kGkit
9. The negative is double, as in the French language :—Ojibway,
kawin... si; Blackfoot, mat .. .at or ats. In Cree they have only the simple
word namdwiya or nama before the verb. Thus: I do not love him.
Ojibway, kawin nisagiasi; Cree, naméwiya nisakihew; Blackfoot,
ni-mat-takomimau-ats.
10. There is a distinct form for the negative imperative. Ojibway,
kego... ken; Cree, ekawiya or eka ; Blackfoot, mini or pint. Thus : Do not
give it. Ojibway, kego mina ken; Cree, ekawiya miy ; Blackfoot, mini
kukit.
11. An interrogative particle is used in all three languages. Ojibway,
ima; Cree, tev; Blackfoot, kat... pa. Thus: Are you happy ? Ojibway,
kiwawyendam ina? Cree, kimiyawatam tei ? Blackfoot, kikateagsitakipa ?
There may very likely be other analogies between these three
languages, but the above are as many as I have had time to inquire
into.
There are two sounds in the language which are difficult of pro-
nunciation, and students are undecided as to how best to write them.
(a) There is a sound between kr and is. I suggest writing it ke,
thus: nikcista, my mother.
(6) There is a sound between ch and ts. I suggest writing this te,
thus: teema? Where ?
In the following vocabulary the letters and sounds are pronounced as
follows: a as in father, d as in bat, e as in they, i as in pique, 7 as in
pick, o as in note, w as 00 in cool, ai as in aisle, aw as ow in COW, 2u as ew
in few, j as z in azure, g like ch in the German.
02
196
man
woman
boy
girl
infant
my father
my mother
my husband
my wife
my son
my daughter
my elder brother
my younger brother
my elder sister
my younger sister
Indian .
people
head
hair
face
forehead
ear
eye
nose
mouth
tongue
teeth
beard
neck
arm
hand
fingers
thumb
nails ©
body
chest
belly
female breast
leg
foot
toes
bone
heart
blood
town
chief
warrior
my friend
house
skin loage
kettle
bow
arrow
axe
knife
boat
moccasins
pipe
tobacco
sky
sun
REPORT—-1887.
Vocabulary of Blackfoot words.
nin’nau
akéw
sag’ komapi
akékoan
sitsiman
nin’na
nikcista
néd’ma
notokéman
nok6é-a
nitan’na
ni-is
niskan
nin’sta
nitakim
niitci-tapiwa
matapiwa
motokan
mokéiekinsin
mostéksis
moniis
mogt6kis
modpspi
moksisis
mah’di
matsini
mogpekists
imoyowasin
mokokin
mots imin
motcis
mokitsiix
omakokitsis
owot’anokitsix
mostom
mokikin
mokoan
tw’nikis
mo’katsi
modapisak
mokitsiix
ogkin
moskitsipap
Aapan
Akapioyis
nin‘nau
sodyiepitsi
nipia
napioyis
moyis
iska
nama
apsi
koksaki
istéan
Akiosatsis
-atsikists
akwiniman
pista’kan
namotak
natusi
moon
star
day
night
morning
evening
spring
summer
autumn
winter
wind
thunder
lightning
rain
snow
fire
water
ice
earth
sea
river
lake
valley
‘ prairie
mountain
island
stone
salt
iron
forest
tree
wood
leaf
bark
grass
pine
flesh
dog
butfalo
bear
wolf
fox
deer
elk
beaver
rabbit
horse
fly
snake
bird
egs
feather
goose
duck
fish
name
white
black
red
blue
kokumikésum (night-
light
kakatosi
ke’istikui
kokttyi
keiskanadtani
o’takuyi
motiiye
neptiye
moktiye
stuyé
sopttyi
kcistcikam
aipopam
so’talyi
kin’skwii
istci
ogké
kokuttyi
keakum
istciksipokogké
niyétagtai
omaksikimi
isteikim
sau-ké
netim’mo
mini
’okotéki
istciksipoko
mikskim
as’oaskwi
mistcis
mistcis
suydpokist
otokis
matuyis
pagtogki
ikcisako-
imita
eniwa
kidiyo
apisi
otdtuye
‘owattye
ponoka
kcistagki
’atcista
ponokamita
sosksisi
pitséksina
piksi
owaw
maimn’in
‘apspini
sa-Al
mam’mi
nimikasim
ksiksinam
siksinam
maksinaim
ktmuninatsi
‘ ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 197
yellow otoktinam nine pikso
green otskiinam ten keépo
big omakimi eleven kepo nitciképuto
small enakimi twelve kepo natcikoputo
‘strong skanitapi twenty natcippo
old napi thirty niippo
young, new mani ninety piksippo
good agsi one hundred kepippo
bad paképpi one thousand omaksi-kepippo
dead. eniu he eats ati-y1-u
alive sakiaitapi I eat nit-au-yi
cold stiiye he drinks aisimiu
this ‘amu I drink nitadisimi
that omak he runs aukskasiu
all konai he dances aiadipiu
many djkaiim he sings ninikiu
who taka he sleeps ai-dkau
far off piétsi he speaks eptyiu
near astotsim he sees ‘Asapiu
here anim he sees him nanuyéwaie
there omim he kills him initsiu-ai-e
to-day anok kcistcikui he loves him akomimiu-ai-e
yesterday matan’ni he sits itatipiu
to-morrow apinékwis sit down ‘apiit
yes a he stands itaipuyiu
no sa he goes itappo
one nitikskam I go nitai-itappo
two natokam go tappot
three nidkiskim he comes puaksipu
four nisoyim come puksiptt
five nisitci he walks awawakau
six n’awyl he works apotakiu
seven ikitsikam he steals dikomosiu
eight néniso
Notes by Mr. H. Hale on the Report of the Rev. E. F. Wilson.
Mr. Wilson having submitted to me his valuable report, I add a few
notes, comprising some facts which have come to my knowledge since my
report of 1885 was prepared.
In that report I suggested that the non-Algonkin element of the
-Blackfoot language, as well as their peculiar religious ceremony, the ‘ sun-
dance’ (which is not found among the eastern Algonkins), might have
been derived from some tribe west of the Rocky Mountains. The natives
of that region who are nearest to the Blackfeet are the Kootenais, a people
jn some respects of noteworthy and superior character.
Father De Smet, in his ‘Indian Sketches,’ describes them as ‘the
best disposed of all the mountain Indians.’ They are highly esteemed
among the traders for their good qualities, and particularly for their
scrupulous honesty. With this people the Blackfeet have had close
relations, in peace and war, from time immemorial. My intelligent cor-
respondent, Mr. J. W. Schultz, an educated gentleman, who has resided
for several years among or near the American Blackfeet, and has written
much about their usages and traditions, informs me that the Kootenais,
before their recent conversion by the Roman Catholic missionaries, prac-
tised the sun-dance. This he had learnt from Indians of that tribe.
He adds: ‘In old times, however, the Kootenais lived as much on this
side of the mountains as they did on the other.’ This accords with other
information which I have received to the same effect. As the Blackfeet
198 REPORT— 1887.
now occupy the country which the Kootenais formerly possessed, on the
east side of the mountains, it is clear that the Blackfeet must have ex-
pelled the Kootenais from that country, and very probably have con-
quered and absorbed some portion of the tribe. It is to this quarter,
therefore, that we should naturally look for the strange element in the
Blackfoot: language. We find, accordingly, that the word for ‘sun,’
which in the Blackfoot language is totally different from the correspond-
ing word in all other Algonkin tongues, bears an evident resembiance
to the Kootenai name of that luminary. In Blackfoot the word is natos
or natust; in Kootenai it is natanik. The words differ merely in their
terminations. There can hardly be a doubt that, when the Blackfeet
borrowed from their former neighbours their most peculiar and remark-
able religious ceremony, they borrowed also the name of the sun-deity to
whose worship it was devoted.
Two of the legends given by Mr. Wilson deserve notice in this con-
nection. He was informed that the Snake Indians first had horses, and
that these came out of the ‘big salt water’ which has tides. This event
is combined with another—that of the carrying away of a Blackfoot
woman to the south by ‘the snakes.’ The snakes are the Shoshonees.
This widespread people, whose bands wandered over a vast region, from
California to Texas, were in former days among the most inveterate
enemies of the Blackfeet. To the tradition related by Mr. Wilson some
facts may be added from the statements of Mr. Schultz. He mentions
that horses were first known to the Blackfeet about the beginning of the
present century, and that ‘they were stolen from the south.’ Putting all
these circumstances together, we are warranted in concluding that the
Blackfeet first obtained horses by capturing them from the Shoshonees
in a war which was kept in memory not only by this event, but also by
the fact that a Blackfoot woman was made prisoner and carried off b
the enemy. From the prisoners whom they made in turn the Blackfeet
learnt that the strange animals which they had taken came from the
great salt water. Horses were probably first known to the Shoshonees in
California, where they were introduced by the Spaniards in the latter part
of the last century. The Shoshonees would learn from the Spaniards
that the horses had come originally across the ocean. This information
passing from tribe to tribe over the continent reached the Blackfeet in
the shape of the myth which Mr. Wilson has obtained. What is chiefly
to be noted is that this myth, which by its form might be thousands of
years old, has yet unquestionably originated within less than a century.
This modern shaping of the Blackfoot mythological stories is also
apparent in the account of the making of the first woman and man from
the ribs of Napi. This portion of the creation myth, which does not
appear in the version furnished to me by Father Lacombe, is evidently a
novel feature, derived very recently from the missionary teachings.
We are now prepared to find an event of not very ancient history
involved, as may reasonably be conjectured, in the remarkable tradition
obtained by Mr. Wilson concerning the women who lived by themselves
in a district adjoining the land of the Blackfeet, and who finally took
husbands from among the latter. This story holds apparently an import-
ant place among the Blackfoot legends. A correspondent, who has paid
much attention to such subjects—Mr. George Bird Grinnell, Ph.D., of
New York (editor of ‘Forest and Stream ’)—sends it to me as he learnt
it from his Blackfoot (Péigan) guide during a hunting tour in the Far
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 199
West two years ago. In this form the story does not appear to have
anything directly to do with the creation. It becomes one of the many
tales in which the ‘Old Man’ (Napi) is represented as playing the fool,
and as tricked by other powers or by mortals. Inreference to his name,
which Mr. Wilson and others write Nap, and Father Lacombe Napiw,
and which Mr. Grinnell renders ‘Old Man,’ it may be mentioned that
Napi is an adjective, signifying ‘old.’ Used as a name, it might be ren-
dered ‘The Old One’ (in French, Ze Vieww; in German, Der Alte).
Napiw isa verbal form, used also as a name, and signifying, properly,
‘He who is old.’ © The following is the legend as told to Mr. Grinnell :—
‘As Old Man was going along he came to a big lodge, which was the
woman’s home. He went in. The women said to him, “Do you think
that you have men for husbands for us?” He said, ‘‘ Who is chief
here?”’ A woman replied, ‘‘ That woman behind is chief.’’ He said to
the chief woman, “ To-morrow let those women come to the valley. A
Péigan will be there, finely dressed, with leggings trimmed with weasel-
skin; very handsome is his wearing apparel.’’ The chief woman replied,
“ Let the others wait. Iam first chief woman; I will be the first to take
a husband.” Now Old Man wanted very much to have the chief woman
for his wife, although she did not look nicely. She had been making
dried meat, and her hands and arms and clothing were covered with
blood and grease. The next day the chief woman came to the valley,
and there she found many men. In the midst of them was Old Man,
splendidly dressed, with weasel-skin leggings. As soon as she saw him
the chief woman recognised Old Man; so she let them all go, and went
back to the women. To them she said, “ You can take any of these men
except the finely dressed man who stands in the middle. Do not take
him, for he is mine.”” Then she put on her best apparel, and went to the
valley. The women went to look for husbands. Old Man [who wished
to be chosen by the chief woman] stayed far behind [so that he should not
be taken by any of the others]. All the women chose husbands, and took
all the men to their lodges. One man was still left unchosen—it was Old
Man. The chief woman said, ‘‘ Old Man thought I was a fool. Now we
will make a buffalo piskan [enclosure], and I will change him into a pine
log, and we will use him for a part of the fence. So Old Man is the fool,
and not the woman.”’’
As we know the legend of the origin of horses had a recent historical
foundation, so we may also conclude that this story of the women and
their choice of husbands, coupled with the rejection of Napi, had its
origin in some actual occurrence of perhaps no very remote date. We
know, from other noted traditions—such as the ‘ Rape of the Sabines’
and the capture of wives for the children of Benjamin—how such mar-
riages by wholesale, as they might be styled, are likely to take place. If
there ever was a camp of Indian women with whom no men were found,
we may be tolerably sure that they were the survivors of a war in which
all the fighting men of their tribe had been slain. The band of Kootenais,
who formerly dwelt east of the Rocky Mountains, was certainly not dis-
lodged by their Blackfeet enemies without a desperate war, in which, as
a natural and almost inevitable result, the men would be killed—perhaps
in a fight at a distance from their homes—and the women, who were left
at home, would be afterwards made prisoners, and would become the
wives of the conquerors. Such events are of common occurrence in Indian
history. The liberty given to the captive women, when once received as
200 REPORT—1887.
members of the Blackfoot nation, of choosing their own husbands would
be entirely in accordance with Indian sentiments and habits. That these
women should despise and reject Napi, the peculiar and rather ridiculous
divinity of the Algonkins, and should introduce the worship of their own
glorious sun-god, is intelligible enough. Thus we can see how a tradition
as improbable on its face as the coming of horses out of the salt water
may represent an actual event which has deeply affected the language,
religion, and character of the Blackfoot nation. A similar occurrence,
described in Miiller’s ‘Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft,’ had a still more
remarkable consequence. The Caribs (Galibis) of the South American
mainland, having conquered the Arowaks, who inhabited the neighbour-
ing islands, put the men to death and took the women for wives. The
women, with true Indian independence, retained their own language
among themselves, and taught it, as well as the language of their hns-
bands, to their children. The result was that two languages were subse-
quently spoken in the tribe—the Galibi among the men, and the Arowak
(mixed, however, with some Carib elements) among the women. If the
conquest had taken place a few generations earlier the two languages
would doubtless have been by this time fused into one—a Carib speech,
with many Arowak elements—and the origin of the mixed race would
have become a story of the Carib mythology.
I may venture to add that Mr. Wilson’s carefulness in preserving these
“native stories—however trivial they might at first seem—precisely as they
were received by him deserves particular acknowledgment.
The Committee ask for reappointment, with a renewal of the grant.
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. GARSON, Mr.
PENGELLY, Mr. F. W. RupDLer, and Mr. G. W. BLoxam (Secretary),
appointed for the purpose of investigating the Prehistoric Race
in the Greek Islands.
Tur Committee have to report that they have again had the benefit of Mr.
and Mrs. Bent’s valuable assistance in carrying on investigations during
the past year. The results of explorations must always be uncertain
from the fact that when an exploration is begun, however promising it
may seem to be, it is impossible to tell whether expectations will be
realised regarding it. This year, however, the explorations which
Mr. Bent undertook for the Committee have proved to be successful, as
they have resulted in the discovery of an ancient temple, which proved
to be of Apollo, containing no less than thirteen ancient inscriptions
which have been successfully photographed by Mrs. Bent. The structure
and plan of the temple have been thoroughly explored, and a marble
statue, unfortunately wanting the head, but nevertheless of considerable
value, has been found. Several of the tombs adjoining the temple have
been explored, and massive and elaborate sarcophagi of considerable
interest found in them, which illustrate the customs and art of the
inhabitants of these islands in ancient times.
The field selected for exploration has been an extremely interesting
one, and the work which has been done has thrown much light on the
ancient marble commerce of Thasos.
Oe
ON THE PREHISTORIC RACE IN THE GREEK ISLANDS. 201
As the Committee attach considerable value to the report which was
presented to it by Mr. Bent of the work done by him, it has been thought
advisable to incorporate that report in the present report of the Committee
to the Association.
The sum of 20/., placed at the Committee’s disposal by the Association
last year, has been entirely expended on wages to the workmen engaged
in excavation.
The Committee have much pleasure in tendering its best thanks to Mr.
and Mrs. Bent for the indefatigable zeal with which they have conducted
the researches, attended as they have been with no small personal incon-
venience arising from imperfect accommodation obtainable at the scene
of their labours, and expenses not defrayed by the grant of the Associa-
tion.
The Committee ask to be reappointed, and that a similar sum be
placed at their disposal. They recommend that Mr. Bent’s name be also
added to those forming the present Committee.
Report oF Mr. Bent to THE ComMITTEE.
The Ancient Marble Commerce of Thasos.
Last winter, with the grant from the British Association, I was enabled
to make excavations and close examinations at one of the chief centres of
marble merchandise of the ancient world. The quarries of Thasos were
chiefly productive of what we may term a fashionable marble during the
epoch of Hadrian and the decadence of Hellenic art, but long before the
time of its popularity Thasiote marble was in use for domestic purposes
when Parian and Pentelic were exclusively used for statuary ; and havin
visited these three great quarries of white marble, I am inclined to think
that from Thasos during the course of ages far more has been taken than
from the other two.
Herodotus tells us that a statuary marble was in the first instance
discovered here by the Phoenicians ; whilst Pliny tells us that it was less
livid than the Lesbian, and on examination we found the texture of the
Thasiote marble decidedly compact, and the grain formed of bright and
medium-sized scales, and very subject to rot when exposed to water.
From Seneca we further gather that in his time ‘fish preserves were
made of Thasiote marble,’ and at this period it was considered a marble
of inferior quality, for Papinio Stagio, in describing the magnificence of an,
edifice, adds that Thasiote marble had not been admitted in its construction.
Pausanias, on the other band, assures us that the late Athenians held it
in great estimation, and had two statues in honour of Hadrian made of
it, which were placed in the temple of Olympian Zeus at Athens. The
Euripides in the Vatican is made of it, and Belloni asserts that the
exterior of the pyramid of Caius Sestius in Rome was coated with this
marble. This is about all that is known of the quarries until the investi-
gations we made into the subject during our stay in Thasos last winter.
Owing to the position of the quarries they were very easily worked,
and the marble was most handy for exportation. A promontory consisting
wholly of marble juts out into the sea on the southern coast-line of Thasos ;
it is about a mile in length, and rises in parts to about 300 feet above the
sea-level. This promontory at its extreme point has been completely cut
down to the sea-level, forming a large flat surface over which the sea
dashes in storms, and in the hot weather the inhabitants of a village
202 REPORT—1887.
some four hours distant come here to collect the salt which forms in the
crevices out of which the marble blocks have been cut. . From this fact
the locality has acquired the modern name of Alki, a name common
enough in spots where salt marshes exist.
This flat nose of the marble promontory forms an interesting study of
the methods adopted for quarrying marble in ancient times. Here we
see the shape and size of each block as it was cut—some square, some
rounded, and all cut away round the edges, and holes bored in regular
lines underneath, a means adopted for raising the block that they wished to
detach. Most of the loose blocks which have remained here unexported
since ancient times have been removed for building purposes to Con-
stantinople in late years, but the old inhabitants informed me that thirty
years ago this flat space was covered with such blocks. We saw a few
of them, and also the drum of a column 6 ft. Sin. in diameter, and
4 ft. 4in. high, and a monolithic column 30 ft. long and 3 ft. 8 in. in
diameter. On the higher ground deep quarries are to be seen, and on the
isthmus which joins the promontory to the mainland are the remains of
a considerable town of ancient date, where doubtless the workmen and
marble merchants had their dwellings. Here it was that we commenced
the excavation of the temple which proved to be of Apollo; but before
describing our work and its results in detail I will say a few words
about a road of excellent Hellenic engineering which was constructed
across the mountains and connected this marble town with the ancient
capital of Thasos, some six hours distant.
Traces of this road in an excellent state of preservation are found at
intervals all along the ancient line of route, but owing to the burning of
an extensive tract of forest a quarter of an hour’s walk from Alki a short
time ago a portion in the bend of a hill has been exposed to view, which
is almost as perfect as when originally in use. It is constructed of
irregular blocks of marble placed lengthwise, so that the whole width of
the road is only composed of two blocks, and is a uniform width of
13 ft. 3in. Wherever it was possible the engineer utilised the neigh-
bouring marbie rocks in constructing his road; it is noticeable that at
the angles of the valley, where mountain streams run down, there is no
conduit for water beneath, and the stream must have made its way across
the roadway itself; but so massive are the blocks that not one of them
has been displaced by the action of the water. At intervals along the
road there are towers for protection, several of them well preserved, and
taken as a whole it forms one of the most interesting specimens of
ancient engineering skill that has come down to us.
After carefully inspecting Alki we determined on commencing our
excavations at a spot down by the water’s edge, where some huge marble
blocks in tiers indicated the existence of a building of considerable
importance on the top of the platform. The lower tier of steps came
down almost to the water’s edge, or yather down to a curious concrete
quay, which in ancient times ran all round the marble promontory, and
must at least have been three miles in extent, projecting some twenty
feet into the water, and then ending abruptly, for the water here as else-
where amongst the islands has risen several inches. ©
There were five tiers or steps, composed of some of the largest marble
blocks I have ever seen. The one at the northern angle of the lowest
grade measured 16 ft. llin., was 5 ft. 3in. wide and 2 ft. 4in. thick;
whereas the block at the northern angle of the top tier was 12 ft, long. ©
ON THE PREHISTORIC RACE IN THE GREEK ISLANDS. 203
The building, which originally stood on the top of this massive piatform,
was of the Doric order, and consisted of two chambers, the débris of
which and the foundations were hidden by several feet of soil, in which
fir trees of considerable age were growing.
The long side of the platform facing the sea measured 54 ft., and
2 ft. 4in. from the outer edge we came across the outer wall of the
temple, offering a facade to the sea of 45 ft. 9 in. in length. Until we had
proceeded some way with the excavation we found few traces on this
side, which, from its proximity to the sea, had doubtless been robbed of
its principal features at an earlier date. At the south-western corner of
this outer chamber, which was in width 32 ft. 7in., we came across a
raised platform, on which originally stood an archaic statue of Apollo;
along this, in letters of an early period, ran the inscription AAOS
ATIOAA, which I take to be a rare dedication either to the ‘ wolf god’
Apollo or in connection with the sun god (ddos, a torch, a light).
_ At a little distance from this platform we came across the marble
trunk of an archaic statue, broken off below the knees, and without a
head, and measuring from the neck to below the knee 4 ft. 5in. Around
the shoulders it was 4 ft. 10}in., and round the waist only 3 ft. 4in.; it
had down the back 15 braids of hair, and, at the top of each, holes in
which ornaments had been fixed. Strength was curiously developed in
the chest and sinews, and the idea of the knee was given by a curious
trefoil-like excrescence.
In front of this platform we came across a number of large marble
slabs, with votive inscriptions from mariners, thanking the gods for a
successful voyage. The most interesting was dedicated to ‘Sminthean
Apollo, who gives good voyages,’ and relates how the offerer had sailed
around ‘the misty island’ (depiyv vncov). This is a curious allusion to the
old legendary name of Thasos, *Aepia, or the misty island, which was given
to it in this wise. An early band of colonists, in the ninth century B.c.,
from the other marble island of Paros, sought from the Delphic oracle
directions as to where they should go. ‘ Go to the misty island’ was the
reply ; and Thasos, according to their idea, being the most misty place
they knew, they repaired thither, colonised it, and called it ’Aepéa.
Another votive tablet of later date was dedicated to Artemis, ‘ who
gives good voyages,’ by Eutychus, the captain, Tychichus, the mate, and
Jucundus, the helmsman, of a ship. Amongst this interesting débris of
an ancient cult, we likewise found a small archaic head, of exceedingly rude
_ workmanship, and a curious, well-cut stone, 3 ft. lin. by 1 ft. 3 in. thick,
down the front edge of which was carved a curious head, as of Poseidon,
with a long beard in five braids, which seemed as if it had been one of
two sides to a seat.
The wall which divided this outer chamber from an inner one was
built of huge blocks of marble, fastened together with iron rivets, set in
lead, only the foundations being in their place ; the first and second blocks
of this wall, measuring 3 ft. 2 in. and 12 ft. 24 in. respectively, formed
the base of a neatly cut square pattern which had adorned this portion
of the wall; then came the door, the hinge-holes of which were still dis-
tinguishable, measuring 5 ft.; close up against the southern side of the
_ entrance stood a large block of marble, with an inscription on it relating
the names of various archons, polemarchs, apologoi, a local Thasiote name
for the logistai, or auditors of accounts, and the name of a sacred herald.
Close to this stood a pedestal, without inscription, and which doubtless
204 REPORT—1887.
carried a small statue, of which no fragments were found; but about
three feet from the wall we laid bare a larger pedestal, with votive in-
scriptions behind and before. The inscription to the front was headed
with the name of Athene, and went on to thank Hercules, ‘ who gives
good voyages.’ The inscription behind purported to be the eioqopos, a
curious form of the word eiodopd, giving, I suppose, the idea of tribute
to some god whose name was unfortunately obliterated. Near this
pedestal we found fragments of a draped statue, which had presumably
stood upon it. Also an archaic circular pedestal with Doric flutings,
6 ft. 2in. round at the base, 1 ft. 6in. in diameter at the top, 3 ft. 2in.
round the neck, and standing 3 ft. 5in. high. This pedestal is similar to
several which have been found amongst the archaic remains on the Acro-
polis at Athens.
Along the southern wall of this chamber ran another raised platform,
similar, though slightly lower, to the one on which the statue of Apollo
had stood in the other chamber. On this we found a small votive altar,
with an inscription stating that it had been put up to Dionysos, the
oppressor of wrath (pay typdvvw), and in the wall behind was a stone
bearing the inscription, in letters of a good period, ‘the Dionysian
herald of love.’
This chamber was considerably smaller than the other, measuring
only 14 ft. 8 in. across ; it had been paved with marble, but the outer wall
towards the town showed signs of considerable alterations in the original
scheme during the Roman period; however, on the central slabs of this
frontage wall, we found the bases of two Doric columns, 2 ft. 8 in. in dia-
meter, with 22 flutings and 6 ft. 6in. apart. This platform was 3 ft. 1 in.
wide, and between and around the pillars were many names and sen-
tences scribbled, also phallic designs. One of the names, in large and
good letters, was Aristogeiton, and another recorded the name of ‘ Simos
the gay, the good at heart.’
But at the southern side this wider platform and the Doric columns
had been replaced by a narrower platform, with traces on it of a later
colonnade, and before it stood the circular bases of two columns of a
debased period ; and from fragments we found it would appear that badly
executed Ionic columns had been erected at the time of these later
alterations, and stood side by side with the massive Doric columns of the
earlier scheme.
Between the southern wall of the temple and the hill which rose
abruptly behind it ran a narrow passage, with steps leading down to the °
sea. The wall on the hill-side, evidently erected as a facing to the natu-
ral rock, was composed of blocks of marble of extraordinary thinness in
comparison to their length, the first that we uncovered being 11 ft. 5 in.
long, 1 ft. 7in. high, and only 7in. thick. This passage was 7 ft. 4in.
wide, and at forty feet from the top of the steps was divided by a wall
and a door. Time did not permit of our following this passage up
further, but it evidently was in connection with the temple, for on one
stone of the outer wall of the temple we found a much obliterated in-
scription, of which all we could decipher was ‘to Poseidon, who gives
- good voyages,’ and in another line the name Asclepius, and in a third
the name Pegasos. Also we found another well-cut stone with Anteros
scribbled on it in large irregular letters (Anteros, the revenger of un-
requited love).
These are the principal features of the temple which we excavated,
‘4 .
ON THE PREHISTORIC RACE IN THE GREEK ISLANDS. 205
and, from the thirteen inscriptions which we found amongst its ruins, it
would appear that in the first instance it was dedicated to Apollo, doubt-
less from the fact that the early colonists, in search of marble, considered
that they had been guided thither by the Delphic response ; and the rude
_ headless trunk which we found was presumably the first representation
of their god, which they erected for worship ; butin later ages this temple
would appear to have been converted into a perfect pantheon, where the
sailors and merchants who carried the Thasiote marble into distant lands
_ set up their votive tablets and brought their offerings.
Beside the temple we made some slight excavations amongst the
tombs of this marble town, which were of exceedingly elaborate work-
manship, but of the same style that we had seen in other parts of this
island. Massive marble sarcophagi, averaging about 8 ft.long by 3 ft.
wide, and 4 ft. deep, made out of single blocks of marble, and covered
_ with a marble lid, pointed in the centre like a roof, and with four large
bosses at each of the corners. We found many of these buried in the
‘ sand by the shore at the neck of the isthmus, where it joins the land. All
_ of them had been opened in ancient times, no doubt to extract the objects
_ of gold which the Thasiotes invariably put in their tombs. Objects in
terra cotta are curiously rare in Thasos, most likely owing to the fact
that the Thasiotes owned the extensive gold mines on Mount Pangaus,
on the mainland opposite, and considered it right to put objects of this
precious metal in their tombs. Occasionally unopened tombs are found,
_ and confirm this statement; notably, the so-called tomb of Antiphon, in
which a marble figure was found wearing a tunic of gold, but unfortu-
nately a Bulgarian workman who had been employed in opening the
tomb managed to steal it, and nothing more has been heard of it.
On one of the lids of a sarcophagus at Alki we found that the bosses
had each been decorated with a female head; another had its bosses
decorated with wreaths of flowers, and the sloping roofs were occasion-
ally decorated with diaper patterns. Long metrical inscriptions seem to
have been much in vogue for these tombs. One stands in the centre of
the town, with an inscription twelve lines in length. We found many
fragments of metrical inscriptions, and the tomb which the family of
Asclepiades had put up to one of their members; also an inscription
telling us that in the tomb was buried ‘the slave of the four,’ @pewios tv
Teaodpwv, concerning which I am not prepared to offer an explanation.
There are many interesting spots in the immediate neighbourhood of
Alki which we were able to visit on Sundays and feast days, when our
workmen did not come. All these spots are connected with the marble
enterprise. About two miles to the west of Alki is the bay of Temonia,
on the west side of which are high cliffs of marble, rising straight out of
the sea like a wall some 200 to 300 feet in height. All this has been cut
away by the marble quarrying, and there are evident signs of the blocks
having been let down by pulleys into the ships, which could anchor close
to, in the deep water beneath. There are ruined houses about here in
any points, and at the top of a rounded hill in the centre of the bay is
around Hellenic tower of excellent workmanship ; this tower is 49 ft. 9 in.
n diameter in the interior, the wall being 3ft. 4 in. thick; it is built in
urses of marble, exceedingly regular, the joints being all vertical, and
the length of the blocks composing it varies from 3 ft. 6in. to 2ft. The
entrance to this tower is on the eastern side; it is low, and with a pointed
arch formed by the stones of the courses overhanging each other, and re-
206 REPORT—1887.
calling the entrances of many archaic buildings in Greece. On one of
the blocks near this door I read the word Aprew, being an abbreviated
form of Apreudt, which we had found on one of the votive tablets in the
temple at Alki. The interior of the tower is almost entirely choked up
with fallen blocks from the surrounding wall, and the débris of later
habitations, but it seemed to me that a thorough excavation of this
tower might produce some valuable results respecting ancient systems of
fortification.
Between this bay of Temonia and Alki there is another well-preserved
rectangular Hellenic tower and the ruins of another village. So we
find, within a very short distance, no less than two villages and one
town, all well protected, and all in former ages thriving on the quarrying
and export of marble, connected with an admirable road to one of the
great centres of Hellenic culture and progress, and affording us a highly
interesting study of a commercial centre, dating from centuries before
the Christian era, and bearing traces of having continued in prosperity
down well into the period of the Eastern Empire.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor G. CAREY FOSTER,
Sir WiLi1AM THomson, Professor AyrToN, Professor J. PERRY,
Professor W. G. Apams, Lord RayLeicH, Dr. O. J. LopGE, Dr.
JoHN Hopkinson, Dr. A. Murrueap, Mr. W. H. PRreEEcE, Mr.
HERBERT TayLor, Professor EVERETT, Professor SCHUSTER, Dr.
J. A. FLEMING, Professor G. F. FitzGerRALpD, Mr. R. T. GLAZE-
BROOK (Secretary), Professor CorystaL, Mr. H. ToMuinson, Pro-
fessor W. GARNETT, Professor J. J. THomson, Mr. W. N. SHaw,
and Mr. J. T. BoTroMLEy, appointed for the purpose of con-
structing and issuing Practical Standards for use in Electrical
Measurements.
Tue Committee report that the work of testing resistance coils has been
continued at the Cavendish Laboratory, and a table of the values found
for the various coils is given.
Legal Ohms.
No. of Coil Resistance in Legal Ohms | Temperature
PRE ciut, ASSn pt eeheeas: ae G, No. 173 ‘99938 16:3°
Hiiot, 1625) en ae o, No. 174 “99924 16°3°
L. Clark & Muirhead, 251 . G, No. 175 10-0040 17°
Miko li7e eee G, No. 63 ‘99976 15:9°
Billioth, 185s oe <-. ely ae G, No. 176 99962 15-8°
Riliott. 186") 7. ee Xi No. 177 99959 15°8°
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 207
B.A. Units.
No. of Coil Resistance in B.A. Units Temperature
Mize 41. 1... ©, No. 55 1-00286 16:2°
mine be. . . « Wh No.56 | 1:00039 16°
Univ. Coll. coll. =.» No. 63 | 99983 16:2°
Taylor’scoil . . . ©, No. 68 ‘99985 18-25°
Taylor’s coil : i : G, No. 69 10:00209 18°
fepecol.* 2. ¢ No. 66 1:00289 19-2°
Seti | ol ks f, No. 67 1001:39 194°
Warden,292 . . . ¢, No. 70 9:99416 165°
Of these the coils Elliott Nos. 41, 56, and 117 have been tested
before, but owing to the green coloration mentioned in the last report
showing itself in the paraffin, the paraffin was removed and the coils
refilled with ozokerit, which can be obtained more nearly free from traces
of acid.
This change in all cases produced an appreciable increase in resistance,
amounting in the case of Elliott No. 41 to about :0025.
The coils Ky 63, 68, and 69 are three of the original B.A. units.
70 is a coil sent over from the Johns Hopkins University for the
purpose of connecting their value of the B.A. unit with that found at the
Cavendish Laboratory.
Shortly after the Birmingham meeting of the Association the Secretary
received a letter from the Board of Trade enclosing a copy of the general
bases of a convention proposed by the French Government for the con-
sideration of the Powers, with the object of carrying out the resolutions of
the Paris Congress with regard to electrical standards. ;
The convention stipulates that a legal character is to be given to
' (1) the legal ohm; (2) the ampére; (3) the volt; (4) the coulomb;
(5) the farad.
It charges the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, established
by the Metric Commission, with the construction and conservation of the
international prototypes of the standard of electrical resistance, the com-
parison and verification of national standards and secondary standards.
These questions had, at the request of some of the English delegates
to the Congress of 1883, been considered by the Committee at the
Birmingham meeting, and the following series of resolutions, which the
Secretary was instructed to forward to the British Government, had been
agreed to on the motion of Sir William Thomson, seconded by Professor
W. G. Adams :—
(1) To adopt for a term of ten years the legal ohm of the Paris Con-
gress as a legalised standard sufficiently near to the absolute ohm for
commercial purposes.
; (2) That at the end of the ten years period the legal ohm should be
defined to a closer approximation to the absolute ohm.
208 REPORT—1887.
(3) That the resolutions of the Paris Congress with respect to the
ampere, the volt, the coulomb, and the farad be adopted.
(4) That the resistance standards belonging to the Committee of the
British Association on electrical standards now deposited at the Cavendish
Laboratory at Cambridge be accepted as the English legal standards
conformable to the adopted definition of the Paris Congress.
In reply, therefore, to the letter of the Board of Trade, the Secretary
forwarded a copy of the above resolutions, with a statement of some of
the reasons which had led to their adoption by the Committee.
During the year the original standards of the Association have again
been compared by the Secretary. An account of this comparison and
of the very complete one made in the years 1879-80-81 by Dr. Fleming,
the details of which have not been published previously, will be given
shortly.
At the last meeting of the Committee it was resolved, on the motion
of Mr. W. H. Preece, seconded by Sir William Thomson, to recommend
the adoption of the Watt as the unit of power.
The Watt is defined to be the work done per second by the ampére
passing between two points between which the difference of electrical
potential is one volt.
The Committee were also of opinion that it is highly desirable to
proceed with the construction of an air condenser as a standard of
capacity, and for this purpose they desire to be reappointed, with the
addition of the name of Mr. Thomas Gray and a grant of i00I.
Supplement to a Report on Optical Theories.
By R. T. GuazEproox, W.A., F.R.S.
Ix my Report on Optical Theories (‘B. A. Report,’ 1885) I gave an
account of Dr. Voigt’s Theory of Optics. A recent communication of
his to Wiedemann’s ‘ Annalen’ shows me that in one point I have unin-
tentionally misrepresented his views.
As I understood his previous papers, the quantities represented by
A, B, C (Wied. ‘ Ann.’ xix. p. 874; ‘ Report,’ p. 231), &c., are intended
to express completely, so far as the problem before us is concerned, the
action of the matter on the ether in the element of volume considered,
and that in all cases, even when one face of. the element is on the
surface.
I took the statement (p. 876) ‘indem man die Wirkungssphire der
Molecularkriifte gegen die Grésse des betrachteten Volumen Hlementes
so klein annimmt dass man die Wirkung die der Aether in demselben erfahrt
als nur von der Materie desselben Elementes herriithrend betrachten kann,’
which is precise and definite, as true always, and supposed that the forces
acting on the element were known up to the boundary. This being the
case, the surface conditions are X+A=X’+A’, and not those implied in
Kirchhoff’s principle. Professor Voigt has explained that this was not
his meaning. When one face of the element is on the surface, the forces
acting are no longer known. The force denoted by A is to be taken as
made up of two—A,; and A,, in his notation—of which A,, arises from
the action of the matter in the second medium, and all that is known is
that neither loss nor gain of energy is caused by such forces. This, it is
ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 209
true, is implied in the original paper, and I regret that I misunderstood
the statement there.
In consequence of these unknown forces the equations of stress are of
no use to us, and we are compelled to have recourse to Kirchhoff’s prin-
ciple to arrive at the conditions. But this appears to me to affect in a
fundamental manner the whole of the theory. It ceases in consequence
to be a strict mechanical theory of light, for we are ignorant of what goes
on in the immediate neighbourhood of the boundary. There is a thin film
throughout which our equations of motion do not hold, for throughout it
the unknown forces A;,, &c., act. Unless we can show that this film is in-
finitely thin compared with the wave-length of light, we have no right to
assume that the displacements up to the boundary surface are given by
the expressions which hold in the interior of the medium.
The actual displacements are, of course, continuous across thé bound-
ary, but these displacements will, in addition to what we may term the
light motion, involve terms arising from the forces A,,, and such are
neglected in Professor Voigt’s theory.
With regard to the electro-magnetic theory of dispersion developed
by Willard Gibbs, it should be remarked that H’ (‘ Report,’ p. 256, 20)
vanishes when ’, n’, ¢’, the components of the irregular part of the motion,
vanish. Now this irregular part of the motion may be supposed to be
due to the presence of the matter-molecules, and will therefore disappear
in a vacuum ; so that in that case we should have H’ zero, and there would
be no dispersion.
First Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. ErHerrpce,
Dr. H. Woopwarp, and Mr. A. BELL, for the purpose of
reporting wpon the ‘ Manure’ Gravels of Wexford.
THE area of the later Tertiary deposit of co. Wexford is described by the
late Sir Henry (formerly Captain) James as extending from Arklow to Kil-
more in a north to south direction, and inland to Ferns Gorey and Ennis-
corthy. The very short memoir upon this district (‘ Journ. Dubl. Geol.
Soe.’ vol. iii.) was accompanied by a list of the fossils obtained ; but the
localities from which they were collected not being stated, and the
differences in the nature and age of the various sands, gravels, and loamy
clays comprehended under the heading ‘ Post-Tertiary Deposits,’ being
considerable, it is less useful than it might have been made.
In Professor EH. Forbes’s well-known memoirs, the fossils are
simply recorded as from Wexford or Ireland, Post-Tertiary geology
being then in its infancy. These, with a few spare references in
papers contributed to the ‘Geological Magazine’ by Messrs. Harkness,
Kinahan, Hull, and the writer, in the 6-in. survey maps, and in two
volumes—one on the ‘ Physical Geology, &c., of Treland,’ by Professor
Hull, the Director of the Survey, and the other on the ‘Geology of
Treland,’ by Mr. G. H. Kinahan, comprise the bibliography of the
subject.
The so-called manure gravels consist of fine clean sharp sands without
stones or organic remains passing up into finely comminuted shell sand,
and fue the fragments become larger, forms a fine gravel containing
1887. P
210 REPORT—1887.
shells occasionally perfect,'! but usually much waterworn and broken,
continuing upwards into seams of sand and large gravel, both devoid of
life-remains.
The lower sands are well exposed in the cliffs on the north side of the
Slaney river, where they repose directly upon the Cambro-Silurian altered
rocks. They may be traced northwards to Castlebridge, where they
pass up into the higher members of the series at Pulregan, and again
seven miles off, near Castle Ellis, the very scanty shelly gravels occurring
only at considerable elevations on the inland or right flanks of the
elevations bordering the coast. A little beyond Arklow the highest gravel
only is present, near the coast, this being the northern limits of the
series.
Returning to Wexford, one notes the same order of stratification
on the right flank of the elevated mass of altered rocks rising behind
Wexford. At Rathaspick, the most southerly point to which the writer
has traced the gravels, only the uppermost gravel is present ; but higher
up the road, about two miles off, in Little Clonard, on the same side of the
ridge, the upper and shelly portions of the series are well exposed in some
sandpits looking towards the Forth Mountain. Here the top gravel is
interspersed with thick beds of sand, much thicker than at Pulregan,
eight miles away, but is equally wanting in fossils. From Little Clonard
the slope descends rapidly for a distance of three-quarters of a mile, and
then rises as sharply to the summit of the Forth Mountain, passing over
boggy upland and clay, derived from the decomposed subsoil, or schists
and quartz gravel.
Three miles north and east, descending towards the river Slaney, the
sands, with traces of comminuted shelly sands, appear behind Wexford
town, and complete the ontline.
From these observations it would appear that the sands and associated
shelly gravels are the remnants of a once widespread series, occupying a
channel entering somewhere to the south-west of Wexford, having for its
right shore the ridges and hills extending from the coast behind Wexford,
thence north-by-east to the shore at Arklow.
The deposit of which these are the scanty remains was accumulated
before the river Slaney had broken through the Cambro-Silurian schists
near Fitzstephen’s Castle, since it has cut its way through the lower
sands forming part of its banks.
Sir H. James says that a boulder deposit overlies both the Wexford
and Wicklow drift, and Professor Hull intimates that the Wexford
gravels are without doubt of Middle Glacial age, the faunas being the
same and covered by a similar drift.
The writer traverses both these statements. Clay with included rocks
abounds, and may be seen in process of formation, rain and heat alike
contributing to the disintegration of the original bed rock, the altered
Cambrian decomposing rapidly. Unlike the gravel or drift covering the
Middle Glacial, the gravels above the shelly part of the Wexford manure
gravel are purely local and bear no marks of ice action, and it is very
1 The term ‘manure’ applies more especially to this portion, the shelly gravel being
spread over lands for the lime contained in them. Shell-bearing loams, and loams
containing lime derived from the disintegration of Carboniferous limestone are also
used for this purpose, the usual test of its presence being effervescence when treated
with oil of vitriol.
; ON THE ‘MANURE’ GRAVELS OF WEXFORD. O11
questionable if this part of Ireland has ever been subjected to glacial
action as generally understood.
The southern side of Wexford Harbour and Wexford Hill, Rosslare
‘Bay, and the adjacent coast cliffs are composed of an earthy loam, which
in places contains marine shells. At Ballygeary, near the summit of the
cliffs, seventy feet elevation, and in the railway cutting, they may be ob-
tained not infrequently, a thin bed of shingle, extending either side of
Rosslare Pier, having yielded about thirty species, these being of a dif-
ferent type from the Wexford gravels, and perhaps representing the
sandy beds from which Captain James obtained littoral shells.
This earthy loam is separated by a bed of sand, more or less persistent,
one to three feet thick, almost unfossiliferous, one specimen only being
obtained from an aimost unfossiliferous dense black clay, with very rarely
an exotic pebble. An hour’s search procured only two fragments of Pec-
tunculus and Astarte. This clay is derived almost entirely from the calp
or black limestone, which is now being worked at Drinagh for cement,
a rolled fossil Productus, &c., being ‘occasionally present, and reposes
directly upen the paleozoic schists and felsites.
Professor Hull having asserted the identity of the faunas of the Wex-
ford gravels and those of the Middle Glacial deposits, a careful examination
was made of the typical section at Ballybraek, in Killiney Bay, on several
occasions, and the species then obtained, together with those recorded by
other authors and collectors, have raised the known fauna to about forty-
five species. Unfortunately the non-localisation of the fossils given by
Captain James and the probability that both the Wexford gravels and
the cliffs at Ballygeary and elsewhere are included by him render com-
parison uncertain. This is the more to be regretted because certain
_ species of Mitra, Fusus, &c., are recorded by him, most of the specimens
being lost, and only a few preserved in the Museum of Practical
Geology.
The writer’s own collections from the gravels do not embrace more
than thirty-five to forty species at present identified, others still having
_ to be worked out, and explorations still being carried on; and his results
_ are so totally opposite to the remarks of Professor Hull that he ventures
to ask the Council of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science for an additional grant to enable him to continue his researches
into the age and extent of these gravels, the history of the early making
of Ireland in its present form largely depending upon a solution of the
question.
The fossils obtained will be shortly handed over to the National Col-
lection as soon as they are worked out in detail, and are in number about
as follows :—
Se
Sp.
Wexford Manure Gravels_. , : - . 35-40
» Loams Celery) : : : . 380-35
Killiney Bay. ; : : ; . 380-
Balbriggan . : . : E : : . 20-
Your reporter respectfully asks for a further grant of 15/., the former
grant being exhausted.
P2
212 REPORT—1887.
Seventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. ETHERIDGE,
Mr. Tuomas Gray, and Professor JoHN MILNE (Secretary),
appointed for the purpose of investigating the Voleanic Phe-
nomena of Japan. (Drawn wp by the Secretary, 1887.)
Tue Gray-MI~NE SEISMOGRAPH.
THE seismograph, which in 1883 was constructed partially at the expense
of the British Association, still continues to give satisfactory results at the
Imperial Meteorological Observatory in Tokio, where it is installed as the
reference instrument.
In the following table its records, as published in the daily papers and
the official reports, are given for the last year. The time is noted for a
particular wave in a disturbance. The period or time taken to describe
one of the principal vibrations is given in seconds.
The numbers in the amplitude column give the total range of motion,
or the double amplitude, in millimetres.
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at the Meteorological Observatory, Tokio, between
May 1886 and May 1887, by the Gray-Milne Seismograph.
1886.
Period Ampli-
No. | Month | Day Time 5 a tude in} Principal direction | Duration
in secs.| “ym.
ity pa M.S
666 | VI. 3 3 6 37P.M — — S.E. or N.W. —
667 a 11 1 45 44 P.M 0°6 0:2 | S.S.E. or N.N.W, 45
668 a 14 6 25 19 P.M — — 8.E. or N.W. 25
669 ” ” 656 9PM 03 O-4 S. 45° E. 1 10
670 | VII. 2 033 6PM 1:2 O-7 8. 26° E 3 30
vertical motion O-7 0:2
671 3 23 057 OAM. | 1:9 0°5 8. or N. 1 4
672 | VIII. 3 211 45am. | — — E. or W. 20
673 “ 9 10 24 OAM. | 2:4 0-7 E. or W. 3.0
674 aa 10 8 53 43 P.M. | 0:8 0:2 E. or W. 17
675 * il 9 52 33 P.M. } 1:2 0-2 E. or W. 2 0
676 5 12 254 45PpM.; — —_ — =
677 3 13 11 40 26P.M.] — — = =
678 55 19 0 9 234M. | O04 0:2 E. or W. 14
679 Ai 29 8 34 54PM.| — — | N.N.E. or 8.S.W. 20
680 | IX. 6 0 38 53pm. | 1:0 0-2 | H.S.E or N.N.W. 10
681 i 12 8 43 22P.M.| 1:0 0:3 HE. 20° 20’ N, 1 0
682 S; 15 3 9 23 A.M. very|slight E. and W. 26
683 5 16 TZ hod PaN. 3 §.E. and N.W 40
684 7 20 |abt. 140 OPM. | — — jee ai
685 én 21 817 9PM. | veryslight E. and W. 1 65
686 a 30 10 36 8AM. 5 5 S. and N. —
687 X. 4 1 35 25P.M. | 05 0:3 E. and W. 30
vertical motion — 0:3
688 4 22 3 49 144.M. | very|slight S. and N. 50
689 5 25 10 1118 PM. | 038 0:3 E.S.H.-W.N.W. 39
: vertical motion very|slight
690 . 30 4 35 17 P.M. 4s " EW. 10
6918) SCI. il 513 5AmM.| 04 0:3 H. 34° §. 10
692 2 8 21 464.M. | very/slight S.H.-N.W. 30
ON THE VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN.
CATALOGUE OF HARTHQUAKES—(continued).
3 Ampli-
Day Time Period fide in
in secs.| on,
H. M. S8.
4 2 0 392M...) 0:5 0-4
vertical motion 0-5 0-4
6 0 45 46 P.M. very|sligh
8 PRESS WExesar4 e085 0-2
11 LOMAGH 255 Btoe|s 155 0:2
12 10.11 55 Pm. | 2:2 3:5
vertical motion | very slight
21 3 7 2 A.M. A "
26 548 5PM. | 02 1:0
vertical motion] very slight
29 11 5 434M. | 06 0-4
vertical motion] very)slight
1887.
15 G51 69 P.M | 23 OP 19:2
vertical motion 0:8 55
bs a 7 36 40pm. | 0-4 05
vertical motion! very slight
re 16 10 1619 Pm. | 0-4 0-7
as cA 10 31 OPM. — —
fF y 10 54 18PM.}; — _
By 17 8 59 34A.M.) — ~-
* 21 11 46 48P.mM.}; — 0-2
a 23 916 55P.m.} 1:0 0:2
as 24 10 40 50 P.M. very slight
od 28 354 8 P.M. _ —
nis 2 2 814PM.} 2:0 0-4
ee 22 130 48a.mM.| — —
*% 25 341 OPM. _ —
“a 27 8 1L 11 A.M. = —
Ii. 2 5 33 21 PM.| — —
a 10 131 37 PM. | 0:8 1-0
- 20 11 32 56PM. | — _—
IV. 4 | 846 OAM. | - —
+3 9 11 49 544M. | — =
5 a 3 1 54 P.M. —_— —_
x6 15 1018 OAM. | — =
“4 16 3 41 55 A.M. 16 0:3
e 18 1125 OPM.| — =
es 27 9 30.38 PM. | — =
7 29 11 12 10 A.M. |* 3:0 1:2
Vv. 2 11 25 404.mM. | 0:3 0:3
¥ 5 235 104a.mM. | 0°5 0-4
7 6 349 58PpmM.| — —
a 7 712 3am. | 2°6 0-9
5, 3 8 44 22a.mM.| — —
s 9 0 914AamM.) 3:0 0:3
a ” 433 7PM. | — =
a 1h 419 44P.mM.} 03 0-2
A 21 9 46 20P.mM.| 07 05
7 29 0 50 57am. | 0:8 18
s 3; 110 444.m.} 1:0 11
rs fs 3 41 26am. | — —
Pa x 6 47 21aM.| — —
55 af 8 7 9AM. | — —
Principal direction
S.H.N.W.
HE. 27° N.
E.-W,
E. 37° 8.
SN.
N. 35° W.
E.S.E.-W.N.W.
E.-W.
8.8.E.-N.N.W.
S. or N.
W. 26° 30'S.
E. or W.
E. or W.
8. 59° 30’ E.
N. or S.
N.E. or §.W.
K. or W.
E. or W.
S. or N.
8. 37° 30’ E.
§. 22° E.
E. 33° N.
8. 38° 30’ W.
S. 29° 40’ E.
8. or N.
S. or N.
S. or N.
E. or N.W.
.E. or N.W.
KE. or W.
S. or N.
213
Daration
214 REPORT— 1887.
Since 1883 several improvements have been introduced into the Gray-
Milne seismograph, and the instruments embodying these improvements
are now being manufactured by Mr. James White, of Glasgow. In the
original form of the instrument, as with all instruments with which we
are acquainted, after the occurrence of an earthquake the instrument
required to be provided with a new recording surface and reset. Unless
this was done successive earthquake-diagrams would be superimposed
upon each other, and even a single earthquake, if its duration exceeded
forty-five or sixty seconds, had the diagram of its later movements super-
imposed upon its first ; a method of recording which often resulted in con-
fusion. Further, the diagrams were written upon a surface of smoked
paper or smoked glass to preserve which varnishing was a necessity. In
the new form of instrument the horizontal and vertical motions are
written in ink, side by side, upon a straight band of paper. Ordinarily
this band of paper is moving very slowly beneath the syphon pointers of
the seismograph. At the time of an earthquake the speed of the paper is
automatically increased for a definite period, after which it is automati-
cally slowed down to its ordinary rate. In this way earthquake after
earthquake may be recorded without the intervention of the observer,
whose only duty is to see that the instrument is supplied with paper and
the clockwork wound. A separate.clock, arranged to keep accurate time,
impresses a mark on the paper ribbon every five minutes, and during
an earthquake every second. This improved seismograph is fully described
by Mr. Thomas Gray, who has taken great pains to perfect the apparatus,
in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ for April 1887.
The importance of the instrument in its present form for the investi-
gation of special seismological problems-—-such, for instance, as the relation
of the ‘Uri Kaishi,’ or ‘return shake,’ which apparently succeeds all large
disturbances to the disturbances which precede them—is evident to all
who have given attention to earthquake investigation.
Remarks on the Earthquakes of 1886-87.
From the preceding list it will be seen that between the end of May
1886 and May 1887 seventy-four earthquakes were recorded at the
Meteorological Observatory in Tokio. On the low ground in the same
city it is probable that a slightly greater number were sensible, and in
Yokohama, sixteen miles distant, which appears to be nearer to the origin
of many of the earthquakes felt in Tokio, the number may have been still
greater. During the two preceding years the number of disturbances
recorded in Tokio were respectively seventy-three and fifty-six.
In 1886, as recorded by the 600 post-card stations distributed through
the empire, 472 earthquakes were felt, and for each of them the Karth-
quake Bureau, which is a branch of the Meteorological Department, has
drawn a map. I trust that at a future date I may be enabled to give the
British Association an epitome of the results obtained from these obser-
vations, similar to that which I had the honour of presenting in 1886.
In looking at the catalogue published in this report, and also at the
catalogue iu the report for 1886, it will be noticed that there are several
records of vertical motion, which is a component of earthquake movement
about which we as yet know but very little. From these records it
appears that the vertical motion relatively to the horizontal is very quick,
so that two or three vertical movements are superimposed as ripples on a
horizontal wave. Professor K. Sekiya, in a model made of bent wire
ON THE VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. De
showing the path of an earth-particle as deduced from an earthquake
diagram, called attention to this fact. Further, it appeared that the
motion upwards was greater than the motion downwards. I have pre-
viously drawn attention to the shortness in period of vertical motion in
artificially produced disturbances (see Report for 1885), and also as
exhibited in the preliminary tremors of an earthquake, which are probably
also vertical in direction. It is also probable that the sound-wave of
earthquakes owes its origin to the rapidity of these movements, which are
more marked where the strata are hard, and that many animals, like horses
when lying down, pheasants, geese, frogs, &c., feeling these preliminary
vertical movements, often exhibit symptoms of alarm from ten to thirty
seconds before many earthquakes are felt by human beings. I have recently
communicated a special note on this subject to the Seismological Society.
The severe earthquake of January 15.—By reference to the preceding
catalogue it will be seen that on January 15, at 6h. 51m. 59sec. P.M. an
earthquake, having a range of motion of 19-2 millimetres and a period
of 2°3 seconds, was felt in Tokio. Its duration was ten minutes, an
interval of time which probably includes the ‘ Uri Kaishi,’ or ‘return
shock.’ Professor K. Sekiya has read a special paper before the
Seismological Society about this disturbance, and I myself have com-
municated observations on the same to our local papers. Thirty-six
seconds after the commencement of the motion Professor Sekiya observed
a maximum motion of 21 m.m. In Yokohama, 16 miles to the S.W.,
a motion of 36 m.m. was recorded. The motion was most severe along a
line about 30 miles in length, running westward from near Yokohama.
In Tokio the motion was slow, easy, and of considerable range, the
' sensation being not unlike that upon a boat moved by a gentle swell.
Billiard balls rolled to and fro upon their tables, and a distinct feeling
of nausea was experienced by very many. The slowness in period I
take to be due to our distance from the origin. Sometimes earthquakes
have been so long in their period that they have moved Tokio back and
forth almost unknown to many of the inhabitants, the only record of the
motion being that recorded by seismographs and observations made on
swinging lamps and objects like pendulums. Near the origin there were
small landslips, and the water in certain wells of an ‘artesian character ’
was decreased or increased. A rumbling preceded the disturbance, and
during the night five more shocks were felt. Thousands of houses Pro-
fessor Sekiya reports as damaged, those which suffered most being the
frame houses with a stone facing, the movement of the timber throwing
out the facing. In my own house, which is of timber faced with brick
and stone, a similar but slighter effect was produced. In Yokohama the
damage was, as usual, amongst the chimneys, the falling of which through
the roof and various floors in certain cases created considerable damage.
These chimneys, so far as I am aware, in all, or nearly all, cases were new
chimneys, built partly for the sake of appearance and with a total dis-
regard of the experiences of 1880 and the recommendations repeatedly
expressed by the Seismological Society. Chimneys which were short
and thick, without heavy ornamental copings, and not compelled to follow
the vibrations of the structure to which they belonged, although situated
in places which are known to be extremely dangerous, did not suffer. In
my own mind it is certain that if the disturbance of January 15 had
visited a city like Naples or London the destruction would have
approached that which recently created so much havoc in the Riviera.
216 REPORT—1887.
I wish to lay stress on this, because engineers and others judging of
Japanese earthquakes by the amplitudes of motion which have been
published, which, so far as I am aware, have only been published by
observers in Japan, cannot furnish any ideas of relative intensity, and
from the amount of damage we sustain refer to the earthquakes of this
country as being ‘mild in character,’ ‘mere tremors,’ &c., while those
of Ischia and other places in Europe are severe. (See, for example,
Construction in Earthquake Countries, ‘ Proceedings of the Institute of
Civil Engineers,’ vol. Ixxxiii. Pt. I.) In Japan we suffer but little
damage on account of the nature of our buildings, but now that many
ordinary European buildings are springing up the damage will probably
increase. Harthquakes like the one here referred to occur in Japan as
pointed out by Professor Sekiya about once a year, while near Tokio they
are experienced every few years. Still larger earthquakes have hitherto
recurred near to Tokio and Yokohama every thirty or fifty years. The
following are the dates of the more important of these disturbances:
A.D. 1293, Kamakura, a city near to the origin of the last earthquake, was
destroyed, and 30,000 lives were lost. Others occurred in 1419,
1433, 1485, 1495, 1510, 1589, 1633, 1647, 1649, 1650, 1683, 1703
(when there was shaking for 200 days, and 100,000 people killed), 1707,
1771, 1772, 1783, 1794, 1812, 1853, and 1855.
Sounding Asama Yama.—Asama Yama is an active volcano about
seventy-five miles N.W. from Tokio. It was last in eruption in 1870, and
it is always violently steaming. I first ascended this mountain, which is
about 8,800 feet in height, in 1877. At that time the crater, which has
the appearance of a bottomless pit with perpendicular sides, was audibly
roaring and belching forth enormous volumes of sulphurous vapour.
The drifting of these vapours across the snow rendered it extremely
bitter. Some of this snow was liquefied and carried to Tokio for chemical
examination. The examination only yielded pure water, whatever it was
that had given the snow its peculiar taste having probably been evapo-
rated during liquefication. My next visit to Asama was in the spring of
1886. One of the chief objects of this expedition was to satisfy a
curiosity which had arisen with regard to the depth of the crater. Many
visitors to the summit reported that at favourable moments, when the
wind had blown the steam to one side, they had been able to see down-
wards to an enormous depth. One set of visitors, who had remarkable
opportunities for making observations, were convinced that if the crater
was not as deep as the mountain is high above the plain from which it
rises (5,800), it must atleast be from 1,500 to 2,000 feet in depth.
Although I had provided myself with sufficient wire and rope to solve
this problem, owing to the inclemency of the weather and the quantity of
snow then lying on the mountain, the expedition proved a failure. One
of our number had to give up the attempt to reach the summit at about
6,000 feet above sea-level, while I and my remaining companion only
reached it with great difficulty. Our’ stay was very short. The wind,
which was at times so strong that we were often compelled to le down,
rendered it impossible to approach the crater, and after a few minutes’
rest we beat a retreat, worn out with fatigue, across the snow-fields, to-
wards our starting-point.
Two months after this a visitor who ascended the mountain by moon-
light reported that the crater was only 200 feet in depth, and that at the
bottom there was a glowing surface. A second visitor, Colonel H.S. .
———————— ee ee
ON THE VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 217
Palmer, R.E., estimated the depth as being between 500 and 600 feet.
This estimate was based on the convergence of the walls of the crater,
which he saw to the depth of about 300 feet, and the diameter of the
crater, which he estimated, by walking round a semi-circumference, as
about 370 yards. Previous estimates of the diameter had been 200 yards,
three-fourths of a mile, and 1,000 metres. The Japanese say that the
periphery is 3? miles. These last estimates, as pointed out by Colonel
Palmer, are nearly in the ratio of 10, 81, 85, and 150!
These wildly discordant results as to the dimensions of Asama, and
the increasing curiosity on this question, led me, in conjunction with
Messrs. Dun, Glover, and Stevens, to face the fatigue of ascending
Asama for the third time. We left our resting-place (Kutskake) at the
foot of the mountain at 4.30 on the morning of October 2, and in com-
pany with five coolies we reached the summit at ll a.m. After a short
rest we commenced our measuring operations, the general arrangements
of which were entirely the suggestion of Mr. Dun. Before Mr. Dun
made his suggestion the various schemes which were proposed would, to
my mind, have been unpractical and unsatisfactory. One suggestion
was to roll a cannon-ball, with a string attached, down the crater ;
another was to shoot an arrow carrying a string into the hole; a third
suggestion was to fly a kite across the crater, &c., &c.
Mr. Dun’s method, which I subsequently learnt was similar to a
method devised by the late Mr. Mallet, was as follows :—First, a light
rope some 500 yards in length was attached to a block of rock lying on
a high portion of the rim of the crater. Next, this rope, which I shall
call the cross-line, was carried round the edge of the crater for about 150
or 200 yards. Here a heavy brass ring was tied upon it, and through
the ring was passed the end of a copper wire coiled on a large reel. This
was the sounding-line. Close to the ring a string, which I shall call the
guy-rope, was made fast to the cross-line. This being completed, the
cross-line was then carried on round the rim of the crater until it reached
an eminence, as near as we could judge, opposite to the point where the
other end of it was attached to the block of rock. After this the line
was jerked clear of pinnacles and boulders lying round the edge of the
crater. The cross-line now formed two sides of a triangle, stretching
across the crater from where the ring and lowering apparatus were to
two points diametrically opposite to each other. By letting out the guy-
rope, the cross-rope could be stretched until it formed a diameter to the
crater, with the ring in the middle. The getting of these ropes into
position was a matter of no little difficulty. First was the fact that
clouds of vapours not only prevented us from seeing from station to
station, but also from seeing far out into the crater. Secondly, on
account of the hissing and bubbling noises in the crater itself, we could
only communicate with each other by sound for short distances. And,
thirdly, there was the difficulty of clearing the cross-rope from the ragged
edges of the crater, which involved considerable risks in climbing. All
being ready, word was passed along to haul on the cross-rope ; and, as it
tightened, the guy-line was let out, together with the sounding-line,
running parallel to it, but passing through the ring. Owing to the
twisting of the cross-line by tension, and the consequent revolution of
the ring, the wire was broken, and the first attempt at sounding failed.
This difficulty was overcome by attaching the guy-rope to the ring itself.
Very luckily the sounding-wire, having been entangled in the cross-rope
218 REPORT—1 887.
by the twisting before it broke, the apparatus it carried was recovered.
This apparatus consisted of an iron wire, to which were attached a
number of metals of low fusibility, like antimony, zinc, &., together
with pieces of wood, india-rubber, sealing-wax, &c. By the melting,
burning, or fusing of some of these, it was hoped to obtain a rough idea.
of the temperature. Above these came a small net containing pieces of
blue and red ktmus-paper, Brazil-wood paper, and lead paper. With the:
assistance of my colleague, Dr. E. Divers, I had planned a number of
chemical tests ; but from previous experience I had learnt the impossibility
of carrying out anything but the simplest of experiments when working
on the summit of a live volcano.
At the second sounding, at a distance of about 100 feet from the edge,
bottom (side ?) was reached at 441 feet. The wire of metals, &c., came
up without change, farther than the softening and bending of the sealing-
wax. The automatic laboratory had a strong smell of the action of acid
vapours. The blue litmus was turned red, and the lead paper was well
darkened. Assuming the lead paper to have been blackened by sul-
phuretted hydrogen, then, as pointed out to me by Dr. Divers, the
absence of this gas at the surface, and the presence of sulphurous acid,
might be due to the decomposition of sulphuretted hydrogen by oxida-
tion or by sulphurous acid in the presence of steam. The presence of
sulphuretted hydrogen would indicate a relatively low temperature.
At the third sounding the line, which was a copper wire, gave way
at a depth of about 200 feet, carrying with it a mercurial weight thermo-
meter and other apparatus which I had reserved for what I hoped to be
the best sounding.
The fourth and last sounding was made, as measured on the guy-rope,
at a distance of about 300 feet from the edge. In this case, the line,
which was strong twine, after striking bottom when nearly 800 feet of it
had run out, suddenly became slack. On hauling up, 755 feet were re-
covered. The end of this line was thoroughly carbonised, and several
feet were charred. Assuming that the guy-rope was paid out at an angle
of 45°, we may conclude that the depth at this particular place was at least
700 feet. It is probable that the greatest depth is about 750 feet.
A final experiment was to attach a stone to the end of the cross-rope,
and then throw it into the crater, with the hope of hauling at least a
portion of it up the almost perpendicular face on the other side. Unfor-
tunately the line caught, and, in the endeavour to loosen it, it was broken.
Before we left the summit we were very fortunate in obtaining views
of one side of the bottom of the crater. This we did by cautiously
crawling out upon an overhanging rock, and then, while lying on our
stomachs, putting our heads over the edge. The perpendicular side oppo-
site to us appeared to consist of thick horizontally stratified bands of rock
of a white colour. The bottom of the pit itself was white, and covered
with boulders and débris. Small jets of steam were hissing from many
places in the sides of the pit, while on our left, where we had been sound-
ing, large volumes of choking vapours were surging up in angry clouds.
After this we descended the mountain, reaching our hotel at 8 PM.,
after 15 hours’ absence.
The recorded eruptions of Asama took place in the years 687, 1124 or
1126, 1527, 1532, 1596, 1645, 1648, 1649, 1652, 1657, 1659, 1661, 1704,
1708, 1711, 1719, 1721, 1723, 1729, 1733, 1783, and 1869. This last
eruption was feeble, but the eruption of 1783 was one of the most fright-
ON THE VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 219
fal on record. Rocks, from 40 to 80 feet in some of their dimensions,
were hurtled through the air in all directions. Towns and villages were
buried. One stone is said to have measured 264 by 120 feet. It fell in
a river, and looked like an island. Records of this eruption are still to be
seen, in the form of enormous blocks of stone scattered over the Oiwake
plain, and in a lava stream 63 kilometres in length.
HARTH-TREMORS. =
Introductory notes relating to the work done in Italy.—During the past
year considerable time has been devoted to a critical examination of the
earth-tremor records obtained from the automatic tromometer described
in the report to the British Association for 1885, These records, together
with the results which they have furnished, will be published in detail by
the Seismological Society of Japan. As an introduction to an epitome
of the results obtained in Japan, a few words may be said respecting the
work now in progress in the Italian Peninsula, where, through the efforts
of Professor M. S. de Rossi, twenty-seven stations for the observation of
microseismical movements have been established. At the central station in
Rome a daily map is issued on which thefollowing phenomena are indicated:
1. Isobars at 1 millimetre apart.
. Microseismical activity in different parts of the kingdom.
. The number and intensity of earthquakes.
. The state of activity at volcanoes.
. The state of hot springs.
The increase or decrease in the water of wells.
From the tabular matter accompanying the maps one can read the
state of microseismic activity at any particular station, or the average state
of activity for the whole kingdom for any particular day or for a whole
decade of ten days, the conclusion having been arrived at in Italy that
microseismical storms recur decadically. :
JANUARY 1885.
HD Ot co po
Days
a fs 4 poh CM Top ae pee ao
DECADE I,— | |
Medium microseismical . | 1°42 | 2°23 | 2:32 | 1:68 | 1-77 | 2:26 | 1-70 | 1°63 | 1-33 | 0°61
Number of shocks . oe 3 | 3 3 4 ie 3 2 3 4
Maximum intensity .| 5° | 4° | 3° |1° | 4° | 1S | 2o% Pao Mee eal
| r |
Days
11 12* 13 14* 15 16 17* 18 19* | -20*
DECADE II.—
Medium microseismical . | 1°44 | 3°07 | 2°59 | 2°15 | 3°07 | 2°56 2°41 | 208 | 3°37. | 2°59
Number of shocks. . | 3 7 3 17 6 9 5 3 10 8
Maximum intensity .|2° | 3° | 1° | 3° | 3° |1° |e |e Jar | 2°
Days
21* | 22* 23 | 24% 25 26 27 28* 29 30 31*
DECADE III.—
Medium microseismical , | 2°03 | 2°13 | 1:74 | 2°66 | 1:59 | 1:83 1:74 | 0°94 | 064 | 0°66 | 1°35
Number of shocks . kd 4 4 14 19 16 9 | 6 1 2 6
Maximum intensity .| 1° | 3° TN EE 1 aa oe TOP 20x || 3°
i]
As illustrative of this decadic recurrence I give the preceding table
compiled from the notes of Professor Rossi as published in the ‘ Bullettino
_ del Vulcanismo Italiano’ (anno xiii. fas. 1-3, pp. 5-7).
220 REPORT— 1887.
The days marked with an asterisk are those on which, as referred to
in the ‘ Bullettino,’ there was the greatest activity. First, I fail to see
that those days are the days of maximum activity, and even if they are
they do not appear to repeat themselves at intervals which are strictly
decadic. Considering that each decade is divided into three parts that
there should not be a near correspondence is apparently impossible.
As residents in Japan cannot know the nature of the Italian work so
well as those who are carrying it on in Italy, the chief object of this
criticism is to gain information which may be of value in the tabulation
of the work which in Japan is only now commencing. Another criticism’
which I bring forward refers to the relationship between the occurrence
of tremors and the movements of the barometer. In Italy it has been
observed that tremors are frequent and almost invariably accompany a
low barometer. These tremors are known as baro-seismic movements,
while those which occur during periods of high pressure are called vuleano-
seismic movements. From an examination of a large series of the Italian
maps it appears that there is a more general relationship between the
occurrence of earth-tremors and atmospheric fluctuations than that which
is implied in the name baro-seismic. The new law which I venture to put
forward is that tremors are at a maximum in the Italian Peninsula when
the barometrical gradient is steep, no matter whether the barometer is high or
whether it is low.
Mean micro- | Barometric fall 2
Date seismical inten-| per 300 geo- pros es ae! ao
sity in Italy | graphical miles | ?°” MNCS apart—¢
January 1, 1885 1:48 1 63-70
# 2%, 2°24 6 63-69
te i 35 hans 2°47 6 64-70
PA Dee 1:84 4 64-68
. Cs 2°29 4 64-68
Py U9) 1:89 4 63-67
o” 10, ” *b3 1 64-65
» WR aiey 3°59 7 48-55
Le 135) 3:03 6 44-50
: 1S eer 3°75 9 61-70
a Ose e5 2:79 10 54_64
ey BOM se 75 3 63-66
February 3, - ,, 2°80 9 54-63
” ts ” p Ef? 4 60-64
Fs LOT sy “43 fee Ovor 67-68
“a Ga: “Dil 2 67-69
os nti 98 3 65-68
” 24, ” 82 3 | 69-72
” Pah) abeh 73 3 65-68
Marchi oa $8 1 59-60
” By ” “71 a 62-63
Pr Ge 4:37 8 53-61
as Ton Rss 4:04 8 54-62
5S 14 oss 3:14 8 58-66
Br NG iess 57 1 72-73
” aly ” “49 0 72-72
5s ZO Ss 1:14 4 51-55
. D2 es 1:09 4 54-58
a 7 Na 82 0 59-59
53 30, 5 81 35 56-58°5
fr: Gale ae 96 2 61-63
TN eee Ga 54 1 58-59
fr me
ON THE VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 221
As confirmatory of the above conclusion the preceding table for days
when there has either been great or little microseismical disturbance has
been drawn up. It shows the intensity of the tremors in Italy, the actual
height of the barometer, and the gradient.
_ From an inspection of the table it will be seen that a low barometer,
as on March 29, is not necessarily accompanied with unusual tremors,
and that tremors only occur with a steep gradient.
A steep gradient is usually accompanied by wind, but, unfortunately,
the means of comparing microseismical disturbances with the state of the
- wind is not given on the Italian maps.
Work done in Japan.—I will now give the general results derived
from a set of records obtained from my automatic tremor-recorder. With
but few omissions they extend from Jan. 13, 1885, to May 14, 1886.
(a) General barometric analysis.—With the barometer standing above
the monthly mean tremors were observed 72 times, while they were not
observed 143 times.
With the barometer below the monthly mean tremors were observed
105 times, while in 104 cases they were not observed. The observations
apparently indicate that tremors occur rather with a low than with a
high barometer; but even if the barometer is low it is as likely that
tremors should not occur as it is that they should occur. The tables
showing these results also showed that tremors were more frequent
during the winter months—a fact which has often been noticed.
(5) General wind analysis.—Tables were prepared, showing for each
month the number of times that tremors had been observed, or had not
been observed, for different intensities of the wind. The general results
arrived at showed that when the wind velocity was low it was seldom
that tremors had been observed, but when it was high tremors were
almost invariably observed.
With a wind velocity of 100-150 kilometres per 24 hours, tremors
were observed in 28 per cent. of the times of observation.
With a wind velocity of 150-200 kilometres per 24 hours, tremors
were observed in 27 per cent. of the times of observation.
With a wind velocity of 200-250 kilometres per 24 hours, tremors
were observed in 24 per cent. of the times of observation.
With a wind velocity of 250-300 kilometres per 24 hours, tremors
were observed in 34 per cent. of the times of observation.
With a wind velocity of 300-350 kilometres per 24 hours, tremors
were observed in 50 per cent. of the times of observation.
With a wind velocity of 350-400 kilometres per 24 hours, tremors
were observed in 35 per cent. of the times of observation.
With a wind velocity of 400-450 kilometres per 24 hours, tremors
were observed in 54 per cent. of the times of observation.
With a wind velocity of 450-500 kilometres per 24 hours, tremors
were observed in 57 per cent. of the times of observation.
With a wind velocity of 500-550 kilometres per 24 hours, tremors
were observed in 38 per cent. of the times of observation.
With a wind velocity of 550-600 kilometres per 24 hours, tremors
were observed in 60 per cent. of the times of observation.
With a wind velocity of 600-650 kilometres per 24 hours, tremors
were observed in 44 per cent. of the times of observation,
With a wind velocity of 650-700 kilometres per 24 hours, tremors
were observed in 62 per cent. of the times of observation,
222 REPORT—1887.
With a wind velocity of 700-750 kilometres per 24 hours, tremors
were observed in 100 per cent. of the times of observation.
With a wind velocity of 750-800 kilometres per 24 hours, tremors
were observed in 100 per cent. of the times of observation.
(c) Detailed wind analysis--The analysis now referred to extends
over the period between Jan. 20 and May 14, 1886, or nearly four
months. The wind observations with which the tremors were compared
are given in the tri-daily weather maps prepared by the Imperial
Meteorological Observatory. The wind scale runs from 0, or a calm, to
6, or a hurricane.
With the wind at 0 tremors were observed 10 times and not observed
16 times.
With the wind at 1 tremors were observed 53 times and not observed
47 times.
With the wind at 2 tremors were observed 54 times and not observed
49 times. :
With the wind at 3 tremors were observed 37 times and not observed
16 times.
With the wind at 4 tremors were observed 12 times and not observed
1 time.
The percentage of times that tremors were observed with the wind in
different states were as follows :—
: Wind at 0, percentage 38
53
”? ”? > 9
th) 99 ’ ” 53
9 ” 3, ” 70
vied ” ’ be) 92
From this and the preceding analysis it seems that the stronger the
wind the more likely it is that tremors should occur, The difficulty
which here presents itself is to account for tremors sometimes occurring
during a calm, and for the occasional absence of tremors during a wind.
A partial explanation of these difficulties is obtained when we compare
the occurrence of tremors with the barometric gradient, when we find
that for each particular state of the wind when tremors have occurred
the gradient has been steeper than the gradient for the same state of the
wind when tremors have not occurred. Thus—
Barometric gradient in millimetres per 120 miles
Wind intensity ;
With tremors Without tremors
0 23 1:9
1 2°9 271
2 3:0 21
3 3°6 29
4 4-4 30
From the above it appears that tremors are more closely connected with
barometric gradient than they are with a local wind.
(d) Detailed barometric analysis—The following table shows the
relationship between the occurrence of tremors and the barometric gra-
dient, irrespective of the force of the wind. The percentage of times that
ON THE VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 223
;
tremors were observed out of the total number of observations made at
any particular gradient are also given.
Barometric gradient per 120 m. Tremors Percentage No tremors
0 2 28 8
1 28 57 21
2 42 44 52
3 40 50 40
4 22 88 3
5 20 71 8
6 5 100 —
7 3 100 —
8 = = aes
9 1 100 —
The general conclusion to be drawn from this table is that tremors are
- proportionately more frequent the steeper the gradient.
(e) The presence of tremors and the absence of wind.—In the detailed
wind analysis table c it was shown that there were tremors 10 times when
it was calm, and 53 times when there was only a light breeze in Tokio.
It was, however, also shown that although the wind was light the baro-
metric gradient is relatively high. This led me to inquire whether there
was not a strong wind blowing at a distance from Tokio, while in Tokio
itself when tremors were observed it was calm. The results of the
inquiry were as follows :—
First, in 6 cases out of the 10 when tremors were recorded during a
calm, there were heavy winds blowing behind the mountains which shelter
Tokio on its western and northern sides at a distance of 60 to 100 miles.
In 8 cases there was a calm throughout Central Japan, but the tremors
on these occasions were very slight.
Second, on 35 days out of 45 days on which the 53 cases of tremors
were recorded with a light breeze, there was a strong wind blowing
within 50 to 150 miles of Tokio. When the wind was blowing up from
the §.W. at right angles to the ranges sheltering the plain of Tokio the
tremors were very marked. On 10 days there was a calm in Central
Japan, and the tremors which were recorded cannot be explained as the
result of wind, neither do they hold any connection with a steep baro-
metric gradient. :
It is proper to note here that 44 days when there was a calm in
Tokio, and no tremors, were also examined, with the result of show-
ing that on 22 of the days there was a general calm in Central
Japan, and on the 22 remaining days there was practically a calm.
At one or two stations only was the intensity of the wind one or
two, and even then at different stations it was blowing in contrary
directions.
(f) Absence of tremors and presence of wind.—By reference to section ¢,
it will be seen that there were sixteen cases when the wind was of strength
3, and one when the wind was of strength 4, and no tremors were
recorded. In these instances if. tremors are the result of wind, then
tremors ought to have been recorded. In three cases the wind was local,
while in the remaining cases the wind came in from the ocean.
(g) Analysis of selected storms.—A few of the more important tremor
storms, some of which extended over thirty or forty hours, have been
224 REPORT—1887.
drawn as curves, the ordinates of which represented the amplitude of
tremor motion. These curves were compared with curves which repre-
sented the force of the wind and the height of the barometer in Tokio.
After comparing these curves with each other it appeared that the micro-
seismical disturbances showed the most varying relationship with the
strength of the wind and the movements of the barometer.
(h) Earth-tremors and earthquakes.—Professor M. 8. de Rosse has
pointed out some remarkable instances when earth-tremors have been the
precursors of earthquakes. From my records it appears that earthquakes
have happened fifty-three times when there were no tremors, and thirty-
three times when there were tremors. From this I conclude that earth-
quakes are just as likely to occur without tremors as with them.
(i) Earth-tremors and the state of the wind in Central Japan in 1885.—
Central Japan is here meant to include all places within about 200 miles
of Tokio. In this area there are eleven meteorological stations. If the
wind has had a force of three cr upwards at more than one of these
stations it has been considered windy. When the wind has not exceeded
two or one, even if wind of that intensity was blowing at all the eleven
stations, it has been considered calm. An arbitrary division of days or
periods into windy and calm, such as has here been followed, must neces-
sarily result in absolutely separating the days which were truly windy
from those which were truly calm. There are, however, a number of
cases which might equally well be placed in either group.
In 1885 there were 94% weather maps which could be compared with
the records of the tremor instrument. The results of the comparison were
as follows :—
1. With no wind and no tremors there were . ; . 651 cases.
2. With no wind and tremors < 8 i : oh ee a
3. With wind and no tremors 2 3 : : seiO Oem pF
4, With wind and tremors es 7 7 ; gnome.
5. With a local wind in Tokio and no tremors there were 101 __,,
6. With a local wind and tremors there were . : ey es
On the assumption that tremors are due to the wind, then the second
and third results are difficult to understand. These have therefore been
carefully re-examined, with results as follows: In 17 out of the 51 cases
of tremors occurring when there was no wind it is found that at these
times it was moderately windy, and it is therefore possible that the tremors
which were observed might have been due to wind. In 8 instances the
tremors were accompanied by marked barometrical depressions, while in
the 26 remaining cases the tremors were slight and of short duration.
In 51 cases out of the 60 cases when there was wind and no tremors
it is seen that the wind was only moderate and of short duration. Most
of these winds were afternoon sea-breezes, which possibly do not continue
sufficiently long to produce tremors. In 9 instances of tremors they are
the result of wind. These tremors ought to have been observed. The 945
comparisons may therefore be arranged as follows :—
1. With no wind and no tremors. t i } . 651 cases.
2, With no wind and tremors 51 cases :—
(a) Tremors possibly due to preceding wind. DE
(b) Tremors accompanying barometric depressions . oay,;
(c) Tremors possibly of subterranean origin. . . BGreg
ON THE VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 225
8. With wind and no tremors 60 cases :—
(a) Cases where tremors ought to have occurred . 9 cases.
(b) Cases where it is doubtful whether tremors ought
to have been observed . : : : sO Ot.
4, With wind and tremors : : H ; : Garey
5. With local wind and no tremors. . : i : yah be
6. With local wind and tremors ; A ; ‘ , Lelia ey
Total ; , , ‘ é SOA t,;
In 1885 tremors were therefore recorded 133 times. The obvious ex-
planation for 65 cases (50 per cent.) when tremors were very marked is
that they were produced by stormy winds which were then blowing. In
34 cases (25 per cent.) the tremors may have been produced by stormy
winds which had been blowing a few hours previously or by strong local
winds. The remaining 34 cases (25 per cent.) may have been of subter-
ranean origin. In these latter cases, however, the tremors are feeble and
of short duration, while when the tremors have accompanied wind they have
been of considerable amplitude and of long duration. That tremors are in
great measure due to wind receives support from the fact that when it
has been calm in Central Japan tremors which have always been very
slight have only been observed in less than 5 per cent. of the times of
observation.
SUMMARY.
The preceding epitomised analyses apparently point to the following
results :—
1. Earth-tremors are more frequent when the barometer is low than
when it is high, but even with a low barometer tremors are not always
observed.
2. With a steep barometric gradient tremors are almost always ob-
_ served, but with a small gradient it is seldom that they are recorded.
3. The stronger the wind the more likely it is that tremors should be
noted.
4, When there is a high wind in Tokio and no tremors such wind has
almost invariably been local, or of short duration, or blowing in from the
Pacific Ocean. Such winds are rarely accompanied by tremors.
5. When there has been no wind in Tokio, and tremors have been
observed, in most instances there has been a strong wind in other parts
of Central Japan. In the case of winds working up Japan from the
S.W. the tremors in Tokio have been very marked, these being recorded
in Tokio several hours before the arrival of the wind. Sometimes
tremors appear to be due to a wind which had been blowing a few hours
previously. :
6. With a general calm in Central Japan it is extremely rare to
observe tremors, and even if they are observed they are extremely slight.
7. Earthquakes and earth-tremors do not appear to be connected with
each other.
Although the above conclusions are founded upon a fairly long series
of observations and their importance is great, especially to all who are
engaged in meteorological investigations, it is hardly yet justifiable to
put them forward as established laws until the observations have been
repeated. So far as my investigations have gone, it certainly appears
1887, Q
226 ; REPORT— 1887.
that the greater number of tremor disturbances are phenomena which
originate upon the surface of the earth, and it is not necessary to look to
subterranean agencies for their production. That tremors are produced
by local winds acting upon trees and buildings is a phenomenon hardly
requiring demonstration. We also know that artificially produced tremors
can be propagated through ordinary soil to a considerable distance.
Vibrations produced by stamping with the feet can be seen reflected in a
dish of mercury at the distance of 100 feet. The vibrations produced
by a railway train can be recorded at the distance of a mile.
The question now is whether winds blowing against high mountains,
which at times, as I showed in my report for 1885, are in a state of
vibration, produce a disturbance sufficiently intense to be felt at the
distance of 100 miles upon plains where it is practically calm?
Observations, so far as they have gone, appear to indicate this to be
the case, and if it is so, then the movements of the ocean upon which
wavelets and waves outrace the storms which originate them find a
parallel in the movements of the land.
As a test of the accuracy of my conclusions I invited Colonel H. §.
Palmer, R.E., to determine from a series of weather maps (257 in all)
the days upon which tremors had occurred. The rules for his guidance
were :—
1. With a general calm in Central Japan tremors seldom occurred.
2. With a wind in Tokio and Central Japan, or with no wind in
Tokio, but with strong wind in other parts of Central Japan, tremors
might be cbserved.
On receiving Colonel Palmer’s list I was agreeably surprised to find
that ix 54 owt of 57 cases when he reported that tremors ought to have been
observed he was absolutely right, there having been tremors which were very
marked. In reporting ‘no tremors’ he was only wrong when slight
tremors had occurred.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. H. Bavrerman, Mr. F.
W. Rupier, Mr. J. J. H. Tari, and Dr. Jounston-Lavis, for the
imvestigation of the Voleanic Phenomena of Vesuvius and
its neighbourhood. (Drawn up by H. J. Jounston-Lavis, M.D.,
F.GS., Secretary.)
Fewer changes have taken place in Vesuvius than the reporter has known
to occur during any of the eight years the volcano has been under his
observation, and even in the recent history of the mountain no such
extent of regular action is indicated. The lava mentioned in the last
report as flowing continued to do so in varying quantity, and about
September 17, 1886, again reached the cultivated lands, destroying some
trees at the southern end of the Somma ridge. During the latter part of
the same month and the first half of October the amount of lava varied
very much, as also did the activity. Sometimes after a few days of quiet-
ness with the lava high in the chimney so that the scoria stage persisted,
a small cone of eruption would be built up at the bottom of the great
crater formed during the summer ; but as soon as greater activity declared
itself, or the lava-level sank, the ash-forming stage prevailed, and the
great crater formed during the summer was further enlarged. As all
ON THE VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF VESUVIUS. 227
these changes took place from the eastern depression, the crater rim
assumed an irregular oval plan—the larger end being towards the
east. arly in November the upper part of the eastern slope of the
great cone showed a considerable rent, nearly on the site of that of 1881-2,
and about half-way down the mountain another opening, from which issued
some of the lava during the last two months, and near which it probably
now issues and flows under cover to the Val d’Inferno, where it appears
at the surface. In November there was also to be seen a new fissure on
the crater-plain (1872) in a N.H. direction, whilst the long one running
due west has become much more marked from the advanced decomposition
of its edges by the escape of the acid vapours. From that time up to the
present the lava has continued to ooze ina few small streams near the base
of the great cone at the junction of the Val d’Inferno with the Pedimen-
tina. In the meanwhile, with slight intervals, a cone of eruption has been
built up gradually at the crater-bottom, whilst the inner sides of the
latter were thickly lined by a mantle of scoria cakes. This is fairly well
shown in the photograph exhibited, which is the only one of any interest
amongst those taken this year.
Exhibited at the meeting is the first volume of ‘Lo Spettatore del
Vesuvio e dei Campi Flegrei,’ published by the Neapolitan section of the
Italian Alpine Club. It is a revival in name of a somewhat similar pub-
lication of some thirty years ago. Its object is to record and publish any
scientific observations on the Neapolitan volcanic region. The present
number contains memoirs by Professors Comes, Palmieri, Palmeri, Riccio,
Scacchi, and the reporter. The latter memoir consists of the detailed ob-
servations on Vesuvius during a space of four years, illustrated by three
figures and thirteen phototype reproductions of photographs, all being the
work of the reporter. These photographs have been exhibited in Section
C during the last three years.' It is the intention of the publishers to
continue to issue numbers from time to time if sufficient support can be
found to cover the expenses. While speaking of this part of the subject,
the reporter has received much help from local friends, and is particularly
indebted to Mrs. T. R. Guppy and Mrs. Lavis for carefully carrying on
observations on the activity of Vesuvius during his absence or illness.
The fifth sheet of the geological map of Monte Somma and Vesuvius
has been completed, and is exhibited at the meeting, whilst the sixth is
nearly so, but owing to the outburst of cholera at Resina and some other
of the Vesuvian communes the five or six other field days necessary to finish
it were not obtainable. Even had this been the case there would have
been insufficient time to make a clean copy for exhibition at this meeting.
The sheet presented required much negative work in the valleys and on
the slopes of Monte Somma, and the detail work on the southern part
took much time. As a portion of this sheet has been worked at different
times, and no account kept, it is difficult to estimate the number of field
days, but it would be within the truth if placed at twenty-five.
The only work now remaining to finish the geological map may be
summed up thus: about six field days to complete the last sheet; about
one week’s work in the Atrio del Cavallo to map in that region with its
‘dykes on the three different sheets upon which it appears; and about six
field days to different localities where new exposures, roads, and excava-
_ tions have been made; so that the reporter hopes next year to exhibit the
_ whole map in manuscript and, if possible, a printed copy.
1 A copy of the volume is exhibited.
Q2
228 REPORT—1887.
This year has been less favourable for adding to our knowledge of
the subterranean structure of this volcanic district. The artesian well at
Russo’s factory at Ponticelli, which was in progress at the date of the
last report, is now completed, and M. Chartier, the engineer who super-
intended the boring, has kindly placed at my disposal the working
records and specimens, which I hope to describe in detail elsewhere.
Marine sand, tuff, and other clastic materials were traversed to a depth ~
of 58 metres, and from that point to 1034 metres beds of rather coarse
doleritic lava were met with. The lavas repose on strata of ash, lapillo,
and pumice, and at a depth of 180-6 metres sand and leucitic (?) breccia were
met with. The importance of this well cannot be overrated, showing as
it does the interlapping of the trachytic ejections of the Campi Phlegres
with the Vesuvian lavas, tuffs, and breccias, and proving undoubtedly
that the site of the valley of the Sebeto was a deep bay of the sea long
after the fires of Vesuvius had commenced to burn, and that this bay
was in great part filled up by the fragmentary deposits from the Neapo-
litan volcanoes, or others washed down the slopes of Vesuvius, and above
all the lavas of that volcano that poured as fiery torrents into the placid
prehistoric bath of the Siren long before that mythical goddess or even
the ancient Paleopolis were thought of by human mind. At San Giovanni
di Teduccio, in a direct line from the last well to the seashore, and near
the latter, another boring has been made by M. Chartier. After passing
through 18 metres of sand with shells 8 metres of marl were met with,
with tuff and sand to 34 metres. It is regrettable that no greater depth
was reached, as it might also have struck the Vesuvian lava, as in the
former case.
At Pisciarelli, on the N.K. flank of the Solfatara, once the site of the
alum-water rivulet, an attempt has been made to dig a well and re-find
the alum water. The well has reached a depth of 25 metres, and the
water is at boiling-point ; and even with two hand-fans the atmosphere
has risen above 90° C., so that the day before writing this report
(Aug. 17, 1887) the workmen refused to continue work; and as it is
necessary to excavate another 10 metres the fight between human in-
genuity and volcanic heat may afford us some interesting facts. The
water found is an alkaline sulphur water, and not aluminons, as the re-
porter had forewarned the engineer, who would not believe that alum is
a surface product of the higher oxidation of the sulphurous acid and the
action of the resulting sulphuric acid upon the trachytic rocks.
The railway works at the back of Naples have been suspended for
some months from financial difficulties, and the new drainage works have
not brought anything new to light. At the Armstrong works at Pozzuoli
only facts that confirm what is already known have been met with.
The reporter spent over a month of the early summer in studying the
volcanic group of the Eolian Islands. The state of Vulcano after the late
eruption seems to be very similar to what it is under ordinary conditions.
The bottom of the crater is now inaccessible without a rope, as the lower
half of the path was blown away by the late eruptive action. Stromboli,
however, showed the most remarkable quiescence, explosions being only
few and far between; and during a stay of 4} hours at the crater only
three were sufficiently strong to project a few fragments of pasty
lava.
It is the reporter’s wish, as soon as the geological map of Vesuvius
and Monte Somma is finished, to commence a series of experiments upon
eee
ON THE VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF VESUVIUS. 229
the temperature of the lava and, if possible, of its specific gravity at dif.
ferent temperatures.
The reporter regrets to show less apparent work in the present report,
but he can assure the Section that not less real work has been carried
out.
————
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. W. T. Buanrorp,
Professor J. W. Jupp, Mr. W. Carrutuzrs, Dr. H. Woopwarp,
; and Mr. J. S. Garpner, for the purpose of reporting on the
Fossil Plants of the Tertiary and Secondary Beas of the United
Kingdom. (Drawn up by the Secretary, Mr. J. S. GarpNer. )
‘Tue small balance carried forward from last meeting has been ex-
pended in visiting the localities in which fossil plants have previously
been met with.
The beds near the pier at Bournemouth seem more than usually
inaccessible, but a fall from the cliff has brought down some of the dark
clays, and in these were parts of a large feather palm and other leaves.
I was fortunate enough, however, to secure at the west end of the cliffs
a new species of Acer and a fine leaf of Dryandra acutiloba, really a Myrica,
a rare leaf at Bournemouth, and one of the few that extend upward from
the Lower Bagshot into the Bournemouth horizon.
I have again visited Alum Bay, but the pipe-clay on the shore has
become still more diminished, and there is no hope that any more fossil
plant-remains will be obtained there in our time. No distinct plant-
remains are obtainable from the same horizon at Whitecliff Bay, though
I had some hope that this might be the case. The drought was unfavour-
_ able to collecting at Barton and Hordwell, where most interesting fruits
_ are washed out during heavy rains, and I procured no plants during my
visits there this year; but it favoured, on the contrary, collecting at
Lough Neagh, by lowering the level of the lake, and I am able to add a
new Pteris, an exquisitely preserved fruit, and many dicotyledons to the
flora, and a Paludina to the fauna.
No plant-remains were obtainable this year at Reading, nor do any
of the other brick-pits in which plant-remains have occurred seem in
exactly a favourable state at the moment for collecting ; so that it appears
undesirable to ask for further grants for this purpose at present. The
Lower Eocene floras are, however, still insufficiently known, and excava-
tions at Bromley, or elsewhere in the W oolwich horizon, would, I anticipate,
yield especially important results. In the meantime an enormous mass
of material has now been accumulated, which will require years ot patient
research to digest. Advantage has been taken of the presence of that
istinguished paleobotanist, the Marquis de Saporta, at our meeting to
o through the drawings, numbering more than a thousand, that I have
ready made of the fossil plants so far collected. He is completely
stonished at the richness of our Hocenes, and considers them to be
mrivalled. The Reading and Bournemouth horizons contain plants
which do not appear in Europe until much later Tertiary times, seeming
to have passed very slowly across Europe towards Hastern Asia—which
may be considered their present home—their chief affinities being with
floras indigenous to that part of the globe, rather than with those of
America and Australia, as hitherto supposed.
230 REPORT —1887.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor T. G. Bonney,
Mr. J. J. H. Tea, and Professor J. F. BLaKe, appointed to
undertake the Microscopical Examination of the Older Rocks of
Anglesey. (Drawn up by Professor J. F. BLaxe, Secretary.)
Tue Secretary of the Committee reports that it has been thought desirable
for the adequate examination of the questions which arise in connec-
tion with the crystalline schists and associated rocks of Anglesey to have
a large number of sections—about 300—cut from specimens from various
localities. The cutting and preparation of these have occupied so much
of the year as not to have left adequate time for the detailed study they
require.
A map is exhibited showing the localities from which the rocks from
which slices have been prepared have been obtained. These are in
nearly every part of the island where the older rocks occur, and certainly
include examples of every important variety. For stratigraphical pur-
poses, to show the distribution of the various types, which cannot be
with certainty distinguished in the field, a still larger series would be
desirable ; but for general questions connected with the origin of these
rocks the collection is probably sufficient.
These preliminary results obtained by the first examination will be
lable to modification and correction when more time has been given to
their study; but the following points seem fairly well established at
present :—
1. The quartz rocks have two distinct origins; one group consists of
ordinary beds of quartz sand which have been more or less compacted
and foliated by the development of some chloritic or other mineral in the
interstices, and the other group has the original quartz grains irregularly
scattered and imbedded in quartz which has been developed in the rock
itself, somewhat after the manner of the quartz in a vein.
2. Passages may be traced from true chloritic schists, in which the
largest original sand-grains only are left here and there, into breccias, in
which the matrix has not yet been crystallised to its full extent, but
which remains in a dusty or granular state.
3. The presence of this green mineral, generally called chlorite, is
characteristic of certain parts of the whole series of Anglesey rocks,
whether taken from the newer or the older portions, though its amount
and definiteness vary to a great extent.
4. This same chloritic mineral is characteristically combined with —
quartz in what one might almost call a micropegmatitic manner, except
that the mineral is rather in rounded blebs, arranged in a botryoidal —
manner.
5. The less crystalline or dusty members of the series are often
divided by narrow opaque lines of the finest dust running more or less |
parallel, but interosculating and undoubtedly produced since the first
formation of the rock. The more crystalline the rock the more rare is it
to find snch lines in them.
6. The granitic and dioritic rocks, which are found associated with the :
schists or ashy rocks, more generally with the latter, are distinguished ©
by the presence of accessory minerals, such as zircon, sphene, rutile, and
apatite.
:
:
=
ON THE OLDER ROCKS OF ANGLESEY. 231
7. Any one of these rocks, whether granite, syenite, or diorite, or
whatever they may be called, puts on a foliated character in places, usually
_ towards the margin of the mass.
8. There are rocks in this old series of an essentially basaltic
structure, z.e., consisting of acicular crystals of felspar in a less differen-
tiated ground mass.
9. The fragments which occur in the breccias of the series between
Bangor and Carnarvon can mostly, if not entirely, be identified with
rocks from Anglesey, including the above basaltic rock, except those
which are derived from the felsites of the same series.
10. The limestones of the group are remarkably pure, having either
a schistose or mosaic structure; they have, however, in some cases the
interstices filled with hematitic dust, which, when quartz is present, forms
jasper. The only exception to this purity is an oolitic limestone at Llan-
badrig, in which oolitic grains, often grain within grain, are imbedded in
the more crystalline calcite.
11. In connection with the felsites occurring on the mainland must
be recognised a rock occurring, amongst other places, near Beaumaris,
which may be called a felsite grit. It is truly clastic, and may be a
cleaved rock containing foreign fragments ; but the matrix is so entirely
formed of felsitic material that it has the aspect of a true felsite.
12. The peculiar polarising tints which are characteristic of pressure
are met with in many of the rocks, but their development is so sporadic,
even in the same rock, that their significance cannot yet be completely
determined : it is less common in the granitic and allied rocks than in
the schist.
In order to carry on the investigation of these rocks to a conclusion
the Committee desire to be reappointed.
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors 'TILDEN
and ARMSTRONG (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of in-
vestigating Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives. (Drawn up by
Professor ARMSTRONG. )
VALUABLE contributions to our knowledge of the naphthalene derivatives
have been made during the past year by Bamberger, Cléve, Ekstrand,
Forsling, Guareschi and Biginelli, and others; my own investigations
have also progressed very satisfactorily : and from the results obtained it
is more than ever obvious that the information to be derived from the
study of naphthalene derivatives will be of considerable importance, as
it will unquestionably serve to throw light on the nature of the changes
involved in the formation of substitution derivatives generally and on
laws of substitution.
Sulphonation of a-mono-derivatives—The behaviour of a-chloro- and
bromonaphthalene was referred to in the last report; that of «-iodo-
naphthalene has since been found to be precisely similar, as this com-
pound yields the 1:4 sulphonic acid as main product together with an
isomer. The latter, however, has not yet been obtained in sufficient
quantity to satisfactorily determine its specific characters, The 1:4
sulpho-chloride crystallises in massive prisms, melting at 123°; bromine
232 REPORT—1887.
at once displaces the sulpho-group in the acid, forming 1:4 iodobromo-
naphthalene (m.p. 88°).
a-Cyanonaphthalene yields an acid which forms well-characterised
salts, &c.: this is undoubtedly an a-sulphonic derivative, as it is cou-
verted by fusion with potash into an hydroawycarbowylic acid, from which
a-naphthol may be obtained by removal of carbon dioxide. The hy-
droxy acid appears not to be identical with the a-hydroxy acid pre-
pared from a-naphtoic acid; if this be the case it is to be anticipated
that, although the sulphonic acids prepared from a-naphtoie acid and from
a-cyanonaphthalene are both a-a-derivatives, the one will prove to be the
1:1’ and the other (probably the cyano-compound) the 1:4! derivative.
In any case, however, the behaviour of a-cyanonaphthalene affords another
example of the modification of the ‘meta-law’ which prevails in the
benzene series in favour of the ‘alpha-law’ to which reference was made
in the previous report. These experiments on a-derivatives have been
made by Mr. 8. Williamson.
Dichloronaphthalenesulphonic acids.—With the object of characterising
the dichloronaphthalenes and in order to obtain more material for the
determination of the laws of substitution, a systematic study of the
sulpho-acids obtainable from the dichloronaphthalenes has been com-
menced and already extended to five of them by Mr. W. P. Wynne and
myself; the examination of the dichloronaphthalenes melting at about
61°, obtained from various sources, has afforded results of special interest,
which serve to throw light on the constitution of several of the com-
pounds referred to in the previous report, and has also led to the dis-
covery that two distinct dichloronaphthalenes have hitherto been con-
founded together.
I. It was suggested in the former report that the sulpho-acid formed
from a-C,)H,Cl in small quantity together with the 1:4 acid was an
a-a-derivative; if so, it should give either the 1:1’ or 1:4’ dichloro-
naphthalene on treatment with PCl;. Actually, however, it is found to
yield a dichloronaphthalene melting at about 61°—the melting-point of
Cléve’s 0-modification—thus proving it to be an a-/3-derivative.
Now there is reason to believe that, as a rule, if a B-hydrogen atom
become displaced it is one contiguous to an a-position which is already
occupied ; it is therefore probable that the dichloronaphthalene in question
and the parent sulphonic acid are 1:2 derivatives. The acid obtained on sul-
phonating the dichloronaphthalene gave a sulphochloride melting at 113°.
2. The chloro-acid obtained as chief product on sulphonating
{-C,)H,Cl was said by Arnell to yield a dichloronaphthalene melting
at about 61° when distilled with PCl;: on répeating the experiment, it
was found that the product fused sharply at 65°. The sulpho-acid pre-
pared from this dichloronaphthalene gave salts similar to those obtained
from the acid prepared from the dichloronaphthalene discussed in the
preceding paragraph, and its sulpho-chloride fused at 119°. A very small
quantity of the products from a-C,)H,Cl was at disposal, but a very con-
siderable quantity of those from -C,)H,Cl, which could therefore be
carefully purified ; and as the formation of a 1 : 2 derivative on sulpho-
nating -C,)H,Cl appears ghly probable, it is believed that the slight
differences observed were due to impurity in the products from a-C,)H,Cl.
It is thought desirable provisionally to term the dichloronaphthalene
melting at 65° homo-0-dichloronaphthalene = 0-Cy)H,Cl,, as it is probably
a homonucleal compound.
ON ISOMERIC NAPHTHALENE DERIVATIVES. 233
3. On treating the ? 8-disulphonic acid referred to in the previous
report with PCl, a dichloronaphthalene is obtained which also melts at
about 61°°5; this, however, yields a sulpho-acid distinct from that
obtained from the dichloronaphthalene from £-C,)H,Cl, the melting-
point of the sulphochloride being 150°.
4, Cléve has recently described a dichloronaphthalene melting at 61°°5
which he prepared from dichloro-a-naphthylamine. Onsulphonating this
modification an acid is obtained which is identical with that prepared
from the dichloronaphthalene from the ? 8-naphthalenedisulphonic acid.
It is proposed to provisionally term this dichloronaphthalene hetero-6-
dichloronaphthalene = 6'-C,)HgCl,, as there is reason to believe that it isa
heteronucleal compound—probably it is 2':4 C,)H¢Clo.
5. It will assuredly be found on examining the two dichloronaphtha-
lenes melting (?) at 61° prepared from Cléve’s two nitro-/3-sulphonic
acids, that the one is the homo- and the other the hetero-0-modification.
That obtained from Bayer’s modification of /3-naphtholsulphonic acid is
doubtless hetero-6-dichloronaphthalene: the conclusion arrived at by Claus,
that this acid is a 2:3 di-derivative is not only opposed to all that is known
of the behaviour of naphthalene compounds, inasmuch as it involves the
assumption that on sulphonating B-naphthol the second f-position con-
tiguous to the hydroxyl becomes displaced; it is untrustworthy, as the
dichloroquinone which he obtained may have been, and doubtless was,
produced by the action of chlorine liberated during the process of oxida-
tion; and there is reason to believe that the dichloronaphthalene corre-
sponding to such an acid would be the t-modification, which melts at 120°.
Isomeric change in the naphthalene series.—One of the most strik-
ing cases of isomeric change known is that of #-naphthylsulphate,
C, 9H,.0SOH, into Schaefer’s modification of B-naphtholsulphonic acid
by mere warming on the water-bath (‘ Berichte,’ 1882, p. 204). The
conversion takes place in the absence of sulphuric acid, and with such
ease that there can be practically no doubt that it is a true case of
isomeric change; and it is not probable either that the sulpho-group
becomes displaced and re-enters the molecule in another position, or that
one molecule acts upon another so that an exchange of sulpho-groups is
effected. This view is supported by the following more recent observa-
tions: first, that if bromo-B-naphthol be submitted to the action of
SO;HCl at ordinary temperatures, the resulting product contains very
little of the sulphate C,,)H,Br.0.SO,;H, but chiefly consists of the
bromonaphtholsulphonic acid which is formed on brominating Schaefer’s
naphtholsulphonic acid.
Again, if B-naphthylsulphate be acted upon by SO,HCl without
heating, not only is a second sulpho-group introduced, but that already
present spontaneously changes its position : a disulphonic acid is thus pro-
duced, which is characterised by the readiness with which it parts with
one of its sulphonic radicles being converted into Schaefer’s monosul-
phonic acid; it is probable that the sulpho-group, which is easily dis-
placed occupies the a-position contiguous to the OH group. The disul-
phonic acid here referred to itself undergoes isomeric change when heated,
but the nature of the product is not yet finally determined.
Lastly, experiments have been made at my suggestion by Mr. EH. G.
Amphlett, in which the formation of the sulphate has been prevented
by ethylating the naphthol; and it appears that, on sulphonating
B-C,,)H,.0C,H, at ordinary temperatures, by means of SO;HCI, a mixed
234 REPORT—1887.
product is obtained, consisting chiefly of an acid which most probably is
the ethylated derivative of Bayer’s naphtholsulphonic acid together with a
small proportion of what is undoubtedly the isomeric ethylated derivative
of Schaefer’s acid; if, however, the product be heated on the water-bath,
the former acid is converted into the latter.
These results afford evidence of a most interesting character, both the
ease with which the conversion is effected and the variety of isomeric
changes which are disclosed being remarkable. Special attention is being
directed to the further elucidation of this branch of the inquiry.
~ Theory of the formation of azo-dye stuffs from B-naphthol.—A series of
dye stufis of considerable technical value are produced from B-naphthol
and its sulphonic acids by interaction with diazo-salts. It is well known
that in the case of B-naphthol itself the a-hydrogen atom contiguous to
the OH group becomes displaced by the azo-group. ‘This position
appears to be free in all the sulphonic acids which afford azo-colonrs, and
those naphthol derivatives in which it is not free appear to be incapable
of forming such colours; it is therefore a legitimate inference that all
azo-dyes derived from £-naphthol are formed by the introduction of an
azo-group in the position indicated. The formation of such azo-colours
in all probability involves the occurrence of isomeric change, the initial
action consisting in the displacement of the H atom of the OH group by
the azo-group Az, the compound thus constituted then undergoing
change ; thus—
iH Az
Oa OAz OH
In the case of such compounds the isomeric change apparently can
take place only in the one direction, and on this account it is impossible
to effect the introduction of the azo-group into any other position ; if it
were possible to displace some other hydrogen atom, azo-colours might
well result.
Melting-points of the isomeric sulpho-chlorides——The following num-
bers are interesting, as showing that the same change in composition
does not always involve a change in physical properties of the same
order; it will be noticed that, whereas in the 1:4 series the bromo-com-
pound has a lower melting-point ' than either the chloro- or iodo-compound,
in the 2:3 series the bromo-derivative has the highest melting-point; the
low melting point of the 2:3’ iodosulphochloride is also remarkable.
Bit: 4) O(P1 : 2)
a-Cl.C,9H,.SO.Cl 95° 127°
a-Br.C,9H,.SO.Cl 87° ay l=
a-I.C,5H,.SO,C1 128° ==
e (2: 3’) 6 (?1 32)
B-Cl.C,,H,.S05Cl 109° 130°
B-Br:C,5H,-S0,Cl 125° 147°
B-I.C,oH,.SO.C1 92°-5 174°
1 The melting-point cited is that given by Jolin; the others are from my own
observation.
ee ee ee ee
ON THE CARBONIFEROUS FLORA OF HALIFAX. 235
Report of the Committee consisting of Professor W. C. WILLIAMSON
and Mr. Casu, for the purpose of investigating the Car-
boniferous Flora of Halifax and its neighbourhood. (Drawn
up by Professor W. C. WILLIAMSON.)
Oovr researches during the past year in the immediate neighbourhood of
Halifax have been less productive than usual; but this unfruitfalness
has been in some degree compensated by successes in the surrounding
district. Most notable amongst the latter has been the discovery of mate-
rial enabling us to determine with absolute certainty the fructification of
the Calamites. A fragment of a fruit was described in 1869 in the ‘ Memoirs
of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester,’ peculiarities in
the internal structure of which led the author of that communication to an
important conclusion. None of the many Carboniferous fruits previously
discovered displayed an internal structure that corresponded in any
degree with that of Calamites. It was otherwise with the specimen just
referred to, which exhibited what was so conspicuously absent elsewhere ;
hence the writer of the memoir in question inferred that it was a true
Calamitean fruit. But though the evidence supporting this conclusion
was strong, it was not sufficient to be absolutely demonstrative. It was
therefore extremely satisfactory when, during the past spring, our young
auxiliary, Mr. James Lomax, of Radcliff, brought to us a nodule, col-
lected at Sunfield, Moorside, by Mr. Isaac Harnshaw, of Oldham, which
contained seven or eight specimens of the strobilus described in 1869.
The internal organisation of each of these new examples exhibits every
feature seen in the older specimen, whilst they collectively furnish
some new and important facts. Each of at least three of the strobili had
attached to its base a portion of the peduncle of which the axis of the
fruit was but a prolongation. In each case this peduncle is merely the
end of the slender twig of a Calamite, identical in every respect with those
of which we have obtained so many examples from the plant-bearing
nodules of the Gannister coals. It has long been contended by some
paleobotanists that these Arthropitean Calamites were gymnospermous
plants. This interpretation has always been rejected by us. We have
always insisted that they were Equisetiform cryptogams, and our new
specimens demonstrate absolutely that such is the case. But the researches
of the last twenty years have compelled us to modify some long-accepted
notions. Under the title of the natural order Equisetacez, we regarded
the living Equisetums as affording our standard type, by which all our
primeval forms had to be judged. Now, however, a more comprehensive
philosophy embraces both primeval and living forms in the large and
varied group of the Calamari, of which the living Equisetums are but
a degraded and somewhat aberrant branch.
We have obtained fresh information respecting the relations of Cordas,
genera Anachoropteris and Zygopteris. One of these genera must be
abandoned, their separation being no longer possible. We have also
obtained many additional examples of cellular bodies within the interiors
of tissues, cells as well as vessels, of various plants. Whether these are
examples of Tylose, of Fungi, or of commensal Algz is yet sub judice. We
must also repeat an observation made at Birmingham last year. We
possess many vegetable fragments which are known to us too imperfectly
236 REPORT—1887.
to justify their immediate publication. On these, however, persevering
research may be expected, sooner or later, to throw a fuller light. The
number of such ill-understood forms increases, rather than diminishes,
notwithstanding the success which has rewarded persevering inquiry in
the case of several such, and which encourages the hope that the con-
tinuance of such inquiries will be yet further rewarded in like manner.
Fifteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors J.
Prestwich, W. Boyp Dawkins, T. McK. HuGuEs, and T. G.
Bonney, Dr. H. W. Crossxey (Secretary), and Messrs. C. E. Dr
Rance, H.G. ForpHaM, D. MackintosH, W. PENGELLY, J. PLANT,
and R. H. Tiwpeman, appointed for the purpose of recording ~
the position, height above the sea, lithological characters, size,
and origin of the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland,
reporting other matters of interest connected with the same,
and taking measures for their preservation. (Drawn wp by Dr.
CrosskEy, Secretary. )
Many details concerning erratic blocks not previously recorded have
been received by the Committee during the past year, which throw con-
siderable light on the important subject of their distribution.
It is not the business of the Committee to enter upon theoretical
discussions. It may be useful, however, to point out a few of the salient
facts, established (in the opinion of the writer of this report) more and
more clearly by the researches undertaken by the Committee, and which
must be fully covered by any theory that may be adopted respecting the
Glacial epoch.
1. Erratic blocks occur in groups as well as in isolated positions ;
and these groups have well-defined and distinctive characteristics, and
must not be confusedly mixed together. These groups sometimes contain
erratic blocks from one locality; sometimes the blocks from various
localities are intermixed, but in either case they have characteristics as
distinct groups.
2. The distribution of a considerable proportion of erratic blocks is
connected with the existing physical geography of Great Britain, as sub-
jected to elevation and depression during the Glacial epoch. The evidence
shows that many of them have travelled through the openings between
and among our present hills, and that they have been diverted from
their courses, or even blocked in their passage, by table-lands and emin-
ences.
This fact, it must be noted, is at present stated with respect to a con-
siderable proportion, and not the whole of them.
3. Erratic blocks have not all been distributed at one and the same time.
Their occurrence has been recorded in the reports, in four positions, viz. :
(a) Beneath beds of clay, sand, and gravel.
(b) Embedded in beds of clay, sand, and gravel, thickly or sparsely.
(c) Resting upon beds of clay, sand, and gravel.
(d) Resting upon the native rock of the district.
It is clear that they could not have been deposited at the same time in all
these positions.
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, IRELAND, AND WALES. 237
4, Erratic blocks occur at various levels above the sea. These levels
have been given in the reports.
5. Streams of erratic blocks have—
(a) crossed each other’s paths, so that they have been more or less
mixed ;
(b) gone over each other under circumstances which have prevented
any mixing;
(c) impinged against each other.
6. Erratic blocks have been distributed—
(a) from localities at a considerable distance from their present posi-
tions; as, e.g., from Criffel to the Midland counties,
(b) from hills and eminences in their own immediate neighbourhoods.
7. With respect to the admixture of erratic blocks the facts recorded
show the following differences :—
(a) Local erratic blocks are sometimes intermixed with those from a
distance in considerable profusion.
(b) Groups of erratic blocks are sometimes found with a very slight
admixture of rocks from the immediate locality, and have
evidently travelled together as a group.
(c) Sometimes groups of erratic blocks contain rocks picked up along
the course leading to the mountains from which they are
derived ; but this is by no means universally the case.
(d) In the neighbourhood of various hills purely local groups may be
found.
The Committee have been greatly assisted by the formation of a
Boulder Committee in connection with the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union,
of which Professor Green, F.R.S., is President, and Mr. S. A. Adamson,
F.G.S., the Hon. Sec.
Were a similar committee organised in each county the work of
the Committee of the Association could soon be brought to a satisfac-
tory conclusion.
DuRHAM.
The following reports have been received (through the Yorkshire
Boulder Committee) from Dr. R. Taylor Manson, Darlington.
Bulmer’s Stone.—This is a block of Shap Fell granite.
It occurs on the west side of Northgate, at the edge of the flagged
pavement opposite some old cottages, to which it is claimed as an appur-
tenance Nearly opposite the west end of Garden Street, Darlington,
on Ordnance map. By compass circumference N. and §S. 13 ft. 5in.;
HE. and W. 12 ft. 8 in.; horizontal circumference (14 ft. from ground),
13 ft. 5 in.; height from ground 3 ft. All portions visible are rounded.
It hasbeen moved. No striations; but some fractured surfaces smoothed.
This boulder is known as ‘ Bulmer’s Stone,’ from old Willy Bulmer, who
during the excitement of the Peninsular wars used to perch on it and
read the newspapers aloud to the neighbours. The origin or age of the
tradition contained in the following verse is unknown :—
In Darnton toune ther is a stane,
And most strange is yt to tell,
That yt turnes nine times round
When yt heares ye clock strike twell.
One hundred and fifty-seven feet above sea-level; marked on the 25-inch
Ordnance map. Well shown on a photo of Northgate. It is isolated,
238 REPORT—1887.
but there are both gravel and sand in the immediate neighbourhood. I
believe that it rests on Glacial red clay, but the clay, sand, and gravel
are irregularly distributed through the town; I think it is red clay there.
Norr.—I have found Shap Fell granite several times in the bed of the
Tees, at Pierce Bridge, and at Low Coniscliffe.
Erratic block at village of Sadberge, three miles N.E. of Darlington.
The boulder was found in Glacial clay while excavations were being made
for a reservoir. About 6 ft. 6in. long, 4 ft. high. Estimated weight
four tons. A wedge-shaped mass. The boulder is long-shaped, and has
been moved. On what has originally been the base of the boulder there
are innumerable striz in the direction of the longer axis, and all parallel
to one another. So far as I could ascertain (the incrustations of clay
have not been removed) there were none of the crossings of striz so
generally seen. The stri# are confined to the original base. The rest
of the surfaces are irregular and angular. The rock is a compact
encrinital blue limestone, one of the Yoredale rocks, probably from Upper
Teesdale, and is 218 ft. above sea-level. Too recently discovered for any
legend, but no doubt traditions will gather round it, since, through the
following circumstances, it will be known in the future as the ‘ Jubilee
Stone.’ Her Majesty is Countess of Sadberge, and the inhabitants of the
village determined that one part of their Jubilee proceedings should be
the dedication of this large boulder. It was removed from the excava-
tion where it had been found to the village green, and on Jubilee Day a
service was held in the village church. A procession from the church
was then formed, escorted by a troop of yeomanry, an address on the
history of Sadberge was given by the Rev. J. W. Baron, the stone was
unveiled, and a few de joie fired over it by the Hussars.
YORKSHIRE.
The Committee have received valuable information from the Rev.
John Hawell, of Ingleby Greenhow Vicarage, Northallerton, who has
examined the erratic blocks in his parish.
The sheets of the Ordnance Survey maps, which include the parish,
are 24.and 43. The general height of the blocks above the sea-level is
between 400 and 450 ft.
Most of the blocks examined are on the surface, in or near the beds
of streams; others have been drawn out in draining. There is a thick
tenacious clay in the district, with imbedded blocks, some of which at
least are the same as those upon the surface. Further investigations,
however, are needed to determine the relationship between the blocks
upon the surface and those in the clay.
The erratic blocks are extremely numerous; Mr. Hawell has notes
of 365, which he has already examined in his parish. It will be sufficient
in this report to record examples of the chief varieties as a preliminary
to further investigations. ;
The Committee have had the valuable assistance of Professor Bonney
and Mr. C. T. Clough in the determination. of the rocks. In identifying
some of the more distant specimens the kind help of Messrs. B. N. Beach
and T’. Home has also been given.
The erratic blocks of Northallerton may be arranged in several classes:—
(A) Blocks of local origin.—The most numerous blocks of ail on the
surface are from the local Oolite. ;
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, IRELAND, AND WALES. 239
No special record is needed of individual examples of these.
(B) Blocks from the north of England.—Next in abundance to the
blocks of local Oolite are those from the basaltic dyke of the Cleveland
district. Mr. Clough writes: ‘This dyke has now been traced right
across the country, N.W. to near Carlisle, and keeps much the same
character throughout. There are also a few other dykes of much the
same character in the N. of England.’
Marsh Lane, left of road, Ingleby, 1 ft. 6 in.x1 ft. 1 in.x4in. Ba->
saltic dyke of Cleveland district.
Ingleby Vicarage Garden—Dolerite, 1ft.x10in. x6in. Sub-angular.
Extremely like one of the medium-grained varieties of the Whin Sill
of Upper Teesdale and Weardale, and probably from the former dis-
trict.
(C) Blocks from the Cheviot Hills and adjoining districts of the south of
Scotland.—Ingleby Mill Dam, 1 ft.6in.x8in.x P Sub-angular. Old
andesite. Possibly from Cheviots, but not a common type there; and
Mr. Clough thinks more probably trom some of the other porphyritic
areas in 8. of Scotland.
Ingleby, 10 in. x9 in.x5 in: Porphyritic felsite. Might be from
Cockburn Law (the Lammermoors) or from various other places in south
of Scotland.
Ingleby—Wall on top of Vicarage Garden, 9 in. x5 in.x3in. Sub-
angular. Might well be from the Lower Old Red porphyrite district of
the Cheviot Hills.
Right of road leading down to Ingleby Church, 1 ft. 6 in. x1 ft. 10 in.
Old augite-andesite. Like a type of the Lower Old Red porphyritic flow
of the Cheviot Hills.
Ingleby Vicarage Garden, 1 ft. x6 in.x 6 in. Porphyrite. A common
type of dyke in the Lower Old Red porphyrite district of the Cheviot
Hills.
Stream below Ingleby Church, 7 in.x5 in.x3 in. Snb-angular.
Very like the Lowest Old Red porphyrite flows at the head of Coquetdale,
Cheviot Hills. There are also dykes of much the same character in that
district.
Stream below Ingleby Church, 10 in. x7 in. x4 in. Sub-angular. Old
andesite. Ibid.
Ingleby Mill Dam, 1 ft. 1 in.x6in.x P Like a common type of
intrusive dyke in the Lower Old Red porphyritic district of the Cheviot
Hills ; but there are probably other exposures of similar rock in S. of
Scotland.
Ingleby Mill Dam, 9 in. x7 in. x2 in. Sub-angular. Might well be
from Lower Old Red porphyrite district of the Cheviot Hills.
Ingleby Mill Dam, 6 in.x4in.x ? Porphyrite. Ibid.
Ingleby Mill Dam,10 in. x6in.x ? Porphyritic basalt. Might be
from some of the similar basaltic blocks of the Border country.
Ingleby Mill Dam, 10 in.x7in.x ? Old augite-andesite. Like
portions of lower porphyritic flow at head of Coquetdale.
Ingleby Mill Dam, 1 ft. 3 in.x 8 in. x8 in. Old andesite. Extremely
like a very common type of Lower Old Red porphyrites of Cheviots.
Ingleby Mill Dam, 1 ft. 4 m. x1 ft. 2in. x1 ft. 1 in. Porphyrite. Ibid.
Ingleby Mill Dam,1 ft. 1 in. x11 in. x5 in. Hornblendic porphyrite.
A very common type of dyke in the Lower Old Red porpbyritiec district
of the Cheviots.
240 REPORT—1887.
Right bank of stream below Ingleby Church, 1 ft. 4in. x1 ft. 2in.
x ? Very like some of the Upper Old Red Traps of Kelso, S. of
Scotland. Mr. Clough has noticed these rocks, mixed with Cheviot rocks
in considerable quantity among Bridlington Bay boulders.
Ingleby Mill Dam, 1 ft. x1ft.x9in. Rounded. Compact basalt
or possibly an augite-andesite. Might be matched from Lower Old Red
districts of the Cheviots, but not a common type there. Probably from
some other district in the S. of Scotland.
Ingleby Mill Dam, 1 ft. 2in.x1ft. x9 in. Voleanic ash. From
Cheviots or adjoining volcanic district of S. of Scotland.
(D) Blocks from more distant N. parts of Scotland.—In stream just
below bridge near Mr. Boyes’ farm, 1ft. 5in. x1 ft. 9in. x1 ft. 2in.
Very like an igneous mass in the Highlands, near the head of Loch
Katrine and Loch Lomond.
(E) Blocks from S.W. of Scotland.—Stream at Ingleby, 10 in, x 6 in.
x6in. Might be from the shoulder of Criffel.
(F) Blocks from the Lake district—Blocks of Shap granite not at all
uncommon.
Ingleby Mill Dam, 1 ft. 2in.x1ft.x9in. Probably from volcanic
series of Barrowdale.
Ingleby Vicarage Garden, 7in.x6in.x4in. Ibid.
A number of other specimens are also analogous to the rocks of the
Lake district.
The following reports have been furnished by the Yorkshire Boulder
Committee :—
Dr. R. T. Manson, Darlington, reports upon the ‘Stranger’s Stone,’
Deepdale, N. Yorkshire.
It is Shap Fell granite, 8 feet in height and 22 feet in circumference,
on the bank of Deepdale Beck, about a mile up the stream from the point
whence it flows into the Tees.
Semi-oval and smoothed; longest axis N.E.and S.W. Not em-
bedded, but stands on a flat edge of the mountain limestone, which
forms the bed of the stream, 550 feet above sea-level.
Probably moved by man from the higher ground above the river,
since on the south-end face are two holes filled with lead as if for the in-
sertion of iron hinge hooks for a gate, which in its present position would
hang over the river.
Dr. Manson also reports upon an erratic block of Shap Fell granite at
Low Field, three-quarters of a mile west of Cliff Hall, near Pierce
Bridge, on the Yorkshire side of the Tees. The boulder is in the hedge
side, on the east side of the field, about 200 yards from the river. It is
about 70 feet above the river; 10 feet long on front face; 7 feet 4 inches
from front to back. The boulder is sunk in the ground considerably ;
portion visible 4 feet above soil. Sub-angular; rounded top. Long-
shaped. Longest axis N. and 8. No groovings. An attempt has evi-
dently been made to break it; holes have been cut in it with chisels.
Two hundred and fifty feet above sea-level. Isolated; some beds of
gravel not far off. Embedded, I think, deeply in the soil, which is heavy
clay.
Sa Rnather smaller boulder is lying to the left of the walk leading
to Cliff Hall, about a mile west from the other. It is rounded, and about
, ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, IRELAND, AND WALES. 24]
8 feet long, with long axis HE. and W. It has probably been moved by
_ those who made the path near which it hes.
Mr. Wm. Gregson, Baldersby, Thirsk, records the following :—
Cattersty Sands, Skinningrove, 3 miles S.H. of Saltburn. Grey
granite. Diameter, 3 feet. Rounded. No striations. Rests upon Lower
Lias shales. On the shore.
Whorlton, 8 miles N.E. of Northallerton. Grey granite. Diameter,
3 feet. Sub-angular. Is striated. Rests upon Lias, 250 feet above sea-
level.
Baldersby Park, 5 miles S.W. of Thirsk. Millstone grit; 6 feet by
3 feet. Angular. No striations. Rests on an outlier of Lower Lias,
90 feet above sea-level.
Elmire, 6 miles 8. of Thirsk. Shap granite. Diameter, 2 feet.
Sub-angular. No striations. Rests on Keuper sandstone overlaid by
gravel, 60 feet above sea-level.
Mill Beck, Robin Hood’s Bay (38 boulders), 10 miles N. of Scarbro’.
Shap granite. Height 2 feet, circumference 9 feet. Sub-angular. No
striations. Rests on Lower Lias on the shore.
Shap granite. Height 1 foot, circumference 75 feet. Sub-angular.
No striations. Rests on Lower Lias on the shore.
Shap granite. Height and circumference and other circumstances
exactly similar to the last named.
Hutton Moor, 3 miles N.E. of Ripon. There are a good number of
erratic boulders scattered over this moor, from 1 foot to 3 feet in
diameter, a few of which are of grey granite, the remainder being chiefly
millstone grit. They all rest on the Keuper sandstone.
The Rev. E. Maule Cole, M.A., informs the Committee that an im-
mense number of boulders have been lodged on the top of Flamborough
Head. On Beacon Hill are half a dozen of great size, mostly rounded,.
consisting of granite, whinstone, sandstone, and mica schist with garnets.
These have probably been placed in their present position, but not moved
far, as a neighbouring small ravine, called Hartindale Gutter, reveals the
fact that the boulder clay in this locality is full of large boulders. On
the neighbouring side of the ravine, leading down to Thornwick Bay
there is a boulder of cherty limestone lying on the surface, which mea-
sures 5 ft. 5in. x4 ft. 4in. x1 ft. 8in.
A rounded boulder of sandstone 2 ft. Sin. x 1 ft. 9 in. x1 ft. 2 in. projects
in the side of the same ravine.
On Cliff Lane, Bempton, by the side of the road, is a group of eight
large whinstone boulders, more or less rounded, which were removed
from the adjoining fields to their present position more than seventy years
ago. ‘The average size is 3 ft. 4in. x3 ft. 4in. x1 ft. 8 in.
In the village of Bempton, by the blacksmith’s shop, lies a whinstone
boulder, 4 ft. 8 in. x 2 ft. x 1 ft. 6 in, and numerous others are visible in all
directions.
Mr. C. D. Hardcastle reports upon ‘The Greystone’ in the parish of
Leeds, one mile from the town on the side of the old highway to Brad-
ford, opposite the northern end of Ventnor Street, on property belonging
“to the ‘Pious Use Trustees.’ Only 6 inches in height is now exposed
_ above the causeway, and it projects 6 inches from a garden wall which is
built over it. The base of exposed segment along the flags measures
2ft. 10 a Old inhabitants say it was formerly from 4ft, to 5 ft. above
1887. R
242 REPORT—1887.
ground, and from 3ft. to 4 ft. in diameter, but of irregular form. Its
entire length is perhaps 7 or 8ft. Thoresby in 1715 calls it ‘a prodigious
great stone.’ Probably originally nearly rectangular. There are inden-
tations in the stone, but not natural. It is composed of millstone grit,
similar to that of Horsforth and Bramley Fall. The Rough Rock, of
Horsforth, is about four miles distant on the same side of the river, and
at a considerable elevation, some of the quarries being about 475 feet
above the sea. The stone has probably come from there. Bramley is
about three miles away on the opposite side, and at an elevation of 200
feet. The Greystone legend is that a huge giant hurled it from the
Giant’s Hill at Armley, about half a mile distant on the opposite side
of the river, in proof of which statement the indentations of the giant’s
thumb and fingers are still to be seen. The Giant’s Hill belongs to the
flagstone series of the Lower Coal measures, whereas the ‘ Greystone’ is
millstone grit, 115 feet above sea-level. On the 6-inch Ordnance map.
Lat. 53° 48’ 40”, long. 1° 34’ as ‘Greystone.’ An ancient boundary
stone. Has served from time immemorial as boundary stone separating
the manors of Leeds and Burley. Thoresby in 1715 quotes an old MS.
survey, N.D: ‘ Lapis cinereus ingentis magnitudinis admodum antiquatus
et vetustatus existens.’ It rests upon yellow clay from 8 to 9 feet in
thickness, below which there is Coal-measure shale.
Novre.—According to Thoresby there was an old boundary stone called
the Paudmire stone in Leeds main street (Briggate) similar to this
boulder. This memorable stone was purposely sunk below the pavement
as a supposed nuisance when that part was newly paved in the mayoralty
of Mr. Samuel Hey (1703). The two stones are in a direct line with the
Rough Rock of Horsforth, which is to the N.W.
Note upon the ‘ Hitchingstone, Keighley Moor.—This huge block of
millstone grit was described to the Committee by Mr. E. G. Spencer in
1874 as a ‘boulder,’ and the details concerning it will be found in the
Report of the British Association for that year, p. 196.
A few years subsequently Mr. J. R. Dakyns, of the Geological Survey,
stated in a letter to the Geological Magazine that ‘in his opinionit is not a
boulder’; and that ‘it has no single characteristic of a boulder about it.
It is not rounded or scratched, nor is it standing on end, nor in any such
a way as to raise a suspicion of its having been removed.’
The Leeds Geological Association has, during the past year, tho-
roughly investigated the subject, and the secretary (Mr. Adamson) has
described the results in a paper published in The Naturalist, November
1886, p. 333.
In this paper clear and satisfactory reasons are given in confirmation
of Mr. Dakyns’ opinion. The Hitchingstone cannot be regarded as an
erratic, but is a portion of the ‘Rough Rock’ which originally covered
the moors, and wd situ.
Mr. R. H. Tiddeman, M.A., F.G.S., communicates (with the permis-
sion of the Director-General of H.M. Geological Surveys) the following
report ‘On the Distribution of Boulders from the Base of the Carbon-
iferous Series at Norber and Malham Tarn, Yorkshire,’
Throughout the great area of Carboniferous rocks in the West Riding
of Yorkshire there are hardly any rocks at the same time sufficiently
well marked in character and limited in their area to give any good indi-
cations of the general distribution by drift transport of boulders from the
original rock. Limestones, sandstones, grits, and shales, in all parts of
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, IRELAND, AND WALES. 243
the series, bear a strong family resemblance to those from other parts, and
so are no guide to ice movements during Glacial times.
Nai There is, however, one rock which is an exception to this, and which
gives a good starting-point followed by an excellent trail to the boulder
_ hunter. This is a conglomerate which is to be found at the base of the Car-
boniferous limestone at Malham Tarn, and at Norber, near Clapham, York-
shire. The conglomerate consists of a fine gravel of Silurian shale, the
pebbles being compacted in a matrix of limestone. The former are of a
greenish grey, the latter is of a creamy brown colour. When the rock is
broken the fracture is a very clean one, passing through pebbles and
matrix alike, and then to a casual observer it looks like a light mottled
limestone. Where it has been subjected to the solvent action of weather-
ing the pebbles stand out from the rock, giving well-marked oblong forms
of which the surfaces are well preserved.
Conglomerate of this type occurs in a band across Malham Tarn, and
showing best on its eastern margin, and also on the southern face of Nor-
ber, one mile E.N.E. of Clapham, a hill well known to geologists for its
, splendid train of Silurian .boulders resting on the limestone. The con-
- gilomerate is no less interesting. It contains, besides the fine gravel,
. large boulders up to half a ton in weight, and interspersed with the
gravel are corals, probably of the age of its deposition. Detached
boulders of this rock range over a distance so far as I have seen them of
_ 25 miles.
: The nearest specimens worthy of note are a large boulder in the fields,
4 mile §.E. of the Methodist Chapel in Malham—pointed out to me by
Mr. Walter Morrison, M.P., and others, which he tells me were to be seen
formerly along the road by the school on Kirkby Top. Some occur in
walls a little to the east, between the first locality and Goredale Beck.
These are mostly small.
A large boulder with quite a bed of loose gravel beneath it produced
by its disintegration lies on the right branch of a stream running down
south from the upper road between Malham and Settle on the moor
about 200 yards from theroad. This is more out of a north and south line
from Malham Tarn than any of the others; which fact suggests that it
may have come from Norber, but on the whole it is more likely from the
Tarn, which lies N. 30° E., the nearest point of origin. Two other bould-
ers appear to have been transported into Ingle Beck, south of the lane
leading from Airton towards Holmes Gill Green, and have been built
into walls there. These lie about S. 15° W. from the Tarn.
Beyond this point the boulders as we get further from the source are
fewer and more scattered. Two more examples only have I seen, but
these are remarkable. One was found in the banks of Pendle Water
below the Old Hall at Roughlee—famous as the residence of Mistress
Natter as mentioned in ‘ Ainsworth’s Lancashire Witches.’
_ This was a glaciated boulder of the conglomerate, about 14” long, of
oyal form, and lay at about 600 ft. elevation. Scratches on Twiston Moor
to the north pointing in this direction, and also in a straight line nearly
for Norber, lie at an elevation of about 1,100 ft. ; and if the boulder came
from Norber it must have overridden this ridge, a continuation of the
Pendle range, and crossed over ground 500 ft. higher and 150 ft. lower
_ than its present site.
On the other hand, if from Malham Tarn it may have been carried
| south by the ice, along the Aire valley, to Bell Bush, and thence across
R2
244 , REPORT—1887.
the watershed of England, north of Colne. This would be a much less
up-and-down-hill route than the other.
The only other boulder of this rock I found was on Habringham
Kans, about one mile south of Burnley. This was at an elevation of
between 700 and 800 ft., and must have been carried by ice which was
working its way towards Todmorden. This is the furthest; 23 miles
from Malham Tarn, and borne along a line 8. 10° W. If from Norber it
has travelled about 243 miles along a general route of S. 10° EH.
It will be seen in either case the route has been but very little de-
flected from a N. and 8. line. These facts tend to bear out the truth of
some statements made by me in 1871 to the Geological Society of London !
that the general movement of the ice-sheet in this part of England, as
shown by the boulders and by the glaciated rocks on which they lie,
was to the south, parallel to the watershed of England and not away
from it.
STAFFORDSHIRE AND SHROPSHIRE.
Mr. Fred. W. Martin furnishes the Committee with the subjoined
catalogue of boulders in these counties previously unrecorded.
He is still engaged in their investigation, and will continue the cata-
logue in subsequent reports.
The collection is mainly a mixture of blocks from the Lake district
and from the 8.W. of Scotland, although a few scattered among them
may be from the Cheviots.
So far as the present observations indicate the Welsh distribution has
very sparsely, if at all, reached this district.
Shifnal to Tong.
1. At junction of road to Upton, hornblendic granite (gneissoid), very hard and
heavy and porphyritic ; Eskdale ? Sub-angular ; 2 ft. by 1 ft. 6in. by 1 ft. 3in.;
rough surface.
2. On road just beyond stream. ‘ A syenite or diorite Ghee gneissoid), probably
Scotch, not Lake or Welsh ’ (Bonney). Sub-angular ; 2 ft. by 1 ft. 6in. by 1 ft.
6 in. ; rough surface.
S341 bel field, granite (of Criffel type) ; rounded; 2 ft. by 1 ft.6 in. by 1 ft. 6in.; rough
surface.
4. Coarse Eskdale granite ; rounded ; 2ft. Gin. by 1 ft. 6in. by 1 ft. 3in. ; rough sur-
face.
5. In ‘Spinney’ on left. ‘A ag hornblendic granite, poor in quartz’
(Bonney). Buttermere; rounded ; 2 ft. by 1 ft. 6i = by 1 ft. 6 in. ; smooth.
6. Near gate, opposite last, augite andesite angular; 2 ft. 6in. by 2ft. 6in. by
1 ft. 3in. ; rough surface.
7. On left, just beyond last; epidote vein protruding. ‘Felstone with epidote
not unlike Bardon Hill ‘rock, but probably Welsh ’ (Bonney). Sub-angular;
1 ft. 6in. by 1 ft. 3in. by 1 ft.; smooth and striated.
8. By entrance to lodge gates; coarse black granite (probably South Scotland) ;
sub-angular ; 3 ft. 6in. by 2ft. 6in, by 1 ft. 6in.
9. Under trees at junction of road to Long Norton; quartz felsite; square, broken
edges; 3ft. 6in. by 3ft. 6in. by 2 ft. out of ground.
10. At opposite corner to last; granite of Criffel type; sub-angular; 3ft. 6in.
by 2ft. by 1 ft. 6 in. ; rough.
' Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1872, ‘On the Evidence for the Ice-sheet in West-
morland,’ &c.
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, IRKLAND, AND WALES, 245
% 11. On left near pool; granitite ; two micas (black and white) ; two felspars (pink
: and white). ‘Very likely from the area between Criffel and Dalbeattie’
(Clough). Rounded; 2 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. 6in. by 2 ft. 3 in. out of ground; rough.
12, On right near bridge. ‘A rhyolitic breccia, one of the Lake district porce-
lanite rocks ; probably has come from Calder Fells, though may have come
from the Duddon valley’ (Lapworth). 5 ft. by 4ft. by 2 ft. out of ground ;
squarish.
13. Near the last a granite of Criffel type; sub-angular; rough; 4 ft.3 in. by 2 ft.
9 in. by 2 ft. out of ground.
14. On bridge over stream and used as a pier. ‘ Felspar hornblende and quartz; a
quartz diorite or an exceptional fine grained felspathic hornblende granite.
Probably Scotch’ (Bonney). 3 ft. by 2 ft. by 2 ft 6 in. out of ground; rounded.
15. Next to above ; granite of Criffel type ; 3 ft. by 2 ft. by 2 ft. 6in. out of ground;
rounded. :
16. Ditto 2 ft. 9in. by 2 ft. by 2 ft. 3 in. out of ground; rounded.
17. As last, rounded ; 3 ft. by 2ft. by 2 ft. 3 in. out of ground.
18. Red granite (Eskdale ?) ; rounded; 2 ft. 3 in. by 2 ft. 3 in. by 2ft.
19. Granite ; 3 ft. 6in. by 3 ft. by 2 ft. 6 in. ; rounded.
20. In field near Tong Church; granite, two felspars, orthoclase and oligoclase ;
free quartz; hornblende (probably South Scotland); 2{ft. by 1ft. 6in. by
1 ft. 3in.; rough, rounded.
21. In road near last, ‘Syenite or diorite (slightly gnessoid) ; probably Scotch,
not Lake or Welsh’ (Bonney). 2 ft. by 1 ft. 6in. by 1 ft. 6in.
22. Coarse Eskdale granite ; 1 ft. 6in. by 1 ft. by 1 ft.
23. Granite of Criffel type ; small.
24, Same as No. 1; ditto; rounded.
~ 25, Vesicular andesite lava with blebs of quartz. ‘ Might be from Lake district or
South Scotland ; or might be found anywhere by contact with intensely heated
granite’ (Lapworth). Under 1 ft. diameter ; rounded ; smooth.
26. Small block near last. ‘A porphyritic felsite ; many of the crystals resemble
orthoclase. I don’t know locality, but should say it was from an old lava
flow’ (Bonney). 1ft. 6 in. by 1ft. by 1 ft.
27. Near last ; red granite (Eskdale?) ; small.
28. Granite of Criffel type; built into gate pier near church; 5 ft. by 2 ft. 9in.
by 2ft.
29. On bridge over stream near Tong Church; granite of Criffel type; 4 ft. by 3 ft.
by 1 ft. 6 in. ; sub-angular.
30. Near to same; Ibid. 4ft. by 3ft. by 2 ft.; sub-angular.
31. On opposite side of bridge. Jhid. 4 ft. by 2ft. 9 in, by 2 ft. out of ground;
rounded.
32. Ditto; 3 ft. by 2 ft. by 3 ft. out of ground; rounded.
33. In gateway to churchyard, used as a mounting stone. bid. 2 ft, 6in. by 2ft,
by 2 ft. 6 in. out of ground.
34. Ibid. Small.
35. On opposite side of gateway; bid. 3 ft. by 1 ft. Jin. by 9in.; sub-angular,
36. Tbid. Small.
37. Ibid. Small.
38. Built into wall. Zbid. 2 ft. by 1 ft. 3in.
39. Opposite second lodge gates. Jhid. 3 ft. by 3ft. by 2 ft. ; sub-angular.
40. Hornblendic granite. 3 ft. by 2ft. 6in. by 2 ft. ; rounded.
41. Near to the above. Zid. 1 ft. 9in. by 1 ft. Qin. by 1 ft. 6 in. ; rounded.
Codsall.
42. Near grocer’s shop in lane, opposite Crown Inn; a porphyritic grey granite
2 ft. by 1 ft. 6in. by 1 ft. 6 in. ; rounded.
43. In ground, corner of Bull Inn; a porphyritic grey granite ;.2 ft. by 2 ft.
44, At opposite corner of road ; a porphyritic grey granite; 2ft. 6in. by 1 ft. 6in.:
by 1 ft. 6in.; sub-angular.
45. Built into wall of coal-dealer’s ; fine-grained black granite ; 2 ft. 6in. by 1 ft 6in.
. Next toabove and also in wall. Coarse red granite (Eskdale) ; 2 ft. by 1 ft. 6in.
47, In circular recess. ‘Old lava with olivine, serpentine, and augite; might be
found anywhere in Borrodale, probably from Little Knot’ (Lapworth). 1 ft,
3 in. by 1 ft. by 9 in. ; angular.
>
f=r}
———————
REPORT—1887.
. Near to above; syenitic felstone might be from §S. Scotland (Lapworth). 1 ft,
6in. by 1 ft. 3in. by 1ft.; rounded.
Near to above. ‘ Hornblendic granite, most likely Scotch.’ Under 12 in,
At corner of house up the road towards church; granite of Criffel type; 3 ft.
6 in. by 2 ft. 9 in. by 2ft. 3in.; squarish; angles rounded.
In narrow lane by above. J/id. 1 ft. 6in. by 1ft. 3in. by 1 ft. 3in.; rounded.
. Ditto. A bright grey granite. Jbid.3 ft. Gin. by 2ft. by 2 ft. 6 in. out of ground ;
rough ; rounded.
. Granite in same lane, Criffel type; 1ft. 6in. by 1ft. Gin. out of ground;
rounded.
. Insame lane. ‘ Felstone or possibly altered felspathic ash; similar rocks not
unfrequent among older Palzozoic’ (Bonney). 2 ft. by 1 ft. 6in. by 1 ft. 3in.
angular; rough.
. In same lane. ‘Igneous; a felstone; might be Welsh or Lake district ; a com-
mon kind in more than one region’ (Bonney). 1 ft. 6in. by 1 ft. by 1 ft.
. In vacant ground side of road and opposite same lane ; granite of Criffel type.
. A fine-grained quartz felspar; grit probably Scotch; 3 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. 6 in. by
2 ft. 6in. out of ground; angular and squarish.
. Fine-grained syenite (Eskdale). 2 ft. 9in. by 2 ft. by 1 ft. 6in. ; rounded.
59. ‘Felstone probably Welsh, but might be from the north, not very distinctive ’
(Bonney). 1ft. 6in. by 1 ft. 6in.; smooth.
. Granite of Criffel type; 2 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. by 1 ft. 6in.
. Ibid. 2 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. 3in. by 2 ft. out of ground; rounded.
. ‘A coarse granitoid rock, in all probability from a node—I think most probably
Scotch ’(Bonney). 2 ft. by 9in. by 1 ft. 6 in.
3. Same as 58. 2ft. by 2 ft. by 1 ft. 6in.
. Granite of Criffel type; 2 ft. 6in. by 1 ft. Gin. by 1 ft.
5. Small block down narrow lane from church; a diorite.
. A diorite by stream towards Gunston; syenitic felsite (Buttermere),
. Against farm wall, Gunston; fine-grained Eskdale syenite; 2 ft. Gin. by 2 ft.
out of ground; sub-angular.
. In hedge close by last. Mr. Clough says : ‘ Might be from Lower Old Red vol-
canic district of the Cheviot.’ 3 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. 6 in. on face.
. Near same. Fine-grained hornblendic granite ; 2 ft. 6in. by 2 ft. by 2 ft. out
of ground.
0, 71. On road to Brewood from same; two blocks. Granite of the Criffel type.
2. In hedge close to top of hill by fir trees; large block of porphyritic granite;
3 ft. by 2 ft. on face ; squarish.
. Large block of coarse grey granite in ditch opposite Bilheath farm; 5 ft. by
2ft. 9in. by 2ft.; squarish and rounded.
. A fine-grained quartz felspar grit ; highly probably from Scotland; small.
75. Ditto. Near same. ‘I think this to be really igneous and a variety of
porphyrite, almost certainly Scotch’ (Bonney). Small.
76. Very like No. 7, but crushed: small.
. Top of hill at Oaken ; a diorite; 2ft.6in. by 2 ft. 3in. by 1 ft. 6in.
. By farm-buildings, just beyond blacksmith’s; porphyritic grey granite;
2ft.6 in. by 2ft. by 1 ft. 6 in.
. Ibid. 2 ft. Gin. by 1 ft. Gin. by 1 ft. Gin.
, 81. Coarse grey granite, broken and rounded; Criffel type; one piece;
2 ft. 3in. by 1 ft. Gin. by 1ft. 9in.; other piece 2 ft. 6 in. by 4 ft.
. Near footpath. Jbid. 3 ft. 3in. by 2 ft. 9in. by 1 ft. 6 in.; squarish and
rounded.
. Small block in lane back of church ; 1ft. Gin. by 1 ft. 6in. by 1ft. 3in.;
rounded.
. Coarse grey granite, the wood Leasowes farm; 2 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. by 1ft. 3in.;
sub-angular.
5. In second field beyond same, against hedge; a porphyritic grey granite;
2ft.6in. by 2ft. 6in. by 1 ft. 6 in.
. Also slaty ash, much broken; 2 ft. 6in. by 1 ft. 9in. by 1 ft. 6 in.
. Small block in clay pit by brickworks enclosed in a drift containing granitic
pebbles ; a porphyrite ; small ; sub-angular.
. At junction of roads from Codsall Wood by stream. ‘Might be from the
Lower Old Red district of the Cheviot Hills’ (Clough). Rounded; small,
on AS pees =
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, IRELAND, AND WALES. 247
89. Leaning against footbridge ; a porphyritic granite; 4ft. by 2 ft. 9in. by 1ft
6 in. ; sub-angular.
90. Ditto. A porphyritic granite ; 3 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. 6in. by 2 ft. ; rounded.
91. A porphyritic granite ; 2ft. by 1 ft. 6in. by 1 ft.; rounded.
92. Hornblendic granite, probably Scotch; 2ft. by 1ft. 6in. by 1ft. 6in.
rounded.
93. Porphyritic grey granite ; 2 ft. 6in. by 1 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft. 6 in.
94. Porphyritic grey granite ; 2ft. by 2 ft. by 1 ft. 6 in.
95. Porphyritic erey granite; 2ft. by 1 ft. 6in. by 1 ft. 6in.; together with some
small Eskdale syenites,
Gunston.
96. Small block, broken ; a compactly crystalline hornblendic granite, probably
Scotch.
97. Ditto. A porphyritic hornblendic granite, probably Buttermere; small.
W ORCESTERSHIRE.
Mr. Westby reports the discovery of an erratic block of granite, of
the Criffel type, in the neighbourhood of Worcester.
It was found at Cornmeadow, one-third of a mile S. of St. Claines
Church, 25 miles N. of Worcester, about 20 yards from the road, and
three-fourths of a mile E. of the river Severn. It rests upon the bed of
gravel stretching from the river to the field. It is partly sunk under
ground ; the exposed part measures 3 ft. x1 ft. Jin. x1 ft. 7in. In shape
it is semi-oval; the N. end and the sides are smooth and well rounded,
but the 8. projecting end is rougher.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. S. Bourne, Mr. F. Y.
EpGEeworta (Secretary), Professor H. S. Foxweii, Mr. Ropert
GiFFEN, Professor ALFRED MARSHALL, Mr. J. B. Martin, Professor
J. S. Nicnotson, Mr. R. H. Inauis PauGRave, and Professor H.
Swewick, appointed for the purpose of investigating the best
methods of ascertaining and measuring Variations in the Value
of the Monetary Standard. (Drawn wp by the Secretary.)
ANALYSIS.
I. The Ideal Method ; involving philosophical analysis.
II. The Practical Method ; consisting of (A) one principal standard, based upon
the items of national consumption; and (B) six auxiliary index numbers, based
respectively on (1) wholesale goods in general, (2) imports and exports, (3) all exist-
ing purchasable commodities, (4) budgets of workmen’s families, (5) general wages,
(6) retail prices.
Ir appears to the Committee that there are two ways of treating the pro-
blem proposed to them: two solutions, which may be distinguished as
- Theoretical and Practical. I. The theoretically perfect method is to dis-
tinguish analytically the different purposes which may be subserved by
constructing a measure of the change in the value of money, and then to
show what formula, what particular mode of combining the statistical
data, is appropriate to each purpose. For example, one might distinguish
as adapted to different special purposes two measures or standards which
have been proposed by Prof. Sidgwick and Prof. Nicholson respectively.
248 _ REPORT—1887.
The rationale of the former method is to compare the value at one epoch
of the set of articles consumed (per unit of time) by the average person
with the corresponding value at another epoch. The idea of the latter
plan is to compare the value of all purchasable things whatever existing
at one time with the corresponding value at another time. Several for-
mule having been constructed, the last stage of the complete method
would be to fill in the numerical values given by statistics.
It appears to us that the theoretical analysis which forms the starting-
point of this procedure is quite indispensable. That this preliminary
abstract, and one may almost say metaphysical discussion, is abstruse in a
degree unusual in economical inquiries is an unavoidable peculiarity of
the problem proposed to us. It is true that those who have entered on
such discussions, like the votaries of speculative philosophy, may have
-—found no end in wandering mazes lost.
But without such discussion we cannot find even a beginning in the pre-
sent investigation. The first step must be at random, in the absence
of a definite notion in what direction, towards what end, one ought to
proceed. There can be no clue through the labyrinth of continually
dividing ways. In comparing the purchasing power of money at two
epochs, ought one to regard the prices of all commodities, or only some
selected ones? In either case, is regard to be had to the amount of a
thing which is in existence, or the amount which is used (per unit of
time), or the amount which is sold? If some articles are to be selected,
what articles? If the objects of national consumption, shall we include
among these domestic service and residential houses? These are a few
of the questions concerning which the investigator must be prepared
with some answer.
It may well be that no discussion, however intelligent, will result in
perfect agreement upon these questions. Those, however, who essay to
deduce a methodical answer from principles generally received will be
apt to diverge less violently from each other than those who embark upon
the subject without chart and compass. Philosophical speculation may
seem to play the same réle in our particular problem as with respect to the
general conduct of life. While the theoretical distinctions between sys-
tems are multiplied by philosophers, the practical divergence between the
wise of every school tends to become minimised. On the other hand,
uncultivated persons and nations are apt to erect into a rule of life some,
trivial practice recommended by any accidental association. Similarly,
to compare interests of different magnitude, those who approach the
monetary problem without some preliminary abstract discussion are
likely to attach undue importance to the first view of the subject which
presents itself. Some particular method of selecting and combining the
data which has struck them impresses their imagination as the method,
Founded upon no reason, their dogma is not amenable to reasoning.
They occupy irremovably each his isolated position, incapable of persuad-
ing or being persuaded. The unity which is the character of science,
and the collaboration which is necessary in practice will be wanting when
rules are laid down by unreasoning caprice, instead of being deduced
from generally admissible first principles.
While attaching this high importance to theory, and though we regard
the speculative part of our problem as logically prior, we have not thought
fit to put it first in our work, As in the cultivation of other practical
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 249
sciences which have roots stretching down into philosophy, it may be
best to treat first those parts which are palpable and above ground. In-
deed, it may be thought that the dialectical disquisitions to which we have
alluded are better forwarded by dialogue than debate, and are more
adapted to the study than the committee-room.
II. The practical method is directed rather to what is immediately
attainable than what is ideally desirable. To those approaching the
subject in this spirit it appears useless to multiply distinct formule, if in
the present state of statistics the numerical data wherewith to fill in these
formule are deficient. We might compare the existing conditions to the
case of a ship whose compass, or whose antique method of steering by the
stars, was so imperfect that the pilot never could be certain of not being
out in his direction by one or two points. When intending to steer due
north, he would be as likely as not to be, in fact, steering for N.N.E. or
N.N.W. In such a case, to distinguish alternative routes differing in
direction by only two or three degrees would be an operation of mostly
theoretic interest.
Again, in the practical construction of a standard or measure of the
changing value of money, regard must be had to the requirements of those
for whose use the apparatus is principally designed. There is reason to
think that a plurality of measures would embarrass the plain practical
man ; just as a translation which perplexes the unlearned by a variety of
interpretations is not suited to become an authorised version.
These considerations point to the expediency of positing some one
mode of utilising our data as par excellence the method, the best and prin-
cipal measure of the change in the value of money. This pre-eminence of
an unique method will not, however, be inconsistent with the use of cer-
tain confessedly auxiliary formule ; bright inferior lights adapted to illu.
minate special portions of the industrial world, to subserve particular,
though it may be extensive, interests.
Deferring the reasons for our preference, we express the opinion
that, if some one method is to be distinguished as the method, that one
must be of the sort which has been called the Standard of Desiderata,!
and which may be thus described in general terms: ‘summing up the
amounts of money paid for the things consumed by the community at
the old and the new prices respectively,’ ? and putting the ratio of the
latter sum to the former as the sought measure or standard.
The question here arises, shall house-rent and the wages of domestic
service be included among the items of the average budget ? We opine
—declining for the present to assign the grounds of our opinion—that
both these items had better be excluded from the principal standard here
contemplated.*
We may next consider the difficulty that the quantities of the articles
consumed are not the same at the two epochs compared. We recommend
that this difficulty should be met thus: Put, as the quantity which with
least inaccuracy may be regarded as the one which is consumed at both
periods, the mean between the two quantities consumed at the two epochs
respectively. Thus, if we designate the selected commodities as A, B,
C, &ec., the expression which gives the measure of depreciation or the
' Horton’s Silver and Gold, chap. iv.
* See Prof. Sidgwick’s Principles of Political Economy, Book I. chap. ii. sec. 3.
* The rent of sites for business purposes and the wages of industrial labour are
excluded by the definition of the Standard of Desiderata.
250 REPORT—1887,
amount of money which at the posterior epoch i is equal to a unit of money
at the prior epoch is of the following form : [4 (quantity of commodity A
consumed per unit of time at prior epoch + quantity of commodity
A consumed: per unit of time at posterior epoch) X average price of
commodity A at posterior epoch + $ (quantity of B consumed per unit
of time at prior epoch + quantity of B consumed per unit of time
postericr epoch) x average price of B at posterior epoch + d&c.]
divided by [4% (quantity of commodity A consumed per unit of time
at posterior epoch + quantity of commodity A consumed per unit of
time at prior epoch) x average price of A at prior epoch + 4 (quantity
of B consumed per unit of time at prior epoch + quantity of B consumed
per unit of time at posterior epoch) x average price of B at prior epoch
+ &e.
re difficulty that new kinds and qualities of articles are continually
entering into consumption is to be met in the manner suggested by
Professor Marshall.'! Frequent revisions of the ‘standard’ are to be
made, say once a year, the purchasing power of money in each year being
continually compared with what it was in the preceding year, after the
manner above indicated. As soon as any new species of ware has made its
appearance in two successive years, as soon as it figures both in a ‘ prior’
and a ‘ posterior epoch,’ the consumed quantity thereof (presumably not
enormous within a year after the introduction of the new article) is to be
entered as one of the items on which our calculation is based. Perhaps,
however, there will not be much need of this refined adjustment for the
rough standard which, by way of a first essay, we propose to construct
for Great Britain.
In choosing the commodities proper to this purpose, we may take as
our guide the ‘Report on the Appropriation of Wages,’ drawn up
by Professor Levi for this Association in the year 1881. From the
articles of national consumption specified in that Report, there should
be selected those which have a certain degree of importance in respect
both of bulk and also of the precision with which the returns of quantity
and of price are in each case ascertainable in the existing state of
statistics. The following list is provisionally offered: bread, potatoes,
butcher’s meat, bacon, ham and work, fish, cheese and butter, milk, fruit,
sugar, tea and coffee, beer, spirits, wines, tobacco, boots and shoes, cotton goods,
woollen goods, coal for domestic purposes.
We reserve for a future Report the task of Hisouatne each of these
items on its merits; and of determining what finished products may be
represented by means of articles which enter into their production, such
as coal and iron. It must suffice for the present to lay down the general
principle that, in estimating the precision of the ‘average price,’ regard is
to be had not only to the accuracy of the particular price-returns (of the
same commodity at different places or times) which are combined into
the average, but also to the applicability and worth of the mean so
formed.
It may happen, as Professor Marshall has lately pointed out, that the
simple average (or Arithmetical Mean) of the particular price-returns may
be extremely unsuited to the purpose inhand. Thus, in the case which he
puts of strawberries, the price both in May and July might be 6d., but in
June 3d. per lb. To take 5d. as the mean price might be very mislead-
ing. An undue weight is given to the particular price-returns for May
' Contemporary Revien, March 1887,
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 251
and July by putting each of them ona level with the price prevailing
during the strawberry season, the price which appertains to the bulk of
the fruit and concerns the majority of the consumers. A similar difficulty
applies to fish, of which the particular prices which go to form the average
may be taken at very different distances from the fisheries, the higher
prices, it may be, having an undue influence on the average.
The milder case of this difficulty is where the revision of the standard
is performed so frequently that there is not much difference between
successive epochs in the distribution of the quantities in time and place.
For instance, it might probably be assumed without error that the pro-
portions of the supply of strawberries consumed in the months of May,
June, and July respectively are not materially different in two successive
years. The proportionate quantity of fish used by different inland towns
might similarly be treated as constant for short intervals of time. In
this case it appears to us that the difficulty under consideration may be
avoided by one of two methods which are or have been employed in the
statistics relating to the Imports and Exports of the United Kingdom.
One plan is to take not the simple arithmetical mean of the particular
price-returns, e.g. 3 [6d.+3d.+6d.], the price of strawberries being 6d.
in May, 3d. in June, and 6d. in July ; but to weight each of these price-
returns with the (more or less accurately estimated) corresponding
quantity of goods at each price.'_ It was partly upon this principle ? that
the prices entering into the ‘computed values’ of British Imports and
Exports used to be calculated. The prices were taken at London and
Liverpool (sometimes Hull), and also the quantities. As the mean price
was put the following expression: (Quantity at London x London price
+ Quantity at Liverpool x Liverpool price), dividedby (Quantity at London
+ Quantity at Liverpool).
‘The proportions might be roughly ascertained by the method of sample,
é.g., examining several markets selected at random, in the respective months.
Let the proportions thus determined for the months of May, June, and July
be, ,2, a, a (where a+a+a’=1). Or, if we consider two successive years, we
shall have two sets of ratios, say, 4, a, ',,and ja, a,, a’, Let the total quanti-
ties in the respective years be A, and A,. And let the prices for May, June, and
July be for the first year as before, 6d., 3d., 6d., and for the second year some-
what different, say, 6d.+,A, 3d.+A, 6d.+4’. Now, according to the rough ‘and
ready mode of computation, the term contributed by strawberries to the numerator
of our formula (see above) is } (A,+A,)x [5+4(4+A+A’)]. And the correspond-
ing term of the denominator is } (A,+A,)x5. Here, A and A’are each put on a
level with 4; though the latter variation is far the most important as affecting the
bulk of the goods, the majority of the consumers. This error is avoided by using the
weighted (instead of the simple) mean of the three prices. The term contributed to
the numerator of our formula thus becomes 3(A,+A,) x [,a,(6d.+,A)+a,(3d. + A)
+ a/,(6d. + A’)] (or some analogous combination, ¢.g., that which is formed by substi-
tuting in the above expression for 2, the mean value } (,a, + ,), and making similar
substitutions for a, and a’,). For the corresponding term of the denominator
put the same expression modified by the omission of the A’s. It is clear that
in the result thus modified ,A and A’ play a much more insignificant part than
formerly.
A similar contrast makes itself felt when we.adopt the second correction suggested
in the text. The average price of the first year is now obtained by dividing the total
value by the quantity. The total value will consist of an aggregate of terms ana-
logous to (if not identical with) A, x (a,6d.+0,3d+a/,6d.). And this, being divided
by A,, the total quantity gives us the same sort of expression for the average price as
before.
* As described in a Memorandum by Mr. Messenger, published in the Parlia-
mentary Papers for 1865, vol. i. p. 273,
252 REPORT—1887.
Another remedy analogous in principle, but perhaps more efficacious,!
as hitherto carried out in practice, is to estimate the average price as is
now done in the case of Imports and Exports by dividing the aggregate
of declared values by the total quantity.
When, indeed, a considerable interval occurs between the compared
epochs, then, with the progress of the arts, in particular the facilities of
transport, the quantities of fruit available out of season, of fish supplies
to the inland consumer, are likely to be markedly increased. In this case
the modifications just suggested are less helpful. We may have to
resort to the more drastic treatment pointed to by Professor Marshall.
Or perhaps our best course (however bad the best) might be to follow
the general rule given by Professor Marshall for the comparison of
epochs separated by a wide interval. It being impossible to bring the
last year of the series into direct relation with the first, we ought to
compare the last year (in respect of the purchasing power of money)
with the penultimate year, the penultimate with the antepenultimate,
and so on. In this case the remedies above suggested would be effica-
cious. To consider the treatment appropriate to each species of goods
will be no small part of our next year’s task.
Of auxiliary standards the number is unlimited. We distinguish
siz which appear to be particularly important; without attempting to
arrange them in an order of merit. (1) One is based upon the larger
wholesale commodities, whether imported or manufactured at home.
The type of this species is the index number caleulated by Mr. Palgrave
in the memorandum contributed by him to the ‘Third Report on Indus-
trial Depression.’ The method adopted by him of weighting, or assign-
ing importance to, the given price-variations, seems sufficiently accurate
for the purpose in hand; and, being less laborious, may be preferred to
the slightly more correct procedure which we have proposed for the
principal standard.
Agreeable also to the character of an auxiliary standard is his summary
decision of the knotty question, what goods ought to be excluded in
order that the same materials should not be counted twice (e.g., indigo,
as imported raw, and as worked up with cotton).
.This index-number is useful as enabling us, given the increase of
value, to estimate the increase in quantity of the class of commodities
under consideration. Again, such index-numbers, especially when dis-
posed in a chronological series, assist us in conjecturing the future
course of general wholesale prices.
(2) Similar remarks apply to Mr. Giffen’s calculation of Index-
numbers for Imports and Exports respectively. These measurements,
owing to the number of items on which they are built, have a greater
precision than that which is founded on only twenty-two articles. We
may say, perhaps, that, as indices of the course of prices in general, the
standard constituted by Imports and Exports is rather more important
to the world than that which is based upon general wholesale commodities
to England.
(3) A third very important Index is that which has recently been
! The computed prices were based only on samples (as described in the Memoran-
dum above referred to). But this disadvantage, as contrasted with the method of
total values, may be partly compensated by the inaccuracy which attaches to declara-
tions of value (see Giffen, Essays in Finance, series 2, essay 6; and Bourne, Trade,
Food, and Population, first paper.
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 253
proposed by Professor Nicholson.' This standard—divested of certain
incidents which seem to some of us not essential—may be defined by
substituting, in what we have described as the main standard, for
‘quantities of finished products consumed per unit of time’ the ‘quantity
existing ’ of all commodities whatever. The means of roughly evaluating
this measure are supplied by Mr. Giffen’s paper on ‘ Recent Accumula-
tions,’ This species of index is indispensable in deducing the increase
in the quantity of accumulated wealth from the increase in its total value.
Besides other general uses, this computation is specially adapted to the con-
struction of a so-called ‘Tabular Standard’ for deferred payments. For
the scaling of certain kinds of debts this index-number might be required.
(4) Another important special index-number is afforded by the
budgets of the average working man and his family, representing the
consumption of a large mass of the population. However, it is rather
with reference to other countries than England ? that this estimate can be
included under the ‘ practical’ category of computations already performed.
(5) Again, there are those of us who think that a special prominence
should be given to an index denoting the increase (or decrease) of general
wages. Wages certainly constitute a large part of the expenditure (in
the way of production, however, rather than of consumption) of an
important class, namely, employers (entreprenewrs). Wages constitute
the income of the majority, and the question (which more particularly
concerns us), How far money will go for any class? is with difficulty
detached from the question, How much money have they to lay out? In
fine, the rate of general wages is an indispensable datum for the in-
ferential estimation (in the absence of a direct measurement) of the values
of many finished products which enter into our principal standard.
(6) The results of the last computation (perhaps, also, of the last but
one) may be employed to calculate approximately an index-number which,
if it could be calculated precisely, might claim to be the principal standard.
This latent right appertains to the standard which is based upon the
purchases of the average consumer. As here conceived, this index-
number differs from that which we have defined as the principal standard
chiefly in carrying out more logically the idea which dominates both caleu-
lations. The formula of the auxiliary standard is, perhaps, more theoreti-
cally correct, though the numerical data entering into the formula may be
less accurately ascertainable. The data are now to be exclusively retail
transactions, the prices (in the absence of exact statistics) being esti-
mated inferentially from the rate of wages or otherwise. A greater
number of commodities, in fact all objects of consumption, instead of only
the more characteristic and important, shall now figure as items. In
particular there should be included, as forming part of the average
consumer’s expenditure, residential rent, and the remuneration of profes-
sional assistance and domestic service.
This index-number is at a disadvantage as compared with most of the
others, in that the required data are furnished by more or less conjectural
estimates. Qn the other hand, it has an advantage, as compared with
all the others or all except the fourth, in that the object which it purports
to measure is the object most important to measure, the value-in-use of
money. As compared with the fourth auxiliary index-number, the sixth
has the advantage of relating to the whole community. But there is
1 Journal of the Statistical Society, March 1887,
2 See Massachusetts Labour Reports for 1884; and E Youne’s Labour.
254 REPORT—1887.
the disadvantage that this national type cannot accurately express the
requirements of the individuals represented. The norm which is based
on the average consumption of a homogeneous class much more faith-
fully represents the individuals of that class.
The Committee have also to state that they have had numerous meet-
ings, and have prepared various notes and papers. Among these they
would specially refer to a Memorandum by Mr. Edgeworth dealing with
the whole subject ; which they recommend should be printed in the Pro-
ceedings of the Association.
In the course of the proceedings the Committee invited Mr. Giffen
to co-operate with them.
Mr. Giffen has placed the Committee in connection with the Inter-
national Statistical Institute. At the meeting of the Institute, held at
Rome in April 1887, there was appointed an International Committee on
Standards of Value, and Mr. Giffen was nominated as the representative
of England. Mr. Giffen desires that he should be assisted in this work by
this Committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.
To this end, and in view of the difficulty and complexity of the sub-
jects involved, the Committee would recommend that they should be re-
appointed (with the addition of Mr. Giffen) to report at the next meeting
of the Association.
MEMORANDUM BY THE SECRETARY.
Inrropucrory SYNOPSIS.
The object of this paper is to define the meaning, and measure the
magnitude, of variations in the value of money. It is supposed that the
prices of commodities (including services), and also the quantities pur-
chased, at two epochs are given. It is required to combine these data
into a formula representing the appreciation or depreciation of money.
It will appear that beneath the apparent unity of a single question
there is discoverable, upon a close view, a plurality of distinct problems.
Many different branches have been traced, and the number might be
largely increased if every bifurcation were followed out to its logical
end. But it is not to be supposed that the innumerable ramifications
which a formal logic might be able to distinguish would all repay eultiva-
tion. The most rigorous analysis may be content with a dozen distinct
cases; and for the purpose of an introductory summary these may be
reduced under a still smaller number of headings.
To one taking a general view of the subject there stand out four main
types, four modes of measurement distinct in idea and definition, though
occasionally coincident in practice. The jirst sort of measure is based
upon the change in the prices of finished products, the object being to
find, or rather show how to find at any future time, a ratio or Unit such
that the creditor in the future receiving as many Units as he at present
receives pounds may derive as much advantage in the way of consump-
tion then as now. The second sort of measure is based upon all the
articles which trade deals with, the object being to find a Unit such that
the debtor in the future, paying as many Units as at present pounds,
may not be more hampered in his business then than now. A third
inquiry is, What is the measure of that appreciation which it is the ob-
ject of bimetallism and similar projects to correct? The fowrth sort of
measure is required not so much for any particular practical object as for
,
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 255
the more general purposes of monetary science, to interpret the past and
forecast the future.
Let us add a few words on each of these methods separately, to ex-
plain more clearly either the means adopted or the end proposed, or how
far those means are conducive to that end.
(1) The general principle of the first method may be embodied in
slightly different rules, of which the following two may claim to be the
best. (a) In order to ascertain the change in the value of money between
two epochs, find the national! expenditure per head upon finished pro-
ducts or articles of consumption (including unproductive services) at
each epoch. The ratio of the new to the old expenditure is the required
measure of depreciation, or Unit. Otherwise (3) thus (the general prin-
ciple being interpreted somewhat differently): Find the quantities of
each article consumed at the two epochs, and take the mean of each
couple. Multiply each of these mean items by the old price of the
corresponding article and add together these amounts. Proceed similarly
with the new prices. The ratio of the latter sum to the former is the
required Unit. There are other formule, in all more than half a dozen.
But there is not much to choose among them. And the exercise of
a choice may exceed the powers and province of the writer.?
The advantages of rendering money a steady measure of value-in-
use would be considerable wherever there may-be violent fluctuations of
general retail prices. Such oscillation in the purchasing power of money
intensifies the ups and downs of Fortune—so trying both to the sentient
and the moral nature of man. The disturbance superadded by a bad
currency might be annulled by acorrected standard. The honest labourer
would not be cheated of his reward by miscalculations of the value of
currency. Those who had laid out their lives upon the faith of a fixed
income would not be disappointed of their just hopes. The provision
_ for the widow and the orphan would be more secure. The endowments
of learning would preserve that constancy of competence which is
favourable to the cultivation of the liberal arts.
These great advantages seem capable of being largely realised. For
it is shown by statistics, such as those of Engel‘ and the Massachusetts
Labour Reports,° that there is considerable constancy in the budgets of
family expenditure. Thus in Massachusetts in 1885 the average work-
man spent out of 100 dollars 29°5 upon groceries, 19°7 upon provisions,
4°3 upon fuel, and so on. Suppose a Unit or corrected dollar continually
equivalent to the amounts of groceries, provisions, fuel, &c., which in
1885 were respectively purchased for ‘295, 197, and ‘043. There is
reason to believe that such a Unit would afford a tolerably constant sum
of satisfaction to the Massachusetts working family. But we cannot
expect an equally perfect measure, when we construct a Unit, not for a
class, but a nation.®
' See below, p. 272; and p. 262, note 3.
* To choose between the first of the rules just given and the second is beyond
the scope of this paper (see below, p. 259).
* The advantages of a ‘Tabular Standard of Value’ have been pointed out by
many writers. See Jevons, Currency and Finance, p. 122, and the references given
in the note.
* Volkswirthschaftliche Zeitfrage, Heft 24. Inst. Natl. de Statistique, N. 5.
® For 1885.. See aiso Young, Labor in Europe and America.
° Professor Foxwell writes: ‘I think it would also for many purposes be
extremely convenient to have an index-number, or numbers, indicating the altered
256 REPORT—1887.
(2) The desirability of prescribing separately for different interests is
even more strongly brought before us when we consider the second of the
methods above defined. It purports to be a sliding scale for general use,
adapted to all trades. But what fits all indiscriminately cannot fit many
exactly. We may say of such a project what Steuart says of a certain
‘ideal standard,’ that it is ‘acting like the tyrant who adjusted every man’s
length to that of his own bed, cutting from the length of those who were
taller than himself, and racking and stretching the limbs of such as he
found to be of a lower stature.’ It would not be unreasonable, however,
to construct beds of different sizes, adapted to the average height of
markedly different classes of persons, say little boys and men. Simi-
larly, when average prices have largely varied, a scale sliding with the
average variation, however imperfectly fitted to particular trades, may
be suitable to industry as a whole. The illustration shows the spirit in
which our calculation should be performed. What should we think of an
upholsterer who, having to construct different types of bed, should invoke
the aid of the British Association Anthropometric Committee nicely to de-
termine l’ homme moyen for different ages? The labours of that committee
would not be more misspent than ours, if we attempted in framing a uni-
versal sliding scale to determine the ideally best weight for each item
entering into the combination. Almost any combination of the more
important articles of trade is likely to be equally imperfect and equally
serviceable. See p. 274.
The advantages aimed at by this method may be presented under two
aspects. That steady secular decline of prices which, according to many
eminent writers, is a cause of the depression of trade, might be corrected.
The advantages offered by bimetallists would be attained. There might
be also another benefit which not even bimetallists venture to pro-
mise. The sudden violent oscillations in general prices, occasioned by the
derangement of credit, would be arrested. For, as the supply of money to
meet debts became deficient, the demand for money to meet debts would
proportionately dwindle; the amount of debts in ‘standard’ currency in-
versely varying with the value of metallic money.'| The hunger for gold
would be less felt just as the means of satisfying it were less abundant.
Heretofore a contraction of currency has acted like an atmospheric depres-
sion in the physical world. The drain and rush of the medium has pro-
duced a storm. But in the new commercial Cosmos, equilibrium between
debts and currency being continually preserved, the stormy winds of
Panic will have ceased to blow. Hitherto the relation between liabilities
and currency has beer that of a continent to the ever-changing level of
the sea. Each ampler tidal wave has rendered harbours unserviceable, .
and dislocated trade, and strewn the shore with wrecks. But the latest
invention of science is a sort of floating dock, which shall rise with the
flood and sink with the ebb, so that the argosies of commerce may be
safely landed, whatever the level of the transporting medium.
purchasing power of selected amounts of consumers’ incomes, estimated in the
corrected standard. I mean that having first determined, by our principal standard,
the corrected value of 12. for the given year, we should then find the alteration in the
purchasing power of the new standard 1J. for different incomes: eg., for incomes of
502., 1002., 2002., 5002., 1,0007., and 10,9002.’
1 This action is well exemplified in the plan proposed by William Cross, that the
standard should vary per saltum; a correction being made as often, say, as money
was appreciated (or depreciated) by 3 per cent.
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 257
These are fascinating images, ideal possibilities, which the sober thinker
may entertain while he is conscious how remote and uncertain is the
realisation ; how numerous the difficulties and objections. Perhaps the
new organisation of the money market would develop new varieties of
roguery. Certainly complications would arise between liabilities to the
foreigner expressed in gold, and engagements with the home trader ex-
pressed in the adjusted currency. It is alleged, too, that the business of
banking would be impeded. In fine, the common sense of business men
appears opposed to the scheme; and, on the question what is at present
practicable and what not, the opinion of practical men, even unsupported
by reasons, is conclusive.
(3) The third inquiry is, What is the appreciation (or depreciation)
which it is the object of bimetallism and similar projects to correct ?
What is that mean (or function) of prices which the bimetallist would
desire to keep constant? Of course, if prices varied all in much the
same ratio, like the lengths of shadows with the advancing day, the
answer would be very simple. That ratio is the required measure. But
suppose that one large category of prices is pretty uniformly elevated,
while another is en bloc depressed; we desiderate a measure which, like
the two preceding, may be independent of the particular hypothesis that
there has been a uniform average price-variation all over the field of in-
dustry. Upon reflection it will be found that the required measure can
be none other than one of the two preceding or a cross between them.
The bimetallist may be satisfied that his object is attained when the
(above-defined) ‘Unit’ is anity. See pp. 278, 279.
It is to be observed that the Unit required for this purpose cannot be
restricted to a particular geographical or industrial area. Rather the
averaging must be extended over the whole system of countries in mone-
tary communication—that is, over the greater part of the civilised and
uncivilised world.
(4) When we consider the next type, the fourth definition of our
problem, there once more is pressed upon us the expediency of limiting
the area of markets over which our measurement is to extend. It may
be doubted whether a standard based upon the variation of all prices
indiscriminately would—abstracted from some definite particular purpose
such as those contemplated in the preceding paragraphs—be of much
scientific use. It would be like taking the mean barometric pressure
__ over a large continent. It is more useful to observe the variation
_ of pressure at particular stations, in order to predict what changes
will be propagated to neighbouring regions, what storms are coming.
Suppose, for the sake of illustration, that at any station the reading of a
single barometer was not sufficient to give the true pressure; that each
instrument was liable to a proper disturbance over and above the general
atmospheric change. The heat or cold, for example, of different situa-
tions might cause a misleading expansion or contraction of the mercury.
On such a supposition it might be proper, in order to measure the
pressure at any station, to take a mean between the readings of several
barometers. Upon well-known hydrostatical principles, no particular
importance, other things being equal, would attach to the reading of the
barometer which contained a particularly large mass of mercury.
These conceptions appear appropriate to our problem. We should
demarcate a certain region of industry, and estimate in terms of that
ee aad of articles an index-number indicative of changes which are
. 8
rr
258 REPORT—1887.
likely to become general. The zone of observation most suitable to our
purpose would probably be as it were the coast-line of trade, those articles
of world-commerce which are most sensitive to changes propagated from
abroad. In taking such a mean of observations the ‘weights’ are not
necessarily proportioned to the masses of commodity. Primd facie and
in the abstract pepper may afford as good an index as cotton. (See
pp. 281, 282.) The writer has given rules for taking the mean of these
observations. But he is aware how difficult it is to define the proper
zones; how hardly susceptible of perfection is the science of monetary
meteorology.
Contemplating all these types we discern a property common to most
of them, the desirability of treating separately selected interests, rather
than operating upon all commodities indiscriminately. To construct such
partial measures does not seem to be the business of this Committee, or
at least this Memorandum. We may, however, hope that our theoretical
diagnosis of different purposes may be of use to those who undertake the
more practical task of prescribing for different interests.
Secrion I.
Description and Division of the Problem.
The business of this Committee is to measure a fact, not to speculate
about its causes or consequences. Should a fall in the value of money
have occurred we need not trace that phenomenon to its sources. Whether
it takes its rise on the side of the precious metals or of commodities—
whether, in Dr. Johnson’s phrase, it is the pence that are few or the eggs
that are many—it is not our part to determine. The consequences of the
change are equally outside our province. It is open to us to hold with
Hume that, when prices are rising owing to the influx of money, ‘ every-
thing takes a new face; labour and industry gain life.’ With General
Walker we may predicate the converse attributes of falling prices. Or we
may accept Professor Marshall’s! qualified, or Mill’s? negative, statement
of those effects. We have to leave speculation and apply ourselves to
measurement.
But, while we are not called upon to decide such controverted ques-
tions, we cannot be as indifferent to the decision as might at first sight
have appeared. For it is only in the simpler kinds of measurement that
the metretic art can be entirely divorced from theory about its subject-
matter. To measure the height of a man we do not require a knowledge
of anthropology. We may even ascertain the mean stature of a nation
without much special knowledge. But difficulties arise when we have to
do not with one attribute, such as height, but with two (or more) attri-
butes: for instance, the masses and velocities of a system of bodies.
Take the simple case of a number of heavy particles at rest, and suppose
that different velocities are imparted to the different particles between
two given epochs. It would not be very easy for one coming fresh to the
study of mechanics so to define his confused general idea of the change of
motion which had occurred as to be able to express it in terms of the data:
namely, the masses, say M,, M,, &c., M,, and the imparted velocities
(which, in order to minimise difficulties, we will suppose all in the same
direction) V,, Vo, &c., V,. It is plausible to say that the problem is
1 Third Report on Industrial Depression, Appendix C, vol. ii. p. 422, column b,
2 Pol. Econ. Book III, chap. xiii. s. 4.
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 259
purely statistical, that we seek a merely objective result. The difficulty
is that any combination—at least, any symmetrical combination—of the
data is in a sense objective. We must call in mechanical science to deter-.
mine what combinations are worth forming and what are insignificant.
Consider the two combinations
M, V,?+M, V,.?+ &c.+M, V,? and M,?V,+M,? V.+é&e.+M,? V,.
Prima facie, these are both equally ‘objective,’ and they seem equally
simple. But while the former (the expression of energy) constitutes a
spell for opening all the secret chambers of Nature, the latter could only
be significant on some very peculiar hypothesis, for some very out-of-the-
way purpose.
Similarly, in the problem before us we have to combine two sets of
data, the prices of different articles and the quantities thereof. Indeed, our
problem is rather more complicated. We may have to take account of a
third attribute, the quality or species of wares; to consider, for instance,
whether the price and quantity of labour or of materials shall enter pari
passu and symmetrically into that combination of our data which we
desiderate. ;
In order to discover the principle on which this combination is to be
effected, we may be led into the most perplexed regions of monetary
science. We are brought against the question, What is the relation
between the amount of money in a country and the general scale of prices?
—the question which has been called by a distinguished authority} ‘one
_ upon which the most contradictory opinions have been expressed by
_ economists of reputation.’ And even where there are no fundamental
differences of theory, yet practice may vary according to the practical
end in view. Some may aim at the construction of a tabular standard,
_ adapted only to contracts extending over a long period of time; others
may desiderate a more flexible standard, which may mitigate the effects
not only of the secular, but also of the more? transient variations in the
value of money ; others may seek only an index of the future course of
prices—a sort of monetary barometer.
There are therefore many methods—not one method—of ‘measuring
and ascertaining variations in the value of money.’ The path which we
have to investigate has many bifurcations. To decide at each turn which
__ is the right direction is either impossible, or at least presumptuous. It is
_ impossible when both ways are right, directed to different but equally
legitimate ends. And, even where there must be a right and wrong,
it is not becoming here to pronounce upon points controverted by high
authorities. The course adopted is to trace separately the alternative
paths, indicating the difference without expressing a preference.
) In this memorandum it is proposed to distinguish the various cases
of the general problem, and to construct the formula appropriate to each
case. The numerical determination of the quantities which enter into
the formule—both the compilation of the proper figures from explicit
statistics, and, where these are wanting, the more speculative arts of in-
ferring unknown prices and amounts from imperfect data and indirect
indications—these parts of the subject are not treated by the present
writer. They may be considered in a future Report of the Committee
and in separate memoranda contributed by other members.
? General Walker in his Money.
p ? As Professor Marshall hopes; Contemporary Revien’ March 1887.
: 82
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ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 261
The delicate subdivisions of the subject are exhibited in the annexed
diagram by means of a regular logical tree! In examining this tree of
r. knowledge we shall give priority to the branches on the left. As soon as
we have reached the definition of each ultimate species we shall add its
properties—the treatment adapted to that particular case. We shall not
only trace out the form of each branch, but also gather the fruit at its
extremity, before we go on to the branch nearest on the right.
The whole subject is first divided according as the method adopted is
(A) irrespective of any hypothesis as to the cause of the price movements
or (a) is based on some such theory. Deferring the treatment of the
latter case (a) we proceed to divide the former according as (A B) the
practical purpose in view is to construct a standard or ‘Unit’ for
deferred payments, or (A b) some other purpose. Postponing the latter
case, we may complete the definition of the former by explaining that
the Unit (a term borrowed from Professor Marshall’s recent article in
the ‘Contemporary Review’), as used here in a general sense, means a
sum of money estimated to be equivalent at present (or at some future
time) to what a Unit of money, say a pound, was worth at some past time:
in such wise that it may be just or expedient for debtors to pay, and
creditors to receive, as many Units now (and from time to time)
as they contracted to pay and receive pounds at the initial epoch.
The general idea of a Unit may be specialised according as it is
required that (ABC) the Unit should constantly be equivalent to the
same quantity of valuables, or (A Bc) that it should not represent a
constant purchasing power, but one varying with the means of debtors,
after the manner of a sliding scale. Lastly the kinds and quantities of
the valuables entering into the Unit may either (A BCD) correspond to
the items of national consumption, or (A BC d) may be selected on some
other principle. In this arrangement priority does not import any
preference,
Section II.
Determination of a Standard for Deferred Payments; based wpon the items
of national consumption ; calculated to afford to the consumer a constant
value-in-use ; no hypothesis being made as to the causes of the change in
prices. (ABCD.)
According to this arrangement, the first case for which we have to
prescribe is where, apart from any hypothesis as to the cause of the
movement of prices, we want to construct a Unit adapted to deferred
payments, and where it is required that the Unit should be constantly
equivalent to the same amount of valuables, the kinds and proportions of
the valuables corresponding to the items of the national expenditure.
Upon reflection it will be found that the last attribute involves, or is
deduced from, some such condition as the following—that the advantage
which an average person derives from the expenditure of a Unit should
be constant.”
1 As logical and genealogical trees for the most part, like the trees in the poet
Parnell’s Hermit, ‘depending grow,’ it may be as well to point out to the reader that
our tree, like those cultivated by some of the earlier logicians, is trained upwards.
* Cf. Horton, Silver and Gold, chap. iv. ‘In the average annual consumption of
provisions . . . we should have at least fixed a definite portion of utility... . By
enlarging the sphere of consumption on which to base the average . . . we still more
nearly attain a measure of the value of Money.’
262 REPORT— 1887.
__ From this condition, owing to the unequal consumption ! of different individuals
it follows that the precision of our calculation cannot be great. That is to say, we
cannot be certain that between considerable limits some other ratio than the one
which we have chosen would not be as good as the one which we have chosen.
It may be worth adding that even if we could suppose that all commodities
were consumed in the same proportions by all individuals, yet the mere difference
in the size of fortunes and of debts would introduce an inaccuracy. To show this
let us first suppose that all fortunes would be equal but for the payment of debts;
Fie. 1.
and let us represent the average amounts of commodities consumed by the height
of the columns in the annexed diagram, the divisions of the horizontal line being
equal. Now suppose a person, from being a consumer of the average amount of
each article, becomes debtor to the extent of a certain sum, expressed in Units* of
tabular standard. Theoretically he would retrench something of his expenditure
on each article, contracting as it were the margin of final utility. He might thus
fall back upon the curve H,H,’ instead of the original boundary. And if his debt
increased he might have to fall back upon an interior frontier, the next isohedone,
as we might call this family of curves. Conversely, in the case of a creditor.
Now, in order that our standard should be applicable to debts of various sizes it
is virtually assumed that the ratio HH,: H’H,/ is the same as H,H,: H,’H,’, »
and so on for other columns and curves. But this assumption is without evidence,
or rather contrary to evidence. Or, if it be held sufficient that the standard should
represent the utility corresponding to the average debt, still even for this purpose
our method of determining the proportions (by the totals consumed) is arbitrary—
a fortiort when we admit all kinds.of inequalities of fortune and other irregulari-
ties. Thus it may plausibly be contended in virtue of the analogies of Fechner's
law that, where the total wealth of a people has increased, an equal quantity of
utility is represented by a larger quantity of wealth. In this case Method A Be D
(explained below) might. be the legitimate deduction from the principle on which
we here suppose method A BC D to depend.
It. is important to realise how loose is the character of the calculation even
1 Cf. Professor Marshall, Industrial Conference.
? The term Unit is here employed in the sense proposed by Professor Marshall,
Contemporary Review, March 1887.
8 The standard defined in this section, the Consumption Standard as it may be
called, appears to be particularly appropriate to the case in which National Wealth is
regarded as a constant quantity. Otherwise there is apt to arise a divergence between
two attributes which we have hitherto assumed to be conjoined, namely, the condi-
tion that the Unit should be constantly equivalent to the same quantity of valuables,
and that it should afford, on an average at least, the same quantity of value-in-use,
the same ‘ Final Utility.’ For, according to the Law of Diminishing Utility (ex-
pounded by Laplace, Jevons, and others), the same increment of means tends to
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 263
under the most favourable conditions. To expend minutious care in determining our
weights when our balance is thus rough is nugatory. It is taking care of the
pence and leaving the pounds to take care of themselves, a course dictated rather
by proverbial than practical wisdom.
It follows from the condition above stated that the frequent resale of
an article (such as cotton) forms no reason why it should be counted more
than once. Nor should materials, as distinguished from finished products,
be counted, or only as representative of finished products. Upon the
same principle the price of stipendiary labour ! (domestic wages and many
afford a smaller increment of advantage when the fortune to which addition (or from
which subtraction) is made is ampler. If, then, National Wealth increasing, the
average fortune becomes larger, the Unit which is equivalent to the same quantity
of things will no longer correspond to the same quantity of advantage. The average
scale of living being higher, the same amount of goods will not appear of the same
importance to the average consumer. Accordingly, in such a case we must make a
choice between the following two conditions for the definition of our Standard or
Unit. The first condition is that the Unit should constantly be equivalent to the
same quantity of valuables. Or since, agreeably to the views here adopted, quantity
of valuables cannot in general be defined irrespective of subjective considerations, it
might be more philosophical to lay down as the first condition that the Unit should
constantly afford the same quantity of utility; abstracting the change of National
Wealth, supposing that the fortune of the average consumer remained constant. The
alternative condition is that the utility afforded should be constant, that circum-
stance not being abstracted. As a matter of nomenclature, it seems better to restrict
the symbol ©, the term Consumption Standard, to the former definition. The latter
arrangement may be regarded as a variety of the genus sliding-scale, designated by c.
Dr. Julius Lehr, in the important contribution to our subject made in his
Beitrige zur Statistik der Reise (Frankfort, 1885), seems to assume the proposition
that the utility derived from wealth at both the compared epochs is the same; or at
least that the final utility at each epoch isthe same, or rather a’quantity of the same
order. For he takes as the measure of the importance of an article the number of
Genusseinheiten afforded by its consumption. Now, Dr. Lehy’s Genusseinheit and
Jevons’ Final Utility are quantities of the same dimension. A hundredweight of
diamonds, say, affords so many times more Genusseinheiten than a hundredweight of
iron, as the Final Utility of the former is greater than the Final Utility of the latter.
To determine the number of Genusseinheiten conferred by (the objective unit, e.g.,
hundredweight, of) each species of article, Dr. Lehr in effect takes the mean of the
Final Utilities at each epoch. Now he who takes a mean assumes that the quantities
of which he takes a mean are of the same order.
1 The exclusion of ‘services’ as distinguished from material commodities has been
maintained on the ground that so-called ‘ unproductive’ labourers are paid out of the
proceeds of productive industry. The money which we expend on singers and dancers
finds its way to butchers and bakers. To include in the National Inventory the out-
lay on Singing and Dancing as well as the total expenditure on Bread and Meat is
therefore to count the same portion of wealth twice over. And no doubt this remark
is relevant, where the object is to measure the quantity of Wealth defined as some-
thing material. But for the present purpose, would it not be theoretically as reason-
able to omit Bread and Meat and base our standard exclusively upon the price of
theatrical entertainments and such like, upon the ground that what we pay to the
butcher and baker finds its way to the Music Halls which they frequent? ‘ No,’ it may
be replied, ‘for a good part of their income must be expended on material necessities.
Well, but by parity a good part of the wages of ‘unproductive’ labour may be ex-
pended on immaterial utilities. What is earned by teaching literature may be spent
in tickets for the opera. Theoretically it is as arbitrary to altogether exclude immaterial
utilities, as it would be to include nothing but them. The difference between the two
errors is only one of degree and practical importance. As a matter of fact in the
existing world, of the two defective methods the less imperfect is that which includes
material, and excludes immaterial, utilities. But the converse might be true in some
happy island, where the material necessities of life were obtained almost for nothing,
and the principal monetary transactions were constituted by the exchange of mutual
services.
264 REPORT—1887.
professional payments) “enters in as an independent item; but the price
of industrial labour (ordinary wages) only as representative, and in the
absence, of the finished products.
In constructing the formula for combining the quantities and prices
thus defined, we may first distinguish the abstract and ideally simple case
in which exactly the same quantity of each article is consumed at the two
epochs. In this case the method of procedure is that indicated by Professor
Sidgwick in his Political Economy (Book I. chap. ii. s. 3): ‘Summing
up the amounts of money paid for the things consumed ! at the old and the
new prices respectively,’ and [to find the value of the Unit at the later
epoch] dividing the latter sum by the former.
A difficulty arises when we introduce the concrete circumstance that
the quantities consumed at the two epochs are not the same. We might
distinguish two grades of this deflection from the abstract ideal: (1)
where the interval of time between two revisions being very small the
variations in the amounts consumed are slight, differentials, we might call
them ; and (IT) integral or considerable changes which occur in the course
of a long interval of time.
1. The method of procedure in the first case may thus be symbolised :
Let a, 3, y, &c., be the quantities of commodities consumed! at the initial
epoch, and a, B', y', &e., at a subsequent epoch ; it is assumed that
ee eS. &c.=1 nearly. And similarly for a second subsequent
a p
wv
epoch — Pan 1 nearly. Upon these assumptions several methods of
determining the Unit present themselves. Let us designate the prices at
the initial epoch by p. pe p,, &c., and at a subsequent epoch p,’ p,’ p,', &c.
Then
(1) We may take the type which first presents itself upon Professor
Sidgwick’s view of the problem, viz.—
ap’, a5 Bp’ + &e.
ap, + ppg + &e.
This method is (in effect) adopted by Mr. Sauerbeck for years earlier
than 1866-77 (‘ Journ. Stat. Soc.’ 1866, pp. 595-613).
The method 1s also exemplified by Mr. Giffen’s retrospective estimate
of the change in the value of money between 1873 (and 1883), and earlier
years (Report on Prices of Exports and Imports, 1885, Table V.).
(2) The next type, also given by Professor Sidgwick,? is the con-
verse of the first, viz.—
ap’, + Bip', + &e..
a'p, + B' pg + &e.
This method is exemplified by Mr. Giffen in his Table IV. (Reports
1881, 1885), by Mr. Mulhall, and by Mr. Sauerbeck (for years after period
1867-77), (‘ Journ. Stat. Soc.’ 1886, p. 595).
1 Agreeably to this definition the prices on which the Consumption Standard is
based should theoretically be the prices paid by consumers—retail prices. For
this purpose wholesale prices are to be employed only in the absence of the proper
statistics, as an index of prices paid for the finished products—a very imperfect
index, as Dr. Scharling, in his excellent paper on retail prices, and other authorities,
have shown.
? See the passage above referred to.
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 265
(3) The third type is a mean between the first two, viz.—
ap’, + Bp',+ &e. Hn a'p', + B'p's
ap, +Bpe+ &e. *a'p, + B'p, + &e.
Professor Sidgwick has suggested and remarked upon this procedure
ina note. It has been noticed also by Drobisch.
(4) The next type is also a mean :—
z(ata’) xp',+3 (B+B') pot ke.
3 (ate') p.+3(B+B) pat be.
suggested independently by Professor Marshall and the present writer.
(5) The next type is one adopted by Mr. Palgrave :—
Ul /
aly! xP 24 Bly! x Pes &e.
ap al Pe Ds
ap’ + B'p'.+ &e.
(6) The sixth type is that which Mr. Giffen has employed in his
Table II. Put « and jp, for the quantity and price of the first com-
modity in 1875 (or other year selected as representative). Then for the
increase in the value of money in the year whose symbols are a’, p’,, as
compared with year a, p_, write :—
/ /
aw iP many ss
ipa x +ip.xt ee
Pat B pet &e.
The expression for what we have called the Unit is found by adding
/ U
unity to the above (substituting 2+ for 2«— Ps),
Pa Da
(7) Next we may place the formula of Drapiachs of which the prin-
ciple is to compare the price at different epochs of an objective unit,
such as a hundredweight, supposed to be made up of all sorts of articles
in the proportion in which they enter into national consumption. In our
notation the formula (for what is here called the unit) becomes
ap’. + Bp'p+&e. . ap, + Ppp + &e.
a’ + fp + &e. “ “a+t6B + &.
(8) Last, but not least, either in respect of bulk or of theoretic
weight, occurs the formula of Dr. Julius Lehr (referred to above, p. 263),
of which the principle is to compare the price at different epochs of a
pleaswre-umt, or unit of final utility. The formula may be thus con-
veyed in our notation :—The mean ‘ Genusseinheit,’ or final utility, of the
a+ a’
ap, + a'p’ ie
tion, a at the first epoch, and a’ at the second. Now sum up all the
Genusseinheiten for all the commodities which came into consumption at
the initial epoch, and divide the national expenditure (ap. + Bp, + &e.)
by the sum of Genusseinheiten. Thus you have the average price at the
initial epoch of a Genusseinheit ; say P,. Similarly determine P, for
the posterior epoch. Then P, + P, is the required unit.!
first commodity is Of such units these came into consump:
* With regard to the formula proposed by Dr. Lehr, the present writer agrees with
the criticism expressed by Professor Lexis in a recent number of Conrad’s Jahrbuch.
266 REPORT—1887.
Of these methods it may be remarked that the first four seem to have
an advantage over the remaining two, in that the former make no
assumption as to the extent of the change of price, while the latter pro-
ceed on the supposition that those changes are small. The fifth method
seems to assume that we may write for p’, p,(1+A’,), where the second
powers of A’, are negligible. And similarly in the sixth method we
must be allowed to write for a,p, ap,(1+/4,), where ,A,xA’,, Ag x A’,
&e., are negligible. No doubt, when we grant the steadiness of the pro-
portions *, *, &e., we can hardly refuse this additional postulate.
a @
The first four methods are all equally good if our fundamental hypo-
thesis is strictly true. Where, as in fact, the hypothesis is only hypo-
thetically true, the third and fourth methods, being of the nature of
means, are apt to minimise error.
On the whole, the fourth method may appear the best; abstracting
the difficulty of obtaining the proper numerical data, which is beyond the
scope of this paper.
The seventh method is exposed to the objection (noticed by Dr. Lehr)
that services cannot be weighed by hundredweights. Dr. Lehr’s own
formula is objectionable only on account of its bulkiness. (See above,
note to p. 263 )
It might be a good plan to take the mean of the numerical results of
all the methods that are equally entitled to confidence (? the third, fourth,
seventh, eighth, and—in the absence of violent price-variations—the sixth
and seventh). We might thus obtain not only a better result, but also
the opportunity of forming an opinion upon the error incident to the
calculation : by how much it is likely, and by how much it is unlikely,
that the result should be wide of the mark.
‘There are some other concrete circumstances which may entail some modifi-
cations of the general rule: (1) Unless the interval between the revisions of the
units be very short indeed we must suppose that the unit is employed at times
when, owing to the movements of prices (since revision), it has ceased to be exact.!
Ideally it might be best, instead of p’,, p’g, &c., present prices, to take for each
article the mean of its present price and its prices in the proximate future for all
the period that the unit has to function unrevised. But of course we cannot know
the future prices, and therefore we must be content with taking present prices (or
it may be means of the present and the immediate past) as the best representatives
of the ideally preferable mean. Now, considering the fluctuations of each price
The received formule and Dr. Lehr’s formula are equal as touching their theoretical
validity ; but the former (including our A Bc D) have the advantage of practical
simplicity.
Dr. Lehr’s treatment of the variables as distinguished from the formula also
calls for remark. His object being to discover how far the power of money to pur-
chase Genusseinheiten has varied, it is not quite clear why he should insist on in-
cluding wages, the wages of ordinary industrial or productive labour as well as of
stipendiary services, among the data. Do we not take sufficient account of productive
labour when we take account of the finished products? JLither, but not both, these
items should figure in the expression of our Unit.
One more remark seems called for in justice to the reader whom our notice of this
work may have attracted. He must not be discouraged by the opening paragraphs,
which are both extremely obscure and not directly relevant to our present purpose.
The general reader is advised to begin at p. 10 (‘ Der begriff. Durchschnittpreis ’),
or even at p. 28 (‘ Das Verfahren zur Ermittelung des Geldpreises,’ &c.).
’ This obvious circumstance is explained at some length by Held in Conrad's
Jahrbuch for 1871.
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 267
between two periods of revision, we see by the theory of errors that the price
which fluctuates least is (ceteris paribus) the best representative of mean price.
And accordingly, in the combination of the different indications of change in
the value of money, there is a primd facie presumption that peculiar weight should
be assigned to those indications which are peculiarly accurate.
But the validity of this principle turns upon very nice considerations. Where
we have several measurements of one and the same thing it is indisputable that
more weight attaches to the less fluctuating measures. This is true not only in
the case of a real objective measurable, such as the distance between two points,
but also where the guesitum is a subjective mean, such as Uhomme moyen. If, as
in a case mentioned by Dr. Baxter,! we have two sets of measurements of heights
of American citizens, the one executed with the utmost precision, the other rough-
; and-ready, then, in order to obtain the best value for the mean height of the
_ American man, it would be best to affect those careless measurements with
inferior weight.
But it may be otherwise when we are seeking not a single mean, but the sum
of two or more. If we have to determine the distance from Dover to York wa
London, and we have very good measurements for the first distance, and very bad
for the second, the best that we can do, though bad may be the best, is to add
together without qualification the two means. So if we have to determine the
income of a nation consisting, say, of two classes, upper and lower, for one of which
the returns are very accurate, for the other very * loose, still the best combination
of data which is available is the simple addition of the two estimates.
Yet again, if we have several estimates of such a compound mean as has been
supposed, the principle of weight may again make its appearance. Suppose that, as
Laplace proposes * (in the case of birth-rates), it were the practice to ascertain
the statistics of ‘a great empire’ by way of sample. Let observations be taken
on several villages or districts, consisting each of an upper, middle, and lower class.
In combining these observations so as to obtain the mean income for the empire,
it would be proper to assign less weight to those localities where the returns were
obtained in a more summary fashion, by a less accurate method, Further, although
each estimate might not be based upon all the classes in each district, but only on a
miscellaneous selection from them, still if we could divide such estimates into two
classes, contrasted in respect of accuracy and differentiated by no other attribute,
the best method of combination would be a weighted mean.
To apply these principles: (1) if, like Jevons, we content ourselves with taking
samples of commodities rather than all commodities—a perfectly legitimate pro-
cedure, and justified alike by the theory of Laplace and the practice of statisticians,
e.g., Jevons in his enumeration of sovereigns—then undoubtedly, the principles of
inverse probability becoming applicable to this mode of measurement, greater
weight should attach tothe less fluctuating species of returns. It might indeed be
a nice question how much the principle of quantity should be cut into by the
consideration of fluctuation. Thus, if we took Mr. Giffen’s‘ statistics of the
variation in the prices of exports and imports as a sample (or part of one) of the
change in the purchasing power of money, cotton perhaps, on account of its unique
importance in respect of quantity, stands out by itself, and ought to receive full
weight. But if we have several articles of about the same importance in respect
of quantity but differing in fluctuation, a higher combination-weight should be
assigned to the less fluctuating mass of value.
(2) A similar principle should govern our procedure, if we had to base our
calculation upon returns relating not to the whole population, but only to
specimens thereof. Suppose, for instance, it was sought to determine the change
in the value of money in China, and that statistics could only be obtained for
certain representative localities. If we make a complete enumeration of com-
1 United States Sanitary Commission.
J 2 Supposing, of course, no animus mensurandi or constant error in one direction
such as that of underrating income.
3 Theorie Analytique.
‘ Parl. Paper's, 1881-85.
268 REPORT—1887.
modities we ought to take account of all articles, without regarding whether they
are consumed in the same proportions, or in different proportions by different
persons. But if we proceed by way of sample, then we ought to assign special
weight to those articles which, as Engel’s law and the American labour statistics
have established, are consumed in nearly equal proportions by each household
throughout a large class of the community. Less weight should attach to those
articles, the ‘sundries’ of the statistics referred to, which appear more fitfully in
the household budgets. How far in England we have to proceed by way of sam-
ples afforded by certain markets and certain commodities is a question not to be
decided in this memorandum. The difference upon which these distinctions turn
is that which the writer, in treating of the theory of errors, has drawn between
simple induction and inverse probability (see Odservations and Statistics, ‘Camb.
Phil. Trans.’ 1885).
(8) A more obvious ground of selection is that some articles (however large
their money value) interest only a comparatively few (rich) persons. Accordingly,
in constructing a standard adapted to the general requirements of the community,
we ought upon utilitarian principles to treat the variations in the price of that
class of articles as of comparatively little account.
It may be doubted whether the practical worth of these subordinate modifi-
cations corresponds to their theoretic interest. For to assign less importance to
some of the data on the ground of a deficiency of weight which is not susceptible
of numerical evaluation is a practice which, though countenanced by the example
of physicists in their reduction of observations, is apt to diminish confidence in
sociological calculations. For the sake of a little additional accuracy it may not
be worth while incurring the suspicion of cookery :—
Denique sit quidvis, simplex dumtaxat et unum.
2. We come now to the case where, the interval between the com-
pared epochs being considerable, the quantities consumed at the two
epochs are materially different, and the ratio of the quantity consumed
at one epoch to the quantity consumed at the other is no longer even
approximately the same for the different commodities. The difficulties
presented by this case, which seemed to defy science, have been
triumphed over by Professor Marshall.2, The incommensurable propor-
tions of the dissimilar expenditures he manages to compare by means
of a series of the intercalated intermediate forms presented by the
changing national inventory. Equating each term of this series to its
1 Another modification which might be suggested is that less weight should be
attached to those commodities of which the price-variations affect the general
public and a particular class in different senses—a fall, for instance, benefiting the
consumer, but ruining the producer. It will be found, however, a difficult and
endless task to carry out this principle. For what commodities would be excepted
from it? Imports perhaps, in so far as it is the foreign producer chiefly who is
damaged by the fall and benefited by the rise of those prices. ‘But with regard to
the home industries, in order that the interest of the producer and the consumer
should vary in opposite directions, we must suppose an equilibrium of profits to be
transmitted from trade to trade, according to Ricardian principles, with a rapidity
that is not supposable.
But not only is the working of the proposed principle difficult, but also it is
incorrect; here, in this section, where our object is that the unit should afford a
constant quantity of valuables to the average consumer, without reference to the
number of units which the different classes of consumers have to spend (see below,
p. 272, note 2). To tamper with certain items of expenditure, such as wages of Domestic
Service, on the ground that these transactions belong to distribution, as distinguished
from exchange, is virtually to introduce the principle of the sliding scale, to substitute
the attribute c for C.
The exclusion of ‘unproductive’ labour has been maintained on other grounds
considered in note to p. 263.
2 Contemporary Review, March 1887.
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 269
predecessor and its successor, he brings the first term into relation with
_ the last term. Though the final and initial shapes of the Umit cannot
even approximately be superposed, yet its content of utility is preserved
constant. It is true that at each step of this process some deviation may
occur. At each act of weighing something may fall out of the balance.
But something may fall in also. And thus, in the absence of a constant
bias towards error in one direction, there is reason to believe that—except
for very long deferred payments—the result will be as accurate as that
which is attainable under more favourable conditions.
Professor Marshall’s method may thus be illustrated. Let us, with Cournot,
represent ratios by logarithms, and logarithms by linear distance. But, unlike
Cournot, let us take account, not only of the price, but also of the quantity of each
article. Let the distance of the dot a from the abscissa represent the price of
the first commodity, and the size of the dot the quantity consumed (per unit of
time). Let the abscissa represent time. At the initial epoch, corresponding to
the origin, the purchasing power of money, the denominator of the sought unit, is
represented by OC, where C is the centre of gravity of the system initially. Now,
!
Fie. 2.
T
2
if, during the interval O T,, only money and prices were affected, other things
being constant, the required (numerator of the) Unit would be T,O’,, where C’, is
the centre of gravity of the system in its new position. But other things are
not constant. There occur variations, not only in the relative positions of the
particles, but also in their masses (as shown by the varying size of the dots),
Also new particles enter the system (eg., y, at the time T,), and old ones drop
out. Thus the true centre of gravity at the time T, is not C’,, but C,. This
point can be found at that time; but it is not available for our first edition of a
tabular standard. The second edition at the time T, is similarly obtained by
270 REPORT—1887.
comparing T,C’,, the height of the apparent centre of gravity at the later epoch,
with T,C,, the height of the real centre at the earlier epoch. If we join the
points cc’,c’s, &e., we have the locus of apparent unit hugging the corrected curve
ae (Oe
"At every step there is incurred an error, say a‘ probable error,’ Aw, and accord-
ingly what may be called an improbable error about 4Au.'| These errors being
presumably independent, without bias in excess or defect, it follows, from the
theory of errors, that the total error incurred in the course of n steps is /n Au,
It is a nice question how frequent the revisions of the standard should be, in order
that this error may be minimised. Let A¢ be that interval of time within which
there cannot possibly or probably occur a change of sign in Aw, owing to a variation
in those disturbances of the economic fabric which cause our standard to be in-
accurate. Then itis expedient that the revisions shall take place as often as,
but not oftener than, once in every such short interval. This condition points to
the frequent revisals* contemplated by Professor Marshall,
It may be observed that Professor Marshall’s solution is largely applicable to
a problem kindred to ours, but which we have not supposed to be comprehended
in the question set to us; namely, to measure changes in the value of money
between different places. For instance, if the economic habits of the peoples of
the Austrian empire varied by gentle gradations along a line trending from north-
west to south, very much as the vital statistics of the empire are shown by Hain
(in his important work on ‘ Das Oesterreichische Reich’) to vary gradually, then it
might be possible, so to speak, to carry the equation of utility from Bohemia
along to the Military Frontier. It is otherwise where natural and political barriers
produce discontinuity ; for instance, in the case of the United Kingdom compared
with the United States.*
Section III.
Determination of a Standard for Deferred Payments ; not based wpon the
items of national conswmption ; calculated to afford to the consumer a
constant value-in-use ; no hypothesis being made as to the causes of the
change in prices. (ABCd.)
We come next to the case where the items which enter into our
Unit are not copied from the statistics of national expenditure, but are
selected on some other principle. Although the rule in this case is
different, the ground of the rule will be found to be much the same,
namely, the desirability that the advantage derived from the expenditure
of a unit should be as far as possible constant. To those who admit the
utilitarian character of the problem (as defined by the attributes A B C)
it will appear evident that a formula other than the direct solution can
only recommend itself as being a workable approximation thereto.
Among methods which may seem to have a claim to that character
we may distinguish the three following :—-
(1) There is first what may be called polymetallism, the Unit based
upon the price of an aggregate of specified quantities of specified metals ;
and not only metals but other substances which possess an attribute
ascribed to the precious metals, peculiar fixity of value.
(2) Next we place the index numbers of the Hceonomist, the simple
average of a number of prices, especially if, as Mr. Bourne has pointed
1 The reader, according to his habits of thought, may regard w as standing either
for the sought unit or the utility which it is required to keep constant.
2 Contemporary Review, March 1887.
8 It is difficult to understand the rationale of the method by which it is proposed
in the Massachusetts Labour Report for 1884 to bring together for comparison the
purchasing power of wages in England and the United States,
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY ‘STANDARD. 27]
out, care be taken to exclude the repetition of the same article in different
forms.
(3) Another foundation may be afforded by a basis which Professor
Nicholson (aliud agens, or at least not confining himself to the purpose
specified in the present section) has lately laid down in the able and
highly original paper which he has contributed to the March number of
the ‘ Journal of the Statistical Society.’ The new basis may be described
as (the vaiue of) the ‘ total mass of purchasable “ things,” ’ (‘ the aggre-
gate of purchasable commodities in the widest sense’ of the term). We
shall sometimes, for the sake of brevity, describe Professor Nicholson’s
invention as the capital standard. Z
Of these secondary methods the first and second at least have some
advantage in respect of convenience over the direct solution. It is quite
possible that their disadvantage in respect of inaccuracy should not be
very great. The error which we incur by taking some sample commo-
dities instead of all the items of national expenditure might be not worth
correcting in view of another error with which our calculation is unavoid-
ably affected. This is the error incident to the misfit between the con-
sumption of the individual and that of the community. As, however,
individuals resemble each other considerably in respect of consumption,
there is reason to believe that this species of defect is not so important
here as in the following section, where we are concerned with income
derived from production (see below, p. 275).
Secrion IV.
Determination of a Standard for Deferred Payments ; based wpon the ttems
of national consumption ; calculated to afford to the conswmer a value-in-
use, varying with the national affluence, after the manner of a sliding
scale ; no hypothesis being made as to the causes of the change in prices.
(ABcD.)
We now abandon the idea of a fixed standard, and attempt to
construct a sliding scale.' We have hitherto supposed that the average
man in paying or receiving a Unit should give or take the same quantity
of wealth. But is it just, is it expedient, that, when the national wealth
i8 increasing, the creditor should demand, the debtor pay, a constant
quantity, or quantity proportioned to the increase of general prosperity ?
Probably most persons would answer in favour of the former alternative.2
But they might be embarrassed if the principle were extended to the case
of declining prosperity. Would it seriously be proposed that, if money
were depreciated by the decrease of goods other than money, the debtor
should pay an ever-increasing amount of currency? ‘This seems to be
' The idea of a sliding scale may not seem at first sight to be suggested by the
question set to us. It will be found, however, to be implicit in much that is written
on our subject by the ablest writers—those, for instance, who, in estimating the
depreciation of money, dwell upon the fact that the style of living expected in each
class of life, the Lebensanspriiche, has become heightened; those, again, who,
without entertaining an hypothesis such as that which forms the definition of our
section a (below, p. 280), still insist on including among the constituents of the
Unit industrial, as distinguished from stipendiary wages, material in addition to
finished products, and exports and imports, without reference to the amount of
home consumption ; in fine, those who would exclude wages of domestic servants,
rents, and generally distribution as distinguished from ewchange (on the grounds
specified in note to p. 263).
2 Cf. Poulett Scrope, Pol. Hcon. (ed. 1833), p. 410.
272 REPORT—1887.
one of those questions of la haute politique which it is not our business to
decide.
If it is judged desirable that the Unit should represent a quan-
tity of wealth varying with the national affluence, a simple method of
effecting that condition is to-put for the Unit the ratio of the national
expenditure on articles of consumption at the later epoch to the corre-
sponding expenditure at the earlier epoch. Employing the same notation
as before, we have now the formula
ap! +B'p'+ &e.
ap.+Bpp + &e.
If it is judged desirable to compare not the absolute expenditure, but the
amount relative to the number of the population, we ought to multiply
the above written expression by the factor Nn’ N and N’ representing the
number of the population and the earlier and later epochs respectively.
This method appears to the writer to deserve more attention than it
has received. The result would probably be much the same (in the case
of short intervals at least) as for the more familiar formula. But the
construction would be simpler as not requiring a mean to be taken!
between the quantities consumed at different epochs, and the philosophic
basis would be free from the difficulty which besets the equation of
utility.
Section V.
Determination of a Standard for Deferred Payments ; based upon the amount
of national income or wpon prices which affect the income of any class ;
varying with such income or prices, after the manner of a sliding scale ;
no hypothesis being made as to the causes of the change im prices.
(ABcdE.)
Another method of accommodating debt to the resources of the
debtor is to take income as our sliding scale. The received estimates
of national income may be employed for this purpose. In this case the
Unit might be in effect an assigned proportion of the national income per
head of the population.
Tt should be observed that this standard, revised at most once a year,
would not be adapted to the more transient fluctuations of industry.
Accordingly it might be worth while to consider whether we could derive
a more flexible measure of income from the prices of certain articles. Let
us begin with a simple case—an importer of articles of consumption, say
of the species a, who might be considered as paid by commission on the
amount of his dealing. Hisincome then varies with the price of a in the
U
ratio 2« In the interest of this class exclusively the unit ought to be
1 See above, p. 264.
2 The principle of the sliding scale may be contrasted with the ‘ Consumption
standard ’ in two distinguishable cases—(1) First, we may suppose national wealth,
the average income, to increase (or decrease) ceteris paribus. In this case the proper
items on which the sliding scale Unit should be based appear to consist of the expen-
diture on finished products (our ABc D). (2) Secondly, distribution may be supposed
to vary. To adjust the Unit to this variation we have to take account of wages and
other distributional transactions; also of materials as affecting the incomes of certain
classes.
a
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 273
U
L Or, if we suppose several such dealers, we have the weighted mean
Pa
ap’,+Bp',+ &.
ap +pp, +&e.
between two revisions, and that the ‘commission’ of all the dealers may
be regarded as the same.
Consider next residential rent and stipendiary wages. The incomes of
certain classes vary directly with these payments; yet, as these incomes
are not, like the preceding, equal to a small fraction, but to the entire
volume, of the transactions in question, it will not be easy to combine
these data with the preceding into a properly weighted mean.
Again, when we take in ordinary wages and industrial rent, we are
met by the fact that, while the income of some classes varies directly with
(assuming that the quantities have not materially varied)
_ these amounts, the interest of another class, entrepreneurs, varies inversely
—not indeed in exact inverse ratio, but in an opposite direction to the
same quantities. Again, the materials of one manufacturer are frequently
the finished products of another. Accordingly the price of such articles
constitutes a very bad measure of the income of all the parties concerned.
It follows from these considerations that from an examination of
prices we can obtain at most a very rough and precarious indication of
the variation of resources. Such a method would be related to the more
exact calculation of income very much as our method A BCd was related
to ABCD.
At the same time, when we consider the purpose of our sliding scale—to
mitigate the evil of industrial fluctuations—it may be doubted whether this end is
not realised nearly as well by a rough-and-ready method as by the most exact
calculation. For a standard based upon the vicissitudes of all cannot well be
adapted to the vicissitudes of each. The fit is at best so bad that it is not made
much worse by some additional imperfections of measurement.
The character and worth of such a mean variation of price as we here desider-
ate might be illustrated by an imaginary example of another sort of mean, one
obtained by taking the average temperature for the same day over a period of
years. We have known old ladies who each year discontinued and resumed fires
on the same days of the year. Suppose that they had affected even greater
precision, and had burned each day a quantity of fuel based upon the mean
temperature for that day averaged over a period of years. It is clear that in a
climate like ours those who adopted this arrangement would some days suffer
from too great heat and other days from too great cold. The arrangement would
be so very defective that it would not be sensibly deteriorated by some imperfec-
tions in the method of averaging the temperatures. Suppose, for instance, that in
the different years the thermometrical measurements had heen effected with different
degrees of completeness. For the earlier years there might be (for a given day)
only sample readings of the thermometer, made two or three timesa day. For the
later period there might be a more continuous record of temperature. Theoretically,
in combining such data more weight should be given to the more complete measure-
ments. But practically for the purpose in view such elaboration would be nugatory.
To look at the matter more closely, let us suppose with sufficient accuracy that
the income of a particular class of producers depends mainly on the prices of a
certain group of articles, so that it would be convenient for that particular class
that the standard for deferred payment should be regulated by the movement of
those particular prices. Roughly speaking, the desideratum for that class is
f f
that the unit should be proportioned to some mean of those prices ; say eee Ee?
m Tv
where p and zm are prices of products and agents of production respectively. But
in fact the unit must be based on the prices (and quantities) of all kinds of
1887. zt
274 , REPORT—1887.
articles. In view of the considerations touched in the text the ideally best com-
F (’., p's, &e.)
Nand hs fk 5 dee apes ss Nis
By an approximation admitted in mathematics, this expression may be written
ap’. + bp’, + &e.
ap, + bpp + &e.
quantities, but coefficients deduced from the quantities by the solution of a stu-
pendous utilitarian problem. The varying relations between the quantities of
things consumed or ‘used up’ in manufacture, and the income of different classes
—such as the importers and manufacturers in the text (p. 273)—all these complex
correlations must be supposed duly expressed by the function F and the derived
simpler form. By an allowable abstraction we may suppose the course of industry
so uniform that the coefficients a, 6, &c., remain constant during the interval under
consideration. We shall now show that for the purpose in hand—to mitigate the
vicissitudes in each industry—it does not much matter what values (within wide
limits) we assign to the weights a,b, &c. As announced in the Synopsis, almost
any combination of the more important articles of trade is likely to be equally im-
perfect and equally serviceable.
Put for p’,, p’,, &c., the following: p, (1+E.), ps (1+E,), &c. And let the
displacements E,, Eg, &c., be made up of two portions, one affecting all articles
equally, the other proper to each. Call the former e, and let E, = + ¢,, Eg=€ + egy
and so on. The unit which would be most desirable in the interest of a single
class becomes of the form 1+¢+e, (putting a single article as the representative
of a small group). Meanwhile the general standard is of the form l+e
eat et +&c. The first part of both expressions coincides. But it is only
ap, + bp
by Decent that the remainders can be of a piece. For by the theory of errors the
displacement (E,) incident to a single article is likely to be of an order much
greater than almost any mean of the proper displacements independently incident
to n articles. As this proposition turps upon a matter of fact, the ¢ndependence of
the proper displacements of several articles, it may be well to illustrate it by some
actual statistics. In the following example afforded by the immense drop of prices
during the crisis of 1857, ¢, the common displacement, is considerable,
bination of prices must be a complicated function, say of the form
where the weights a, 6, &c., are not (like our old friends a, 8)
PERCENTAGE DECREASE OF PRICES OF SEVERAL ARTICLES WITHIN A FortT-
NIGHT, NOVEMBER 1857.
(Based upon ‘Commercial Daily List,’ cited by Patterson, Zeonomy of Capital, p.191).
Differences
ye is Squares
Tallow . r 5 UT 10 — 100
Sugar. e . . 36 —* 9 81
Cotton . a . 14 13 -— 169
Scotch pig : ¢ ~ JG 11 — 121
Saltpetre . : ‘ Be mol = 4 16 >
Rice. A . " eye) — ; 26, 36
Silk . : 5 ‘ =) 8B a 6 36
Linseed . c : Emilee 10 _- 100
Linseed oil : ; 545) 7 == 49
Tin. : ‘ Ao) 17 —- 289
Tea . * a 5 - 26 2 — 4
Pimento . 5 : . 40 = 13 169 :
Turmeric . ‘ 2 . 50 _ 23 529
Shellac . 5 ie _ 6 36 '
Jute. ‘ C - . 40 — 13 169
FLIP) | |e - on 11 — 121 .
Sums : : . 431 79 80 2,025
Mean : : eh 10 10 127. = Mean square of error :
2
254 = Modulus squared
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 275
In this table the first column contains the percentage decrease for each article.
The next two columns contain the differences between the average decrease (27),
and the individual decreases. The modulus, or measure of fluctuation, is found
to be about 16. Hence, by a well-known theorem, the probable error of the
sum of mn differences, n being large, tends to be /n x 16 x ‘477 (a theorem
which does not assume that the differences are grouped according to a known
curve). Suppose, for instance,n=9. The probable error of the sum of » differ-
ences taken at random should be about 23. This may be illustrated by actu-
ally taking some batches of nine, say the first nine, tallow to linseed oil, the last
nine, linseed to hemp, and a central nine. The sum of the first set of differences
is—51+25=-26. Thesum of the second set of differences is—47+55=8. The
sum of a third set, from Scotch pig to pimento, is—58 + 29 = —29; while if we put
outtheScotch pig and take in turmeric we obtain + 5. ‘These observed results are very
consonant with the theory that the probable error is 23. Hence the probable error
of the mean of nine differences is 23. Meanwhile the probable error of any single
difference may be found by-observing that the ‘quartiles, in Mr. Galton’s phrase,
occur on the one side between — 10 and —11, and on the other side between +6
and + 9, giving a probable error of, say, 9. Or we may proceed more hypothetically,
and, assuming that the grouping (of the differences) is conformable to the 1 normal
type, find the probable error (‘477 x modulus) about 8. Thus the displacement of
the single article is seen to exceed the mean displacement of several articles in
about the degree required by theory.
We have taken the simple (arithmetical) mean. But much the same would
be true if we had taken * any weighted mean of all prices, in particular the ideally
best, whose weights are ap,, bps, &c. (provided at least those coefficients are not
extremely unequal). The deviation of the particular standard from the general
standard is apt to be so considerable that it does not much matter by what system
of weights we determine the general standard. The unit best in the mdividual
interest is, as we have seen above (p. 274), 1+e+e,. The unit in the general
interest is of the form 1+e+ ga (putting A =ap,, and similarly B).
The deviation of the former from the latter is of the form e, — Ae, + Beg + &e.
A+B+&e.
Now, if e,, eg, &c., be on an average of the order e, then by the theory of errors their
weighted mean, the latter part of the expression just written, will be of the
/ A* + B* + &e.
(A+B+C+&ce.)
the coefficients is increased. The unavoidable discrepancy between the particular
and general interest is therefore not likely to be much diminished by a more
exact calculation of weights when those weights are numerous.—Q.E.D.
Take, for example, the statistics above cited, where there are only sixteen
items, and let us suppose the weights so disparate as the cardinal numbers 1, 2,
... 16. Ifwe based our unit on the simple arithmetic mean, we have e = ‘27,
and for the Unit 1:27. Now this Unit, as applied to each particular interest, is apt
to be out by about ‘1, or 10 per cent. In the tallow interest, for instance, 1:17
would have been the best unit; if we legislated exclusively in the sugar interest
the unit would be 1:36. Let us see now how these misfits would have been
mended by a more elaborate adjustment of the standard. The expression
a/A* + B+ &e,
A+B+ &e.
upon the arithmetic mean ‘27 would be of the order “3 x ‘1 (e being of the order ‘1) ®
that is, 03, or 3 per cent. This theorem may he verified by actually assigning
order e , an expression which tends to zero as the number of
becomes when A=1, B=2, &c., about *3. The correction then
? The probability-curve.
? See below, pp. 290, 291.
% Assuming that each of the articles (tallow, sugar, &c.) is subject to the same
law of fluctuation, we may conclude (from an examination of the table) that the
average error for any article is 10 per cent.
T2
276 REPORT— 1887.
the weights 1, 2, 3, &c., to the percentages above cited. The weighted mean
1x17+2x36+3x 144+ &€.+16 x 16
14+2+3+&c.+16 ;
portance, and, beginning at the bottom of the list, assign a weight 1 to hemp,
2 to jute, 3 to shellac, &c., we obtain for the weighted mean 25°6. The differ-
ence in each case between the simple and weighted mean is even less than theory
predicts. Suppose the corrected unit becomes 1°26, the tallow interest will now
be out by eight per cent. instead of ten per cent. from the standard best for them
exclusively—no very great gain, and partly (by hypothesis of course, not wholly)?
balanced by the loss of the sugar interest, who are now more out than before.
A fortiori when the number of articles is greater than szrteen,
The general conclusion is that for the purpose in hand it does not make much
matter what sort of mean we take; provided that the weights assigned to the
different articles are not very unequal, and provided that there is no reason to
think that the ideally best system of weights would be very unequal. The
test that factors A, B, &c., are not sensibly unequal is the condition that
/A? + BP + &e. + (A + B+ &e.) should be small; which is true enough
within very wide limits (eg., in the case of sixteen weights being respectively
1, 2, 8, &c., 16). When there are a few relatively very large interests, such as
possibly in England cotton, iron, and ordinary wages, then in constructing our
general sliding-scale we should pay special attention to those interests; though
from the considerations mentioned above (p. 273) we are not entitled to assume
that the weight to be attached to (the price-variation for) each interest is directly
proportioned to the magnitude of the transactions.
Tt will be observed that this reasoning turns upon the unique interest of
particular groups of persons in the prices of particular articles, on the circumstance
of division of labour.” The conclusion as to the worth of our result is therefore
not equally applicable to what may be called the conswmption (A BC) as dis-
tinguished from the production (A Bc) standard. For the rest the latter caleulation
resembles the former in being amenable to similar secondary modifications (see
above, p. 267). For instance, upon the third of the principles referred to a
variation of wages ought to affect the Unit more than an equal variation of profits
as concerning a greater number of persons.
Section VI.
Determination of a Standard for Deferred Payments ; based upon the amount
of national capital; varying with such amount, after the manner of a
sliding scale; no hypothesis being made as to the causes of the change in
prices. (A Bede.)
The next category is distinguished by the condition that the
basis of the required sliding scale is capital rather than income, This
Unit might be specially adapted to certain debts ; for instance, in estimat-
ing the capital (but not the interest) of sums raised upon mortgage of
fixed capital. It is interesting to enquire what sort of weight should be
assigned to wages for the purpose here defined. May we measure the
importance of wages as a means for paying off capital by the lamp sum
which the wage-earner is able to raise upon the prospect of his earnings
by way of insurance ?
With reference to this most important application of Professor
Nicholson’s method, it may be proper here to introduce a remark which
is applicable also to other uses of that method. When its originator is
met with the difficulty that articles do not increase uniformly, he argues
=28'8. If we reverse the order of im-,
1 If we suppose the weights 1, 2,...16 to constitute the ideally best system, that
which affords the maximum sum total of advantage to all.
2 Compare the remarks of Von Jacob cited by Mr. Horton in his admirable
chapter on the Standard of Desiderata ; Silver and Gold, p. 39.
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 277
that ‘the change in the purchasing power of the standard is found by
dividing the value of the new inventory at the old prices by its value at
the new.’ And he is understood to regard this method as preferable to
the converse method, dividing the value of the old inventory at the old
prices by its value at the new. His reasoning turns upon the postulate,
' * Let the total-value of the new inyentory (consisting of different quantities
of the old items) reckoned at the old prices be v,, and the total value of
the old inventory, also at old prices, be w,; then ”) is the measure of the
w
1
increase in the quantity of wealth.’ In this passage read for ‘old prices’
new prices, for v, read wy, and for w, a new symbol v2,*and you will have
a postulate no less true, or no more arbitrary. According to the substi-
tuted principle, ‘the measure of the increase in the quantity of wealth’ is
“2. which being multiplied by i by parity of reasoning with that em-
v
2 oe.
ployed by the author on the page referred to, gives for the ‘measure of
the new purchasing power compared with the old’ “@! x “2 =“!, which
We 3
2
being interpreted means dividing the old inventory at the old prices by
the value of the same inventory at the new prices.
Observing that the ‘change in the purchasing power of the standard’
is the reciprocal of what we have elsewhere called the Unit, we see that
the two methods just reached correspond to the formule (2) and (1) of
our section ABCD (above, p. 264). It is important to point out that
neither of these solutions is before nor after the other.' Otherwise there
might be an objection to the use of a symmetrical mean between the two,
such as has been recommended.
Section VII.
Definition of the Appreciation [or Depreciation] which it is the object of
Bimetallism and similar projects to correct; no hypothesis being made
as to the causes of the change in prices.
The variation in the value of money which we have been hitherto
considering is that which is corrigible by the adoption of a ‘Unit’ for
deferred payments. For different purposes different formule are appro-
priate. The purpose next in importance to the construction of a Unit
(if not indeed, as some think, prior in importance and the main scope of
the task set to us) is to correct the instability of trade, to restore the
level of prices by augmenting the quantity of legal-tender currency,
whether by Bimetallism or the increase ? of paper-money.
Now, if we might assume all prices diminished uniformly, like the
shadows of objects as the sun advances from the east, the problem would
be very simple. It is an intelligible proposition that the status quo might
be restored by an elevation of the objects all round. And the significance
of the proposition need not be impaired if we suppose the objects waving
and oscillating, and some of them depressed, others elevated in random
fashion between the two epochs at which the shadow-lengths are observed.
1 The question whether it is easier to get present quantities at old prices than
old quantities at new prices does not come within the scope of this memorandum.
2 Hg. By introducing £1 notes in England, or according to some more daring
plan, such as those proposed by Professor Marshall (Contemp. Review, March 1887,
note near end), Faucher (Jahrbuch fiir Gesetzgebung, 1868), and others,
278 REPORT— 1887,
But we are not entitled here to make an assumption, which is the
characteristic of the following section. We must rather seek a rule
adapted to the case in which one Jarge category of objects may be con-
siderably and uniformly elevated, another depressed; where the variations
do not present any true mean or normal type. Our formula should be
irrespective of such an hypothesis here equally as in the previous sections.
Upon reflection it will be found that the detriment incident to the
disturbance of prices, which it is sought to correct by the augmentation
of money, must be of the same general character as that which it is
sought to correct by the adoption of a Unit. That creditors do not
receive a constant quantity of real wealth, that debtors are disabled from
meeting their engagements—these are the sort of evils which it is the
object of both remedies alike to remove. Accordingly, the standards or
Units, which have been above defined, supply the proper measure of that
appreciation which it is sought to remove by augmenting the quantity
of money. The currency-doctor, injecting new circulating-medium into
the commercial system, may be satisfied that he has attained his object,
when the standard (which! he has selected as the best) no longer shows
symptoms of deficiency; in short, as soon as the Unit is unity. Thus it
appears that no generically distinct method of averaging is introduced
by this section. The reader may be referred to the previous sections for
a description of the different methods. It will be sufficient here to note
the peculiarities incident to the purpose now in hand. The operation of
augmenting the currency, as contrasted with the method of making con-
tracts in Units, presents the following four distinguishing characteristics :
(1) The infusion of money is not adapted to correct the more transient
fluctuations of prices due to the oscillations of credit. As our Producer
Unit—including commodities other than finished products—is specially
directed to the correction of transient fluctuations, so it may be con-
jectured that the Unit appropriate to the present purpose (the Unit
whose equality to unity is the test of the price-level being kept constant)
is based chiefly on finished products, is of the nature of the consumption-
standard. Not without reason does M. Walras? adopt this standard as
the test of the currency being augmented in the proper degree.
(2) The operation of the proposed remedy requires time. The detec-
tion of the evil—the secular as distinguished from the tidal variation of
price-level—also requires time. It follows that the epochs which are to ~
be compared in respect of purchasing power are separated by a con-
siderable interval. Hence the calculation of a Unit to express change
in the purchasing power of money must be of the less exact sort, above
distinguished as integral.
(3) Again, the area which is affected by the augmentation of currency
is very extensive, at least when (as in the case of Bimetallism) the added
circulation consists of precious metal. Accordingly, the appreciation
which is to be corrected by that remedy must relate to a very wide area,
the whole system of states in monetary communication; that is, the
greater part of the civilised and uncivilised world. Now, the larger and
more diversified the public to which there is applied any regulation
based upon the mean requirements of the average man, the less perfectly
1 Or agreeably to Section X. a combination of different standards.
2 Théorie de la Monnaie, p. 93. Cf. Professor Marshall, /oc. cit. Horton, Silver
and Gold, Appendix B.
3 See p. 264.
Ad
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 279
is that type or norm likely to be adapted to the requirements of the
individual. The correction of appreciation, which may be effected by
the infusion of metallic money, is therefore likely to be of less benefit
than that which attends the method of contracting in Units.
(4) Moreover, in the latter case the measure of the evil and of the
remedy is the same. The same calculation which gives the appreciation
assigns the Unit in terms of which debts are to be paid. But it is
not so where the remedy is the augmentation of legal-tender money.
The extent of the evil (the appreciation) having been found, the extent
of the remedy is still to seek. For it is a very naive! conception that,
in order to increase prices all round in a certain ratio, it is necessary
and sufficient to increase the quantity of legal-tender money in that
ratio.
These imperfections of the method under consideration may be thus
summed up: (1) It cannot even’ aim at certain objects which are
within the range of the alternative method. (2) The objects which it
does aim at are not sighted so clearly ; its shots are apt to be very wide of
the mark. (3) The advantage of hitting the mark, the prize to be won,
the quarry to be brought down, is not so considerable as in the case of
the alternative method. (4) Lastly, in the one case we shoot point-
blank; having discovered the position of the object, we have the direction
in which we ought to aim. But in the other case the trajectory has yet
to be calculated, in virtue of which, being given the position of the
object, we can deduce the direction of our aim.”
The following metaphor may assist conception. Let us represent the various
commodities and their values by so many rectangular chambers filled with fluid
and (more or less perfectly) percolating into each other. Fig. 1 in Sect. II. may be
regarded as representing a vertical section of such a set of chambers. The height
of any chamber, e.g., a H or § H', represents the quantity of the commodity ex-
changed * (per unit of time) in objective measure, e.g., hundredweights or days’
labour. The quantity of fluid per unit height represents the price of each com-
modity.
Now let such a change come over this system that on an average the chambers
contain less fluid per unit height. Or more exactly, let the change be such that if
we take here one large group of chambers, and there another (the mean of), each
different group will present much the same degree of depletion. Under these
circumstances the remedy for the general depletion is simple: namely, to pump
fluid into (one or more of) the: chambers until (by the action of percolation) the
contents of the average chamber per unit height are restored to the former status.
But now suppose that the changes in the contents of the different cham-
bers are (owing to changes in the dimensions of the chambers) no longer
grouped about a true mean as above defined. Let the whole aggregate be
divisible into two systems, for one of which the contents (per unit height) are
considerably and pretty uniformly increased, for the other similarly decreased.
After such a change one of the systems has its chambers much fuller (per unit
height), the other much emptier, than at first. Under these circumstances it will
be found a rather unmeaning problem to pour in fluid until the status quo of the
contents is restored. At least the meaning is no longer on the face of the data,
but has to be read in ‘ab extra.’ For instance, with reference to certain uses we
might assign different degrees of importance to the different chambers. We might
1 See below, p. 294.
* Whether these disadvantages are compensated by the greater practicability of
the Bimetallistic scheme it does not come within the scope of this memorandum to
consider.
3 « Exchanged,’ rather than ‘consumed,’ would seem to be here the appropriate
conception,
280 REPORT—1 887.
in virtue of such an estimate, rule that for our purposes the status quo of the
system is preserved when we preserve constant some such quantity as the follow-
ing :—The quantity of fluid contained in (a section of) one unit height of the first
chamber + the quantity contained in two unit heights ofa second chamber + that
of three units for a third chamber, and so on. This definition being introduced, no
doubt we may go on pumping in fluid until the initial plenitude is restored.
Suppose that we had control over only one element of the permeating fluid
(the vapour of), a certain metallic substance which, according to undiscovered
chemical laws, is apt to be combined in small proportions with large volumes of a
sort of gasy material. It might be impossible to predict what amount of inflation
would attend the introduction of a certain quantity of metal. The measured
depletion of the fluid would not correspond to the sought repletion of the metal.
We could at best only go on dropping in metal until the depletion ceased to
exist.
Similarly, if one great group of commodities varies pretty uniformly in one
direction, and another in a different direction (or even in the same direction, but in
a markedly different degree), then the task of restoring the level of prices can no
longer be regarded as a purely objective guesitum, a currency problem. ‘There is
required, indeed, a monetary science much more perfect than we possess in order to
adapt the means to our end; but there is required also utilitarian philosophy to
define the end.
It will be remembered that these remarks are made in the supposed
absence of any condition or hypothesis as to the character and cause
of the price-variations. We shall now proceed to entertain such an
hypothesis.
Srotion VIII.
Determination of an Index irrespective of the quantities of commodities ;
upon the hypothesis that there is a numerous growp of articles whose prices
vary after the manner of a perfect market, with changes affecting the
supply of money. (a F.)
So far we have made no supposition as to the cause of the pheno-
menon which is under measurement. As far as we have been concerned
there might have been a number of heterogeneous causes, or, what is even
more unfavourable to calculation, a few great causes ; as if one large class
of prices were heightened according to the law of diminishing returns,
while other prices, also forming a large class, were lowered by increased -
division of labour, and others by improved means of transport. We are
now to entertain an hypothesis, namely, that there is an effect capable of
being discovered and worth discovering, due to! ‘causes which operate
upon all goods whatever,’ or at least upon a considerable group of goods ;
for instance, the increased quantity, or efficiency, of legal-tender money,
or the improvement of money-saving expedients.”
The simplest hypothesis of this sort is the proposition in the text-books
that prices vary inversely with the quantity of money, other things being
equal. But we are not restricted to the ‘Quantity Theory.’* It is suffi-
cient for our purpose that there should be a circle of commodities, in-
cluding money, such that the equilibrium of exchange between them
should continually be readjusted by a comparatively frictionless play of
1 Mill, Pol. Zeon. Book IIT. chap. viii. s. 2.
2 A good enumeration of causes apt to cause a general variation of prices in the
case of Inconvertible currency is made by Bela Féldes in the Jahrbuecher fiir Natl.
Ochonomie, 1882.
8 The discussions at pp. 294, 295 will show how far the writer is from regarding
this theory as generally applicable,
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 281
market-forces. That this condition does hold approximately with respect
toa large group of articles is shown in the case of Austria by Dr. Kraemer
in his important work on Austrian Paper-money. From the statistics
given in his Chapter III. there can be no doubt that a change in the
‘valuta’ of currency does enter into, and might be extricated from, the
prices of a certain set of commodities. The following articles may be
instanced as particularly sensitive :—Wool, spirits, rape-seed, undressed
leather, and, in general, articles of foreign trade. These observations are
supported by the copious statistics adduced by Herska, Bela Foldes, and
others. The only question is whether we ought not to regard all com-
modities, rather than only some commodities, as varying with the agio.
No doubt it is a delicate question, and only to be decided by the proper
mathematical methods of statistics, whether it is possible to extricate a
mean variation in the value of money from the changes of particular
prices. It seems to be so in the case of Austria. In the case of the
United States, if we could accept the law laid down by Mr. Delmar as
to the propagation of a change in price, we could not hope for a suffi-
ciently large group to afford a real average. But the statistics adduced
by Hock, in his history of the finance of the United States, show con-
clusively that in correspondence with the condition of the inconvertible
currency and the state of credit there did extend pretty uniform waves
of disturbance over a part, if not indeed the whole, of American industry.
The proposition which has been proved for inconvertible currency is
shown to be true for metallic money—as regards, at least, a certain zone
of industry—by the index numbers of the Heonomist, the statistics adduced
by Soetbeer, Laspeyres, and others.
Assuming, then, that there is, or may be, over a certain region of the
industrial world a mean disturbance of the sort described, it would be
a significant operation to take the average of all the price-variations, °
irrespective of the quantities of the corresponding commodities. We should
thus obtain a mean elevation or depression which may be described as a
figure such that, if we took any ware at random, that figure! would be
more likely than any other to be equal to the price-variation of the
selected ware. A similar typical mean of human heights (irrespective of
other attributes) has proved a useful implement of statistical induction
in the hands of Mr. Galton, Dr. Charles Roberts, and others.
A more exact illustration is afforded by the following physical analogies.
Suppose it were required to measure the force of gravitation in the neighbourhood
of a mountain. Our data might consist of a set of pendulums, all disturbed from
the vertical by the attraction of the mountain, and each further subject to proper
disturbances. The displacement from the vertical constituting the required
measurement might be found by taking a mean of the displacements suffered by
all the pendulums. Now, from what we know of the action of gravity, there is no
reason to think that the displacement of a larger mass gives im general a better
measure of the common disturbing agency, the gravitation force, than a smaller
mass does. Hence, in taking the mean of the displacements, there is no propriety
in assigning more importance to the displacement of the more massive pendulum.
If we do assign preferential importance, it should be on other grounds, namely,
that the proper disturbances of some pendulums are apt to be less serious than
those of others. The combination weights (or ‘ multiplier weights,’ in Sir G.
Airy’s phrase) determined by such considerations must be carefully distinguished
from the ‘ weight’ in the ordinary sense. The pendulum weightiest in the former
! Tn short, the greatest ordinate of the curve of price-variations,
282 REPORT—1887.
sense might be lightest in the latter sense. Another caution is to distinguish the
present investigation from that whose object. is the displacement of the centre of
gravity of the system,’ a gue@sttum which does not presuppose any common dis-
turbing agency.
Again the problem special to this section has been likened to the problem of dis-
covering the proper motion of the solar system by means of the apparent move-
ments of the stars. Let us suppose, for the sake of illustration, that the dine in
which the solar system moves has been ascertained. The only questions are in
which direction of that line, positive or negative, say towards or from a certain .
star in Hercules, and at what rate, we are moving; how far we have moved
between two given epochs. Now, if we take several groups of stars at random,
say (as in fact is done) some groups in the northern hemisphere, and others in the
southern, and for each of these groups we take the mean of the apparent motion of
the stars along the given line; then, if the mean resultant is much the same? for
every group, we may be reasonably certain that the phenomenon is due to a
common cause, which is doubtless no other than the proper motion of the solar
system. Suppose, however, that the motions of the stars did not conform to. what
may be called a true mean. Suppose that what Mr. Proctor calls ‘ star-drift’
was prevalent on a much greater scale than he has found to be the case; that the
Milky Way, together with other zones, moved off en bloc in one direction, while the
Great Bear carried off another half of the heavenly host in the opposite direction.
In this case we should no longer be able to detect the motion proper to the solar
system. The peculiar grip which a plurality of independent events affords to the
calculus of probabilities now becomes wanting.
It is to be observed that, in assigning importance to the different indications
given by the apparent motions, the criterion is not the mass of the star, but its
‘weight’? in the sense of affording a better measure of the quesitum, the motion
of the solar system.
Similarly, in the problem before us it must be either given by previous expe-
rience (as in the case of our first illustration), or discoverable from the data them-
selves (as in our second illustration), that there is a true mean; that one set of
commodities, such as the products of extractive labour, has not risen en bloc, while
another set, as manufactures, has fallen. Without that condition we cannot follow
Jevons in reasoning by the principles of probabilities that gold has been depreciated
(or appreciated) to a certain extent. With that condition we may follow Jevons
in taking a mean of price-variations, avespective of the quantities of the com-
modities.
The problem before us may be thus defined. Given a number of obser-
vations consisting each of the ratio between the new price and the old price
of an article, to find the mean of these observations—the objective or quasi-
objective mean—as distinguished from those combinations in the pre-
ceding sections which were prescribed by considerations of utility. The
problem as thus conceived belongs to that higher branch of the calculus
of probabilities which may be called the doctrine of errors. Upon the
theory of errors are based two kinds of problem; of which the first is
exemplified by the method of determining the true position of a star from
a number of separately erroneous observations, the second, by the method
of constructing the typical stature of a people, l’homme moyen, from the
measurement of a great number of individuals. To which of these ana-
logies—the more, or the less, ‘ objective ’ species of mean—our case most
corresponds is a nice inquiry, varying with the shades of hypothesis.*
1 Analogous to the calculation of Units in our earlier unhypothetical sections.
2 Tf it be asked what extent of difference between the means of different groups
is to be expected and may be regarded as insignificant, the answer is supplied by the
mathematical Theory of Errors. See the writer’s paper on Methods of Statistics,
3 Depending on considerations not here relevant.
* Consider the illustrations given below at p. 293
— ae
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 283
Upon either view the practical rules for extricating the mean are much
the same. They may be arranged under two headings, relating (1) to
the form in which the given observations are to be combined ; and (2) the
relative importance to be assigned to the different observations.
(1) As to the first point the general rule is that, in the absence of
special presumptions to the contrary, an arithmetical mean (or linear
function) of the given measurements is the proper combination.! That
-is to say, if the different measurements are 7).79, &c., each purporting to
represent one and the same object—in our case the appreciation or depre-
ciation of money—the proper combination of these data is—
WT + Wore + &e. |
W, + We + &e. ;
where the factors w,, Wo, &c., are weights, such that if w, is greater than w,
then r, contributes more to the result than 75.
This general presumption in favour of the arithmetic mean may, how-
ever, be rebutted by specific evidence in favour of some other mean, and
it is here submitted that in the case of prices there does exist such specific
evidence in favour of the geometric mean.
It appears that prices group themselves about a mean, not according to a
symmetrical curve like that which corresponds to* the arithmetic mean, but
according to an unsymmetrical curve like*® that which corresponds to the geo-
metric mean. Before adducing the empirical proof of this proposition it may be
well to consider what @ prio grounds we might have for preferring the geometric
mean. There are* those who consider that the mere accumulation of agreeing
experiences can seldom suffice, without some antecedent probability, to establish
an inductive conclusion.
It has been shown by Mr. Galton and others that the geometric mean is
adapted to a particular species® of observations, which may be described as
estimates. For instance, the estimates which different persons (or the same person
at different times) might make of a certain weight would be likely to err more in
excess than in defect of the true objective weight, and in such wise as to render
the geometric mean of such a series of estimates the proper method of reduction.
This law of prizing may well extend to prices, The fluctuating estimates which
from time to time a person might make of the® utility of an object, as measured
by the quantity of some other object, e.g., money, might well fluctuate according
to the law which has affinities to the geometric mean. So far then as changes in
price might depend upon fluctuations in demand,’ there is something to be said
in favour of our proposition.
Again, there exists a simple reason why prices are apt to deviate much more
in excess than in defect :* namely, that a price may rise to any amount, but cannot
sink below zero.°
' The ground of this presumption is partly that the arithmetic mean is one of the
simplest methods of combination; partly that it is specially adapted to a species
of observation which is very extensive in rerwm natura, which may be said to
be always tending to be realised, the exponential law of error, or probability-curve.
* The probability-curve.
8 The curve described by Dr. Macalister in his paper on The Law of the Geometric
Mean in the Philosophical Transactions, 1879.
+ G. C. Lewis as quoted by Dr. Bain in his Logie.
5 Wherever the law of Fechner applies. See papers by Mr. Galton and Dr.
Macalister, Proc. Royal Soc. 1879.
® Te., the ‘ final utility.’
7 Variations in what is technically called the demand-curve.
§ As in the annexed diagram.
® That price should be, in Dr. Venn’s phrase, a ‘one-ended phenomenon’ may
raise a presumption in favour of an asymmetrical grouping, but by no means dis-
284 ‘ REPORT—1887.
Lastly, the supposed tacit combination which everywhere exists between
dealers may prevent prices falling as low as from time to time they otherwise
would according to the law of supply and demand.
There is therefore at any rate no @ priori presumption against the proposition
that price-returns are apt to group themselves in an unsymmetrical curve of
which the range in excess is greater than in defect. In favour of this proposition
the following empirical evidence is adduced :—
In the first table are examined the prices of twelve commodities during the
two periods 1782-1820, 1820-1865. The maximum and minimum entry for each
series having been noted, it is found that the number of entries above the ‘ middle
point,’ half-way between the maximum and minimum, is in every instance less,
and in some instances very much less, than half the total number of entries in the
series. In the twenty-four trials there is only one exception to the rule, and in
Fie. 3.
very few cases even an approach to an exception. We may presume then that the
curves are of the lopsided character indicated by the accompanying diagram. For
the ‘median ’ [or point having as many entries above as below it], which upon
the supposition of symmetry ought to be about coincident with the ‘middle
point ’ as above defined, or at any rate as often above as below it—this median is
in every instance but one (fodder, 1798-1820) below the middle point.
Fig. 3 annexed very well represents the prices of corn during the periods
1261-1400, and 1401-1540 given in Professor Rogers’ ‘ History of Agriculture.’
The abscissa in the figure represents prices, and the ordinate the number of years
in which the corresponding price was enjoyed. It will be found that in both
cases the maximum elevation, the greatest ordinate of the curve, occurs between
five and six (shillings). Below that maximum-point, in both cases the curve does
not sink more than two or three shillings (2s. 103d. is the lowest entry), while
above that point one curve stretches out to 14, the other to 16. There can be no
doubt about the fulfilment of an unsymmetrical law. Further verification of
the law may thus be obtained from the earlier series of statistics. Compare the
decennial averages (of corn prices) given by Professor Rogers with the annual re-
turns on which they are based. The ‘ middle point,’ half-way between the maxi-
mum and minimum of each decade, is in almost every case above the average.
There are only three exceptions out of the fourteen decades, viz., 1271-1281,
1281-1291, 1571-1581; and one of these exceptions is not an instance to the
contrary, the middle point exactly coinciding with the average.
If the prices are similarly examined by decades for linen (vol. i. p. 593),
clouts, and other commodities it will be found that the rule holds, with no excep-
tions, or trifling ones. Thus for clouts there is not a single exception during
twelve decades, 1271-1390. The only exception which Professor Rogers’ statistics
show is the decade 1591-1400.
penses with empirical verification. For the same presumption exists not only in the
case of many anthropometrical and other statistics which prove to be symmetrical,
but also in cases where there is an asymmetry in the sense contrary to the theory,
an extension of the lower limits of the representative curve. Such are the statistics
of barometrical height arranged by Dr. Venn in Watwre, Sept. 1, 1887; the statistics
of eyesight given by Dr. Chas. Roberts in the Wedical Times, Feb. 1885; the grouping
of Italian recruits by Signor Perozzo in Annali di Statistica, 1878.
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 285
Similar results are presented by the table of price fluctuations in the ‘ Massa-
chusetts Labour Report,’ 1885, p. 459. Out of seventy-eight commodities nine only
have the minimum further below the average than the maximum is above it.
And those exceptions are slight in respect of extent, while the exemplifications
are often marked.
EXAMINATION OF VARIATION OF PRICES, 1782-1865.
(See Jevons, Currency and Finance, Table VIII. p. 144.)
| !
Sor - | Middle point | .-
Mini- | Maxi- | P No. of returns
mum | mum eres above middle Median
; ‘| 1782-1820 | 68 | 107 86 15 84
Oriental products {| jg99 1865 | 30 | 80 55 1 45
; 1782-1820 | 60 | 102 81 8 65
momma seed 7) 1g97 a65 | 34 | 66 492 14 43°
1782-1820 | 89 | 169 129 12 113
Metals . . - -{| 3997-1865] 71 | 193 97 13 87
" 1782-1820 | 67 | 139 103 16 99
on. - . - -{! 1991 1865 | 35 | 114 742 10 5
a ‘| 1782-1820 | 54 | 533 2931 4 116
See (r,t) 188k-1866 | 62 | 137 99t 9 90
403 1782-1820 | 81 | 166 1231 4 105
. -{| 1821-1865 | 75 | 191 98 10 90
‘ ; 1782-1820 | 64 | 157 1102 10 98
Dye materials {| igor 1865 | 30 | 98 63° 7 36
: 1782-1820 | 88 | 214 151 4 130
Fibres, oe tgea| 1821-1860 | 61 | 121 862 17 78
wool, &c. *\| 1891-1865 | 61 | 129 95 12 88
(| 1782-1820 | 57 | 204 1301 2 87
Cotton . -{| 1821-1860 | 21 | 63 | 42 9 33
1821-1865 | 21 | 198 | 744 4 36
pe 1782-1820 | 99 | 252 1751 9 134
ai -{ 1821-1865 | 92 | 176 134 18 128
1782-1820 | 81 | 231 156 12 131
Wheat . -{| iga1-ises | 78 | 151 1142 18 113
at 1798*-1820 | 118 | 308 213 12(out of 23)) 214
et: -{) 1821-1865 156 | 250 203 20 199
* Return previous to 1798 wanting.
The next statistics present not time fluctuations, but place fluctuations. In
the ‘ Illinois Statistics of Labour Report,’ vol. iii. p. 340, are given the prices of thirty-
eight articles in 34 different’ towns. Examining the series of prices for each article,
we find that there is fulfilled in almost every case the law that the maximum is
further from the average than the minimum is. Most of the exceptions are very
slight, and disappear if we take in the penultimate the observations penemaximum
and peneminimum. The only real exceptions are mackerel, fresh fish, cheese,
butter, and crackers, five articles out of thirty-eight. The odds against such a
phenomenon occurring by accident are hundreds of thousands to one.
Lastly, let us take price returns for the same time and locality, but for
different articles.
This table is extracted from Jevons’ table of Proportional Variation of Prices,
‘Currency and Finance,’ p. 144. The ‘median’ is the point which has as many
observations above as below it. Where, as in the majority of the rows above,
the number of entries is even twelve, namely 12, the point half-way between the
sixth and seventh has been taken as the median. The sixth and seventh being in
almost every case close together, there is very little of arbitrariness in this pro-
cedure. The fact that the maximum is in every case farther from the median than
' For some few of the towns more than one price is quoted.
286 REPORT—1887.
the minimum shows the lopsided character of the price-curves. The median has
been used instead of the arithmetic mean only for convenience of calculation.
Much the same conclusions would evidently have followed from the use of the
arithmetic mean, as the writer has verified for the years 1801, 1821, 1831, 1851.
The figures in each row overlined and underlined respectively are the pene-
maximum and peneminimum. If we compare the distances between each of
these and the median the series of signs is found to become 0+ ++—4++4+4 +4.
n refs] g
sig Cie
g/F| 2 i Beesley) eB dee gas
ala|/s|8/e2)84] 3 x | 3 BH | 9 | Ss fea ee obras
a 139 ® A | e) aq i 6 5 ‘= > 1s 1] a 2344
2 |e A S Pie |e F |e 4 Bua
als Sad
at Ue See
° Are
1783 | 101 | 87 | 100 | 97 | 108 | 94| 92 | 1:2 | 102 | 127 | 110 | — |197| 87 | 102
1791 | 89| 72} 100 | 92] 85| g2| 77] 96| 64/112] 99] — |119| 64] 85
1801 | 80 | 73 | 139 | 139 | 167 | 134 | 108 | 142 | 114 | 332 | 222 | 244 | 244| 73 | 139
1s11 | 74 | 60 | 148 | 106 | 381 | 136 | 107 | 149 | 66 | 167 | 178 | 308 | 381| 60 | 1485
1821 | 68|63|101| 82/116} g9| 74/112) 53] Tre | 114| 182 |182] 53 | 113
1831 | 49] 48 | 80} 63|104| 99] 49| 87) 33] 150| 135 | 199 |199| 33] 885
1841} 51] 53| 90| 61] 113) 97} 40] 88| 37] T40 | 131 | 227 }997| 40] 89
1851 | 36 | 41 73 | 36] 68] 99] 31 77 | 27] 98) 78 | 163 | 163} 27 | 77:5
te ee a a ee a
1861 | 36 | 38 | 88} 37] 69 }4371 |] 32) 96] 39 | 135 | 113 | 213 | 213
oo
we
x
S65
cn
The exceptional year is 1821. If we examine the arithmetic mean for that year
the exception still exists, but in a less marked degree.
Such a curve is well represented by the equation y = se =e" dog =", where h is
s T
a constant corresponding to the dispersion, or écart, of the curve (see Dr. Macalister’s
paper On the Law of the Geometric Mean (‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’ 1879), and compare the
present writer's Observations and Statistics (‘Cam, Phil. Trans.’ p. 149). Hence,
given a number of observations deviating from the mean about which they are
grouped, each according to a law of the general form above stated, the most prob-
able value of the mean deduced from these observations will be the weighted
geometric mean given by the equation ;
_ hy, log a, +h, log a+ &e. hy log ap
log x
cad hy+h,+ &e.+h :
where w is the sought mean, 2, 2, &c., are the given observations, and h,, h,, &e.,
are the weights, of which more hereafter.
It must be remembered, however, that there may be other means adapted to
represent the bias which has been observed, in particular what may be called the
unsymmetrical probability-curve, elsewhere described by the present writer (Lond.
Plul. Mag. Apvil 1886), Nor, again, is it to be supposed that all statistics of prices
are grouped unsymmetrically. Where the entries are average prices based on a
great number of items it is agreeable both to ' theory and the writer’s observations
that the normal symmetrical ‘probability ’-curve will set in. It will be found
1 See in Methods of Statistics the statement of the proposition that the average of
a large number of returns obeying individually any law of grouping tends to conform
to the Probability-curve.
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 287
difficult, for instance, to trace evidence of lopsidedness in the five-year averages
given by Soetheer.'
| The evidence adduced appears to afford a reasonable presumption that
_ the required method of combination is some form other than the arith-
metic mean, of the general character of the geometric mean. Those who
have followed Jevons’ investigations will be familiar with the proposal
that the logarithm of the required mean or general percentage should be
equated to the arithmetic mean of the logarithms of the percentages
special to each article. To which it is now to be added that this arith-
metic mean need not be simple, but may be weighted in the sense above
indicated (p. 283); e.g.—
ss el log a, +w».loga,+ &e.
W,+Wet &e.
_ What then are these weights to be? is our second inquiry.
(2) The theory of errors supplies the following rules—of which the first
two have been already implied in our statement of the problem—(a) In
the first place no weight should be attached to a class of observations
known to be affected with what is called a constant error, or uniform bias
in one direction. It is supposed of course that only the fact, but not the
amount, of the error is known; otherwise it would be possible to get rid
of it. In our case this rule dictates to reject all prices which are not
amenable to that play of a perfect market whose change of level we
have to investigate.. The writer is far from pretending that this region
of permeability can at present be marked off with precision. However,
a rough delimitation may be effected by researches like Dr. Kraemer’s.
Assuming then that we have selected a set of percentages which may
be regarded as accidental deviations from a common mean, on what
principle should more importance be attached to one indication of change
rather than another? The second (3) maxim which we have to apply is
that the observations should be independent. This condition excludes
the prices of the same commodity at different stages of production, since
these prices are closely interdependent. Or, if we must take account that
at each stage some fresh cause of fluctuation—source of ‘ error —is intro-
duced, at any rate each price-return is not to count for one, but only for
a fraction.
Here arises the question whether a commodity extensively consumed
like meat or cotton ought not to count for more, in so far as its price is a
mean of a greater number of transactions, than cloves and pepper. The
answer is that these transactions are not independent. The law that there
can be only one price in a market primd facie removes the presumption in
favour of the more largely consumed commodity. There is no analogy be-
tween the average price of such a commodity and a mean founded upon a
specially large number of independent observations in theory at least, and
for the purpose of a first approximation ; for it will appear in the next
section that this abstract proposition is qualified by the inevitable imper-
fections of our statistical data.
(y) A third principle is that less weight should be attached to
observations belonging to a class which are subject to a wider deviation
from the mean. Such, in our case, would be the prices of articles which,
exclusive of the common price-movement of all the selected articles, are
; 1 Materialen, pp. 99-114.
288 REPORT—1887.
liable to peculiarly large proper fluctuations. Cotton and iron, for
example, fluctuate in this sense much more than pepper and cloves.
The weighting of a geometric mean isa delicate matter, but not beyond the
resources of science. A general rule is given by Dr. Macalister in the important
paper already frequently referred to. Suppose we have a considerable series of
observations belonging to a certain class, we can extract a constant which may be
described as the measure of fluctuation for that series or class of observations.
The constant thus given constitutes the weight with which we ought to affect the
logarithm of an observation when we combine it, according to the arithmetic mean,
with others (of a different degree of precision) in order to obtain the best possible
measure. The data for determining this constant are afforded by series of prices
for successive years, such as those in Mr. Giffen’s Report to the Board of Trade on
Prices of Exports and Imports, 1881-85.
If in the present state of statistics and public opinion it appears too
difficult and delicate a matter to weight the data on the principle of flac-
tuation, the practical result of this section may be thus summed up. After
the manner of Dr. Kraemer, select a number of (independently fluctuating)
articles which are found to be particularly sensitive to changes in the
value of money. After the manner of Jevons, find the percentage indi- .
cating the price-variation in each article, and put the geometric mean
of those percentages as the required unit, or standard, or measure of
depreciation. Or rather, if we must treat as equal weights certain to be
unequal, it is better (for reasons which will be more fully stated in the
next section) to employ a formula which is specially adapted to such
jumbling of different weights: to wit, the Median. Examples of this
species of Mean have been given above.
So far on the hypothesis that the widening circle of price-disturbance
has not yet spread beyond a limited area; a case which is almost too
restricted and particular to be the subject of our consideration.! If we
suppose that the circle has completely spread, that all the compartments
of the economic fabric are equally penetrated by the influence of some
change in the supply of money, we have then a limiting case of the pro-
blem just discussed.
The objection to this supposition is that, for an all-pervading percolation,
considerable time must, in general, be required. And then it happens—
what is not necessarily true of more transient oscillations, such as those
of an inconvertible currency—that the changes in prices are apt to be
referable to one or two leading categories: ¢.g., of articles which follow
the law of decreasing or increasing returns, after the manner exhibited
by Laspeyres in his classical paper? on the prices of Hamburg wares.
If we examine some of the statistics adduced by Laspeyres, according to the
appropriate mathematical methods, we shall not discover a very serious hiatus
between the different categories of wares. The modulus for the fluctuation of the
price-variations about their average may be (roughly) estimated to be about 40
for any of the eleven categories discussed by Laspeyres in the masterly paper
entitled ‘Welche Waaren.’... Hence we can calculate the probability that the
differences between the various categories are really significant, and not merely
accidental. It will be found, if, with Laspeyres, we dispose the data in three
main divisions — Urproductionen, Colonialwaaren, Manufacte, &c.— that the
cleavages within those divisions are not important. The separation between the
divisions is marked, yet not very serious, not more serious than is found to exist
1 Compare the last paragraph of the Introductory Synopsis.
2 Jahrb. f. Nat. Oekon. vol. iii. See also Zeitschrift f. Staatswissenschaft, 1872.
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 289
within the most perfect groups which are known to exist; for instance, the pro-
_ portion of male to female births. The mean (percentage) for the first division
(Urproductionen), containing 129 wares, is 128; for the second division, contain-
ing 85 wares, 118; for the third, containing 98 wares, 108. The modulus of
comparison between the first and second mean is (see the writer’s ‘ Methods of
Statistics’) about 40./;4, + 4 = about 55; while the observed difference is 10,
nearly twice the corresponding modulus. Which constitutes a real, yet not enor-
mous, difference ; not greater than the differences in stature which exist between
the sub-classes of a nation constituting a perfect type. Similar statements are
true of the comparison between the second and third means.
If in the light of these conceptions we actually plot the 312 price-variations, it
will be difficult to resist the impression that we have here a typical mean as perfect
as any presented in concrete statistics, with the exception of the circumstance not
relevant to the point now examined, that the curve representing the 312 wares,
however continuous, and far from being saddle-backed, is not symmetrical about
its greatest ordinate; the law of price statistics above announced making itself
markedly felt.
The evidence that the general average rise for the whole group of 312 articles,
namely, from 100 to 118, is no mere accidental appearance, but indicative of a real
agency, is mathematically estimated by odds of trillions to one.
So nearly complete a fulfilment of our hypothesis is doubtless not presented by
certain other statistics, e.g.,some of those adduced by Dr. Forsell in his interesting
brochure. But it may be safely said that no statistical argument would stand
tests so severe as he applies. Consider the evidence in favour of the motion of the
solar system, as marshalled in the masterly papers of Sir G. Airy and Messrs.
‘Dunkin and Plummer in the ‘Memoirs of the Astronomical Society.’ It will be
found that, if you omit here, and stick in there, some star of peculiarly large
apparent motion, the general conclusion as to the sun’s movement will be most
materially altered. E pur si muove.
We see in the case of one example presented by one country that the
hypothesis is fairly well realised by the price-variations of the majority of
wholesale commodities. Butit is a long step from one set of statistics to
others, from wholesale commodities to the whole field of industry, and
from a single country to the entire system of countries in monetary
communication. Over a large area (as Leslie, Knies, and others have
pointed out) there is apt to arise a marked diversity between the price-
variations of different localities ; a diversity which may well be incon-
sistent with the hypothesis of a unique and general mean type. There
is no doubt that these considerations materially restrict the fulfilment of
the conditions which are prefixed to this and the following section. It is
possible, however, that an hypothesis, though known to be inexact, may
correspond with the facts sufficiently well for the purpose in hand.
Srection IX.
. Determination of an indea based upon quantities of commodities: wpon the
hypothesis that a common cause has produced a generai variation of
prices. (af.)!
We have seen that, upon the supposition of a change in the supply of
money, Jevons’ method of combining the variations of prices without
regard to the corresponding volumes of transactions is by no means so
absurd as has been thought by some. The case is as if we wanted to
discover the change in the length of shadows due to the advance of day.
' In the preparation of this section the writer has derived much assistance from
repeated conversations with Professor Foxwell.
1887. U
290 _ REPORT—1887.
If the objects casting shadows were unsteady—waving trees, for instance
—a single measurement might be insufficient. We might have to take the
mean of several shadows. Now for our purpose the breadth of the upright
object casting the shadow would be unimportant. The ‘ wide-spreading
beech’ and the mast-like pine would serve equally well as a rude
chronometer.
Suppose, however, that the top of the broader tree was not level but
serrated, each apex oscillating more or less independently. If by the
shadow of a tree was understood the mean length of the shadows cast by
all its apices, in that case the broad tree should count for more than a
bare pole. How much more, would depend upon the connection between
the projecting branches. The more independent the oscillations of each
apex, the better the measure afforded by their mean shadow.
This image seems appropriate to our problem. Each price which enters
into our formula is to be regarded as the mean of several prices, which
vary with the differences of time, of place, and of quality; by the mere
friction of the market, aud, in the case of ‘ declared values,’ through errors
of estimation, it is reasonable to suppose that this heterogeneity is
greater, the larger the volume of transactions. On this account, therefore,
and irrespective of those considerations of utility which were proper to
our earlier sections, greater weight should attach to the prices of those
commodities whose quantities are larger. It does not follow that the
weights should be proportionate to the masses. The proper coefticients
could be ascertained by scientifically examining the detailed statistics of
each market. But it is agreeable to the Theory of Errors! and to the
successful practice of physicists to employ a discretionary good sense in
assigning ‘weights ’ when a precise determination is difficult or impossible.
In our case a good system of weights appears to be afforded by the
quantities of commodities sold (once, and exclusive of resales) per unit of
time. The weight so assigned would doubtless often be too large. It
might sometimes be too small in the case of commodities much resold.
On the whole it would be a good and safe system. This principle of
ponderation is to be combined with those which have been given in the
last section.” If we suppose the variation of prices not confined to a par-
ticular zone, but propagated over the whole sphere of industry, then we
shall obtain a set of weights almost coincident with those prescribed (upon
a different ground) by the standard based on National Consumption
(Section III.). For the condition that the observations should be inde-
pendent,’ leads us to exclude, or at least take little account of, the same
commodity at different stages of production.*
' An improvement in weighting can only diminish, very often only slightly
diminish, the error inevitably incident to the result of any measurement.
2 See the headings a, B, y, p. 287.
3 See B, loc. cit.
‘ Tt would be a question whether industrial wages and industrial rent should, be
included, in addition to, and otherwise than representative of, the corresponding
products. At any rate their weights ought not to be proportionate to their volumes ;
partly on account of their close connection with commodities, partly on account of
the magnitude of these volumes. In the case of transactions so extensive, and
perhaps we may add some other large interests such as cotton and iron, it would be
best to determine the proper coefficients by specially examining the detailed statistics
of each market in the light of the Theory of Errors. A summary method would be
to assign to these enormous masses an averagely large weight about as large as any
other weight employed in our operation. The ideally best weight is not likely to be
very different from the arbitrarily assigned one, and slight differences of weight do
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 291
But though in the present operation the weights would be much the
same as before, the balance, the method of combination, is different. In
view of the evidence adduced in the last section that price-variations
are apt to be grouped asymmetrically, the ‘arithmetic’ species of mean
becomes precarious when our qucesitwm is a quasi-objective type. The
additional complexities which have been introduced in this section make
against the geometric mean which was above recommended a certain
_ hypothesis. There exists another species of mean more adapted to the
rough character of our calculation, the Median; that is, in the simpler
cases, that quantity which has as many of the given observations above
it as below it, but a certain analogue of this operation, when the obser-
vations have different weights. The required formula is the Weighted
Median, the operation designated by Laplace,! as the ‘ Method of
Situation.’
the evidence above adduced, the normal probability-curve should after all turn
out to be the most appropriate representative of the group under treatment, the
Median is a reduction well adapted to this case, affected as it is with a probable
error only slightly larger than the arithmetic mean (Laplace, loc. ct, See ‘ Pro-
blems in Probabilities,’ Phil. Mag. Oct. 1886). But if the grouping is of the
geometrical (Galton-Macalister) species, the Median is still a very good reduction,
coinciding as it does with the greatest ordinate of the curve denoted. Moreover, it
has been shown by the writer (‘On the Choice of Means,’ Phil. Mag. Sept. 1887)
The reasons in favour of the Median may be thus summed up. If, in spite of
that there is a peculiar propriety in the use of the Median when the observations
are ‘ discordant,’ when their facility-curve may be regarded as a compound made
up of different families, or different members of the same family, of symmetrical
curves. It is now to be added that this prerogative of the Median is retained
_ when some or all the discordant elements are of the geometrigal species. Now
the phenomenon of ‘discordance’ is remarkably evidenced by the different degrees
of dispersion which series of (e.g., yearly) price-returns present in the case of
different commodities. Cotton, for instance, appears to have a much larger modulus
of fluctuation than Pepper. Add that this method of reducing observations is the
- least laborious of all, and there will remain no doubt that in the present state of
our knowledge, and for the purpose in hand, the Median is the proper formula.
The method of the Weighted or Corrected Median may best be described
by anexample. The first column of figures given below are price-varia-
tions, expressed as percentages, for nineteen commodities, obtained by com-
parison of the year 1870 with the period 1865-9. The figures are taken
_ from table 26 of the Appendix to the Memorandum contributed by Mr.
_ Palgrave to the Third Report on the Depression of Trade. The per-
centages given by him are-here rearranged in the order of magnitude.
Opposite each percentage in the third column is given the proportional
quantity of commodity, or ‘relative importance,’ taken from Mr. Pal-
grave’s table 27 (year 1870). The fourth column contains the (approxi-
mate) square roots of these quantities.? Now for the simple Median the
not appreciably affect the result ; as may beseen by comparing the results correspond-
ing to two different systems of weights (see note 2 on this page).
1 Théorie Analytique, Supplement 2. See the present writer’s paper on
Observations relating to Several (Juantities in ‘ Hermathena’ (Dublin), 1887.
* The quantities of commodities taken as weights correspond to the sgwares of
Laplace, p,, Po» Ps, &c. (loc. cit.) If we determine the Median by way of the third,
instead of the fourth, column, we in effect assign for our system of weights the
squares of the masses. This operation, indicated by the bars in the third column,
gives 91 as the Median. It is interesting to observe how small is the difference
i produced by the change of system—small in relation to the error incident to any
U2
‘
292 REPORT—1887.
rule is to find that one of the entries in column 2 which has as many
observations above as below it: that is the ninth in the order of magni-
tude ; which proves to be 94. For the weighted or corrected Median we
still seek the entry in column 2, which has as many observations above it
as below it ; but we proceed as if the observation 71 had been made, not
once, but 19°5 times; the observation 72 made 12°8 times, and so on.
There being in all nearly 177 such constructive observations, the Median is
the 89th, thatis 94. Or in other words we have to find in the fourth column
that figure which is such that the sum of all above [or below] it with the
figure itself should be greater than half the sum of the entire column,
but without that figure should be less than half the entire sum. The
figure thus defined proves to be 6-2. For the sum of the entries above
that figure is 82:3, and. the half sum of the column is 88:25. Now 82:3
is less than 88°25, while 82°3+6°2 is greater than 88°25. .The entry in
the second column which corresponds to the figure thus determined,
viz., 94 (corresponding to 6°2), is the required Weighted Median.! The
weighted Arithmetic Mean as calculated by Mr. Palgrave is 90.! By a
similar operation performed on the export statistics for the year 1880,
given by Mr. Giffen in his report of the year 1881, it is found that the
Weighted Median (for the decline of price compared with 1861) is —7°8.
Mr. Giffen’s result, the corresponding Weighted Arithmetic Mean, is
—5'83.1
Commodities Price-variations Quantities | ae bites of |
Cotton 71 381 19°5
Wool ‘ é é , 72 164 12°8
Tobacco . , 5 : 75 Vii 41
Wheat é 2 - : 80 418 20°5
Copper. : s : 82 30 55
Coffee “ F : : 89 8 2°8
Tea... = r 3 90 66 8-1
IN BRR A 5 . F 91 82 9
Oils . 5 : F ; 94 38 62
Lead . ‘ ; : if 95 21 46
Leather . : 4 5 97 55 7-4
Tron . : ; F , 97 128 ler
Silk . , : : ; 98 49 7
Tallow : , : 3 101 44 67
Meat . : : 4 ‘ 102 382 195
Timber P : ‘ f 104 150 12:2
Indigo ; : ‘ é 107 9 3
Sugar : : ; : 120 143 12
Tine = ‘ : ‘ 120 15 3:9
2,200 176°5
The operation is much simplified by noticing that it is sufficient to
arrange the percentages in the order of magnitude in the neighbourhood
Mean ; which, as rudely estimated from the dispersion of the entries in the first
column, is as likely as not to be as much as 2 or 3, and may not improbably be
4 oreven 6. The difference between the systems is apt to be less, when the number
of independent entries is greater. In the example cited from Mr. Giffen’s statistics
(where the number of entries is 58) the two systems of weights give identical
results.
1 As to the import of these discrepancies see the preceding note.
ee,
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 293
of the median. For instance, if we are certain beforehand that the mean
is below 100, we may dispose the entries above that figure in any order,
just as they occur in the table from which they are taken.
We have shown how to construct a type of price-variations analogous
to the typical mean of statures or other attributes defined as that height,
or it may be weight, which appertains to a greater number of a certain
population than any other height or weight does.' But here it may be
asked, Why rest satisfied with a type if there exists a more substan-
tial gucesitum ? Why seek the mean variation of shadows instead of the
objective movement of the bodies, that declination of the sun or revo-
Intion of the earth of which the varying shadows are the expression ?
Why not penetrate beneath the superficies of shifting prices to the real
relations between the quantity of money and commodities ? ”
The matter is simple as long as we keep to the abstract theory of the
text-books. Imagine a purely metallic currency, the amount of which
is, say, Q, and let the rapidity of circulation or duty of money be called
C; then we may simply express the quantity of metallic money in terms
of prices and volumes of transaction in our notation
1
Q= G [apa + Bpe + &e. ].3
Now let prices vary with the quantity of money, other things being
constant, and we have for the variation in the quantity of money the
simple expression
apa +Bpg + c&e. _9
aVatBp'sth&e. Q”
a
where eee =1, &c., nearly, or upon an average.
a
Let us now introduce the several concrete circumstances, first that
a proportion, say the ratio K, of transactions is effected by credit ;
secondly, that the volume of transactions varies between the epochs under
comparison, say is multiplied upon an average by the factor P; thirdly,
that the proportion of credit transactions, and fourthly, the duty of money,
the coefficients C and K, do not remain constant.
When we introduce the first attribute alone, no difficulty is felt. The
factor K disappears and leaves our formula in its initial simplicity.
Again, when we introduce by itself the attribute of increased volumes, no
great complication arises. We have only to multiply the simple formula
by P in order to obtain the diminution of metallic money relative to the
volume of transactions, per unit volume as one may say.
This proposition may appear at first sight still to hold good when we
combine the two attributes hitherto considered separately. But this
presumption is negatived by the fact that legal-tender money is largely
1 The Mean as defined in Dr. Charles Roberts’ writings, not quite identical with
Quetelet’s homme moyen in case of asymmetrical curves like that on p. 284.
2 What we have so far found is a mere ratio, comparable in point of objectivity
to the ratio between male and female births (about 1,040: 1,000 in England).
But might the analogue be the proportion of black and white balls in large groups of
balls which have been drawn at random from a huge urn? Beneath the typical
mean presented by those groups there is a more objective fact; the relative numbers
of black and white balls, the masses of ebon and ivory.
8 By a, a’, &c., for the purpose in hand we should understand not so much the
amount of things sold as the amount of sales (per unit of time).
294 REPORT—1 887.
used in modern industry, by way of reserve, to meet the residues of claims
not mutually compensated. It is shown by the present writer in his
paper on The Mathematical Theory of Banking} that, theoretically and
abstractedly, reserves tend to vary as the square root of the volume of
transactions which they support. The reserve of material money and
the mass of credit transactions are to each other, as Mr. Giffen says, as
the little weight and the big weight at the ends of the unequal arms of
a lever. But it is a lever of a very peculiar mechanism, such that,
when you increase the big weight, you lengthen the long arm. It will
be understood, of course, that this doctrine is quite abstract and ideal ;
related to banking business very much as the ‘ quantity theory’ to hard-
cash transactions—‘ the most elementary proposition,’ as Mill says of
the latter theory, and without which ‘we should have no key to any of
the others.’
The proper factor, therefore, is no longer P. The mildest expression
for the correction now required is of the form (1—K)P+KJA/P,
where J is a new and probably unascertainable constant. That is
theoretically ? the sort of ratio by which, when the volume of trade in-
creases, the mass of metallic money should be increased, in order to drive
the trade at an unaltered level of price.
Now introduce the attribute that the ratio of credit to hard cash
varies with time, and the varying ratio of the mass of metal to the volame
of transactions, as we have good reason to believe. Superadd the
circumstance, which we have no reason to deny, that the rapidity of
circulation also varies, and it is evident that the investigation which we
have attempted is blocked by insurmountable statistical difficulties.
We might get a little further no doubt if we assume an additional
datum, R, the ratio of gold in reserve to gold in actual circulation ; then,
with the help of P and K and R, as it were rail off from the industrial
world a zone of hard-cash transactions to which the abstract formula of
the text-books is applicable. This method has been pursued by Professor
Neumann Spallart and Dr. F. Kral in the elaborate monograph Geldwert
und Preisbewegung.’ It certainly seems possible by this method? to explain
the fact, if not to measure the magnitude, of a rise or fall of general
prices; to predict the direction of the change, whether positive or
1 Report of the British Association, 1886.
? K and C being still supposed constant.
8 Cf. Giffen, Stock Hachange Securities, ‘To give it [the abstract theory]
validity, it must be assumed that a scarcity of money produces no expedients for
economising money, and that an abundance of money does not lead to want of
economy, which can hardly ever be the actual condition of life.’
' Staatswissenschaftl. Studien, n. v. Dr. Ludwig, Elster, Jena, 1887.
5 The modest hope of explaining accomplished facts is not encouraged by Dr.
Kral’s success. For & priori he finds that the store of gold in Germany during the
last few years has been fully adequate to the work which it has had to do—account
being taken of rapidity of circulation and the amount of credit transactions.
There have been no symptoms of a ‘Geldmangel,’ that is to say (see p. 262, top) no
reason to expect a rise of the purchasing power of money, a general fall in prices.
Yet a posteriori it seems to be admitted that there has been such a fall of prices.
That this fall has originated ‘auf Seiten der Waren,’ that itis due to the development
of industry rather than the introduction of the ‘Goldwihrung’ into Germany, may
be a fact. But that fact does not seem to annul the right we have to expect a
correspondence between the two lines of investigation; namely (1) the comparison
between the supply of money and the amount required in order that the level of
prices may be steady ; and (2) the observed level of prices,
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 295
negative, required in the amount of currency, in order that the level of
prices may be restored.
It would be foreign to the spirit of this memorandum to dwell upon ordinary
statistical difficulties. But there is one scruple inherent in the nature of the
metretic art which even with the progress of statistical technique does not seem
likely to be removed. The method under consideration requires the determination
of a certain residue, viz., total volume of transactions mznus the portion effected
by credit, V—C in Dr. Kral’s notation. Now each of these quantities, and
@ fortiort their difference, is subject to an error of measurement. And statistics
must be much more perfect than there is any prospect of their being in the imme-
diate future in order that the error incident to each of these measurables should
not exceed a hundredth part of the same. But the hundredth part of the total
transactions is a quantity of about the same order as that which it is sought to
determine, namely, the amount of transactions in hard cash. The latter quantity,
therefore, will be apt to be lost in a fringe of error. And, though the methods of
determining V and C are likely to improve, yet the ratio of V—C to V or C is
certain to diminish, so that the precariousness of the calculation may well remain
constant.
Upon the whole it seems that in the present state of science we must
abandon the sort of realism which seeks an additional entity behind the
phenomena of varying prices. We must resign the fond idea of finding
in the mean variation of price any quantity more objective than itself, any
measure of its cause verifiable by an independent statistical investigation.
We must be content with measuring the shadows; the objects behind
them are beyond our reach. The cause of the observed phenomenon may
be vaguely indicated as the changed relation between shining orb and
opaque bodies; but there is wanting the mathematical science which
should express the varying length of shadow as a definite function of the
position of the sun.
The only question is whether we should not adopt a less, not a more,
objective queesitum than the type above described ; whether, even where
we can use the semi-objective type peculiar to this and the preceding
section, it would not be better to use the more subjective formule inves-
tigated in the earlier sections. The present writer, following Laplace, has
maintained ' that, even in the case of physical observations relating to a
real thing, the proper method of combination is not so much that which
is ‘most probably’? correct, most frequently in the long run the true
measure, but that which may ‘most advantageously’ be employed. A
fortiori, when our quesitum is at best a type, the proper mean may well
be not the ratio which is presented by the greatest number of (independ-
ently oscillating) prices,? but that ratio which in reference to human uses
itis best to adopt in any general regulation. However a peculiar import-
1 Metretike, part ii.
2 Laplace.
$ In the case of our metaphorical shadows suppose that the scope and end of the
measurement was to ascertain whether and by how much shade for the use of man
and his cattle was increasing or decreasing with the change of hour. The determina-
tion of a mean variation in the length of shadows would be useful only as a step
towards that end. It would be better to aim directly at the end, and combine
arithmetically the length of the shadows multiplied by the corresponding breadth ;
this system of weights being now determined, not on the principle proper to this
section (see above, p. 290), but on the ground that the broader trees are the more
umbrageous.
* Read Professor Foxwell’s very able lecture on Irregularity of Employment and
Fluctuations of Prices, and consider what it is, what sort of mean or function of
296 REPORT—1887.
ance may be attached to the character of objectivity, when the result of
the investigation is to form the basis of action for Governments or Inter-
national Conventions. It is fortunate that the difference between the two
species of Means is likely to be inconsiderable numerically.
Srction X.
Mized Modes ; compounding the ends or means of several distinct methods.
(AB[C+ce]); (ABc[D+a]); (Ata),
([A+a] [B+b] [C+e] [D+d] [E+e] [F+f]).
We have now examined all the branches represented on our tree. But
we have by no means exhausted all the possible ramifications ; for, accord-
ing to the logic of compartments or combinations, six bifurcations—the
number of our principles of division—lead to sixty-four distinct branches.
It is further to be observed that two or more branches may unite to form
a compound arm. ‘Two or more separate objects may be simultaneously
pursued. For instance, a Unit might be required which could combine
the attributes C and c, which should be adapted as far as possible to the
convenience of the economic individual, both in his capacity of spender
and earner. There might be sought the best possible compromise between
the conditions that the creditor should receive a constant quantity of
value-in-use and that the debtor should pay an amount of money vary-
ing with his resources. This middle course might be designated by the
symbol A B (C+c). Or, if we start with the conception of a sliding
scale, and base it partly on finished products, partly on other items (as
materials or wages), we have the Mixed Mode A Bc (D+d).
Again, there seem to be combined in popular thought two elements
which we have sought to distinguish in analysis, namely, the conception
of an objective mean variation of general prices, and the change in the
power of money to purchase advantages. It is as if having to measure
the intensity of a drought we were to observe the decline of rainfall in
every district over the whole country, and to take the mean of those
observations ; while at the same time keeping an eye to the fact that
peculiar interest and importance attach to the decline of rainfall in
certain regions, namely, those which constitute the catchment basins of
the rivers which supply the population with water. The most compre-
hensive combination is that represented by our last symbol, purporting
to be a compromise between all the modes and purposes '—the method,
if practical exigencies impose the condition that we must employ one
method, not many methods.
Doubtless, practical wisdom ties in a mean, and compromise is of the
essence of common sense. Some of the most useful plans and institutions
are those recommended by a jumble of heterogeneous and incommensur-
prices, which he requires to be kept constant: whether it is what we have called the
Producer's Unit (A Bc), or some more objective mean of all price-variations weighted
by the corresponding volumes of transactions.
1 Including many purposes which have not been thought worthy of a separate
place here—for instance, to find the increase of National Wealth, given the total value
at two epochs,
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 297
able considerations, like the celebrated resolution ' declaring the throne
vacant after the flight of James II., of which Macaulay says that ‘its
object was attained by the use of language which ina philosophical treatise
would justly be regarded as inexact and confused. . . . The one beauty
of the resolution is its inconsistency. There was a phrase for every sub-
division of the majority.’
There seems no more to be said, if what is required of us is a political
measure rather than a scientific measurement. But, if otherwise, there is
desiderated a principle by which to effect a synthesis between the purposes
separated by our analysis. Perhaps it would be wisest frankly to ac-
knowledge the arbitrary character of the proposed operation—
que res
Nec modum habet neque consilium, ratione modoque
Tractari non vult.
If a more definite answer is insisted upon, one might propose for
imitation the Scotch practice of ‘ striking the Fiars’? by means of a
jury. A committee of experts agreed as to the general scope of the
inquiry might be brought together, or put in communication.? Hach
member should independently form a numerical estimate based upon the
data submitted to all. The mean of all these estimates constitutes the
best possible value. It is thus that juries having to assess damages
frequently proceed. The principle is illustrated by the following experi-
ment. Ten gentlemen agreed each to guess the age of all the others and
to state his own. The statistics so obtained evidence that a better esti-
mate is afforded by the mean of several judgments than by the individual
opinion. (For details see Mind, Jan. 1888.)
No doubt it is a delicate problem in the higher Metretics, what degree
of divergence in principle between authorities would be fatal to the
collation of their judgments. Jurymen who differed materially as to the
law or facts of a case could not with reason or advantage take a mean
between their individual assessments. Similarly our monetary jury must
be supposed to be agreed as to the general scope of the inquiry. Minor
differences of opinion might be waived. The discrepancy between the
various received formule for the Consumption Standard * would not be
fatal, or rather would be favourable,® to the combination of all the
estimates into a mean result likely to be less fallible than any one of the
measurements thus averaged. The methods of Messrs. Sauerbeck,
Mulhall, Sidgwick, Marshall, Palgrave, Giffen, Lehr, and perhaps it
may be added, Drobisch, and the one which is specially recommended in
this memorandum,® may be advantageously mixed. But, on the other
hand, those who hold with the present writer that, in the construction of a
standard for general purposes, a unique importance should attach to the
items of National Expenditure—the average budget—the numerous
! «Tt was moved that King James the Second, having endeavoured to subvert the
constitution of the kingdom by breaking the original contract between king and
people, and, by the advice of Jesuits and other wicked persons, having violated the
fundamental laws, and having withdrawn himself out of the kingdom, had abdicated
the government, and that the throne had thereby become vacant.’-—Macaulay, chap. x.
2 See W. K. Hunter’s description of this practice.
3 M. Dabos, in his Htalon, is perhaps the only writer who has frankly asserted
that the value of gold is a metaphysical matter to be decided by cultivated intelli-
gence.
4 Above, p. 264. 5 P. 266. § Section IV,
298 REPORT—1887.
adherents of this Consumption-Standard, might not consent to merge an
estimate so formed with the results of those who adopt a fundamentally
different principle; for instance, Dr. Geyer’s method, or another men-
tioned by him, which may thus be described. Take the price of each
ware, just as it has been quoted. Add together these figures. The
ratio between this aggregate at one epoch and the aggregate at another
is put for the measure of the variation in the purchasing power of
money.
The doctrine of the Mean, or principle of collated authority, admits of
a certain analogical extension beyond mere arithmetical results to the
determination of a function or form of combination. Accordingly that
solution of our last problem, which is offered in the Report herewith
printed, derives a certain confirmation, and the only sort of proof
of which it is capable, from the general assent which it has received from
the Committee of experts who have been appointed to consider this
subject. A short analysis of that Report may fittingly conclude this
Memorandum.
The first part of the Report points out the necessity of distinguishing
in theory several ends and methods [such as those which have been
analysed in the preceding sections], the expediency of in practice giving
precedence to some one mode [such as it is the main object of this
section to discover ].
Part II., A, of the Report sets forth this mode, ‘ the principal standard.’
It is a compromise between the principles of the Consumption-Standard,
A BCD, and the more objective Mean, af; an unequal compromise,
inclined in favour of the first principle.! Agreeably to the first prin-
ciple, yet without prejudice to the second,” the ‘ weights’ of the price-
variations are the quantities of commodities. The form of combination, the
‘arithmetical’ mean (or linear function), is prescribed by the first prin-
ciple. In deference to the second principle, if not entirely on account of
statistical exigencies, the prices used are wholesale prices, and the items
of domestic service and residential rent have been excluded.
Part II., B, of the Report propounds six ‘ subsidiary ’ index-numbers.
Of these, three, Wages, Workmen’s Budgets, and HLxports and Imports,
may be regarded as corresponding to those ‘partial interests,’ which
were noticed at the end of the Introductory Analysis as of especial im-
portance. Of the remaining three, the index-number based on Wholesale
Goods in General may be perhaps put for the Producer’s Standard, here
designated A Bed EH. There remain the Consumption-Standard,
A BC D,3 and the Capital-Standard, A Bcde;* the former pure and
simple, the latter shorn of the item of labour, to which it may have
some claim.* }
Considering the importance of the last-named species, it may be well
to justify our treatment of it, in not only curtailing its items, but also
aot adopting it (in preference to the Consumption-Standard) as the
framework of the ‘principal’ index. It will be recollected that the
1 In giving these reasons the writer speaks only for himself.
2 See Section IX. p. 290.
8 For convenience of reference the symbol B has been retained here; but the
meaning would be more exactly expressed by omitting it, or substituting (B+b).
We are not here concerned to distinguish whether the index-number is to be used as
a Standard for deferred payments, or with some other view,
4 See p. 276,
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 299
peculiarity of this standard, which. Professor Nicholson has recently pro-
posed, is its taking as the measure of the purchasing power of money
not the value of the quantity of things consumed, but the quantity of
things in existence, the amount of things saleable rather than of things
sold. This is certain to be a good method, in so far as it is not likely o
differ much from the Consumption-Standard.! It might be dangerous
in so far as it attaches weight to a comparatively unimportant dimension,
the projection into the future of present value.
Let us figure different categories of wealth, divided according to the
attributes of fixity and proximity to their final cause, by the image of
trees bearing fruit, some ripe for consumption, some coming on. It is
an intelligible principle that the importance of each botanical species is
measured by the money value of the fruit of that species which is con-
sumed ina day or year. But, according to the new principle, the marks
of importance are the longevity of the tree and the time which the fruit
takes ripening. But what if a fruit much in vogue be of the nature of
an annual? The gardener, taking stock of the orchard, may value the
existing plants of this species at less than the perennial trunks, which
will yield to a late posterity a comparatively little desired product. But
the general public may be much more concerned by a change in the price
of the former article.
According to the new principle, ducks’ eggs shall count for more than
hens’ eggs, other things being equal, if the former fowl lives longer.
Reasonably, it may be urged, for the longer-lived fowl is more valuable.
Yes; but if the same number of ducks’ eggs and of hens’ eggs are, exempli
gratid, eaten each year, then fewer ducks will be used up each year in
order to supply the egg market. Whether, then, we compare the two
interests by way of the eggs or of the fowls, the Consumption-Standard
gives a consistent and plausible result. Again, suppose a watch costs ten
times as much as an umbrella, that everyone who has an umbrella has a
watch, and everyone who has a watch has an umbrella, and let a watch
last ten times as long as an umbrella. At any given moment there are
in existence as many watches as umbrellas, but in every year there are
ten times more umbrellas than watches used up. According to the
Capital-Standard watches shall count for ten times as much as umbrellas ;
for just as much according to the Consumption-Standard. Which is the
more reasonable ?
It is contended that the new principle has the advantage of being
definite and determinate.2 This is a modest claim, and one which cannot
be refused to the simple unweighted index-number, or indeed to any
assigned random principle of selection; for instance, that each article
should have a weight varying with the position in the alphabet of the
initial letter of the English word which designates the commodity. But
1 Jn so far as estimates are based upon income, and income is coincident with
expenditures, there might not be much difference between the three principles which
we have designated by the letters D, E,e. In practice the difference might become
evanescent in virtue of the theories relative to the effect of different weights upon the
resulting mean, which we have given in our fifth section.
2 It has been objected that the present writer should not throw stones against a
standard possessed of ‘ objective’ solidity, while be himself occupies the position of a
glasshouse construction based upon illusory utilities. It should be observed, however,
that the Consumption-Standard, in that it is hased upon definite and, as it is found,
steady returns of National Expenditure, has just as much claims to objectivity as a
standard based upon the items of the National Inventory of all vendible articles,
300 REPORT—1887.
the (unmodified) Capital-Standard has not even this degree of definite-
ness. For, though with respect to embodied utilities it affords a determinate
and serviceable criterion, namely, the value (depending upon the durability )
of the material substratum ; with respect to incorporeal vendibles, to services
—as Professor Sidgwick has acutely pointed out—there exists no definite
measure upon the principle under consideration.!_ Professor Nicholson
speaks of ‘the labour of a British working man for a quarter of an hour.’
But why take the miwimum divisible of a day’s work (if a quarter of an
hour is such) ? The largest multiple, rather than the least measure, would
seem to be recommended by analogy. Shall we say a year, or seven years
—the period of the oldest labour-contract on record—or the period for
which soldiers sell their services? In seeking the appropriate quantum we
seem to float about on an infinite sea of arbitrariness, once we leave the
moorings of the Consumption-Standard.
In short the Capital-Standard is a method, and a good method; but
it has no claim to be regarded as the method: to be preferred before the
index based upon Consumption, or to constitute ‘ the principal standard.’
In concluding this paper, the writer desires to acknowledge gratefully
that he is indebted for many important suggestions and corrections to
his colleagues, the fellow-members of this Committee, especially Professor
Foxwell.
List or THE Princrpan AurHoritieEes Cirep.
AIRY, G. Memoirs of the Astronomical Society, xxviii.
BELA FOLDES, W.
” ”
BouRNE, S.
Cross, W.
Dasos, H.
DELMAR, A. .
Drosiscn, M.
” °
DUNKIN, E. .
EDGEWORTH, F. Y.
”
”
ENGEL, E.
FAUCHER, L.
FORSELL, H. .
FOXWELL, H. S.
GEYER, P.
GIFFEN, R.
”
Jahrb. f. Nat. Oekon. 1882
Statistische Monatsschrift (Vienna), 1881.
Journal of the Statistical Society, 1879.
Standard pound v. pound Sterling (1856).
Etaton invariable de la Valeur (1878).
Science of Money.
Bericht. K6n. Sachs. Gesell. Wissenschaft (Leipzig),
1871.
Jahrb. f. Nat. Oekon. 1871.
Memoirs of the Astronomical Society, xxxii.
Journal of the Statistical Society, ‘Jubilee volume
1885).
onhnts Philosophical Transactions, 1885.
Metretike (1887).
Volkswirthschaftliche Zeitfrage.
Vier'eljahrsschrift fiir Volkswirthschaft, 1868.
Guldbristen (Stockholm, 1886). Translated into Eng-
lish.
Trreqularity of Employment and Fluctuation of Prices
1886).
phonic vind Praxis des Zetiel-Bankwesens, 1867.
Parliamentary Reports, 1881-85.
Essays in Finance.
' It may be held, perhaps, that it is allowable to omit productive labour as being
paid out of the product (cf. the fowrtcenth page, third paragraph, of Prof. Nicholson’s
paper). Upon the principle of the Conswmption-Standard it is of course proper only
to count finished products (or wages and materials, as representative of, but not
along with, finished products). But, in the case of a standard which is based upon the
‘aggregate of purchasable commodities in the widest sense’ (op. cit. p. 257), it is not
at all clear why any commodity should be omitted because its ‘result appears’ (op.
cit. p. 266) in the form of a finished product. By parity we should omit all unfinished
products.
HELD, A.
HERTSKA
Hock, C.
HortToy, 8. D.
HUNTER, W.. :
ILLINOIS, STATE OF
JEVONS, W.
KNIES, C.
- KRAEMAR
Krat, F.
LAPLACE
LASPEYRES
”
LEHR, J. ;
MACALISTER, D.
MARSHALL, A.
MASSACHUSETTS, STATE OF.
Mitt, J. 8. :
MULHALL, M. :
NEWMAN-SPALLART, F. X.
NICHOLSON, J.
PALGRAVE, R. I.
PATERSON, R.
PLUMMER, W.
POULETT SCROPE .
RoGeErs, J. T.
SAUERBECK, A.
SCHARLING, W.
SIDGWICK, H.
SOETBEER, A.
WALKER, F. A.
WALRAS, L. .
Young, E.
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD.
301
Jahrb. f. Nat. Oekon, 1871.
Wahrung und Handel.
Die Finanzen der Vereinigten Staaten.
Silver and Gold.
Striking the Fiars (1858).
Third Report on Labour.
Currency and Finance (1884).
Zeitschrift fiir Gesammt. Wissenschaft, 1858.
Papiergeld in Oesterreich (1885).
Staatswissenschaft. Studien, 1887.
Théorie Analytique de la Probabilite.
Jahrb. f. Nat Oekon, 1864, 1871.
Zeitschrift fiir die Gesammt.
1872.
Statistik der Preise, 1885.
Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1879.
Industrial Conference, 1885.
Report upon Labour, 1885.
Third Report on Depression of Trade.
Contemporary Review, 1887.
Political Economy.
History of Prices.
Staatswissenschaft. Studien, 1887.
Journal of the Statistical Society, 1887.
Third Report on Depression of Trade.
Economy of Capital.
Memoirs of the Astronomical Society, xlvii.
Political Economy (1883).
History of Agriculture and Prices.
Journal of the Statistical Society, 1886.
Jahrb. f. Nat. Oekon. 1886.
Political Economy.
Materialien zr...
Money.
Théorie dela Monnaie, 1886.
Labour in Europe and America.
Staatswissenschaft,
Wahrungs/rage.
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor T. McK.
Hugues, Dr. H. Hicks, Dr. H. Woopwarp, and Messrs. E. B.
Luxmoorz, P. P. Pennant, Epwin Morean, and G. H. Morton,
appointed for the purpose of exploring the Cae Gwyn Cave,
North Wales. (Drawn up by Dr. H. Hicks, Secretary.)
THE main object that the Committee had in view this year was to extend
the excavation which had been made in front of the new entrance to the
cavern, discovered last year, so that a clear section of the deposits which
covered that entrance might be exposed.
Work was commenced on June 6 and continued to the 18th, when it
was decided that a sufficient excavation had been made, and work was for
the time suspended. It was deemed advisable to postpone the shoring
up of the sides and any filling in that may be required until August, so
that an opportunity may be given to anyone interested in the exploration
to examine the section exposed. The excavation was visited daily by
some members of the Committee, and all, excepting Dr. H. Woodward,
were able to be present on several occasions. The section has also been
examined by Professor Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., Messrs. C. KE. De Rance,
302 | REPORT—1887, -
F.G.S., R. H. Tiddeman, F.G.S., Clement Reid, F.G.S., A. O. Walker,
F.L.S., H. C. Beasley, aud others.
It was found necessary to remove much of the timber placed last year
to support the face in front of the entrance, so that the section might be
clearly exposed, and the cutting was widened here sufficiently to show a
vertical face of undisturbed deposits. The timber supporting the north-
east face of the cutting was allowed to remain, as that portion had been
well exposed last year, and it was thought that the excavation in front
and to the south-west would yield all necessary evidence without incur-
ring that additional trouble and expense. The cutting was carried in a
south-south-west direction from the mouth of the cavern, and beyond
the dip in the field supposed to indicate the line of an old fence;
the length from the timber on the north-east face to the commence-
ment of the dip in the ficld being about 30 feet and the width varying
from 5 to 10 feet; the narrowest part being at the furthest point
from the cavern. In the face exposed in front of the entrance, and for a
distance in the cutting from there of about 25 feet, the soil varied in
depth from 18 inches to 2 feet, but at the slope supposed to indicate the
line of the old fence it thickened considerably. Underlying this ©
throughout the whole length of the cutting and in the field beyond this
point, a boulder clay of a reddish-brown colour was exposed. This
boulder clay contained thin seams of sand, which were traceable generally
at the same horizon along the whole section.
At a depth of about 7 feet from the surface, in a continuous band of
reddish sandy clay, numerous fragments of marine shells and some per-
fect ones were met with, and these have been recognised by Mrs. McKenny
Hughes to belong to the following species, viz. Ostrea sp., Mytilus sp., Nucula
nucleus, OCardiuwm echinatum, O. edule, Cyprina islandica, Astarte borea-
lis, Artemis exoleta, Venus gallina? Tellina balthica, Psammobia ferro-
ensis, Donax? Mya truncata, Littornia sp., Turritella terebra, Buccinum
undatum. Below the boulder clay, at a depth of about 9 feet from the
surface, there was exposed some sandy gravel and fine banded sand with
a total thickness of over 6 feet, and under the latter a well-defined band
of finely laminated reddish clay. }
Below the laminated clay the brecciated bone earth was found to ex-
tend as far as the cutting was made in front of the entrance, and also for
a distance of 7 feet in a southerly direction from the entrance. This
year only a few fragments of bone and bits of stalagmite were obtained
from this earth, though it will be remembered that last year it yielded
many teeth as well as the flint flake which was discovered near the
entrance. The limestone floor under the bone earth was found to rise
gradually outwards from the mouth of the cavern for some distance, form-
ing a shallow basin-shaped space in front of the entrance. In the bone
earth in this space there were several large angular blocks of limestone.
It was not thought necessary to dig down to the floor along the whole
length of the cutting, but it was traced for 7 feet in that direction by
the side of the cliff against which the deposits abutted. Beyond that
point the cutting was made deep enough to reach the sandy gravel under
the boulder clay, and at different parts test-holes were sunk still deeper
into the gravel andsand. One hole was also sunk in the field in front of
the cutting at a distance of over 35 feet from the entrance to the cavern.
The deposits here were found to be similar to those in the cutting and in
front of the cavern, but the depth of soil over the boulder clay was only
ON THE CAE GWYN CAVE, NORTH WALES. 303
_ from one foot to 18 inches. A very large number of smoothed and ice-
_ scratched boulders were found, many of considerable size; the majority
being fragments of Wenlock shale from the neighbourhood and Lower
Silurian rocks from the Snowdonian area. Amongst them also were
fragments of granite, gneiss, quartzites, flint, diorites, basalts, carboni-
ferous rocks, &c.
J) port of the Committee, consisting of Professor S1IpGWICK, Professor
FoxweEL., Mr. A. H. D. Actanp, the Rev. W. CunnincHam, and
Professor Munro (Secretary), on the Regulation of Wages by
means of Lists in the Cotton Industry.
SPINNING.
At the present time there are nine lists regulating wages in the spinning
branch of the cotton industry. The number of persons whose wages are
affected by the lists is about 55,500—viz., 18,500 minders and 37,000
assistants. The card-room hands, numbering about 60,000, possess no
list. They are, it appears, comparatively unorganised.
Lists in OPERATION.
The Committee have been able to secure the following lists :—
List Where in operation
1. Blackburn, 1867 . - Blackburn, Accrington, Church, Haslingden,
f and Pendlebury.
2. Burnley, 1867 . - Burnley.
3. Preston, 1866 . . Preston, Bamber Bridge, Cuerden, Farring-
ton, Gregson Lane, Lancaster.
4. Bolton - Bolton, Atherton, Chorley, Farnworth,
Hindley, Leigh Spinners, Manchester
(partly), Reddish, and Tyldesley.
5. Bury, 1867 . : - Bury, Rochdale (partly).
6. Hyde, 1872 : - Hyde.
7. Stockport, 1867 . . Stockport.
8. Ashton-under-Lyne . Ashton, Bollington Coarse Spinners, Droyls-
den, Macclesfield, Mossley, and Staly-
bridge.
9. Oldham . : . Oldham, Coldhurst, Chadderton, Higginshaw,
Hollinwood, Huddersfield, Littleborough,
Lees, Manchester (partly), Middleton,
Middleton Junction, Over Darwen, Roch-
dale (partly), Royton, Shaw and Cromp-
ton, Warrington, and Waterhead.
10. The old Ashton List.
11. The new Bolton List of 1887.
Many spinners in districts outside those mentioned adopt one of the
above lists for their factories, and there is no doubt but that these lists
give a correct statement of wages for the whole spinning trade.
TEcHNICAL TERMS USED IN THE Lasts.
Without some knowledge of the spinning trade it is impossible to
understand fully the technical terms used in the lists. The following
brief statement may assist in grasping the nature of the lists,
The spinning machine is technically called a mule. It varies in size
according to the number of ‘ spindles’ it contains.
304 REPORT—1887.
The man or woman who has charge of a mule is called the ‘ minder.
With mules of a certain size one or two assistants are required. The
first assistant, whose age varies from fourteen to twenty years, is called
the ‘big piecer’; the second assistant, whose age varies from ten to
fourteen years, is called the ‘little piecer’ or the ‘creeler.’ These
assistants may be regarded as apprentices, and in course of time the
‘little piecer’ is promoted to be a ‘big piecer,’ and the ‘ big piecer’ to
be a ‘minder.’ It must not be forgotten that the employer as regards
wages deals with the minder only, and does not directly pay the
assistants. They are paid by the minder, and, though as a rule the
assistants receive a certain definite proportion of the minder’s wages, the
minder may have to pay more or less according to circumstances; if, for
instance, there be a scarcity of hands, he will have to pay more than the
average. The new Bolton list stipulates that when spinning 30’s or
below, the employer is, as a rule, to pay a creeler.
The word ‘ price’ is used as the equivalent of ‘rate of wages.’ The
lists are called lists of prices. The word ‘discount’ is used in the sense
of a reduction in the rate of wages.
The normal duty of the minder is to watch the mule when actually in
motion, and to join all broken threads, but his duties are defined in-
directly by specifying the payments he is to receive for work incidental
to the normal duty of attending the mule when spinning.
The chief function of the lists is to specify what he is to receive for
his normal duty, and to define the extra duties and the rate of payment.
The chief extra duties are—
‘ Stripping’ or ‘ breaking out,’ 7.e., taking the bobbins on which the
sliver or unspun cotton is wound off the mule.
‘Tubing,’ or the inserting a small tube on the spindle with the
object of preventing the thread at the end becoming entangled.
‘Turning strings,’ 7.e., altering certain strings so as to spin in the
reverse direction.
‘Starching’ the end of the cop, so as to stiffen it, and thus prevent the
end becoming entangled. This is not always paid as an extra, e.g., in the
Oldham list. ‘Carrying bobbins’ to and,from the mule where a special
carrier is not provided.
PRINCIPLES ON WHICH THE Lists aRE Basep.
(1) The amount of the yarn actually spwn.—tIn all the lists except the
Oldham and Bolton lists, this amount is estimated by weight, and the
wages are calculated at so much per 100 lbs.
In Oldham the amount is calculated by length, and an indicator fixed
to the mule registers each yard of yarn spun.
In Bolton the payment is per 1,900 hanks.
Indirectly it may be said that payment by weight is the same thing
as payment by length, inasmuch as 100 lbs. of yarn of a given fineness
ought to be a fixed length. For instance, 100 lbs. of 30’s means that in
the 100 lbs. there are 30 x 100 hanks or lengths of 840 yards.
It has, however, been urged that actual measurement is the only true
test of length, and that under the Oldham system every yard spun is
registered, whereas under the other system a mistake may be made as to
the fineness, and therefore weight is not an accurate test of length.
(2) The number of spindles on the mule.—As the number of spindles
increases the rate of wages per 100 lbs. of yarn spun decreases. This rule has
ON THE REGULATION OF WAGES IN THE COTTON INDUSTRY. 305
been adopted on the principle that the advantage arising from the use of
large mules should not be appropriated solely by either the employer or
employed, but be divided between both parties. The extra amount of
yarn spun gives an increased wage to the minder ; the lower rate of wages
gives a share to the employer.
(3) The fineness of the yarn.—The spinning of the coarser yarns is paid
at a less rate than the finer yarns. The fineness of yarn is denoted by the
number of hanks or lengths of 340 yards in 1lb. For instance, 32’s
(i.e., 32 hanks) means 32 hanks to the 1 lb.
_ A certain fineness being taken as the standard, the rate of wages per
100 lbs. increases as the fineness increases. Were such a principle not
adopted, the minder spinning fine yarns would not earn as much wages
as the minder spinning coarse yarns. To spin 100 lbs. of fine yarn
requires a much longer time than to spin the same quantity of coarse
yarn ; and it is said that under the Oldham and other similar lists, apply-
ing to one-half the spinning trade, fine spinners earn less than the coarse
spinners.
(4) The number of turns.—The length of yarn that can be spun in a
given time by the minder varies, not only according to the fineness,
but according to the amount of twist in the thread, because the greater
the number of turns each inch of yarn receives, the shorter will be the total
length. ‘Two minders spinning yarn of the same fineness but with differ-
ent number of ‘ twists’ per inch would earn different wages. To equalise
wages the number of twists must be taken into account.
It is evident that the amount of twist in a thread may be infinitely
varied, and in order to avoid difficulties arising on this point the lists
adopt a principle known as Scott’s rule, for calculating the standard turns
for any count of yarn. The rule is this: Multiply the square root of the
count by 3°25 for weft, and 3°75 for twist, and you obtain the standard
turns for that count. Extra turns are usually paid for by allowing two-
thirds of the proportion.
The lists are therefore characterised by the following principles :—
(1) Wages depend on the amount of the produce.
(2) All advantage arising from improved machinery is divided between
employer and employed.
(3) An equality is maintained between those spinning fine and coarse
yarns, except in so far as the former require greater skill.
(4) Any extra work not coming within the normal duties of the
minder is paid for separately.
The following analysis of the lists will show the method in which these
principles are carried into practice :—
ANALYSIS OF VARIATIONS.
1. Weft and Twist Standards.
a. Weft.
Sonat
Blackburn . 0 35:5: per 100lbs.of . 30’s on Mules from 631-649 spindles
” = 0 41-5 ” ” 32’s ” ” ”
Burnley . O 42°75 ” ” ” ” 640 ”
Preston . O 42°75 of ee 55 * a el
Bolton - 0 18°56 per 1,000 hanks of 50’s 5 420 A
Stockport . 0 16:00 “ a 30’s ys 360 oh
Hyde . . O 14°66 es Si 36’s # 660 3
Ashton - L4 4% ‘a BS rc 360 Fe
1887.
306 REPORT—1887.
, b. Tnrist.
Ss. ”
Blackburn 0 42:00 per 100lbs. of . 30’s on Mules from 531-540 spindles
Burnley 0 46:25 as nH 4 es 540 5;
Preston . 0 46°25 + As os > co A
Bolton . O 21-04 per 1,000 hanks of 50’s Ht 420 »
Stockport 0 17:00 as * 30's 3 360 iA
Hyde . 0 14°81 = 3 32's a 660 53
Ashton 1 53 5 re 36’s ss 360 an
2. Variation for Number of Spindles.
As the number of spindles on a mule increases, the greater the amount
of yarn spun per week, and therefore the more wages will be earned by
the minder. It is evident that if the operative be paid at the same rate
per pound or per hank on a large mule as on a small one, the only advan-
tage gained by the employer would lie in the fact that the cost of a large
mule would be something less per spindle than the cost of a small mule.
This advantage, it is found, is not sufficient to encourage employers to
improve or lengthen their machinery, and it is characteristic of the cotton
lists that they divide the advantage arising from the greater number of
spindles on a mule between the employer and employed. Hence the
wages per pound or per hank decrease with every increase in the number
of spindles. Profits and wages both rise with an increase in the number of
spindles on a mule, other things remaining the same. It must be remem-
bered, in working out the details of this division of the extra advan-
tage, that as the mule increases in length additional assistants may be
required, who have to be paid out of the wages of the minder. The
number of persons required at a mule averages as follows :—
Up to 450 spindles . 2 : : : : . aman and a boy.
Over 450 AS and under 750 spindles . : 5 a
» 7150 : Re a200 7 : Q . 2 boys.
” 1,200 ” = ” 3 ”
The variation per spindle is not the same under the different lists.
The following table shows the various rules in force, W. indicating weft
mules, and T. twist mules :—
Blackburn . : ‘ . Standard 631-640 spindles W., or 531-540 spindles T.
Add 4d. forevery 10 spindles below 630 W., or 531 T.
Deduct 3d. 5 S from 640-800 W., or 540-640 T.
» Gad *» » 800-900 W., or 800-900 T.
Burnley) . : ‘ : Standard, 640 spindles W.; 540 spindles T.
Preston {Add id. for every 20 spindles below 600 W., or 500 T.
Deduct +d. 5 » above 600 W., or 500 T.
In Burnley list no deduction to be made after 800 spindles in counts below 24's.
Bolton : : : : . Standard . 420 spindles W. and T.
Deduct 4 % for every 12 spindles above 420 spindles W. and T.
Stockport . : : : Standard. 360 spindles W. and T.
Deduct 6 % for every 12 spindles from 360-600 spindles W. and T.
” 4 % » ”» 600-840 ”
» 3% . Pee St021,044 ©,
Ashton : ? : : . Standard. 360 spindles W. and T.
Add 3d. for every 12 spindles below 360 spindles W. and T.
Deduct 3d. aS 12 rp up to 720 " ss
” i. ” 24 ” ” 720-864 ” ”
” ga. s ” 48 ” ” 864-1,200 ” ”
3. Variation for Fineness.
As a rule, a mule will ina given time spin the same length of yarn
whether the yarn be coarse or fine, but the weight of the yarn spun in a
ae —
ON THE REGULATION OF WAGES IN THE COTTON INDUSTRY. 307
given time depends mainly on its fineness. Yarn can be spun so fine that
it takes 150 miles of it to weigh one pound. Whenever wages are paid by
the weight of the yarn it is necessary to increase the rate per pound, if the
necessary equality is to be maintained between the wages of the operatives.
Such increase does not necessarily diminish the profits of the employer,
as the finer the yarn the higher the price realised in the market. The
allowance for fineness may therefore be regarded as a sharing by the
operative in the increased value of the produce, and corresponds to some
extent to the allowance given by the sliding scales in the coal industry in
respect of a rise in the value of coal.
Fineness is technically indicated by reference to the number of yards
in one pound. A hank is a length of 840 yards, and the number of hanks
in one pound indicates the fineness. For example, 32’s (7.e., 32 hanks)
means a yarn of such a degree of fineness that there are 32 hanks, or
52 x 840 yards, in one pound.
In the Oldham list wages are paid, not by the weight, but by the length
of the yarn spun, and therefore it is unnecessary to make any allowance
for fineness.
The following tables show the variation for fineness under the different
lists. The leading principle is that the wages vary in proportion to fine-
ness, estimated by the number of hanks in a pound, but for the higher
counts an extra allowance per centum is made.
Blackburn Ran ee
From 14’s to 20’s ._. add in proportion to the counts + 1 % for each hank.
» 20’sto 24’s.. ” ” »
> 24’s to 30’s . . ” ” ”
» 30’s to 34’s. . the standard.
» 934’s to 40’s er
40’s e fa = fy ea EET LOGS
Over 40’s ae - - « + « « +6 9% for every 5 hanks.
Burnley & Preston
From 14’s to 18’s . . add in proportion to counts + 1 % for each hank.
ee 'S'tO 23'S 2 vs “f Fr a
Home 8 t0'3078) +. of oe cD
3 32’s ._ . the standard.
» 34's to 70’s . . add in proportion to counts + 2 9% for each 2 hanks.
Over 70’s ee * = + 21 % for each 2 hanks,
Bolton
From 48’s to 32’s. . deductabout . .... . 29% for every 2 hanks.
i, 50'S . . the standard. .
A 0's - .addabout .... =... 29% forevery 2 hanks.
Hyde
From 10’sto20’s. .add. .. ..... +. =. 29% forevery 2 hanks,
» 22’sto 36's . . the standard.
» 388to44’s. .add . . . . . . . . . 24% forevyery 2 hanks.
Over 44’s ww Add 2 5) aele @ « «es BAD % for every 2 hanks
Stockport
From 10’stolés. .add ........ . 3% forevery 2 hanks.
3 l6'sto'24’s 2ss add = - 7)... ”. . . . 22 6 for every 2 hanks,
» 24’sto 30’s. . the standard.
oO SO D0 sewer aacd. ) EAe mR ee? Betis O19. 24 % for every 2 hanks,
Ashton
rar) 34’s:30's to 4) .deducte. ay hey. sw 4d. for every 2 hanks.
» 368 . . the standard.
» 40's oh ESE RED cr ORME cme mee &d.
PPE TONUOIDD IS ead” SMa MI se a a ee 1d. for every 5 hanks.
2 WENCH ce 6 Glia ay Ce a ine 4d. for every 5 hanks.
PEODIStO OOS: fF add) Pike MOM tbe Ben 8 | 24. for every 5 hanks,
x2
308 REPORT— 1887,
2. Tnist.
Blackburn
From 14’s to 20’s ._ . in proportion + 1% for each hank,
, 20’s to 24’s . os a. Sk. ce +2% ps
» 24sto30’s. . is sey -~ae A
auld . . the standard.
5) (B28 torsos) PNproportion al) a)... 75 903
Above 36’s 5 . . . .. «. +996 for every 6 hanks,
Burnley
From 14’s to 18’s . .in proportion ...... +41 % foreach hank.
» 20’s to 22’s . - Silt le Sa aa 2 A;
5) eA SbOIZ8is sy an —-14% “4
POIs . . the standard. 4
, 32’sto 36’s . . in proportion + 2% for every 2 hanks.
39) HOS) DON OU'S) «aks 5 = ee *
Preston . . . . Same as Burnley, beginning at 24’s.
Bolton '
From 48’s to 32’s .
. deduct 1 % for every 2 hanks.
» 50's . the standard.
Over 50’s . add 2 % for every 2 hanks.
Hyde .. . same as for weft.
Stockport . 4
Ashton
From 30's to 34’s .
. deduct +d. for every 2 hanks.
3) poo . the standard.
», 40's . . add 3d.
, 45’s to 50’s. . add 12d. for every 5 hanks.
, bd’s to 65’s. . add ld. >
4, Variation for Turns.
The length of yarn spun in a given time depends not only on the
fineness, but on the number of turns given to the thread by the
machinery. Hence a standard has been adopted which regulates the
number of turns to be given per inch for each count of yarn. Any
variation in the number of turns necessitates a variation in wages ; the
more turns put in the greater the rate of wages. The principle is the
same as that which underlies the extra allowance for the fine yarns. The
more turns the less yarn spun in a given time.
The usual rule adopted is this: Multiply the square root of the count
by 3°75 for twist, and 3°25 for weft, but in the new Bolton list the rule
is: Multiply the square root of the counts by 3-606 for twist, 3394 for
reeled yarn, and 3'186 for weft.
Extra ALLOWANCES.
(a) Spinning weft on twist mules.—
Extra
allowance
Blackburn 3 % unless spun in large cops.
keer! 5 % except when speed of spindle is equal to speed of
Bury weft spindles of same mill on the same counts. In
Achton the latter case the Ashton list allows 3 % extra.
(b) Turning strings—The spindles usually revolve from right to
left. Sometimes it is desirable to spin by making them revolve from
left to right, and then it is necessary to alter the strings which make
the spindles revolve.
1 See table in new list.
ON THE REGULATION OF WAGES IN THE COTTON INDUSTRY. 309
The allowance allowed by some of the lists is as follows :—
Ashton . . Average wages that would otherwise have been earned.
Hyde. . 24d. per 100 spindles.
Bolton . . 2s. 03d. for 600 spindles or under, with 2}d. for every 50 spindles
additional
(c) Resetting mules, §c.—When the machinery is being repaired the
presence of the minder is necessary, owing to his special knowledge of the
mule. For his assistance on such occasions he is paid :—
ose
Under Blackburn list . F ; : - O 3 Oaday.
# Bolton » 21s. per week if both mules
stopped; if one mule only
stopped, 30s. per week, but
no payment for yarn spun
ie Ashton ,, ; ; : F : 1 1 Oper week.
7 Oldham , . ‘ : , A 0 O 6an hour.
+5 3 » mules from 57-76 doz. OO MDS. 255
_ A » largermules . <p OO ns
If the piecer be also employed he is paid by the employer.
(d) Renewals—A renewal is to be distinguished from a resetting.
The latter refers to the overhauling of the entire mule; the former
means a temporary stoppage by the overseer in order to replace some
particular part of the mule. >
The Blackburn and Bolton lists provide that the minder is to be paid,
if required, the same rate as for resetting, provided the stoppage be for
24 hours.
(e) Stripping.—‘ Stripping,’ or ‘breaking out,’ means taking the
bobbins with a certain kind of cotton off the mule in order to replace
them with bobbins of another kind of cotton, so as to spin a different
quality or fineness of yarn.
The Blackburn, Burnley, Preston, and Bury lists allow 1s. 6d. for a
mule containing 400 to 500 rovings in each wheel, and for every 100
rovings above 500, 6d. per 100 extra. The Preston and Bury lists provide
for stripping wheels containing under 400 rovings, and allow ls. 3d.
The Ashton and Stockport lists allow 2d., and the Hyde list 25d., for every
100 bobbins ; whilst the Bolton list allows at the rate of 3s. 3d. per 600
spindles or under, with 3d. for every additional 50 spindles.
(f) Tubing.—Tubing means the placing of a tube on the spindle on
which the yarn is spun.
The Blackburn and Preston lists allow 4d. for every 100 lbs. of weft
and 2d. for every 100 lbs. of twist for tubing with the apparatus.
For tubing by the hand the Preston list allows 6d. a doffing.
The Bury list has no rule.
The Hyde and Stockport pay for tubing according to the weight of
the yarn. The former list allows 8d. per 100 lbs. weft, and 6d. per 100 lbs.
twist; the latter 4d. per 100 lbs. weft, and 2d. per 100 lbs. twist.
For tubing pin cops.—The Burnley list allows one-eighth of a penny
per set per lb. weight of such set when spinning 60’s to 100’s, with a
penny per set added for every 10 hanks finer than 100’s, and a reduction
of one halfpenny per set for every 10 hanks when spinning 60’s to 20’s.
For large cops the amount allowed depends on the counts and number
_ of spindles.
(g) Starching.—When the yarn is not spun on tubes it is necessary, in
order to prevent the thread at the end of the cop from becoming loose or
310 REPORT-—1887.
being injured after the cop is taken off the spindle, to apply a certain
amount of starch.
The allowance for starching is as follows :—
Weft Twist é
Blackburn . 5 - 2d. 1d. per 100 lbs.
Hyde 3 . : e+ Ad. 03d. Bn
Stockport . ; 2 . 2d. 1d. oe
Bury. bs = 5 eae. 1d. 33
(h) Cop and bobbin carrier.—The cops or bobbins require to be taken
off the mule and carried to the warehouse. If such duty falls on the
minder he is entitled to extra pay as follows:—
Ashton . : « $d. per 1,000 hanks—i.e., td. for cop-carrier and 4d.
for bobbin-carrier
Oldham 2 . 13d. per 100 lbs. 1d. per 1,000 lbs. if hoist be used.
Bury . : » 13d. per 1,000 hanks
In the new Bolton list the extra payment is determined by the com-
mittees of the two associations.
Tae New Botton List.
The new Bolton list has been issued so recently that it has been
impossible to give it the detailed examination it requires. No other list
except the Oldham list contains so many details, or so carefully defines
the extra allowances, and it even goes so far as to specify what days are
to be recognised as holidays.
Tue OnpHam List.
The Oldham list differs in several important points from the lists in
other parts of Lancashire. It is based on payment according to the
actual length of yarn spun as measured by a self-acting indicator affixed
tothe mule. The standard wage is not a fixed amount per 100 lbs., but
a certain normal weekly wage varying with the number of spindles on
the mule. This normal wage is supposed to be the amount that could be
earned in a normal week, the mules running at a normal speed. For
instance, the normal wages per week for a mule containing 100 dozen
spindles is 3/. 9s. 2d., which is supposed to be earned in a normal week
of 3,230 minutes, the mule running at a normal rate of three draws of
63 inches in every 50 seconds.
It is further implied—
(a) That the mule is a self-acting mule—i.e., the list does not apply
to double-decked mules, odd mules, three mules, or hand mules.
(b) That the cotton used is of an average quality—.e., that it is
neither of a low quality nor of a superior quality.
As a rule, the minder will earn the normal wages ; but if he neglects
his work or is idle, the amount he will spin in a week will be less than
the normal amount, and he is paid less accordingly.
Two advantages are claimed for the Oldham list as compared with
the other lists: (1) that payment by length is more equitable to the
operatives than payment by weight, as no mistake is possible as to the
amount of yarn produced. Payment by weight without regard to
fineness would, as has been pointed out, have this serious result, that
the minder who was spinning fine yarns would receive less wages than
he who was spinning coarse yarns ; for, though both would spin the same
}
ON THE REGULATION OF WAGES IN THE COTTON INDUSTRY. 31]
amount in length in a given time, assuming the turns per inch to be the
same, the difference in weight would be very great. Hence where pay-
ment is by weight, the rate of wages increases with the number of counts
or fineness. There are no indicators to register the fineness of the yarn,
and if any mistake be made the operative may suffer. On the other hand,
where payment is by length, no mistake is possible, and the indicator by
registering the length indirectly registers the fineness of the yarn.
(2) The second advantage claimed for the Oldham list is that it
divides the advantage resulting from an increased speed with the employer.
The employer is therefore interested in improving his machinery. It is
said that this principle has been one of the causes that has led to the
development of the Oldham spinning trade. An employer evidently has
no motive to adopt new and improved methods if the whole of the advan-
tage is reaped by the operatives. Recognising this, the Oldham employers
and employed have adopted the equitable rule of dividing the advantage
between them. The same principle is found in all the lists as regards the
‘advantage resulting from an increase in the number of spindles ; but it is
claimed that the Oldham list is the only one that adopts the principle in
regard to speed.
(a) The normal week.—The normal week is not an absolutely fixed
time. An allowance is made for the necessary time that the mule is at
rest. The first allowance is for cleaning and accidental stoppages: for
this the allowance is 15 hours. The second allowance is for doffing, that
is, for taking the cops off the spindles, and varies with the size of the
mule. For mules of sixty dozen of spindles, it is 5 minutes ; of over sixty
dozen and under ninety dozen, 6 minutes, and above ninety dozen, 7 minutes
for each doffing. Suppose, for instance, that the cops are removed ten
times in a week from a mule of 100 dozen of spindles, the allowance of
time would be 70 minutes. These new classes of allowances are deducted
from the maximum working week of 563 hours, and the result is the
average time a mule will run during a week.
(b) The draw.—Kach time that the head of the mule moves outwards
and returns, a certain fixed length of yarn is spun—e.g., 63 or more inches.
The total amount of yarn spun in a given time evidently depends on the
number of times the head moves outwards and returns. The Oldham
list takes as a standard speed three draws or movements of 63 inches in
length every 50 seconds. The amount of yarn spun in 50 seconds will
be 63 x 3 inches on each spindle, as the length of 63 inches is constant
and as the speed is always calculated with reference to the number of
seconds required for three draws.
The quicker the speed the greater the amount of yarn spun, and there-
fore in the absence of any special rule the greater the amount of wages.
Under such circumstances the employer would derive no advantage except
in so far as he was enabled to place a greater supply on the market.
From one point of view he would be under a positive disadvantage, as the
quicker speed would wear out the machinery ina shorter time than other-
wise would be the case. The Oldham list recognises that the employer
should share with the employed in the advantage resulting from increased
speed, and divides the advantage equally between them. A table will be
found in the list in which this allowance has been worked out in detail,
and which is based on the principle that for every second less than the
standard number, 50, taken by the mule head to move three times, a
certain amount is to be added to the weekly wages, varying with the
312 REPORT— 1887.
number of spindles. For instance, on a mule of 100 dozen spindles 82d. is
allowed for every second.
Extra Allowances.
Breakage.—2} per cent. is allowed for breakage, but the self-acting
indicator is so constructed as to make this allowance.
Fineness.—As the Oldham list pays by length, and not by weight, it is
not necessary, as a rule, to take the fineness of the yarn into account, as a
mule will in a week spin the same length of fine yarn as of coarse yarn,
assuming the turns per inch to be the same.
An exception is made in the case of 24’s, and under, where an extra
allowance is made.
Bobbin carrier—If a bobbin carrier is not provided 14d. per 100 lbs.
of yarn extra is allowed; if a hoist for carrying the bobbins to another
room is provided but no carrier then 1d. per 100 lbs. is the allowance.
How Wages are Calculated.
The calculation to be gone through may be thrown into the following
general formula :—
Let W=normal wages per week.
a=allowance for speed.
w=extra allowances.
Then W +a+z=normal wages per week.
Let S=number of spindles.
d=number of seconds in which three draws occur of
63 inches in length.
m=number of seconds in a normal working week.
K=number of inches in a hank.
H=number of hanks spun in a normal week from one
mule.
I=amount actually spun, as shown by indicator.
Then
8x63 x3 ‘
SLE ERR amount spun in a second,
S x63 x3 2 x8 Xm = amount in inches spun in a normal week.
Sx xSie x 2 == number of hanks that could be spun in normal
week = H.
Deduct 23 per cent. for breakages :
_ sag = number of hanks allowing for breakages.
And since W+a+a=normal wages,
W+a+za
H— = = rate (R) per hank that is to be paid for the actual amount
spun.
RxI gives the wages payable.
ON THE REGULATION OF WAGES IN THE COTTON INDUSTRY. 313
An actual illustration may be given. Suppose a mule of 100 dozen
of spindles (1,200) to be spinning 32’s, and running 3 draws of 63 inches
in 45 seconds, the number of doffings being 10 in the week:
W=£3 9s. 2d.
a=3s. 5d., as the list gives an allowance of 81d. for every second on
mules of 100 spindles.
2=2s. 6d., assuming no bobbin-carrier is employed, as will appear
lower down.
“. W+a+a=3). lds. 1d.
S=the number of spindles—.e., 200.
d=405 seconds.
m=3,230 seconds.
From 56} hours deduct the usual 14 hours for cleaning. For the 10
doffings deduct 7 minutes per doffing according to the list, and the result
is the normal week given above.
565—14—7°=3230 seconds.
K=840 x 12x38.
There are 840 yards in a hank.
ik
1200 x 63 x3 We.
Then Say cas ie x 32380 x 30x12 x3 = 32300.
.*. 32300 x 2=64600, or the number of hanks spun from a pair of
mules in a normal week.
64600
32
allowance for bobbin carrier is calculated at the rate of 15d. per 100 lbs.
From 64600 deduct 24 per cent. for breakages. This leaves 62985 ;
| Ee ae = 14'30d., or the rate per hank to be paid for the actual
amount spun.
The actual amount spun is shown by the indicator, and this multiplied
by 14°30d. gives the wages paid to the minder.
= 2018 = number of lbs. spun in normal week from which the
VARIATION OF WAGES UNDER OLDHAM List.
Oct. 22,1877. ‘ : 5 per cent. reduction
May 27, 1878 aie :
Nov. 25, 1878 ete? ss
Oct. 20, 1879 ea ri
Feb. 9, 1880 5 a advance
Jan. 1881 5
»? »
ORIGIN OF THE Lists.
The first list known in the spinning trade was that adopted at Preston
in 1859. Mr. Banks, of Preston, who has been a member of the Cotton
Spinners’ Association for over fifty years, gives the following account of
the origin of the list :~—
‘As far back as 1836 I remember that every mill had its own list
of wages based on a certain sum per 1,000 draws, say, for 36 weft, 660
spindles, 2s., the working day being 12 hours, 25.000 to 25,500 draws a
week being produced. In 1859 there was a strike at Simpson’s Park
314 REPORT—1887.
Lane Mills, where wages were lower than at any other mill in the town.
The result of the strike was to raise the wages at these mills. And the
first list was then formed, being based on the average paid in the town.
This did not prove satisfactory and another list was made in 1866 based
on the average of eleven districts, and turned ont to be a great advance on
the former list, giving in many cases 15s. a head increase.’
This view of the origin of the lists, viz., that they were based on the
average wages paid in the districts in which they were adopted, is borne
out by the evidence of those concerned in drawing them up. Their sub-
sequent development is marked chiefly by (1) the gradual definition of
the normal duties of the minder by specifying the allowances he is en-
titled to for extra duties, (2) the working out of the principles in detail,
and (3) the formation of the Oldham list.
Errects or THE Lists.
The lists have not succeeded in removing all probability of dispute
between employer and employed. They have, it is true, introduced
uniformity into the payment of wages in the cotton trade, caused wages
to be payable on definite and known principles, adjusted the wages of
different classes of spinners, and defined strictly the duties of the opera-
tive; but they do not make wages vary either with the varying cost of
the raw material or the varying prices realised for the finished product.
The standard, in other words, implies a given condition of trade. A
_ changed condition, e.g., a rise or fall in the price of yarn, when fully
established results in a percentage being added to or taken from the
wages payable. The method of determining the occasion and the amount
of alteration is determined by negotiation between the association of
employers and the association of spinners. Strange to say, the lists do
not provide that such an important matter should be referred to arbitra-
tion in case an agreement cannot be arrived at; but the new Bolton list,
issued only a few weeks ago, does contain a provision that matters in
dispute shall be referred to a joint committee. It is difficult to see how
the price either of the raw material or of the yarn could be taken into
account without making the lists exceedingly complex, and as they now
stand they are necessarily anything but simple. To ascertain the prices
given or realised would entail a great amount of labour, and as far as can
be ascertained no such proposal to add these additional elements to the
lists has been made by either the employer or employed.
The Committee desire to express their thanks to those gentlemen who
have assisted so ably in furnishing materials for the reports. They are
specially indebted to Mr. J. Mawdsley, Secretary of the Amalgamated
Association of Operative Cotton Spinners; Mr. T. Birtwistle, Secretary
of the Weavers’ Association ; Mr. J. C. Fielden, of Manchester; and Mr.
J. T. Fielding, of Bolton.
WEAVING.
Tue Committee have been able to secure twenty-two lists that have been
or are now in force in the weaving industry. Of these lists the most
important are the Blackburn list of 1853 for plain cloth, and the North
and North-east Lancashire list of 1887 for fancy cloth. The Burnley,
ON THE REGULATION OF WAGES IN THE COTTON INDUSTRY. 315
| Chorley, and Preston lists are based on the Blackburn list, and relate to
a fine class of goods. The Hyde, Stockport, and Ashton lists have been
gradually superseded by the Blackburn list as regards plain cloth.
The Nelson satin list and the Chorley fancy list have been combined into
the North and North-east Lancashire fancy list. The Oldham list
relates to velvets and heavy goods.
The lists may therefore be divided into two classes: (1) those regu-
lating wages for weaving plain cloth, and (2) those regulating wages for
weaving fancy cloth. The Blackburn list may be taken as the type of
the former, and the North and North-east Lancashire as the type of the
latter class.
I. Toe Buacksurn List ror Puatn Ciora.
The Blackburn list was framed in 1853, and was based on the average
wages paid by different firms at that time. The leading principles of the
original list are still followed, but the application of the list has in the
course of years been worked out in detail. A distinction is drawn be-
tween the work of attending the loom whilst the cloth is being woven,
and work incident to weaving but not forming part of the normal duties
of the weaver,
i, Tor STANDARD.
The standard wages is 12-25d. for weaving 374 yards of cloth, of from
36 to 41 inches wide, containing 16 threads or picks of weft in the } inch
in a loom of 40 inches wide, using a reed which contains 60 threads or
ends of twist in the inch, the materials used being 30’s to 60’s weft and
28's to 45’s twist.
Examining this standard it will be found that all the elements may be
brought under four heads :—
(1) The fineness of the yarn or materials.
(2) The closeness of the threads.
(8) The width of the cloth.
(4) The length of the cloth.
No regard is had, as in the sliding scale, to the price the manutacturer
will receive for the cloth, except in so far as any one or all of these
elements affect the price that the cloth will realise. The price is taken
into account in another way, viz., by the operatives obtaining an addition
to, or the employers enforcing a reduction of, so much per cent. owing to
increased or lower prices being received.
The following table shows the actual course of wages since the list
was adopted :—
Aug. 17, 1853, list adopted.
Aug. 19, 1853, advance on list. ; . 10 percent.
May 19, 1854, return to list.
Mar. 10, 1860, advance . é ; 7). Oper eent.
Feb. 7, 1861, return to list.
April 15, 1867, list revised.
May 6, 1869, reduction on list . : - 5 per cent.
July 28, 1870, return to list.
June 19, 1878, reduction (after strike) . . 10 per cent.
April 2, 1879, reduction : é . 15 per cent.
1881, advance of 5 per cent., leaving wages 10 per cent. under list.
_ There can be no doubt that the want of dependence between the wages
paid and the price realised is one disadvantage of the list as compared
316 REPORT— 1887.
with the sliding scale. It would, however, be extremely difficult to take
the price of the product into account, more especially as the manufacturer
is always liable to be affected by the ever-varying cost of the raw material.
In the coal trade the cost of the raw material, viz., the coal, is practically
constant, as it is governed by a lease made for a long period of time,
whereas the supply, and therefore the price of cotton, depends on ever-
varying conditions.
li. VARIATIONS.
The important practical use of the list is that it adjusts the wages of
operatives engaged in weaving different kinds of cloths, of varying degrees
of fineness, widths, and lengths.
1. Fineness of the Materials.
The fineness of the materials used, 7.e., the twist and the weft, bears
closely on the fineness of the cloth. The finer the reed through which the
warp passes, the greater the number of ends or threads to be watched, and
the greater the number of breakages of the threads. More skill is there-
fore required to attend a loom weaving fine cloth than one weaving a
coarser cloth. By skill is meant mental skill and manual dexterity rather
than bodily labour, though the actual number of bodily operations tends
to increase with the fineness of the yarn used.
The weaving of the coarser yarns involves greater bodily labour
though not greater skill, and such increased labour is paid ata higher rate
though less wages may be earned. Hence the rate of wages increases as
the materials become (a) finer, or (b) coarser.
The fineness of the materials is indicated by the number of lengths of
840 yards, z.e., hanks required to weigh 1 lb., e.g., 30’s means yarn of which
30 lengths of 840 yards weigh 1 Ib.
The standard yarn is yarn from 30’s to 60’s weft and 28’s to 45’s
twist. Such yarn is regarded as medium. For yarns of other degrees of
fineness the allowance is as follows :—
Weft.
14’s and under 16’s add 10 per cent.
16’s ” ” 20’s ” 8 ”
20's ,, » 26's , 5 ”
26’s ” as 30’s ” 2 ”
30’s to 60’s standard.
Above 60’s add 1 per cent. for every 10 hanks.
Twist.
14’s and under 20’s add 2 per cent.
20’s_;, eo Sines. tl
28’s to 45’s standard.
Above 45’s and under 60’s add 13 per cent.
Above 60’s ,, 1 és for every 10 hanks.
Closely connected with fineness is the closeness of the threads in the
cloth. The more threads in an inch of cloth the more work there is to be
done by the weaver, and where fine yarn is employed the greater skill is
required. In regulating the variations for closeness the lists distinguish
between the warp or twist and the weft.
ee Ee ee eee leer ermrmrmc . _ e_C—O =
4
a
ON THE REGULATION OF WAGES IN THE COTTON INDUSTRY. 317
2. Closeness of the Threads.
The warp or twist is drawn through what are known as a set of
gears, comprising healds and reeds. The healds have loops through which
each thread passes, each thread occupying a separate loop. The threads
then pass through the reed, which is divided into spaces, two threads as a
rule passing through each space, though in certain special classes of cloth
one to six threads may pass through together.
The closeness of the warp depends on the number of threads or ends
in aninch. In the Blackburn and Burnley lists a ‘ 60 reed,’ i.e., a reed
containing 60 threads or ends in every inch, is the standard.
When a coarser reed is used the Blackburn list deducts 2 per cent.
for every two ends or counts down to 48, but below 48 no deduction is
made. The Burnley list allows a similar deduction down to 52, no
deduction being made for reeds below that size.
When finer reeds are used ? per cent. is added for every two ends or
counts above 60, but in the Burnley list the addition is 1 per cent. for
every two ends or counts above 68.
Weft.
The closeness of the weft which is driven by means of a shuttle be-
tween the warp can be calculated in two ways, either by actually counting
the number of threads in a } inch or by a formula based on the sizes of
the wheels and beams in the loom. Both methods ought to give the same
result, as the looms are so constructed that they can be made to weave
cloth of any degree of closeness. A single thread of the weft is called a
‘pick’ or ‘shot,’ and the Blackburn list takes as a standard 16 picks to
the 4 inch.
The formula referred to above is as follows :—
Let +r = number of teeth in the rack wheel
— > stud ”
i “ beam _,,
— little pinion wheel
”
¢ = circumference of emery beam
w= number of teeth in change wheel
T XR OD
Then px4e
= mathematical dividend (M).
To this add 13 per cent., so as to allow for contraction of the cloth
between the loom and the counter.
M
M+ 80 = Practical dividend (P).
e
W = number of picks per } inch.
Of the various wheels referred to above the only one that is varied in
a loom so as to vary the closeness of the weft is W, which is called the
change wheel. The other wheels are constant, and, therefore, for a given
loom the dividend is constant. In the Blackburn list will be found the
dividends for the various makes of looms found in North-east Lancashire,
and hence the only other element required in order to calculate the
number of picks per 4 inch is the size of the change wheel.
318 REPORT—1887.
The variation for picks is reckoned as follows: 16 picks to the } inch
are taken as the standard. For cloth containing over 8 and up to 18
picks wages vary in proportion to the number of picks, but in the case
of cloth containing fewer than 8 or more than 18 picks to the { inch
1 per cent. is allowed for every pick over and above the proportionate
difference in the number of picks. This extra allowance is said to be in
respect of the higher skill and increased labour required from the
operative.
3. Width of the Oloth.
The wider the cloth the higher the rate of wages, as the more skill and
labour are required. A 40-inch loom with 45-inch reed space is taken as
the standard. For looms of a narrower width 1 per cent. per inch is
deducted down to 30 inches; below 30 inches and down to 26 inches
5 per cent. per inch is deducted. Above 40 inches 1 per cent. per inch
is added up to 45 inches, and above 45 inches 2 per cent. per inch is
added. Strict rules are laid down prescribing the width of cloth to be
woven in a loom of a given width. For instance, a 30-inch loom is sup-
osed to weave cloth from 27 to 31 inches; a 40-inch loom, cloth from
36 to 41 inches, and so on [see Blackburn list].
Sometimes it may be necessary to depart from this principle, and to
weave narrow cloth ina broad loom. In such case you deduct from the
wages payable for weaving the prescribed width on such broad loom half
the difference between such wages and the wages payable for weaving
the narrow cloth on its prescribed loom. For instance, if cloth 27 to 31
inches (which ought to be woven on a 30-inch loom) is woven on a 40-inch
loom, you deduct from the wages payable for a 40-inch loom one-half the
difference between such wages and the wages payable on a 30-inch loom.
4. Length of the Cloth.
371 yards is the standard length of cloth. ‘The list gives the rate for
weaving various other lengths, including 100 yards, and hence the rate
per yard can easily be calculated.
ORDER IN WHICH ALLOWANCES ARE TO BE MADE.
In calculating wages the allowances are to be made in the following
order :—
(1) Allowance for reeds
(2) » materials
(3) » picks
(4) 3 widths.
Suppose it is desired to find the wages for weaving 374 yards (the
standard length) 39 inches wide on a 40-inch loom (the proper loom for
that width of cloth), 60 reed (the standard reed), 32’s twist, 34’s weft
(these being standard counts), 35 change wheel, 507 dividend.
507
35
The tables give as the wages for one pick under the above conditions
7656.
= 14-486, the number of picks.
As 1 pick : 14486 : : ‘7656 : 11:0904816.
An ingenious method has been adopted for facilitating the calculation.
ON THE REGULATION OF WAGES IN THE COTTON INDUSTRY. 319
_ The standard length, as has been pointed out, is 374 yards, containing
16 picks per 1 inch, for which the weaver is paid 12°25d., that is, at the
rate of *765625 per pick. Mr. Birtwistle has worked out the rate per
pick for six different lengths, viz., 375, 24, 46,58, 60, and 100 yards. The
last-mentioned rate is most useful, as you can at once find the rate per
pick of 1 yard and then calculate the wages for any number of yards.
The wages for weaving 373 yards being thus known, the wages for any
length of the same cloth can be easily calculated.
The next example illustrates the calculation where the fineness of the
_ reed, the fineness of the materials, and the length to be woven vary from
the standard.
Find the wages for weaving 234 yards of cloth 43 inches wide in a
45-inch loom (t.e., the proper loom for this width of cloth), 96 reed, 60’s
twist, 80’s weft, 21 change wheel, 609 dividend.
609
OL = 2, picks. i
: The tables do not give the rate per pick for 23} yards, but they give
:
it for 100 yards of standard materials, viz., 2'4332. For one yard the rate
would be ‘024332. This, it will be seen, includes all allowance for the
extra fineness of the reed.
"024332 x 29 x 23:5 yards = 16°582258, or the wages for weaving
233 yards of cloth containing 29 picks to the } inch. We have now to
allow for the variation (1) in materials, (2) in picks from the standard;
viz., (1) 15 per cent. for twist and 2 per cent. for weft, i.e., 34 per cent.,
and then (2) 11 per cent. for the extra picks.
16°582258
add 3} per cent. 58037903
17°16263703
add 11 per cent. 1°8878900733
19:0505271033 wages.!
The next example illustrates the calculation where narrow cloth is
woven in a broad loom.
Find the price for weaving 38 yards of cloth 35 inches wide in a
40-inch loom, 36 reed, 52’s twist, 40’s weft, 71 change wheel, 428 dividend.
ee 6:028 picks.
100 yards on 40-inch loom 48 reed = 1:9498
i 35 = 1-8523
2)3°8021
190105
The rate per yard would be ‘090105.
Then ‘090105 x 6:028 picks x 38 yards = 4°35462. To this must be
added 3 per cent. per pick.
4°35462
1306386
44852586 d.
Present rate (1887) is 10 per cent. below this.
320 REPORT—1887.
VARIETIES oF Puatn Cioran.
The Blackburn list, it will be found, makes provision for varieties ot
cloth not properly called plain cloth. If the cloth has an ornamental
coloured border it is called ‘ plain dhooty,’ and for weaving this 10 per
cent. extra is allowed. ‘Dobbie dhooty’s’ mean cloths which have a
raised or figured pattern, and for some of these from 20 to 50 per cent.
extra is paid. ‘Splits,’ or cloth with a double salvage down the centre,
are also specially provided for.
II. Tue Norra anp Norts-gzast LANcAsHIRE List ror Fancy Cuora.
This list, which has been widely adopted, regulates the wages paid for
weaving various kinds of fancy cloth, such as brocades, damasks, stripes,
satins. The principle adopted is to pay a certain percentage over that
paid for plain cloth. Three classes of cloth are specially provided for :—
(1) Double lift Jacquards.
Plain grounds, 30 per cent. extra,
Satin grounds, 25 i.
Lace brocades, 5 =
(2) Dobbie and Tappet motions.
The percentage varies with the number of staves.
(3) Satins, &e.
Eight per cent. additional to be paid for cloth up to 25 picks,
and for every additional pick 5 per cent. extra.
These figures are sufficient to indicate the method adopted for fixing
wages in the fancy cloth trade. An intimate knowledge of the weaving
industry is necessary in order to understand the technical terms used, but
for the purposes of this report it is only necessary to point out that the
fancy list is based on the plain list, and that the extra wages is a recom-
pense for a high degree of skill and for increased labour.
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor BALFouR
Srewart (Secretary), Professor W. G. Avams, Mr. W. Lanr
Carpenter, Mr. C. H. Carpmart, Mr. W. H. M. Curistiz
(Astronomer Royal), Professor G. Curystat, Staff Commander
Creak, Professor G. H. Darwin, Mr. Witu1am Ettis, Sir J. H.
Lerroy, Professor 8S. J. Perry, Professor Scuusrer, Sir W.
Tuomson, and Mr. G. M. WuIPPLe, appointed for the purpose of
considering the best means of Comparing and Reducing Mag-
netic Observations. (Drawn wp by Professor BaLrour STEWART.)
[Puates I. and II]
Since their last report this Committee have met twice at 22 Albemarle
Street, London, W.
At the first of these meetings, which took place on November 13
1886, it was resolved that the establishment of regular magnetic observa-
tions at the Cape of Good Hope and in South America would materially
contribute to our knowledge of terrestrial magnetism.
ar ene Se
a Se
ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 321
It was also resolved that it is desirable to determine if the luni-solar
variation be dependent on the state of the sun’s surface.
Regarding this resolution, the Secretary has quite recently received
the following communication from Mr. C. Chambers : ‘ We are extending
the general investigation, as our limited computing force admits, to other
quarters, so that any variation with the sun-spot period will make itself
apparent in due course, and I will give you early notice of the fact when
any definite evidence becomes available.’
The last of these meetings took place on June 30,1887. In this
meeting it was resolved ‘ that in the opinion of this Committee the time has
now arrived when steps should be taken to obtain with as little labour as
possible sufficiently accurate values of the simultaneous solar-diurnal
variations of the magnetic elements at various stations throughout the
globe.’ -
It is hoped that the directors of the various observatories in
which self-recording magnetographs are in action will join in this move-
ment, and in order to leave them sufficient time for preparation it is
proposed that a commencement be made on January 1, 1889. The
Committee propose to confine their simultaneous comparison to certain
selected days for which there are reasonably smooth registers at
Greenwich or Kew. It is believed that these days will, in all probability,
be of a similar character for the other stations; but in case there is slight
disturbance at any station for any of the selected days this may be got
rid of by the method pursued at Greenwich, where the practice has been
to draw a pencil curve smoothing down the irregularities of the trace.
Photographic records, or hourly measurements of these curves, smoothed
when necessary, are desired by the Committee.
For this purpose it will be necessary to know the scale-coefficient for
the three magnetographs, as well as the temperature-coefficient for the
horizontal and vertical force magnetographs. It will likewise be neces-
sary to have a sufficiently accurate record of the variation of temperature
for each of the selected days at the self-recording chamber of each of the
stations. The Committee would make the following suggestions as to
the method of obtaining the scale and the temperature coeflicients.
(1.) Scale-coefficients.
There can be no doubt about the scale-coefficient for the declination
magnetograph.
The scale-coefficients for the two force magnetographs are determined
by the method of deflections, for which suitable apparatus is provided for
each observatory, and observations of deflection are made at two or more
different distances of the deflectors. There is an absolute necessity for using
two or more different distances in determining the scale-coefficient of the
vertical force instrament, for we have here to prove that the knife-edge
is sufficiently good; and the best way of doing this is to be sure that the
scale-coefficient is the same both for small and for large departures as
determined by means of deflections at two or more different distances
of the deflectors,
It is desirable that the measurements of the horizontal and vertical
forces should be expressed in terms of absolute value in C.G.S. units, and
that the scale value ‘0005 C.G.S. units for 1 centimetre be adopted for
horizontal and vertical force instruments of the Kew pattern.
1887. Y
322 REPORT—1887.
(2.) Temperature-coeficients.
In the opinion of this Committee the best method of determining the
temperature-coefficients of the two force magnetographs is by alternately
heating and cooling the magnetograph room, the former operation being
conducted by means of a stove devoid of iron. Two sets of experiments
are desirable, one in summer and one in winter. The Committee are
likewise of opinion that it is necessary to obtain separate coefficients for
ascending and descending temperatures, inasmuch as the behaviour of
magnets with respect to temperature is not perfectly reversible.
More especially will this be necessary in the case of the Balance, or
vertical force magnet, for if this has its temperature-coefficient partly
corrected by means of a zinc bar the uncompensated portion may be
very different for ascending and descending temperatures. The director of
any observatory who is willing to co-operate with the Committeeis requested
to communicate with Professor W. G. Adams, King’s College, London.
The Rev. S. J. Perry and Professor Stewart are continuing their com-
parison of simultaneous magnetic fluctuations at Kew and Stonyhurst.
Professor Schuster has recently communicated to the Royal Society
a paper entitled ‘Experiments on the Discharge of Electricity through
Gases,’ which bears upon the work of this Committee.
These experiments show ‘that a steady current of electricity can be
obtained in air from electrodes at the ordinary temperature, which are at
a difference of potential of one-quarter of a volt only (and probably less),
provided that an independent current is maintained in the same closed
vessel.’
Professor Schuster makes likewise the following remark: ‘I have last
year obtained, by calculation, results which seem to show that the prin-
cipal cause of the diurnal variation of terrestrial magnetism is to be
looked for in the upper regions of the atmosphere. Professor Balfour
Stewart at various times suggested that the air-currents in these regions
may, owing to the lines of force of terrestrial magnetism, have electric
currents circulating in them. The difficulty against this supposition
always seemed to me to lie in the fact that the electromotive forces
required to start a current were larger than those which could possibly
exist in the atmosphere. But as there are very likely continuous electric
disturbances going on, such as we observe in aurors# and thunderstorms,
the regions within which these changes take place would act as con-
ductors for any additional electromotive force, however small, so that any
regular motion, such as tidal motions, could very well produce periodic
effects affecting our magnetic needles.
‘If these original discharges increase in importance, then, according to
the results obtained in this paper, the currents due to the smaller periodic
causes would increase also, and they may increase in a very rapid ratio.
We know that the electric discharges in the upper regions of the atmo-
sphere are considerably stronger at times of many sun-spots; and this
may account for the fact that at those times the amplitude of the daily
oscillation of the magnetic needle is considerably increased.’
There are six appendices attached to this report. The first and second
of these are by Dr. Buys-Ballot, describing his method of separating be-
tween disturbed and undisturbed magnetic observations. The third is a
list of stations at which magnetic observations have been made, compiled
by Sir J. Henry Lefroy and Mr. Whipple. The fourth is a continuation
ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. yas
by Messrs. Stewart and Carpenter of their last report, in which Kew De-
clination Disturbances are classified according to the age of the moon,
and in which likewise a comparison is made between declination dis-
turbances and wind values with the object of finding whether there is any
relation between these two phenomena. The fifth consists of some
remarks by Sir J. Henry Lefroy on disturbances near the north magnetic
_ pole; and the sixth, of some remarks by Mr. C. Chambers on the luni-
solar variation of the vertical magnetic force at Bombay.
The Committee have drawn 26/. 2s., and returned to the Association
a balance of 137. 18s. They would desire their re-appointment, and
would request that the sam of 15/. should be placed at their disposal, to
be spent as they think best on the subjects mentioned in this report.
Appenpix I. Letter from Dr. Buys-Bauuor to the Secretary.
in the Second Report of the Committee on Comparing and Reducing
Magnetic Observations it has been said, p. 51, ‘ Sabine’s method has done
good work in the past undoubtedly, but now the question has arisen,
Has a better been proposed ? ’
You give some other propositions but do not mention mine, which
I gaye in 1862: ‘Versl. der sectievergaderingen van het Prov. Utr.
Genootschap.’
: To this inquiry I was compelled by the very words of General Sabine,
preface to the ‘St. Helena Observations,’ page xiv.: ‘Until sufficient
data should be obtained for the establishment of general laws regulating
the times of occurrence and approximate magnitude of the disturbances
; in different parts of the globe the elimination of their influence by a pro-
cess similar to that adopted at the colonial observatories, or by some
: process which should more effectually answer the purpose, must be a
mecessary preliminary to all precise investigations on other points.’
: Now I ventured to imagine that the first question is: How to find the
normal values of the declination and other elements, in order to know
positively what are to be considered as disturbances? Acknowledging that
a distinguished philosopher such as General Sabine had great experience
and tact to distinguish the perturbed from the normal observations, it
seemed to me that when the observations of several places are brought
into comparison with one another, it were better to give a rule for sepa-
rating the disturbances.
I proposed to take the general means of all observations without ex-
ception, and then to take the deviations, and to consider them all as dis-
turbances. Further, I investigate in what manner the disturbances of
different size, 0-1, 1-2, &c., minutes, occur at the various hours of the
day, and fix the limit of ordinary and larger disturbances for each
place, at that size, where the disturbances began to be distributed in
another manner. This method I showed to be effectual in the above-
named paper of 1862 in comparing the simultaneous disturbances at_
Toronto, the Cape, St. Helena, and Hobarton.
As now the international polar expedition took place, and it appeared
necessary to calculate all these observations after the same method, I had
care to reprint this paper in the ‘ Archives Neerlandaises,’ 1884, and to
submit it to the conference of the polar committee in Vienna, omitting
only the discussion of the observations at Toronto, St. Helena, the Cape,
_and Hobarton, since it was only intended to show how to apply the
Y 2
324 REPORT— 1887.
method, and since I showed it to be impossible to derive exact results
from observations taken only hourly and not simultaneously, it being
necessary to have as far as possible simultaneous observations by photo-
graphy, or, of course, by assiduous observations, as now was the case.
As soon as the Pawlowsk observations were published I applied this
method to them, though the disturbances were only taken from the sup-
posed normals found by Professor Wild, a method which is also liable to.
some arbitrariness.
I arranged the disturbances thus found after their size, and found what
is exhibited in Table IT.
Dr. van der Stok, the Director of the Observatory of Batavia, who:
was then at Utrecht, spoke with me about this method, and he extended
it somewhat more fully, submitting it also to the opinion of the members
of the Polar Committee. He did more, and calculated the whole of the
Batavia observations in this manner and sent me a proof-sheet of his
sixth volume, where, pp. 188-190, Tables XX XIII.—XXXV., are to be
found all disturbances distributed according to their size and sign for
each hour when they occurred.
I have the honour to submit to you the result which I draw from the
declination-disturbances alone, leaving it to him to attend to the ratio of
the easterly and westerly, which I saw to be nearly unity, and limiting
myself only to the distribution of the disturbances of each size over the
various hours of the day. Table I. speaks for itself. When in this
manner the observations of a greater number of places will be discussed,
we shall be able to inquire in what manner the times of maximum and
minimum differ for various places, The first thing to be done appears.
to agree concerning the method to be adopted—whether that of Chambers,
Whipple, or Wild, as mentioned in your report, or that of Dr. van der
Stok, combined with mine.
I take this opportunity for calling your attention to the observations
of Utrecht (a place which is perhaps too near to Lisbon), but particularly
to those of Batavia. If Utrecht be too near, I suppose, nevertheless, that
Mr. Schuster will admit that the situation of Batavia and the excellence
of the observations at that station require that it should be mentioned.
Appenvix II. Letter from Dr. Buys-Battor to the Secretary.
Utrecht: April 23, 1887.
Since you showed so much interest in determining the limits of the
variations of declination which separate those which occur more frequently
about noon or about midnight, I communicate to you the result of my
research after the variations at Jan Mayen Island.
In the volume edited by Lieutenant Gratzl there occurs a table giving
the frequency of the deviations from 0-5, 5-10, &c., for the different
hours of the day. ae
ITasked him if he could not supply, from the original paper, the
frequency of the variations from 0-1, 1-2, &c., separately, and he has
kindly answered my request.
The westerly and easterly deviations do not show a material difference ;
only for the westerly deviations the limit seems to be between 5 and 6,.
and for the easterly between 7 and 8.
ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 325
Taste 1.— Number of times the declination-deviations of digerent size occurred
at the various hours of the day.
| BATAVIA LOCAL TIME
Total number for each six Exact
, hours time of
Siz tw Oo a
eee ae) eae sl lg
Bee | ae! ae | S | eS
oN ep ESTOS | Ti as = I
0-1’ |. 631 |376| 470| 835 | 24 | 12
(23! | 1337 -|.728).1159-) 1798 | 2.).12
9/-3' | 1142 | 732) 990 | 1333 | 22 | 13
34") 916 1679) 891 | 1072 | 23'| 18
| 4-5’ | 652 |594| 724 | 706 | 16 | 12
6
8
9
3
6
19’-20/ 14] 61 13 6 | ll | 22
20'-21"| 6) 15 5 Greate Pree
wilee2 |. 13) 35) 4 4} 11 } 22
22/23! eo) 7 pe ee
23'-24' CSP 2d NG 0 | 10 | 23
24-25! 6 | 25) 5 1 | 12 | 22
25/+ 115 yy) gnc a 3 10 | 12 | 22
The whole number of disturbances, when
they are less than 4’, is greater about noon ;
and, on the contrary, the disturbances which
are larger than 5’ are more frequent ahout
midnight.
The easterly and westerly disturbances
are in the full table of Dr. van der Stok,
vii. p. 188, nearly equal in number on the
whole, though the ratio differs for the dis-
turbances of larger and smaller size.
Therefore I think myself authorised to
_ give for this place also the exact hour of
the max. and min. for the sum of both
(+ and —) disturbances, and find the hour
of the max. for disturbances less than 4’
before noon, and the hour for disturbances
greater than 4’ later in the afternoon, about
at 20 o’clock.
Midnight = 0 hour; noon = 12 hours.
PAWLOWSK TIME OF GOTTINGEN.
| Number for each six hours of
Size | the negative (—) and positive
(+) disturbances
| |
| jemeane pede:
4=9) | JO-05- 162227) 12223.
Pea (as fee ae
oe £/—836 |—765 —888 | —831
| O27 .
~~ 1)+953 |+854 +768 | + 829
H erceoh| heen —ee 73) ne
i ee 180) S153 Biel 4255
gra S\— 73 |— 81 3h) | Sia
SO VE W384 TPT) + 598.)
4g S\— 68 |— 80 — 25 | — 28
Al 24 p84 4 LID 4+ 97
re S\= 26|— 2 — 7) — 11]
S-2le Pl na Bie AT |
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f_10
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9 | |
oO st S\— a 6 -- 2] — (
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peepee de |ay) Al eeee lat 4s
Danae Bla ede ak Pe ee oro
fi L+ 1+ 4/4 18] 4+ 10
The negative disturbanves (as given
by Mr. Miiller by the method of Prof.
Wild) were found to be more numer-
ous than the positive ones before 16
o’clock, especially the more so the
larger they are, but on the contrary
less frequent after that time of the
day, 16-3.
It appears to’ be a consequence of
some fault in the methods of Prof.
Wild, and it would have been useless
and not true to give them separately
for each hour.
REPORT—1887.
326
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ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. Sea
Perhaps they would still better agree if the deviations had been taken
from the true mean, and not from the, according to the method of Mr.
Wild, somewhat arbitrary mean. It will be sufficient if I give here the
sum of the positive and negative deviations for every six hours which
show the greatest difference ; so I find :—
23-4 5-10. . 11-16 17-22
0-1 305 363 o44 273
} ' 1-2 208 281 369 184
’ 2-3 211 249 280 165
3-4: 188 213 241 141
| 4-5 150 162 14.4 98
: 5-6 114 107 129 90
1176 1375 1507 951
a greater frequency from 5-16 local time, and for each of the other
{ differences without exception a greater frequency at the other hours.
_ Therefore I mention only the sum of all the deviations greater than 6 :—
23-4 5-10 11-16 17-22
6+ 829 630 497 1050
You will see that the range begins to be less pronounced for the
deviations greater than four minutes, the two species of disturbances
being already mixed.
The International Polar Commission as a whole has declined to enter
into the proposal of Dr. Schmidt. I suppose, however, that every one of
its members, as much as I, is very desirous that regular magnetic obser-
vations might be furnished to Dr. Schmidt in order that he may continue
_ the work done by Professor Adams.—Yours faithfully, Buys-Battor.
Appenpix III. Preliminary List of Magnetic Observatories.
By General Sir J. Heyry Lerroy and Mr. G. M. Wautppte.
The co-operative arrangements of 1839 were a great advance upon
any previous international arrangement for scientific purposes. They
wanted but little of completeness ; unfortunately that little was of essential
importance to the realisation of the object in view. There were no means
provided for promptly interchanging observations, and no uniformity was
established in the publication or in the scales adopted for measuring the
variations of the different elements in terrestrial magnetism. The result
has been an accumulation of volumes of observations, chiefly in quarto,
at widely distributed stations, scarcely any two of which can be directly
compared, the numerical values given requiring previous reduction to
common units. It is practically much the same as if meteorologists all
used arbitrary and different thermometers. But this chaotic condition
of the elements of our magnetical knowledge cannot be much longer
endured. The progress of the science is requiring more and more that
all the material available for the elucidation of each class of phenomena—
those which depend on the earth’s diurnal rotation directly, that is to say,
on the action of the sun, and those more remotely referable to it, or
perhaps resulting from causes independent of it—be brought together.
The following table has been compiled to facilitate such comparison by
showing what records exist, and where they are to be found.
1887.
REPORT
328
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REPORT—1887.
330
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ae) REPORT—1887.
AprenDIx IV. Note by Professor Stewart and W. L. Carpenter, Lsq.
We have now reduced all the available Kew declination disturbances
after the manner described in the first report of this Committee, with the
view of ascertaining whether there is any apparent connexion between
disturbances and the moon’s age. The following are the results ob-
tained :—
Supposed connexion between disturbances and the Moon's age.
(0) = nen, (4) = full Moon.
©o/@m|@le|@| @]@] @
ipso. + ipo ie 76 | ‘Bf | 1015 | T0b a, mers
1862265; 5) Oe | 780 9) 84 < | 9% | 105 | 192) a gp
(e660. Pee. OT | 7a | ef | 52 | bo eee
1870-78... —- | LL | 114 | toe | 95 | 83 | 94 | 107 | IO1 |
Mean of 16 years. .| 88 | 90 | 85 | 84 | 85 | 97 | 96 | 85 |
From this table it will be seen that while the first two terms of the
series exhibit predominant maxima a little after full moon, the last two
exhibit predominant maxima a little after new moon. The mean of the
whole indicates two maxima, one a little after new and another a little
after full moon. This subject will engage our further attention.
We have likewise reduced these same disturbances after the manner
described in the second report of this Committee, with the view of deter-
mining whether there is any apparent connexion between wind values
and magnetic disturbances, and have obtained the following results :—
(a) Wind weather arranged so that maa. values represent middle of series:
1858-61 2,794 —1,958 —20 42,402 +4,589 +46,272 +6,310 +5,148 +2,812 +336 —1,547 —2,999
1862-65 —3,748 —2,963 +437 +3,408 +5,205 +5,794 +46,037 +5,240 +2.939 +4143 —1,718 —2,660
1866-69 4,296 —3,621 —435 43,325 +7,303 +8,248 +7,729 +5,699 +2218 —508 —3,023 —4,060 ©
1870-73 —2,384 —1,655 —101 42,205 +5,935 +7,431 +7,022 +4,157 +1501 —360 —1,667 —2,196
Total : + Bere
se aecats | —13,222 —9,497 —119 +11,340 +23,032 427,745 +27,098 +20,244 +9,470 —389 —7,955 —11,915
(8) Dec. disturbance values so arranged that each entry of (8) is two days previous to
-each entry of (a):
1858-61 —1,129 —1.715 —1,571 —1,240 +453 +1,521 41,945 41,509 +41,28741,001 +590 —452
1862-65 —10 —183 +29 +550 +983 41,519 41,318 +402 —144 —291 —152 +141.
1866-69 —1,657 —806 —302 +447 +885 +2,053 +1,907 +1,550 —470 —726 —1,152 —886
1870-73 —2,220 —652 +4245 41,110 +919 +693 +1,007 +466 4+1,067 +588 +33 —186
Total awe E = ‘
ee at —5,016 —3,356 —1,592 +867 +3,240 +5,786 +6,177 +3,927 +1,740 +572 -—681 —1,383
(v7) Wind weather arranged so that min. values represent middle of series:
1858-61 +3,453 +1,031 —2,206 —3,786 —4,703 —4,916 —4,837 —4,207 —2,915 —719 +638 +2,012
1862-65 +3,759 +1,681 —1,124 —3,434 —4,649 —5,045 —5,539 —5,023 —3218 —680+41,858 +3,486
1866-69 +4,672 +1.951 —822 3,631 —5471 —6,148 —5,959 —5.025 —3,682 —682 42,337 +4.615
1870-73 = +-2,535 +1,114 —1,017 —3,393 —4,872 —5,312 —5,177 —4,740 —3,322 —1,680 +1,074 +3,196
Total
aggregate
(6) Dec. disturbance values so arranged that each entry of (6) is two days previous to
each entry of (7) :
} 414,419 +5,777 —5,169 —14,244 —19,695 —21,421 —21,512 —18,995 —13,137 —3,761 +5,907 +13,309
1858-61 42,023 42,374 +1,021 —344 —@72 -—441 -—513 —444 -696 —277 +251 +536 —
1862-65 +528 —254 —661 -—258 -—174 —494 -1,370 -—999 -—203 +187 4269 —95
1866-69 +-1,855 +1,321 —355 —912 1,151 —737 —471 —214 -—249 —453 —b —205
1870-73 +679 +177 —474 —1,092 —1,2297 -—487 —270 —367 —1,041 —980 —535 +116
Total Be
ser cate | +4,585 +3,618 —469 —2,536 —3,224 2,159 —2,624 —2.024 —2189—1,523 -—20 +2852
From these tables it would appear that high and low disturbance
values correspond with and slightly precede high and low wind values.
ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS, 333
Apprnpix V. Communication from Sir H. Lrrroy to the Secretary
August 6, 1887.
The millimétre curve paper recently engraved by the Kew Committee,
in accordance with the resolution of the International Polar Conference,
will be of infinite service in enabling ready comparison to be made of
mean results at different stations of observation. I have employed it in
bringing together the mean solar-diurnal curves of declination, including
all disturbances, for the winter months at stations on the American
continent, namely—
a ‘ m.
Floeburg Beach . . : , $227 61 20W From M.P. 853
Discovery Harbour F i . 81 44 65 3W Ss 795
Fort Conger (Greely) . : . 81 44 64 45 W 53 790
Van Rensellaer Harbour 4 . toon 70 40 W ys 650
Point Barrow A j A . 7118 156 24W re 1,130
Fort Confidence, Bear Lake . . 66 54 118 49 W 3y 508
Fort Rae, Slave Lake . . . 6239 115 44 W Pr 642
Lake Athabasca . ; ‘ . 58 43 119 19 W as 765
To which I have added—
Polhem, Spitzbergen . F 5 tO LDG 16 4H a 1,500
Island of Jan Mayen . . 70 59 8 28 W 7 1,600
Kingua Fjord, Cumberland Sound. 66 36 67 20 W H 800
By M.P. is meant Ross’s Magnetic Pole in lat. 70° 5’, long. 96° 49’.
It results that the first five curves on the list bear a strong re-
semblance to each other, especially in the exceptionally strong develop-
ment of the mid-day curve, due to a preponderance of westerly disturb-
ances when the sun is near the meridian; the next three, and the
observations of the Swedish Arctic expedition to Spitzbergen in 1872-73,
show an equally marked development of the night curve, due to a
preponderance of easterly disturbances, having their maximum effect
from 5 to 7 A.M. Captain Creak has remarked that at Discovery Bay
‘the disturbing force during the day, that is, from 8 A.M. to 8 P.M., is
considerably greater than that during the night between 8 p.m. and
8 a.m.’ This is the reverse of what has been found in lower American
latitudes ; and it is especially remarkable that, if we complete the curve
for Fort Confidence on Great Bear Lake by hand, for the hours of
the night when observations were not taken, it is the case at that
relatively southern station also, although the feature is conspicuously
absent at Fort Rae on Great Slave Lake. It appears, therefore, that
there is a region round the magnetic pole where westerly disturbances
prevail, outside of which easterly disturbances prevail. This region
extends towards the S.W. about 500 miles, but towards the N.H. as
much as 850 miles. The Spitzbergen curve, notwithstanding the high
northern latitude of the station, has the characteristics of more southerly
stations on the American continent, as has also that of the Island of
Jan Mayen. The curves at Great Slave Lake and Point Barrow closely
resemble each other. Kingua Fjord on Cumberland Sound has the
northern characteristics. I have dealt with the winter months only,
because many of the stations were only occupied in the winter, and with
the natural mean curves as affected by disturbance, for simplicity, because
there is ample evidence that their exceptional character as compared
with places distant from the magnetic pole is wholly due to what we
call disturbance ; and the few stations where the total disturbance has
334 REPORT—1887.
been calculated, and analysed as disturbance east and disturbance west,
sustain these conclusions.
If we could assume that the magnetic pole has travelled about
200 miles in a N.N.E. direction since 1831, and is now situated near
the bottom of Prince Regent’s Inlet, it would appear strikingly that the
circle bounding the prevalence of westerly excess of disturbance is definite,
and has a radius of about 700 miles round such a centre.
I am indebted to Brigadier-General Greely for the data in MS. for
the curve for Fort Conger, which belongs to the year 1881-2, the fuller
results for the year 1882-3 not having yet reached me. It appears, how-
ever, from their discussion by Mr. C. A. Schott (‘ Science,’ March 4) that
“the most characteristic feature of the solar-diurnal curve (for the whole
year) is the occurrence of the westerly extreme soon after local noon, with
a deflection of 37/9 reached earlier in summer and later in winter. The
opposite extreme is reached an hour and a half after midnight, with a
deflection of 27/9, also found variable with the season.’ ‘ The disturbing
force deflecting the N. end of the magnet to the E. is most active two
hours after midnight and least active during the hours noon to 5 p.m.
On the other hand deflections to the west appear most frequent three
hours after noon and least about the hours near midnight. Respecting
intensity of action, easterly disturbances slightly exceed westerly ones.’
These conclusions are corroborated by the interpolated curve here
laid down for the six winter months of 1881-2, although based upon only
sixteen days of hourly observation, two or three in each month. The
numerical values are taken from the official publications in each case,
except Fort Conger and Fort Confidence, for which they are as follows :—
Fort Fort Fort Fort
Conger Confidence || Conger Confidence
Sper area | nS:
Midnight 122E | 1965 | Noon 25:3 W 27-9 W
1 149E | 1725 1 28:1 W 24-0 W
2 15°38 E 16°3 E 2 2371 W 16°7 W
3 27:1 E 143 E 3 24-2 W 8:2 W
4 29°3 B 11-28 4 17-3 W 16 W
5 15:7 E 82 E 5 13°38 W 58 BE
6 68 E 47E 6 10-4 W 76h
7 23°3 E 08 E 7 11:2 W 945
8 12:4 E 13°6 W 8 2-9 W 14:8 E
9 2-4 W 31:9 W 9 31 W i73E
10 8-2 W 35-4 W 10 | 1405 19:8 EB
11 A.M. TON, | 321 W|I LOUDER a TSE 20°0 E
Appenpix VI. Luni-solar Variation of the vertical Magnetic Force at Bom-
bay. By Cuartes Cuampgrs, F.R.S., Director of the Colaba Observa-
tory, Bombay.
An account of the luni-solar variations of declination and horizontal
force, derived from the registrations of the Colaba magnetographs for
the single quarter, November 1875 to January 1876, appeared in the
Report of the British Association for 1886, pages 84 to 97 ; and the recis-
trations of the vertical force magnetograph for the same period hee:
since been treated in the manner there described, and with the results
shown in the following table :—
’ : :
P Sige Report Brit Assce 4 Plate |
| U /ERIOD.
iT
|
|
aM im:
Vii
_ i.
'
‘
SS
* a :
rr
mine
a
\
an
E 1 a
-- ‘N
+ =
——>+,
——$—4
|
be
A
tt
Eg
=
i
es.
SSS
SSS
oe.
mee
me
cme |
VR aie
_ ar
ee
57" Report Brit Asve, SST
Plate |
GROUP I . EXCESSIVE WESTERLY DISTURBANCE IN THE MID-DAY PERIOD.
, 2 a * s 6 7 a 2 10 NOON = 3 z 6
a =r * a 1 # a 0 7” oN
+
t
Floebirs Boas Lat. 62°37 37 Hays (1475-6)
7 Noon Te 0 MIDN
Soittiowole BO Lath Lindyn Stustrating the Report on the best Means of Comparing and Heduciny Magnetio Observations,
— = : — . ere 7 J
Wek Freport Brit. Ass
GROUP I.
MIDN. MIDN
L
Td
Uke
|
\
wis
7
a
P|
MIDN. 7 2
WV below the Lero
Spottrswoote &C* Lith Lewpre éy the Arrows.
Observations.
EXCESSIVE EASTERLY DISTURBANCE IN THE HOURS OF THE NIGHT.
s e 7 e 2 fo " NOON 1 2 a 4 5 6 7 a o 0 "
| T
|
|
D* \Geise| Kingua MNyord, fat 68°36 | 183 Nays 1662-5)
== = ———_—
| DP WYKANDER Polhey, Lat 79°5§ 152\Dave (72-3
Capt DAWSON, RA.
fort Rade Lat, eah 183: Days (1642-2)
YE =
Plirweds bork
London
s o 7 w 2 70 7 NOON 7 2 7 ¥ s Feast
Each Vertioul Space is 1h, Bach Horizontal Space 10° E above the Lero W velow the Lero
The direction of the Nend of the Magnet in hetirence ta the Meridia ix shewn by the Arrows.
Mlustrating the Report on the best Means of Comparing and Heduciny Magnetic Observations
ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 335
|
Solar hours | Midnight) 1 Bagi s 4 Bu Hlene 7 8 9 10 | 11
| —— == ir [ngs ~ [ — ————_ | — | —
¥ (h) +01 |+o1 —01 |—01 |—O1 |—01 geet ccs —l14 Ni 00|+12
c'2 }
| |
vf (h) +04 |+01 +01) +04 +06 |+04|+03|+03]+06}+05|—15|}—18
Reet? | a” a
| 4 2 ae |
| Solar hours Noon 13) |4 15 16 17. 1-48 €)) 19 20 | 21 } 22.) 23
— — | — | — | — | = bas
fF. +15 |+11]+02|—03]—09 —03}+01/+03 +02|+04|+02}+01
c2 | | | |
|
fF. ~12 |+03}+08|+10}+02!—05|—06 |—03 |—04|—01|+01] 00
- | |
These variations are expressed in one hundred-thousandths of the m.-g.-s. unit of
force.
Curves, representing the numbers of this table, and complementary to
those of Plate I. of the British Association Report of 1886, appear below :
(h) ny ya ” (A)
Sea VERTICAL Force. dea
Bombay Astronomical Hours.
The scale is in m.-g.-s. units of force.
they are, like their complements of declination and horizontal force, of
definite character, showing relatively large movements in the day hours
and quiescence at night, and they have a general resemblance to the
declination curves ; they also extend the evidence of the existence of a
luni-solar variation to the third magnetic element at Bombay, and thus
establish the fact in respect of the variations of magnetic force generally
at Bombay.
On page 88 of the British Association Report for 1886 appears the
following note: ‘In the curves for declination, as sent by Mr. Chambers,
the signs as given above are reversed.’ The explanation is that the varia-
tions of the declination table are, as described, expressed in converted
tabulation excesses, but that increasing tabulations (or ordinates of the
registration curves) denote decreasing easterly declination, whilst in-
creasing ordinates of the curves of Plate I. denote increasing easterly
declination. The words ‘ Declination—FEast’ at the side of the table refer
to the absolute declination at Bombay.
336 REPORT—1887.
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors ARM-
STRONG, LODGE, Sir WILLIAM THomson, Lord Ray LeicH, Firz-
GERALD, J. J. THomson, ScHuSTER, PoynTinc, CruM Brown,
Ramsay, FRANKLAND, TILDEN, HARTLEY, 8S. P. THompson, McLeEop,
RosBERTS-AUSTEN, RUCKER, REINOLD, and Carry Fosrer, Captain
ABNEY, Drs. GLADSTONE, HOPKINSON, and FLEMING, and Messrs.
CROOKES, SHELFORD BIDWELL, W. N. SuHaw, J. Larmor, J. T.
Borromuey, H. B. Dixon, R. T. GLAzEBRooK, J. Brown, E. J.
Love, and Joun M. Tuomson, for the purpose of considering
the subject of Electrolysis in its Physical and Chemical Bearings.
(Edited by OLIVER LODGE.)
Work has been carried on during the past year by several members of
the Committee; and nearly all the questions issued after the Aberdeen
meeting by the Secretary have been in some shape or other attacked.
The first, ‘On the Accuracy of Ohm’s Law in Electrolytes,’ by Pro-
fessor Fitzgerald and Mr. Trouton, who reported last year and will make
a further report to-day.
The second, ‘On Conduction in Semi-Insulators,’ by Professor J. J.
Thomson and Mr. Newall. See the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,”
No. 256, 1887.
On the third question, the ‘ Mode of Conduction of Alloys,’ Professor
Roberts-Austen will inform us of his experiments to-day.
Mr. Shelford Bidwell has experimented on the subject of the fourth
question, concerning the ‘ Transparency of Electrolytes.’
The sixth, seventh, and eighth, ‘On the Velocity of Ions,’ are being
worked at by the Secretary.
Concerning the ninth we have heard from Mr. J. Brown, of Belfast,
and on the tenth we have had a letter from Professor Willard Gibbs.
In order to enable the members of so large a committee to work with
some knowledge of what each other is doing, and also to keep up a
general intercommunication and interest in the subject, it has been
thought desirable and proper to spend a certain portion of the sum
granted to the Committee in printing and postage. Periodical circulars
have been sent among the members and to a few outsiders likely to be
interested, and these have been the means of drawing out one or two
communications of very distinct interest and value.
It is felt that such informal reports of discussion and free circulation
of provisional communications are sufficiently useful to justify the Com-
mittee in continuing the practice, which was begun as an experiment ;
and they accordingly are asking for reappointment, with another grant
of 50/., of which not more than 201. is to be spent in printing and
postage.
They should explain that of the grant made last year to the Com-
mittee 20/. has been purposely allowed to lapse, for it had been intended
to try some chemical experiments on very pure substances, and these
experiments have not yet been begun. The 30/. applied for has been
spent—about 15/. in printing, 4/. in postage, and 11/. in experimental
expenses contracted by the Secretary.
Your Committee feel that the expenditure of a small sum such as this
has acted, and may be expected to act, as a trigger capable of liberating
ON ELECTROLYSIS. 337
in useful directions a considerable amount of energy which otherwise
might have remained potential.
There are several moot points at present more or less under discussion
within the Committee, and the editor is instructed to lay them before
this meeting with the object of eliciting some opinions, suggestions, or
information.
First may be instanced the obvious question whether electrolytic con-
duction and metallic conduction are sharply separated off from one
another by a line of demarcation, so that no substance distinctly possess-
ing one also possesses a trace of the other.
Certain contributions by von Helmholtz, among which we must reckon
one on our list for to-day, lead one to believe that the conduction of
ordinary electrolytes is purely electrolytic, and that no trace of current
slips through them without carrying the atoms with it, ¢.e., without
effecting incipient decomposition.
A contribution expected from Professor Roberts-Austen may perhaps
answer the opposite question, viz., whether any ordinary metallic alloy
can conduct in the least electrolytically—z.e., whether a well-marked
metallic alloy or quasi-compound can be in the slightest degree electro-
lysed by an exceedingly intense electric current.
Supposing both these questions answered in the simplest manner, viz.,
in the negative, there must surely remain a group of bodies on the border-
land between alloys proper and electrolytes proper, among which some
shading off of properties, some gradual change from wholly metallic to
wholly electrolytic conduction, is to be looked for. Until all such bodies
as are tractable to experiment have been cautiously and strenuously
examined, we are unable to say whether there is a hard and fast line
between the two modes of conduction, or in what manner the gradation
from one to the other occurs.
That is the first question. A second concerns the very vital point
whether an electric current actually decomposes or tears asunder the
molecules of a liquid through which it passes; or whether it finds a
certain number of them already torn asunder or dissociated into their
atoms by chemical, or at any rate non-electrical, means, and that these
loose and wandering atoms thus fall an easy prey to the guiding tendency
of the electric slope, and join unresistingly one or other of two processions
towards either electrode, only at the last moment attempting a brief and
unavailing struggle, when the electrode suddenly looms foreign and for-
bidding across a molecular distance of 10-* centimetres.
One mode of regarding the facts is to say that across this molecular
range of 10-* the electrical forces are competent to tear atoms asunder.
The E.M.F. of a volt or so can be shown by calculation to be able to do
this, so that the difference between an electrolyte and a dielectric may be
typified diagrammatically as on next page.
Professor Schuster has now discovered one way in which dielectrics
shade off into electrolytes ; for he finds that in the neighbourhood of an
electric discharge rarefied gases are able to conduct as electrolytically as
liquids themselves. This discovery that the atoms of gases possess
atomic charge as well as those of liquids, if confirmed by further
research, is one of considerable interest.
But why do we assert the horizontality of the line of slope in the
cea Why do physicists feel constrained to assert that no internal
. Z
338 : REPORT— 1887.
static electric stress is possible in the interior of a mass of fluid? The
question is but the paraphrase of another. Why do we believe liquids to
obey quite accurately Ohm’s law for very minute forces? On this head
we have direct experimental evidence by Professor Fitzgerald and Mr.
Trouton, and less direct but equally conclusive evidence from von Helm-
holtz. Whether the evidence is perfect and thorough is doubtless a
I
Electrolyte. Dielectric.
The two vertical lines are electrodes, the slant or broken line represents the kind of
slope of potential in the two cases respectively.
debatable point, but this much is not debatable: it is out of the question
to assert that liquids obey Ohm’s law and at the same time to assert the
existence of a finite electrostatic stress in the interior of a fluid. In other
words, however chemists are able to explain the fact of unresisting atomic
processions through the liquid—whether by actual procession of individuals
or by continual directed interchange—they will be rigorously driven to
some form of such doctrine as soon as they accept the evidence for the
accuracy of Ohm’s law in electrolytic conduction.
We all know that this doctrine of non-resistance is in some shape or
another the old Williamson-Clausius hypothesis,' which was based on then
newly known facts concerning dissociation.
It would appear, however, that some chemists demur to the existence
of a constant average of dissociation among the molecules of a liquid ; and
it behoves us of Section A to receive their scruples with great respect,
being, we may suppose, based upon intimate familiarity with all manner
of circumstances and reactions of which we physicists are only superficially
cognisant.
But there are ways of picturing all that is necessary to free atomic
interchange without postulating actual and constant dissociation. A
potential dissociation will be granted, sufficient for all purposes, provided
chemists admit the probability of a frequent interchange of atoms among
1 Since the Report was read, Professor Clausius has favoured the Committee with
a note objecting to this designation as based on an erroneous view of scientific
history. The Committee have not yet expressed their opinion on the point so raised,
and meanwhile the joint names are used merely for convenience of quotation, with-
out prejudice to an altered nomenclature hereafter.
ON ELECTROLYSIS. 339
the molecules of an electrolyte going on always before any H.M.F. has
been applied.
Professor Fitzgerald now points out that without some further hypo-
thesis itis not legitimate to assume that, because the least E.M.F. produces
an electrolytic current, therefore there can be no force keeping the atoms
in the molecules, and that consequently they must be in a continual state
of interchange. If the work done during the combinations be .equal to
that required for separating the atoms in the molecules, then the least
E.M.F. may produce its corresponding current. The Williamson-Clausius
hypothesis is that these are both zero; but this is by no means the only
possible hypothesis. In order that it shall be the only possible hypothesis
it must be further assumed that the energy for decomposing a molecule
cannot be transferred without considerable loss from a combining mole-
cule. Any orderly connection amongst the molecules set up by the
electric polarisation that would enable a transference of energy to take
place from the combining to the decomposing molecules would explain
the fact that the least E.M.F. produces its corresponding current ; but if
no such orderly relations amongst the molecules are possible then the
Williamson-Clausius hypothesis seems to be almost certainly established.
This refers, of course, only to the reasons founded on electrolysis for
the Williamson-Clausius hypothesis. The chemical reasons founded on
the phenomena of double decomposition are independent evidence in its
favour, except that there seems some difficulty in seeing how gases cap-
able of double decomposition are not decomposed by the feeblest H.M.F.
- Concerning the mode in which electrolytic conduction takes place we
may congratulate ourselves on the presence here of Professor Quincke
and Professor Wiedemann, and we hope to hear something from them.
The experiments of Dr. Gladstone, and also some unpublished ones of
Professor J. J. Thomson, communicated to the Committee in a letter, will
probably be found to have a bearing on this point.
The question whether there is any radical distinction to be drawn
between ordinary compounds and so-called molecnlar compounds appears
to be an open one. Various physical facts lead one to suppose that
whereas the ordinary forces of chemical affinity are strictly electrical
there may be other non-electrical forces as well, and that such compounds
as are held together by these latter forces are intractable to electrical
influence. It is difficult for physicists to understand certain facts (cohe-
sion, for instance, and capillarity) without the hypothesis of some non-
electrical forces between atoms; but on such a subject .as this chemists
perhaps have in their hands evidence which, if at all decided and distinct,
would be entitled to great weight.
The subject of the partition of the current among different electrolytes
when mixed together, and the question of the part the solvent plays in
the conduction, seem scarcely suitable for discussion at the present stage,
because they only require a few rigorous experiments on lines already
laid down to settle them. But the editor may just say that, whereas at
a former meeting he thought he had obtained experimental evidence that
the water conducted some fourth part of the current in certain solutions,
he has since found that, using purer substances, and taking extreme care
to avoid loss of weight by spray, which source of loss is very subtle, this
evidence puts on another complexion; and at the present time he is
disposed to coincide more cordially with the orthodox view that water
conducts almost as littie when forming part of a solution as when existing
z2
340 REPORT—1887.
alone. Further experimental evidence is still being obtained, however,
and perhaps Mr. Shaw has something to communicate on this head.
Among several communications received by the Committee from non-
British philosophers is an exceedingly suggestive one by Professor Willard
Gibbs, which raises a very interesting point.
It is perfectly well known that in 1851 our present chairman, Sir
William Thomson, reasoning from some experiments of Joule, taught us
how to calculate the E.M.F. of a cell from thermo-chemical data—
=2(J <6);
= g"' 7
or H6000 ¥° ts.
Strictly speaking he hedged with regard to reversible heat effects in a
way equivalent to the complete equation
Hai") —2(J 0). a ee a
where II, is the heat developed at junction 1 per unit quantity of elec-
tricity conveyed across it, II, the same at the second junction, and so on.
But the value of II, in any given case, is extremely difficult to mea-
sure, especially at metal-liquid and liquid-liquid junctions. Bouty has
attempted it with but small success.
Fortunately Helmholtz has thought of applying the second law of
thermodynamics to the subject, and shown that it was only necessary to
know the rate at which the E.M.F. of a cell varied with temperature in
order to know the sum of the II. For, quite analogous to Professor
James Thomson’s freezing-point relation—
dpdvat ou
is the following E.M.F. relation :—
dESQ=I5n8 H,
or
5H _ TdkH
= =. : : ere
8Q. JdT (@)
Putting the two equations together we get
6dT :
B=JTe| oP eo aii
which we may say is certainly true.
But now Professor Willard Gibbs suggests a novel mode of applying
the second law or doctrine of entropy.
He takes into account the temperature of dissociation, or temperature
at which the reaction could reversibly take place; and, calling this Ty,
he writes the E.M.F. at any actual temperature T thus :—
(4)
This he gives as the complete expression; wherein, therefore, J is the
chemical portion of the total E.M.F., and J be the thermal portion of
the whole E.M.F., equal to JS0. Equations (3) and (4) are plainly
ON ELECTROLYSIS. 341
identical if only heat of combination could be reyarded as independent of
temperature.
If this were a correct mode of regarding the matter, it would be of
the highest interest to be able to calculate dissociation temperatures in
this way. Unfortunately, several of the best judges in this country have
expressed to the Committee their serious doubts as to the validity of thus
stepping, unguided, outside the region of safe knowledge, across the
great gap separating ordinary from dissociation temperatures. We wish
Professor Willard Gibbs were here to support and strengthen his position.
These are the main problems at present under discussion among the
members of the Committee, and with this summary of them and refer-
ence to such of to-day’s papers as seem likely to contribute towards their
solution, the report proper may be understood to close.
I think, however, I am only expressing the feeling of the Committee
if I say that they view this joint sitting of Sections A and B with great
interest, and with the anticipation and hope that it may be the precursor
of many other such gatherings during the era of development in the
borderland of chemistry and physics which in many directions they feel
to be now imminent.
Experiments on the possible Electrolytic Decomposition of certain Alloys.
By Professor W. C. Roserts-Avsten, F.R.S.
The original suggestions framed for the guidance of the Committee provided for
an examination of the question whether molten alloys would conduct electroly-
tically, and during the year 1886 various experiments were made in the Mint labo-
ratory, the results of which were in all cases negative, but were useful as indicating
the method of working which appeared to afford the best prospect of success. The
selection of a suitable alloy is by no means easy. It seemed well to begin by
employing lead-gold and lead-silver alloys for the following reasons :—Matthiessen !
has shown that these alloys, when considered from the point of view of their elec-
trical resistance, belong to a class described by him as ‘ solidified solutions of one
metal in the allotropic modification of another.’
Some work has already been done on the alloys considered as solutions of the
precious metals in lead. I have already submitted to the British Association pre-
liminary results on the diffusion of silver and of gold in molten lead,? and some
unpublished experiments of my own have shown that certain silver-lead alloys
when poured in spherical moulds, capable of holding about 2°6 kilogrammes of
lead, set as a whole without exhibiting any tendency to the re-arrangement of the
constituent metals known as ‘liquation,’ that is, the constituent metals do not
readily fall out of solution. Such alloys are those which contain less than three
per cent. of silver. The alloy containing 51:06 per cent. of silver, to which the
formula Ag,Pb may be assigned, also sets as a whole without re-arrangement of
its constituents. Guthrie, in an admirable research, interrupted by his lamented
death, has shown * that an ‘ Eutectic’ alloy of silver and lead probably contains
less than 1°5 per cent. of silver, that is, it is the alloy of the lead-silver series which
has ‘a minimum temperature of liquefaction, . . . a temperature lower than that
given by any other proportion,’ and he points out that such eutectic alloys are
‘neither atomic nor molecular’ in constitution.
The curves representing the electrical resistance of solid lead-silyer and lead-
gold alloys are continuous, and do not reveal the existence of any special alloy
_ differing widely in resistance and in physical properties from the rest of the series.
In the case of the copper-tin series of alloys, investigated by Matthiessen 4 in 1860,
by myself * in 1879, and by Dr. Lodge in the same year, the alloys Sn Cu, and
' Phil. Trans. 1860, p. 161. * Phil. Trans. 1860, p. 85.
? Report for 1884, p. 675. 5 Phil. Mag. 1879, vol. ii. p. 57.
5 «On Eutexia,’ Phil. Mag. 1884, vol i. p 462. ® Ibid. 1879, vol ii. p 554.
342 REPORT—1887.
Sn Cu, stand quite apart from the rest of the copper-tin series both in colour, lustre,
and electrical resistance.
It will be specially important to ascertain whether the passage of a strong cur-
rent will enable the constituents of the copper-tin series of alloys to be separated,
but unfortunately the alloys of these metals have high melting-points, and as the
alloyshave to be kept molten by the external application of heat during the pas-
sage of the current, the difficulties of manipulation are greatly increased. I con-
sidered, therefore, that it would be better to begin with the lead-silver and lead-
gold series which have comparatively low melting points, and of which, as I have
already stated, much is known concerning their behaviour as solutions. One addi-
tional advantage in the employment of these alloys is presented by the readiness
with which variations in their composition may be determined. This is a point of
some importance, for if, as Dr. Gladstone has already suggested, the results of
passing the current through the molten alloys were only very slight changes in
composition, the errors of analysis might overshadow the change. In the case,
however, of the lead-gold and the lead-silver alloys, the method of assay by cupel-
lation enables very minute changes in composition to be detected, and the amount.
of change can be determined with great readiness and accuracy.
Scale one-half.
PP, Cables from battery.
HH, Copper holders.
MM, Cavity for withdrawal of sample.
EF; Wrought iron rods,
F FF, Soft fire brick.
LL, Silver-lead or gold-lead alloy.
The preliminary experiments need not be described at length: it is only neces-
sary to state that fire-brick U tubes, about five millimetres in section, were em-
ployed, and that in them the fluid alloy was kept molten by the external application
of heat, The electrodes first used were stout iron-wire terminals of a forty-pint cell
Grove battery ; the passage of the current was maintained for thirty minutes and
ON ELECTROLYSIS. 343
portions of metal were tilted out from either end of the tube. These samples were
then assayed and it was found that no variation whatever had been produced y
the current. The passage of the current was not maintained during the time the
samples were taken, and, as diffusion would probably rapidly restore the uniformity
of the alloy, if the current did produce any change, care was taken in subsequent
experiments to remedy this defect in the manipulation.
Dr. Lodge, in a letter to me dated April 5, 1886, asked whether it was possible
to employ tubes one millimetre in section? I therefore broke off the bowls of
two tobacco-pipes, leaving about ten millimetres of stem attached to each of the
bowls which were then filled with the lead-silver alloy (containing two per cent.
of silver) by placing them in a bath of the fused alloy and allowing the metal to
enter the bowls through the stems. A current from the forty-cell battery was
then passed for twenty minutes when both bowls were rapidly withdrawn. The
contents proved on assay to be identical in composition. The ends of the stems
while in the bath were about five millimetres apart.
The nature of the subsequent experiments is best shown by the sections of the
fire-brick receptacles submitted to the Committee and by the diagram on previous
page. The secondary batteries used for the electric lighting of the Mint were placed
at my disposal by Mr. R. A. Hill, the superintendent of the Operative Department,
to whose assistance Iam much indebted. The weight of the alloy used in the
experiments was about 500 grammes.
With the appliance arranged as shown in the diagram, the momentary applica-
tion of twelve cells (supplied by the Electrical Storage Company) projected the
metal (a five per cent. lead-silver alloy) from the fire-brick receptacle, while ten
cells rapidly heated the iron terminals to redness and fused the lead ‘lugs’ of the
cells. It was not found practicable to employ more than four cells for any experi-
ment which lasted more than afew minutes, and in no case did the strength of the
current exceed 300 ampéres.
The following experiment with a gold-lead alloy containing about two per cent.
of gold is given as showing the method of working :—Before melting the alloy two
grammes yielded on assay 0:03981 germ. (or 1:99 per cent.) of gold ; after the fusion
had taken place the samples taken gave on assay the results shown in the following
table. They were withdrawn from the cavities marked M,M, on the diagram at
the periods indicated in the table.
Weight in grammes of Gold obtained from
Time two grammes of the Alloy
Samples from starting
current
Positive Side Negative Side
l rg (1) 0:04022 (1) 0:03905
= Esenen (2) 0:04007 . (2) 0:03855
9 10’ (1) 0:04029 highest (1) 0°03954
(2) 0:04026 (2) 0:03920 lowest
3 93! (1) 0:03988 (1) 0:03944
(2) 0:03973 (2) 0:04010
4 40! (1) 0:03980 (1) 0:04009
(2) 003966 (2) 0:04010
Totals 0:23962 0:23847 }
5 AB! JS (1) 0:03917 (1) 0:03926
(2) 0:04016 (2) 0:04051
The current used was from three of the secondary cells connected in series.
' Total difference + 0°00115 grm
344 REPORT—1887.
For the purpose of controlling the results, samples one and five were taken
from the molten metal while no current was passing and were assayed with the
rest. It will be seen from the above table that the difference varied from a mini-
mum of one ten-thousandth as deduced from the total difference found on assaying
samples two to four, to a maximum of five ten-thousandth presented by sample
two. The alloys of lead with two per cent. of silver and with 51 per cent. of
silver also gave negative results, and experiments as a whole, so far as they have
yet been carried, tend to show that an alloy conducts metallically, and that its
constituents cannot be separated by an intense electric current. The experiments,
however, can only be considered to be preliminary. They must be repeated and
extended, and alloys of which arsenic is a constituent must be tried, and further, it
is specially important to examine the behaviour of such alloys as those of tin-cop-
per and bismuth-gold, as certain members of both series show marked points on
the curves representing the electrical resistance which would appear to indicate the
existence of definite compounds.
On the Action of an Electric Current in hastening the Formation of Lagging
Compounds. By Dr. J. H. Guapstons, F.B.S.
When two salts in solution, MR and M’R’, are mixed together they partially
decompose one another, the proportions of the resulting four salts MR, MR’, M’R,
M’R’, depending upon their relative masses and relative affinities. When one of
these salts is insoluble, it separates as an amorphous or crystalline precipitate, and
the redistribution goes on until the largest possible quantity of it is formed and
precipitated. This reciprocal decomposition generally takes place very rapidly, but
im some cases it proceeds slowly enough to be watched and measured. While
investigating this subject a good many years ago, I made some experiments on the
physical forces that accelerate or retard this action, and among them I tried
the influence of a voltaic current passing through the mixture. I used a small
Grove’s battery with narrow platinum poles.
1. The first experiment was made with a mixture of tartaric acid and nitrate of
potassium. The strength of the tartaric acid was 4°5 grammes, and of the nitrate
of potassium 1:02 grammes to 1,000 grain measures (7.e. 64'8 cubic centimeters) of
water ; and the proportions used were three equivalents of ‘the acid to one of the salt.
In a comparative experiment four minutes elapsed before crystals began to appear.
On making the current, the pole from which oxygen gas was being slowly evolved
became immediately coated with potassic bitartrate, and crystals formed throughout
the liquid between the poles.
2. A similar result was obtained with potassic oxalate and magnesic sulphate.
3. Amixture of single equivalents of magnesic sulphate and oxalate of ammonium
was divided into two portions. Through the one a weak current was passed, and
after a few minutes a cloudiness appeared, extending in lines from the one pole to
the other, and not below the poles. As yet there was no cloudiness whatever in
the comparative experiment.
4. A similar result was obtained with a mixture of calcic sulphate and strontium
nitrate, but the lines of cloud extending from the oxygen towards the hydrogen
pole were still more remarkable. The comparative mixture was quite clear.
5. A mixture of citrate of iron and meconic acid goes on increasing in redness
for some time, but in this case all the compounds are soluble in water. No
acceleration seemed to result from the passage of the galvanic current.
6. A mixture of citrate of iron and ferrocyanide of potassium shows a gradual
formation of the blue ferrocyanide. ‘Chis was hastened by the galvanic current ;
but there is this objection to the experiment, that the ferrocyanide itself was some-
what decomposed.
Last autumn a neighbour of mine, Mr. J. Enright, wrote to me to the follow-
ing purpose :—‘ Thinking one day some few months ago over the decompositions
and recompositions which we figure to ourselves as going on in an electrolytic salt,
it euewad tome that we might get some confirmation, or the reverse, of them from
ON ELECTROLYSIS. 345
passing a current through a mixture of dilute sulphuric acid and a salt of
strontium. It is well known that a precipitate does not come down for some time,
and that such time is shortened by heating.’ He then describes an experiment that
is practically the same as my own, for which he used five Bunsen cells, and a
similar experiment with a potassium salt and tartaric acid, and in both instances he
obtained an acceleration, as I did. He adds, however, a somewhat different experi-
ment, Cyanide of potassium was added to a solution of a nickel salt, and the first
precipitate was redissolyed in excess. Then hypochlorite of sodium was added.
On boiling such a mixture, or allowing it to stand for some time, a black precipitate
appears; but the moment the electrodes were inserted in a portion of the mixture,
although cold, a black cloud was formed.
More recently Mr. Enright, at my suggestion, tried the effect of varying the
strength of current. Using a mixture of strontium chloride and sulphuric acid,
which would give a turbidity in about seven minutes without the current, he found
that when exposed to the influence of seven cells the turbidity appeared in four
minutes, of six cells about the same, of five or four cells in four minutes and a half,
of three cells in six minutes, while two cells did not produce any acceleration that
could be distinctly recognised.
On repeating my experiments lately the general results were confirmed, but I
failed to secure the conditions under which the line of precipitate between the
poles is produced.
These experiments seem in accordance with what might be expected if the
electrolytic action takes place through the interchange of the radicals of the
dissolved salts.
On Ohm’s Law in Electrolytes.
By G. F. Firzcrrapp, F.R.S., and Frup. Trouton, Trin. Coll. Dub.
The result of our experiments up to this is to ascertain that ‘A’ in
[v=2,(1- Ac) ] is certainly less than 5 x 10-8,
This time last year it was hoped shortly to attain much greater accuracy than
had then been reached, but it is clearer now than then what a difficulty the ‘ heat-
ing effect’ is.
This inherent difficulty in studying Ohm’s Law of liquid electrolytes, as com-
pared with metallic conductors, may best be understood by considering the in-
creased difficulty which would be introduced in the determination for metals if the
wire were to be immersed in an electrically non-conducting liquid. When the
Metals I , \ ect Lemp
Jor bath €2¢
’
[3
S
&
3
N
v
S
Meun temp
SSNS Sor C
LS yes | Mean ‘Lemp
. ; Sore.
wire loses heat, chiefly by radiation, as when in air, its general temperature is so
much above the temperature of surroundings that its rate of cooling may be con-
sidered constant for the small changes of temperature which can occur if the alter-
nations from the larger to the smaller current be sufficiently frequent. The tem-
perature thus rises at a constant rate while the larger current runs, and so falls
346 REPORT—1887.
again during the time the smaller current is on, the average temperature in both
cases being the same. The upper part in the diagram illustrates this.
However with the same frequency in changing currents the average tempera-
ture, while the larger current runs, may be made very different from the average
temperature while the smaller current is on, by immersing the wire in liquid, for
the general temperature of the wire can then be only slightly above the temperature
of its surroundings, so that the rate of cooling can no longer be considered the same
throughout. The lower part of the diagram is intended to roughly represent this.
The temperature curve is concave to the lower side while the larger current runs,
but is convex as the wire falls in temperature during the period of the smaller cur-
rent. The ‘temperature effect’ if thus introduced would have to be met by increas-
ing the speed of the contact breaker, or otherwise smaller currents should be used,
which of course would diminish the refinement in the determination of ‘’ corre-
spondingly.
Now this is similar to the case of a liquid electrolyte, the smaller arm of the
bridge rapidly losing heat by convection from its necessary proximity to the larger
bodies of liquid at both ends. The actual rise in temperature in one experiment
was ascertained, through the increased resistance, to be much less than ten degrees,
while in some of the determinations made with metals the wire fused during the
experiment so high a temperature was reached.
The greatest speed found necessary for the contact breaker in the determination
with metal conductors, when ‘f’ was ascertained to be less than 10-!", was about
100 per second. The fastest of the three forks we have successively employed is
about 160 per second, but a much faster fork has been prepared, though as yet it
has not been got to work satisfactorily. +
The diameter of the smaller arm has been reduced considerably since last year.
One hole of ‘0027 c.m. was bored with a specially prepared needle in extremely
thin mica. So that not much more can be done in this direction. The density of
the greatest current which could be used through this without ‘ heating effect ’
was about ten ampéres per square centimetre.
On the Resistance of Hydrated Salts. By Dr. E. Winpemany.
With a view to the settlement of the question, whether or no the conductivity
of a salt depends on the quantity of water to which it is attached in solution, the
conductivity of solutions of copper chloride at different temperatures has been
determined. At the lower temperatures the solution is blue, and at the higher
Copper Chloride Sodium Chloride
be L D L D
5° I ue
10° 1:126 1123
0:259 0:286
20° 1°385 1-409
0259
30° 1-644 — 0593 = 2 x 0:296
0:256 f
40° 1:900 2-002
0:248 0°322
50° 2148 2°324
0:257 0336
60° 2-405 2°661
0218 0°343
70° 2°623 3004
0187 0350
80° 2°810 37354
0:158
90° 2968
_
ON ELECTROLYSIS. 347
green. We may explain this by assuming that at the lower temperature a highly
hydrated salt is contained in the solution, and that this is changed intoalower hydrate
as the temperature rises. In what follows we communicate the results obtained
from a single solution only. This solution contained 15 parts CuCl,+2H,0O in
100 parts water. The conductivity of the solution at 5° is taken as unity. The
conductivity of a 15 per cent. solution of sodium chloride was examined at the
same time. In the appended table the column headed T contains the temperatures,
L the conductivities, D the increase in conductivity for a rise of 10°.
The solution of sodium chloride shows, in agreement with results obtained by
other investigators, a conductivity which increases with temperature more rapidly
as the temperature rises ; it agrees therefore in its behaviour with the majority of
salts. For copper chloride, however, the rate of increase is nearly constant up to
about 60°, and beyond this point rapidly diminishes. Solutions of other degrees
of concentration than the above behave in a similar way; and this is true whether
free hydrochloric acid be added to the solution or not.
The fact here ascertained, that the conductivity of salts varies with their degree
of hydration, shows that it is absolutely necessary not merely to determine the
constants under discussion for small temperature intervals and very dilute solutions,
but also to vary the conditions of experiment in every way possible, since only then,
and not always even then, can we determine whether such hydration has gone on
or not,
The behaviour of copper chloride may be paralleled pretty closely by that of
acid potassium sulphate, studied by Kohlrausch and Bouty.
T shall publish later the results obtained with other solutions of copper chloride,
with those of cobalt chloride and other salts.
The experiments have been carried out with the assistance of J. Seyfferth.
On some Points in Electrolysis and Electro-convection.
By Professor G. WrEDEMANN.
T must congratulate the British Association on the reports of the Committee on
Electrolysis, and specially that Professor Oliver Lodge has directed the course of
its procedure, for it could not have been entrusted to abler hands.
Some time ago I read a very interesting report which Professor Armstrong
communicated at the last meeting of the British Association, and the hypotheses
he has advanced on the subject of electrolysis. There is a great deal that is
hypothetical in these things. Allow me, therefore, to give expression to some
aphoristical suggestions about some points more accessible to observation which I
think ought first to be discussed.
I. The first question is, What is an electrolyte? What compounds are elec-
trolytes? What are the ions of the electrolytes? Now, one generally says that
electrolytes are salts, that they are binary compounds. But what is a binary
compound? It isa compound decomposed by a current into two different com-
pounds or elements ; and when you say that electrolytes are salts you may as well
say salts are electrolytes. Therefore it is very difficult to give a definition, and,
even if we assume the general though not clearly defined idea of salts, we get into
great difficulties. For instance, Professor Hittorf has said that electrolytes are
compounds which by double affinity may exchange their elements with those of
another recognised electrolyte. But that is not generally true. First, we have
certain bodies which seem not to be decomposed by the current, though they
exchange their elements with those of other compounds which are electrolytes.
Take, for instance, anhydrous hydrochloric acid. It does not conduct. Neverthe-
less, as Dr. Gore has shown, if you put it upon carbonate of lime the carbonic
acid is chased away and chloride of calcium is formed. And, to give another
example, the chloride of propyle is a non-conductor ; nevertheless, when you treat
it a bromide or iodide of silver the chloride gets changed into bromide or
iodide.
With just reason you may object that this is no proof, for perhaps the chloride
348 REPORT—1887.
of propyle is only a very bad conductor; therefore the current does not pass in a
sensible way, and we cannot observe the decomposition. In this respect we may
refer to the researches of Mr. Bleekrode, in Holland, and Mr. Bartoli, in Italy.
But, on the other side, we find well-known electrolytes exchanging their ions
with elements of other compounds which, without any doubt, are not their ions.
So, for instance, chlor-acetic acid (CH,CICOOH), or the ethylic ether of this acid,-
and iodide of potassium exchange between each other the chlorine and iodine,
though assuredly the ions of chlor-acetic acid are not Cl and CH,COOH, but
CH,C1COO and H.
Another difficulty is offered by the alloys. A former observation of Mr.
Gérardin that amalgams of sodium grow brittle on one or the other electrode was
refuted in my laboratory about eleven years ago by Dr. Obach.’ His researches
were made with the greatest care, and extended over different alloys, even those
which contained definite equivalents of their elements, and which from their other
properties seemed to be definite chemical compounds. But no decomposition was
observed. Somewhat later Mr. Haga, in Holland, made analogous experiments
with the same result. It would give me great satisfaction if Professor Austen
should confirm these observations.
After these experiences we must confess that as yet we do not know the general
definition of an electrolyte and of its ions.
II. There is another open question, whether water takes part in the electro-
lysis of a dissolved electrolyte. You have heard from Dr. Lodge that the answer
to this question is generally negative. On the other hand, Professor F. Kohl-
rausch,” in his very remarkable paper on the conduction of some electrolytes in
very diluted solutions, came to the opinion that in these solutions water is also
decomposed. It would be very desirable that further researches should be made
on this subject.
III. Let us neglect the surely very insignificant decomposition of water, and
assume that it plays only a secondary part in the electrolysis of solutions. Then
we may enter upon the consideration of their electrical resistance.
It is now generally admitted, as I detailed so long ago as the year 1858,° that
the electrical resistance of a solution is determined by the mechanical resistance
(friction) the bodies set free by the current encounter in the liquid, by which means
the lost motion is transformed into a quantity of heat proportionate to the elec-
trical resistance. In the same year I compared this friction with the viscosity of
the liquid. I believe this has been often misunderstood, for I find it stated in some
memoirs that I should have said the viscosity of a liquid represents directly its
resistance. On the contrary, and specially in a paper of the year 1856, I have
shown that the friction corresponding to viscosity is different from the friction in
the electrolysis of solutions,
In the year 1870, in the second edition of my ‘Treatise on Galvanism,’ vol. i.
p. 432, I have further detailed the three points separately to be considered in this
electrolysis. viz., 1st, the friction of the ions in the liquid; 2nd, the friction of the
dissolved electrolyte in the liquid; 3rd, the friction of the whole solution in the
vessel, the electrical endosmose. Iam happy to state that on these points I agree
with my excellent friend, Professor Quincke, who independently and nearly con-
temporaneously evolved the same ideas.
We will omit the electrical endosmose, which can be eliminated, and deal only
with the first two points.
The friction of the ions alone has been further treated by Professor F. Kohl-
rausch, and with the help of the admirable experiments of Professor Hittorf on the
migration of ions, and his own most elaborate researches on conductivity, he has
shown that, independently of the compound decomposed, each ion has its own
constant velocity in the same solvent. The discrepancies which were observed
in stronger solutions disappear, as Professor F. Kohlrausch has stated, in most
1 Obach, Pogg. Ann. Ergdnzungsband, vii. 1876, p. 280.
2 F. Kohlrausch, Wied. Ann. xxvi. 1885, p. 211.
3G. W. Pogg. Ann. civ. 1858, p. 169.
ON ELECTROLYSIS. 349
dilute solutions, where the friction on the water is almost the only thing to be con-
sidered.
But with regard to very dilute solutions, I believe we encounter some great
difficulties, at least for certain compounds.
1st. There may be double decomposition of the dissolved electrolyte with the
impurities of the solvent. In very diluted aqueous solutions these impurities, even
in the cleanest water, conduct better than the dissolved solid. It may be that this
double decomposition may have no great influence on the results.
2nd. A greater influence can be exerted by dissociation of the salts. It is
known that solutions of sulphate of copper, &c., are acid, that a solution of chloride
of magnesia when boiled emits vapours of hydrochloric acid, that chloride and
other salts of ammonia are dissociated in their aqueous solutions, &c. The increase
of the dissolving water must increase these dissociations.
8rd. In many cases we are not sure if the dissolved electrolyte is to be regarded
as free from water or as a hydrate (in alcoholic solutions as an alcoholate). By the
researches of Graham, Riidorff, and others, we mow that such hydrates exist in the
solutions. Now Professor F. Kohlrausch, in his already quoted memoir (p. 201),
has found no influence of the formation of hydrates. On the contrary, Professor
Hilhard Wiedemann, of Erlangen, has observed that there is a definite influence.
You mow that chloride of copper in very concentrated solutions is green, in more
diluted blue. This change of colour is, without doubt, produced by the combina-
tion of the salt with the water. In the same manner diluted blue solutions grow
green by a rise of temperature. Now the electrical conductivity of solutions of this
salt at each rise of temperature of 5° C, augments nearly by the same amount up
to 60° C.; but above 60° O. the change of conductivity for 5° falls off in a remark-
able manner. The same is to be observed when the solution contains free hydro-
ehloric acid. A solution of chloride of sodium—which salt forms no hydrates at
not too low temperatures—shows no such irregularities. Its conductivity rises
faster than the temperature up to higher temperatures. These experiments shall
be further followed up. Without doubt the number of the salt molecules combined
with hydratic water must increase with the dilution.
It seems to me at present impossible to avoid these disturbing circumstances,
which nevertheless should be put into consideration. Therefore we should not
content ourselves with the determination of the conductivities of very diluted
solutions, by which certain complications are avoided, but new ones may be intro-
duced. Only by the study of gradually changing concentrations of the solutions at
different temperatures, and comparing their electrical behaviour with their other
physical properties, may we get an insight into these different conditions.
The formation of hydrates of the salts and their dissociation must also be
understood before we can enter with any hope of success into further discussion of
the highly interesting and important question, principally treated by Dr. Svante
Arrhenius, whether the eventual formation of complex molecules and their dis-
sociation by further dilution may have an influence on the number of molecules
decomposed by the current, and on the resistance of the solution.
For the same reason the question how much of the resistance may be due to the
friction between the undecomposed salt and the dissolving medium, which have a
certain difference of electrical potential between each other, and therefore are trans-
ported in opposite directions by the current, must be postponed for further researches.
IV. Another point which merits ample consideration and serious criticism is
the supposed relation between molecular conductivity and chemical composition.
The conductivities of dissolved salts give no such immediate relation ; nor is any to
be expected, since they are dependent upon the sum of the velocities of the two
‘ions. The same may be said about the conductivities of worse conductors, the
organic compounds, &e.
Great care should be taken in these researches to employ only chemically pure
substances. After the interesting observations of Mr. Ramsay about the boiling
points and vapour tensions of organic compounds, it seems not to be sufficient to
content ourselves with getting them from even the best chemical works and testing
them by their boiling points; especially as the conductivities of bad conductors
350 REPORT-——1887.
may be considerably changed by the addition of very small quantities of other
substances.
By a long series of careful experiments Professor Ostwald has tried if there
existed a relation between the mono, bi, and tri valency of the acids, and their
molecular conductivities in very dilute solutions, which might be in inverse ratio
to the valency (100: 50: 832); but it seems not to follow from his researches; as,
in solutions of different acids containing only one molecular weight in grammes in
1,000 litres of water, the numbers for the molecular conductivities vary for the
monovalent acids between 112°5 (HBr) and 12°65 (isobutylic acid), for the bivalent
between 113-4 (H,SO,) and 16°91 (succinic acid). The different changes of the
molecular conductivities with increasing dilution (from 100 to 1,000 litres of water
for H,SO, from 1027 to 113:4, for isobutyric acid from 4:41 to 12°65, &c.) cannot
encourage us to a very far extended extrapolation which might conduct to the
above law.
Therefore at present we must content ourselves with some minor regularities.
One of these has been observed in the laboratory of Professor Eilhard
Wiedemann by Dr. Hartwig. According to his experiments the conductivities of
the acids of the fatty series attain with rising concentration their maximum the
earlier the more carbon they contain, and the later the more carbon the dissolving
medium (water, methylic, ethylic, amylic alcohol), contains.
V. Also the attempt to measure the chemical strength of the acids by their
molecular resistances seems to me to depend upon an erroneous conception. Already
in my ‘Galvanism’ I have mentioned that the electrical resistance offers no measure
for the so-called ‘ force of decomposition,’ and therefore, also, not for the chemical
affinity. May we assume the former view, that the ions of a compound are directly
separated by the current, or, according to the now generally received theory of M.
Clausius, that their motion is directed, or accelerated by it in a certain direction ?
After its interruption the electrolysed solution between the electrodes and far from
them is quite unchanged. The work done by the current in separating the ions or
changing their motion is totally regained by their recombination or their return to
their former state.
The chemical affinity, or, more rightly, the heat of chemical combination, is
measured by the electromotive force ; and I believe that the law of Sir William
Thomson, that une electromotive force of a cell is equivalent to the heat evolved in
it, is true, if only we distinguish between the true primary chemical processes,
which alone determine the electromotive force, and the secondary ones. For
instance, in the magnesium cells we must calculate amongst the primary processes
the formation of a highly negative suboxide of magnesium, in the cells with two
liquids we must consider that their ions at their plane of separation appear and
combine with each other in single atoms, while we measure directly their heat of
combination when bound together into molecules, &c. In my ‘ Treatise on Elec-
tricity,’ vol. ii. p. 892, I have, though but in a very few words, indicated some of
these circumstances, which may explain the apparent objections to the law of Sir
William Thomson. But these considerations would lead us too far from our proper
subject.
NL. More intimate appear the relations between electrical resistance and the
time for the formation of chemical compounds. In fact, this time depends (1st) on
the affinity of the elements entering into combination or being exchanged between
two compounds; and (2nd) on the mechanical resistance which they find, while
approaching each other, and which mostly has been totally neglected in these
questions. Both conditions must find their expression as well in the modern
theory of atomistic and molecular motion as in the older one. The first of these
conditions does not enter into the consideration of electrical resistance, the second
does; so that even when in both cases the processes were quite the same, we could
not expect a proportionality between the time of combination and _ electrical
resistance. Nevertheless, the experiments of Professor Ostwald,! though treating
very heterogeneous processes, indicate that between the time for the inversion
of cane sugar, the catalysis of acetate of methyl by different acids, and their
1 Ostwald, Journ. fiir practische Chemie, N. F. xxx. 1883, pp. 93-225.
ON ELECTROLYSIS. 351
electrical resistances there may be a certain relation ; though the numbers, as may
be expected, show considerable differences (if we put these constants for HCl
equal "i 100, they are for some other acids 65°1 and 73:4, 79:9 and 91, 74:6
and 104).
It seems to be very difficult, even if possible, to study both conditions which
determine the velocity of the formation of compounds separately, and then compare
only the resistance to their formation with the resistance opposed to their ions
during the passage of the current.
So we see that a great deal of work has yet to be done in electrolysis, and I
hope that the impulse given by the Committee of the British Association will
mightily contribute to advance our knowledge in this most complicated and
difficult problem.
Comparison between the Views of Dr. ARRHENIUS and Professor ARMSTRONG,
on Electrolysis. By Outver Lover, F.R.S.
It may be convenient to summarise the main views of Professor Armstrong con-
cerning electrolytic conduction, as expressed in his Royal Society Memoir (Proe,
Royal Society, No, 243, 1886). He discards the view of exact equivalence between
the positive and negative atoms of a compound, considering that no ordinary mole-
cule is really saturated, but that its electro-negative element has an unsatisfied or
residual affinity, with which it is ready to cling on to fresh atoms or to other
molecules. By means of these residual affinities of unsatisfied atoms he imagines
molecular aggregates to be built up. And he considers a concentrated substance
in the liquid state to be largely or wholly composed of these complex molecular
aggregates, each in a nearly or quite saturated, and therefore inert, condition. The
effect of dilution, however, is to break up these aggregates into simpler molecules,
until, in an extremely dilute solution, the molecules may be as separated and as
simple as they are in the gaseous state.
So far the views of Arrhenius * somewhat correspond. Without any doctrine
of residual affinity as accounting for them Arrhenius also postulates the existence
of molecular aggregates, which he imagines to be broken up by dilution; but he
goes further, and imagines a certain number of the molecules themselves broken
up by dilution into their constituent atoms, z.e., he postulates real dissociation after
the manner of Williamson and Clausius, a hypothesis for which Professor
Armstrong sees no necessity, and to which he apparently perceives some chemical
objection.
a The dissociated molecules are called by Arrhenius the ‘active part’ of the
liquid, and are believed to be the only ones which take part directly either in
chemical action or in electrolytic conduction. These are the molecules which are
constantly exchanging their atoms, either with each other or with foreign mole-
cules, and so give rise to double-decomposition and ordinary chemical action. All
other molecules, having their atoms firmly combined, are inert. Heating and
dilution increases the active portion, 7.e., the proportion of dissociated molecules
and thus intensifies at the same time the chemical power and the electrolytic con-
ductivity of the compound. To every state of temperature or admixture, a certain
proportion exists between the active and inactive molecules of a given substance :
and thus its ‘activity’ or ‘avidity’ in chemical reaction, as well as the current it
can convey under the influence of a given E.M.F., «e., its conductivity, is re-
gulated and determined. The velocity of chemical action between the mixed
substances, 7.e., the rate at which their molecules interchange atoms, can thus be
calculated in arbitrary time-units from a knowledge of the conductivity of the con-
stituent substances ; and the final state of equilibrium is obtained by putting this
rate equal to zero.
The special point of Arrhenius’s paper is therefore not any peculiar view which
he holds regarding the nature of electrolysis, for his view is a perfectly orthodox
‘Recherches sur la Conductibilité galvanique des Electrolytes (152 pages)
par Svanté Arrhenius. Mém. présenté a l’Acad. des Sciences de Suéde le 6 Juin,
1883.’ Abstract and semi-translation appear in last year’s B A. Report.
352 REPORT—1887.
one, but it is the application which he makes of it in the consideration of all
manner of chemical reactions; he attempts, in fact, an Electrolytic Theory of
Chemistry.
Professor Armstrong, on the other hand, holds, provisionally at any rate, quite
heterodox views as to the nature of electrolysis, which, so far as I understand
them, appear to be these :—
Tnitially a salt-solution exhibits no trace of dissociation, there are no free or
semi-free atoms to be acted on electrically, but so soon as an E.M.F. is applied to
it a locomotion of the molecules past each other begins, as evidenced by the known
occurrence of electric endosmose. By this process every salt molecule is brought
within range of a water molecule as they slide past each other, and the residual
affinity of some constituent of each of two molecules straining at each other under
these conditions, superadded to the strain already set up by the applied E.M.F., is
sufficient to effect disruption of the molecule, whose separated atoms then travel
opposite ways to the electrodes carrying their charges with them, and conduction
occurs in the manner ordinarily assumed. For instance, in a solution of HCl in
H,0, the O is straining at the C], and this force, as the molecules flow past each
other, is sufficient to assist the applied E.M.F. to produce disruption and inter-
change, z.e., to bring about the same result as the Williamson-Clausius dissociated
condition ordinarily supposed to exist before the action of E.M.F.
If, however, the molecules in the liquid are all complex molecules, or aggregates
of a large number of atoms, hanging together by the residual affinity of each, these
residual affinities are in the complex so nearly satisfied that they have little or no
further power to act on a water or other molecule; and they thus resist being
broken up, and refuse to conduct a current. A liquid composed wholly of such
complex aggregates is thus not an electrolyte; and Armstrong calls it a pseudo-
dielectric.
A liquid which contains among a large proportion of such aggregates a few
simple molecules here and there is an electrolyte but a very badly conducting one.
Its conductivity increases as the aggregates get broken down, whether by heat or
by dilution.
It will be observed that this hypothesis does not dispense with dissociation; it
only denies dissociation previous to the application of E.M.F. So soon as E.M.F.
is applied, mutual action between the molecules, assisting the strain caused by the
E.M.F. itself, produces the very state of dissociation postulated by all physicists as
necessary for actual electrolytic conduction.
Neither does the hypothesis dispense with a dissociating power of the solvent ;
it only limits its power to the breaking down of complex molecules, instead of
allowing it to break up the simple molecules themselves. It is not supposed able
to do this latter until aided by applied E.M.F.
To swmmarise. — The orthodox view supposes fully combined molecules,
whether aggregates or not, to be undecomposable by any moderate E.M.F.; but it
supposes a certain proportion of them split up or dissociated, either actually or
potentially, by addition of a foreign body. Not necessarily a solvent: it pictures
the dissociation of water by salt quite as easily as that of salt by water. Each
atom while in the nascent or uncombined state has associated with it a definite
electric charge, and these loose electrified atoms are thus immediately amenable to
the smallest directive E.M.F.
Armstrong’s view supposes complex molecules to be undecomposable by any
moderate E.M.F., but it imagines a certain proportion of them split up or decom-
posed into simpler molecules by the action of a solvent. It supposes, further, a
tendency or endeavour on the part of the water to split up these simple molecules
still more into their constituent atoms; but it asserts that the water is unable to
effect this until aided by an extra strain, in the shape of an externally applied
E.M.F., and by the locomotive disturbance or endosmose thereby set up in the
liquid.
: A third view there is which must probably have been held more or less dis-
tinctly by several physicists, and which for several reasons usually commends itself
to me, viz., that all semple molecules are strongly combined, and therefore intract-
ON ELECTROLYSIS. 3538
able to feeble E.M.F.’s; and that most: perfectly pure bodies, undisturbed by heat
or by admixture with foreign matter, have their molecules in this condition. When,
however, two or more substances (like salt and water for instance) are mixed to-
gether, their simple molecules combine into somewhat indefinite molecular aggre-
gates or hydrates of complex structure, in which it may happen, either that some
of the outlying atoms are not held with full vigour and so become partially free
and able to interchange with other similarly placed atoms, or else that by the
collision of the unwieldy aggregates with each other the atoms of one molecule are
brought so close to the respectively opposite atoms of another molecule that a mutual
interchange occurs.
For it is well known that it is quite unnecessary to postulate atoms as hovering
around in an entirely free or disemmoleculed condition. All that is wanted to
explain the facts of electrolysis is a certain number of atomic interchanges
occurring at random ; for the slightest E.M.F. will then suffice to exert a directive
a one way or the other on the atoms during their infinitesimal moment of
reedom.
The operation is perhaps more simple to contemplate if the atoms are imagined
to be actually, instead of only (so to speak) potentially, free, but the result is the
same ; and of course the conductivity will depend upon the number of such ‘ free’
atoms existing in the solution, the molecuar conductivity k/m representing the pro-
portion of such free atoms to the whole. It is upon this very same proportion,
according to Arrhenius, that the chemical activity of the substance depends.
Whatever be the most satisfactory form of hypothesis to hold at present, 1 am
bound to say that the hypothesis of Dr. Armstrong does not commend itself to me.
And that for several reasons. ;
I make no objection to his notion of residual affinity, nor to the formation of
molecular ageregates by means of it. Those are points for the consideration of
chemists.. The objectionable, and I venture to think fatal, part of his hypothesis,
is where he supposes dissociation to be produced by means of the applied E.M.F.,
instead of independently of it. Few things are more certain than this, that an
electrolyte is incompetent to resist the smallest E.M.F. really applied to it (2.e., not
applied only to electrodes). If the molecules have to be torn asunder by any
action depending on the magnitude of the applied E.M.F., it must be possible to
choose an E.M.F. too weak to effect decomposition. A substance which needs an
E.M.F. to tear its molecules asunder in the interior of its mass is tpso facto a di-
electric—it may be a very weak one—but it is not an electrolyte. All that a slope
of potential can possibly achieve in the interior of an electrolyte is to direct a pro-
cession of otherwise randomly moving atoms. This is, of course, the foundation of
the theory of Williamson and Clausius ; and all experimental knowledge acquired
since the time it was first promulgated with regard to the obedience of electrolytes
to Ohm’s law, down to the researches of Professor Fitzgerald and Mr. Trouton,
communicated in part to the last British Association and still going on, tends but
to confirm and strengthen that position.
Of course, at surfaces of discontinuity (7.e., at electrodes) electrolytes need
a finite E.M.F. to liberate their ions, but the range over which the stress here
concerned acts is of atomic dimensions, say 10-% centimetre from each electrode.
‘ae is no such finite stress needed, or possible, in the interior of a homogeneous
iquid.
A minor objection to Dr. Armstrong’s hypothesis may be made at the point
where he supposes endosmose to precede conduction, and to be a phenomenon inde-
pendent of surface contact. It is not easy, again, to imagine why his molecules
should be travelling past each other in the fluid, nor why, even if they did, this fact
should assist their previously incompetent forces to disrupt each other.
Unless every molecule is supposed to be in a condition extremely like every
other molecule, which is quite contrary to the usual doctrine of averages as applied
to molecules, it is difficult to believe that a number of molecules are in such a state
of strain as to be made to break up with mere gentle locomotion, and yet that none
of them shall be able to break up without such assistance.
1887, AA
354 REPORT—1887.
Comparison between the Views of Dr. ARRHENIUS and Professor ARMSTRONG
on Electrolysis. Reply to Professor Loper’s Criticisms. By Henry
E, Armstrone, F.R.S.
Professor Lodge in his summary very clearly points out the difference in the
views advocated by Arrhenius and myself, and emphasises the chief points which
it is of importance to discuss. He unreservedly condemns my hypothesis, on the
ground that any E.M.t’., however small, is sufficient to produce sensible electrolysis ;
and he asserts this to be a proof of the correctness of the orthodox view that the
E.M.F. has nothing todo but to give direction to the already separated atoms.
I have before expressed my doubt of the force of this argument; but I may add
that it appears to me hopeless to attempt the experimental disproof of such a state-
ment, our ability to prepare pure substances being out of all proportion small as
compared with our power of detecting electric currents: indeed, it would be pre-
sumption to attempt to contend with an engine of such surpassing delicacy as ‘a
galvanometer sensitive enough to show a current which could only decompose a
milligram of water in a century.’
It is apparently desirable that I should more fully state, from a chemist’s point
of view, the chief reasons which cause me to hesitate in accepting the ‘ atomic
dissociation hypothesis,’ and which have led me to suggest an alternative ‘ mole-
cular hypothesis,’ viz., that in the case of ‘composite electrolytes,’ at all events,
electrolysis is the outcome of the combined action of the E.M.F. and of some effect
which the one set of molecules exerts upon the other set while both are under the
influence of the E.M.F. I care little at present what the effect is, the important
question to settle being whether electrolysis is primarily an affair of atoms or of
molecules. ;
1. In explanation of the fact that neither hydrogen chloride (HCl) nor water
(H,O) is an electrolyte, although a solution of the one in the other conducts
readily, it has been sometimes assumed that the dissociated atoms of H and Cl
are shielded and prevented from recombining by the intervention of the neutral
molecules of the solvent, opportunity being thus given for the E.M.F. to act and
give direction to the atoms. But a single substance such as fused silver iodide,
for example, conducts readily, and is electrolysed. How are we to explain this?
I imagine that the orthodox view also in this case requires us to assume that
there are, normally present in the iodide, dissociated iodide and silver atoms ; just
as it is assumed that there are atoms of H and Cl in hydrogen chloride, or of H
and O in water. Why, then, does electrolysis take place in the one ease, but not
in the other? The conductivity of such a substance as silver iodide is far too con-
siderable to be explained by the assumption that it contains impurity, which,
Judging from the behaviour of aqueous solutions, could not possibly be present in
sufficient amount to account for the readiness with which the electrolysis takes
place. Nor can we, with any degree of probability, suppose that either hydrogen
chloride or water in the pure state consists wholly of Arrhenius’s complex inactive
molecules ; that silver iodide is at all events rich in simple active molecules; and
that such simple active molecules are produced from hydrogen chloride only on its
dilution with water. Nor do I conceive that it helps us to assume that a compound
of hydrogen chloride with water is formed ; it does not appear to me to be probable
that an aggregate of the form (HCl),- (OH,), would be more susceptible of elec-
trolysis than the component simple molecules, and that these would be more likely
to suffer dissociation when associated than when free. Unwieldy aggregates, such
as Professor Lodge refers to, break up, I imagine, if at all, not because some of the
outlying atoms are not held with full vigour, nor because the atoms of the one
constituent molecule are by collision of the aggregates brought close to those of
the other, but because the atoms of the molecules which form the aggregate are
brought into intra-molecular relationship ; 7.e., the break up is not the result of the
collision, but of the opportunity thus given for re-pairing to take place! and
possibly new simple molecules, not atoms, always result.
* This view is in entire agreement with one I expressed in the communication
referred to (page 353); indeed, it may be considered a paraphrase of it.—O. L.
oe
ON ELECTROLYSIS. 350
2. Again, it appears to me that the atomic dissociation hypothesisrequires that
the majority of compounds, if not all, should per se conduct more or less well,
_ especially if it be admitted that ionic velocities differ ; as a matter of fact, however,
_ only a very limited number can be regarded as electrolytes. Moreover, according
_ to the orthodox view—particularly in the form in which it is stated by Arrhenius
—the most active substances are those which contain the greatest number of active
atoms, 7.e., those which are most easily dissociated. But, in point of fact, the sub-
stances which are most active—both chemically and electrically—are by no means
those which we should regard as most likely to dissociate ; thus, HCl, HBr and
HI differ in stability to a very marked extent, yet their molecular conductivities
in aqueous solution are almost identical. Anda glance through the list of salts
which are believed to be per se electrolytes is sufficient to show that these are not,
as might fairly be expected, among the leaststjable, but quite the contrary : silver
chloride, bromide and iodide, for example—all compounds of considerable stability
—heing the best conductors known, I believe, among simple electrolytes.
3. Aqueous alcoholic solutions generally oppose a greater resistance than the
corresponding aqueous solutions, and solutions in absolute alcohol oppose a
practically infinite resistance ; yet surely it might be expected that alcohol—indeed,
any neutral solyent—would screen the dissociated atoms from each other and thus
render electrolysis possible.
4. If, as Professor Lodge asserts, the orthodox view (or his version of it)
pictures the dissociation of water by salt quite as easily as that of salt by water,
why is conduction assumed by Kohlrausch and others to take place only through
the agency of the atoms of the dissociated salt, and not at all through that of the
water, except, perhaps, to judge froma recent admission made by Kohlrausch, in
the case of very dilute solutions? Certainly, on the atomic dissociation hypothesis,
both water and salt, I imagine, are to be regarded as dissociated; and, moreover, it
would appear probable that as the dissociated constituent atoms of water
would have less chance in a concentrated solution of coming together again, con-
duction would take place mainly through their agency; and that in a dilute solu-
tion, for a similar reason, conduction would be affected chiefly through the
agency of the salt. This conclusion is manifestly opposite to that arrived at by
Kohlrausch.
5, Arrhenius asserts that the conductivity of ammonia solutions is caused by a
small quantity of NH,OH, which is increased by dilution; and in reply to Pro-
fessor Lodge’s remark deprecating this statement (B.A. ‘ Report,’ 1886, p- 363), he
says: ‘I may say in explanation that almost all chemists attribute the reaction of
“ammonia to a small portion of NH,OH in it, &.’ I am one of those chemists who
think that it is not necessary to make this assumption, believing that the chemical
changes produced by ammonia solution are due to the combined or simultaneous
action of ammonia and water, but I quite agree with Arrhenius that the effect of
dilution is to increase the proportion of simple or active molecules, #.e., to dis-
sociate the molecular complexes into the constituent simple molecules of ammonia.
The opinion iscommon among chemists that the nitrogen becomes separated from
the hydrogen not by direct electrolysis, but by means of oxygen primarily pro-
duced by electrolysis—in other words, that water is the electrolyte.
6. The dissociation hypothesis has not only found favour with physicists, but
also with chemists, as it long seemed to afford a simple explanation of the occur-
rence of chemical change; in fact, the popular view may be summed up in the
: simple statement that simplification as a rule precedes complication. As I have
more than once insisted, however, recent observations on the influence of minute
_amounts of third substances oblige us to admit that we have yet much to learn
‘Tegarding the manner in which apparently the simplest changes occur. In certain
“cases where we may almost assert that we know dissociated atoms to be present,
combination or interchange does not ensue unless a minute amount of a third
apparently neutral substance be present: indeed, the great problem in chemistry,
which is but now being attacked, is whether it is possible for chemical change ta
occur between any two substances, be they simple atoms or more or less complex
molecules. Even dissociation would seem not to be a simple function of tempera-
AA2
356 REPORT— 1887.
ture, as is well shown by the observations of Deville and Victor Meyer and Langer
that the decomposition of carbon dioxide takes place in porcelain at a temperature
several hundred degrees below that at which it occurs in platinum vessels. More-
over, there are not wanting chemists who assert that complication, not simplifica-
tion, is the usual antecedent of chemical interchange.’ No less an authority than
Kekulé advocates this view, and I have recently had occasion to discuss its applica-
tion in explanation of the laws of substitution in the case of carbon com ounds. I do
not mean for one moment to assert that anything which we know of tlie conditions
on which chemical change depends negatives beyond question the dissociation
hypothesis, but merely that it is possible, apparently, to explain the facts by means
of a molecular hypothesis.
7. It appears to me that an almost conclusive argument in my favour may be
based on the results of Lenz’s determinations of electric conductivity and diffusivity
embodied in the following table, where v is the volume percentage of alcohol, d the
diffusivity, and L the conductivity; the values for an aqueous solution containing
half a gram-formula-weight of potassium iodide being put = 100 :—
KI 1KI | 1KI | 1KI 3,KI
v d L ad) 85 d L d L d L
0 195 — 100 100 51 52 27° «27 13 14
27:9 —- — 50 =50 25 ‘25 —- — —
51:0 —- — 38 = 35 19° «US 11 9 —- —
TL7 —- — 29° «26 15 13 8 8 —- —
ne
4 Na i} a K,CrO, 4 Cdl, 3 Cdl,
v d L d L d L d L
0 82 80 — 104 84 30 44 18
27°9 38 40 64 63 40 14 19 75
51-0 So _- =— 37 9 17 4:5
74:7 27) =23 — — 39 6 17 35
It will be observed that the numbers run strictly parallel, except in the case of
the cadmium salt; and here the exception proves the rule, as it is established,
beyond doubt, by a variety of consistent observations that the cadmium salts are of
exceptionally complicated molecular composition. I entirely fail to see how we
are to explain liquid diffusion by means of the atomic dissociation hypothesis. But
if we assume that the water molecules are in motion, and that having an attraction
for the molecules of the dissolved body they necessarily tend to drag them forward,
the phenomena are of the same order as those of conduction on my hypothesis.
The diminution in conductivity and also in diffusivity as the amount of alcohol is
increased is most striking. If the solvent be neutral the substitution of aleohol for
water should have little influence; but if, as I suppose, the solvent be active,
alcohol being far less active than water, the effect to be expected is precisely of the
nature of that observed.
8, With regard to Professor Lodge’s remark, ‘ It isnot easy to imagine why his
molecules should be travelling past each other in the fluid,’ it is admitted by the
orthodox that the E.M.F. gives direction to the atoms. Why, then, should it not
also give direction to the moving molecules if these are still possessed of ‘residual
affinity ’—z.e., if some portion of the original charge of the atom be still unneutral-
ised? He then adds,‘ nor why, even if they did, this fact should assist their pre-
viously incompetent forces to disrupt each other.’ Let me put a case. Imagine a
1 This is in harmony with the ‘third view’ of electrolysis set forth in my paper
(foot of p. 352).—O. L. 7
ON ELECTROLYSIS. 357
couple of individuals holding each other by the hand to waltz rapidly round a
room, and suppose a second couple to do the same: if, as the couples passed each
other, one of the individuals were to grab at one of the members of the other set,
might not the members of the one or the other couple part company ?
9. Ostwald’s remarkable contributions to our knowledge of molecular conduc-
tivity appear to me to bear continuous testimony to the existence of such an in-
fluence of molecule upon molecule as that I have pictured. I have given numerous
illustrations from his work in my Royal Society paper, but I may here call atten-
tion to his numbers for hydrocinnamic, cinnamic, and phenylpropiolic acids :—
v=32 | 64 128 | 6 512 1024 | 2048 | 4096
Hydrocinnamic Acid, C,H..CH,.CH,.CO0,H 225 | 314] 440] 608} 842 | 11°55 | 15°71 | 20:92
Cinnamic Acid, C,H..CH.CH.CO,H . . = — _— 7-55 | 10°37 | 14°18 | 19°18 | 25°28
Phenylpropiolic Acid, C,H,.C.C.CO,H + | 27°66 | 35°29 | 43°67 | 51°98 | 59°13 | 64°56 | 67-96 | 69:56
The numbers show that the ‘ activity’ of the acid increases as hydrogen is with-
drawn. On the orthodox view the ions are H and the acid minus H; but it is
difficult to conceive that the affinity of the negative ion for H should diminish as
that ion becomes deprived of hydrogen, and that that acid should be the strongest
—i.e., conduct best—because most dissociated, which it is to be imagined would be
the least ready to part with hydrogen.
10. Arrhenius certainly bases his conclusion on the orthodox view of atomic
dissociation, but in his calculations makes use of the conductivity values determined
by himself or Kohlrausch; it seems to me, therefore, that his results are in the
main independent of any theory of the nature of electrolysis. To use his words,
‘L’activité electrolytique se confonde avec l’activité chimique;’ or, to put it in
another way, which much of our chemical experience appears to warrant, the
formula by which Ohm’s law is expressed
Ga"
R
may also be used as representing the law of chemical change, C being the amount
of change and E the intensity of the total chemical effect. An argument based upon
electrolytic values may therefore be expected to be in agreement with chemical
experience.
Tn conclusion, I would add that I urge these pleas on behalf of my hypothesis
with the greatest diffidence, feeling that I am unfortunately unable to fully appre-
ciate the force of the mathematical and physical arguments. 1 do think, however,
that in framing our conceptions we may, perhaps, have been too much guided by
_ statistical principles; it is quite open to question whether the atoms in molecules
are in that state of unrest—are perpetually changing places in the manner in which
our fancy has allowed us to picture them to be. We have yet almost everything
to learn regarding inter-atomic structure, and everything regarding intra-atomic
structure. It is impossible at present to quantify peculiarities and relationships
which are patent to the chemist, but these must be taken into account; and for
this reason it is all-important that chemists and physicists should co-operate.
The other contributions to the meeting were as follows :—
Professor von HELMHOLTZ (communicated by Dr. Silvanus P. Thompson), ‘ Fur-
ther researches concerning the Electrolysis of Water.—To be published by the
Physical Society in the forthcoming volume of von Helmholtz’s Memoirs on
Electrolysis.
Professor H. A. ROWLAND, ‘On chemical action in a magnetic field.’ Paper not
received.
Professor OLIVER J. LODGE, ‘ Experiments on the speed of ions.’ Paper not
written out in time for this year’s report.
T. C. FITZPATRICK (communicated by Mr. W. N. Shaw), ‘On the action of the
solvent in electrolytic conduction.’—See the Philosophical Magazine for November
1887.
W. W. HALDANE GEE, H. HoupEN, and C. H. Less, ‘On Electrolysis and Elec-
358 REPORT—1887.
trolytic Polarisation.’—See the Philosophical Magazine. For abstract, see Trans. of
Sections.
Professor M‘LEoD, ‘On the Electrolysis of a solution of Ammonic Sulphate.’—
See the Journal of the Chemical Society.
Professor S. P. THompson, ‘On the Electro-deposition of Alloys,’ and ‘On the
industrial deposition of platinum.’
Thirteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Drs. E. HULL and
H. W. Crosskey, Sir DouGLas GaLton, Professors J. PRESTWICH
and G. A. LEsour, and Messrs. JAMES GLAISHER, E. B. Mar-
TEN, G. H. Morton, W. PENGELLY, JAMES PLANT, I. ROBERTS,
T. S. Srooxe, G. J. Symons, W. TopLey, TYLDEN-WRIGHT, E.
WETHERED, W. WHITAKER, and C. E. De Rance (Secretary),
appointed for the purpose of investigating the Circulation of
Underground Waters in the Permeable Formations of England
and Wales, and the Quantity and Character of the Water sup-
plied to various Towns and Districts from these Formations.
(Drawn up by C. E. DE Rance, Reporter.)
Your Committee are of opinion that, looking at the large number of
details of borings collected since their last report, and to the national im-
portance of our underground-water stores, which have not failed in any
public supply of importance throughout the kingdom, in spite of the
exceptional drought, it is desirable that their labours be continued until
there appears reasonable probability that the whole of the information on
the subject has been procured, and that future observations will simply
duplicate the knowledge already obtained.
Many of the problems to be solved have only as yet reached the pre-
liminary stage of inquiry, while others require accurate observations by
numerous observers, under varying conditions of character of soil,
amounts of rainfall, and local conditions.
Cheltenham Water Supply is derived from springs issuing at the base
of the sands of the Inferior Oolite, which yield a water described by the
Rivers Pollution Commission as ‘ palatable, wholesome, and well suited
for dietetic purposes, and is also much softer than most spring waters
from the same strata.’ Mr. McLandsborough, C.E., the engineer to the
works, states the reservoir holds 200 days’ supply, and is delivered on
the constant system ; he has gauged the springs on the hills above the
reservoirs since 1864, and has never found them fail: during the severe
drought of 1884 they yielded a volume equal to half the average daily
supply of the period gauged. The minimum yield of the spring was in
December of 1884, when the reservoirs were more than half full, and
would have enabled the corporation to give a full supply if the drought
had continued into the spring of 1885. In the Eleventh Report of your
Committee, by a most unfortunate misprint, the reservoirs are described
as ‘dry’ during the drought of 1884, instead of ‘ short,’ as reported by @
correspondent, in which statement he was obviously incorrect. Your
Committee much regret that the condition of the Cheltenham Water-
works should have been misrepresented by them, as they were fully
aware of the ample supply and pure quality given to the town by the
corporation, the purity of which has been testified to by Drs. Allen
Miller, Frankland, Way, and Tidy, and Professor Voelcker.
359
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS.
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360 REPORT—1887.
Hertfordshire :—Record collected by Mr. G. J. Symons, F.RB.S,
The Bury St. Edmund’s Waterworks. Depth of Water im Well.
Depth of well, 91 feet 14 inch.
1876 1876 1876
July 1 12°63 Sept. 6 10°63 Nov. 11 10:25
wal 12-54 a 10-7 ek 103
ee wr 12-5 et: 10°7 svete 10°3
cy 12-42 ods 10°64 ee 10°32
Ai ae 12°4 ea. 10°74 aca 10-44
hee 12°3 5) 18 10°7 var 2 10-44
a0) -8 12°23 = 48 10°7 aie 10-42
=i 10 12:2 ae 10-7 » “BO 10°5
Be ee! 12-13 is ple 10°7 i 21 10°5
a) 121 spurs 10-7 3) 22 10°5
ae 12-03 ee 10°72 ae 10°5
no Le 11-112 » 19 10-72 ie 10°5
sve hb 11-104 re) 10-74 9 26 10°5
ey, 11:10 ee 10°73 ee) 10°52
5 18 11-9 53 22 10°74 » 28 10°6
3 19" 11:9 3 ae 10-74 ree": 10-63
a” 20 11-83 3 2B 10-74 x oo 10:7
re! 11-73 ng. 10°74 Dec. 1 10°73
at Be 11-64 3 10-7 ep a 10-82
ee! 11-64 er rls 10°7 ss ane 10-102
awe ls 116 29 10°7 ste 10-03
» 26 116 5» Oo 10°7 eal 11-14
ae 11-6 Oct. 2 10°7 pepe 11-2}
speed 11-52 vie 107 Aa 11-32
29 115 aa | 10°7 oe 11-42
Sot 11-44 5.26 10°7 ee |! 11-64
Aug. 1 11-4 By ae 10-7 aia 11-64
eee 11:33 ah? ee 10°7 easier 11-82
seen 11:3 monte 10-7 5 le 11-11
Pnaee 113 Ae 10-7 a | 12-1
eh 12°23 > it 10-7 32 “8 12-12
bs heen 11-2 ne 10-7 Sach! 133%
SRS 11-13 ls 10-7 1 AD 12-4
5D 11-1 el 10°7 ae) 12°6
45 0 111 sia 0 10°7 ae 13-72
ge 11:03 Sc 10°7 s 2 12°84
ae 10-112 as 2 10°7 aan 12-9
ae 10113 5 ag 10-64 ee 12-112
5 ae 10-104 5/80 10-64 an 26 13:14
5 (2G 10:10 » 2h 10-64 sat 13-22
5 il 10-9 Sees 10°64 Pa. 13-42
le 10°83 5» 24. 10°64 ag 13°52
7 19 10°8 2 ee 10-64 30 13-62
P| 10°83 28 106 = 1877. Jan. 1 13-92
oe 10°83 BRT. 10°6 bao 13-114
med 10°8 4. 28 10°52 SPE: 14-14
eed. 10°7 » 30 10-54 ii! 14-22
af 10°63 Hehe) 10-5 oe 14-34
» 26 10°6 Nov. 1 10-42 ae 14-42
3» 26 10°6 ES 10-42 aa 14-64
9 29 10°6 Sas 10-4 i 14-81
no 10-6 i ned 10°33 «18 14:92
31 10°53 eS | 10-34 ae 14102
Sept. 1 10°53 exes 7 10:34 wr ae 15-0 —
e 10°54 og 10°3 > ie 15:1
aise 10°53 Re) 10°3 NA I 15°32
aS 10°54 51/40 10-22
i ae SPS
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS.
361
List of Questions circulated.
1. Position of well or shafts with which
you are acquainted ?
1a. State date at which the well or shaft
was originally sunk. Has it been
deepened since by sinking or
boring? and when ?
2. Approximate height of the surface of
the ground above Ordnance datum
(mean sea level)?
3. Depth from surface to bottom of shaft
or well, with diameter. Depth
from surface to bottom of bore-
hole, with diameter ?
3a. Depth from the surface to the hori-
zontal drift-ways, if any? What
is their length and number ?
4. Height below the surface, at which
water stands before and after pump-
ing. Number of hours elapsing
before ordinary level is restored
after pumping?
4a. Height below the surface, at which
the water stood when the well was
first sunk, and height at which it
stands now when not pumped ?
_ 5. Quantity capable of being pumped
in gallons per day of 24 hours?
Average quantity daily pumped ?
6. Does the water level vary at different
seasons of the year, and to what
extent? Has it diminished during
the last ten years?
7. Is the ordinary water level ever
affected by local rains, and if so,
in how short a time? And how
does it stand in regard to the level
of the water in the neighbouring
streams, or sea?
8. Analysis of the water, if any. Does
the water possess any marked
peculiarity ?
9. Section with nature of the rock passed
through, including cover of Drift,
if any, with thickness?
9a. In which of the above rocks were
springs of water intercepted ?
10. Does the cover of Drift over the
rock contain surface springs?
11. If so, are these land springs kept
entirely out of the well?
12. Are any large faults known to exist
close to the well?
Were any brine springs passed
through in making the well?
14. Are there any salt springs in the
neighbourhood?
15. Have any wells or borings been dis-
continued in your neighbourhood
in consequence of the water being
more or less brackish? If so,
please give section in reply to
query No. 9.
16. Kindly give any further information
you can.
i3.
Collected by Mr. DE Rance from Mr. D. Raprorp Sas,
Bocking, Braintree.
1. Belonging to Braintree Local Board of Health, situate in the parish of Brain-
tree, Essex. 51° 52’15” N. lat.,
3. Depth, 51’ 8”; diameter, 9’ 0”.
4. About 41 feet before, about 47’
do not stop pumping long enough to tell.
0° 33’ 15” BE. long. La. 1854. No. 2. 146 feet.
Depth, 350’ 0”;
6” after pumping, September 1882. At present,
4a. 12 feet when first sunk. Cannot say
diameter, 0’ 10”. 3a. None.
where it would stand now. 5. Cannot say. About 100,000 gallons average daily
quantity pumped. 6. Cannot say at present.
About 37 feet below surface of water in stream 22 yards off.
surveyor’s knowledge.
Yes, about 53 feet. 7. Not to the
3. One gallon contains the following number of grains and decimal parts of a grain
(one gallon equals 70,000 grains) :—
Analysis by Professor ATTFIELD, October 2, 1880.
Total solid matter, dried at 212° F.
Ammoniacal matter yielding 10 % of nitrogen (equal to ammonia, 0: 07) 06
Albuminoid organic matter yielding 10 % of nitrogen
Nitrites
Nitrites containing 17 % of nitrogen
Chlorides containing 60 % of chlorine
Hardness (reckoned as chalk grains or degrees) : a
Removed on boiling the water
Unaffected by ebullition
Total hardness .
Sodium, calcium, magnesium, traces of i iron and alumina
10-0
Present
Silica, sulphates, and carbonates (magnesia, 2°3 grains), lead, or copper Norie
362 REPORT—1887.
Strata of trial bore only 145 feet above sea level.
9. i si Ft.
Sandy gravel : ; s : 5
Drift clay or brick earth 2
lode
Tertiary.
London clay . an DO
Here occurred a thin vein of ‘sand, yielding water in small quantity
London clay (continued) with sand and shells. ; 40
Here occurred a stratum of hard cemént stone, under which water
was found, rising to within 5 ft. of surface, but not in any consider-
able quantity, about 10 or 12 inches thick
G@ _. London clay (continued) becoming gradually more sandy . : . 30
geDa
Lower London Tertiaries.
H . Dark sand, with a few shells, yielding water in considerable Kap ee
which stood at 3 feet from surface . 10
I. Mottled clays of smooth texture, veined like marble, and taking a
polish from the knife : 45
(These clays became gradually more sandy, with specks of chalk,
and at 194 feet changed suddenly to a coarse black sandy clay)
Light-coloured sands, firm and hard, becoming darker and more
friable ¢ . 20
iby of Another series of light- -coloured sands, changing ‘to coarse dark. LS
Secondary.
M . Chalk at 228 feet from surface. In this water was found in abundance,
rising to and standing at about 12 feet from the surface permanently.
9a. In D, F, H,and M. 10. Yes; one known of about 25 yards from well. 11.
Yes. 12. Not known. 13. No. 14. None known. 15. None known.
In the Ninth Report of this Committee, 1883, and also in the Twelfth
Report, that for last year, is a weekly record of the level of the water in
Messrs. Samuel Courtauld and Co.’s well at Bocking, Braintree, Essex,
communicated by the courtesy of Mr. Radford Sharpe: this record is
now continued. ‘I'he well datum is 137-02 feet above the mean sea-level.
The observations are taken every Monday morning at 6 A.M.; no water is
taken on a Sunday. The rainfall observations given in the parallel
columns in the first record are from a record kept at Fennes, Braintree,
by Mr. 8. Tabor, about a mile from the well.
For comparison with the table now given the following is the height of
the water above datum, in inches, on the last Monday of each month :—
1883 |1884 |1885 |1886 |1887 1883 |1884 |1885 |1886 |1887
January . . | 16 | 163} 41 | 36 | 24 || July : . | 15 | 56 | 37 | 313} 21
February . | 104} 133} 423} 30 | 223)| August . . | 113) 513) 35 | 26 | —
March . . | 19 | 143] 42 | 34 | 263)| September . | 11 | 453) 36 | 24 | —
April . .| 16 | 313] 44 | 333] 27 || October. . | 10 | 44 | 41 | 23 | —
May 2 « || 133) 49) || 42° || 31 | 25 || November . | 16 | 403) 34 | 23 | —
June : . | 15 | 58 | 41 | 273/22 || December — . 3} 43 | 33 | 253) —
The Essex earthquake happened on April 22, 1884; on April 21 the
water in the well was 12 inches above datum ; on the following Monday,
the 28th, it was 314 inches, steadily increasing until July 7 of the same
year, when it stood at 584 inches. Since then it has been steadily de-
creasing, and should the same rate continue until this month next year the
remarkable lifting of the permanent water-level in Essex by the earth-
quake of April 1884 will have ceased to exist.
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS, 363
Weekly Readings of Height of Water in Messrs. 8S. Courtauld § Oo.’s Well,
Bocking, Essex.
Datum is 137-07 Feet above Sea-level.
Above Above Above
an Datum in Datum in mee Datum in
Inches Inches Inches
July 26 314 April 18 23
Aug. 3 27 wp 220 27
“Ame 263 May 2 27
re LO 27 smart) 234
“eB 26 eg lO 242
ay oO 26 ap wR: 25
Sept. 6 26 ee 25
eb ile 24 June 6 24
ead) 25 A lid 233
eee 24 3 ee 22
Oct. 4 24 ee if 22
al 1 25 July 4 22
mils 27 ee 22
pent 25 23 gras 19
Nov. 1 3 ee) Zi
J 24 Aug. 2 183
A gaa 55 204 nets 18
aay tee 203 monn U3 18
ae 2S 23 hee 18
Warwickshire.
The Birmingham Corporation Waterworks now daily obtain 8 million
gallons of water from three deep wells in the suburbs, two on the north
and one on the south.
Aston Well, 2 miles north of Birnvingham.
Feet
Gravel A 2 ‘ ‘ , ; ‘ - ; 3 Z ald
Bunter sandstone . : - 3 : ‘ . F : Bey
Red marl . 4 3 b * - : 5 . 3 ay BIE
Sandstone . : ‘ ; : Fi . : P ° ’ ALO
Red marl . : ; = , ‘ 5 ‘ . : ; sailed
Very hard sandstone : : : : : ; : Be ts)
Marl . : : - : ¥ ; . “ : : 3” 45
401
The first 120 feet is a well, the remainder is bored.
The Perry Well is 170 feet in depth.
The Short Heath Well is 130 feet, with a boring to 400 feet.
At Messrs. Heaton’s Mint the well is 300 feet in depth.
Nearly the whole of this supply is derived from the Pebble Beds,
which are cut off to the east of a fault ranging N.E. and S.W. by Rubery
to Erdington ; eastward a considerable area of Keuper marls extend from
Birmingham to Shustoke, and from Tamworth to Warwick and Redditch,
and form an area of surface water supply from drift superficial deposits.
Numerous attempts to obtain a good supply of water from the sandstones
H beneath have been made, but so far without success.
; The small Heath boring, for the Birmingham Corporation, made in
. 1876, in search of water for baths, was discontinued, after proving 440
i feet of Keuper marls with gypsum.
364 REPORT—1887.
King’s Heath Brewery, 3 miles south of Birmingham, and about 14 mile from
the Edgbaston Fault, which is probably a downthrow east of 240 feet.
' Boring made by Messrs. Le Grand and Sutcliffe for Messrs. Bates.
Feet
Old well. . : : : 2 3 32
Red sand . . : : 2-4 :
Hedanediendipahblgey BT ee
Rough ballast ; : : : A pele
Red marl . Fe : . 158
Gypsum and Keuper marls . 4 : . 131
Marl, gypsum : : : : : . 309 Renper ae
Marland shale . : F : ‘ ; 3%
Red stone and shale . 4 4 A . 9% Keuper sandstone (?).
667
The following is the section of the Rugby Corporation boring :—
From surface Thickness
Feet Feet
400 Lias . ; js x : ‘ A : : . 400
470 + Rhetic beds ; - ‘ 2 é ; : ; = A70
1,140 Keupermarls . - : ; : : , : . 670
os Keuper sandstone : ; : : é : - (+)
The water at once rose in the borehole, but was so impregnated with
salt and gypsum as to be useless.
Leicestershire.
Hinckley Boring, 1 mile W.N.W. of Hinckley.
Surface level 317 feet above Ordnance datum ; water level 237 feet. Commenced
November 1877.
From surface Thickness
Ft. In. Ft. in.
1 0 Soil : 5 C : ; : ‘ s 4 Oo
31 0 Gravelandsand . “ : 3 : : : ¢ ool gO
88 0 Boulder clay 5 ; r = z é = bi, 30
100 0 Upper Keuper sandstone. é ; ; : ee Pi
496 0 Keuper marls . ; 3 . 396 0
700 0 Grey sandstone, marls, sands, and gypsum = : - 204 0
749 0 Greysandstone . : . . . 49 °0
761 0 Hard brown sandstone . : : : : 3 +. LO
772 0 Soft white sandstone . : - s : : oO
776 O Hard greysandstone . : - - : : «AEE
782 0 Soft white sandstone . : : 5) : : > S6.iOR
783 0 Hardmarl , E é ‘ - F alee
799 O Soft fine white sandstone ; : F 5 ‘ - LGa
805 0 Hard gritty sandstone . . 0 6
A 18-inch tube is carried down to the bottom of the boulder clay, a
10-inch tube to a depth of 161 feet, an 8-inch tube to 420 feet, a 7-inch
tube, with an inside diameter of 63 inches, to 473 feet, after whiok the
borehole is not tubed, but was eetica to 754 feet by the advice of Mr.
Plant, F.G.S. In 1883 the board consulted Mr. Stooke, C.E., of Shrews-
bury, who advised a farther boring, which was carried to a depth of 805
feet, with a diameter of 3 inches. An attempt to plug out the top saline
waters was made without success,
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 365
The water from the borehole contains 530 grains of solids and
39 grains of chlorine, and the yield is 400,000 gallons per day.
Staffordshire.
Mr. H. J. Marten, M.Inst.C.E., gives the following details of the bore-
hole sunk under his superintendence at Cosford, 9 miles from Wolver-
hampton, for the corporation waterworks of that town :—
Ft. In.
Upper mottled sandstone . . 5 : - : - . 461 6
Pebble beds :— Ft. In.
Upper pebble beds : 5 - ‘ : - 165 6
Argillaceous marl 3 5 . : : “2 yoo
Lower pebble beds - - : : = - 128 0
378 6
Lower mottled sandstone(+) . : F 5 ‘ é Ma fstgecd
918 9
He states the water rises to 9 feet above the level of the ground, or
about 201 feet above Ordnance datum, the natural discharge being at the
rate of 480,000 gallons a day. Opening a sluice 14 feet below this, the
natural discharge is 830,000 gallons a day. On pumping down the water
level 27 feet below the ‘summit level,’ the yield is increased to
1,320,000 gallons a day, and at 31 feet to 1,420,000 gallons per day of 12
hours.
There was a slight briny ooze, estimated at about 300 gallons a day,
from the argillaceous marl bed.
Mr. H. J. Marten also describes the Tamworth Waterworks well, sunk
at Hopwas, 2 miles west of that town :—
Ft. In.
Drift . : - : 5 : : : : : : - 16 6
Red marl, with rock bands . ‘ 7 ‘ 3 js 2 own
Hard conglomerate . - : : ; : : : ah SG
Argillaceous marl - : : : : - : : Soe lal
Fissured sandstone . : : : : : : : else i9
Argillaceous marl : : : : - : : ; apTsO1 0
Light fissured sandstone . j : : : ‘ ‘ . 380 4
Red marl, with layers of greyish blue stone and balls of marl, :
with dark spot in centre, called ‘fish-eyed ’ marl : - 41 0
168 0
No water was met with in the Hopwas well until the ‘ fish-eyed ’ marl
was penetrated at 168 feet, when a large spring with an initial flow of
1,500,000 gallons a day was met with, and rose 39 feet in the well, or to
129 feet below the surface, which is about 306 feet above Ordnance, the
artesian level being 177 feet. A slight ooze took place in the fissured
sandstone, and a remarkable current of air was met with in it, fluctuating
with the barometrical changes, with a rising glass there being a decided
indraught from the well into the fissure, and the contrary taking place
with a falling barometer; a very active outflow during the whole of one
day was succeeded at night by one of the most violent storms of the
period (1879). The fissure is evidently connected by passages with the
surface of the ground.
366 REPORT— 1887.
A Report to Tamworth Rural Sanitary Authority on its Water Supply, by
Mr. Henry J. Martin, M.Inst.0.H., gives the following Particulars of
Samples of Water Analysed by Mr. HE. W. T. Jonus, F.C.8., Public
Analyst for Wolverhampton, South Staffordshire, Sc.
Note.—Where blanks are left the items have not been estimated.
Cotumn No. I. II. LIL isa BPAY, Ve Vio= | VEL
S Hard
ate |. ardness
ASsia3] 3
Geological Formation and Place from |S ip| $= “ % =
which each sample was taken Sas] es = B 5 3
= aS aA =) = r= ©
£s°| 4 Sqn taealte =
s Be | a
Grains | Grains] Grains
per per per | Degs.| Degs.| Degs.
A. From drift formation in Tame and | S*llon | gallon | gallon
Anker Valleys. (Procured by
Abyssinian Tube Test Wells.)
No. 1. From ‘ Staffordshire ’ Moor
10 ft. below surface. 47°60 | 0°542 | 2°100 | 18°34 | 16-00 | 34:34
No. 2. From ‘ Warwickshire’ “Moor
10 ft. below surface . 38°08 | 1:°522 | 1:960-| 12°61 | 14°83 | 27-44
No. 3. From No. 8 Test Well at
Coton 21 ft. below surface . 20:02 |0°735 |1:190 | 3:13 | 8-26 | 11:39
No. 4. From No. 9 Test Well at
Coton 40 ft. below surface . 29°68 | 0°682 | 0°840 | 10-94 | 10°94 | 21:88
No. 5. From No. 10 Test Well at
Coton 37 ft. below surface . 30°24 | 0°857 | 0°840 | 11°50 | 10°38 | 21:88
No. 6. From No. 12 Test Well at
Coton 13 ft. below surface . . | 24°64 |0°490 |0°980 | 8:79 | 9°84 | 18°63
B From Springs and Wells inthe Marl
Measures—
No. 7. From Rising Main of Union
Workhouse . 43:40 | — |3:080 | 11-03 | 18°63 | 29°66
No. 8. From Spring ¢ on Mr. Neville’s
Estate, Haselour . - |38°78 | 0-612 |1:120 | 5:36 | 15°41 | 20°77
No. 9. From Well at Hints Hill - | 29°40 |0°735 | 1°330 | 13°02 | 14-42 | 27-44
No. 10. From Mr. Thos. Johnson’s
Well at Hopwas . . 29°40 |1:295 | 2-100 | 7-21 | 8-26 | 15:47
C From Springs in Water Stone Rocks
of New Red Sandstone formation—
No. 11. From Bore Hole at Bole Hall | 47:95 | — {2-170 | 8-75 |17°58 | 26°33
D Frem Springs and Wells in Con-
glomerate Beds of New Red Sand-
stone Formation—
No. 12. From Large Spring at foot
of Hopwas Wood . : 29:40 | — |2:100 | 9:12 | 7-40 | 16:52
No. 13. From Spring in Hopwas
Wood west of Canal. 26°60 | — |2:450} 9:10 | 6-90 | 16:00
No. 14. From Spring about half a
mile north of No.12 . . |26°95 | — |2:°170 | 6°36 | 5-69 | 12°05
No. 15. From Woodhouse Well 49:00 3°500 | 17°56 | 11-00 | 28:56
No. 16. From Hopwas Toll- -gate Well 20°86 0-647 1:330 | 2°18 | 7:21 | 9:39
7 -
4 ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 367
|
Ifl. Vie eu) ALE ‘vin.
\
=
—_
.
Cotumn No. I.
&
= = Hardness
SS o Gy
aos 2 2)
Ss SS ae > =
Geological Formation and Place from |S#2h| 2 I 5 = ds
which each sample was taken ['SaE| 2s i = 5 =
oR P@as
ano] 3A oO a P| °
1S50| 4 E i a
io i)
isl & im
Grains | Grains| Grains
per per per | Degs.| Degs. | Degs.
E From Spring in Permian Measwres
of New Red Sandstone formation—
No. 17. From Griffin Spring at Hints | 21:28 |0:385 |1:190 | 7-19 | 4:20 | 11°39
F From Surface Streams and Canal—
No. 18. From Coventry Canal at
Hopwas ; 5 93:10.) — |2:240. |. 6:16) 7-00 13:16
No. 19. From River Tame , . | 40°95 — |3:430 | 7-28 | 12°40 | 19°68
No. 20. From Crane Brook ‘i . | 19°60 | 0-262 | 1:120 | 2°18 | 7:21 | 9°39
No. 21. From Hammerwich Water . | 17-92 |0°175 | 1-330 | 2°19 | 9:31 | 11°50
No. 22. From Bourne Brook below
junction with above . . . | 19°88 | 0-245 | 1-260 | 2°67 | 7-73 | 10°40
Huntington Pumping Station of South Staffordshire Waterworks.
Collected from Mr. Vawnrey, C.K.
Surface of shaft 528 feet above O.D.; water rose to 500 feet above O.D. level before
pumping.
Ft. In.
Red marl. , ; : “ ; : : ; - ie O
Grey sandstone . ; : 5 - - : aol, O
Slightly micaceous sandstone . ; se oO
Rather coarse grey micaceous sandstone with pebbles eo
Quartzite pebbles : : : : ; : : . Shag VAT
Conglomerate, loose. 2 : - : : : : ethd true MA,
Massive compact conglomerate . Z : : - - 3.0
Fine-grained sandstone, few pebbles . Zs (
Micaceous purple and grey-striped sandstone, few pebbles $) 0)
Fine-grained grey sandstone : < - 15-0
Purple and grey fine-grained sandstone 9 0
Massive conglomerate, with vein quartz pebbles 30 0
. Boring.
Hard conglomerate : 3. 0
Conglomerate with partings (w ater) . BPO
Light grey sandstone with aaa and water 6 0
| Hard conglomerate : 10
2 Mild grey sandstone (water) 6 3
Hard conglomerate 0 9
Mild grey sandstone (water) : 6 0
Hard grey sandstone, sop partings, pebbles. 5 6
Hard conglomerate, sandstone partings 7° 0
Hard sandstone and conglomerate (water) . ? é fee
Soft red and grey shale . ; COAL-MEASURES : Is
Soft grey shale . : : - : Sloping 1 in 12 1 3b
Soft shale . ; to the N.N.W ONT
Soft grey and red shale (little coal) : to the shafts Bat
Soft light grey shale . . of the Cannock 6 8
Coat. Chase and Hun- ey,
Soft grey shale ; : : tingdon Col- 2.6
Black shale . lieries, iG
bo
or
oo
oo
368
Ft. In.
327 5
REPORT— 1887.
Section of Borehole in Sherbrook Valley.
By Mr. W. Wynn Kenricr, O.H., Rugeley.
Ft. In.
Pebble Beds.
Gravel and sand . 297 0
Light sandstone and
pebbles 20 6
Sandstone SL
400 3
418 4
Coal-measures.
Marl,&ce. .
Rocky marl.
Marl, &c. 5
Reddish clunch
Red marl . ;
Light band .
Hard red rock
Light bind .
Marl beds, xc.
Clunch with marl beds
Rocky bind with marl.
Hard rock 5 6
Red rock and clunch .
Blue and mixed ground
Grey rock
Black clod
CoAL .
Sloam and bind .
Stone band.
Dark band .
Dark blue bind
Tronstone
Clunch and clod .
Tronstone
Blue bind .
Black clod and
with ironstone.
Lighter stone bind
Stone bind, with iron-
stone
Light rock . -
Light blue bind .
a
mn CONT OCHHE AONE WOOP WHRENWNKHWWS Us
bo bo
i
ODODE AOWNARRAOWNOOCOWOWOOSOASS
Coan oon
Ft.
In.
COAL
Light blue bind, with
ironstone . :
Hard light rock . :
Blue bind, with iron-
stone <
Blue clunchy bind
Fireclay
Blue bind
Stone bind .
Hard light rock . ;
Blue band and _ iron-
stone ‘
Black bat and coal
Light blue bind .
Light rock .
Stone bind .
Coa (Two partings) .
Light bind . f
Tronstone .
Light rock . :
Strong blue bind
Tronstone
Blue clunch|
Tronstone
Strong blue bind and
clurich
Tronstone
Blue clunch
Fireclay
618 1 Coa .
621 1 Fireclay
ABSTRACT.
Loose Bunter conglomerate
Sandstone . ;
Coal-measures .
Ly ped ba
Tord,
PAO
6 6
Si WV)
TG
8 6
‘ne
6
10 6
ZO
8 0
ile (0)
12 4
Sr 4
6.46
J~.6
By (0)
le;
Ons
Ties)
Os
wwnwnwocc
OAQorows
or)
bo
e
—
Geological Section of Artesian Trial Well for the Stafford Corporation
Waterworks, Berkswich Site.
Surface level 3 feet above canal.
Well is 8 feet diameter, and 30 feet in depth ; a cast-iron tube is carried
through it, of 64 inches internal diameter and 84 inches external, to 24
feet below the shaft ; from the base of the pipe a é-inch chisel boring was
carried to a depth ‘of 195 feet from the surface.—E. Timmins, October
1881.
Ft. In.
29 O Gravel
Bile Red sandstone .
146 6 Bunter conglomerate
155 0 Tough red marl
195 0O Calcareous red marl .
Ft.
29
195
—
n.
0
0
6
6
0
0
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. » 369
Stafford Corporation Waterworks Trial for Water at Stafford Common.
Ft. Ft.
217 Keuper marl. : - : : : : Sey
263 Rock salt. : E : : ; : - 46
283 Keuper marls : : : : - : oe ane
295 Rock salt. : - 4 : : ‘ oy RL
770 Keuper marls - : : : ; : . 475
770
The Saltworks at Shirleywich are four miles to the E.N.E., and are also in
the Keuper marls, but are separated from the extension tract ranging from
Stafford, by Stafford and Enson Moors, to the country west of Stone, by
an important north and south fault, which throws up the small coalfield
of Moddershall, near Stone, and the more important coalfield of Cannock
Chase. The throw of this fault is equal to the vertical thickness of the
Keuper marls, Keuper sandstones, and Bunter pebble beds or its maxi-
mum point, or not less than 1,500 feet. It ranges through Baswich and
Sandon, at the latter place being about a mile to the west of the Enson
Moor borings. The first of these was made in 1847 in search of coal,
and water overflowed at the surface, which is stated to have been used
for cooking and drinking, but from the experience of the boreholes since
put down by the Stafford Corporation, there is little doubt the water was
largely impregnated with salt.
Enson Moor, Stafford Corporation Boring, 1887.
Ft. In. Btein: | aRt., In. Ft. In.
Clay . : ; = lvineG Red sandy marl . Se ade Sy
Loamy sand . 7 6 | 485 4 Grey sandstone (water
39 0 Gravel (400,000 gallons overflowed) . =. 621 30
of water in 24 bene 14 0 Red sandy marl 22 0
Red marl. : 3 4 Grey sandstone : : "6 0
ee Red sandy marl . 39 3
hes Red and grey eand:
Blue androck marl . 17 3 oie Meee
Blue and red rock marl Red sandstone. 139
(gypsum) . 9 0 Red and grey sand-
Jointy blue and red rock Btone - 110 5
marl with veins of gyp- Grey sandstone 19 7
sum (800,000 gallons Red sandstone aa
of water in 24 hours) 20 4 Grey sandstone 19 1
Redrock marl (gypsum) 50 8 Red sandstone 52 5
——— Grey sandstone Sel oe
oe Bed Bik ov (en “0 po
176 0 Rock salt . 0 6
Red rock marl (gypsum) 84 3 a and grey sandstone Ne J
Red rock marl ; 69 0 m mee oa %
Red and grey rock marl 8 10 | 850 4 Grey ,, 7 10
Blue and red rock marl Red »” oe
(gypsum) . These! Red sandy marl . 2 0
476 9 Blue and red rock marl 24 10 peepee aad sandstone ae ay
——_— marl .
300_ 9 | 865 8 Grey sandstone 8 6
Enson Moor Boring of 1846.
/ Ft. In. Ft. In. | Ft. In. Ft. In.
/ HO, Soil : ‘ Pp Ags bei) 65 3 Blue rock EO
a0) Clay. + ‘ SO 89 6 Rock and red marl cee). bans
64 6 Marl . : ‘ - 59 6 | 90 6 Blue clump binds . LO
370 REPORT—1887.
le
Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In.
94 0 Rock and rock marl 3 6 | 436 4
95 O Lightrock . 1 0} 486 6
124 0 Rock marl (110 to 125-6 439 6
jointed full of water). 29 0 | 441 O
164 0 Rock marland plaster. 40 0} 441 6
173 0 Hard red rock ne) Ob RAeoy 16
179 6 Rock marland plaster. 6 O | 445 O
180 6 Blue rock and plaster 1 0} 455 6
183 0 Brown gristly rock 2 6)| 457 0
193. 0 Rock and rock marl 10 0} 459 6
193 6 Salt rock TOP M6n| F460 6
210 0 Rock, rock marl, and 462 6
plaster 5 16 6 | 479 0
37 0 Hardredand gristly rock 27 0 | 481 4
238 0 Bluerock . 7 OM as2. 10
240 O Red and gristly rock 0 0 | 495 10
243 0 Rock marl 3.0
267 O Red and gristly rock 25 0| 501 4
268 6 Hard grey rock 1-6 | 538 10
273 6 Hardred ;, 5 0] 550 4
278 6 Hard brown Greldon 5 0} 554 4
283 0 Red rock and Hie of 563 4
Paris . 4 6 | 564 10
284 6 Blue rock 1 6] 597 0
286 6 Hard red rock 200) | 699. 0
292 6 Mottled rock. : 6 0 |-602 0
295 6 Hard red and gristly 607 0
rock . - 3 0] 610 O
300 0 Red and mottled . 4 6] 618 0O
301 6 Hard blue rock Pe eX)
316 6 Hard mottled rock 2th 20) | 622 0
317 6 Hard light rock 1 0 | 623 O
319 6 Blue mottled rock. 2205) 16335" 0
321 0 Hard light rock 1 6 | 636 6
322 0 Light and mottled rock. 2 3 | 642 0
324 3 Hard light rock . 2 3 | 645 0
332 9 Blue and mottled rock. 8 6 | 645 6
340 3 Redandmottledground 7 6.]| 662 O
341 6 Hard light rock 1 3} 665 O
351 0 Red and mottled eround 96 7000
356 O Blue and mottledrock. 5 0 | 702 O
364 0 Blue clunch binds ee SO BO Gee)
375 0 Redand mottled rock . 11 0 | 712 O
376 O Blue rock binds TO) sf 20)
381 0 Red and mottled rock mui (0:
plaster - 5. 0 } 719 —
382 0 Hardgreyrock . Os |e 0 a —
383 0 Red rock and plaster 1 0] 721 6
384 0 Hard gristly rock. 1 0O| 727 6
386 0 Red rock and platy 2 0} 129° 6
387 O Blue rock Ts 04) 42> 26
390 0 Dark red rock 5.05 e020)—
392 0 Hard gristly rock . 2 OU ig —
392 8 Bluerock . 0 8 | 7s —
393 8 Hard pebbly rock . = Od isoe—
403 8 Bluerockandrockbinds 10 0O | 786 —
419 2 Dark red rock 15 6 | 788 8
422 2 Light gristly rock 3 0] 806 0
424 2 Brown rock . : 2 0} 810 2
426 2 Dark red rock 2 0 | 838 11
428 8 Strong blue rock 2.6} 841 2
429 8 Blue binds 0 6 | 854 2
Dark red and gristly rock
Blue binds .
Blue on mottled ground
Dark red rock :
Blue binds
Blue rock binds
Hard gristly rock .
Dark red sandstone
Dark rock binds
Dark mottled ground
Blue binds .
Mottled ground
Dark red sandstone ,
Red and mottled ground
Blue check binds .
Dark red and mottled
rock .
White rock 3
Dark red sandstone
* Strong blue rock (water)
Hard red sandstone
White rock (water)
White rock, very hard .
Light grey rock
Strong red rock
Blue rock
Hard white rock
Blue rock, very hard .
Hard red and ee
rock .
Light blue rock
Hard red rock
Light brown rock .
Blue and mottled rock .
Red rock .
Blue ,, 3
Hard gristly rock .
Light blue rock
Hard brown rock .
Light jointy rock .
Light brown rock .
Light rock . 5 .
Light brown rock . 4
Blue binds
Red sandy rock a
Red rock marl, clunch .
Light rock marl
Light rock . :
Hard gristly rock .
Light sandy rock .
Light gristly rock .
Light sand rock
Red rock
White rock :
Light brown rock .
White rock
Red sandy rock :
White rock . : .
Blue clunch . é
White rock
Binds . 5
Strong blue rock .
ty
BN ONnNRrFNRFOrFNOrFWONS
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SWPONFMOOCSTOSOROSOSOROSCOSCSSOSOSCOAMAOMRNROODSD SCOCONROORADRS ALPROOAAGPRHRORMRONNWP
(a
ae
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 371
Analyses of Waters from Enson Moor, by Prof. ArtrieLD, Ph.D., F.B.S.,
F.ILC., F.0.8. London, 17 Bloomsbury Square.
Date | Chlorine Grains per Gallon , Common Salt
From Small Borehole
Aug 8, 1886 18-2 | h 929799
PATIO. 31S ay, 18°5 | ; 30°8
Behe als 25:3 | 21 days’ pumping 42-0
Aug. 4, 1887 35:0 58:0
Large Borehole.
March 15, 1887 38:1 overflow 63°0
April i oss 12:0 ? 615 feet 19°75
June Cine, 19°9 overflow
June 20, ,, | 32°4 3
June 28, ,, 35'8 BS
MLS 295 5, 238:0 i 402°75
LU ee ie 4130 Pat 681°5
Aug. Ae 35 392°0 from 600 feet 647-0
Aug. Gis 55 336°0 overflow 554°5
Aug. 13, ,, 371:0 R: 612°0
From these analyses it appears that the amount of chlorine in-
creased in the water from the small borehole from 18 grs. per gallon on
August 8, 1886, to 35 gers. in August of the present year, the water from
the large borehole on June 28, 1887, being identical in quality, viz.,
35°8 grs. per gallon. The analyses of these waters show some remarkable
variation, the amount of chlorine in the large borehole decreasing from
38°1 on March 15, 1887, to only 12 grs. on April 1, and increasing again
to 35°8 on June 28, which would presumably be the amount present
before the inburst of weak brine on July 2.
—
Stafford Potteries Waterworks.
Information from Mr, G. D. Harrison, C,H., Engineer to the
Potteries Waterworks.
Works in progress (August 1887) at Hatton Mill, near Eccleshall,
about 14 mile north of Standon station, and about 3 miles south of
Whitmore station.
Two boreholes have been carried out, No. 2 being 250 feet N.W. of
No. 1. The level of No. 1 is 35 feet above Ordnance datum, and is
carried 417 feet below the surface; No. 2 is 6 feet lower and is carried
480 feet. Water flowed over from the first hole at the rate of 360,000
gallons a day when at a depth of 230 feet, at 417 feet at the rate of
_ 700,000 gallons per day, but after a month this was reduced to 560,000.
_ No. 2 hole yields 700,000 gallons and has abstracted the larger portion of
_ the supply of No. 1, which is now very small. The quality is very good,
} and is of 11 degrees of hardness; water flowed to the surface when a
_ depth of 120 feet was reached. The section penetrated was as follows :—
BB2
372 REPORT—1887.
Ft. In. Ft. In.
10 Soil 1 0
‘7 6 Sandy loam 6 6
13 0 Sand and gravel , Drift : ; 5 6
18 0 Sand 5 0
89 4 Sandstone “1 4
208 O Variegated sandstone. - F - : ; .118 8
247 9 Red and grey sandstone, pebbles. : : Reo Lad
292 6 Red and grey sandstone . x : 5 : . 44 9
347 9 Red and grey sandstone, pebbles. : : - bo. 3
400 6 Red and grey sandstone . 5 : : : ne Ae)
417 6 Red and grey sandstone, pebble ; : é oe LAO!
In progress . - 417 6
The boring was commenced April 11, 1887, and has a diameter of 12
inches.
Information collected by Mr. T. S. Stooxn, O.L., Shrewsbury.
1. Sundorne estate, near Shrewsbury. 2a. In 1884. 2. 205 feet. 3. Well
was sunk 25 feet in depth and yielded a considerable quantity of water, which was
not found desirable for use ; consequently a borehole was put down cased with 5 inch
tubes to the depth of 38 feet. The borehole was continued to the depth of 76 feet,
8 inch diameter. 3a. No drift way. &. Little or no variation. 4a. The normal level
of water in the well is 4 feet, while that in the borehole is 11 feet. 5. About
45,000 gallons; the quantity used daily is only that required for farm purposes.
8. Analysis by Mr. Blunt, M.A.:—There is a reddish turbidity, which quickly settles
and leaves the water clear and nearly colourless; the sediment is sandy. No lead,
copper, or zine is present in the water. The following analysis gives the results
obtained from the clear water after subsidence :—
Grains per gallon
Total solid contents . : ; : : 5 : 50
Chlorine in chlorides ‘ ; : , c : 85
Nitrogen in nitrates : - } : : : 0:0
Oxygen absorbed . : ; : : : : 0:012
These data indicate an entire absence of sewage or other organic matter, but the
large amount of solid contents and of chlorine is anomalous, and it was thought de-
sirable to determine the hardness :—
Degrees
Hardness by Clarke’s scale, total . . A ; PO MEESE
Permanent (after boiling for some time) . 5, 3 93
Temporary by difference : 254
It thus appears that more than 25 degrees of the hardness of the water is due to
earthy carbonates, and therefore can be removed by boiling or by a precipitating
process with lime ; moreover it is generally agreed that temporary hardness is of less
importance from a sanitary point of view than permanent. The remaining 94 degrees
of permanent hardness is due to magnesium, not to lime salts, principally to chloride
of magnesium, none in sewage. The chlorides present are all, or nearly all, in the form
of chloride of sodium; it is clear, therefore, that here the chlorides are of mineral
origin. On the whole the water must be pronounced pure and wholesome, but some-
what hard for drinking, and excessively so for domestic use.
9. 7 feet : : 3 : Soil and clay
Bin; : : 5 5 Clay with gravel
DA sy » ‘ : , Clay with stones and sand
Be 3 ; F : New Red Sandstone
4» . 5 i ; Permian
76 feet
10. Yes. 12. Yes. 12. One about 600 yards south. 13 and 14. No. 15. No.
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 373
Oollected by Mr. Tuomas 8. Srooxe from Messrs. Timmins and Son,
Runcorn.
1. Shrewsbury Grammar School, on the banks of the Severn. 1a. Sunk in 1881;
bored in 1882. 2. 245:89 feet above Ordnance datum. 3. Well 114 feet deep,
4 feet 6 inches lined with cast-iron cylinders. Borehole, 171 feet deep from surface,
3 inches diameter. 3a. 80 feet. Two in number, 10 feet x 10 feet x 3 feet wide.
4. Water stands at 74 feet below surface, and is not affected by the quantity of
rainfall. 4a. 74 feet 5 inches below surface. 5. Yield, 7,100 gallons per hour; the
quantity pumped does not approach this at all. Cannot say what quantity is pumped.
6. Cannot say. 7. Cannot say. 89 feet above adjoining river Severn.
Ft. In.
9. 1. Red and variegated marl and sandstone . waz 0
2. Dark red sandstone 8 0
3. Marly sandstone 6 0
4. Red marl . ; - ; ‘ : : wat de AG
5. Marly sandstone ; : : : - iG 6
6. Red marl 5 0
7. Marly sandstone 5 0
8. Purple marl 4 0
9. Dark red sandstone i AC
10. Purple marl : 2 : : é Pe ah Pina
Total depth . - : Suite
9a. No. 9. 10. No drift. 11. Surface springs cased out. 12. One, § mile
to the north, wending E.N.E. to W.S.W. 23. No. 14. Cannot say. 15. No.
16. The outcrop of the Permian sandstone, in which the above well is sunk, is # mile
south.
Iincolnshire :—Gainsborough.
The following are the details of the well and borehole carried out by
Messrs. Timmins and Son, Runcorn, for the Local Board Waterworks,
acting on the advice of your reporter :—
Surface about 25 feet above Ordnance datum. Well, with cast-iron
cylinders, 58 feet, with borehole to 1,100 feet from the surface, tubed
down to 737 feet with wrought-iron and cast-iron tubes, the last length
being 112 inches internal diameter, lower portion of boring 104 inches in
diameter. The following is the section :—
Ft.
Keuper marls . ; ; : f : : . 125
Good red sandstone . 3 : . 3875
At a depth of 900 feet the borehole began to yield water vigorously.
The present yield of the well is about 1,000 gallons per hour, and the
combined yield of the well and borehole about 9,000 gallons per hour, or
216,000 gallons per day. Analysis by Messrs. Green, Calvert, and
Thompson, Manckester, after seven days’ continuous pumping :—
Grains per gallon.
Total solid matter . : : - . 6618
Combined chlorine . A = : 5 . 14011
Permanent hardness . : : c c . 386°
Temporary ce A 5 ‘ ; - c 2 LOS
46°
The saline matter consists of—
Grains
Chloride of magnesium . = js - : aeles2
Sulphate of soda and magnesium . : - . 21°76
Carbonate of lime ,, 5 a A ; . 9°24
Sulphate of lime . : : 5 : . 28:02
Organic and combined matter : : : . 5°34
66°18
374 REPORT—1887.
Cheshire.
Collected by Mr. De Rance from Mr. A. Strahan, F.G.S.
1. The Elms, Capenhurst, Cheshire. 1a. About 1875. 2.100. 3. 74 feet;
diameter 10 feet. 217 feet 6 inches to bottom of borehole. a. Normal level of
water, 64 feet 6 inches from surface. 8. Highly contaminated with sewage. 9.? any
drift. Bunter pebble beds, with a bed of marl, 6 feet thick, at 180-186 feet: from
surface.
Collected from Mr. A. Timmins, O.2., Bridgwater Ironworks, Chapel Lane
Boring, near Prescot.
Water rose to the surface.
Ft. In.
Red ‘hackly ’ sandstone 54 0
Red marl . : : 5 3 3 4 . 41 «0
Red sandstone . : 5 , ; ‘ : ‘ 0 195.0
Red marl _ . j : : - é ; i 3 Be CY
Light red sandstone ; ; : : ; “ : ; . 35 0
Red marl . 5 2 , ; 3 ° : ‘ eG)
Light red sandstone : : c : F ‘ ; ; Boyan)
Fine red sandstone. : - 3 ‘ - oiJ20)\70)
Coarse red sandstone . 4 . is : 5 F , «905
311 5
The beds closely resemble those obtained in the lower portion of the
Bootle boring, and those from the Warrington Waterworks or Winwick.
The Winwick boring details are as follows :—
Ft. In. Ft. In.
31 7 Fine white sand - ; : . ; ; ae ole ag
129 0 Fine-grained sandstone . 97 5
172 0 Coarse, compact sandstone, with millet seed grain,
and bed of red and grey marl . ; oe)
Shaly marl : : og LOO
201 6 Fine-grained millet seed, grained sandstone - 7 gL
212 0 Hardrag . : : : ; ; ; Posen We 2(9
Sandy marl : f ; H é : 22920
226 0 Calcareous sandstone. , . ; j : af12Z 0
253 0 Marl . : 4 : ; : : » 22 0
271 0 Large-grained sandstone : ; : : - opts 0
Marl . ; : ; ; ; : : aeoeGn 0
Soft white sand . : : : ; : : 2) (22 dO
330 0 Soft brown sand ; : : : : : 3, oa
341 0 Red sandstone . : : . i : : SLE
Mottled grey marl . . - 3 : 3 be le a)
Dark mottled marl
Marl . é ‘ 0 5 5
Indurated marl . 2 ler 0| Ft. In.
Grey marl and sand shale . ay 49 0
Hard shaly marl Sf OL ME ARUERES abd 0)
390 0 Hardred marl . : : rpm)
Limestone . 2 ‘ . aCe
Lancashire.
Manchester Wells. Drawn up by Mr. Dr Rance.
Professor Hull surveyed the Manchester district in 1863, and found
at that time 60 or 70 wells, yielding not less than 6 million ‘gallons per
day from the pebble beds of the New Red Sandstone, and the Lower
Permian Sandstone of Manchester and Salford. He states that the
collecting area is now more than 7 square miles, covered with houses
——-
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 375
and paved streets, and believes the larger part of this supply is derived
from infiltration of the waters of the rivers Irk, Medlock, and Irwell ;
the great natural filtering properties of the Red Sandstone are shown in
its rendering water, but little better than sewage, fit for commercial pur-
poses, and capable of being used in factories, breweries, bleaching and
dye works.
The following is an analysis, by Dr. Angus Smith, F.R.S., of water
from a deep well on the south side of Manchester, analysed in 1865 :—
Grains per gallon
Chloride of sodium : : ; : . 483
Sulphate of soda : “ * : - . 7:33
Carbonate of soda . : 5 : * 2 eb
3 lime . ‘ ; : : AeA
Pr magnesium . x : x yt)
34:57
Assuming that 5 inches of the annual rainfall is absorbed in the 7
square miles referred to, this would give a daily average of (200,000 x 7)
1,400,000, leaving about 44 million gallons daily infiltrated.
The following information as to Manchester wells has been given by
Messrs. Mather and Platt, Salford Ironworks :—
Seedley Print Works, well 102’x 87”, b.-h. 382’x 18”, 354! x 18”,
Gallons per day
167’ x 18" ‘i : ; F yields 750,000
Bagley and Craven . - ‘ : - . bh. 454! x 18” » 648,000
Messrs. Aitken . 3 ; : ; P 2} “41.4 BTSiog kel » 300,000
Mr. W. Sumner . 4 E : - d id ps ta 2 FS 46,080
Messrs. Rylands and Son . ; ; ‘ ah, LOLOL fh 90,720
Mr. B. D. Brookes é H : 5 : ae ee mera fe aa - 86,400
Salford :—
Salford Ironworks : : ; : : «tho Los” * 50,000
Messrs. Thomas and Chadwick . 3 m tn. ASO clay 5 50,000
Mr. J. J. M. Worrall . 3 , ; ; ef ej 2AS6 Sos" s, 480,000
Cornbrook :—
= Messrs. Roberts, Dale, and Co. . 5 - ares OL G. MG f 30,000
ixton :—
Messrs. A. and J. Stott A . : ? pO A RHE » 317,520
High Broughton :—
Messrs. Chadwick and Taylor . well 75’x10” ,, 671’x15” » 800,000
Patricroft :—
ee amie Ermen and Roby . : ¥ 5 a ay foLb! LSY s, 100,800
eadle :—
Convalescent Hospital F : : : a. FS PAB x12!" + 55,200
Information obtained in 1878.
Messrs. Worrall, Dyeworks, b.-h. 327’, yields 384,480 gallons per day.
Messrs. Worrall, Ordsall, well b.-h. 460’, yielded 717,120 gallons for twelve
months, brackish.
New Red Sand, 143 feet 4 inches.
Messrs. Hoyle’s Works, Mayfield, 356’ 5”, P.marls . 153 , 9 ,,
Dees : Do eet,
Collyhurst Sand Delf, exhausted by 12 hours’ pumping.
Salford :—
Charlton’s Works, well 70’, and b.-h. (?), (150 yards from Boddington’s Brewery),
yielded 348,000 gallons in 16 hours.
Strangeways :—
Boddington’s Brewery yielded 55,840 gallons in 16 hours.
Salford :— :
Messrs. Bury’s Dyeworks, 300 feet, yielded 353,240 gallons in 16 hours.
aa Moseley’s Dyeworks (+ mile from Bury’s) yielded 66,240 gallons in 16
ours,
376 REPORT—1 887.
Smith’s (late Joule’s) Brewery, 618 feet, with chamber in New Red Sandstone ;
two pumps yield 137,000 gallons; water level, that of the Irwell. New Red,
468 feet ; marls, with limestone, 120 feet; sandstone, with water and clay,
30 feet.
Broughton Road Paper Works, 720 feet, yield 144,000 gallons. Drift and New
Red Sandstone, 240 feet; Permians, 150 feet; hard bands, 120 feet.
Medlock Vale Works, 761 feet ; water overflows. Gravel, 26 feet ; New Red Sand-
stone, 23 feet; Permian marls, with bands of gypsum and limestone, 246:°3;
New Permian sandstone, 375:11; Coal-measures, 90 feet.
The following information has also been obtained from journals at
Messrs. Mather and Platt’s, Salford Ironworks, Manchester :—
Oornbrook Wells.
Bull’s Head Brewery,—Surface level about 100 feet above Ordnance.
Well 19 feet 6 inches. No water met with.
Boring, 124 to 172 feet from surface, in red sandstone; the surface is
cellar-level, about 90 feet above Ordnance datum.
‘Rest levels’ of the water in the borehole were—
At 40 feet 6 inches from level of cellar . 10 feet 6 inches.
” 166 ” ” bE) G 16 ” 10 ”
” 172 ” »” »” © 21 ” 7
Test pumping of 32 gallons per minute reduced water to 44 feet from
the cellar-level, or probably (90—44) 46 feet above Ordnance datum.
Roberts, Dale, and Co.—Well, 62 feet 8 inches. Boring to 241°4, 9”
diameter. Hard fine-grained red and white sandstone.
Lawrence O’Neild.—Well, 36 feet deep ; surface-level about 98 feet,
12” boring.
”
Feet from surface
Sandstone with pebble to
Hard red sandstone to . ‘ : i , ; . 258
Water-level at 69’ 6” stood at . 3 F P 3 ; Seas
3 » 258’ 0” ‘a 3 ; - ‘ ; ag aon
Twelve hours’ test gave 32,468 gallons and lowered water-level to
44-7, or about 534 feet Ordnance datum ; in two minutes after test water
rose 5 feet 2 inches in two minutes, or to 58 feet 7 inches above Ordnance
datum.
Rylands and Son.—Well 24 feet. Borehole commences at 15’, Sur-
face-level about 80 feet O.D.
Sandstone 2 4 , a . at
Red sandstone ‘ 7 7 . 4, 144 feet 3” from surface.
Grey sandstone J : DO tear Oe dics ss
Red and grey sandstone . ‘: eleese2bb) 45.07, :
Red raddle 3 . o, .2 ib. Grins
Red sandstone . Z 5 4 5. 5 BRR RU “3 a
Pumping test gave 63 gallons per minute, and after nine hours could not lower
water below top of borehole; normal water level is 12 feet from surface, or 68 feet
O.D., reduced by pumping to 54 feet O.D.
Information collected from Mr. R. T. Burnett, F.G.S.
1. Well at Messrs. Deakin’s Brewery, Broadie Street, Ardwick, Manchester. la.
About 1881, sunk by Mr. C. Chapman, Salford. 2. About 150 feet. 3. Well 35 feet
deep, 6 feet diameter. Borehole, 16; diameter to 110 feet from surface, 13” to
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 377
334 feet, 12” to 339 feet 6 inches, 11” to 355 feet, 103 to the bottom, 489 feet 9 inches
from surface. 3a. None. Shoe of tubes placed at 343 feet from the surface. 4. Well
water stands 22 feet below the surface, the borehole water at 28 feet below. 5.
More than 2,500 gallons per diem.
From surface
Ft. In. Ft. In.
Soft red sandstone A c . 2 : : 22 2p) G
96 6 Fine red clay ; 5 - Ey dade : : ae els 2G
Fine soft red sandstone : ‘ : : F . 66 0
Very coarse gritty red sandstone . A - . wt @
Red clay : ; i , ; : : 5 . 35 6
Loamy red sandstone . : : : ‘ ; NS ae)
Red clay and conglomerate .
Very strong red sandstone
Red clay :
Red sandstone
Pebble Beds and Permians.
Area west of the Irwell valley fault, and north of the Irwell, three
square miles, absorbing 200,000 gallons per day, equals 600,000 gallons.
Seedley Print Works. Surface about 136 feet O.D.
Feet
Drift (boulder clay) . - : : : : : : ; 61
Pebble beds (soft red sandstone) . : : ‘ : : Spelsy,
arls
Upper Permian {Sandstone : 4 7 : 2 28
, Beds of limestone
- White rock and 1
Lower Permian { 134 papers } te +. $ CEE
Coal-measures ‘ : “| . : ; ; é : 30
3703
The probable position of the base of the Lower Permian is 2,000 feet to
the north, giving a dip to the south of the surface of the Coal-measures of
10 deg. The water was believed by the late Mr. Binney, F.R.S., to be
derived in these wells from the Lower Permian sandstones. Westwards
the red marls with fossiliferous limestones are worked at Astley and Bed-
ford Leigh. At Worsley this series reaches a thickness of 131 feet,
and contains 52 thin beds of limestone. EHastwards the Lower Permian
sandstone increases in importance, and is worked as moulding sand at
Collyhurst.
Information collected by Mr. C. E. Dr Rance from Messrs. John Bradbury,
Clayton Colliery, per Mr. Atherton, M.E., Bolton.
2. Boring put down by Mr. John Vivian C.E. (North of England Rock Boring
Company), at Openshaw, close to the Clayton township boundary, and 100 yards west
of the Manchester and Stockport Canal. 1a. April to December 1878. No.
2. 250 feet above O.D. 3. Borehole as follows :-—
9 inches diameter to 25 feet from surface.
8
” ” 49 ” ”
63 ” ” 112 ” ”
58 ” ” 559 ” ”
5 » ” 1019 ” ”
cS a below
3a. None,
378
From surface.
Fe. oI
Ls)
n=
is
woo
_
ry
iad
SAMIDE RP KOOFPROWHDWOTOAARNOREFOCONNDROARVS
_
SOAMRORRAOBDOOWOOD
OCSOCCoCOs
Soil and sand
REPORT—1887.
Drift.
Large pebbles and sandy clay .
Brown sandy clay ;
Brown clay
Gravelly clay
“f ss) wari pebbles
Red sandstone,
Red shale
Bunter.
soft, and very red
Coarse red sandstone with pebbles of quartz . .
Red shale
Permian.
Yellow sandstone ‘
Red shale, top unfossiliferous %
Yellow sandstone
Red shale, no fossils
Red ‘sandstone $ ;
Red shale, no fossils
” ”
Grey sandstone
Red sandy shale
Red sandstone,
Limestone
very fine
Grey sandstone, soft
Red sandy shale
Grey sandstone
Red shale
Red sandstone,
Red sandstone .
Red shale
‘thin 1 beds of shale
Red sandstone .
Red shale .
Red sandstone .
Red shale .
Brown limestone
Red shale .
Gypsum
Red shale, ‘with anthracosie . :
” ”
”
Brown and grey shelly eae consisting of shale
gypsum in shells
large shells
Shells in red shale
Grey limestone
Red shale with
their ‘bands full of shells .
Grey shale with shells.
Red shale, with many thin bands, full of shells
Reddish-brown
massive limestone
Red shale, with some shells
Red shales, thin bands of brown fine sandstone
Fine hard grey
Sandstone cong
Red sandstone,
Red and grey sandstone, fine and mottled shale, hard
sandstone
lomerate .
fine and soft
coarse
very soft .
rather coarse
soft and jointed; water disappeared.
finer, ‘thin bed of shale
_ a
Conao
is)
—
id - i
RF ODONOFP FP TRF NON FN RAP NNNWODKONKF OP FRNOMONODN
i
_
NADP ODMDONNOW
leva
Scooooceos
wNpoo
SROSCAROAWOGOCOWORAMDROOCWOTMHNRORODARWOORORNANENDODHRODOS
BHeNIOSCORCOSSO
_
_
_
ABMPOMBNWNNWANADANWHNANANNFRORFRODORONRAANH
SRAOSCOAWONHROOCARROAOBH’
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS.
Red (grey mottlings), ire mnee sandstone .
Red sandstone, coarse
” ”» ”
” ” very coars e
” + rather coarse
” ” fine-grained
- He coarse bands
” ” ” ” ” ”
es a a little coarser
is » harder
” ” ” softer .
mottled .
red and soft .
ee ee very soft and fine- grained
coarser .
as + stronger
” ” soft
” ” ”
Upper Coal-measures.
Dark grey shale :
Dark grey gritty shale (dipping lin 3)
Purple shale .
Dark grey shale, rather gritty
Grey sandstone :
Purple shale
Dark grey and purple sandy shale
sandstone
Purple shale, very dark ee
Grey earthy limestone
Grey shale :
Purple shale
Grey limestone . :
Purple shale, with green shale
Grey limestone . : :
Grey and purple shale
Purple shale
Brown limestone
Purple shale
Grey limestone .
Purple shale 3
Red shale and limestone breccia
Variegated shale :
Limestone breccia
Red shale .
Limestone earthy .
Variegated shaly clay
Grey limestone .
Shale : ‘ . :
Grey limestone . ‘ : ; :
Purple shale
Limestone .
Shale. :
Grey limestone .
Shale and clay . é
Variegated purple shale
Purple shale, lenticular ironstone
Red sandstone, very fine . :
Red and grey sandstone, very fine
Purple shale
Calcareous band, with ironstone
Sandstone and shale
pe er
WRWOUNAM
bo
Nowa
—
DMOWM ETOH RPHOORrFOOTH MONT ORHENWOHH OAS
i
379
ARCORWANDROROCAAROE
i
_
SOWRODAARWOAMMROOARCOHRHDADRODOKRENRROORDROOCOCO
REPORT—1887.
Ft, In. Ft. In.
1,299 0 Red and grey sandstone, fine-grained (Newropteris and
shale bed) . : . : - : : : Ber tae
1,300 0O Red shale . B : A : . é 2, ASL EG
1,300 0
ABSTRACT OF SECTION.
36 0 Drift : = F : . , : ; é st hab 0
Bunter red sandstone . 3 ; : : ¢ 72 OG
Red shale , ; : 3 ; . 5 ‘ a 6 0
82 2 Coarse sandstone, marl, quartz, pebbles . 5 5 5 0 2
Permian marls, shale, sandstone, fossiliferous thin lime-
stone, and gypsum . - : : . 3 1, 200RRa
285 0 Conglomerate sandstone é : ; : : : 2.3
1,037 0O Permian sandstone . é : i . : * o2 10
Upper Coal-measures, shales, sandstone, and Ardwich
limestones (from a few inches in thickness to 9 feet
1,330 0 4 inches) : : 263 0
1,330 0
The dip of the Permian was 1 in 8; that of the underlying Coal-
measures nearly | in 3.
Messrs. Stanning’s Bleach Works, Leyland, near Preston.
Messrs. Timmins, Runcorn, Contractors.
Feet.
Drift sand . - - ; E : : - 54
Mar! streaked with gypsum 216
270
It is not certain whether these marls are referable to the Keuper
marls or to the Glacial boulder clay.
Section of well and boring made by the Leyland Local Board near
the ‘ Seven Stars’ Inn, but abandoned by them.
Feet.
Well 6 feet § Stiff boulder clay : 3 ‘ ; 9
diameter ( Stony clay and gravel : : a2!
Boring White sandstone, marl partings . 147
180
The surface of the ground is 91 feet above the mean sea-level, and
the rock surface is therefore 36 feet below it. Water occurred at
51 feet from the surface, and again at 120 feet; it rose to 30 feet from
the surface, or 61 feet above Ordnance.
At Messrs. Bashall’s Mill at Farington the following section has been
proved :—
Ft. In.
Red clay LO:
Phe crete le ies 29 0
Fine gravel . 26 0
Red sand 14 0
Red clay é kG
Fine gravel . 5 0
Red clay 26 0
112 6
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 381
Cop Lane Well and Boring, Penwortham, near Preston, Lancashire, 1887.
Contractors, Messrs. A. Timmins, Runcorn, for Mr. Rawstorne, Howick
Hall, Preston. Well 60 feet. Stated to be Boulder Clay and Sand
Boring, 100 feet in Pebble Beds of New Red Sandstone. Trial yrelds
26,000 gallons per day.
ANALYSIS OF WATER. By Mr. A. TIMMINS.
Appearance and colour—A dull green cast and turbid look. With standing has a
rusty red deposit.
Reaction : : : : : - ; Alkaline
Poisonous metals . : ; 3 ; Z Traces of iron
Grains per
gallon.
Total solids on evaporation at 212° F. ; . 39:000
Combined chlorine . ; : : : . 3:100
Equals common salt 2 s : : ta 1'80
Nitrates equal to potassium nitrate . . : 1804
Sulphuric acid . : : = - . . 4:060
ORGANIC MATTER.
Grains per
gallon.
Oxygen absorbed in 35 minutes . : : : “0100
3 re 5 hours . : 3 : ‘0180
» permanent 3 : 3 : 0°360
Permanent hardness in degrees (Clarke) . Fe eLallss,
Temporary 5, os x . - 10°848
Total . . 28-000
The water on exposure to the air assumes a turbid appearance and
deposits a reddish-coloured matter: this, on analysis, proved to be iron.
It no doubt occurs in solution as carbonate of iron and on exposure to
the air takes up oxygen and settles out as iron oxide; after the deposit
has settled the water is perfectly clear and bright.
Spring from Glacial Sand at Penwortham, near Preston, 25 feet above
Ordnance datum. Analysis of Water from St. Mary’s Well (a flowing
spring). Collected Aug. 20, 1887. Analysed by Mr. A. Timmins,
Runcorn.
In PARTS PER 70:000.
Grains per
; : gallon.
Total solids on evaporation at 212° F. j . 55°200
Combined chlorine - : : t 6-000
Equals common salt . = . 2 ‘ : 9-882
Nitrates 5 : : : fs : C : 1-403
Permanent hardness . : : : 27:27° (Clarke)
Temporary * F 4 i 4:09 s,
Total . : 31°36
ORGANIC MATTER.
Oxygen absorbed in 1 hour : 3 010 (Clarke)
022
”
5 aS 20 hours :
is stood well . 5 - : “044
882 REPORT—1887.
Nessler solution, a thick white flocculent ppt.
Appearance of water in 2 ft. tube very clear and bright; reaction alkaline; smell
and taste none perceivable. The water showed a slight trace of iron when con-
centrated.
This is a fairly good drinking water ; the solids are high and it is very
hard; the solids are however of a harmless nature, consisting princi-
pally of carbonates and sulphates of lime.
Ooal-measures and Millstone Grit Borings.
Collected from Mr. HE. Muir, O.H., Manchester. Well (50 feet by 8 feet)
and Boring (1 ft. 2 in. diameter) at the Canal Wharf, near Bury Station,
for the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Company, August 1885.
Ft. In. Ft. In.
ce 0 Gravel - : : : : ‘ ; : Hbeptsh tt)
51 0 Light red rock . 2 - : : ; ; . 43 °0
69 0 Reddish grey rock . ; 5 . : ‘ | -18s70
75 0 Grey rock . 5 - ; : ; ; / SFOr0
88 0 Light grey rock . ; : aes ; , scl) 0
89 0 Clay parting - : ; . ‘ : :7 (ao
90 0 Yellow rag rock . 1:30
110 O Light grey rock . 20 0
113 0 Reddish grey rock 3 0
118 0 Grey rock brownish . 5 0
120 0 Clay . . : 2 0
122 0 Grey rock brownish 2 0
126 0 Reddish grey rock 4 0
127 0 Cank . : : 1 0
146 0 Grey rock reddish 19; 0
158 0 Stone band 12 0
160 0 White metal 2 0
163 0 Stone bind . : : : : 3-0
183 0 White ashlar with bands of spar 20 0
184 0 Stone bind and black shale tO
184 0
Large adjacent quarries were formerly worked, and were given up,
owing to the water met with; old coal workings probably exist, under
the area, worked long since, at a considerable depth from the surface.
Pumping the water from the above boring considerably diminished the
yield of several wells to the west; the most important of these has since
been deepened with good results.
Section of a Boring made at Withnell Moor by the Diamond Boring Company,
Limited, 1874 and 1875, for Messrs. Ascroft and Sykes, Preston.
Diameter of boring commenced 8 in. diameter, terminating with a diameter of 3 in.
No. Ft; in:
1. Peat ¢ - 5 : : : . a 2 : pate (0
2. Coarse gritrock . ; ‘ . 3 ‘ 3 . 4 S06
3. Black shale . 5 - 2 : 5 : 5 a oh Bg
4. Coal : ; ; : - . 5 E : ‘ Ones
5. Bastard fire-clay . a A 4 : : P 3 BO
6. Flag grey laminated rock with black floors . : 198 4
7. Blue metal with grey floors . : : 5 : - {Baltes
8, Grey laminated or flag rock with black floors , . 20 6
9. Blue metal with grey floors . : 5 : 3 : 2 soe)
10. Hard grey rock with blue floors . : ; : ‘ . 24-0
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 383
No. Ft. In
11. Blue metal with grey noe 2 : : : - ; . 38
12. Greyrock . : : : - ‘ . 4 43
13. Blue metal . : : 5 : : : : c . 25
14. Greyrock . : : - : rand
15. Blue metal with grey rock bands . : : : c See
16. Dark shale, nearly black - 2 . 25
17. Grey linsey flooring “ : 3 : “ Agel)
18. Dark shale with traces of grey : 5 : : : kool
19. Grey rock with blue floor in middle : : = if
20. Dark shale with traces of erey 6
SOOSCSCOWWARARAABOWNUNDANKHAWHE
21. Grey burr stone, flinty . : : : : 3 Tage |
22. Dark shale with traces of erey - c - “ is - 55
23. Dark sandy shale with traces of grey . ; : : . 112
24, Black shale with traces of felspar. : , : : . 39
25. White rock . 5 : . : : ‘ : : eG
26. Grey rock . : : : - : 3 : : sop LE
27. Black shale : ; : : = eae
28. Dark sandy shale with white floor : : : pei)
29. Grey rock with traces of black shale . . ; sak
30. Coarse white rock with traces of black shale : ; sea
31. Grey laminated rock with black shale floors B 2 . 36
32. Black shale with traces of grey : : - Bie a!
33. Grey rock . . : é : ; Phi:
34. Black shale with traces ‘of grey : é : : 4 . 46
35. Grey rock with traces of mica. , ; : 3 Pals
951 113
Mr. Belsham, C.E., formerly of the Diamond Rock Boring Co., who
had charge of the work, states that water rose to about 30 feet from the
surface, and its level was maintained during the whole of the work. He
considers that the water escaped through a fissure at that level.
Walton-le-Dale Local Board Well, at the Canal Summit-level, Brindle. Well
constructed by Mr. Tilley, London. Boring by the North of England
Rock Boring Company, 1876. Site and original works suggested by
the Reporter to your Committee. Headings have since been driven by
the advice of Mr. W. Wrennal, O.H., Liverpool, by Mr. T. D. Lewin, of
Manchester.
The following is the section penetrated :—
Drift :— Ft. In.
Loam = 3 “ 5 5 P : : F : an) lec (0
Clay ; ‘ : ‘ : ; F : e Deal igi (0,
Sard and eravel F F p ‘ : ; : : - 20 0
Boulders and shale . 2 3 4 : F : : Ce)
Third Millstone Grit :—
Black shale 0)
Hard black rock a)
Grey sandstone - - - 5 c : 2 0
Sandy black shale . c : . 5 c : - 8 0
Grey and red sandstone . 5 A : < : MO
Black shale 5 F 6 6
Grey sandstone LL.) 0
Sandstone and shale 4 0
Black shale 2 6
Grey sandstone 44) 4
384 REPORT—-1887.
Appendix BY W. Wauitaker, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E.
Chronological List of Works referring to Underground Water, England and
Wales.
My first attempt at a subject-list of geological works, for England
and Wales, was that on ‘Coast-Changes and Shore-Deposits,’ in the
‘ Report of the Committee for inquiring into the Rate of Erosion of Sea-
Coasts, &e.,’ printed in the British Association’s volume for 1885. A
second attempt is now made for the Underground Water Committee.
In the following list, besides such papers as deal specially with the
subject, there are noted those that give sections of wells or borings for
water, or analyses of well-waters, and that refer to springs (the outflow
of underground water); but the many works dealing purely with
mineral waters (from the medical point of view) are not noted, that subject
having a large literature of its own, deserving of separate treatment.
The Reports of this Committee have also been omitted.
Although the entries number 556, yet the writer is well aware that
there are probably many omissions, and he would be obliged by the noti-
fication of any. A number of titles have been kept back as uncertain.
1656-91.
Aubrey, J. The Natural History of Wiltshire. (Edited by J. Brirton,
Ato. Lond. 1847.) Refers to Springs.
1664.
Lawrence, T. Mercurius Centralis ; or, a Discourse of Subterranean
Cockle, Muscle, and Oyster-shels found in the digging a well at Sir
William Doylie’s, in Norfolk. 12mo. Lond. Another ed. in 1688,
1669.
Jackson, Dr. W. Some Enquiries concerning the Salt-Springs and
the Way of Salt-making at Nantwich in Cheshire. Answered. Phil.
Trans. vol. iv. no. 3, p. 1060.
1679.
Rastell, Dr. T. An Account of the Salt Waters of Droytwich in
Worcestershire. Phil. Trans. vol. xii. no. 142, p. 1059.
1684.
Lister, Dr. M. Certain Observations of the Midland Salt-Springs of
Worcester-shire, Stafford-shire, and Cheshire. Phil. Trans. vol. xiv. no.
156, p. 489.
: 1728.
Lewis, Rev. J. An Account of the several Strata of Harths and
Fossils found in sinking the mineral Wells at Holt. Phil. Trans. vol.
xxxy. no. 403, p. 489.
1730 P
Collinson, P. (communicated by). A Letter from the King’s Officers
. . . giving an Account of what they met with in opening an antient
Well near Queenborough in Kent. Phil. Trans. vol. xxxvi. p. 191.
eee EE
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 385
1732 ? (or 3 P).
Atwell, J. Conjectures upon the Nature of Intermitting Springs.
(Brixham.) Phil. Trans. vol. xxxviil. p. 301.
1738 ?
Cooke, B. An Observation of an extraordinary Damp in a Well in
the Isle of Wight. Phil. Trans. vol. xl. no. 450, p. 379.
1744.
Hankewitz, A.G. An Examination of the Westashton Well- waters.
Phil. Trans. vol. xli, pt. 2, p. 828.
1757.
Matthews, E. An Account of the Sinking of a River near Pontypool
in Monmouthshire. Phil. Trans. vol. xlix. pt. 2, p. 547.
1782.
Anon. [On Sheppey and a Well at Sheerness.}] Huropean Mag.
vol. ii. p. 430.
Englefield, Sir H. C. Account of the Appearance of the Soil at open-
ing a Well at Hanby in Lincolnshire. Phil. Trans. vol. Ixxi. pt. 2,
p. 345.
1784.
Cullum, Sir J. The History and Antiquities of Hawstead in the
County of Suffolk. (Account of Well at Hardwick, p. 230.) 4to. Lond.
Kd. 2 in 1813.
Page, Sir T. H. Descriptions of the King’s Wells at Sheerness,
Languard Fort, and Harwich. Phil. Trans. vol. lxxiv. p. 6.
1785.
Darwin, E. Of an Artificial Spring of Water. (Well, Derby.) Phil.
Trans. vol. Ixxv. p. 1.
1787.
Limbird, J. An Account of the Strata observed in sinking for Water
at Boston, in Lincolnshire. Phil. Trans. vol. Ixxvii. p. 50.
179%.
Polwhele, Rev. R. The History of Devonshire. Vol. i. (Springs,
p. 16). Fol. Lond.
Vulliamy, B. An Account of the Means employed to obtain an over-
flowing Well [Norland House, Notting Hill]. Phil. Trans. vol. lxxxvii.
p. 325.
1798.
Anon. (C. C.) Letter on a Plan for forming a Tunnel under the
Thames. (Account of Well at Tilbury Fort.) Gent. Mag. vol. Ixviii.
pt. 2, p. 565.
Middleton, J. View of the Agriculture of Middlesex (Water, with
Wells). 8vo. Lond. Ed. 2 in 1807.
1887. cy
386 REPORT—1887.
1802.
Pearson, Rev. W. Observations on some remarkable Wells near the
Sea Coast at Brighthelmstone, and other Places contiguous. Journ. Nat.
Phil. Chem. Arts, vol. iii. p. 65.
1809.
Hall, J. [On a Well at Neasden, Willesden. ] Monthly Mag. vol.
XXvil. pp. 453, 454,
1813.
Gough, J. Observations on the ebbing and flowing well at Giggles-
wich in the West Riding of Yorkshire; with a theory of reciprocating
fountains. Journ. Nat. Phil. Chem. Arts, ser. 2, vol. xxxv. pp. 178-193;
vol. xxxvi. pp. 46-56. From Mem. Phil. Soc. Manch. nu. ser. vol. ii.
pp. 354-363.
Townsend, Rev. J. The character of Moses established for Veracity
as an Historian. 4to. Bath. (Wells, pp. 123, 124, 129, 130. Of
Springs, 304-315, 418-425.)
1814:
Horner, L. An Account of the Brine Springs at Droitwich. Trans.
Geol. Soc. vol ui. p. 94.
Longmire, J. B. On the Rise of Water in the Chesswater Mine, Ann,
Phil. vol. iv. p. 258.
Manning, Rev. 0., and W. Bray. History and Antiquities of the
County of Surrey. (Wimbledon Well, vol. iii. p. 272.) Fol. Lond.
Moyle, M. P. Queries respecting the flowing of Water in Mines.
Amn. Phil. vol. ili. p. 398.
1815.
Storer, Dr. J. Onan ebbing and flowing stream, discovered by boring
in the harbour of Bridlington. Phil. Trans. vol. cv. pt. i. pp. 54-59, and
Phil. Mag. vol. xlv. p. 432.
1817.
Anon. The ebbing and flowing stream in the Harbour of Bridlington,
Yorkshire. Phil. Mag. vol. xlix. p. 230.
On Ebbing and flowing Springs. Jbid. vol. 1. p. 267.
Buckland, Rev. Prof. W. Description of a series of Specimens from
the ois Clay. . . . (Wells, pp, 290, 291). Trans. Geol. Soc. vol. iv.
p. 277.
Inglis, G. On the Cause of Ebbing and Flowing Springs [Bridling-
ton]. Phil. Mag. vol. 1. p. 81.
1818.
Fhillips, W. Account of the Wells, &c., in W. Robinson’s ‘ History
and Antiquities of the Parish of Tottenham High Cross.’ 8vo. Tottenham.
1822.
Conybeare, Rev. W. D. and W. Phillips. Outlines of the Geology of
Engiand and Wales . . . (Wells, pp. 24-26, 33, 35, 36, 44, 45, 85, 88,
&c.), 8vo. Lond.
Sedgwick, Rev. Prof. A. On the Geology of the Isle of Wight.
(Harwich Well-sections, pp. 352, 353.) Ann. Phil. ser. 2, vol. iii. p. 329.
Young, Rev. G., and J, Bird, A Geological Survey of the Yorkshire
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 387
Coast. . . . (Ebbing and flowing Spring, Bridlington, pp. 22-24; inter-
mittent Springs, 27,28.) 4to. Whitby. Hd. 2 in 1828.
1824.
Buckland, Rev. Prof. W., and Rev. W. D. Conybeare. Observations
on the South-western Coal District of England. (Swallow-holes and
underground Streams, p. 223; Underground Reservoirs, pp. 292, 293).
Trans. Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. i. pt. ii. p. 210.
Bunbury, Sir H, On the Strata observed in boring at Mildenhall in
Suffolk. Trans. Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. i. pt. ii. pp. 379, 380.
Cragg, J. Account of Well, in Dr. A. Werburgh’s ‘ Sketches of
Sleaford.’ 8vo. Sleaford.
Drew, 8. The History of Cornwall. Vol.i. ( ... Wells, p. 509).
4to. Helston.
Sabine, J. An Account of the Overflowing Well in the Garden of the
Horticultural Society at Chiswick. Quart. Journ. Sci. Int. Arts, vol. xvii.
. 70.
i 1825.
Davy, Dr. J. Observations on the Temperature of Springs, Wells
and Mines in Cornwall. Edin. Jowrn. Sct. vol. iii. p. 75.
1826.
Yeats, T. Section of a Well sunk at Streatham Common. Trans.
Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. ii. p. 135.
1827.
Taylor, R.C. On the Geology of Hast Norfolk. (Section at Monse-
hold, Norwich, p. 285, or p. 17 of separate work.) Phil. Mag. ser. 2,
vol. i. p. 277, and published separately, with a set of papers.
1828.
Report of the Commissioners to Inquire into the State of the Suppl
of Water in the Metropolis (Well-section, Lambeth, pp. 110, 111.) Fol.
Lond.
1829.
Anon. A short account of the well at Syon House (Isleworth),
Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. ii. p. 87. Translated in Journal de Géologie, t. iii.
p- 301 (1831).
Brayley, E.W. On the Existence of Salts of Potash in Brine-Springs
and in Rock-Salt. Phil. Mag. ser. 2, vol. v. p. 411. .
Faulkner, T. Historical and Topographical Description of Chelsea.
’ (Refers to wells.) 8vo. Lond.
Moore, Rev. T. The History of Devonshire (Springs, p. 30). Ato.
Lond.
Phillips, Prof. J. Illustrations of the Geology of Yorkshire . . .
Pt. 1, The Yorkshire Coast, 4to. Hd. 2 in 1835, Hd. 3 in 1875 (Wells at
Hull, Bridlington, and Vale of Pickering, pp. 65, 66, 84, 280, of Hd. 3).
Thury, Vicomte H. de. Considérations . . . sur la Cause du Jaillisse-
ment des Haux des Puits Forés (Wells at Sheerness and Richmond),
8vo. Paris.
1830.
Henderson, Dr. R. On the General Existence of Iodine in Spring
Water. Phil. Mag. ser. 2, vol. vii. p. 10.
cc 2
388 REPORT—1887.
1831.
Daubeny, Dr. C. Remarks on Thermal Springs, and their Connexion
with Volcanos. Edin. New Phil. Journ. vol. xii. p. 49.
Henwood, W. J. Facts bearing on the Theory of the Formation of
Springs, and their Intensity at Various Periods of the Year. Phil. Mag.
SE0.a, VOL 1x.0p LO.
1832.
Bland, W. Letter recording a Series of Observations on the Rise and
Fall of Water in Wells in the County of Kent. Phil. Mag. ser. 2, vol. xi.
p- 88.
1833.
Henwood, W. J. Observations on the Rise and Fall of Water in some
Wells in Cornwall, with brief notices of other matters bearing on the
Phenomena of Springs. Phil. Mag. ser. 3, vol. i. p. 417.
1834.
Ure, Dr. A. Analysis of the Moira Brine Spring near Ashby-de-la-
Zouche, Leicestershire; with Researches on the Extraction of Bromine.
Phil. Trans. vol. exxiv. p. 577.
1835.
Daubeny, Prof.C. On Dr. Ure’s Paper, in the Phil. Trans., on the
Moira Brine Spring, &c. Phil. Mag. ser. 3, vol. vi. p. 321.
Hastings, Dr. C. On the Salt Springs of Worcestershire. Analyst,
vol. ii. pp. 359-385.
Rose, C. B. A Sketch of the Geology of West Norfolk (Wells, pp.
178, 275). Phil. Mag. ser. 3, vol. vii. pp. 171, 274.
1836,
Bannester — [Account of Well at Rushley.] In T. Wright’s
‘History and Topography of the County of Essex,’ vol. ii. p. 634. 4to.
Lond.
Donkin, J. Some Account of Borings for Water in London and its
Vicinity. Trans. Inst. O. E. vol. i. p. 155.
Gravatt, W. Some Account of several Sections through the Plastic
Clay formation in the vicinity of London. Trans. Inst. C. H. vol. i. p.
151.
1837.
Buckland, Rev. Prof. W. Geology and Mineralogy considered with
Reference to Natural Theology. Wells, vol. i. pp. 563-566; vol. ii. pls.
68, 69. 8vo. Lond.
Daubeny, Dr. C. Report on the Present State of our Knowledge
with respect to Mineral and Thermal Waters. Rep. Brit. Assoc, 1836,
ds
i Mitchell, Dr. J. An Account of a Well at Beaumont Green in the
County of Hertford. Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. ii, no. 51, pp. 551, 552.
Richardson, W. Notice of a successful attempt at boring for water
at Mortlake. Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. ii. no. 48, pp. 449, 450.
Rofe, J. Observations on the Geological Structure of the Neighbour-
hood of Reading. (Well-section, p. 129.) Trans. Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol.
vy. p. 127; and Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. ii. no. 36, p. 72 (1833).
Taylor, J. Observations on the Strata penetrated in sinking a Well
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 389
at Diss in Norfolk. Trans. Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. v. p. 137, and Proc.
Geol. Soc. vol. ii. no. 36, p. 93 (1834).
Wetherell, N. T. Observations on a Well dug on the South Side of
Hampstead Heath. Trans. Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. v. p. 181.
1838.
Armstrong, W. An Account of Tapping and Closing the Spring of
Hot Water, at Mr. Pinch’s Brewery, Bath. 8vo. Bristol.
1839.
Anon.? Artesian Well at Saffron Walden, made in 1836. Essea
Interary Journ. Feb. 15.
Faulkner, T. History of Hammersmith. (Well, p. 13.) 8vo. Lond.
Long, H. L. [given as G.] On the occurrence of numerous Swallow
Holes near Farnham; with some observations on the drainage of the
country at the western extremity of the Hog’s Back (Well-section).
Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. iii. no. 62, pp. 101, 102.
Mitchell, Dr. J. On the Wells found by digging and boring in the
gravel and London Clay in Essex, and on the geological phenomena
disclosed by them. (Refers also to bournes.) Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. iii.
no. 64, pp, 131-134.
—— On the Foul Air in the Chalk and Strata above the Chalk near
London. Ibid. no. 65, p. 151.
1840.
Clarke, Rev. W. B. On the Geological Structure and Phenomena ot
the County of Suffolk, and its Physical Relations with Norfolk and Essex.
(Well sections, pp. 368-383.) Trans. Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. v. p. 399.
Mylne, R. W. On the Supply of Water from Artesian Wells in the
London Basin, with an Account (by W. C. Mylne) of the Sinking of the
Well at the Reservoir of the New River Company in the Hampstead
Road. Trans. Inst. C. H. vol. iii. p. 229. Abstract and Discussion, Proc.
Inst. C. BE. Session 1839, p. 59.
Robinson, Dr. W. The History and Antiquities of the Parish of
Tottenham, in the County of Middlesex. Vol. i. Account of Wells,
pp. 5, &., and plate. Ed. 2. 8vo. London.
Stephenson, R. London and Westminster Water Company. Report.
8vo. Lond.
1841.
Allport, D. Collections illustrative of the Geology, &c., of Camber-
well. (Well-sections, pp. 5, 7,8.) 8vo. and 4to. Camberwell.
Clutterbuck, Rev. J.C. A Letter to Sir J. Sebright on the injurious
Consequences likely to accrue toa portion of the County of Hertford if
the London and Westminster Water Company should carry into effect
their project of supplying the Metropolis with Water from the Valley of
the River Colne. Pp. 16, plate. 8vo. Watford and London.
Mantell, Dr. G. A. The Geology of Surrey, in vol. i. of Brayley’s
‘Topographical History of Surrey.’ (Artesian Wells, p. 133, Well at
Richmond, p. 137.) 4to.
Stephenson, R. London, Westminster, and Metropolitan Water Com-
pany. Second Report. 8vo. Lond.
Thompson —. Account of a boring in search of water at the Union
390 REPORT—1887.
Workhouse, Longfleet, near Poole. Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. iii. no. 77,
pp. 413-415.
1842.
Allport, D. Note on the occurrence of a tooth of . . . Lophiodon,
in the shelly conglomerate beneath the London clay. (Well, Sydenham
Common.) Geologist, p. 66.
Clutterbuck, Rev. J.C. Supply of Water to the Metropolis from the
Valley of the Colne. A few words in answer to Mr. Stephenson’s Second
Report .. . pp. 15, 8vo. Watford.
Observations on the Periodical Drainage and Replenishment of
the Subterraneous Reservoir in the Chalk Basin of London. Proc. Inst.
C. #., p. 155.
Hunt, R. On the Waters from the Mining Districts of Cornwall.
9 Ann. Rep. R. Cornwall Polytech. Soc. p. 151.
Jebb, Major. Notes on the Theory and Practice of sinking Artesian
Wells (Account of Wellat Pentonville Prison). Papers Corps. R. Eng.
vol. v. p. 266.
Tes §. History and Topography of Islington. (Webb’s Well,
p: 357.)
Moore, Dr. E. Account of the Strata penetrated in sinking an Artesian
Well at the Victoria Spa, Plymouth. Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1841, Sections,
p- 63.
Robinson, Dr. W. The History and Antiquities of the Parish of
Hackney, in the County of Middlesex. Vol. i. Wells, p. 8. 8vo.
Lond.
1843.
Clutterbuck, Rev. J.C. Observations on the periodical drainage and
replenishment of the subterraneous Reservoir in the chalk basin of
London. Proc. Inst. C. H. pp. 155-165, plate.
Lapidge, S. Description of Strata passed through in sinking an
artesian well at the Surrey County Lunatic Asylum, at Springfield, :
Wandsworth. (Geologist, p. 20.
1844.
Buckland, Rev. Prof. W. Address to the Mayor and Members of the
Artesian Well Committee of Southampton. S8vo. Southampton.
Smith, W. [Well-sinking.] pp. 80-85 of Prof. J. Phillips’ ‘ Memoirs
of William Smith.’ 8yvo. Lond.
1845.
Graham, T. Note on the Existence of Phosphoric Acid in the Deep-
Well Water of the London Basin. Mem. Chem. Soc. vol. ii. pp. 392, 393,
and Phil. Mag. ser, 3; vol. xxvii. p. 369.
Macaire, Prof. Des puits artésiensa Londres. (? Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat.)
West, W. On Mineral Springs and other Waters of Yorkshire.
(Overflowing Well, Stanley, &c.) Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1864, Sections,
pp. 105-112.
1847.
Anon. Artesian Wells (London). Illustrated London News, January 2,
p- 16.
Cunningham [J.]. On the Geological Conformation of the Neighbour-
hood of Liverpool, as regards the Supply of Water. Proc. Lit. Phil. Soc.
Inwerpool, no. iii. pp. 58-74.
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 391
Francis, Capt. W. On the High Temperature of the Water at the
United Mines. 14 Ann. Rep. R. Cornwall Polytech. Soc. p. 4.
Keele, J. R. On the Artesian Well on the Southampton Common.
Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1846, Sections, p. 52.
Mantell, Dr. G. A. Geological Excursions round the Isle of Wight.
. . . (Wells, Southampton, pp. 87, 88). 8vo. Lond. Ed. 2 in 1851.
Prestwich [Prof.], J. On the main points of Structure, and on the
probable Age of the Bagshot Sands. . . . (Wells, p. 381.) Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc. vol. ui. p. 378.
1848.
Herapath, T. J. Analyses of the Waters of the ... Bath Water
Works. Chem. Gaz. vol. vi. p. 429.
Ransome, T. Analysis of a Saline Spring in a Lead Mine, near Kes-
wick. Mem. Lit. Phil. Soc. Manchester, ser. 2, vol. viii. pp. 399-401.
1849.
Abel [Sir], F. A. and T. H. Rowney. Analysis of the Water of the
Artesian Wells, Trafalgar Square. Quart. Journ. Chem. Soc. vol. i.
pp- 97-103.
Smith, J. Sections of Borings in the Metropolitan District. Reduced
to the Trinity Datum for J. Phillips, Chief Surveyor [to the Commis-
sioners of Sewers?]. Scale, 8 feet to an inch. 4 sheets.
Swindell, J.G. Rudimentary Treatise on Well-digging, Boring, and
Pump-work. Hd. 2 (revised by J. R. Burnell); ed. 3 in 1854? ed. 4
in 1860.
1850.
Ansted, Prof. D. T. On the Absorbent Power of Chalk, and its Water
Contents under different Conditions. Proc. Inst. O.H. vol. ix. pp. 360-375.
Braithwaite, F. (Evidence of) General Board of Health. Report
on the Supply of Water to the Metropolis. Appendix No. II. Engineer-
ing Reports and Evidence. Pp. 93-98; 3 tables. 8vo. Lond.
Brande, Prof. W. T. Analysis of the Well-Water at the Royal Mint,
with some Remarks on the Waters of the London Wells. Quart. Journ.
Chem. Soc. vol. ii. p. 345, and Pharmaceut. Journ. vol. ix. p. 384.
Clutterbuck, Rev. J.C. On the Periodical Alternations and Progres-
sive Permanent Depression of the Chalk Water Level under London.
Proc. Inst. C. H. vol. ix. p. 151.
De la Condamine, Rev. H. M. On the Tertiary Strata and their Dis-
locations in the Neighbourhood of Blackheath (Greenwich Hospital Well,
p. 448). Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. vi. p. 440.
Herapath, T. J. Analysis of a Medicinal Water from the Neighbour-
hood of Bristol (from Well, Kingswood). Quart. Jowrn. Chem. Soc.
vol. ii. pp. 200-205.
Homersham, 8. C. Réport to the Directors of the London (Watford)
Spring-water Company. Pp.58,8vo. Lond. Eds. 2, 3 same year; ed. 4,
large 8vo.
Mitchell, J. Analysis of the Water supplied by the Hampstead Water-
works Company (from Well). Quart. Journ. Chem. Soé. vol. ii. pp. 32-36.
Mylne, R. W. Sections of the London Strata. Fol. Lond.
General Board of Health. Report on the Supply of Water to the
Metropolis. Appendix No. III. Reports and Evidence . . . Chemical
392 REPORT—1887.
Geological. . . . [Sir] L. Playfair, pp. 80, 81; Dr. A. Smith, pp. 90-92 ;
[Sir] A. C. Ramsay, p. 202; M. Huish, pp. 228, 229.
Prestwich [Prof.], J. On the Geological Conditions which determine
the Relative Value of the Water-bearing Strata of the Tertiary and Cre-
taceous Series; and on the Probability of finding in the Lower Members
of the Latter, beneath London, Fresh and Large Sources of Water Supply.
... Proc. R. Inst. Brit. Architects.
Ranger, W. Report to the General Board of Health on a Preliminary
Inquiry into the . . . Supply of Water . . . of the Borough of South-
ampton. (Note of Wells.) 8vo. Lond.
Tabberner, J. L. Metropolitan Water Supply, Present and Future ;
in Four Letters to the ‘ Daily News.’ (Refers to Water from Chalk, and
to London Wells.) 8vo. Lond.
18651.
Lindsey, W. H. A Season at Harwich... (Notes of Wells in
Part 2.) 8vo. London and Harwich.
Mitchell, J. Analysis of Deep Well-water, from Messrs. Holt’s
Brewery, Ratcliffe. Quart. Journ. Chem. Soc. vol. iii. pp..1—4.
Napier, Hon. W. General Board of Health. Report ... on the
Proposed Gathering Grounds . . . from the Soft-water Springs of the
Surrey Sands. ... (Refers to wells, pp. 10, 37-39.)
Prestwich [Prof.], J. A Geological Inquiry respecting the Water-
bearing Strata of the Country around London, with reference especially
to the Water-supply of the Metropolis. . . . Pp. iv. 240, plate, 8vo. Lond.
Ranger, W. Report to the Local Board of Health, Southampton, on
the Various Sources of Water Supply. (Well-sections.) 8vo. South-
anvpton.
Voelcker, Dr. A. On the Proportion of Phosphoric Acid in some
Natural Waters. ep. Brit. Assoc. 1850, Sections, pp. 63, 64.
1852.
Anon. Section of the Well sunk at the Bank of England. 1851.
Lithographed coloured sheet.
Chapman, E. J. On Artesian Wells near Silsoe in Bedfordshire.
Phil. Mag. ser. 4, vol. iv. p. 102.
Noad, H. M. On the Composition of certain Well-waters in the
neighbourhood of London, with some observations on their action on
lead. Quart. Journ. Chem, Soc. vol. iv. pp. 20-26.
Robson, J. H. Analysis of the Water of the Artesian Well, South-
ampton. Ibid. vol. iv. pp. 7-12.
Report of the Town Committee, Appointed at the Public Meeting,
held at the Guildhall, Southampton, Feb. 11th, 1852; comprising. . . an
Appendix on the Artesian Well. (Contains letters and report by W.
Ranger.) 8vo. Southampton.
1853.
Brown, J. Note on the Artesian Well at Colchester. Ann. Nat.
Hist. ser. 2, vol. xii. p. 240.
Chapman, Prof. E.J. Absorption of Water by Chalk. Phil. Mag.
ser. 4, vol. vi. p. 118.
Duncan, T. Description of the Liverpool Corporation Water-Works.
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410 i REPORT—1887.
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ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 411
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412 REPORT—1887.
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Some Hertfordshire Well-sections. Trans. Herts. Nat. Hist. Soc.
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On Underground Temperatures . . . on the Thermal Effects of
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ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 413
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Midl. Nat. vol. ix. pp. 74-77.
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Soc. vol. xli. p. 26, &c. Fuller Version of paper read to Brit. Assoc.
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On “ A recent Legal Decision, of importance in connection with
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dee. iii. vol. iii, pp. 111-114.
—— On the Waterworks at Goldstone Bottom, Brighton. Geol. Mag.
dec. iii. vol. iii. pp. 159-161.
Some Surrey Wells and their Teachings: with Sections of Wells
and Deep Borings in the Surrey Part of the London Basin. Trans. Croy-
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Some Essex Well-sections. Trans. Hssex Field Club, vol. iv.
pt. 2, pp. 149-170.
—— F. J. Bennett, and J. H. Blake. Memoirs of the Geological
Survey. England and Wales. The Geology of the Country between and
south of Bury St. Edmunds and Newmarket. (Well-sections, pp- 19-25.)
8vo. Lond.
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and W. Topley. Corporation of Croydon. Report upon the
Water Works at Addington. Vol. v. no. 3, pp. 29-39. Geological Section
no. 12.
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xlii. pp. 287-308.
1887.
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ist, no. 9, p. 189.
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(Brine-pumping, &e.) Proc. Inst. C. H. vol. xe. pp. 131-158, pl. 3.
Brodie, Rev. P.B. Further and concluding Notes on the deep boring
at Richmond, Surrey, and on another at Chatham, and other places a
Kent. Proc. Warwicksh. Nat. Archeol. Field Club, 1886, pp. 33-37.
Dowker, G. The Water-Supply of East Kent, in Connection with
Natural Springs and Deep Wells. Geol. Mag. dec. iii. vol. iv. pp. 202-212.
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vol. xc. pp. 21-27. Discussion p. 40, &.
Grover, J.W. Chalk-Water Springs in the London Basin, illustrated
by the Newbury, Wokingham, Leatherhead and Rickmansworth Water.
works. Ibid. pp. 1-22, &c.
Hayward, R. H. On the Water in the Chalk beneath the London
Clay in the London Basin. Weekly News and Clerkenwell Chronicle
January 22 and Trans. Midz. Nat. Hist. Soc. >
Jukes-Browne, A. J. Memoirs of the Geological Survey. England
and Wales. The Geology of Hast Lincolnshire. . . . (Water Supply
pp. 135-138. Well-sections, pp. 148-176.) 8vo. Lond.
and W. Hill. On the Lower Part of the Upper Cretaceous
Series in West Suffolk and Norfolk. (Wells and springs, pp. 548, 549
051, 554, 558.) Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xliii. p. 544, Wyodig
414 REPORT—1887.
Latham, B. Bourne Flow and Weather Prediction. Oroydon
Chronicle, February.
Lyons, H.G. On the London Clay and Bagshot Beds of Aldershot.
(Refers to wells, pp. 434, 436, 437, 439-441.) Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.
vol. xliii. p. 431.
Matthews, W. The Wells and Borings of the Southampton Water-
works. Proc. Inst. C. H. vol. xc. pp. 33-39, pl. i. Discussion, p. 40, &e.
Stooke, T. §. On a Bore-hole near Hinckley, Leicestershire. Ibid.
pp. 28-32, &e.
Thompson, B. The Middle lias of Northamptonshire. Part IV. The
Middle Lias Considered as a Source of Water Supply. General Failure
of Deep Springs, &c. Midi. Nat. vol. x. pp. 3441, 55-58, 97-100, 109-
Whitaker, W. ‘Ne Sutor ultra Crepidam.’’ Address to Section III.
(Refers to Pollution of Underground Water.) Trans. Sanitary Inst.
vol. viii.
—— Further Notes on the Results of some Deep Borings in Kent.
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xlii. pp. 197-205.
——- Report on the Water Supply of the Borough of Margate. Pp. 11.
Privately printed. 8vo. Margate.
-—— and W.H. Dalton. Memoirs of the Geological Survey. Eng-
land Wales. The Geology of the Country around Halesworth and
Harleston. . . . (Well-sections, pp. 34-39.) 8vo. Lond.
No Date.
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Eastern Railway—-On the Supply of Water to be obtained. from the
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Evans, 8. Geology made Easy. Illustrated by a Section of the
Artesian Well at the Model Prison Pentonville. . . . A chart.
:
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. H. Woopwarp, Mr. H.
Keerprinc, and Mr. J. STARKIE GARDNER, appointed for the
purpose of exploring the Higher Eocene Beds of the Isle of
Wight. By the Secretary, J. S. GARDNER.
[PLATES ITI., IV., AND V.]
Tur Tertiary floras which we find represented most abundantly on
the continent of Europe are of Upper Hocene, Oligocene, Miocene, and
Pliocene age. These are all posterior to our Bagshot, the age during
which, in Great Britain and Ireland, the conditions necessary to preserve
extensive assortments of forest vegetation ceased toexist. These precise
conditions, whatever they may be, seem to have rolled like a vast wave
from north-west to south and east, leaving its trail in innumerable fossil
floras scattered over a belt extending from the Baltic, through Germany,
Bohemia, and the Alps, to the Mediterranean littoral.
In Great Britain and Ireland the Kocenes, from their base upward,
whether sedimentary or volcanic, are continually intercalated with fluvia-
ON THE HIGHER EOCENE BEDS OF THE ISLE OF WIGHT. 415
tile clays, literally choked with leaves. A remarkable peculiarity, shared
by every one of these leaf beds, is that they are almost wholly destitute of
any traces of animal life except the disarticulated wings and wing cases of
insects. It is difficult to imagine how it has happened that these vast
and recurring accumulations of fine silt, well fitted to preserve the most
delicate organisms, should not at all events abound with the remains of
freshwater fish. They were formed in the beds of rivers of various dimen-
sions, some of great magnitude, and in the higher as well as the lower
reaches. Yet throughout the twenty odd years I have been collecting
in these at home and abroad, I have never so much as found a fish scale
nor aquatic insect in any plant bed, unless newer in age than the Bag-
shot. it may appear a bold inference to draw, but the only one possible is
that freshwater fish did not exist in our area in Hocene times. All other
explanations, such as difference in powers of flotation, drifting, decom-
position, break down on examination. Plant beds of the same character,
but of later date, in France, Germany, &c., abound in fish and insects;
and in some cases, as at Céreste, the number of feathers accompanying
them seems to indicate that this food supply had speedily led to the
development of aquatic bird life. The English Oligocenes are no excep-
tion to the rule, and in place of its former almost oppressive absence,
they teem with aquatic life in many forms, and scarcely a plant bed
thenceforward is unaccompanied with animal remains.
This new state of things begins in our area in the Headon, and partly
on this account collecting fossil plants in these higher beds is far from easy.
The superabundance of aquatic life, especially mollusca, is antagonistic
to the preservation of plants. Most leaves preserve their forms in water
for many months, if perfectly undisturbed, and would in time become
covered by films of silt, to be compacted eventually into the finely
laminated clay which constitutes a leaf-bed. But-on a bottom in-
fested with life they would rapidly break up when decay set in, and
silt largely mixed with dead shells is not a good medium to preserve
them. It is only here and there in the Hampshire Oligocenes that plants
are found in good preservation and the patches are small and local, so
that, unless a collector happens to be present when they are exposed,
their contents become lost. This circumstance always renders it doubtful
whether a special search for plants will be rewarded, and disappointment
has more often resulted than the reverse. Hence while we have great
collections from the British Eocenes, which may teach the succession of
vegetation that occupied our area, our Oligocene flora is only repre-
sented by small groups of plants in widely scattered collections, so that it
is not easy to form an idea of it as a whole.
A former grant enabled the Lower Headon flora of Hordwell to be ex-
plored as far as possible, and the present one has enabled us to obtain a
satisfactory insight into the newer Oligocene floras of the Isle of Wight.
Some account of the former has been given in a previous report. As
an illustration of the local distribution of plants in our Oligocenes, I may
mention that a large number of specimens of palms from Hordwell were
sent to Belgium, a mass of them in a solid matrix having been exposed
during a few tides, whilst a foreign collector happened to be visiting
the spot. Some pieces of feather palms, obtained on another occasion
by Mr. Keeping, have been figured for the Palzontographical Society.
Unlike the Lower Headon, the Middle Headon, an almost purely
marine deposit, seems completely barren of plants.
416 REPORT— 1887.
Very few plants are known from the Upper Headon, but a band of |
clay ironstone above the limestone, also found by Mr. Keeping, occasion- |
ally contains beautifully preserved leaves. Examples of these are in the
museums at Cambridge and York. It is some years since any have been
found, and we have failed to meet with them lately, though we have often
made special search.
The Osborne marly clays have undergone a chemical change, leaving
them ‘mottled,’ which has seemingly obliterated all traces of plants, if
any existed, though nucules of Chara are met with in the limestones of
this, as well as of the Bembridge series. Our work was therefore almost
entirely in the beds above this horizon.
The grant was handed to Mr. Keeping, who commenced work on May 24
in Parkhurst Forest. The Hamstead series has, it is well known, an ex-
tremely limited outcrop. The freshwater beds are succeeded by a brackish
series, ultimately passing into marine.beds, and occupying successively
more and more restricted areas, until on the very apex of Hamstead Hill we
find what is evidently the basal bed of a marine series of some importance.
Most of the fossils have disappeared by weathering owing to proximity
to the surface, but a very distinct and almost gigantic oyster, O. callifera,
often bored by Lithodomus, has withstood the atmospheric action. The
formation, being higher than anything in England beneath the Pliocene,
has always attracted interest, and the importance of finding other and
better outcrops has thus appeared very great. It seemed highly probable,
looking at the contour of the land and observing the dip inland at the
cliff line, that such would be found in the high ground of Parkhurst
Forest. Indeed, that most accurate observer, the late Mr. Godwin-Austen,
stated (Mem. Geo. Surv., Isle of Wight, 1856, p. 37) that specimens
of the characteristic Ostrea callifera had been found on the surface there.
Keeping had also found, rather low.down, some shelly matter which he
took to be the débris of marine shells. We accordingly commenced by
sinking a pit in the high ground towards the north of the Forest, known
as Mark’s Corner, choosing a disused gravel pit within fifteen or twenty
feet of the summit in order to avoid the labour of digging through the
drift. After getting through the base of the gravel and clay to a depth
of twelve feet we came to unweathered laminated beds with partings of
white sand, containing Paludina, the small globose fruits so abundant in,
the Hamstead series, and remains of freshwater fish. These clearly
belong to the freshwater series of Hamstead, and we consider their
horizon to be about twenty-five feet below the Corbula sub-piswm beds of
Forbes. The next essay made was on the Signal Hill, a mile to the
South, and also in a gravel pit about twenty feet from the summit. Here
we found mottled green clay ten feet thick under five feet of gravel with
Paludina, Planorbis, Unio, Chara, and a fragment of Hmys. These also
were clearly in the freshwater series and correspond with the mottled
bed about fifteen feet below the Corbula bed. As these are the highest
points of the Forest it thus seems perfectly safe to conclude that no
higher beds occur in Parkhurst Forest than at Hamstead, and that the-
latter presents by far the best development of them.
The escarpment forming Hamstead Cliff is cut through a hill 210
feet high, the crown of which has already disappeared. The highest
marine beds are confined to the apex of this hill and cannot have more
than a few superficial yards extent, the rapid weathering threatening in-
deed to remove every vestige of them before many generations shall have
ST Report Brit Assoc. 1887.
—— — eer rae es —
Plate III.
|
|
JS.Gardner hth - 4 West, Newman & Co.imp
Illustrating the Report on the Higher Hocene Beds of the
: - Isle of Wight.
ae a RS on yet a pe ate Sdeaisetnentanemen ne
oe aii :
a
An Eocene Nelumbium
livetrating the Report
on the Higher Eosene Reda of the Lule of Wight
ON THE
assed away. Op!
Feseenda from a s0
second streara also
ment, save where |
tangle of vegetatior
overhanging them,
exposed and can be
in the low cliffs me
bridge marls are |
tides. In proceedir
beds to the surface
‘The beds have |
Bristow, but the d:
andoubtedly led to
still remains. The
authors, twenty fe
Jess brackish, and ¢
thickness of the re
‘white band,’ form
to be fifty feet, b
band ' is within abc
seen, is 210 feet hi;
ledge of the second
clay which my bi
series. It is fall of
in diameter, and jo
nodes an inch acro:
rootlets, two or thi
scars left by the ro
chance a node ha:
appearance of an ec
markings or veins
macerated fragmer
This contrast in col
former were buried
surface, whilst the ]
silted over. No len
and even these are
search, only three 1
met with. The fign
men in the British |
0, appear to belon;
‘re, according to H
their present appe
whilst those of Nel
up into lengths and
sent an inhabitant
grew in the Nile.
of Central and Sout
Antrim,
We are also fort
ores Ot); Tee
Walls and ty
1887, bWO or mor
ON THE HIGHER EOCENE BEDS OF THE ISLE OF WIGHT. 417
passed away. Opposite the very apex of the hill a huge mud stream
descends from a sort of ique, like a glacier, to the sea; a little west a
second stream also finds its way to the Solent. The rest of the escarp-
ment, save where local slips have occurred, is overgrown with a dense
tangle of vegetation. The mud streams are fed by slips from the terraces
overhanging them, and in the terraces the upper Hamstead beds are
exposed and can be worked. The lower Hamstead beds can be got at
in the low cliffs met with here and there along the shore, while the Bem-
bridge marls are best seen in the rather extensive flats exposed between
tides. In proceeding eastward from the mud streams the dip brings lower
beds to the surface in succession.
The beds have been described in the Survey Memoirs by Forbes and
Bristow, but the death of the former whilst the work was in progress
undoubtedly led to its being published in the imperfect state in which it
still remains. The marine beds at the summit are, according to these
authors, twenty feet thick. The next thirty feet beneath are more or
less brackish, and easily distinguished by the presence of Cerithium. The
thickness of the remainder of the beds, down to a shelly band called the
‘white band,’ forming the ‘middle estuarine and freshwater,’ is stated
to be fifty feet, but it must evidently exceed 100 feet, for the ‘ white
band ’ is within about forty feet of the sea level, and the hill, as we have
seen, is 210 feet high. About thirty feet down in them, and forming the
ledge of the second terrace, is a bed of compact and distinctly laminated
clay which may be distinguished as the ‘Leaf bed’ of the Hamstead
series. It is full of a peculiar creeping root, from one half to nearly an inch
in diameter, and jointed at intervals of three feet or more by rounded
nodes an inch across, from which radiate closely set straight filamentous
rootlets, two or three inches in length, and clothed with fibrils. The
sears left by the rootlets are small and mammillated, so that when by
chance a node has been severed and deprived of rootlets, it has all the
appearance of an echinated fruit. The roots are jet black, without netted
markings or veins, and contrast strongly in colour with the whitish
macerated fragments of sword-shaped leaves which accompany them.
This contrast in colour and preservation appears due to the fact that the
former were buried in mud even whilst living and never exposed on the
surface, whilst the latter had reached the last stage of decay before being
silted over. No leaves whatever are found in this bed except Nelwmbium,
and even these are of such extreme rarity that, during about a week’s
search, only three undeveloped leaves and a part of a developed one were
met with. The figure exhibited (plate IV.) is froma nearly perfect speci-
men in the British Museum. The leaves, so far as outline and venation
go, appear to belong unquestionably to Nelwmbiwm, and the root-stocks
are, according to Heer, of the same plant. They seem, however, from
their present appearance, to have been quite hollow, like cane roots,
whilst those of Nelwmbium are so fleshy and succulent that they are cut
up into lengths and largely eaten as a vegetable. Nelumbiwm is at pre-
sent an inhabitant of Asia, the Philippines, and Australia, and formerly
grew in the Nile. It has been found fossil in some of the Tertiaries
of Central and Southern Europe, and I believe the same species occurs in
Antrim.
We are also fortunate in discovering the rare fruit shown in fig. 11
(plate IIT.). It was apparently a rounded or subangular capsule with thick
opdeey two or more chambers. The seeds are numerous and compressed
1887. ER
418 REPORT-—1887.
and angular. It greatly resembles the fossil fruit called Gardenia by Heer,
from Bovey, but I am more inclined to place it under the Iridacee.
The rest of the Hamstead beds consist either of unfossiliferous
mottly clay, or of greeny blue and darker carbonaceous clays with innu-
merable partings of freshwater shells, such as Melania, Melanopsis, Paludina,
Unio, Cyrena, with enormous quantities of Oypride and fish scales. But
scarcely less numerous than the shell layers are layers of a black, shiny,
globose fruit, the size of a currant; and of a small seed, sometimes
mingled with the fruits and sometimes in separate layers. The enormous
majority of these fruits are merely empty husks, wrinkled and flattened ;
but occasionally they will be perfectly round, and are seen, if broken whilst
quite fresh, to contain two sets, each of three angular cells, base to base,
containing one, or perhaps more, ovate, keeled, smooth, inequilateral seeds.
Exteriorly, the fruits when full are smooth, quite round, with a slight
scar of attachment, and in this condition they may be picked up in num-
bers, washed out on the shore. The husks were named Nymphaea Doris
by Heer, on the supposition that they were simple nut-like seeds, though
no other remains of Nymphcea had been found associated with them
either here or at Bovey—and the globular fruits were called Carpolithes
globulus, Heer, with the suggestion that they might perhaps be the fruit
of a palm (Q.J.G.S., 1862, p. 375). The most interesting thing about them
is the truly prodigious quantities in which they are scattered throughout
a thickness of not much less than 250 feet of sediment. The plant seems
to have survived, in undiminished numbers, the innumerable vicissitudes
which over and over again changed the quality of the sediment and the
assemblages of mollusca living in it. It only disappears when the water
had become entirely salt, if not altogether open sea. A proportion of the
drifted seeds, which also form continuous layers, appear to have been shed
from these fruits, but they are associated with a small furrowed and
shortly bearded seed, described as Oyperites Forbesi, Heer.
This author has also identified some fragments of a dicotyledonous leaf
from near the base of the beds as Andromeda reticulata, Ett., and the ‘ Taxi-
tes’ of Forbes as Sequoia Couttsie, Heer, of Bovey. The cones associated
with the exceedingly delicate foliage of the latter were, however, com-
pressed and in fragments. If they are of the same species as the perfect
specimens obtained from Hordwell, with which they seem to agree in
every particular, they would be Athrotawis and not Sequoia, the one being
an Australian shrubby conifer frequenting river banks, and the other the
well-known mammoth tree, or Wellingtonia, of the Sierra Nevada in
California.
This, except two Charas and the Carpolithes Websteri, brings our list
of Hamstead plants to a close, but the so-called Bembridge marls beneath
are in reality part of what is an absolutely continuous formation, deposited
under approximately identical conditions. The outcrop of the beds along
the shore was described by Forbes in great detail, and he estimated their
total thickness at 75 feet, but as no other measurements are given, we
must locate our plants rather indefinitely.
Near the top, not far beneath the ‘ black band,’ or dividing line, the
fronds of a large fan-palm seem not uncommon. The radius of one
measured 2 feet 4 inches, and was even then imperfect; the leaf was
pyritised and very thick. The leaf-stalk measured 2 inches across, was
smooth, angular at the back, and of such substance that a piece of it was
mistaken for a chelonian bone. It is evidently the Sabal major of Heer.
ob I
oN THE
The associated.
me spot.
= ‘Abpat half-
with Melania tw
3 or 4 yards wic
detached leaves
inobes in length,
inch in breadth.
shriveled at the
arent-looking,
previously rega
Gornet Bay as
prove the vena
yras massed tog
A little aboy
able remains oc
nous leaves, al
and some twigs
the Doliostrobus
fig. 32). They
ciated with the
their reference
on the Newto
hardtia, so ab
remains.
‘The small p
of the same be
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scale heads are
have belonged
ary species att
A little low
(pl. V., fig. 1),
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We see fro
beds proper is
their correlatic
of Bovey are
while the com
of the Isle of
flora of that p
is considerably
yastly increas
done from the
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Oarpolithes W
plants continu:
astounding va
in any countr
"Twas able
Saporta, to iden
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num, and Ficus
fedunsitaaiHenorsen thailishemmosersll
the Isle of Wight
ON THE HIGHER EOCENE BEDS OF THE ISLE OF WIGHT. 419
The associated bones of a young crocodile were found by us near the
same spot.
About half-way down, as nearly as we could judge, and associated
with Melania turritissima, we came upon a patch about 30 yards long and
3 or 4 yards wide, almost made up, to a depth of nearly 6 inches, of the
‘detached leaves of a finely cut Myrica. These measure from 2 to 3
inches in length, and from a little over a 16th to a little under a quarter of an
inch in breadth. The vast majority are black in colour and rather curled or
shrivelled at the edges. A small proportion are larger, brown, and trans-
parent-looking, clearly exhibiting the venation, and are quite flat. I had
previously regarded fragments of this plant from the Insect bed of
Gurnet Bay as Gleichenia, but the more perfect specimens now obtained
prove the venation to be that of a dicotyledon. A narrow-leaved reed
was massed together not far off in a similar way.
A little above the band of septarian stone in which insect and veget-
able remains occur so plentifully farther east, we found a few dicotyledo-
nous leaves, and pinne of Chrysodiwm lanzeanum, in dark sandy clay,
and some twigs of the conifer which so curiously resembles in its foliage
the Doliostrobus found at Aix in beds of not very dissimilar age (pl. IIL,
fig. 32). They are perfectly preserved, and have now been found asso-
ciated with the detached scales of a cone, confirming the correctness of
their reference to Doliostrobus. At a somewhat corresponding horizon
on the Newtown River side, we found the winged seed of the Engel-
hardtia, so abundant in the Insect bed, and other dicotyledonous
remains.
The small pine cone figured (pl. III., fig. 31) was probably washed out
of the same bed. The specimen is now wholly pyrites, excepting a small
core of lignite to each scale, and the internal structure is invisible. 'The
scale heads are hexagonal and considerably raised, and the pine appears to
have belonged to the same section as P. Mugho and its allies. No Terti-
ary species at all resembling it has been described.
A little lower down, among Cyrena pulchra, the small-leaved Sabal
(pl. V., fig. 1), or other fan-palm occurs, and is distinguished by its long,
smooth, and slender foot-stalk.
We see from the foregoing that the number of plants in the Hamstead
beds proper is exceedingly restricted, and affords no adequate grounds for
their correlation with the Bovey Tracey deposits. The common fossils
of Bovey are the common fossils of the black beds of Bournemouth,
while the common plants of Hamstead are not found beyond the limits
of the Isle of Wight, with the exception of Carpolithes Websteri. The
flora of that part of the Hamstead series, called the Bembridge marls,
is considerably richer, and anyone living on the spot could, doubtless,
vastly increase the number of species known, as Mr. A’Court Smith has
done from the ‘ Insect bed,’! but neither its prevailing palms, conifers,
ferns, nor fruits have been found at Bovey, with the possible exception of
Carpolithes Webstert. In descending through the Headons the number ot
plants continually increases, until in the Bournemouth beds beneath, a truly
astounding variety is met with, scarcely, I should think, to be paralleled
in any country at the present day. We seem as the plants diminish in
‘ I was able on a recent visit to Gurnet Bay, in company with the Marquis de
Saporta, to identify the following additional plants in Mr. Smith’s collection: Cin-
namomum lanceolatum, C. polymorphum, Zizyphus Ungeri, species of Rhus, Vibur-
num, and Ficus, and a Lygodiwm.
EE2
420 REPORT—1887.
number to have a diminishing temperature, though the presence of Sabal
mojor in the Bembridge marls, and of Nelumbium higher up, negatives
the idea that the climate had down to that period made any near approach
to temperate.
The only one of the fruits met with in great abundance that is perhaps
common to Bovey is, as already mentioned, the Carpolithes, or Folli-
culites Websteri ; but in the first place it is doubtful whether the species is
actually the same, and in the second it is characteristic of the Bembridge
marls and not of the Hamstead beds proper, and ranges downward into
the Lower Headon. It isasmall ovate fruit, Plate ITI., figs. 21-27, slightly
curved and more or less flattened on two sides. The integument is deeply
furrowed or corrugated, except over the base, which is broad and smooth,
with a depressed scar in the centre, around which it is slightly puckered.
It dehisces longitudinally, and the thick, leathery, or woody, separated
valves are found in layers nearly half an inch deep, forming uninterrupted
sheets, which probably have an immense horizontal extent. A few of the
unopened fruits contain a smooth hollow cast in pyrites, keeled on one
side, slightly recurved, with a small scar, and truncated at one end and
pointed at the other (figs. 28, 29). It is more likely that this is a
mere infiltrated mould of the interior than that it represents the seed.
In the majority of the closed fruits there is nothing but a small white
membranous sac (figs. 22, 25, 27) in startling preservation, but in these
cases the fruits are compressed and may have been abortive. There is
no further evidence to show whether they are cryptogamous,' and indeed
they cannot yet be assigned positively to any living family or even order—
a fact to be regretted the more, as they are widely distributed and have
been frequently described. We cannot help being more and more struck
with the fact that although resemblances can always be found between
living and fossil leaves, so that the several fragments can be fitted with
the name of an existing genus, very few Tertiary fruits indeed can be
assigned to existing genera, particularly when their structure is well pre-
served.2 It thus appears that at Bovey there were no leaves found that
presented any difficulty, and the dicotyledonous forms, however fragmen-
tary, were referred to twenty-one species under various existing genera,
such as Quercus, Dryandra, Eucalyptus, &e. But the remarkable feature
of that flora, in which, as at Hamstead, fruits were unusually numerous,
is that not a single fruit or seed belonging to any one of the genera
represented by leaves has yet been found. The fruits supposed to be de-
terminable were three species of Nyssa, two of Vitis, two of Anona, one
each of Nymphcea and Gardenia, and there are seven indeterminable ones,
called Carpolithes. Nothing could place in a stronger light the doubt
attaching to the determinations come to in the case of the Bovey Flora.
Tn addition to the Bembridge marls, Folliculites reappears sparingly
in company with a deeply interesting fruit in the Lower Headon. There
is a band about a foot thick near the top of that formation, both at
Hordwell and in the Isle of Wight, which is black with so-called ‘seeds,’
an inch of the matrix appearing to contain some hundreds of them. It is
in reality a minute asyrametric, echinated fruit, appearing to be bearded at
both ends, and formed of a large and a small valve (pl. III., fig.30). When
1 Described by Sir J. D. Hooker, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. Xi., p. 566, as
Sporangia. See notes to description of plates.
2 See Bowerbank’s Fossil Fruits of the London Clay, or Von Mueller’s Vegetable
Fossils of the Auriferous Drifts.
ON THE HIGHER EOCENE BEDS OF THE ISLE OF WIGHT. 421
dehiscent, the smaller valve in falling away leaves a pear-shaped or key-
hole-like opening(pl. III., figs. 30 and 30b), and the fruit is empty or con-
tains, like Folliculites, amembranous sac. The large valve hasa single keel
and the smaller possesses three elevated ridges. The vast majority have
dehisced, but those that are still closed will usually float in water if
washed out of the matrix. I am still in ignorance regarding the proper
place of the fruit, but nothing has more deeply impressed me than the
persistence of this band. In looking from the shore line at Hordwell
across to Headon Hill, and realising that the whole interval was probably
once carpeted to the depth of a foot with a mass of fruits of a single
Species, one realises the extraordinary prodigality of Nature, and marvels
that even this stupendous provision for perpetuating the species has not
sufficed to rescue it from utter extinction.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.
PLATE IIT.
Carpolithes globulus, Heer.
Figs. 1-9.—This fruit occurs in enormous profusion. The layers are innumerable and
often close together, extending through the Hamstead, except the marine beds, as well
as the Bembridge marls. The sorting process has been very effectual, for scarcely a seed
or any foreign body is found in the husk layers, though globose fruits are sparsely
sprinkled among them. ‘he question is whether the wrinkled and flattened bodies,
figs. 5, 6, 9, are distinct from the globose fruits, as supposed by Heer, who named
them Vymphea Doris and Carpvlithes globulus respectively, or whether the view that
the one is the empty and husk condition of the other is correct. The round body
is clearly a fruit composed internally of compartments, figs. 7 and 8, from which IT
extracted the seed, fig. 10. This certainly cannot have anything to do with Nymphea,
no remains of which have been found of this age in Great Britain. If the flattened
bodies are the integuments of seeds they are obviously of seeds which have not
germinated, but of which the albumen has disappeared. The very great diversity of
size (compare figs. 5 and 9, which are not extremes) is alone almost conclusive against
the view that they are seeds, and their incredible abundance is in favour of their
being a waste product, i.e.,a vegetative organ which had discharged its functions.
The proportion of fruits which have missed shedding their seed is such as may be
continually observed in nature. The deeply wrinkled appearance of the husks shows
that they were not originally flat, and when not flat they are the globose fruit.
The variation in size of the one tallies exactly with that of the other (compare figs.
1, 3, 4 of the globose form with figs. 5 and 9). The two are invariably found
associated together, and the globose fruits are never found separately, as might be
expected if they were distinct, whilst, on the other hand, no other fruits are mingled
with them. The case in favour of separation is unsupported by any argument what-
ever, and I am convinced it would never have occurred to any one working in the
field to regard them as aught but two conditions of the same organism. I doubt
whether they are really distinct from Carpolithes ovulum, Br.
Fig. 1 is a full-sized fruit; the integument is black and shining, dense and
moderately thick.
Fig. 2 shows the scar of attachment.
Figs. 3 and 4 represent the smaller sized fruits of the same kind.
Fig. 5 represents the flat view of a husk, and fig. 6 the edge view of same. (In
this state they are the Vymphea Doris of Heer.)
Fig. 7 is a broken fruit showing the outer face of three chambers, and fig. 8 shows
the inner face of two chambers. The largest fruits had apparently six chambers,
whilst the smaller ones had fewer, and perhaps in the smallest there may have been
only one.
Fig. 10 represents three views of a seed extracted from a chamber.
422 REPORT—1887.
Gardenia (7) Wetzleri, Heer.
Fig. 11.—This fine fruit had not previously been found in the Isle of Wight
tertiaries, but is evidently the same as the two or three groups of seeds found at
Bovey, though these were unenclosed in any capsule. The base was unfortunately
broken before we realised that the object was other than drifted wood, and for this
reason we are doubtful whether the thick stem which appears to be leading up to it
was really attached or not. The capsule is rounded, subangular, and indehiscent.
On removing one side it was found to be ligneous or leathery, and disclosed two rows
of black and shining angulated and closely-fitting seeds. On removing some of these
a second layer of seeds was disclosed beneath a thin wall, so that the capsule appears
to be two-celled with four rows of seeds.
Figs. 12 to 15 show various views of the seeds unmagnified. I have found no
spiral markings on them like those represented as being present on the Bovey
seeds.
These capsules are rare, but have been found in many localities on the Continent
in lignite and brown coal, associated with plant-remains characteristic of swamp or
marsh floras. I think its reference to Gardenia is probably wide of the mark, but
have not yet had time to come to any better conclusion regarding it. It is from the
Nelumbium bed.
Cyperites Forbesii, Heer.
Fig. 16.—These are small asymmetric seeds, slightly and unequally flattened later-
ally, keeled on two sides, deeply lined or furrowed, shortly bearded, and with an
adherent foot-stalk. They are represented natural size in fig. 16, while fig. 16a re-
presents the edge view, and 16d the flattened side magnified.
They are enormously abundant in the Nelumbium bed at Hamstead, occurring in
sheets or drifted into depressions caused by hollow valves of Unio or other objects
settled in the fine mud.
Folliculites Websteri, Brongniart.
This species even eclipses C. globulus in abundance, and has been minutely
described by Hooker (Q.J.G.8., vol. xi. p. 566), so that we are perfectly acquainted
with its structure. It or allied species have also been described by Bronn, Zenker,
Brongniart, Ludwig, Unger, and Heer, so that it possesses a wide range and is highly
characteristic of European Oligocenes. Notwithstanding this, the greatest diversity
of opinion exists as to its true position in the vegetable kingdom. Thus, Heer believed
they were Pine seeds; though he afterwards, in the Flora of Bovey, compared them to
seeds of Samyda, a group of tropical shrubs. Ludwig placed them in ippophaé, the sea
Buckthorn of our coasts. Brongniart first considered them to be near to Thalietrum,
a genus of Ranunculacee, and subsequently agreed with Unger in assigning them to
the Naiadee. Hooker, however, regarded them as the Sporangia of a cryptogam
allied to ferns, and in the view that they are cryptogamic Saporta and I are inclined
to coincide. The organism is composed of two valves dehiscing longitudinally, and
cannot possibly therefore be a seed, but it might have been a one-seeded bivalved
dicotyledonous fruit. The valves are in the great majority found detached; but
when still united and uninfiltrated they enclose a membranous sac in which, in one
instance, Hooker detected some extremely minute transparent granules which he
regarded as spores. Less compressed specimens enclose a cast in pyrites of the
interior cavity, which cannot, however, represent the seed, as the membranous sac
can be seen within it instead of enveloping it. It may be the membrane of a
sporular sac, as interpreted by Hooker, or it might be the proper coat of a seed, as
the albumen or kernel rapidly disappears in wet, sometimes leaving the membranous
coat, as in the case of the cherry stones quoted by Heer in the Flora of Bovey, p. 58.
But any determination, to be acceptable, must ally them to some aquatic, or at least
water-loving, social plant, for they are met with in prodigious profusion, almost
to the exclusion of everything else, wherever beds have been formed in sluggish
shallow freshwater during Oligocene times, whilst they are absent where the spoils of
woodland floras are deposited.
Figs. 17 and 18 are side views of two specimens, natural size.
Fig 19.—A fruit dehiscing, showing an infiltrated kernel.
Fig. 20.—A single valve, exposing kernel.
Fig. 21. Edge view of a small fruit.
Fig. 22.—A membranous sac removed.
ON THE HIGHER EOCENE BEDS OF THE ISLE OF WIGHT. 423
Fig. 23.—Edge view of an infiltrated, and fig. 24 of an uninfiltrated, specimen.
Fig. 25.—An opened fruit exposing the sac.
Fig. 26.—Basal view of an infiltrated, dehiscing fruit.
Fig. 27.—Membranous sac.
Fig. 29.—EHdge view, and fig. 28 side view, of infiltrated kernel.
Carpolithes Headonensis, Sp. Nov.
Fig. 30.—Several fruits, natural size. The rest of the figures magnified.
Fig. 30a.— Back view showing dorsal keel.
Fig. 30b.—Side view, 30¢ back view, of more compressed specimen.
Fig. 30d.—F ront view of the large valve.
Fig. 30e-——Oblique view, showing both valves.
Fig. 30).—Three-quarter view.
Fig. 30i.—Exterior, and 30/ interior, face of small valve.
Fig. 307.— Well-developed fruit showing both valves, and 30/ a similar fruit after
dehiscence, with small valve removed.
From the Lower Headon, Hordwell.
Pinus Vectensis, Sp. Nov.
Fig. 31.—The small pine cone figured was probably washed out of the Bembridge
marls, and is unique. It measures 32 millims. in length and 22 in breadth, and is
composed of some 40 scales. The scale heads are hexagonal and rather prominent,
but partially obscured by encrusting pyrites. No internal structure is visible. It is
the smallest pine cone yet recorded from our tertiaries, and appears to be allied to
the section of P. Mugho. A much larger species is also found in these marls.
Doliostrobus Sternbergi, Goepp.
Figs. 32, 33, and 34 represent some very perfect foliage from near the base of the
Bembridge marls, that hitherto recorded having been in the state of casts. The
discovery by Mr. A’Court Smith, in June last, of slabs at Gurnet Bay in which the
foliage is associated with the detached and characteristic araucaria-like scales
described by Saporta and Marion, places the correctness of this determination
beyond any doubt.
PLATE IV.
Nelumbium Buchii, Ettingshausen.
Magnificent specimen of Welwmbiwm leaf in the British Museum. The actual
margin is preserved over a great portion of the periphery, but seems in places to
have been rather heedlessly cut away. ‘the leaf is peltate, nearly circular in outline,
notched on the uppermost margin and with radiating venation, the vein proceeding
to the base of the notch being stronger than the rest. The principal veins fork, but
reunite near the margin, and the secondary venation is obscure. The articulation with
the petiole is very visible in the centre of the leaf.
This Velwmbium is one of the most interesting of our Eocene plants, as it is not
. distinguishable from the Sacred Lotus, so celebrated for its associations and for the
beauty of its rose-coloured flowers. Leaves are exceedingly rare at Hamstead and
are generally represented by torn shreds or immature specimens. Rhizomes, iden-
tified by Heer and Saporta as those of Welwmbia, abound in the Nelumbium bed, but
hitherto no trace, either of the remarkable fruit, or of the seeds, has accompanied
them.
PLATE V.
Flabellaria Lamanonis (2), Brongn.
Fig. 1.—This palm has a small leaf with a long, slender, perfectly smooth foot-
stalk, and must have been a graceful species. It is from the Bembridge marls.
Sabal Major.
Fig. 2—The base of a leaf from the Bembridge marls. Enormous leaves are
sometimes visible, though it is impossible to remove them. Seeds of Sabal are
common at Sheppey, but have not been met with in these beds.
424 REPORT—1887.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. W. H. Bartow, Sir F.
J. BRAMWELL, Professor JAMES THomson, Sir D. Gatton, Mr. B.
BakER, Professor W. C. Unwin, Professor A. B. W. KENNEDY, Mr.
C. Bartow, Professor H. 8. HELE SHAw, Professor W. C. RoBERTS-
AusTEN, and Mr. A. T. Atcuison (Secretary), appointed for the
purpose of obtaining information with reference to the En-
durance of Metals under repeated and varying stresses, and
the proper working stresses on Railway Bridges and other
structures subject to varying loads.
In a report to the British Association in 1837, on strength and other
properties of cast iron, Mr. Eaton Hodgkinson (‘ Brit. Assoc. Report for
1837,’ Part i. pages 362 and 363) made announcements, from his experi-
mental researches, to the following effect :—That in various experiments
on transverse loading of bars he had found visible permanent sets pro-
duced by such small loadings as 34, ;4, and ~ of the breaking
weight ; showing, he said, ‘that there is no weight, however small, that
will not injure the elasticity ;’ and as a conclusion that ‘the maaim of
loading bodies within the elastic limit has no foundation in nature.’
Again, in the ‘ Brit. Assoc. Report for 1843,’ Part ii. page 24, Mr.
Hodgkinson, after detailing further experiments on the same subjects,
_ says :—‘It appears from the experiments that the sets produced in bodies
are as the squares of the weights applied, and that there is no weight,
however small, that will not produce a set and permanent change in a
body, and that bodies when bent have the arrangement of their particies
altered to the centre; and when bodies, as the axles of railway carriages,
are alternately bent, first one way and then the opposite, at every revo-
Intion, we may expect that a total change in the arrangement of their
particles will ensue.’
Such assertions as those in Mr. Hodgkinson’s two communications
here referred to, if accepted in full, must necessarily induce very un-
comfortable feelings as to endurance of engineering structures. Mr.
(now Professor) James Thomson, however, in a paper published in the
‘Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal,’ vol. ui. p. 252, Nov.
1848, without abandoning the idea of there being some real foundation in
nature for prevalent opinions as to limits of elasticity, showed how the
elastic range of change of form might, in many of the ordinary cases of
materials newly prepared by manufacturing processes, be found to be
very narrow on account of the existence of mutual strains or stresses
among the particles composing them—that thus permanent sets might be
met with on the application of very small loadings—that in this way,
through the ductile yielding of the more severely stressed parts, the range
of elastic action, or range of action within elastic limits, would be greatly
widened, and that after the application of a heavy load, which the material
could properly bear, subsequent applications of any smaller loads would
produce no new permanent set or alteration—none, at any rate, in any way
corresponding to those great and alarming alterations indicated in Mr.
Hodgkinson’s announcements. (That paper of Professor Thomson’s came,
besides, under the notice of practical men through its having been re-
ON THE ENDURANCE OF METALS. 425
published in one or more of the engineering journals of the time; and it
has recently been republished in the article on ‘ Elasticity’ by Sir William
Thomson in the ‘ Encyclopedia Britannica.’)
In the year 1849 a series of experiments undertaken with the view to as-
certain the effect of repeated changes of load on iron structures was carried
out by Capt. (now Sir Henry) James, R.H., and Lieut. (now Sir Douglas)
Galton, R.E., in conjunction with Professor R. Willis, on behalf of the
Commissioners appointed to inquire into the application of Iron to Rail-
way Structures. In the course of these experiments, cast-iron bars, 3
inches square, placed on supports 14: feet apart, were subjected to a suc-
cession of blows from a swinging weight; the general result obtained was,
that when the blow was powerful enough to bend the bars through one-
half of their ultimate deflection (that is to say, the deflection which cor-
responds to their fracture by dead pressure), no bar was able to with-
stand 4,000 of such blows in succession; but all the bars (when sound)
resisted the effects of 4,000 blows, each bending them through one-third
of their ultimate deflection. Other cast-iron bars of the same dimensions
were deflected slowly by a revolving cam four times per minute, whilst
others, in addition to deflection by the cam, were subjected to violent
tremor. The results of these experiments were that when the deflection,
repeated in some cases 100,000 times, was equal to one-third the ultimate
deflection, the strength of the bars, as shown by subsequently breaking
them under a dead load, was not reduced. When, however, the depres-
sions produced were equal to one-half of the ultimate deflection, the bars
were actually broken by less than 900 depressions. Experiments were also
carried out by slowly drawing a load from end to end of the experimental
bars, and by running a truck loaded with various weights over the bars at
velocities up to 30 miles per hour, in order to test the effect of the rate of
motion on the deflection, with the result that it was found to increase
steadily with an increase of speed, until at 30 miles per hour it amounted
to more than double the statical deflection. To compare the results of
these experiments with the effects produced in actual practice, careful
observations were undertaken of the deflections of two railway bridges on
the South Hastern Railway during the passage of a locomotive engine at
various rates of speed, and with the engine at rest upon the bridge; in
these cases the deflection produced by the engine passing at 50 miles per
hour was observed to be one-seventh greater than that due to the same
load at rest.
The investigations of Professors Willis and Stokes, taken in con-
janction with these experiments, show that the great relative increase of
deflection arising from velocity was due to the comparatively small size of
the experimental bars and great deflections employed, and that the increase
would be greater for short bridges than for long ones. Thus the increase
of the statical deflection may at the highest speeds amount to one-half for
bridges of 20 feet span, while for bridges of 50 feet the increase would
not be greater than one-seventh, and would rapidly diminish as the spans
become greater.
After the publication of the Report of the Royal Commission on the
use of Iron in Railway Structures in 1849, the effect of repeated stresses
on iron appears to have received no further attention until 1860-61, when
Sir W. Fairbairn carried out his well-known experiments for the Board of
Trade on a wrought-iron girder. The girder was 22 feet in length, 16
426 REPORT—1 887.
inches in depth, and was supported upon two piers 20 feet apart in the
clear. The top flange consisted of a plate 4 inches x 4 inch and two
angle irons 2 inches x 2 inches x ,%; inch, giving a sectional area of
4°30 square inches. The bottom flange consisted of a plate 4 inches
x +4 inch, and two angle irons 2 inches x 2 inches x ,%, inch,
giving a sectional area of 2°40 square inches, or 1:775 square inches,
when the necessary deduction is made for the rivet holes.. The statical
breaking strength of the girder does not appear to have been accurately
known, but it was estimated at 12 tons in the centre, that of the iron being
taken at 22-6 tons per squareinch. By the revolution of a crank driven
by belting a given load was alternately allowed to rest on the centre of
the girder, and was lifted off again a great number of times in succession.
The following table shows the number of applications of the different
loads, the calculated stresses produced in the bottom flange, and the general
results.
Taste I.—Fairbairn’s Hxperiments.
. . Stress on bottom
No. of Number of Load on middle Deflections in Flange, calculated
Experi- Spits hundredths of J
ment Applications of Beam anh from the moment of
Inertia of the Section
|
Tons Tons per square inch
1 596,790 2°96 16 to 18 5-608
2 403,210 3°50 21 to 23 6°616
3 5,175? 4-68 35 8°853
4 158 4:68 2 8°853
5 25,742 3°58 22 6-774
6 3,124,100 2°96 17 to 18 5-608
7 313,000? 4:00 20 7560
These experiments show that the girder was apparently able to bear
any number of applications of from 3 tons to 3} tons at the centre, pro-
ducing a stress from 5°67 tons to 6°62 tons in the bottom flange, without
any signs of failure or of decreasing strength, but that the greater loads
caused fracture after a certain number of applications.
In a paper by Sir William Thomson, entitled ‘On the Elasticity
and Viscosity of Metals,’ published in the Proceedings of the Royal
Society for May 18, 1865, an account is given of experimental researches
instituted by him and conducted in his laboratory in the University of
Glasgow, through which some new and previously unsuspected properties
in the elasticity of metals were discovered. These cannot be fully de-
scribed here in detail, but it may be mentioned that the new results, of
greatest interest and probably of greatest practical importance, related to
temporary and gradually subsiding effects left in wires by previous elastic
oscillations. Energy was expended (dissipated) much more in any one
torsional oscillation of a wire which had for some time previously been
kept actively oscillating, than in a like oscillation either of the same or
1 The beam broke by tension, the bottom flange failing near the centre; the
fracture having been repaired, the experiments were continued.
*The bottom flange broke under tension close to the plate riveted over the
previous fracture,
ON THE ENDURANCE OF METALS. 427
of a different but similar wire after having been for some time previously
in a state of rest or of less active oscillation.
In the continuation of these experimental researches (after the publi-
cation of the paper, it would seem) the effects of the kind of fatigue and
rest here referred to manifested themselves very remarkably in the
oscillation of wires kept almost constantly in activity during most days
of the week, but getting rest usually from Friday evening till Monday
morning. The successive oscillations diminished in their amplitude, by
internal resistance or some condition like viscosity in their elasticity,
much less on the Monday mornings, after their Sunday rest, than at
other times, succeeding closely to previous activity.
The experiments in connection with the subject carried out by A.
Wohler at Berlin, the results of which were published in 1870, are of
great importance. (See ‘ Engineering,’ 1871.)
These experiments proved that, in the case of wrought-iron and steel
of various qualities, rupture of the material took place after a certain
number of applications of a stress less than the statical breaking stress ;
that when the stress was alternately tensile and compressive, the range
of stress required to produce rupture, treating tension and compression
as of opposite sign, was but little greater than the maximum stress applied
a similar number of times in one direction only—z.e., simply tensile or
simply compressive. And again, when the stress varied from a certain
maximum compression to a certain minimum compression, or from a
certain maximum tension to a certain minimum tension, the range of
stress producing rupture after a similar number of applications differed
but little from that in the case where the stresses were in opposite direc-
tions.
The following table-—No. II.—gives the result of test-bars cut from a
steel axle and subjected to torsion. The bars, numbered from 1 to 5, were
twisted in one direction only ; those numbered from 6 to 9 were twisted
in opposite directions alternately, the range of stress being therefore
double the maximum stress.
Tape II.— Result of Test Bars cut from a steel aale and subjected
to Torsion.
Greatest Stress in Fibres Number of applications of
Number of Test Bar in lbs. per square inch Stress afore Kracture
1 51,360 198,600
2 48,150 373,800
ao 44,940 334,750
4 42,800 879,700
5 40,660 23,850,000 !
6 29,966 187,500
7 27,820 1,007,550
8 25,680 859,700
9 23,540 19,100,000 !
' Not broken by this number of applications.
428 REPORT—1887.
Tase III.—Showing the Results of subjecting Bars to Repeated Variations
of Tensile Stress.
Range of Stress
= difference between | Number of applica-
Maximum and Mini-| tions of Stress before
mum in lbs. per square Fracture
Maximum Minimum inch
Stress applied in lbs. per square inch
Bars cut from an Iron Azle.
51,360 0 51,360 800
47,080 0 47,080 106,910
42,800 0 42,800 340,853
38,520 0 38,520 480,852
34,240 0 34,240 10,141,645
47,080 21,400 25,680 2,373,424
p Not broken by
47,080 25,680 21,400 { 4,000,000
Bars cut from a Steel Axle.
85,600 0 85,600 18,741
74,900 0 74,900 46,286
64,200 0 64,200 170,170
58,580 0 58,580 123,770
53,500 0 53,500 473,766
51,360 0 51,360 13,600,000 !
49,220 0 49,220 13,200,000 !
85,600 53,500 32,100 1,801,000 !
85,600 42,800 42,800 12,100,000 !
85,600 37,450 48,150 12,000,000 !
Taste IV.—Showing the Results of subjecting Bars to Repeated Variations
of Transverse Strain.
(Bars made of spring steel manufactured by Krupp.)
Stress applied in lbs. per square inch Range of Stress
= difference between | Number of applications
Maximum and Mini-
Maximum Stress in | Minimum Stress in |mum in lbs. per square of Stress before Fracture
Fibres Fibres inch
128,400 32,100 96,300 22,900
128,400 42,800 85,600 35,600
128,400 53,500 74,900 86,000
128,400 64,200 64,200 191,100
128,400 74,900 ; 53,500 50,100
128,400 » 74,900 53,500 251,400
128,400 85,600 42,800 35,600,000 2
128,400 96,300 32,100 33,478,700
107,000 17,762 89,238 62,000
107,000 35,631 71,369 149,800
107,000 53,500 53,500 400,050
107,000 62,381 44,619 376,700
107,000 70,620 36,380 19,673,300 2
In the case of the iron bar it will be noticed that the specimen was
able to bear 10,141,645 applications of a tensile stress of 34,240 Ibs. before
1 Unbroken, 2 Not broken by this number of applications of the load,
ON THE ENDURANCE OF METALS. 429
fracture, but that a similar bar broke with only 480,852 applications of
38,520 lbs., being an addition of 124 per cent. to the stress ; similarly the
steel bar withstood 13,600,000 applications of 51,360 lbs. without fracture,
_ while a similar bar broke with 473,766 applications of 53,500 lbs., being
an addition of 4 per cent. to the stress.
The preceding table—No. IV.—shows the effects of subjecting test-
bars of iron and steel to tensile stresses where the load is completely
taken off between each application as compared with the cases where the
load varies from a certain minimum to a certain maximum at each appli-
cation. Thus with a load of 47,080 lbs. per square inch, taken off com-
pletely between each application, the iron bar broke with 106,910
applications ; but with the same load as a maximum, reduced to 21,400 lbs,
as a minimum between each application, the bar failed only with 2,373,424
applications ; and it withstood 4,000,000 applications when the minimum
load was further raised to 25,680 lbs.
General Deductions of Herr Wohler.
Maximum Stress on Minimum Stress on
Material Fibres in lbs. per Fibres in Ibs. per
square inch square inch
Bars subjected to tensional or transverse stress.
Tron. : ; 3 : s + 17,120 —17,120
nt f , J : ; ; + 35,310 0
re 5 ° - < +47,080 + 25,680
Cast steel for axles : ° 5 + 29,960 — 29,960
“ 55 : 3 : + 51,360 0
” o : 5 ‘ + 85,600 + 37,450
Untempered cast steel for springs . + 53,500 . 0
%» = A + 74,900 + 26,750
5 a ; + 85,600 + 42,800
55 a5 é + 96,300 + 64,200
Bars subjected to shearing stress.
Cast steel for axles : . 2 + 23,540 + 23,540
, 3 j P 5 + 40,660 0
In 1881 and succeeding years, Professor Bauschinger, of Munich,
published the results of his experiments on the behaviour of metals when
subjected to stresses exceeding their elastic limit.'
The most important of these is a paper, ‘ Ueber die Veriinderung der
Elasticitatsgrenze,’ in the Mitth. des k. techn. Laboratorium in Miinchen.
An abstract of some of these results, and a comparison of them with the
corresponding results of Wohler, is given in a paper by Prof. Unwin in
the ‘ Engineer’ for Dec. 10, 1886, and Jan. 7, 1887.
First of all, to show the effect of stretching a bar just beyond its
yielding point on the position of the elastic limit. The following table
is taken from an earlier paper of Bauschinger’s, 1881. It will be seen
that if the loading of a bar is repeated, immediately after straining it to
the yielding point, the elastic limit is lowered. If a period of rest is
_ allowed, the elastic after-effect comes into play and the elastic limit rises,
‘ sometimes above the load previously imposed.
1 See the Engineer, Jan. 7, 1887.
430 REPORT— 1887.
TaBLE V.—Wrought Iron subjected to Tension.
(Tons per Square Inch.)
Greatest Load
Treatment Elastic Limit imposed Remarks
Round bar, lin. diameter—
Original condition 9°3 145 Yielding
Immediately after . 6°55 18°5 5
» ” 6°70 22°0 ”
” ” 710 ee on
Round bar, lin. diameter—
Original condition . : : 10°5 145 Yielding
80 hours after . = : 14:7 18°7 =
Ese es less : : : 16:3 21°8 ey
64, aye coe 3 : : 20:0 22°8 _—
The next table relates also to bars strained by tension only, but it
indicates the effect of more varied treatment of the bar. It will be seen,
in the case of the first bar, that loading again immediately after stretching
to the yielding point, the elastic limit is lowered from 11°6 to 8:05 tons.
In the case of the second bar, similarly strained but with a period of rest
of 69 hours allowed, the elastic limit is raised from 12 to 20 tons. But
on reloading immediately the elastic limit is lowered to 4°05 tons. With
a three years’ period of rest it is raised to 33 tons, just the load with
which it had previously been strained. But this artificially produced
elastic limit is so unstable that on hammering the bar on the end and
reloading it has fallen to 12°5 tons. :
Taste VI.—Bauschinger’s Experiments on the Change of Position of the
Elastic Limit.
(Bar subjected to Tensions only. Tons per Square Inch.)
Yieldin
Elastic Stress or ae ;
Treatment ristntts Breaking-) - d
down ae
point on Dae
Bar of Bessemer Steel. No. 939c.—
1. Original condition : : ‘ : E eee meli-G 17-4 22°6
2. 1 day after . : : é ; : : 2 = 24°8 268
3. Immediately after (2) . F 3 é ; ‘ 8°05 27-0 28°3
4, Immediately after (3) . ‘ . . e : —_ 28°3 29°6
5. 1 day after (4). [Broke with 34 tons] ; ; _— 32-4 34:0
|
Bar 939b. Same Steel—
1. Original condition : : é Z . : 120 | 186 21:3
2. 69 hours after (1). é é é 2 ; 200 | 240 26°6
3. 3 hour after (2). Straightened in the lathe ; 4:05 25°6 32°3
4. 68 hours after (3) - : : : : 6:9 33:0 33°0
5. 3 years after (4) . ; : : , 2 ; 33°0 33-0 33-0
6. 2 days after, and after being vibrated by ham- 125 | 32:0 32-0
mering on end
7. After 2 years, and after heating to cherry red 0. | \ye2&6 25:2
and cooling in water. [Broke at 35°8 tons. ]
ON THE ENDURANCE OF METALS.
(Tons per Square Inch.)
431
Taste VII.—Bar subjected to Alternating Tension and Compression.
Time between the Loadings
Elastic Limit
Load imposed
Tension eds Tension shai
Wrought-iron bar—
1. Original condition = = 13-7 —
2. 6 days. 13:7 — 14:5 —
3. 1 hour. = 48 — 14:5
4. 5 minutes — 9°65 — 145
5. 20 hours = 12:9 — 14:5
{ 6. 1 hour. — — 145 =
7. 46 minutes . = = = 14:5
8. 303 hours = = = 6°45
9.153 ,, — -- 6°45 —
10. 2 a 48 = 7:25 =
11. 9 minutes = — 72 —
12. 27 hours = — — 17:3
13. 30 minutes . oe 12°7 — 17-5
q 14, 3 days. = — 175 —
GET 5 = 4:8 — 6°35
LGn2) 3, — —- 6°35 —
17. 5 hours = 715 — 715
18. Next day 6°35 — 715 =
19, 2 days. — = a= 7-15
20. 2} hours TL «| .©22 798 |) =
21.43 ,,. = 795 — 8°75
22. 1 day . 8°75 — 8°75 =
23. 9 hours = 7-95 — 9°55
Bessemer Steel Bar—
1. Original condition 17-7 aw, 24-0 ae
2. 23 hours = 3:24 — 24-3
RYOE Deh. 53 r~ 16 — 24-0 —
4. 4 days. = 4°85 — 8°5
Go CARRE: 5:55 — 8:5
6. 54 hours = 8:85 = 9:7
7. 21% 5 8°85 = 9-7 ae
8. 2 days. = = ars 9-7
9. 4 hours 10°5 — 11°3 —
10.22 ,, — 9°65 — 11:3
iG ,5 9°65 — 11:3 —
12, 23 ,, — 9°65 = 11:3
nnn nn EEE EEEEEEEEEEESSSE ESSE EEE
432 REPORT—1887.
Taste VILI.—Bauschinger’s Endurance Tests.
(Stresses in Tension varying from 0 to an upper limit.)
Elastic Limit in tons Tensile Strength in
Endurance Test
per square inch tons per square inch
Material a ae No. of repe- Fens
ae equired dur- aces a ter breakin
Orig | ing repetition |,poN0a| “urea | mal’ | BY Hepetition
of loads aeitnoal: of loads
Wrought-iron plate | 6°84 12°3 el 5:17 252 23°6
6°84 13:2 9°85 5:19 25'2 24:3
6°84 14:4 13-1 518 25°2 24-5
6°84 16:4 16-4 2:28 25:2
Mild steel plate . | 15°6 19-4 16-0 6°68 28°5
15°6 18-0 16:0 3°55 28°5
15°6 20:0 16:0 11:03 28°65"
15°6 164 16:0 7°35 28:5
15°6 — 19:7 0°67 28°5
15°6 19-1 19°7 1-01 28°5
15°6 19-0 23°0 0:32 28°5
15°6 19-0 23-0 0:76 28°5
15°6 19°9 23°0 0-16 28°5
15°6 16-4 23°0 0-44 28°5
15°6 15:3 23:0 0°62 28°5
156 20:0 26:2 0°34 28'5
15°6 16:9 26°2 0:49 28°5
15°6 7-9 26°2 0:07 28°5
15°6 12°3 26°2 0-11 28°5
15°6 11°5 26°2 0:04 28°5
Bar iron c 5 [fests 21:4 13°2 911 26°6 28°2
11:8 10°7 16:4 740 26°6 *
11°8 10'8 19:7 0:64 26°6
118 10°6 iG) 0:24 26°6
11°8 10°9 IBF 4 0°84 26°6
14:8 163 13°8 16°48 26°7 27:1
14:8 18°6 17-2 9°31 26:7 26°6
14:8 iP) 19°7 0°67 26°7
Thomas steel axle | 17°6 20°4 16:3 9°58 40718
176 _— 26°2 0°62 401
176 20°8 937, 9°04 40°1 41:0
17°6 ~- 26:2 0°22 40-1
17-6 — 26°2 0:06 40:1
Thomas steel rail . | 19:0 24:0 16°4 10°19 39:0 39-4
19:0 17°6 19°7 791 39:0 BH Gerd
19:0 — 26°2 0:57 39°0
19:0 — 26°2 0:56 39:0
Mild steel boiler | 17°6 18-0 18:4 4°85 26°6
plate 17°6 — 21:0 0:40 26°6
17-6 21:0 0-49 26°6
1 Not yet broken in endurance test.
2 Elastic limit rose to 16-7 and then fell near the end of the endurance test.
3 Not yet broken.
ON THE ENDURANCE OF METALS. 433
The Table VIII. contains a summary of all Bauschinger’s experiments
on the endurance of a bar subject to repeated stresses. He constructed
a machine of the same kind as Wohler’s, in which a bar could be sub-
jected to stresses ranging from 0 to an upper fixed limit in tension. He
ascertained both the initial elastic limit and the elastic limit acquired
under repetition of stress; the initial breaking strength and the strength
after the bar had been broken in the Wohler machine. It will be seen
that the elastic limit rises with repetition of stress toa point which is in
many cases a little above the load applied. When that is the case the
bar suffers a large number of repetitions of load before fracture. If the
elastic limit—observed in about a 5 in. length of bar—is very near or
below the load applied, the bar breaks with comparatively few repetitions
of load.
Now it has been shown that a parabola, known as Gerber’s parabola,
can be drawn, so as to fit Wohler’s results extremely well. Let the lower
stress limit on a bar be denoted p, and let s be the range of stress to
which it is subjected, and f its statical breaking strength. Then Gerber’s
equation is—
(p + bs)? + ks =f.
Bauschinger’s results enable us to determine the constants in this equation,
and Bauschinger has in fact determined the constants for each of the
materials on which he experimented. Using these constants, we can de-
termine the range of stress a bar will bear indefinitely repeated for other
conditions of loading. The Table IX. below has been thus computed, and
it agrees singularly well with the corresponding results obtained by
Wohler. It is extremely valuable, because Wohler only determined
values of the limiting stresses for three materials, two of them steels of
rather high tenacity. Bauschinger’s results extend Wohler’s to materials
in more common use.
For comparison the corresponding results deduced from Wohler’s
experiments are appended in the following table (Table X.). It will be
understood that these stresses are the stresses which would ultimately
break a bar, with a sufficiently large number of repetitions of loading.
TasLe [X.—Bauschinger’s Endurance Tests.
(Tons per Square Inch. Stresses requiring 5 to 10 Million Repetitions to cause
Fracture.
Opposite Stresses | One Stress Zero | Similar Stresses | Range
Zero,
Material | ultimate
Least | Greatest | Least | Greatest | Least | Greatest be
| Wrought-iron plate . 2PTIB hy ak, 0 | 13:10 |11-:04 | 19:02 | 22-08
Bar iron . |— 785 |+ 785 0 14:04 |13°03 | 22°02 26°06
Bar iron . |— 8:65 | + 8:65 0 15°75 |13:02| 21:92 26-04
Bessemer mild steel — 855 | + 8:55 0 15:70 |14:03 | 23:08 28:06
plate
Steel axle ; . | —10°05 | +10°05 0 19:70 |20:00 | 32°01 40:00
Steel rail . j . | — 9:07 | + 9:07 0) 18:04 | 19°05 | 30°85 39:00
Mild steel boiler | — 8-65 | + 8-65 0 1508 | 18:03 5)> 22°55 26:06 |
plate | |
1887. FE
434 REPORT-—-1887.
Taste X.—Limits of Stress from Wohler’s Endurance Tests.
(Stresses in Tons per Square Inch for which Fracture occurs only after an indefinitely
large Number of Repetitions.)
|
| | Opposite Stresses | One Stress Zero | Similar Stresses ange
Material = _| ultimate
statical
/ Least | Greatest | Least | Greatest | Least | Greatest | trenoth
| | laa:
Wrought-iron . .}— 8:06 | + 8-06 0 | 15:25. | 12:00 | 20°05 | 22°08
Krupp’s axle steel . | —14:05 | +14°05 O | 26:05 (17:05 | 37-75 52:00
Untempered spring | —13°38 | +13°38 0) | 25:05 ‘12:05 | 34-75 57:05
steel |
For many years the only experimental work of importance being
carried on in connection with the endurance of metals was that already
referred to as inaugurated by Wéhler and continued by Spangenberg and
Bauschinger; but in this country, since the commencement of the Forth
Bridge works, Mr. Benjamin Baker has been carrying ona series of experi-
ments with the special view of testing the effects of so-called ‘ fatigue.’
on the steel used in the bridge as compared with hard steel and with
iron.
The experiments may be classified under four heads: (1) Spindles
rotating with a weight at the free end, causing alternate tension and com-
pression on the fibres as the spindle revolves. (2) Flat bars bent in
some cases one way only, and in other cases both ways. (8) Specimens
so designed as to give alternate direct tension and compression on small
pieces of metal; and (4) Full-sized riveted girders.
Series No. 1.
No. of Revolutions | Stress per square inch | Factor a | Factor b
| | |
|
| Soft Steel.
1 40,510 | 36,000 | 1:75 2°45
2 60,200 | 36,000 “9 “6
3 | 68,400 | 34,000 | 1:84 2°56
4 | 92,070 | ” | ” ”
Bi 4 107,415 ) es FE eh
Sh 128,650 | S x x
7 155,295 | ” ” ” |
8 14,876,432 26,000 { 2°42 34
Hard Steel.
) 5,760 67,000 1:88 2°82 |
10 7,560 65,000 / 1:93 2°90 |
ll 14,660 53,500 2°36 3°45 )
12 16,300 3 ss »
13 26,100 46,500 2°72 4:10
14 32,445 51,000 2°40 3°60
15 157,815 40,500 3°03 4:55
16 472,500 34,000 3°70 5°55
ON THE ENDURANCE OF METALS. 4395
SERIES No. 1—continued.
No. of Revolutions tress per square inch | Factor « Factor 6
Best Bar Tron.
17 108,160 34,000 1:70 2-38
18 | 110,000 | 35,000 1°66 2-32
19 141,750 34,000 170 2°38 |
20 | 389,050 32,000 1-90 2-65 |
21 ~ 408,000 30,200 2-00 2°80 |
22 421,470 | 32,000 1:90 | 2-67 |
23 480,810 31,000 1:95 | 275 |
‘Factor a’ is the ratio of the ultimate tensile strength per square inch
of the specimen to the calculated stress upon the outside fibres, due to
the load on the end of the projecting bar. ‘Factor b’ is the ratio of the
static load required to bend the bar a moderate amount beyond the elastic
jimit, to the load actually imposed upon the revolving bar. These defi-
nitions will be made more clear in further references to the table.
The above series includes a representative number of the experi-
ments with rotating spindles. As a rule, the spindles were 1 inch
diameter, and projected about 10 inches from the end of the revolving
shaft in which they were fixed. A speed of between fifty and sixty
revolutions per minute was maintained day and night. The ‘soft steel’
was fine rivet steel, having a tensile strength of from 60,000 Ibs. to
4,000 lbs. per square inch, and an elongation of 28 per cent. in 8 inches.
The ‘ hard steel’ was a high-class ‘ drift’ steel, having a tensile strength
double the above, and an elongation of one half the extent. The ‘iron’
‘was the best rivet iron, having a tensile strength of from 5&,000 lbs. to
61,000 lbs., and an elongation of 20 per cent.
Series No. 2.
No. of Bends | Stress per square inch Factor a ;
Soft Steel. |
24 12,240 44,000 159 .
25 12,325 3 ”»
26 12,410 ” | -
QT 18,100 42,000 H 1-67 i
28 18,140 = al |
29 72,420 36,000 1-94
30 147,390 34,500 2-03 |
31 262,680 34,000 2-05
32 1,183,200 27,500 2:55
33 3,145,020 34,500 2:03
Best Bar Tron.
34 184,875 34,000 1:68
35 250,513 ‘ a
36 3,145,020 ” ”
{
i
The above series is a selection from the experiments with flat bars
FF 2
436 REPORT—1887.
hent laterally. Generally the bars were 1 inch wide by 4 inch thick, and
32 inches long between the bearings. The steel specimens were cut
from the tension member plates of the Forth Bridge, and had a tensile
strength of about 70,000 Ibs. per square inch, and an elongation of 20 per
cent. in 8 inches. The iron specimens were rolled bars.
The different effects produced on different materials by the frequent
repetition of stress is well shown by those experiments—thus comparing
Nos. 8 and 14 in Series No. 1, the stress applied being in each case about
40 per cent. of the ultimate strength, the hard steel failed with only
32,445 revolutions, while the soft steel withstood 14,876,432. Again,
comparing experiments Nos. 16 and 23, it will be seen that with about
the same number of revolutions the hard steel, though of more than
double the tensile strength of the iron, broke under a repeated stress only
10 per cent. greater, thus demonstrating that the ultimate tensile strength
of a metal as observed in a testing-machine is no adequate measure of its
value as a material of construction.
Other points of interest may be referred to in connection with Series 2.
In general the bars were tested in pairs, so that when one bar broke, its
companion could be otherwise tested and examined. For example, the
companion to No, 28, after being subject to 18,140 bendings, was tested
for tension, and failed with 48,000 lbs. per square inch, and 2°6 per cent.
elongation; the original strength of the steel being 70,000 lbs. and 20 per
cent. elongation. Again, the companion to No, 32 was, on close exami-
nation, found to have a flaw like those found in crank-shafts. Nos. 33
and 36 were companion bars bent one way only, so that the stresses were
not alternating, hence the largely increased endurance. They were both
taken out before actual fracture, but with deep-set flaws, clearly illus-
trating that the cause of failure under repeated stresses is very frequently
not so much a gradual deterioration or crystallisation of the metal, as the
establishment of small but growing flaws.
Another noteworthy fact illustrated by these experiments was, that a
structure or piece of mechanism may be subject to a repeated stress equal
to 90 per cent. of that which would break it, and yet specimens cut from
the metal may exhibit no signs whatever of deterioration. The broken
half of nearly every specimen in Series No. 2 was tested with that
result. Thus, as the stress was applied at the centre of the bars, it fol-
lowed that at a point distant 90 per cent. of the half-span from the
bearings, the stress would be 90 per cent. of that which broke the bar.
Although the bars broke short off at the centre, at the point referred to
they could invariably be bent double without fracture. Having reference
to this fact, and to the fact that the tensile strength was also little
affected, Mr. Baker considered that it was hopeless to expect to learn much
from testing specimens of metal from structures or machines which have
been long in use, unless the experimenter happens to hit off the right
moment immediately preceding the commencement of failure.
In order to ascertain whether alternating stresses were as prejudicial
to members, such as piston-rods, subject to direct pull and thrust, as to
shafts subject to transverse bending, a series of experiments (No. 3) was
carried out on specimens so designed as to give alternate direct tension
and compression on small pieces of metal. These specimens were of three
types, illustrated (not to scale) by figs. 1,2, and 3. In the first, the
pieces of metal tested were sometimes of round and sometimes of flat
cross-section, and were bolted to a couple of spring bars, as shown on the
ON THE ENDURANCE OF METALS. 437
sketch; the stress being applied by opening and closing the legs of the
tongs, and thus putting the metal into alternate tension and compression.
In the second group, the spring bars and specimens were all sawn and
Fig. 1.
slotted out of one piece of steel, and the necessity of constantly tightening
up the nuts was thus avoided. In the third, the specimens were shaped
as shown by fig. 3, and a bending stress was applied at the centre of the
bars.
Serres No. 3.
Soft Stcel.
oe 4 Dexgtrr sod toes >: ad
Vig. No. of Bends | Stress per square inch — Factor a
as Loe WE mine A pee “ = |
1 } 28,008 37,000 1-90
1) 49,320 38,000 1:84
2 f 11,880 28,000 2°50 |
| 29,568 (hard steel) | 16,000 4-90 '
3 J 230,513 35,000 2:00 |
j 294,735 25,000 | 2°80 |
Series No. 4.
The opportunity afforded by the large use of special plant and
machinery at the Forth Bridge Works has been taken advantage of to
note the influence of varying stresses on full-sized riveted steel girders.
These observations are still in progress, and can be but very briefly referred
to herein. In one instance the lever of a large plate-bending press is of box-
girder section, built up of eight 4’ x 4’ x 3” angle bars, two 13” x 3!
web plates, and two 17” x 4” flanges. The span is 15 feet 8 inches,
and the ordinary daily working stress on the metal is 43,000 lbs., and
occasionally 57,000 lbs. per square inch, the breaking strength being
70,000 lbs. Many thousand applications of this stress have been made, and
438 REPORT— 1887.
the beam has taken a permanent set of 2’, but so far is otherwise intact.
Observations are also being made of the behaviour of sixty riveted steel
box-girders of 18 feet span, built up of two 12” x 3’ channels and two
flange plates; which girders are subject to very many thousand repeti-
tions of stress ranging from zero to 29,000 Ibs. per square inch.
The Committee, having carefully considered all the evidence pro-
curable up to the present time, have arrived at the following con-
clusions :—
(1) For those cases in which the dead weight is much less than the
live load, it is the practice of engineers to adopt a lower working stress
than five tons per square inch, as permitted by the Board of Trade.
(2) In those cases where the dead weight is large compared with the
live load, the results of experiments on the fatigue of metals indicate that
a higher working stress is permissible with the same degree of safety as
with the lower stresses in smaller structures. In small bridges, where the
effect of wind pressure is practically insignificant, the maximum stress,
being due to the passage of the live load, is of frequent recurrence ; while
in large structures, where the wind pressure is a very important element
in arriving at the maximum stress, it is clear from the infrequency of
heavy wind pressures that the maximum stress but rarely recurs, and
that thus
(3) If the working stress permissible be arrived at from the con-
sideration of the experiments upon the endurance of metals under repeated
changes of load, thenthe proper rolling load to assume is certainly that
which may be reasonably expected to come upon the bridge a great
number of times.
(4) With regard to dynamic action, the shocks resulting from bad
rail-joints are of importance. Rails in 60-feet lengths are occasionally
used over bridges in order to avoid injurious effects from this cause.
The Committee offer the following recommendations :—
(a) That in the case of very small girders and cross-girders, when the
forces operating upon them are either all tensile or all compressive, the
maximum stress to which wrought iron should be subjected by the quies-
cent weight of the moving load, added to the weight of the structure,
ought not to exceed 4 tons per square inch.
(b) That in the case of bridges or structures of such magnitude that
the dead weight is more than twice that of the moving load, the stress
upon wrought-iron may be safely increased to nearly 6 tons per square
inch.
(c) That in those members or parts of structures which are exposed
to stresses alternating from tension to compression, the maximum tensile
stress added to the maximum compressive stress should not exceed 6 tons
per square inch, nor the maximum tensile stress or compressive stress
considered independently exceed 4 tons per square inch.
(d) In computing the strength required to resist wind pressure,
considering that very high pressures are of rare occurrence, the stress
upon wrought iron from the effects of wind may safely be taken at 6 tons
per square inch; that
(e) In steel of suitable quality a stress 30 per cent. greater may be
allowed. ;
—— LS CL Cer
ON PHOTOGRAPHS FROM ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PICTURES AND SCULPTURES. 439
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. ¥F. GALTON, General Pirr-
Rivers, Professor FLOWER, Professor A. MAcaLisTER, Mr, F. W.
Rupier, Mr. R. Stuart PooLte and Mr. Bioxam (Secretary),
appointed for the purpose of procuring, with the help of Mr.
Fiinpers Petrie, Racial Photographs from the Ancient Egyp-
tian Pictures and Sculptures. (Drawn wp by Mr. PETRIE.)
Tue Committee charged with the administration of the grant voted at
the last meeting of the Association for the purposes of obtaining racial
photographs from the Egyptian monuments, after consulting on the most
effective means for the purpose, and considering the list of subjects and
the practical details of the matter, placed the carrying out of the object
in my hands, on the understanding that I should follow the lines agreed
on, so far as circumstances permitted. Since my return to England, and
submitting a preliminary report to the Committee, they have requested
me to prepare an account of the work which should serve as their own
report to the present meeting.
After receiving a first list from Dr. Poole, and a long and full state-
ment of desiderata from Rev. H. G. Tomkins, the list of subjects was
decided on; and these have been reproduced, unless prevented by the con-
dition of the monuments. Besides these a great number of other subjects
have been taken, in course of a full search at Thebes for all racial figures.
The first idea was only to obtain photographs ; before starting, however, the
Committee fully agreed on the importance of taking casts of the sculpture
where photography would be difficult. And in actual work I never took
a photograph if it were possible to take a paper cast; the larger scale
and better representation of a cast, and the facility with which a photo-
graph can be taken from it afterwards, under the best circumstances,
instead of on a high wall or in a bad light, rendered this way far the
most satisfactory. The results are that, instead of a collection of photo-
graphs only, there will be finally (1) a series of about 150 casts, com-
prising 268 heads, which will be presented to the British Museum ;
(2) other selected sets of casts from the paper moulds, which can be ob-
tained for museums on application to me; (3) a series of forty photograph
negatives of paintings, and a series of photographs from all the casts,
excluding duplicates ; (4) prints of all these plates, which can be ordered
from Mr. Browning Hoge, 75 High Street, Bromley, Kent, at cost price ;
the charge for printing is 2s. 3d. per dozen if selected from a loose set ;
or 45s. for the whole, mounted on printed sheets in a case.
The following is the list of casts and photographs so far as they
can be yet named with certainty; the names of the people represented
are, however, often not given, and still oftener destroyed; but yet the
race may be determined by comparison with other sculptures which show
the same aress or characteristics, and also by the general subject of a
whole scene, after the detailed names have been lost.
Some subjects which were proposed have not been done, owing to the
injury or destruction of the sculptures, and particularly to the bad state
and dirt of the paintings, which made photography often impossible. On
the other hand, many of these casts are from subjects not named in the
original request.
440
CASTS.
Lrarnak— Ilierogly phic name
-
Horemheb, pylon T= d
2
i=. a
ane |
Top E. end with square shields .
pa Oo
oyun 7
?
Beneath horses in attack on 9
Great hall, S.
side, high E.
high, mid. .
mid. of mid. .
mid, top jzil :
eS)
E. low, slain . ?
Fort near Lza on Orontes
fort BE. of She-
state AY: a a | i
E. low, slain.
Cross wall
teh
Triumph of She-
shank
Great
side
hall, N. Gas
REPORT—1887.
Transliteration
Hanebu,
woman
9
rf
Pun, princes
?
?
Derdeni .
Khita .
Lza
Aujsel
Askalna .
?
Haniniau
Ganaatain.
Tudeh malek
Adir | / | /
Shasu .
Khita .
Khal, chiefs .
Amar: & Ys =
Modern Number
name of cast
Greek stall
Unknown . 2-4
South Red Sea 5-8
? 9
? 10
Dardanians. . 11-12
Hittites 13-16
Among Ru- 16,17
tennu
Kalb Luzeh, N. 18-20
Syria
Kefr. Aya, N. 21-23
Syria
? . 24, 25
? . 26, 27
Aujel, W.Aleppo 28
Near Atak
N. Syria
Askalon
women)
Unknown
Beit Hanina . 36
afr], 29
(two 30-33 —
. B4-35 ©
Wady Ganata . 37
Royal place in 38
Judea
Et Tireh.
Bedawin
Hittites .
Khalus
weik)
Amorites
. 40-48
- 49-58
(Ko- 59-61
. 62-65
varnak—continued.
in chariot .
Great hall, E, end
Nekhthorheb,
gate
Thothmes ® ITI.
Pylon N.’ face,
Hieroglyphic name
2
i :
on GED
an ee |
arn ~~
No
Dy wer
2
SS
=
<———
> «
=~\
beefed
—_—_— >)
owe
“KOR
= woe
as
ake
pele Mas
ee i:
ee
acc ad
Shida
fi) S| ree,
v Tpm-.
Transliteration
Tahennu.
Ruthennu
Tahennu ?
Ruthennu
Khita .
Innuaa
Tahennu ?
Amar .
Arm
Rmennu
Shasu
of Kanana
Menti of Sati
Tahennu.
Annena
Tebana
Antebeth .
U// | then
Nehetum .
Shatitum .
Thathabu .
Ulethet
ON PHOTOGRAPHS FROM ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PICTURES AND SCULPTURES. 441
Modern Number
name of cast
By Syrtes . 66-68
N. Syria . 69-70
i 71, 72
N. Syria . 73-75
Hittites . MG The
Hinya? 78=81
te &2-85
Amorite (full 86
face)
Orma . 87
Lebanon . 88-93
Arabs, Hurbet
Kana’n
Bedawin of Si-
nai
By Syrtes
Annine (Greek)
Debeni
Settite
Wenthet .
4
95
i=)
for)
97
99
100
101
104
Karnak—continued.
REPOR1— 1887.
Hieroglyphic name Transliteration
14 ®—> Memthu
4th line. 2 - it L = & Anhimeru
ru -
SS
Sa or ; Abuul .
PRAY,
5thline. 4 j== |) Abes
5 Is Habnu .
——
6 |-7 Asteses
7 | h — Aar .
—
| pane Thenas.
Cibvlines We Namenost = sc “hr. es 2
ae
mid y sea Utn.
eh &
sith a Mentu.
chee TTT UII
8. face, E. half, ——
top F Adali .
S. face, W. } se
half, mid. . bis Dmesku
S. face, W. Ss
half, low rm [Il Teshfu
Pylon by sanctuary, heads all alike, two typical ones
Ramesseum—
Pylon W. face, N.
half. SS t
line B, 7,8, 9. Sy ee ie Marma
liue C, 1
line C, 4, 5,6
line C, 7, 8, 9
line D, 3
Ieee A oe —
=kSe.
Van |
2 iilli-m PNY Nar..na .a
Laur
Anmima .
Modern Number
name of cast
Metta. 105
Emmamret . 106
Avalitis (Greek) 107
Abso . 108
Heban 109
? 110
Ara 111
? Pi el tia
? 112A
Udein 113
Mundu 114
? 115
Adal . 116
Damascus , 117
Tashfay . 118
119-20
Merom 121-23
Amoriteof Tabor 124
? 125-27
2 128-30
2 131
—
:
amesseum — continued.
— he
line D, 4, 5, 6
line D. 8
line E, 1, 2, 3.
line E, 5
line E. 8, 9, 10
Top of pylon .
Second pylon
edinet Habu—
The great fa-
cade of royal
captive araal
(2) /////// figure and name lost .
3
4
10
—
_
Hieroglyphic name
(squeeze
taken)
cee a.
A yu! / | | (Squeeze taken)
hie!
HH iil 2
oala.’-
aa:
———
ry (oe
>)
as
eee
de Sy
Whe
Wai
= Ge |
aay we //f]
ON PHOTOGRAPHS FROM ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PICTURES AND SCULPTURES.
Transliteration
Karpu .
Kemena
Athan) 3%
Gaba
M... peja
Khita ?
Amar ?
with Khita
Kesh, chief .
2
2
Lebu, chief
Turses, chief
Mashuash,
chief
Tarau, chief .
Khita, ‘the
great van-
quished.’
Amaar, ‘the
great van-
quished
Takuri, chief
of the ene-
mies
nd Shairedana
aN | h] of the sea
Sha (kalsha?)
chief
Tuirsha of the
sea
443
Modern Number
name of cast
2 - » 132-34
Kamoun(Greek) 135
2 136-38
Géba . 139
2 « «, » LAO S43
Hittites ? 143-45
Amorites? 146-48
Amorite? . . 149
Ethiopian . , 150
? i 2,
name lost 151
Libyan 152
(A southern 153
land)
Maxyes . 154
Toraf . 155
Hittite ‘taken 156
alive’
Amorite . IW
Teukrian 158-
Sardinian? . 159
Sicilians? . . 160
Etruscans 161
(Turseni) ?
Philistine (hid-
den by a later
wall)
444 REPORT—1887.
Modern Number
Hieroglyphic name Transliteration name of cast
Medinet Habu—continued.
\W. side of entrance 2 5: Vn SA Cee Seas ? wee NOirican Ss 1620S
lower line. . 7 (Qo, names) “2a eres ? | ouan Maxyes. 9 1 pdibaeG
E. side, upper line. ? 6 Go hg ae ? te) SY DAN See eG Teo
a rn . ? Pie Bs bisa Seat cor i 2 2 : #@Peukriant: <*cle8
lower line . Asiatic . . 170-73
Inside of doorway . ? Sy ERC ote es ? = '... Teukman\ .\ 174#=2"8
Ist court, inside j= ube, os he ge A. 3 Agriar 2, \S4t aeesAt ni ombenmeeeneetl 7G — 00m
outside, S. end ? (11 alike, no names seen) 2... 2 SOND Serianieenlise
», nhearpylon ? 5 tsa co toes Nes Syndr amass
» back of Ar///tz////? El Arzieh . . 189-90
PSs hes Pg 111),
Tn court, . . #8 ~~ ae | ke +». » Palista . . .Philisimes. sige
FE. side, outside {7 ' a} > sae. f ‘Laktdi 2 2 2 Veukianss eeoieoes
scene 6 ms ——s
SESE 9S Oe A 7 2 &-- SPhilisiimess 107!
Shairdana. . 195
U, Wetree LOG
scene 7 atct 2 Syn >. | ae ee ?? 2+... Philistine... -eho7
TO eis SSo9)
Shairdana. . 200-1 4
scene 8°... Pert Bete wil & Wit tee cee 3a Yet Mee 0 ats 20 Bo
Philistine . . 206
Shairdana. . 207-8 —
Shairdana. . 209-12
Sfeevel ees TS vee ‘lO nec arse eee tre yak Ble ? . ae Philistines . 213-14 |
Luvor—
Werontgige of Nomamps 7. 0. . ). 58 Syrian wars Hittites. . . 215-62
Great Hall with
and in Naha- Mesopotamians ,,
raina
Gizeh—
Tombiof ... .. | a... Khufukhaf . Anupperclass 263
@ \ — 4 Egyptian,
aa son of Khu-
fu, Fourth ;
Dynasty
His servants . 264-68
HAMAS. OR te Ok ee
PRaReSSOUM sr Cae ak ah ecw. Rezo
Contained on about 180 slabs | Medinet Habu . . . . . . 5 | besides some extra
(Chat ts, YA ene kc Geae | yl)
HAO sw se he CO aE lettered ones.
| Totalheads . . . 268
FE
ON PHOTOGRAPHS FROM ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PICTURES AND SCULPTURES. 445
PHOTOGRAPHS. No.
The four races in tomb of Merenptah, Nos. 772, 773, 774, 775 4
The negro in tomb of Seti (the only face left visible) No. 776 1
The four races in tomb of Ramessnu III., Nos. 777, 778, 779, 780 . +
Brickmakers, &c., in tomb of Rekhmara (northern race) Nos. 781, 7 82 Z
Southern races in tomb of Hui (Ethiopia, Soleb, &c. 2 Nos. 183, 784, 785,
786, 787, 788, 789, 790, 791, 792 : - 1
Libu (Libyans) Court Medinet Habu, No. 763
Various races in triumphs of Ramessu III. in Ist Court Med. “Habu (no
names) Nos. 764, 765, 766, 767, 768, 770, 771
Siege of Dapur (Tabor) Ramesseum, No. 753 : :
Chief of Khita, Ramesseum, No. 755 . - t 2 :
Princess of Pun, Karnak (squeezed also) No. 743 5 :
People of Askalon, Karnak (squeezed also) No. 748. .
People of Khal (Syria) and Kush (Ethiopia), Tell el Amarna, No. 612 2
Khuenaten, Tell el Amarna, No. 610 . ‘ ‘
Profile and Front of Hyksos Sphinx, from Tanis, Nos. 794. 795
Profile and Front of Hyksos, Faium, Nos. 797, 798
Fish bearers, Hyksos, Tanis, No. 799 ‘
Also the following may be worth consulting :—
Tomb of Paheri El Kab. Some bearded figures, perhaps foreigners, among
the servants, Nos. 669, 671, 672. : : 5 F ; ‘ ae Pr
Tomb of Setau. Setau and wife, No. 673 . : , : ‘ : el:
a)
| ee
40
Also the use of the following plates, taken some years ago, is offered tothe
Committee :—
Semnefer and wife, Gizeh, No. 357 :
Sphinx, true side view, Gizeh, No. 369.
Amenhotep II.. Karnak, No. 297 . :
Seti II., Tomb, No. 252. ;
Merenptah IL., Siptah tomb, No. 253
Sides of entry, at Medinet eee showing position of heads, Nos. - 210, 234.
Ramessu IV., No. 298 6
Ramessu IX., No, 261 . A : :
Modern Evyptians, Nos. 432, 428, 11, 561,.79 :
ee Oe
=
He
Besides a few photographs from Bulak, which are technically the property
of the Egypt Exploration Fund.
Photographs at disposal of Committee
lg
Colours on the Monuments.
Besides the casts and photographs, notes were made of all colours or
traces of colours remaining, both on the remains which I have reproduced
and on others the condition of which did not permit of reproduction.
TAHUTMEs III. LIsts.—Pylon in axis of Great Hall, Karnak, Busts with shields,
alternately red and yellow. Black hair and beard, green band down whiskers. Eyes
left red or yellow as the skin, but picked out with black, No difference in type of
red and yellow figures, which alternate vertically as well as horizontally.
On N. half of W. side all are alike, pointed beards.
On 8. half of W. side all are red apparently. Top line, short square beards. 2nd
line, pointed beards. 3rd line, pointed to Mst; short in Ab, Kkt, and St; pointed in
Aah. 4th line, short up to Fusha, two broken, then pointed in Tau .. . and on to
end. 5th line, long beard and long hair in front of shoulders; bands on the necks
of Bhst, Mesnem, and Mestnu.
SHESHANK’S LIST, and 8S. wall of Great Hall generally, no colours left.
N. oF GREAT HALL.—Znnua, people red, horse blue with red spots. Shasu, full
red, with blue kilts; no difference for hair or eyes. Tahennu, orangy-red = decom-
posed red? utennu, orange. Khita in chariot, orange. _Khita in lower line, green
hair and orange skin, probably decomposed blue and red, which are the only colours
used on this wall.
446 REPORT—1887.
TaHuTMES JII.—Pylon. §. of Great Hall.
RAMESSEUM.—Court. <hita. Photo. No. 755.
both orange (i.e. yellow ochre with Indian red). No certain colour of hair or eyes,
apparently all one as skin, certainly no black. Robes, red and blue, broad bands,
with narrower white between; or all blue with white border; or narrow bands blue
and red. Horses red, blue trappings.
Toms 35 (Rekhmara).—Photo. Nos. 781-2 Brickmakers, two foreign types: (1)
Light blue eyes, pale chocolate and milk skin ; hair as skin, only slightly lighter and.
Small figures, apparently all yellow.
Bearded and beardless figures,
yellowish; white waist cloth.
waist cloth of hide.
Indian red ;
(2) Brown eyes ;
skin, slightly paler than Egyptians,
Skin
Eye
Hair
Waist cloth |
Toms 34 (not photographed).
chief of Keftu yellow black light brown | white, blue
(Pheenicia) and red
line bor-
ders |
chief of Khita (Hittite) | brown, not | brown black, white,
dark brown beard| green, and
red borders
| white dress, |
chief of Tunep ee same brown . | (gone) black | green and
child with him : yellow . — black | red bor- |
| ders
followers : 5 brown, not — black, in 3 —
dark tails on !
shoulders
chief of Kadesh white | light red- | as eye long white
| brown dress
Followers alternately red and white
(Many others a are coloured, but nameless. ey
es Skin Eye | Hair Beara
TOMB OF MERENPTAH.—F our races.
772 | Westerns pale yellow .| blue. black left yellow
(ioulblackss = black red (pupil) | red, black | (none)
lines
774 | Asiatics . light Indian |,;1 blue. . | (covered) black
red 13 light red !
775 | Egyptians . . | dark Indian black black (none) |
red
TOMB OF Serr! I.
776 | broken, Westerns | yellow? . blue black-brown — )
Blacks . 3 black . — red, black = }
lines |
broken, Asiatics . | dark yellow, | (gone) . black =< |
red under |
beard
1 white, light |
red on cheek
broken, Egyptians | dark red black black , = |
°
Toms OF Sprit II.—As in tomb of Merentaph ; but roughly modelled
~ painted.
and un-
Photo.
_ ON PHOTOGRAPHS FROM ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PICTURES AND SCULPTURES. 447
- Skin Eye | Hair Beard
No. :
TOMB OF RAMEssu III.
777 | Asiatics . light red . .| blue. igkyelieh | —
778 | Blacks blacks 2 1’ black red, black
| lines . —_
779 | Westerns yellow . . | red, as out- | black
lines —_
780 | Blacks . . black | black red, black =
: lines .
TOMB OF HUI.
789 | (commander ofKush| Egyptian red | brown . white, black —
; | lines
; chief of Khama, | Egyptian red | brown . black —
Soleb
. [ dizector of the | Egyptian red | — — —
- bulls
Pet-ahu bistre and In- | dark brown | black —
: dian red
followers Egyptian red | == white . | black, slight
{ followers slightly yel- — black —
( lower
followers bistre and In- | black black —
dian red
followers Egyptian red | black black —
792 Top line, on to end of this :—
followers Egyptian red | black . . | black —
followers slightly yel- | black black —
lower
followers bistre and In- a white Bee
dian red
| followers . yellowish Egyp-| black black —
( tian red
followers Egyptian red | black black —
{ followers slightly lighter | black black —
followers bistre and In- | black black =
dian red
| followers bistre and yel- | black white —
low ochre
( followers bistre and In- | black black ==
dian red
(followers dark ochre lack white =
(followers Egyptian red | black black —
(followers bistre and In- | black black —
dian red
| followers dark yellow | black . .| black —
{ ochre
followers dark yellow | black white _—
| ochre
followers Egyptian red | black black —
Lower line, base :~—
dark yellow | black white, red _
| ochre lines
Egyptian red | black black —
dark yellow | black — —
| ochre
black — —
Egyptian red
448 REPORT— 1887.
ten Skin Eye Hair Beard
aN O.
791 Top :— TOMB or Rissey, ant
i( black-bistre | black — o-
| heads gone dark yellow | black —
( ochre :
reddishyellow, black . . | white _-
| allow ochre | black | black . —
| child. . | Egyptian red | black black _—
| bistre-black . | black | black =
| reddish yellow| black | black —
| reddish yellow) black | black — |
Lower line, base :—
| Pet-ahu 4 Egyptian red — | black —
Egyptian red — | black —
lyeltinn ochre — black ——
Egyptian red — black =
ayelieiar ochre | — black —
Pie Skin , | Eye Hair | Waist cloths |
| | |
HI = : — m —— &
790 Boat 1, 2,4 blacks — | zee RANE bright red
BCBTOrA 3,5 | Egyptian red _ | yellow .
Picky, Skin Eye Hair Head
786 Top line :—
chiefs of Udata hae é black black . | red
| (kneeling) bistre-red black black . | yellow
| chief of Amam| black... 2 black . | red
| (prostrate) .
, children of) 1,3 | black . black black . | red
| the chiefs } 2,4 | bistre-red. black black . | yellow
788 | ox boy Rgyptian red ? 2 2
ring-bearer black . . | black black . | yellow
bag-bearer . Egyptian red | bistre black - | yellow
| driver light brown- ? black ;
! red |
| queen bistre-red . 2 black yellow
| 787 Top line :—
followers sw) \pblack: ..-; black black | light red
followers $ | reddish bistre black black yellow
followers black . . black black light red
| followers reddish bistre black black yellow
| followers | black . black black light red
| woman . Egyptian red | black 2 2
| woman . >| black. black black lightred |
child in hood. . | all black . black black — |
hilar |; Egyptian red | black black —
aes (all black . = black —
ON PHOTOGRAPHS FROM ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PICTURES AND SCULPTURES. 449
Skin | Eye | Hair | Head
TOMB OF HuI—continued.
ring-bearer . .| Egyptian red | black . .{| black . .| yellow
bag-bearer. . .| black . . .| black . ./| black . . | light red
ring-bearer . .| Egyptianred | black . .| black . .| yellow
bag-bearer. : = |)/black,. ..!| blacky .. | black ,. ..|/ light red
: black. . .| black . ./| black . . | light red
peeteberas:. neve red | black . .| black . . | yellow
787 Base :—
bistre . . .{ black . .]| black . .| yellow
black i 4. .))| black. «|: blackis= |. |) ted
Diack = \iblack 7. .,|, black... |;yellow
meriomen:)) SO) einaie black . .| black : . | red
light Egyp- black.) 0 blacker i 202
tian red
Egyptian red | black . .{| black . . | Egyptianred
785 Lowest line, base :—
black 1.20) "black. 1.) blackit>.) a: ‘| sred
Egyptianred | black ...| black . .| yellow
DIAC Woes wOle ieetan oii lacks yk 9 limed
chiefs of Kush . |+ chocolate erey. . .| black . . | yellow
and milk
Iblackt2..507 i\#orey.s 2s | black’ =)" 2 )\/red
red-bistre .| grey. . .| black . . | yellow
black . orev.) 2 isp black, |.) 2. ted.
784 | chiefs of Kush bistre . grey. . .| black . .| yellow
black . SVC (= ae |olack red
(Grey eyes, accidental ?, by black laid on before white was dry)
| Skin Robe
Eye | Hair
MEDINET HAaBu.—Palace front. Casts 150-161. Many quite colourless.
Ob) PSS. medi? (gh — =
LLG oy Eee ee Ted wa Ga aiiede® Sire — —
Mashuash.... TEGO r aac «ened LEO mecca — _
BETATA TMs oy es ler redy, = mee —
[OVS ee dark prowny — — blue
yellow ;
Ames. Ni Ta, red. . = — —
PbaIraana, .94:)(..1i fs white or yel- — —
low?
Shakalsha . . . . Ped, sarap — =
PRWITSAA ne yellow . .| grn. (? blue — : —
changed)
Temple —2nd court, 8.W. corner. Lebu red like Egyptians, blue and white robes.
Byes and hair not distinguished.
1st court, E. wall: top line (765) 5th fig., blue head, yellow ? band.
_ Mid line, 2nd and 5th figs., browny orange skin (765, 764).
Base line (766), all browny orange skin.
Two lines of led captives ; top (767) 1 and 2 skin browny orange, 3 red; lower
line (768): 1 flesh colour, hair red, 2-5 browny orange, hair black.
Fort of Amar (casts 179, 180), skin light red, rather pinker than flesh colour, blue
hair or cap.
a pylon of 1st court. Muahtank (770, 771) red skin.
188
450 ‘ REPORT--1887.
Remarks on Mr. W. M. Futnvers Partrin’s Collection of Ethnographic Types
in Egypt, 1887. By the Rev. H. G. Tomxrns.
In the autumn of 1886, Mr. Flinders Petrie undertook to execute
squeezes and photographs of select types of heads from the wall-paintings
and reliefs in temples and tombs on the Nile. Having been requested to
prepare a suggestive list of these ethnographic examples, I gladly did so,
and it was approved by Prof. Sayce and used by Mr. Petrie, who has
brought home a very interesting collection on which, in compliance with
the desire of the Committee, I now offer a few remarks. Time and
opportunities of sufficient research are lacking, and I therefore crave
every reasonable indulgence. But I must heartily thank Mr, Petrie for
sending me at the earliest moment his accurate descriptive list, and the
photographs mentioned in it, and also Professors Sayce and Maspero for
very valuable information and counsel.
We have here to deal with 268 squeezes, from which casts have been
made, and with 40 photographs newly taken, besides 21 others which are
illustrative mostly of different types of Egyptian races, ancient and
modern.
The Egyptians themselves divided mankind in general into four
classes, viz. Egyptians; with Cush and others on the south; Libya and
others on the west; Syria and others on the north.
In the long course of Egyptian history we have all these to deal with
as regards consanguinity (earlier or later), traffic, alliance, and war.
Before all come the highly interesting questions which we call prehistoric,
but with these we are not now concerned.
My own special task to-day is to determine as far as may be the
particular places, or regions, to which our several races, or individuals,
belonged. Thus I may hope to prepare the way for scientific inquiry,
which will include, I believe, all the leading stems of the human family
among the examples of Egyptian portraiture which we have now
before us.
It is not derogatory to the merit of the great pictorial works of
Champollion, Rosellini, and Lepsius, to say that we have before us in
England absolute reproductions of the Egyptian work on which we can
for the first time rely with a certainty before unattained.
Tt will be convenient to follow to-day the order in which the races
are placed in the tomb of Merenptah, viz.: Westerns, Southerns,
Northerns, Egyptians. I give the usual identifications here.
First. Of tribes reckoned as on the west of Egypt we have here,
Libu (Libyans), Mashuash (Maxyans), Tsekuri (Teukrians), Shardana
(Sardinians), Tirsha (Tyrsenes), Shakalsha (Sicilians), Ha-nebu (lords
of the north, a vague expression used at a later time to designate the
Greeks), Dardani (Dardanians), Tahennu (‘ clear-skinned’ or fair people
on the coast west of Egypt), and Pulesta, considered to be Pelasgians or
Philistines.
T do not take into account the identifications by Brugsch (‘ Hist.’ Eng.
tr. ii. 124) of the Shardana, Tirsha, Tsekari, Shakalsha, with obscure
inland tribes of Asia. He has been answered by Robiou (‘ Recueil de
Travaux,’ ii. 58), and by the lamented Lenormant (‘ Les Origines de
Vhistoire,’ iii. 176), and the opinion of de Rougé and Chabas fully sus-
—
OCLC OOO LL ———-——
ON PHOTOGRAPHS FROM ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PICTURES AND SCULPTURES. 451
tained. And I am glad to hear that these identifications have since been
withdrawn.
The highly interesting and important bearing of these Egyptian
records on the early stages of classic history has been shown by Chabas,
de Rougé, and others, and with interesting detail by Lenormant, in some
of the last studies of his life, and taken into account by Gladstone in his
‘Homeric Synchronism,’ but the supreme value of Egyptian lore in this
regard has not been adequately recognised at our own universities.
The fair complexions and blue eyes of the Libyan kindreds declare
them as sons of Japhet. Like the Hittites, they are involved in the
Egyptian destinies, first in war, then in alliance, and at last in marriage.
We may hope to know far more about these peoples. In their region
French scientific inquirers have been making good research. The culti-
vated side-locks of the Libu and Mashauasha are’ very remarkable.
Herodotus says that the Maxyans let their hair grow in a long lock on
the right side of their head, but shave it on the left. This custom the
Egyptians observed in childhood, and the ornamental side-lock is very
carefully developed in the royal children. It is always very desirable to
notice the front faces which rarely occur, and in the cast of the lower
row of captives led by Rameses III. at Medinet Habu we see one of the
Tahennu fronting us, and observe that the hair is cut short on the fore-
head, forming a fringe, but the side-locks are very long, and most care-
fully plaited and trained in a long reflex curve on each side, so that the
two form together the exact form of an inverted lyre.
Among our examples of these western nations we have no localities
mentioned. I will therefore pass on to those names which will bring us
to the map, and these we begin to find in the south.
Secondly. The Southerns :—
These we find under the general heads of Cush and Pin. With the
vast extension of the former term we are not here directly concerned,
since our Cushites are certainly of Africa. But the variety of races is
very strongly marked, as, for instance, in the three photographs of typical
heads from the tombs of Merenptah and Rameses III., Nos. 773, 778, 780.
In the first it is odd that the hair should be red with black lines, while
the skin is black, the features straight, good, and regular. It is hard to
suppose that this does not represent red or brown hair in the original,
and it may remind us of a strange race in Nubia, whom Miss Edwards
describes as black in complexion but with ‘light blue eyes and frizzy red
hair,’ at Derr, the capital of Nubia; and higher up, ‘“ fair” families,
whose hideous light hair and blue eyes (grafted on brown-black skins)
date back to Bosnian forefathers of 360 years ago.’ These people are
‘immensely proud of their alien blood, and think themselves quite
beautiful.’ (‘A Thousand Miles on the Nile.” Tauchnitz ed. ii. 21, 140).
Is it possible that there were really red-haired Cushites in the days of
Moses? If not, why did the artist paint the skin black but the hair
red with black lines? In fact the same thing is true of the negroes
in the tomb of Rameses III., while the Asiatic has black hair in each
tomb.
By Pin we understand, says Brugsch, the southern coast-districts of
_ Abyssinia and the edges of the Somali coast. The Egyptians in fact
@
a
oy,
applied the term to the country on both sides of the Red Sea, but the
- local names which we find before us to-day belong mostly to the African
Pin.
GG@2
452 REPORT—1887.
In phot. 789, we have the chief of ‘aa , Kh’ama, that is, Soleb in
Nubia, where Thothmes built a celebrated temple.
In Phot. 787, lower line, are cattle with long decorated horns led as
tribute by negroes with large feathers on their heads from es
which is precisely the name of the Awawa district on the Blue Nile in
Abyssinia.
In phot. 786, is another important and ancient name _ ,2&
Amam (Masp. Hist. 82, 85; Brugsch, Zt. 1882, 31), which occurs in
the inscription of Una of the Sixth dynasty. It is supposed by Brugsch
to be the capital of the Nubian eleventh ‘nome,’ perhaps the Tama of
Pliny (vi. 6).
me
> «
The first subordinate name we have to consider is, o\ ;
which we find as No. 11 in the great southern list of Karnak, and also
recorded by Seti I., Rameses II., and Taharqa. But it is not agreed how
we are to read this name. Mariette reads it Arem, Arema, Alem, and
says that it is the ancient name of Amara, which is the third great
division of Ethiopia. I do not doubt it is Orma, south-west of Abys-
sinia. Cast 87.
a
\) , is the second name in the southern lists, following imme-
diately on Cush. Mariette takes it as Adulis, the ancient port of the
inlet now called Annesley Bay. But it seems to me that it may well
represent the region Adal on the coast of Africa west of Bab el Mandeb.
Cast 116.
<=
\f \Q. No. 20 in the Great List, is identified by Mariette with
Zoulla. Is it not, however, rather Dollo in Somali? Zoulla must repre-
——
sent the classic name ’AdovXis, already claimed by Mariette for )) :
But the name would also well enough suit Toraf in Abyssinia, if this
should be found to agree better with the conditions on examination.
Cast 155.
Among the captives of Medinet Habu we find an important Southern
name, No. 5, Tursa, or Turses (Brugsch, ‘ Geogr. Inschr.’ ii. 9, and Taf.
viii. fig. 19), represented by its chief.
But I must proceed to speak of a very interesting group of eighteen
names which Mr. Petrie has selected on account of the individual por-
traiture which they indicate, so different from a repetition of some con-
ventional head in a long row of local names.
It turns out that these eighteen names all belong to the south, and I
trust to show something of the regions which they indicate, taking them
as they stand in Mr. Petrie’s list.
No. 2. (No, 211, pl. 26, Mar. ‘Karnak’ gin ) 36, South List,
Mariette very well identifies this Annina with ’Avwwvé of the inscription of
Adulis, which seems to be somewhere near Metenna on the left bank of
the Atbara river, according to this great Egyptologist. But on the other
—
ON PHOTOGRAPHS FROM ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PICTURES AND SCULPTURES. 453
hand, Spruner gives Annine as a district inland of the Adulitic Gulf
(G. of Tajurrah) and south of the associated name Metine, and I think
here we have a much more likely situation. Cast 97.
No. 3. © |S ///,4.) vead, Debana. This may be found, I think,
in Debeni, S.W. of Annine. It is No. 210 of the South List. Cast 98.
on <P
No. 4. w-/)4 (209, South List, mm |=) Antebeth may pro-
bably be found in the same neighbourhood. It seems the same name as
~ .
AS j==no. 37, South List. Cast 99.
Down to this point the names appear to belong to Cush. This may
be seen by inspecting Mariette’s ‘ Listes Géogr.de Karnak.’ But among the
succeeding names—/. Udent, 9. Nehetum, 10. Shatsitum, 11. Set-Hebn,
12. Uruthit, 14. Memthu, and No. 3. Ahil, 5. Hebnu or Hebu (perhaps),
and Mentu or Mendu appear clearly to belong to Piin. Out of these
names of Piin, six, down to Menthu inclusive, have beards.
>
No. 7. S ///I ™. M. Maspero believes he recognises this in No.
=
64. South List. ‘Karnak’ pl. 23 "=. Uthenit. If in Arabia this
seems to be Udein, inland of Zebid. Cast 100.
No. 9. — hay (No. 62, pl. 22, No. 62, pl. 23, ‘Karnak,’ where it
must be corrected NN for, Maspero) unknown. Nehetum. Cast
101.
No. 10. ad | . Larry 61 South List, corr. . into, , Maspero.
I have thought it possible that this name exists in Settitte River,
Atbara, N.W. Abyssinia. Cast 102.
No. 11. }~ |} (60, South List, [I7 |¥} pi. 22, 23, ‘Karnak,’ corr. )
into {l, Maspero). But of. South List, 224. |= |} Ywar Cast 103.
No. 12. {> _n- (59, South List, corr., {} =, Maspero.
No. 195), Ulthet. Remembering the interchange of J and n, may this
possibly be Wenthit in Shoa? Cast 104.
No. 14. ®&-> (57, South List). Mariette takes this as cer-
tainly the port Movrdov in Africa between Babel Mandeb and Guardafui.
But there is a Mondu west of Gondokoro, and perhaps we have the
maritime Mundu further on in our list. Cast 105.
—WNo. 2. ss | (198, pl. 26, ‘ Karnak’). Anhimru. Cast 106.
—No. 3. hh (54, pl. 23, ‘Karnak’ ~4 a ten
Maspero.) y 7 K Mes. South List, 55), Abdl, or Auh@l, or
454 REPORT—1887.
Auhal. Mariette regards this as the Avalites of the Greeks, south of
Bab el Mandeb. This seems very likely. There is a Mount Awalu, east
of Shoa, a similar name. Cast 107.
—No. 4. |Zz2 |) (as, pi 26, «Karnak’), Amubes, or, if 23
be det., Abes. Perhaps i may be the celebrated god Bes of the land of
Pin, Cast 108.
&
—No. 5. R Is (181, pl. 26, ‘Karnak’ Rly. Maspero. Perhaps,
as Maspero suggests, a variant of Im. pl. 24.). The last is No. 77
South List, in which Mariette identified the Koy éudpiov of Ptolemy,
the Hhabo of modern maps. E fs, Hebnu may be the Heban of the
Somali land. Cast 109.
= Noh 6: |. (No. 180, pl. 26, ‘ Karnak’). The termination ==
is found in Turses (above), and in Purses in the list of Seti, No. 11,
which I think may be Mount Farsis, east of the River Hawash in Somali
land. Our Asteses may perhaps be traced by its former element which
we find in the rivers Asta-boras (Atbara), Asta-pus, and Asta-sobas, the
latter part of which survives as Sobat. These are all eastern tributaries
of the Nile, and water the region with which we are concerned.
Cast 110.
=o. 7; | iN —} >, Aar or Aal, ‘or rather,’ as Prof. Maspero suggests
to me, ‘ Iaro, the river.’ Now we find KAD = the pillars of the
temple at Soleb, built by Thothmes III. Is it possible that | iN —S is
marked in maps as Irau, near Soleb on the Nile? Cast 111.
abe a
Next we have 4 ve , doubtless the ye No. 64, South List in
Pin. If the initial vowel has dropped, it may very well be Dand in
the Somali land, east of Harar. Cast 113.
wuss YS
The next name is to be read wm » Mentu. It is No. 80 in
South List, and it seems to me that it may be the Mundu mentioned
under No. 14, above, in our list. Cast 114. The last name is defec-
tive.
It is very clear in the main to what regions our series of eighteen heads
belong. I have hope to know more before the Manchester meeting, but
have not yet seen the squeezes or casts from them, as they are not yet
ready, and my study of this part of our subject has been very much
restricted in time and opportunity. I wish, however, to give material
for further study in this hasty abstract.
In the Egyptian portraiture of southern peoples, we have the same
striking contrasts of various races as in the Africa of to-day. Take as
extreme terms the refined faces and upright slender figures of the chiefs
ON PHOTOGRAPHS FROM ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PICTURES AND SCULPTURES. 455
of Ptin, in phot. 743, from the wall of Horemheb of the Highteenth
dynasty, and any of the utter negroes of the tableaux.
There is a point in this phot. 743 to which I wish to direct attention.
These ambassadors, nobles of Pin, wear the peculiar pointed beard,
curved forward, which the Egyptians assigned to their gods. Does not
this well agree with the belief on their part, that this was the divine
land where their golden age of Horus and his servants had been, and
whence sprang the gods and the godlike? And does not this actual
survival of the beard sacred in Egypt on the chins of the noblesse of
Pin point to the historic character which some Hgyptologists have
ascribed to the Horus-legend ?
It is worth while to notice that on the pillars of the temple at Soleb
one head alone of the captives bearing the name-rings of tributary places
wears this peculiar beard. It is the chief of KK 77 , a place which I
have mentioned above under the name \Q<— _ No. 7 of the latter
part of the series of 18. (Leps. ‘Denkm.’ Abth. iii. Bl. 88.)
I do not venture to affirm that this isa man and place of Pin, but
the beard deserves notice.
III. Northerns. We will take first the nomadic tribes whom the
Egyptians encountered first in the open desert beyond their fortified
frontier line to the east of the Delta.
1. Here we have the “—" ne Menti of the Sati; the Bedawin
of Sinai, Palestine, and the Hauran, as M. Maspero defines the ex-
pression; the former word meaning shepherds, the latter bowmen.
Cast 95.
I have sometimes thought it worth inquiry whether the Sati-u (or
Sitiou, as M. Maspero vocalises the name) are to be connected with the
Suti, the bow-bearing desert folk of whom Fr. Delitzsch writes (‘ Wo lag
das Paradies?’ 235). Itis to be borne in mind that the hordes of
barbarians who mastered Lower Egypt under the Hyksés were called
‘in a general way, Mentiou, the shepherds, or Sitiou, archers’ (Maspero,
‘Hist.’ 4th ed. 164), as their chiefs were called Hyksds, from the Egyp-
tian Hig, king, and Shasu, of whom we next speak.
2 WKY Y Shasu, plunderers. We meet with these people from
the frontiers of Egypt far away into Syria. They seem a Semitic people,
and are considered generally as Arabs, and play a most important part
from the earliest dynasties of Egypt downwards. Casts 40-48.
3. Next we will take the geographical terms which, vague at best,
were long established and well recognised. <=>"3" 2 Ruthen hirt,
Upper Ruthen. Southern Syria generally identified with Palestine.
4, =="5",5 Ruthen Khert, Lower Ruthen. The country north
of Upper Ruthen. ‘The whole Ruthen region embraces, as M. de Sauley
has pointed ont, the Syria of Strabo ; all Palestine with the Phoenician
coast to the west from el-Arish to Silicia, and to the east Arabia Petrzea,
Moab, Ammon, the Hatran, the Ledja, and the territory of Damascus.
Indeed some captives even from the Euphrates Valley ate vaguely
reckoned among the Ruthennu. It is the term that distinguishes the
Aramaic lordship of Syria from the mastery of those invaders from the
456 REPORT—1 887
north, the Kheta and allied races, of whom we must presently speak,
Casts 69, 70.
—
neers
5. em Temenen. This word was at first read as Remenen,
sed ba
and taken for Armenia, but it is now generally accepted as equivalent to
Lebanon. The men of Lebanon—Semitic people in long robes with
capes, and wearing hoods bound with fillets—are represented as hewing
down tall pine trees in their mountains for Seti I. Casts 88-93.
ro
6. The Lebanon leads us to ~_ } wee Keft, Phcenicia.—This is
a very interesting and important designation, which appears to me to
linger still in the name Karkafta, near the coast north of Ruad, the
ancient Arvad.
The Greek legend of Képheus, embodied the name and history of
Keft. The connection between Phcenicia and Pin is very important.
In Egyptian tableaux the nobles of Keft bring splendid vessels of gold and
other precious materials. They wear beautifully embroidered kilts, with
fringes and sashes, and their hair is trained into long locks on both sides
of the head.
7. ! ten bed Khal, or Khar, denotes Northern Syria.—The name
has been traced to the Semitic Akharru, the hinder, or western, land. The
r and J are very interchangeable, and at all events we meet the form Khal
in the river Khalus and other forms, as Khalkis, for instance. The people
of Khal have a marked Semitic aspect, and the dignified fashion of drapery
which distinguishes their kindred.
8. ba Amar, the Amorite—We find this name in many
and important relations both in the Bible and without. In Egyptian
record .it is remarkably locked in with the geographical relations and
doings of the Kheta, both in Northern Syria and inthe south. It appears
also in local connection with the Euphrates, and with the kingdom of
Damascus. The Amorite is bearded and has strongly marked features,
and wears the same long robe and cape as the inhabitants of the Lebanon,
and the Semitic people of Ascalon, and the like. Casts 62-5, 86, 146-8,
157, 179-80.
a
Sh op Kheta; Kheth, the Hittite—Here we certainly have an
intrusive and conquering race, who in course of time supplanted the
Ruthen in the dominion of Syria, and, as we know, ran almost a success-
ful race with the Egyptians, merging their hostile relations into those of
political and matrimonial alliance. At length the Hittite power was
utterly broken by Assyria under Sargon, and we now have to gather their
story from Egyptian monuments and Assyrian cylinders, until we may
obtain and read their long lost memorials. Casts 49-58, 76-7, 143-5,
156.
Dr. Birch used compendiously to call the Kheta Tatars, and this
expresses well their aspect with yellow beardless faces, and long pigtails or
scalp locks. Everything belonging to the Hittites is now very deservedly
in request. For my own humble part, I have been endeavouring to
identify in the Northern Syrian List of Karnak the sites of their
eee, eae
ON PHOTOGRAPHS FROM ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PICTURES AND SCULPTURES. 457
buried fortresses and sanctuaries, and I trust that the time is near when
the region of the Orontes and Upper Enphrates will receive due atten-
tion.
I would notice that besides portraits of Hittites by Egyptian artists
we have some by their own sculptors, notably of two potentates, whether
gods or otherwise, on a stone photographed by my friend Dr. Gwyther,
where they are sitting opposite to each other at a cross-legged table.
Their headdress is drum-shaped, and resembles that worn by the unsemitic
Babylonian King Murduk-nadin-akhi in that beautiful relief-sculpture in
the British Museum. The faces are both ugly enough, the middle of the
face protruding, as in the Hittite king at Medinet Habn, but with an
exaggerated resemblance of that profile. It is well worth while, I think,
to study the ‘ ugly faces’ from Tarsus, in Barker’s ‘ Lares and Penates,’ and
consider what he says, and quotes from Mr, Abington, in connection with
Huns and Hittites.' And I would refer to the woodcuts in the ‘Rob Roy
on the Jordan,’ pp. 241, 255, where the barbarians of Huleh Lake have
pigtails and long locks like the Hittites. There is also a woodcut given
as a frontispiece in Captain Cameron’s work entitled ‘ Our Future High-
way,’ representing a Kurdish shepherd of Northern Syria, who wears a
high cap exceedingly like the headdress of the King Kheta-sar whose
daughter Rameses II. married. The people of Huleh who treated Mr.
McGregor so roughly were most of them tattooed.
a ’
10. ae oF Vs: Pulesta-u. Since this people have been
identified with the Philistines of the coast-land of Palestine (who,
indeed, gave that name to the country), and this opinion, earnestly
contested by Chabas, is upheld by Maspero and others, it is right to
include them in this connection among the northern peoples. Casts
181-2, 194, &e.
The distinctive helmet of the Pulesta was not contracted so as to
resemble a crest, but circular at top, of the same shape as the old caps of
the British infantry of the line at Waterloo, and before the time of our
Queen. This may be seen where a front-face occurs here and there in
the scenes of combat.
Lenormant saw in the last name of the allies in the great Harris
Papyrus ‘the Pelasgians of Crete, whence issued the Philistines’ (‘ Les
Orig.,’ iii. 127.)
Now we will turn to special places mentioned in our list which belong
to Palestine or Syria.
No. 1, we have sl iN bedied. §=Tza (‘ Geog. Inschr.’ ii. 75, Taf.
xxiii. 273), which Brugsch identifies with a town called by Eusebius
Aovéé near Sichem. Casts 18-20, 24-27.
It was, however, a fort in northern Syria, perhaps at Kalb Louzeh,
near Edlip.
No. 2. bell. Aia is the next name. I think this is the Aia of
the North Syrian list of Thothmes III., which I take to be probably
_ Kefr Aya, south of Homs. Casts 21-23.
! Lares and Penates. Uondon; Ingram Cooke & Co,, 1853 203 et seq.
\
458 REPORT—1887.
+
No. 4. mi - ¥. Dimesqu, Damascus. This is No. 18 of the
South Syrian Karnak List of Thothmes III. Cast 117.
=S=.-s—s = .
No. 5. Sw | 4 Warm’a. Merom, South Syrian List, No. 12.
Casts 121-3.
=>
No.6 <= a bndimd Dapur. This fortress was supposed b
, ip pp ¥
Chabas to be Debir in the south, but it is now generally agreed to be
Tabor, where the name remains as Debirieh. The representation of the
siege by Rameses II. is highly important in many ways. We have part
of the subject in phot. 753. Cast 124.
It is expressly called in the inscription, ‘ Dapur in the land of the
Amorites,’ yet it is defended by pig-tailed Hittites.
No. 7. This and some that follow are from the celebrated triumphal
inscription of Sheshonq recording his conquests in Palestine. Perhaps
pareenpnnren
this [OAT US es, Khaninis (93 in the list), may be Khtirbet
Hantineh, Sheet XIV. Kr., Name Lists, p. 238, or possibly, Beit Hanina,
XVII. Mt. There is an Ananiah of Benjamin mentioned in Neh. xi. 32.
Cast 36.
—_ —
No. 8. This is the celebrated name ily mys: bee Ty dah-
melek, No 29 in Shishak’s List. Cast 38. I think it is el Yehidieh, east
of Joppa.
a
No. 9. ly a ahs Adir, or Adil, No. 28 in Shishak’s List.
Cast 39, et Tireh.
4
No. 10. i ' in i ee , Asgalund, Askalon. We have the sur-
render of this celebrated place in phot. 748. Casts 30-33.
——
No. 11. | Res Inuaé, or Inu, one of the three important
fortresses of Ruthen taken by Thothmes III. Casts 78-81.
No. 12. Another celebrated fortress, taken by Seti I., that of
iN fee Kan'an’G, Cana’an. This interesting site has been
identified by Captain Conder, R.E., at Khiirbet Kan’an, six miles south of
Hebron.
I have endeavoured to give in this rough and hasty sketch a ground-
work of identifications of races and localities for the help of students of
the subject now before us, and have classified the material in the way
that seemed to me most useful.
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 459
Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee, consisting of
Mr. Francis Gatton (Chairman), Professor A. W. WILLIAMSON,
Sir Dovatas Garon, Professor Boyp Dawkins, Sir Rawson Raw-
son, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr. J. Evans, Mr. J. Hopxinson, Pro-
fessor R. Mrxipona (Secretary), Mr. W. Wuitaxer, Mr. G. J.
Symons, General Pirt-Rivers, Mr. W. Torrey, Mr. H. G. Forp-
HAM, and Mr. WILLIAM WHITE.
Tur Corresponding Societies Committee beg to report that the Con-
ferences of Delegates were held during the Birmingham meeting of the
British Association at 3.15 p.m. on Thursday, September 2, and Tuesday,
September 7, 1886, in the library of the Medical Institute.
The following is the list of Delegates nominated to attend the meeting
and the Societies represented by them :—
Rev. H. H. Winwood, M.A., F.G.S.
Prof. W. Hillhouse, M.A., F.L.S.
Rev. H. W. Crosskey, LL.D., F.G.S.
Prof. W. Ramsay, Ph.D., F.C.S.
Mr. H. T. Brown, F.G.S., F.C.S.
Mr. Henry Heywood, F.C.8. .
Rev. J. M. Mello, M.A., F.G.S.
Mr. J. G. Goodchild, F.G.S.
Mr, M. G. Stuart
Mr. A. S. Reid, M.A., F.G.S. .
Mr. J. Martin White
Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S., F.C.S.
Mr. J. B. Murdoch .
Mr. John Hopkinson, E.LS., E.GS.
Dr. Thomas Aitken
Rev. E. B. Savage, M.A.
Mr. F. T. Mott, F.R.G.S.
Mr. Isaac C. Thompson, F.R.M.S. .
Mr. G. H. Morton, F.G.S.
Mr. Mark Stirrup, F.G.S.
Mr. A. 8. Eve :
Mr. D. Corse Glen, C.E., F.G.S.
Prof. G. A. Lebour, M.A., F.G.S.
Mr. W. Dunnett Spanton, F.R.C.S.
Mr. H. J. Eunson
Mr. Matthew Blair, F.G.S. .
Dr, H, Muirhead, LL.D. F
Bath Natural History and Antiquarian
Field Club.
Birmingham Natural History and Micro-
scopical Society.
Birmingham Philosophical Society.
Bristol Naturalists’ Society.
Burton-on-Trent Natural History and
Archeological Society.
Cardiff Naturalists’ Society.
Chesterfield and Midland Counties Insti-
tution of Engineers.
Cumberland and Westmorland Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Literature
and Science.
Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian
Field Club.
East Kent Natural History Society.
East of Scotland Union of Naturalists’
Societies.
Essex Field Club.
Geological Society of Glasgow.
Hertfordshire Natural History Society
and Field Club.
Inverness Scientific Society and Field
Club.
Isle of Man Natural History and Anti-
quarian Society.
Leicester Literary and Philosophical
Society.
Liverpool Microscopical Society.
Liverpool Geological Society.
Manchester Geological Society.
Marlborough College Natural History
Society.
Natural History Society of Glasgow.
North of England Institute of Mining
and Mechanical Engineers.
North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field
Club.
Northamptonshire Natural History So-
ciety and Field Club. _
Paisley Philosophical Institution.
Philosophical Society of Glasgow,
460 REPORT—1887.
Mr. R. G. Hobbes . ; : . Rochester Naturalists’ Club.
Dr. R. W. Felkin, F.R.G.S. . . Scottish Geographical Society.
Rev. P. B. Brodie, F.G.S. ; . Warwickshire Naturalists’ and Archzo-
logists’ Field Club.
Rev. H. P. Knubley, M.A... . Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union,
Mr. J. W. Davis, F.G.S. . : . Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic
Society.
At the first Conference the chair was taken by Dr. A. W. Williamson,
LL.D., F.R.S., General Treasurer of the British Association, the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee being represented by Captain (now Sir)
Douglas Galton, F.R.S., General Secretary of the Association, Dr.
Garson, Mr. John Hopkinson, F.L.S., and Professor R. Meldola, F.R.S.,
Secretary.
The Secretary read the Report of the Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee which had been presented to the Council of the Association.
The Chairman made some remarks explanatory of the objects of the
Conference of Delegates, and suggested that among other subjects of
investigation in which it might be useful to secure the co-operation of
the local Societies was that of injurious insects, already so much studied
by Miss E. A. Ormerod.
The Secretary also made some observations in explanation of the
constitution of the Corresponding Societies Committee and the relations
existing between the Conference of Delegates and the British Association.
Some remarks were made by Mr. J. W. Davis and others with re-
ference to the advisability of securing the co-operation of the local
Societies for the purpose of investigating British barrows and other
prehistoric remains. This suggestion had been put forward at the Aber-
deen Conference last year by Professor Meldola, and a Committee was
about to be formed by Section H for carrying out this object.
Mr. H. Heywood considered that the relationship now existing
between the British Association and the Corresponding Societies had
already been of great assistance to the Societies themselves. In the case
of his own Society (Cardiff) they had been able to assist one of the
committees (erratic blocks) brought under the notice of the Aberdeen
conference last year.
Professor Lebour stated that many of the local Societies, such as the
North of England Institute, which he represented, were composed of
engineers connected with large works, who might make useful investi-
gations, which would be facilitated if backed up by the authority of the
British Association. For this reason he hoped that other subjects besides
natural history, geology, or anthropology would be recognised at the
Conferences.
Captain Galton explained that the object of the Conference of
Delegates was to bring the Corresponding Societies into direct communi-
cation with all the Committees of the British Association, to which the
local Societies or individual members of these might render assistance.
This could of course be only effected by degrees, but he suggested that
as a preliminary step it might be found useful to place the Delegates on
the Committees of those Sections in which they or their Societies had the
most interest.
Dr. Williamson supported this proposition, and the Secretary took
down the names of the Delegates to be attached to the various Sectional
Committees. t
Professor Hillhouse and Dr. Garson expressed their willingness as
on ae
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 461
Secretaries of Sections D and H respectively to propose Delegates as
members of the Sectional Committees.
Mr. Hopkinson suggested that among other methods of promoting
work among local Societies it might be found advantageous. for the
Delegates themselves to make suggestions at the Conference which might
lead, through the proper channels, to the formation of new Committees
by the British Association. He stated that his own Society (Hertford-
shire) had already rendered material assistance to the Erratic Block Com-
mittee of the Association, and they hoped to render similar service to the
Underground Water Committee.
The following resolution, framed with the object of ‘keeping the
Corresponding Societies informed of the work being done by the British
Association Committees, was moved by Dr. Garson, seconded by Captain
Galton, and passed unanimously :—
‘That the Secretary of the British Association be requested to send a
list of the several Committees appointed by the Association to each of
the Delegates of the Corresponding Societies, or to the Secretaries of
these Societies, as soon as possible after the meeting of the Association,
together with a copy of the proceedings of the meetings of the Conference
of Delegates.’
At the second Conference the chair was taken in the absence of
Dr. Williamson by Professor Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., the Corresponding
Societies Committee being represented by Dr. Garson, Mr. John Hopkin-
son, F'.L.S., and the Secretary, Professor R. Meldola, F.R.S.
The Secretary read the minutes of the proceedings of the first Con-
ference, and it was stated that, in accordance with the decision then
arrived at, the Delegates had been placed on the respective Sectional
Committees as ‘ Delegate Members.’
The Chairman directed attention to the kind of work which might be
done at the Conferences, stating that, as a member of the Council of the
British Association, he knew that the Association was anxious to con-
solidate the work of the local Societies. He suggested that the best
mode of procedure would be to take the different Sections seriatim and
hear the recommendations forwarded by the Committees of these Sections,
together with suggestions by the Delegates respecting the lines of in-
vestigation in which the local Societies could take part.
Sections A anp B.
No recommendations from the Committees of these Sections having
been forwarded to the Secretary of the Conference, the Chairman invited
suggestions from the Delegates.
LInminous Meteors.—Mr. ¥. T. Mott suggested that much useful work
might be done if the local Societies would undertake to record system-
atically the appearance, position, direction, &c., of luminous meteors.
The Secretary stated that a Committee of the British Association was
for many years in existence for the purpose of carrying out these obser-
vations, but, for some reason unknown to him, the Committee appeared
now to have ceased its labours.
Magnetic and Tidal Observations—Mr. J. Martin White suggested
that some of the local Societies which were favourably situated for the
purpose might undertake systematic observations of local tidal and
magnetic phenomena.
462 REPORT—1887.
Meteorological and Phenological Observations—Mr. Heywood stated
that many valuable meteorological observations were buried in the log-
books of steamships, and suggested that some of the local Societies might
render good service to meteorology by examining these books and keep-
ing records of any important entries. Mr. Hopkinson pointed out two
ways in which the local Societies might advance meteorological science.
In the first place he thought that many observers in different parts of the
country might be in the habit of recording the rainfall or other meteoro-
logical phenomena without communicating the results to Mr. Symons.
Good service would be rendered if the Corresponding Societies would
find out such observers and put them into communication with Mr.
Symons.! In the next place he suggested that observations of the time
of flowering of plants, first appearances of birds and insects, é&c., might
be systematically recorded and forwarded to the Royal Meteorological
Society ? by those observers who had not hitherto been in the habit of
communicating their results to that Society.
Section C.
Mr. C. E. De Rance, F.G.S., attended the Conference on behalf of the
Committee of this Section. The three following recommendations were
forwarded by the Secretary of the Section :—
Sea-coasts Prosion.—‘t That Messrs. R. B. Grantham, C. E. De Rance,
J. B. Redman, W. Topley, W. Whitaker, J. W. Woodall, Major-General
Sir A. Clarke, Admiral Sir E. Ommanney, Sir J. N. Douglass, Captain
J. Parsons, Captain W. J. L. Wharton, Professor J. Prestwich, and
Messrs. E. Easton, J. S. Valentine, and L. F. Vernon Harcourt be re-
appointed a Committee for the purpose of inquiring into the Rate of
Erosion of the Sea-coasts of England and Wales, and the Influence of
the Artificial Abstraction of Shingle or other Material in that Action ;
that Messrs. De Rance and Topley be the Secretaries.’
Underground Waters.—‘ That Professor E. Hull, Dr. H. W. Crosskey,
Captain Douglas Galton, Professor J. Prestwich, and Messrs. James
Glaisher, E. B. Marten, G. H. Morton, James Parker, W. Pengelly, James
Plant, I. Roberts, Fox Strangways, T. 8. Stooke, G. J. Symons, W.
Topley, Tylden-Wright, E. Wethered, W. Whitaker, and C. EH. De
Rance be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of investigating the
Circulation of the Underground Waters in the Permeable Formations of
England, and the Quality and Quantity of the Water supplied to various
towns and districts from these formations ; and that Mr. De Rance be the
Secretary.’
Erratic Blocks—‘ That Professors J. Prestwich, W. Boyd Dawkins,
T. McK. Hughes, and T. G. Bonney, Dr. H. W. Crosskey, and Messrs.
C. E. De Rance, H. G. Fordham, J. EK. Lee, D. Mackintosh, W. Pengelly,
J. Plant, and R. H. Tiddeman be reappointed a Committee for the purpose
of recording the position, height above the sea, lithological characters,
size, and origin of the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland,
reporting other matters of interest connected with the same, and taking
measures for their preservation ; and that Dr. Crosskey be the Secretary.’
Mr. De Rance described tne above three inquiries undertaken by
Section C, in which it was thought the Corresponding Societies could
1 G. J. Symons, F.R.S., 62 Camden Square, London, N.W.
2 30 Great George Street, London, W.
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 463
render valuable assistance. Forms of inquiry had been circulated largely
by these Committees, and it was suggested that any work done by the
Corresponding Societies should be on these forms printed by the British
Association. Mr. De Rance stated that forms would always be supplied
to the Secretaries of Corresponding Societies applying for them.
Dr. Crosskey made some remarks explanatory of the work of the Erratic
Block Committee. He stated that the assistance of the local Societies
would be particularly valuable in this inquiry, and that he would be
happy to supply the necessary forms to the Corresponding Societies in the
hope that they would be filled up. He urged upon the Delegates the
necessity for preserving these boulders, which were everywhere being
broken up and were rapidly disappearing from off the face of the country.!
Earth-tremors.—Protessor Lebour stated that for some time past the
North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers had had
a Committee actively engaged on the subject of earth-tremors and their
possible connection with mine explosions. This subject was naturally
related to those of Sections A, C, and Gof the British Association, and its
investigation might be powerfully promoted by them. Some of the Cor-
responding Societies might aid greatly in making and recording observa-
tions on earth-tremors in various parts of the country. The more exten-
sive the area over which such observations were made (if by competent
observers and with suitable instruments) the more valuable they become ;
but it was very important that there should be some general understand-
ing between the observers in different parts of the country, in order that
some degree of that uniformity which is so desirable in matters of this
kind should be attained. The cost of the expensive instruments necessary
would be much lessened if large numbers of them were used. The
question of earth-tremor observations was only one of many in which the
engineering societies and the British Association could be mutually useful,
the former carrying out the work and the latter lending the influence of
its official recognition and support.
The Rev. J. M. Mello stated that colliery proprietors were generally
unwilling to spend money in investigations unless some very specific form
of inquiry was circulated,
Mr. Hopkinson remarked that the Corresponding Societies, if supplied
with the necessary forms, would no doubt be willing to circulate them
among their members. Mr. Heywood thought the suggestion for ob-
serving and recording earth-tremors a most valuable one, and he remarked
that the Cardiff Society would be happy to assist in the investigation if
the formation of a Committee was sanctioned by the Association.
Section D.
The Committee of this Section was represented by Professor W.
Hillhouse, M.A., F.L.S.
Preservation of Native Plants——In reply to a question by the Secretary,
' The addresses of the Secretaries of these three Committees are :—
Underground Waters . C. B. De Rance, F.G.S., A.L.C.E., 28 Jermyn Street, London,
S.W
Erratic Blocks . . Rev. H. W. Crosskey, LL.D., F.G.S., 117 Gough Road,
Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Sea-coasts Erosion . Wm. Topley, F.G.S., A.L.C.E., 28 Jermyn Street, London,
S.W.
464 REPORT—1887.
Professor Hillhouse stated that in response to the inquiries which he had
circulated among the Delegates and others likely to furnish information
he had received details from twelve or fourteen localities recording
between two and three hundred disappearances of plants. Mr. Stirrup
stated that for years past a great destruction of plants had been going on
in the Manchester district, and the local Societies had found it necessary
to strongly inculcate among their members the necessity of preventing
this extermination. Mr. Hopkinson remarked that a similar rule had
been always observed by the Hertfordshire Society with respect both to
animals and plants, and he thought that all the local Societies should
adopt it. Mr. Mott pointed out that one practical result illustrating the
benefit of Professor Hillhouse’s resolution had been the omission of the
localities of all the rare ferns and orchids from the flora of Leicestershire,
which his Society was just about to publish.
Local Museums Committee—Mr. Mott stated that a joint Committee,
composed of representatives of Sections C and D, had been recommended
for appointment for the purpose of reporting upon the provincial
museums of the United Kingdom. The work of this Committee would
be much facilitated by the co-operation of the local Societies, and he
hoped that the Delegates would bring the matter under the notice of
their respective Societies. The Committee consists of Mr. V. Ball, Mr.
H. G. Fordham, Professors Haddon and Hillhouse, Dr. Macfarlane,
Professor Milnes Marshall, Mr. Mott (Secretary), Dr. Traquair, and Dr.
Henry Woodward. ;
In reply to a question as to whether the work of this Committee was
to be confined to public or to extend to private museums, Mr. Mott stated
that it might be found desirable to extend the report to some few private
museums.
The Chairman remarked that the Local Museum Committee was one
of the most important that had yet been formed. The local museums of
this country were generally in a most deplorable state, and one of the
first things to be done was to exclude from such collections all extraneous
specimens that were not truly local. According to his experience he had
found that it was impossible for a local Society to flourish and at the
same time to carry on a large museum successfully. The two organisa-
tions should be independent, but at the same time it was most desirable
that the objects collected by local Societies should be handed over to the
nearest local museum. With reference to this question of local museums,
he considered that we in this country were much behind Germany,
America, and France.
A short discussion took place with reference to the naming of speci-
mens in local museums, in which Mr. Eve, Mr. Hopkinson, and the
Chairman took part.
Section H.
The Committee of this Section was represented by Dr. Garson, who
stated that one Committee which was about to be formed on the recom-
mendation of their Section had arisen from the suggestion made by
Mr. J. W. Davis at the last Conference, viz.—
Prehistoric Remains.—The following is the resolution sent up to and
adopted by the Committee of Recommendations :—‘ That Sir John Lub-
bock, Dr. R. Munro, Mr. Pengelly, Professor Boyd Dawkins, Dr. Muir-
head, and Mr. J. W. Davis be appointed a Committee to ascertain and
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 465
record the localities in the British Islands in which evidence of the
existence of prehistoric inhabitants of the country is found.’
Professor Meldola stated that three years ago he had brought this
subject under the notice of the Delegates in a paper which he had read
at the Southport meeting of the Association, and which had been pub-
lished in abstract in the volume of Reports for 1883, and in ewtenso in the
‘Transactions’ of the Hssex Field Club. He remarked that the work
which the Committee proposed to undertake was of the greatest national
importance in view of the great destruction of ancient remains that had
been going on for many years.
The Chairman remarked that the subject was undoubtedly one of
great importance, and some of the local Societies had already commenced
to record the position of these remains on the ordnance maps. He stated
that according to his experience the 1l-inch map could be used, but the
6-inch map would be found much better. One desideratum in the work
was a good system of symbols; such a system had been employed in a
map of ancient remains recently published in France, and he stated that
he should be happy to place this system at the disposal of the Committee.
He added that he was glad to be able to announce that he had succeeded
in getting an Act passed for the preservation of the ancient monuments
of the Isle of Man.
Preservation of Stonehenge.—Dr. Garson stated that the Committee of
Section H had forwarded a resolution to the Committee of Recommenda-
tions with reference to the preservation of Stonehenge, and, pending its
consideration by this Committee, it had been suggested that it should
also be brought under the notice of the Corresponding Societies through
their Delegates, with the object of these using their influence, as far as
possible, for the preservation of this and other monuments throughout
the country. The following is the resolution referred to: '—‘ That the
attention of the proprietor of Stonehenge be called to the danger in
which several of the stones are at the present time from the burrowing of
rabbits, and also to the desirability of removing the wooden props which
support the horizontal stones of one of the trilithons, and, in view of the
great value of Stonehenge as an ancient monument, to express the hope
of the Association that some steps will be taken to remedy these sources
of danger to the stones.’
This resolution had originated last April during a joint meeting of
the Geologists’ Association and the Hampshire Field Club on Salisbury
Plain, when copies were ordered to be forwarded to the proprietor, to the
Inspector of Ancient Monuments, and to the Secretary of the Correspond-
ing Societies Committee of the British Association, The proprietor of
these valuable remains had hitherto refused to take advantage of the
Ancient Monuments Act, though repeatedly requested to do so, neither
had he paid due attention to their proper preservation, so that it had
been thought desirable to move the foregoing resolution which had been
sent to the proper quarter for confirmation by the General Committee of
the Association.
Election and Retention of Corresponding Societies.—At the termination
of the Conference Mr. J. W. Davis raised the question whether a
1 This resolution was adopted by the Committee of Recommendations and con-
firmed by the General Committee.
1887. HH
466 REPORT— 1887.
Corresponding Society, when once admitted by the Association, should
not always be retained on the list, or at any rate so long as the Society
kept up its scientific activity.
The question was partially answered at the Conference by the
Secretary, and the Corresponding Societies Committee having since
taken the matter under their consideration beg to direct attention to
Rule 4, which states that—‘ Every Corresponding Society shall return
each year, on or before June 1, to the Secretary of the Association a
schedule properly filled up, which will be issued by the Secretary of the
Association, and which will contain a request for such particulars with
regard to the Society as may be required for the information of the
Corresponding Societies Committee.’ The Committee in accordance
with this rule see no reason why a Corresponding Society, when once
admitted, should not be retained as long as it maintained its activity,
but it is expected that each Society will make an annual return of the
papers published by it on the schedule supplied for that purpose.! Some
few of the Societies which were enrolled in 1885 did not appear in the
list published last year in the Birmingham Report, the reason for this
being that the Secretaries had neither returned their schedules with the
required entries nor taken any notice of a second application asking
whether it was the wish of their Societies to be retained as Correspond-
ing Societies. The Secretary of the Committee had accordingly con-
cluded that these Societies desired to withdraw.
Attendance of Delegates.—Another question raised at the last Con-
ference of Delegates—viz., whether each of the Corresponding Societies
is expected to send a Delegate annually to the meeting of the British
Association—has also been considered by the Corresponding Societies
Committee. In accordance with Rule 6, a ‘Corresponding Society has
the right to nominate any one of its members, who is also a Member of
the Association, as its Delegate to the annual meeting of the Association,
who shall be for the time a member of the General Committee.’ The
sending of a Delegate is not therefore compulsory, and the Committee
are of opinion that an occasional failure on the part of a Corresponding
Society to send a Delegate to the meeting of the Association should not
disqualify that Society for retention on the list of Corresponding
Societies. It is hoped, however, that these Societies will use their best
endeavours to send Delegates to represent them. It is expected that
every Delegate nominated and present at the meeting of the Association
will attend the Conferences.
The Corresponding Societies Committee have in conclusion to report
that the Council of the British Association have sanctioned the presenta-
tion of the complete volume of Annual Reports to each of the Correspond-
ing Societies so long as these are retained on the list.
It is recommended that all the Societies on Jast year’s list should be
retained; also that the Croydon Microscopical and Natural History Club
and the Manchester Geographical Society should be enrolled as Corre-
sponding Societies.
1 In cases where no papers have been published during the year it is only neces-
sary to state this fact on the schedule.
467
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES,
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SBT IOMOT 9} JO aInsodx@ yusader v uO SaJONT
* Q88T JO 1oYyIVOAA OY puw suoIsotdxg Axor[[ON
SSULISVTT WOJING pue W0J0H SLOATIYO
TadMJoq Syooy UVIIquUIVD Jo ATOAOOSICT MoU v UO
purl
“30g FO UMON OY} IOF ASopooy yo Aydvasoryqig
*SOPITTOO BITYSyLOX oy} yscuowy
* Loo AoTY.stoy ‘auoys.suryoqtyT OU,
sospoy “T
pue “iT “q ‘soyeg
: * snoumfuouy
: "M ‘sMorIpUy
loxley “y pue
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. “ce “ee
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: * ‘00g ‘TooH ‘Tour
* 00g ‘ATOg *[094) ‘syIOZ
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: : * 4suy ‘Sum ‘N
SOMOT[OD UMOJMEN puv ‘oTSIAyy ‘MOIZITO
ye Soury] 94} Ul svy JO sysmmqjyng wo soJoN
19949 JO syuengIySsMOD OTyST104
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* punodmoy suyseiq mou v ,‘aqtimoag , uQ
“"V “H ‘premapooM
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* ‘TL “Toro19e yy
‘H re) ‘QOTIMVUIZ FLT
‘g ‘g ‘uoxop
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. . . “qsUyT Beiticg 'N
‘00g "YOLy “H ‘N wozIng
* + 009 “H ‘N '00},N
* "90g ‘ATOg ‘094 ‘syIOX
7 ‘008 ‘WH 'N “Wig
‘00g ‘H 'N Mossepy
988T ‘TS ‘90 UO
‘mery MOT, Ivau ‘A1oT[[OH AaTUIOWT, 989 \\ Of} 4B
saraqqery JO AcIVIOSIG, IoyJINy v uo syteuMery
* - 9SQT toy AretUINE [eorso[oLOazOF
* SUOTJVAIOSAO puv syrodoyy Teorsopo1oOjoy\
P8-E88T UL oarys
“Y1OX UT sooueqinysiq, [eoLyeMorIeg pemOUqyY
* — WOTJOPY TotOVpyH jo sesneyg oy} UO
MOSSEL) JO
syIVg oqug oy} Ur woywjesaA jo 074g O44
UO SyIVUaY PUB ‘GRR OF SOON [VOTSOTOALOIqO PT
‘H ‘OUTTA.
"D ‘f ‘STO
MOT
‘A119,
ay ‘sppousayy
a AA ‘TP USe TL
1887.
REPORT
472
988T
2881
988T
pest]
“and
15 7
L§
96g
086
&96
§&6
“
“
988T IOW
“AI
“c
qivg 10
auInypo A
. ‘ * “SUDAT
20.
* 20Uq PUD ‘SWOT,
jpuULnor
. . . “
. . * “SUDA,
* ‘SUWOAT
ISYDINIOAT “Y902T
ewoay pup quodaey
: * “SUWO4
. . .
*00q
TOLBoGN JO eLT,
009 “H ‘N 300y “T
* 90g ‘Toey ‘TOURTT
. ““ “ce
‘00g “ATOg “[Oey ‘syIO
‘008 “H 'N Te) “Un
‘008 "H ‘N ‘00}.N
“009 "O84 MOSSBLD
* "90g "Joey "qouryy
“0d VN “AeA
* "008 "H 'N 80H
“c “
“qSU “FUND PIIV'F193894
* "d "NI eqsayoory
00g [OAH “Ay “MUIOD
‘009 "TOA MOSSEL
* 90g *[Oax) [ood ary
Ayato0g
JO 8TFLL PoyerAciqqy
-ST[PM deaq pur ssurdg yemyzen yyt
UWolJOoUMOD Ul “Guay yseq jo ATddng 19qVA\ OUI,
poliag sno
-IoFIMOGIVA oq} UI UIeIIIg Jo AydeIs0eyH oy} UD
: : : * - saqesy Jo uorjvurto,g 943 UO
_ -9Te@psreqyory
UI oIMssTg [[IsAwy ay} Jo uoMvI0[dxyY oy} UO
XvjITVH Ivo ‘uopAvIO 1 satnsvoul-[Voy IeMO'T
ay} UL puNoF sveTy, [ISSO JO sureuey otMOSs UG
SUIeUAIT [ISSO]
Toy} PUB JOIST FeHOW OY} FO syooy of],
uojsderyy, wou ‘uoyshoy ye AvIO
pIOJXO YY} WOM vAVFIUIMRIOY OUIOS TO 2}0N
arrysthy Y4ION
jo souojsouny saddq oy} Ul Ss{Issoq Jo 4SrT
SIO
-aspa pur ‘<iyeq punore jOLysIq ey} UL punofz
sv ‘artgsidy ION Jo souojsoury toddq oy} uO
‘MUeUL “109 ‘Apa [Ly
sea T0yVq MOIPUY “IP Be] 9Y} Jo IoYON
‘ puery our y-arg ey} FO wOT\sont) oy,
quey ut ssovyd 1aqj0 pue meyyeYyO 4e
Joqjour uo puv ‘faring ‘puomypony ye surog
dsoq 94} UO soJ0N SuIpnpouog pure sIeqQInyT
: DITYSYPOTMIVAA Ul SUOTIOIG OYA OMT, UO
* SppeLT proyywVAA “UIE, osevmog oy} 4% TOTDEG
dITYsIojseo1e'yT puv ‘ortyshqraq yNog
‘artyshqiaq jSeq UI SoInsvauI-[BoM Jo sMOT}OAg
SP[EY[VON sI1ys194sa01arT
se pus omqsdqrog yynog ayy Fo Soyo) oul
* “TT weg 1eUO OWL
UM “IS JO spe_ suso0rd eG,
* mvqg jo Asoo aq} TO soJON
10}XQ) 3% posodxa
Ayyueser spog ssdnoy soddg oy} Jo uoT}09g VW
. . 9) ‘TayMOG
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psog
Iossojorg ‘suDyMeq
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. . “tf ‘sqqnog
‘LY qqoumg
« “
‘dd ‘Aoy ‘orporg
7D *w ‘30a
< "g Wy ‘ossvig
. . 79) ‘plig
“MO TPS
ss ‘od T9
' "9 'H “‘Aoiseog
radvg Jo LL,
*“(paniaquoa) XNOTOTD—
‘9 uowaagy
IoyNY Jo oueyy
purpery spies
* ‘00g ‘[oaH ‘pouURpL | -at sv vag snoJofIUOqIeD oY} Jo yUayxO oyZUQ |* ‘HH ‘UeYRUry
473
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
* ‘SUDUT
qnuUinor
* ‘SUDLT
ee
* ‘SUDGE
ISUYDINIONT Lassa
T7
00g *[094) MOSSEL
* "90g "[oay ‘Woury
. * qsuy ‘Sup ‘NI
* ‘00g "H ‘N ‘U0}.N
009 ‘TOI MOSSeLD
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"00g "TOO MOSsBLy
* "00§ “H ‘N 80H
. “ “
. .
‘Ol Xossqy
PLPBIVOD
aIlysyeVuvyT oy} wory ‘owpary ‘doyunqg ‘YW
‘Iq Aq pozooT[oo szuvT_{ TIssoy oemos uo sojoN
* UIBIIIG JVALH JO soouBOTOA SNOIOJTMOGIeD OT,
*syooy Arepuooag YSI[Suy 9} JO SoIQ WOAT OU,
ormtysuojdueyyaoN “ourlog
uopkexy) OY} WOIF VpoOoVIJSO SNoAozIuogieD UO
88st
ANE ur ‘IaquyooT Fo spvoy jorrervg oy} pue
SIAON Udq 0} satjeIOOY [woLdoTOAy) MOosSeLy
pue ysmquipy o49 FO WOIsMoxM yuo oy,
SUOTINIOY puw SUOTIIPUOD $91
‘maTqorg ey} {1eqeyoory Fo spvoy [OTTwIVq I,
dITYSOYO ‘STITH WoytoFyoog ayy 4B ouoyspuvg
radney oq} ut taddop Fo asouerM000 oq} UO 9JON
I94VM UBSOT FO BIVIYVG
UBLINTIG 943 Ul (snarwoparyno snuoydonng )
woIdoog TISsoT B Jo ATOAOOSTC, OY} WO SOJON
SOUL], SNOLOJIUOGIVD
pUP poy PIO Suttnp wordy o1UVoTO A WO S9jION
YIM ‘ollysyieuvy JO ouojspuvg poy plo eL
: SYIOMIOZVM MON SUBOLV ‘39 9} 4% WOTJOAg
489.10 \f
suiddg ‘yovog ys ye uoTjONg eoLcOTOey)
GOST UL
UI ‘IoJsoqO [OH IvoU ‘uepxo'T 7¥ sOUDpISqng 94} UO
artysuojdmeyy1oN Jo ASopoyuoKpeg
pue ‘Asoyerourpy ‘AS0T09x) ay} WO SYIOM JO YSTT
aITysaoydureryy10 N mann
25% f pou ‘MOJITO 3B suLtog cdeeq oy} uo
: * ay ‘UO9Sply
‘Wa ‘Trepuey
' "a 'e Tepuey
AQAITS "Mf pue
‘ay *y, ‘Jorg ‘seuor
AM ‘AqIO£
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‘+p osurydoy
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PUYDINION Lass | * * "OO "\W xossq | “loysoyo[OoD 1vou ‘uopxeTy ye soUspIsqng ey} UC | ° “A (IL ‘sompoH
OL8T ‘SuaTEH 4g “peat ‘H
* 00uq | * ‘909 "TY “4rT [ood ary “WOAvy ‘semevour- -[woQ oy} Wor syoesuy TIssoq |“ “AY ‘SULSSTY
BY OLNAONT ENR || © * MOIUQ “JEN 'SxIOX | * : * prez Ysnoroquepg |*° ‘OM ‘Aoy ‘oH
* "00uq | ° * "00g ‘Toox) [ood ary | ° 4 Pte jo Aydvasodoy, oy} WO saqON, | * * MM qT
Cds snwao
*SUDLT, PUD “I0LT | * ‘009 ‘H ‘N Mossepy | -07200) aSauTYD 949 FO 9UD}Ig Vposeg oy} UG |°* "f Iq ‘eAoLny
6981
* °Q ‘Ao STOySTT
“ “
|’ ‘fH ‘vosung
1887.
REPORT
474
6FT
6éT
LE
Tér
ese
‘XI
I
198 10g
“AT
‘TI
988T 100
“XIX
y1Bq 10
auIn]oOA
. . a g
ia iz * "SUDLT
* PBSYVINION OYT
: . TA
* SWOLT, PUD *D0Nq
: : * 00
“
: : * ‘SUDn
* — Q8UVUNQONT YT
. . . “
- 90m
ea * ‘SUWON,
. . . “
: : * "00
* *SUDLT, DUD 004
. : * ‘SUDL
uoRwoTT|Ng Jo eNEL
‘00g ‘ATO *[OeD ‘syIOX
“4sUT ‘OOSSY ‘UI]T ‘“MUIOD
* MOIUQ “YeN ‘SyIOZ
* ‘009 "HT 'N SHOP
qM10 "H ‘NW wopsorp
. “ “
* 90g *[o9H [ood ATT
‘OOSSW “4S9 A “Gung
‘008 ‘IMd “FYI 10}S90T0'T
‘MOQ ‘JeN ‘syIO
00g ‘[oay [ood ary
* ‘00g “JEN 1OIsIg
00§ “TT “WT 104890107
00g ‘ATO "1094 ‘SYIOX
* QUID ‘H 'N ‘WW wopfo1y
* ‘90g ‘[OayH "YouryL
Aya100g
JO SLL poywwrasiqqy
: : * — aaidsaroy poyyvo woTjer0U0D v uO
JUNO SJoVyory[ Ig Jo ASojoay ory uo syreutoyy
uojSuULUOGg 9TSeO
ye yovog (rodney) yue1ouy ue jo soovry, om0g
PLOF}10 HL
ye Jay purpsuq fo qso\\ oy} ur oyenbyyreq
syooy Jo Apnyg
ayy 0} adoosororpy ayy JO uotworddy oq ug
YJVOFT WOIXO 9B SVIIy,
ay} Woy sjuvTg pur syuridjoo,, jo suorssorduy
artysdoryg Fo syoory
dIOzOB[VT IY} UL UsMy Jo soueIMI0Q oy,
aams
-Salgq [e1eye’yT Jo souepiug Surke[dsrp ‘uojt0aq
goog AmuifA ye selty, oy} JO WoOeg vB uC
* yavyady oy] JO STB oy} Ul paspam sitoprnog
INOW ITV 9G} 42 punoy AToyLT GuILA peddryD
@ pue slays Ioywaysoig JO poq B UO SaJON
: ‘ UISeg [BOISOTOOy ¥B Sv OLJULTTV [MON OUT,
Pye * YOIMsoy Iwou ssuridg pesrourpyl oJ,
* SIPYSTE|seOeTT Jo ureTUEWTEYO oy} ‘Aqsavayg
ammysAqiagq ‘yNoosIOpUTy WO [[ey1O7e AA
AIYSJUI[] JO auoyspueg
Mpog-4-ajop pue dUoJsotMTT snorIezIUOGIED oq,
peoystytog Jo AGopOIy oY} UO ‘AT Wed
forysiq: uoyderg puv Ammqyiog oy, "TIT Wed
:UIseg WoAY oy JO ASopoay af} 07 sMOTNGIayWOD
SJULJIQVYUT SII JO TITVAF oy} VO yorystg
@ Jo somnqueg [eoLsoTooH oy} FO souenyuy oyy,
* SUIUIT UI pasn soatsojdxop uO
p * sxooyy Jo amnjonzig [vordoosoxr01 oy} UO
AIYSYIOX GION JO sainqvaiy [Borsopoesy sur
~48010}U} JoyyO pue syisodaq [elovpy 944 UO sajgONT
. * sexy (jengey) ysIey, UO
sadug Jo op}ty,
*(panurquoo) XNOTOHD—D worz0dag
.
‘a “H ‘899049
MM ag qy4ug
* +p ‘aeudryg
‘a ‘0 ‘ATIeuS
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“cc “
‘DO “IC ‘sMexony
‘WL ‘opeay
‘f ‘opreaqqepysog
. . a . L ‘ne Bt
‘LH ‘Iq ‘suosieg
‘HD ‘H09.107T
péory
‘QO ‘Jorg ‘ues10qT
‘Vv 'O ‘Iq ‘e100,
*"e Teo
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* ‘a 999A0'T
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475
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
- FSI
#2 LLT
My SFT
SSI
988T| T
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681
L881] S21
a3 Te
= IIl
§ GOT
Lid ep
ot 6FT
t3 LF
s S91
988T | SF ‘IT
FES
iH G06
ss 9IT
: 00T
L881 | 992
9881 | SPT
L881 | SIZ
ss LOT
a
: 2 * “SUDNT
'SUDLT, PUD 2L0daRT
. . . “
. . . “
90d
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‘00g ‘[00) MOSseLy
"q010 “HN ‘W wopsorp
* "9 “WT Xossq
* "009 ‘[ooyH ‘yoUuRTL
‘009 "WH ‘N “waig
* 90g “Afog "[00H ‘syI0X
* ‘009 "H ‘N ‘003.7
* ‘009 "H ‘N S}077
* 008 "H ‘N ‘1190 “411271
* 00g *ATOg "1094 ‘sxIOX
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* 008 “Too Tood. ary © jeange
Yuy, oreo
JOA B 9U0}G pPUNUISO, UIYYYeO Vy} UO soJON
: : *S}9NOD SOTUeL “IPT 99] 9} JO VO1IONT
sopoodg puv viouey 9} JO 4SIT postacyy
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: * GINJONTYY 9u0H-UT-au0H wo sazONT
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snouuedieg jo emsodxq poddeuug ue uo
; : ouo48 TITH Wey oy} UO saqoN
aIIYys}os
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* UMOT WeYypim( Jo ommssty 10 oavp 9UO0g oT],
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Ulseg WopuoT oy Jo yavd Aormg
oY} UI ssuliog daaq pu s[[aA, JO suoloag
YIM !scurpovey, ey} puw sje, Aetimg ourog
: : : : SMOTJOIG TIA AA Xossq outog
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asney pue AIOASIFT T9yy : oATYSOyO
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moydurery.10 Ny
JO pooyinoqysieN oy} ut wozd[og oIssvane
G88T Ul ‘prozyeM ‘syIOMIA}e AM AOTTVA OUTOD
oy} JV OpvUl SUIIOg pUe ][9A\ 9T} 4e UOTQOAG
: : : : : * —- gaodayy peorsoToe
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OITYSYOTMIV AA PUB OITYSIO4SOOIA'T FO SOIVIIG, OY,
"A Weg ‘omgsuoydueyyAoN Jo sery 1oddgq oyy,
pereptsuoo ATTBo
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1887.
REPORT
476
“ee
ee
996
6L
6LE
OL
ase
v
G8-F881
10g
“AI
“AI
G8-F88L
10g
“XI
L881 IO
&
“cc
F
“8
ee
&
9881 tO
Xi
9881 10.7
‘II
L881 107
a
L881 107
qv gq IO
auunyo A.
20.
* “SWOLT,
* BSYDINION “PUT
* ‘SUDLT,
. . .
0b
* 9SYDIUNIOAT “PUT
* — QSYDLNIDAT YT
*"SUDLT, PUD *I0UqT
“ce “ec
"20 PUD "SUDA,
; : * quodagy
“
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. “ee “
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* SYOINION YT,
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* "“SUDLT,
* QSUDUNAOAT YT;
‘SUDLT, DUD ‘00Uq
* — SUYDINZOT 9YT,
Doran JO OPEL
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008 “IW "H 'N “UTE,
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* MOIUQ “VeN ‘SyIOX
quo aS W toptoxp
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“ “
AUTO ‘H 'N ‘WW wopsorp
* UOIUQ “JEN ‘SyIOX
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* £Solooz pue Auvjog sj} WO sojyON
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477
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
6
GPL ‘FIT
63 ‘T
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LEG
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966
9F
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L881 107
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988T 104
988T 104
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L881 104
9881 1Ou
BH
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* 98D INJONT “9027
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SWI, PWD 904
: : "90
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486 REPORT—1887.
On the Vortex Theory of the Luminiferous Aither. (On the Propa-
gation of Laminar Motion through a turbulently moving
Inviseid Liquid.) By Sir Wituram Tuomson, LL.D., F.R.S.
[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso
among the Reports. ]
1. In endeavouring to investigate turbulent motion of water between two
fixed planes, for a promised communication to Section A of the British
Association at its Meeting in Manchester, I have found something seem-
ingly towards a solution (many times tried for within the last twenty
years) of the problem to construct, by giving vortex motion to an incom-
pressible inviscid fluid, a medium which shall transmit waves of laminar
motion as the luminiferous ether transmits waves of light.
2. Let the fluid be unbounded on all sides, and let u, v, w be the
velocity-components, and p the pressure at (2, y, z, t). We have
du dy dw _
pee ogee yen | a ; : ream
du dy 3 dz (1),
du__(. du lu du, a P) 2
ae i ( da "dy hy ad ; fi ea
Some i Vda ay
dw dw, dw, dw ,dp 4
(ut bi ge tYa +%) : 4 se (4),
From (2), (3), (4) we find, taking (1) into account,
du? dv? , dw? dudw.dwdu , du i
= et = ce ) f
bar tape e & dy dxedz dy dz
dv —( dv dw dv a
dz? dy? dz?
3. The velocity-components u, v, w may have any values whatever
through all space, subject only to (1). Hence, on Fourier’s principles,
we have, as a perfectly comprehensive expression for the motion at any
instant,
(e,f, 9
U=DITZEIZ a,,n,¢) Sin (w+ e) cos (ny+f) cos (qz+tg) - (6),
y= ZTIIUIS Boks cos (mz+e) sin (ny+f) cos (gz+g) . (7),
w= DTZ=UZB es cos (ma#+e) cos (ny+f) sin (qz+g). (8);
where Gai s Babess Youn 4 are any three velocities satisfying the
equation
(sf 9) (ef 9) Ch”
O=MaGn, n, q) +B em, x, 0) + Lim, n, oP" ‘ f (9) >
and SZZUZY summation (or integration) for different values of m, n, q,
e, f, g. The summations for e, f, g may, without loss of generality, be
each confined to two values: e=0, and e=}7; f=0, and f=i7; g=0,
and g=3z. We shall admit large values, and infinite values of m™, n™',
q_', under certain conditions [§ 4 (10), (11), (12), and § 15 below], but
utkerwise we shall suppose the greatest value of each of them to be of
some moderate, or exceedingly small, linear magnitude. This is an
essential of the averagings to which we now proceed.
= Lle
ON THE VORTEX THEORY OF THB LUMINIFEROUS XTHER. 487
4. Let xav, xzav, xyzav denote space-averages, linear, surface, and
solid, through infinitely great spaces, defined and illustrated by examples,
each worked out from (6), (7), (8), as follows, L denoting an infinitely
great length, or a very great multiple of whichever of m7’, n—', q-’ may
be concerned :—
L
xav u= I ‘ie dz u=Z=UTTa“"F” cos (ny+f) cos (qgzt+g) - (10),
oh at mn, q)
xzav U= a i ite dz dx wa Salt, A cos (nytf) 2 SERB).
xyzav u= (ax) |. ae dy dau=ateo , ; mee €,4) 0
x) =) tg
xav w=} 325255 or a 0) cos? (ny+f) cos?(qz+ 9) . Pints O55) pe
this with the exceptions that
in the case of m=0, e=0, we take 0 in place of 4,
and in the case of m=0, he 55 i WN? 2 %
xzav uw2=1 sehssy [ace }2 cos? (ny +f) (14)
4 Biases (m,n, 9) y - . > ?
f9 An,
xuay w=} SESE fas? Bem
mnq (m, 7, @ 91,
OA 9 HC 40 =
— om, n, 2) Bia n, a1 cos (ny +f) sin (ny +f) ’ (15) 3
with the exceptions for (14) that
in the case of m=0 and e= .
' fe ge eae ag a i we take 0 instead of 1;
and in the case of qg=0 and g=47 f
in the case of m=0 and e=ir A ike
and in the case of q=0 and g=0 a ere Sieients
in the case’ of m=0, e=}tz, n=0, f=}r 15 fen a sa aes
and analogous exceptions for (15).
eta ce, f, 9) 2
? yy cage
xyzav u?=32 SEUVTZD [ Cee y : : + 5€E6);
mn q
with exceptions for zeros of m and q, analogous to those of (14).
5. As a last example of averagings for the present, take xyzav of (5).
Thus we find
efg
s a? £9” (e, f 9) ef”
—xyzav V payizbses | m on, ns eos TB on, ry at Yom el l
mn gq ( 7).
=0 by (9). >
The interpretation is obvious.
6. Remark, as a general property of this kind of averaging,
Matera Igidini scx oath wy Sale
Q be any quantity which is go ah for infinitely great values of a.
488 REPORT—1 887.
7. Suppose now the motion to be homogeneously distributed through
all space. This implies that the centres of inertia of all great volumes of
the fluid have equal parallel motions, if any motions at all. Conveniently,
therefore, we take our reference lines OX, OY, OZ, as fixed relatively to
the centres of inertia of three (and therefore of all) centres of inertia of
large volumes ; in other words, we assume no translatory motion of the
fluid as a whole. This makes zero of every large average of wu and of v
and of w; and, in passing, we may remark, with reference to our notation
of § 3, that it makes, as we see by (10), (11), (12),
a
O=a6, n, )=4(m, 0, 2) = “Um, n, 0) =P, n, 9) = WC &e.=Y em, n,0) - (19).
Without for the present, however, encumbering ourselves with the
Fourier-expression and notation of § 3, we may write, as the general ex-
pression for nullity of translational movement in large volumes,
QO=aveu=avev=avew . ; » (20)5
where ave denotes the average through any great length of straight or
curved line, or area of plane or curved surface, or through any great
volume of space.
8. In terms of this generalised notation of averages, homogeneousness
implies :
ave u? =U?, ave v2? =V?, ave w?=W?., » (il),
avevw=A*, avewu=B*, avew=C?. aan )5
where U, V, W, A, B, C are six velocities independent of the positions of
the spaces in which the averages are taken. These equations are, how-
ever, infinitely short of implying, though implied by, homogeneousness,
9. Suppose now the distribution of motion to be isotropic. This
implies, but is infinitely more than is implied by, the following equa-
tions in terms of the notation of § 8, with further notation, R, to denote
what we shall call THE AVERAGE VELOCITY of the turbulent motion :—
U?=V? = W? =i? >... : ; eae)
Sy NSS 1 = , 3 4 : . (24).
10. Large questions now present themselves as to transformations
which the distribution of turbulent motion will experience in an infinite
liquid left to itself with any distribution given to it initially. If the
initial distribution be homogeneous through all large volumes of space,
except a certain large finite space, S, through which there is initially
either no motion, or turbulent motion homogeneous or not, but not homo-
genous with the motion through the surrounding space, will the fluid
which at any time is within S acquire more and more nearly as time
advances the same homogeneons distribution of motion as that of the
surrounding space, till ultimately the motion is homogeneous through-
out?
11. If the answer were yes, could it be that this equalisation would
come to pass through smaller and smaller spaces as time advances? In
other words, would any given distribution, homogeneous on a large
enough scale, become more and more fine-grained as time advances ?P
Probably yes for some initial distributions; probably no for others.
Probably yes for vortex motion given continuously through all of one
large portion of the fluid, while all the rest is irrotational.
i
ON THE VORTEX THEORY OF THE LUMINIFEROUS ZTHER., 489
12. Probably no for the initial motion given in the shape of equal and
similar Helmholtz rings, of proportions suitable for individual stability,
and each of overall diameter considerably smaller than the average dis-
tance from nearest neighbours. Probably also no, though the rings be of
very different volumes and vorticities. But probably yes if the diameters
of the rings, or of many of them, be not small in comparison with dis-
tances from neighbours, or if the individual rings, each an endless slender
filament, be entangled or nearly entangled among one another.
13. Again a question : If the initial distribution be homogeneous and
eolotropic, will it become more and more isotropic as time advances, and
ultimately quite isotropic? Probably yes, for any random initial distribu-
tion, whether of continuous rotationally-moving fluid or of separate finite
vortex rings. Possibly no for some symmetrical initial distribution of
vortex rings, conceivably stable.
14, If the initial distribution be homogeneous and isotropic (and
therefore utterly random in respect to direction), will it remain so? Cer-
tainly yes. I proceed to investigate a mathematical formula, deducible
from the answer, which will be of use to us later (§ 18). By (22) and
(24) we have
xzav uv = 0, for all values oft , ‘ a ee)
But by (2) and (3) we find
d (xzav w) =—xza { wie) 4 pl) PE) +0? ui | (26).
dt da dy 0 dz dy
12
Hence
O0=xzay { yur) yi) wy Lhur) 4 yt? d 2 ; . (27).
de dy dz dae dy
This equation in fact holds for every random case of motion satisfying
(30) below, because positive and negative values of u, v, ware all equally
probable, and therefore the value of the second member of (27) is doubled
by adding to itself what it becomes when for uw, v, w we substitute —u,
—v, —w, which, it may be remarked, and verified by looking at (5), does
not change the value of p.
15. We shall now suppose the initial motion to consist of a laminar
motion [ f(y), 0, 0] superimposed on a homogeneous and isotropic distri-
bution (uo, vp, wo) ; so that we have
when ¢=0, u=f(y)+%, v=, w=wW - a ((28)is
and we shall endeavour to find such a function, f(y,t), that at any time ¢
the velocity-components shall be
F(yt) +, v,w . : . * 4 (29),
where u, v, w are quantities of each of which every large enough average
1s zero, so that particularly, for example,
O=xzav U=xzav v=xzav w - ; . (80)
16. Substituting (29) for wu, v, w in (2) we find
df(y,t) , du { du, df(y,t) du, dw, dud
AN EE A es f)2= AA ted al Sa ate eae ‘eat ied 3
dt dt fy, PEN dy \ (« peascr a ve +2) C®
490 REPORT—1887.
Take now xzav of both members. The second term of the first
member and the second term of the second member disappear, each in
virtue of (30). The first and last terms of the second member disappear,
each in virtue of (18) alone, and also each in virtue of (30). There
remains
df(y.t) v ( du du du )
LGD 2 eer ol ene : . (82):
dé ie ” le Tes ie dz Se
To simplify, add to the second member ae (1) ]
0= —xzav (Zt +4" = +0)
and, the first and third pair of terms of the shaven ci second member
vanishing by (18), find
df(yst) eg Aur)
dicen baa: OY he : Z . (84).
It is to be remarked that this result involves, besides (1), no other
condition respecting (u, v, w) than (50); no isotropy, no homogeneous-
ness in respect to 7; and only homogeneousness of régime with respect to
y and z, with no mean translational motion.
The «-translational mean component of the motion is wholly repre-
sented by /(y,t), and, so far as our establishment of (34) is concerned,
may be of any magnitude, great or small relatively to velocity-components
of the turbulent motion. It is a fundamental formula in the theory of
the turbulent motion of water between two planes; and I had found
it in endeavouring to treat mathematically my brother Professor James
Thomson’s theory of the ‘Flow of Water in Uniform Régime in Rivers
and other Open Channels.’! In endeavouring to advance a step towards
the law of distribution of the laminar motion at different depths, I was
surprised to discover the seeming possibility of a law of propagation as of
distortional waves in an elastic solid, which constitutes the conclusion of
my present communication, on the supposition of §15 that the distribu-
tion Uo, Vp, Wo is isotropic, and that djf(y,t)/dy, divided by the greatest
value of /(y,t), is infinitely small in comparison with the smallest values
of m, n, q, in the Fourier-formule (6), (7), (8) for the turbulent motion.
17. By (84) we see that, if the turbulent motion remained, through
time, isotropic as at the beginning, f(y,¢) would remain constantly at its
initial value f(y). To find whether the turbulent motion does remain
isotropic, and, if it does not, to find what we want to know of its deviation
from isotropy, let us find aay ine) , by (2) and (3), as follows :—First,
by multiplying (31) by v, and (3) by u, and adding, we find
giflat) 5 aCe = —{ fa, IO) + es
dt
- { i) SACS aoe) +0 4 ss pal . (35).
die dy ay
Taking xzay of this, and remarking that the first term of the first member
disappears by (30), and the first term of the second member by (18), we
1 Proceedings of the Royal Society, Aug. 15, 1878.
ON THE VORTEX THEORY OF THE LUMINIFEROUS THER. 491
find, with V2, as in §§ 8, 9, to denote the average y-component-velocity
of the turbulent motion,
“ fxzav (uv)} = _yriftut) —-Q. : - (86),
dy
where
sb d(uv) , dQ) , d(uw) dp dp \
Qeaxav{ 1 az +4 a +w a +v i +u ae (37).
18. Let
p=ypt+a : : : ks
where ) denotes what p would be if f were zero. We find, by (5),
Asap
i 0
hued dy dx
: . = (38),
and, by (27) and (37),
rss da da
Qaxzav(o% +u =) : ° ° - (40),
So far we have not used either the supposition of initial isotropy for
the turbulent motion, or of the infinitesimalness of df/dy. We now must
introduce and use both suppositions.
a To facilitate the integration of (39), we now use our supposition
that ae d #y.t), divided by the greatest value of f(y,t), is infinitely small
in comparison with m, », q, which, as is easily proved, gives
9 4(y,t) 1 ad
dy — V2 de” i é cunt)
by which (40) becomes
Q=- g Ut) XZav (2 — +1 ui) Ny AE Pe . (42).
dy div dy
Now, by (2, a isotropy, we have
te dv
— eee 0 a) ve
d d? ad d\d di
= xzav | V (4+5)) + (uo f,+109) = | V7 Bq x . (43).
Performing integrations by parts for the last two terms of the second
member, and using (1), we find
d d d -2 aft | Bi (3° dw = ad =n
x2av( to Stam) ov Vo —Xzav aay z ms V%
etc & 72 Mo.
dy dy
and so we find, by (43) and (42),
Lee df(y,t) { (J = dug d -2
Qo= sarge eT %0\ ot oo Sap V7 v% - (44)
20. Using now the Fourier expansion (7) for v, we find
nial tee BSSaa3 9 7508 (rap cos (qz+49) (45).
492 REPORT—1887.
Hence we find (with suffixes &c. dropped),
dvy d a eee a: x n? 3? 4G 1
and :
ef, @ 2, _issssy 3 +q7)P* A?
XZaV Vo i + =) A to= > PPP] 22 +n? rm ¢ . . ( i
Now, in virtue of the average uniformity of the constituent terms implied
in isotropy and homogeneousness (§§ 7, 8, 9), the second member of (46)
is equal to —1 S335 55 2 and therefore ($9) equal to —}R*; and
similarly we see that the second member of (47) is equal to +2R?. Hence,
finally, by (44),
Q=— Rn «|e RRS e Senter ns
and (36) for =0, with }R? for V? on account of isotropy, becomes
{ aay (uv) \ =—— he | nd t) \ t (40%.
dt t=0 uy t=0
The deviation from isotropy, which this equation shows, is very small,
because of the smallness of df/dy; and (27) does not need isotropy, but
hoids in virtue of (30). Hence (49) is not confined to the initial values
(values for ¢=0) of the two members, because we neglect an infinitesimal
deviation from 3R? in the first factor of the second member, considering
the smallness of the second factor. Hence, for all values of ¢, unless so
far as the ‘random’ character referred to at the end of §13 may be lost
by a rearrangement of vortices vitiating (27),
d —_ 2p (yt) 5
FTeaal (uv) =—2R oa : ; eye 2 00),
21, Eliminating the first member from this equation, by (34), we find
EAPC as DACRE SORIA Patera 8?
ae a
Thus we have the very remarkable result that laminar disturbance is
propagated according to the well-known mode of waves of distortion in
a homogeneous elastic solid; and that the velocity of propagation is
= R, or about *47 of the average velocity of the turbulent motion of the
fluid. This might seem to go far towards giving probability to the vortex
theory of the luminiferous zther, were it not for the doubtful proviso at
the end of § 20.
22. If the undisturbed condition of the medium be a stable symme-
trical distribution of vortex-rings the suggested vitiation by ‘ rearrange-
ment’ cannot occur. For example, let it be such as is represented in
1 Here and henceforth an averaging through y-spaces so small as to cover no
sensible differences of /(y,t), but infinitely large in proportion to 2~', is im-
plied.
ON THE VORTEX THEORY OF THE LUMINIFEROUS THER. 493
fig. 1, where the small white and black circles represent cross sections of
the rings: the white where the rotation is opposite to, and the black
where it is in the same direction as, the rotation of the hands of a watch
placed on the diagram facing towards the spectator. Imagine first each
vortex-ring to be in a portion of the fluid contained within a rigid
rectangular box, of which four sides are indicated by the fine lines cross-
ing one another at right angles throughout the diagram ; and the other
pair are parallel to the paper, at any distance asunder we like to imagine.
Supposing the volume of rotationally moving portion of the fluid consti-
tuting the ring to be given, there is clearly one determinate shape, and
diametral magnitude, in which it must be given in order that the motion
may be steady. Let it be so given, and fill space with such rectangular
boxes of vortices arranged facing one another oppositely in the manner
shown in the diagram. Annul now the rigidity of the sides of the boxes.
The motion continues unchangedly steady. But is it stable, now that the
rigid partitions are done away with? No proof has yet been given that
Eye. 1.
it is. If it is, laminar waves, such as waves of light, could be propagated
through it; and the velocity of propagation would be RV 2/3 if the
sides of the ideal boxes parallel to the undisturbed planes of the rings are
square (which makes ave u? = ave w?), and if the distance between the
square sides of each box bears the proper ratio to the side of the square
to make ave v? = ave u? = ave w”.
23. Consider now, for example, plane waves, or laminar vibrations, in
planes perpendicular to the undisturbed planes of the rings. The change
of configuration of the vortices in the course of a quarter period of a
harmonic standing vibration, /(y,t) = sin wt cos xg (which is more easily
illustrated diagrammatically than a wave or succession of waves), is illus-
trated in fig. 2, for a portion of the fluid on each side of y=0. The
494 REPORT—1887.
Fig. 2.
Y
(ue) neg. i i
f=0
passim.
O
p
(uv) pos.
Here (uv) means an average of the kind described in the footnote on (46) ;
e, e are rings which are being expanded ;
and c, ¢ are rings which are being contracted.
ON THE VORTEX THEORY OF THE LUMINIFEROUS ATHER. 495
upper part of the diagram represents the state of affairs when t=0;
the lower when t=7/ (2w). But it must not be overlooked, that all
this (§§ 22, 23) depends on the unproved assumption that the symmetrical
arrangement is stable.
24. It is exceedingly doubtful, so far as I can judge after much
anxious consideration from time to time during these last twenty years,
whether the configuration represented in fig. 1, or any other symmetrical
arrangement, is stable when the rigidity of the ideal partitions enclosing
each ring separately is annulled throughout space. It is possible that the
rigidity of two, three, or more of the partitions may be annulled without
vitiating the stability of the steady symmetric motion; but that if it be
annulled through the whole of space, for all the partitions, the symmetric
motion is unstable, and the rings shuffle themselves into perpetually vary-
ing relative positions, with average homogeneousness, like the ultimate
molecules of a homogeneous liquid. I cannot see how, under these
conditions, the ‘ vitiating rearrangement’ referred to at the end of § 20
can be expected not to take piace within the period of a wave or vibration.
To suppose the overall diameter of each ring to be very small in pro-
portion to its average distances from neighbours, so that the crowd would
be analogous rather to the molecules of a gas than to those of a liquid,
would not help us to escape the vitiating rearrangement which would be
analogous to that investigated by Maxwell in his admirable kinetic theory
of the viscosity of gases. I am thus driven to admit, in conclusion, that
the most favourable verdict I can ask for the propagation of laminar
waves through a turbulently moving inviscid liquid is the Scottish verdict
of not proven.
On the Theory of Electric Endosmose and other Allied Phenomena,
and on the Existence of a Sliding Coefficient for a Fluid in
contact with aw Solid. By Professor Horace Lams, V.A., F.RS.
[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso
among the Reports. ]
Tue laws governing the electric transport of conducting liquids through
the walls of porous vessels or along capillary tubes, and other related
phenomena, have been investigated experimentally by Wiedemann! and
Quincke,? and explained by the latter writer on the assumption{of a
contact difference of potential between the fluid and its solid boundaries.
This explanation has been developed mathematically by von Helmholtz
in his well-known paper on electric double layers.2 Applying the known
laws of motion of viscous fluids, he finds that the calculated results, so
far as they depend on quantities which admit of measurement, are in
satisfactory agreement with the experiments, and that the values which
it is necessary to assign to the contact difference above spoken of are in
all cases comparable with the electromotive force of a Daniell’s cell. In-
cidentally he arrives also at the conclusion that in the cases considered
there is no slipping of*the fluid over the surface of the solids with which
it is in contact.
1 Pogg. Ann. \xxxvii. 1852, and xcix. 1856.
2 Thid. cxiii. 1861. An excellent summary is given in Wiedemann’s Elektricitéat
li. pp. 166 et seq.
3 Wied. Ann. vii. 1879; or Collected Papers, i. p. 855.
496 REPORT—1887.
In the present paper a slightly different view is adopted on this latter
point. It is assumed that a solid offers a very great, but not an infinite,
resistance to the sliding of a fluid over it, and that this sliding is an
essential factor in the phenomena referred to. On this modified hypo-
thesis the various cases treated by von Helmholtz are discussed, and in
some respects extended. In all cases the results differ from those obtained
by von Helmholtz by a factor 1/d, where J is a linear magnitude measur-
ing the ‘slip,’ and d is the distance between the plates of an air condenser
equivalent to that virtually formed by the opposed surfaces of soiid and
fluid. For instance, comparing with the experimental results of Wiede-
mann, von Helmholtz infers that for a certain solution of CuSO, in con-
tact with the material of a porous clay vessel,
H/D=1-77,
where E is the contact difference of potential, and D the E.M.F. of a
Daniell’s cell. On the views adopted in this paper, the inference
would be—
E 1 9
aa ca LAA:
Since this involves #wo unknown ratios, no such definite conclusion as to
the value of E can be drawn; but it is evident that the phenomena are con-
sistent even with very small values of E/D, provided / be a sufficient mul.
tiple of d. Since this quantity dis of molecular order of magnitude (com-
parable probably with 10-*cm.), 7 may still be so small that the effects of
slipping would be entirely insensible in such experiments as those of
Poiseuille.
1. In Wiedemann’s experiments the poles of a galvanic battery were
connected with two metal plates immersed in a conducting liquid (for
instance, copper plates in a solution of CuSO,) and separated by a porous
partition. In one set of experiments the liquid was maintained at the
same level on the two sides, and the amount carried by ‘electric
endosmose’ through the pores was measured by the overflow on the
further side. This amount was found to be proportional to the total
amount of electricity conveyed by the current, and independent of the
area or of the thickness of the porous partition. For solutions of the
same salt, but of different degrees of concentration, the amount of fluid
carried across was roughly proportional to the specific electric
resistance.
As typical of this class of experiment, von Helmholtz considers the
case of a straight tube of uniform section, made of insulating material,
and containing a liquid through which an electric current is made to
flow. Taking the axis of x parallel to the length of the tube, let w be the
velocity of the fluid at any point, y» the coefficient of viscosity, B the
coefficient of sliding friction of the fluid in contact with the wall of the
tube. Considering the forces acting on a thin surface film, and denoting
by dn an element of the inwardly directed normal, we find—
popu X=0 dacs, teins
where the first term is due to the fluid friction on the inner surface of
the film, the second to the friction between the outer surface and the
tube, while the third term represents the external forces reckoned per
unit area. In all ordinary hydrodynamical questions the latter term is
—St—=*s
ON ELECTRIC ENDOSMOSE AND OTHER ALLIED PHENOMENA. 497
absent, but in the present case we have forces due to the fall of potential
along the tube, acting on the superficial layer. Let HK be the excess of
potential of the liquid in contact with the wall of the tube over that of
the wall itself. It has been pointed out by von Helmholtz that a discon-
tinuity of potential implies the existence, over the surface of discontinuity,
of a ‘double layer’ of positive and negative electricity (analogous to the
magnetic shells of Ampére), the difference of potential on the two sides
being equal to 47 times the electrical moment of the layer. We therefore
suppose that in our present case there exists in a thin superficial stratum
of the fluid a distribution of electricity whose amount per unit area is p,
say, whilst in a thin superficial stratum of the solid there is a complement-
ary distribution—p. If d denote (in an obvious sense) the mean distance
between these distributions, we have
K = 4zpd,
or ;
p =(cH : : : 5 (2)
if
c= 1/4rd,
that is, c denotes the capacity per unit area of the quasi-condenser formed
by the opposed surfaces of solid and fluid. For the case of metallic
electrodes (platinum, mercury) in contact with acidulated water, von
Helmholtz and Lippmann have independently found the value of d to be
comparable with 10-8 cm., and we may reasonably suppose it to be of a
similar order of magnitude in the cases at present under consideration.
If ¢ denote the electric potential at any point in the interior of the
fluid, we have
— a
mas doals odd nadiie ea RAD
If Q be the sectional area of the tube, J the electric current through
it, o the specific resistance of the liquid, we have, by Ohm’s law—
Tigeep Epa ois ..apibaaty wera
When the motion has become steady, there being no difference of fluid
pressure between the two ends of the tube, the velocity w will be uniform
over the section, so that the equation (1) becomes
od
Bu =r : : : : (5)
and therefore the total flux per second is
J
U=uQ =5 Beads AL. BE hunk: 308)
Since in most cases the flux is in the positive direction of the electric
_ current, we must assume that, as a rule, H is positive, 7.e., the fluid is
positive relatively to the solid.!
To compare with von Helmholtz’s result let us write
c=1/4rd . : 2 : : (7)
} The most noteworthy exception appears to be oil of turpentine in contact with
glass or clay. In contact with sulphur, on the other hand, it appears to be positive.
(Quincke.)
1887. KK
498 REPORT—1887.
as before, and
p[B=1 7 3 4 3 (8)
The constant J, which is of the nature of a line, measures, as it were, the
facility of slipping. In ordinary hydrodynamical problems, in which
there is no question of external surface-forces, the surface condition (1)
reduces to
du
u=l dn . * . . « (9)
The motion will then be sensibly the same as it would be on the hypo-
thesis of no slipping, provided a layer of thickness J were removed from
the surface of the solid and replaced by fluid, it being supposed that 7
is small compared with all the dimensions of the space occupied by fiuid.
On making the substitutions (7) and (8), the formula (6) becomes
Spe agtial
Die ge Ee oe on Ce
dou.” dh ss
which differs from von Helmholtz’s result only in containing the
factor 1/d.
In one respect the difference between the view here taken and that
adopted by von Helmholtz is little more than verbal. Von Helmholtz
considers that the velocity ~ is practically uniform over the section of
the tube, except near the wall, where it falls rapidly to zero. The
stratum within which this fall is supposed to take place is that occupied
by the (probably) molecular charges of electricity, whose aggregate is
represented by p. The two views might perhaps be reconciled by inter-
preting von Helmholtz’s investigation as virtually a proof that J=d, if it
were not for the assumption that the equations of motion of a viscous
fluid, as well as the electrostatic equation
Vd + 4ue=0
(where y?=d?/dx? + d?/dy? + d?/dz*, and ¢ is the volume-density of
free electricity), may be supposed to hold through the thickness of the
stratum in question. Since these equations are only true in a statistical
sense, when the linear elements dz, dy, dz are taken to be large in com-
parison with the average distance between neighbouring molecules,
whereas the thickness of the stratum is almost certainly not more than
a very moderate multiple of this distance, it seems doubtful whether
they can fairly be pressed into service in the manner indicated.
Although we have only somewhat vague probabilities to guide us, it
appears reasonable to suppose, from what we know of contact differences
of potential in cases where they can be measured, that the ratio E/D will
not very greatly exceed or fall below unity; that it will lie, say, between
about ‘lL and 10. If this be so, the comparison of our theory with the
observations entitles us to say that the sliding coefficient / is at all events
of the same order of magnitude as d. If for water in contact with glass /
were equal to 10-*cm., this would make .
B=p/l=1-4 x 10° C.G.S.;
in other words, the shearing stress necessary (in the absence of electrical
surface forces) to produce a sliding of one centimétre per second would
be 1-4 megadynes per square centimetre. It follows that the effects of
slipping would be utterly insensible in ordinary hydrodynamical questions,
ON ELECTRIC ENDOSMOSE AND OTHER ALLIED PHENOMENA. 499
e.g., the experiments of Poiseuille. The slipping leads to appreciable
results in the cases at present in view, only in consequence of the relatively
enormous electrical forces acting on the superficial film, and dragging the
fluid (as it were) by the skin, through the tube.
The formula (6) may be written—
Flux of liquid soc
Flux of electricity ~ /
(11)
In this form it can be shown to be true, under a certain restriction, for a
tube of varying section, for a network of tubes, and even for the labyrinth
of channels contained in the walls of a porous vessel, provided no
difference of pressure be allowed to establish itseif'on the two sides.
Let ¢ denote as before the electric potential at any point of the fluid
It will appear that all the conditions of our problem will be satisfied if
we suppose the motion of the fluid to be irrotational, the velocity-potential
x being everywhere proportional to ¢.
Since y*x = 0, the equations of steady small motion of a viscous
liquid, viz.—
are satisfied by p= const. To form the boundary condition correspond-
ing to (1), let ds be a linear element drawn on the surface in the direction
of the flow of liquid, and therefore also of electricity. We obtain—
dx d
rf-B Xp =0 E tle ter ticinn deat thats)
where f is the rate of shear in a, plane through ds normal to the surface.
If 7 be small in comparison with the linear dimensions of the channels
the first term of this equation may, in the cases at present under con-
sideration, be neglected in comparison with the rest,! so that (13) is
satisfied provided—
x= — Be - Se eeaet Ss (14)
everywhere. Hence the flow of liquid is everywhere in the same
1 To see this, take the origin at any point of the boundary, and the axis of z along
the normal, ard let the equation to the boundary then be
2=43(Aw?+ 2Bay + Cy?) + &e.
If the axis of # be in the direction of the flow at O, we have to prove that Id°x/dadz
may be neglected in comparison with dx/dx, It is proved in the appendix to this
paper that at O we must have
Be = Au + Br,
and therefore
dadz da’
which proves the statement made above, when Z is small in comyarison with the
radii of curvature of the wall.
Kk 2
500 REPORT—1887.
direction as that of electricity, and stands to it in the ratio of x to—¢/c,
that is, in the ratio cp/8. The formula (11) embraces all the laws dis-
covered experimentally by Wiedemann for the electric transport of liquids
through porous vessels.
2. If a difference of pressure obtains between the two sides of a porous
wall, or between the two ends of a capillary tube, the flux above calcu-
lated must be superposed on that which would be maintained (as in
Poiseuille’s experiments) by this difference of pressure in the absence of
electrical forces. ‘This follows at once from the linearity of the equations,
Wiedemann and Quincke have made experiments in which the fluxes of
liquid due to the two causes just balance one another, the subject of
measurement being the difference of pressure which exists between the
two sides when this equilibrium is established. In Wiedemann’s experi-
ments the difference of pressure maintained in this way between the two
sides of a porous partition was found to vary directly as the strength of
the electric current, inversely as the area of the porous wall, and directly
as its thickness. For solutions of different degrees of concentration the
pressure was proportional to the electric resistance.
In the case of a tube of uniform circular section, treated by von
Helmholtz, taking the axis of # along the axis of the tube, and using
cylindrical coordinates w, 7, the first of the equations (12) becomes
dp _ (a ot) 1
gee Par) ce 8 ee
Here p is a function of # only, u one of ry only. Hence each side of the
equation must be constant and = P/U, where L is the length of the tube,
and P the difference of pressure between its ends. Hence
cafes tet
barat vt
Determining C so that the integral flux across the section is zero, we
find
iy R?
ee : é , ye EM
Uw ail’ 5 ) (16)
The velocities close to the wall and in the axis of the tube are equal and
opposite. The surface condition, viz.
— #7, — bu— pq = 9 ° * ~, ALP)
leads, since
dps ad
dita nEe
to
8y.L od
P=—Ri+4y/BR) B ?
2o3L 1
= PRI +4/R) a’ ©
If A denote the total E.M.F. along the tube, and if we neglect the
small term //R in the denominator, we get
Pe Gn See ae ees
ON ELECTRIC ENDOSMOSE AND OTHER ALLIED PHENOMENA. 501
which again differs from yon Helmholtz’s result only in containing the
factor 1/d, The comparison with Quincke’s experiments on the discharge
of Leyden jars, &c., through a column of liquid in a slightly inclined
capillary tube can then be made exactly as in von Helmholtz’s paper.
The result contained in (18) can be generalised. Taking, for example,
the case of a porous vessel, it has been shown that the flux of liquid due
to electrical causes is =
och
x flux of electricity.
The flux due to the difference of pressure P on the two sides is
reall K,
where K is a constant depending on the form and arrangement of the
channels and on the values of » and 8. This constant might be called
the ‘ hydraulic resistance’ of the system of channels. Equating the total
flux of liquid to zero, we find
Koch
P= 3X flux of electricity : ; Awe 25)
For a tube of uniform circular section we have, neglecting 1/R,
K = 8uL/7R‘,
leading to our previous result.
3. Quincke has also made observations on the motion of fine particles
suspended in a liquid through which electric currents are flowing. For
instance, in the case discussed in § 2, where, under the influence of an
electric current, the fluid in a tube of circular section flows (as a rule)
forwards along the walls and backwards along the axis, the integral flux
across any section being zero, he found, using a glass tube ‘4mm. in dia-
meter, that for a certain strength of current the particles near the axis
move backwards, whilst those near the walls move forwards, though with
less velocity. For stronger currents the motion of the suspended particles
is everywhere backwards, but more rapid the nearer to the axis. In
narrower tubes the motion was everywhere backwards, even with the
feeblest currents which were sufficient to produce perceptible motion
at all.
These phenomena have been explained in a general manner by Quincke
and von Helmholtz. If E denote the contact-difference of potential
between the solid particle and the fluid, we have electrifications = cE on
the opposed surfaces, which are therefore urged in opposite directions by
the electric forces whose components are — d¢/de, —do/dy, —do/dz.
The principles of this paper lead to a very simple expression for the
velocity of an isolated particle when the motion has become steady, viz.,
the velocity relative to the fluid in this neighbourhood is in the direction
of the electric current, and its amount is
VS—Gp/8 ~ . _ meulidiipo nepgy
where C denotes the gradient of electric potential, and p, 3 have the same
meanings as before. To prove this take the axis of « parallel to the
general direction of the electric current in the neighbourhood of the
particle. The problem is virtually unaltered if we suppose the fluid to
flow with the general velocity — V past the solid, which is at rest. The
electric potential at a distance from the solid will be of the form
502 REPORT—1887.
@=—Cr+8,4+8_.4+8_3;4+ . A 2. (1)
where So, S_,, S_3 . . . are solid harmonics of the degrees indicated.
These latter terms represent the disturbance of the otherwise uniform flow
of electricity by the presence of the insulating solid particles. It will be
found that all the conditions of our problem are satisfied by supposing
the fluid motion to be irrotational. We therefore write for the velocity
potential at a distance
X= —Va+T o+T_.+T_3+ ° e . (22)
where Ty, T_5, T_,... are solid harmonics. The surface condition will
be of the form (13), in which we may neglect the first term if we suppose
the quantity / defined by (8) to be small in comparison with the dimen-
sions oi the particle.! Hence the condition is satisfied provided
=-l¢ wooty a@etpieal Leva CBD
and therefore
Visa pee. > ee
In order to satisfy ourselves that the assumption (23) makes the result-
ant force and couple on the sphere equal to zero, it will be sufficient to
show that the force and couple-resultants of the stress across a closed
surface &, drawn in the fluid and just enclosing the solid are zero. Using
a common notation for the components of stress at any point of the fluid
we have
. (35)
where p is constant, by (12). The resultant stress parallel to z across
the complete boundary = of any space occupied by fluid is
\] (UP ex FMP ry tNPre) AX,
where J, m, n are the direction-cosines of the normal to any element d> of
the boundary. This surface-integral is equal to the volume-integral
(he +g +S)
taken throughout the interior of 3, which vanishes, by (25), since y?y=0.
In a similar manner it may be shown that the couple-resultant of the
stress across & is zero. Now let = be made up of the surface 3, above
defined, and of a sphere &, of infinite radius having its centre at the
origin. It follows that the stresses across ¥, are statically equivalent to
those across 3. And it easily follows from (22) that the latter stresses
are in equilibrium.
It is remarkable that the velocity (24) is independent of the size or
shape of the particle, so long as its dimensions are large in comparison
with 7. This velocity is, of course, to be superposed on that of the fluid
1 For the case of a sphere of radius R, I find without making this approximation that
Ve —P(1+27/R).
ON ELECTRIC ENDOSMOSE AND OTHER ALLIED PHENOMENA. 503
in the neighbourhood. For instance, in the circumstances of Quincke’s
experiments we have
Bae,
7R”
and, therefore, for a suspended particle of the same nature as the walls of
the tube we should have for the absolute velocity the value
Sei Goa
27R? B
when the particle is in the axis, and
ld
27R?. B
when it is near the walls.!
4. We may next consider the electromotive forces produced by the
passage of a liquid through a capillary tube or a porous diaphragm.
This subject has been studied experimentally by Quincke, Edlund, Haga,
Clark, and more recently by Dorn,? the general result being that the
potential is higher on the side where the pressure is least by an amount
proportional to the difference of pressure. The phenomenon is ascribed
to a sort of electric convection, the superficial electrified layer of fluid
carrying its charge with it as it slides over the walls of the channels.
In the case of a straight uniform tube, for instance, there is in this way
a transfer of positive electricity along the walls, from the near to the
farther end, which is compensated, if no other path is open, by conduction
backwards through the column of liquid in the tube. If the tube be of
varying section there will be a tendency also to convergence of positive
or negative electricity by convection at intermediate points, and a conse-
quent establishment of ‘ sources’ and ‘sinks’ as regards the conducting
mass of fluid in the interior.
Taking the case of a tube of circular section, through which fluid is
forced by an excess of pressure P, and using the same notation as in § 2,
we find by the ordinary theory of Poiseuille’s experiments
EP
u= 7p (RP +2.R/B) ie hea
Hence the total quantity of electricity carried per second along the wall
of the tube is
If no other conducting channel is open the electricity thus carried forward
will return by ordinary conduction through the column of liquid in the
tube. Since the resistance of this column is cl/zR?, the difference of
potential between the ends of the tube is
P
Bob rere aiiiah ee ot aera
If E is positive (as it appears to be in most cases) the higher potential is
1 Tt is to be noticed that one of Quincke’s observations remains unexplained,
viz., the fact that in sufficiently wide tubes the direction of motion of particles near
the walls varied with the strength cf the current.
* For references see Wicdemann, Hehtricitat, ii. pp. 153 et seq.
504 REPORT—1887.
at the end towards which the liquid is forced. With the same substitutions
as before, this becomes
Pi pd
dary ‘aa E . ° ° é (28)
differing from von Helmholtz’s result by the factor //d, as in the previous
cases. !
This result does not involve the dimensions of the tube, and may
therefore be surmised, like that contained in (10), to be of much wider
application than to the particular form of channel above considered. It
may be shown, in fact, that if a liquid is forced by pressure through
any system of channels with homogeneous walls, and no external path is
provided for the electricity set free at various points of these, the result-
ing distribution of electric potential is given by
= — "3 P+ const. - 3 : d (29)
In the first place it follows from (12) that this value of ¢ satisfies
Vv’? = 0.
We have next to take account of the fact that the integral amount ot
electricity which, in consequence of the slipping of the superficial film of
liquid, crosses the contour of any elementary area dS of the wall is not
in general accurately zero, and that each such element dS must be re-
garded, in relation to the conducting mass of liquid, as a (positive or
negative) ‘source’ of electricity. If “the origin be taken in this element,
and the axis of z normal to it, the strength of this source is
du, dv
=| (eel
(ate) :
or
Now at the origin we have
w=0
du , dw
u=i($ S 2)
dv , dw
= || ee
(5 P) fa dy )
and if 7 be small in comparison with the radii of curvature of the walls,
&c., we may neglect the second terms in the brackets.?, Under the same
circumstances we shall also have, approximately,
ddupep itr ai rea}
du _j
dx dzd
fie ae | 4s, aa ee
dy dzdy
1 Dorn infers from a comparison of his experimental results with von Helmholtz’s
formula that for water in contact with the glass of his tubes E/D =3:9, about.
2 The justification of these and the following approximations is given in the
Appendix
ON ELECTRIC ENDOSMOSE AND OTHER ALLIED PHENOMENA. 5095
so that the expression for the strength of the ‘ source’ becomes
au , dv
— (oe oe),
dedz dydz
1@u
Oe
or
We may further neglect d?w/dzx?, d?w/dy? in comparison with d?w/dz?,
so that the last expression may be written
ply*w,
which equals
pl dp
pe dz
by (12). Hence (29) makes
source = — 1 a
o dz
which is the proper surface condition for ¢.
5. A similar investigation applies to the electromotive forces called
into play by the motion of solid particles through a liquid. This pheno-
menon, which is in a sense the converse of that discussed in § 3, has been
observed by Dorn in the case of grains of sand, or glass beads, descend-
ing by gravity through a vertical column of water. For the case of
steady motion the formula (29) shows that the top of the column will
be at a higher potential than the base by an amount equal to op/f times
the pressure per unit area of the base due to the solid particles. This
pressure is equal to the effective weight (i.e., the gravity minus the buoy-
aney) of the particles vertically over the unit area. Jn Dorn’s experi-
ments the observed excess of potential was in fact positive, in accordance
with the general rule that p (and therefore E) is positive, but the data
are not sufficient for further comparison with theory.
The details of the process may be illustrated by the case of a spherical
particle. If r denote the distance from the centre, # the angular distance
from the lowest radius, the stream-function for the relative motion is of
the form
A
oe (| +Br—3Vr") Ei cy ondateheahaed pummita 25
where V is the velocity of the sphere. The relative velocity of the fluid
over the surface is therefore
es pice
if R be the radius. In consequence of the slipping, the zone bounded by
6 and 6+ gains electricity at the rate
if A
ae (B-R +V)sin? 6 5 . (88)
d
—pz,(27R sind. ©)d8.
Dividing by the area 27R? sin 6. d0 of the zone, we find that each point of
the spherical surface is, in regard to the surrounding conducting mass, a
source of electricity of strength
2/A B
—alg—RtY) p cos 6
506 REPORT—1887.
per unit area. Now
A/R§=—1V/(1+31/R)
B/R=3V (1421/R)/(1-431/R) } - Gap
whence, for the strength of the source,
3V
—R Ipcosé . : : - = (35)
approximately. The corresponding potential at any point of the fluid is
therefore of the form
pa + const. 5 ne oe ne Gey
with the condition that at the surface
ld¢ 3V
—F dr RPP O98 0;
whence
C=—3cVRip . : ’ : E fo7)
If we neglect the slippiag, the hydrodynamical theory gives
p= pVR = Gir const. . . : 238)
so that the relation (29) is verified.
6. It is to be noticed that a comparison of the results of § 1 with
those of § 4 indicates the existence of a Dissipation-Function ; and
from this point of view the connection between the various classes of
phenomena discussed in this paper may be very concisely exhibited.
Considering, for instance, the case of a porous diaphragm, and distinguish-
ing the two sides of it by the letters A and B, let P be the excess of
pressure, and V that of electric potential, in the fluid on the side A. If
U be the quantity of finid, J that of electricity, which is transferred per
second from A to B, then the rate of dissipation of energy is
2F = PU+Vd “ : : . (39)
Now P and V are obviously linear functions of U and J, say
P=KU-kd
VEADHRTS 1s ty ctoutun the oA)
where K is the hydraulic and R the electric resistance of the system of
channels. In the case of § 1 we have P = 0, and therefore
mee
U=-24,
whilst, in § 2, U=0, and therefore
Pics
1 Motion of Fluids, § 185. I take occasion to correct the final result (46) of the
article referred to. The dissipation of energy by sliding friction has been over-
looked. Allowing for this I now find, in the notation there employed,
P= Gua . (1 + 2u/Ba)/(1+3p/Ba).
If »/Ba (=Z\a) be small, this is equal to the resistance which would be experienced
by a sphere of radius a—J in the absence of slipping.
ON ELECTRIC ENDOSMOSE AND OTHER ALLIED PHENOMENA. 507
Again, in the case of § 4 we have J = 0, and therefore
r
V=AU = 7 -P.
The results we have obtained show that
k=A=-—Kop/B . . . : (41)
Hence we have
pa
dU 42
Beye
Ty
where
F=}KU?— =P UI +4R0° Me ahs see eh aay
that is, F possesses the characteristic property of a dissipation-function.'
If we had been entitled a priori to assert the existence of such a function,
the laws of the phenomena considered in § 4 could have been deduced
from those of § 1.
If the suffixes , and , refer to the circumstances of two different
experiments we have
P,U,+V\Jo=P,U, + Vody . . . (44)
In particular if P}\=0, J,=0,
Mis oe Ut
of aie
as is otherwise evident from (41) and the preceding equations.
I do not know whether experiments on the electric transfusion of
liquids through a porous diaphragm, and on the electromotive forces
developed by difference of pressure between the two sides, have ever been
made with the same apparatus. In any future experiments on these
subjects, the testing of the reciprocal relation (45) would be of interest,
and would apparently not present any great difficulty.
gies’, GUS bx act wha)
APPENDIX.
I give here the proof of certain relations which held between the Auid
velocities u, v, w, and their space-derivatives at any point of a rigid
boundary. Some of these have been employed in §§ 1 and 4.
Taking the origin on the boundary, and the axis of z along the normal,
let the equation to the boundary be
a=}(Aa?+2Bay+ Cy?) +4(Fa?+3Ga’y+3Hey?+ Ky?)+ . . (46)
y y 6 y y y
Let us first express the kinematical condition that the velocity in the
direction of the normal is zero at all points of the wall. The direction-
cosines of the normal at any point (a, y) near the origin are
—(Aa+ By)—43(F2?+2Gay + Hy?)
— (Ba + Cy) —$(Ga?+ 2Hay + Ky’) ’
(47)
1—}(Av-+By)?—}(Be-+ Cy)?
1 See Rayleigh’s Sownd, i. § 81.
508 REPORT—1887.
approximately. The condition in question therefore is
d d
— {Av+By+3(Fe?+2Gay+Hy?)} (ut aetat :
d d
— {Be+ Cy +3(Ga?+2Hay + Ky?} v+F a+ alt pie:
dw
dy
d?w
dw dw
+4 (a oe ae ayi!") a ae
where the symbols w, v, w, &c., denote the values of these quantities at the
origin. It follows that
+{l—...} fo eat y+) 0" (Ac? + 2Bey + Cy?
w=0,
d
], ~Au—Bv=0
‘ J m (48)
epee, 25 BH gee
dy
d?w dw du dv
d?w dw du _»(du_ dv dv
dady * as Oe = He dy B (i452) 020 A (49)
8 ty Ky 2B 208 9
dy? dz dy dy
Take next the dynamical boundary conditions, At the origin these are !
du dw
w=(E+7)]
dv dw j
v= (5+)
Substituting the values of dw/dz, dw/dy from (48), we see that if we
neglect JA, JB, JC in comparison with unity, we have
pn Roe tate ie tis
du
“= la
, (51)
_ jae
UTR de
Hence if q denote the velocity parallel to a tangent line at any point P
of the wall, we have at P
Bit od -mpshunes “abit coches
or if Aj, ~,, ”; be the direction-cosines of the normal, and Ay, po, vo
those of the tangent line,
Agu + pov + Yow — 10 < + My a ng.) (Agu + pov + vgw) » (53)
in which of course Aj, 2, v2 are to be treated as constants during the
differentiations, Let us apply this to the case when P is any point
1 We are here considering cases where, as in §§ 4, 5, the electric surface-forces
may be neglected, being of the second order.
ON ELECTRIC ENDOSMOSE AND OTHER ALLIED PHENOMENA, 509
(2, y) near the origin. The values of dj, 41, ”, for this case have been
given in (47), whilst we may write
Ag: fg? Vg = du: dy: (Az+ By)de+(Be + Cy)dy+...
Substituting in (53) and equating coefficients of dz, dy, we find
wt+(Ac+By+.... ise ty fe
tl
+(Ac+By+ . Oe +H at a 2}
(54)
aerey git ‘lw
Se pale J(u gaat ‘dy * “ay
In Bicas equations u, v, w, &e., denote the values of these quantities at
the point (a, y), and must be expanded i in terms of a, y. Performing the
expansiops and equating coefficients of x, y, we get the following four
relations :—
du du du, d?u dw
—==t(—A ——B A
du (- dz, dy ‘3 dadz dz )
du bey B du ol d?u dw
(- da dy dyde* i) (55)
dv dv dy dw ° :
stan (tN
(- dz 7 aeat 3 =)
dv dv dv dy dw
am (-Bz -0 5+ avast Cae)
If we neglect 7A, 7B, 7C as before, these equations combined with the
equation of continuity
du , dv , dw
det dy dz = =e
reduce to
dw 1 au
dz dadz
| du yu
di dydz
dv _, ‘2, Bngsa das Meese
dz dadz
: dv _1 dn
dy — dydz
:
If there is no slipping 1=0, and the preceding equations then show that
the following quantities all vanish at the origin—
4, de du
* da’ dy’
dy dv
> da? dy’
dw dw dw dw dw dw
”s da’ dy’ dz’ dx? dzxdy’ dy?’
510 REPORT—-1887,.
the last three quantities vanishing in virtue of (49). We may therefore
write in this case—
9 d*w
Vw = 7?
a result which must also hold good approximately when is not zero,
provided it be small in comparison with the other linear magnitudes
concerned,
Gold and Silver: their Geological Distribution and their Probable
Future Production. By WiLu1AM Torley, F.G.S., Assoc.Inst.C.L.,
Geological Survey of England and Wales, Recorder of Section C
(Geology).
[A paper prepared at the request of Section F (Economics), and ordered to be
printed in extenso by the General Committee. ]
[PLATES VI., VII., VIII, and IX.]
Amonest the numerous causes to which the recent depression of
trade has been attributed that of variations in the production of the
precious metals is on all hands allowed to be of importance. Hconomists
differ as to the extent to which this variation influences prices, but all
will allow that it has some influence; many believe that it is entitled to
the first consideration.
It is, therefore, of interest to review the sources from which our present
supply of gold and silver is obtained, and to ascertain (if possible) what
is likely to be the supply in the near future.
Of late years the production of gold has declined. Is it likely that
this decline will continue? If so, will it be rapid or gradual; or may
there be periods of oscillation in an average gradual decline ? Again, is
it probable that the fature production of gold will be chiefly from the old
goldfields; or are these, as some believe, rapidly becoming exhausted,
and must we look elsewhere ?
As regards silver, for many years past there has been an increased
annual production and a corresponding fall in value. This fall in the
value of silver bears hardly upon countries where silver is the only
standard of currency, and is especially disastrous in India. The question
as to the probable future supply of this metal is therefore only second in
importance to that concerning gold.
Questions of this wide character cannot adequately be treated in a
short paper. All that I can hope to do, and all that is expected of me, is
to treat the matter in general terms ; to show where, and to some extent
why, the supplies of the precious metals have varied in amount, and to
indicate, if possible, where our future supplies may be looked for.
In place of long tables of figures, giving the yield of different countries,
I have constructed diagrams. These have the advantage of presenting
the general results at a glance, and of enabling us readily to compare one
country, or one set of figures, with another. It may be objected that
these diagrams do not give exact data; that the produce cannot be read
off to within a few hundred thousand pounds. To this objection it is
sufficient to reply that the pretended accuracy of figures given in pub-
lished tabular statements has but slender foundation. For our Australian
colonies and for Nova Scotia the yield of gold is fairly well known.
_ 37% Report Plate Vl
|
#30,000,000
£25000,000
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£ 5,000,000
SNIZA wOHs ATCO
Pai | fa
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BLE |
es Plate V1
4 Report Brit Assoc
GOLD PRODUCTION OF THE WORLD
Shewing the Total Gold Production, the yield of the Chic Gold producing districts,
and (appraconately) the Proporaun of Gold obtamed trom Quart. and Placer mining,
and. from Siver-ores in the United States “
ool Sanaa ae d [eee l 1g
‘sszooqnoa| ea [al 4 Bee im jelet f + | £35 000001
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rn { aa
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| fl A E |
| | It | Q | AS, a Daas
[inf aio i i aT ; ES i
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#000000 TI : x! 2 ° f bs 8 £5,000,000
{| TALL 5 [ a - oO) - i {4 3
| 1 ab jemelht |. | f r
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Miustrating M Willi Tipleys Paper on Gold und Silver: ther Coolapoal Lretribntion ard Probable bidureLroduction
ON GOLD AND SILVER. 511
Probably also the gold of the United States, of Russia, and that from metal-
lurgical processes are known with sufficient exactness. But all other
figures are simply estimates, often from very loose and insufficient data.
The statistics of gold from vein-mining are more easily obtained, and are
generally more accurate, than those relating to placer-mining ; placer mines
being generally spread over large areas, and in the hands of many sets of
mining adventurers. The actual returns-from mines will likewise be of
varying value: where a duty has to be paid the return will be kept low;
where a mine has to be puffed its ‘returns’ will be kept up. Again, ina
large number of cases, the only estimate made is of gold exported, and this,
even if correct in itself, may not fairly represent the yield of any one year.
Much information upon the production of gold and silver is contained
in the ‘ First Report of the Gold and Silver Commission,’ just published,
and in the ‘ Report from the Select Committee on Depreciation of Silver,
1876; some also in the ‘Report of the Royal Commission on Depres-
sion of Trade, 1886.’ The fullest statistics are those of Dr. Ad. Soetbeer,
a second edition of whose book appeared last year.!_ There are also the
statistics prepared by the Mint authorities of the United States, and the
general statistics collected by Jacob, Del Mar, and others.
Dr. Soetbeer’s figures are those generally quoted; but those of Sir
Hector Hay are evidently prepared with great care, and should be com-
pared with the former.?
Mr. Stewart Pixley submitted a set of figures to the Gold and Silver
Commission differing widely from all others. I have placed them on the
following table, but have not elsewhere made use of them.
As indicating the uncertainty which hangs over this question, I give
here these various estimates of the world’s gold production for recent
years :—
Dr. Soetbeer : Sir H. Hay Mr. S. Pixley
(1886) (1887) (1887)
£ £ £
1876 23,151,000 22,300,000 23,600,000
1877 25,033,000 23,400,000 15,200,000
1878 25,926,000 22,100,000 20,700,000
1879 23,340,000 20,800,000 13,100,000
1880 22,812,000 21,200,000 9,300,000
1881 22,162,000 20,600,000 9,900,000
1§82 20,212,000 20,200,000 14,301,000
1883 20,164,000 19,600,000 7,700,000
1884 20,383,000 19,100,000 10,700,000
With variations such as these, it is evidently idle to trouble about
fractions of a million in estimating the world’s production; and fora
similar reason, in considering the future supply, we need pay but little
heed to a country where the production is below a quarter of a million,
unless it may happen that several increasing countries may together
amount to a sum which would have an appreciable effect upon the world’s
supply.
1 Materialien zur FPriiuterung und Beurteilung der wirtschaftlichen Edelmetall-
verhdltnisse und der Wahrungsfrage. 4to., Berlin, 1866. With an Appendix of Dia-
grams.
2 Sir Hector Hay’s tables of 1887 give rather larger figures than those published
by him in 1876. They have been revised to date by the best authorities obtainable.
512 REPORT—1887.
It is important to bear in mind that the conditions under which gold
has been obtained have varied much in different periods. In the early
ages of the world gold was chiefly obtained by forced labour. African
slavery was first employed by the Carthaginians in working the gold and
silver mines of Spain ; and centuries later the Spaniards revived this in
working the gold and silver mines of the New World. Moreover, the
influx of the precious metals which followed the discovery of Mexico and
South America was due to gold already raised, and which was stolen from
the natives, and not at first to actual mining by the invaders. The hands
of Englishmen have not always been clean in dealing with native races,
especially where gold has been concerned ; but our record is honour itself
when compared with that of those who preceded us in the New World.
Again, the great influxes of gold have come from the discovery and
rapid development of alluvial deposits, which, in time, became exhausted ;
and a steady supply for the future must, for the most part, be sought for
in ordinary mining, and in the metallurgical treatment of ores containing
small quantities of gold and silver.
Another important point in regard to future supply is the improve-
ment in mining, milling, and metallurgical processes.
In the ordinary methods of alluvial working there are considerable
losses, and one source of future supply will be the re-washing of the waste
workings of former years. The Californian method of ‘ Hydraulicking’ is
the most complete plan for extracting a high percentage of gold from
gravels, &c., but this can only be employed where large quantities of
water are available at considerable pressure, and where the débris can be
disposed of without injury to rivers and cultivated lands.
Mode of Occurrence of Gold.—Gold may be roughly classed under two
heads, descriptive of its mode of occurrence :—1. In quartz-veins, cutting
through the rocks, though occasionally almost coinciding with the
bedding. 2. In detrital beds, derived from the denudation of rocks con-
taining veins of auriferous quartz.
Veins of auriferous quartz rarely occur except in association with
eruptive rocks; in the older rocks often with granites, and generally in
association with dykes of diabase or diorite. So close is this association
that we are led to believe that the eruptive rocks are the means by which
the gold has been brought up towards the earth’s surface, and thence con-
centrated by slow aqueous action in the quartz-veins.
That such has been the origin of the gold and silver in the Comstock
may now be taken as proved :—‘ The diabase shows a noteworthy contents
in the precious metals, most of which is found in the augite. The de-
composed diabase contains about half as much of these metals as the fresh
rock. The relative quantities of gold and silver in the fresh and decom-
posed diabase correspond fairly well with the known composition of the
Comstock bullion. ‘The total exposure of diabase is sufficient to account
for far more bullion than has been extracted from the mines. . . . Where
ore is found in diorite, or in contact with it, it is usually of low grade,
and its value is chiefly in gold. The notably productive ore bodies have
been found in contact with diabase, and they have yielded by weight
about twenty times as much silver as gold.’ !
1q@. F. Becker, ‘The Comsteck Lode,’ 2nd Ann. Rep. U.S. Geological Survey,
1882, p. 309.
OO a
ON GOLD AND SILVER. 513
The greater part of the more productive auriferous veins are contained
within Cambrian or Silurian rocks, generally in argillaceous strata or in
alternations of slates and thin sandstones. But some veins are in
Archean rocks (S. America, W. of Lake Superior, and India); some in
altered rocks, which are supposed to be of Triassic, Jurassic, or Cretaceous
age. These newer rocks occur along mountain chains, where the beds
have been greatly disturbed, folded, contorted, and faulted, and where
rocks of very different ages occur close together. There are, therefore,
frequently difficulties in deciding the exact age of gold-bearing rocks ;
but at present the evidence appears to be in favour of a great part of
the rocks with veins of auriferous quartz along the western side of North
and South America being of Secondary age.
The age of the rocks containing the veins does not decide the age of
the auriferous veins themselves. Some veins of gold-quartz traversing
the Archean rocks of North America are pre-Silurian, because a con-.
glomerate at the base of the Silurian rocks in Dakota contains gold ; and
also because in Canada the Silurian limestones rest horizontally upon the
denuded edge of the Archean rocks and of the auriferous quartz-veins.
The Geological Survey of Canada is now engaged in mapping these
areas ; tracing the boundary of the Silurian limestone is important here
in limiting the areas within which gold may be looked for. The aurife-
rous quartz-veins of Australia, Nova Scotia, the Ural, and the Transvaal
are post-Cambrian or post-Silurian in age, because they traverse Silurian
rocks. In New South Wales, Queensland, and Nova Scotia they are, at
least in part, pre-Carboniferous, because the lowest Carboniferous con-
glomerate lies on their edges and contains gold derived from them.
In the Transvaal some of the gold veins are pre-Devonian; they
traverse Silurian rocks with intrusive granite and diorite. Resting on
the denuded edges of the Silurian rocks, and at the base of beds believed
to be Devonian, is a conglomerate containing gold. The Devonian rocks
are themselves traversed by diorite dykes and by auriferous veins.
These general considerations supply a key by which the possible
occurrence of gold in quantity, or rather its probable non-occurrence,
may be anticipated. Gold occurs chiefly in quartz-veins in Cambro-
Silurian rocks, or in rocks of other ages which have been, to some extent,
altered from their original condition of soft sediment; but, as a rule, only
where these rocks have been invaded by intrusive masses of igneous
rocks—sometimes granite, but chiefly diorite and diabase. In ordinary
fossiliferous Secondary rocks the occurrence of gold veins is unlikely.
In all gold-bearing districts disseminated gold may be expected to
occur in rock newer than the auriferous veins; but with rare exceptions
it is only where concentrated in gravel that the gold exists in payable
quantity.
Gold generally occurs in quartz-veins in the free state ; but it is often
associated with various metallic sulphides—chiefly iron and copper pyrites.
Even here it is probably in a free metallic state, but is so finely divided
that its extraction is difficult. All vein-gold is subject to loss in stamping ;
but the losses in treating gold which occurs with sulphides are often great.
Much gold passes away in a finely divided state in the tailings, and there
is a further loss in amalgamation in consequence of the gold not present-
ing a free metallic surface to the mercury. Then losses sometimes amount
to about 70 per cent. of the total gold in the ore; it is frequently from
30 Jota to 40 per cent. Recent improvements in mining and metal-
1887. LL
514 REPORT— 1887.
lurgy have diminished the rate of loss, and from these improvements an
increased yield of gold may be looked for.
Under this head of vein-gold should be classed the gold occurring
with the ores of other metals in sufficient quantity to be worth extracting.
In much of the silver ore of the Comstock, &c., the gold occurs to about
one-third the total value.
Gold is widely distributed in iron pyrites, especially when this occurs
in lode-like masses traversing the older rocks. Sometimes it is sufficiently
abundant, either alone or in association with other metals, to pay well for
extraction. Often, however, it is in too small a quantity to pay by any
process at present known.
The pyrites at Rio Tinto contain from 8 to 11 grains of gold, and
from $02. to loz. of silver per ton. This ore is essentially iron pyrites
with a little copper pyrites. With the exception of small quantities ob-
tained from some of the copper at Swansea, Widnes, and in Germany,
this gold is entirely lost; yet Mr. J. H. Collins states that the pyrites
raised yearly in the Sierra Morena contains a ton and a half of gold, or
a money value of about 150,000/.
There are other important mineral masses which must be classed with
lodes, but which are extremely irregular in their mode of occurrence, and
are very likely to diminish in productiveness in depth. There are the
‘Bonanzas,’ and similar rich masses of ore, which have yielded such
vast quantities of silver and gold in the United States. In the Comstock,
which is in many respects an exceptional area, the Bonanzas are enlarge-
ments of a quartz-lode along the junction-planes of eruptive rocks.
As a matter of experience, it is found that these become less frequent and
important at great depths.
Of different origin from these Bonanzas, but resembling them in con-
taining large quantities of ore, are the chambers or pockets in calcareous
rocks from which the greater part of the silver of the United States is now
obtained. These are produced in the first instance by the action of atmo-
spheric water dissolving away the limestone ; into the hollows thus formed
metallic ores have been subsequently introduced. Such chambers will
therefore be unlikely to occur below the level to which surface waters have
circulated. Sometimes, as in Nevadaand Utah, there is no special relation
between the country rock and the metallic contents of these chambers ;
but in other places, as at Leadville, in Colorado, the ores only occur
where the limestone is overlain by eruptive rock.
The important bearing of these considerations on our present subject
is this, that although it is not unlikely that great and irregular masses of
rich silver or silver-lead ores may be again discovered, which may even
for a time rival the past productiveness of the United States, yet it is
improbable that any such rich districts will continue to be productive for
a long period of time.
The opinion held in the early days of Californian mining, that lodes of
gold-quartz diminish in production in depth, has been abundantly dis-
proved. All lodes vary in productiveness in different places, and when
in working downwards the lodes became impoverished, the workings were
abandoned, and the miners transferred their energies to other lodes at
the surface. But it is now known that such impoverishment is in most
cases only local. If the lode be followed it generally regains its average
productiveness. At the Adelong mine, New South Wales, payable
quartz is raised from a depth of 1,030 feet. But it is in Victoria that the
ON GOLD AND SILVER. 515
deepest Australian mines are found. In the Sandhurst district there are
twenty-nine shafts over 600 feet deep, twenty-three over 1,000 feet, two
over 2,000. The deepest is the Magdala mine (Ararat), the shaft of
which is 2,409 feet deep.
A lode of the same average productiveness, however, may pay well in
the upper part, but may prove unremunerative in the lower part, the
actual yield of gold remaining the same. The general working expenses
are far less for shallow mines than for deep mines. The lode is decom-
posed near the surface, and is more easily worked ; the sulphides are also
decomposed and the gold set free. In deep mines the sulphides are not
decomposed, and there is an increased loss in stamping and amalgamating.
The second great division under which native gold may be classed is
that of alluvial deposits, derived from the waste of rocks containing auri-
ferous veins. The old conglomerates already referred to belong to this
class ; but their interest is scientific rather than practical, because they
are too limited in extent to yield much gold, although generally worked
for the metal where they occur.
The great alluvial gold deposits of the world are of newer Tertiary age.
The older beds of California and Victoria are believed to be of about the age
of our English Crag; but the evidence for this is by no means conclusive,
and they may be of later date. Their great antiquity, however, is proved
by—1. Their vast extent and thickness; 2, The great sheets of volcanic
rock which cover them; 3. The enormous denudation which the gravels
and the overlying sheets of basalt have undergone,
The modern alluvial deposits have been derived from the waste of
these old Pleiocene (?) deposits; the gold has thus undergone a second
concentration, and the gravels are often proportionally enriched.
Alluvial deposits have hitherto yielded at least nine-tenths of the
world’s gold ; in old times the proportion was higher. The enormous de-
velopments of gold-mining within short spaces of time, as in California
and Victoria in 1849-52, were entirely due to alluvial mining.
In Russia, Siberia, and British Columbia almost the whole of the gold
now produced is alluvial ; but in Australia, the United States, and in South
America vein-mining is increasing as the alluvial deposits are becoming
exhausted.
United States.—Previous to the discovery of gold in California gold
was produced in the United States in Georgia, North and South Carolina,
Tennessee, Alabama, and Virginia: the total production of these States
from 1804 to 1850 is estimated at $15,172,300, Georgia and North
Carolina each producing over $6,000,000.
Before 1871 California stood at the head of the States in its output
of the precious metals, but from 1871 to 1879 this place was taken by
Nevada, in consequence of the immense development of mining in the
Comstock area. In 1880 (census year) Nevada fell to the third place,
having been passed again by California and also by Colorado, which then
ranked first. In 1884 Nevada fell to the fourth place, having then been
just passed by Montana, Colorado keeping its place at the top of the list.
In 1885 the produce of Montana went rapidly ahead, whilst that of
Nevada remained stationary.
The occurrence of gold in California was known to the Spanish Jesuit
missionaries and to others, but it was not worked till 1848. So rapidly
were the placers developed that in 1849 the production was 8,000,0001.,
and in 1853 it rose to 13,000,000/. Gold-mining began in Oregon in
LL2
516 REPORT—1887.
1852; Arizona in 1858; Colorado in 1859; Idaho and Montana in
1860.
The chief gold-producing States after California are Nevada, Dakota,
and Colorado. But up to the year 1880 California produced 50 per cent.
of the gold ofthe United States, and 71} per cent. of that obtained from
placer mines ; and even in 1885 it produced 40 per cent. of the total amount
of gold obtained.
The following table gives the relative importance of the chief gold-
producing States during the census year ending May 31, 1880 :—
pe ee ee ee ee
Percentage pro-| Percentage production
R Ge) ae are in vee to total
uae dellan 1 relation to each production of the
i State United States
| Placer | Vein
gold gold | Placer} Vein | Total
California . | 17,150,954— | 50°03 | 49-97 | 71-47 | 40°09 | 51-38
Nevada 4,888,247 — 1:02 | 98-98 O-41 | 22°64 | 14°64
Dakota 3,305,846 1:54 | 98°46 0°42 | 15:23 9:90
Colorado 2,699,900 + 3°77 | 96°23 0°85 | 12°16 8:09
Montana 1,805,764+ | 64:40 | 35-60 9-68 301 5:41
Idaho 1,479,655+ | 59°42 | 40°58 7°32 2°81 4-43
Oregon 1,097,700 — | 84°39 | 15-61 75 0:80 3:29
Total | 32,428,066 36°28 | 63°72 | 97-90 | 96°74 | 97-14
Other States 951,597 25°54 | 74:46 2°10 3°26 2°86
Total | 33,379,663 35°97 | 64:03 {100-00 |100-00 ;100 00
Since 1880 California has decreased to $12,700,000, chiefly in con-
sequence of repressive legislation as regards hydraulic mining. This
decrease would be far greater were it not that quartz-mining has much
developed. The Bodie district, in Mono county, for some years gave the
chief supply of quartz gold ; but this has fallen off in yield, and the supplies
now largely come from districts further to the north-west.
The gold yield of California has oscillated in past years from causes
unconnected with its own resources. In 1857 there was a rush to
Fraser river, in British Columbia; in 1863 a great rush took place to
Nevada, when from 15,000 to 20,000 people left the State. These varia-
tions in Californian produce are plainly seen in the total production of
the country.
The great development of placer gold-mining in California was due
to the introduction of ‘ sluicing,’ or washing the gravel in trenches cut in
the solid rock below. By this method deeper and poorer gravels could
be worked than by the older Californian methods.
Sluicing, however, is no modern invention ; it was employed by the
Romans. In 1852 the system known as ‘ hydraulicking ’ was introduced,
in which the gravel is worked by a stream of water forced against it
under pressure. By this system a great part of the Californian gravels
was worked up to January 1884. For years before that date there had
been constant disputes and litigations between the miners, the farmers, and
the owners of streams, because gold- working generally, but hydraulicking
especially, had ruined large areas of land, had choked or diverted the
1 Those marked + have since increased in yield ; those marked — have decreased
Dakota remains practically unchanged.
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ON GOLD AND SILVER. 517
streams, and had largely interfered with the channels of the navigable
rivers. In January 1884 the famous lawsuit of Edward Woodruff v. The
North Bloomfield Gravel Mining Company and six others was decided by
the U.S. Cirenit Court. The decision prohibited the defendants from
‘discharging or dumping into the Yuba river, or into any of its forks or
branches. . . any of the tailings, bowlders, cobble-stones, gravel, sand,
clay, débris, or refuse matter from any of the tracts of mineral land men-
tioned in the complaint, and also from causing or suffering to flow into
said rivers, creeks, or tributary streams aforesaid therefrom any of the
tailings, bowlders, cobble-stones, gravel, sand, clay, or refuse matter re-
sulting or arising from mining thereon. And also from allowing others
to use the water supply of said several mines or mining claims, or any
part thereof, for the purpose of washing into said rivers and streams any
earth, rocks, bowlders, clay, sand, or solid material contained in any placer
or gravel ground or mine.’ !
This decree is sufficiently clear and definite, and from it there has
been no appeal. As it stands, it practically puts a stop to systematic
hydraulic mining in the basin of the Sacramento and San Joaquin.
The problem which engineers have to solve is whether means can be
adopted for impounding the débris at the mines, and so preventing it
fouling the streams. Various methods of doing this are under discussion,
and upon their success depends the future of Californian hydraulic mining.
The decree reserves to the court the power to modify or suspend the
injunction ‘upon any showing which the court may deem sufficient that
the conditions have been so changed that the discharge of such mining
débris ... may be resumed or otherwise conducted so as not to create
. or continue the nuisance complained of, or a nuisance of similar
character.’
Official estimates widely differ as to the amount of material carried
into the rivers by hydraulic mining. In the lower Sacramento basin, as
a whole, the estimates for the year 1880 were 384 and 533 million cubic
yards. In the Yuba river, to which the lawsuit especially referred, the
estimates were 19 and 222 million cubic yards.
The area affected by the mining débris was 43,546 acres, and the
depreciation in value was estimated at $2,597,634. This district has
yielded about $600,000,000 in gold.
The amount of capital invested in hydraulic mining in California is
estimated at $100,000,000 ; the amount of payable auriferous gravel in the
area covered by the injunction, and therefore closed, is estimated at
400,000,000 cubic yards.
There are some cases in which hydraulic mining is said to be a benefit
to the lands lower down, by raising the level of the stream-beds, and
therefore of the sub-surface waters; but in the vast majority of cases it is
otherwise.
So far as the United States are concerned, it is only in California that
legal restrictions of placer mining seriously affect the production of gold.
It may hereafter do so in Oregon and Washington. But in many districts,
as population increases and as interests other than mining become im-
portant, similar inconvenience will be felt, and doubtless with similar
results.
1 See A. J. Bowie, ‘ Mining Débris in California Rivers,’ Trans. Tech. Soc. Pacific
Coast, vol. iv. Feb. and March 1887, from which the foregoing information on this
subject is taken.
518 REPORT—1887.
It is fortunate for the future of Californian mining that much placer
gold is obtained by ‘deep mining’—carrying levels at the bottom
of the gravel beds, which often lie under a great thickness of lava.
This process, however, is less productive of gold; it can only be
profitably employed where the drift is deep and covered with volcanic
rock, and where the rich ground is always at the bottom.
‘The results of actual practice in Nevada county and elsewhere
demonstrate that hydraulic mining, compared with drifting, employs
twice the number of men and extracts four to six times the amount of
gold per lineal foot of channel. The yield of the North Bloomfield
Channel by drifting has been $150 per lineal foot of channel, while
hydraulicking the entire deposit in this locality has given a yield of
$750 dollars per foot’ (Bowie, ‘ Hydraulic Mining,’ p. 86).
The injunction against hydraulic mining applies only to the central
counties of California, and in other parts it is carried on as usual.
In the north-western part of the State it has of late years been de-
veloped ; here the rivers flow direct to the sea through deep caiions, and
hydraulicking does not harm the streams nor interfere with agriculture.
Colorado has increased from $2,700,000 in 1880 to $4,200,000 in
1885 ; this increase is mainly due to quartz-mining. The yield of gold
in Montana has nearly doubled since 1880, the figures being in 1880
$1,805,764, in 1885 $3,300,000. Here, again, the increase has been
mainly from quartz-mining, aided by an increased yield of silver con-
taining some gold. In 1880, 645 per cent. of Montana gold was from
placers; in 1884 only 37 per cent. on a largely increased yield.
1880 | 1884
Placer Vein Total Placer Quartz Total
$1,162,908 $742,856 $1,805,764 $800,000 $1,370,000 2,170,000
There was a great rush to the Montana placers in 1862, some of the
richest deposits in the world being then worked here; since 1862 over
150,000,000 of placer gold has been produced in this State.
Nevada, which once stood so high in gold produce in consequence of
the Comstock,! fell in yield of gold to $4,888,247 in 1880, and to
$2,000,000 in 1882. This was the lowest yield. It increased to
$3,500,000 in 1884. The silver production of the State has continued
to decline; very little placer gold is raised (only 1 per cent. in 1881), so
thai the increase is due to gold-vein mining.
Dakota is remarkably steady in its yield of gold, almost the whole of
it coming from quartz veins in the Black Hill district, the placer gold
being only 2 per cent. of the whole, and the silver produce practically nil.
Dakota is perhaps typical of the fature gold-mining industry in the
United States. Crushing and amalgamating processes are here carried
to great perfection, so that low-grade ores are worked, and a large per-
centage of the gold value obtained. The average yield of the lodes is
only $4 per ton; but ore of only $2 per ton is worked at a profit, the
expenses of mining and milling being less than $1 per ton.
Oregon declined in yield of gold from $1,097,700 in 1880 to $660,000
in 1883 and 1884; it increased to $800,000 in 1885. The greater part
_of this is from placer mines, vein-mining having been as yet but slightly
» Mr. Del Mar estimates 818,002,906 gold and $20,570,078 silver from the Com-
stock in 1876. The total yield from: 1859 to 1880 was about 140,000,000 gold and
gi75 000,000 silver.
ON GOLD AND SILVER. 519
developed. It is believed that the production of Oregon is under-
estimated.
Idaho varies very little in its production of gold, but has somewhat
increased in silver. About 60 per cent. of its gold was from placers in
1880, probably rather less than this now.
In New Mewxico the yield of gold increased from $49,354 in 1880 to
$300,000 in 1884, and to $800,000 in 1885; the silver produce has
likewise increased, but not in the same proportion. No record of placer
workings could be collected during the census year, and it was believed
that the amount of gold so obtained was very small. Rich placers were,
however, known to exist, and have since been worked. The increase is
therefore largely due to this cause.
Arizona, which produced only $212,000 in gold in 1880, increased this
to over $1,000,000 in 1881 and 1882; but the yield afterwards fell, and
was only $800,000 in 1885. Only 14 per cent. of the yield in 1880 was
from placers ; the proportion must be considerably less now, the develop-
ments of late years having been chiefly in vein-mining.
The remaining States call for no special remark, their total yield of
gold in 1885 having been only $1,020,000. Utah ($120,000 in 1885) is
interesting from its steady yield of gold, over 90 per cent. of it being
from veins.
The general result of this inquiry is to establish the important fact
that so far as the United States are concerned the gold supply is steady-
ing, with a slight tendency to increase; we may expect this steady yield
to continue, because it is due in an increasing proportion to vein-mining.
Placer-mining yielded 36 per cent. of the gold in 1880 ; only about 30 per
cent. in 1885.
Mr. A. Willams in his ‘First Report on the Mineral Resources of
the United States’ (1882) makes the following remarks on the probable
future production of the United States ; remarks which the succeeding
four years have well justified :—‘ From the foregoing figures [statistics of
production] the general deduction may be drawn that the annual pre-
cious metal output of the United States during recent years may be
stated at between $70,000,000 and $80,000,000, coining value, and that
the fluctuations in the proportional amounts of gold and silver are greater
than those of the total product. It is also safe to assume that this rate
of production will be maintained for some time to come, and that the
probability of a slight increase is greater than that of a decline. Ex-
perience has shown that old localities become exhausted, or fall off in
their rate of production ; new localities are developed which fully take
their place ; and that the general result is therefore nearly uniform as
compared year by year. By the time the country has been thoroughly
explored for gold and silver deposits—a time which may be considered
as indefinitely remote—the facilities for mining and working the ores
will undoubtedly be such as to enable systematic and permanent develop-
ment to be maintained in places and with ores which at present could
not be profitable.’
Victoria.—Gold was discovered in Victoria in 1849. It was re-dis-
covered in 1851. There was then a rush to the alluvial workings, and
_ the yield suddenly rose from about 200,000 oz. in three months of 1851
to 2,286,000 oz. in 1882; the maximum yield in 1856 was 3,053,744 oz.
The total yield of Victoria up to the end of 1885 is estimated at 53,750,000
oz., valued at 214,000,000/., or an average of 41. per oz.
520 REPORT—1887.
In the early days of gold-mining in Victoria almost the whole yield
was from placers. The relative proportions of quartz and placer gold
is not known before 1868; in that year the amounts raised were
1,087,502 oz. of placer gold, and 597,416 oz. of quartz gold. From this
date the yield of alluvial gold steadily fell to 1878, when only 264,453 oz.
were raised, or one-fourth of that raised in 1868.
Alluvial and vein gold were about equal in 1871. The maximum
quantity of vein gold was raised in 1872; the minimum quantity in 1879.
For the last four years the average proportions have been about 40 per
cent, alluvial gold and 60 per cent. vein gold, and these figures fairl
represent the proportions for the whole of Australasia in 1883; but the
rapid increase of vein gold in Queensland is now increasing the per-
centage from that source. From the great importance of Victoria it may
be as well more fully to tabulate the facts just given :—
Alluvial Gold Quartz Gold Total Value
02. OZ. per cent. £
1856 . s 5 ‘ — _ — 12,214,576
1868 . 4 ; 3 1,087,502 597,416 355 6,739,672
USTs : 2 5 698,190 670,752 49-7 5,475,768
1872 . ‘ ; 5 639,55 L 691,826 52-0 5,325,508
1878 . 4 . 264,453 493,587 64:7 3,032,160
1879 . : 4 A 293,310 465,637 615 3,035,788
1882 . : ; : 352,078 512,532 59°3 3,458,440
1884 . : 4 : 307,533 471,085 60°6 3,114,472
1885 . ‘ F -= — — 2,940,872
The Ballarat district makes the greatest return, producing about one-
third of the total yield of Victoria, 64 per cent. of its gold being alluvial ;
the Sandhurst district comes next, producing one-fourth of the total gold,
but only 3 per cent. of its yield is alluvial. The other districts stand
thus in relative importance (the percentage of alluvial gold in each being
also roughly stated) :—Castlemaine (34); Maryborough (75); Beech-
worth (62); Ararat (61).
The rapid development of gold-mining in Victoria and its sustained
importance were due to working the shallow and rich alluvial deposits;
but these became exhausted, and the produce had to be raised from the
deep placers, often underlying a great thickness of basalt. Many of these
‘deep leads’ are now being worked at 400 and 500 feet below the surface.
‘Tens of thousands of pounds are frequently expended before the deep
alluvial mines become remunerative, and sometimes after all failure is
encountered; but, nevertheless, successes have, in the main, counter-
balanced the failures, and increasing experience tends to lessen the risk
of the latter. There are still hundreds of miles in length of unworked
leads which are likely to reward future enterprise. No great discovery
in shallow ground has been made for the last ten years, nor can such be
now expected, as no large area of possibly auriferous shallow country
remains untried.’ }
Queensland is, next to Victoria, the mostimportant British gold-pro-
ducing colony, and it is of especial interest, because the yield of gold is
now increasing. In 1867 the yield was under 50,000 oz., in 1868 it rose
to 165,000 oz., varied till 1873 (195,000 oz.), and then suddenly rose
! Tllustrated Handbook of Victoria, Col. and Ind. Exhib, 1886, pp. 80, 81.
Plate VI
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ON GOLD AND SILVER. 521
to 375,000 oz. in 1874, attaining to its maximum of 391,515 oz. in
1875. This sudden rise was due to the rush to the Palmer goldfield
and to the rich alluvial ground there worked. The yield fell gradually to
212,783 oz. in 1883; it rose to 307,804 oz. in 1884, and to 310,941 oz.
in 1885.
Queensland is now essentially a quartz goldfield. In 1880 the Palmer
and other alluvial districts had declined in yield; that from quartz had
increased ; so that about 65 per cent. of the total yield was in that year
quartz gold.
In 1885 the Charters Towers and Cape River goldfield alone produced
43°6 per cent. of the total yield, the Gympie goldfield 28:8 per cent. :
these are now almost entirely quartz fields.
The Charters Towers field is especially important. In 1883 its yield
was 69,555 oz.; in 1884, 109,335 oz.; and in 1885, 134,650 oz. The
amount of gold in the quartz is also increasing as the veins are followed
in depth. In the earlier days of mining it was from 14 oz. to 1} oz.
per ton; it is now close upon 2 oz.
Queensland is also remarkable for the Mt. Morgan goldfield, where
the gold occurs impregnating a mass of ferrugiuous rock, and an iron-
stained siliceous sinter, which, with the gold, is supposed to have been
deposited -by geyserian action. The mass is worked as an open quarry.
It contains on an average 7 oz. of gold per ton; the hematite contains
33 oz.; the sinter 104 oz.; but only about one-half of the gold present
can be extracted. The tailings are stored for future treatment. The
Mt. Morgan gold is the purest known, its value being 4/. 4s. 87. per oz.
Its fineness is 997, the rest is copper, with a little iron. In all other
native gold silver is the chief accompaniment, but in the Mt. Morgan
gold there is only a very minute trace. The gold from Mt. Morgan does
not. figure in the Queensland official returns, it being sent direct to the
mint at Sydney.
In New South Wales gold was worked in 1851, 144,120 oz. having been
raised in that year. This colony reached its maximum the next year
(1852), when 818,751 oz. were produced. The yield fell to 171,367 oz.
in 1855; in 1858 it rose to 286,798 oz. From that date to the end of
1875 it oscillated much, the greatest amount being 640,622 oz. in 1862,
the least being 240,858 oz. in 1870, and 230,883 oz. in 1875. Since
1875 the yield has much decreased, and was only 103,736 oz. in 1885.
The decline from 1884 to 1885 (3,453 oz.) is attributed in the official
report ‘ wholly or mainly to the drought.’ It is also stated that some
amendments to the Mining Act were made in 1884, which it is hoped
will lead to the reworking of some of the abandoned mines, which, it is
thought, may prove remunerative if worked on a large scale with system
and economy.
The average yield per ton of quartz raised was 1 oz. 12 gr. in 1885,
as compared with 14 dwt. 10 gr. in 1884, This was due to the improved
quality of the quartz raised in the southern and New England districts.
As the average yield per ton was greater in 1885 than in 1884, whilst
the total amount of gold produced was less, it follows that the amount
of quartz raised was very much less; in fact, it was little more than one-
half ; indicating a more rapid fall in quartz-mining than is apparent in
the returns generally quoted.
In 1880 about 29 per cent. of New South Wales gold was from quartz
522 REPORT— 1887.
veins; in 1882 about 25 per cent. The average value of New South
Wales gold has been 31. 14s. 6d. per oz.
It is probable that the future importance of New South Wales as regards
the precious metals will depend largely upon its silver. The ores chiefly
occur towards the northern and western parts of the colony, the latter
being that most recently becoming of importance. All accounts agree in
the richness of the ores and in the extent of the argentiferous area.
The following figures show the recent production :-—
Silver Silver-lead Ore
Es es = : = Total Value
|
Oz. Value Tons Cwt. Value |
| £ y | £
1881 57,254 13,026 52, «14 1,625 | 14,651
1882 38,618 9,024 Then S19 360 | 9,384
1883 77,065 16,488 136 4 2,075 18,563
1884 93,660 19,780 OOM eel 241,940 261,720
1885 794,174 159,187 2,286 0) 107,626 266,813
South Australia has never yielded much gold. But there was a fairly
steady rise to its maximum of 21,454 0z. in 1884,! then a sudden fall in
1885 to 4,694 oz., its lowest yield since 1873. The average value of
South Australian gold is 31. 9s. 4d. per oz.
It is known that there are unworked alluvial deposits and reefs in
the northern territory, which the new railway may open up, and which
may for a time somewhat increase the yield of gold.
The first return for New Zealand was in 1857, when 10,437 oz.
were obtained ; the yield fell to 4,538 oz. in 1860, and then rapidly rose
to its maximum of 735,876 oz. in 1866.2 Since that date there was a
fairly steady decline to 1884, when the yield was 229,946 oz., which
increased to 233,068 oz. in 1885. The average value of New Zealand
gold is 31. 18s. 4d. per oz.
The yield of gold in New Zealand has remained much more steady
than in the other Australian colonies, with the exception of Queensland.
It now yields only a little less than one-third of its maximum, whereas
Victoria now yields less than one-fourth and New South Wales less than
one-sixth.
Almost one-half of the New Zealand gold is now obtained from
quartz, 111,432 oz. having been so obtained in 1885; an increase of
23,000 oz. over the quartz gold of 1884.
From this fact, and from the known occurrence of unworked reefs,
there is reason to hope that the yield from quartz-veins may continue
steady even if it does not increase.
Gold-mining in New Zealand is interesting from the application of
1 These figures give the amount of gold received at the various Australian mints
from South Australia, and possibly are under-estimates.
2 I take these figures and many others relating to Australasia from the 16th
Ann. Rep. of the Deputy Master of the Mint (1886), giving a complete table of
Australian produce to the end of 1884. Dr. Hector’s diagrams, published in the 3rd
edition of his Handbook of New Zealand, 1883, show the maximum yield in 1871.
These diagrams distinguish the alluvial and the quartz gold in each of the four
districts into which New Zealand is divided.
ON GOLD AND SILVER. 523
electricity to quartz-crushing. At the Phoenix Quartz-mining Company,
Otago, water power is used to drive two Brush dynamos, each transmitting
36 horse-power to the stamps two miles away. This is said to work
well, and if fully successful here will doubtless be turned to good and
profitable account in other places where the water power is not conveniently
situated for crushing.!
In Tasmania gold was discovered in 1852, and quartz-mining began
in 1859; but the yield must have been small, as in 1866 the production
was only 348 oz. It varied up to 11,107 oz. in 1876, falling to 5,777 oz. in
1877. The discovery of the Lisle alluvial deposits raised the yield to
25,249 oz. in 1878, which increased to 60,155 oz. in 1879. This was
the maximum year. The yield had declined to 41,241 oz. in 1885.
Taken on the average of the twenty years 1866-85, the alluvial gold
has been only 33 per cent. of the total amount, the Lisle and West Coast
districts (both entirely alluvial) together producing 20 per cent. of the
total amount. in 1885 the alluvial gold was only 19 per cent. The
average value of Tasmanian gold has been 3]. 18s. per oz.
The gold yield of Tasmania is small, but is subject to less fluctuation
than other goldfields; its present yield is more than two-thirds of its
maximum. This steadiness is due to the large proportion of vein gold.
Unless the accounts of the newly discovered ‘Iron Blow’ are grossly
exaggerated, we may expect that the yield of vein gold will now
increase.
As regards Australasia, the general result may be stated as follows.
Although Victoria still holds the first place, and may do so for some
years to come, there is some probability of it being deposed from this
position of honour in favour of Queensland, the vein gold from which is
increasing in amount, and is likely to do so still more. With a probable
increase in New Zealand, and much placer gold still nunworked in
Victoria, it is likely that the total produce of Australia will, for some
time to come, not fall below 5,000,000I. per year.
A fact of some interest, and not yet explained, is the decrease in the
fineness of Australian gold as we pass from south to north, due to the
increased amount of silver in it. The same thing occurs in New Zealand.
This generalisation, however, does not hold in North Queensland. Apart
from the Mt. Morgan deposit, which is remarkably pure and is in every
way exceptional, we find that the gold of North Queensland is finer than
that in the south of the colony.
Canada.—The chief gold-producing districts are British Columbia—
almost entirely alluvial, and Nova Scotia—almost entirely veins. Alluvial
gold has long been worked in Quebec, in the Chaudiére valley, but no
serious attempt has yet been made to work the quartz veins which
are known to exist here in the Silurian rocks. Gold occurs in the
gravels of the Saskatchewan, and is apparently most abundant near
Edmonton. As no gold has been found in the streams coming from the
Rocky Mountains the origin of the gold must be looked for elsewhere; it
is supposed to lie in the great drift deposit which forms the prairies, and
which has been largely made of the waste of the Archean rocks to the
N. and N.E. Near the Lake of the Woods auriferous quartz veins
occur, but only near the contact of the Laurentian granitoid gneiss
with intrusive schistose hornblende rocks; bosses of intrusive granite
1 Report [to New Zealand Parliament] on the Mining Industry of New Zealand,
1887, p. 83.
524 REPORT— 1887.
occur in the district. Silver occurs in these veins, sometimes in greater
proportion by weight than gold.!
British Columbia.—Gold is chiefly found in the alluvial beds of the
Rocky Mountains, in the Purcell, Selkirk, Gold, and Cariboo ranges, which
run parallel to, but west of, the main ridge. The discovery of alluvial
gold in the Fraser river drew away many miners from California in
1857-9. In 1860 the Cariboo district was discovered, and this has been
the most continuously productive. Up to the end of 1885 about
10,000,0007. of gold were produced, three-fifths of which came from the
Cariboo district. Good alluvial ground has been found on the Wild Horse
creek (Skirmish river of Palliser), derived from the waste of quartzites,
schistose rocks, and argillites, with some compact greenstones probably
interbedded; the gold is worth 3/. 16s. per oz. Rich placers have
recently been discovered on Granite creek.
Practically the whole of the gold yet produced in British Columbia is
alluvial. No doubt some productive gold-bearing veins will be discovered,
but it seems unlikely that they will yield a large supply.
The gold statistics of British Columbia are very untrustworthy, as no ~
official records have been kept.2 The maximum yield was, probably, in
1864 (778,0001.); it fell, with various oscillations, to 280,000/. in 1881, and
then gradually declined to 140,000/. in 1885. The fluctuations in yield
are partly due to the seasons, heavy floods in the spring being disastrous
to placer mining ; but the fall is due to the exhaustion of the placers with
no compensation in the development of vein-mining. Some revival may
be looked for from the systematic adoption of hydraulic mining, as in
some places only the sides of the valleys have yet been worked.
British Columbia is placed at a great disadvantage for gold-mining as
compared with California. In California the sheets of volcanic rock have
preserved large areas of rich placer gravel from denudation; the modern
streams have cut their way through these old gravels, enabling them to
be mined without great trouble from water, and affording every facility
for drift-mining, and, where otherwise convenient, for hydraulic mining.
The waste of the old placers has rendered the modern alluvial gravels very
rich in gold.
In the Cariboo district of British Columbia the streams have not cut
their way through the older placers into the bed rock. From 50 to 150
feet of the richest auriferous gravel lies beneath the stream beds. All
the rich placers of the Cariboo have been mined by underground drifting
with all the difficulties of water and ‘slum’ to contend with overhead.
At Omineca and Cassiar, lat. 55° to 57°, the auriferous gravel is in per-
petually frozen ground ; the working season lasts only two months in the
year.®
Nova Scotia.—It was formerly supposed that the auriferous quartz of
Nova Scotia was interstratified with the Lower Silurian (Cambrian) rocks,
and that the gold had been derived from the underlying Laurentian
rocks. It is now known that this was a mistake; the quartz-veins run in
a general way along the lines of bedding, but they cut across the beds,
and are certainly of later date.
1 A, C. Lawson, ‘ Lake of the Woods Region,’ Geol. Survey of Canada, Aun. Rep.,
N.S. i. 1885.
2 It is believed that a small part of the placer gold from Alaska is carried over
the frontier, and is returned as produced in British Columbia.
* A. Bowman, Zrans. Amer. Inst. M. L., 1887, p. 716.
ON GOLD AND SILVER. 525
Practically the whole of the gold of Nova Scotia is raised from quartz-
veins ; the denudation of the gold-bearing rocks must have produced a
vast quantity of alluvial gold, but this is now mainly dispersed over the
bed of the Atlantic,! although it is likely that some gold may be found
beneath the alluvium of the valleys near Halifax. Gold was discovered
in 1859; in 1862 over 7,000 oz. was raised, 14,000 oz. in 1863, 20,000
oz. in 1864, and 27,000 oz. in 1867: this was the maximum yield. Since
1871 it has ranged from 11,000 to 16,812 oz., with the exception of one
year (1874) when it fell to 9,140 oz. The steady increase of late years
is noteworthy :—
Yea Se ee natant | Mia it
oz. dwt. gr. tons dwt. gr.
1881 10,756 13 2 15,556 12 20
1882 14,107 3 20 22,081 12 18
1883 15,446 9 23 25,954 10 21
1884 16,059 18 17 25,147 12 18
1885 22,203 12 20 28,890 15 4
1886 23,362 5 13 29,010 1G, 2
The increase in 1886 as compared with 1885 is chiefly due to the
opening of new mines and to the yield in ‘ unproclaimed’ districts; some
ot the older districts fell off considerably. The gold mainly exists in the
free state, and generally in quantities visible to the eye. But the veins
also carry sulphides which include a considerable amount of gold. Most
of this gold passes into the tailings. ‘Assays show that these tailings
when concentrated are often rich enough to warrant attempts being
made to save the gold; but hitherto no systematic attempts have been
made in this direction.’ ?
Although interesting to us the gold of Canada has no great influence
on the world’s production. In 1864, following the great rush to the
Fraser river, British Columbia ranked, after California, with the best of
the American States; but it now would take only the tenth place, and
Canada, as a whole, would only take the seventh place.
Russia.—The large amount of gold obtained since 1851 from the
United States and from Australia leads most people to pay but small heed
to Russia as a gold-producing State, but this is a grave mistake. During
the few years preceding the great gold discoveries Russia (including
Russian Siberia) was the chief gold country of the world; and notwith-
standing the great output of other districts the variations in its yield have
had a perceptible influence upon the world’s production. The maximum
yield was, in 1879, 5,942,000/.; the yield fell to 4,561,000/. in 1882, but
rose again the next year, and was 4,180,000/. in 1884.
The history of Russia’s gold production is shown on Table I. ;
when compared with the production of the other great gold countries its
uniformity is very striking. This is the more remarkable because almost
the whole of Russian gold is obtained from placer workings, quartz-
1 An interesting example of placer of Carboniferous age occurs at Gay’s river.
This has been worked to a small extent. (H.S. Poole, Y.J.G.S. vol. xxxvi. 18&0,
p. 313).
2 EB. Gilpin, Report Dep. Mines, Nova Scotia, &c., 1885
526 REPORT—1887.
mining being mainly confined to the south-eastern slopes of the Ural
Mountains. The reason of this uniformity of yield is the vast area over
which the workings extend. The yields of the various districts have
varied much, but the average production of the whole is fairly steady.
Since 1829 Siberia has been the chief source of Russian gold. From
1867 to 1874 it yielded from two-thirds to three-fourths of the total
amount.
In 1860-67 the Ural district yielded about 20 per cent. of the total
production ; in 1872 this fell to 17} per cent., and in 1877 to 16 per
cent. Since that date it has still further decreased. The yield of eastern
Siberia has risen, and in 1877 amounted to 78 per cent. of the whole.
The modern developments of Russian gold-mining have been in the
extreme east, in the basins of the Amur and the Lena; here, as elsewhere
in Siberia, entirely in alluvium. Much of the ground is perpetually
frozen, and has been so probably since the Glacial period. This frozen
condition of the gravels has protected them from denudation; but for
this much more would have been swept into the sea by the summer floods.
The preservation of the Siberian placers is thus due to frost ; those of the
Californian and Victorian placers to volcanic action.
The vast extent of unworked placers in Hastern Siberia will yield a
steady supply for many years to come. But the older placer workings in
other areas will fall off in yield, and therefore it would not be safe to
anticipate a yearly increase to the world’s annual production from this
source. There is one point, however, to be borne in mind. The source
of the gold must be in the Altai and in the ranges of mountains to the
east. All this is practically unexplored; and we may fairly anticipate
the discovery here of quartz veins, which will probably help to keep up
the supply of Siberian gold when the yield from the placers declines.
Very little is known of the geology of this region, but the existence of
Silurian rocks has been proved.
African Gold Coast.—This has long been known as a source of gold,
and the amount of the metal thence exported must in the aggregate have
been very considerable. There are no means of ascertaining the amounts
obtained, and hence the wildest estimates are made.
It has been stated that Western Africa during part of the last century
produced over 3,000,000/. of gold yearly. Similar estimates have been
made for South-eastern Africa during the Portuguese rule. But Dr.
Soetbeer’s estimate for the whole of Africa is a yearly average of
279,0001. from 1701 to 1740, and of 209,2501. from 1741 to 1800. It is
probable that the yearly production of the whole world during the last
century rarely exceeded 3,000,000/., and that only during the maximum
period of the Brazilian placers. We need not, however, doubt the exist-
ence of rich alluvial tracts in Western Africa, which, after having been
drawn upon for centuries by hand labour, may yet for a while yield con-
siderable supplies if systematically worked. ‘There must. be numerous
auriferous reefs the denudation of which has yielded the gold of the
river gravels and of the seashore. Some of these have long been
known, and a few partially worked, and from them hereafter a somewhat
increased yield for West Africa may be expected.
The quantity of gold exported from the British possessions at the
Gold Coast during 1884 is officially stated at 24,994 ounces, valued at
89,9811.
South Africa.—No trustworthy data are available for ascertaining the
ON GOLD AND SILVER. 527
yield of gold in South Africa, and the accounts of the value of the gold-
producing areas are very conflicting. Some look to South Africa as a
district which will soon rival California and Victoria; but there is no.
evidence that such a future is before it. There are numerous reefs of
auriferous quartz, some apparently along the bedding of the rocks, others
cutting across the bedding: these auriferous veins are associated with
intrusive diorites.
No important areas of alluvial gold-bearing gravels are known,
although most of the gold obtained up to within the last few years was
alluvial. The future of South African gold-mining depends upon quartz
veins. The veins yield gold of rather more than average purity and
quantity. At present only the richer veins are worked, but with improved
methods and machinery much of the poorer ore can be treated, which will
increase the total yield whilst reducing the percentage. So far as yet
worked, the gold of the veins is mostly free; the losses in working should
therefore be less than in most other vein-areas, or than probably will be
the case when the veins are followed to the deep.
A steadily increasing yield of gold may be looked for from this area,
but, so far as we yet know, not in sufficient amount to be of importance
in the general stock of the world. Much of the Transvaal gold passes
through Natal ; the value thus exported was 6,865/. in 1882, and 52,2221.
in 1885.
India.—Although gold occurs in many parts of India, it is only to
the southern part of the peninsula that people look who have great hopes
of a large gold supply. Probably these hopes are less high and less
generally felt than they were a few years back. There are no deep
placers, such as have yielded the vast supplies of Victoria and California;
the shallow alluvial deposits, often locally very rich, have been in great
part exhausted, and for the future supply of Indian gold we must look to
vein-mining. The Wynaad and Mysore are the districts most likely to
yield the future supply. In the former the gold is often associated with
sulphides, and hence there is much loss in working. In Mysore the gold
is more often free. Kolar is supposed to be the district which yielded
the chief supply of gold to the native princes in past times, and it gives
some promise of supply for the future.!| But there is no probability that
it, or any other part of India, will rise to a high rank as a gold-producing
country. Nothing is officially known as to the exact amount of gold
produced in India at the present time.
_ The amount of gold raised in China is certainly large, but its value
is unknown; Mr. R. Giffen states that the excess of export of gold over
import is about 1,000,000/. per year. This is important, because, from the
absence of statistics, China is not included in Dr. Soetbeer’s estimate.
Many of the Asiatic islands, and especially Japan, have in the aggre-
gate yielded a considerable amount of gold, and will probably continue
to do so; but from the point of view in which we are now considering
the question these areas need not detain us. Here, as in Africa, the
reputed production during Portuguese rule is vastly in excess of what,
apparently, can be raised now.
South America and Mewico.—It is of some importance to obtain a
fairly correct estimate of the yield of South America and Mexico,
because it is on all hands allowed to be large. The differences in the
1 See Professor V. Ball’s Coal, Iron, and Gold Mines of India, and his lecture to
the Geologists’ Association, Mining Journal, June 12, 1886,
528 REPORT—1887.
estimates of Sir Hector Hay and Dr. Soethbeer are chiefly due to different
figures for these districts, Sir Hector Hay’s being much the lower as
regards silver, and slightly lower as regards gold.
There is some convenience in classing Mexico with South America,
because together they contain the older goldfields of the western hemi-
sphere, the chief source of the precious metals from the discovery of
America to the development of the Russian and Siberian goldfields.
The annual yield of gold in the United States of Columbia is thus
approximately given by Dr. Soetbeer :—
£ £
1851-1860 . ; 5 : 483,000 | 1869-1881 . . 5 4 621,000
1860-1863. - 3 : 395,000 | 1881-1882 . : 5 ‘ 798,000
1863-1869 . 5 alas 496,000
It therefore ranks between New South Wales and New Zealand.
Gold occurs here in lodes cutting through rocks of all ages from pre-
Cambrian to Cretaceous, and under many varieties of condition and
purity. ‘
The rapid development of gold mines in Venezuela is shown in the
following table :—
£
1866 to Cha PEASIIiY & now Amanwrt male ono ad BORO
BE te ee ol) oe a
ee kine bina Annie eg
Tso ee Ne ee ee
ss els tae Wek sa gilaa iat ake oie aid
Ieee aad aed. wad ol ~ haa ed, aera
abated wie Wel) So Gur ede Pee
TEE A oe Noo wy tune. sits Lealyluce yen eee
7,715,500
Of this amount El Callao alone has produced 4,175,000. Of the gold
raised in 1886, 83 per cent. came from this mine. All accounts agree as
to the gold resources of Venezuela, but, with the notable exception just
mentioned, few of the mines have as yet been successful.
The yield of French Guiana averages about 240,000I. yearly; this is
all alluvial gold. Dutch Guiana produced about 70,0001. in gold in 1879 ;
gold mining commenced here only in 1875.
Gold is known to occur in British Guiana, but very little has been
done to work it. Something may be done here when the political
questions are in a more settled state.
Brazil yielded a great deal of gold in the last century, when the rich
placers were discovered. As these were worked out the yield fell, and
the produce now is very largely from quartz-mining. ‘The period of
maximum productiveness was from about 1730 to 1750. In some of these
years it is supposed that about 5,000,000/. of gold were raised; but the
average production must have been much below this. It fell to an
average of 50,0007. from 1800 to 1840; rose to 250,000/. or 300,000/.
between 1840 and 1860, and then rapidly fell; in 1870 and for a short
time after it is believed to have fallen to 5,0001.!
With the development of vein-mines the gold production of Brazil
rapidly rose, largely in consequence of the St. John del Rey mines. But
of late years it has declined in consequence of a series of misfortunes at
these mines. In 1879 the production of the Minas Geraes district was
1 These figures are from Del Mar, Hist. of the Precious Metals, 1880, p. 123.
a
ON GOLD AND SILVER. 529
about 235,0007. The yield was estimated at about 155,000/. in 1881 and
1882, and at about 132,000/. in 1883 and 1884.
The estimates for the total production of gold in Brazil, from the
first working of the placers (about 1680) to 1880, give from 145,000,000/.
(Soetbeer) to 180,000,0007. (Del Mar); one-tenth, or less, being from
vein-mining. The remaining South American States, including Peru,
Bolivia, and Chili, probably produce about 100,000. yearly.
Mexico is chiefly known as the great source of silver, but its gold
produce is of some importance.
In 1878 the yield was estimated at 207,0001. ; it fell to 178,0001. in
1881, and rose to 245,0001. in 1884. The greater part of this is from veins
—chiefly of auriferous quartz, but partly of gold with ores of other metals.
Europe (other than Russia).—It would be of great interest to trace
the sources of the gold raised in Europe, and especially to discuss the
production in times when Europe was largely dependent upon its own
resources for its stock of gold. But this would carry us beyond the
limits of our subject. Nor need we stay to describe in detail the pro-
duction of each country. All the gold-bearing districts of Europe are
well known, and there is no likelihood of any increased yield, save to
some extent by the improved treatment of ores containing gold in small
quantities. The recent increase in the gold of Germany is mainly due
to this cause, many low-class sulphuretted ores from Australia being sent
there for treatment.
The following are statistics of Huropean gold :—
18811 1882 1883 1884
£ £ £ £
Austro-Hungary : f 248,100 218,000 225,000 220,400
Germany . : : : 48,000 52,000 63,000 77,000
Italy . : : . 2 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000
Turkey .. : - 1,025 1,380 1,460 1,460
Sweden . c : : 38 2,355 5,200 2,700
317,263 293,735 314,660 321,560
Silver.—In the centuries immediately preceding the Christian era
Spain and Greece yielded much silver. The Carthaginians, and after them
the Romans, systematically worked the mines in Spain. The richest
mine was that of Bebulo, the modern Guadalcanal, which for a time is
supposed to have supplied Hannibal with 300 lbs. of silver per day.?
In Greece the richest mines were those of Laurium (argentiferous
galena), which M. Cordella, judging from the slags and waste-heaps,
believed to have produced about 2,100,000 tons of lead, and over
18,000,000 lbs. of silver.*
On the revival of mining in the seventh and eighth centuries the
1 The French official mineral statistics make a return of gold for France :—4,3001.
in 1886; 5,3567. in 1881. The ores from which it was obtained were probably in part
at least, derived from foreign sources.—J. A. Phillips, Ore Deposits, p. 232. ;
2 Del Mar, Hist. of the Precious Metals, p. 23.
3 The most interesting instance of re-working old slags and mine-waste is that
at Laurium. The slags here contain from 54 to 14 per cent. of lead, whilst many
ancient slags in Spain and Italy contain 25 per cent. From these old Laurium
1887. MM
530 REPORT— 1887.
silver mines of Spain were re-worked by the Arabs. Mines in Germany
were opened which, until recently, have continued to yield a good supply.
During the six or eight centuries preceding the discovery of America,
Spain and Germany yielded the greater part of the silver of Europe.
With the discovery of the New World large supplies of silver were
poured into Europe, chiefly from Mexico and Peru. At a later date
Chili and Bolivia became great silver-producing countries; from all these
a steady supply still comes, and is likely to come.
With the discovery in 1859 of the Comstock, in Nevada, the United
States rapidly rose into importance as a silver-producing country. About
1873 the production of the United States equalled that from the older
silver areas of Mexico and South America, and afterwards, for a time,
exceeded it.
Rich silver-bearing districts were discovered in Colorado, Utah, and
Arizona, the yield from which helped to balance the rapid fall in Nevada.
But the total production of the United States has of late years only
slowly increased, whilst that from Mexico and South America has been
steadily and more rapidly rising, so that now the older silver areas of the
New World again stand at the head of the list.
Silver is almost entirely obtained from veins or from irregular masses
associated with veins. The main exception to this is the silver contained
in copper ore, which sometimes is disseminated through bedded rocks, the
best example of which is the copper slate of Mansfeld.
The veins may be roughly divided into those of true silver ore,
argentiferous lead ore—chiefly galena, and various argentiferous ores of
copper. So various in character are the veins, their relation to the enclosing
rock, and the nature of the ores, that no useful purpose would be served
by touching upon these questions here; they are fully discussed in
Phillips’s ‘Ore Deposits’ (1884), to which work those wishing information
on the subject should refer.
One point, however, is of so much importance to our subject that
attention must be especially directed to it—that is, the exceptional
nature of many of the great silver deposits of the United States. These
have been already briefly referred to, and it was pointed out that whereas
lodes often retain their productiveness to indefinite depths, these rich
bonanzas and chambers of ore are very irregular in their occurrence, and
are unlikely to continue productive to great depths or for long dis-
tances. ;
It is possible that other deposits resembling the Comstock may exist,
and may some day be worked ; also that other rich deposits like those of
Leadville may be found; from which large quantities of silver ore or
silver-lead ore may be obtained. But the expectation often expressed
that such mines will become common and will flood the world with silver
is quite unwarranted. If the United States is to keep at anything like
its present production, the discovery of some such rich deposits is needful
to balance the loss of those now becoming exhausted ; as the mines are
deepened the working expenses greatly increase, whilst not unfrequently
(unlike the majority of gold-quartz mines) the productiveness of the lode
diminishes.
slags and waste-heaps, and also from some ore freshly raised, the production of lead
has been from 7,000 to 10,000 tons yearly, with from 82. to 14/7. of silver per ton of
lead. Over 1,000,000Z. in lead and silver have been produced from the Laurium mines
since they were reopened in 1864.
IV.
TABLE
oy & Report Brit. Assoc. L887.
Plate 1X
N N N N
N S 8 N
S 3 3 3
hy R R q
RRR RER cid
ae
iw ee]
PTA} tt : S
AG ae a eo
PEEP REECE er
CE Pes yi Sale DRG he
PEERLESS
my a ete oo eR |e
= 2eehace ee Sere as
Peeeeepteol | open |) LEN Peg ol?
eert | | Peta
: ECO
Be
= in ose
_ | 2
fi. g
S ae
er ls
Ber fe
é
[26a ; z
Bet Cece ie
a A a 0981
r Ce
ow | % tlle
2 Le gtle
a PRED s
a i ki Is
ule
a
B Z
eee:
Ses 2 oU eS Se wees vas
eae | as ae aaiee aaae 6
J20nBee .2 2335 Reh eaete:.
PO 8 L
Ch ene Cs Sega eee
£20,000,000
f25,000,000
20,000,000
$5,000,000
Ilastrating M’ Wiltiaan lopleys Paper on bold.and Silver-thew beological lnstrdution and Probable Latare Production.
ON GOLD AND SILVER. 531
At the time of the Comstock’s maximum yield very little silver was
obtained in the United States beyond the limits of Nevada; but now there
are seven States each producing $3,000,000 and upwards per year; two
States each produced over $10,000,000 in 1885.
The following table gives the production for the years 1880-85 in
thousands of dollars: 750,= $750,000.!
1880 1881 1882 1885 1884 1885
California F 4 s 1,151, 750, 845, 1,460, | 3,000, 2,500,
Colorado . A 2 . | 16,550, | 17,160, | 16,500, | 17,370, | 16,000, | 15,800,
Nevada . ‘ A . | 12,430,.} 7,060, 6,750, | 5,430, | 5,600, 6,000,
Utah ‘ ‘ : - 4,743, | 6,400, | 6,800, | 5,620, | 6,800, | 6,750,
Montana . s = . | 2,905, | 2,630, | 4,370, | 6,000, | 7,000, | 10,060,
Arizona . é é . | 2,326, | 7,300, | 7,500, } 5,200, | 4,500, | 3,800,
Idaho 7 E 4 : 464, 1,300, | 2,000, | 2,100, | 2,720, | 3,500,
New Mexico . 5 392, 275, 1,800, | 2,845, | 3,000, | 3,000,
Other States . : : 150, 125, 235, 175, 180, 190,
Total : ; | 41,111, | 43,000, | 46,800, | 46,2C0, | 48,800, | 51,600,
Canada.—The beautiful silver ores from near Lake Superior, exhibited
in the Canadian Court of the Colonial and Indian Exhibition, naturally
led many people to think highly of this district as a probable source of
silver; such expectations have been quite recently revived. Dr. T. Sterry
Hunt, to whom the whole district is well known, informs us that, although
in places remarkably rich, the lodes are not continuously productive.
Many attempts have been made to work them, but without success.
Silver Islet, near Port Arthur, has yielded the largest amount of ore.
Dr. Selwyn states *that this was worked at intervals from 1869 to 1884,
and produced a total of about $3,000,000. The lode was followed to the
depth of 1,230 feet, and the mine was then abandoned.
Great uncertainty exists as to the actual amount of silver produced in
Mexico and South America, but on all hands it is allowed to belarge. In
1800 these countries gave about 913 per cent. of the world’s production,
Mexico alone giving 614 per cent. In 1850 they gave 82} per cent. ;
Mexico, 58}. In 1865, 63 per cent.; Mexico, 42.3 In 1883, 411 per cent. ;
Mexico, 26. The relative importance of Mexico and South America have,
therefore, declined, but their actual output has increased.
The production of silver in Germany has steadily increased during
the last thirty years, but this is due to the great development of metal-
lurgical works, to which, from all parts, are sent low-grade ores of gold
and silver and ores of other metals containing small quantities of these.
It is not due to output from the local mines, for silver mining in Germany
is ‘generally in a very depressed state. Some Government mines, notably
those of the Harz, are kept going at a loss in order to provide employ-
ment for the large population dependent upon them.
The silver produce of Norway is now valued at about 50,0001. per
year, which was the average of the years 1834 to 1864. The production
in the period here mentioned varied much, the largest returns being
1 The total production for 1886 is $51,000,000.
? Catalogue of Economic Minerals of Canadian, Col. and Ind. Exhib. 1886, p. 51.
* These figures are from Phillips’ Gold and Silver, 1867, p, 320.
mm 2
532 REPORT—1887.
87,5581. in 1834 and 84,3561. in 1858; the smallest 36,772I. in 1845 and
26,7087. in 1862.
The estimates for Spain are very untrustworthy, but it is believed
that of late years the annual production of silver has been from 600,000/.
to 650,0001., a considerable proportion of which is from argentiferous
alena.
‘i A singular instance of the discovery of a rich silver lode in a country
long explored is that of Hiendelaencina, in Spain. In 1843 a native of
the district who had worked in the mines of Mexico noticed the resem-
blance of a block of stone to the ores with which he was familiar. The
result was the discovery and opening up of the richest modern mines in
Spain. From 1846 to 1866 they yielded 631,544 lbs. troy of silver, but
their production since 1858 has been small.!
Reference has already been made (p. 522) to the growing importance
of New South Wales as a silver-producing country.
The relative amounts of silver produced directly from true silver ores
and those obtained by treating ores of other metals is a point of much
‘interest. It was carefully worked out by Professor W. C. Roberts-Austen,
in his evidence before the Gold and Silver Commission, 1887 (First Report,
p. 825). He gives the following figures for the year 1883, with an esti-
mate of the cost per oz. of silver by each process :—
Cost per oz.
Oz. Bad:
Treatment of silver ores , tel te . . 49,920,733 Lind
: ae United States . - 21,890,000
: pee eet |Essope . 8,036,000} 30,726,000 2 0
Elsewhere - 800,000
Desilverisation
Mansfeld . . 2,382,000
OF copper and: Great Britain. ‘”328,000|‘ 700,000 ais
Bh pare Elsewhere . 4,490,000
Refining of native gold - tele te = 5 508,000 0 23
Total . 88,354,733 Meanl 8
Conclusion.—In taking a general review of the goldfields likely in the
near future to yield the most constant supply, it is evident from Table I.
that an important place must be given to Russia. With a very slight
fall in the produce of Australia and of the United States, Russia would
again take her old place at the head of gold-producing countries. With
its enormous areas of placer gold only partially worked, and its Siberian
-veins untouched, a steady yield of gold may be anticipated for many years
to come.
' The United States and Australasia have of late years been running very
closely together, Australia being slightly in excess. In the former there
is now a slight tendency to rise in yield? A permanent rise cannot
safely be anticipated ; a more steady yield than in past years is all that
can be hoped for ; and this it seems likely may be the case, largely due to
quartz-mining. The rapid fall in the gold produce of the United States
from 1877 to 1883 was chiefly due to the decrease of silver-mining in the
Comstock district, about 40 per cent. of the value here being gold. If we
1 Phillips and Bauerman, Wetallurgy, p. 665.
2 Since this was written the United States statistics for 1886 have appeared. The
yield of gold for the last four years is stated as follows:—1883, $30,000,000; 1884,
$30,800,000 ; 1885, $31,801,000 ; 1886, $35,000,000.
ON GOLD AND SILVER. 533
deduct the silver-gold, as is done on Tables I. and II., we see that the fall
from 1877 was a very gradual one. The vast placer deposits of California,
now in great part sealed by repressive legislation, will be to some extent
again worked, either by drift-mining or by hydraulicking with provision
for the retention of the débris. Table III. shows a gradual steadying of
the produce of Australasia, neither placer nor quartz mining varying
much from 1880 to 1885.
Of the newer goldfields the first place should probably be given to
Venezuela, &c. The wealth of this country in gold-quartz is well
established ; but we may perhaps expect for a time a greater develop-
ment of alluvial mining.
South Africa is generally looked upon with favour as a source from
whence our future supply of gold may in part be drawn. Without
doubt there are here rich lodes, and it would be strange if this country
were destitute of rich placers ; though of this there is as yet but little
evidence. From these sources mines may possibly be worked at a profit
which will give a steady yield of gold; but there is as yet no evidence that
the yield will be sufficient in amount to materially influence the world’s
production.
As regards India the prospect is still less hopeful. That large
quantities of gold were raised here by the native princes in times preceding
the British rule is tolerably certain; but it is probable that this large
production was spread over long periods of time, and certainly it was
raised under conditions—of forced labour, &c.—which are not now
applicable.
It is unlikely that India will ever contribute to the world’s stock
sufficient native gold to materially influence the total production. <A far
more important point is the amount of gold hoarded in India, and the
probability or otherwise of that being some day set free. Most estimates
concerning gold are ludicrously vague, but on the question of the
amount hoarded vagueness is unavoidable. Itis known that 130,000,000I.
of gold has been taken into India since 1835 ;! practically none of this
is in circulation (silver being the standard and the coinage of India).
How much was hoarded in the centuries preceding 1835 no one can say.
If it only equals the amount hoarded since, we have 260,000,0001., or
nearly thirteen times the world’s present annual production. The original
source of this gold and the ways by which it reached India would be an
interesting subject for inquiry. Since 1851 it is the gold of the world,
mainly sent through England ; but in the long past times it was probably
in part of native production, in part the gold of Hurope, sent over
the old trade routes in return for the manufactured articles of India.
It is supposed that at least as much silver is hoarded in India as gold.
If so the value of silver and gold hoarded in India since 1835 nearly
equals in value one-third of the total amount of gold and silver coin now
' in circulation in the world.
Famines set free some of this gold, and we may perhaps anticipate
that the diffusion of Western ideas will free more, but it is unlikely that
gold will come from this source in sufficient quantities to influence the
annual production of the world.
British Columbia may possibly increase its yield. Other countries
1 Mr. D. M. Barbour. First Report of the Gold and Silver Commission, 1887,
pp. 57-62. See also Dr. Soetbeer’s Materialien, and Memorandum by Mr. R. H.
Inglis Palgrave, in Third Report of Royal Commission on Depression of Trade, 1886.
534 REPORT—1887.
(as yet little known), as Equatorial Africa, Borneo, and North China,
may add somewhat to the world’s stock. A steady though comparatively
small supply may be looked for from the treatment of silver ores and
from the auriferous ores of other metals. -In all parts of the world an
increased supply is assured by improved methods of mining, milling, and
metallurgy ; this will be obtained by an actual increase from ore now
worked, and also from ores of lower grade, made profitable by the im-
proved methods; whilst tailings, &c., of former times can in some cases
be profitably worked over again.
But for all practical purposes the chief sources will probably continue
to be the goldfields of the United States, of Australasia, and of Russia,
aided by the development of the goldfields of South America. Every-
thing points to a steady production from the three areas first named,
and to an increased yield from the last.
As regards the future production of silver it is more difficult to sug-
gest any forecast. It is less a question of where the silver is than of the
price at which silver can be sold. The depreciation of silver may
be in part due to increased production; but it is due, in at least an
equal degree, to changes in the currency of certain nations setting free
silver previously absorbed in coinage. If from either cause, or from
both combined, the price of silver falls, many mines will cease working ;
if the price of silver rises, the mines will be reopened and other mines
will be developed; and with mines which remain at work ores of low
grade may be passed over or stored at low prices, which can be quickly
sent into the market if prices rise. So far, therefore, as the natural
supply of silver is concerned, the price and the rate of production will
react on each other, with a tendency to steady both supply and
price.
The natural sources of silver are large and widely spread, and will
continue to yield a sufficient supply for many years to come. If the
price of silver were to rise, Mexico and South America alone could
produce all that the world wants. The yield from the United States will
continue. But there is no reason to expect a great increase in the world’s
production, and, from this cause, a continued fall in price.
Professor Roberts-Austen has shown (see p. 532) that only about 57 per
cent. of the world’s silver is now produced from true silver ores; the rest
is obtained in the metallurgical treatment of other ores in which silver is
a more or less important constituent. These ores will continue to be
worked for the other metals which they contain, and a steady supply of
silver is thus assured. But the price of silver will necessarily exert an
important influence upon these works; a slight rise in price will enable
many ores to be worked which are now lying untouched, and here again
price and supply will act upon and steady each other.
Silver-mining in its various modifications—and the same remark
applies to gold obtained from silver ores—may be ranked with metal-
mining in its ordinary conditions. Mines which are hopelessly bad will
be abandoned ; those which are on the verge of paying will be persevered
with in hopes of better yield or higher price. In all metal-mining there
is far too much gambling and wild speculation, and it isdoubtful if, taking
metal-mining all round, the value raised equals the expenses. But gold-
mining cannot be ranked with ordinary mining. There is a glamour
about gold which blinds men to ordinary prudential considerations. The
wildest schemes meet with willing supporters, and money is always forth-
ON GOLD AND SILVER. aan
coming to develop the poorest mines and to keep them going upon the
most shadowy of hopes.
Enormous fortunes have been made in gold-mining by a few lucky
speculators. But for one who has been thus fortunate there are scores
who have lost heavily.
The facts which we have been considering as to the probable future of
gold-mining warrant usin believing that the industry will gradually make
for itself a sounder and more honest position. But there must ever be
great uncertainty, and therefore a wide field for speculation and for
dishonest dealing.
If a steady and undiminished production of gold is essential for the
well-being of the world, perhaps what we have most to dread is a sudden
influx of common-sense and prudence in the investing public; for this
would at once close a great number of mines, and might considerably
diminish the world’s production. But probably this contingency is
sufficiently remote to be safely left out of consideration.
Tables I., IL., and ITI. are, for the years 1852 to 1885, based on the estimates of Sir
Hector Hay. ‘These are taken because they give the probable production for each
year ; Dr. Soetbeer’s figures before 1876 give only averages of five years. From 1870
to 1880 Sir Hector Hay’s estimates for silver are from § to 25 per cent. lower than
those of Dr. Soetbeer, chiefly due to differences in Mexico and South America; for
gold in the same period they are from 3 to 10 per cent. lower. The differences are
greater in the first half of these ten years than in the second half. Before 1870 the
differences in the two estimates were comparatively small for silver, but were rather
larger for gold. From 1880 the estimates more nearly agree, but Sir Hector Hay’s
are still rather the lower,
Table IV. (Australasia) is taken from official figures supplied for the 16th Ann.
Report of the Deputy Master of the Mint (1886). It differs somewhat from the cor-
responding diagram in Table I.
The proportions of vein gold to alluvial gold at different periods are taken from
a variety of sources. In recent years the estimates are fairly trustworthy, but for
former years they are necessarily vague. The proportion of gold in the silver of the
United States is taken from the Appendix, by L. A. Garnett, to Bowie’s ‘ Hydraulic
Mining.’
The authorities cited throughout this paper have been consulted upon the question
generally and not solely for the statements especially referred to. Information has also
been obtained from numerous other sources, amongst others from Lock’s ‘Gold’
(1882), the fullest treatise upon that subject, which also contains a lengthy Biblio-
graphy; Hacue’s ‘ Mining Industries at the Paris Exhibition, 1878’; J. A. Phillips’
‘Mining and Metallurgy of Gold and Silver ’ (1867); Percy’s ‘ Metallurgy of Silver’;
the various Catalogues and Guides for the Colonial and Indian Exhibition of last
year; Dr. C. Le Neve Foster’s ‘Report on the Mining Industries of the British
Colonies’; Report (in the ‘ Mining Journal ’) by R. Etheridge, jun., and T. Davis upon
the exhibits; Reports (also in the ‘ Mining Journal’) of Conferences of the Geolo-
gists’ Association at the Exhibition. Gold was especially referred to in the lectures
by Professor V. Ball (India), Dr. Selwyn (Canada), Sir J. von Haast (New Zealand),
Mr. F. W. Rudler (Australia). Jervis, ‘Dell’ Oro in Natura’ (1881), gives a table
showing, in kilog. and in oz. troy, the produce of various districts from 1848 to 1879.
Suess’ ‘ Die Zukunft des Goldes’ (1877) contains a Bibliography.
I have also to thank Dr, T. Sterry Hunt and Mr. F. W. Rudler for much assistance
and information.
536 REPORT— 1887.
Recent Illustrations of the Theory of Rent, and their Effect on the
Value of Land, By G. AULDJO JAMIESON.
[A Communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed zm extenso
among the Reports. ]
Ir is a poor compensation for the agricultural depression under which we
labour, that it brings into strong relief some of the rudimentary princi-
ples of economic science. It is at neap tide that the secrets of ocean life
are revealed to the ordinary observer, and the ebb of our present mis-
fortune enables even casual students to study phenomena which were hid
by the flow of our prosperity. Nor will that study be vain if it throws
any light on those relations of landlord with tenant—once so close, so
cordial, and so sympathetic, which have recently been disturbed—a light
which may at least enable those interested to comprehend the reasons of
the more recent divergence, and may perhaps help to reconcile interests
which may be diverse, but ought never to be antagonistic.
There has been of late a notable revolt on the part of young and
foreign economists against the principles which had been generally
accepted by the leading authorities as rudimentary in the science of
economics. The almost axiomatic dicta on value, wages, profits, and
capital which have hitherto been accepted as conclusive, have been chal-
lenged, and principles which Mill, Fawcett, and Cairnes held as funda-
mental have been rudely shaken by heresiarchs, who promise to be
hardly less distinguished than the apostles whose creed they assail. But
hardly one of the least authority has ventured to controvert the theory
of rent propounded by Ricardo. That theory holds the field still in the
study and in the lecture-room, but I doubt very inuch whether it has
received that practical exposition which is essential to bring it home to
the intelligence of those whom it most immediately concerns. It will be
well, therefore, to lay the foundation of any observations on the present
condition of rental by stating as clearly as possible and in conventional
terms, what, according to recognised definition, rent really is.
Let us assume a farmer in the Lothians, with full appliances and
ample skill, to produce a quarter of wheat at a cost for labour, manure,
and superintendence of 20s. If the same man with the same appliances
could raise a quarter of the same wheat on his Argyllshire farm at a
cost of not less than 30s., it is plain he would lose 10s. a quarter if he
sold his Argyll wheat at the cost of his Lothian wheat, while he would
gain 10s. a quarter if he sold his Lothian wheat at the cost of his Argyll
wheat. He would, of course, try to sell all his wheat at as much more
than 30s. as he could get for it; his Lothian wheat and his Argyll wheat
would, of course, sell for the same price.
But if the actual price obtainable were only 29s. for long enough to
establish a definite result, it is plain he would give up growing wheat in
Argyll, and would be content to make a profit of 9s. per quarter on his
Lothian wheat. But that 9s. would not be due to any labour, skill, or
capital of his; for we assume the same man to be the farmer, and an
equality of appliances to be at his disposal, in both cases, and these to be
barren in Argyll and fruitful in the Lothians. The 9s. is the measure,
therefore, of something which the Lothians have which Argyll has not,
and it is that something which is expressed by rent.
ON THE THEORY OF RENT. 537
Of course the same ratiocination may be applied to every species of
crop: rent is always the result of comparative fertility.
Rent is, therefore, the practical expression of the excess of fertility of
land beyond that productive power which characterises the least fertile
land, of which the produce comes into the market, where the comparative
value is determined.
And we are now witnessing a practical and interesting illustration and
proof of this. There has been a falling off in the quantity of land cul-
tivated in the United Kingdom to the extent of about a million of acres
in ten years—about a ninth part of the area in cultivation in 1877.
These abandoned acres were certainly not the most fertile, but the least
fertile. The cost of producing crops from these acres must therefore
have been the highest, because the cost of cultivation of the least fertile
land, reckoned on its produce, must always be greatest. The cost of
cultivating the least fertile land in cultivation is therefore now much
less than it was ten years ago, because there were then in cultivation a
million of acres poorer than any acres now cultivated ; and therefore the
difference between the cost of cultivating the very poorest cultivated land
and the very richest is now much less than it was; the horizon of con-
trast has been narrowed. But rent, we have seen, is just the difference
between the cost of cultivating the poorest land that will pay for cultiva-
tion and other lands more fertile, and therefore what we call the fall of
rent is really the exclusion of poor land from cultivation, and the conse-
quent reduction of the margin between the very poorest land and the
several gradations of better land that mark the several degrees of fertility.
If we could imagine this process of reduced cultivation to go on until only
the richest land, all of uniform fertility, were cultivated, rent would dis-
appear, and we should be face to face with the paradox that land so rich
as to defy competition would return nothing to its proprietor. What is
the explanation or solution of this paradox? It is this, that according to
the theory which has commended itself to all judgment, rent is the
measure of comparative fertility, and where there is no comparison there
can be no measure. Stated otherwise, land must first yield recompense
for the labour and capital expended upon it before it can be cultivated,
and the theory of rent requires cultivation as the necessary antecedent
to rent.
And like all social paradoxes this one vanishes when examined. It
assumes all but the richest land to be thrown out of cultivation. That
implies a gradual reduction of rent as step by step the poorer land dis-
appears—fades away because it will not pay to cultivate: the richest land
survives, because it does pay to cultivate, but it will pay only the cost of
cultivation because the competition or other cause which has eaten up
the poorer land will eat up that excess beyond cost which, if it could
have existed, would have kept the last expiring grade of land in eculti-
ai Labour, capital, and skill will struggle for their subsistence to
the last.
Thus, when closely analysed, we find in the phenomena we examine
the usual alternation of cause and effect acting and reacting. Prices fall ;
the poor land that yields little and costs much to work loses the little
margin on which it lived, and yoes out of cultivation; the maximum cost
of production is thereby reduced, and the worth of the best land is
reduced by a corresponding measure. The connection between the fall
of price and the fall of rent is not direct and immediate; it is therefore
538 REPORT—-1887.
a fallacy to hold that rent falls just in precise proportion to the fall in the
price of produce, so that if land yields four quarters an acre, and wheat
falls 1J. per quarter, rent must fall 4/. per acre. Economic effects are
rarely so simple as that, and it is well that we should recognise that such
problems require for their solution more than mere arithmetic.
And let us pause for a moment to dissipate another fallacy. Much
denunciation is levelled at present at landlords and at rent under the
belief that rent contributes to cost, and that when we sweep away rent
and landlords we shall have our wheat cheaper by exactly the amount
which the landlord now pockets. But no one who really follows up
rent to its source can entertain such an idea. In the case I have put, of
Argyll yielding wheat at a cost of 30s. and the Lothians at a cost of 20s.,
and the Lothians therefore getting a rent or margin of profit of 10s. per
quarter while Argyll just lived, what difference would arise if there was
no rent in the Lothians ? Would the Lothian farmer then sell his wheat
for 20s. if the farmer, say in Northumberland, was getting 27s. 6d. ?
Certainly not; he would get at least 27s. 6d., and the consumer would be
none the better, and none the wiser, although no landlord existed in the
Lothians to claim the tribute due to the extra fertility of that favoured
soil. Some foolish farmer may pay more than the extra fertility of the
soil he tills justifies, but as a whole the landlords will get just that which
measures the various grades of the extra fertility of their land; and if
they didn’t get it, some one else would, but that some one else would
obviously never be the consumer; he would pay the same price whoever
divided the spoils. The rise or fall of rent is the private affair of land-
lords and tenants, and is to the community a matter of the purest
indifference.
Another fallacy, arising out of that just considered, and which this
closer definition of rent enables us to dispose of, is that the ultimate
sufferer from agricultural depression is the proprietor. He is not the first,
and he is not the last, to suffer: the average rent of the average land-
owner falls not immediately because prices fall, only indirectly and
mediately from that cause. The proximate cause of the fall of his rent is
the extinction of cultivation elsewhere, the narrowing of the margin of
cultivation ; and those who first suffer from that are the labourer and the
farmer, the possessors of those functions which exist for cultivation, and
operate antecedently to and are the causes of rent. Where there are no
leases, rent may fluctuate rapidly and unduly from panic and the accident
of seasons, but before the rent of the Lothians or Lincolnshire perma-
nently falls, the labour, capital, and skill employed in cultivating less
fertile regions must have perished or migrated.
And, conversely, if by any natural agency the prices of agricultural
commodities should rise, or by any artificial method or process should be
raised, the proximate result would not be a raising of the rent of the
land in general ; it would be, first, an increased recompense to the labour,
skill, and capital employed on the richer lands ; second, the restoration to
cultivation of the next grade of land, inferring increased scope for labour,
capital, and skill; and, third, a rise of rent, because by that increased
area of cultivation the margin had been widened, and the difference be-
tween the result of cultivating inferior and superior land had thereby
been deepened.
There is therefore no antagonism in this combat with depression be-
tween rent, labour, and capital,—there is the closest identity of interest ;
ON THE THEORY OF RENT. 539
and the social cataclysm from the fall of prices, if it comes, will fall
ultimately and most severely on the poorer sections of those who depend
on the land.
Having now considered what rent is, and shown how the startling
statistics of the Agricultural Department corroborate and illustrate the
theory of its existence, we may consider another question, too often iden-
tified with the preliminary inquiry we have disposed of. Having dis-
covered rent, we have to consider how it can be best paid; the fact of
rent and the method of ascertaining or regulating or paying rent are quite
different matters.
There can be no doubt that, just as barter was the earliest form of
commerce, rent was originally paid by personal service or in kind; but
that does not imply that there was any co-operation or any co-partnership
between the landlord and the tenant. The relation of landlord and tenant
in respect of rent varied according to the radical idea which underlay
that relation. In countries subject to Latin influences the radical idea
was certainly that of partnership; the eminently equitable and liberal
tendency of Roman practice and jurisprudence favoured that conception
of the relation. In Celtic and Saxon communities, and especially in the
former, the radical idea, when disentangled from that of service, was sale.
In Provence and Italy, a landlord took his share in the production and
cultivation of the soil, shared the fertility or sterility of the seasons,
shared also the skill or imbecility of the cultivator with whom he was
associated. In Hngland, and still more in Scotland and in Ireland, the
landlord sold the use of the soil to the cultivator, not for a share in
its produce, but for a definite price, payable by instalments while the
tenure endured.
This distinction, which has a very important bearing on present phe-
nomena, has been obscured by the circumstance that in ancient times,
and indeed until comparatively recently, rent was largely paid in kind,
and until still more recent times was often reckoned and measured by the
price of the produce. But the payment of rent in kind was due to the
incomplete condition of commerce, and to the difficulty of transport and
communication. It was difficult, on the one side, for the tenant in any
distant part of the country to convert produce into money ; on the other
side it was very inconvenient for the landlord to procure supplies.
Society in these old times was very self-contained, and an old rental, in
Scotland at any rate, contained the most elaborate provision for victual-
ling the laird in meal, poultry, beef, mutton, flax, and all commodities,—
not, as some imaginative historians have supposed, from any overbearing
feudal pride, but from the far more vulgar circumstance that the laird
could hardly have lived unless he had been thus provisioned, and the
tenant would have had to trudge many a weary mile before he could get
the money. . We must not, therefore, confuse the method of paying rent
in those days with the system of metayer cultivation, which at no time
prevailed in this country.
The system of regulating the rent by the price of produce, which no
doubt had its origin in the necessities or convenience of an earlier age,
has in later times been often resorted to, especially where leases prevail,
in order to equalise and harmonise the oscillations of value. For many
years ina large part of Scotland rents were regulated by the price or
value of equal or varying quantities of the three grain crops of that
-country—wheat, barley, and oats—and the varying proportions in which.
540 REPORT—1887.
these respective grains were used to fix, or rather to measure, the rent,
denoted the varying capacity of the farms for the growth of the respec-
tive crops. I observe that Lord Tollemache, always an earnest searcher
after practical truths and methods, has recently introduced a somewhat
similar method of dealing with his rents. But the excessive rates for
grain which prevailed during and after the Crimean War induced tenants
in Scotland to revolt against a system which forced up rents far above
their normal and just amount; and a system which had commended itself
for its justice was abandoned on account of the admitted injustice it
involved.!
Now the pendulum has swung to the other extremity; prices have
fallen to an unprecedented extent, and there is now a demand for the re-
adoption of the system of rent in kind, so general thirty or forty years
ago. With the glib confidence of crass ignorance, newspaper correspon-
dents with agricultural proclivities urge the arithmetical axiom that
produce havirg fallen 50 per cent., rent must fall in the same proportion,
and that the rent, representing the landlord’s share of the produce, must
fluctuate directly with the value of that produce itself.
This is urged no doubt mainly in the unceasing conflict on Irish land.
Within the neutral precincts of this room, and in its calm philosophic
atmosphere, one can utter these burning words without the fear of creat-
ing a cyclone; but having uttered them, the economist has only to
confess that the problem of Irish land is beyond his ken and reach. He
deals with a condition of matters in which the ordinary motives of
human conduct prevail and have free scope. In this country and in most
other countries cultivators work for profit: the ordinary motives and causes
of human action produce their ordinary effect, and the task of the econo-
mist is to note and to describe these causes and their effects, and to
formulate the laws they denote. But in Ireland land in the generic sense
is cultivated not for profit but for existence; and that existence is not
the mere minimum of subsistence, but an existence brightened by many
pleasures, from which, however, those elements of progress, advance,
profit, and gain, in our Saxon sense of the terms, are eliminated. The
Irish peasant desires to live his Irish life, drawing from the soil the meagre
return which suffices not only for his subsistence but for his simple
pleasures, practising a penuriousness which is not frugality, and indulging
in parsimony as a pastime, combined with a delicious freedom from care
which is purchased by the sacrifice of much that the labourer of this
country deems indispensable. The chemist would be baffled in a world
where the laws of affinity were suspended, and the physicist would be
powerless where attraction and gravitation had no force ; so economists
must retire from seeking to solve problems where the ordinary laws and
methods fail to operate.
But let us return to countries where they do operate.
Why was the injustice of the excessive rent, fixed for any length of
time by rent in kind, intolerable when prices were excessively high ? Why
is a rent fixed, also for a long period, by the rent in kind when prices are
1 The price or value of the produce is one only of several elements in ascertaining
the return from a farm. It not infrequently happened that just when prices, and
therefore rents, were highest there wasa poor crop. Wages, too, rose when prices
rose ; the rinderpest came when prices were highest, and grain, while it remained in
these older leases the sole measure of the rent, became less and less the sole test of
the value of the farm.
ON THE THEORY OF RENT. 541
excessively low equally intolerable? Because, in accordance with the
theory of rent, the range of price does not affect rent directly, but only
indirectly, through the medium of causes to which price contributes only
a proportion of their efficacy.
In comparing the results of recent lettings in various parts of the
country, I have been much struck by the circumstance that the fall of
rent has been much greater on the larger than on the smaller farms, and
that those tenants who themselves labour on the land have evidently
suffered less, and are more ready to enter on leases than the larger
farmers who have been accustomed only to direct and superintend.!
Another fact is the general reluctance of both landlords and tenants
to expend capital either on high cultivation or on permanent improve-
ments. Capital is certainly being withdrawn from agriculture, :
Applying these facts to the theory of rent, we are led to consider
what are and what have been the relations of labour and of capital to
rent. Doubtless labour and the recompense of capital are antecedent to
and creative of rent; and we all know that under modern circumstances
wages are very slow to yield, and that when they do yield they surrender
not by reducing the rate, but by restricting the volume. Wages continue
high, but the workers become fewer.
Now on large farms the item of wages is a very important one, and if
cultivation is to be kept up, it is an inflexible item ; but on smaller farms,
where wages and superintendence merge, the wage rate is really reduced,
the tenant himself insensibly works for less recompense, though the
labourer insists on his full rate of wage.
In the same way with capital, the capital of the tenant contributes to
the cultivation, and the necessary recompense for its use is also ante-
cedent to rent; but people often forget that the recompense of all capital
has of late been largely reduced, whether in the form of interest or of
profits, and capital engaged in agriculture cannot be exempt from the
influences which affect all capital.
And there is yet another element to be reckoned with. There is a
point at which the alternative will be presented to a proprietor whether
he will let or even cultivate his land at all, or devote it to pasture instead
of tillage. Economically he will let only if sufficient inducement be held
out, and there are many persons bent on farming who are prepared to
offer such an inducement, although the rent they engage to pay may
infringe on what has hitherto been deemed the adequate recompense of
the cultivator.
All these considerations combine to arrest the direct influence of the
fall of prices on proprietors, and to distribute the loss more equably than
is often recognised. The formula prescribed on many platforms is this :
The gross produce of a farm was formerly 6001., of which cultivation
absorbed 2001., interest and tenant’s profit 200/., and rent 2002. Prices
have fallen 25 per cent.; the return is therefore reduced to 4501. Ex-
penses remain the same as before, interest and tenant’s profit remain the
same ; these absorb 400/. as before, and the surplus for the landlord is
only 50/. But let us consider this in the light of commercial experience.
It must not be assumed that this infers a rise of rent of these smaller possessions,
or even a fall of rent much less than in other cases. The upkeep of such tenancies
is expensive, and it has yet to be seen whether under the altered circumstances of
the present times the burden of the upkeep of these small holdings is to fall as
exclusively as hitherto on the landlord.
542 REPORT— 1887.
If the farm does not pay, the tenant will reduce the cultivation in extent,
or more probably in intensity ; he will dispense with a pair of horses, or
reduce his labour bill and his manure bill, leaving probably some of his
farm in grass. Suppose that is done to the extent of 25 per cent., that
saves 50/.; and then the tenant cannot expect so large a return on his
capital or for his skill, if he reduces his interest from 4 to 3 per cent.
and his own recompense in like proportion he will drop 50/7. The charges
antecedent to rent are thus reduced 100/., and the reduction of return
being 150/., there remains 50/. to be put against the rent. Thus we
return to the old formula of the three interests in land, and find these
falling together, as they rose together.
But all these considerations, notwithstanding the price or value of
the commodities it produces, must ultimately radically affect, though it
does not wholly regulate, the rent of the land; and in this period of
transition it is most difficult to define what has been, or to anticipate
what may be, the final effect of passing experience on the relation of rent
to the other elements that constitute property inland. One fact is brought
out very prominently at least in Scotland, viz., that the original Celtic
and Saxon idea of the leasehold tenure of land has been almost entirely
superseded by the more equitable idea of the Latin lease. The idea of
the purchase by the tenant for a definite period at a defined price of the
productive power of the land had many advantages while prices remained
normal and nearly uniform, and the only contingencies were those of the
seasons; and it no doubt commended itself to the tenant, while prices
tended to rise, and he consequently profited. But when prices do not
fluctuate with the seasons, but from other causes oscillate violently and
invariably tend downwards, the base of the structure is shaken, and the
weaker party to the contract suffers most. In these circumstances it is
natural and it is just that the system of long leases should lose its
attraction—that the purchase idea and all its consequent feeling of inde-
pendence and quasi-ownership should fade, and that the more natural
and equitable idea of co-operation and partnership should rise in appre-
ciation. One of the greatest boons, therefore, which could at present be
conferred on landlords and tenants would be the establishment of some
system whereby an authoritative return of the value of all sorts of
produce in the various districts of the country should be recorded, which
would be the measure of rent so far as dependent on price. It is not
enough that, as in Scotland, we should have certainly a not very satis-
factory, but still a well understood, method of fixing the value of the
cereal crops. These contribute less and less to the ascertainment of the
real value of the land. We ought to have a similar and a better method
of fixing the value of other crops, and of beef, mutton, and dairy produce.
With such information, based on a system which should command general
confidence, I see nothing to hinder our having rents fixed virtually by the
value of the produce of the land, without the complication and difficulty
which attaches to the fixing of individual rents of separate farms at
frequent intervals, which in the case of the smaller farms would become
intolerable. There would be nothing impracticable in the agricultural
department having fixed its standard of 20s. to the pound on the value
of produce, say in 1888, isuing a notice thereafter, year by year, that for
each crop and year the pound of rent should be reckoned at 18s. or at
22s. This would be a system which would soon be understanded of the
people, and, without any of the modern leading strings of coercion or
ON THE THEORY OF RENT. 513
restriction, which some agriculturists so much affect, would, I have no
doubt, speedily commend itself to general acceptance, and save landlords
and tenants many an argument.’
Attempts have been made to obtain such returns which indicate the
general feeling in this direction. In a recent report by a committee of
the farmers of Banffshire valuable statistics are given of the value of
beef for forty years, which, taken along with the ascertained value of oats
in that county, present a very fair view of the relative position of agri-
cultural produce year by year.
oe Oats. Beef. Foe Oats. Beef.
gat Fiars prices | London prices ear Fiars prices | London prices
Per ewt. Per ewt.
Sa) de Se SAAG: Sad
1846 30 6 79 4 1867 24 4 70 O
1847 21 0 65 4 1868 27 10 79 4
1848 16 8 65 4 1869 LONES 86 4
1849 ISL 63 0 1870 23 4 88 4
1850 15 0 53 «8 1871 pe ee 86 4
1851 16 8 58 4 1872 24 1 93.4
1852 Vis 56 O 1873 25. 3 , . 1G 80
1853 25 6 67 8 1874 26 7 93 4
1854 26 4 72 4 1875 23 11 91 0
1855 27.2 60 8 1876 21 7 88 8
1856 20 0 40, <0, 1877 22 7 84 0
1857 19 8 65 4 1878 19 6 79 4
1858 20 6 70 O 1879 21 4 86 4
1859 21 0 74 8 1880 20 6 86 4
1860 23 0 74 8 1881 20 4 86 4
1861 20 6 TO) 1882 20° 6 86 8
1862 28 0 70 O 1883 LOT 8s 8
1863 69 72 A 1884 19 11 86 4
1864 16 0 79 4 1885 19 0 ER Titel’
1865 23 0 74 8 1886 70 | 70 0
1866 24 0 TE
I have compiled from the returns of the fiars prices of grain in the
counties of Midlothian, Fife, Forfar, Aberdeen, Linlithgow, and Berwick,
a statement of the fluctuations of prices of grain grown in these
counties.”
There are one or two deductions to be drawn from these figures,
which are not, I think, readily recognised by those who look at them
solely through the spectacles of the agriculturist. They leave no doubt
as to the very serious fall in the value of produce. Combining the
1 See note, p. 540. Might not athoroughly organised agricultural department
afford to landlords and tenants a measure, not only of the value of the produce, but
of the fair and proper rent, taking into account in each district not only the value of
the produce every year, as contrasted with the value of the standard or initial year,
but also the results derivable from fair cultivation in that season: so that those who
chose to avail themselves of that method might have year by year such a measure as
would give as the rent that fair share of the produce of the farm which the parties
may have agreed to adopt as the rent,—in a good year with high prices a large rent ;
in a bad year with low prices a very low rent ; in a good year with bad prices, or in
a bad year with good prices, a rent measured by those qualified to appreciate and to
determine impartially the special influence of each element?
2 See Appendix.
544
REPORT—1887.
Banffshire oats and beef, and taking the result of 1850 as the standard,
we have these results :—
1846 .
1850 .
1860 .
1870 .
157
100
142
163
1874 .
1880 .
1886 .
173
155
126
Taking the fiars of the five counties J have referred to, we have the
following results :—
Wheat Barley Oats Total Cereal
sea: Go SS adi Bi sie ds LS. le
1860-64 2 1 73 Di 8 G2-% | ° epee Lge8e 4 11 103 100
1865-69 210 43 1 ya) Ty Cer 512 92 123
1870-74 2 6 103 114 32 1 5 10} BY er Oe 116
1875-79 2 0 43 Ie 11 8¢ 146 416 7 105
1880-84 115 8% 1 8 3% Dead 4 510 93
1885 1 6 102 1 4 58 1 1 44 3.12 8} 79
1886 1 9 3 TEMES Ze. 018 53 3 9 42 75
These are startling results viewed alone, but they are far from singu-
lar. Take other commodities, and assuming the prices of 1873 as the
standard, we have these results :—
1873 1883
eee | Ls ee
Sugar. 0 16 10 100 012 0 71
Tea 0 0113 100 0 5 O 43
Tron iG S770 100 4 Sate 10) 38
Copper ANT Oe gh 100 30 bad 71
Lita” 95 ita @ | 100 413 0 65
Paper . : Seto LO 100 116 O} 60
Railway carriages} 11110 O | 100 so 0 0 76
Agricultural produce has fallen along with other commodities, and the
dealers in other commodities must have suffered along with agriculturists.
Nor is it difficult to discover in the case of agriculture the proximate
cause of this fall. In 1870 there were 88,000,000 acres under wheat in
the United States; in 1884, 157,000,000. India in the same period in-
creased from 18,000,000 to 25,000,000. In Europe the acreage in 1870
was 440,000,000 acres; in 1884, 482,000,000; between 1869 and 1879
production of Europe doubled ; in 1869-70 the importations into Europe
represented 82,000,000/.; in 1879 they were 163,400,000/. The same
liberal supply of other commodities enriched the world, and the world
ought to have been rejoicing in bounteous plenty. Why its joy should
be turned into sorrow is a question, therefore, which interests commerce
not less than agriculture.
But there is another lesson which these statistics of price convey,
which many are very slow to learn from them. The system of long leases
in Scotland at any rate proceeds, as I have said, on the idea of purchase
and sale. A man takes his lease for nineteen years for better or for worse.
Suppose him to have done so nineteen years ago—in 1867—he must have
fixed the rent with the result of, say, the five previous years before him, to
ON THE THEORY OF RENT. 545
determine the value of the produce, and having done that, it turns out
that towards the close of his lease prices dwindle, and then he comes to
the landlord beseeching for a reduction of the rent, 7.e., of the last instal-
ments of the price fixed fifteen or sixteen years ago. Now let us see how
the Banffshire tenant making this demand really stands. The average
value of oats for five years prior to 1867 was ll. Os. 10d.; the average
price of beef for the same period was 74s, 8d. ; it is reasonable, therefore,
to believe that the price of the lease was fixed on these figures. For the
first ten years of the lease oats were on the average 1I. 3s. 9d., or 2s, 11d.
above the anticipated rate, and beef was 88s. 2d., or 13s. 6d. above the
calculation: for the next five years of the lease the oats were Ill. Os. 5d.,
and beef was 85s., being 5d. below and 10s, +d. above the calculated
price. Then for the last four years oats averaged 18s. 113d. and beef
80s. 6d. That is to say, for ten years the prices were largely in excess,
for five years somewhat in excess, and for four years also still somewhat
in excess of the value on which the price was calculated when the bargain
was made. In what other trade would any concession be asked or made
in such circumstances? Yet almost universally over Scotland concessions
have been made to sitting tenants, but I am satisfied justice has never
been done in public appreciation to the generosity and good feeling which
_ have characterised the action of the Scotch landlords, who have admitted
an interpretation of their bargains which would, in ordinary commercial
business, have been scouted as Quixotic, Ido not say that this was either
an imprudent or an inexpedient course. I think it was most prudent and
highly expedient, as tending to keep good tenants, and to inspirit and
encourage them, but it none the less deserves recognition in more ample
terms than it has received.!
So much for rent. Let us for a little see what have been the commer-
cial results of this very serious fall of prices and rent on the saleable value
of land itself. For a time, speaking from my own experience, when first
the fall of value came to be recognised not as an incidental circumstance
but as a permanent economic fact, land was virtually unsaleable ; but
again economic forces asserted themselves, sellers of land came to recog-
nise the fall, prices of land descended, and the inevitable result has begun
to follow; the inexorable laws that regulate supply and demand have
begun to operate, and buyers who a few years ago would never have
thought of purchasing land, are now buying, and many more begin to
1 Tt has now been practically demonstrated that in the contract of letting land
there is virtually a warranty implied which is not recognised in law. If the subject
of the lease becomes sterile from natural causes, the law does recognise that the
claim for rent ceases—the thing let has perished; but if the produce itself becomes
sterile, if the price it yields fails to compensate the cost of raising it, though the law
recognises no claim on the part of the tenant to consideration, yet in practice the claim
is largely conceded, so that virtually a landlord may now be held to guarantee as a
condition of rent (1) That the subject rented shall continue to yield normal returns,
@.e., shall not from any abnormal cause, such as flooding or destruction, become
sterile ; and (2) that its produce shall continue to yield a normal return, 7.e., shall
not be so reduced in price as to afford a return inadequate to defray cost of produc-
tion and rent. In other and perhaps more scientific words, the landlord has to
guarantee that his land shall continue to maintain that position relatively to other
cultivated land which, as shown above, shall justify that margin of value beyond that
of the least fertile cultivated land, which really constitutes his claim to rent. But
this implied guarantee must be applied to the lease as a whole, not to any selected
and exceptional portion of it.
1887, NN
546 REPORT— 1887.
think of it. Owing mainly to a financial catastrophe of no ordinary mag-
nitude, I have had within the last few months to bring to sale land in
Scotland to an extent of about 39,455 acres, almost wholly arable. The
first public sale was on August 24, 1886, and certainly if I had been then
told that within a year 33,297 acres would be sold, I should have scouted
the prophet. It will not be uninteresting to note the results of these sales
in some of their social as well as their economic aspects.
The total acreage we have brought to sale was, as I have said, about
39,455.. Of that we are for various reasons reserving 620 acres, and the
sale of one property in Fifeshire, extending to 5,479 acres, has also for
special reasons been delayed. There remain, therefore, 33,356 acres really
to be dealt with here.
The total acreage actually sold has been 33,297 ; the actual free rental
is 27,6591.; the valued nett rental was 26,640/.; the price realised is
798,94.01.
Leaving out of view mansion-houses and shootings, and restricting
ourselves exclusively to agricultural land and fens, we have sold the land
at the average rate of twenty-eight years’ purchase of the nett rental: the
highest of this class of land was sold at forty years’ purchase, the lowest
at twenty-two years’, but the range has been generally very close on the
average.
Then we have sold this large value of land to the following classes of
purchasers :—
eee No. of Years’
as Free Rental Barchnss
25 Acreage| Price AD OG
5s 2|¢s
my Actual | Valued} 26 | 3a
oo av
| <6) 5m
; ao Sroigt £
I. Member of family under 1 5,774 | 101,200 | 3,018 | 2,956 | 30 303
special arrangement
1
II. Nobleman, owner of ad- 1 2,067 | 58,000 | 1,775 | 1,608 | 293 | 322
joining estates
III. Adjacent landed proprie- | 10 | 3,209 | 90,938 | 2,977 | 2,958 | 27 | 272
tors
IV. Mercantile men and| 14 |11,536 | 95,762 | 3,365 | 3,230 | 283 | 292
others not resident in
vicinity
V. Manufacturersand others | 34 | 6,958 | 324,658 ]11,788 11,416 | 27 | 273
resident in vicinity |
VI. Farmers not being ten-| 13 1,632 | 56,967 | 2,038 | 1,932 | 28 293
ants on estates
VII. Tenants on the estates .| 13 21191 71,415 2,698 | 2,540 263 | 28
26,640 | 28 | 30
86 | 33,297 | 798,940 | 27,659
,
ON THE THEORY OF RENT. 547
Several of the lots purchased in one name were really acquired for
more than one person, and I have no doubt these lands are now held by at
least a hundred proprietors. at
These figures are illustrative of social facts which, if they develop, as
they seem disposed to do, are fraught with much interest and importance;
and I am aware that the experience of others corroborates the tendencies
they indicate.
1. The prominent feature of these figures is that the demand for land
as a form of investment, though materially reduced in intensity, has
decidedly grown in extent. Here are the estates of virtually one proprietor
distributed at what are certainly fair prices among one hundred new pro-
prietors.
2. From these figures, and from many other facts, I am satisfied that
the desire to lay field to field, and to possess a vast extent of land, which
has characterised until recently the wealth of modern times, has ceased to
operate. This is not due to a mere reduction in value, or to the diminu-
tion in the attractions for sport or residence which recent legislation has
effected, but to a growing, though perhaps hardly recognised tendency to
closer and more personal relations between the occupier and the pos-
sessor of land. The craving for extended boundaries—the feeling
which the Scotch laird expressed when he desired to ‘birze yont ’—
have given place to a soberer desire to possess more closely a narrower
area.
3. Notwithstanding all the recent drawbacks, there can be no doubt
that land still continues to possess many attractions. The purchase of
land at twenty-eight years’ purchase means, after deducting reasonable
expenses, not much over 3 or 33 per cent. on the capital invested. This
denotes a high appreciation of the value of the investment.
4, But, on the other hand, the fall in the value of land relatively to
other investments is disguised when we compare its present price with
that of a few years ago. We have sold a considerable quantity of feu-
duties, z.e., permanent ground rents. These used invariably to sell for
twenty-two and twenty-three years’ purchase, while land fetched thirty or
thirty-two years’: we have now got twenty-five years’ purchase without
any difficulty for feu-duties, and often more. This, and the fall of interest
on all first-class securities, denote a rise in the value of these investments
which ought to have told on land, and would have done so in normal cir-
cumstances; but in land there has been a fall and no rise, and in con-
trasting the present purchase price of land with that of a few years ago,
we must not contrast the twenty-eight years’ purchase now got with the
thirty years’ purchase formerly obtained, but with the thirty-three years’
purchase we would have got if land had maintained its value relatively
to other investments.
©. No small part of the land now being sold is being acquired in
parcels much smaller than was usual in former times. The merging in
one person of the separate functions of ownership and superintendence,
and not unfrequently of labour also, is calculated to bring the cultivator
into closer relation with the soil; the dreams of some social revolutionists
are to some extent being realised, as such dreams often are, by the silent
operation of natural causes, while the dreamers are still rubbing their
eyes! And this revolution is being effected under conditions widely
different from and much more favourable than those which characterise
the impoverished peasantry of some other countries, or could characterise
NN 2
548 REPORT—1887.
the subsidised serfs of a landowning community; but just because these
small estates are small, an element of value is brought into play which is
generally left out of view in larger transactions—the residence, which,
on the large estate, is a mere appliance of the farm, and part of its
machinery, becomes on these separate estates a distinct and important
element of value.
6. In the same direction there is, I think, discernible a growing taste
for large and fine residences, with a large domain within the walls,
without any or with very little agricultural land beyond ; the clashing of
feeling and interest engendered of recent years by agitation on the one
side and excessive preservation of game on the other has diminished the
taste for large estates. I do not think this change of taste, if it develops,
is to be welcomed; the exclusiveness of the French chdteau or the
German schloss, with their walled preserves and their dilettante sport,
and their sharp distinction of caste, will be a poor substitute for the
open sporting life of our fathers with its generous freedom of intercourse
among all classes, though it may be the natural progeny of the more
recent battue. But the social economist can only note what he sees;
preferences are seductive.
Lastly —The great bane of modern landowning has been of late
brought into painfal relief—debt. We are very fond of putting our
forefathers to shame, and blaming settlement and entail for many evils ;
if the emancipation of land from settlement is to be contemporaneous
with its thraldom to debt, it will be out of the frying-pan into the fire.
Welcoming, as I do, the enlightened legislation embodied in the Settled
Hstates Acts passed by Lord Cairns and others, and introduced by Lord
Halsbury, and feeling more and more convinced that every proprietor
ought to be an unfettered owner, I cannot forget that the motive of
entail and settlement was to preserve land from the incubus of debt ; and
the habit that has within the last century been engendered, not so much
among the old aristocracy as among the modern commercial landowners,
of holding large tracts of land virtually in trust for a large army of
mortgagees, is one of deeper danger to the owners of land and of greater
injury to the community than the older system of settlement and entail,
and the still more ancient principle of primogeniture which, it appears,
we are going to supersede.
What, then, are the practical conclusions to which this cursory
survey of the relation of recent experience to theory would lead us P
First—We are undergoing a process of transition—the old order is
passing away—and what the new order is to be is not yet discernible ;
many of the serious and painful evils from which we suffer are due to
that uprooting which must precede replanting.
Second. —One of the most valuable lessons we can deduce from the
present condition is to learn the impotence of legislation and of all
artificial resources to withstand the power of natural causes, Nothing
more markedly illustrates this than the effect of the repeal of the Corn
Laws. That step was urged in order to reduce the price of corn, and
necessarily rents. It had no meaning if that was not its purpose, and all
the afterthought that has striven to disguise the sense of what was said
and written in and before 1846, however much it may satisfy sectarian
vanity, must be dismissed as unworthy trifling by every honest thinker.
Of those who initiated the legislation of 1846 the aim and purpose
was the fall of price, and what they thus intended to effect had, as its
-
ON THE THEORY OF RENT. 549
necessary consequence, the fall of rent; and the fall of rent must have
been occasioned by a diminution of the area of cultivation. But for
thirty years after the repeal of the Corn Laws prices rose, rents rose, and
the area of cultivation enormously increased; everything happened
which the originators of that legislation intended should not happen, and
nothing that had been prognosticated by them occurred. Countries
which abjured the principles of 1846 flourished not less luxuriantly than
countries which adopted them, and those who adopted and abandoned
them flourished alike in the days of their faith and in those of their
apostasy. Why? Because simultaneously with the repeal of the Corn
Laws natural causes began to operate, which swept away all legislative
anticipations, as the rising tide obliterates the fortifications of children on
the sands. Let us deduce from this the lesson apt to the present crisis.
If the repeal of the Corn Laws proved absolutely impotent to reduce
rent, what reason have we to believe that their re-enactment would prove
more loyal to its design? The growth of enterprise, the spread ot
communication, the wealth of resource which railroad and steamship
awakened ; above all, the vivifying flow of gold from regions which were
unknown when the seers of 1846 saw visions ; bafiled, for thirty years, the
prognostications of those who promised to labour the spoils of which
protection had robbed it. But labour flourished, though land, instead of
languishing, grew with redoubled vigour. Is it not a safe deduction,
therefore, to draw that labour will languish when land decays? As field
by field the area of cultivation narrows, and cottager after cottager
departs from the land he has tilled to swell the torrent of labour
in the cities,! those of us who have faith in the compensation of
natural causes may watch with interest when and how the scale will
begin to turn, the pendulum begin to swing. Will skill and labour and
the land join hands to save themselves from the tide that threatens to
engulph them? Or will some fresh impulse come from some unthought-
of source to prove that in economics, as in politics, the unexpected
always happens ?
Third.—W hat has happened in other trades has occurred in agriculture.
Just as the burst of prosperity in 1871-3 stimulated into unhealthy
action the iron trade and other kindred trades, so the great burst of
agricultural prosperity has unduly stimulated the extension of cultivation,
which means the rise of rent. Many acres have been torn out of their
native heath and bog, which have speedily yielded the little fertility they
had gathered in centuries from the oxygen of the atmosphere and the
decay of their own slender herbage, and have now become mere pabulum
for converting manure into produce, and will speedily relapse into their
native sterility, when the agriculturist discovers that the manure he buys
hardly returns more than its own cost.
It is foolish to attribute the loss of rent from such land to any undue
1 Tt is a stupid complaint, made by many critics, that those who have recently
commented on agricultural depression have no other remedy to suggest than the de-
population of the rural districts of the country. The depopulation is not presented
as a remedy for, but as a consequence of, depression. The physician who attempts
to diagnose is not to be blamed because he can prescribe no remedy; the economist
may point out the nature and cause of depression, and its necessary and natural con-
sequences—it belongs to the practical politician to suggest the remedies; and I have
failed to discover any great fertility of suggestion on the part of those who are the
sharpest critics and the most ready to sneer at the suggestions of others.
550 - - REPORT—1887.
depression ; it is the natural effect of natural causes—the subsidence of
the tidal wave of an abnormal activity. The country is not really poorer
because such land ceases to be prolific: its temporary fertility was de-
ceptive; its owner is poorer only in the sense in which the owner of
exhausted minerals is poorer,—he has spent his soil, but he is economically
richer, because the undue prosperity has enabled him to derive for a time
a bigger return than the land really possessed, and could therefore have
ielded under normal conditions.
Fourth.—While it is very dangerous to prognosticate in such times as
the present, there is, I think, a convergence of indication that the
relation of labour to land is likely to become more intimate and direct,
and the singular tendency which society is exhibiting to revert to
original types favours the suggestion. If only the richer, or rather
richest, land, favourably situated, will yield return for cultivation, it is
evident that such land will yield the greatest return to the most diligent
cultivator. If the great bulk of our land is, as Sir James Caird anti-
cipates, to become pasture, it is plain that a system of farming requiring
little labour, much capital, and great technical skill and superintendence,
will gradually become, as of old, the function of the large proprietors;
and we shall have a number of small proprietors tilling their own lands
near towns, or under conditions favourable to such culture, and the
larger proprietors occupying, as they did three centuries ago, large tracts
of pasture and owning large herds and flocks, tended by a few skilful
wage-earners, whose exertions will probably be stimulated by some
participation in the profit. But such revolutions are always slow; and
in the complicated economy of modern life, with all its multitudinous
influences, the realisation of the most skilful prophecy is apt to be baffled
by causes which are beyond the ken even of vaticination: all that the
most qualified’ student can do is to denote the direction in which the
causes he can discern, if allowed free scope, necessarily tend. It is need-
less to point out here the extreme folly of those who contemplate the
beneficial’ occupation of remote or sterile land by small cultivators;
the inevitable result of that would be to extend unduly and artificially
the area of cultivation—to impoverish the cultivators of those miserable
holdings—and to make them the very means of raising the rents of the
more fertile land.
Fifth—The varied purposes and attractions of land give it now, as
they have always done, a high value relatively to other investments. It
is proved to be susceptible to the same economic and commercial princi-
ples as other commodities, and already there are indications that the low
value to which it has fallen is producing the usual effect of bringing
purchasers into the market who would never have been attracted before.
fam convinced that the cause why this tendency has been slow to
develop is the fear which prevails of future legislation inequitable to land.
This fear is, I think, unfounded; the rowdy politicians of the platform
produce a noise which is only the reverberation of their own vociferation.
The real tendency of public opinion is decidedly in the opposite direction :
the impudent proposals of the early agricultural agitators, which tended
to impoverish landlords only that the big tenants might be enriched,
have sunk into merited oblivion.! The measures now before the public,
1 Exempli gratia: Vixity of tenure, that the ewisting tenants might become
copyholders and lairds; Judicial rents, that the ewxisting tenants might be inde-
ON THE THEORY OF RENT. 551
and likely to receive ultimate sanction, tend in quite an opposite direc-
tion, and denote that alliance between labour and land, and that direct
relation of cultivation with ownership, which I have ventured already to
predict; while the gross injustice which has laid the burden of local
taxation exclusively on real estate is likely soon to be rescinded when
a system of real local government is introduced, and the anomaly
of our present taxation is brought into relief by the necessity of
either subjecting the community to the local rule of the landed
interest, or compelling personalty, if it would participate in local goyern-
ment, to contribute to local taxation. Dismissing the ignis fatuus of
agricultural apart from industrial protection, the tendency of future
legislation in regard to land can hardly fail to be beneficial to the landed
interest.
Lastly.— Agriculture is the largest industry in the country, and the
most widespread. The depression in iron and coal affects, no doubt, large
areas—depression in cotton affects Manchester and Liverpool, in wool
Bradford and the Tweed, in sugar Greenock, in silk Coventry; but
depression in agriculture is universal, and its effects recur and are
brought before us with supreme regularity. In other industries failure is
disguised by many devices of hope, and capital contributes many a lift to
dwindling profit, so that the manufacturer and the coal-owner require to
revert to their ledgers to discern the full effect of depression, and often seek
to disguise from themselves, by skilful and hopeful book-keeping, the full
effect of their loss. But the farmer has no such solace; as year by year
his returns fall short of his outgoings, a far too simple process announces
to him the fatal result, and each recurring season of loss intensifies his
depression. I doubt whether in reality agriculture be more depressed
than other industries, but the victims of the depression are more
numerous, the margin of reserve against loss is narrower, the sense of
failure is more acute, and the habit of reticence less natural than in other
trades. But again I say we may have confidence in the compensation
which natural laws generally provide. In 1844 oats were 30s. 6d. and
beef 79s. 4d. The Corn Laws were then repealed in order to reduce
prices, and in 1850 oats had fallen to 15s., and beef to 53s. 8d. Speedily
the rebound came. In 1860 oats were 238s., and beef 74s. 8d.; in 1870
oats were 23s. 4d., and beef 88s. 4d.; in 1874 oats were 26s. 7d., and
beef 93s. 4d.; in 1880 oats were 20s. 6d., and beef 86s. 4d.; in 1886 oats
were 17s. and beef 70s.
In 1850 the complete repeal of the Corn Laws had been effected ; and
according to all anticipation, and giving effect to every recognisable
cause, agricultural prices should have fallen ; they did not fall, they rose
pendent of landlords, and exempt from the sordid necessity imposed on other traders;
of bargaining for what they desired to acquire; Free sale, that the eaisting tenants
might have something to sell that they never paid for, and the selection of the
tenant be transferred from the landlords to the existing tenants, along with the right
to the latter to exact what the former never claimed, a grassum or fine on entry.
The extension of the suffrage has broadened the issues involved, and has consigned
these and similar proposals to the bourn whence dishonest political cries do not re-
turn. The Land Laws are not now likely to be revolutionised simply in order to
create an aristocracy of farmers and to confer a monopoly on existing tenants; but
the obvious lesson of these extinct political volcanoes is too valuable to be lost, the
community, which has really no interest in the matter (see p. 538), may still be
benefited by discerning ere they be forgotten what were the real forces which
operated in that upheaval which has now subsided. ;
N57 REPORT—1887.
enormously. In 1887 no reasons peculiar to agriculture are discernible
why prices should fall. The fields of the Far West and the Kastern
Cathay, that the iron road has opened up, are no more a threat to agri-
culture than are the mines of Pennsylvania, or the cotton and jute looms
of Massachusetts or the Ganges to other industries. Why should
agriculture fail now ? It defied prognostication in 1850; why should it
not rebound in the future after 1887, when it has no cause specially
adverse to defy ?
I for one seek the solution of that problem among those elements
which affect at present all industries, but mainly in the result of the
labours of the Royal Commission appointed to inquire into the recent
changes in the relative values of the precious metals.
It is matter of regret that no attempt has been made to discriminate
between those causes of agricultural depression which may be regarded
as normal and permanent, and those which are accidental, and possibly
therefore evanescent.
It was from Russia and the East of Europe that those who dreaded
the result of the repeal of the Corn Laws anticipated that the flood of
wheat would come to overwhelm British agriculture. At this moment I
fancy the British and the Russian agriculturists would both alike gladly
compound for such a price as would make the shipping of wheat from
Russian ports profitable to either the growers or the importers. It is
from America and from India that the flood now comes which sweeps
before it the profit of all European agriculture; and it is in the conditions
of these countries that we must search for the causes, permanent or
evanescent, which now affect our native industry.
As regards America, it is by no means easy to ascertain how far the
present enormous supplies and low prices are to be regarded as due to
causes normal and permanent, or how far they are due to causes and in-
fluences which are likely to be modified or removed. There is a direct
conflict of testimony as to whether wheat is or is not the crop most con-
ducive to profit, and most suitable to the climate and other circumstances
in many districts from which, at present, very large supplies are drawn.
It is said that, in terms of agreements, express or implied, on the large
tracts of land sold by the great railway companies wheat is grown where
maize and hogs would be more profitable. If maize be the more
profitable crop, it will, no doubt, ultimately assert itself and supersede
wheat.
The unproductive capital sunk in Western American railroads is also
an element which has to be reckoned with. In Canada, whence great sup-
plies are drawn, and greater still are promised, the amount of capital
which is dormant is comparatively enormous ; besides the large subsidies
from the Canadian Government to the Canadian Pacific Railroad, the
capital of that concern, 13,000,000/., is not worth above 7,000,0000.
The capital of three of the largest steam shipping companies trading
with America is upwards of 2,875,0001.; it is at present absolutely un-
productive, and its value in the market is less than 1,000,000. The
recent cheapness of American wheat is not, therefore, wholly due to the
normal fertility of American land, but largely to the abnormal sacrifices
made by the capital which has brought the produce of that land to
market. Is that sacrifice permanent? If it be not—if, when the spirit
of trade generally revives, the capital sunk in American and Canadian
railroads and Atlantic shipping reasserts its claims to fair remuneration,
ON THE THEORY OF RENT. 553
that remuneration can be gained only by a raising of the cost of trans-
port, which may, to some extent, restore to this country the advantage
of its own market.
But in India the one element of the exchange dominates the whole
question. If to-day the rupee were worth in London what it is worth in
Calcutta, the price of Indian wheat would unquestionably rise to a point
which would render its competition with British wheat much less disas-
trous to the latter than at present it is. Whether bi-metallism or mono-
metallism be the more scientific or logical system need not be discussed
here, but it does not seem probable that a system of bi-metallism which
is neither scientific nor logical, and is certainly not salutary, can perma-
nently be maintained by the British Government in portions of its
dominions practically much less remote from each other than Scotland
was from England sixty years ago; and, whether the necessary unifor-
mity be established by the remonetisation of silver or by the readoption
of the gold standard in India, it seems a safe prophecy to predict that
the existing system will soon become intolerable, and either alteration
would materially affect the position of British agriculture.
With so many elements to be reckoned with, caution ought to be
exercised in accepting as essential what may be only accidental, and in
adopting as permanent and definite conditions due to circumstances them-
selves contingent and temporary.
And my faith in the future of British agriculture, when relieved from
those economic evils which afflict it, in common with all other industries,
rests on the testimony which the past bears to the fertility of British
soil, and to the indomitable skill, energy, and perseverance of the British
farmer, and on my belief that this age, so prolific in production, will not
always be sterile in profit. Adversity is a harsh teacher, but its lessons
are the seed of prosperity. In other times and in other industries the
blows that seemed destined to crush have forged and annealed the
weapons that ultimately won success. Give back to British agriculture
its hope, and the confidence which hope begets, and though the methods
of its operation may be different, and the relation of the tillers to the soil
they till may be widely altered, I feel confident it will not deny to the
more scientific cultivation of the sons the harvest it yielded to the
industry and skill of their fathers.!
1 Tt is assumed that, if the cultivation of the future is to be pastoral, there will
be little room for scientific farming: that is a great mistake; there is a wider scope
and a more remunerative field for science and skill in the growth of meat than in
the growth of grain. The farmers who have made the breeds of British cattle
famous throughout the world may find ample scope for their patient skill in deter-
mining how best to co-operate with nature in producing the best beef, mutton, and
milk at the least possible cost, and that co-operation will be advantageously effected
only by those who are familiar with the practical science that is necessary to enable
each man for himself to determine what conditions are best in each district for the
speedy and profitable creation of the largest amount and best quality of the meat
which the district is best suited to raise. If British agriculture is to return to the
growth of beef, mutton, and wool, the profit will fall in even larger proportion to the
pot apenas grazier than the profit of grain-raising does now to the most scientific
cultivator.
305
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4 REPORT—1 887.
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ON RIVERS AND ESTUARIES. 555
On Certuin Laws relating to the Régime of Rivers and Estuaries,
and on the Possibility of Experiments on a small scale. By
Professor OSBORNE REYNOLDS, /’.B.S.
[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso
among the Reports. ]
1. Tux object of this communication is to bring before Section G certain
results and conclusions with respect to the action of water to arrange
loose granular material over which it may be flowing. These results and
conclusions were in the first instance arrived at during a long-continued
investigation, undertaken with a view to bring the general theory of
hydrodynamics into accord with experience, rather than with any special
reference to the subject in hand, but have since been to some extent made
the subject of special investigation.
2. A systematic study of the régime of rivers naturally divides itself
under three heads, which may be stated as follows :—
(1.) The more general facts observed as regards the regimen of the
beds.
(2.) The movements of sand consistent with these observed facts.
(3.) The necessary actions of the water to produce these movements
in the material of the beds.
Observed facts—Amongst the most general facts to be observed as to
the arrangement of the material forming the beds of estuaries are—
(1.) The general stability or steadiness of these beds, so far as is shown
by their outline or figure, while, at the same time, as is shown by the
obliteration of all footprints and markings casually placed upon them,
also by the ripple mark, the material at the surface of these beds is being
continually shifted.
(2.) The almost absolute steadiness in figure of some of these beds.
(3.) The gradual changes in the position and form of others—the
growth or accumulation of sand-banks in some places, and the wasting of
banks or removal of sand in others.
Movement of sand.—As regards the movement of sand consistent with
these changes, in the first place the movement, whatever it may be, is one
of the surface, and not one in bulk ; and in the next place such movement
of the surface must be continually going on, whether it produces any
change in the figure of the banks or not. The invariable obliteration of
footprints and marks which may have been left on the sand at low water,
as well as the ripple marks, are absolute evidence of a general disturbance
of the surface, and it requires but little observation to show that this dis-
turbance is of the character of a drift of sand, in whatever direction the
water may be moving.
Uniform drift—Where the outline of the banks is not altered, this
drift or motion of the sand must be uniform, as much sand being de-
posited at each point as is removed from that point. Although there may
be a general flow of the sand in some direction, if the drift is uniform this
movement will not alter the figure of the bed, which, like the balance in
another kind of bank, does not depend on the rate of deposit and with-
drawal, but on the excess of one of these over the other. The gradual
accumulation or diminution of sand at any point is clearly not due to a
556 REPORT—1887.
simple action of deposit or removal, as they are always attended with the
same evidence of the drifting of the surface, and are clearly the result of
a difference in the quantities of sand deposited or removed by the drift.
Movement of water—The manner in which a current of water acts on
the granular material forming the bed of the current has been the subject
of an investigation by various experimenters. It has been found that the
primary action is not so much to drag the grains along the bottom, but
to pick them up, hold them in a kind of eddying suspension, at a greater
or less height above the bed, for a certain distance and then drop them,
so that when the water is drifting the sand there is a layer of water
adjacent to the bottom of a greater or less thickness charged to a greater
or less extent with sand. The faster the current and the finer the sand
the greater will be the thickness of the charged layer, as well as the
derser is the charge in the layer.
A certain definite velocity, according to the size and weight of the
grains, is required before the water will raise the grains from the bottom,
and for all velocities above the minimum necessary to raise the sand the
suspended charge increases with the velocity, and the rate of drift or
the quantity of sand which passes a particular section increases much
faster than the velocity. Attempts have been made with greater or less
success to determine exact laws connecting the minimum velocities at
which the sand begins to drift with the weight of the grains and other
circumstances ; also to determine the exact law of the rate of increase of
the drift with the velocity.
For my present purpose, however, it is not necessary to enter upon
such considerations.
From the facts already mentioned, it will appear that the effect of a
uniform current of water over a uniform bed of sand will not be to raise
or lower the bed; for, as the charge of sand in the water remains uniform,
it must drop as many particles as it raises everywhere on the bed. This
is the action of the water in causing a uniform drift.
It is also evident that, if the charge in the water as it comes to any
particular place is less than the full charge due to its velocity, it will
pick up from that place more sand than it drops, and so increase its
charge at the expense of the bed, which will there be scoured or lowered.
And conversely, if the water as it arrives at any place is overcharged,
it will relieve itself by depositing more than it picks up, and so raise or
silt up the bed.
As regards the circumstances which can cause the water to be charged
to a greater or less extent than that which it would just maintain with
such velocity as it has, the most important are—
(1.) An increasing or diminishing velocity. When the water is
moving in a stream from a point where the velocity is less to one where
it is greater, the velocity of the actual water as it moves along is increas-
ing, as will also be its normal charge of sand ; hence it must be continually
picking up more than it deposits. And conversely, when moving from a
point of greater velocity to one of less, its normal charge will be continu-
ally diminishing through deposits on the bed.
(2.) Another circumstance which affects the charge of sand with
which the water may arrive at a particular point is a variation in the
character of the bed. If, for instance, water flows from a rocky bed on
to sand, it may arrive on the sand without charge, and immediately
charges itself at the expense of the bed. Or again, where water flows
ON RIVERS AND ESTUARIES. 557
from a sandy bottom on to a clean or grassy rocky bottom, it gradually
loses its charge silting up the bottom.
The direction in which the sand is moved by the water is sensibly in
the direction in which the water which holds the charge is moving. But,
as was first pointed out by Dr. James Thomson as affording an explana-
tion of the generally observed fact that the beds of rivers are scoured
on their convex sides and silted on their concave, the layers of water
adjacent to the bed do not always move in the general direction of the
stream. There are often steady cross currents at the bottom, as in the
case mentioned, though such cross currents do not exist except under
circumstances which may be readily distinguished. The most important
of these is that pointed out by Dr. Thomson—curvature in the general
direction of the stream, in which case the centrifugal force of the more
rapidly moving water above overbalances that of the water retarded
by the bottom, and forces the latter back towards the centre of the curve.
This action is universal, where even the lateral boundaries are such as
to require the water to move in curved streams ; the drift at the bottom
does not follow the general direction of the stream, but sets towards the
centre of the curve.
The result of the foregoing consideration is to lead to the conclusion
that the régime of each part of the bed as to maintenance in steady con-
dition, lowering or raising it any time, depends solely on the character of
the motion of the water, which if straight and uniform, neither acquiring
nor losing velocity, causes a uniform drift in the direction of the stream,
which maintains the condition steady. If losing velocity the motion causes
a depositing drift and raises the bed ; if gaining velocity it causes a scour-
ing drift and lowers the bed ; while if curved, the direction of the drift is
diverted towards the centre of the curve with its attendant effect to
lower the convex side and raise the concave side of the bed. This con-
clusion seems to be of the utmost importance in dealing with this subject.
For if it is correct, not only can the character of the action going on at
the bed be inferred from the observed motion of the water, and vice versé,
but since, according to this conclusion, the character of the action is inde-
pendent of the magnitude or velocity of the stream, the results will be
the same on a small scale as on a large one, provided only that the
character of the motion of the water is the same at all points. In this
latter respect this conclusion affords an explanation of a fact that
cannot fail to have struck everyone who has observed the sand-beds of
the streams running over sands which have been left by the tide, viz.,
what an almost exact resemblance they bear to each other, whether
having the size of a moderate river or of the smallest rivulet.
On the large scale of actual estuaries we can only test the conclusion
by actual observation, but on a small scale we can experimentalise in
whatever condition of motion we want to test, and readily observe the
effects produced ; a possibility of which great use has been made in this
investigation, and which will be again referred to.
As applied to a non-tidal river, in which the direction of the motion
is always the same, the foregoing conclusion would lead us to expect that
the régime would be steady except at the bends, the sources, and the
mouth, which is exactly what is observed, so that the conclusion so far
agrees with experience. The most striking feature about rivers is the
way they wriggle about in the alluvial valleys; a phenomenon pointed
to by Lyell as one of those causes still in progress which had produced
558 REPORT—1887.
the present conditions of the valleys, and which, as already stated, was
explained by Dr. Thomson. From the source of the river as the rain-water
acquires the velocity, it charges itself with deposit, which charge it
maintains with continual taxes and drawbacks until it reaches the ocean
or lake, when its water in again losing its velocity deposits its charge,
continually carrying forward the bar and extending its delta.
In non-tidal rivers, whether large or small, fast or slow, the characters
of these actions are invariable, however much they may differ in intensity.
The case of tidal estuaries is, however, by no means so simple. Here we
have not, as in a river, a continuous progression of the same character
of action at the same point. On the contrary, at every point the action
is changed twice a day. For the change in the tidal current does not
merely change or reverse the direction of the sand-drift at each part of
the bed, but it changes and often reverses the character of this drift,
changing what has been a scouring drift during the ebb-tide into a
depositing drift during the flood ; so that the question as to whether the
régime is stable, depositing, or scouring is not simply a question as to
whether the current at this point is uniform, accelerated, or retarded, but
whether the action of the ebb to camse, say, scour is equal to, less than, or
greater than the action of the flood to cause deposit.
As there is no likelihood that the resultant effect as regards the
general régime of two opposing influences will resemble what would have
been the simple effect of either of the influences acting alone, this dual
control affords abundant reason why the configuration of the beds of these
tidal estuaries should differ in character from the configuration of the
sand-beds of continuous streams.
There is, however, another and an equally important difference
between the general motion of the water in rivers and tidal estuaries.
The function of the estuary is by no means that of a simple channel
to conduct the tidal water up and down. It equally discharges the
function of a reservoir or basin, to be filled and emptied by each tide.
In consequence of this action as a reservoir the directions of the
motions of the water during flood and ebb, and particularly towards
the top of the flood and commencement of the ebb, are generally very
different from what they would be were the estuary acting the simple
part of a channel conducting the water from somewhere to somewhere.
When a vessel is filled by a stream entering on one side the forward
motion of the water is stopped before reaching the opposite side. But if,
as is always the case, the motion which the water has on entering is more
than sufficient to carry it as far as is necessary, the remaining momentum
is spent in setting up eddies, or a general circulation in the water, so that
when the vessel is full the water within it is not by any means at rest,
but may be circulating round or have any other motion. If, then, the
water is allowed to flow out the initial motion will not be a steady move-
ment towards the outlet from all parts of the vessel, but those portions
of the water which are moving towards the outlet will have their motion
accelerated, while those which are moving in the opposite direction will
have first to be stopped before they begin to approach the outlet. And
thus the ebb will begin earlier at some points in the vessel than at
others.
It was the observation of such an effect as this in one of our largest
estuaries that first directed my attention to the subject of this paper.
Having investigated this point sufficiently for my own satisfaction
‘ ON RIVERS AND ESTUARIES. 559
nothing further was done until 1886, when my attention was directed to
the inner estuary of the Mersey.
This estuary may be described as a crescent-shaped shallow pan,
eleven miles long by three broad, lying north-west and south-east, having
its upper horn pointing east and its lower horn north; the northern horn,
being prolonged for five miles into a narrow deep channel, runs north to
the outer estuary or sandy bay of the sea. One of the most marked
features presented by the configuration of the bed of this inner estuary
is the invariable preference of the low-tide channels for the concave or
Lancashire side; whereas, were the estuary acting merely the part of a
river, whether during flood or ebb, it would be expected to follow the
usual law, and have the deepest water on the convex or Cheshire side.
That this prevalence of the deepest water on the concave side must be
the result of the momentum left in the water by the flood at once seemed
to me probable ; for if the bottom were level or deepest on the Lancashire
side the effect of the curved shape would be to cause the flood entering at
the northern horn to follow the south-eastern or Cheshire shore, and the
momentum of this water would tend to’carry it round the head of the
estuary and back along the Lancashire side ; would, in fact, tend to set
up a circulation before the top of the flood was reached; so that on the
Lancashire side the water would be moving down the estuary before the
ebb commenced ; whence, considering that the flood tends to raise the
bottom and the ebb to lower it (for the reasons already pointed out), it
seems that the stronger flood on the Cheshire side would raise this side,
while the stronger ebb on the Lancashire side would lower this. This is
supposing the bottom to be level.
In order to verify these conclusions a vessel was constructed having a
flat bottom and a vertical boundary of the same shape as the high-tide
line of the inner estuary from the rock to the same distance above
Runcorn. The horizontal scale was 2” to a mile, and the vertical scale
1 inch to 80 feet, 5,1,>5.
A shallow tin pan was hinged on to the otherwise open channel at the
rock, by raising and lowering which, when full of water, the motion of
the tide could be produced throughout the model through the narrows ;
the true form of the bed of the channel was given to the model by means
of paraffin. And in order to obtain approximately the proportional
depth in the inner estuary, sand was placed level on the bottom so that
the high-tide depth was reduced to the equivalent of about twenty feet.
The idea in making this model was not so much to obtain a shifting of the
sand as to show the circulation of the water as resulting from the flood
tide with a level bottom. In the first instance the tide pan was raised
and lowered by hand, but as at the first trial it became evident that the
model was not only going to show the expected circulation, but was also
capable of showing, by the change in the position of the sand, the effect
of this circulation on the configuration of the estuary and other important
effects, it was arranged that the model should be worked from a con-
tinuously running shaft. The working of the model by hand at once
showed that there was only one period of working at which the motion of
the water in the model would imitate the motions of the actual tide in
the Mersey, which period was found to be about forty seconds; a result
that might have been foreseen from the theory of wave motions, since the
scale of velocities varies as the square roots of the scales of wave heights,
so that the velocities in the model which would correspond to the velo-
560 REPORT—1887.
cities in the channel would be as the square roots of the vertical scales—
about 3;—and the ratios of the periods would be the ratio of horizontal
scales divided by this ratio of velocities, or
33 i
31800 950°
Hence, taking 11:25 hours 40,700 seconds as the tidal period, the period
of the model
40700
~ 950
This period was adopted for working the model from the shaft.
It was then found that the circulation at the top of the flood, which
was very evident while the bottom was flat, caused a general rise of the
sand on the Cheshire side and lowering on the Lancashire, which went
on for about 2,000 tides. That during this time, owing to the increase
of flood up the Lancashire side and the diminution of that on the Cheshire
side which followed from the deepening of the one and the shoaling of
the other, the circulation steadily diminished until its character was so
changed that it could no longer be called a general circulation, and that
after this, although there were further changes in detail going on in the
estuary, the two sides maintained a steady condition as regards depth for
low tides.
During this time banks were formed and low-tide channels, which
resembled in all the principal features those actually in the Mersey; the
eastern bank, with the deep sloynes on the Cheshire side, the Devil’s
Bank and the Garston Channel, the Ellesmere Channel and the deep water
in Dungeon Bay and at Dingle Point—all these were very marked in
character and closely approximate in scale.
And, what is as important, the causes of these as well as all minor
features could be distinctly seen in the model.
The eastern and Deyil’s Bank are seen during the process of their
formation to be simply an internal bar formed by carrying the sand
brought down by the ebb out of the narrows and sloyne, until debouching
into the broad estuary ; its velocity is so far diminished that it can no longer
carry its charge, just as happens at the mouth of every river. The pecu-
liar configuration of these banks is explained by the existence of two
lines of eddies from about half-tide to the top of the flood: the first of
these is caused by the sharp corner at Dingle, and lies between Dingle
and Garston, the eddies having their centres over the Devil’s Bank ; and the
second, caused by the divergence of the Cheshire Bank towards Eastham,
having the lines of centres over the Hastham Bank. These eddies, which
during the most rapid part of the flood only effect a diminution of the
velocity of the flood, cause, as the velocity slackens toward the top of the
flood, back water to set in along both shores, which back waters, starting
the ebb, cause this to be strongest over the Garston and Hastham Channels,
which are thus kept open.
The lateral configuration of the shores at Dungeon Bay and at
Ellesmere is seen to cause back waters to exist in these bays during
the whole of the flood in the latter, and from one to two hours before
the top of the flood in the former, which fully accounts for the deep
water at these points. The existence of these back waters in the actual
channel has been verified. There are many other circumstances brought
—42 seconds (about).
ON RIVERS AND ESTUARIES. 561
to light by this model, which it is impossible for me here to notice without
unduly extending the length of this paper, if, indeed, I have not already
done so. I will therefore only remark that a second start was made
with the sand flat in this second model, and that the result obtained was
the same as regards the general features of the estuary. So interesting
were: these results that it was decided to try a larger scale. A model,
having a horizontal scale of 6 inches to a mile, and a vertical scale of
33 feet to an inch, was therefore made, and the tide produced as before.
The calculated period of this model is 80 seconds, and experiment bears
this out, any variation leading to some tidal phenomena, such as bonos
or standing waves, which are not observed ir the estuary.
The disadvantage of the larger model is the time ocecupied—a little
more than a minute a tide—which means about 300 tides a day, or 2,000
tides a week. On one occasion the model was kept going for 6,000 tides,
and a survey was then made of the state of the sand. And this will be
seen to present a remarkable resemblance in the general features to the
charts of the Mersey, of which three—1861, 1871, 1881—are shown; in
fact the survey from the model presents as great a resemblance to any
one of these as they do to each other.
It is impossible for me to enter upon all the points of agreement.
Taking into account that in both the estuary and the model there are
always changes going on within certain limits, and these changes do
affect the currents to a certain extent, it is not to be supposed that there
will be exact agreement between the currents at all points and at all
states of the tides on the model and estuary. Still there is a general
agreement, and in the few verifications I have made I have found that
the current found in the model at a particular point and state of tide is
also to be found in the estuary.
In one respect the great difference between the model and the estuary
calls for remark: this is the much greater depth of the model as com-
pared with its length and breadth. The vertical scale being 33 feet to
an inch, and the horizontal scale 880 feet to an inch, so that the vertical
heights are nearly twenty-seven times greater than the horizontal dis-
tances, such a difference is necessary to get any results at all with such
small scale models ; and it is only natural to suppose that it would mate-
rially affect the action. Asa matter of fact, however, it does not seem
todoso. And, further, it would seem that, notwithstanding the general
resemblance on the régime of the beds of large and small streams running
_ over sand, there is in these a similar difference in vertical scale, the
smaller streams not only having a greater slope, but also having greater
depth as compared with their breadth and steeper banks. So far as the
theory of hydrodynamics will apply, it seems that in the model the
effects of the momentum of the water would be greater as compared
with the bottom resistances than in the estuary, and I think that they
are. But the effects of momentum in the estuary greatly preponderate
on the resistances, as shown by the fact that the tide at the top of the
flood rises some 2 to 3 feet higher at high spring tides than it does at the
rock; nor does it do much more than this in the model. In the model it
certainly seems that the general régime is determined by the momentum
effects, and from the almost exact resemblance which this régime bears
to that of the estuary, it would seem that, although the momentum effects
may be diminished by the greater resistance on the bottom, they are still
the eens influence in determining the configuration of the banks.
: 00
562 REPORT— 1887.
Further investigation will doubtless explain this, and also determine the
best proportional depths. From my present experience, in constructing
another model, I should adopt a somewhat greater exaggeration of the
vertical scale. In the meantime I have called attention to these results,
because this method of experimenting seems to afford a ready means of
investigating and determining beforehand the effects of any proposed
estuary or harbour works; a means which, after what I have seen, I
should feel it madness to neglect before entering upon any costly under-
taking.
d hee only to say that, as it was not practicable to exhibit the model
to the Section, I have had it working in the new engineering laboratory
through the college. Unfortunately it could not be started before
Monday, and it will not yet have run more than 1,000 tides, since the
sand was put in flat, so that it is not probable that the régime is yet quite
stable ; still the principal features have come out.
Experiments on the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat on a large
scale. By E. A. CowPer and W. ANDERSON.
[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso
among the Reports. ]
[PLATE X.]
Tur extremely interesting experiments of Dr. Joule on the mechanical
equivalent of heat, led one of the authors of the present paper, some years
ago, to speculate on the possibility of conducting such experiments on a
much larger scale.
It appeared that it would be possible to employ a powerful machine
that would absorb a large amount of power, and to keep it continually
going for a whole day at a time, so as to get everything into a thoroughly
normal state, and so arrange matters as to eliminate all loss or gain from
radiation or conduction. The first idea was to employ an india-rubber
masticating machine, which would absorb a very large amount of power
im a small space, and to enclose it in a small tank, and that again in a
larger tank, and then run cold water into the machine, and let the hot
water from it run into the small tank, so as to entirely surround the
machine with hot water of the same temperature as the water coming
out, and then let the water from the first small tank flow into the larger
tank, and from that to waste, the outside tank being kept up to the
same temperature as the inside tank and the machine, so that the machine
should neither lose heat nor absorb it. However, after much considera-
tion, it was thought best to employ one of the late Mr. Froude’s dynamo-
meters, such as he used for trying the power of marine engines, though
on a smaller scale. Accordingly, through the kindness of Messrs. Heenan
and Froude, the loan of such a dynamometer was obtained and fitted up
at Erith as above indicated, viz., with a small tank inside a larger one,
which last was made of thick wood and well lagged outside with three
thicknesses of hair-felt ; and this provision was found in practice to be so
efficient that the tank of water only lost two degrees in 165 hours when
standing, or about one degree in 8} hours.
Illustrating Messrs. E. A. Cowper and W, Anderson's Paper on Experiments on
the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat on a large scale.
Two very
having twent
snd these we
inflowing wa
rere used th
same temper
flowing wate
Froude’s dys
taken at shi
careful obser
of the engine
always goin
another obs¢
the temperat
water; and
command wi:
closely-
Before ex
ably be more
be understoo
amount of pc
quantity of 1
siderable ext
coudnetion w
meter’ is sh
if, with its r
Bisa tank st
ing the inner
hair-felt.
Dis asm
of the inner f
The wate
india-rubber
temperature
the hot wate
the dynamon
wood is intr
vent the cor
this shaft is ]
Thermor
be kept at a1
Tt will at
vented, as th
ing hot wate
into the oute
to the tempe
Thus the
temperature
tically affect
meter, especi
had thus fall
This it ws
for many hot
ON THE MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF IEAT. 563
Two very large thermometers about a yard long were specially made,
having twenty-five inches to fifty degrees, or half an inch to a degree,
and these were used throughout for taking the temperature of the cold
inflowing water and the hot outflowing water, whilst other thermometers
were used throughout the outside tank to enable it to be kept to the
same temperature as the outflowing water. The temperature of the out-
flowing water was of course taken immediately as it flowed out from the
Froude’s dynamometer, not at the waste. The waste water was carefully
taken at short given intervals and weighed (not measured). Several
careful observers took observations continually : one took the revolutions
of the engine per minute and the total revolutions by a counter that was
always going, and registered every revolution throughout the day;
another observer took the weight lifted by the dynamometer; another
the temperature of the inflowing water; another that of the outflowing
water ; and another the general temperature of the tank; whilst one in
command watched the whole, and saw that everyone kept his register
closely.
Before entering on the calculations and results obtained, it will prob-
ably be more interesting if the apparatus is first described, and it is to
be understood that the object aimed at was to employ continuously a large
amount of power (viz., about 5 horse-power) and heat a very considerable
quantity of water per minute (viz., about’ a gallon a minute) to a con-
siderable extent (viz., about 20° Fahr.), whilst all effects of radiation and
conduction were neutralised as far as possible. The ‘Froude Dynamo-
meter’ is shown in elevation and end view, and the lever connected with
it, with its rod and scale, for the reception of the weights to be lifted.
Bis a tank surrounding the ‘dynamometer’ ; C isan outer tank surround-
ing the inner tank: this is well clothed outside with three thicknesses of
hair-felt.
D is a small steam-pipe to keep the outer tank up to the temperature
of the inner tank and dynamometer.
The water to be heated is passed into the dynamometer through the
india-rubber inlet pipe I, which is itself jacketed with water of the same
temperature as the inflowing water; the pipe O is the outlet pipe where
the hot water flows out from the dynamometer. The power for driving
the dynamometer is communicated through the shaft S, and a piece of
wood is introduced between the flanges of the coupling in order to pre-
vent the communication of heat either way, though the temperature of
this shaft is kept up by the water in the outer tank.
Thermometers were placed throughout the apparatus to enable it to
be kept at an even temperature.
Tt will at once be seen how completely loss or gain of heat was pre-
vented, as the temperature of the inner tank was the same as the outflow-
ing hot water from the outlet pipe O, and the hot water from it flowed
into the outer tank, which had a very small quantity of steam to keep it
to the temperature of the hot water from the outlet pipe O.
Thus the outer tank was, so to speak, ‘down stream,’ and, even if its
temperature varied a little, it is impossible to conceive that it could prac-
tically affect the temperature of the hot water coming out of the dynamo-
meter, especially as the quantity passing continually was very great, and
had thus full command over the temperature of the inner tank.
This it was that enabled the apparatus to be kept in a normal state
for many hours together, and from which results might be obtained for
vo 2
564 REPORT—1887,
any given length of time. The only thing that interfered at all with the
perfect regularity of the experiment, as checked every five minutes, was
a very slight variation in the speed of the engine; and an increase of
speed of one revolution per minute on 180 revolutions per minute could
at once be detected, and was followed after a few minutes by a percept-
able rise or fall in the temperature of the outflowing water, as the
quantity passing was always almost exactly the same.
The diagrams of the speed of dynamometer, weight lifted, and of the
temperature and weight of water heated show what these very slight
fluctuations were ; and when they were contrasted with the large volume
of water heated (viz., about a gallon per minute, twenty degrees) it will
be seen how slight they were; and further, as no loss of power on the
one hand, or loss of heat on the other, was sustained, it was of minor
importance, if indeed of any importance, that the fluctuation should be
sometimes slightly above and sometimes slightly below the given point,
as the total power was actually registered as well as the total heat pro-
duced. The result showed a ‘ mechanical equivalent of heat’ = 769 feet,
that is to say, that one pound of water raised 1° Fahr. was equal to one
pound lifted 769 feet, and it will be remembered that Professor Joule
made it 772 feet.
It is not to be wondered at that the ‘ equivalent’ obtained was slightly
lower than that obtained by Professor Joule in his last experiments, as all
losses of heat were prevented, and no losses had to be calculated ; nor did
the specific heat of the apparatus enter into the calculation, as the apparatus
was practically kept in a normal state throughout the experiment, and in
fact for days together. The authors are aware that the experiments
described are by no means complete, and objections may on that account
be justly taken to them; but they are anxious to bring the work so far
as it has gone before the British Association, in order to benefit by the
suggestions and criticisms which discussion would not fail to produce.
They intend to resume the experiment at no distant date, and feel
sanguine that absolutely trustworthy results will eventually be arrived at.
A small improvement will be made in the machine before prosecuting
further experiments, viz., certain precautions to prevent the possibility of
any heat being taken up from the surrounding water by any parts of the
dynamometer that may be slightly below its general temperature close to
the point where the cold water enters.
Notr.—Since the above paper was read, the authors have heard of the experi-
ment conducted by Professor Marks in 1885 in the United States, with the same
object, with the ‘Tatham Dynamometer,’ belonging to the Franklin Institute, and
in which experiment the equivalent of heat was calculated as equal to 772-81 foot-
pounds for one degree Fahrenheit. See Jowrnal of the Franklin Institute, volume
for 1885, p. 453.
On an Electric Current Meter.
By Professor G. Forses, M.A., F.RS. L. & E.
[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in eatenso
among the Reports. ]
Ar the present moment the mind of electrical engineers is much directed
to the successful means of distributing electricity to a large district from
central stations by means of that class of induction apparatus which has
ON AN ELECTRIC CURRENT METER. 565
received the several names of ‘secondary generator,’ ‘transformer,’ and
‘converter.’ This is the only thoroughly worked out system available to
the engineer for an extensive supply of electricity. Currents of an alter-
nating character (¢.e., alternately positive and negative in direction, the
alternations being at the rate of some hundreds per second of time), and
of high tension or pressure, are by this system carried from the engine-
house, by comparatively thin and cheap wire conductors, to the points of
supply. The only difficulty which has been met is in the designing of a
suitable meter. There is absolutely no meter availablé that pretends to
be reliable. The very best indicates a totally different result when the
same current is passed through it, if the number of alternations of the
current (i.e., the speed of the dynamo) be altered.
It was to overcome this source of trouble and to remove the last diffi-
culty from an otherwise perfect system of electric distribution that the
author undertook the labour of designing and perfecting the meter here
described. Some idea of the work expended in bringing it to its present
state of perfection will be gained when it is stated that the trial observa-
tions during the development of the instrument number nearly 10,000.
Seeing that the only electrical actions available were those of chemical
action, electro-magnetic action, and heat; that the chemical method is
incapable of being used with alternate currents; and that all electro-
magnetic meters must vary in their indications with the rapidity of the
alternations, the author was led to base his instrument on the heat
developed by an electric current. Such an instrument must be equally
applicable to continuous currents and to alternate currents, whatever
their rate of alternations. Thus a meter is obtained which is practically
perfect, and more simple in construction than any of those designed for
a more limited range of uses.
The instrument is extremely simple both in principle and in con-
struction. it consists essentially of a flat spiral of iron wire with two
terminals. Sometimes these two terminals are united to one wire, the
other being attached to the middle of the iron wire. Thus the instrument
exhibited may be used as an accurate measure for currents from half an
ampére or from one ampére upwards.
Above the conductor a set of vanes is pivoted. This consists of
a circular disc of mica with a hole in the centre in which is fixed a
paper cone carrying at its apex a pinion with a concentric ruby cup.
Round the circumference of the mica disc eight small cylinders of pith
are fixed at equal distances, and eight vanes inclined at 45° to the mica
disc are attached to the pith cylinders, these vanes being made of the
thinnest mica. This set of vanes is supported by the ruby cup resting
on a steel point fixed to the base of the instrument. The pinion engages
with the first wheel of a train of wheelwork actuating the indexes,
which show upon two dials the number of revolutions made by the
vanes.
The action of the instrument is very simple. The electric current
passing through the iron conductor creates heat, which sets up a con-
vection current in the air, and this causes the vanes to rotate about
the vertical axis and drive the clockwork. The number of revolutions
indicated on the dials is, through a considerable range of currents, an
exact indication of the number of coulombs or ampére-hours which have
passed through the conductor. The friction of the ruby cup on the
566 REPORT—1887.
pivot determines the smallest current which can be accurately measured,
and the friction of the clockwork is barely perceptible.
The following table shows the performance of one of these vanes.
The conductor used had a resistance of 0'1 ohm;; the first line shows the
rate at which the current was flowing through the conductor; the second
line gives the ratio of current to speed of rotation, a ratio which ought
to be constant :—
“95
Current in ampéres .
76
|
76 | 61°25
ee
oral
|
|
| s07| s1| 51-6
|
Ratio of current to speed . 50°75 ae 51 ifs 51
When using higher currents the ratio is equally constant.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
569
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
Section AA—-MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor Sir R. S. BALL, M.A., LL.D., F.RB.S.,
F.R.A.S., M.R.I.A., Astronomer Royal for Ireland.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.
The PRESIDENT delivered the following Address :—
A Dynamical Parable.
LApIes AND GENTLEMEN,—The subject I have chosen for my address to you to-day
has been to me a favourite topic of meditation for many years. It is that part of
the science of theoretical mechanics which is usually known as the ‘ Theory of
Screws.’
A good deal has been already written on this theory, but I may say with some
confidence that the aspect in which I shall invite you now to look at it is a novel
one. I propose to give an account of the proceedings of a committee appointed to
investigate and experiment upon certain dynamical phenomena. It may appear
to you that the experiments I shall describe have not as yet been made, that even
the committee itself has not as yet been called together. I have accordingly
ventured to call this address ‘ A Dynamical Parable.’
There was once a rigid body which lay peacefully at rest. A committee of
natural philosophers was appointed to make an experimental and rational inquiry
into the dynamics of that body. The committee received special instructions.
They were to find out why the body remained at rest, notwithstanding that
certain forces were in action. They were to apply impulsive forces and observe
how the body would begin to move. They were also to investigate the small
_ oscillations. These being settled, they were then to—— But here the chairman
interposed ; he considered that for the present, at least, there was sufficient work
in prospect. He pointed out how the questions already proposed just completed a
natural group. ‘ Let it suffice for us,’ he said, ‘to experiment upon the dynamics
of this body so long as it remains in or near to the position it now occupies.
We may leave to some more ambitious committee the task of following the body
in all conceivable gyrations through the universe.™
The committee was judiciously chosen. Mr. Anharmonic undertook the
geometry. He was found to be of the utmost value in the more delicate parts of
the work, though his colleagues thought him rather prosy at times. He was much
aided by his two friends, Mr. One-to-One, who had charge of the homographic
department, and Mr. Helix, whose labours will be seen to be of much importance.
As a most respectable, if rather old-fashioned member, Mr. Cartesian was added to
the committee, but his antiquated tactics were quite out-manceuvred by those of
Helix and One-to-One. I need only mentiontwo more names. Mr. Commonsense
was, of course, present as an e2-officio member, and valuable service was even
rendered by Mr. Querulous, who objected at first to serve on the committee at all.
570 REPORT— 1887.
He said that the inquiry was all nonsense, because everybody knew as much as they
wished to know about the dynamics of a rigid body. The subject was as old as
the hills, and had all been settled long ago. He was persuaded, however, to look
in occasionally. It will appear that a remarkable result of the labours of the
committee was the conversion of Mr. Querulous himself.
The committee assembled in the presence of the rigid body to commence their
memorable labours. There was the body at rest, a huge amorphous mass, with no
regularity in its shape—no uniformity in its texture. But what chiefly alarmed
the committee was the bewildering nature of the constraints by which the move-
ments of the body were hampered. They had been accustomed to nice mechanical
problems, in which a smooth body lay on a smooth table, or a wheel rotated on an
axle, or a body rotated around a point. In all these cases the constraints were of a
simple character, and the possible movements of the body were obvious. But the
constraints in the present case were of puzzling complexity. There were cords and
links, moving axes, surfaces with which the body lay in contact, and many other
geometrical constraints. Experience of ordinary problems in mechanics would be
of little avail. In fact, the chairman truly appreciated the situation when he
said, that the constraints were of a perfectly general type.
In the dismay with which this announcement was received Mr. Commonsense
advanced to the body and tried whether it could move at all. Yes, it was obvious
that in some ways the body could be moved. Then said Commonsense, ‘ Ought
we not first to study carefully the nature of the freedom which the body possesses ?
Ought we not to make an inventory of every distinct movement of which the
body is capable? Until this has been obtained Ido not see how we can make
any progress in the dynamical part of our business.’
Mr. Querulous ridiculed this proposal. ‘How could you,’ he said, ‘make any
geometrical theory of the mobility of a body without knowing all about the
constraints? And yet you are attempting to do so with perfectly general con-
straints of which you know nothing. It must be all waste of time, for though I
have read many books on mechanics, I never saw anything like it.’
Here the gentle voice of Mr. Anharmonic was heard. ‘Let us try, let us
simply experiment on the mobility of the body, and let us faithfully record what’
we find.’ In justification of this advice Mr. Anharmonic made a remark which
was new to most members of the committee; he asserted that, though the con-
straints may be of endless variety and complexity, there can be only a very limited
variety in the types of possible mobility.
It was therefore resolved to make a series of experiments with the simple
object of seeing how the body could be moved. Mr. Cartesian, having a
reputation for such work, was requested to undertake the inquiry and to report
to the committee. Cartesian commenced operations in accordance with the well-
known traditions of his craft. He erected a cumbrous apparatus which he called
his three rectangular axes. He then attempted to push the body parallel to one
of these axes, but it would not stir. He tried to move the body parallel to each of
the other axes, but was again unsuccessful. He then attached the body to one of
the axes and tried to effect a rotation around that axis. Ayain he failed, for the
constraints were of too elaborate a type to accommodate themselves to Mr.
Cartesian’s crude notions.
We shall subsequently find that the movements of the body are necessarily
of an exquisitely simple type, yet such was the clumsiness and the artificial
character of Mr. Cartesian’s machinery that he failed to perceive the simplicity.
To him it appeared that the body could only move in a highly complex manner ;
he saw that it could accept a composite movement consisting of rotations about
two or three of his axes and simultaneous translations also parallel to two or
three axes. Cartesian was a very skilful calculator, and by a series of experiments
even with his unsympathetic apparatus he obtained some knowledge of the
subject, sufficient for purposes in which a vivid comprehension of the whole was
not required. The inadequacy of Cartesian’s geometry was painfully evident when
he reported to the committee on the mobility of the rigid body. ‘I find, he said,
‘that the body can neither move parallel to x, nor toy, nor to =; neither can I make
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 571
it rotate around «, nor y, nor =; but I could push it an inch parallel to x, provided
that at the same time I pushed it a foot parallel to y and a yard backwards parallel
to z, and that it was also turned a degree around 2, half a degree the other way
around y, and twenty-three minutes and nineteen seconds around =.’
‘Ts that all?’ asks the chairman. ‘Oh, no,’ replied Mr. Cartesian, ‘ there are
other proportions in which the ingredients may be combined so as to produce
a possible movement,’ and he was proceeding to state them when Mr. Common-
sense interposed. ‘Stop! stop!’ said he, ‘I can make nothing of all these figures.
This jargon about 2, y, and s may suffice for your calculations, but it fails to
convey to my mind any clear or concise notion of the movements which the body
is free to make.’
Many of the committee sympathised with this view of Commonsense, and they
came to the conclusion that there was nothing to be extracted from poor old
Cartesian and his axes. They felt that there must be some better method, and
their hopes of discovering it were raised when they saw Mr. Helix volunteer his
services and advance to the rigid body. Helix brought with him no cumbrous
rectangular axes, but commenced to try the mobility of the body in the simplest
manner. He found it lying at rest in a position we may call A. Perceiving that
it was in some ways mobile, he gave it a slight displacement to a neighbouring
position B. Contrast the procedure of Cartesian with the procedure of Helix.
Cartesian tried to force the body to move along certain routes which he had
arbitrarily chosen, but which the body had not chosen; in fact the body would not
take any one of his routes separately, though it, would take all of them together in
a most embarrassing manner. But Helix had no preconceived scheme as to the
nature of the movements to be expected. He simply found the body in a certain
position A, and then he coaxed the body to move, not in this particular way or
in that particular way, but any way the body liked to any new position B.
Let the constraints be what they may—let the position B lie anywhere in the
close neighbourhood of A-—Helix found that he could move the body from A to
B by an extremely simple operation. With the aid of a skilful mechanic he
prepared a screw with a suitable pitch, and adjusted this screw in a definite
position. ‘The rigid body was then attached by rigid bonds to a nut on this screw,
and it was found that the movement of the body from A to B could be effected
by simply turning the nut on the screw. A perfectly definite fact about the
mobility of the body has thus been ascertained. It is able to twist to and fro on
@ certain screw.
Mr. Querulous could not see that there was any simplicity or geometrical
clearness in the notion of a screwing movement; in fact he thought it was the
reverse of simple. Tid not the screwing movement mean a translation parallel to
an axis and arotation around that axis? Was it not better to think of the
rotation and the translation separately than to jumble together two things so
totally distinct into a composite notion ?
But Querulous was instantly answered by One-to-One. ‘ Lamentable, indeed,
said he, ‘ would be a divorce between the rotation and the translation. Together
they form the unit of rigid movement. Nature herself has wedded them, and the
fruits of their union are both abundant and beautiful.’
The success of Helix encouraged him to proceed with the experiments, and
speedily he found a second screw about which the body could also twist. He was
about to continue when he was interrupted by Mr. Anharmonic, who said, ‘ Tarry
a moment, for geometry declares that a body free to twist about two screws is free
to twist about a myriad of screws. These form the generators of a graceful ruled
surface known as the cylindroid. There may be infinite variety in the conceivable
constraints, but there can be no corresponding variety in the character of this
surface. Cylindroids differ in size, they have no difference in shape. Let us then
make a cylindroid of the right size, and so place it that two of its screws coincide
with those you have discovered ; then I promise you that the body can be twisted
about every screw on the surface. In other words, if a body has two degrees of
freedom the cylindroid is the natural and the perfectly general method for giving
an exact specification of its mobility.’
572 REPORT—1887.
A single step remained to complete the examination of the freedom of the body.
Mr. Helix continued his experiments and presently detected a third screw, about
which the body can also twist in addition to those on the cylindroid. A flood of
geometrical light then burst forth and illuminated the whole theory. It appeared
that the body was free to twist about ranks upon ranks of screws all beautifully
arranged by their pitches on a system of hyperboloids. After a brief conference
with Anharmonic and One-to-One, Helix announced that sufficient experiments of
this kind had now been made. By the single screw, the cylindroid, and the family
of hyperboloids, every conceivable information about the mobility of the rigid
body can be adequately conveyed. Let the body have any constraints, how-
soever elaborate, yet the definite geometrical conceptions just stated will be
sufficient.
With perfect lucidity Mr. Helix expounded the matter to the committee. He
exhibited to them an elegant fabric of screws, each with its appropriate pitch, and
then he summarised his labours by saying, ‘ About every one of these screws you
can displace the body by twisting, and, what is of no less importance, it will not
admit of any movement which is not such a twist.’ The committee expressed their
satisfaction with this information. It was both clear and complete. Indeed, the
chairman remarked with considerable force that a more thorough method of specify-
ing the freedom of the body was inconceivable.
The discovery of the mobility of the body completed the first stage of the
labours of the committee, and they were ready to commence the serious
dynamical work. Force was now to be used, with the view of experimenting on
the behaviour of the body under its influence. Elated by their previous success the
committee declared that they would not rest satisfied until they had again obtained
the most perfect solution of the most general problem.
‘ But what is force P’ said one of the committee. ‘Send for Mr. Cartesian,’ said
the chairman, ‘we will give him another trial.’ Mr. Cartesian was accordingly
requested to devise an engine of the most ferocious description wherewith to attack
the rigid body. He was promptly ready with a scheme, the weapons being drawn
from his trusty but old-fashioned armoury. He would erect three rectangular axes,
he would administer a tremendous blow parallel to each of these axes, and then he
would simultaneously apply to the body a forcible couple around each of them;
this was the utmost he could do.
‘No doubt,’ said the chairman, ‘what you propose would be highly effective,
but, Mr. Cartesian, do you not think that while you still retained the perfect gene-
rality of your attack, you might simplify your specification of it? I confess that
these three blows all given at once at right angles to each other, and these
three couples which you propose to impart at the same time, rather confuse me.
There seems a want of unity somehow. In short, Mr. Cartesian, your scheme
does not create a distinct geometrical image in my mind. We gladly acknowledge
its suitability for numerical calculation, and we remember its famous achievements,
but it is utterly inadequate to the aspirations of this committee. We must look
elsewhere.’
Again Mr. Helix stepped forward. He reminded the committee of the labours
of Mathematician Poinsot, and then he approached the rigid body. Helix com-
menced by clearing away Cartesian’s arbitrary scaffolding of rectangular axes.
He showed how an attack of the most perfect generality could be delivered in a
form that admitted of concise and elegant description. ‘I shall,’ he said, ‘ administer
a blow upon the rigid body from some unexpected direction, and at the same
instant I shall apply a vigorous couple in a plane perpendicular to the line of the
blow.
A happy inspiration here seized upon Mr. Anharmonic. He knew, of course,
that the efficiency of a couple is measured by its moment—that is, by the pro-
duct of a force and a linear magnitude. He proposed, therefore, to weld Poinsot’s
force and couple into the single conception of a wrench ona screw. The force
would be directed along the screw while the moment of the couple would equal
the product of the force and the pitch of the screw. ‘ A screw,’ he said, ‘is to be
regarded merely as a directed straight line with an associated linear magnitude
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 573
called the pitch. The screw has for us a dual aspect of much significance. No
small movement of the body is conceivable which does not consist of a twist
about a screw. No set of forces could be applied to the body which were not
equivalent to a wrench upon a screw. Everyone remembers the two celebrated
rules that forces are compounded like rotations and that couples are compounded
like translations. These may now be replaced by the single but far more com-
pendious rule which asserts that wrenches and twists are to be compounded by
identical laws. Would you unite geometry with generality in your dynamics ?
It is by screws, and screws only, that you are enabled to do so.’
These ideas were rather too abstract for Cartesian, who remarked that, as
D’Alembert’s principle provided for everything in dynamics, screws could not he
needed. Mr. Querulous sought to confirm him by saying that he did not see how
screws helped the study either of Foucault’s Pendulum or of the Precession of the
Equinoxes.
Such absurd observations kindled the intellectual wrath of One-to-One, who
rose and said, ‘In the development of the natural philosopher two epochs may he
noted. At the first he becomes aware that problems exist. At the second he
discovers their solution. Querulous has not yet reached the first epoch ; he cannot
even conceive those problems which the ‘Theory of Screws” proposes to
solve. I may, however, inform him that the “ Theory of Screws” is not a general
dynamical calculus. It is the discussion of a particular class of dynamical
problems which do not admit of any other enunciation except that which the
theory itself provides. Let us hope that ere our labours have ended Mr.
Querulous may obtain some glimmering of the subject.’ The chairman happily
assuaged matters. ‘ We must pardon,’ he said, ‘ the vigorous language of our friend
Mr. One-to-One. His faith in geometry is boundless—in fact he is said to believe
that the only real existence in the universe is anharmonic ratio. It is even his
opinion that if a man travelled sufficiently far along a straight line in one direction
he would ultimately arrive at the point from which he started. i
It was thus obvious that screws were indispensable alike for the application
of the forces and for the observation of the movements. Special measuring instru-
ments were devised by which the positions and pitches of the various screws
could be carefully ascertained. All being ready the first experiment was
commenced.
A screw was chosen quite at random, and a great impulsive wrench was ad-
ministered thereon. In the infinite majority of cases this would start the body
into activity, and it would commence to move in the only manner possible—ie., it
would begin to twist about some screw. It happened, however, that this first
experiment was unsuccessful; the impulsive wrench failed to operate, or at all
events the body did not stir. ‘I told you it would not do, shouted Querulous,
though he instantly subsided when One-to-One glanced at him.
Much may often be learned from an experiment which fails, and the chairman
sagaciously accounted for the failure, and in doing so directed the attention of the
committee to an important branch of the subject. The mishap was due, he
thought, to some reaction of the constraints which had neutralised the effect or
the wrench. He believed it would save time in their future investigations if these
reactions could be first studied and their number and position ascertained.
To this suggestion Mr. Cartesian demurred. He urged that it would involve
an endless task. ‘Look,’ he said, ‘at the complexity of the constraints: how the
body rests on these surfaces here ; how it is fastened by links to those points there ;
how there are a thousand-and-one ways in which reactions might originate.’ Mr.
Commonsense and other members of the committee were not so easily deterred,
and they determined to work out the subject thoroughly. At first they did not see
their way clearly, and much time was spent in misdirected attempts. At length
they were rewarded by a curious and unexpected discovery, which suddenly
rendered the obscure reactions perfectly transparent.
A trial was being made upon a body which had only one degree of freedom ;
was, in fact, only able to twist about a single screw, X. Another screw, Y, was
speedily found, such that a wrench thereon failed to disturb the body. It now
574 REPORT—1887.
occurred to the committee to try the effect of interchanging the relation of these
screws. They accordingly arranged that the body should be left only free to twist
about Y, while a wrench was applied on X. Again the body did not stir. The
importance of this fact immediately arrested the attention of the more intelligent
observers, for it established the following general law: If a wrench on X fails to
move a body only free to twist about Y, then a wrench on Y must be unable to
move a body only free to twist about X. It was determined to speak of two
screws when related in this manner as 7eceprocal.
Some members of the committee did not at first realise the significance of this
discovery. Their difficulty arose from the restricted character of the experiments
by which the law of reciprocal screws had been suggested. They said, ‘ You have
shown us that this law is observed in the case of a body only free to twist about
one screw at a time; but how does this teach anything of the general case in
which the body is free to twist about whole shoals of screws?’ Mr, Commonsense
immediately showed that the discovery could be enunciated in a quite un-
objectionable form. ‘The law of reciprocal screws,’ he said, “does not depend
upon the constraints cr the limitations of the freedom. It may be expressed in this
way :—Two screws are reciprocal when a small twist about either can do no work
against a wrench on the other,
This important step at once brought into view the whole geometry of the
reactions. Let us suppose that the freedom of the body was such that it could
twist about all the screws of a system which we shall call U, Let all the possible
reactions form wrenches on the screws of another system, V. It then appeared
that every screw upon U is reciprocal to every screw upon V. A body might
therefore be free to twist about every screw of V and still remain in equilibrium,
notwithstanding the presence of a wrench on every screw of U. <A body free to
twist about all the screws of V can therefore be only partially free. Hence V
must be one of those few types of screw system already discussed. It was
accordingly found that the single screw, the cylindroid, and the set of hyper-
boloids compietely described every conceivable reaction from the constraints just
as they described every conceivable kind of freedom. The committee derived much
encouragement from these discoveries ; they felt that they must be following the
right path, and that the bounty of Nature had already bestowed on them some
earnest of the rewards they were ultimately to receive.
It was with eager anticipation that they now approached the great dynamical
question. They were to see what would happen if the impulsive wrench were not
neutralised by the reactions of the constraints. The body would then commence
to moye—that is, to twist about some screw which it would be natural to call the
instantaneous screw. To trace the connection between the impulsive screw and
the corresponding instantaneous screw was the question of the hour. Before
the experiments were commenced, some shrewd member remarked that the issue
had not yet been presented with the necessary precision. ‘I understand,’ he
said, ‘ that when you apply a certain impulsive wrench, the body will receive a
definite twist velocity about a definite screw; but the converse problem is
ambiguous. Unless the body be quite free, there are myriads of impulsive screws
corresponding to but one instantaneous screw.’ The chairman perceived the
difficulty, and not in vain did he appeal to the geometrical instinct of Mr. One-to-
One, who at once explained the philosophy of the matter, dissipated the fog, and
disclosed a fresh beauty in the theory.
‘It is quite true,’ said Mr. One-to-One, ‘ that there are myriads of impulsive
screws, any one of which may be regarded as the correspondent to a given instan-
taneous screw, butit fortunately happens that among these myriads there is always
one screw so specially circumstanced that we may select it as the correspondent,
and then the ambiguity will have vanished.’
As several members were not endowed with the geometrical insight possessed
by One-to-One, they called on him to explain how this special screw was to be
identified; accordingly he proceeded:—‘ We have already ascertained that the
constraints permit the body to be twisted about any screw of the system, U. Out’
of the myriads of impulsive screws, corresponding to a single instantaneous screw,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 575
it always happens that one, but never more than one, lies on U. This is the special
screw. No matter where the impulsive wrench may lie throughout all the realms
of space, it may always be exchanged fora precisely equivalent wrench lying on U.
Without the sacrifice of a particle of generality, we have neatly circumscribed
the problem. For one impulsive there is one instantaneous screw, and for one
instantaneous screw there is one impulsive screw.’
The experiments were accordingly resumed. An impulsive screw was chosen,
and its position and its pitch were both noted. An impulsive wrench was
administered, the body commenced to twist, and the instantaneous screw was
ascertained by the motion of marked points. The body was brought to rest. A
new impulsive screw was then taken. The experiment was again and again
repeated. The results were tabulated, so that for each impulsive screw the
corresponding instantaneous screw was shown.
Although these investigations were restricted to screws belonging to the system
which expressed the freedom of the body, yet the committee became uneasy
when they reflected that the screws of that system were still infinite in number,
and that consequently they had undertaken a task of infinite extent. Unless some
compendious law should be discovered, which connected the impulsive screw
with the instantaneous screw, their experiments would indeed be endless. Was
it likely that such a law could be found—was it even likely that such a law
existed? Mr. Querulous decidedly thought not. He pointed out how the body
was of the most hopelessly irregular shape and mass, and how the constraints
were notoriously of the most embarrassing description. It was, therefore, he
thought, idle to search for any geometrical law connecting the impulsive screw
and the instantaneous screw. He moved that the whole inquiry be abandoned.
These sentiments seemed to be shared by other members of the committee, Even
the resolution of the chairman began to quail before a task of infinite magnitude.
A crisis was imminent—when Mr, Anharmonic rose.
‘Mr. Chairman,’ he said, ‘Geometry is ever ready to help even the most
humble inquirer into the laws of nature, but Geometry reserves her most gracious
gifts for those who interrogate Nature in the noblest and most comprehensive spirit.
That spirit has been ours during this research, and accordingly Geometry in this
our emergency places her choicest treasures at our disposal. Foremost among these
is the powerful theory of homographic systems. By a few bold extensions we
create a comprehensive theory of homographic screws. All the impulsive screws
form one system, and all the instantaneous screws form another system, and
these two systems are homographic. Once you have realised this, you will find
your present difficulty cleared away. You will only have to determine a few pairs
of impulsive and instantaneous screws by experiment. ‘The number of such pairs
need never be more than seven. When these have been found, the homography is
completely known. The instantaneous screw corresponding to every impulsive
screw will then be completely determined by geometry both pure and beautiful.’
To the delight and amazement of the committee, Mr. Anharmonic demonstrated
the truth of his theory by the supreme test of fulfilled prediction. When the
observations had provided him with a number of pairs of screws, one more than
the number of degrees of freedom of the body, he was able to predict with in-
fallible accuracy the instantaneous screw corresponding to any impulsive screw.
Chaos had gone. Sweet order had come.
A few days later the chairman summoned a special meeting in order to hear
from Mr. Anharmonic an account of a discovery he had just made, which he
believed to be of signal importance, and which he was anxious to demonstrate by
actual experiment. Accordingly the committee assembled, and the geometer pro-
ceeded as follows :—
. £You are aware that two homographic ranges on the same ray possess two
double points, whereof each coincides with its correspondent ; more generally when
each point in space, regarded as belonging to one homographic system, has its
correspondent belonging to another system, then there are four cases in which a
point coincides with its correspondent. These are known as the four double points,
and they possess much geometrical interest. Let us now create conceptions of an
076 REPORT—1887.
analogous character suitably enlarged for our present purpose. We have dis-
covered that the impulsive screws and the corresponding instantaneous screws form
two homographic systems. There will be a certain limited number (never more
than six) of double screws common to these two systems. As the double points in
the homography of point systems are fruitful in geometry, so the double screws in
the homography of screw systems ere fruitful in Dynamics.’
A question for experimental inquiry could now be distinctly stated. Does a
double screw possess the property that an impulsive wrench delivered thereon will
make the body commence to move by twisting about the same screw? ‘This was
immediately tested. Mr. Anharmonic, guided by the indications of homography,
soon pointed out the few double screws. One of these was chosen, a vigorous
impulsive wrench was imparted thereon. The observations were conducted as
before, the anticipated result was triumphantly verified, for the body commenced
to twist about the identical screw on which the wrench was imparted. The other
double screws were similarly tried, and with a like result. In each ease the
instantaneous screw was identical both in pitch and in position with the impulsive
screw.
‘But surely, said Mr. Querulous, ‘there is nothing wonderful in this. Who
is surprised to learn that the body twists about the same screw as that on which
the wrench was administered ? Iam sure I could find many such screws. Indeed,
the real wonder is not that the impulsive screw and the instantaneous screw are
ever the same, but that they are ever different.’
And Mr. Querulous proceeded to illustrate his views by experiments on the
rigid body. He gave the body all sorts of impulses, but in spite of all his
endeavours the body invariably commenced to twist about some screw which was
not the impulsive screw. ‘You may try till Doomsday,’ said Mr. Anharmonic,
‘ you will never find any besides the few I have indicated.’
It was thought convenient to assign a name to these remarkable screws, and
they were accordingly designated the principal screws of inertia. There are for
example six principal screws of inertia when the body is perfectly free, and two
when the body is free to twist about the screws of a cylindroid. The committee
regarded the discovery of the principal screws of inertia as the most remarkable
result they had yet obtained.
Mr. Cartesian was very unhappy. The generality of the subject was too
great for his comprehension. He had an invincible attachment to the 2, y, z,
which he regarded as the ne plus ultra of dynamics. ‘ Why will you burden the
science,’ he sighs, ‘ with all these additional names? Can you not express what you
want without talking about cylindroids, and twists, and wrenches, and impulsive
screws, and instantaneous screws, and all the rest of it?’ ‘No,’ said Mr. One-to-
One, ‘ there can be no simpler way of stating the results than that natural method
we have followed. You would not object to the language if your ideas of natural
phenomena had heen sufficiently capacious. We are dealing with questions of
perfect generality, and it would involve a sacrifice of generality were we to speak
of the movement of a body except as a twist, or of a system of forces except as
a wrench.’
‘But,’ said Mr. Commonsense, ‘can you not as a concession to our ignorance
tell us something in ordinary language which will give an idea of what you
mean when you talk of your “ principal screws of inertia”? Pray for once sacrifice
this generality you prize so much and put the theory into some extreme shape
that ordinary mortals can understand.’
Mr. Anharmonic would not condescend to comply with this request, so the
chairman called upon Mr. One-to-One, who somewhat ungraciously consented,
“I feel, said he, ‘the request to be an irritating one. Extreme cases frequently
make bad illustrations of a general theory. That zero multiplied by infinity may
be anything is surely not a felicitous exhibition of the perfections of the mul-
tiplication table. It is with reluctance that I divest the theory of its flowing
geometrical habit, and present it only as a stiff conventional guy from which true
grace has departed.
‘Let us suppose that the rigid body, instead of being constrained as heretofore
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 577
in a perfectly general manner, is subjected merely to a special type of constraint.
Let it in fact be only free to rotate around a fixed point. The beautiful fabric of
serews, which so elegantly expressed the latitude permitted to the body before,
has now degenerated into a mere horde of lines all stuck through the point.
Those varieties in the pitches of the screws which gave colour and richness to the
fabric have also vanished, and the pencil of degenerate screws has a monotonous
zero of pitch. Our general conceptions of mobility have thus been horribly
mutilated and disfigured before they can be adapted to the old and respectable
problem of the rotation of a rigid body about a fixed point. For the dynamics
of this problem the wrenches assume an extreme and even monstrous type.
Wrenches they still are, as wrenches they ever must be, but they are wrenches on
screws of infinite pitch; they have ceased to possess definite screws as homes of
their own. We often call them couples.
‘ Yet so comprehensive is the doctrine of the principal screws of inertia that
even to this extreme problem the theory may be applied. The principal screws
of inertia reduce in this special case to the three principal axes drawn through
the point. In fact we see that the famous property of the principal axes of a
rigid body is merely a very special application of the general theory of the
principal screws of inertia. Everyone who has a particle of mathematical taste
lingers with fondness over the theory of the principal axes. Learn therefore,’
says One-to-One in conclusion, ‘ how great must be the beauty of a doctrine which
comprehends the theory of principal axes as the merest outlying detail.’
Another definite stage in the labours of the committee had now been reached,
and accordingly the chairman summarised the results. He said that a geometrical
solution had been obtained of every conceivable problem as to the effect of
impulse on a rigid body. The impulsive screws and the corresponding instanta-
neous screws formed two homographic systems. Each screw in one system
determined its corresponding screw in the other system, just as in two anharmonic
ranges each point in one determines its correspondent in the other. The double
screws of the two homographie systems are the principal screws of inertia. He
remarked in conclusion that the geometrical theory of homography and the present
dynamical theory mutually illustrated and interpreted each other.
There was still one more problem which had to be brought into shape by
geometry and submitted to the test of experiment.
The body is lying at rest though gravity and many other forces are acting
upon it. These forces constitute a wrench which must lie upon a screw of the
reciprocal system, inasmuch as it is neutralised by the reaction of the constraints.
Let the body be displaced from its initial position by a small twist. The wrench
will no longer be neutralised by the reaction of the constraints; accordingly when
the body is released it will commence to move. So far as the present investiga-
tions are concerned these movements are small oscillations. Attention was there-
fore directed to these small oscillations. The usual observations were made, and
Helix reported them to be of a very perplexing kind. ‘Surely,’ said the chairman,
‘you find the body twisting about some screw, do you not?’ ‘ Undoubtedly,’
said Helix ; ‘the body can only move by twisting about some screw; but, un-
fortunately, this screw is not fixed, it is indeed moving about in such an embarrass-
ing manner that I can give no intelligible account of the matter.’ The chairman
appealed to the committee not to leave the interesting subject of small oscillations
in such an unsatisfactory state. Success had hitherto guided their efforts. Let
them not separate without throwing the light of geometry on this obscure subject.
Mr. Querulous here said he must be heard. He protested against any further waste
of time; there was nothing for them todo. Everybody knew how to investigate
small oscillations ; the equations were given in every book on mechanics. You had
only to write down these equations, and scribble away till you got out something or
other. But the more intelligent members of the committee took the same view as
the chairman. They did not question the truth of the formule which to Querulous
seemed all-sufficient, but they wished to see how geometry could vivify the theory.
Fortunately this view prevailed, and new experiments were commenced under the
direction of Mr. Anharmonic, who first quelled the elaborate oscillations which
1887. PP
578 REPORT—1887.
had so puzzled the committee, reduced the body to rest, and then introduced the’
subject as follows :—
‘The body now lies at rest. I displace it a little, and hold it in its new
position. The wrench, which is the resultant of all the varied forces acting on the
body, is no longer completely neutralised by the reactions of the constraints.
Indeed, I can feel it in action. Our apparatus will enable us to measure the
intensity of this wrench, and to determine the screw on which it acts.’
A series of experiments was then made, in which the body was displaced by a
twist about a screw, which was duly noted, while the corresponding evoked wrench
was determined. The pairs of screws so related were carefully tabulated. When
we remember the infinite complexity of the forces, of the constraints and of the
constitution of the body, it might seem an endless task to determine the connection
between the two systems of screws. Here Mr. Anharmonic pointed out how
exactly modern geometry was adapted to supply the wants of Dynamics. The two
screw systems were homographic, and when a number of pairs, one more than the
degrees of freedom of the body, had been found all was determined. This state-
ment was put to the test. Again and again the body was displaced in some new
fashion, but again and again did Mr. Anharmonic predict the precise wrench
which would be required to maintain the body in its new position.
‘ But,’ said the chairman, ‘are not these purely statical results? How do they
throw light on those elaborate oscillations which seem at present so inexplicable?’
‘ This I shall explain,’ said Anharmonic; ‘ but I beg of you to give me your best
attention, for I think the theory of small oscillations will be found worthy of it.
‘Let us think of any screw a belonging to the system U, which expresses the
freedom of the body. If a be an instantaneous screw, there will of course be a
corresponding impulsive screw @ also on U. If the body be displaced from a position
of equilibrium by a small twist about a, the uncompensated forces will produce a
wrench , which, without loss of generality, may also be supposed to lie on U.
According as the screw a moves over U so will the two corresponding screws
@and ¢ also move over U. The system represented by a is homographic with both
the systems of 6 and of ¢ respectively. But two systems homographic with the
same system are homographic with each other. Accordingly, the @ system and the
@ system are homographic. There will therefore be a certain number of double
screws (not more than six) common to the systems 6 and d@. Each of these double
screws will of course have its correspondent in the a system, and we may call them
a,, a,, &c., their number being equal to the degrees of freedom of the body. These
screws are most curiously related to the small oscillations. We shall first demon-
strate by experiment the remarkable property they possess,’
The body was first brought to rest in its position of equilibrium. One of the
special screws a, having been carefully determined both in position and in pitch,
the body was displaced by a twist about this screw and was then released. As
the forces were uncompensated, the body of course commenced to move, but the
oscillations were of unparalleled simplicity. With the regularity of a pendulum
the body twisted to and fro on this screw, just as if it were actually constrained to
this motion alone. The committee were delighted to witness a vibration so graceful,
and, remembering the complex nature of the ordinary oscillations, they appealed to
Mr. Anharmonic for an explanation. This he gladly gave, not by means of com-
plex formule, but by a line of reasoning that was highly commended by Mr.
Commonsense, and such that even Mr. Querulous could understand.
‘This pretty movement,’ said Mr. Anharmonic, ‘is due to the nature of the
screw a, Had I chosen any screw at random, the oscillations would, as we have
seen, be of a very complex type ; for the displacement will always evoke an uncom-
pensated wrench, in consequence of which the body will commence to move by
twisting about the instantaneous screw corresponding to that wrench; and of
course this instantaneous screw will usually be quite different from the screw about
which the displacement was made. But you will observe that a, has been chosen
as a screw in the instantaneous system, corresponding to one of the double screws
in the 6 and ¢ systems. When the body is twisted about a, a wrench is evoked
on the double screw, but as a, is itself the instantaneous screw, corresponding to
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 579
that double screw, the only effect of the wrench will be to make the body twist
about a,. Thus we see that the body will twist to and fro on a, for ever; precisely
similar statements could have been made about a, a,, &c., corresponding to the
other double screws. Finally, we can show that the most elaborate oscillations the
body can possibly have may be produced by compounding the simple vibrations on
the screws a,, ay, &e.’
Great enlightenment was now diffused over the committee, and even Mr.
Querulous began to think there must be something in it. Cordial unanimity
prevailed among the members, and it was appropriately suggested that the screws
of simple vibration should be called harmonic screws. This view was adopted by
the chairman, who said he thought he had seen a similar expression in ‘Thomson
and Tait.’
The final meeting showed that real dynamical enthusiasm had been kindled
‘in the committee. Vistas of great mathematical theories were opened out in many
directions. One member showed how the theory of screws could be applied not
merely to a single rigid body but to any mechanical system whatever. He sketched
a geometrical conception of what he was pleased to call a screw-chain, by which he
said he could so bind even the most elaborate system of rigid bodies that they
would be compelled to conform to the theory of screws. Nay, soaring still further
into the empyrean, he showed that all the instantaneous motions of every molecule
in the universe were only a twist about one screw-chain while all the forces of the
universe were but a wrench upon another.
Mr. One-to-One expounded the ‘ Ausdehnungslehre’ and showed that the theory
of screws was closely related to parts of Grassman’s great work; while Mr.
Anharmonic told how Pliicker, in his celebrated ‘ Neue Geometrie des Raumes,’
had advanced some distance towards the theory of screws, but still had never
‘touched it.
The climax of mathematical eloquence was attained in the speech of Mr.
‘Querulous, who, with newborn enthusiasm, launched into appalling speculations.
He had evidently been reading his ‘Cayley’ and had become conscious of the
poverty of geometrical conception arising from our unfortunate residence in a
space of an arbitrary and unsymmetrical description.
‘Three dimensions,’ he said, ‘ may perhaps be enough for an intelligent geometer.
Tle may get on fairly well without a four-dimensioned space, but he does most
heartily remonstrate against a flat infinity. Think of infinity,’ he cries, ‘ as it should
be, perhaps even as it is. Talk not of your scanty straight line as infinity and your
miserable pair of circular points. Boldly assert that infinity is an ample quadric,
and not the mere ghost of one; and then geometry will become what geometry
ought to be. Then will every twist resolve into a right vector and a left vector,
as the genius of Clifford proved. Then will the theory of screws shed away
‘some few adhering deformities and fully develop its shapely proportions. Then
will But here the chairman said he feared the discussion was beginning
to enter rather wide ground. For his part he was content with the results of the
experiments, even though they had been conducted in the vapid old space of
Euclid. He reminded them that their labours were now completed, for they
had ascertained everything relating to the rigid body which had been com-
mitted to them. He hoped they would agree with him that the inquiry had
deen an instructive one. They had been engaged in the study of Nature, they had
approached the problems in the true philosophical spirit, and the rewards they
‘had obtained proved that
‘Nature never did betray
The heart that truly loved her.’
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Third Report of the Committee for promoting Tidal Observations in
{| Canada.—See Reports, p. 31.
PP2
580 REPORT— 1887.
2. Conduction of Electricity through Gases.
By Professor A. Scuuster, Ph.D., F.R.S.
Though a current can usually be sent through a gas only with a high E.M.F.,
yet, if such a current is passing in any part of a vessel containing a gas, a current
can be passed, through any other part with an E.M.F. that is only a fraction of a volt..
This phenomenon doubtless explains certain electrical actions in the atmo-
sphere.
3. Instruments for Stellar Photography. By Sir Howarp Gruss, F.R.S.
Referring firstly to the optical] arrangements, the author stated that the condi—
tion of extent of field, so important and essential in this work, was one which the
optician had never before been asked to consider in telescopic objectives; and he
described the direction of a series of experiments which he has been carrying out
with the object of obtaining an improvement in this particular. These experi-
ments are not yet complete, but he was able to state that they appeared to point
to the conclusion that a very considerably larger field could be obtained than had
been at first anticipated.
Speaking then with reference to the mechanical arrangements, he described
various modifications and additions which it was desirable to make in the equa-
torial itself in order that it might best fulfil the conditions required for the new
work, and referred specially to the subject of the driving-clock.
The author considers that it is very desirable to have a well-regulated and con-
trolled clock, for although the possession of such does not dispense altogether with
the ‘eye and hand’ work, it does so to a great extent—sufticient at least to relieve
the observer of much of the intense strain otherwise required.
By the use of the electric control déscribed at last year’s meeting the author
has reduced the maximum error to jth of a second; but this is hardly sufficiently
accurate.
The greater part of the residual error exists in the screw itself, which, being
necessarily coarse, has not (up to the present) been cut in a micrometer screw-
cutting engine, but in an ordinary lathe.
The author is now engaged in constructing two special machines—one for
testing and the other for cutting these screws; and he confidently hopes to reduce
the errors to 4th of a second by adopting the following precautions :—
1.—Increasing radius of sector.
2.—Cutting screw in special micrometer screw-cutting engine.
3.—Increasing the delicacy of the ‘detector’ of the control by increasing
its scale.
4.—Reducing to the smallest limits the amount of gearing between the
clock governor and screw.
The author considers that if the errors be reduced to 3th of a second the
accuracy will be sufficient for all practical purposes.
4. On the Nature of the Photographic Star-Discs and the Removal of a
Difficulty in Measurements for Parallax. By Professor C. PrrrcHarD,
D.D., FBS.
The image of a star exposed to a photographic plate driven by a clock having
a small rate and subject to small periodic oscillations, as is generally the case with
the majority of driving-clocks, is not a simple linear trace, but a series of black dots
joined together by intervals less dense.
This will be the generic form of a star-image when these black dots, &c.,
coalesce, or are superimposed by means of hand-driving.
If, for the purposes of measurement for parallax or otherwise, a bright star be
covered over by a stop during the greater part of the duration of the exposure of
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 581
the plate, and the stop be then removed for a brief interval, it is shown by experi-
mental measurement that the bright star is accurately represented on the plate.
5. On the Turbulent Motion of Water between Two Planes.
By Professor Sir W. Tuomson, LD.D., F.R.S.
6. On the Theory of Electrical Endosmose and other Allied Phenomena, and
on the Ewistence of a Sliding Coefficient for a Fluid in contact with a
Solid. By Professor Horace Lams, M.A., F.R.S.—See Reports, p. 495.
7. On the Vortex Theory of the Lwminiferous Aither.
By Professor Sir W. Tuomson, DL.D., F.R.S.—See Reports, p. 486.
8. On the Ratio of the Two Elasticities of Air.
By Professor Sitvanus P. Txompson, D.Se.
The method suggested for determining the ratio of the two elasticities was a
modification of that of Clément and Desormes. A known additional volume of
air was suddenly introduced into a large glass flask by means of a piston in a
cylinder, the rise of pressure which resulted being observed in a manometric gauge—
first, before the heat had had time to escape; and, secondly, after the initial tem-
perature had been recovered. The author pointed out the utility of this form of
apparatus for the teaching of elementary thermodynamics, and showed that this
ratio was nothing else than the ratio between the slope of the adiabatic and that of
the isothermal drawn through ary point of the pressure-volume diagram,
The following is the proof of the proposition.
We have as the adiabatic and the isothermal laws respectively —
pv =p,0,=0 : . . . . . (1),
pv =pp7=a e . . . . . (2),
-whence
+ Sa a Me ED
“4
Differentiating (1) and (2) with respeci to »v, and dividing one result by the
other, we get—
dy’ — g -y+1.
dp Bite is ?
whence finally
dp’ _
dp
9. A Null Method in Electro-calorimetry.
By Professor W. Srrovp, D.Sc., B.A., and W. W. Haupane Gee, B.Sc.
The method consists in dividing a current between two calorimeters in such a
way that the same temperature is maintained in each, as tested either by a thermo-
electric or bolometric arrangement. When the calorimetric capacity of the two
calorimeters and their contents are adjusted to equality, the corrections for cooling —
and for the capacity of the calorimeters vanish (see ‘ Electrical Review,’ vol. xxi.
p- 262; ‘Nature, vol. xxxvi. p. 523). The method is found to be susceptible of
great accuracy.
582 REPORT— 1887.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Fourth Report of the Committee for considering the best methods of re-
cording the direct Intensity of Solar Radiation.—See Reports, p. 32.
2. Third Report of the Committee for considering the best means of com-
paring and reducing Magnetic Observations—See Reports, p. 320.
3. New Electric Balances! By Professor Sir Witu1Am THomson, F.2.S.
The balances are founded on the mutual forces discovered by Ampére between.
the fixed and movable portions of an electric circuit. The mutually influencing
portions are usually circular rings. Circular coils or rings are fixed, with their
planes horizontal, to the ends of the beam of a balance, and are each acted on by
two horizontal fixed rings placed one above and the other below the movable ring.
Six grades of instrument are made, named centi-ampére, deci-ampére, ampére,
deca-ampére, hecto-ampére, and kilo-ampére balance. The range of each balance
is about 25. Thus, the centi-ampére balance will measure currents of from 2 to
50 centi-ampéres, while the kilo-ampére balance will measure currents of from.
100 to 2,500 ampéres. Since the indications of the instrument depend on the
mutual forces between two parts of an electric circuit of permanent form and
relative position, they are not subject to the changes with time which are so
troublesome in instruments the constant of which depends on the strength of per-
manent magnets.
The most important novelty in these balances is the connection between the
movable and the fixed part of the circuit. The beam of the balance is suspended
by two flat ligaments made up of fine copper wires placed side by side. ‘These
ligaments serve instead of knife-edges for the balance, and at the same time allow
the current to pass into and out from the movable coils. The number of wires in.
each ligament varies from 20 in the ‘centi-ampére to 900 in the kilo-ampére
balance. The diameter of the wire is about ,4th of a millimétre, and each centi-
métre breadth of the ligament contains about 100 wires.
The electric forces produced by the current are balanced by means of weights,
which can be moved along a graduated scale by means of a self-relieving pendant.
Two scales are provided—one a scale of equal divisions, the other a scale the num-
bers on which are double the square roots of the numbers on the scale of equal
divisions. The square-root scale allows the current to be read off directly to a
sufficient degree of accuracy for most purposes. When high accuracy is required.
the fine scale of equal divisions may be used, and the exact value of the current
obtained trom a table of doubled square roots supplied with the instrument.
An engine-room yoltmeter on a similar plan was described. It consists of a
coil fixed to the end of a balance-arm, suspended in the manner above described,
and acted on by one fixed coil placed below it, The distance of the two coils apart
is indicated on a vertical scale by means of a magnifying lever, and serves to indicate
the difference of potential between the leads to which the instrument is connected.
The coils of the instrument are of copper wire, and an external platinoid resistance
of considerably greater amount is joined in circuit with it. The electrical forces:
are balanced by means of a weight placed in a trough fixed to the front of the
movable coil, and weights suited to the temperatures 15°, 20°, 25°, 30° C., as indi-
cated by a thermometer with its bulb in the centre of the coil, are provided.
Two other instruments were described, namely, a marine voltmeter suitable
for measuring the potential of an electric-light circuit on board ships at sea, and
a magneto-static current-meter suitable for a lamp-counter. :
1 See Hlectrician, May 6, 13, and 20, 1887; also Telegraphic Revien. ,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 583
In the marine voltmeter, an oblate spheroid of soft iron is suspended in the
centre of, and with its equatorial plane inclined at about 40° to, the axis of a coil
of fine copper wire, by means of a stretched platinoid wire. When a current is
passed through the coil the oblate of soft iron tends to set its equatorial plane
parallel to the axis of the coil, and this tendency is resisted by the rigidity of the
suspension-wire.
The lamp-counter is a tangent galvanometer with special provision for prevent-
ing damage to its silk fibre suspension, and for allowing the constant to be readily
varied by the user to suit the lamps on his circuit.
4. Supplement to a Report on Optical Theories.
By R. T. Guazesroox, M.A., F.R.S.—See Reports, p. 208.
5. Description of a Map of the Solar Spectrum.
By Professor H. A. RowLanp.
6. Exhibition of Negatives of Photographs of the Solar Spectrum.
By Geo. Hices.
The author exhibited some negatives obtained by himself with the aid of some
temporary instruments, the camera objective being a double convex spectacle-lens
of 6 ft. 4 in. focus, and the camera a plain wooden box of the same length. The
collimator is only 13 inches long, having a slit exactly 1 mm. in length and about
zi;th mm. in breadth; the light passes through four prisms of light flint, each
having an angle of 45°; the object-ylasses are 1} in. in diameter ; the whole being
of excellent quality, by Mr. Browning. The detail is such that eighty-one lines may
be counted between H' and H?: a strong line, which he had not previously ob-
served, is distinctly observable in the centre of H, ; the nebulous iron line 4045 is
resolved into about five nebulous lines. The space between 4101—that is, h—and
the strong pair on the less refrangible side of it, which is vacant space in Ang-
strém’s map, contains thirty-five lines, all distinctly visible.
Ilford +-plates have been used, and in a length of about 10 cm., from G nearly
to H,, between 900 and 1,000 lines may be counted. A great number of bright
lines and spaces are observed, which are probably due simply to the absence of
lines.
7. On the Period of Rotation of the Sun as determined by the Spectroscope.
By Henry Crew.
These observations were made with the large spectroscope designed by Pro-
fessor Rowland for the Johns Hopkins University. With the aid of a good con-
densing-lens and mirror of plane parallel glass silvered on the front a sharp image
of 12°5 mm. diameter was obtained. First one limb and then the other was placed
on the slit by rotating the condensing lens about an axis parallel to the axis of the
collimator. The displacement of the lines in the spectrum was measured by a
micrometer screw in the eyepiece. The grating used was one of Professor Row-
land’s, having 14,436 lines to the inch, and giving superb definition in the 4th
order.
The angle between the solar axis and the slit of the spectroscope was obtained
by calculating the parallactic angle; observing, by means of a rotating prism, the
angle between the projected image of a plumb-line and the slit ; and then adding
the sum of these two to the position-angle of the sun, all three being taken with
their proper signs.
Twenty-four series of observations, ranging in solar latitude from 23 to 33
degrees, give a final value of 2°827 +02 statute miles per second for the relative
“velocity of the eastern and western limbs of the sun at the equator. The reduction
584 REPORI—1887.
to the equator is made by Faye’s formula, and a correction is introduced for the
motion of the earth in its orbit.
This value corresponds to a period of 223 days, and confirms the observations of
Young and Vogel indicating a drift on the solar surface. The writer hopes later
to determine the law according to which this drift varies with latitude and find
whether it differs from that deduced by Carrington from the motion of sun-spots.
Throughout this work Professor Rowland’s aid and suggestions have been in-
valuable.
8. On the Diffraction Bands near the Edge of the Shadow of an Obstacle.
By Professor G. F. Firzaeraup, F.B.S.
9. Recent Determinations of Absolute Wave-lengths. By Louis Bgtu.
The problem, left almost untouched since the completion of Angstrém’s great
paper, has been almost simultaneously attacked by four independent experimenters
within the past few years, and their publications have thrown some new light on
the subject. Angstrom knew a year or two before his death that the value
assigned to his standard of length was certainly too small; but it was left for
Thalén to make the necessary correction, which was published about two
years ago.
At that time the author was just attacking the subject with the object of con-
firming or correcting the results obtained by Mr. C. 8. Pierce ; but long before the
work was completed the paper of Miiller and Kempf appeared, and during the
present summer another research has been added to the list in the admirable thesis
of Dr. Kurlbaum.
For convenience the author tabulates the various results, reducing the values
given to the corresponding value of the D line for comparison with his own
value :—
Thalén (Angstrém corrected) é : . 5895°86
Pierce . : F ; . : 4 . 5896-26
Miller and Kempf : : : : . 6896-25
Bell. P i ; : ‘ ; . 5896:08
Kurlbaum . ¥ : : : : . 0895:93
Now it is quite evident that these values differ by quantities enormously greater
than can be due to pure experimental errors. Aside from these, the errors of a
wave-length determination may be due to errors in the assumed values of the
standards used, or to errors in the gratings. But, for instance, Miiller and Kurl-
baum used the same standards, so that there is an outstanding difference of about
one part in twenty thousand which must be ascribed to errors in the gratings. In
fact there was a discrepancy of more than that amount between the various
gratings used by Miiller alone. The nature of the error involved was discussed by
the author in his paper in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ for March last. In the
case of Pierce’s gratings the error was approximately corrected by calibrating the
grating-spaces, and Pierce’s result, as given above, was shown to be distinctly too
large. The same is certainly true of Miiller’s result, and for the same reason.
The values of Thalén and Kurlbaum are also uncorrected for errors of ruling, and
probably would be somewhat increased if the proper corrections were applied.
The standard of length used by the author has shown decided indications of
change, and consequently was taken to Berlin this summer and compared with the
standard used by Miiller and Kurlbaum, from which it appears that the author's
value may be too great by as much as one part in a hundred thousand. His
gratings will be re-measured at once and the correction for error of ruling recom-
puted by more than one method, which, it is hoped, will materially increase the
accuracy of his result. Meanwhile work will be continued with larger and better
gratings.
To sum up. It is now quite certain that the wave-length of D does not differ
much from 5896:00, and consequently the numbers usually given for the wave-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 585
lengths of various lines are too small by more than one part in ten thousand—an
amount which is inconveniently large. Angstrém’s map contains so few lines, and
differs so widely in appearance from the spectrum as seen in a modern spectroscope,
that it is quite confusing ; and a reference to a line by its place on his map is very
insufficient means of identification, besides giving a value for the wave-length
which is quite far from the truth.
10. Twin-Prisms for Polarimeters.
By Professor Sitvanus P, Tuompeson, D.Sc.
The author described two new forms of twin-prism for use in saccharimeters
and polarimeters. The first, intended for use in a manner similar to Laurent’s
half-shadow prism, consisted of two rectangular polarisers, cut on the plan de-
scribed by the author at the Association meetings in 1881 and 1886, placed side by
side, and having the planes of polarisation in their respective fields inclined at 90°
to each other. In the second twin-prism the angle between the planes of the two
prisms was about 23°; and it was intended to be used like the prisms of Jellett or of
Cornu. The method of constructing polarisers previously described by the author
had special advantages for this purpose, as the polarised field was more homogeneous
than that of the Nicol prism, and it was very easy to make the required adjust-
ments of angles.
11. On the Existence of Reflection when the Relative Refractive Index is
Unity. By Lord Rayueicu, LL.D., Sec.R.8.
The copious undisturbed transmission of light by glass powder when surrounded
by liquid of the same index, as in Christiansen’s experiment, suggests the question
whether the reflection of any particular ray is really annihilated when the rela-
tive index is unity for that ray. Such would be the case according to Fresnel’s
formulz, but these are known to be in some respects imperfect. Mechanical theory
would indicate that when there is dispersion, reflection would cease to be merely a
function of the index or ratio of wave-velocities. We may imagine a stretched
string vibrating transversely under the influence of tension, and in a subordinate
degree of stiffness, to be composed of two parts so related to one another in respect
of mass and stiffness that the wave-velocity is the same in both parts for a specified
wave-length. But, as it is easy to see, this adjustment will not secure the complete
transmission of a train of progressive waves incident upon the junction, even when
the wave-length is precisely that for which the velocity is the same.
The experiments that I have tried have been upon plate glass immersed in a
mixture of bisulphide of carbon and benzole, of which the first is more refractive
and the second less refractive than the glass; and it was found that the reflection
of a candle-flame from a carefully cleaned plate remained pretty strong at moderate
angles of incidence, in whatever proportions the liquids were mixed.
For a closer examination the plate was roughened behind (to destroy the second
reflection), and was mounted in a bottle prism in such a manner that the incidence
could be rendered grazing. When the adjustment of indices was for the yellow,
the appearances observed were as follows: if the incidence is pretty oblique, the
reflection is total for the violet and blue; scanty, but not evanescent, for the yellow ;
more copious again in the red. As the incidence becomes more and more nearly
grazing, the region of total reflection advances from the blue end closer and closer
upon the ray of equal index, and ultimately there is a very sharp transition between
this region and the band which now looks very dark. On the other side the reflec-
tion revives, but more gradually, and becomes very copious in the orange and red.
‘On this side the reflection is not technically total. If the prism is now turned so
that the angle of incidence is moderate, it is found that, in spite of the equality of
index for the most luminous part of the spectrum, there is a pretty strong reflection
of a candle-fame, and apparently without colour. With the aid of sunlight it
was proved that in the reflection at moderate incidences there was no marked
chromatic selection, and in all probability the blackness of the band in the yellow
at grazing incidences is a matter of contrast only.
586 REPORT—1887.
Indeed, calculation shows that according to Fresnel’s formule the reflection
would be nearly insensible at all parts of the spectrum when the index is adjusted
for the yellow. The outstanding reflection is not due to a difference of wave-velo-
cities, but to some other cause not usually taken into account.
Such a cause might be found in the presence of a tilm upon the surface of the
glass, of index differing from that of the interior, and not removable by mere clean-
ing. The glass plate was accordingly repolished with putty powder, after which
the reflection was very decidedly diminished. But neither by this nor by any other
treatment (e.g. with hydrofluoric acid) has it been found possible to render the re-
flection of a candle-flame at moderate coincidences even difficult of observation
although the adjustment of indices was as good as could be.
It would, however, be hardly safe to conclude that no sufficient film was opera-
tive; and I do not see how the question is to be decided unless an experiment can
be made upon a surface freshly obtained by fracture.
12. On the Magnetisation of Iron m Strong Fields.
By Professor J. A. Ewine, B.Sc., F.R.S., and Wittiam Low.
In March of the present year we communicated to the Royal Society (* Pro-
ceedings,’ vol. xlii. p. 200) the results of experiments on this subject, in which
the magnetism of a narrow neck or isthmus of iron placed between the pole-pieces
of a large electro-magnet was examined, by suddenly drawing out the piece, or
turning it end for end so that the direction of its magnetisation was reversed. The
piece examined was in the form of a bobbin with a short central neck turned to a
small diameter, and with large spreading conical ends, which were in contact with
the pole-pieces and provided an easy path for the lines of induction to converge to
the central neck. The metal of the neck was in this way subjected to a much
greater magnetic force than it would be practicable to produce by the direct
action of a magnetising solenoid. The induction in the iron was measured
ballistieally by means of a coil of fine wire, in a single layer, round the iron neck.
The magnetic force in the air-space closely contiguous to the neck was also
measured by means of a second or outer induction coil of a slightly greater
diameter than the inner one. This determination of the field allowed a correction
to be applied for the air-space enclosed by the inner coil, and it also gave what
was probably a close approximation to the value of the magnetic force within the
metal itself.
The object of the present note is to describe shortly the results of further
experiments of the same kind, the details of which may be reserved for subsequent
publication.
In the former experiments an electro-magnet with pole-pieces 51 ems. square
was used. The conical ends of the bobbins tested brought the central neck down
to a diameter of 0°65 cm. in one form of sample and 0:923 cm. in another form.
With this we succeeded in forcing the induction $ in Lowmoor and Swedish
wrought iron up to values lying between 32,000 and 33,000 c.g.s. units, the
strength of the magnetic field in the air close to the neck being then about 11,000
c.g.s. units.
Large as those values were, they have been greatly exceeded in the present
series of experiments. In the former paper we pointed out that the magnetic
induction of the iron examined showed no sign of approaching a maximum, and
that the value to which it might be forced by the ‘ isthmus’ method depended on
the scale of the experiments. Through the kindness of Professor Tait in allowing
the large electro-magnet of the Edinburgh University Laboratory to be brought
to Dundee, we have now been able to subject iron to much higher magnetising
forces, and to secure a much greater concentration of the lines of induction. The
Edinburgh magnet is one of exceptional power. Its limbs, which are vertical, are
about 60 cms. long, and the cores are 10°7 cms. in diameter. Rectangular blocks.
of soft wrought iron 9°6 cms. square serve for pole-pieces. To allow the old
bobbins to be effectively used we added a pair of conical intermediate pieces of soft.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 587
iron, which virtually formed an extension of the conical ends of the bobbin.
Between these the bobbin was placed, the form generally used being that described
in the previous paper as sample A. The neck of this sample had originally a
diameter of 0-923 cm., and consequently a section of 0°669 square cm., or about
xi; that of the pole-pieces. As in the former experiments, the highest values of
magnetism have been reached with Lowmoor iron, and nearly as high values with
Swedish iron.
The same Lowmoor bobbin that had been formerly used (sample A) had its
magnetism measured by withdrawing it from the field, while the magnet with all
its numerous coils in series was excited by a current which ranged up to 40
ampéres. At the highest value the induction % in the neck was 38,000 c.g.s.,
and the outside field, close to the neck, was 18,900 c.g.s. A Swedish sample of
the same shape gave an induction of 37,620 with a field of about the same force.
To push the induction to still higher values the Lowmoor sample was then
turned down in the central neck until the diameter was reduced to 0397 cm.
This made its section only =, of the section of the pole-pieces. Careful determi-
nations, several times repeated, then gave for the highest induction the enormous
value 43,500 c.g.s., the outside field being 25,620 c.g.s. Here, as in the other
figures already given, the induction stated is that which is found after the air-
space enclosed by the inner coil is allowed for, and after a suitable allowance is
made for the residual magnetism of the piece. The residual induction is only about
500 c.g.s. units.
&
pes rane outside field
— which would be the intensity of magnetism $ if the magnetic
Tr
force within the metal were identical in value with the outside field, is 1420. In
the former experiments this quantity had values which decreased from 1680 to
1620, while the induction increased from about 25,000 to 32,000 ; here, with an
induction of 43,500, it has fallen off to a much more marked extent. We cannot
yet speak with any certainty as to the degree of approximation of this quantity to
the intensity of magnetism $ ; unless, however, the mean magnetic force within
the neck is much less than the force at the surface, the results show that 3 is
becoming less as the induction is being forced to these extreme values—in other
words, that the iron is tending towards diamagnetism in the manner Weber's
theory leads us to expect. The question is one of the greatest interest, and we
are now endeavouring to obtain a better knowledge of the magnetic force within
the metal by examining the variation of the force at short distances from the
surface of the neck.
‘A final effort was made to force the induction in Lowmoor iron to higher values,.
by turning the central neck down still further, until its section was less than 45
of the section of the pole-pieces, and annealing the bobbin carefully before mag-
netising it. The value of B then reached was 45,350 c.g.s. units, which is the
greatest induction recorded in any of our experiments.
With cast iron the induction has been forced to 31,270 c.g.s. by applying a
magnetic force of 16,900.
in this extreme case is 1:7, and the quantity
13. On the Magnetisation of Hadfield’s Manganese Steel in Strong Fields.
By Professor J. A. Ewine, B.Sc., F.R.S., and Wittuium Low.
Messrs. Hadfield of Sheffield manufacture a steel containing about 12 per cent.
of manganese and 0°8 per cent. of carbon which possesses many remarkable quali-
ties. Prominent amongst these, as the experiments of Hopkinson, Bottomley, and
Barrett have shown, is a singular absence of magnetic susceptibility. Hopkinson,
by applying a magnetic force of 244 c.g.s. units to a specimen of this metal, pro-
duced a magnetic induction % of only 310 c.g.s. units: in other words, the perme-
ability » was 1-27, and the intensity of magnetisation 3 was a little over five units.
We are indebted to him for the suggestion that it would be interesting to apply to
this metal the ‘isthmus’ method of magnetisation (the results of which, as applied.
588 REPORT—1 887.
to wrought iron and cast iron, have been described in a former paper), with the
view of seeing whether the magnetic resistance of manganese steel could be broken
down by applying a very strong magnetising force.
Messrs. Hadfield were kind enough to supply a sample of the metal for experi-
ment, out of which a bobbin was turned, with some difficulty, of a form resembling
those used in testing wrought iron and cast iron, but with a wider central neck.
The bobbin was magnetised by placing it between the pole-pieces of Professor
Tait’s large magnet; and the induction within the neck, and also the field in the
air immediately surrounding the neck, were measured in the usual way, by the
help of two induction coils and by drawing the bobbin suddenly out from between
the magnet-poles. A large number of readings were taken, while the field magnet
was excited with currents ranging from about 1 to 40 amperes. These gave values
of the magnetic field (in the air immediately surrounding the central neck of the
steel bobbin) ranging up to 5,200 c.g.s. units, and values of the induction % within
the neck ranging up to 7,700 c.g.s. units. ‘To be more exact, these latter were the
values of that part of the induction which disappeared when the metal was drawn
out of the field, but the correction for residual magnetism was probably negligible.
The ratio of induction to field had a nearly constant value when the field ranged
from about 1,000 c.g.s. to 5,200 c.g.s.; the values of this ratio calculated from the
observations fluctuate somewhat, but do not appear to undergo any progressive
change. The mean value of ciinde fala” 1:45, a quantity which we may prob
ably take without substantial error as the value of the permeability p.
To test the influence of still stronger magnetic fields a second series of experi-
ments was made with a composite bobbin made up of a cylindrical shank—extend-
ing from end to end—of manganese steel, and conical pole-pieces of soft wrought
iron forced on to the steel shank so as to leave only a short length of it (about
three millimeters) bare in the middle. With a given current in the field magnets
this gave much higher values of the field and the induction in the central neck,
because the wrought iron cones now substituted for the conical ends of the solid
steel bobbin that had been for merly used gave an easier path for the lines of induc-
tion to converge to the central neck. The field now ranged up to values slightly
exceeding 10,000 c.g.s. units, and the highest induction reached was about 15,000
C.g.8. units. In this series of experiments, as in the former series, the ratio of
induction to field fluctuated irregularly ; but its mean value was nearly identical
with the former mean—namely, 1:46. The intensity of magnetisation § was forced
up to values lying between 300 and 400 c.g:s.
The experiments make it clear that, even under magnetic forces extending to
10,000 ¢.g.s. units, the resistance which this manganese steel offers to being mag-
netised suffers no breakdown in any way comparable to that which occurs in
wrought iron, cast iron, or ordinary steel at a very early stage in the process of
magnetisation. On the contrary, the permeability is approximately constant under
large and small forces. This conclusion has some practical interest. It has been
suggested that this steel should be used for the bed-plates of dynamos, and in other
situations where a metal is wanted that will not divert the lines of induction from
neighbouring spaces. In such cases the magnetic forces to which manganese steel
would be subjected would certainly lie below the limit to which the force has been
raised in these experiments. We may therefore conclude that in these uses of the
material it may be counted upon to exhibit a magnetic permeability only fraction-
ally greater than that of copper, or brass, or air.
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.
The following Reports and Papers were read :-—
1. Second Report of the Committee on Electrolysis—Sce Reports, p. 336.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 589
2. On some points in Electrolysis and Electro-convection.
By Professor G. Wimpemann.—See Reports, p. 347.
3. On Ohm’s Law in Electrolytes.
By G. F. Frrzeeratp, F.R.S., and Frep. Trouron.—See Reports, p. 345-
4. Further Researches concerning the Electrolysis of Water.
By Professor Von HELMHOLTZ.
5. Experiments on the possible Electrolytic Decomposition of Alloys. By
Professor W. C. Roserts-Austen, F.R.S.—See Reports, p. 341.
6. Experiments on the Speeds of Ions. By Professor O. J. Lopcz, F.R.S-
7. On Chemical Action ina Magnetic Field. By Professor H. A. Rownanp.
8. On the Action of an Electric Current in hastening the Formation of
Lagging Compounds. By Dr. J. H. Guavstons, F.R.S.—See Reports,
_p. 344.
9. Experiments on Electrolysis and Electrolytic Polarisation. By W.W.
Haupane Gere, B.Sc., Henry Hoven, B.Sc., and Cuarrtes H. Lugs,
B.Sc.
This is a preliminary notice of experiments that are in progress in the Owens
College Physical Laboratory. The experiments fall under four heads: (A) elec-
trolysis under pressure; (B) time-rate of fall of polarisation in closed circuit ;
(C) irreciprocal conduction; (D) production of a dense oily-looking liquid in
electrolysis with palladium electrodes.
(A) Numerous experiments have been made in order to determine the variation
of resistance and polarisation of a sealed voltameter in which dilute sulphuric acid
is electrolysed between platinum wire electrodes, it being thus subjected to the
pressure of the evolved gases. It was found that the resistance markedly decreased,
and the polarisation also decreased to a slight extent. These changes may, how-
ever, it is thought, be due to change of temperature, the influence of which would
appear, from later experiments, not to have been fully eliminated.
In two cases no change whatever was perceived—firstly, when two platinum
plates were used as electrodes ; and, secondly, when two voltameters were connected
together, forming a sealed vessel, one voltameter being used to increase the pressure,
while observations were made on the other voltameter.
As it has not been possible to obtain glass tubes sufficiently strong for the high
pressures desired, an apparatus of gun-metal has been constructed. This apparatus,.
which is fitted with a Bourdon’s gauge recording to six tons on the square inch,.
may also be arranged for pressure experiments in general by attaching to it, by
means of a strong metal tube, a suitable receiver.
In two of the experiments where the pressure had reached between 200 and 300:
atmospheres, the evolved oxygen and hydrogen gases combined with explosion,
although precautions had been taken to prevent the gases from coming into contact:
with the platinum, except in the liquid.
590 REPORT—1887.
(B)! The object of this research was to try to learn the parts played by the
various portions of the evolved gases—(1) that occluded by the electrodes ; (2) that
‘deposited on them; (3) that contained in the liquid, in influencing the time-rate of de-
polarisation. The method employed was to vary the conditions under control—e.g.,
time of charging, density of current, &c.—and to observe the time-rate of the fall of
the polarisation thus produced in closed circuit. It was found to be very difficult to
apply this method ; because, though the conditions under control were kept as con-
stant as possible, yet the time-rates of fall in two successive observations were often
different. This was thought to be due to the insufficient cleaning of the electrodes
between each experiment, and various methods were tried to remedy it, with the
general result that the more perfect the cleaning became the more regular did the
curves giving the time-rate of the fall of the polarisation become, but still the in-
consistencies were not wholly removed. Heating of the electrodes by the electrical
current seemed to be preferable to the other methods of heating.
(©) Whilst electrolysing strong sulphuric acid between platinum electrodes it
was noticed that when the current density at the anode had exceeded a certain
value decomposition apparently ceased. ‘The value of the anode current density
necessary to produce this phenomenon is increased by diminishing the concentration
-or increasing the temperature of the acid, and is diminished by cleaning the elec-
trodes. It was found that the great diminution of the current was not caused by
the formation of an opposing E.M.F., but by asudden increase of from 500 to 50,000
-ohms in the resistance of the voltameter. That the insulating condition occurs at
the anode is shown by successively replacing the kathode and the anode by a clean
plate ; in the first case, the stoppage of the current persists; in the second case, the
current is readily conducted. ‘The cause may be a sheath of oxygen bubbles, which
firmly adhere to the anode when the insulating condition is formed. The film is re-
moved by breaking the current momentarily, or short-circuiting the voltameter, or
reversing the current.
(D) During the electrolysis of various liquids with palladium electrodes it has
been observed that a dense-looking liquid streams from one of the electrodes (the
anode in dilute sulphuric acid, the kathode in caustic soda) after a reversal of the
current. The liquid seems to be a compound of oxygen and hydrogen, presumably
hydroxyl.
10. On the Hlectro-deposition of Alloys.
By Professor Sitvanus P. THompson, D.Sc.
11. On the Action of the Solvent in Electrolytic Conduction.
By T. C. Frrzparrice, B.A.
12. On the Industrial Electro-deposition of Platinum.
By Professor Sitvanus P. Tuompson, D.Sc.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
‘The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. On the Princeton Eclipse Expedition.
By Professor C. A. Youne, Ph.D., LL.D.
Origin of Expedition.—The expedition had its origin in the desire of the author
to verify and re-examine the question of the existence of the so-called ‘ reversing
layer’ at the surface of the sun—a question of special interest to himself, as the
» This is a continuation of experiments described by Messrs. Lees and R. W.
‘Stewart in the Proc. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc. Feb, 22, 1887.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 591
belief in the existence of such a stratum has been chiefly based upon an observa-
tion made by him in Spain in 1870. The necessary funds for the expedition—the
spectroscopic part of it—were provided by the liberality of certain friends of the
College of New Jersey (commonly known as Princeton College). At first only
spectroscopic observations were contemplated ; but later Professor Libbey offered
to accompany the expedition at his own expense, and look after the photographic
operations, provided suitable apparatus could be obtained.
Personnel.—The party consisted of seven persons: Professor C. A. Young, Pro-
fessor M. McNeill, Professor W. Libbey, Jun., Mrs. Libbey, Miss Boyd, Miss Yeo-
mans, and Mr. F, Fisher, the mechanician of the party.
Instruments.—(a) A photographic telescope, loaned by the Navy Department
of the United States Government. The instrument has a 6-inch lens by Dall-
meyer, with a focal length of about four feet. It was mounted on an equatorial
stand with clockwork, and was intended to give a series of pictures of the
corona. An ingenious apparatus had been applied by Professor Libbey for expos-
ing the whole series of eleven plates without the necessity of drawing any slides
or doing anything likely to disturb the pointing of the instrument. An ordinary
camera of large field was also mounted on the same stand and carried by the clock-
work—Professor Libbey’s instrument.
(6) A fixed photographic telescope of 6-inch diameter and 8-feet focus: the
lens, however, was not specially corrected for the photographic rays. It was en-
trusted to us by Professor W. H. Pickering, of Harvard College Observatory, to be
used in making a series of pictures for comparison with a second series to be made
by a similar instrument in Japan by Professor Todd, It had no mounting or
' clockwork, but was to be simply blocked up into position and used fixed. The
ladies were to manipulate it.
(c) A large direct-vision half-prism spectroscope by Hilger, with collimator of
about 40 inches focal length, and a prism capable of taking in 23-inch beam. With
the eyepiece used the dispersion is suflicient to show D widely double, and E
easily so. The slit is about an inch in length. In front of it was placed an achro-
matic object-glass of about 2 inches diameter and 18 inches focus, forming on the
slit plate a small image of the sun, about one-sixth of an inch in diameter. The
instrument was mounted upon a portable equatorial stand, and was in charge of
Professor McNeill, to be used in studying the extension of the corona line on the
east and west sides of the sun, and in examining the general structure of the corona
spectrum with reference to the question of the existence in it of true dark Fraun-
hofer lines, or bands of other sorts.
' (d) A 5-inch achromatic telescope of 6 feet focal length, equatorially mounted,
and provided with a grating spectroscope. Telescope and collimator of the spectro-
scope have each a diameter of about 14 inch, and a focal length of 14. The
grating, by Rutherfurd, has 17,280 lines to the inch, the ruled space being 1? inch
by 23 nearly.
In the eyepiece was placed a scale made by photographing a small portion of
the map of the spectrum just below F, including certain groups of lines which Mr.
Lockyer has pointed out as specially adapted to throw light on the questions in-
volved by their behaviour at the beginning and end of totality.
The instrument also had attached to it a small integrating spectroscope of one-
prism dispersion, with which the general corona spectrum could be observed at the
middle of totality.
It was not thought best under the circumstances to attempt any spectrum-
photography, as we expected that to be provided for by European parties.
Station, §c.—The station selected for us was a country house about eight miles
north-east of the town of Rschew, a city of some 30,000 inhabitants, at present the
terminus of a railway which branches off at Ostaschkowo from the main line be-
tween Petersburg and Moscow. Our lat. was 56° 22’; long. 16m. 04s. east of Pul-
kowa. The station was selected and all arrangements made for us by Dr. Struve,
the director of the Pulkowa Observatory, to whom we are indebted to an extent
not easily to be expressed in words. Our instruments were passed through the
Custom House free of duty and without examination, and were forwarded to our
592 REPORT—1 887.
station without any trouble to us. The War Department detailed an officer of
Engineers—Captain Witkowski—who with his orderly preceded us to our station,
made all needed arrangements there, and made all the desirable observations for the-
determination of accurate time. To him we are under the greatest obligations.
Observations of the Eclipse-—The weather was cloudy during the whole time:
except for a few moments about half an hour after the totality, when for a minute
or two the dise of the sun, partly covered by the moon, was visible between and
through the clouds. Of course all spectroscopic and photographic observations
were rendered entirely impossible.
We hoped to be able to determine the duration of totality with some accuracy
notwithstanding the clouds, but it was found impossible to fix the moment when
totality began nearer than ten seconds or so, the diminution of the light having
been unexpectedly gradual. The end of totality, on the other hand, was much
more sharply marked, the observations of Captain Witkowski, Professor McNeill,
and myself all agreeing within a single second.
The darkness, also, was far less intense than had been expected. It was possible
to read fine print even when it was darkest, and I noticed that the sash-bars in the
window of a building some 400 or 500 feet away remained discernible through the
whole totality.
2. Observations of Atmospheric Klectricity. By Professor Luontt WEBER.
I will try to give a short report of some experiments I have made during the last
year with regard to atmospheric electricity. It was formerly uncertain whether the
electrostatic potential would increase on going from the surface of the earth to
more elevated regions of the atmosphere or not; whether the potential in a normal
(z.e., cloudless) state of the atmosphere was always positive or sometimes negative.
Sir William Thomson was the first to show, by exact methods of measurement,
that the increase of the potential with the elevation is very important, and
amounts to about 100 volts per métre. Afterwards the fact was proved by many
other observers, especially lately by Mr. F. Exner at Vienna, who found an increase
of sixty to six hundred volts per métre. These observations were made by means
of an electrometer. In consequence of many inconveniences which are connected
with the use of an electrometer, I have tried the measurements with a very sen-
sitive galvanometer. In this case it is necessary to apply an aspirating or exhaust-
ing apparatus—for example, a flame or a system of points—to the upper end of the
conductor, which is elevated in the atmosphere. In order to get a constant appa-
ratns I have used 400 of the finest needles inserted in a metallic ribbon. This
system I have raised in air by means of a captive balloon, or by a kite which was
attached to a conducting string, or to a twisted line of the finest steel wire. In
this way the greatest height to which I have raised the points has been one to
three hundred métres. When the lower end of the kite line was communicating
with a galvanometer whose other pole was in contact with the earth, a current
passed through the galvanometer. For determining the strength of this current I
propose to call mikro-milliampére the 10-* part of an ampére. At the height of
100 métres, in the average, the current begins to be regular, and increases to
4,000 or 5,000 of those units until the height of 300 métres is reached. The
increase is very regular, and seems to be a linear function of the height. I have
nevertheless found that the smallest quantities of dust contained in the atmo-
sphere, or the lightest veil of cirrus, disturbed the measurements very materially,
and generally made the potential lower or negative. Experiments of this nature I
have made at Breslau and at the top of the Schneekoppe in the ‘ Riesengebirge.’
Especially at the last station an increase of potential was observed, not only by
reason of the perpendicular height, but also by reaching such regions of the atmo-
sphere as were situated horizontally to about 200 métres from the outmost steep
top of the Schneekoppe.
Therefore it must, according to Mr. Exner, be assumed that the surface of the
earth represents a surface of equal potential, and that the consecutive surfaces of
higher potential are stretched parallel over the plane countries of the earth and
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 593
Jie closer together over all the elevated points—as, for example, movntains, church
towers, &c. On the basis of these facts I think it easy to explain the electricity of
thunderstorm clouds. In fact every cloud, or every part of a cloud, may be con-
sidered as a leading conductor, especially such clouds as have for the most part
perpendicular height. After being induced the charge results by supposing a ‘ con-
vection’ of electricity either from the upper or from the lower side, according to
greater or smaller speed of the air in the height. In the first case, the clouds
will be charged with positive electricity ; in the other, with negative electricity.
I am inclined, therefore, to state that the electricity of thunderstorm clouds
must be considered asa special but disturbed case of the normal electric state of the
atmosphere, and that all attempts to explain the thunderstorm electricity must be
based on the study of the normal electricity of the atmosphere.
3. The General Bibliography of Meteorology and Terrestrial Magnetism.
Compiled by the Signal Office at Washington. By CLEVELAND ABBE.
The rapid increase of the literature of the sciences makes a complete index to
the published memoirs for each special department a matter of the greatest
‘importance to the student, and equally so to the practical man. The astronomical
bibliographies of Struve and Houzeau and Lancaster, and the great Index-catalogue
of the library of the Surgeon-General’s Office, by Billings, are examples of the high
esteem in which special bibliographies are held; and if the Signal Office does not
emulate the exhaustive character of these monumental labours, it has at least
attempted to compile an index to the literature of meteorology that shall have
‘practical value and realise a desideratum that has long been felt by the younger
students of the science of meteorology.
The urgent need of an index to the literature of meteorology was expressed at
the general congresses of meteorologists at Vienna and Rome, and a special com-
mittee on this subject was appointed by the International Meteorological Committee
‘in 1880. Mr. Hellmann and Mr. Scott composed this committee, and the principal
results of their deliberations were, first, the discovery of the fact that much work had
already been accomplished by private effort, and, second, a great stimulus given
to the whole subject, based on the evident possibility of making a successful com-
bined effort. The final conclusion of the committee was to the effect that, for the
“present, it was best to secure from each country the publication of a bibliography of
its own literature in the department of meteorology.
While the committee were still considering the subject, General W. B. Hazen,
who had succeeded General Myer as the chief signal officer, decided that the daily
needs of the weather bureau at Washington justified the compilation of a general
bibliography covering all the subjects in which that office was interested. With
the permission of the Secretary of War he therefore obtained a copy of the card
seatalogue compiled by Mr. Symons of London, on which copy that gentleman kindly
spent great labour towards its perfection, and of the card catalogue that I had
compiled by selection of titles from the great index of the Royal Society. With
this as a nucleus, General Hazen authorised letters to be sent inviting the co-opera-
tion of all weather bureaux, observatories, and authors, in the preparation of a com-
plete general bibliography. The responses to these requests have been most
gratifying, and with these manuscript collections have been incorporated all acces-
sible printed lists of titles. The more important series of periodicals have been
examined anew, and special searches have been made in the libraries of Europe
and America for pamphlets and rare publications.
The resulting index now contains over fifty thousand titles of works, written
‘by over twelve thousand authors. The cards are arranged by subjects with full
‘author index; the classification by subjects includes over one hundred and sixty
subdivisions, covering general meteorology, climatology, dynamic meteorology, the
theory of instruments, history and bibliography, special storm studies, weather
‘prediction, observations, and a rather full list of subjects intimately connected with
meteorology proper, such as the relations of the atmosphere to animal and vege-
table life, disease, &c.
1887. 28
594 REPORT—1 887.
In the compilation of this index over three hundred authors, weather bureaux,.
and libraries have most heartily contributed; nearly every nation in the world has
cheerfully responded to the call for information. The bibliographer, Mr. C. J. Sawyer,
and his clerks have been employed continuously for three years, and in a few months
the question will be submitted to the national government whether such an
index is not worth publishing in full for the benefit of the whole world. It has.
become, in fact, an international work, and its publication is the only means by
which a fair return can be made to co-operating scientists, and by which it can be
assured against destruction by fire or accident.
At present a small case of drawers contains these fifty thousand cards. Who-
ever wishes to know what has been written on a given subject has but to consult
the proper drawer and section, and the response comes quickly and fully. The in-
formation is as often desired by practical men as it is by the students and
the professors ; to them all it is, like the dex 7erum, an indispensable working tool.
It does not seem likely that any publisher will be able to print such a bibliography
at a price that will bring it within the reach of the students who need it the most.
Eyery similar work that has been successful has been compiled, and, at least in part,
published with Government aid, and we hope that the Congress of the United
States will make this important international work of the Signal Office as freely
available as are its daily weather predictions, its monthly weather reviews, its
international maps, and other publications.
4, Fourth Report of the Committee appointed to co-operate with Mr. E. J.
Lowe in his project of establishing on a permanent and scientific basis a
Meteoraglogical Observatory near Chepstow.—See Reports, p. 39.
5. Second Report of the Committee appointed to co-operate with the Scottish
Meteorological Society in making Meteorological Observations on Ben
Nevis.—See Reports, p. 34.
6. On the Hygrometry of Ben Nevis. By H. N. Dickson,
This paper gives an account of observations which were undertaken for the pur-
pose of testing the applicability at high-level stations, such as Ben Nevis Observa-
tory, of existing tables and formule for calculating the dew-point and humidity
from the readings of wet and dry bulb thermometers. The construction of the
direct hygrometer used, that of Professor Chrystal, is described, and the action of
the wet and dry bulbs under different meteorological conditions is examined in
considerable detail ; the results showing that for investigations of this kind a great
range of humidity is necessary, the indications of the wet and dry bulbs being very
uncertain when the difference between them is small.
The reduction of the observations is performed in the first place by a graphic
method, from which the following expression is deduced :—
f-f’=(-t)hy
f being the vapour pressure at the temperature ¢’ of the wet bulb, 7” that at the
temperature of the dew-point, and ¢ the air temperature.
The truth of the above equation being assumed, the values of the quantity &
are next found by direct calculation from the observations. The available obser-
vations—numbering in all about 300—make it possible to give fairly approximate
values for each degree of temperature of the wet bulb from 13° to 46° F. A
sudden large change takes place at the freezing-poimt and a similar, though much
smaller, discontinuity is shown to occur when the wet bulb stands between 39°
and 40° F. Below 32° F. the quantity 1/k appears steadily to increase from 26 to
61, while between 32° and 39°F. and from 40° F, upwards its values remain
nearly constant at about 96 and 111 respectively.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 595
7. On the Thermal Windrose at the Ben Nevis Observatory.
By Anous Ranxin.
The direction of the wind and the temperature of the air form two of the
meteorological elements observed and recorded hourly at the Ben Nevis Observa-
tory. When making observations, the directions of the wind are referred to the
thirty-two points of the compass; but in computing the results, which are briefly
described in this paper, the directions were referred to eight points only—namely,
N., N.E., E., &c. All the remaining points were taken into account by annexing
them in the usual way to these octants. The temperature of the air was that
indicated by compared thermometers, protected in Stevenson screens, with their
bulbs at the standard height of 4 ft. above the surface of the ground or the snow.
In calculating the mean temperature of the eight directions of wind, the thermo-
meter readings were tabulated under the directions of wind observed at the same
hours, or under their octants, and the mean taken for each direction for the dif-
ferent months, for the year, and for the seasons. The observations so treated were
those of the three years ending May 1887; and the results here discussed are on
the mean of these years.
These results show that the south wind has the highest yearly mean tempera-
ture—namely, 32°°6, and the north-east the lowest—namely, 26°5. In each of the
seasons the north-east wind is the coldest, and with one exception the south is the
warmest, the exception being winter, when the warmest is the south-west. The
point having the highest mean temperature does not remain the same throughout
the months, but oscillates considerably. This point during the winter months is
south-west, but as the year advances it swings round through south to south-east,
which is its direction in July and September. The coldest point has not so marked
an oscillation. The explanation of this oscillation in the direction of the warmest
wind is that the south-east wind blows over land and the south-west over sea—
land areas being subject to greater extremes of temperature than sea areas. The
annual range in mean monthly temperature is greatest for south-east winds, being
24°:3, and least for north-west winds, being 14°-4. The difference between the
warmest and coldest winds varies from month to month, the greatest difference
being 10°-7 in March, and the least 4°-2 in April, while the mean of all the differ-
ences is 67. The wind having the highest mean monthly temperature is the
south-east, its temperature in July being 44°0; and that having the lowest is the
north-east, its temperature in March being 18°-2. The winds arranged in their
order of highest yearly mean temperature, with their respective temperatures,
are :-—
Park BBS; Wists seNW crane Bia, eels ore: vy Nee, Le
—_—_—’
32°6 32°58 14 30°:2 27°°8 27°°6 26°:5
the north-west and south-east being equal—a curious fact, seeing, as has already
been noticed, that they differ so much in annual range. Each of the directions S.,
S.W., W., and N.W. attains its minimum temperature in January, and each of
the directions N., N.E., E., and S.E.in March. All the directions except N.F.
“it N.W. have their maxima in July, the two exceptions occurring a month
ater.
8. On o Peculiarity of the Cyclonic Winds of Ben Nevis. By R. T. Omonn.
9. Final Report of the Committee appointed to co-operate with the Meteoro-
logical Society of the Mauritius in the publication of Daily Synoptic
Charts of the Indian Ocean for the year 1861.—See Reports, p. 40.
' See Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin. 1886-87.
596 REPORT— 1887.
10. On the Effect of Continental Lands in altering the Level of the adjoining
Oceans. By Professor Epwarp Hott, DL.D., F.R.S.
The effect of the attraction of continental land upon the oceanic waters adjoin-
ing seems to have been very much overlooked by British physical geographers.
That some slight effect arises in the direction of elevating the surface of the ocean
in proximity to the coast is generally admitted, but the amount of rise is considered
to be small, perhaps insignificant. The prevalence of these views was attributed
by the author to the widespread influence of Lyell’s hypothesis of the uniformity
of the ocean-surface all over the globe.
The author’s attention had-been called to the subject by the perusal of the
works of the German geographers Suess! and Fischer,” especially the latter; and
he had received great assistance in his investigations from Professor G. G. Stokes,
Pres. R.S., and from the Rey. Maxwell H. Close, F.G.S., which assistance he
gratefully acknowledged.
In attempting to determine the relative levels of the ocean surface along the
margins of continents as compared with those of mid-oceanic islands, the German
authors above quoted had based their results on observations of the length of the
second’s pendulum, Many years ago (1849) Stokes had shown that the force of
gravity must be greater in such islands than on continental stations,’ and this con-
clusion corresponded with actual observations on the length of the second’s pendu-
lum at stations all over the globe as collected by Airy. The formula of Suess and
Fischer based on these was to the effect that the difference in the level of the ocean
between two such stations was found in métres by multiplying the difference in the
number of daily oscillations in the second’s pendulum by 122. This in the case of
the stations of California (or Mexico ?) in lat. 21° 30’ and of the Sandwich Islands
would amount to 4,520 feet; a very startling result if correct.
The author proceeded to discuss the effect of continental lands, showing that
this was in the first instance divisible under two principal heads: The effect (1)
of the unsubmerged, and (2) of the submerged masses. In the former case, where
the mass rose above the surface, one component of the attraction acted in a more
or less vertical direction ; in the second case, all in a lateral direction; but both had
the effect of elevating the surface of the ocean. The horizontal distance to which
the vertical effect extended owing to the curvature of the earth’s surface was then
considered ; and it was shown that, where continental lands rise from a deep ocean,
the effect of the lateral attraction far exceeds that of the vertical attraction of the
unsubmerged mass. Professor Stokes had furnished the author with a hypothetical
case, in which the elevation of the ocean was estimated to reach 400 feet above
the mean geodetic surface of the earth.
For the purposes of illustration three cases were selected, viz. :—
(1) The table-land of Mexico, between lats. 18° and 26° N.
(2) The table-land of Bolivia, 5 19° and 26° S.
(8) The Andes of Chile, > 26° and 35° S.
The mean elevations, distances from the ocean, and extent having been deter-
mined, and the mean density being taken at 2°6 for emergent, and 1:6 for sub-
merged land, the results of the attraction of the mountain masses in each case
were as follows :—
(1) Mexico, 230 feet ; (2) Bolivia, 30] feet; (3) Chile, 63 feet ; the elevations
being calculated above a mean geodetic surface.
To the above results, due to the gravitation-potential of the elevated masses,
were to be added those due to the following factors :—
(a) The marginal plain or emergent tract on either side of the mountain mass.
(0) The high lands both to the north and south of the special sections
above dealt with.
(c) And lastly, and most important, the submerged continental mass.
' Suess, Das Antlitz der Erde (1887).
2 Fischer, Untersuchungen tiber die Gestalt der Erde (1886).
° Stokes, Cambridge Philosophical Transactions, vol. viii. pp. 672-695.
4 Airy, ‘On the Figure of the Earth,’ Encyclop. Metropolitana.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 597
To provide for the sphericity of the earth deductions of various amounts,
according to circumstances, were made from the numbers obtained from the
formula which Mr. Close had arrived at bya double process, and which is given at
length in the paper itself.
Combining these results with those given above, we obtain as the whole rise of
the ocean surface as follows :-—
(1) Mexico, 780 feet; (2) Bolivia, 2,150 feet ; (8) Chile, 1,580 feet.
In all the above cases the coast was taken as descending to a depth of
15,000 feet at a gradient of about 7, to +, the comparatively low results in the
case of Chile being due to the narrowness of the mountain range, 30 miles in mean
breadth, as compared with 300 miles in the case of Bolivia.
The above results, which are probably rather under than over estimates, fall
considerably short of those to be drawn from Suess and Fischer’s formula, but are
probably much in excess of the views held by British physical geographers gene-
rally ; and the conclusion was drawn, that if the same processes of reasoning and
calculation were applied to all parts of the world, it would be found that the ocean
waters were piled up to a greater or less extent all along our continental coasts,
producing very important alterations in the terrestrial configuration as compared
with an imaginary ellipsoidal, or geodetic, surface, to which all these changes of
level must necessarily be referred.
11. On some Variations in the Level of the Water in Lake George, New South
Wales. By H. A. Russe.
This paper refers to certain changes in the level of the water of Lake George,
as shown by the recording machine placed there. They consist :—
(1) Of changes in the level of the water similar to those which have been
observed at the Lake of Geneva and other places with variations not yet accounted
for. '
(2) Of changes in level lasting several hours, for which no cause is apparent,
but which the author thinks may result from changes in the vertical like those
observed by Professor Darwin, M. D’Abbadie, and others. Reference is made to
the annual change in the level errors at Greenwich, Sydney, and other places, the
period of which coincides with that of the solstices, and to other changes in it per-
haps connected with those in the lake.
(3) Of a diurnal change in level, not coincident with ocean or atmospheric
tides. In this change the water rises to its maximum at the south end of the lake
at noon, and its minimum at midnight. The amount of change varies, but does
not seem to be affected by the position of the moon.
12. On the different kinds of Thunderstorms, and on a Scheme for their
Systematic Observation. By the Hon. Ratew Asercromsy, F’.R.Met.Soc.
The author shows that there are at least three distinct types of thunderstorm in
Great Britain.
The first, or ‘squall thunderstorms,’ are simply squalls associated with thunder
and lightning, which fly nearly with the surface wind. These form on the sides of
primary cyclones.
The second, or ‘secondary thunderstorms,’ are associated with secondary cyclones.
These move against the surface-wind, and are very rarely accompanied by squalls.
Very little is known of the nature of these storms, though they are the commonest ©
type of thunder in Great Britain.
The third, or ‘ line thunderstorms,’ are apparently of a totally different nature.
They take the form of long narrow bands of rain and thunder—perhaps one hundred
miles long, and only five or ten broad, which cross the country rapidly nearly
broadside on. These are usually preceded by a very violent squall. The squall
which capsized the ‘Eurydice’ was of this type. The air in line thunderstorms
seems to circulate round a long horizontal axis—which would lie in the direction
598 REPORT—1887.
of the length of the storm—instead of round a short nearly vertical axis, as in
cyclones.
The outline is given of a proposed scheme for the systematic observation of
thunderstorms in England, by which it is hoped that the mechanical nature of the
circulation of the air in every kind of thunderstorm may be discovered. It is also
shown that if that particular kind of thunderstorm which is not associated with any
distortion of isobaric lines can be worked out, a kind of rain could then be success-
fully forecast which is now very rarely announced. Forecasts now have to depend
almost exclusively on synoptic charts of isobaric lines. When these fail, they fail;
but it is hoped that observations on the form and motion of clouds may be found to
indicate the approach of rain when the barometer shows nothing.
MATHEMATICAL SUB-SECTION.
1. On the Criteria for Discriminating between Maxima and Minima Solu-
tions in the Calculus of Variations. By HE. P. CuLvERWELL, M.A.
The paper explained the mode of finding the criteria for all known classes of
problems, provided the limits be fixed, and when the limits are not fixed, the nature
of problem to be solved was indicated. There are four classes of problems.
I. To make U = [| ae \f a, Dice wa Orns Ui tant «as Yn) GAO Da en see Onan
nan f representing a function including differential coefficients of the y’s by
the z's.
II. Suppose V, W, &c., to represent integrals of the same character as U, we
may be required to make F(U, V, W ... ) a maximum where F represents a
function of known form, and the y,, y,, . . . Y, occurring in U, V, W,. . . are the
quantities whose form is to be determined.
III. It may be required to make U a maximum subject to the condition
V =constant ; or, more generally, a similar restriction may be applied to problem IL.,
modifying it as this problem modifies I.
IV. It may be required to make U a maximum when the variables 2,
Vg ss + Umy Yq) Yo) - » » Yn ave Connected by one or more algebraic or differential
equations, or this restriction may be introduced in problems II. and III.
In all these cases the criteria consist of two parts: 1st. There is a condition or
set of conditions which must be satisfied for every possible set of values of the inde-
pendent variables within the limits of integration. 2nd. The limits of integration
must satisfy certain conditions.
The first set of conditions is obtained, without any algebraic transformations,
by taking an infinitely small range of integration and showing that, when the
limits are fixed, only the ‘ highest differential coefficients’ of the variations need be
retained, both in the integrals and in the equations of connection, A full account
of the method of comparing the orders of magnitude of the variations may be
found in the ‘ Transactions of the Royal Society,’ vol. 178, p. 95; but for the
simple case in which there is but one independent variable, all we need to do is to
point out that, because
aby ieee "
dar = Vaert
r+ ie Dc r
a must be infinitely small compared to = oy when the limiting value of |
UT aur al
is zero, and the range of integration is infinitely small. Now, when the ‘limits are
fixed’ the limiting values of all the variations appearing outside the sign of integration
in the most reduced form of the first variation (the form which enables us to deter-
mine the value of y giving the maximum) must be zero, and therefore they must
all be infinitely small compared with the variation of the highest differential coeffi-
cient appearing in the function to be integrated. Hence the value of the second
d,Oy
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 599
variation can only differ infinitely little from the value we obtain by neglecting all
the variations but that of the highest differential coefficient of y in the integral. It
is necessary to justify this reasoning by inquiring into the conditions of continuity
which must be satisfied by the variations. The conditions are not explicitly given
in the statement of the problem, but are implied in the method of obtaining and
reducing the first variation. The problem fully stated is, to make an integral greater
than any other integral which can be derived from it by a change in which the
variations of all the dependent variables and their fluxions appearing in the
integral are infinitely small, and all but the highest fluxions of the variables are
continuous.
The application of this principle to II. is as follows. Suppose it is required to
make \=F(U, V) a maximum, where
u=|f ce Y, a sae oY ate =|f (2, Y, Yo. » Y™)de = |ude,
with similar expressions for V. Then, 5°A being the second variation of A
dF 2 iE i @ET( le iE (ix dE f wo
N= av ys dx fe peal fe ——_ | 0°uda + ——.| 0°vda
25°X FIIE: auac | + Soave r | boda: + [dvde | +oale uda ove vdx
in this expression 6w includes such terms as ae 5y9, and taking an infinitely short
ay
range of integration, we have proved that we may neglect dy“ in comparison with
dy™, where r<n. Hence we retain only the terms
aE | du a et Pu
les ees et (7) ae oF uC. =
dU ayo av | wee * a0
(n)2 J dF av (2)2 J >
by ae + Fact dx.
2
dys”
du
Now since the range of integration is infinitely small | | —-
= iS J dy”
ayn | is infinitely
small compared to | Syd, the former being of the order dy"(v,—.19)? and the
latter of the order dy?(2,—.,), v; and vy being the limits of integration. Hence
we need only retain the terms
d¥( du . dF { dv
ee Sey (i)? doe + ire (oe
70 dy? he er dyo®*
the sign of which when the integration is small is evidently the same as that of
dF du As dF dv
dU dy dV dye
Therefore, for a sufficiently short range of integration \ is a maximum or mini-
mum, according as this quantity is negative or positive.
This result can be extended so as to apply to any case, however complicated.
The simplest case of problem III. is to make Ua maximum subject to V =O, U and
V having the meanings above given. ‘I'he ordinary method of obtaining the equa-
tion giving y in terms of x is to equate 6(U + nU) to zero, » being determined from
the condition V=C. A process just similar to that employed in II. leads to the
result that, when the range of integration is small, the integral U is a maximum or
Gu Gr : a Tred
ayer + Payee is negative or positive. The
by? dae,
a minimum according as the sign of
general result is similar in character. .
The simplest case of problem IV. is to make U a maximum subject to the con-
dition v=o where
a. Ls dy dz dry dz
and v is a function similar to vu. ‘To find y and = as functions of «, the ordinary
method is to equate | (Gu + pdv)de to cipher. By this means the value of p is
600 REPORT—1887.
obtained as a function of x, and the second variation, when we leave out all smal?
terms, becomes, for an infinitely small range of integration,
a 7 ho ue dv (n)2 9 ( au a) 8 nh)
a ae 2 Mayor) livia dydx™ i; P dyads eh
au dy a
5 Mees (ny? v
uy (ae Bis awa)? J a
or say (Ady? + 2BdyB2 +. COx™2) der, and the equation 8v=0 becomes
BD syn), 846) =0
dy" a) ;
so that eliminating 6: from the integral we get -as the result that U is a maxi-
mum or a minimum for a very short range of integration, according as
dy \* dy dv dv \*
BY mg foro)
(a dy) dx) dy
is negative or positive.
q-2 q’- 2
d Y and Feat the above
Lt
°
=
If in v there had been no higher fluxions than
dv
dy
7 and —@”_, and putting zero instead of both where the
dy) do? ae y
appear implicitly in A, B and C. If in wand », the highest fluxions be y and
2, and y™, = respectively, and *—p>s—g, then the determining expression
becomes ae Where there are more variables and more equations of connection,
some patience is required to determine which terms must be retained, but the general
principle is exactly the same.
The method of deriving from these criteria the additional criteria necessary,
when the range of integration is not small, is fully discussed in the paper quoted,
article 16, at least for the problems coming under class I., and it is quite easy to
see that the discussion is perfectly general. Owing to the limited space available
for the Abstract, it is impossible to include any account of it.
When the limits are not fixed, there is no difficulty in determining the criteria,
provided there is but one independent variable. But in the case of multiple
integrals, the variability of the limits gives rise to a problem of an entirely new
character. When, as is certainly often the case, the solution of the problem is
obtained in a form containing arbitrary functions of known quantities, the problem
depends on one of the following type. To find the form of Wf so that
Des
[AvAa4h) + BY(f,)d-p( Ff.) lav
Vo
shall vanish independently of the form of dy. In this expression f, and f, are
known functions, and of course 6../(f,) is the same function of f, as d.y(f,) is
ot fi.
2. Some Notice of «a new Computation of the Gaussian Constants.
By Professor J. C. Apams, F.2.S.
expression need only be changed by writing for and - ey where they appear
explicitly,
3. On the Umbral Notation. By the Rev. Roperr Haruey, M.A., FB.S.
The germs of the system of notation proposed in this paper will be found in
Sir James Cockle’s paper on Hyperdistributives, printed in the ‘ Philosophical
Magazine’ for April 1872; but the author is alone responsible for the form in
which the subject is here presented. He has endeavoured to develop and extend
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 601
the fundamental conception, and to show that the system may be employed with
advantage in determining both critical and criticoidal forms of all degrees.
Tn the usual expansion of the binomial (x+y) introduce 2° and y° and change
indices into suffices: we thus obtain :—
n(n—1)
: : n(n—1)
UY og FNMA Y, + a Tn=oYgt »- + 6 +
ad
12
in which wo, 7,, 2. +» rand Yo, Yj) Yz - » » Yn May be regarded as independent
arbitraries, and may therefore be replaced by any functions or forms we please.
Let this expression be represented for shortness by the binomial (x+y), ; then the
symbols x and y may be called wmbre, and the symbols (7+), x,, y,. potences.
An umbra is a mere recipient of suffices, being otherwise uninterpretable ; but in
the particular case x=", which will often occur, « may be called a radix.
Radices are not necessarily algebraical functions ; they may represent operations as
well as quantities, subject only to the index law a™y"=2"*", If x be an umbra
and y a radix, the development of (2+), will be
n(n—1) = ni vt Bee he eee
ls or al tee. + Ta te" 74 nxyy 1 + roy",
The denumerate form
UnYq + Lym VY + Ung t 0 os +LYnag t+ LyYnmy + LY ny
in which x and y are both umbral, may be obtained directly from the expansion of
(v+y)n by simply suppressing the factors containing n: this form may be re-
LYn—g t+ NL Yn—y + LOYny
Vy FNL +
presented, in accordance with the quantical notation, by (v+y) n If v+y be
penumbral, that is to say, if one of the symbols, x, be an umbra, and the other, y,
a radix, then (2 + y) n Will represent
Mat Una FUnoYPt oon HUY? + TY" + roy".
n!
(n—r)!2
development of the dexter, we interpret , by 1. In like manner we have
Writing ,. for =» we have (v7+Y),=(¢+ ny) ny provided that, in the
(v-Y¥)n=(e ~ny’) n= TY — Nyy; + MyTn—2Yo— Ke.; where the signs connecting
the monomials are + and — alternately, and the general or rth term is
(HP ny Urn p Yr
Two peculiarities in these forms deserve notice. One is that in the potence re-
presentation (v+ny) n the n inside the brackets is umbral, and the n outside is
quasi-numerical. The other is that in developing such a potence as (+4) m4ny OF
its equivalent (v+mtn. y) m+n) the factors (m+n),, (m+n),, &e., are not to be
i
expanded as potences ; for (m+), is simply what 7, or becomes when
n!
(n—r)!r!
for n we substitute m+n; that is to say
(m+n)!
(m+n—r) trl
is There is no difficulty in extending the notation to any number of symbols.
1us
(m+n), =
(V+ Y42)n = (T+ Y)nZq +My (LF Y)n— 121 + My(L FY) n—o2 + KC.,
and the full development is obtained by expanding the binomials.
Similarly
(c+yt Pye (w+ y) nig t (@+ y) a= t (2+ y) React ee (a y) eee
+ (0+ y) n-y + (Ut y) ee
= Uy YoR%o oF Un=Y Fo + Cn —eYo% Cr Natna LY n—o%> + LyYn—1% + LoYn 2
FU yy Yo%y + Uno YF + Up gYo% + oe 6 + LyYnughy + LpYn—o% + Uo Yn— 1%,
F Up oYo%q + Ung Yidq + VyagYo% + + + © + UQYnughg + Ly Ynagzq + LoYn~a%
FWY snmz ty YyInag + UoYoFn—g + Ly YoFn—y + NoYyZn—1 + LYokn
602 REPORT—1887.
By this process any polynomial, whether umbral or penumbral, may be developed.
Analogy requires that (v+y), or (w+ y) o be interpreted by 2 oY, (@+y+2)o) or
(c+ y+ 2) 9 PY LoYo%, and so on.
The author shows how readily this system of notation lends itself to the
determination of both critical and criticoidal forms. By critical forms are meant
those algebraical functions which remain unchanged when one of the variables is
augmented or diminished by any assignable quantity. As the leading coefficients
of covariants they are sometimes called seminvariants, being reduced to zero by
one only of the operators which reduce to zero an invariant. By ertticoidal forms
are meant those differential expressions which remain unchanged when either the
dependent or the independent variable is changed. Such expressions might per-
haps be called seminvaroids. Criticoids which are unaffected by a change of the
dependent variable the author proposes to call decriticoids, and those which are
unaffected by a change of the independent variable he proposes to call tneriticoids.
Sir James Cockle, to whom we owe the discovery of these forms, has termed the
first class ‘ ordinary criticoids,’ and the second ‘ differential criticoids’; but in fact
both are differential criticoids.
To determine the general form of critical functions, the author considers the
effect of the substitution of « + uy for x in the potence (w + ay),,, @ being an umbra,
and u,v, y radices. Writing A in place of a+, the result obtained is
F, (A) =(A- Zz), =(«- a), Er (a),
a formula by means of which critical functions may be calculated with great ease
and rapidity. When »=1, both sides vanish identically. When r=2, 3, &c.,
critical functions of the second, third, and higher degrees are readily found as
follows :—
1 -
F,(@) = om (44, —4,"),
1 2 2 9,, 8
F,(a@) = a \% A, — 3a 4a, + 2a,°),
il 2
F,(a@) = aims — 4a,°a,a, + Ga,a,"a, —3a,"), &e.
Let m be an operator such that
Wp = 7p — 4,7 Oy = 7(T—1) Gyn, KC. ;
then
A,=(@4+4),=@.4+7,4,_U+r,0,_, w+ &e.
wu
=, +uUmd, + ~—T7"a
3
u
3 re — puT,
—~, 7° ay, = ae
19" % +793" % + &e.=ea,
And if we extend the meaning of 7 so as to make it operate on powers and
products, thus
m(dp) =mpay \ap—1, W( apg) = AgHAy + UyMTAy = PAy—1Ay + YMA y-4, KC,
it is easy to see that when w is infinitesimal
$ (A)=$@) + ung (4),
where ¢ is integral with respect to a, a,, &c., and + does not operate on a, (or,
what is the same thing, 7a,=a,). Then, by a process similar to that commonly
employed in the proof of Taylor's theorem, it is shown generally that
P(A) = (a) + umG(a) + 5-9 7°h(@) + = np(a) + &e.
=e'"(«).
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 603
When the coefficients a, a,, d,, &c., are replaced by a, b, c, &c., respectively,
the operator 7 becomes equivalent to
ad, + 28, + 3c5, + &e.,
and we recognise in the last result a well-known theorem. When z¢(a)=0
we have ¢(A)=4(a), and the umbral notation enables us to exhibit one form
of ¢, viz.,
$(@) =F,(@)=(a-%) 5
where 7" is any positive integral number, not less than 2 and not greater than n, the
highest suffix of a. sy : ;
The notation is next applied to the determination of decriticoids, Any linear
differential expression of the mth order,
d"y aly di
Con + sie ie er w iets, + MyOyas5% + Ys
where @, @,, - . . a, are functions of 2, may be changed into the non-linear
form
n n—1,
y dyn}
WY 4 ay
1
are i ogy
y dx
either by dividing by a, y and replacing = by a,, or by making a,=1 and dividing
0
by y. Write y, for “ ay ; then the above non-linear form will be expressed, in
y dav
the umbral notation, by
(Y¥ + @)n»
Consider the effect of substituting wy for y in the differential expression, w being
any function of x. This substitution being made in - ae we obtain 1 egy)
y dx’ uy dx’
which is readily shown to be equal to (u+y),, w and y being both umbral. It
hence appears that the substitution of w+y for y in the umbral form is equivalent
to the substitution of wy for y in the ordinary differential form. Effecting the
substitution and expanding, we have
(YFU+A)n=Yn(Ut A) t+ MYn—(UFA) + «oe HMY, (UF A)n—y + (UF A)ny
so that, writing A for w+, the changed coefficients are
Ay =(U+ @)) = Ugj4)=1,
A, =(w+a@),=%, +4,
A, =(u+a@). =U, + 2u,a, + ay,
Ay = (U4 4), =U, FT Uppy FM ypany F ove FT QU glpag + TU, Uy, + A.
And since A, —a@, =,, therefore
aA, _ Wa, _du,
aa dat» dar’
an equation whose dexter may be developed in terms of w,, up, .. - Uy4,. Repre-
senting this development by 6,.,, (w) the author shows that
dik da au
6,(Ay) =, aaer = 6,(a) — ari + 6,(u) — aie |Z
a criticoidal relation. In determining the form of 6, two theorems are used, viz,
qr)
6r(a,) — ae
du, d
eas and aah — Uy) = (W—Uy) 41 —7(U—%,),(W—U,))—1.
These were given, without demonstration, by Sir James Cockle in his paper on
Hyperdistributives.
The former is readily proved ; for
du,_d E 23 _1l @uil du (; o)
a ae u dx)
ui da?) «dx us’ dx’
604 REPORT—1887.
And a proof of the latter is briefly indicated below: we have
(u—%),»= (Ut ru,.) = Dh py
r! :
Caney and the summation extends from m=0 to m=7,
!m!
where 7, =(— we =a
[ro=1]. By the first theorem we have
d
Fe rm) =U" (Uy—m41 — WUpam) + IM (U— U1) gy my
and therefore
d
=a (= U,) = ELM ty” (Up— mH — Uy Uyam) +My (U— Uy) :U1™ "Uy. } -
On effecting the summation between the assigned limits m=0 and m=r, and
reducing by means of the relations
nla = (7 +1),,, and mr,, = —r(r—1),_1)
the truth of the second theorem becomes apparent.
By the aid of these theorems it is easy to calculate the non-differential portions
of decriticoids. Write U for the penumbral form w—,, then
dU.
oo = U p41 rU,U,-1,
and by successive differentiations we obtain
6, (u) = = =U, —U," =(u—u,), =U,
6 (w) ce a is = U; =. 2U,U, = Us,
SN da da
6, () £4 ~Fs_y,_ 80,
8, (u) = = = = (U,—3U,2) =U, -100,U,,
8, (u) = ae =U,—150,U, -10U,? +30U,3, &e.
Hence
6, (@) =(a—4a,), =a, —4,’,
6; (a) = (@—4,),=a,—8 aa, +2a,5,
6, (a) =(a—4,),—3 (a—a,),” =a,-—4 a,a,-—3 a, + 12 a,2a, —6 4,4,
6; (@) =(4—4a,);—10(a—a,),(a—a,), =a, —5a,a,—10 a,a, + 20a,2a, + 80a,a,*
—60a,5a,+244,°,
6, (4) =(a—a,),-—15 (a—a,), (a—a,),—10 (a—a,)3 + 80 (a —a,)3 = Ke.
and the law of derivation is obvious.
The umbral notation is equally effective in dealing with incriticoidal forms.
Various examples are given in the paper, and the author carries his investigation
as far as the determination of the quadrincriticoid, that is to say, the incriticoid
of the fourth degree, the degrees of criticoids being the greatest suffices which
occur in them respectively. It is proposed to call a decriticoid of the m-th degree
an m-ide, and the incriticoid of the m-th degree an m-ine.
4. On Criticoids. By Roserr Rawson, F.R.A.S.
The method proposed in this paper was suggested by a study of the Rev.
Robert Harley’s paper entitled Professor Malet’s Classes of Invariants identified
with Sir James Cockle’s Criticoids, printed in the ‘Proceedings of the Royal
F
a
:
j
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 605
Society,’ No. 235, 1884. The case when the dependent variable is changed is
first considered. Starting from the two linear differential equations of the n-th
order
(Qa, Dae ass P,.) ea 1)'y=0 i, EN 5
1 n
(a Q) Q; mune: ‘6 Qu) eS 1) 2 OF. F 5 : (2)
in which the dependent variables are supposed to be connected by the relation :—
log y=logz+ / (Q,—P,) dv ; i ; = (8)
and introducing a third dependent variable (v), the author obtains two other
linear differential equations of the 2-th order, viz.—
Neal abate ee 1 Fa eam eed
x 7
(1, Sivghs tay ihe es at pe Or or eatra. oy HoNGS)
(4) being connected with (1), and (5) with (2) by the respective equations
log y =log v— [Pde : ; . ; 7 (G0)
log z=log v— fQrude wis’ ont Becta UIP)
Equations (4) and (5) obviously become identical when
R=) BS Sy 5. Re Se +. 3 . 7 (8)
and this system is necessary and sufficient to determine the relations of the
functions P,, P,,... P, and Q,,Q, . . . Qn, so that (1) and (2) may be con-
nected by (8). The author calculates the criticoidal forms given by the system (8)
as far as R, = 8,, and he obtains results which are all included in the formula
at ple io ue dQ,
6,(P) aa 6, (Q) ape : : (9)
+ denoting the degree of the criticoid. In particular he finds
(ipl (Li) Y= Bese Ean i : ; : ; : : ; . (10)
PE aes ye, OWE cee EET
6,(P) =P, —42,P, = 8P 84 12P2P) S6P4) yh eh), 8)
6, (P) =P,—5P,P,—10P,P, + 20P,2P,
=AOP SPAR SOP DB iA BF a sy chsh ily rhodes 1G) ol YHIRDS)
6, (P) =P, —6P,P, + 30P,2P, —15P,P,
—120P,2P, +120P,P,P, —10P,?
+360P,*P, + 80P,°—270P,*P?,-190P,° , . , (14)
Of these results the first three, (10), (11), and (12), agree with those already
obtained by Sir James Oockle and Mr. Harley, and the last two, (13) and (14),
are now published for the first time. The advantage of the method here employed
is that the system (8) gives at once R,,=S,, where R is a function of P, and S the
same function of Q, whereas by using (1), (2), (3) we are led to Q,=a certain
function of P, and have to obtain the criticoids by means of elimination and other
contrivances. A similar remark applies to the case of the change of the inde-
pendent variable next considered.
Let (1,6:@, Gale). bale (GY y=0 . . . aay
(1, @), vale), « - - ale))(Gp1)"y=0 sh SPS SY
606 REPORT—1887.
be two linear differential equations of the mth order, and let x and ¢ be connected
by the equation
dx dt
Pre : : : . - 4 (0),
where P and Q are functions of x and ¢ respectively, Sir James Cockle has
assumed.
1 1
Wp m {Q,(2)}", Q = {vn} * LS J (18)
Let v be a third independent variable, and assume
Cage: V,)(4,1)'y=0 ‘i ee eee
d n
ee eee Na Ll) y=0-. | era
where (19) is connected with (15), and A with (16) by the relations
=
= pe cS AQ ‘ < ier Se ce,
Equations (19) and (20) se identical when
V= Wy VemWNen 4 ci Vesa tc) gene
a system sufficient to connect (15) with (16) by (17).
‘By this method the criticoids have been calculated for n =2, 3, 4 respectively,
and thie following results obtained :—
n=,
$2) +4 (HAR) _ WO + 44, (OW) :
; {bo(a)}3 WO} P reson aes
n=
ba) +36 (xb (@) P(E) + 38H, OW5(2) -
Aa senear CC) 1t emnenees (79 ()) Se
nd,
i P(e) + 2h,(2)?—3h,(@) _ ViP(E) + 2, (O?-35(1) :
: {p(x} {e(t)}8 psig ae
n=
Ha) + 8b, (whl) _ BPO + VOW) .
~~ {6,@) 8 a (28)
22g, (0)? + 12G,(w) = 27 Go(x) _ 2p, (7 + 12) - 270) i‘
{p,(x)}3 Oy a
(a) + 2h,(2), (a) + 6h, (x) f(a) — 299, (a)5 — 6G, (2)
{p,(x)}# (28)
_ VP O+WOV,PO + bY, OW - POOH fo 7
WO!
The results (23) to (28) are included in the general formule given by Mr. Harley
in the paper above cited.
5. Complete Integral of the n-ic Differential Resolvent.
By the Rev. Roserr Hartey, M.A., £.R.S.
Representing the roots of the n-ic algebraical equation whose coefficients are
functions of a single parameter (v) by ¥,, Yx) . + + Yn, the complete solution of its
differential resolvent is
C1Yy FCYot » + + +CnYny
where ¢c,,¢,, . . . C, are independent arbitraries subject only to the condition
CjtO,+... +¢,=1.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 607
6. Note on the General Theory of Anharmonics. By A. Bucnuem, M.A.
The paper was based on Clifford’s paper on the general theory of anharmonics.
It contained a general definition of distances, including Clifford’s special definitions
and remarks on the extension of the notions of involution and harmonic section to
systems of more than one dimension.
7. Transformations in the Geometry of Circles. By A. Larmor, B.A.
There is a well-known theory, due chiefly to Hart, Casey, and Darboux, of the
contact relations of the eight circles which can be drawn to touch three given
circles in a plane—viz., that a certain number of groups of four of these tangent
circles touch another circle, thus forming two sets of four circles so related that
each circle of either set touches all four of the other.
By treating of plane sections of a sphere instead of circles in a plane, the prin-
ciple of polarity is made complete, and the method of inversion, which appears
somewhat recondite and artificial 22 plano, is there seen in its true projective light.
This generalisation also enables us to deduce the descriptive geometry of a quadric
considered with reference to its plane sections.
The two chief methods of pure geometry that we may use in extending such
results when stated for a spherical surface are :—
(1) If a figure on a spherical surface be connected to any point in space by a
cone, this cone will cut the surface again in another figure, which corresponds point
for point with the original so that all corresponding angles are equal, and the two
figures are therefore similar in their smallest parts though the scale varies from
point to point.
This projection is what, in fact, is known in plane geometry as Inversion.
(2) If we draw the great circles of which the points of the given figure are the
poles, their envelope will be the reciprocal figure on the sphere. But this envelope
clearly consists of two branches, and the reciprocal character of this transformation
leads us to the complete statement of the second principle, which is, that the
reciprocal of the original diagram, together with its opposite diagram on the sphere,
is the envelope of the polar great circles of all its points.
Among other consequences the second principle leads to the extension of
Casey’s results above referred to—viz. if, instead of the three given circles on the
sphere, we consider the complete diagram, consisting of the three given circles and
their opposite circles, we are led to groups of four of their tangent circles, each of
which touches another circle although their members do not touch the same three
given circles.
By supposing the three given circles to become points we deduce, as a par-
ticular case of this generalisation, the contact relations of the eight circles which
can be drawn through the six points of intersection of three given circles on a
sphere or in plano. They are of the same nature as those of the eight tangent
circles of three given circles—viz. they can be divided into the same number of
groups of four, each tangential to another circle.
The contact relations of this group do not seem to have been discussed
hitherto.
Casey has also discussed, analytically, the contact relations of the thirty-two
conics which can be drawn having double contact with a given conic and touching
three conics which have double contact with the given conic, showing that they
can be divided into a certain number of groups of four, each of which is tangential
to another conic having double contact with the given conic.
The two principles mentioned above enable us to deduce this proposition by pe
geometry from the case of the contact relations of the eight circles touching three
given circles on a sphere; and to double the number of groups for which Casey has
proved the theorem.
608 REPORT—1887.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. On the Maynetic Properties of Gases. By Professor QuUINCKE.
The magnetic pressure on the unit of area in a body is
Ros
As Ba
where H, is the strength of the magnetic field. We can compare the difference of
the magnetic pressures of two different substances at their common surface with a
hydrostatic pressure. This is done for a liquid and a gas by the magnetic
manometer—a U tube, with two branches of different diameter, filled with the
liquid. The surface of the liquid in the smaller branch is brought into the magnetic
field of a powerful electro-magnet; the other branch remains in a field of constant
strength. The change / of the height of the liquid with the specific gravity o is
measured, and we have the hydrostatic pressure
RK-R, H?
or
where # and S, are the diamagnetic constants of the liquid and of atmospheric air.
Dr. Quincke compared in this way, some years ago, different liquids with
common air, and has now compared the same liquid (petroleum, alcohol, water)
with different gases of different density.
The change of the hydrostatic pressure increases nearly proportionately with
the density of the gases. If we assume that the qualities of the liquid are not
changed by the absorbed gas, we can find from the difference of the changes of the
hydrostatic pressure, divided by the difference of the densities of the gas, the
magnetic pressure of the gas for one atmosphere, or the diamagnetic constant & in
absolute measure for any gas at normal pressure and ordinary temperature.
The gases were compressed by an ordinary compressing pump, with a fly-wheel :
the density was measured by an air-manometer, consisting of a horizontal
thermometer-tube, closed at one end, containing air and a thread of mercury. The
pressure did not exceed 40 atmospheres. The numbers are given in the C.G.S.
system :—
ho =
10
Ries
Say
Q. Faraday
Oxygen . : ‘ d : . 0°7355 1141
Nitric Oxide . ; ‘ ; . (0:257)
Air : : - 3 : 5 NOSE TESS 100°0
Olefiant Gas. : : : . 0:0139 97°2
Carbonic Acid : : : . 0:0134 96°6
Marsh Gas : E - : . 0:0057
Nitrogen 5 . : . 0:0047 96°9
Hydrogen : : : : . 0:0019 96°5
Vacuum . : 4 > 6 3 ? 96°6
These results agree with Faraday’s relative values (Faraday’s ‘Ixp.,’ sec. iil.
p. 502). 4
The diamagnetic constant of a perfect vacuum cannot be found by this method ;
but only the difference of the diamagnetic constants of a vacuum and the liquid in
the magnetic manometer.
2. Report of the Committee for constructing and issuing Practical Standards
for use in Electrical Measurements.—See Reports, p. 206.
3. On the Permanence of the B.A. Standards of Resistance.
By R. T. Guazesroox, F.R.S.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 609
4. Final Value of the B.A. Unit of Electrical Resistance as determined by
the American Committee. By Professor H. A. Rowayp.
5. On the Specific Resistance of Commercial Iron.
By W. H. Pretcr, F.B.S.
The Swedish iron now used for telegraph wire has a specific resistance of 6:034
instead of 6°558 as given in text-books. The specific resistance at 60° F, is
Silver . 7 . 1609 | Copper. : . 1642
Pure Iron : . 9°753 | Commercial Iron . 9886
The wire now supplied has a conductivity of 98:44 per cent. of pure iron.
The temperature coefficient is given in the formula
R, =R, (10048) #4
6. On the Influence of a Plane of Transverse Section on the Magnetic
Permeability of an Iron Bar. By Professor J. A. Ewine, B.Sc., F.R.S.,
and Witutam Low.
It has been remarked by Professor J. J. Thomson and Mr. H. F. Newall that
when an iron bar is cut across, and the cut ends are brought into contact, the
magnetic permeability is notably reduced.1. The attention of the authors was
directed to the matter by finding the same phenomenon present itself in experiments
on the magnetisation of iron by the ‘isthmus’ method, and they proceeded to
examine the effect by an application of the method Hopkinson has used to measure
magnetic permeability.? A round bar, nearly half a square centimeter in section,
and 13 cms. long, had its ends united by a massive wrought-iron yoke to reduce it
to a condition approximating to endlessness; and its magnetisation by various
magnetic forces was examined, both when free from stress and when compressed by
a load of 226 kilos per sq.cm. It was then cut in the lathe, the halves placed in
contact, and the magnetism again examined with and without load. It was next
cut into four parts, and finally into eight parts, and magnetised in each case.
Every new plane of section caused a notable loss of permeability. The following
are the maximum values of the permeability in each case :—
Solid bar i . 1220] Barcutintwo . . 980
Bar cut in four . 640 | Bar cut in eight . . 400
Next another bar was tested, first, when solid; next with one cut finished in the
lathe; and finally with the cut surfaces faced true by scraping and comparing them
with a Whitworth plane. So Jong as the bar was nut compressed, its magnetic
permeability was nearly the same, whether the ends were left roughly finished or
were faced true. But when load was applied the effect of facing the ends was
remarkable: the faced bar then behaved as a solid bar would, while the bar with
rough-cut ends still showed a decided defect of permeability as compared with the
solid bar,
This made it seem highly probable that the whole effect was due to a film of
air between the cut faces. Applying Hopkinson’s method to calculate the thickness
this film would need to have, in order to account for the observed increase of
magnetic resistance, the authors find its thickness is only about 2 of a millimeter
when the magnetic force is 10 c.g.s. units, and diminishes to about 3, of a
millimeter when the force is 50 c.g.s. units. In the case of the bar cut into four
and eight parts, each cut has an effect equivalent to the introduction of a film of
this thickness. The authors conclude that in all probability the whole phenomenon
is due to the surfaces being separated by these short distances.
1 Cambridge Phil. Soc. Proc., Feb. 1887.
2 « Magnetisation of Iron,’ Phil. Trans. part ii. 1885.
1887. RR
610 REPORT—1887.
7. On the Physical Properties of a nearly Non-Magnetisable (Manganese)
Steel. By Professor W. F. Barrerv.
Early in 1884 Messrs. Hadfield and Co., steel founders of Sheffield, exhibited
at the Institute of Mechanical Engineers specimens of steel which they had
recently manufactured, containing from 10 to 15 per cent. of manganese. Contrary
to the general belief at the time, this steel was found to be extremely tenacious
and tough. At the Aberdeen meeting of the British Association Mr. J. T. Bot-
tomley drew attention to the fact that this steel was almost unmagnetisable. His
experiments showed that the intensity of magnetisation that could be imparted to
it was from 3,000 to 7,700 times less than that which could be given to ordinary
steel. The author of the present paper has, through the kindness of Messrs.
Hadfield, succeeded in obtaining this steel drawn into wire, but only after re-
versing the ordinary annealing process; quenching the manganese steel rods in
cold water rendered them ductile, and thus lengths of wire were drawn of No.
18 and No. 198.W.G. The wire was of two kinds, hard and soft, the latter being
as flexible as soft iron wire. This steel contained 13°75 per cent. of manganese,
and had a density of 7-81. The hard wire easily scratched steel, not hard tem-
pered. Exposed to the air, it rusts rather more quickly than ordinary steel, but
not so quickly as iron. The modulus of electricity (Young’s modulus) was found,
the mean of numerous observations giving 1,680 x 10° grammes per square centimetre
for the hard wire, and 1671 x 10° grammes per square centimetre for the soft wire.
These numbers are lower than either iron or steel. The breaking strain of the
No. 19 soft manganese steel wire was found to be 48°8 tons per square inch with
18 per cent. elongation. The hard wire of the same gauge had the enormous
breaking strain of 110 tons per square inch, but snapped with scarcely any
appreciable elongation. Steel pianoforte wire is the only material with which
the author is acquainted that exceeds this tenacity. The electric resistance of the
wire was found to be 78 microhms per cubic centimetre. This is more than six
times the resistance of iron and three times the resistance of German silver. The
resistance temperature coefficient was found to be 0°186 per cent. for 1° C. for
a range of 200° C. This is much lower than iron, which has a temperature
coefficient of 0:5 per cent. for 1° C.; but it is higher than German silver, which
gave only 0-04 per cent. for 1° C. Hence for resistance coils for electric lighting
manganese steel wire may be useful. The magnetic susceptibility of manganese
steel was also carefully examined and found to be extremely low: in similar power-
ful magnetic fields, if iron be taken as 1,000, manganese steel is less than 3.
The enormous magnetic change wrought in this material by the alloy of
12 to 13 per cent. of manganese is very remarkable, and indicates a valuable
application of this material for the bed plates of dynamos and for iron-plated
vessels. An iron-clad built of manganese steel would not only be of great strength,
but would have practically no deviation of the compass.
In conclusion the author pointed out that manganese steel wire does not
exhibit the anomalous expansion on cooling and recalescence which is found in
ordinary iron and steel wire. This affords new evidence of the connection between
these peculiar molecular phenomena and the magnetic state of the body.
8. On the Application of the Centi-ampere or the Deci-ampere Balance for
the Measurement of the E.M.F. of a Single Cell. By Professor Sir
Witiiam THomson, F.R.S.
For the purpose of measuring the E. M. F. of a single cell the centi-ampere
or the deci-ampere balance is put in circuit with a battery of a sufficient number
of cells, a rheostat, and a standard resistance, in the manner shown in the diagram.
The current measured by the balance is then varied by means of the rheostat until
the difference of potential between the ends of the standard resistance is exactly
equal to the potential of the cell. This equality is tested by placing the cell in
series with a mirror galvanometer or a quadrant electrometer in a derived circuit,
TRANSACTIONS OF ‘SECTION A. 611
the ends of which are connacted with the ends of the standard resistance, and
observing whether any deflection is obtained by{closing this circuit.
7" STANDARD®RESISTANCE
SIL ALIN AIL SIS IA DINE
| >. ’
iG
Te
lS
a
FE
NS
ie
i=
|
|o
~ \\MIRROR CALE
JOR QUADT ELECTR |
BALANCE
|
RHEOSTAT
Suppose, for example, the standard resistance to be 10 ohms, and the current
as indicated by the balance, 0°108 amperes ; when no deflection is obtained on the
mirror galvanometer by closing its circuit, the potential of the cell is 10 x -108, or
1:08 volts. Proper precautions must of course be taken to eliminate thermo-
electric or other disturbances in the circuit.
The quadrant electrometer may be used with advantage in the derived circuit
when it is important that no current should flow throuch the cell, but the mirror
galvanometer has the advantage of much greater sensibility.
9. On Induction between Wires and Wires. By W.H. Presce, F.R.S.
A continuation of a subject brought before the Association last year, when it
was shown that electro-magnetic disturbances extended to distances much greater
than was imagined, and that effects were observed across many miles of country.
Experiments were made on the banks of the Severn and Mersey, on the Portcawl
Sands of South Wales, in the fields in the neighbourhood of Cardiff, on the roads
and railways in Oxfordshire, Worcestershire, and Shropshire, in the air and under
water, in the corridor of the General Post Office in London, and the law was
formulated that the distance depended directly on the strength of the currents
inducing the disturbance, and on the length of the wires opposed to each other,
and inversely on the square of the distance separating them, and on the electrical
resistance of the disturbed wire.
The influence of one mile of wire carrying one ampere of current can apparently
extend to a distance of 1‘9 miles. The law is given by the following formula :—
RR2Z
612 REPORT—1 887.
where ¢, is the primary current, c, the secondary, 7 the length of the wires
opposed to each other, d the distance separating them, 7, the resistance of the
secondary circuit. When these quantities are represented in C. G. S. units
M equals -005.
The current induced by one mile of one ampere at one mile distant is
1:3 x 10-13 amperes. A current is still perceptible at 1:9 miles distant; hence
we can calculate that a bell telephone requires six ten-thousand millionths of a
milliampere, or in figures ‘0000000006 milliampere to be audible.
One curious result of these inquiries is that the disturbances are transmitted
equally well through water and the earth as through air, and hence our cables are
disturbed as well as our land wires. Communication with coalpits is possible,
though nothing but the earth intervenes.
10. On the Coefficient of Self-Induction in Telegraph Wires.
By W. H. Preece, F.B.S.
The value of the coefficient L is given in terms of 10-° centimetres per mile.
It is very easily obtained on automatic circuits worked on the duplex system at
high speed. It is so small in copper that it may be neglected.
The value of L in iron wire was found to be
By the duplex method ... ‘00498
By direct measurement ... ‘0051
The mean result being ... (00504
Hence L for iron wire, such as is used for telegraph circuits, may be taken as
005 x 10-° centimetres per mile,
while that for copper is less than
‘00001 x 10-%centimetres per mile.
11. On the General Theory of Dynamo Machines.!
By Epwarp Hopkinson, D.Sc.
A dynamo consists essentially of two closed circuits or ‘ tubes,’ in both of which
there is a displacement of the nature of a flux dependent upon the relative motion
of the two circuits. We may call one of these the ‘ magnetic circuit,’ and the other
the ‘electric circuit.’ Either or both of these may be in motion; but as we are
concerned only with the relative motion of the two, we may for convenience (as, in
fact, is usually the case) regard the magnetic circuit as fixed, or displaced only by
the reaction of the electric circuit upon it, and consider the latter only as moving
under external forces, whether electrical or mechanical. The flux along the magnetic
circuit is called the ‘magnetic induction,’ which is a vector or directed quantity,
requiring for its definition reference to co-ordinate axes. It is subject to the fun-
damental condition known as the ‘ solenoidal condition,’ or ‘ equation of continuity.’
The flux along the second circuit is called the ‘electric current,’ and is also a
vector quantity, subject to the solenoidal condition. Neither circuit is necessarily
bounded by the limits of the machine, and both may be and generally are subdivided.
Both these fluxes are produced by corresponding forces, called respectively ‘ mag-
netic force’ and ‘ electromotive force,’ which likewise are vector quantities, but are .
defined hy reference to a line instead of by an area, as is the case with the fluxes.
(Maxwell, ‘Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, vol. i. p. 10.) We now re-
quire to know the relation between each force and its corresponding flux. Let us
first inquire into the relation between the magnetic induction (B) and the magnetic
force (H). Such a relation may be expressed by the general equation
B=f-'(H) : $ Pane : (a)
The form of the function depends upon the medium in which the tube is drawn,
1} For paper in full, see The Llectrician, vol. xix. Sept. 9, 1887.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 613
and also upon the physical conditions of the medium. For air and all other gases,
and generally for all substances classed as ‘ non-magnetic,’ it is a linear function
ossessing one coefficient or constant only. For such substances the equation may
e written
leyyrlbl a : - A : A (8B)
Since the numerical definition of H is at our disposal, we may so define H that p
is unity for all the substances above referred to.
For iron, and generally for all magnetic substances, H is not a linear function
of B, and its expression will involve several constants depending upon the medium,
and such physical conditions as temperature and strain, and its previous history.
The determination of the form of the function for iron in particular has been the
subject of a great number of experiments, but no general expression has yet been
discovered, and it has usually been found most convenient to record the experi-
mental results in the form of a curve referred to rectangular axes, in which the
ordinates represent magnetic induction and the abscissee magnetic force. Such
curves have been fully investigated for iron of various composition, ard under
varying physical conditions, among others particularly by G. Wiedemann (‘ Die
Lehre vom Galvanismus,’ vol. ii. p. 340, e¢ seg.), Rowland (‘ Phil. Mag.’ Aug. 1873),
Carl Barus and Vincent Strouhal (‘ Bulletin of the United States Geological
Survey,’ No. 14, 1885), J. Hopkinson (‘Phil. Trans. R.S.’ pt. ii. 1885), J. A.
Ewing (‘ Phil. Trans. R.S.’ pt. ii. 1885, and pt. 11. 1886, and * Proc. R.S, vol. xlii.
p- 200, 1887). For convenience we may still express the curve by the equation (8),
pis then the tangent of the angle which the tangent to the curve makes with the
axis of a.
Secondly, we require to know the relation between the E.M.F. and current.
This is well known to be expressed by a linear relation, mown as Ohm’s law, in-
volving one constant coefficient only.
Having now defined the relation between the fluxes and their corresponding
forces, it remains to consider the relation between the fluxes themselves, dependent
upon the relative motion of their circuits. This may be expressed in various ways,
all of which are the expressions of Faraday’s well-known law: e.g., the line
integral of the E.M.F. round the electric circuit is the rate of decrease of the surface
integral of magnetic induction through any area bounded by the circuit.
Excluding for the moment the consideration of magneto machines with perma-
nent magnets, and of machines in which iron plays no part whatever, we may more
oly consider that class of dynamos in which the magnetic field is produced
ry the use of iron excited by a current; and we then require to know the relation
between the current and the induction in the magnetic field produced by the
current. Faraday showed that the magnetic field in the neighbourhood of an
electric current is the same as that of a magnetic shell bounded by the circuit of
the current, and has therefore a similar magnetic potential. This is expressed by
saying, that the line integral of magnetic force round any closed curve is zero,
provided the closed curve does not surround the electric current ; and if the current
passes through the closed curve, then the line integral is proportional to the number
of times it passes through, and is equal to 4zc, where c is the current and x the
number of times it passes through the closed curve.
‘We have now the materials for a complete investigation of a dynamo of any
given configuration and constructed of iron, whose magnetic qualities are known.
It is required to determine the E.M.F. and current in the electric circuit, as its
configuration relative to the magnetic circuit is changed by the application of ex-
ternal forces, and as the magnetic forces in the magnetic circuit are changed either
by external electro-magnetic forces, or electro-magnetic forces derived from the
current circulating in the electric circuit. The magnetic circuit consists in general
of four parts: (i.) The magnet limb, which is surrounded by coils of wire, through
which the exciting current is passed. (ii.) The field pieces, or the extended polar
extensions of the magnet limb, embracing the armature. (ili.) The air space being
the necessary interval between the iron of the pole pieces and the iron of the arma-
ture, or in cases where the armature contains no iron, the interval between the
614 REPORT— 1887.
opposed pole pieces. (iv.) The armature, or that part of the machine carrying that
portion of the electric circuit which is subject to displacement under external
forces.
The magnetic circuit is thus subject to magnetic forces due to the current in the
armature and the current round the magnet limb. We must therefore, in the
general case, take these as the two independent variables, which we may denote by
Candec. Now, it may be assumed with sufficient accuracy that in the magnet
limb the boundaries of the tube of magnetic induction are coincident with the
boundaries of the iron, and the cross section of the tube the same as the cross
section of the iron. Outside the limb a portion of the lines of force will complete
a magnetic circuit through external space, and will not enter the pole pieces. The
extent of this leakage or induction, from which no useful effect is obtained, depends
upon the configuration of the machine and the degree of saturation of the iron, and
could be calculated therefrom; but as it can he experimentally determined for any
machine with great ease, it is unnecessary to consider it further, and we may regard
the total induction in the magnet limb as greater than the induction in the pole
pieces in a constant ratio, which we will denote by »,. It is usual to construct the
pole pieces of large section compared with the magnet limb, and hence the section
of the pole pieces may again be taken as the section of the tube of induction; but
as the lines of force leave the pole pieces to cross the air space, we cannot ascribe
any boundary to the tube, but in every machine a portion only can pass through
the armature, and part must pass from one pole piece to the other by lines external
to the armature. Moreover, the relation between the two parts will not be a con-
stant one, unless the magnetic forces in the armature are constant, which can never
be the case. It is therefore necessary to consider the tube of induction, which
crosses the air space and enters the armature, as a variable portion of the whole
tube, the variation depending upon the magnetic forces in the armature. We may
denote the ratio of the induction through the pole pieces to the induction through
the armature by v,. Let A, be the cross section of the magnet limb, / its length ;
A, the cross section of the pole pieces, 7, the mean length of the tube therein; A,
the cross section of the air space, comprising all the space through which the lines
entering the armature pass, /, its length; A, the cross section of the iron of the
armature (if it contains iron), and Z, the mean length of the tube of force therein.
Then the line integral of magnetic force taken round the circuit is :—
1 7 mral Ng eet yt
ay Rrra | (eater
By Ay "By 7 Ag \us Ag py Ay
the y’s being the coefficients of magnetic induction for the several portions of the
circuit. For air the coefficient is unity, hence »,=1. I is the total induction in
the armature, which is assumed to be uniformly distributed over the tube. Now
the magnetic circuit is cut by the current in the magnet coils and the current in
the armature. Let , be the number of times it is cut by the former, 2, by the
latter. Then
DAU Oi ela melee’
by Cain ity LA, + ie + 5 a )E =4r(n,c+n,C).
It must be noted that the direction in which the circuit is cut by c and O is in both
cases taken to be positive. Referring to three rectangular axes and measuring the
induction along the axis of z, the current round the magnets along the axis of 2,
and that in the armature along the axis of y, the above equation may be written
v
Lf 3) +Lf 62) + 1, Ke +1, f, boc) =4r(n,v+n,y).
This represents a surface the ordinate at any point of which is the induction
through the armature. Such a surface was first described by Dr. John Hopkinson
G sepne before the Inst. of C.E.,’ April, 1883), and is called the ‘characteristic
surface.’
Having obtained a general expression for the induction in the armature, the
i i
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 615
electromotive force in the electric circuit, when displaced, can be deduced by
Faraday’s law.
Consider now the application to alternate current machines. Such machines.
are usually multipolar. In machines of the disc type the number of poles is even,
and the armature is divided into sections corresponding to the number of poles, and
revolves uniformly between them. The tube through any one pair of opposed
poles and back through another need only be considered, and the total effect of the
machine obtained therefrom by summation. Suppose the iron of both magnets and
armature so arranged that no currents are induced therein. There is then only one
electric circuit to deal with. The whole current in one section of the armature
cuts the magnetic tube passing through the section, as many times as there are
convolutions. Let m be the number of conyolutions. The current x round the
magnets is usually derived from independent sources, and maintained constant.
For each such constant value the characteristic surface becomes a curve giving the
relation between the induction through the armature and the current in it. The
areas A,, A,,and A,, and the lengths /,, 7,, 7,, and /, are constant, but the area A,
is a periodic function of the time, and can be expressed by a series of cosines, the
coefticients of the series being determined by Fourier’s theorem from the dimensions
of the machine. If the equation of the characteristic be differentiated with regard
to the time, we shall obtain an equation of the form
A y'+By=periodic function of ¢,
when B is constant and A isa periodic function of ¢, but usually assumed to be
constant, and called the ‘ self induction’ of the machine.
In general no current continuous in direction can be obtained by continuous
rotation of any part of the electric circuit, unless arrangement is made for reversing
the current at a certain stage of each revolution. To diminish the oscillation of
the current the electric circuit is divided into a number of sections, arranged
symmetrically on the armature, the current in one or two of which only is
reversed at a time. If the number of sections be even and equal to 2m, one
half will be in series, and one half the total current will pass through each half,
except at the instant of commutation. At such time two séctions are short cir-
cuited, and form complete circuits in which the current will be determined by the
induction through them at the time; and the number of sections in series will be
m—1. If the number of sections be odd and equal to 2+ 1, one section only will
be commuted at a time, and at that instant there will be m sections in series. At
other times there will be m+ 1 sections in series on one side and m on the other,
and consequently there will be a superposed current flowing through the armature
only, due to the inequality in the number of sections in series in the two halves.
In one revolution of the armature the tube of induction through it will be cut four
times by each section, and if the plane of commutation is symmetrical with regard
to the tube of induction the current in one half the sections will cut it in the
opposite direction to that in the other half. In this case,x,=0. But any dis-
placement of the plane of commutation from the symmetrical position will cause
the current in a greater number of sections to cut the tube in one direction than in
the other. Let A be the angular advance of the plane of commutation, and m the
eee Am
number of sections in the armature ; then x,=——* The value of \ may be fixed
for any given machine, or varied at pleasure, or may be determined to avoid spark-
ing at the time of commutation of a section. The general discussion of the value
of d to effect this has not yet been attempted. For the present A must be regarded
as independent. The general equation of the characteristic surface becomes for a
continuous current machine
Z, Hes) +1, f, (=) +, re +l, fy tis.) =4m,x1—A4dmy,
A being reckoned positive when the displacement is in the direction o rotation.
If no current passes through the armature, y =o and v, may be taken as constant
616 REPORT—1887.
and determined by experiment. The equation may then be written
VyVoh
Vo% z z
LA a) tots BE) te tlt) = dems,
which is the equation to the characteristic curve of a shunt-wound or separately
excited machine. Having determined the characteristic when y = 0 the characteristic
surface can be determined therefrom by considering the form of y,. (See J. and E.
Hopkinson, ‘Trans. R. 8.’ pt. i. 1886, p. 384.)
12. On the Production of a Constant Current with Varying Electromotive
Force from a Dynamo. By A. P. Trorrer, B.A.
The well-known methods are by (1) rocking the brushes ; (2) compound wind-
ing; (8) reducing the strength of the field.
The first method cannot be adopted with a modern ring or drum armature in a
strong field, though it is used with some success in the Thomson-Houston and
Hochhausen systems. Compound winding can only produce a very rough approxi-
mation to a constant current; and, lastly, the strength of the field cannot be
reduced far without working on the nearly straight part of the saturation-curve,
when the electromotive force becomes unstable.
Mr. Ravenshaw, the senior electrician of Messrs. Goolden and Trotter, proposed
to keep the field saturated, but to weaken its useful effect by a movable yoke or
keeper, which, by offering a low magnetic resistance, would divert the magnetism
from the armature without materialiy altering the saturation of the magnets. The
writer suggested that, instead of moving this keeper, its effect could be annulled by
winding on it a coil through which a comparatively feeble current might circulate.
The general method which, with certain precautions, has been put to practical
use with complete success, is, therefore, as follows:
To a dynamo with a single horseshoe field another magnetic circuit is applied,
such as a similar horseshoe, which under ordinary circumstances would offer a so
much smaller magnetic resistance than the armature and its air-space, that nearly
all the lines of force would be diverted through it.
This is the condition of minimum electromotive force.
This second magnetic circuit is provided with coils like those of the main
magnet, and by the passage of a current through these coils the diversion of
the magnetism of the main magnets may be obstructed, until, with a certain
strength of current, no lines of force will pass through the second magnetic circuit,
and the electromotive force of the armature will be produced solely by the whole
useful magnetism of the main magnet. As, however, the second magnetic circuit
is similar to the main magnet, it may be used in the same way, and by further
increase of the current through its coils may assist the main magnet, until the
effect of the two is combined, thus doubling the output of the machine as:
first described.
This is the condition of maximum electromotive force.
In a shunt machine the current through the coils of the second magnet may be
controlled by the addition of a resistance in series with it. In a series machine
the current may be controlled by a resistance arranged as a shunt on the coils, or
by dividing the coils into sections, These resistances, whether in series with shunt
coils or as shunts on series coils, may be controlled by hand or by automatic
regulators.
13. Description of an Induction Coil. By Grorce Hiaes.
This induction coil was designed and constructed specially for the purposes of
spectrum analysis ; the dimensions of the various parts are given as follows :—
The core, which is 14 inches long by 13 inch in diameter, is composed of very
soft iron wire, No. 20 B.W.G., but although selected with considerable care the
residual magnetism is very perceptible.
The primary wire is of No. 12 copper, double covered with cotton wound in
three layers, and about 40 yards in length, the whole accurately fitting inside an
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 617
ebonite tube } inch in thickness. A pole-piece is screwed on to each end of the
core.
The secondary is wound in 52 sections, having an average of about 1,200 turns
of wire to each section, taking in all 143 miles of double silk covered copper wire,
Nos. 35 and 86 B.W.G. The maximum outer diameter of secondary is 53 inches in
the middle, and the minimum at ends is 3} inches, the inner diameter 23 at the
middle and 27 at each end; the length of secondary body is 11 inches, the
terminals 107; inches asunder.
There are three condensers of 40, 30, and 20 sheets of tinfoil respectively,
the sheets being 10 x 73.
The vibrating spring of contact-breaker is cut in two near the foot, and a
tongue of hardened and tempered steel let in and securely riveted.
This principle is found to be of great use in photography, the spectra of metals,
and gases, as the vibrations are accelerated thereby.
The main feature, however, resides in the new method of insulation between
the sections, the thickness of insulation being made to vary as the differences of
potential between the parts of any two adjoining sections.
The coil is capable of giving sparks between nine and ten inches in length, with
one quart bichromate cell. With this instrument and the photographic apparatus
described on a former occasion, the author proposes to photograph and map the
spectra of chemical elements, the solar lines, and those of the spectrum of iron to
be used as reference lines, The w..’s for a considerable portion may be obtained
from Professor Rowland’s normal map by simple inspection ; but throughout the
w.l. according to Angstrém will be also used. The sheets will illustrate the plan
proposed.
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Third Report of the Committee on Standards of Light.—See Reports,
p. 47.
2. On a Standard Lamp. By A. Vernon Harcourt, M.A., F.R.S.
At one of the meetings of this Section last year a lamp devised by the author
for producing a constant amount of light was shown and described by Mr. W. S.
Rawson. The lamp now exhibited served the same purpose, but was simpler in
principle, more easily adjusted, and less affected by draughts. It consisted of a
glass reservoir with tubulure and stopper, of the form and size of a large spirit
lamp, mounted on a metal stand provided with levelling screws. The wick could
be turned up and down in the usual manner within a long tube attached to the
body of the lamp. Round this tube is a wider tube 100 x 25 mm.; and the two
being joined together above and below by flat plates constitute the burner of the
lamp. When the burner becomes warm by conduction of heat from the flame the
pentane which rises in the wick volatilises, and the vapour burns at a consider-
able distance above the point to which the wick is turned down. Thus the size
or texture or quality of the wick does not affect the flame.
Around the burner and the lower part of the flame was another cylinder open
at both ends and contracted above the burner to a tube 20 mm. in diameter and in
length. A similar tube formed the lower part of an upper chimney which was
enlarged above to a diameter of 25 mm. The upper part of the flame was
concealed by this chimney excepting where a narrow slot 10 x 3 mm. on each side
showed the tip of the flame, and enabled its height to be regulated. Through the
interval between the two chimneys the flame shines, and the light which it gives is
the same whenever the tip of the flame is visible opposite the slot, whether towards
the lower or the upper end.
618 REPORT—-1887.
The two chimneys were attached together by two curved metal bands suffi-
ciently removed from the flame on either side not to affect it. The attachment of
these bands to the lower chimney was adjustable, so that the opening through
which the central parts of the flame were seen might be made larger or smaller.
By means of small cylindrical blocks, whose thickness was accurately gauged,
the width of the opening might be set either to that at which the light
emitted was one candle, or, if a creater or smaller light was desired, a candle and a
half, or half a candle. The width of the connecting bands was half that of the
tube which surrounds the flame. When these bands were placed in a plane
perpendicular to the bar of a photometer, a point midway between their edges and
at half the height of the flame might be taken very approximately as that from
which the light radiated.
The liquid with which the lamp is fed is pentane, obtained in a manner
already described from American petroleum.
3. Second Report of the Committee for inviting designs for a good Differential
Gravity Meter.—See Reports, p. 41.
4. Report of the Committee for considering the desirability of combined
action for the purpose of Translation of Foreign Memoirs—See Re-
ports, p. 41.
5. Contributions to Marine Meteorology from the Scottish Marine Station.'
By Hue Rosert Mitt, D.Sc., F.RS.L., F.C.S.
Observations have been carried on during three and a half years on the tem-
perature and salinity of the sea and its inlets at various points of the coast of Scot-
land and on various inland lakes. The general result has been to show a marked
difference between the seasonal changes of temperature in sea-water and in the
water of inland lakes of equal depth. There is a distinct difference also in the con-
ditions of the water on the east and on the west coasts of Scotland.
In the deep rock-basins and submerged valleys of the west coast a very singular
vertical distribution of temperature has been detected and its seasonal changes
watched. The Clyde sea-area was selected for particular study, as presenting a
variety of natural conditions readily accessible at all seasons. Results obtained
there show for (1) the Irish Channel a uniform temperature from surface to bottom,
changing regularly with the season, but higher all the year round than the mean
of the enclosed regions; (2) the deep open basins in free tidal communication with
the ocean resemble the Channel at all depths beneath thirty fathoms. The surface
water changes more rapidly in temperature than that below, and hence is warmer
in summer and colder in winter than the mass; (8) the deep enclosed basins, almost
cut off from the tide and shut in by steep mountain walls, show the greatest range of
aniual temperature, and the most complicated vertical distribution. The surface
water is quite fresh after heavy rains and freezes in winter. The annual range may
be 35° or 40° F., while at the bottom (seventy fathoms) 5° is the greatest range
observed, and the maximum temperature there occurs in early spring, when the
surface water is at its minimum; the minimum at the bottom occurs in the begin-
ning of autumn, when the surface attains a maximum.
Superposed layers of water at various temperatures have been frequently
observed, and the curves of vertical change show abrupt transitions, often amounting
to several degrees in a single foot, at considerable depths beneath the surface. The
subject is being investigated from the side of the specific heat and conductivity of
sea-water of various salinities.
1 Published in eatenso in the Scottish Meteorological Society's Journal, 3rd. ser.
vol. viii.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 619
6. The Direction of the Upper Currents over the Equator in connection with
the Krakatoa Smoke-stream. By Professor E. DoucLas ARCHIBALD.
The object of this communication is to show that the results of an examination
of the data regarding the stream of volcanic dust, &c., which issued from Krakatoa
on August 26 and 27, 1883, are not at variance with what can be legitimately
deduced from the general theory of atmospheric circulation, as well as with what
is at present known from observation regarding the gradients and velocity of the air
in the neighbourhood of the equator.
The results of the Krakatoa inquiry necessitate the existence of a constant cur-
rent over, and in the neighbourhood of, the equator, at a height of from 80,000 to
120,000 feet, and of a velocity of from 76 to 80 miles an hour.
1. In order to test the probability of this hypothesis reference is made to the
general theory and to the equation for the poleward gradient
Pe egyeon + ee a ee
R td
as given in Sprung’s ‘ Lehrbuch.’
Where Ty = gradient towards the north.
o = earth’s angular velocity of rotation.
Vg = velocity towards the east.
Vy = velocity towards the north.
g@ = latitude.
F,, = friction term.
R_ = radius of the circle of latitude.
é = time.
Now in the neighbourhood ofthe equator the term 2Vyq@ sin ¢ vanishes, and at
d Vx
a great height Fy becomes very small. Also ai representing a term depending
on rapid changes of velocity, becomes very small. The air at the hicher levels
near the equator may thus move from W. to E., or EK. to W., with considerable
velocity without any sensible gradient. The possibility of its moving rapidly in a
meridional direction is omitted, since, the equator being an axis of symmetry with
respect to the adjacent regions, there is no reason why the air should move across
it towards one pole more than the other.
2. It is next shown that if the air is initially moving at the higher levels from
EK. to W. there is no theoretical cause which would turn it from this course in the
neighbourhood of the equator, since the radius of the inertia curve in which the air
Vv
2osin p
region, and ultimately co at the equator itself.
The deviating influence of inertia relative to the earth’s surface would only
begin to make itself felt at some distance from the equator, and the air moving
from E. to W. would gradually curve round through §.E. to S., and finally to
S.W., the direction which the upper current, as exhibited by the motions of the
upper clouds, is known to have at the borders of the trade zone.
3 The general tendency of the lower air in the region of the trades to move
from some easterly to some westerly points and rise in the neighbourhood of the
equator would favour the upper air moving in the same direction, since the former
in rising would communicate its westward component to the latter.
4, The curves of barometric pressure calculated by Professor Sprung from data
furnished by Professor Ferrel for a mean longitude at
(a) Sea level
(6) 6,558 feet
(c) 13,116 feet
show that the gradient over the neighbourhood of the equator and for 20° on either |
side is very small, and that thus the air would not have a tendency to stream
towards the poles and so acquire a W. to E. motion until it had arrived at some
distance from the equator.
over a rotating sphere tends to move, viz. becomes very large in this
620 REPORT— 1887.
5. The observations of Mr. Abercromby on the motions of the upper clouds over
the equatorial zone, so far as they go, favour the notion of an E. to W. motion of
the upper air, and would seem to show that this is unaffected by local influences
such as monsoons.
6. The velocity of the current, though greater than that of any known constant
winds at the earth's surface, is by no means out of proportion to them if we may
assume the general law of increase of velocity with the height as deduced from
Dr. Vettin’s, and other cloud and wind observations to hold good toa height of
120,000 feet.
For if we reduce the velocity of 80 miles an hour at 120,000 feet down to
1,000 feet by the formula?
Vu 7a
v h
we shall find it = 24-17 miles per hour; and if we reduce this again to 100 feet by
the formula
V 3,7
ses &
which holds better than the former for heights below 1,000 feet, we shall get 11:2
miles per hour for the velocity near the surface, which would normally correspond
with a velocity of 80 miles an hour at an elevation of 120,000 feet above it.
7. On a Comparison-magnetometer. By W. W. Hatpane Grr, B.Sc.
This is a simple apparatus of great convenience for rapidly comparing the
moments of magnets by opposing them on opposite sides of a suspended magnet.
The magnets under comparison are placed on two wooden arms having millimétre
scales that are fixed at right angles to a box containing the suspended magnet.
For most experiments the formula M/M’=D*/D”%, where M, M’ are the moments
of the magnets, and D, D’ the distances of their centres from the suspended magnet,
gives sufficient accuracy, providing that the magnets are not too long or too weak.
The method becomes one of differences by taking double observations, and the
accuracy may be further improved by taking account of the lengths of the magnets
in the manner described in the paper. The apparatus is also adapted for electro-
magnetic and galvanometric measurements.”
8. On Expansion with Rise of Temperature in Wires under Elongating
Stress. By J.T. Borromiey, M.A., F.R.S.L., F.C.S.
This paper gives a preliminary account of experiments undertaken for the pur-
pose of determining the longitudinal expansion with rise of temperature in wires
subjected to different elongating stresses. The investigation has been undertaken
partly in connection with the secular experiments on elasticity of wires initiated
by a committee of the British Association in 1876.
Two copper wires hung side by side in a tube of tin plate about 6 metres long
are alternately heated by steam and allowed to cool. One of these wires carries
one-tenth of its breaking-load; the other, half of its breaking-load.
After a preliminary process of hardening of the wires, found to be necessary
and described in the paper, comparisons were made as to the expansibility with
rise of temperature of the heavily loaded and lightly loaded wires. :
The investigation is far from complete, but there seems no doubt that there is
a measurable difference between the two expansibilities, that of the heavily loaded
wire being the greater.
The experimenting came to an end at the beginning of May, when the supply
of steam from the heating apparatus in the Glasgow University Laboratory ceased
to be available; but the wires are left hanging, carefully protected, and the investi-
gation will be resumed in October next.
1 Cf. Report of British Association for 1884, p. 639.
2 See Llectrical Review, October 7, 1887, p. 370.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 621
9. On the Hlectroiysis of a Solution of Ammonic Sulphate.
By Professor McLeop, F.B.S.
10. Compensation of Electrical Measuring Instruments for Temperature-
Errors. By J. Swineurne.
11. A Musical Slide Rule. By J. SwInBuRNeE.
This is an instrument in which the distances between the marks are propor-
tional to the intervals—that is to say, the distances are proportional to the loga-
rithms of the vibration frequencies. This arrangement appeals to the eye and
gives clear ideas of the musical scale. In the accompanying scale the first fixed
scale is the ordinary equal temperament, the octave being divided into twelve equal
parts. The other fixed scale is the natural, and by means of the cursor the dis-
crepancies can be seen at once. On one side of the moving slide are two scales,
one being the natural and the other being the octave, divided into 53 equal parts,
commonly known as Bosanquet’s cycle. By shifting the slide the various intervals
can be added or subtracted. Thus, by putting c against F it is seen that D comes
opposite G, showing that the interval c-p is equal to r-c. The model being gra-
duated by hand is not correct throughout, but is sufficiently accurate to show the
working of the instrument. The cursor shows how nearly the cycle of 53 corre-
sponds with the natural scale. On the other side of the movable slide are scales of
vibrations and logarithms. To find the vibration frequency of, say, & French pitch,
equal temperament, the line 5 is set opposite the mark on the equal temperament
scale, and the number of vibrations read off. For the natural scale the other mark
must be taken, as the scales are drawn so that the c’s correspond; the a’s, there-
fore, do not come opposite. ‘The logarithm scale is used for finding the logarithm
of any interval.
It is suggested that such an instrument as this would give musical students a
much clearer idea of the nature of intervals and of the problems of temperament.
12. On a certain Method in the Theory of Functional Equations.
By Professor Ernst ScHRODER.
In order to prove that a functional equation 1oes not follow from another given
one, it is indispensable to discover such a function as will satisfy the latter equa-
tion without, however, satisfying the former.
If, for brevity’s sake, a function f (2, y) »f two variables—supposed to be deter-
minatively invertible—is here denoted hy zy, its inverse functions accordingly
being represented hy ¥ and « : y, then, for instance, from the equation
av
C,) ab=a:b
evidently will follow:
Cy) (ab)e=(a: 6):
The impossibility, however, of deducing C, from C,, may be demonstrated (and
it cannot be done in any simpler way) by means of the following table :—
1 =3,69,187245 4 =6,93,421578 7 =9,36,754812
2 =1,47,298356 5 =4,71,532689 8 =7,14,865923
3 = 2,58,579164 6 = 5,82,613497 9 =8,25,946731
which in fact defines, within a system of nine numbers only, a function ay, so ay
throughout to fulfil the equation O,,, but not C,.
The meaning of the table is easily explained through the statement that its first
line is only an abbreviation for 1 = 33 = 69 =96 = 18 = 87 =72 =24=45=51, where
33 stands for f (8, 3), and so on.
622 REPORT—1887.
13. On the Nomenclature of Elementary Dynamics.
By Joun WautmMsuey, B.A.
The exposition of the subject is in need of a suitable nomenclature and is un-
settled in phraseology.
First felt strongly in regard to ‘ acceleration, which is used to denote increase
of rate of velocity, and also rate of the same increase. Restricting it to the latter,
“addend’ may be used for addition made to velocity, and the same term is useful
elsewhere. This removes only part of the risk of confusion.
Matter is the medium of motion, so far as we consider it. The mass of
matter may be called the extenszon of motion, while velocity is its ixtensety. These
are its two real dimensions (not derived dimensions), whence momentum is mv.
Momentum is used confusedly, its meaning of guantity of motion being overlooked.
‘To charge’ (borrowed from electricity) would be a useful term in speaking of in-
fusing motion into mass.
Unit of mass called ‘mass-pound’ might be called “ibra with advantage, so as
to avoid rivalry with ‘ weight-pound.’ The symbol /. would be distinct from Jd.
Force is defined as ‘ cause’ of motion, which can only mean flow of momentum.
This may be called ‘impulsion,’ uniformly with ‘imnulse, which Maxwell uses for
the result of it. Then vate of impulsion is force according to stricter definition we
have to come to later on. The ‘cause’-definition evidently very bad preparation
for the final one, and not now needed.
‘ Force is said to do work when it moves its point of application.’ This defini-
tion absurd in both clauses. Force is a ‘rate’ of charging mass with momentum,
and is only one of two main elements of work, the other being linear space, Force
cannot, strange as it may seem, move anything, but enerey may. These and other
points regarding new parts of dynamics should be kept out of influence of old
habits of the subject.
Difficulties glanced at would be relieved by the adoption of unit-names.
Numerous proposals on the subject show the want is felt. But some think for-
mule in L, M, T would suffice. These would show relationships between units,
and would assist in many ways.
We may get the advantage of formulee combined with ease and drevity of articu-
lation with a little extra trouble at the outset.
Represent mass-unit by /. (for libra), length-unit by f or 0, but not both at once,
time-unit by s o” e, the representation of the last two being thus dual. Formula-
names follow for the derived units of ordinary elementary dynamics without diffi-
culty. Thus for units of velocity, acceleration, momentum, force, work, power, we
have ols, o/se, lo]s, lo|se, flolse, flojsse; which might be pronounced as if the ‘ per’
were not there, and with s sharp. The / shows where ‘denominator’ elements
begin, those on left of it being ‘ numerator’ ones.
These names are here presented simply on their merits as formule, like those of
chemistry. Thus, remembering that ‘ /o/se’ is formula of poundal, its elements are
kept in mind. W=Mg is also worth looking at occasionally, as W . lojse=M./
xg.olse. Advantage of the formule in working problems is often great.
The above remarks apply to the English units. The French are easily obtained
on the same plan.
Thus putting c or 7 for centimetre, g for gramme, and s or e for second, from
the great variety of names which are possible the following set of unit-names seems
the best choice: Js, ¢/se, gt/s, gi/se, cat/se, cat/sse, to be pronounced as French words,
Both sets of names are to be taken as invariable in grammatical number; which
is no practical inconvenience, but rather otherwise.
14. Exhibition and Description of Henry Draper Memorial Photographs
of Stellar Spectra. By Professor H. C. PICKERING.
The researches which constitute the Henry Draper Memorial are conducted at
the Observatory at Harvard College, and consist in the investigation of stellar
spectra. For this purpose Mrs, Draper has sent to the observatory the 11-inch
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 623
objective and the 28 and 15-inch specula formerly used by Dr. Draper. These
specula have not yet been mounted, but preparations for doing so are in active
progress. The objective above mentioned, and also an 8-inch photographic tele-
scope, have for some time been employed in the work, which has been described in
the published report on the Henry Draper Memorial. The photographs sent
herewith and described below illustrate the progress of this work.
1. View of the buildings of the observatory, taken from a point to the north-
west of them. The building at the right of the view contains the 11-inch
Draper telescope, and the small building in the foreground at the extreme left
contains the 8-inch photographic telescope.
9. Interior of the building first mentioned, showing the 11-inch telescope.
3. View of the building containing the 8-inch telescope, showing the construc-
tion of the roof.
4, View of the present state of the building now in process of construction for
the 28-inch reflector above mentioned.
5. Spectra of a Cygnt and a Tauri taken with the 11-inch objective and
enlarged in the manner described in the Draper Memorial Report.
G6. Spectra of o Ceti (showing bright lines) and of a Canis Minorvs.
7. Spectra of a Canis Majoris, a Cygni, a Canis Minoris, a Aurige, and
a Bootis, brought together upon one print for convenience of comparison. In the
original negative the H line in a Cygni is shown distinctly double; but this effect
is unfortunately lost in the process of enlargement and silver printing.
8. A copy of the Draper Memorial Report above mentioned, explaining the
process employed in obtaining the spectra shown in Nos. 5, 6, and 7, and contain-
ing a plate which shows the progress made in these researches since their
commencement.
9. Glass positive, showing the spectrum of 8 Orionis obtained through a Jayer
of hyponitric fumes, for the purpose of determining the wave-lengths of lines in
the stellar spectra as proposed on page 9 of the report. The principal lines of the
stellar spectrum are marked with ink on the glass side of the plate. Nearly all
the other lines shown are due to the fumes.
10. Glass positive of a Lyre showing the H line double.
11. Glass positive of ¢ Urse Majoris, showing the K line double. A faint
spectrum of the star near ¢ is also shown on the same plate.
12. Glass positive showing the extreme blue end of the spectrum of a Canis
Majoris. The shorter spectrum shown on the same plate represents the same star
photographed with a shorter exposure, and therefore exhibiting the detail of the
brighter portion of the spectrum, which is lost by over-exposure in the spectrum
showing the extreme blue end.
The spectra shown in the views numbered 5 and 6 are enlarged about five times;
those in No. 7 about three times. The cylindrical lens was used in these enlarge-
ments, as described in the Report.
The glass positives Nos. 9, 10, 11, and 12 are made directly from the original
negatives, and give a very good idea of the spectrum as originally obtained by the
11-inch telescope. These positives, and also the paper print No. 7, represent
recent work, which is now made public for the first time.
A wide field for study is now open in the comparison of the different spectra
thus obtained, and in their consequent classification. The behaviour of the metals
under variations of temperature and pressure far beyond those which we can con-
trol in the laboratory are here exhibited. In the course of these researches
various cosmic problems will suggest themselves, especially when we employ the
greater light-collecting power of the 28-inch reflector and apply this to the pecu-
liar spectra of some of the fainter stars. The special work for this instrument will
be the study of variable stars, with a view to obtaining some knowledge of the
cause of their variation. The 11-inch telescope will be largely employed in the
study of the movements of stars in the line of sight.
624 ; REPORT—1887.
Section B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—Hpwarp ScHunck, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee for preparing a new series of Wave-length Tables
of the Spectra of the Elements.
to
. Report of the Committee for investigating the Influence of Silicon on the
Properties of Steel—See Reports, p. 43.
3. Third Repori of the Committee for investigating certain Physical Constants
of Solution, especially the Expansion of Saline Solutions.—See Reports,
p. 48.
4, Report of the Committee for investigating the Nature of Solution.—See
Reports, p. 55.
5. Report of the Committee on the Bibliography of Solution.—See Reports,
p- 57.
The PrestpEnt delivered the following Address :—-
Lapies AND GENTLEMEN,-—It is, I can assure you, with a feeling of extreme diffi-
dence that I take the chair to-day as President of the Chemical Section at this
meeting of the British Association. When I look round me and see the many dis-
tinguished men who are prepared to take part in our proceedings I cannot but very
strongly feel that the Council’s choice might have fallen on a worthier representa-
tive of chemical science than myself. Having in the course of my career devoted
more time and attention to technical matters than to purely scientific subjects, and
having moreover arrived at a time of life when active participation in work of any
kind must necessarily be drawing to a close, you must not expect from me the accurate
knowledge of the present state of chemical science and the questions that are at this
moment presenting themselves for solution such as would naturally be required from
anyone occupying the post which I have on this occasion the honour to hold. The
marvellously rapid progress of chemistry during the last twenty years has made it
difficult for the most industrious cultivator of the science to keep abreast of the
knowledge of the day, and for a dilettante like myself one may say it is next to im-
possible. I confess myself painfully conscious of my defects in this respect, and I
shall therefore have to claim the indulgence of the Section should questions arise
on which I am unable to speak with authority, or to discuss with advantage.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 625
Considering, however, how efficiently I am supported by the gentlemen with
whom I have the honour to be associated, and to whom I am sure in any case of dif-
ficulty I may appeal for assistance, I trust to be able to perform the duties of my
office without discredit. I will not, however, trouble you with merely personal
questions, which are always more or less tedious, but proceed with the few remarks
which I wish to make, and which, if not new or instructive, may perhaps serve
to entertain you during the time usually devoted to addresses of this kind.
I think you will hardly expect me, even were I fully competent to do so, to
review the progress of chemistry during the last half-century, for the time at my
disposal would be too short and the result at my hands, I fear, unsatisfactory.
I shall prefer to call attention in a few words to the chemistry of other days as I
knew it and the chemistry of the present time as known to us all, and to point out
what I consider to be the chief characteristics of each. I shall then, with your
permission, point out a few of the directions in which, in my opinion, the chemistry
of the future will probably be developed, and in this undertaking I shall perhaps
be more successful than in the other ; for to discuss the history of science requires
exact knowledge; but in speculating on its future the imagination comes into play,
and to imagine is easier than to describe.
When I first entered on my studies, exactly fifty years ago, chemistry could
hardly be called a science—it was rather a collection of isolated facts unconnected
by any consistent theory covering the whole field. Most of the important elements
were known, but of the exact proportions in which they combine together we were
ignorant. The law of definite proportion had been generally accepted, but so im-
perfect were the data then at our disposal that we may say the law was rather
taken for granted than proved. The atomic theory of Dalton as explaining this
law had also been adopted by chemists; but it is not unlikely that this theory, then
in its infancy, might by the vigorous onslaught of a man of Berthollet’s acumen
have been upset, and we should then have been left entirely without a guide
through the bewildering labyrinth of facts. Of any connection between chemistry
and physics there was in those days no question; of any but the most superficial
notions regarding the effects of heat, light, and electricity on chemical substances
we had no conception. The idea that chemistry could have any bearing on or con-
nection with physiology or pathology would have been ridiculed as absurd. I can
hardly think of the then state of organic chemistry without feeling amused. The
condition of this branch of chemistry could hardly perhaps be called chaotic or rudi-
mentary, for, after all, what had been done had been well done and neatly done, but
the assemblage of facts of which it consisted was devoid of systematic arrangement ;
it resembled a cabinet of curiosities, the components of which stand in no recognisable
_ relation to one another, or a miscellaneous collection of books placed in an orderly
manner on shelves, but without any attempt at classification. As to the genesis of
organic compounds, what would now be called absurd notions prevailed. I dis-
tinctly remember eminent chemists maintaining that no strictly speaking organic
body, even of the simplest constitution, could possibly be formed without the inter-
vention of the so-called vital force. The fact, then recently discovered by Wohler,
of the artificial formation of urea from inorganic substances, was considered as some-
thing almost miraculous—z.e., as a phenomenon the like of which would perhaps never
again recur. Without, however, entering into further details, I think I may, with-
out fear of contradiction, assert that the main distinction between the chemistry of
fifty years ago and the chemistry of the present day consists in this, that, whereas
formerly the science dealt chiefly with qualitative reactions, it now occupies itself
principally with quantitative determinations. To have established the fact that
every chemical phenomenon may be represented in figures, denoting either number,
measure, or weight, such figures, when once accurately determined, remaining
constant and unchanged through all time—this seems to me the crowning glory of
modern chemistry. It is the firm establishment of this principle that has trans-
formed the face of chemistry and has made it an exact instead of a merely descrip-
tive science.
In justice to our predecessors it should, however, be remembered that this
principle, though more fully developed in our own day, was not for the first time
1887. Ss
626 REPORT—1887.
set up in quite recent times. The labours of Dalton, conducted on quantitative
lines, were performed in this city of Manchester in the early part of this century.
At the same time Berzelius was engaged in analysing the most important inorganic
compounds and establishing the fact, not previously recognised, strange as it may
now appear, that every well-defined substance has a definite chemical composition.
But going still further back, we come to the alchemists. Now alchemy, if it has
any logical basis at all, is founded on quantitative notions as regards matter. All
metals, the alchemists said, consist of sulphur, salt, and mercury (these terms signify-
ing not so much elements in the modern sense as qualities) in various proportions ;
hence their convertibility. Take copper, remove from it a certain proportion of
its sulphurous constituent, and add more of the mercurial, and you have silver;
repeat the process with silver, and gold results. At the time of which I speak,
though much important analytical work had been done by Berzelius, Rose, and
others in inorganic chemistry, though the veteran Chevreul had led the way in
placing organic chemistry on a quantitative basis, and the composition of the most
important organic compounds—thanks to the labours of Liebig and his method of
organic analysis—had heen ascertained,, still quantitative determinations were not
considered of such paramount importance as at present. In fact, scientific thought
did not run in that direction, but satisfied itself, for the most part, with the study
of qualitative reactions. It was still possible to see memoirs by eminent chemists
containing not a single quantitative determination. Strange as it may seem, two
able chemists, Boettger and Schoenbein, were living until quite recently who worked
and obtained valuable results without resorting to the balance, the instrument
which of all others seems the most indispensable to the chemist of to-day. The
balance was indeed universally employed in my younger days, but no other instru-
ment, properly socalled, was ever seen in the laboratory. The spectroscope was not
yet invented, the polariscope had not come into use ; volumetric analysis was still
in its infancy. Even the thermometer was but seldom used. What a different
picture does the laboratory of the present day present, with its instruments of pre-
cision and its various appliances for effecting quantitative determinations of all
kinds!
Whether the universal prevalence of and exclusive attention to quantitative
methods in chemistry has been an unmixed good may be doubted. Who has not
run with a weary eye over the long array of figures, the never-ending tables of
which some modern memoirs seem to consist, and not longed for some mere de-
scription—were it only regarding trivial matters—to relieve the monotony and fix the
subject treated of onthe memory ? That quantitative determinations given in quite
precise terms may occasionally be entirely futile may be seen on referring to the
history of alchemy. One of the later alchemists professes to have converted 5,400
parts by weight of copper into 6,552 parts of silver by the action of 1 part of a
metal-improving substance (philosopher's stone).1 Here we see the quantitative
method applied to a purely chimerical process, elaborated from the depths of the
experimenter’s inner consciousness, and of no value whatever. Much of what is at
the present day carefully worked out and presented to the world in numerical form
may, like this statement of the alchemist, pass away and be forgotten. This may
possibly be the case with the numerous carefully made analyses of water which we
now meet with, and which we would gladly exchange for a few decided qualitative
tests of its hygienic properties. In the case of air and water it is not the minuteness
of the noxious matter which causes doubts to arise, but the absence of any decided
and undoubted chemical characteristics of the impurities present. It is probable
that a refined sense of taste, uncorrupted by the luxurious indulgences which civili-
sation has introduced, would be able to detect differences in drinking water which
might escape the attention of the most consummate analyst.
Whatever objections may, however, be entertained to the application of
quantitative methods in natural science, to the exclusion of others, it is certain that
important results have flowed from their adoption, insomuch that we seem to have
arrived at the conclusion that the expression of quantitative results is the be-all
1 Kopp, Die Alchemie.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 627
and end-all of science ; that all differences are merely quantitative ; that there is no
such thing as mere quality. The whole philosophy of our age is expressed in this
one proposition: All differences within the sphere of our experience are quanti-
tative. It is the basis of Darwinism, if I am not mistaken, and underlies many of
our political and social theories. Of course it is a mere assumption if stated
generally, for the phenomena that admit of purely quantitative expression are few
in number compared with those that do not; but then it is surmised, and with some
degree of probability, that the vast region outside the quantitative sphere will in
time come to be included within it. The past history of science seems to render
this likely in the future. The science of chemistry has so far, however, presented
an insuperable barrier to the general adoption of this view, and will continue to do
so as long as the so-called elements remain what we now admit them to be—in-
destructible, immutable, inconvertible. It is possible to denote all the Inown pro-
perties of gold and silver, their atomic weight, specific gravity, hardness, malleability,
action towards heat, light, and electricity in precise numbers with reference in each
case to a certain standard, and yet we cannot say that silver minus a little of this,
plus a little of that, constitutes gold—the two elements are essentially and radically
distinct. Unless we admit with the alchemists that by taking away a little of A
and adding a little of B we can convert one metal into another, one element into
another, the quantitative method must fall short of its complete development in
chemistry. Numerous attempts have, therefore, been made to show the theoretical
probability, even if it should not be possible to prove it experimentally, of the so-
called elements being really compound bodies, or at least of their containing a
basic matter common to all. My predecessor in this chair has endeavoured to show
in the brilliant address delivered to this Section on the occasion of the last meeting
of the Association that the barrier hitherto presented to us by the intractability of
our present elements may be overcome, and has adduced experimental illustrations
in favour of his view of the compound nature of the elements. Mr. Crookes has
called to his aid the doctrine of evolution, which has proved so valuable an instru-
ment in the hands of the biologist, maintaining that the elements, like the species
of plants and animals, were gradually evolved by some process of condensation
from a primordial matter called by him ‘ protyle, each step in the process being
represented by a distinct element. This is doubtless taking very safe ground, for if
the process of evolution was the same in the inorganic as it is supposed to have
been in the organic world, the process can never be repeated, and we shall, there-
fore, never be in a position to illustrate it experimentally. I may, however, have
misunderstood what Mr. Crookes meant to convey, and, if so, must apologise for
misrepresenting his views. Granting, however, the possibility of our resolving our
present elements, were it in theory only, into modifications of one basic material
out of which they have been evolved, the question would still remain to be
answered, What has caused this primordial matter to be split up into groups and
forms having distinct and opposite qualities ? and when this question is answered,
if it can be answered even in a problematical way, then other questions would
arise, until by degrees we should arrive at the confines of physical knowledge and
find ourselyes in the region of metaphysics, where scientific reasoning ceases and
thinking for scientific purposes becomes unprofitable. Excursions into this region
would indeed be very useful if on returning to physical regions we could every time
bring back with us an instrument as potent and far-reaching as the atomic theory
has proved to be, a theory which still remains the basis of all our reasoning in
chemistry, but then the atomic theory has been quite an exceptional instance.
Metaphysical speculation, such as the Naturphilosophie of the Germans has dealt
in, has, generally speaking, been utterly barren in natural science.
I will not on the present occasion dwell on.the vast addition made to the
number of useful and beautiful substances by chemists during the last fifty years.
Their number is legion, and their mere description fills volumes, whereas half a
century ago a dictionary of moderate size would have sufficed for the purpose.
Among these newly discovered substances none are more remarkable than the
metals rubidium, cesium, thallium, indium, gallium, the existence of which was
revealed by the spectroscope, and which, indeed, would probably have remained
: ss2
628 REPORT—1887.
unknown but for the labours of Bunsen and Kirchhoff in perfecting and applying
that instrument.
I must not, however, omit all reference to a department of chemistry which has
been, one may almost say, created within the time to which I am referring—I mean
that of synthesis. When I began to study chemistry we only heard of analysis ; of
synthesis, so far at least as regards organic bodies, we only dreamt as a remote and
unattainable region. The only instance then known of the synthesis of an organic
substance was that of urea by Wohler. Synthesis was, indeed, supposed to be an
essentially vital process effected under the influence of the vital force, and quite out-
side the sphere of the chemist. Since then what marvels have we not seen?
Alizarin and purpurin, the colouring matters of madder, have been prepared
artificially by Graebe and Liebermann, indigo by Baeyer, not to mention bodies of
simpler constitution obtained by comparatively less complicated processes. We are
honoured to-day by the presence of Professor Ladenburg, who has succeeded in arti-
ficially preparing coniin, the alkaloid to which hemlock owes its poisonous properties ;
the first natural alkaloid, indeed, which has been obtained artificially. Looking back
at what has been achieved I think we may entertain the confident anticipation that
all the most important organic bodies—acids, alkaloids, and neutral substances—will,
in course of time, be obtained in a similar manner, though of one thing we may be
pretty sure, viz., that we shall never succeed in forming any really organised
matter as distinct from organic. The term organic matter is in fact only employed
for the sake of convenience, and as an expression handed down to us from former
days, since so-called organic compounds are subject to the same laws with regard
to composition as the bodies which we name mineral or inorganic, but organised
matter such as we find constituting the vessels of plants and animals is a different
thing. The protoplasm contained in the vegetable and animal cell is something
very distinct from the same matter after the death of the organism, but the
difference between living and dead matter is not of a chemical nature. In referring
to chemical synthesis I cannot refrain from expressing regret that so little has
hitherto been done in the artificial production of minerals with a view to elucidating
the processes by which they were formed in nature, but it is possible that more has
been done in this direction than I am aware of, since this is a department of
chemistry with which I am not familiar. It is certain that inorganic chemistry
generally does not now receive the attention which it formerly did. The exclusive
devotion to the chemistry of the carbon compounds which we find in most of our
laboratories at the present day may, however, be accounted for when we see the
brilliant results to which the study of those compounds has led.
After these few remarks on the development of chemistry during the last: fifty
years, of which I know a little, it may seem presumptuous on my part, in the
presence of some of the most eminent chemists of our day, whose opinions must be
of infinitely more value than mine, to say anything about the future of our science
and the direction it will probably take. Nevertheless, trusting to your kind
indulgence, I will venture on some speculations in this direction, which, if they do
not instruct the younger members of the Section, may serve to amuse their seniors,
and at all events will refer to subjects on which some thought is well bestowed.
As regards the future of chemistry, the question has frequently suggested itself
to me as it has doubtless done to others—Will chemical science go on expanding
and developing during the next few generations as it has done in the course of the
last hundred years? Will discovery follow discovery, and fact be added to fact, until
the record occupies not a few volumes only, but a whole library ? Will systematic
chemistry, @.e., the history and description of all possible combinations of the
elements, have any limits? I am inclined to answer in the negative. All human
institutions pass through the same phases; they have their rise, they culminate,
and decay; and I do not see why the science of chemistry should form an excep=
tion. Moreover, it is a natural law that whatever develops rapidly also declines
rapidly, and the development of systematic chemistry since the commencement of
this century has been perfectly unprecedented. I think it probable that in the
course of time, at the rate at which we are now progressing, nearly all possible
compounds will have been prepared, all the most important chemical facts will
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 629
have been discovered, and pure chemistry will then be practically exhausted, and
will be in the same condition as systematic botany and mineralogy now are.
New compounds will now and then be discovered, just as new plants and new
minerals now are, but nothing further will be brought to light that will affect
the theories at which we shall then have arrived, whatever they may be. AJl
the material with which the science has to deal having then been brought together,
what will happen? Will chemical science cease? Will chemists, satisfied with
past achievements, cease to work, confining themselves to practical questions and
the history of the days gone by? I think not. The science will continue to
develop, but it will be in other directions than those previously pursued. The
exhaustion of systematic botany has not put an end to botanical science, for
vegetable physiology has opened a wide field to the botanist, one that will take a
long time to explore thoroughly. To indicate the directions whieh chemical science
will take in its various applications to other departments of knowledge, as, for
instance, in connection with the study of the physical properties of matter, or in
elucidation of the chemical processes whereby minerals have been formed, or those
through which geological strata have passed in bygone ages, would not be within
my competency, as I should have to touch on subjects with which I am not familiar ;
but I may be permitted to refer in a few words to a subject, with which, by reading
at least, I have become better acquainted, and which seems to me to offer a wide
field to the investigator who shall come well provided with physical and chemical
knowledge to its cultivation. I allude to the processes whereby the substances
constituting the various organs of plants and their contents are formed, and those
again to which the decomposition and decay of vegetable matter are due ; a subject
as to which our knowledge is quite elementary, but which, it seems to me, admits
of an extension and development of which we have at present not the least con-
ception.
ie Saussure, it is well known, first discovered the fact that plants under the
influence of light absorb carbonic acid and give off oxygen, the inference of course
being that the carbonic acid and the water present are decomposed, the carbon of
the former and the hydrogen of the latter going to form the various organic con-
stituents of the plant, while the oxygen or a part of it is set at liberty and poured
into the atmosphere. The facts as they stand are simply these: what the plant
requires for its subsistence is carbonic acid, water, nitrogen in some form (presum-
ably that of a nitrate), certain bases—potash, lime, magnesia, iron oxide, and
phosphoric acid. Out of these it constructs the whole of its organic frame, its cells
and their contents, re-arranging the elements of which its food consists in such a
manner as to convert inorganic into organic matter, z.e. changing bodies in which
the affinities of the atoms are thoroughly satisfied into such as contain them in a
state of more or less unstable equilibrium, and therefore liable to alteration when
their atoms are allowed to act in accordance with their natural affinities. More
than this we do not know ; our ignorance of the several steps or stages of the pro-
cess, if there are any such steps, is complete; all that has been added to the general .
statement just given is mere speculation. Yet it is impossible to remain
satisfied with the present state of our knowledge on the subject. Accordingly
numerous attempts have been made to bridge over the chasm which separates the
inorganic and organic worlds, not indeed to show that the change does not involve
the creation, as was once supposed, of new matter—for this was proved long ago—
but to exhibit in its details the hidden mechanism which produces it—but hitherto
without success. We know that light is essential to the process of assimilation in
plants, since the process does not go on in the dark ; but this fact does not help us to
an explanation, for light in this case is a mere stimulant, and never produces the same
or similar effects outside the vegetable organism. Liebig and others have attempted
to show that the process of assimilation in plants commences with the formation of
some simply constituted body, such as oxalic or formic acid, with the elimination
of oxygen, out of which by condensation and further separation of oxygen more
complex bodies, such as sugar, fats, &c., are formed ; but there is not the slightest
evidence at present in favour of this view. The first product of assimilation that is
distinctly recognised is starch, a highly complex organic, one might almost say an
630 REPORT—1887.
organised body, which appears at once with all its characteristic properties, like
Minerva springing fully armed from the head of Jove. If we are to adhere to the
facts so far observed, we must conclude that the plant does not proceed as we
should do in the laboratory, beginning with the more simply constituted compounds
and advancing to the more complicated, but that the reverse process is the one
actually adopted, the supposed intermediate products being in fact the result
of retrogressive metamorphosis. This conclusion is, however, so much opposed to
ordinary chemical views that one cannot feel surprised at the constantly repeated
attempts to clear up the question. There can be no doubt indeed that much here
remains to be done and to be discovered.
Intimately connected with this subject is that of chlorcphyll, the green colouring
matter of leaves, which is always found wherever the process of assimilation in plants
is going on, and nowhere else, and is therefore doubtless an essential factor in the
process. What part it plays in this process is, in my opinion, still unknown. Its
action is probably in part chemical, in part physical, and this adds, it may be, to ©
the difficulty of understanding it. It is generally supposed that it is chlorophyll
which by its direct action on the carbonic acid and water with which it comes
into contact leads to the formation of organic matter with elimination of oxygen.
But this is, 1 think, a mere assumption—an error due, like many others, to a
mistaken use of terms. The chlorophyll of chemists is simply an organic colouring
matter, like alizarin or indigo, but being in the vegetable cell intimately associated
with other matters, vegetable physiologists have attributed to the action of one,
and that the most obvious, constituent what is really due to the complex, perhaps
even to some quite other constituent of the complex. It is difficult to understand
how the chlorophyll of chemists can be endowed with the remarkable and excep-
tional properties attributed to it by physiologists; it is a chemical entity, nothing
more. It may indeed be said that chlorophyll only acts as it is stated to do
when enclosed within the vegetable cell, but this merely amounts to saying that
its action is not purely chemical, but is controlled by the vitality of the cell, which,
I suppose, means the action of the protoplasm. If chlorophyll is the agent
whereby the decomposition of carbonic acid and water is effected, how, it may be
asked, is the agent itself produced? It does not come from without; the plant
must be able to form it in the first instance. We are told by vegetable physiolo-
gists that the coniferee when raised in total darkness from seeds produce
chlorophyll. In light or in darkness Iam convinced it is the same; the plant
forms chlorophyll asa means to an end. What the end is we know; it is the
assimilation of carbon and hydrogen to form organic matter. ow does the
chlorophyll assist in attaining this end ?
In propounding a new theory in reply to this question I venture to claim your
indulgence, such as has been accorded to some of my predecessors and others who
at these meetings of the British Association have been permitted to make state-
ments and use arguments of a novel or paradoxical character, which, if they effect
nothing else, at least afford a relief to the usual routine of scientific reasoning.
My experiments on chlorophyll have led me to infer that the constitution of
that body is much less simple than it is generally supposed to be. I do not
mean by this that chlorophyll is a mixture in the usual sense ; everyone who has
paid any attention to the subject knows that ordinary chlorophyll consists of
several colouring matters, some of which are yellow, not to mention fatty matters
which are unessential. What I mean to say is this, that the pure green substance,
the chlorophyll par excellence, does not belong to the same class of bodies as alizarin
or indigo, but contains three elements, each of which is essential to its constitu-
tion, one being a basic nitrogenous colouring matter, the second a metal or a
metallic oxide, the third an acid, the three together constituting green chlorophyll.
The basic colouring matter is a body of very peculiar properties; it is the phyl-
locyanin of Fremy: the metal may be iron or zinc, the acid I will suppose to be
carbonic acid. Now the plant having formed its colouring matter, the metallic
oxide being present in some form or other, and the carbonic acid being supplied
by the atmosphere, all the necessary conditions co-exist for the formation of
chlorophyll. The compound is an unstable one; it easily parts with its carbonic
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 631
acid, giving it up to the protoplasm or whatever the agent may be that effects its
actual decomposition under the influence of light. The advantage of this arrange-
ment would consist in this, that the carbonic acid would be presented in a more
condensed state to the agent which effects its decomposition than if it were merely
contained in a watery solution, but more loosely combined, and therefore more
easily accessible than if it were united to a strong base such as potash or lime.
The carbonic acid having been disposed of, the other two constituents would be in
a state to take up fresh quantities of carbonic acid and so on. Chlorophyll would
therefore act as a carrier of carbonic acid in the plant, just as hemoglobin serves
to convey oxygen in the animal economy. Numerous objections may of course be
raised to the theory of which I here give an outline ; I only throw it out as a tenta-
tive explanation, showing that the function of chlorophyll may he, in part at least,
chemical, and that we need not suppose it to be endowed with the marvellous
and exceptional powers usually ascribed to it. Other and more probable explana-
tions will doubtless suggest themselves when this difficult subject has been more
thoroughly worked out. Eventually, too, it will be found, I imagine, that
physical forces as well as chemical aftinities play a part in this as in every other
process of the vegetable economy. In the case of chlorophyll there can be no
doubt that the green colour and the peculiar behaviour towards light have some-
thing to do with its action, but on this point it is not necessary for the chemist to
pronounce any opinion. I may take this opportunity of mentioning the impostant
experiments of Sachs and Pringsheim on the optical properties of chlorophyll in
their relation to assimilation in plants, as they are probably not so well known to
chemists as to botanists.
What I have said may serve to show that the very first steps of the process
whereby organic or organised matter is formed in plants are hardly understood.
We understand still less the further steps leading to the production of the more
eomplex vegetable bodies—acids, alkaloids, fatty matters. Granted that we were
able to trace the formation in the plant of a compound of simple constitution,
such as oxalic or formic acid, how far should we still be from understanding the
building up of such compounds as starch, albumen, or morphia? ‘The syntheses so
successfully and ingeniously carried out in our laboratories do not here assist us in
the least. We know the steps by which alizarin is artificially produced from
anthracene ; but can anyone for an instant suppose that the plant commences in the
same way with anthracene, converting this into anthraquinone, and haying acted
on the latter first with acid, then with alkali, arrives at last at alizarin? Indeed the
plant never contains ready-formed alizarin at all. What we observe from the com-
mencement is a glucoside, a compound of alizarin and glucose, which, so far as we see,
is not gradually built up, but springs into existence at once. When we think of the
complicated process by which indigo is produced in the laboratory with the various
substances and appliances required, and then see how in the minutest seed-leaves of
a plant like woad a still more complex substance, indican, is found ready-formed,
we stand confounded at the simplicity of the apparatus employed by the plant, and
are obliged to confess that we have no conception of the means whereby the end
is attained. The same difficulties occur in other cases, and it will therefore probably
be conceded that the synthetic processes carried on in plants, from the first step
to the last, are not in the least understood.
1t might be supposed that after all the labour and attention bestowed on the
inorganic constituents of plants we should know something of the part played by
these constituents in the processes of assimilation and nutrition, but here the
obscurity is as great as elsewhere. We know by experiment that certain inorganic
matters—potash, lime, magnesia, iron oxide, phosphoric acid—are essential to the
growth of plants ; but of their mode of action, or of the reason why certain plants
require potash salts, others lime, and so on, we know nothing. Phosphoric acid is
no doubt an essential constituent of the protoplasm of the plant ; but why cellulose,
of which the various organs chiefly consist, should require mineral matters, which
do not enter into its composition, for its formation and building up, is still a
mystery. , :
The department of chemistry which relates to the decomposition of organic and
632 REPORT—1887.
organised matter presents problems almost as difficult of solution as those relating
to their formation and building up; that is to say, the phenomena observed do not
apparently obey the same Jaws as those prevailing in the inorganic world. When I
began my chemical studies the difference in this respect between mineral and
organic compounds was less clearly seen than at present. The conversion of aleohol
into acetic acid, the putrefaction of animal and vegetabie matter were thought to
be simply due to oxidation ; they were phenomena, it was supposed, exactly similar
to the rusting of iron, the tarnishing of metals, the fading of colours. That a third
body was required to initiate and continue the process of decomposition, that
organic matter in contact with purified air would remain unchanged for any length
of time—was not known nor suspected. I am not quite sure whether spontaneous
decomposition—.e. the splitting up of a complex body without the intervention of
an external agent—might not at that time have been considered possible. In order
to explain the phenomena of fermentation, the decomposition of sugar into alcohol
and carbonic acid, for instance, we had only the theory of contact—devised by Ber-
zelius and Mitscherlich, the latter of whom used to expatiate on the subject at great
length in his lectures. When this ghost of a theory was laid by Liebig, who suggested
an intelligible explanation of the phenomena in accordance with the facts then
known, it was felt to be quite a relief, as affording a resting-place—if only a tem-
porary one—for the mind. The brilliant researches of Pasteur, which have thrown
so much light on the action of the insoluble organised ferments, I need only refer
to, as they are so widely known, even outside scientific circles ; and since also in-
vestigations such as his cannot be discussed without some reference to biological
questions, which cannot be entered on here. I will confine myself therefore to a
few remarks on the unorganised or soluble ferments, one of which I had occasion
to examine when engaged in investigating madder and its colouring matters. These
ferments, the type of which is diastase—a substance found accompanying starch in
the seeds of plants—are soluble in water, perfectly neutral, devoid of all definite
form, and though apparently inert, able when acting within the sphere in
which Nature has placed them to cause changes and decomposition of the most
profound character. Their action excludes everything in the shape of vitality, and
yet it is as mysterious and unaccountable as anything that the vitality of the
organised ferments is able to effect. Indeed, in vegetable, and especially animal,
organisms they seem expressly intended for the attainment of certain ends necessary
for the well-being, or even the existence, of the organism, insomuch that it has
been supposed, with some show of reason, that it is to bodies of this class existing
within the cells of organised ferments, but not separable by any means at our
disposal, that the changes produced by the latter are really due.
A great deal of attention has been paid to the products and results of
fermentation, but very little hitherto to the modus operandi of the ferments
themselves, and yet this seems to me to offer a wide field for interesting research,
especially in the case of those of the soluble class, which are easily prepared, and
can be manipulated in the laboratory like any chemical substance without the
tedious precautions and preliminary operations necessary in the case of the
organised ferments. In what way, it may be asked, do these soluble ferments
produce the effects peculiar to them? Is the action essentially chemical, or is it
due to physical causes as well? Is the quantity of fermentable matter acted on by
a certain quantity of ferment unlimited in amount, or are there limits to that
amount somewhere? Does the ferment itself undergo any change during the
process of fermentation, or is it the same afterwards as before and capable of
acting on fresh quantities of fermentable matter? "When a ferment is replaced by
a strong mineral acid, the products of decomposition being the same, is the modus
operandi in both cases alike, or must a different explanation be in each case
sought? These questions have never been satisfactorily answered, and await
solution. I know of only one attempt to show what actually takes place during
a process of fermentation set up by a soluble ferment.
The experiments of Wurtz! on papain, the soluble ferment of Carica papaya,
1 Comptes Rendus, 91, 787.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 633
led him to the conclusion that the fibrin on which it is made to act combines in the
first instance with the ferment itself, the latter after the hydration of the fibrin is
completed being again set at liberty, and then able to act on fresh quantities of
fibrin. Thus, according to Wurtz, the action is found to be the same as that of
chemical agents, properly so called, such as sulphuric acid, of which minute quanti-
ties may exert a hydrating action in consequence of the transitory formation of
compounds which are constantly being produced and again decomposed.
There is another question referring to these soluble ferments to which in the
present state of our knowledge it is impossible to frame a probable answer, viz.,
why does it so frequently happen that each ferment exerts a specific action, an
action peculiar to itself, this affording in fact, in the absence of any marked chemical
characters, the only means by which they can be distinguished one from the other ?
Why does one ferment act on starch only, while the function of another consists
in the hydration of fibrin, that of another in the decomposition of a glucoside, and
so on? In accordance with the explanation of Wurtz, we should say that a
specific ferment is one capable of combining only with the body on which it is
to act, and with no other. I was led to ask this question when engaged in the
examination of the colouring matters of Rubia tinctorum. The root of this plant,
the madder of commerce, contains glucosides, which, though coloured, are quite
devoid of tinctorial power. Nature has at the same time placed in the root a
peculiar ferment, which, coming into contact with these glucosides at a certain
temperature, effects their decomposition, splitting them up into glucose and true
colouring matters. Now this ferment is a body suz generts and cannot be replaced
by any other ferment that I have tried ; its action is specific. Why Nature should
have deposited this body in the recesses of the plant for the express purpose of acting
on certain glucosides and forming colouring matters, the object of which, so far as
the economy of the plait is concerned, can only be guessed at, is difficult to under-
stand. One is inclined in such a cas2 to revert to the old-fashioned doctrine that
some natural processes were devised for the use and delectation of man. It is
quite certain in the case of madder that had it not been for its peculiar ferment
erythrozym, the valuakle tinctorial properties of the root, which have for centuries
been applied in the yroduction of that splendid dye Turkey red, would have
remained whknown perhaps to the present day, since the only efficient substitute
for the natural ferm¢nt is a strong mineral acid, and such acids and their uses
were unknown in former days.
I am inclined to think that some of the younger chemists and physiologists of
to-day may live to see the time when all the at present mysterious and unaccount-
able processes going on in the organisms of plants and animals, including those of
fermentation, will be found to obey purely physical and chemical laws. To the
biologist it may seem derogatory to the dignity of his science to have the principle
of vitality, which has so long reigned supreme, dethroned and replaced by hard, un-
bending law. Such, however, is not the opinion of that distinguished botanist
Sachs, who says, referring to this very point :—‘ Der Organismus selbst ist nur die
aus verschiedenen Theilen bestehende Maschine, die durch weitere Eingriffe iiusserer
Krafte in Bewegung gesetzt werden muss: von ihrer Struktur hanet es ab, welchen
Effekt diese ausseren Krifte an ihr bewirken. Es wiirde einen sehr niedrigen
Horizont wissenschaftlicher Bildung verrathen, in diesem Vergleich eine Herabset-
zung des Organismus sehen zu wollen, denn in einer Maschine, wenn auch nur von
Menschenhianden gemacht, liegt das Resultat tiefsten und sorgfiltigsten Nachdenkens
und hoher Intelligenz, soweit es ihre Struktur betrifft, und wirksam sind in ihr
schliesslich dieselben Naturkrifte, welche in anderer Combination die Lebenskrifte
eines Organs darstellen. Die Vergleichung des organischen Lebens mit unorganischen
Processen kann nur dann als eine Erniedrigung des ersteren gelten, wenn man so
thoricht gewesen ist, die letzteren als etwas Niedriges und Gemeines aufzufassen,
wahrend die unbegreifliche Grésse und Durchgeistigung der Natur in beiden Fallen
sich gleichartig offenbart.’! The time may be far distant when these views of the
great botanist shall be universally accepted; but they will, I think, sooner or later
prevail.
1 Vorlesungen tiber Pflanzenphysiologie.
634 REPORT—1887.
The little known territory which separates the domains of chemistry and
physiology will, in my opinion, offer a wide and interesting field for research, after
that of pure chemistry shall have been exhausted or lost its interest. Most
important problems connected with life and its relation to the inorganic world there
await solution, and I confess that I am inclined to envy the young investigator who,
coming provided with an ample store of chemical and physical knowledge, shall
apply himself to the solution of these problems. The pleasures derived from the
successful pursuit of such studies belong to the highest and purest that we are able
to conceive. I can, however, only repeat what has so often been said before, and
what the young man of science should not forget, that a life devoted to research
only involves no material rewards; it certainly never secures wealth, sometimes
not even honour nor fame. Looked on with indifference or even dislike by the
State and the general public, all that the man of science can certainly look forward
to at the close of his career is the addition at his hands of a few stones to the vast
edifice of Truth, and the consciousness of having attained a higher stage of intel-
lectual insight.
You may probably expect me, before I conclude, to make some reference to
technological matters, to the various chemical arts and manufactures for which the
Manchester district is noted. At the last meeting of the British Association in
Manchester a report on the condition at that time of manufacturing chemistry in
the South Lancashire district, by Sir Henry Roscoe, the late Dr. Angus Smith, and
myself, was laid before the Chemical Section. A similar report showing the pro~
gress made in chemical technology since that time would have been interesting.
Great changes have taken place during the period that has elapsed, especially as re-
gards the alkali trade, and quite a new branch of industry has been developed, that
of the coal-tar colours. A description of these new features of our chemical
industry with statistics of production would therefore have been acceptable. The
idea of a report had, however, to be given up on account of the difficulty of obtain-
ing reliable information as to details, and in these matters it is the details principally
which are interesting, the general features of the subject being well known. It
ean hardly be a matter for surprise, I think, that our manufacturers, considering
the active competition to which they are exposed, and the disadvantages under
which they labour in consequence of the exclusiveness of foreign nations, should
be loth to furnish information which would benefit their rivals in trade. Several
interesting papers on branches of chemical industry by gentlemen well versed in
them will, however, be read before the Section, and these will, to a great extent,
make up for the want of a general report. In the Chemical Section of our Jubilee
Exhibition, too, you will see a very fine collection of chemical products, more
extensive and beautiful, perhaps, than any previously brought together, and these
will give you a good idea of our industrial activity. It would have been interest-
ing to witness step by step some of the processes employed in the manufacture of
these various products, but this, I am sorry to say, must not be expected generally.
To some it may seem that this Jubilee Exhibition shows the manufacturing in-
dustry and prosperity of this district at least at their highest state of development;
that they are now at their meridian, and in the future are doomed to decline. If
this be so—and there are certainly indications which seem to favour this view—it
would be well for those whose visits here are only occasional to take especial note
of the present state of things so as to be able to compare their impressions when
they next visit us with those now received, since gradual changes in communities,
as in individuals, are more patent to casual observers than to those who are always
on the watch.
From some points of view the signs of the times are certainly not encouraging.
It should not be forgotten that the manufacturing prosperity of this district de-
pends to a great extent on the ample supply of a product which is brought to us at
some cost from tropical and semi-tropical countries to be re-exported in the shape
of manufactured goods. A political convulsion abroad, and this, unfortunately, is
a casualty that may at any time be expected, or even the determination on the part
of other nations to starve us out, however short-sighted such a determination would
be, might cut off our supplies and disable us permanently as we were partially dis-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 635
abled twenty-five years ago. If to this be added the fact that foreign nations are
becoming increasingly hostile and exclusive commercially, we cannot feel surprise
at the dismal forebodings entertained and the contident predictions of decline
uttered by some who claim to know all the facts. 1 ought to apologise for alluding
to so gloomy a subject on the occasion of this to a great extent festive gathering,
but then men of science like to look at a question not only from a hopeful but from
every point of view. Fortunately on this question they are not called upon to
pronounce any opinion one way or the other.
Should this be the last time that Manchester shall entertain the British Asso-
ciation in the day of its prosperity, I can only say with the German poet—
Schliesst den Kreis und leert die Flaschen
Diese Sommerniichte feiernd,
Schiimme Zeiten werden kommen,
Die wir auch sodann ertragen.
Whether in prosperity or adversity I feel sure that this city will always endea-
your to entertain its visitors to the best of its ability. On the present occasion I
may, with confidence on the part of the chemical world of Manchester, offer to the
many friends from near and far who honour us with their presence at this meeting
a most hearty welcome.
6. Preliminary Notice of a Re-determination of the Atomic Weight of Gold,
with some remarks on the present State of owr Knowledge as to the
Determination of Atomic Weights in general. By Professor J. W.
Matter, F.R.S.
For the last two yenrs experiments had been in progress looking to as exact a
determination as possibie of the atomic weight of gold, for which until recently
there had been but very few data. Within the last few months the results had
been published of two researches on this subject by others, namely, by Kriiss in
Germany, and_ by Th¢rpe and Laurie in England. Yet Mr. Mallet’s work was
continued, since there/can scarcely be too much verification of important constants,
and the methods adopted were not altogether the same as those used by the other
chemists named, all whose results were obtained by essentially one and the same
process. Such liability to error as belongs to this process was pointed out.
The author’s own work had not yet reached the point of giving final results for
publication, but the probability seemed to be that a rather higher value would
be found for the atomic weight in question than that assigned by other
experimenters.
It was suggested that the most important direction for advance in our know-
ledge of atomic weights is that of endeavouring to eliminate ‘ constant errors, as
distinguished from mere personal or casual errors of experiment. The latter we
have been taught, by the example of Stas, to reduce to very small values by
minute and elaborate precautions, But the former are always to be suspected, and
all conceivable means should be used to avoid them. Among the most important
of such means the following were pointed out :—
1st.—Resort in every case for the purification of materials used to ‘ fractional’
methods, assuming materials to be pure only when earlier and later fractions give
sensibly identical results.
2nd.—Great care in the study of the reactions depended upon for final determina-
tion of atomic weights, looking especially to any possibility of the occurrence of
secondary or subsidiary reactions.
3rd.—Adoption of methods by which (a) the atomic weight to be determined
may be connected directly with that of hydrogen, or (0) if connected indirectly,
by the intervention in each single determination of as few other elements, but in
determinations by different methods of as many other elements as possible of
supposed well-lnown atomic weight.
Under this last head a method was described which had been resorted to by the
author in his work on the atomic weight of gold, affording a direct connection with
636 REPORT— 1887.
that of hydrogen; a method which the author believed capable of more extended
application in the determination of the atomic weights of otherelements. Zinc was
prepared of ahigh degree of purity, and a given weight of the metal having been dis-
solved in dilute sulphuric acid, the amount of hydrogen evolved was determined by
volume. A solution of auric bromide or chloride as pure as possible was treated with
a known quantity of the same zinc, more than sufficient for the precipitation of the
gold; the excess of zinc was dissolved by dilute sulphuric acid, and the volume of
hydrogen given off was determined. The precipitated gold was carefully collected,
washed, dried, and weighed. The difference between the volume of hydrogen
which the zinc gave when thus partly used to replace a known quantity of gold,
and the volume which it would have given if replacing hydrogen only, taken in
connection with Regnault’s determination of the relation of weight to volume for
hydrogen, afforded of course the data needed for a direct comparison of the weights
of gold and hydrogen concerned. It was pointed out that in applying this process
the weight of the gold salt in solution need not be known, and that the method is
not dependent upon a knowledge of the atomic weight of the halogen, combined
with the gold, or of the atomic weight of zinc, and does not even require that the
zinc shall be of assured purity, provided only it be uniform in character, so that a
given weight of it can be depended on to yield always the same quantity of
hydrogen, and there be no impurities present capable of interfering with the
collection of the precipitated metallic gold in a state of purity.
7. The Atomic Weight of Zirconium. By G. H. Batnry, D.Se., Ph.D.
‘The previous determinations of atomic weight of this element were made by
Berzelius (89°25), Hermann (88:8), Marignac (90°54). The earlier results were
doubtless vitiated by the presence of iron and of the cerite earths, whilst Marignac’s
determination is open to objection from the character of the salt (potassium
zirconium fluoride) which he used. In the present determination, zirconia was
prepared from North Carolina zircons by three independent methods. This was
dissolved in sulphuric acid and the sulphate was crystallised out. This salt
becomes normal and constant in weight by heating some hours at 400°, the tem-
perature at which it begins to decompose being 470°. The relation of zirconium
sulphate to zirconia gives a ratio from which the atomic weight is calculated and
the value thus obtained agrees more nearly with that of Marignac. The author
proposes to make further determinations, using the tetra bromide.
8. Torsion Balances. By Dr. A, Sprincer.
Light frames are made and then stiffened by wires or flat bands being tensioned
over them. The beam is firmly clamped to the bands in such a manner that its
centre of gravity is above its point of support; this tends to tip the beam, thus
equilibrating the torsional resistance of the fulerums. We thus have the torsional
resistance exerted to keep the beam horizontal, and the high centre of gravity
tending to tip it out of the horizontal.
The adjustment of the position of the centre of gravity is most easily made
by having an adjustable poise placed immediately above the central torsional
wire. In order to do away with the necessity of alignment of support, a secondary
beam is attached to the first in such a manner that both beams tending to tip in
the same direction remain stationary owing to their having opposite and equal
moments.
On this principle scales are constructed which can be used on rolling ships or in
buildings where there is considerable jarring. In all the ‘Torsion Balances’ there
is permanence of adjustment, consequently repeated weighings will give like
results.
Various ‘ Torsion Balances’ were shown illustrating the principles involved,
as well as showing how equal sensitiveness can be obtained with any load,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 637
9. Integral Weights in Chemistry.
By T. Srerry Hunt, LL.D., F.R.S.
The author began by insisting that changes of state, such as the condensation
of vapours to liquids and solids, the vaporisation of these, the fusion of solids, and
also the transformations alike of gaseous (liquid and solid) species, whether ele-
mental or compound, are comprehended under the general head of chemical meta-
morphosis. He considered the relations of all these changes to temperature and
pressure, and noted that while passing alterations in volume alike in solids, liquids,
and gases are not chemical but dynamical, the phenomenon of elasticity in gases
and vapour is a manifestation of chemical change, giving rise to new species which
are unstable at the existing temperature. He next remarked the difference between
metamorphosis, or homogeneous change, and metagenesis, or heterogeneous change,
in both cases including alike integration and disintegration. He insisted upon the
subordination of all chemical changes to simple relations of measure, number, and.
weight, as appears from the facts of definite and multiple proportions and from
progressive series.
Regarding the chemical species as an integer, and rejecting the language of
the atomic or molecular hypothesis, the author designates the equivalent or so-called
molecular weight as the integral weight of the species. This weight for gases and
vapour is calculated from that of hydrogen gas as the unit of weight, the specific
gravity of such bodies varying directly as their integral weights. It is farther
maintained that the law of volumes governs equally the combination of gases and
vapours, and their condensition into liquid and solid integers. These have conse-
quently very high integral weights, which may be calculated like those of gaseous
species by comparing their specific gravities with that of hydrogen gas—which is
the true and natural unit of specific gravity for all species alike—or else with that
of water, which is generally assumed as the unit of specific gravity for liquid and
solid species. Water is generated by the integration of 1,628 volumes of water
vapour at 100° and 760mm. into one volume of the same temperature. Direct
determination of the weights of equal volumes of steam and water shows that the
integral weight of the former is not 18:0, but very nearly 17-°9633—corresponding
to the corrected number for oxygen—so that the integral weight of water,
es = 292944; that of steam H,O=17:9633, and that of hydrogen
gas H,=2.
The question of the contraction of water from 100° to 15° and 4°, the points
generally assumed for the unit of specific gravity, was next considered, and also the
fact that the density of all liquid and solid species should theoretically be taken at the
highest temperature which they can sustain without chemical change. But in view
of the errors incident to the determination of such densities in solids, and their
relatively small coefficients of expansion, it is believed that those taken at ordinary
temperatures give us sufficiently near approximations.
The high integral weights thus fixed for liquids and solids in which the unit of
specific gravity for gases is multiplied by 29244 are in accordance with the notion
of great condensation, or so-called polymerisation in such species, which has been
maintained by many chemists, and notably by the author since 1853. It now
becomes possible, by fixing their integral weights, to give their true formulas for all
species, and to show that even the salts of the ammoni-cobalt bases, and those of
the so-called ‘complex inorganic acids’ of Wolcott Gibbs have higher integral
weights than was before suspected. The relations of the process of condensation
or integration to hardness and to chemical indifference were noticed in conclusion,
and allusion was made to the more detailed discussion of this subject in the author's
lately published volume, entitled, ‘A New Basis for Chemistry,’ and in a more
recent essay on Chemical Integration, in both of which it is maintained that these
are, like specific gravity itself, functions of the integral weight.!
1 Published in exrtenso in the Phil. Mag. for Oct. 1887.
638 REPORT—1887.
10. On the Action of Light on the Hydracids of the Halogens in the presence
of Oxygen.' By Artuur Ricwarpson, Ph.D.
The author pointed out some of the conditions which influence the decom-
position of the gaseous hydracids of chlorine, bromine, and iodine, in presence of
oxygen when exposed to sunlight.
Dry, or even partially dry, hydrochloric and hydrobromic acids are unacted on
by sunlight, when mixed with varying proportions of oxygen.
Perfectly dry hydriodic acid, on the other hand, readily decomposes when
exposed in the presence of oxygen. The gases when saturated with moisture are
shown to suffer decomposition to a degree dependent on the amount of oxygen
with which they are mixed, in excess of that required for the complete oxidation
of the hydrogen of the acid. In the cases of hydrochloric and hydrobromie acids, the
amount of decomposition is very small when enough oxygen only is present to
unite with all the hydrogen of the acid, the amount of decomposition increasing as
more oxygen is added.
Ina note the author showed that phosphonium bromide and iodide are formed by
the action of light on moist amorphous phosphorus and hydrobromic or hydriodie
acid.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2.
The following Papers and Report were read :-—
1. On the Present Position of the Alkali Manufacture.
By Aurrep E. Fretcuer. L.0.8., FL.
Reference was made to a paper read at the last Manchester meeting, giving an
account of the position of the manufacture in 1861, and to papers read before the
Society of Chemical Industry in 1885 and 1884 by W. Weldon, and in 1886 by
E. K. Muspratt.
It was noticed that the present is the centenary year of the Leblanc process,
and that until 1877 all the soda of commerce was manufactured by it.
A sketch was viven of the successive improvements that have been made in the
details of the process, and in the mechanical appliances devised for carrying it out.
Mention was made of the Weldon and the Deacon chlorine processes; of the
mechanical revolving black-ash furnace proposed by Ellison & Russell in 1853,
and subsequently perfected by Stevenson & Williamson of Jarrow, and by Dutly
of St. Helen’s; of the finishing furnaces of Schofield and of M‘Tear; of the
mechanical salt-cale furnaces of Jones & Walsh, of M‘Tear, of Cammack &
Walker, and of Black & Larkin; of the improved hand salt-cake furnaces of
Gamble, of Gaskell, Deacon, & Co., and of Wigs.
Mention was also made of the successive introduction of improvements in the
chemical details of the process; of the Henderson process for recovering copper
from the burnt pyrites, whereby at present 12,000 tons are annually produced ; also
that of Claudet for recovering silver and gold from the same source, by which
means 360,000 ounces silver and 3,000 ounces gold are gained yearly. The
total quantity that has been recovered by this means is over 23 million ounces
of silver and 15,000 ounces of gold; also of the method of Carey, Gaskell &
Hurter of treating their black-ash liquors by heat for the production of mono-car-
bonate to be used in the production of bi-carbonate of soda.
The recent rapid extension of the ammonia-soda process was then described ;
patented by Dyer & Hemming in 1835, successfully applied by Solway in 1866,
and introduced in England in 1874 by Brunner, Mond, & Co., who now manu-
facture 100,000 tons nearly pure carbonate of soda annually by its means. Figures
were given to show the rapid growth of this process, which in great measure is
replacing that of Leblanc, but reason was given for believing that the increase
cannot go on further until chlorine is produced in connection with it.
} Published in extenso in the Chem. Soc. Trans. Nov. 1887.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 639
Three processes were mentioned whereby it is proposed to effect this: that of
Solway for heating the residual calcium chloride with clay; that of Mond for
decomposing the ammonium chloride by oxide of nickel; that of Weldon &
Pechiney for decomposing magnesium chloride by heat and steam, whereby chlorine
is produced; none of them were, however, commercially established. Considered
as a soda process simply, it is acknowledged that the Leblanc method is now
surpassed by its rival, holding its ground by virtue of its by-products, yet a
strong hope was expressed that methods proposed by Carey, Gaskell & Hunter, and
by Parnell & Simpson for modifications of the Leblanc process, also by Chance for
a new sulphur recovery process, may so strengthen the hands of the older manu-
facturers as to save them from defeat.
The following table was given, showing the
Import and Export of Foreign Soda to and from Germany. Amount given in Tons.
The figures printed in italics indicate Exports, the plain figures Imports.
Total
Year Soda Ash Caustic Crystals ae A Salvia .
Carbonate
1872 7,513 1,331 10,977 238 12,241
1873 10,104 1,858 12,306 472 16,093
1874 15,413 3,751 11,040 404 22,638
1875 16,064 5,980 11,381 517 26,104
1876 14,412 7,831 13,253 503 27,500
1877 14,530 7,915 10,679 510 26,787
1878 14,111 9,275 9,219 452 27,474
1879 15,911 6,887 10,686 366 26,475
1880 6,061 lia Dies 10,053 263 20,512
1881 6,310 | 5,266 10,833 327 16,132
1882 5,598 6,134 7,332 297 15,251.
1883 887 4,748 2,076 206 Teel
1884 7,318 1973 2,037 250 3,305
1885 8,962 2,299 282 112 6,27
1886 9,150 676 1,789 120 10,204
Also a table showing the
Annual Production of Alkali, §c., in United Kingdom.
Alkali, 48 per cent. :
Salt Soda Caustic |Bleaching ee
= : eC 5 es
ce eer Teeblanc! arian Crystals | Soda | Powder! ae Total
Process | Process oe
1877 | 578,201 | 217,556 | 6,220 | 169,769 | 74,663 | 105,529 | 12,109 | 1,164,047
1878 | 568,542 | 196,876 | 11,116 | 170,872 | 84,612 | 105,044 | 11,756 | 1,148,818
1879 | 615,287 | 230,683 | 15,526 | 185,319 | 86,511 | 115,290 | 13,083 | 1,126,699
1880 | 700,016 | 266,093 | 18,800 | 192,926 | 106,384 | 131,606 | 13,539 | 1,429,364
1881 | 675,099 | 238,687 | 20,400 | 203,773 | 108,310 | 135,826 | 12,853 | 1,394,948
1882 | 679,935 | 233,213 | 39,000 | 180,846 | 116,864 | 135,170 | 14,115 | 1,399,143
1883 | 705,732 | 227,284 | 52,750 | 188,678 | 119,929 | 141,868 | 13,609 | 1,452,188
1884 | 690,502 | 204,072 | 61,480 | 182,567 | 141,639 | 128,651 | 14,576 | 1,423,487
1885 | 722,472 | 184,597 | 77,530. | 202,705 | 144,954 | 132,761 | 15,179 | 1,480,198
1886 | 713,112 | 165,782 | 85,000 | 182,379 | 153,884 | 136,234 | 15,083 | 1,454,465
1 This includes Chlorate of Potash, taking 5 tons of Bleaching Powder for 1 ton
of Chlorate.
The amount of Chlorate now made is 7,000 tons per annum.
640 REPORT—1887.
There are in Germany twenty-four alkali works, from which the yearly output
is a quantity equivalent to 150,000 tons pure carbonate. This is against an output
in 1878 of 42,000 tons.
It is doubtful, however, whether Germany can permanently maintain an export
trade in soda products, since in England all the materials of that industry are
cheaper and the alkali works are better situated in relation to the seaports.
2. On the Composition of some Coke Oven Tars of German Origin.
By Professor Lunce.
3. On the Constituents of the Light Oils of Blast-Furnace Coal Tar from
Gartsherrie Works. By Watson Smiru.
4. On the Utilisation of Blast-Furnace Creosote.
By Aurrep H. Autsy, F.C.S.
The crude oil or tar obtained by the condensation of the gases from blast
furnaces consuming bituminous coal is remarkable for the large proportion of
phenoloid bodies contained in it, the usual proportion ranging from 20 to as much
as 35 per cent. The phenoloids are now extracted from the tar on a large scale
by the Eglinton Iron Company by means of caustic soda, and the residual hydro-
carbons are much increased in value thereby, and become better adapted for their
application for illumination (especially for use in the ‘ Lucigen’ light), use as fuel,
lubrication, &c.
The phencloids are recovered from their solution in caustic soda by means of
an acid. They present a marked contrast to the phenols from ordinary coal-tar,
and somewhat resemble the phenoloids from wood-tar. Thus phenol and cresol are
present in but small proportion, but the higher homologue phlorol, and probably
creasol and guaiacol, are met with, together with other of the characteristic con-
stituents of wood-tar creosote. By distillation a purified product is now obtained
which has been named ‘ Neosote,’ or ‘ new preservative,’ and is likely to meet with
considerable employment as an antiseptic. Experiments have proved that, as an
antiseptic, the purified creosote from blast-furnace tar is quite equal to carbolic
acid ; but the sale of a very crude product of the same origin, under the name of
“ crude carbolic acid,’ as now practised, is reprehensible and misleading.
The phenoloids of shale tar are of similar general character to those from blast
furnace tar, but their purification presents greater difficulties.
The purified product, or neosote, from blast furnace tar, distils almost wholly
between 200° and 225° C.; whereas many of the crude phenoloids from coke-oven
tar and other sources, now being illicitly disposed of as crude carbolic acid, give
little or no distillate below 220°, and distil in great part above 300°. Calvert’s
‘No. 5 carbolic acid?” which represents a fair quality of coal tar acids, distils chiefly
between 200° and 220° C.
5. A new Apparatus for Condensing Gases by Contact with Liquids.
By Professor LUNGE.
6. The Extent to which Calico Printing and the Tinctorial Arts have been
affected by the Introduction of Modern Colours.' By Cuartes O’Ner.
The author said the first of the modern colours was M. Perkin’s aniline mauve,
which was discovered and applied in the year 1856. It was two or three years after-
wards—in April, 1859—that the next modern colour, magenta or fuchsia, made
its appearance. The tide rose slowly in 1860 with purples, blues, and violets, and
gained every year in force and volume, until the flood had now risen to such
a height, that one who would like to keep up with it stood astonished and dismayed
1 Printed in extenso in the Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, Nov. 1887.
—
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 641
at its extent, and well-nich confounded by the prospect before him. Nor were there
any signs that we had got to the high-water mark, for month after month chemists
and colour manufacturers were patenting new colours or new processes, in such
numbers that only a specialist of specialists could pretend to follow or appreciate
the work that was being done. After reviewing the progress which had been made
in the invention of printing colours of late years, the author said that in 1856 the
two most important colouring matters were indigo and madder. Neither of those
colours could be directly printed on calico. Indigo in the form of China blue was
printed on it, to be subsequently fixed by a process analogous to dyeing, but it was
not an important branch of the indigo styles. All attempts to obtain an extract
‘of madder fit for printing had failed, and it was not until about ten years after-
wards that an extract of madder came into the market, and for the first time the
printer was enabled to produce by direct application upon the cloth various colours
yielded by madder. The madder styles of 1856 were of great excellence, and, as
produced by the best houses, quite as good, or better, than pure alizarine styles
were now, not that alizarine could not be made to yield as good work as madder
did; the present conditions of the trade with regard to price, however, were
unfavourable to the highest excellence in that class of prints. He pointed out that
if artificial alizarine had not come up there could not have been the extensive
productions of many-coloured fast cretonne styles which had been the characteristic
of the trade for several years past. The introduction of this most important and
valuable of the modern colours had had the effect of cheapening the price of the
best kinds of calico prints. By best he meant those of the most durable colours
used for personal wear, and so far it was a boon to the purchaser; but how far it
had benefited the calico-printers was another question. It would appear that the
greater facility of producing passable colours had greatly increased the production.
The same works and machinery could with these and other modern colours ‘turn
out from 50 to 70 per cent. more printed calico than could have been done in the
old madder-dyeing days. In¢reased production without a corresponding increase
in demand had, of course, ae to a gradual lowering of prices, until profits were
cut down to a very low maygin. He thought it might be held that the colour
mixing made easy by the introduction of modern colours had much to do with the
unremunerative condition of calico-printing. Comparing work done thirty-four
years ago with that which was produced now, he thought there had been no great
change in results as far as regarded the quality of the work. There had been
a lessening of the cost of colour and a lessening of the labour of the colour mixer,
and undoubtedly some colours now were brighter than then, but there was not
much in that. As to fastness of colour, except as regarded reds, there had been no
gain, perhaps even a loss. None of the modern colours, except alizarine and its
allied blue and orange derivatives, could be said to be fast colours upon cotton in
the sense that madder or indigo were fast, but, at the same time, many of them
were fast enough for the purpose to which they were applied. The idea that all
new dyes were bad dyes and that in the old times there were no loose colours was
not warrantable. The truth was that with the ancient dyes as with the modern
dyes there was plenty of loose bad dyeing. If the wholesale condemnation of
modern colours were correct, these dyes must have fallen into disuse long ago.
Whichever might be the true state of the case with regard to cotton, he considered
that the introduction of modern colours in the dyeing of fancy silk and woollen
styles had been a great advantage.
7. Exhibition of a new class of Colouring Matters. By Dr. C. A. Martius.
8. The Chemistry of the Cotton Fibre.
By ¥. H. Bowman, D.Sc., F.R.S.L., F.C.S., F.LS.
After referring to the importance of the subject and the necessity for further
information in regard to the principles which underlie our industrial processes it
1887. ce
642 REPORT—1887.
was pointed out that our investigations in regard to the cotton fibre must embrace
its mechanical and chemical structure.
After speaking briefly of the mechanical structure it was shown that cotton in
common with all vegetable substances has for its base cellulose. This substance
was formerly supposed, so far as cotton is concerned, to be a definite and fixed
compound having the composition indicated by the formula C,H,,0,. The results of
the analysis of various kinds of cotton were then referred to, and it was shown that
there is strong reason to suppose that the fibre as met with under ordinary cireum-
stances is really composed of a series of bodies more or less corresponding to this
formula but differing from it in regard to the arrangement of the hydrogen and
oxygen atoms within the molecule and thus constituting a series of celluloses
which have a distinct differentiation rather than one single composition. It was also
noticed that, having due regard to the atomicity of the constituents of the typical
cellulose molecule it is impossible to conceive that the hydrogen and oxygen atoms
are arranged in the molecule, in the same atomic combination as water, although
water is always associated with the fibre to the extent of 5 to 7 per cent. and
hence the conclusion is drawn that this water of hydration is not an essential con-
stituent of the cellulose molecule. After summing up our Imowledge of the
general chemical characters of the cotton cellulose reference was made to the hydra-
tion and de-hydration changes of which cellulose is capable as exhibited in recent
researches on this subject, and special mention was made of oxycellulose and its
reactions. The behaviour of this body and its allies as distinguished from cellulose
and the reactions of the latter when treated with acids and alkalis were then dis-
cussed, and the light which these throw on the probable constitution of cotton
was pointed out.
Considerable stress was then laid upon the fact that the cotton fibre always con-
tains mineral matter to the extent of 1 per cent. as an integral part of its structure,
and the importance of this as a factor in the chemical reactions of the cotton fibre
was insisted upon, and various researches which throw evidence upon this point were
mentioned. Finally, notice was taken of the invaluable presence of oils, fats, and
waxes along with cotton fibre, and the necessity for due consideration of this fact
in the methods employed in manipulating the fibre for technical purposes.
Sus-Section B.—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
1. Second Report of the Committee for investigating Isomeric Naphthalene
Derivatives—See Reports, p. 231.
2. Isomeric Change in the Phenol Series. By A. R. Line.
3. The Constitution and Relationship of the Eurhodine and Saffranine
Classes of Colouring Matters, and their Connection with other Groups of
Organic Compounds. By Dr. O. N. Wirt.
4, On the Constitution of Azimido-Compounds.
By Drs. Norttine and Ast.
The azimido-compounds discovered by Hofmann, Ladenburg, and Griess, when
acting with nitrous acid on ortho-diamines, have, according to Griess’s opinion, the
—N
constitution represented by the following formula, R” | NE, for example, the
—N
hos
derivative of ortho-phenylene-diamine would be C,H, | / Nu. Kékulé proposed an-
N
‘
other formula, differing from the preceding one by the manner in which the nitrogen
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 643
—-N-H
atoms are linked together, viz, C,H, | \_. If Kékulé’s formula is the right
—-N=N
x7
one, the monosubstituted ortho-diamines C,H, ~ ' —H, should also yield azimido
VEL.
pay 2
derivatives on being acted upon with nitrous acid, while if Griess’s formula were
exact, the formation of azimido derivatives from monosubstituted ortho-diamines is
only explicable by admitting a rather complicated molecular transposition. We there-
fore prepared the mono-ethyle-ortho-toluylene-diamine, a ie sae 1, and
—NH, 2
—CH, 4
acted upon it with nitrous acid. By this means we obtained an azimido-compound,
erystallising from alcohol in small white needles of the melting-point 147°, in-
soluble in alkaline solutions, whilst the ordinary azimido-toluene is soluble, and
—N-Na
even forms a crystallised sodic compound C,H,(CH,) \__. Thesame ethyle-
—-N=N
azimido-toluene was obtained by the action of ethylic iodide on the sodic azimido-
toluene, and this body has therefore evidently an analogous constitution,
NH
C,H, (CH,) _\_. In our opinion the action of nitrous acid on the three series
—IN=IN
of diamines is in the first stage the same.
Paradiamines yield diazoic salts—
~ NH,HC1 “ay —-N=N-Cl
14. C,H, _—NHHCl + HNO, =H,0+C,H, _NH,HCI
and under the influence ¢f a large excess of nitrous acid, even bidiazoic salts,
ike Lay ch steam also yield diazoic salts, but these reach upon
another molecule of diamijie, and form a Manchester brown—
N=N-Cl NH, _ ay —-N=N—-C,H,(NH,),(HCl)
13. Cnr nol + Coan = Cos _NoNH,(HC) *
In the case of ortho-diamines the diazoic group reacts on the amido group of
the same molecule, and yields a kind of internal anhydride, the azimido body.
CN —N=N
1D OM, Tote. HCD+ CUE) He
e+ — NH, rae
2 —-N-H
The azimido-compounds in their constitution have some analogy with the diazo-
amido-compounds, C,H,-N=N-N_ res, but are distinguished from the latter
by their stability.
5. On the Constitution of the Mixed Diazoamido-compounds.!
By Drs. Noevrine and Binper.
Griess has shown several, years ago that by the action of a diazo-compound
R—N=N-—Cl on an amine R’NH.,, one obtains the same diazoamido-compound as
by the action of R’-N=N-—Clon R—NH,. It is not possible to decide from
Griess’s experiments whether the resulting compound has the constitution
R-N=N-N7# or R’-N=N-N_ 4. Griess has proposed a (C,H,)”=
N=N=N=(H,H,)”, which seems to us to be not probable.
‘gall
HoH i
1 These two papers are published in the Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen
Gesellschaft, and in the Bulletin de la Société Industrielle de Muthouse.
Roz,
644 REPORT—1887.
We have undertaken a new study of this subject. and have especially taken into
consideration the product from diabenzenechloride and paratoluidine, and from
diazoparatolyl-chloride and aniline. The properties of these two compounds which,
as Griess has proved before us, are in every respect identical, do not allow us to give
to them a definite formula. In some reactions their behaviour corresponds to the
formula of diazobenzene-paratoluide, (C,H,N = N) -N_G. H, ; in some others to
the formula of diazoparatolyl-anilide, (C,H,N =N)— -N7¢ H,} in others, finally,
the most numerous ones, the compound has the properties ‘of a mixture of these
ws derivatives. We therefore prefer to use for the compound the formula
ce? H w tN 3H, which includes the two possibilities. According to our opinion we
ee here a new case of so-called tautomerism. °
If in the amines R— NH, and R’—NH, one atom of H_ be substituted by an
alkyle group, the diazoamido-compounds obtained by the action of R-N=N—Cl
and Reo = N-Cl are no longer identical but different (isomeric). The above
experiments were performed in the year 1884, but had not been published iz
extenso, because they did not allow us to decide the question of the constitution of
the mixed diazoamido-compounds. If we now allow ourselves to present them to
this Section, the reason is that other chemists, especially Mr. Meldola, devote them-
selves to similar researches, and whilst we hope that our observations may contri-
bute in some way to the resolution of this interesting question, at the same time
we declare that it is not our intention to work farther on this subject.
By the action of Cs 1g Tytets Cl on C,H,NH,, and of C,H,N=N-—Cl on
C,H;NH,, one obtains © C, H a tN, H, yellow needles of the melting point 85°, soluble
in the usual solvents, except water.
The foliowing experiments were always made with specimens obtained by the
two different methods.
(a) Action of nascent H—produces eae C,H,NH.NH,, and simulta-
neously C,H,NH,, C,H;NH.NH,.
(d) Action of *promine—pr oduces C,H,N = N —Br and C,H,Br,NH,.
(c) Transposition with aniline—produces C,H, N= N-C WH NH, and C,H,NH,,.
(d) Se with dimethy laniline—produces C, H, 7N one C,H N(CH,),
and C,H,NH.
(e) Transposition with phenol in excess—produces C,H,N =N —C,H,(OH) and
C,H,NH,. Henmaun and Oeconomides with the 2 amount of phenol
obtained C,H.N = N—C,H,(0H), C, H,N = Ne C,H,OH, C,H,NH, and C,H,NH,,.
(f) Splitting up with dilute H, FE OH. C,H,NH,, and simul-
taneously C,H, OH, C,H,NH.
(9) ithylation ‘and decomposition with dilute H,SO,. The product obtained
by acting in alcoholic solution with sodium and ethylic iodide is a ae oil; with
nw — Cok
dilute sulphuric acid it splits up into C,H,OH and C,H,N oe °, and simulta-
neously C,H,OH and C,H,N 7 $y",
Il. Action of C,H,N=N-Cl on C,H,N7 Fe", and of C,H,N=N-C1 on
C,H,N | ras JH, : C H, LNA, H,). The first is a yellow oil; the second forms red
crystals m. p. 38° 39°,
(a) Action of the nascent H.
The first gave C,H,NELNH, and C,U,N~CMs 5 the second C,H,NH.NH,
eS QuHy
and C,H,N_yS.
(b) Splitting up with dilute H,SO,.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 645
The first gave C,H,OH and CHW Geis, the other O,H,OH and
~ C,H!
i
C,H,N
(ec) Transposition with phenol.
The first gave C,H,N=N—C,H,OH and OC,H;N
C,H,N =N-C,H,OH and C,H,N~ OE.
__These experiments show certainly that the two compounds are different, and
different also from the product of reaction of ethylic iodide on diazoamido-toluene-
benzene. It is, however, not certain if this derivative is a third isomeride or a
mixture of the two described above. Mr. Meldola, on his side, has shown that
there exist three different mot NO.) N,(C,H,).
~ Peds; ,the other
6. On Methylene Blue and Methylene Red. By Professor BERNTHSEN.
The author gave an account of his methylene blue and methylene red re-
searches! He reported on the artificial production of Lauth’s violet [thionine}
from thiodiphenylamine by nitration, reduction to diamidothiodiphenylamine, and
subsequent oxidation, forwarding the violet of the constitution
C,H,—NH,
Nicos. ts oe
| C,H,—NH
|
From the near relation between methylene blue and thionin the formula
C,H,—N(CH;),
N s
| C,H,—N(CH,),Cl
|
for the blue colouring matter was derived, and supported by experimental proof.
A survey was given and diagrams were presented giving a review of the
details of the mentioned processes and over a number of other derivatives of
thiodiphenylamine.
The author then passed to methylene red, a substance contained in the
mother liquors of methylene blue when prepared from p—amidodimethyl-
aniline, sulphuretted hydrogen, and ferric chloride in acid solution. The red,
a well-defined crystalline substance, readily soluble in water, is remarkable on
account of the high amount of sulphur contained in it. Proof was given that
it is represented by the formula C,H,N,S,Cl. By reduction it produces a
most interesting substance, the mercaptane of amidodimethylaniline, C,H,,.N,S,—
S N(CH), (4)
C.H,CNH, (1) »
SH (2)
a zine salt of which can easily be isolated. This, es an ortho-compound, gives
derivatives, as
oa ZNO N(CH,),
oN a r'C Ee aNN
en3 g SC-CH, an Chaat 3 SN
1 Liebig’s Annaln der Chemir, Td. 220.
616 REPORT—1887.
Methylene red is instantaneously destroyed by alkalis. Amongst the products
of reaction an acid is found showing the formula O,H,,N.S,0,, and formed from
the red by adding water and one atom of oxygen. The constitution of this acid
proved to be as follows :
(NCH,).,
C,H,<NH,
S-s0,H
and it can easily be converted into the mercaptane and vice versd.
From these and other facts not yet published the author concludes that
methylene red is represented by the formula
N(CH,),01
|
C,H,CN
gos
7. On some Xenoene or Diphenyl Products and Reactions.
By Professor W. Opuine, M.A., F.B.S., and J. E. Marsu, B.A.
Reference was made to Dr. Odling’s paper of last year, when an analogy was
presented between benzoic or phenyl formic acid and phenyl sulphonic acid.
Benzoic acid decomposes on hydrolysis into phenoene or benzene and carbonic
acid, phenyl sulphonic acid into phenoene and sulphuric acid. On fusion with
potash phenyl sulphonic acid yields phenol, while benzoic acid yields a little
phenol, but chiefly by a further action of carboxylation phenol formic or benzoic
acid. The view that oxibenzoic acid owes its origin to a carboxylation of already
formed phenol was upheld by the formation also of oxiicophthalic acid.
Some further decompositions of aromatic acids on hydrolysis were described.
The hydrolysing agent is a mixture of zine chloride and water, or stannic chloride
hydrochloric acid and water. The reaction is conducted in sealed tins at a tem-
perature of about 300°. In this way benzoic acid gives carbonic acid and phenoene,
a little xenoene or dephenyl being also formed.
Phthalic acid gives carbonic acid, phenoene, and benzoic acid.
Paramido-benzoic acid gives carbonic acid and aniline.
Pure nitro-benzoic acid gives carbonic acid, and not nitro-benzene, but aniline.
Nitro-henzene was also found to yield aniline and carbonic acid.
Several other aromatic acids were found to undergo a similar reaction of hydrolysis.
Ethyl benzoate treated with alcoholic zine chloride was found to undergo
decomposition into carbonic acid and probably a mixture of hydrocarbon.
An extended account was given of the action of fused potash on benzoic acid,
especially as to the method employed in separating the crude acids formed. The
method depends essentially on converting the acids into compound ethers and
distilling the latter under reduced pressure. In this way besides the two xenyl
formic acids obtained by Barth and Schuder a new xenylene diformic acid or
diphenyl dicarbonie acid was obtained.
Certain derivatives of the hydrocarbon xenoene or diphenyl were considered and
described.
Acetonenone, previously obtained by Adam, melting at 120—121° is found to
yield on oxidation paraxenyl formic acid, and is therefore itself a para compound.
Benzonenone is obtained by the action of benzoyl chloride with aluminium
chloride on xenoene in petroleum spirit. It is the phenyl xenyl katom, and it
melts at 99° C.
An account was given of a ready method of obtaining the monosulphonic acid of
xenoene, namely, by dissolving the hydrocarbon in chloroform and adding a slight
excess of sulphuryl chlorhydraie.
8. On the Rate of Velocity of Formation of Acetic Ether.
By Professor MrnscHvurTxin.
+
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 647
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
The following Papers were read :—
1. The Relation of Geometrical Structure to Chemical Properties.
By Professor WISLICENUS.
2. Note on Valency, especially as defined by Helmholtz.
By Professor Armsrrone, I’.R.S.
3. The Solubility of Isomertc Organic Compounds. By Professor
CaRNELLEY, D.Sc., and Dr. A. THOMSON.
1. For any series of isomeric organic compounds the order of solubility is the
same as the order of fusibility, ie. the most fusible compound is also the most
soluble. (Cf. Carnelley, ‘Phil. Mag.’ (5) 18, 180; also Tilden, ‘Journ. Chem.
Soe.’ 45, 266).
This is shown to hold true in a very large number of cases, whilst there are very
few exceptions, and those of a doubtful character.
2. The order of solubility of two or more isomeric compounds is independent of
the nature of the solvent. This has been experimentally proved, more particularly
in the case of meta- and para-nitraniline, the solubility of each of which in thirteen
different solvents has been determined; also by a considerable number of cases
taken from literature.
3. The ratio of the solubilities of two isomers in a given solvent is constant, and
is therefore independent of the nature of the solvent. So that—
Solubility of A in any solvent
— =o = constant.
Solubilify of B in the same solvent
This has been proved for/meta- and para-nitraniline in respect of thirteen different
and very varied solvents.
4, The Melting Points of Organic Compounds in relation to their Chemical
Constitution. Part 1—JInfluence of Orientation in Aromatic Compounds.
By Professor CaRNneLLEY, D.Sc.
For any series of isomeric compounds of benzene the symmetry of the orienta-
tion of the side chains has a very marked influence on the melting-point, in such a
way that, ceteris paribus, the most symmetrical orientation gives the highest melting
point. Thus, of 1,120 cases in which the law can be applied, 890 agree with the
tule, though there is a high @ prior? probability against their doing so, varying from
2:1 to 15:1 in different cases.
Of the exceptions considerably more than one-half are of a doubtful character,
whilst five-sixths of them depend on one authority only.
Further, as regards al] benzene isomers the order of infusibility, much more fre-
quently than not, follows the order of symmetry of orientation, though the @ priort
probability against their doing so is a very high one.
5. Alcohol and Water Combinations. By Professor MENDELEEF.
6. On the Constitution of Atropine.! By Professor LADENBURG.
By the researches of Kraut and Lossen we have learnt that the alkaloid of:
the belladonna atropine C,,H,,NO, is decomposed by hydrochloric acid or hydrate
of baryta in tropine C,H,,NO and tropic acid C,H,,Q3.
1 Ann. Chem. 217, 74; Ber. 16, 1408 ; and Ber. 20, 1647.
648 REPORT—1887.
C,,H,,NO, + H,0 =C,H,,NO + 0,H,,0;.
In respect to the constitution of the last all doubts have been destroyed by a
research which I have made in connection with my assistant, Dr. Rugheimer.
We arrived to the first synthesis of this acid, and have fixed its formula to
1 CH,OH
C.HCHCGo6H :
The nature of the basic component of the atropine had been quite obscure before
my researches. I could demonstrate in first line that tropine is not only a base -
but also an alcohol, that it belongs to a class of compounds which I name alkines.
I proved this by forming etherical derivatives, the tropeines. These compounds
are produced by treating tropine with organic, especially aromatic, acids in presence
of dilute hydrochloric acid. In this manner atropine itself is formed by the action
of tropine on tropic and hydrochloric acid. In treating tropine by oxytoluic acid
in presence of hydrochloric acid homatropine is formed, a base very similar in its
physiological action to atropine, and of great value in the therapeutics of the eye.
‘Therefore we can suppose a group of hydroxyl in tropine and write its formula
0,H,,(OH)N.
The alcoholic nature of tropine comes still more to evidence in studying the
action of jodhydric acid and amorphous phosphorus on it. Diiodide of tropine
C,H,,NI, is formed. This substance comports itself like the jodhydrate of a base
containing iodine. The reaction is quite analogous to that which with nevrine
takes place—
C,H,,NO + 2H1=C,H,,.N,IHI + H,O
O,H,,NO + 2HI =C,H,,N [HI + H,0.
The iodide of tropine treated with zinc-dust and cblorhydric acid is reduced
and yields the hydrochlorate of a tertiaric base, having the formula C,H,,N, which
I name hydrotropidine. It boils at 168° and is characterised by very fine salts.
The hydrochlorate of this base distilled in a current of hydrochloric acid yields
chlorine of methyl and is transformed in the hydrochloride of a new base, which I
call norhydrotropidine, the composition of which is expressed by the formula
C,H,,N. We have C,H,,NHCl + HCl =C,H,,NHC1+CH,Cl. This base is crystal-
line, melts at 61°, and boils at 161°. It is a secondary base, which by the action
of nitrous acid is transformed into a nitrous amine melting at 117°. The hydro-
chlorate of this base is not deliquescent, and yields, by its distillation with zinc-dust,
hydrogene and a tertiaric base, which already by its smell is recognised to apper-
tain to the pyridine series. After purification I could prove the identity of this base
with aethylpyridine, which I have prepared synthetically in heating pyridine with
the iodide of ethyl. So that we can write the equation
(C,H, ,NHCl), + Zn = ZnCl, + (C,H,N), + H,).
We may conclude by these facts that norhydrotropidine is tetrahydro a ethyl-
pyridine and hydrotropidine v methyl a ethyltetrahydropyridine
C,H, (C,H,")NC’H,.
Tropine itself obtains the formula
C,H,(C,H,°OH)NCH,;
and atropine
C,H,(C,H,OCO\. //CH,OH)NCH,
CH
|
C,H.
It is not impossible that the hydroxyl substitutes one atom of hydrogen in
_ the pyiidine group, but I think it not so probable as the supposition I made above.
The synthesis of tropine must start from a ethylpyridine, and I made several
experiments in this direction, but till now without success.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 649
7. The Reduction-products of the Nitro-parafins and Alkyl Nitrites.
By Professor Dunstan and T. 8. Dymonp.
The reduction-products of ethyl nitrite have been investigated by Geuther, who
used zinc and diluted sulphuric acid as the reducing agent, and found that the
reaction was represented by the equation C,H.NO,+2H,=C,H,OH+NH,. A
trace of ethylamine was also formed, but this has been attributed to impurity in
the ethyl nitrite. Emil Kopp used ammonium sulphide as the reducing agent,
and also obtained alcohol and ammonia, but apparently no ethylamine.
The authors have studied the reduction of ethyl nitrite, using ferrous hydroxide
as the reducing agent, and have obtained an entirely different result. More
than two-thirds of the nitrogen of the ethyl nitrite is liberated in the form of gas,
either nitrous oxide or nitrogen; the remainder appears as ammonia and a trace
of ethylamine. If potassium hydroxide is mixed with the ferrous compound a
considerable quantity of potassium hyponitrite is formed. It is also probable that
ethyl hyponitrite, a compound that has not yet been prepared, may be formed as
an intermediate compound. The authors are further investigating the change with
the object of isolating this compound and of discovering the mode of formation of
the ethylamine. They have previously shown (‘ Journal of the Chemical Society,’
August 1887) that sodium nitrite is reduced by ferrous hydroxide to nitrogen and
ammonia, sodium hyponitrite being formed as an intermediate product.
The reduction-products of the nitro-paraffins have been studied by Victor
Meyer. Nitroethane was reduced, by iron and acetic acid, to ethylamine without
the formation of any ammonia. C,H,NO,+3H,=C,H,NH,+2H,O0. When
ferrous hydroxide is used the authors find that much ethylamine is produced, a
little ammonia, and a substance having a strong alliaceous smell, which is being
further investigated. No gaseous product is formed. Nitromethane yields, under
the same conditions, methylamine, « little ammonia, and a substance having an
alliaceous smell. Nitro-benzene is entirely converted into aniline. The authors
intend to further investigate these reactions, which they think are likely to throw
new light on the constitution of inonzanie and organic nitro-compounds.
8. On the Second Monobromo-benzene. By Professor Firtica.
9. Saccharine, the new Sweet Product from Coal-tar. By Dr. Fau.pere.
10. On a Partial Separation of the Constituents of a Solution during
Expansion by Rise of Temperature. By Professor J. W. Matuet,
F.R.S.
It was observed in regard to a thermometer containing coloured alcohol, the
colour due probably to cochineal, that on several occasions when rise of temperature
occurred somewhat gradually in the room after rather severely cold weather the
upper part of the column of liquid was colourless or nearly so, while no deposition
of any solid colouring matter could be seen in the bulb or the lower part of the
tube. Colourless alcohol had apparently separated itself by expansion from a still
perfect solution left behind.
This led to making some experiments with solutions, partly aqueous, partly
alcoholic, of several colloid substances, such as starch, tannin, caramel, albumen,
and gelatine. Each solution was placed in a flask of about half a litre capacity,
which was brought to near 0° C. by being surrounded with ice, filled to the mouth
with the solution at this temperature, and closed by a cork traversed by a glass
tube of small but not capillary bore (about 4 mm. interior diameter), 15 or 20
centimétres long, and having a glass stopcock in the middle of its length. The
ice having been removed the temperature of the flask and its contents was allowed
to rise gradually in a warm room until the head of the column of liquid in the
' tube, originally one or two centimétres below the stopcock, had reached to about as
650 REPORT—1887.
far above it. The stopcock was then cautiously closed and the small portion of
liquid above it, removed by means of a capillary pipette, was submitted to appro-
priate tests for the substance in solution in the contents of the body of the flask.
{n contrast with a sample of equal volume taken from the flask itself, the portion
which had been slowly driven up by expansion was found to contain a diminished
amount of material in solution, often a very notubly diminished amount, and in
two or three instances practically none.
All the solutions tried were filtered beforehand through four thicknesses of fine
close filtering-paper so as to remove suspended particles of solid matter. No film
consisting of, or rich in, the material dissolved in the bulk of the liquid could be
detected on the inner surface of the tube in its upper part, so that the separation
could not well be attributed to surface adhesion.
The extent of exposure to the air on the small cross-section of the tube would
hardly allow of an explanation being found in chemical change of the dissolved
material.
The term apantlesis (amavrAnots) might be used to signify a draining away of
some of the molecules of the solvent undergoing expansion from amongst those of
the colloid solid in solution. Such draining away would seem to connect itself on
to change in the opposite direction, but leading to the same result, when the colloid
begins to separate out by gelatinising on cooling.
The conditions which seemed most to influence the production and the distinct-
ness of the phenomenon were—first, the proportion of the colloid solid in solution ;
and second, the time occupied in the rise of temperature of the liquid. In regard
to each of these conditions there appeared to be a certain point at which the
separation was most notable, above or below which it became gradually less
distinct, and sufliciently removed from which it was not observable at all.
Sus-Srcrion B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
1. The Chemical Structure of some Natural Silicates. By F. W. Ciarke.
The common impression that the silicates are exceedingly complicated is pro-
bably erroneous. The complexity is apparent, not real. Isomorphous mixtures
exist, impurities occur, and inexact analyses are published; and these causes
account for the prevalent belief. The natural silicates are generated under con-
ditions which preclude great complexity, such as conditions of high temperature,
&e. They are stable, and therefore presumably simple, and they are moreover few
in number. Only five or six hundred are known as natural minerals; whereas, if
they were as complicated as many organic bodies, thousands should be commonly
found.
Eliminating the errors due to isomorphism, impurity of material, &c., it is
found that all double silicates may be represented as substitution derivatives of
normal silicates. The formule so developed well represent the natural associations
and alterations of mineral species, particularly among the aluminum salts. Pos-
sibly the same generalisation may be extended beyond the silicates, so as to include
all double salts, although the double acetates, formates, haloids, &c., offer diffi-
culties.
2. Apparatus for Measuring the Volume of Gas evolved in various Chemical
Actions, with or without the Application of Heat, with proposed Ha-
tension to Organic Analysis, and to the Continuous Determination of
Abnormal Vapour Densities. By F. W. Warxty, M.A.
The apparatus consists of generating tubes, flasks, and U measuring tubes, in
direct communication with the generating tubes; the measuring tubes contain
water, and readings are taken with the water at the same level in the two
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 651
branches*of each U tube, so that the readings are all at the barometric pressure.
To correct for change of temperature, if at the time of making the final readings
the temperature of the room should not be the same as at the time of the initial
readings, by the side of the generating tube flasks, measuring tubes, &c., an
exactly similar piece of apparatus is placed, consisting of tube, flasks, measuring
tubes, &c., and having approximately the same volume as the original piece of
apparatus.
The process employed was shown at the meeting of the Association, and the
proposed method of application to organic analysis, by which CO,, H,O, and N
may be concurrently determined, and to abnormal vapour densities was explained
with the assistance of diagrams.
3. On the Teaching of Chemistry. By M. M. Partison Muir, M.A.’
Why does chemistry progress so slowly in this country? One of the many
answers that may be given to this question is: because chemistry is so little taught.
Although many classes are conducted nominally in chemistry, yet very little of
what is taught’ is really chemistry. Sometimes catalogues of so-called facts are
taught ; sometimes generalisations and definitions detached from the facts on which
they rest are placed before the student. But chemistry is really a branch of natural
science.
When the student is expected to read, and if possible to remember, statements
of detached facts about each of the elements and its compounds, such statements
become false to him, because they couceal the really important facts regarding the
connexions between changes of comp¢sition and changes of properties which form
the subject-matter of chemistry. A fatal distinction is too often drawn between
a facts on which chemical science rests, and reasoning and generalising on these
acts.
Chemistry deals with a certain class of natural occurrences, and by studying
these it seeks to rise through empirical generalisations to natural laws. The
business of the teacher is to make his pupil understand the methods of chemistry,
by putting before him well selected and typical chemical facts, in order that he
may learn the meaning and importance of the subject he is studying, and thus may
become imbued with the true scientific spirit which finds its only legitimate outlet
in the continual investigation of natural occurrences.
Four things are to be especially kept in view in teaching chemistry; (1) to
teach so that the student shall acquire real knowledge; (2) to carefully select the
facts and the reasoning set before the student ; (3) to impress the learner with the
importance and value of what he is learning as a part of that orderly and metho-
dised study of nature which we call science; (4) to teach without fear of the
examiner.
Real chemical knowledge can only be gained by connecting the experimental
work done in the laboratory with chemical reasoning and with the principles of
the science. To do this it is necessary that a well arranged and properly graduated
system of practical chemistry should take the place of the present routine of quali-
tative and quantitative analysis. Analysis is one of the instruments of chemistry,
but chemistry is much more than analysis. The work done in the laboratory must
be in direct and constant connexion with the lecture-work and the reading of the
student ; it must also be progressive ; and it must be arranged so that as the ex-
periments become more difficult the reasoning becomes more close and accurate.
Such a course of practical chemistry can be arranged without complicated laboratory
appliances. ‘The outline of such a course is then sketched in the paper.
The basis on which chemical facts should be selected is found in the treatment
of the elements and their compounds in groups, and not, as. is generally done at
present, as isolated bodies. In this way the student gains some grasp of the sub-
ject he is studying, and he is not obliged to ask why he should burden his memory
1 Published in full in Nature, vol. xxxvi. p. 536.
652 REPORT—--] 887.
with the properties of each one of a long list of bodies when the remembrance of
these properties does not help him to a knowledge of chemistry.
The importance and value of chemistry, as of any branch of natural science, can
only be made clear by the teacher and the learner working together at the elucida-
tion of some of the simpler problems of the science ; but this can be done well only
when the teacher is possessed of a clear and vivid imagination, and when he
thoroughly believes in the subject he is teaching.
Finally the examiner must be forgotten. The examiner is too often himself
unacquainted with the subject in which he examines. Much more care should
be exercised in choosing those who are to examine, especially those who are to
examine the results of the chemical teaching given in schools.
The outcome of all scientific teaching must be to train men to become competent
to investigate nature for themselves. But unless the men are properly trained, and
are taught by the examples, more than by the precepts, of their teachers what true
scientific research is, they will only add a few more facts to that vast gathering
which is so often but so falsely called chemistry, and they wiil persuade themselves
that in doing this they are advancing the scientific study of nature.
4, Suggested Amendment of Chemical Nomenclature.
By Professor A. SmirHELLs, B.Sc.
The object aimed at is to simplify chemical nomenclature by introducing a
general term to indicate the degrees of capacity which chemical compounds of acid
or basic character possess of entering into reaction with bases or acids to form salts
or salt-like bodies. The present system of terminology is contradictory, and offers
great difficulties to beginners. The following are some of the difficulties met
with :—
a. An acid containing one atom of hydrogen replaceable by a metal to form a
salt is called monobasic, yet compounds like CH, and NaHCO, fulfilling the above
conditions are not acids. The term basic is used in the following contradictory
senses: Na,O is a basic compound (oxide), HNO, is a monobusic compound (acid),
BiONO, is a basic compound (salt). Phenol is not called a monobasic alcohol,
although it forms C,H,ONa.
b. The term acid is also used in contradictory senses: HNO, is an acid, CuSO,
is acid (to test paper), NaHCO, is an acid salt, NaHO is a monacid base. Two of
these compounds have an acid reaction, two an alkaline or basic reaction.
ce. The nomenclature of alcohols is unsatisfactory. The term monatomic is
properly applied to a molecule (like that of zinc) which contains only one atom.
To apply the term hexatomic to molecules of sulphur and of mannitol is confusing.
The term monacid is equally inapplicable, as in the case of phenol which is not a
base-like compound, and should rather be called monobasic. The term monhydric
literally implies one atom of replaceable hydrogen or hydroxyl, yet glycollic
acid is called monhydric. Na,HPO, is monhydric in a different sense. HCl is
hydric chloride, H,PO, is trihydric but only dibasic.
d. Anhydrides are not named like acids. SO, is not called dibasic, though it
unites with BaO to form BaSO,; nor are ethers spoken of as diacid oxides or
bases.
e. There is no good term to distinguish between such bodies as PbCO,,Pb(OH),,
and PbCO,,2Pb(OH),. :
In view of these and other difficulties it is proposed to use the word voracity to
indicate the property possessed by compounds of acid or basic function of entering
into reaction respectively with bases or acids. From this we get the words
monovorie, divoric, trivoric, tetravoric, &c. Thus an acid or body of acid function
which reacts with one molecule of caustic potash to form a salt is a monoyoric
acid, whilst on the other hand a base or base-like body capable of entering into
reaction with one molecule of hydrochloric acid to form a salt is a monovoric base.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 653
The following are some examples of the use of the terms :—
Glycerol is a trivoric aleohol.
Resorcinol is a divoric phenol.
Orthophosphoric acid is a trivoric acid.
Ethyl ether is a divoric base.
Mercurie oxide is a divoric base.
Hg0O,Hg(NO,), is divorobasic mercuric nitrate.
2Hg0,He(NO,), is tetravorobasic mercuric nitrate.
SO, is a divoric anhydride.
In the case of bodies of double function such as ZnO, which with HCl gives
ZnCl,, and with KHOK,ZnO,, it is proposed to use the term amphid. Thus Al,O,
is a hexavoric amphid oxide giving Al,Cl, and 2Al(OK),. C,H,OH is amphid,
giving C,H,Cl and C,H,OK.
Some confusion exists at present in expressing the readiness with which bodies
enter into chemical action. We say, for example, ‘strong sulphuric acid is a
strong acid,’ using strong in the first place to express concentration, in the second
to denote chemical effect. The term avid is suggested as an adjective for general
use in this sense. We should thus call KHO a very avid monovoric base.
With reference to the terms already in use the following proposals are made :—
Monad or monovalent, &c., to be retained for elements and radicals,
Monatomic, &c., to be retained to denote the total number of atoms in a
molecule.
Acid, to be retained for bodies of acid function.
Base, to be retained for bodies of basic function.
Monhydric, &c., to be abolished.
5. A Study of the Action of Nitric Acid on Benzene.
By Professor Loruar Meyer.
6. On Professor Ramsay’s Method of determining Specific Volumes.
By Professor LorHar Meyer.
7. The Reduction of Nitrates by Micro-organisms.
By R. Wanineron, £.R.S.
The reduction of nitrates to nitrogen gas in sewaze, and waters containin
sewage, appears to have been first observed by Angus Smith in 1867; he after-
wards published many experiments on the subject in the Reports to the Local
Government Board of 1882 and 1884.
The reduction of nitrates to nitrogen in soil was first observed by Schloesing in
1873. My own experiments on this branch of the subject were made in 1880.
That the reduction of nitrates in sewage is due to the action of micro-
organisms was first shown by Meusel in 1875. Dehérain and Maquenne in 1883
proved that reduction in soil was brought about by similar agency.
The conditions of reduction are a medium and temperature suitable for the
growth of the organism, the presence of oxidisable organic matter, and the
absence of a great excess of air. The products of the reduction of nitrates are
either nitrites, nitric oxide, nitrous oxide, or nitrogen gas. The difference in
the product is determined partly by the conditions in which the organism acts,
and partly by the specific character of the organism. Up to the last two years
experiments have been generally made with natural mixtures of organisms.
Working with such mixtures it is easy to conclude that the result depends on the
composition and condition of the medium; such conclusions have to be con-
siderably modified when we become acquainted with the results yielded by
individual species of bacteria.
In 1886 Gayon and Dupetit published a splendid research on the reducing
powers of certain individual species of bacteria. Reduction to nitrites they find
654 REPORT—1887.
to be a usual property of bacteria; many, however, reduce only to nitrites, while
others reduce to nitrogen gas. One of the latter class of bacteria produces much
nitrous oxide if asparagine be present in the solution.
My own results were obtained in the present summer, and are as yet incomplete.
About twenty organisms have been examined, most of which have been kindly
supplied in pure cultures by Dr. E. Klein, F.R.S. Out of these twenty about
thirteen readily reduce nitrates to nitrites, even at 20°; two organisms only reduce
in very nourishing liquids or at high temperatures; five organisms do not re-
duce nitrates, even when air is nearly excluded. A considerable number, if not all,
of the reducing organisms produce nitrites, but no gas.
It appears thus that the property of reduction, and the extent to which reduction
is carried, depends largely on the specific nature of the organism. When the chemical
properties of individual species of bacteria have been further studied, we shall be
able to classify them according to their behaviour, and be much aided in the
discrimination and identification of species.
8. A new Method for Determining Micro-organisms in Air. By Professor
CaRNELLEY and Tos. WILson.
This is a modification of Hesse’s well-known process. It consists essentially in
the substitution of a flat-bottomed conical flask for a Hesse’s tube. Its chief
advantages are:—(1) Much smaller cost of flask and fittings as compared with
Hesse’s tubes; (2) very much fewer breakages during sterilisation; (3) great
economy in jelly; (4) freedom from leakage during sterilisation; (5) results
not yitiated by aerial currents.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
The following Report and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee for further investigating the Action of the
Silent Discharge of Electricity un Oxygen and other Gases.—See Re-
ports, p. 42.
2. The Absorption Spectra of Rare Earths.
By G. H. Bamey, D.Sc., Ph.D.
This paper is an examination of the conditions of observation of absorption
spectra with special reference to the recent announcement of the twenty new
elements of Kriiss and Nilson. The author finds that the strengths of the
absorption bands do not diminish equally in all parts of the spectrum when
the liquid is diluted.
The presence of nitric acid also effects not only a displacement of the bands,
put also an alteration in their relative intensity. It is further pointed out that a
record of the strength of the bands in mixtures containing, in some cases, large
quantities of samarium and erbium, and in others none, cannot be used as a
means of comparison and deductions drawn from variations of intensity. Whilst
acknowledging that with due allowance for such factors some assistance may be
gained towards the course of fractionation, the author considers the announcement
of new elements quite premature, and only calculated to throw further confusion
into this already difficult field of work.
3. The Absorption Spectra of the Haloid Salts of Didymium.
By G. H. Battry, D.Sc., Ph.D.
Bunsen has described certain variations that occur in the absorption spectra
given by crystals of the didymium salts. In this paper are detailed the variations
produced in the absorption spectra of crystals of didymium salts when examined
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 655
in polarised light. A comparison of the chloride, bromide, and iodide of didymium
has also been made, from which it appears that in the bromide the bands are
situated 5 further towards the red end of the spectrum than in the chloride,
whilst the displacement for the iodide is 14 towards the violet. In the solution
of the chloride (or nitrate) the bands have almost the same position as in the
erystals of the iodide, whilst the addition of nitric acid causes a displacement
of 12 towards the red. It is proposed to determine how far this displacement of
bands is due to the dispersion equivalent of the menstruum, and whether it gives
evidence of dissociation in the liquid.
4. On Solution. By Wituiam Duruam, IR.S.E.
The object of this paper is to show that thermo-chemical results accumulated of
late years entirely support the theory of solution which the author brought forward
in a paper read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in January 1878, and
developed in subsequent papers.’
That theory may be briefly described as follows. Solutionis due to the chemical
affinity of the elements of the substance dissolved for the elements of the solvent.
For instance, common salt, Na,Cl,, dissolves in water because of the affinity of Na,
for O and of Cl, for H,. Further, chemical affinity is not in all cases exhausted
when definite compounds are formed, but sufficient remains to form what may be
called ‘ solution compounds.’
In support of this view it is pointed out that in all chlorides, bromides, iodides,
sulpkates, and nitrates for which data are available the heat of solution varies
directly—
(1) As the heat of combination of the positive element of the salt with O in
water varies.
(2) As the heat of combination of the negative element of the salt with H
varies. And znversely—
(3) As the heat of combination of the positive and negative elements of the salt
varies. Examples are given, such as the following :—
|
Compound eet of aes Difference Bie ite Difference
[Mg,Cl?] . . : : 151010 35920
[Mg,0,Aq] : ° : 148960
Sse er Te 2050
[Ca,cl’] . 5 3 - 169820 17410
. Themed a oP LO,
0 0y.ss i 149260
SSS 20560
— 18510 +18510
[Na,Cl] . ; 3 A 97690 —1189
[H,Cl,Aq ] : : : 39315
SSS 58375
{Na,Br] . . - é 85770 —190
a a lar 990
[H,Br,Aq] 5 A : 28380
57390
+985 — 990
1 Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Jan. 21,1878; May 17, 1886;
Jan. 17,1887; July 18, 1887. Nature, vol. xxxiil. p. 615; vol. xxxiv. p. 263; vol.
XXXVI. p. 316.
656 REPORT—1887.
The author further shows that if we take two salts, say chlorides, in one of
which the heat of combination is greater than in the other, we find that the differ-
ence appears in the increased heat of solution of the latter, modified by the difference
of affinities of the metals for O ; as for example :—
Difference of Heats of Combination Difterence of Heats of Solution
[KC] —[Li?,Cl?] =23600 [Li?,Cl?] — [K?,Cl?] = 25760
[Li?,0,Aq|]—[K?,0,Aq] 1960
25560 25760
Also in comparing chlorides with bromides it is found that the excess of heat
of combination of the two salts over that of their respective acids varies inversely
as the heat of solution of the two salts ; thus—
Difference of Heats of Combination Difference of Heats of Solution
[Ba,Cl?]—[H?,Cl*,Aq] 116110 [Ba,Br?] [Ba,Cl*] 2910
[ Ba, Br?] — [H?,Br?,Aq ] 113200
2910 2910
Finally, by taking pairs of any salts every consideration but heats of combination
on the one side and heats of solution on the other can be eliminated; and it is evi-
dent the heats of solution just vary inversely with the heats of combination ; as,
for instance—
Difference of Ileats of Combination Difference of Heats of Solution
[Mg,S,0*] —[Mg,Cl*] 151300 — 15640
[Zn,S,O*] —[Zn,Cl?] 132860 + 2800
+18440 —18440
In considering how the absolute amount of heat of solution arises, the author
shows that it seems to be due to a balancing of affinities among the constituent
elements, and that when, for instance, {M,Cl*]—{[M,CAq]+ Neutr.} is equal to
[H?,Cl?,Aq|]—[H?,O] there is no heat of solution, and the salt is insoluble. Several
examples of chlorides and other salts are given. It would appear also that when
an oxide is neutralised by an acid solution and the salt remains in solution the
operation is not complete; either the oxide and the acid are not completely decom-
posed when we have positive heat of solution, or, on the other hand, the salt and
water resulting from the double decomposition are not completely formed when we
have negative heat of solution. When both parts are complete we have insolubility.
Several examples are given to show this. It is also pointed out in this paper that
in the case of the sulphates when the heat of combination of the oxide with sul-
phuric anhydride is equal to the heat of combination of the metal with sulphur
there is no solubility, but when the former is less than the latter, solution imme-
diately appears; thus—
[Sr0,SO?] =99220 [Sr,S] =99220 . : . salt insoluble
[Ca0,SO%] =84200 [Ca,S] =92000 . A . salt slightly soluble
[Mg0,S08]=53070 [Mg,S]=79660 . ; . salt very soluble
The author finally draws attention to the fact that solution is probably a
periodic function of the elements.
5. On the Thermal Phenomena of Neutralisation and their bearing on the
Nature of Solution.’ By W. W. J. Nicot, M.A., D.Sc., F.B.S.E.
The author examines the thermal equation
M,R,Aq— M’,R,Aq = M,R’,Aq—M’,R’,Aq,
expressing the general relationship existing between the heats of formation of
1 Chemical Nens, 1887.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 657
various salts in dilute aqueous solutions. The pressure of water vapour from
salt solutions seems to support the relation
MR,Aq—M’R,Aq =MR’,Aq—MW’P’,Aq;
q q q q
and if this be so, then
M,R-—M’,R=M,R’-M’,R’,
a relation which is shown to be in accordance with the probabilities of the case.
6. On a probable Manifestation of Chemical Altraction as a Mechanical
Stress. By Professor Joun W. LanGiey.
Attention was first called by Gladstone and Tribe, in ‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xix.
p- 498, to the fact that a piece of copper in a solution of argentic nitrate
caused the formation of a dense solution of copper nitrate containing more of the
radicle NO, than the average solution. The present writer endeavours to explain
the cause of this concentration. Experiments are given showing that a concentra-
tion of the acid radicle occurs when a salt is formed from an acid in solution,
whether a metal, a metallic oxide, or a metallic hydrate be employed, and the
degree of concentration for several cases is given.
Experiments with electrolysis are then detailed, using the so-called non-
polarisable electrodes, and by suspending one electrode from the beam of a balance
it is found that the establishment of electrolysis consists of two stages—a variable
and a permanent one. During the first there is a gain in weight at the positive,
and a loss at the negative electrode, which is exactly opposite to the permanent
action of the cell. This action is shown to depend on the nature of the acid
radicle employed, being greatest with bromine and least with acetic acid.
The action during the variable stage is then shown to be only apparently in
contravention to the accepted laws of electrolysis, but, on the other hand, does
denote something which is an addition to those laws. It is proved experimentally
that there is an actual accumulation of acid radicle around one pole, and a
diminution at the other for a measurable distance, and involving weighable
quantities. The hypothesis is then offered that these phenomena are due to a
linear attraction acting selectively between the metal and the acid radicle, and is
common to the formation of a salt from an acid in solution by any process,
electrical or otherwise.
Under the hypothesis, and from experimental measurements, it is shown that
for a value of chemism expressed in electrical measure as a difference of potential
of ‘5+volt and a quantity equal to ‘69 coulomb per square centimétre, the value
of the chemism of copper for SO, equals terrestrial gravitation at ‘00124 milli-
métre distance.
7. Notes on some peculiar Voltaic Combinations. By C. R. ALDER WRIGHT,
D.Sc., F.R.S., and C. THomrson, F.C.S.
I, Gas-rirm ELEcTRO-MOTORS,
The combinations referred to under this title constitute a class of cells in which
the essential feature is that one or both of the ‘ plates’ of the combination consists
of a film or aura of gas attracted physically to, or condensed upon, the surface of
an electrically conducting solid not appreciably acted upon chemically during the
production of a current, but simply serving as a support for the gas-film, which
does undergo chemical change. Grove’s well-known oxygen-hydrogen ‘ gas battery,’
and the various analogous combinations examined subsequently by others, are cells
of this kind, where doth plates are gas-films. We have recently examined a
number of combinations intermediate in character between these and ordinary one-
fluid or two-fluid cells, one plate only being a gas-film.
Single gas-film electro-motors, as these may be conveniently termed, may he
ranged in two classes, according as the solid plate supporting the gas-film acquires
the higher or lower potential. When air, oxygen, or other electro-negative gas
1887. Uv
658 REPORT—-1887.
constitutes the film, the opposed plate being an oxidisable metal (¢.g. copper or
zinc), the former is the case; instead of an oxidisable metal, we find that an
incorrodible plate (e.g. platinum) immersed in an oxidisable fluid (e.g. an acid
solution of ferrous sulphate, or an alkaline one of pyrogallol) may often be
employed. Gas-films of hydrogen coal-gas and similar oxidisable gases opposed to
incorrodible plates immersed in oxidising fluids (e.g. platinum in nitric acid or
alkaline permanganate solution) furnish cells of the second class. In all cases the
E.M.F of the combination falls rapidly with increasing current density, owing to
the using up of the gas-tilm more rapidly than the physical attracting power of the
supporting plate can renew it, even under the most favourable conditions, ¢.e. when
supported horizontally on the surface of the electrolytic fluid employed so as to be
simultaneously in contact therewith and with an atmosphere of the gas experi-
mented with.
In most cases it is desirable that the gas-film plate should not be in direct contact
with the alterable fluid surrounding the plate opposed thereto; the cell then takes
the form of a two-fluid arrangement, the two liquids being on opposite sides of a
porous partition, or contained in separate vessels united by an inverted siphon or
asbestos wick, &c. For example, a plate or tray of spongy platinum opposed to a
piece of platinum foil, the former being arranged on the surface of a solution of
caustic soda in contact with the air, and the latter immersed in a solution of
pyrogallol in caustic soda conveniently protected from direct contact with air by
being enclosed in an inverted test-tube dipping into a somewhat more dense soda
solution connected by a siphon, &c., with the other solution.
We find that with cells of the first class, especially those where air is the gas
employed, much more concordant valuations of the H.M.F set up when generating
only minute currents may be obtained, than might @ priori be expected, provided
certain precautions are taken; and that fairly accurate valuations are possible of
the effect produced by varying the nature of the ‘ aeration plate’ (plate supporting
the air-film), the strength and nature of the fluid surrounding it, and so on.
Thus the simplest cells of this kind (such as a plate of amalzamated zinc immersed
in caustic soda solution, on the surface of which the aeration plate is arranged)
appear in general to produce a higher H.M.F the stronger the solution. The effect
of varying the aeration plate, all else remaining the same, is independent of the
nature of the oxidisable metal, but is influenced to some extent by the strength of
the electrolytic fluid, and varies with its nature. For instance, the effect of sub-
stituting a tray of spongy platinum for an aeration plate of smooth platinum foil
is to cause an increment in the E.M.F of the cell, the numerical value of which is
sensibly the same whether zinc or lead be the oxidisable metal opposed, provided
the soda solution be the same; but is not. the same whether the soda solution be
strong or weak; and is widely different, if, instead of caustic soda, dilute sulphuric
acid be used as the electrolytic fluid ; and similarly in other cases.
Somewhat unexpected results were obtained when certain of the more difficultly
oxidisable metals (mercury, silver, and gold) were opposed to aeration plates in
contact with appropriate electrolytic fluids: oxidation and solution took place
with celerity. Thus mercury and silver readily form mercurous and argentic sul-
phates if immersed in dilute sulphuric acid on which a platinum sponge aeration
plate is arranged, on completing the circuit through a moderately large external
resistance; the current produced is readily measurable by inclosing in the circuit
a small silver voltameter. Silver similarly dissolves in ammonia solution (prefer-
ably containing some ammonium chloride or sulphate) when opposed to an aeration
plate, as also does gold in potassium cyanide solution. Hitherto we have not
succeeded in dissolving platinum in any combination of the kind.
II. Voztraic CrrcLes PRODUCIBLE BY THE Moruat NEvTRALISATION OF ACID
AND ALKALINE FLUIDS, SUPPLEMENTED BY OTHER AGENCIES.
It has long been known that if an aid and an alkaline solution be united (by
means of a wick or siphon, &c.) a considerable current is producible for a short
time in the external circuit connecting two plates of platinum, &c., immersed in
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 659
the two fluids respectively ; but this current very rapidly diminishes to infinitesi-
mal proportions. The usual explanation of this given in the textbooks is that
during the passage of the current electrolysis takes place, causing the development
of free hydrogen on the surface of the plate in the acid fluid, and of oxygen on
that of the other plate, so that an inverse E,M.F. is set up by the incipient gas
battery thus produced, which by-and-by becomes practically equal to the E.M.F.
due to the chemical action of neutralisation. No direct quantitative proof of this
electrolysis, however, appears ever to have been given as regards the hydrogen ;
whilst as regards the oxygen the main evidence is the observation of Becquerel,
that if nitric acid be the acid and caustic potash the alkali, a tolerably constant
current is developed, the flow of which is accompanied by continuous evolution
of oxygen from the alkali plate, whence the term ‘pile 4 oxygéne’ applied by him
to the combination, the nitric acid being simultaneously reduced to lower oxides
of nitrogen.
Whilst studying the action of various gas-film cells, we had occasion to make
some experiments with ‘neutralisation cells,’ ¢.e., cells in which one essential
feature is that an acid and an alkaline fluid are used, which neutralise one another
during the action; thus in the case of Becquerel’s ‘ pile 4 oxygéne,’ the scheme
YHNO, | 2KNO, | 2KOH
H, | 2NO, K | 2NO, K | OH, | 0
represents the primary action, the hydrogen, of course, not appearing as such, but
reducing the nitric acid. We found it difficult to obtain by titration very sharp
figures proving that one equivalent of acid disappears on one side and one of alkali
on the other for every equivalent of silver thrown down by the current in a silver
yvoltameter ; but our results always at least approximated to this. On the other
hand, we found no difficulty at all in proving that in Becquerel’s ‘ pile 4 oxygéne,’
8 milligrams of oxygen (5°6 c.c.s. at 0° and 760 m.m.) are evolved for every 108
milligrams of silver deposited. Moreover, we found that various oxidising fluids
can be substituted for nitric acid without affecting this result; thus solution of
potassium permanganate or ferricyanide acidulated with sulphuric acid; chromic
acid dissolved in sulphuric acid; hydrochloric acid saturated with chlorine; or
dilute sulphuric acid saturated with bromine, all cause oxygen evolution (though
not all as rapidly as nitric acid) in precisely the quantity equivalent to the silver
deposited.
Tt occurred to us that by suitably modifying the liquids used we might obtain
similar quantitative evidence as regards the hydrogen. If nitric acid or other
oxidising agent can be reduced by the nascent hydrogen whilst the oxygen escapes,
it might be expected that if some highly oxidisable substance is dissolved in the
caustic alkali used, the oxygen might be arrested whilst still nascent, whilst con-
versely the hydrogen escaped free at the other side ; and this, in fact, we ultimately
succeeded in doing. Several oxidisable substances, however, proved too weak ;
thus sulphites and ferrocyanides caused no distinct hydrogen evolution; but
caustic soda containing hyposulphite (Schiitzenberger’s ‘hydrosulphite’) or
pyrogallol caused continuous evolution of hydrogen in quantity strictly propor-
tionate to the current passing, z.e., 11-2 c.c. normal for every 108 milligrammes of
silver deposited.
Precisely the same result was obtained when certain metals not ordinarily
soluble in cold acid or alkaline fluids, and simple caustic soda solution were used
instead of these alkaline oxidisable fluids with platinum plates. Thus tin or
lead immersed in caustic soda and opposed to platinum in dilute sulphuric acid
dissolved freely, producing copious evolution of hydrogen from the platinum plate
surface. Thé same result was obtained on substituting copper and ammonia solu-
tion for tin and caustic soda; whilst by employing strongly alkaline potassium
cyanide solution, mercury, silver, gold, and palladium were readily dissolved with
hydrogen evolution from the opposed platinum plate immersed in dilute sulphuric
acid. In all these different cases the amount of hydrogen obtained was exactly
proportionate to the current flowing, 11-2 cc. being collected for every milligram
equivalent of silver deposited in the voltameter.
uu?
660 REPORT—1887.
8. On the present Aspect of the Question of the Sources of the Nitrogen of
Vegetation. By Sir J. B. Lawns, F.R.S., and Professor J. H.
Giipert, F.R.S.
9. Dispersion Equivalents and Constitutional Formule.
By Dr. J. H. Guapstong, F.R.S.
10. On a new and rapid Method of Testing Beer and other Alcoholic
Liquors. By Dr. Witu1am Bort.
At a meeting of brewers recently held at Graz, in Austria, Professor H. Schwarz
gave a popular lecture on a new process of estimating the strength and value of
alcoholic liquids. The method more particularly applies to beer, but can also be
used with other alcoholic fluids; and as it claims the advantage of being equally
simple and rapid, and moreover does not require any special chemical knowledge on
the part of the operator, it would prove very valuable in the hands of Custom-
house officers, publicans, or other people who are frequently called upon to test
alcoholic liquors. The whole analysis can be done in three minutes, and consists in
(1) A determination of the specific gravity by means of an accurate hydro-
meter ;
(2) A determination of the index of refraction (this can be very readily done by
anybody with one of the so-called Abbé Zeiss refractometers, manufactured by Carl
Zeiss at Jena, Germany).
From these two deta iniatien we can easily obtain the difference between the
specific gravity of the liquor and that of pure water, also the difference between
the respective indices of refraction of the liquor and pure water. Let A denote the
difference between the specific gravities, and B that between the indices of refraction
of the liquor and pure water respectively ; then the general formula is
ax —by =
cx + dy=B
where 2 = % of extract
and y=9% of alcohol.
a, b, c, and d are constants, viz. :
= effect of 196 of extract upon specific gravity.
= aa alcohol FA
c= a extract upon refraction
d— 6 alcohol 5
These constants have been determined by a series of very careful experiments
and found to be
a=0-00393 ; b=0:00163; c=0:00150; d=0-00062.
The only objection to the above method is the expense of an instrument for the
determination of the index of refraction; still in cases where a great number of
analyses have to be made, the saving of time and trouble would amply repay the
first cost.
11. On some Organic Vanadates.1 By Joun A. Hatt.
I have obtained a series of organic ortho-vanadates by the action of an alkyl
bromide on silver ortho-vanadate. These bodies are yellow liquids, which decom-
pose on distillation under the ordinary pressure, but the lower members can be
distilled under reduced pressure.
Methyl vanadate could not be obtained.
Ethyl vanadate boils at 150°C. under a pressure of 120mm, The vapour
density is normal. The specific gravity is 1:167 at 17°5° C.
Printed in extenso in the Journ. of the Chem. Soc. Oct. 1887.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 661
The refractive indices are—
For Lithium . : A : ‘ - : F +) W473
» sodium : : ‘ 6 j : : . 1481
» Thallium P ‘ i . 1483
Amy] pyro-vanadate is the only pyro-vanadate which I have been able to
obtain in sufficient quantity for analysis.
No meta-vanadates could be obtained, an ether and vanadium pentoxide always
being formed.
All these organic vanadates are immediately decomposed by water, with the
formation of vanadic acid, thus resembling the organic arsenates more closely than
the phosphates.
As I was unable to prepare methyl vanadate, I tried the action of methyl
iodide on silver phosphate, and obtained methyl phosphate, a colourless liquid,
boiling at 190° C, (uncorrected).
12. On some Organo-silicon Compounds.
By W. B. Hart, A.C.
Prior to the year 1885, the general method of preparation of organo-silicon
compounds consisted in the use of an organo-metallic body, such as the zinc, or the
mercuric * compound, with silicon chloride. In that year Polis* prepared aromatic
silicon compounds by the use of Michaelis’s general method, which consists in the
remoyal of halogen atoms in a mixture of the halogen-organic compound and
silicon chloride by means of sodium, and a consequent linking of the residues.
In every instance mono-halogen derivatives of hydro-carbons have been used,
and compounds containing monad radicals have been obtained. It was thought
interesting to attempt the preparation of substances containing dyad radicles by
the use of di-halogen derivatives.
The method that Polis used was adopted, as being most suitable, and simplest
to carry out. It consists in bringing together the required amounts of silicon
tetrachloride and di-halogen derivative of the hydrocarbon, diluting with dry
ether and adding the calculated quantity of metallic sodium,
Dichlorsilicodiethylenedibromide.
CH,.Br
CHD siCl 2 or (C »H,Br),SiCl,
|
CH,.Br
A mixture of 10 grs. C,H,Br, (2 mols.) and 4°6 grs. SiCl, (1 mol.) was diluted
with thrice its volume of dry ether, the whole being placed in a flask connected
with a reversed condenser ; and now 5 ers. of metallic sodium (4 mols.), in thin
slices, were added, together with a few drops of acetic ether. An action began,
and continued, but slowly, for some time. After standing four days in the cold
the liquid portion was filtered off, the ether removed by heating up to 100° on the
water-bath, and the remaining liquid now distilled. The chief part came over
between 150° to 154° as a colourless fuming liquid, which on examination was
found to contain silicon, together with chlorine and bromine. It burnt with a
luminous flame.
Analysis of halogens gave
7-76 % Cl. 31:48 % Br.
The silicon was too small in quantity to be determined.
The halogen determination was carried out as follows :—
The liquid, weighed out in a bulb, was placed in a closely stoppered bottle,
with excess of dilute NH,HO; the bulb was now broken by shaking. The contents
1 Friedel & Crafts, Bull. Soc. Chim. [2] iii. 356.
2 Ladenburg, Ann. Chem. Pharm. clxxiii, 151.
3 Ber. Deutsch. Chem, Ges. xviii. 1540.
662 REPORT—1887.
of the bottle were evaporated to dryness on the water-bath in a platinum dish,
the residue treated with hot water, filtered, and washed, ‘The filtrate was now
precipitated with argentic nitrate in the usual manner, and the precipitate, after
filtering, washing, and drying, was weighed. It was now reduced by heating in a
current of hydrogen. From these weights the quantities of chlorine and bromine
were calculated.
During the distillation, decomposition occurred, and a large quantity of a sub-
stance containing silicon remained behind.
The experiment was repeated, the mixture being warmed to about 45° for three
or four days and treated as in the previous experiment. On distillation, during
which decomposition again took place, it yielded the principal fraction between
120° to 125°, which gave the following analysis :—
Stree - 4 ; 5 5 ; A . . 5:89) %
ieee zk ereeine OAS” gniiee ns hs cng) cee oe
15 gee : : , : ‘ ; . : : Ph PORE:
From these numbers we get
Si: Cl, or 1: 2:02.
The presence of Br here must be due to decomposition of the substance during
distillation, and must exist in the fraction as HBr, since bromine joined to O,H,
would not be so split off by NH,HO.
The halogens were determined as described above. The silicon was estimated
by Polis’s method,' which consists in heating the substance with strong H,SO,,
and oxidation with a solution of KMn0O,.
The method was modified by the use of sodium in a finely divided state. This
was prepared by melting the sodium under boiling toluene in a flask, and whilst
molten, corking the flask with a good cork and shaking violently for a few seconds.
oo allowing to cool, the toluene was poured off and the sodium washed with dry
ether.
As the chief fraction of the liquid obtained in the last experiment indicated
that only half the chlorine was removed from the silicon tetrachloride, and, more-
over, a large quantity of sodium was left intact, which probably resulted from
incompleteness of the reaction, only half the former quantity of sodium was there-
fore added.
10 grs. SiC], (1 mol.) were mixed with 22 ers. C,H,Br, (2 mols.), and this now
diluted with thrice its volume of dry ether; to this 5:7 grs. (2 mols.) of finely
divided sodium were added, and a few drops of acetic ether. The reaction pro-
ceeded rapidly, and was completed on the water-bath. On allowing to cool, the
liquid, which was of a light brown colour, was poured off, and the greater part of
the ether distilled. As in the former experiments, decomposition took place on
distillation ; it was therefore determined to examine the liquid without fractiona-
tion at all. The remaining fluid was placed in vacuo over sulphuric acid and
allowed to remain there four days. The resulting liquid was now dark brown in
colour, thick, and fumed in the air. On exposure to air it became coated with a
solid substance, and for this reason was removed to small bulbs for analysis, as
quickly as possible.
Si determination. By Polis’s method.
0:59 gr. gave 0°113875 Si0, =8:997 % Si
Found. Cale. for. (C,H,Br), SiCl,
8997 % Si. 8:88 % Si.
The following equation shows the reaction that occurs :—
CH,Br
: |
20,H,Br, + SICl, + 2Na, = OH» sic], + 2NaCl + 2NaBr
2
|
CH,Br
1 Ber. Deutsch. Chem. Ges. xix, 1024.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 663
The compound is miscible with ether and benzene. Both sodium chloride and
bromide were found in the residue in the flask.
It is a curious fact that these substances cannot be completely burnt. If any
one of them is heated on platinum foil in the Bunsen lamp, it does not melt, but
carbonises, and leaves a black siliceous residue which cannot be burnt white over
the blowpipe flame or even ina current of oxygen. But if the substance is treated
with a drop of pure strong sulphuric acid and now heated as before in the Bunsen
lamp, a pure white residue is obtained, which, by washing with hot water, leaves a
residue of pure silica. Nitric acid also acts in a similar manner.
On account of this, the determination of carbon and hydrogen, in most cases,
could not be made, even with the help of lead chromate in oxygen. For the com-
position of these compounds we are therefore bound, unfortunately, to rely on the
indications given by the silicon determinations, aided sometimes by the reactions
which these substances undergo on exposure to air.
By exposing the previous compound to air it became solid, and was then in-
soluble in ether or benzene. It was washed with benzene and dried in yacuo over
sulphuric acid. It was of a dark grey colour, and as it was insoluble in the usual
solvents, an analysis of it was made, without further purification.
The silicon determination had to suffice, and was carried out by heating the
substance on the water-bath with strong nitric acid, when a perfectly white residue
of silica was obtained.
0-263 gr. subst. gave 0°150 gr. SiO, = 26°6 % Si
Found. Cale. for. (C,H,). OSiO
26°6 % Si 24°1 Xf Si.
But as it is scarcely conceivable that the bromine atoms can be so split off,
there is great doubt as to the existence of the above compound.
Trimethylenesilicondichloride, C,H,.SiCl,,.
CH
2
Blin tee
CH, ‘SiCl,
|
or,’
This was prepared by mixing 10 grs. SiCl, (1 mol.) with 11°88 grs.
CH,.Br.CH,.CH,Br (1 mol.) and diluting with dry ether. To this 5-4 grs. (2 mols.)
of sodium in fine condition and a few drops of acetic ether were added. The
number of molecules of either substance taking part in the reaction not being
known, excess of SiC], was at first used. The reaction began at once and became
so violent as to require cooling of the flask. Finally it was warmed on the water-
bath, The flask was now cooled and the liquid portion filtered off, and the greater
part of the ether removed by evaporation. As a preliminary experiment showed
that the liquid decomposed by distillation, it was evaporated in vacuo over
sulphuric acid, as in the case of the ethylene compound. The liquid, which was
of a dark brown colour and became thick and fumed in the air, was immediately
placed in bulbs.
0-23575 gr. subst. gave 0°217 CO,=25:1 %C
0103 H,O= 48 %H
0:271 gr. subst. gave 0:109 SiO, =18°77 ¥ Si
Found. Cale. for. C,H,.SiCl,
Si18-77 % 19°85 7
C 25:10 % 25:55
H 4:80 % 4:25 %
In the combustion a small residue of carbon was left.
The liquid is miscible with ether and benzene.
The reaction may be expressed as follows :—
CH,.Br CH,
om +SiCl,+2Na,=CH, SiCl, +2NaCl+2NaBr
CH,.Br CH,
664 REPORT—1887.
Both sodium chloride and bromide were found in the residue in the flask,
Trimethylenesiliconoxide, C,H,.Si0.
CH.
|
i SiO
on,’
This was obtained by exposing a portion of the previous compound to the air,
upon which it became solid and now insoluble in benzene, ether, &c. It was
washed with benzene and dried in vacuo over sulphuric acid. The substance had
now a dark appearance, and being insoluble in the usual solvents, was analysed
without further purification.
0:2025 gr. subst. gave 0°1415 er. SiO, = 32°61 % Si
Found, Cale. for. C;H,.Si0
32°61 % Si 32°67 % Si
The action of silicon tetrachloride on aromatic di-halogen derivatives was now
tried, and for this purpose the ortho compounds seemed theoretically to offer the
most satisfactory results.
Di-0-Diphenylensilicium, (C,H,).Si.
CH OH
HCOf SC © CH
Sg; Z
TIC ae Sek CH
ee J Sas D)
CH. CH
For the preparation of this, 10 grs, SiCl, (1 mol.) were mixed with 17:2 grs.
C
OFL<oy: (2 mols.) and the mixture diluted with ether. 10:8 grs. of sodium
(4 mols.) in fine condition were now added, and the reaction started with a few
drops of acetic ether. A violent reaction at once began so as to require cooling of
the flask. At the conclusion, the flask was warmed on the water-bath. After
cooling the liquid portion was filtered off, the residue on filter being washed with
ether. This ether was now removed by distillation and the residual liquid treated
with excess of water. A greyish-black substance separated out which was
extracted with ether. This ethereal solution was now evaporated on the water-
bath, whereby a thick brown oil was obtained, which solidified on cooling. The
solid substance was now digested with hot benzene, in order to free it from a dark
coloured body. The residue, dried in vacuo over sulphuric acid, was a dark brown
solid.
A silicon determination was made by heating the powdered substance with
fuming nitric acid to 130° in a sealed tube.
0:142 er. subst. gave 0:0475 SiO, = 15°61 % Si
Found. Cale. for. (C,H). Si
15°61% Si 15°55 % Si.
The reaction may be represented :—-
2C,H,Cl, +- SiCl, + 4Na, = (C,H,),Si + 8NaCl.
Action of Sodium Amalgam on (C,H,), Si.
On heating this substance with sodium amalgam in dilute alcoholic solution a
curious result was observed. After about an hour, a semi-solid substance separated
out, which dissolved on further heating, The liquid was now poured off, and a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 665
sticky substance was found in the flask, and on examination was found to be
sodium silicate. The liquid portion, on evaporation, left a semi-solid substance of
dark colour, containing carbon and hydrogen but no silicon; it was therefore not
examined further.
It would follow, from this easy decomposibility of the compound, that the
silicon is combined in a very unstable manner with the two molecules of the dyad
radicle phenylene, C,H,.
13. A new Process for the Preparation of Aconitine.
By Joun Wituaus, F.C.8., FIC.
During the past year I have made many experiments upon the best mode of
preparing crystallised aconitine, and have succeeded in preparing the alkaloid by a
process which yields it better than the one previously employed, and which, as
tar as I can discover, has not hitherto been described.
The new process for the preparation of aconitine is very simple in outline, but
some practical details must be attended to if a successful result is to be obtained.
The process is as follows :—
Aconite root (the root of the Aconitwm Napellus) dried at a very moderate
temperature and coarsely ground is thoroughly exhausted with amyl alcohol (fusel
oil); the amylic solution so obtained is shaken with dilute acid and water, this
acid liquid precipitated with carbonate of soda, and the rough alkaloid produced,
dissolved either in ether or alcohol and allowed to crystallise, when the pure
alkaloid is obtained.
To carry out this process, however, so as to obtain a satisfactory result several
precautions must be taken. First, the aconite root must be carefully chosen, and
if possible verified botanically as that of the .4. Napellus. We have reason to
believe that other species of aconite, although yielding alkaloids of great medicinal
importance, do not yield an alkaloid identical with that obtained from the JA.
Napellus, and as the British Pharmacopeeia gives that plant as the officinal one,
great care should be taken to avoid the admixture of other varieties.
The fusel oil used should be of good quality, and free from ordinary spirit ;
which should be carefully got rid of by washing the oil with water several times,
and, if necessary, distilling in a current of steam.
For extracting the root maceration for a few days with frequent stirring, and
then percolation, is the most effective. This should be done in the cold. In fact,
heat should be avoided as far as possible throughout the whole process.
The percolate is of a pale straw colour, and is not contaminated with the dark
oleoresin, which is extracted from the root by ordinary alcohol: this, I need
hardly remark, is a very great advantage.
The extraction of the alkaloid from the fusel oil should be effected by weak
sulphuric acid and water (about 1 fluid drachm to, say, 4 pints of water). The
oil should be shaken with small but successive portions of the dilute acid, and the
aqueous liquid tested from time to time with such reagents as double iodide of
mercury and potassium, &c.
‘The weak acid liquid separated from the fusel oil smells strongly of that body,
which is to a slight extent soluble in water. To get rid of this the liquid must be
shaken with ether (common methylated ether, from which the spirit has been
washed out, answers the purpose perfectly). Generally the treatment with the
ether should he repeated, as I do not find it easy to separate the whole of the fusel
oil at the first operation unless a very large excess of ether is employed.
The aqueous liquid so obtained smelling very strongly of ether should be
placed in a water-bath, very gently heated, for a few hours. When cold it will be
found to be free from both odour and colour, and in a fit state for precipitation.
The precipitation of the crude alkaloid is best effected by a solution of ordinary
carbonate of soda, which I prefer to ammonia.
The precipitate of crude alkaloid, which is nearly white, should be slightly
washed and dried, and transferred to a flask or other vessel with great caution, as
the alkaloid in this state is very irritating.
666 REPORT—1887.
The aconitine has now to be dissolved out from this mass by either ether or
alcohol, and this must, I think, be done at a boiling temperature, this being the
only part of the process in which heat is employed.
The ether should be pure, washed from alcohol, and rendered anhydrous by dried
carbonate of potash.
The alkaloid is not very soluble in pure dry ether, and the boiling has to be
kept up for some time before the ether is really saturated ; it is then filtered into a
basin, yielding a perfectly colourless solution, and allowed to evaporate spon-
taneously, when nearly the whole of the alkaloid is deposited in the crystallised
state. The ether may be allowed to evaporate to dryness, and, although the
erystals deposited are very small, they give when examined by the microscope
uniformly shaped crystals to the end. It frequently happens, however, that a rig
of gummy extractive matter (almost colourless) forms around the upper rim of
the crystals, due, I suppose, to oxidation, which, even under the most favourable
conditions, cannot be entirely prevented. I have found it necessary to add to the
dry crystals in the basin a few drachms of pure cold ether. The gummy matter I
have alluded to is very soluble in ether, but the crystallised aconitine is not, or
rather requires a long time before it dissolves. In this way the crystals can be
washed from the gummy matter, which would otherwise contaminate them, and
while still damp can be easily transferred to blotting paper, on which they can be
allowed to dry spontaneously. Before I adopted this plan I found considerable
difficulty in transferring the crystallised alkaloid from the basin to a bottle, and
when we consider that the ;3,, grain has been found sufficient to kill a mouse, and
3 5
that probably ;4. grain is Sufficient to produce very unpleasant symptoms on
man, it can easily be seen that the plan of damping the crystals before removing
them is a very necessary precaution.
Crystallising the aconitine from alcohol has some great advantages, but counter-
balanced by some disadvantages.
The alkaloid is far more soluble in alcohol than in ether, and on cooling a hot
saturated solution crystals are deposited very readily. I have obtained some of
quite a quarter of an inch in length, and all the crystals produced are much better
defined than those deposited from ether; but unfortunately they are not white,
colour begins to show itself very soon after solution, and during the after-evapora-
tion of the alcohol the colour becomes deeper and deeper, thus proving that the
alkaloid is much more easily altered when in an alcoholic solution than when it is
held in solution in ether, amyl, alcohol, &c. This fact is also of importance as
helping to explain how it is that discrepant resuits were frequently obtained by the
old process of working, in which alcohol was used. My effort has been to obtain
the alkaloid in its unaltered condition, that is, in the state in which it exists in the
plant ; and this I think, by the process I have now described, and especially when
ether is used as the solvent, is very nearly if not quite accomplished.
I regret to say I am without direct physiological evidence as to the medicinal
activity of aconitine made by the process I have described, but still hope that this
subject will form a matter of research by one of our most eminent experimentalists,
who has promised to take this matter up when he can spare the necessary time.
I have commenced an investigation respecting some of the salts of this alkaloid,
but have not been able to continue my experiments, but I hope to be able to do so
shortly. The careful analysis of the different products L have obtained has not yet
been undertaken, but I hope this may be undertaken shortly.
I may mention that I have tried this process upon a sample of what I have
every reason to suppose was the root of the Aconitum ferox, but of whose identity
I cannot be quite certain.
The alkaloid was yielded in good quantity, and very white, and appeared to be
very much more soluble both in ether and alcohol than the aconitine yielded by
the A. Napellus. It proved most difficult to obtain it in a crystallised form, but I
have lately seen a slide which under the microscope proved to be studded with
crystals, which appeared to be of the right shape of the true alkaloid, so that it is
very probable that the alkaloid from the A. ferox contains a crystallisable body
which may prove to be the true aconitine, but masked by some other alkaloidal
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 667
body not capable of crystallisation as readily as the true alkaloid. As, however,
some doubt exists as to the true nature of the root employed, it is perhaps hardly
necessary to consider this question further at present.
14. Some new Oinnamic Acids.
By Professor Prrxiy and Dr. J. B. Coney.
The object of this paper was to indicate in what manner the preparation of
certain substituted cinnamic acids from aromatic aldehydes may be performed,
where the ordinary direct method known as Perkin’s reaction cannot from the
nature of the aldehyde be employed. The cinuamic acids prepared are those
derived from Tilmann and Reimer’s ortho- and para-salicylic acids. A modifica-
tion in the separation of the two isomers is described.
The aldehydo-salicylic acids are converted into the ethereal salts.
The ethereal salts are treated with sodium alcoholate, and an atom of sodium
introduced into the phenol hydrogen. The resulting compounds are finally heated
with sodium acetate and acetic'anhydride and the cinnamic acids obtained in this
way.
The properties and constitution of these compounds were briefly discussed.
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
The following Papers were read :—
1. The Antiseptic Properties of Metallic Salts in relation to their Chemical
Composition, and the Periodic Law. By Professor CARNELLEY and
Miss Erra Jounston.
A comparison of all the results obtained by previous observers and by the
authors themselves shows: (1) That for the salts of elements of a given family
and belonging to the same sub-group the toaze action alters regularly, cseteris
paribus, with the atomic weight of either the positive or negative element of the
compound, (2) That this alteration almost always takes place in such a way that
the toxie action increases with the atomic weight, and is therefore strictly analogous
to the increase in the toxic action of ordinary alcohols, which Baumetz and Miguel
have shown to increase with the atomic weight of the alcohol (cf. Blake, ‘Comptes
Rendus,’ t. xevi. 439).
It must be understood that these conclusions only hold good provided that the
organism and the mode of administration, &c., remain precisely the same for the
same series of compounds,
Lithium, beryllium, boron, and fluorine appear to be exceptional, and are in this
respect, therefore, analogous to methyl alcohol, which is likewise exceptional
among the alcohols, both in toxic and in other properties.
2. On the Antiseptic Properties of some of the Flworine Compounds.
By Wi.1amM Tuomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.8.
Some time ago I was engaged in trying to find a substance which would act as
a powerful antiseptic, which was not volatile, and which was not destroyed by
oxidation. I tried the effects on flour paste, and on meat chopped into small pieces
and mixed with water, of a very large number of chemical compounds, and found
that those which had the most remarkable antiseptic properties were the compounds
of fluorine: hydrofluoric acid, the acid and neutral fluorides of sodium, potassium,
and ammonium and the fluosilicates of those bases. Of these compounds I found
the neutral sodium fluosilicate to be the one which for its powerful antiseptic and
unobjectionable properties was the one which for the general purposes of an anti-
septic was perhaps the best suited. This body is not poisonous, possesses no smell,
668 REPORT—1887.
and is sparingly soluble in water. It has only a very slightly saline taste, and may
be therefore employed for preserving food without communicating any taste to it.
Many experiments have been made with it for surgical purposes, A saturated
solution which contains 0°61 per cent. of the salt is not irritating to wounds,
whilst it possesses greater antiseptic power for animal tissues than one part of per-
chloride of mercury in 500 of water, which is a stronger solution than that
which can be generally employed for surgical purposes without producing poisonous
effects.
3. On the Composition of Water by Volume.'
By Avuexanver Scort, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E.
Two years ago, at the meeting of the Association in Aberdeen, the author
pointed out that, owing to the difference in the behaviour of oxygen and hydrogen,
especially with regard to the effects of pressure on them, it was extremely
improbable that the relative volumes in which they combine to form water should
be exactly 1:2. An account of some preliminary experiments was then given,
which seemed to indicate that one volume of oxygen required rather less than two
volumes of hydrogen. Many subsequent experiments with larger volumes of gas
and different apparatus have confirmed the results then obtained. Over thirty
experiments have been performed, and in every case with the same result: the most
probable ratio seems to be 1-996 to 1:597 volumes of hydrogen to 1 of oxygen. The
apparatus used enables the gases to be prepared of such purity that the amount of
nitrogen amounts to only -7 in 10,400, or about one part in 15,000. The volumes
of gas used in the latest experiments are about 280 cubic centimétres of oxygen
to 560 cubic centimétres of hydrogen. ‘Taking Regnault’s density for oxygen as
15°9627 and the above ratio, we get the atomic weight of oxygen = 15:99.
4. On some Vapour Densities at High Temperatures.
By Aurxanprr Scort, I.A., D.Se., F.R.S.E.
The following vapour densities were determined by Meyer’s method in an
apparatus of platinum at a temperature above the melting point of cast iron.
Experimental} Theoretical Molecular
value value formula
Sodium . ; : : : =a | 25°5 23° Na
EGRET tn Sel ene. eu i Olea | 39: K
Mercury . ‘ : : : sillen, AUB, 200: Hg
Sulphur . : : ; : <4 67:3 64: s,
Iodine. : : : : pl 179°3 169 (1, + 21)
Cesium iodide : . ; : 267° 260° CsI
Cesium chloride. : : | 179-2 168°5 JsCl
Rubidium iodide . : s 3a) eee [ices 22: RbI
Rubidium chloride . : : eH 139-4 120°5 RbCl
Potassium iodide. ; : yee oa 164- KI
Silver chloride : : ; 6d 160°8 1435 AgCl
Lead chloride : : : : 262°7 278: PbCl,
Manganous chloride : : | - 1323 126° MnCl,
Ferric chloride : : : ee oo. 162°5 FeCl,
Chromic chloride . F : - | 1549 159° CrCl,
Cadmium bromide . ; : a 2: 9-04 272: CdaBr,
Cadmium iodide . : : of S25 11 366° Cd +I, +CdI,
Mercuric sulphide . . : - 161°8 155° (2Hg +58.)
Mercurous chloride . 5 - ; 193°7 a Mixtures of HgCl,;
+Hg+Cl,
Mercuric chloride . : S 5 1556
* Proce. Roy. Soc. vol. xiii. p. 396. * Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin. vol. xiv.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 669
The potassium is perhaps over-corrected for errors in weighing, the number
actually found being 44°7; but 92 milligrams of potassium were required to give
22°33 ec. of hydrogen when weighed as in the experiments and thrown into water.
The sodium was similarly corrected.
5. On the Estimation of the Halogens and Sulphur in Organic Compounds.
By R. T, Puupron, Ph.D.
The estimation of the halogens and sulphur in organic compounds is often a
matter of some difficulty owing to the want of a sure and generally applicable
method of effecting the decomposition of the latter. Heating with nitric acid in a
sealed tube does not always suffice for this purpose, and the lime or soda-lime
method, besides decomposing certain substances only with the greatest difficulty, is
in many respects inconvenient.
A very satisfactory method of decomposition is the gradual introduction of the
substance into a Bunsen or hydrogen flame. Provided that the substance be
introduced slowly enough, there is no difficulty in effecting its complete decompo-
sition. The products of combustion containing the halogen, partly free and partly
as the acid, or the sulphur as sulphurous and sulphuric acids, are drawn through a
suitable absorber containing pure soda, and the estimation completed in the usual
way.
rh to the method of bringing the substance to be analysed into the flame:—
Volatile bodies are weighed in a small stoppered tube and dropped into a glass
Bunsen burner of suitable shape, the substance gradually evaporating in the current
of gas and air. The evaporation is aided or retarded at pleasure by heating or
cooling the Bunsen tube.
Non-volatile substances are weighed in a hollow platinum gauze wick which
can be raised or lowered inside the burner by means of a rack and pinion, so as
to gradually bring it within range of the flame.
A variety of compounds have been analysed by this method with satisfactory
results.
In the case of sulphur compounds it is preferable to use hydrogen, as the cor=
rection for the sulphur present in the coal gas burnt in the experiment is tco
considerable.
6. Vacuum injector Pumps for use in Chemical Laboratories.
By T. Farruey.
7. Description of a Shortened Self-acting Sprengel Pump.
By Dr. W. W. J. Nicot.
8. On the Derivatives and the Constitution of the Pyrocresols.!. By Wit.1aM
Bort, Ph.D., F.C.S., and Professor H. Scawarz.
It is about five years since H. Schwarz announced the discovery in coal
tar of three new isomerides, which he termed a-, 8-, and y-pyrocresol (Ber. XV.
2201). Some months previous to this publication W. Bott had examined a certain
bye-product obtained at the chemical works of Messrs. Crace, Calvert & Co. in Brad-
ford in the manufacture of phenol and cresol, and had, independently of Schwarz,
succeeded in isolating from it three new substances and prepared several deri-
vatives of them. Schwarz’s pyrocresols were soon recognised to be identical
with the bodies obtained by W. Bott, and we finally resolved to jointly pursue
their further study. Unfortunately we have been unable to take up the work
until recently, so that it is far from complete at the present time.
The mode of preparation of the pure pyrocresols and several derivatives has
» The complete origina! paper is published in the Journal of the Sosicty of
Chemical Industry.
670 REPORT—1887.
already been described by H. Schwarz (Ber. XV. 2201), but it will be well to preface
our account of the more recent results by a summary of the facts already known
along with such additional points and details as have been found out lately during
our inyestigation. *
a-pyrocresol, C,;H,,O, resembles pure anthracene in appearance, and can be
readily obtained in large, shining plates, having a beautiful blue fluorescence or in
smaller needles. It is readily soluble in benzene, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride
carbon disulphide, less so in acetic acid, alcohol, and ether, and quite insoluble in
water and alkalis; the latter do not act upon it even under pressure. It is like-
wise not acted upon by acetyl chloride, phosphorus trichloride, and COCI, solution
in benzene—from all of which it can he crystallised without decomposition. It
melts at about 196°, solidifying again within 4-6° below that temperature. When
heated more strongly it readily sublimes in beautiful white flakes. It can be
yolatilised without decomposition, and its vapour density agrees with the formula
given above.
y-pyrocresol differs from the a-product by its much greater solubility in all
solvents, the crystals are less well defined and always needle-shaped. It does not
sublime, but can be volatilised without undergoing any change; the vapour density
has also been obtained. Its properties are altogether less marked than those of the
a-compound. Melting point 104 to 105°.
B-pyrocresol, melting at 124°, stands intermediate between the a- and y- com-
pounds in all its properties.
Oxides of pyrocresol, C,;H,,0,.
a-pyrocresol oxide melts at 168° and forms long, light, yellow needles turning
darker on exposure to the light. It can be distilled, but does not sublime readily.
It is much more soluble in acetic acid and alcohol than a-pyrocresol.
y-pyrocresol oxide melts at 77°, and forms small rhombic plates turning red on
exposure to light.
B-pyrocresol oxide is less well defined ; its solidifying point lies at 95°.
The above oxides are obtained by oxidation in acetic acid solution by means of
chromic acid. They are indifferent bodies, insoluble in water and alkalis. By
gentle reduction with zinc dust, or by HI at a moderate heat, they yield the
pyrocresols again. When passed over a long layer of red-hot zinc dust, or
heated with a large excess of the strongest HI to a high temperature, they are
completely decomposed, yielding the same products as the pyrocresols, which will
be described below.
Nitro-compounds, C,,H,(NO,),0..
Nitric acid alone fails to nitrate pyrocresol completely; the product chiefly
consists of the oxide. The pure nitro-compounds are therefore obtained by the
action of nitrating mixture upon the oxides and recrystallisation from hot acetic
acid or nitrobenzene.
a-tetranitro-pyrocresol oxide forms small light yellow plates, which on heating
burn bags a flash. It is sparingly soluble in alcohol and insoluble in caustic
otash.
B-tetranitro-pyrocresol resembles the a-compound, but is more soluble in
alcohol.
y-tetranitro-pyrocresol forms a yellow and granular mass, and is also more
soluble in alcohol than the a-derivative.
By reduction with Na-amalgam or zinc dust amido compounds have been
obtained, but have not yet been prepared in the pure state.
HHalogen-derivatives.
When a-pyrocresol is dissolved in carbon tetrachloride, and a stream of chlorine
passed through for a long time, the liquid assumes a very pungent smell, different
from that of chlorine and strongly reminding of phosgene gas. On standing, this
odour disappears, and white granular crystals are gradually deposited. These
were recrystallised from hot benzene and analysed. The numbers obtained showed
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 671
them not to be a uniform product, but by repeated recrystallisation from hot
benzene a substance was obtained approximately answering to the formula
C,;H,,Cl,0. By protracted crystallisation we shortly expect to obtain a perfectly
pure product. The corresponding B- and y-derivatiyes have not yet been pre-
ared.
: a-dibrom-pyrocresol C,.H,,Br,O, obtained by adding Br to the acetic acid solu-
tion of pyrocresol, forms thick white elongated plates melting at 215°,
y and 8 pyrocresol form very similar compounds, and the oxides also combine
with bromine.
A chloride of a-pyrocresol—probably C,,H,,Cl,—has been obtained by acting upon
a solution of pyrocresol in carbon tetrachloride with a solution of PCI, in the same
solyent; the chloride is gradually precipitated as a yellowish powder, which on
standing soon decomposes, forming a resinous, brown mass. The 8 and y isumerides
have not yet been prepared. When dry a-pyrocresol is mixed with PCl, and
heated ; a green mass is formed soluble in benzene or chloroform with a beautiful
green colour. Upon strongly heating in an oil bath the green colour disappears.
The final product, after being well washed with hot water to remove phosphorus
chlorides, is found to contain chlorine, but cannot be recrystallised, the solutions
invariably drying up to a hard, transparent resin.
Sulpho-derivatives.
The pyrocresols can be sulphonated, two of the hydrogen atoms being replace-
able by SO,H. The Ba- and Na-sulphonates have been prepared. After oxidising
sulphonation no longer takes place, hence it would seem that the hydrogen atoms
replaceable by SO,H are the same which are exchanged for oxygen upon oxidation.
Reduction of the Pyrocresols.
The first attempts to effect a reduction of the pyrocresols failed on account of
the extreme stability of these bodies. Only recently we have succeeded in reduc-
ing a-pyrocresol, and by preliminary experiments have found that 8-and y-pyro-
eresol can also be reduced, but so far we have only studied the a-derivative more
closely. On heating a-pyrocresol in sealed tubes with 80 parts of a solution of
HI in acetic acid or water and excess of amorphous phosphorus to 300°, a
copious separation of iodine took place, and an oily liquid was found floating on
top of the mixture. The contents of the tubes were neutralised, distilled with
superheated steam, and the oil obtained dried with KHO,and repeatedly distilled over
metallic potassium. The pure oil is colourless and non-fluorescent, it has a slight
smell reminding of paraffins, and does not solidify even in a freezing mixture, nor
do any of the different parts obtained from it by fractionation. Upon fractionating
the oil turned out to be a mixture; the portion boiling about 275° was collected
and analysed, the analysis corresponding to the formula C,H, ; but of course the
exact amount of hydrogen cannot be ascertained by analysis only. Three vapour
density determinations in an atmosphere of hydrogen and diphenylamine bath by
V. Meyer's method gave the following data:
L. oe IIT.
G= 0-105 0:0820 0°1045
aa 87 11:8
t= 10°50 65 9:8
B=757 763-2 755
d=110-96 108-48 10432 (H=1)
= eens
OIA ae
Mean: 107-92 (calculated for C,,H,.: 106).
The oil cannot be nitrated by HNO, or nitrating mixture; upon heating with
HNO, a kind of resin is formed lighter than water. Bromine and strong H,SO,
scarcely act upon it. The quantity of the oil obtained so far was insufficient for
further tests, and the lower boiling portion could not be examined more com-
pletely for the same reason. Experiments to prepare larger quantities are now
being made.
672 REPORT—1887.
When a-pyrocresol is slowly distilled over a very long layer of hot zine dust
in a current of dry CO or hydrogen, a soft, yellowish mass is formed, strongly
smelling of anise-seed oil. By distillation with steam this yields an oil identical
with that obtained by reduction in the wet way, and a solid residue consisting of
unaltered pyrocresol.
No definite views regarding the constitution of the pyrocresols can be prof-
fered at the present stage of our investigation, but we may safely draw several
conclusions from the results so far obtained, more particularly in the case of
a-pyrocresol. Taking the empirical formula C,;H,,O for granted—and it must in
the worst case be a very near approach to the truth, as only the hydrogen might
be slightly more or less—the chief point to ascertain is the position of the oxygen
atom. “The absence of a hydroxyl group is shown by the fact that acid chlorides,
COCI, and PCl,, as well as alkalis have no action upon the body. Hence the
oxygen atom must be directly linked to carbon, and this admits of two possibilities,
viz., a carbonyl group or no carbonyl group. The presence of the CO group
would impart to the substance the general character of a ketone, but, unlike the
ketones, it does not under any circumstances and experimental conditions combine
with hydroxylamine or Fisher’s reagent—and the same applies to y- and B-pyro-
cresol. The absence of the carbonyl group is rendered still more probable by the
circumstance that no acid oxidation product could be obtained, and that upon
yeduction no disubstituted methane—viz., an isomeride of ditolyl methane seems
to beformed. From all this we are led to believe that a-pyrocresol and its isomers
are anhydrides similar to diphenyl ether, and that they consist of two chains held
together by an oxygen atom—thus :
CeHyC
C,H,c7?
As to the exact nature and structure of the two chains, and the relative position
of the oxygen atom joining them, we cannot at present offer any opinion, until we
shall bave more closely studied the reduction products and the dichloride obtained
by PCl,. The investigation of these and other derivatives is being proceeded
with, and, we trust, will soon lead to decisive results.
9. Apparatus for the Examination of Air. By Dr. Raxsome.
10. Apparatus for demonstrating the Explosiow of Nitro-Glycerine. By
P. Branam, F.C.S.
673
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—HeNRyY Woopwarp, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.
The PrestpEnt delivered the following Address :—
Srycz I received the friendly intimation from Professor Bonney, your distinguished
and able President of last year, that the Council of this Association had done me
the honour to select me to occupy the presidential chair of this Section which he
had vacated, I have been greatly exercised as to what subject to choose for the
brief address with which it has now become customary to open the Session. Not
that there is any lack of materials ready to hand for the purpose—on the contrary,
the subjects embraced by geology are now so varied and extensive that the effort
to focus them in a single mind is ever becoming a more difficult task to accomplish,
and demands the literary skill of a Lyell or a Geikie to marshal and arrange them
from year to year in a manner suitable for presentation to you at our annual
gathering.
Foremost in interest must necessarily be that which relates to our Home
Affairs, and in this I have been most kindly favoured by Dr. A. Geikie, the
Director-General of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, who sends me a brief
notice of the progress of the Survey for 1886, taken partly from his Annual Report
as Director-General and partly from information supplied by the office through the
kindness of Mr. William Topley, our Recording Secretary. The following is the
statement which I have received :—
The survey of the solid geology of England and Wales was completed at the
end of 1883, and the field-staff has since been occupied in surveying the drift-
deposits, making at the same time such revisions of the ordinary (solid) geology as
may be necessary. In the north and east of England the drift and solid have been
surveyed at the same time. The areas examined in the earlier days of the survey,
in the south, centre, and west of England, and in Wales, were done for the solid
rocks only.
In order to meet the great need for a general map of England and Wales on a
moderate scale, one is being engraved by the Survey on the scale of 4 miles to linch
(1 : 253440), and will be issued in fifteen sheets.
A few of the survey memoirs relate to large areas, and give complete descrip-
tions of the formations therein exposed, but most of the memoirs are explanations
of special sheets of the map. A series of monographs is now in preparation giving
full deseriptions of special formations. Mr. Whitaker has charge of that on the
Lower Tertiaries; Mr. H. B. Woodward and Mr. C. Fox-Strangways are preparing
the Jurassic memoir, the former taking the rocks south of the Humber, and the
latter those of Yorkshire ; Mr. Jukes-Browne is writing the Cretaceous monograph ;
and Mr. Clement Reid that on the Pliocene Beds.
In Scotland some advance has been made in mapping the important and com-
plicated area of the north-west Highlands. The surveyors there were chiefly
engaged between Loch Stack and Ullapool, subsequently completing the area about
Durness and Eriboll. The other parts of Scotland now being surveyed are the
1887. XX
674 REPORT—1887.
north-eastern and the western side of the Grampians, all south of the latter
haying been already completed.
Ireland is entirely surveyed with the exception of a small area in’ Donegal,
which will probably be completed this year. ‘This district is of interest from its
recemblance to the north-west Highlands, and from the problems which it presents
as to the origin of the crystalline schists; The recent discovery.of organic remains
amongst the Donegal schists adds additional interest to this inquiry.
The publications of the Survey during the past year are as follows :— England
and Wales, six sheets of the map, two sheets of horizontal sections, three of vertical
sections, and six memoirs; Scotland, three maps and one memoir; Ireland, two
maps and six memoirs.
The next matter which has arisen since our last meeting relates to our Colonies,
and comes to us in the shape of a message from the retiring President of the
Association, Sir William Dawson, who has embodied his ideas in a letter
to the President of the Royal Svciety (Professor Stokes), copies of which have
been sent also to all the learned Societies. To the former I am indebted for
copy, accompanied by a favourable report thereon from the Royal Society of
anada.
As the object of this communication is one in which I am sure we, as English-
men, must all feel a hearty sympathy, appealing as it does to our patriotism in its
widest sense, as well as to our devotion for and interest in the science of geology,
I feel I shall not need to apologise for introducing it to your notice here.
We are invited by it to enrol ourselves, as geologists, in a Federal Union,
composed of all our brethren at home, in our Colonies, and in all the dependencies
of the British Crown. Nor are we to stop here, for when this has been satisfac-
torily accomplished it is suggested that we should invite our English-speaking
cousins of the great United States, with whom we are already in such close
alliance upon so many objects of common scientific interest, to join our Geological
Confederation, and, having thus obtained an overwhelming majority, we are to pro-
ceed—without armies or vessels of war—to’extend our peaceful conquest over every
country on the habitable globe, urging and persuading those countries who have
not established geological surveys to do so forthwith, and inviting those who have
surveys of their own to join our British Association Geological Union. And
when all has been accomplished in this direction our exertions as a confederacy
may well be extended to secure the mapping of all those outlying regions of the
earth’s surface at present imperfectly known or still geologically unexplored.
Suggestions such as these could hardly come at a more fitting and appropriate
moment, for are we not now on the eve of the completion of the geological surveys
of the British Islands? if such a task can ever be said to be completed which has
occupied the attentive study of so many able geologists during the last eighty years
or more, and from the very nature of the case must always require additional
research and revision.
India, Africa, and our Colonies may all hope for future assistance from the
many geological students now being trained in our schools and colleges, who may
not be required in the near future for home surveys, and must needs go further
afield to win their title of admission to the ancient and honourable order of
‘ Knights of the Hammer.’
This idea of scientific federation was referred to by Professor Huxley in his
Presidential Address to the Royal Society in 1885, and subsequently by the present
President (Professor G. G. Stokes) in November last.
If we could devise a scheme by which we micht, from time to time, recognise in
a suitable manner—whether by corresponding membership, or honorary fellowship,
or by medals and awards—as Professor Huxley has suggested, the good scientific
work being done by members of the many societies in our distant colonies of
Canada, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and elsewhere, that would indeed
be a step in the right direction, and would doubtless prove most helpful and en-
couraging to all our fellow-geologists abroad.
The Geological Society of London, no doubt, to some extent covers this ground ;
but it should be noticed that in the view of this Society our Colonies and other
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 675
dependencies are not, and I think rightly, recognised as foreigners, that designation
being employed for those who are not in any sense subjects of the Queen.
As a consequence, the geologists of our Colonies are not looked upon as eligible
for honorary connection with the Geological Society, and though in the distribution
of the medals and awards their work is no doubt noticed, yet that is now so im-
portant and extensive that it might be desirable to secure for it a more specific and
extensive recognition than has hitherto perhaps been possible.
Might we not also through the home influence we could bring to bear by means
of this great Section of the British Association succeed in inducing our practical
colonial governments to see the enormous commercial as well as scientific gain that
must eventually accrue to themselves if they would, with wise liberality, continue
to completion their much-needed geological surveys, instead of (as has too often
happened) abandoning the work before its end has been attained, or making its
maintenance from year to year contingent on the chance discovery of gold, or the
successful boring for coal or water—results not always to be attained within twelve
months by a geologist in a new country, however good he may he, unless he have
a fairy godmother or a divining-rod at his command ?
If by means of our confederation such useful and helpful works can be inaugu-
rated, we shall have fulfilled an object well worthy the initiation of Sir William
Dawson, and of all those whose names may be connected with so laudable an
undertaking.
Nor need such a development of the work of-this Section interfere in any way
with the labours of the ‘International Geological Congress,’ which occupies a dis-
tinct field of its own ; for whatever we might accomplish in carrying out the sugges-
tions put forward by Sir William Dawson would really be in effect to second and
support—not to hinder—the work of that most useful body of geologists.
Our next topic relates to Foreign Affairs.
The International Geological Congress, which met in Bologna in 1881, and in
Berlin in 1885, will hold its next meeting in London in 1888, This year the Com-
mittee of the Congress on Geological Nomenclature will meet during the Associa-
tion week at Manchester. Professor Capellini, of Bologna, is the President of this
Committee, and Professor Dewalque, of Liége, is the Secretary. Its object is to
discuss various questions respecting the classification and nomenclature of Euro-
pean rocks, and to report thereon to the Congress in London.
It is quite certain that a large number of Continental and American geologists
will be present in London next year, and it rests with English geologists to deter-
mine whether the meeting shall be as successful as those which have preceded it.
The Berlin Congress left the arrangement in the hands of a small committee of
English members (Messrs. Blanford, Geikie, Hughes, and Topley), and advantage
will probably be taken of the presence of so many geologists in Manchester to fur-
ther the organisation of the English meeting.
.The occasion of the Congress visiting London next year should also be a
sufficient reason to enlist new members here, and it is to be hoped that a very
cordial reception will be accorded to all those who come from abroad to attend the
meeting. It ought to be a great success, and deserves our warmest sympathies and
co-operation.
Geology seems, at present, to be passing through what may not inaptly be
termed a transitional or metamorphie period in its history, when old-established
ideas are rapidly melting away, and under fresh influences are crystallising out
into quite other forms.
‘ New lights for old’ is the popular ery both in science and politics, and, like
the Athenians, nothing delights us more than to hear tell of some new thing.
If the proposition lately made by Professor Judd, the President of the Geolo-
gical Society in London, in his recently delivered Anniversary Address, holds
good, that mineralogy is the father of geology, it seems not improbable that, like
Saturn’s offspring, our science is in danger of being devoured by its reputed parent ;
for certainly mineralogy, in the form of petrology, has of late years most largely
occupied the geological field, whilst paleontology, once the favourite child of
geology, is in its turn threatened with imminent extinction, as a separate study, by
mx 2
676 REPORT—1887.
biology, which, without any substantial gain, now replaces, tx name only, the
hitherto better kuown sciences of botany and zoology.
Indeed, could the views so eloquently put forward by Professor Judd be main-
tained, mineralogy itself would have to be added to the list of sciences included
under biology. But notwithstanding the well-known aphorism of Linneus—
Lapides crescunt, Vegetabilia crescunt et vivunt ;
Animalia crescunt, vivunt, et sentiunt—
the growth of the first is of a totally different nature from that which takes place
in the last.
Minerals, or more properly crystals, increase or grow in size by additions to
their external surfaces of molecules of matter identical with themselves. They are
therefore as a rule homogeneous throughout, almost rigid, and remain under
ordinary circumstances unchanged irrespective of time.
Plants and animals, on the contrary, increase by intussusception, or the taking
of matter within their tissues. Their bodies are not homogeneous, and they exhibit
all the various phenomena of growth and decay.
We stand, then, still like ‘ watchers on the threshold,’ not yet admitted beyond
the veil. We are not prepared to include minerals in the study of living beings,
nor are we, I submit, any nearer the solution of the problem, What is life ? whether
we call it ‘vitality * or ‘vital force;’ nor can we produce it like ‘electricity’ or
‘electrical force,’ by the aid of mechanics. That it has existed ever since our
pianet became habitable by living organisms is beyond doubt; and since life first
dawned it seems equally certain that this ‘vital force’ was never at any time ex-
tinguished, but, like the sacred flame of Iran, its light has always gladdened our
earth with its presence.
I have already referred to the vastness and diversity of the domain which
geology claims as her own; indeed, we might, if so disposed, pursue our subject in
its cosmical aspect, and, inviting the astronomer and the physicist to our aid, proceed
to consider the evolution of our earth and its subsequent history as a part of the
solar system.
Or, taking up geognosy, we might inquire into the materials of the earth’s
substance and the chief rocks and minerals of which its crust is built up.
Should dynamics charm us, then we may study the various agencies by which
rocks have been formed and altered, and the frequent changes in relation to sea
and land which the terrestrial surface has undergone in former times.
Does rock-architecture attract us? It is ours to inquire how the various
materials of the earth came to be arranged as we find them—whether wrought by
living agents, or ejected by volcanic forces, or laid down quietly by water.
Or is chronology the object of our study? Then our task will be to investigate
the well-marked succession of the stratified rocks and the sequence of events
which they record.
Again, we might prefer the phystographical aspect of geology, embracing the
history of the features of the earth and the causes which have brought about its
varied conditions of continent and ocean, of mountain and valley, hill and plain,
making up that grand diversity of surface which constitutes its scenery.
Yet more, it is within our domain as geologists to investigate the past life of
the globe through all its successive changes and to trace it from its earliest dawn
in Pree-Cambrian times down to its grand development at the present day.
One result of the very vastness of this kingdom is that there is a tendency
amongst its subjects to form into separate constituencies, and these in an incre-
dibly short time evolve languages of their own, so that, unless this fissiparity can
be successfully arrested, we shall speedily repeat the story of ‘the confusion of
tongues,’ and our geological tower, which once promised by our. combined labours
to reach grandly heavenwards, may soon cease from building altogether.
This incoherence in our body politic may, I think, be traced to that great
development by the microscope in mineralogical geology and petrology, which has
no doubt been necessitated by the investigation of those remote Pre-Cambrian or
Archean rock-masses in the north-west Highlands, Shropshire, the Malverns,
—_—-a.,? oo
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 677
South Wales, Cornwall, and the west of Ireland, whose fossils, if they ever
existed, have been entirely obliterated! by the changes which their matrix has
undergone, and whose very stratification has been lost by metamorphic action.
In such investigations some of our ablest geologists have now been for long occu-
pied with the best possible results, and Bonney, Callaway, Cole, Davies, Geikie,
Hicks, Hull, Judd, Lapworth, Peach, Sorby, Teall, and many others have been
labouring most zealously on these most ancient sediments, barren though they be,
of life forms and often destitute of bedding.
It is refreshing, however, to find Professor Judd at times abandoning volcanoes
and turning his attention most successfully to lizard-hunting with Professor Huxley
in the Elgin sandstones or studying the micro-organisms in the cores from the
Richmond boring or the valley of the Nile; to see Dr. Hicks leaving his patron
St. David far behind and digging for bones in the pre-Glacial caves at St.
Asaph. Professor Lapworth, too, we see avoiding Cape Wrath and discoursing
on the beauties of Canadian Graptolites and the Cambrian rocks at Nuneaton.
Thus there is still a bond of union connecting stratigraphical geology and
palzontology and a common ground of interest whereon all geologists may meet.
It should then be our endeavour not to dissociate ourselves or our interest from
any subject of geological inquiry, but to maintain the union between all branches
of our science and with all workers in whatever field they may labour, adopting
for our motto the ancient maxim, ‘ Vis unita fortior est.’
Especially should we adhere to the study of paleontology, seeing that it is
indissolubly connected with one of the earliest chapters in the history of our science.
Indeed, through the evidence afforded by organic remains, William Smith (better
known by the title given to him by Professor Sedgwick, ‘the father of English
geology’) was led to those remarkable generalisations as to the identification of
strata by means of their contained fossils, which have exercised so great an
influence over our own science during the past ninety years, and are still the
guiding principle on which our classification of the sedimentary rocks is based.
What Wollaston has done for mineralogy and crystallography, William Smith
initiated for stratigraphical geology ; and we cannot overlook our obligation to
Smith whilst we reverence the work of his distinguished contemporary, Wollaston,
Paleontology, or the study of ancient life forms, stands somewhat in relation
to geology as the science of archzology does to history, or as zoology and botany
to physical geography. But, whereas the investigator of recent living forms deals
with entire organisms and can study both their morphological and their physio-
logical history as well as their geographical range, the paleontologist has too
often to deal with imperfect remains, many of which have no exact modern
representative, and has, in consequence, to look for and seize upon minute
characters for his guidance, which the worker on recent forms would probably
neglect as too trivial for even specific diagnosis.
The palzontologist, if he would succeed, must in fact be a trained zoologist or
botanist, as the case may be, and an accomplished geologist also ; such combination
of qualities like those possessed by the earlier race of ‘ naturalists’ are less fre-
quently to be met with at the present day. They represent amongst us the same
class of men as the ‘ general practitioner’ does in medicine; they are the all-round
good scientific men, but not ‘ specialists.’
Biology, or the study of living things, has now become so vast a field that
everyone is compelled to take up some special subject, and in striving to master
it he makes his reputation as an authority on this or that group of organisms.
There is much to be said in favour of such a method of working, but I hold
that everyone who so elects to spend his life must first of all pass through a
thorough grounding in general biology, and should on no account take up special
work until he has mastered thoroughly the general principles of scientific classi-
fication and the various types of organised beings, otherwise he will be for ever
1 Traces of fossils are said to have been met with in Donegal, and I have just
received evidence of Trilobites in the Upper Green Llanberis slates at Penrhyn, hitherto
considered unfossiliferous !
678 REPORT— 1887.
viewing all nature with distorted vision, seeing in fact ‘men as trees walking.’
If as a student he shall have been nurtured wholly on the anatomy of the sole, all
objects will be viewed from the standpoint of that one-sided fish. If the cockroach
has engrossed his youthful studies, all nature will swarm with Periplaneta
ortentahs.
We have to guard against the starting of student-specialists. They must begin
by being ‘general practitioners’ if they are ever to do any good in the world of
science, and after serving their time in a museum or elsewhere then by all means
let each follow his own ‘ bent’ and devote himself to some particular group, as did
Davidson to the Brachiopoda, to the exclusion of all else.
Tt is the absence of ‘all-roundness’ which has retarded more than any other
thing the constant interchange of ideas between zoologists, botanists, and
palzontologists, without which science languishes. Biologists as a body do not
care to look at or study fossils; they see neither form nor beauty in the petrified
fragments of a plant or animal such as would induce them to study these more
closely, and they turn to the exquisitely perfect specimens of recent objects in
their cabinets with a sigh of relief. But Nemesis is at hand, created by our
modern system of extreme biological training. The student of to-day is averse to
the systematic work of both zoology and paleontolory in our museums, and
technically inclined craves for nothing so much as to be allowed to imbed some
interesting embryo in paraffin and cut it into 10,000 slices.
As a consequence our museums will suffer unless we can revive amongst our
students a taste for and a love of general natural history; such, we mean, as the
taste for nature which excited the enthusiasm of Charles Kingsley and stimulated
the zeal of Charles Darwin. We cannot all sail round the world as did Banks and
Solander, Darwin, Huxley, Hooker, Wyville Thomson, Moseley, and so many other
naturalists, though the mere act of travelling has now become so ridiculously easy
that our own Association awoke One morning in Montreal, and may for aught we
know find itself some day in Sydney or Melbourne! But we can fully appreciate
Nature in a dredging expedition or feel her influence on a moor or mountain, in a
quarry or down a mine.
What we want for our students in these high-pressure days are less frequent
attendance in the examination room and a more frequent examination of Nature in
the field. Our professors must take their men more often afield, and show them
how to collect specimens and familiarise them with the aspects of natural objects
as seen without microscopes, and they will return to their studies with far better
and keener eyesight after their own macroscopic vision has been enlarged by
contact with Nature.
Whoever then takes up the study of fossils must also be well acquainted with
the structure of living animals and plants; he may also be expected to go on adding
to his store of biological knowledge—but as some division of labour is absolutely
essential, the man who pursues paleontological research must be prepared to con-
centrate all his energies on the elucidation of these extinct organisms, studying, but
not occupying himself in describing, recent forms.
In order, however, to werk satisfactorily at any particular group of extinct
organisms, his eyes and his understanding must go through a long and careful
training before he will be able to interpret correctly the appearances presented by
the specimen before him, and to avoid the fallacies by which he is liable to be
misled arising out of the necessarily imperfect materials and their different modes
of preservation in the matrix.
He must learn to distinguish between a suture and a fracture, and to know when
a specimen has been distorted by cleavage or other mechanical cause, or altered by
mere difference of mineralisation. Such deceptive appearances have too often led
to the multiplication of species, and even the creation of spurious genera.
Thus occupied in the investigation of ancient life forms, he will in truth be only
writing the first chapters on the botany or the zoology of the earth, and, whilst his
carefully obtained results are of the greatest importance to the speculations and
conclusions of the geologist, they are equally essential to and a part of biological
science,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 679
™ My friend Dr. Traquair has recently thus expressed, in relation to his own
subject, what I have attempted to make more general:—‘ The man who satisfac-
dows investigates the structure or determines the systematic position of a fish or
reptile preserved in stone is as much a zoologist as he who describes a similar crea-
ture preserved in spirits, though with this difference, that the former task is in some
points rather the more difficult, seeing that we have only the hard parts to go upon,
and these generally in a crushed, fragmentary, or scattered condition. And,’ he
adds, ‘ without a genuine interest in, as well as a thorough knowledge of, recent
biology no one can hope to produce work of any value in paleontology.’
Of course the value of all palzeontological work, as of all zoological or botanical
work, must depend entirely upon the care and exactness with which the work is
performed.
Time, the great assessor of all human labours, will sit in judgment upon them
and pronounce by their durability or instability the comparative value of each.
It appears to me that to the careful paleontological worker, as to the careful
archeologist, the greatest merit is due if he succeed correctly in deciphering the too
often fragmentary and blurred remains of a bygone age, and giving us in the present
an accurate interpretation of a page from the life-history of the past.
Then, too, there is the geological aspect of paleontology. And here I may
state that one of the charges made by a brother zoologist against us is ‘that we
use fossils merely as counters by which to record the progress of geological time.’
As well might exception be taken that the milestones along a turnpike road
had been used by a traveller to calculate the length of his journey.
But omitting the word merely (for fossils haye been made to give up many
secrets to the investicator besides their age), I gladly accept the charge as
conveying a great and important truth.
Do not the historian and the antiquary use the coins and medals dug from the
ruins of the dead and long past dynasties of the world as sure guides in the
chronology of the human period ? ‘
And may not the geologist also use ‘the medals of creation’—as Dr. Mantell
aptly called them—coined in no counterfeit mint, as the best and most trustworthy
guides to enable him to establish the chronology of the stratified rocks of the earth ?
Great, then, as is the benefit which zoology has derived from paleontology in
enabling the zoologist to learn the earliest appearance in time of each group of
organisms, and the modifications in structure, so far as we are enabled to ascertain
them, which each may have undergone from the ancient to the modern period—-it
may be doubted whether even this valuable aid equals the service performed to
stratigraphical geology by the careful study of organic remains—in enabling us to
write the chronology of the rocks over so large a portion of the habitable globe.
Without fossils stratigraphical geology would be as unsatisfactory as it would
certainly be uninteresting ; with their aid it becomes, both in the field and in the
cabinet, one of the most attractive and delightful of studies.
Owing to the very nature of sedimentary deposits, being of necessity either
lacustrine, estuarine, or marine in origin, our knowledge of the ancient land
surfaces of the globe is necessarily very limited, but we know much concerning its
old marine areas. These are the more constant and widespread, and it is mainly
upon these deposits, and not so much upon the more limited evidences of ancient
land surfaces, that our chronology has been based. ;
Of the antiquity of cave-folk and their contemporary mammalia we may expect
to hear the very latest utterances from Professor Boyd Dawkins and Dr.
Hicks. The former is also to be congratulated upon his renewed work on
the Mammalia in the Palzontographical Society’s volume for 1886 (just issued).
Professor O. C. Marsh has added a further contribution to American paleontology
in the shape of a memoir describing and figuring sixteen new species of Mesozoic
mammals from the Upper Jurassic rocks in Wyoming, on the western slope of the
Rocky Mountains. Myr. Lydekker has just completed Part V. of his most useful
and much-needed Catalogue of the Fossil Mammalia in the British Museum, con-
taining the Sirenia, Cetacea, Edentata, Marsupialia, and Monotremata.
The fossil birds remain to be catalogued. In the Reptilia it is refreshing to see
680 REPORT—1887. |
Professor Huxley once more taking up the pen and writing upon Hyperodapedon
and Rhynchosaurus in bis old vigorous and earnest style. We can only regret that
his health precludes him from continuous labour, to the no small loss of science.
Professor Marsh shortly promises us his memoir on the Sauropoda, the plates of
which are progressing rapidly to completion.
Our late veteran chief, Sir Richard Owen, although retired from active official
duties, contributes a paper on Gralesaurus planiceps, a Triassic saurian from South
Africa, and a further memoir on Meiolania from Lord Howe Island.
Professor Seeley and M. Louis Dollo are both occupied with Dinosauria, the
former from the Cape (whence he has also detected part of a mammalian skeleton
in the Triassic rocks), and the latter is adding to our knowledge of Iguanodon and
other forms from the Wealden of Bernissart.
In the Amphibia, Professor Dr, Herman Credner has added a most valuable
paper on the development of Branchiosaurus, a small Labyrinthodont from the
Keuper of Saxony, in which he has been able successfully to trace the development
through a long series of individuals of a water-breathing naked larva of the Palzo-
zoic epoch into an air-breathing adult form, clad in a strong coat of mail.
In fossil ichthyology, A. Wettstein has been occupied in the study of the Eocene
fishes of the Glarus slates, and in his recent memoir he shows that out of one fish
(Anenchelum), so constantly distorted by slaty cleavage, Agassiz had made no
fewer than six species. This fish is now found to be identical with the living
‘scabbard-fish,” Lepidopus; and the author reduces the forty-four species of Glarus
fishes to twenty-three and adds four new ones. Among the latter is the first fossil
Remora yet met with, named Lchenets glaronensis. Its first dorsal is modified as
a sucker, exactly as in the living Remora.
Baron Zigno, of Padua, has figured and described the first entire Mylobatis,
hitherto discovered in the Eocene of Monte Bolca. .
M. Louis Dollo records the occurrence of two skeletons of Carcharodon heter-
odon in the Eocene of Boom, Antwerp, one measuring 7 métres, the other nearly
9 métres in length. They are now mounted and exhibited in the Brussels Museum.
Mr. J. F. Whiteaves is commencing to publish the detailed descriptions of the
Devonian fishes from Scaumenac Bay, Quebec.
Mr. James Wm. Davis, of Halifax, has produced a second monograph for the
Royal Dublin Society. The first, which appeared in 1883, was devoted to the teeth
and spines of Elasmobranch fishes from the Carboniferous limestone of Great Britain ;
the present monograph, illustrated by twenty-four plates, is devoted to the descrip-
tion of the fishes of the Cretaceous rocks of the Lebanon, and makes us acquainted
with a wonderful series of Selachian fishes, representing nine genera and sixteen
species, of which two genera and twelve species are new to science. The Ganoids
comprise two specdes of Pycnodonts and two forms related to Amia ; there are also
a number of Teleostean fishes, amongst which are Pagellus, Beryx, Homonotus,
Platax, and many other genera. ‘Two species of eel, Anguilla, are the first.
Mesozoic examples recorded. Altogether we have ten genera and sixty-three
species of fish recorded as new. The author is to be congratulated upon having
contributed to fossil ichthyology one of the most extensive works published in
recent years.
Mr. Arthur Smith Woodward (a former student of Owens College, Man-
chester) has this year also contributed numerous papers on fossil fishes: on
Ptychodus from the Chalk; Sgualoraja from the Lias; on the Brazilian genus
Rhacolepis ; on a Maltese Holocentruwm; ‘On some Eocene Siluroid Fishes from
Bracklesham’; and ‘On the Canal-system in the Shields of Pteraspidean Fishes.’
Mr. E. T. Newton describes a Semionotus from the Trias of Warwickshire.
Both Mr. James W. Davis and Dr. R. H. Traquair have given us
descriptions of the anatomy of Chondrosteus acipenseroides from the Lias of Lyme
Regis.
i William Davies describes two species of Pholidophorus from the Purbeck
beds of Swanage, Dorset.
But the groups which have proved of the greatest service in the chronology of
the sedimentary rocks have been the Mollusca, the Brachiopoda, and Crustacea
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 681
(especially the Trilobita, Phyllopoda, and Ostracoda), the Echinodermata, Corals,
Graptolites, Sponges, and Foraminifera.
It would be an interminable task merely to record the workers in the various
sections of paleontology, but in glancing at these one cannot prevent many illus-
trious names arising in one’s mind—many who have finished their work, and are
reckoned among the fathers of the science, but many also who are still our com-
panions, and from whom we may expect further important help before they lay
down their hammer, their lens, and their pen.
In the Cephalopoda the task so lately left by our countryman Dr. Wright,
after a long life devoted to paleontological science, has been taken up by Mr.S. 8.
Buckman, who has already presented one fasciculus of a monograph on the
Ammonitide of the Inferior Oolite.
The Gasteropoda of the Oolites have an able historian in Mr. W. H. Hudleston,
whose contributions on this subject enrich the pages and plates of the ‘ Geo-
logical Magazine’ and the ‘ Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association’; the
Paleozoic forms are in the hands of Dr. Lindstrém.
The Lamellibranchiata cry for help at present in vain, and we regret more than
ever the loss of Stoliezska, who promised such good work had his life been spared.
The Brachiopoda, so long and so well cared for by Dr. Davidson, now also
demand a successor to that illustrious name.
The Polyzoa, which suffered so severe a loss in the death of Mr. Busk, have
since been well cared for by Mr. Arthur W. Waters and Mr. Vine.
Until quite lately, the oldest fossil insects known were the six fragments of
wings of Neuroptera, from the Devonian of New Brunswick, obtained by Mr. C. F.
Hartt and described by Mr. 8. H. Scudder. More lately the wing of a cockroach
has been obtained from rocks of Silurian age in Calvados, France; whilst almost
simultaneously fossil scorpions have been met with by D>. Hunter, of Carluke, in
the Upper Silurian of Lanark, and determined by Mr. B. N. Peach, and from the
Upper Silurian of Gotland, described by Dr. Lindstrém.
These discoveries carry back our records of old land surfaces to a far more
remote period than that of the Coal-measures, vast as its distance is removed from
recent times.
Mr. B. N. Peach is the discoverer of several scorpions, and I have also recently
figured and described three new forms of cockroach and several spined myriapods
from the Coal-measures. Another cockroach, also new, which has been kindly sent
me for study by Mr. Peach, brings to our knowledge a larval stage of Blatta from
the Scottish Carboniferous.
Dr. McCook has just added a genus of spiders, Atypus, to our Eocene beds from
the Isle of Wight.
The Crustacea have found in Mr. B. N. Peach and in Professor Rupert Jones
able and willing historians, Mr. Peach has taken up the Carboniferous Macrouran
Decapods, and Professor Rupert Jones the Paleozoic Phyllopoda, aided by myself ;
Professor Jones is attacking the Tertiary and Cretaceous as well as the Paleozoic
Ostracoda, so that his hands will be full for many years to come.
The Echinodermata have lost Dr. T. Wright, who for years acted as their mono-
grapher in the Paleontographical Society's volumes, but they have secured the
services of other accomplished naturalists. Mr. Robert Etheridge, jun., and Dr. P.
Herbert Carpenter have produced a grand monograph on the Blastoidea in the
British Museum ; and no doubt this is but the beginning of good things to come, for
although Mr. Etheridge has entered upon a new sphere of work in the Australian
Museum, Sydney, Dr. P. Herbert Carpenter hopes to take up the stalked Crinoids
before long, and Mr. Percy Sladen, who, with Professor P. Martin Duncan, has
already done so much good work amongst the Indian Echinoderms and elsewhere,
promises to take the star-fishes in hand for us later on.
The Corals have many friends, chief amongst whom is Professor P. Martin
Duncan, and Professor H. A. Nicholson, and various other excellent workers,
but they are even a more difficult and a less attractive group than the Echinoder-
mata, and their determination is not so satisfactory, owing to their irregular and
heteromorphic growth. ,
682 REPORT—1887.
The Stromatoporoids have lost an investigator in the field in Arthur Cham-
perrowne, whose unexpected and early loss we all deplore. But in Professor
Nicholson they will find a most careful and painstaking monographer, who has
already given us one fine instalment of his work in the Palewontographical
volume.
In Professor C. Lapworth we have an exponent of the structures and affinities
of the Graptolites as a class and of their stratigraphical position in the rocks un-
surpassed by any other worker. With him must be associated the names of
Barrande, Carruthers, Hopkinson, Nicholson, and a long list of foreign workers, all
of whom, however, look upon Lapworth as the highest authority in this group.
In the Spongida we are especially indebted to Dr. G. J. Hinde, first for an
excellent, well-illustrated quarto catalogue of these organisms in the geological
collection of the British Museum, and secondly for the Paleozoic part of a fine
monograph of these for the Palzeontographical volume just issued.
Nor must we omit to recall the names of Professor Zittel, of Dr. Carter, of
Professor Sollas, and many other able workers in the fossil sponges.
In the Foraminifera we naturally recall the names of D’Orbigny, D’Archiac,
Carpenter, Parker, Brady and Jones, and Sir William Dawson, our illustrious ex-
President. Professor Rupert Jones is still at work on this group, and has recently
published a paper on Nuwmmudites elegans from the Eocene beds of Hampshire and
the Isle of Wight.
Of late years fossil Botany, too long neglected, has taken a place of note in all
those inquiries concerning the origin of floras, the age of the stratified rocks, the
former distribution of land surfaces, and especially in all questions relative to the
climate of the globe in past times.
Passing over the earlier period of the present century, when fossil botany was
known only by the works of Artis, Witham, Schlotheim, Sternberg, Goeppert,
Cotta, Lindley and Hutton, Steinhauer and Adolphe Brongniart, we have to recall
the names of other workers who have only passed away in our own time, such as
Binney, Bunbury, Corda, Bowerbank, Heer, Unger, Schimper, and Massalongo.
In the period of fifty years, whose completion we have just celebrated, the
names of our countrymen Binney, Bowerbank, Williamson, and Hooker stand
prominently forward contemporarily with those of Geinitz, Unger, Rossmasler,
and Schimper in Germany. In 1845 Dawson and Lesquereux entered the field in
America, Hooker in England, and one of the ablest writers on fossil plants, Oswald
Heer, entered upon his great work in Switzerland. In 1850 Massalongo in Italy,
and von Ettingshausen in Austria, were added to the roll of famous paleeobotanists,
and in 1853 Newberry joined the American field of research. In 1860 the work
so long abandoned by Brongniart, in France, was taken up by de Saporta, and it
is no small gratification to have him with us here to-day, and to welcome him
amongst our distinguished foreign guests.
About the same time my friend and colleague William Carruthers commenced
to write on fossil botany, and brought to bear upon the subject that accurate and
careful knowledge of living forms without which such investigations must always
prove but futile.
It is extremely difficult to estimate the number of species of fossil plants that
had been described up to the year 1837, but it probably fell far short of a thousand.
In 1828 less than 500 species were known to Brongniart.
In the first edition of ‘Morris’ Catalogue,’ published in 1843, the number of
British fossil plants recorded is 628.
Careful lists were published by Goppert and by Unger in 1844 and 1845, giving
a total of known species from 1600 to 1800.
In 1849 the number had increased, according to Bronn’s ‘ Index Palzontologicus’
to over 2,000, and the following year Unger enumerated 2,421 in his ‘Genera et
species Plantarum,’ rather more than 500 of which may have been British, In
1852 Morris (2nd edition) gives the number of species as 740, Since then,
chiefly through the labours of Heer, Ettingshausen, Lesquereux, Massalongo,
Unger, and de Saporta, this number has been more than quadrupled. Mr. Gardner
estimates that at least 9,000 species must have been described. This great increase
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 683
is chiefly due to the more careful exploration of the Tertiary strata, in which the
more highly organised and consequently more differentiated plant-forms occur.
‘The number of plant-remains described in Great Britain during the whole 50
years has been extremely small, but much has been accomplished in the study of
fossil plants generally, and in this task no one has been more earnest than Professor
Williamson, of Owens College, Manchester.
His investigations of the plants of the coal period have been of the most
exhaustive nature, and from his researches into their microscopic structures we are
almost as well acquainted with the minute tissues of these ancient denizens of the
forests of the Carboniferous epoch as we are with those in the parks around
Manchester to-day.
Mr. Carruthers’ ‘ Memoirs on the Coniferee and Cycadez, and on the Fruiting
Organs of the Lycopodiacez ’ have greatly advanced our knowledge of these interest-
ing types, heretofore but imperfectly known from their fossil remains.
Mr. R. Kidston has devoted himself most earnestly to the investigation
of the fossil plants of our British coalfields, and he has determined not to rest
satisfied merely to work out the plants obtained by others in our museums, but he
has visited all our coalfields and searched the shales on the spot for himself. The
results of his collectings may now be seen in the valuable additions made to the
coal-measure series of plants in the British Museum (Natural History).
But it is more especially in reference to the Tertiary flora of Britain that
progress has been made of late years.
Thanks to the labours of Mr. J. Starkie Gardner, who has not only obtained
abundant materials for anexhaustive monograph with his own hands from Sheppey,
Alum Bay, Bournemouth, Reading, Mull, Antrim, and many other localities, but
has already favoured us with several memoirs in the Palzontographical Society’s
annual volumes and elsewhere on the British Eocene flora, we may hope before
long to have a more complete history at this period of our islands than we already
possess of the flora of the Carboniferous age.
Nor has any research, favoured by the aid of this Association, brought so large
a return in beautiful and instructive specimens to our National Museum of Natural
History as have the investigations carried out by Mr. J. 8. Gardner.
We must not omit to mention Mr. Clement Reid, who has so diligently traced
many of the specimens of our existing flora in the Pleistocene strata of the eastern
counties.
‘Large numbers of ferns and gymnosperms’ (says Mr. Gardner) ‘have been dis-
covered in Mesozoic rocks, but remains of the interesting monocotyledons which
must have accompanied them are provokingly scarce. We know that palms,
grasses, &c., appear at certain definite horizons, but we are ignorant regarding their
ancestry. We know that temperate floras, largely composed of dicotyledons,
flourished as far north as man has been able to penetrate in the Cretaceous and
Tertiary periods, but notbing in the least suggesting a transitional form has been
found amongst them. Lastly, we have learnt that floras now indigenous to Japan
and the Himalayas, to Australia and South America, once inhabited Europe,
groups of wholly different plants succeeding and displacing each other in rapid
succession on the same spot so as to suggest that the normal condition of floras is one
of slow but perpetual migration, and that the term “ indigenous ” has no geological
significance.’
In reference to the question of geographical distribution of organised beings in
geological time, the conclusion is strongly forced upon us, from a study of fossil
remains, that the great zoological provinces into which the earth’s surface and the
seas of the globe are now subdivided have been brought about by the limitation of
a teaee at no more distant date than the Secondary period, and probably even later
than this.
That in Paleozoic times there must have been a great uniformity of marine
conditions, and the fauna of each of the primary formations was consequently not
only of vast duration but of world-wide extent.
When, as in Carboniferous times, we are enabled to study the contemporary
land conditions of the globe, we find they must also have been very uniform, at
684 REPORT—1887.
least so far as the explored parts of this hemisphere are known, both the fauna and
flora at this epoch being co-extensive with the northern hemisphere, indeed in all
probability far wider, seeing that identical species occur in the Pashouitenes series
of Australia and North America, Even those well-marked lines which at present
follow more or less closely the isotherms of our hemisphere seem not to have exercised
the same influence on the fauna and flora as they do at present. Thus in high northern
latitudes and within the arctic circle we find abundant evidence of life in Paleozoic,
Mesozoic, and even down to Tertiary times, unaffected by latitude; so that we are
justified in assuming that a far milder temperature extended to much higher
northern regions than that which at present exists on the globe, and consequently
that a larger portion of the earth’s surface (as well as its seas) was then habitable.
How great, then, is the field of research still open to our investigation, and how
far distant must that day be ere the last problem shall have been solved, and the
last chapter written, in the ancient life-history of our earth !
We write in sand, our labour grows,
And with the tide the work o’erflows.
With unskilled hand I have struck here and there only a few chords on the
many-toned harmonicon of geology. I fear they may not all have vibrated quite
in unison as a perfect composition would ; but, however crude the performance has
been, I trust that it will not be provocative of discord. If some few ideas suggest
themselves as worthy of your acceptance I shall not have spoken altogether idly,
nor you have listened so long and so patiently entirely in vain.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Geography of the British Isles in the Carboniferous Period.
By Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, /.2.S.
In the Devonian age the great north-western continent, to which in 1886 I
gave the name of Archaia,! and which occupied the area of the North Atlantic in
the direction of Iceland, Greenland, and a large portion of North America, extended
southwards in Britain over the area of the British Islesas far as the line connecting
the Lower Thames with the Lower Severn. It was diversified by chains of mighty
lakes, embosomed in luxuriant forests of conifers, and various Lepidondendron and
Calamitean trees. These lakes probably discharged their waters into the Devonian
Sea then covering the southern waters. At the close of this period the British
area sank beneath the waters of the sea until it was reduced to a cluster of islands
lying off the coastline of Archaia, and each marked by the shingle-beaches.
In dealing with the geography of the British Isles during the Carboniferous
period I propose to take the areas of Lancashire and Yorkshire as a starting-point,
and to divide the strata into two groups :—
1. The Lower Carboniferous, consisting of—
A. The Lower Carboniferous Shales, Sandstones, and Conglomerates,
B. The Carboniferous Limestone.
C, The Yoredale Series.
2. The Upper Carboniferous, consisting of—
D. The Millstone Grit.
E, F, and G. The Coal-measures.
The Lower Carboniferous Shales, Sandstones and Conglomerates, A of the
above list, rest for the most part unconformably on the older rocks; conformably,
however, on the Old Red Sandstone, and vary considerably in thickness, as might
be expected from their accumulation on a shore ranging from 4,000 feet in the
basin of the Clyde to about 100 feet in South Wales, and being represented under
1 Lectures before Royal Institution. So called from the massif of the continent
being composed of rocks of Archaian age.
TRANSACTIONS OF SEGTION C. 685
Ingleborough by shingle resting on eroded reefs of older rocks a few feet thick.
They form a band running from the north-east to the south-west on the northern
boundary of the central valley of Scotland, and re-appear'in the same line on the
flanks of the mountains of Donegal in Ireland. From this point they sweep south-
wards by the hills of Connaught and Kerry, where they are lost in the Atlantic.
They mark the coastline of Archaia against which the sea beat at the beginning
of the Carboniferous period. From this coastline Archaia extended over the
waters of the Atlantic indefinitely to the north and to the west.
The sea to the south was studded with islands, each marked by the shingle-
beaches, the two South Scotch Islands, the Island of ‘Cumbria and of Man, and in
Treland of Mourne and of Wicklow. In North Wales the Lower Carboniferous
shingle beds, sand, and mudbanks sweep from the valley of the Conway eastwards
and southwards to Llangollen in the direction of Shrewsbury, and in South Wales
from St. David’s and Pembroke in the direction of Hereford. From these points
the coastline is either obliterated or concealed by newer rocks; the land, however,
was certainly continued eastward, so as to include the areas of South Stafford-
shire, Warwickshire, and Charnwood Forest, in Leicestershire, as Jukes pointed
out, and has repeatedly been struck in deep borings for coal, which prove the
absence of the Lower Carboniferous rocks. For this tract of land the term
‘Middle Island’ is proposed. It probably extended westwards so as to include
the Wicklow Mountains. Its eastern boundary is concealed. Land also existed
at this time in Cornwall, and extended westwards to include the Scilly Islands,
and to the south-east across the Channel in the direction of the mouth of the Seine,
and southwards over Normandy and Brittany. This land, as Bonney has pointed
out, constituted a lofty mountainous tract during the later primary ages, barring
the waters of the Atlantic from those of the Lower Carboniferous Sea to the east.
It may conveniently be termed the South-British land, because it not only includes
Cornwall, but also Normandy and Brittany. Whether it was an island, or whether
it was connected with the massif of Archaia to the west, is an open question.
While these littoral accumulations were being formed on the margin of the
land the British area was gradually but unequally sinking, and the waters in the
area of Derbyshire became sufficiently deep and clear to allow of the formation of
no less than 5,500 feet of limestone. This ‘mountain’ or Carboniferous limestone
thins off from this point in every direction. To the north in Durham and North-
umberland and in the central valley of Scotland it is broken up by sandbanks and
mudbanks, and becomes a subordinate division in a coalfield. To the south in like
manner it alters its physical characters as it approaches Middle Island, in Flint and
Denbigh, and it is abruptly brought up by the land in the areas of South Stafford
and Charnwood. On the southern shores of Middle Island it is reduced in
Pembrokeshire, according to Ramsay, from a thickness of 2,500 feet to nothing in a
distance of 12 miles.
During the accumulation of the Yoredale sandbanks and mudbanks the sea
was becoming more and more shallow until in the time of the Millstone Grit it
was mainly occupied by littoral deposits. These two divisions in North Lancashire,
in Pendle Hill, are no less respectively than 4,675 and 5,500 feet.
We may learn from the study of the isolated coalfields that the great hori-
zontal tract of forest-clad alluvia which constitute the Coal-measures occupied
nearly the whole area of the British Isles in the Upper Carboniferous age from
the Scotch highlands southward, the dead flat being broken only by the higher lands
—the old islands of the Lower Carboniferous Sea—which I have already described.
They were formed in, indeed, a delta of a mighty river analogous in every particular
to that of the Mississippi—a delta in which, from time to time, the forest growths
became depressed beneath the water until the whole thickness (7,200 feet in Lanca-
shire) was accumulated of coal seams and associated sandstones and shales. After
each depression the forest spread again over the bare expanse of sand and mud
piled up in the submerged area. In this manner we can account for the fact that
there is scarcely any, if any, change to be noted in the flora during the great length
of time implied by the great thickness of the Carboniferous strata.
The enormous extent of the Upper Carboniferous delta implies a river of great
686 REPORT—1887.
magnitude, and a continent of corresponding size, to give the necessary drainage
area—to wit, the continent of Archaia.
To this northern and western land may be traced the pebbles and groups of
pebbles found in the coal seams of Lancashire-—such, for example, as the Trencher-
bone seam, near Kearsley—and which have probably been brought down in flood
time from the uplands. They are, with few exceptions—one a granite—quartzites,
and have been derived from conglomerates formed by the break-up of the Cambrian
and Ordovicean rocks—most probably from the Old Red Sandstone Conglomerates
of Scotland, or of a continuation of Scotland in the direction of Norway.
It only remains for me to add that in this paper I have entered upon the labours
of Phillips, Godwin-Austen, Jukes, and Hull, and that I have dealt only in outline
with a difficult and complicated question.
2. On the Structure of the Millstone Grit of the Pennine Chain.
By Professor W. Bory Dawkins, F.R.S.
Tn this communication attention was drawn to the normal constitution of the rock
and to the granular quartz and the orthoclase sometimes sufficiently fresh to show
the cleavage, which have evidently been derived from the destruction of granite
rocks, and are not much rolled. The orthoclase has generally been reduced to
kaolin by the passage of waters charged with carbonic acid, and sometimes is
wholly removed, the cavities being coated with a secondary deposit of quartz
crystals derived from the break-up of the orthoclase. The sand-grains also are
coated in the same way. It is an ancient sandbank of a sea that beat upon rocks
composed of granite and crystalline schists and later rocks, as is proved by the
pebbles of vein quartz and the rolled garnets of the rocks which formed at this
time the massif of Archaia.
3. On Foreign Boulders in Coal Seams. By Marx Stirevr, £.G.S.
Among many interesting problems connected with the Carboniferous rocks still
awaiting solution, not the least interesting one is that of the mode of occurrence
and the source of the foreign boulders which are occasionally found in our coal
seams.
The importance that attaches to these boulders is that, could we read their
history aright and ascertain whence they came, it would give us some clue to the
physical features of the old land areas in pre-Carboniferous times, and enable the
paleophysiographer to construct his charts with a greater probability of correct-
ness than at present. Furthermore, could the means by which these boulders were
deposited in the coal be clearly pomted out, they would either confirm or refute
the arguments of those physicists who contend that this earth of ours has experi-
enced great periodic alternations of climate, cycles of cold and heat, due to cosmic
causes acting through all time.
The presence of these foreign boulders in coal seams has been long known, but
they have always been considered rare and phenomenal. The late Mr. E. W.
Binney in 1851 read a paper on the subject before the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society (vol. ix. second series, p. 806), in which he describes and
figures some rounded grey quartzose ‘stones from the 4-feet mine at Patricroft
and from another seam under the same mine at Pendleton.
Other notices may be found in the ‘Transactions of the Manchester Geological
Society’ by Mr. John Plant, the late Mr. J. Aitken, and others.
These boulders are, as a rule, hard siliceous grits or quartzites, ranging in colour
from pale to dark grey, and would betoken by their character and mineralogical
composition that they were all derived from one common source.
Though varying often in form and size they have this common characteristic—
that they are smoothed, often polished, with corners rounded off by abrasion.
Their forms are various—roughly quadrangular, irregularly ovoid or elliptical,
occasionally globular, and all have evidently been water-worn before being de-
posited in the coal strata. A thin film of coal or shale, according to the matrix, is
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 687
often found closely and firmly adherent to the surface, and this coating has not
unfrequently the appearance of the polished surface known as ‘ slickensides,’ which
has probably been produced by the great pressure to which they have been sub-
jected. The surface, though smooth and often polished as described, does not
exhibit lines and scratches, such as those seen on boulders from the glacial drift.
These erratics range in size from small pebbles to large boulders, weighing from
100 Ibs. to 200 Ibs. and upwards.
The specimens exhibited have been kindly sent by several members of the
Manchester Geological Society connected with Lancashire collieries — viz., Mr.
George Wild, Mr. James Radcliffe, Mr. H. A. Woodward, Mr. H. H. Bolton, and
others.
Mr. George Wild’s specimens are mainly from the Arley mine of Burnley, the
lowest seam in the Middle Coal-measures. Though small in size they are interest-
ing for the variety they exhibit of white and grey quartzites. Mr. James Rad-
cliffe’s specimens are from the Roger seam of the Astley pit, Dukinfield, and have
been recently described before the London Geological Society (Q. J. Geol. Soc.’
vol. xliii. p. 599). Two of these, of the usual grey quartzite, weigh respectively
100 Ibs. and 156 lbs.
The Roger seam is upwards of 500 yards above the Arley mine, the recognised
base of the Middle Coal-measures of Lancashire. Mr. H. A. Woodward, of the
Clifton and Kersley collieries, near Manchester, reporting upon some recent boulders
found in the pits, says that they are found in clusters as a rule, but in a few cases
singly.
They are common to all seams of this district, but are most plentiful in the
Trencherbone seam, the 6-feet or 9-feet seam of the Wigan district.
They are found in the coal, in the roof, and sometimes half-embedded in both
coal and roof, at depths from surface of 720 and 1,800 feet.
All the boulders mentioned come from the Middle Coal-measures of Lancashire
from the Arley mine as the base to the upper part of the Middle series.
Some interesting boulders have been recently found in the Lower Coal-measures
at Bacup. They are from the Gannister Coal or Mountain mine, upwards of 1,000
feet below the Arley. One of these is a granite, which will be referred to later on;
another small one of quartz felsite, similar to rocks of the Lake district ; and another
of grit, among the grains of which a considerable amount of iron pyrites is dis-
seminated.
These boulders are by no means confined to the Lancashire coalfield; they
have been recorded from the Leicestershire coalfield by Mr. Gresley and by other
observers from the North Staffordshire, the Forest of Dean, the South Wales, and
other of our English coalfields.
Yet another importarit fact to bear in mind when considering their distribution
is that they are not restricted to England nor to Europe. They are found also in
the coal seams of the United States, where the character and the composition of
the boulders and their position in the coal seams accord in all respects with those
of our own country, and the description given of them by American geologists
would very well apply to our own.
Professor Orton, State Geologist of Ohio, says: ‘These boulders, though un-
common, are still in the aggregate numerous, and agree in mineralogical characters.’
References will he found to these Ohio boulders in ‘Geology of Ohio,’ vol. y.
and ‘Report of Progress Ohio Geological Survey for 1870.’
Fragments of three of these Ohio boulders have been kindly sent to me by
Professor Orton, and I have had thin sections prepared of them and of some of the
Lancashire boulders. These have been submitted to Professor Bonney, who has
most obligingly examined them and remarked upon them.
Of the Ohio grey quartzite boulders he says they have the same general characters
as the Dukinfield boulders, but a little more distinctly cemented by secondary quartz.
Summing up, Professor Bonney says: ‘Of these, most of them tell us nothing
beyond the fact that they are, no doubt, Paleozoic rocks, and have probably derived
their materials from old granitoid rocks, The “granite” specimen is interesting.
It is a rock much more ancient than the Carboniferous, and the rounded inclusions
688 REPORT— 1887.
of quartz in the felspar is a thing which is specially common to the granitoid rocks
of the Hebridean series of Britain and the Laurentian of America. But of course
T cannot assert it is Hebridean, only it reminds me of Hebridean.’
The presence of these foreign boulders in coal seams opens out several interest-
ing inquiries. The two main questions are—Whence did they come ? and by what
means were they brought into their present position ?
Many suggestions have been hazarded and theories broached to answer these
questions, but none as yet fully accounts for all the phenomena connected with
these boulders. We have seen that they are not confined to our own little island,
but are found under exactly similar conditions in North America ; so, whatever the
agent of transport was, whether water or ice, it was evidently active over a large
part of the northern hemisphere.
The similarity and almost identity of the mineralogical composition of these
boulders is very remarkable, coming as they do from areas so widely separated as
are our own shores from those of America.
They are evidently older than any rocks of the Carboniferous period, but whether
they are fragments of some ancient continent of Cambrian or Archean age has yet
to be decided.
As to the mode of deposition of these boulders in the seams of coal, many objec-
tions surround the theory of transport by currents of water, seeing the great size
of some of these blocks and the total absence of any associated clays or sands.
Transport by ice, floating icebergs in a summer sea, would, perhaps, explain
better than any other theory their position, and often isolation, in strata singularly
free from extraneous matter.
Professor Croll, in his ‘ Climate and Time,’ suggests that the Carboniferous flora
was the growth of one of those assumed interglacial stages, recurrent during all
geological time, and that during the intervening cold periods represented, I pre-
sume, by the grits and sandstones, we had the most favourable conditions for en-
tombing and preserving the vegetable life of that epoch.
But an objection to this theory is, there is nothing in the character of the vege-
tation during the whole of the long period embraced by the Coal-measures to sup-
port the argument. The flora is identical and indicates no change of climate during
the millenniums of millenniums represented by the thousands of feet of thickness
of the Coal-measure rocks.
Such are some of the unsolved problems represented by these boulders, and
nothing but a careful accumulation of facts with regard to them will help to un-
rayel their mysterious history.
4, On the Organic Origin of the Chert in the Carboniferous Limestone Series
of Ireland and its Similarity to that in the Corresponding Strata in
North Wales and Yorkshire.' By Grorce Jennincs Hinpn, Ph.D.
The origin of the chert in the upper division of the carboniferous limestone
in Ireland was the subject of a joint paper by Messrs. Hull and Hardman? in
1878, in which they stated that the silica of which it is composed was derived
directly from the sea-water ; that the chert was essentially a pseudomorphic rock
consisting of gelatinous silica replacing limestone of organic origin; and
that it was not due to the action of organisms with siliceous skeletons, such as
diatomaceze, polycystinz, and the spicules of sponges. In the same year M. A.
Renard attributed a similar origin to the phthanites of the Carboniferous series of
1 The original paper has been published in extensv in the Geol. Mag. for October
1887, N.S. Dec. 3, vol. iv. pp. 435-446.
2 On the Nature and Origin of the Beds of Chert in the Upper Carboniferous
Limestone of Ireland. By Professor Edward Hull, M.A., F.R.S., Director of the
Geological Survey of Ireland. E
On the Chemical Composition of Chert and the Chemistry of the Process by
which it isformed: By Edward F, Hardman, F.C.8,— Scientific Transactions Royal
Dublin Society, vol. i. N.S. 1878, pp. 71-94, pl. iii.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 689
Belgium—‘ Bulletin de l’Acad. Royale de Belgique,’ s. 2, t. 46, pp. 471-499. In
1881 Professor Sollas pointed out that in sections of some of the very specimens
described and figured by Professor Hull in the paper referred to above ‘sponge
spicules make up the larger part of the chert’—‘ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.’ s. 5,
vol. vii. p. 141. In 1885 I suggested that the Irish chert was probably derived
from sponge remains, the same as the Cretaceous chert in the south of England—
‘ Phil, Trans.’ Part I. 1885, p. 433. During the present year Messrs. Hull and
Hardman brought papers before the Royal Society reiterating their former views
as to the inorganic origin of the chert, and stating that there was absolutely no
evidence for the suggestion I had made as to the derivation of the silica of the
chert from sponge remains, and that I had mistaken fragments of crinoids for
sponge spicules—‘ Proc, Royal Soc.’ vol. xlii. pp. 504 et seq.
In order if possible to determine this question, I went to Ireland last July
and examined the carboniferous chert in the localities whence Professor Hull ob-
tained the specimens on which he founded his conclusions as to its inorganic origin,
visiting various places in Queen’s County and Kilkenny to the south, and in Fer-
managh and Sligo to the north-west of Ireland, and in the vicinity of Dublin. The
chert in these different localities is mainly of the same character—a dark, hard,
compact, siliceous rock, frequently without being affected by acid, though in the
cherty limestones, calcite, in the form of organic structures, is intermingled in
various proportions with the silica. The chert occurs either in layers of nodules
imbedded in limestone, not dissimilar to the flints in the Upper Chalk, or in dis-
tinct beds from one to five inches in thickness, which may be either independent
of the beds of limestone, or form central masses with limestone above and below
them. These chert beds occur throughout the Upper Limestone Series of the Irish
Carboniferous, which has a thickness of from 600 to 800 feet ; in places they con-
stitute from one-tenth to one-fifth of the total mass of the rock; Professor Hull,
however, estimates that they form almost a half or a third of the entire thickness.
Accepting the lower estimate, the total thickness of the chert in the series would
be from 100 to 150 feet.
In microscopic sections of specimens from every locality I visited sponge-
spicules are present; they are more abundant in the beds of chert in which there is
no apparent calcite, and the rock in many instances is filled with them. Further,
in frequent instances the compact, dark chert-beds weather so as to form both on
their upper and under surfaces a porous, siliceous, granular crust of a grey tint and
harsh to the feel. This crust under favourable conditions can be seen to be com-
posed of innumerable minute sponge-spicules, intermingled and, as it were, felted
together. ‘There is therefore direct and undisputable evidence that the silica in
the chert is due to the accumulation and partial solution of these sponge-remains,
and that it has not been derived as a direct chemical deposit from sea-water.
Through the courtesy of Professor Hull I examined under the microscope the
rock-sections which he described and figured in his original paper, and though
they had not been specially selected, there were sponge-spicules present in all of
them ; and I can fully confirm the published statement of Professor Sollas that in
some, sponge-spicules make up the larger part of the chert. These sections make it
evident that Professor Hull did not recognise the forms to be spicules, but that he
regarded them as sections of crinoid structures.
During the last year I have studied the Carboniferous chert in the Yoredale
Series of Yorkshire and North Wales, and I am now preparing a description of
this rock. In all essential features it resembles the Irish chert, but the evidence of
its derivation from sponge-spicules is far clearer, since the rock from these places
has been less altered by fossilisation, and in many sections the chert is distinctly
an agglomeration of spicules, whose forms are nearly as perfect as those of existing
sponges. The beds of chert in Yorkshire are more continuous than those in Ire-
land; in some instances they form an uninterrupted series eighteen feet in thick-
ness ; this, however, is far exceeded by the beds in North Wales, where in borings
they are proved to reach 350 feet in thickness without the intervention of
limestones. ;
The organic origin of the Carboniferous chert, so strenuously denied by the
1887. YY
690 REPORT—1887.
Director of the Irish Geological Survey, has been suspected by others, but hitherto
satisfactory evidence of its real nature has not been brought forward. There can
be no reasonable doubt that these chert beds result from an enormous and persistent
development of siliceous sponges, and that they are chiefly composed of the detached
microscopical elements of their skeletons.
5. On the Discovery of Carboniferous Fossils in a Conglomerate at Moughton
Fell, near Settle, Yorkshire. By Rovert Law, F.G.S., and James
HORsFALL.
After briefly noting the various exposures of the conglomerate, its unconform-
ability with the Silurian rocks, its nature, probable age, and the circumstances
which led to the discovery of fossils in it; the authors described the following
section exhibited on the south-west side of Moughton Fell.
Feet
a. Scar Limestone, of light grey colour and well jointed ;
layers very distinct in lower parts and almost hori-
zontal, the genus Bellerophon being the commonest
fossil in the lowest bed of this rock. Thickness from . 300 to 500
b. ConaLomprATE.—Of a bluish-grey colour when newly
fractured, and becoming reddish on exposure to the air.
The fragments are rounded, angular, and sub-angular
in form, consisting of slate, grit, flagstone, and vein-
quartz, all apparently derived from Silurian rocks,
Fossil shells and corals are common throughout the
bed. Bellerophon, Euomphalus, Syringopora, and Litho-
strotion are the prevailing genera. Thicknessfrom_ . 1 to 12
c. Lower Silurian slates, of great thickness, having a N.E.
strike and a dip of about 60°. The dip and cleavage
appear to be on the same plane in this locality.
The nature and the origin of the stones in the conglomerate were next pointed
out ; also it was shown that the portion of the bed in which fossils had been found was
not more than 200 yards in length, and that it was thickest in the middle, thinning
out to the east and west, and at one point could be seen merging into the over-
lying limestone.
The fossils collected from the conglomerate are as fullows :—
Syringopora ramulosa. Bellerophon cornu-arietis,
Lithostrotion basaltiforme. Natica plicistria,
Euomphalus pentangulatus. Natica lirata.
Cirrus, one species. Natica elliptica.
Sanguinolaria angustata. | inoceramus, one species.
Pleurotomaria, one species. Spirifera, one species.
Orthoceratite, one species. Pecten, one species.
Rhynchonella acuminata. | Productus, three species.
Bellerophon tangentialis. Leptena, one species.
In conclusion, attention was called to the probable method by which the
conglomerate was formed.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Fifteenth Report on the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland.
See Reports, p. 236.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 691
2. Note on a few of the many remarkable Boulder-stones to be found along
the Eastern Margin of the Wicklow Mountains. By Professor Epwarp
Hou, L0.D., F.RS., F.G.S.
Amongst the evidences of the former existence of an extensive sheet of ice
descending from the Wicklow Mountains towards the shores of the Irish Sea is the
occurrence of boulder-stones, chiefly formed of granite or granitoid gneiss, derived
from the mountainous range to the westward, of a size seldom equalled—probably
not surpassed—amongst the British Isles. As the Association includes in its
labours the task of collecting details regarding erratic blocks, it may prove of
interest if I record a few cases which have come under my own notice.
1. The Mottha Stone.—This remarkable boulder is perched on the summit of
‘Cronbane Hill, above Castle Howard, and is a conspicuous object from all directions.
It consists of grey granite, and rests upon Lower Silurian slate. Its dimensions
are nearly as follows :—length, 14 feet; height, 9 feet; breadth, 9 feet. It contains
about 35 cubic yards of matter, and its weight would be about 70 tons. From the
site of the Mottha Stone, at a level of 816 feet above the sea, the eye ranges west-
ward along the magnificent valley of Glenmalure, to the flanks of Lugnaquilla, at
a distance of about ten or twelve miles, whence, as we may suppose, the granite
block started on its journey. In its course it must have crossed the deep hollow of
the Avonmore valley, which extends just below the feet of the observer transversely
to the path of this remarkable erratic block.
2. Castle Kevin.—In the valley between Castle Kevin and Moneystown, where
large boulders are numerous, there lies a block of granite, partially imbedded, of
which the dimensions are:—length, 15 feet ; breadth, 10 feet ; height, 9 feet (im-
bedded portion—probably 3 feet—is not included in above). This block contains
ahout 50 cubic yards of matter, and is about 100 tons in weight. The birthplace
of this boulder was probably the mountainous tract about Mullaghcleevaun, 2,783
feet in height, lying at the head of the valley in which is situated the deep waters
of Lough Dan, and it probably travelled a distance of eight or nine miles in an
E.S.E. direction.
3. The last boulder-stone that I shall mention is the largest I have met with in
eo. Wicklow—perhaps in the British Islands. It stands behind a cottage by the
roadside, near Roundwood Church, and is quite as large as the cottage itself, to
which it forms a good protection from the storms descending from the mountains
behind. This boulder consists of granitoid gneiss, resting on Lower Silurian slate
and grit. Its dimensions are (q. p.):—length, 21 feet; breadth, 14 feet ; height,
12 feet. Its form is somewhat oval, and it contains about 120 cubic yards of
matter, and is about 240 tons in weight. The source of this block, which lies at
an elevation of about 800 feet above the sea, was probably in the same locality
with that of the Castle Kevin boulder, and the distance travelled was about six or
seven miles.
The blocks above noticed, with many others of smaller size, do not belong to any
of the local glaciers which once filled the valleys towards the close of the glacial
epoch, and which have left numerous well-formed moraines in nearly all the prin-
cipal valleys descending from the Wicklow range. ‘They are to be referred, in all
probability, to the earlier stage of intense glaciation, during which the whole district
was covered with perennial snows and ice, moving eastward into the hollow now
occupied by the waters cf the Irish Sea.
3. The Terminal Moraines of the Great Glaciers of England.
By Professor H. Carvitt Lewis.
The investigation here recorded is based upon the important principle that
every glacier at the time of tts greatest extension is bounded and limited by a ter-
minal moraine. Supposed exceptions to this law in Switzerland and elsewhere had
been studied by the author and found to be contrary to observed facts. Thus the
ancient Rhone glacier, stated by Swiss geologists to be without a limiting moraine
at the time of its greatest extension, was found to have one as distinct as those of
Yy¥2
692 REPORT—1887. 4
the Aare glacier, the Reuss glacier, or the Rhine glacier; and the prevalent idea
of a ‘first glacial epoch’ in which the glaciers had no terminal moraines was also
unsupported by the author's observations.
The great ice-sheet which once covered northern England was found to be com-
posed of a number of glaciers, each of which was bounded by its own lateral and
terminal moraines. These glaciers were studied in detail, beginning with the east
of England, and the North Sea glacier, the Wensleydale glacier, the Stainmoor
glacier, the Aire glacier, the Irish Sea glacier, and the separate Welsh glaciers
were each found to be distinguished by characteristic boulders and to be defined
by well-marked moraines. The terminal moraine of the North Sea glacier, filled
with Norwegian boulders, may be seen in Holderness, extending from the mouth
of the Humber to Flamborough Head; it consists of a, series of conical hills
enclosing meres, The moraine of the Stainmoor glacier, characterised by blocks
of Shap granite, may be followed northward along the coast past Scarborough and
Whitby ; then west along the Cleveland Hills; then south again through Oulston
to the city of York; then west to near Allerton, where the Stainmoor glacier is
joined by the Wensleydale glacier—a fine medial moraine marking the line of
junction. The Wensleydale glacier is characterised by bouJders of carboniferous
limestone and sandstone, and its lateral moraine is followed northward through
Wormald Green, Markington, Fountains Abbey, and along the Permian outcrop to
Masham, where it turns west to Wensleydale, passing Jervaulx Abbey, and running
up the valley. North of Wensleydale the moraine of the Stainmoor glacier is
followed through Richmond to Kirkby Ravensworth and westward to the moun-
tains, where the glacier attained an elevation of 2,000 feet. Thus the Stainmoor
glacier, a tongue of the great Irish Sea glacier, had been divided into two branches
by the Cleveland Hills, one branch going south to the city of York, which is built
on its terminal moraine, the other branch flowing out of the Tees and being de-
flected southwards along the coast by the North Sea glacier, with which it became
confluent.
The Irish Sea glacier, the most important glacier of England, came down from
Scotland, and, being reinforced by local ice-streams, and flowing southward until
it abutted against the mountains of Wales, it was divided into two tongues, one
of which flowed to Wellington and Shrewsbury, while the other went south-west
across Anglesey into the Irish Sea. This great glacier and its branches are all
outlined by terminal moraines, described in detail. A small tongue from it, the
Aire glacier, was forced eastward at Skipton and has its own distinctive moraine.
In the neighbourhood of Manchester the great moraine of this Irish Sea glacier
may be followed through Bacup, Hey, Staleybridge, Stockport and Macclestield,
being as finely developed as the moraines of Switzerland and America. South of
Manchester it contains flints and shell-fragments, brought by the glacier from the
sea-bottom over which it passed. At Manchester the ice was at least 1,400 feet
thick, being as thick as the Rhone glacier.
The creat terminal moraine now described of the united glaciers of England is
a very sinuous line, 550 miles in length, extending from the mouth of the Humber
to the farthest extremity of Carnarvonshire, and, except where it separates the
Welsh glaciers from the North Sea glacier, everywhere marks the extreme limit of
glaciation in Wngland, and is ‘an important feature which might well hereafter be
marked on the geological map of England.
4. On some important Extra-Morainic Lakes in Central England, North
America, and elsewhere, during the Period of Mazimum Glaciation, and
on the Origin of Hxtra-Morainic Boulder-clay.. By Professor H. CARvInLL
Lewis.
The lakes so characteristic of all glaciated regions are due to several causes.
Some few are due to an actual glacial scooping out of the rock floor, many to an
irregular deposition of the drift, by which former watercourses are obstructed, and
still others to the terminal moraine or to the glacier itself. These latter, known as
morainic lakes, may be divided into inter-morainic lakes, moraine meres, and extra-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 693
morainic lakes, according to their position—hack of, in, or outside—of the moraine.
£xtra-morainic lakes, if dammed up by the ice front, are temporary in character,
disappearing with the retreat of the glacier; but, as they may be of enormous
extent if the glacier is large, they may produce deposits of much geological
importance. Instances of such lakes occur in Switzerland, and ancient examples
occur as well in Northern Germany, Asia, North America, and Central England.
They are to be expected wherever a glacier advances against or across the drainage
of a country. Mr. Belt supposed that Northern Asia was covered by a lake of this
character, caused by the Polar glacier obstructing the rivers flowing north.
In North America, where the terminal moraine has been accurately mapped for
thousands of miles, deposits of boulder-clay and erratics occur outside of the
moraine, and have been supposed to be due to an older glacier in the first glacial
epoch. But the entire absence of stri# or of glacial erosion or moraines in this
district proves that a glacier was not the agent of deposition. Nor are there any
traces of marine life in the deposits. This extra-morainic boulder-clay is narrow
in Pennsylvania, where the author had called it ‘the Fringe,’ but west of the
Missouri is 70 miles wide; and in British America, between the great moraine
called the ‘ Missouri Coteau’ and the Rocky Mountains, is 450 miles wide and over
1,000 miles long. It only occurs where rivers had flowed foward the glacier, and
is explained as the deposit of great temporary freshwater lakes dammed up by the
ice-front, the erratics having been dropped by icebergs.
Similar deposits occur in England outside of the terminal moraine, and have
been the subject of much discussion; being held by some to be a proof of marine
submergence, by others to be the ground-moraine of a glacier. The ‘ great chalky
boulder-clay ’ is the best known of these deposits. There are serious objections to
the two theories heretofore advanced to explain this, whilst the hypothesis of
extra-morainic fresh-water lakes, dammed up by the glaciers, is sustained by all
observed facts. The most important of these lakes was one caused by the obstruc-
tion of the mouth of the Humber by the North Sea glacier, whose terminal
moraine crosses that river at its mouth, This large lake reached up to the 400 feet
contour line, and extended southward nearly to London, and westward in finger-
like projections into the many valleys of the Pennine Chain. It deposited the
‘great chalky boulder-clay,’ and erratics were floated in all directions by icebergs.
It was bounded in the Vale of York by the Stainmoor glacier, and Charnwood
Forest was an island in it. At its flood period it overflowed south-westward by
torrential streams into the Severn Valley and elsewhere, carryirig the ‘ Northern
Drift’ into the south of England. Other glaciers in England were bordered by
similar but smaller lakes wherever they advanced against the drainage. Three
such lakes were made by the Aire glacier, the largest of them extending to Brad-
ford. The Irish Sea glacier caused many similar lakes high up on the west side of
the Pennine Chain, and at its southern end north of Wolverhampton. ‘The over-
flow streams from: the most southern of these lakes joined those issuing from Lake
Humber in the Birmingham district, characterised by a ‘commingling of the
drift,’ otherwise inexplicable. An examination of the supposed evidences for
glaciation, and for a great marine submergence in Central and Southern England,
shows that neither theory is sustained by the facts. Thus, the supposed strize on
Rowley Rag prove to be rootmarks or ploughmarks; those reported at Charnwood
Forest to be due to running water or perhaps icebergs; the supposed drift on the
chalk wolds to be a local wash of chalk flints; the high-level gravels on the
Cotteswold Hills to be pre-glacial; the shells at Macclesfield, Moel Tryfan, and
Three Rock Mountain to be glacier-borne, and not a proof of submergence; the
drift on the Pennine plateau of North Derbyshire to be partly made by icebergs
floating in Lake Humber, and partly a decomposed Millstone Grit or Bunter
Sandstone; and the supposed Welsh erratics on Frankley Hill at a height of 800
feet to be in place and due to an outcrop of the paleozoic floor.
The conclusion that the glacial phenomena of England are due neither to a
universal icecap nor to a marine submergence, but to a number of glaciers bordered
by temporary fresh-water lakes, is in accordance with all the observations of the
author in England and elsewhere.
694 REPORT—1887.
5. A comparative Study of the Till or Lower Boulder-Clay in several of the
Glaciated Countries of Hurope—Britain, Scandinavia, Germany, Switzer-
land, and the Pyrenees. By Hucu Miuter, F.R.S.H., F.G.8., Assoc.
RSM.
The sections of foreign till examined by the author occur chiefly in the neigh-
bourhood of the Trondhjem Fjord, in Norway, at Berlin and Leipzig, in Germany,
near the Lake of Geneva, in Switzerland, and in the valleys of the Pyrenees
directly south from Pau, in southern France, In these countries and in Britain the
till bears an identical character. It is not more variable throughout Europe than
the author has found it to be in Scotland and northern England. On the basement-
gneiss at Christiansund, in south-western Norway, it is the same as on the basement-
gneiss of Sutherlandshire; in the great limestone valley of Faux Chauds, in the
Pyrenees, it is scarcely to be distinguished from the till of the limestone valleys
of Yorkshire. In all the places mentioned (more doubtfully at Berlin and Leipzig)
it bears the unmistakable character of a ground-moraine accreted under the direct
weicht of glacier-ice. Its essential character is that of a rude pavement of glaciated
débris ground from the rocks over which the glaciers have passed, with its larger
boulders firmly glaciated zn s¢tw on their upper sides in the direction of ice-moye-
ment, and with a tendency to the production of fluxion structure here and there in
the matrix, due to the onward drag of the superincumbent ice. In mere indis-
criminateness of composition (which is a character much emphasised by glacialists)
the till is not to be distinguished from boulder-clays formed under berg- or raft-ive,
such as the highest marine clays of the Norwegian coasts which are stuck pro-
miscuously through with boulders derived from the glaciers of the interior. The
glaciation of boulders in situ the author finds to be a crucial distinction ; he readily
detected this ‘ striated-pavement’ character in the tills of all the districts above
mentioned except Leipzig and Berlin, where the boulder-clays resemble the upper
boulder-clay (Hessle Clay) of the eastern seaboard of England and Scotland, and
in the sections examined by him contained no large blocks.
6. Second Report of the Committee for exploring the Cae Gwyn Cave, North
Wales.—See Reports, p. 301.
7. On the Discovery and Hecavation of an Ancient Sea-beach, near Brid-
lington Quay, containing Mammalian Remains. By James W. Davis,
F.GS.
During several years past occasional remains of animals, of older types than
exist at present in the neighbourhood, have been found at the foot of the chalk
cliff nearest Bridlington Quay. The remains, consisting of a part of an elephant’s
tusk, an antler of Cervus megaceros, bones of Bison or Bos and others, have gene-
rally been found after a more than ordinarily violent sea has washed down a portion
of the clays and sand at the foot of the cliff. In May 1884 Mr. Clement Reid,
of H.M. Geological Survey, had his attention drawn to the section by Mr. J. R.
Mortimer, of Driffield, and he made a slight excavation! and obtained mammalian
bones. During the spring of the present year the attention of the Council of the
Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society was drawn to the section, and it
was decided to vote an expenditure of 10/. for the further exploration of the
section. The consent of the proprietor, the Rev. J. Lloyd Greame, of Sewerby Hall,
wasreadily and gracefully accorded,and Messrs. Lamplugh and Boynton, of Bridling-
ton Quay, very kindly took charge of the work, and by their constant presence whilst
the work was proceeding secured trustworthy and reliable evidence of the position
and character of the beds and of the objects found in them.
The ancient cliff of chalk at the base of which the old beach is deposited ex-
1 Geology of Holderness, &c., by Clement Reid, 1885.—Memoirs of the Geological
Survey.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C 695
tends in an E, and W. direction, forming an angle of about 35° with the line of
the present cliff towards Flamborough Head. The old cliff probably extended
along the foot of the Wolds in a semicircle past Driffield to the Humber at Ferriby,
and the whole of Holderness east of that line was under water. The old cliff at
its termination seawards is fully 30 feet in height. Its surface is smooth, and the
layers of chalk, ranging up to 2 or 3 feet in thickness, are rounded, exhibiting an
appearance similar to a water-washed surface of mountain limestone. The present
cliff offers a marked contrast; its surface, subject to constant denudation and
weathering, exhibits a sharp and angular appearance without any of the polished
convexity of the old one. The latter character is very suggestive, Mr. Reid con-
siders, of the action of blown sand; and the presence of a large quantity of fine
rounded sand in the section affords corroborative evidence of the correctness of the
opinion.
The section exposed during the excavation is as follows :—
Boulder clay
Blown sand . : : ‘ : : . 20 feet 0 inches
Semi-stratified marl sand and chalk wash .° 4 ,, 6 ,,
Sea-beach of rounded pebbles of chalk . fn RAI. GUY;
The thickness of the latter varies with the character of the chalk floor on which
it rests. The latter is uneven and occasionally deeply hollowed. The old beach
filled up the irregularities to a common level.
The lowest bed, which rests on a floor of denuded chalk, consists of well-
rounded pebbles of chalk, many of them bored by Pholas, and a smaller number
by Saxicava. Intermixed are a comparatively small number of fragments in a sub-
angular condition, which have probably fallen from the cliff above and suffered less
from denudation and attrition. It is marked by an entire absence of travelled
rocks derived from the glacial clays which at present extend over the whole of the
deposits comprising the old beach. The chalk pebbles are piled up under the cliff
and gradually thin out as the mass recedes from it. The present beach is composed
of similar chalk pebbles, but is readily distinguished from the old one by the presence
of large numbers of stones and boulders of older rocks derived from the glacial
clays which envelope the cliffs. In addition to the mollusca named above shells
of Ostrea, Littorina, and Purpura have been found.
The next beds in the series are about 40 feet in thickness near the face of the
chalk cliff, and extend about the same thickness for a few feet, after which they
become attenuated and gradually disappear, giving place to‘ blown sand.’ The beds
are characterised principally by alternations of sandy marl and chalk wash, which
have been cemented together by the percolation of water; fragments of angular
chalk frequently occur mixed in the mass.
The blown sand, which envelopes the beds last mentioned, extends far up the
face of the cliff. It is fine, the grains vary little in size, and are well rounded.
The sand appears to have been blown against the face of the cliff, and whilst thus
having all the angles worn off has also been instrumental in reducing the rough
angular surface of the chalk to its present smooth and mammuilated appearance.
The bed of sand, forming, with the beds below, a triangular mass, is enveloped on
the side opposite to the cliff in a mass of stiff glacial clay, the lower purple
boulder clay reaching from the summit of the cliff to the beach below. The
general arrangement indicates a period, probably pre-Glacial, when the area under
the old cliff was raised above the action of the waves, and the presence of land
shells, of the genera Pupa and Helix, which have been found preserved in the
cemented chalk wash clearly shows this to have been a land surface. The bones of
mammals have also been found in considerable abundance in the same beds, as well
as those below and in the quicksands above. With the advent of the Glacial era a
great part of the sand would doubtless be removed, but that left was protected by
the cliff, and the ice-sheet passed over it, leaving the whole covered with boulder
clay on its retreat.
The number of animal remains found during the excavation has been both large
and important; amongst others the teeth of Zlephas primigenius, a vertebra,
696 REPORT—1887.
probably the atlas, and several other bones of the same species; a jaw with teeth,
as well as detached teeth, of rhinoceros, large jaw of Bos, and jaw with teeth
either of wolf or dog; teeth of vole or rat, teeth and bones of bison. A tusk
in a fragmentary condition may have been that of a walrus.
Bones of birds have been found, and jaws and vertebree of fishes have occurred
in the lower beds. The bones are in an extremely soft and friable condition, and it
is only by the exercise of very great care that the pieces composing the bones were
collected in a manner which will enable them to be pieced together again. The
efforts in this direction made by both the directors is beyond praise, and the results
amply repay the trouble taken. Mr. Lamplugh is preparing a detailed report on
the excavation and the objects discovered, which will be printed in the ‘ Proceedings
of the Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society.’
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. On the Discovery of the Larval Stage of a Cockroach, Etoblattina Peachii
(H. Woodw.), from the Coal-measures of Kilmaurs, Ayrshire. By Hmnry
Woopward, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
This interesting fossil is preserved in a small clay ironstone nodule, and measures
25 millimétres in length and 14 millimitres in breadth, and exhibits the minute
head sunk in the rounded pronotum, a pair of rudimentary wing-covers, and a pair
of rudimentary wings, a body with nine segments having broadly expanded free
edges to the terga, like certain larval forms, but unlike the adult of modern cock-
roaches. The author compares this interesting Coal-measure insect with Golden-
berg’s Blattina insignis, from the Coal-measures of Saarbruck, and with Lepto-
blattina exilis (H. Woodw.), from the Staffordshire coalfield. Also with the
larval stage of the living Blabera atropos, Stoll, from Brazil, with which it closely
agrees, both in the character of the wings and the broad margins to the terga of the
abdominal somites.
2. On a new Species of Eurypterus from the Lower Carboniferous Shales,
Eskdale, Scotland. By Hunry Woopwarp, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
From previous researches we were made acquainted with a remarlable
Eurypterus from the Carboniferous Limestone series, of Kirkton, Bathgate, West
Lothian, named Eurypterus Scoulert by Hibbert in 1836. Other doubtful species
have been noticed from Cape Breton and from Nova Scotia, and one from the
Lower Coal-measures of Darlington, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., discovered in 1881.
These, with four Devonian and seventeen Upper Silurian forms, complete the known
list of Lurypteri.
The present discovery introduces us to a specimen 52 inches broad by about
20 inches long. The hind segments are imperfect and the telson is wanting. The
swimming feet were about 8 inches in length. The head was very rugose, and
the anterior segments covered with strong pointed squame, like those of E.
Scoulert. The eyes cannot be made out, and the swimming feet are not seen.
This new type has been named by the author Lurypterus seabrosus.
3. On the Discovery of Trilobites in the Upper Green (Cambrian) Slates of
the Penrhyn Quarry, Bethesda, near Bangor, North Wales. By Henry
Woopward, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Although the Cambrian rocks of Wales were long considered barren in all
evidence of organic remains, the labours of the late Mr. J. W. Salter, Mr. T. Belt,
Mr. David Homfray, of Portmadoc, but most of all those of Dr. Henry Hicks,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 697
F.R.S., at St. David's and elsewhere, have added an extensive series of organisms
to these lower rocks, The Longmynd group, which elsewhere had only yielded
annelide burrows and a portion of a trilobite, had at St. David’s furnished a sponge,
two ostracods, six trilobites, two lingulelle, and two thece.
The Meneyian beds at St. David's have made known three sponges, one echino-
derm, twenty-five trilobites, five pteropods, and three brachiopods. No fewer than
twenty-five genera and eighty-five species of trilobites are now recorded from the
Longmynds up to the Tremadoce slates. Dr. Hicks observes that the Longmynds
have yielded a few indications of life in Shropshire and North Wales, but these
beds require to be further explored.
The first trilobite in the green slates of Bangor was discovered by two work-
men and recorded by Professor J. J. Dobbie, of the University College of North
Wales, Bangor, on 5th August last. Two specimens have been obtained, the second
by Professor Dobbie himself.
The most perfect is 34 inches long and 1} broad, and shows both the intaglio
and relievo.
The margin of the head shield is rounded ; the glabella has three lateral furrows ;
there are fourteen free thoracic rings and a short pygidium, consisting of about three
coalesced segments.
After a careful comparison with Conocoryphe, Olenus, Paradoxides, Angelina,
&c., the author concludes to place the Bangor trilobite in the genus Conocoryphe,
and names it Conocoryphe viola.
Horizon: Upper Green Slates.
‘ Llanberis Grits and Slates,’ Harlech and Longmynd Rocks.
Loc.: Penrhyn Slate Quarry, Bangor, North Wales.
4, Fifth Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks.—See
Reports, p. 60.
5. On the Mode of Development of the Young in Plesiosaurus.
By Professor H. G. Sreney, F’.R.S.
This paper was descriptive of a specimen submitted to the author by J. F.
Walker, Esq., F.G.S. It is a phosphatised nodule from the Lias of Whitby,
measuring about 10 centimétres by 7 by 5. On its surface are four more or less
complete specimens regarded as foetal plesiosaurs, together with fragments of at
least three others. They are remarkable for having the flesh mineralised with
phosphate of lime, and still show many characters of the external form of the
body, but slightly distorted by decomposition. Only one individual has the head
preserved: its extreme length is about 14mm. The nares are terminal like those
of an emydian chelonian. The eyes look obliquely upward and outward. The
superior aspect of the head behind the frontal bone is occupied by muscular
substance. The skull rests on one side against the matrix, so that its transverse
width is not clearly shown; but it was wider than the neck, and narrows in front
of the orbit towards the nares, which curve a little downward. The eyes look
obliquely upward and outward, and have a diameter of two millimétres. The
neck has a length of 4:5 centimétres. Behind the head it is about four millimétres
deep and as wide; it widens to a centimétre where the expansion takes place at
the shoulders, and there the depth is about eight millimétres. A sharp median
ridge down the middle of the neck divides its superior aspect into two oblique mode-
rately convex surfaces. Other individuals show that this ridge was prolonged
down the back and tail, but less elevated. The body is about as long as the
neck. On the right side it has sutfered some abrasion and injury in cleaning; and
is not quite symmetrical, being a little larger on the left side. It is about 2:4
centimétres wide, convex from side to side, and less convex in length. The ex-
pansion from the neck is rapid, and attenuation posteriorly is marked, so that the
body has a long egg-shape. The tail appears to be short and conical, and curves
ae
698 REPORT—1887.
rapidly downward in every specimen. The height of the body was not more than
half its width. The limbs are imperfectly preserved. he distance between them
on the left side is 2-4 centimétres. The anterior limb appears to be the larger.
The entire length of the specimen is 12-5 centimétres.
This individual lies over the neck of another specimen which was larger, and
appears to have measured fifteen centimétres without the head. It shows the fore
limbs to have been very wide relatively to their length. The limb measured in
the antero-posterior direction 1:1 centimétre at the junction with the shoulder on
the right side; it is flattened, extended horizontally, imperfect distally, and curved
somewhat backward, but evidently short as compared with the adult. The hind
limbs of this specimen are not seen.
Other individuals are smaller, and have the body only about half as wide.
They are very narrow in the anterior part of the body, and tiere appears to be
only a slight budding of the fore limbs.
Mence the author regarded this specimen as showing that Plesiosaurus was vivi-
parous, and that in one species from the Lias many were produced at one birth. The
species was probably a long-necked one, and may have been P. homolospondylus,
since the head in young animals is relatively large, and here it is } the total length
of the animal,
6. On the reputed Clavicles and Interclavicles of Tguanodon.
By Professor H. G. Srrnny, IRS.
The author showed by superimposing a figure of the reputed clavicle upon the
bone figured by Mr. Hulke as clavicle and interclavicle of Iguanodon (‘ Quart.
Jour. Geol. Soc.’ vol. xli. pl. xiv.), that the supposed sutures are fractures, and
that the supposed interclavicle has no existence, except as an ossification posterior
to the reputed clavicles. ‘Then it was urged that these bones are unparalleled by
any vertebrate clavicles, while the reputed pubes of crocodiles and pre-pubes of
other animals offer a more probable analogy. The ossification in front of the pubis
in Ornithosaurs is of similar form in several genera; and in crocodiles the ossifi-
cation of the fibrous extension which connects the reputed pubes with the sternal
ribs would produce a bone like the supposed interclavicle of Iguanodon. Hence it
was urged that these bones in Iguanodon are pre-pelvic, and the author identified
them with the pre-pubic bones.
7. On Cumnoria, an Iywanodont Genus founded upon the Iguanodon
Prestwichi, Hulke. By Professor H. G. Sugtuy, F.R.S.
This genus is named from Cumnor, the locality where the fossil was found. It
is separated from Iguanodon by many characters, such as the different type of
parallel ridging and coarser serration of the teeth. Tke vertebra are relatively
wider, the neural arch and centrum both being more depressed; the lamine of the
neural arch are very stout,and the neural canal very small; the sacral vertebrae are
not anchylosed, are only four in number, and are conyex on the ventral surface.
The early caudal vertebrie are reduced in length, and have the neural arch small.
The astragalus and caleaneum are separate. In these and ‘other characters this
Kimmeridge clay type differs from Iguanodon, and in some of them approximates
towards Hypsilophodon and Mochlodon.
8. The Classification of the Dinosauria, By Professor H. G. Suntoy, F.R.S.
The author discussed the structure of the animals named Dinosauria, and con-
cluded that the group had no existence, the constituent animals belonging to two
orders, which have no near aflinity : one with a sub-avian pubis and ischium, the
other with those bones sub-lacertilian.
The Ornrruiscuta! is defined as having the ventral border of the pubic bone
) These groups are more fully defined in a communication to the Royal Society,
read November 23, 1887. '
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. ; 699
notched out, so that one limb is directed backward parallel to the ischium, while
the other limb is directed forward. The ilium has a slender prolongation in front
of the acetabulum.
The SavRIscuta ! is defined by haying the pubes directed forward with a median
symphysis, but with no posterior limb to the bone. The anterior prolongation of
the ilium has a vertical expansion.
Sus-Secrion C.
1. La Calcédoine enhydrique de Salto Oriental (Uruguay) et son véritable
gisement. By Professor VILANOVA.
Le minéralogiste Hatiy a nommé comme ca une variété qui forme de petites
poches dans lesquelles a resté une partie de l'eau mére, résultat d’un geyserisme
trés actif, car il en reste encore méme dans les eaux du Rio Negro, du Catalan et
d’autres qui portent la silice en dissolution. Les premiers échantillons de cette
curieuse variété américaine m’ont été adressés par un de mes compatriotes, D.
Clemente Barrial Posada, établi depuis quelques années 4 Montevideo, mais sans rien
me dire de son vrai gisement ; lorsqu’un un de mes amis, D. Manuel del Palacio,
ayant résidé dans cette ville comme envoyé de notre gouvernement prés le Prési-
dent de la République, regut comme un beau cadeau deux échantillons de la roche
dans laquelle se trouvent les dites calcédoines, et m’en ayant offert un des
exemplaires, je Vai fait analyser micrographiquement par D. Francisco Guiroga,
aide naturaliste trés habile du Musée de Madrid, et voila le résultat de cette étude.
La roche, de couleur sombre, de structure compacte et assez lourde, contient de
Yoligoclasse formant des macles selon la loi de l'albite, et celle de la pericline plus
Valbite.
De Yaugite en petits fragments irréguliers, gris violacé sale. Du verre
jaunatre, trés abondant. De la magnetite en granules. De Vopale et zéolite en
amygdaloides. On peut dire par conséquent, i juger par la facies du feldspath
et par labondance de la silice, que la roche dans laquelle se trouyent les calcédoines
enhydriques, c’est une andesite augitique tertiaire ou post-tertiaire.
On sait combien les restes du dinotherium sont encore rares, et pas trop
étendues les limites de son aire de dispersion ; eh bien! ses limites viennent d’étre
considérablement élargies, car dans la péninsule ibérique o& aucune de ses espéces
navait été auparavant trouvé, nous en possédons aujourd’hui au moins deux
espéces, le D. giganteum, découvert prés d'un village de la province de Valladolid
nommé Fuensaldana, dans des couches calcaires un peu marneuses et blanchatres,
appartenant au grand dépdt tertiaire lacustre de la Vieille Castille. Ces restes
consistent en une partie de la téte, la moitié gauche de la machoire inférieure, et
un morceau d’une défense: & part il y a quatre molaires parfaitement conservées.
Tous ces échantillons se conservent aujourd’hui dans mes collections paléontolo-
giques du Musée de Madrid. L/autre espéce c’est le D. bavaricum, selon Gaudry,
et d’aprés les indications du chanoine Almera, géologue distingué de Barcelone,
il provient d’une mine de lignite qu’on exploite dans un village de la méme
province de la Catalogne.
Une troisiéme localité de la province de Iluesca (Aragon) fut indiquée par un
individu qui uppoyta au Musée de Madrid une dent du D. giganteum a vendre ;
mais je craignis qu'il y ett fausse indication, et il pourrait bien se faire que l’échan-
tillon provint de Castille.
Mais laissant de cété ces doutes, au moins il est tout 4 fait certain, que deux
espéces de dinotherium vécurent en Espagne 4 l’époque des grands lacs miocénes
qui occupaient l’actuel territoire des deux Castilles et une partie de la Catalogue.
} These groups are more fully defined in a communication to the Royal Society,
read November 23, 1887.
700 REPORT—1887.
2. On the Phyllites of the Isle of Man.
By Professor W. Boyp Dawetns, F’.R.S.
Professor Boyd Dawkins called attention to the slates of the Isle of Man; which
present every gradation from the ordinary slate with minute crystals of mica,
deposited in the planes of cleavage, to a twisted and highly altered rock, Phyllite,
containing so much mica as to appear silky. This has been subjected to second-
ary cleavage (slip-cleavage of Bonney), which has resulted from a pressure
which has broken through the original lines of cleavage. Wherever in the
original slate a quartz vein has occurred, the friction between it. and the softer
Phyllite when the pressure was applied has caused the development of large flakes
of mica, and in some cases of a fibrous hornblendic material. Both these are due
to the local development of heat.
3. On Thinolite and Jarrowite. By Professor G. A. Lebour, M.A., F.G.S.
The thinolite of Clarence King, from ‘Lake Lahontan,’ in Nevada, recently
described by E. 8S, Dana (‘ Zeit. Kryst. Min.’ Bd. xi. p. 285, and ‘ Bull. U.S. Geol.
Survey,’ vol. ii. No. 12), is regarded by the author as the same mineral species as
Jarrowite, long since recorded from the alluvial beds of the river Tyne at Jartow.
4, A Shropshire Picrite. By W. W. Waris, ILA., F.G.S.
In this paper the author described a variety of picrite which occurs in the
Shelve and Corndon district of Shropshire. The rock has an ophitic structure,
and contains olivine grains set in large plates of brownish augite A certain
amount of plagioclase and magnetite are present, together with a smaller quantity
of brown mica. The largest dike runs N.E. and 8.W. from North Dysgwylfa
farm to Shelve pool, but blocks of it are found widely scattered through the region,
so that it is perhaps plentiful in the district. This dike crosses the direction of the
intrusive andesites and dolerites described in the ‘ British Association Report for
1886,’ and is the latest intrusion, so that it must be at least post-Silurian in age.
It is sharply marked off from the other intrusive rocks by the abundance of olivine,
a mineral scarce in, if not absent from, the other intrusive rocks. Such a well-
marked rock type will be useful to those studying the Shropshire erratic blocks.
5. On the Mineralogical Constitution of Calcareous Organisms.
By Vauauan Cornish and Percy F. Kenpat.
* Inrropvuctrron.—In Dr. Sorby’s presidential address to the Geological Society
in 1879 it was stated that both Calcite and Aragonite occur in organic structures,
and that Aragonite fossils are less stable than those of Calcite.
It appeared probable that carbonic acid has been the agent which effected the
removal of the Aragonite, but we had found no published experimental data to show
that it would remove Aragonite more readily than Calcite.
Parr I.—An account of the eaperimental evidence obtained as the cause of the
inferior stability of Aragonite fossils as compared with those formed of Calcite, with
Dg on the geological conditions favourable to the removal of Aragonite
ossils.
It was pointed out by one of us! that those shells classed by Dr. Sorby as
Calcite are characterised in the fossil state by a compact texture“and by translucency,
while the Aragonite shells are opaque and of a chalky appearance.
Experiment 1.—A Calcite and an Aragonite shell of about equal weight and
surface were subjected to the action of carbonated water and then weighed.
Result.—The Aragonite shell lost between two and three times as much in pro-
portion to its weight as did the Calcite shell, and it fell to pieces.
Experiments 2 and 8 were made upon finely powdered Calcite and Aragonite.
1 Geol. May. Nov. 1883.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 701
In No. 2 the pure crystallised minerals were employed, and in No. 3 powdered
shells,
Result About equal quantities of the two substances were dissolved.
Conelusion.—That the instability of Aragonite shells, as well as their opacity, is
due not directly to their mineralogical constitution, but to their structure.
The geological conditions favourable to the removal of Aragonite shells is found
to be—
a. Enclosure in permeable beds.
b. Flow of carbonated water.
Part Il.—An account of the work done in following out the foregoing observa-
tions, and tn the examination of certain organisms belonging to groups not yet
classified according to their mineralogical constitution.
The constitution of the shells, &c., mentioned hereafter, was ascertained by
determination of the sp. grs.
The observations were made in following out indications obtained —
(1) From the known inferior stability of Aragonite shells,
(2) From the rule which appeared to hold with regard to the translucency of
Calcite fossils and the opacity of those of Aragonite.
Gasteropoda.—Scalaria (fossil) sp. gr. 2685 Calcite. Murex tortuosus (fossil)
has thick opaque inner layer.
Sp. gr. 2°85; therefore probably mainly Aragonite. From a comparison of the
Calcite layers of this shell and of Purpura lapillus, we are led to regard the crag
Purpura tetragona as a variety of Murex erinaceus.
Tectura testudinaria (recent) sp. gr. 2°834. Fossil tecture have an opaque inner
layer; therefore probably Aragonite.
Fusus.—The determination of three species confirmed the opinion expressed by
one of us in the paper before cited.
F. antiquus, sp. gr. 2.668 Calcite outer layer.
I". costifer » 2°83 Aragonite.
I’. pyrtformis ,, 2°95 Aragonite.
F longevus ,, 2°89 Aragonite.
Cephalopode.—Ammonites, from their appearance and mode of occurrence, are
probably to be regarded as Aragonite, but the aptychi which are found well pre-
served with casts of Ammonites are translucent, and their sp. gr., 2°70, proves that
they are Calcite.
Belemnites—The guard has a sp. gr. of 2°67, and is Calcite. The phragmacone
is not preserved in porous beds, and isopaque. The sp. gr. of a specimen infiltered,
but not replaced by Calcite, was 2:75; we therefore consider it to be Avagonite.
Placophora.— Chiton (recent), sp. gr. 2:848. " Aragonite.
Heteropoda.—Dolubella (recent), sp. gr. 2°859. Aragonite.
Lamellibranchiata.—Pecten opercularis (recent), sp. gr.2°70. Calcite. Pectun-
eulus glycimeris (recent), sp. gr. 2845. Aragonite. Artemis lentiformis (fossil),
opaque sp. gr. 2:84. Aragonite.
Hexacoralla.—All the corals examined by Dr. Sorby were mainly or entirely
Aragonite. We examined one of the Upper Chalk corals, Parasmilia centralis,
and found it to be translucent, and to have a sp. gr. of 2:7; therefore it is Calcite.
Polyzoa.—Dr. Sorby found many forms to be composed of Calcite with Ara-
gonite, and supposed that the two substances were med; but the observations of
one of us point to the conclusion that there is an outer layer of Aragonite.
Foraminifera.—Dr. Sorby classes these in his Calcite division ; but we are led
to believe that the Porcellanea are Aragonite. They are opaque in the fossil state,
and, so far as we can ascertain, are not found in beds from which the \ragonite
shells have been dissolved.
In Dixon’s ‘ Geol. of Sussex,’ 983 species and varieties of Foraminifera are re-
corded from the Chalk, and only one Porcellanous form ws mentioned, and that
without the specific name, Experiments upon the comparative solubility of the
Porcellanea and Vitria confirm our impression.
Teredo Norvegica.—Teredo is regarded by Dr. Sorby as a typical Calcite shell ;
702 nEPortT— 1887.
but certain tubular fossils found by one of us in the crags, and which have been
regarded as 7’. Norvegica, have the opacity characteristic of Aragonite; and upon
this circumstance and peculiarities in its mode of occurrence the opinion was based
that the reference of the form to Teredo had been erroneous. In this view the
late Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys concurred. The fossil has a sp. gr. of 29, and is therefore
composed of Aragonite. We offer no suggestion as to its affinities.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. On new Facts relating to Hozoon Canadense.
By Sir J. Wiritam Dawson, LL.D., FR.S.
For several years no new facts respecting the Canadian Eozoon have been pub-
lished, though there has been some discussion on the subject abroad. In so far as
the author is concerned, this has arisen from the circumstance that the late
Dr. Carpenter had in preparation an exhaustive memoir, for which Canadian
material was being supplied, but which was unfortunately left unfinished at his
death. The material collected for this has now been placed at the disposal of Prof.
T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S., and in the meantime the present note is intended merely
to direct attention to some new facts recently obtained. These are stated under
the following heads :—
1. Form of Eozoon.—This has been definitely ascertained to be normally inverted
conical or broadly turbinate, except where several specimens have become confluent,
or where rounded masses have been based on some foreign body.
2. Pores or Oscula,—The larger syecimens are traversed by cylindrical or long
conical vertical openings, around which the laminz, becoming confluent, form an
imperfect wall.
3. Beds of Fragmental Eozoon.—A large series of facts has been obtained to
show that considerable beds of Laurentian limestone are composed of fragments of
this kind.
4, Veins of Chrysotile.—It is shown that these are true aqueous veins of
late origin crossing the beds, and the specimens of Kozoon as well. The trae
nature of the so-called proper wall is defined as distinct from these veins.
5. Nodular Serpentine.— Nodules and grains of serpentine abound in the
Laurentian limestones of the Grenville band. Instances are referred to where these
nodules surround, or are attached to, specimens of Hozoon.
6. State of Preservation.—The importance of dolomite in reference to this is
noticed, also the different varieties of contemporaneous aqueous serpentine and the
agency of white pyroxene.
7. Other Laurentian Organisms. — Cylindrical or conical bodies resembling
stems of plants, with obscure radiating structure, have recently been found asso-
ciated with the Laurentian apatite. They may possibly have been organisms allied
to Archeocyathus.
8. Cryptozowm.—Certain relations of this new Cambrian fossil to Fozoon are
pointed out, and the occurrence of Laurentian specimens hitherto referred to Eozoon
but which resemble Cryptozoum.
9. Laurentian Stratigraphy.—Facts are referred to indicating the continuity
and definitely stratified character of the beds in the Middle and Upper Laurentian
of Canada,
10. Imitattve Forms.—A. variety of laminated rocks and minerals which had
been mistaken for Kozoon were referred to. Their description in more detail will be
found in forthcoming memoirs of the Peter Redpath Museum.
Photographs illustrating some of the more important structures referred to
accompany the paper.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 703
2. Gastaldi on Italian Geology and the Crystalline Rocks.)
By T. Sterry Hunt, DL.D., FR.S.
The author recalled the fact that, in discussing in 1883 the geological relations
of serpentines, he had maintained that, although not confined to Archean rocks (in
which they are found at various horizons) those of Italy, believed by some
geologists to be in part of Tertiary age, are, so far as his studies go, wholly
Archean, in accordance with the views set forth by Gastaldi. He had in the paper
in question which, revised and augmented, forms Chapter X. of his Mineral
Physiology and Physiography (Boston, 1886) resumed at some length the work
of this eminent geologist, left incomplete by his premature death in January 1879,
and had given a list of his printed papers on Alpine geology so far as known to
the writer. He had then proceeded to review the work of various other Italian
geologists who had maintained the Eocene age of certain serpentines in that region,
and from his own observations of certain localities in the Apennines of Liguria,
and of Prato in Tuscany, endeavoured to show that the serpentines and other rocks
. of the ophiolitic group in these localities existed in their present condition in the
seas in which were deposited the Eocene strata, which latter, by subsequent
terrestrial movements, had been disturbed, broken, and even inverted, so as to
seem to pass beneath the ophiolites. The indigenous and neptunian character of
serpentines, maintained on stratigraphical grounds by Emmons, Logan, and the writer
in North America, was not only held by Gastaldi and Delesse, but is taught by
Lotti, by Stapff, and by Dieulefait in emphatic terms, while the plutonic hypothesis
of their origin has been so far modified by its modern Italian advocates that they
now suppose the serpentines due to submarine eruptions of a hydrous magnesian
mud, which subsequently consolidated into serpentine and even into chrysolite. It
is difficult to admit any other than a neptunian origin for the stratiform ophical-
cites into which the massive serpentines often graduate.
While the writer's conclusions as to the localities named were thus in perfect
accord with the views of Gastaldi, he was not then aware that this geologist had
ever examined them. In July 1878, however, while in London, the writer received
from Gastaldi a long epistle dated at Turin, July 20, and after perusing the first and
last pages, and answering what was of immediate moment, laid it aside, unread.
The letter was then by an accident mislaid, and only recovered during the present
year. In a translation of this letter, which is now given, Gastaldi presents
(ostensibly for the International Geological Congress of 1878) a brief summary of the
views set forth at length in his published papers and in the writer’s volume above
named. He further adds that he had then just returned from a special study of
the ophiolites of the Ligurian Apennines and of tkose of Prato, and had found
convincing evidence that these were, like those elsewhere examined by him, protrud-
ing portions of the ancient pietre verdi zone, identical with that of the Alps, from
which the Apennines cannot be distinguished either geologically or geographically.
The vast series designated by him as the piete verdi zone overlies, according to
Gastaldi, the ancient central or primary gneiss (generally granitoid, but including
quartzites and crystalline limestones with graphite, &c.), and has a thickness of
many thousand metres, embracing three subdivisions. The lowest of these, some-
times called by him the pietre verdi proper, includes serpentines, diorites,
euphotides, chloritic schists, &c.; the second is designated by him recent gneiss
and granite with mica-schists and hornblendic rocks; while the third consists in
great part of soft argillaceous or lustrous schists, with included quartzites, marbles,
statuary, and banded dolomites, and occasionally also serpentines, the presencs of
which led Gastaldi to include it with the two preceding subdivisions in his great
pietre verdi zone; a name which the present writer, with Neri and others, would
restrict to the lower subdivision, regarded by him as the equivalent of the Huronian
of North America; the underlying or central gneiss being the Laurentian; the
recent gneiss and mica-schist, the Montalban or White Mountain series, and the
upper subdivision, the Taconian or Lower Taconic of North America; the wholly
? Published in extenso in the Geol. Mag. for December 1887.
704 REPORT — 1887.
distinct Upper Taconic being an uncrystalline series of fossiliferous Cambrian
strata.
The writer in this connection recalled the work of Neri, Gerlach, and others in
the western Alps, and that of Von Hauer and his associates in the Lombardo-
Venetian Alps, where the same distinction of the true pietre verdi zone between
the ancient gneiss below and the recent gneiss above had, unknown to him, been
pointed out by the Austrian geological survey two years before the present writer
in 1870 defined and named the younger gneissic series in North America. The
absence of the true pietre verdi series in some localities, alike in the Alps and in
North America between the older and younger gneisses was noted, as well as the
existence of apparent discordances between each one of the four great divisions of
Archean or pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks above named.
3. Elements of Primary Geology. By T. Sterry Hunt, LD.D., F.R.S.
The author, after recalling his classification of original or non-clastic rocks into
Indigenous, Endogenous, and Exotic masses, based on their geognostic relations, °
gives in a concise form his theory of the genesis of these various groups of rocks,
as taught more at length in his recent volume entitled ‘ Mineral Physiology and
Physiography. The superficial portion of a cooling globe, consolidating from the
centre from a condition of igneous fusion, he conceives to have been the protoplas-
mic mineral matter, which, as transformed by the agencies of air, water, and in-
ternal heat, presents a history of mineralogical evolution as regular, as constant,
and as definite in its results as that seen in the organic kingdoms. ‘This great trans-
formation inyolves a series of processes, which include, (1) the remoyal from the
protoplasmic mass, through permeating waters, heated from beneath, of the chief
elements of the great groups of indigenous crystalline and colloidal rocks, by what
he has called the crenitic process; (2), the modification of the residual portion by
this lixiviation, which removes silica, alumina, and potash, and, by the intervention
of saline waters, brings in additional portions of lime, magnesia, and soda; (8) the
partial differentiation by crystallisation and eliquation, of portions of this more or
less modified residue, giving rise to the various types of plutonic rocks. The direct
and indirect results of subaerial decay through atmospheric agencies, and those
of the products of organic life, are also considered. From the operation of all these
processes result progressive changes in the composition alike of plutonic and of
indigenous rocks. ‘The endogenous rocks or veinstones are, like the last, of crenitic
origin, and may be granitic, quartzose, or calcareous in their characters.
The author next considers the conditions of softening and displacement of indi-
genous rocks which permit them to assume in many cases the relations of exotic
rocks, and to become extruded after the manner of lavas, as seen in the case of
trachytes and many granite-like rocks, Such masses he designates pseudoplutonic.
With these are often confounded the endogenous granitic veinstones, which were
formed under similar chemical conditions to the indigenous granites. Masses alike
of indigenous, endogenous, and exotic rocks may also become displaced, not through
softening, but by being forced while in a rigid state through movements in the
earth’s crust, among masses softer and more yielding than they.
The author also considers the fluxional structure seen in plutonic and pseudo-
plutonic eruptive masses, which has led some theorists to regard these as of aqueous
origin, and others to maintain that the crenitic stratiform masses themselves are of
plutonic origin ; two opposite errors which vitiate much of our geological literature.
The crenitic process, by removing from beneath what was the original surface of
deposition, the vast amount of material which forms alike the indigenous, the
endogenous, and the pseudoplutonic rocks, has effected a great diminution in
volume in the protoplasmic mass, besides that due in later times to extrusion of
plutonic matter itself. This decrease in bulk of the underlying stratum was a potent
agent in producing the universal corrugation of the earlier crenitie rocks, and the
frequent discordances observed among them.
1 Published in evtenso in the Geol. Mag. for November, 1887.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 705
The author considers further the gradual diminution of the crenitic process seen
in the later periods of Archzan time, and its feebler manifestations in Paleozoic and
more recent ages down to the present. He notes, moreover, that as the result of
geographical changes, erosion and partial deposition alike disturbed the succession
of the later groups of crenitic rocks, none of which can claim that universality and
uniformity which belong to the oldest known group, the fundamental granitoid
neiss.
. The author concludes with a brief sketch of the great divisions of the indige-
nous crenitic rocks recognised by him, from the most ancient granitic substratum
to the Taconian series, which appears to be the last of the characteristically crys-
talline indigenous groups, it being, so far as known, succeeded directly by the un-
crystalline Cambrian, or the equally uncrystalline Keweenian, which may not,
improbably, be itself included in the lower part of the Cambrian series.
4. Preliminary Note on T’raverses of the Western and of the Hastern Alps made
during the Summer of 1887. By Professor T. G. Bonnuy, D.Sc., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.GS.
The first traverse was made along the line of the Romanche from near Grenoble
to the Col du Lautaret, and thence by Briancon over the Mont Genéyre and the
Col de Sestriéres to Pinerolo at the edge of the Italian plain. The second went
from Lienz, across the central range of the Tyrol to Kitzbiihel, and the rocks of this
range were also investigated at other places. During both traverses the author
had the advantage of the assistance of the Rey. E. Hill, who had accompanied him
on a similar journey in 1885.
The results of their examination fully confirm the views already expressed by the
author as to the nature and succession of the crystalline rocks of the Alps.
(1.) The lowest group consists partly of modified igneous rocks (which in-
deed occur at all horizons), partly of gneisses of a very ancient (Laurentian) aspect.
(2.) The next group, up to which there seems a gradual passage, consists mainly
of more friable gneisses and moderately coarse mica-schists (Lepontine type). This
group is commonly less fully developed in the above districts than in the Central
Alps, having probably been removed by very ancient denudation.
(8.) The third group has an enormous development. It forms a large part of
the Cottian and Graian Alps, and it flanks the central axis of the Eastern Alps
on both sides, often passing beneath the ranges of secondary strata which here
form the northern and southern ranges. It has been traced almost without inter-
ruption from east to west for more than fifty miles on the southern, and eighty on
the northern side of the central range. It has a very close resemblance in all
respects to the uppermost group of schists in the Central Alps, found to some
extent in the Lepontine and yet more largely in the Pennine Alps, and the author
fully agrees with the Swiss and Austrian geolovists in regarding it as in the main
a prolongation of the same series. It is characterised especially by rather dark-
coloured mica-schists, often calcareous, sometimes passing into fine-grained crystalline
limestones, with occasional intercalated chloritic schists, especially in the lowest part
and with (rarely) quartz schists.
(4.) The Carboniferous and Secondary strata infolded or overlying in the
Western Alps section, and the Palzozoic (? Silurian) and Secondary strata succeed-
ing the metamorphic rocks in the Eastern Alps, are comparatively little altered,
and are each readily to be distinguished from the above.
(5.) The succession of strata in the third group is inexplicable, uuless it be due
to stratification; in the second this explanation appears highly probable, and in
the first not more difficult than any other.
(6.) As groups of rocks with marked lithological characters occur in like
succession over a mountain chain measuring above 400 miles along the curve,
and sometimes at distances of 40 miles across it; as these groups correspond with
rocks recognised as Archean elsewhere, which exhibit like characters and sometimes
a like order of succession, the author thinks a classification of the Archzean rocks by
1887. ZZ
706 REPORT—1887.
their lithological characters (using the phrase in a wide sense), may ultimately
prove to be possible.
(7.) The views already expressed by the author as to the distinctness of
cleavage-foliation and stratification-foliation have been fully confirmed by the
examination of the above districts. He believes that the failure to recognise this
distinction is the cause of the contradictory statements with regard to the relation
of foliation and bedding which have been made by so many excellent observers, and
lies at the root of much of the confusion which exists on the subject of the so-
called metamorphic rocks.
5. Some Hffects of Pressure on the Sedimentary Roeks of North Devon.
By J. EH. Marr, M.A., F.G.S.
The structures described in this paper are mainly seen in the Ilfracombe
division of the Devonian system, as exposed near the bathing-place at Ilfracombe.
The rocks there consist of argillaceous beds with thin bands of grit and crinoidal
limestone ; these harder beds are folded into a series of small sigmoidal folds, which
form portions of similar larger folds. When the middle limb is replaced by a
fault, the cores of the folds remain as ‘eyes’ of limestone or grit, and these ‘ eyes’
have undergone further modification, having been pulled out into thin lenticular
masses. In this way we have all the mechanical structures of a true schist pro-
duced (including the apparent false bedding), the rock now consisting of clay-slate
with alternating folia of grit or limestone, or both.
Quartz veins are folded in a similar way to that described above, and the final
result of this folding appears to be the production of a rock consisting of alternating
clay-slate, limestone, and quartz folia.
Every stage of the process is seen in the case of the limestone ‘eyes.’ The
cores of limestone when not dragged out have their component crinoid stems
pressed into polygons, which have been formed in the way described elsewhere by
Dr. Sorby. When the limestone is pulled out the stems are separated, as in the
case of the belemnites figured by Heim, and the intervening portion is filled with
calcite.
In this neighbourhood, then, we find sedimentary rocks presenting all the
mechanical peculiarities of normal schists, without any great amount of chemical
change.
6. Report of the Committee appointed to investigate the Microscopical Struc-
ture of the older Rocks of Anglesey.—See Reports, p. 230.
7. Notes on the Origin of the Older Archean Rocks of Malvern and
Anglesey. By Cartes Cattaway, D.Sc., F.G.S.
The author had recently communicated to the Geological Society of London a
paper in which he contended that certain crystalline schists of the Malvern Hills
had been formed from igneous rocks. This conclusion was now extended to all the
foliated rocks of the district. The metamorphism was zonal, the schistosity being
usually confined to bands, which occurred most frequently where the rocks were
interlaced with veins. The most important shear-zones were those in which
diorite was penetrated by granite-veins. The following were the principal changes
normally observed in approaching a shear-zone :—
(1) The rock acquired a parallel structure.
(2) This change was often accompanied by an apparent corrosion of the
hornblende and felspar, numerous perforations appearing in the crystals, and their
margins presenting curvilinear outlines. This effect seemed due to loss of bases,
since it was attended by a corresponding development of quartz.
(3) The hornblende was replaced by black mica, the necessary potash being
presumably derived from the felspar of the adjacent granite-veins, which were
often extremely quartzose.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. ~ WOT
Within the zone, folia of quartz-felspar (the compressed granite-veins) alternated
with the dioritic material. By further loss of bases the ultimate product was
sometimes a quartzose gneiss or even a gneissoid quartzite.
The same principles were found to be on the whole applicable to the Gneissic
Series of Anglesey; but in that area the earth-pressures were greater and more
uniformly distributed, so that contortion was excessive and the bands of non-
schistose rock were in smaller proportion. Diorite was modified into hornblendic
and chloritic schists; or, in the vicinity of granite-veins, into mica-gneiss, Frelsite
passed into mica-schist. Other changes were not yet worked out.
No limestone was known in the Malvernian rocks, but calcite-yeins, when
abundant, were associated with rotten ferruginous schists. In Anglesey the
crystalline limestones were in lenticular masses, and were overlain by rotten
schists intermixed with quartzose bands. It seemed probable that these limestones
were endogenous deposits derived from the decomposition of the adjacent rocks.
In the transformation of the igneous rocks into schists, the hornblende and
felspars were converted into black and white micas, quartz, chlorite, epidote,
sphene, garnets, and iron-ores. Such profound chemical changes suggested that the
view of metamorphism here advocated should be called the Chemico-mechanical
theory.
8. The Origin of Banded Gneisses. By J. J. H. Tear, M.A, F.G.8.1
The author first discussed the meaning of the term gneiss, This term was
generally understood to connote a more or less foliated rock of granitic composi-
tion. Dr. Lehmann had proposed, however, that it should be used in a structural
sense only, as meaning a more or less foliated plutonic rock, He would thus speak
of granite-gneiss, diorite-gneiss, and gabbro-gneiss, The author called attention
to specimens illustrating gneissic structures in acid and basic plutonic rocks.
| When various examples of gneissic rocks—that is, rocks of the composition of
plutonic igneous rocks but possessing parallel structures—were compared, two
types of parallel structure might be recognised ; the one characterised by a parallel
arrangement of the constituents, the other by an arrangement of the constituents
in bands of varying mineralogical composition ; thus, bands having the mineralo-
gical composition of a diorite frequently alternated with others having the
composition of granite. He proposed to discuss a possible mode of origin for the
banded gneisses of the latter type. It was now admitted that those of the former
type were largely due to the plastic deformation of masses of plutonic rock either
during or subsequent to the final stages of consolidation.
Many observers were, however, still inclined to believe that those of the latter
type could only be accounted for by supposing that the original materials had ac-
cumulated by some process akin to sedimentary deposition. Now a possible mode of
origin for these could be found if we could show: (1) that plutonic masses are
liable to vary in composition, and (2) that such masses are occasionally deformed
either during or subsequent to their consolidation. Scrope long ago proved that
the laminated structure of certain volcanic rocks (liparites) is due to the plastic
deformation of heterogeneous masses of acid lava. Any heterogeneous lump if
deformed into a flat sheet will show laminated or banded structures, because each
individual portion must of necessity take the form of the entire mass. Scrope not
only proved this, but also called attention to the similarity between the structures
of acid lavas and those of gneisses and schists. (Geology of Ponza Isles, ‘ Trans.
Geol. Soc.’ 2nd ser. vol. ii. p. 228.)
The author then proceeded to refer to illustrations of the fact that plutonic
masses do vary in composition. He referred to the so-called contemporaneous
veins, which are often more acid, and to the concretionary (?) patches which are
often more basic in composition than the main mass of the rock with which they
are associated. He also referred to cases in which granite and diorite may be
seen to vein each other in the most intricate manner, and especially drew attention
to photographs taken at the Lizard last year illustrating this feature. If complex
1 Printed in full, with illustrations, in Geol. Mag. for 1887, p. 484.
Zz 2
708 REPORT—1887.
masses of the kind referred to were deformed after the fashion of the acid lavas
described by Scrope, then banded and puckered gneissic rocks would necessarily
result, He then showed that in the Lizard district the banded rocks of Prof.
Bonney’s ‘grauulitic series’ were continuous with masses in which granitic and
dioritic rocks could be seen to vein each other in the most intricate manner, and
that the constituent bands of the granulitic series were composed of rocks petro-
logically identical with those of the igneous complex. He did not mean to imply
that the deformation was connected with the intrusion of the plutonic masses. He
was rather inclined to regard it as due in the majority of cases to mechanical
forces acting posterior to consolidation. The uncertainty which might exist as to
the precise conditions under which the deformation was affected did not invalidate
the main conclusion, which was that a banded structure in rocks having the com-
position of plutonic igneous rocks was no proof that the latter were not of igneous
origin.
9. On the Occurrence of Porphyritic Structure in some Rocks of the Lizard
District. By Howarp Fox and Aunx. SoMERVAIL.
Professor Bonney has described a porphyritic diabase which is seen on the
shore at Polpeor, involved in micaceous and hornblendic schists. The authors
have traced this rock further, and have recognised a porphyritic structure in many
dykes and intrusions along the coast which cut through the serpentine, and also
in the darker bands of Professor Bonney’s ‘granulitic group and in the actinolitic
schists west of Lizard.’
Descriptions of these various localities were given and illustrative specimens were
exhibited. The crystals of felspar are found to be most numerous in those rocks
which lie in the closest proximity to the gabbros and serpentine. They have their
long axes at various angles, and are mostly small except at Parn Voose, Cayouga,
and Green Saddle. The felspathic and hornblendic lines often circle round the
crystals,
Without discussing any theory as to the true nature and origin of the whole of
the schists, the authors think that the porphyritic structure so prevalent in the
dark bands of the ‘ granulitic group,’ in many of the micaceous and other rocks, as
also in the later intrusions cutting the serpentine, indicate an igneous origin for
many rocks hitherto regarded as schists.
10. Some preliminary Observations on the Geology of Wicklow and Wexford.
By Professor Souuas, LL.D., D.Sc.
I. Pre-Canbrian Rocks.—The existence of these is, as yet, by no means demon-
strated: the grey gneisses of the Greenore-point district closely resemble the ¢or-
responding rocks of Anglesey, as Dr. Callaway has pointed out, and are possibly
Archean. The asserted presence of Archzean rocks in the Aughrim section cannot
be substantiated. Those regarded as Archean are crushed igneous rocks, some
hornblendic and others felspathic : the latter present themselves as ‘ augen-schists.’
The Howth series is represented in the Carrick district, and in that of Wexford
and the Forth Mountains, as well as elsewhere; it differs from the series exposed
in the cliffs of Bray, but is so closely united with the latter that till further evidence
is forthcoming the author would regard the two series as forming parts of the same
system,
Il. Cambrian Rocks.—Of late attention has been directed to the Cambrian
quartzite, some authors asserting that it has been formed as a deposit from mineral
springs, others that it is to be regarded as intrusive in the same sense as an admitted
igneous rock. Examination under the microscope demonstrates that in all cases it
is merely a somewhat altered grit; its intrusive appearance may result from its
behaviour during the folding of the country: the softer argillaceous rocks may have
flowed out in lines at right angles to the direction of pressure, the harder quartzites
may have been broken across the line of flow into masses of various dimensions, and
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 709
the softer rocks would then have been forced in between their ends, In this way
some of the thinner beds of quartzite have been converted into lines of boulders,
ex. gr. at Howth.
III. Ordovician.—The unconformity between this system and the Cambrian,
discovered by Jukes, is confirmed; on the south side of the Cambrian masses of
Carrick the Ordovician slates are partly composed of fragments of green and grey
Cambrian slates. The distinction between the Cambrian and Ordovician rocks
as mapped by the Survey necessarily depends in most cases on differences of
colour, the Ordovician being usually, but not always, blackish in tint; it is obvious,
therefore, that considerable room exists for error. These rocks are profoundly
modified on approaching the great granite mass which extends throughout the dis-
tricts; the black slates and grits become lustrous with mica at a somewhat greater
distance from the granite than is indicated on the Survey maps, near Glendalough,
for at least half a mile farther from it. On approaching the granite closer, well
foliated andalusite-, garnet-, and mica-schists appear, the foliation corresponding
usually with the bedding planes, though these are folded upon themselves again
and again. Never, however, is a schist produced which by any possibility could
be mistaken for an Archean rock. Asin Wales so in this district the Ordovician
are distinguished by a profuse development of igneous rocks; some of these are
contemporaneous, some intrusive, nearly all show signs of having heen subjected to
extreme pressure ; ash-beds are naturally converted into excellent slates, but flows
and dykes are usually also rendered schistose for a variable distance from their
margins, a central core remaining unaltered and thus affording a means of dis-
tinguishing in the field between an ash and an originally solid couleé or dyke.
IV. The Granite.—Notwithstanding the somewhat positive assertions which
have been made as to the metamorphic nature of the granite, which extends for
a distance of sixty-five miles from north to south, and from eight to fifteen from
east to west, its mtrusive character can be readily demonstrated ; not only is the
junction with the adjacent schists invariably well defined, without even the sugges-
tion of a passage between the two, but the granite frequently sends branching and
anastomosing veins into the surrounding rocks, and includes flame-like fragments of
them ; the reason why a metamorphic origin has been so strenuously maintained
for this granite in particular is probably due to the fact that it shares the nature
of a schist near the junction in so far that it possesses schistosity, the planes of schis-
tosity in both the granite and the schist having the same direction ; it need scarcely
be added that this structure is the result in both cases of ‘crush, the abundant
slicken-sided surfaces traversing the gneissose granite and its minute structure as
seen under the microscope prove so much. Some granite which is not apparently
erushed also exhibits foliation, but of a different character, resulting from an
arrangement of the constituent mica in parallel planes; these planes also are
parallel to the foliation of the adjacent schists; this would seem to indicate that
the pressure which folded the country was beginning to act before the granite had
everywhere solidified. Examples of this kind of foliation are exceedingly common
around the northern end of the granite district, but it dies out towards the interior.
V. Lpoch of Folding.—The folding of the Ordovician, as proved by the marked
discordance between its strike and that of the succeeding Upper-old-red Sandstone
or basal Carboniferous beds, took place before the Carboniferous system period.
The intrusion of the granite was post-Ordovician and pre-Carboniferous, and its
erushing and foliation occurred within the same interval.
11. On Archean Rocks. By G. H. Kinanay, W.R.IA.
In this communication is given a short description of the American (Dominions
and States) Archean rocks, special attention being directed to the characteristics
insisted on by such American authorities as Dana, le Conte, Selwyn, &c., the most
important being the records, always found in America, of a vast lapse of time be-
tween the accumulation of the Archzean rocks and the subsequent deposition of the
later{rocks. The supposed Archzeans in England are briefly referred to, and it is
710 REPORT—1887.
pointed out that the British School of Archzeanites seem for the most part to rely
nearly altogether on lithological characters.
The Irish rocks are specially mentioned, and it is shown that nowhere in Ireland
are there records of a great lapse of time between the deposition of the supposed Arch-
ean and that of the later rocks; but, on the contrary, one group merges into the
other, or is lithologically more or less similar, or is petrologically one and the same
group, as rocks that in one place are classed as Archzeans have in another place their
equivalents classed as Ordovicians. Also the boundaries of the supposed Archzeans
are so obscure that they have continually been changed like the rolling fences of
the farms adjoining a common, being pushed backward and forward to suit the
fancy of a moment ; yet prior to each of these changes it has been confidently affirmed
that such lines of boundary mark a double hiatus, the rocks on one side being un-
doubtedly Archzeans and those on the other the equivalents of the Ordovicians.
The true unconformable boundary in the province of Ulster for the most part is
ignored, and, as it suits the fancy, some of the rocks below it may be or may not be
included in the Ordoyicians.
It was also pointed out that Drs. Callaway and Hull are the great advocates of
the existence of Archzan rocks in Ireland, but as doctors’ evidence nearly invariably
differs, these doctors do not agree, as whenever one of these eminent observers says the
rocks are Archean, the other says they are not, neither of them agreeing in any
place. It is therefore suggested that as such eminent observers disagree ordinary
geologists may toss up to know in what age the Grear ARCHITECT originally
intended to place the rocks,
Sus-Secrion C.
1. Recent Researches in Bench Cavern, Brixham, Devon.
By Witu1am Pencetcy, F.R.S., F.G.S.
As long ago as 1839 the workmen in a limestone quarry on the southern shore
of Torbay, and adjacent to the town of Brixham, laid bare at the back of the
quarry the greater part of a vertical dyke composed of red earth and angular
pieces of limestone. The quarrying operations, then discontinued, were resumed
in 1861, when the entire dyke was disclosed, and among the materials of an inco-
herent part of it which fell down were found some hundreds of osseous remains,
including skulls, jaws, teeth, vertebrae, portions of horns, bones, and pieces of bones
—identified by Mr. W. A. Sanford, F.G.S., as relics of the cave-hyzena, wolf, fox
(two species), bear, wild-bull, reindeer, hare, and arvicola (two species). The
hyzna was by very much the most prevalent form; but there was nothing indi-
cating that he found an habitual home there—not a coprolite was met with, nor was
there a single bone scored with his teeth-marks, or broken after any of his well-
known modes. The entire absence of anything betokening the existence of man
was equally marked. It must be remembered, however, that the finds then met
with were all from a mass of heterogeneous materials which had filled a fissure
nowhere more than two feet wide and in places not more than a yery few inches—
not from a cavern in the proper sense of that term.
Adjacent to the left bottom corner of the dyke was the mouth of a low narrow
tunnel, haying a floor of stalagmite and extending into the hill to an unknown
distance, but certainly upwards of thirty feet. The proprietor of the quarry declined
to allow any scientific investigations to be made, stating that he meant to make
such researches himself, but this was never done.
In September 1885, Mr. W. Else, Curator of the Museum of the Torquay
Natural History Society, obtained permission from the gentlemen into whose hands
the property had passed, to make such explorations as he might find desirable both
in the dyke and in the tunnel; and from that date he has spent on the work all
the odds and ends of time he has been able to command. His more recent
researches have been mainly carried on in the tunnel, where he found the stalag-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 711
mite floor, from six to twelve inches thick, formed on a reddish caye-earth having a
maximum thickness of fourteen inches, and lying on a continuous limestone basis.
Beyond a few remains of hyena nothing of interest occurred in the stalagmite, but
the contents of the cave-earth were more numerous and interesting. In July 1887,
twenty-four specimens of bones selected from Mr. Else’s finds—twenty-one being
from the cave-earth in the tunnel and three from the dyke—were forwarded for identi-
fication to Mr. E. T. Newton, of the Geological Survey of England, who at the end of a
yery few days returned them with a list containing not only the names of the species
to which they belong, but also those of the bones themselves. Of the twenty-one from
the tunnel one is a relic of fox, while all the others are those of the cave-hyzna.
The three from the dyke represent the cave-bear, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, and a species
of deer. Among the tunnel finds there were also three coprolites anda solitary part
of a left lower jaw of hyzena divested of its lower border—two facts indicating
that the hyena occasionally visited the tunnel. Here also was found one, and but
one, flint-flake tool. It has the white colour so prevalent in the tools found in
the cave-earth of Kent’s Hole, and was met with under circumstances admitting
apparently of no doubt of its having been made and used by a human contemporary
of the cave-hyzena in Devonshire.
2. The Natural History of Lavas, as illustrated by the Materials ejected
from Krakatoa. By Professor J. W. Jupp, F.L.S., Pres.G.s.
As a member of the Krakatoa Committee of the Royal Society, the author had
been called upon to study the various substances ejected from Krakatoa during the
great eruption of 1883. All the lavas which have issued from the central vent of
that volcano, since its first formation, belong to the class of the enstatite-andesites.
The chemical and mineralogical characters of these rocks have been very fully in-
vestigated by Richard, Renard, Sauer, Oebekke, Vom Rath, Reusch, Winkler,
Waller, Carvill Lewis, Joly, Bréon, and especially by Verbeek and Retgers; and
the further study of these rocks in the light of these researches suggests some
conclusions of great geological interest. 2
A comparison of these enstatite-andesites with others which have been studied
with similar care, such as the rocks of Santorin, of the Buffalo Peak, Colorado,
and of the Cheviot Hills, reveals some very striking facts. In all of these rocks the
minerals present are the same—namely, various species of plagioclase felspar, a
ferriferous enstatite, an angite and magnetite with ilmenite; these minerals being
embedded in a more or less perfectly glassy base which has nearly the same com-
position in all of them. Yet some of these rocks on analysis are found to be basic
in composition, containing only 51 per cent. of silica, while most of them are
intermediate, and some, the rocks of Krakatoa for example, are distinctly acid,
having over 70 per cent. of silica. The cause of these differences is found in the
fact that the quantitative mineralogical constitution is so varied. Some have
only 10 per cent. of glass and 90 per cent. of porphyritic crystals, while others
have 90 per cent. of glass and only 10 per cent. of crystals.
Although the enstatite-andesites of Krakatoa are all identical in chemical
composition and in mineralogical constitution, they nevertheless present us with
three very distinct types of rock. Among the older masses we have a stony lava
which graduates into a black porphyritic pitchstone. Among the later ejections
we find a porphyritic obsidian, which on being distended by the escape of gas
forms the well-known Krakatoa-pumice. While the stony lava and pitchstone
have a very high fusion-point, the obsidian, which contains a considerable quantity
of water, melts at a comparatively low temperature, and in doing so swells up to
five or six times its original bulk, forming a true pumice.
The bearing of these facts upon some important geological problems is con-
sidered, and reasons are given for doubting whether the porphyritic crystals in a
lava have necessarily been developed in the masses in which they are now found.
The important considerations suggested by the late Dr. Guthrie, as the result
of his study of the ‘ cryohydrates’ and ‘entectic-alloys’ are dwelt upon, and it is
shown that the silicates, like other salts, have their fusion-points lowered by
712 REPORT—1887.
admixture with water. This being the case, it is pointed out that a mass of heated
rock may become liquefied not only by a rise in temperature, but by the absorption
of water into it. Certain facts are described which seem to indicate that the
latest ejecta of Krakatoa were formed in this way from the older lavas of the
same composition constituting the lower and older part of the voleano.'
3. Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius and its neighbourhood.
See Reports, p. 226.
4, Seventh Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of Japan—See Reports,
p. 212.
5. The Sonora Earthquake of May 3, 1887.
By T. Starry Hunt, L0.D., F.R.S., and James Dovetas, M.A.
On the afternoon of May 3, 1887, at 2.12 Pacific time (=120° W. of Green-
wich), the first of a series of earthquake movements was felt in the State of Sonora
and the adjacent parts of Mexico and the United States, over an area extending
from E] Paso in Texas on the east, to the river Colorado and the Gulf of California
on the west, and from the State of Sinoloa on the south as far north as Albu-
querque in New Mexico; the extremes in both directions being over 500 miles,
It was the fortune of the writers to be at the time at the great copper-mining
camp of Bisbee in Arizona, in a narrow gorge of the Mule Pass Mountains, about
5,300 feet above the sea, and near the border of Sonora. A violent tremor of the
earth, including two sharp shocks, and lasting over ninety seconds, was succeeded
at frequent intervals by many slighter movements in the next three days, and less
frequently at least up to May 29. In this part of Arizona solid house-walls, of
adobe or unburned brick, were cracked or overturned, while huge rocks in the steep
mountain gorges rolled down, causing much damage. Fires, perhaps kindled by
these in their course, appeared immediately afterwards in various wooded regions
in Sonora and Arizona, giving rise to many false rumours of volcanic eruptions.
The movement here seemed from south to north; the Sonora railroad track in one
place near the frontier, running east and west, was displaced three inches to the
north ; while a chimney shaft, without being overturned, was turned violently
around upon its base. ‘The small town of Bavispe in the Sierra Madre, in Sonora,
was nearly destroyed, many people being killed and wounded. Opoto suffered
in a similar way, and Fronteras to a less extent. The district chiefly affected
by the earthquake is, however, for the most part a desert, with some cattle ranches
and mining stations.
Interesting studies were made by the authors in the valleys, or mesas, between
the parallel mountain ridges in this region, both in the San Pedro and Sulphur
Spring Valleys. The latter, lying to the east of Bisbee, and stretching north and
south about one hundred miles, is often eight or ten miles wide, and has its lower
portion in Sonora. Though without a visible water-course, water is there
generally found at depths of from ten to forty feet in the numerous wells sunk at
intervals to supply the needs of large herds of cattle. As described by many
observers, the surface of this plain was visibly agitated by the first earthquake
shock, so that persons were in some places thrown down by the heaving of the
soil, which burst open with discharges of water, while the wells overflowed and
were partially filled with sand. In the southern part of this valley, for about
seven miles south from the Mexican frontier, the authors found the results of the
undulatory movement of the soil apparent in great numbers of cracks and dislo-
cations. For distances of several hundred feet, along some lines with a generally
north and south course, vertical downthrows on one side of from one foot to two
feet and more were seen, the depressed portion rising either gradually or by a
1 See Krakatoa Report of Royal Soc. Com. and Geol. Mag. 1888.
— a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 713
vertical step to the original level. Branching, and in some eases intersecting,
cracks were observed. ‘These depressions were evidently connected with outbursts
of sand and water, which, along cracks—marked. by depressions on both sides—
sometimes covered areas of many hundred square feet with layers a foot or more
in depth, marked here and there by craters two feet or more in diameter, through
which water had risen during the outburst of these mud volcanoes. The authors
examined many of these phenomena in northern Sonora, and took photographs,
which were exhibited. They note that while the earthquale movements in the
adjacent hills of Paleozoic strata had left no marks, the dislocations over many
square miles in the valley would have sufficed to throw down buildings and to
cause great loss of life in an inhabited region. There are believed to be no
evidences of previous earthquake disturbances in this region since its discovery by
the Spaniards centuries ago.
From the published reports of commissioners named by the State of Sonora it
appears that the regions chiefly injured by the earthquake are in two nearly parallel
north and south valleys in the district of Moctezuma, along the river Bavispe, a
tributary of the Yaqui. The town of Bavispe itself, of 1,500 souls, lies about seventy
miles south of the American frontier and 110 miles south-east of Bisbee, Arizona ;
its elevation being 3,070 feet above the sea. Here forty-two persons were killed
and twenty-five wounded. Bacerao, twenty miles farther south, also suffered
much damage, and the estimate for property destroyed in this valley was 218,199
dollars. Opoto, Guasalas, Granados, Bacudebachio, and Nacovi lie in a lower
valley about thirty miles west of the last, the elevation of Guasalas being only
1,720 feet above the sea. The loss of life was here confined to Opoto, where nine
were killed and six wounded. The injury done to property in this valley was
estimated at 78,115 dollars. In both regions are noticed the opening in the arable
lands, of numerous fissures, generally north or north-east in direction, from many of
which water flowed abundantly. The river. thus supplied in a time of excessive
drought, swelled to the volume usual in the rainy season of summer; a condition
which lasted up to the time of the report of Seiior Liborio Vasquez, dated at
Bavispe, May 29,1887. The fields had become green and the air moist with prevail-
ing fogs. A report concerning the region of Opoto mentions not less than seven
volcanoes in the vicinity, which were seen burning for two days, but without any
flow of lava; while that for the Bavispe region declares that no volcano had there
been discovered. The authors incline to the belief that, as was the case in the
San José mountains, and others examined by them along the borders of Arizona,
the appearances of volcanoes near Opoto were due to forest fires.
6. The History and Cause of the Subsidences at Northwich and its Neigh-
bourhood, in the Salt District of Cheshire. By TuHomas Warp.
The frequent occurrence of subsidences in the neighbourhood of Northwich
makes it desirable to learn their history and cause.
Northwich overlies extensive beds of salt. These occupy about three square
miles. The first or ‘top’ rock-salt lies at a depth of about fifty yards from the
surface, and is covered by Keuper marls, and these by the drift sands and marls.
Between the two beds of salt there are 30 feet of indurated Keuper marl. The
second, or ‘bottom’ rock-salt, is over 30 yards in thickness. These beds of salt
occupy the lowest portion of an old Triassic salt lake.
The first bed of rock-salt was discovered in 1670, the second in 1781. From
about 1730, at which date the river Weaver and the Witton brook were rendered
navigable, until after 1781 all the rock-salt mines were in the ‘ top’ bed, and the
whole of these, with one exception, have been destroyed, and in almost every case
by water, leaving funnel-shaped, nearly circular, holes. These are now filled with
water and are known as ‘rock pit’ holes. The rock-salt mines are now in the
lower bed and very rarely fall in. When worked to the boundary, water and
brine, either or both, break in or are let in, and the mines are utilised as huge
reservoirs.
The falling in of a rock-salt mine is now a very rare occurrence, and subsidences
714 REPORT—1887.
of this kind do not give rise to the reports which are met with in the newspapers.
The first reported destruction of a mine was in 1750, and from that date to the
end of the eighteenth century every two or three years a mine collapsed. In the
present century, at considerable intervals of time, collapses of mines have occurred.
but these with scarcely an exception were old abandoned ‘top’ mines.
The subsidences which are so destructive in the town of Northwich and the
neighbourhood are entirely caused by the pumping of brine for the manufacture of
white salt. It was only about 1770 or shortly afterwards that the first sinking was
noticed; since that date subsidence has gone on very rapidly, and much destruction
of property has resulted. Large lakes or ‘ flashes,’ one of more than 100 acres in
area, and of all depths up to 45 feet, have been and are being formed. Prior to
1770 not more than 30,000 tons of salt were sent down the Weaver navigation; by
the end of the century it reached 100,000 tons, and in 1880 had increased to
1,087,000 tons. The whole of this salt was taken off the surface of the first bed
of rock-salt by the solvent action of water. In fact, water is the instrument used
to mine and carry off the salt to the pumping centre. The brine pumps set up a
circulation of the salt water or brine lying on the rock-salt, which flows to the
pumping centres. The brine thus removed is replaced by fresh water, which on its
passage to the pump saturates itself, taking up sufficient salt to make a solution con-
taining about 26 per cent. of salt. This continual removal of salt from the surface
of the rock-salt lowers it, and the overlying earths either follow the diminishing
surface continuously or else after remaining suspended for a time suddenly fall
into the cavity from which the water has extracted the salt. The brine currents
on their way to the pumping centres form deep valleys or troughs, and the surface
of the ground overlying forms a facsimile of these hollows. The property on the
sloping sides of the valleys is pulled to pieces and destroyed; the windows and
doors all get out of form owing to the unequal sinking of the various portions of
the house. When, owing to the different nature of the marls and the abundance
of sand overlying them, a sudden sinking takes place, the hole extends to the
surface and swallows up anything upon the surface—as a horse ina stable, barrels
of beer in a cellar, or water-butts and other utensils in a yard. The damage done to
property is enormous, but thus far no human life has been lost. The most serious
part of the matter is that the brine-pumper takes not only his own salt in solution,
but that of all his neighbours over whose salt-beds the water flows, and neither
asks their consent nor pays them for the salt thus obtained. Worse even than
this, the owner of the property overlying the brine ‘runs’ suffers most serious
damage to buildings, &c., but can obtain no compensation because amongst the
number of brine-pumpers he cannot prove who is doing the particular mischief
complained of. This peculiar phenomenon of subsidence in the salt districts is
‘worthy of more consideration than it has hitherto received from scientific men.
7. Places of Geological Interest on the Banks of the Saskatchewan.
By Professor J. Hoyrs Panron, M.A., F.G.S.
The writer, in this paper, after referring to some of the marked geological
features which characterise the three great prairie steppes of the north-west,
proceeds to describe two localities more particularly, viz. the vicinity of Medicine
Hat, situated on the banks of the Saskatchewan 660 miles west of Winnipeg, and
a locality near Irvine Station, 20 miles east of Medicine Hat.
From Medicine Hat much coal has been obtained and sent to Winnipeg, and
several interesting fossils have been found, consisting chiefly of shells allied to
the genus Ostrea and fragments of petrified wood. The deposits are identified as
belonging to the Belly River series, an American division of the Cretaceous system.
The coal is lignitic in character, showing considerable water and ash, with a
tendency to disintegrate when exposed to the air. Contrasted with coal obtained
nearer the mountains, it is much softer.
Two seams occur, separated by about 40 feet of clay, shale, &c., with a bed of
Ostrea and a thin coal, The upper seam is 4 feet 8 inches thick, the lower seam
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. #18
(that then being worked) is 5 feet 3 inches. Three feet below this is a thinner
seam two feet thick.
At the Irvine Ravine the Pierre shales rest upon the Belly River series. At
the bottom of the former is a coal seam, but it is not regular enough to work.
These deposits are interesting on account of the reptilian remains which seem
common amongst them,
Those found by the writer have been identified as belonging to the genus Lelaps,
allied to the Megalosawrus; some other remains of a peculiar character are
recognised as portions of the carapace of a land turtle of the genus Trionyx.
The deposits are not very uniform in arrangement; the beds consist of
alternations of sandstone and clay ; some of the latter is greenish in tint and contains
selenite.
The following table was given by the writer for comparing the Cretaceous
deposits of the north-west, referred to in the paper, with those of the same system
in some parts of the United States and Western Europe :—
Western Europe Missouri, U.S. North-west of Canada
ee os a Fort Union. Laramie.
Cretaceous.
|
Maestricht. | Fox Hill. Fox Hill.
White Chalk. | Pierre. Pierre.
Chalk Marl. Niobrara. Belly River.
|
Saat dpe peek SERRE 5 rel et,
Upper Greensand. Benton. Benton.
. |
Gault. Dakota. Dakota.
In the bed of ironstone nodules, a little higher than the river level, excellent
fossils of plants allied to the genus Brasenia were found.
8. The Disaster at Zug on July 5, 1887. By the Rev. H. Huu, M.A.
On July 5, 1887, at the town of Zug, in Switzerland, a portion of the shore
gave way and sank into the lake. About three hours later another much larger
adjacent area also suddenly subsided, so that in all an area considerably over two
acres, with half of one of the principal streets, was submerged to a depth of about
20 feet. It can be seen that the subsoil consists of coarse gravel and sand, followed
after a few feet by soft wet sand and fine mud. According to Professor Heim, this
fine mud or sludge reaches to a depth of nearly 200 feet, and the disaster is shown
to be due to a flowing out into the lake of this mobile sludge from under the
superincumbent weight of buildings and firmer ground. The buildings collapsed
as they sank. The catastrophe must have been long impending ; the exact cause
which precipitated it is indeterminate, but a low level of the lake and tremors from
pile-driving for new quays are suggested as contributories. On the English coast
the incessant changes of pressure from tides probably render impossible such
instability of equilibrium.
716 REPORT—1887.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. On the Permian Fauna of Bohemia. By Professor ANTON FRitscH.
After mentioning the seventy-three species of Labyrinthodants, of which he
has given figures in his work (‘ Fauna der Gaskole’), and of which electrotypes and
restored models were exhibited, the author mentioned the discovery of a very
peculiar genus Naosawrus (Cope). Then he explained some unpublished plates of
Ctenodus, Orthacanthus, Ctenacanthus, and a new ganoid fish (7?~ssolepis), with
three kinds of scales. Then he proved Acanthodes to be very near to the Salachians,
and drew attention to the gigantic fish (Amblypterus), 113 centimetres long, exhi-
bited to the Association.
2, Report of the Committee for investigating the Carboniferous Flora of
Halifax and its neighbourhood.—See Reports, p. 235.
3. On the Affinities of the so-called Torpedo (Cyclobatis, Egerton) from
the Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon.' By A. SuirH Woopwarp, F.G.S.,
FZ.S.
In 1844, Sir Philip Egerton read a paper before the Geological Society of London,
describing a small Selachian from the chalk of Mount Lebanon, under the name
of Cyclobatis oligodactylus; six years later, Prof. F. J. Pictet figured a second
specimen, showing further anatomical details; and quite recently Mr. James W.
Davis has published some notes on the genus, adding a new species, C. major.
Following Egerton’s original determination, the fish seems to have been universally
regarded up to the present time as referable to the Torpedinide, partly on account
of its rounded shape, and partly on account of the supposed absence of dermal
defences. The fine series of specimens now in the British Museum, however,
appears to demonstrate conclusively that these generally accepted views as to
the affinities of Cyclobatis have no sure foundation in fact. That the genus is truly
referable to the Trygonidz seems evident from the following considerations :
(1) The pectoral fins are uninterruptedly continued to the end of the snout, and
were thus probably confluent in front. (2) The pelvic arch is placed far forwards,
and the rays of the pelvic fins scarcely extend posteriorly beyond the extremity of
the pectorals. (3) There are no traces of median fins. (4) The skin is armed
with spinous tubercles. The fact last named has not been noted before ; but on the
dorsal aspect of the fish there is a longitudinal median row of large spinous
tubercles, and the remainder of the body and fins is covered with innumerable
prickles. In one small fossil the tail has the appearance of being completely
encased in rows of the large tubercles. There is thus no evidence, as yet, of the
existence of ‘electric rays’ of an earlier date than those made known by Volta
and Baron de Zigno from the Eocene of Monte Bolca, near Verona, in Northern
Italy.
4, On a Star-fish from the Yorkshire Lias.
By Professor J. F. Bruaxn, M.A., F.G.S.
The specimen described was an external cast of the under side of a solaster,
which was sufficiently well preserved to afford both generic and specific characters.
The only known species with which it is comparable is Lu¢dia Murchison. If
this is truly described and is in fact a Luddia, then the present specimen, which
is certainly a Solaster, must belong to a different species. It was found at the
base of the cliff at Huntcliff by the Rev. G. Crewdson, of Kendal.
1 Printed in ewtenso in Geol. Mag. dec. iii. vol. iv. pp. 508-510, November 1887.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. GAG
5. Thirteenth Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters.—See
Reports, p. 358.
6. Notice du Dinotherium, deus espéces, trouvées en Espagne.
By Professor VILANova.
7. On the Genus Piloceras, Salter, as elucidated by examples lately
discovered in North Americz and in Scotland.! By Arvuur H. Foorp,
F.G.S.
The genus Piloceras was first described by Salter in 1859 from imperfect
specimens consisting only of what has since been proved to be the siphunele of a
shell closely allied to Endoceras.
E. Billings and Sir William Dawson in Canada, and R. P. Whitfield in the
United States, have each described and figured species of Piloceras in which the
septa are preserved. Whitfield has recently (‘ Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. New
York,’ vol. i. No. 8, December 1886) described a species (Piloceras explanator) in
which the body-chamber, septa, and fragments of the test are preserved, with the
siphuncle in place.
A few years ago Mr. B. N. Peach, of the Geological Survey of Scotland,
discovered in the Durness limestone, Sutherlandshire (whence Salter’s original
specimens were obtained) examples of Piloceras in which the septa and siphuncle
are seen in conjunction.
These examples may most probably be referred to Piloceras invaginatum, Salter.
From a geological point of view Piloceras is interesting from its occurrence in
rocks forming part of a series which is identical, in order of succession and appa-
rently in fossil contents, in North America and in Scotland.
In an able address to the Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh (1885) Mr.
Peach has pointed out that the Silurian strata of Sutherlandshire is represented in
Eastern North America by (1) the Potsdam sandstone, bored by Scolithus, just
like the ‘ pipe-rock’ of Sutherlandshire ; (2) the Calciferous Group F (8) part of the
Trenton Group.
In consideration of this remarkable similarity between these two widely
separated areas, Mr. Peach concludes ‘that some old shore-line or shallow sea
must have stretched across the North Atlantic or Arctic Ocean, along which the
forms migrated from one province to the other, and that some barrier must have
cut off this area from that of Wales and Central Europe.’
The genus Piloceras may now be thus re-defined :—
Shell more or less broadly conical; slightly curved; somewhat compressed
laterally ; elliptical in section. Septa rather numerous. Siphuncle formed by the
prolongation and conjunction of the necks of the septa; marginal; very large;
partaking of the curvature of the shell; provided internally with one or more
conical, or funnel-shaped sheaths, which are united at the top with its margin.
These sheaths apparently communicated with one another by means of the endo-
siphon, which perforates the apex of the siphuncle. The endosiphon originated in
one of the earlier of the septal chambers, if not in the initial chamber itself.
8. Report on the Fossil Plants of the Tertiary and Secondary Beds of the
United Kingdom.—See Reports, p. 229.
9. First Report on the ‘ Manure’ Gravels of Wexford.—See Reports, p. 209.
1 Published in extenso in the Geol. Mag. new ser. dec. iii. vol. iv. December 1887.
718 REPORT—1887.
10. The Pliocene Beds of St. Erth, Cornwall.
By Rosert Georce Bett, F.G.S8.
Since the publication of the paper read before the Geological Society of London
in February 1886 a good deal of work relating to the geological surroundings
and to the special fauna of the deposit has been undertaken, Considerable excava-
tions were made, and much examination given to the sands and clays, with the re-
sult that the section given in p. 202, ‘Quarterly Journal of Geological Society, ’ for
May 1866, was completely verified.
The clay deposit is not, however, uniformly fossiliferous, nor is it uniform in
the distribution of its fossil contents as a rule. Cerithium is found in great num-
bers at the base of the blue clay, while the larger Nassas and Turritellas are
generally distributed in that bed. A great feature of interest is the large number
of the smaller species of mollusca, especially of Gasteropods, which embrace more
than three-fourths of the total amount.
Of these small shells the genera Rissoa and Odostomia are the most plentiful,
in species and numbers; about twenty species of the former (including the Hydrobias)
and eighteen of the latter genus are present, some being living inhabitants of the
British and Mediterranean seas, while others appear new to science, and will have
to be described. The Trochi are nearly all extinct, three only being Crag and
living forms. Of Nassa about eight species are present, Nassa serrata being by far
the most common; it is nearly identical with the general form of Nassa reticosa,
Sowerby, so plentiful in the coprolite pits of the Boyton district in Suffolk ; there
are also other well-known Crag species of this family. :
The carnivorous Gasteropods are, however, not otherwise plentiful; one should
be noticed, a large fragment of Buccinum undatum, but no traces of Fusus anti-
quus or F. gracilis; all the Pleurotomas are scarce except P. brachystoma, and
here are two species of Pisania or Lachesis ; all these last are southern forms.
Of the bivalves not much can be said ; few species were obtained, and these
mostly in a fragmentary condition. It is still a difficulty to afford an adequate
explanation of this fact, for while the deposit of clay is so well calculated to pre-
serve the shells, asisshown by the perfect state of the univalves, the bivalves (if we
except the oysters and some minute species) have universally suffered. Some expla-
nation other than that of the physical character of the deposit must be sought for,
and none has yet appeared sufficiently satisfying
The opinion expressed in the earlier reports upon this deposit, as to the southern
facies of its fauna, has been amply justified by fresh researches ; a large quantity
of the fossiliferous clay has been carefully washed and examined, and no trace of
northern forms, except Buccinum undatum, and the two small species noticed in the
paper previously referred to, has been found, while greatly increased evidence
confirming what has been already said is present. Had there been any connection
with northern seas or colder waters, it would be difficult to understand the entire
absence of those forms of Pleurotoma (Bela) so abundant in the Boreal seas of
the Crag period and the present age, as well as the equally characteristic bivalves,
Astarte and Cyprina.
Some conflict of opinion exists upon the depth of water in which the St. Erth
clays were deposited.
In a letter to Nature, of August 12, 1886, a very competent authority on
Pliocene phenomena, Mr. Clement Reid, F.G.S., gave it as at least forty or
fifty fathoms, founding his view on the evident fact of its deposition in still
water, which he maintains could not be found in a district exposed to Atlantic
swells at less depth. To this the writer must take serious exception. Undoubtedly
the clays exhibit an entire absence of such a disturbing cause as the influence of
great wave action, but it remains to be proved that such a great depression as Mr.
Reid describes did occur at the western end of Cornwail, and as far asI have been
able to observe there is little indication of such a fact. Some depression, of course,
must have happened, sufficient to submerge the low-lying land near St. Erth,
causing a strait or gulf, dividing the Land’s End from the main eastern portion of
the county.
7
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 719
In this shallow strait the clays and sands were deposited, and just such an
assemblage of mollusca is found as will bear out this view. Scarcely any of
the shells which are of living species are known to inhabit such deep water as Mr.
Reid indicates, while the majority show the presence of a laminarian zone, ex-
tending to not more than fifteen fathoms. This bathymetrical range is the chosen
habitat of the Rissoz, who are all vegetable feeders, and of the Nassas, which
are predatory and always plentiful just below low-water mark ; and what appears
still more conclusive is the number of Hydrobias, which have a close connection
with Littorina, and indicate shallow depth and close proximity to shore.
It is hoped that a more detailed examination of the molluscan fauna may soon
be completed, and the whole series added to the national collection.
11. Report on the Higher Eocene Beds of the Isle of Wight—See Reports,
p- 414.
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
The following Papers were read :—
1. The Triassic Rocks of West Somerset. By W. A. E. Ussunr, F.G.S.
This paper forms a necessary supplement to a series of papers on the Triassic
rocks of Devon, Somerset, &c., communicated to the Geological Society by the
author in the years 1876, 1878, and 1879. In the first two communications reference
was made to the probable existence of Infra-keuper beds in the area between
Williton and Porlock, inferred from a brief visit. This opinion was given
with some reservation ; it would entail the existence of a considerable fault which,
not then being able to study the Devonian rocks of the area, the author was
unable to verify.
The present contribution is the result of subsequent investigations, made in the
years 1878 and 1879. The constitution, extent, and general relations of the
Lower, Middle, and Upper Triassic rocks of the area are briefly described seriatim,
with the following general results :—
The Lower Trias consists of breccia and breccio-conglomerate upon sands and
brecciated sand and loam; it occupies the east of the valley, extending from
Lydeard St. Lawrence northward to Vellow Wood Farm, south of Sampford
Brett, where it finally disappears, being faulted against Keuper basement beds
and conformably overlapped by Middle Trias marls upon the margin of the older
rocks,
The Middle Trias, consisting of marls with sandstones in places at their base,
occupies the centre of the valley, being faulted against the successive divisions of
the Keuper on the east, and terminating northward in the angle made by con-
vergent faults at Bicknoller. The Middle Trias marls rest on the older rocks near
Vellow Wood Farm, and finally disappear near Orchard Wyndham, south of
Williton, under Keuper breccias.
The Keuper beds consist of marls, sandstones, and a locally varying series of
conglomerates, gravels, and breccia in descending sequence. The sandstones are
very calcareous south of Crowcombe; they form marginal deposits in places near
Dunster. In the Porlock valley they constitute an insignificant horizon, and at
Sampford Brett have local intercalations of marl at their base.
The coarser beds of the Keuper develop at the expense of the sandstones in the
area west of Williton. In the form of incoherent gravels they constitute outliers
on the Middle Trias marls. The massive conglomerates occur locally to the
north of Crowcombe Heathfield station. Near Beggearn Huish, and in the
Porlock valley, the Keuper basement beds resemble varieties of Lower Trias
breccias in the Tiverton area, having been deposited under analogous conditions.
720 ; REPORT—1887..
It is very probable that the Keuper basement beds of the Porlock valley may
be marginal deposits formed during a progressive subsidence, and therefore may
belong to a higher horizon than the Lower Keuper beds south of Williton,
2. The Devonian Rocks of West Somerset on the Borders of the Trias.
By W. A. EH. Ussuer, F.G.S.
The composition of the Quantecks is first briefly described, and the faulted
relations of the middle Devonian grits, slates, and limestones of which they con-
sist alluded to. From the constitution of the Paleozoic districts on the east and
west of the Triassic rocks of Crowecombe and Stogumber the author considered the
beds eroded in the intervening valley would amply account for the variability of
the Triassic strata derived from them. From Withycombe to Porlock the faulted
relations of the middle and lower Devonian grits are then briefly described. The
author considered that the elevation of the Quantocks, the Brendon, and the Dun-
kery ranges was pre-Triassic, accompanied by faulting on an extensive scale ; that
many lesser faults were produced in post-Triassic times, and that further movements
took place along the old lines of fracture. He did not believe that the Devonian
highlands were ever covered by secondary sediments, but was of opinion that the
Triassic rocks never extended far beyond their present boundaries, except in old
valleys from which they had subsequently been almost entirely removed by de-
nuding agencies.
3. The Matria of the Diamond. By Professor H. Carvint Lewis.
A microscopical study of the remarkable porphyritic peridotite which contains
the diamonds in South Africa demonstrates several interesting and peculiar features.
The olivine, forming much the most abundant constituent, is in porphyritic
crystals, sometimes well hounded by crystal faces, at other times rounded and with
corrosive cavities, such as occur in it in basaltic rocks. It rarely encloses rounded
grains of glassy bronzite, as has been observed in meteorites. The olivine alters
either into serpentine in the ordinary way, or into an aggregate of acicular tremo-
lite crystals, the so-called ‘ pilit,’ or becomes surrounded by a zone of indigo blue
bastite—a new variety of that substance. The olivine is distinguished by an
unusually good cleavage in two directions.
Bronzite, Chrome diallage, and Smaragdite occur in fine green plates, closely
resembling one another. The bronzite is often surrounded by a remarkable zone,
with a centric, pegmatitic, or chondritic structure, such as occurs in certain meteo-
rites. This zone is mainly composed of wormlike olivine grains, but a mineral
having the optical characters of cyanite also occurs in this zone.
Biotite, « characteristic constituent, occurs in conspicuous plates, often twinned,
generally rounded, and distinguished by its weak pleochroism, a character pecu-
liar to the biotite of ultra-basic eruptive rocks. It alters by decomposition into the
so-called Vaalite.
Perovskite occurs in very numerous but small crystals, which optically appear to
be compound rhombic twins.
Pyrope is abundant in rounded red grains, Titanic iron, chromic iron, and
some fifteen other minerals were also found. Rutile is formed as a secondary
mineral through the alteration of olivine into serpentine, being a genesis of rutile
not heretofore observed.
The chemical composition shows this to be one of the most basic rocks known,
and is a composition which by calculation would belong toa rock composed of
equal parts of olivine and serpentine, impregnated by calcite.
The structwre is at the same time porphyritic and brecciated, being one charac-
teristic of a voleanic rock which after becoming hard had been subjected to
mechanical movements. Itis a voleanic breccia, but not an ash or tuff, the peculiar
structure being apparently due to successive paroxysmal eruptions. A similar
structure is known in meteorites, with which bodies this rock has several analogies.
A large amount of the adjoining bituminous shale is enclosed, and has been more
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. | ill
or less baked and altered. The occurrence of minute tourmalines is evidence of
famarole action.
The microscopical examination supports the geological data in testifying to the
igneous and eruptive character of the peridotite, which lies in the neck or vent of
an old volcano.
While belonging to the family of peridotites, this rock is quite distinct in struc-
ture and composition from any member of that group heretofore named. It is
more basic than the picrite porphyrites, and is not holocrystalline like dunite or
saxonite. It is clearly a new rock-type, worthy of a distinctive name. The name
Kimberlite, from the famous locality where it was first observed, is therefore
proposed.
Kimberlite probably occurs in several places in Europe, certain garnetiferous
serpentines belonging here. It is already known at two places in the United
States: at Elliott County, Kentucky, and at Syracuse, New York; at hoth of
which places it is eruptive and post-carboniferous, similar in structure and com-
position to the Kimberley rock.
At the diamond localities in other parts of the world diamonds are found either
in diluvial gravels or in conglomerates of secondary origin, and the original matrix
is difficult to discover. Thus, in India and Brazil the diamonds lie in a conglome-
rate with other pebbles, and their matrix has not been discovered. Recent obser-
vations in Brazil have proved that it is a mistake to suppose that diamonds occur
in itacolumite, specimens supposed to show this association being artificially manu-~
factured. But at other diamond localities, where the geology of the region is
better known than in India or Brazil, the matrix of the diamond may be inferred
with some degree of certainty. Thus, in Borneo, diamonds and platinum occur
only in those rivers which drain a serpentine district, and on Tanah Laut they also
lie in serpentine. In New South Wales, near each locality where diamonds occur,
serpentine also occurs, and is sometimes in contact with carboniferous shales.
Platinum, also derived from eruptive serpentine, occurs here with the diamonds.
Tn the Urals, diamonds have been reported from four widely separated localities,
and at each of these, as shown on Murchison’s map, serpentine occurs. At one of
the localities the serpentine has been shown to be an altered peridotite. A diamond
has been found in Bohemia in a sand containing pyropes, and these pyropes are
now known to have been derived from a serpentine altered from a peridotite. In
North Carolina a number of diamonds and some platinum have been found in river
sands, and that State is distinguished from all others in eastern America by its
great beds of peridotite and its abundant serpentine. Finally, in northern
California, where diamonds occur plentifully and are associated with platinum,
there are great outbursts of post-carboniferous eruptive serpentine, the serpentine
being more abundant than elsewhere in North America. At all the localities men-
tioned chromic and titanic iron ore occur in the diamond-bearing sand, and both of
these minerals are characteristic constituents of serpentine.
All the facts thus far collected indicate serpentine, in the form of a decomposed
eruptive peridotite, as the original matrix of the diamond.
4, Observations on the Roun:ling of Pebbles by Alpine Rivers, with a Note on
their Bearing upon the Origin of the Bunter Conglomerate.' By Pro-
fessor T. G. Bonney, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S:, F.G.S.
The author describes the result of his observations of the rounding of pebbles in
various torrents and rivers in the Tyrol and Dauphiné, and of the gravels of the
Piedmontese and Lombard plains. These lead to the following conclusions, among
others: (a) that pebbles are rounded with comparative rapidity when the descent
of the stream is rapid, and they are dashed down rocky slopes by a roaring torrent,
capable of sweeping along blocks of much greater yolume; (4) that pebbles are
rounded with comparative slowness when the descent is gentle and the
average pace of the river is about adequate to push them along its bed. The rocks
' Geol. Mag.
1887. 3
,
a
722 REPORT— 1887.
observed were in some cases limestone and not very hard grits; in others various
crystalline rocks, such as granite, gneiss, or mica-schist. Hence, as the majority of
the pebbles in the Bunter are of harder material, and are generally better rounded
than those which the author observed, he concludes that it is impossible to suppose
them mainly derived from any tract of land which, in Triassic times, can have existed
in either Central or Eastern England, for they must have been formed by rivers
no less important, with courses either longer or steeper than those of Central
Europe. Thus these observations are very favourable to the view which ascribes to
them a Scotch origin, where alone rocks exactly like them are known to occur.
5. On the Present State of the Channel Tunnel, and on the Boring at
Shakespeare Clif’, near Dover. By Professor W. Borp Dawkins, F.R.S.
The present condition of the experimental heading of the Channel Tunnel
Company is now, after the lapse of five years, a most important fact bearing on the
feasibility of a Channel tunnel at all.
A careful examination of the heading on July 23, 1887, proves that the con-
clusions which were arrived at when the enterprise was begun, as to the ease with
which a tunnel can be constructed, the security from inroads of the sea resulting
from its being made in the grey chalk, and the small cost at which it can be made
and maintained, have been fully justified by the present condition of the works.
The heading, 7 feet in diameter and 1} miles in length, and for upwards of a
mile actually beneath the sea-bottom, is practically free from water. In driving it
the total quantity of water met with amounted only to 34 gallons per minute. This
small amount has now diminished to the odd one-third of a gallon per minute,
almost all of which is derived from a spring in the broken materials in the
shaft, occurring 30 feet from the surface. The fact that the heading not only
remains dry after standing for five years, but is drier now than when it was driven,
shows that no danger is to be anticipated from the inroad of the sea into the tunnel
beneath the bottom of the Straits of Dover, or from the influx of water from the
land.
Nor has the heading shown any signs of movement, although it is unlined, and
has been exposed to atmospheric agencies for five years. The chalk has not swelled
or changed its form ; it retains the tool-marks of the boring machine, as clearly and
sharply defined as on the day when they were made. It stands perfectly, and has
become harder, as it has lost the water in its capillary pores.
The dip of the strata lends itself with singular facility to the gradients which
a best adapted to the working of the traffic, and the defence of the tunnel by
ooding.
After taking all these facts into consideration, it is clear that the original
estimate for the English half of the tunnel of 1,527,000. is amply confirmed by
the experience obtained. The dryness and stability of the heading prove further
that the cost of the maintenance of the tunnel will be exceptionally low.
The geological evidence is conclusive that the valuable coalfields of South
Wales and of Somerset are connected with the equally valuable coalfields of North
France and Belgium, some 1,200 square miles in extent, by a series of isolated fields
or basins concealed by the newer rocks. The coal-measures in Northern France
pass westwards in the direction of Calais, and plunge under the newer rocks near
Condé, from which point to Thérouanne they extend and are worked under two
departments, their discovery being due to borings carried out at the expense of the
French Government. The last-named place, some 30 miles to the east of Calais, is
the farthest point to the west where they have been worked. At Calais, however,
they have been proved at a depth of 1,092 feet below Ordnance datum. From this
point westward they have not been struck until we reach Somersetshire.
The borings for water, however, made in the London area show that the water-
worn primary rocks which come to the surface in the West of England and in
North France and Belgium occur under London at a distance of not more than
1,200 feet from the surface, and that these are highly inclined as in those regions.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 723
These rocks are of Silurian and Devonian ages, and older than the Carboniferous.
Their high inclination, however, implies that the strata are there thrown into folds,
and that in some neighbouring area the Carboniferous rocks must come in. In my
opinion they will be searched for and found.
The boring which is now being carried on under my direction and that of Mr.
Francis Brady is an attempt to solve this most important problem, and the place
selected is close to Shakespeare Cliff, near Dover. We began in the grey chalk, and
we have got down 543 feet to the top of the weald clay. At Calais there are no
wealden strata, and the Carboniferous rocks occur at the very point in the geo-
logical section where we are now. The older strata will probably be struck at a
depth of less than 1,000 feet, and probably at a very much less depth. Ifthe coal-
measures are proved, a discovery of vast importance will be made. If, on the other
hand, rocks older than the Carboniferous are struck, they will offer a basis for
future borings which will result in the discovery of these hidden coalfields, and
cause an economic revolution in South-eastern England as great as that which has
been brought about by the working of coal under the chalk in France and Belgium.
6. On the Extension of the Scandinavian Ice to Eastern Hngland in the
Glacial Period. By Professor Orro ToRELL.
1. The principal mass of solid ice that during the Glacial period extended from
Scandinavia as a centre advanced, according to the slope of land, to the south and
south-east, covering a great part of Russia in Europe, Northern Germany, and the
Netherlands. As ice moves according to the same laws as water, it is evident that
the long and deep channel of the Baltic would be a highway for the movement of
a great part of it, and that the resistance of land to the east would tend to cause
the ice to deviate towards the south-west.
2. This can be proved by the large number of Silurian boulders from the Baltic
provinces, such as porphyries from Dalecarlia, Smfland, and the Aland Islands,
which are met with in Holstein and the Netherlands. A line drawn along the
axis of the Baltic will cross Holstein and Groningen, in Holland, and reach the
shore of Norfolk. That this Baltic-Dutch ice-stream moved over the bottom of
the southern part of the North Sea, and extended over the eastern part of Norfolk,
may be proved by the occurrence of erratics, undoubtedly of Swedish origin, in the
Cromer till, between Happisbury and Cromer. Thus, I have found there the well-
Imown red porphyry from Dalecarlia, which is so common in the Glacial deposits
of Germany and Halleflintas from Eastern Smaland, in South Sweden.
The succession of beds of till, boulder clay, and stratified sands and gravel on
the coast of Cromer, which I have visited several times within a period of more
than twenty years, are true Glacial deposits, identical with the Glacial beds in
South Sweden and North Germany. They have been produced by the combined
action of solid ice and Glacial rivers from it. They were described with great
accuracy by Mr. Clement Reid, of the Geological Survey.
1. At the bottom are the first and second tills, true ground moraines with a bed
of sand between them.
2. Above these lie stratified beds of sand and loam, probably equivalent to the
Middle*Glacial sands in South Sweden and North Germany.
3. Then there is an upper boulder clay, which may be the moraine of the
retreating ice-stream; and
4, On the top other beds of sand and gravel, which I believe to have been
deposited by the rivers derived from the retreating ice.
All these beds belong to the contorted drift as a whole.
Not until the ice reached the shore would rivers arise from it, but when it did
so these rivers would form their own beds of sand and gravel. It is very likely
that these beds may be in part represented by the Bure valley gravels of Mr.
Searles Wood, which in like manner were afterwards covered by the ground
moraines of the advancing ice, just as the oldest ‘ Diluvial sand’ of the German, and
the Alluvion ancien of Swiss geologists, are met with below the oldest ground
moraines,
3A 2
724 REPORT— 1887,
Another large ice-stream, which advanced from the Alps of South-western
Norway and the adjoining regions of Sweden to the eastern shores of England,
covered a great part of South-eastern Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, and the adjoining
counties. As it filled up the Skagerack and crossed the North Sea, where it must
have met the Baltic-Dutch ice-stream, I have called it the Skagerack-North Sea
tce-strream.
The northern part of Jutland is covered by the boulders which it brought from
Norway, especially the Rhomb porphyry from Christiania. Many years ago I
found this porphyry at Grimsby, and Mr. Helland, I believe, has met with it and
the syenite of Fredriksveem in Holderness. Just as the axis of the Baltic may be
prolonged to Norfolk, so a line drawn through the middle of the Skagerack will
meet the coast of Yorkshire. At Bridlington and elsewhere in Holderness the
beautiful ground moraines of this.ice-stream—the casement or chalky clay of Mr.
Searles Wood, jun.—are open for study. As this great mass of ice grew in size,
whilst, owing to causes which I am just beginning to understand, the Baltic-Dutch
ice-stream diminished, most extraordinary phenomena resulted. The strata of the
chalk and other formations below the ice were partly broken up, moved along
from north-east to south-west, and even destroyed by it. Of these phenomena
Mr. Skertchly has given a graphic description.
The great chalky boulder clay of Mr. Wood is probably a moraine of the same
ice-stream.
Mr. Wood describes extensive beds of sands underlying this clay to the south
as ‘the Middle Glacial sands.’ These, I suspect, are equivalent to the ‘ Diluvial
sand’ in Germany, and Alluvion ancien in the Alps, and were deposited by the
Glacial rivers from the ice-stream.
That the great chalky boulder clay is a real ground moraine there seems to be
no doubt. According to Mr. Wood the great chalky boulder clay is later than
the Cromer beds. It seems really to be the case that the Baltic-Dutch ice-stream,
which deposited the Cromer series of beds, retreated before the greatest advance-
ment of the Skagerack-North Sea ice-stream. If, then, this ice-stream encountered
the Glacial beds at Cromer, the result would be such phenomena as the well-known
contortion of the drift there. The strata would be raised up and contorted in
every direction. As the bottom of the sea to the north-east of Cromer consists of
chalk, the ice could plough up and carry large masses with it and press them into
the drift as it contorted it. These boulders generally consist of reconstructed chalk
broken up into innumerable fragments cemented together again. One of these
boulders, that of West Runton (Woman Hithe), is more than 600 feet long and
80 feet high, and has been pushed through the whole of the contorted drift from
top to bottom. Mr. Reid has expressed his opinion that only solid ice could cause
the contortions, but he does not consider how it may be explained that the same
strata which are formed by ice should since have been disturbed by the same
agency. On the island of Hven, in Oresund, similar phenomena on a smaller scale
may be seen. There older Glacial beds are overlain by sands and clays, all formed
by a stream of ice from the north-east. These were afterwards encroached upon
and partly destroyed by a later ice-stream from the Baltic, and phenomena similar
to those of the contorted drift at Cromer were produced.
: If the explanation which I have given is correct we have at Cromer evidence
that—
1, The Baltic-Dutch ice-stream deposited till on the Norfolk coast.
2. This ice-sheet retreated while the Skagerack-North Sea stream advanced
southwards, so as to crush into these deposits, contorting them and forcing into
them masses of chalk torn from the sea-bed outside.
7. On the Terminal Moraine near Manchester.
By Professor H. Carvint Lewis.
A line of drift hills passing in a south-easterly direction close to the city of
Manchester is here described in detail, and held to be a portion of the terminal
‘ In Professor Geikie’s The Great Ice Age.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. CUPAS
moraine of the Irish Sea glacier. LErratics from the Lake district and Scotland,
and flints and shell fragments from the bed of the Irish Sea, distinguish this
moraine from others farther north. No strie and no shell fragments have been
discovered to the north-east of this line of drift hills, while to the south and west
of it both striated rock surfaces and shell-bearing drift are abundant. Although
frequently levelled down by natural and artificial agencies, in many places these
drift hills retain the typical features of a moraine,
8. On a simple method of projecting upon the screen Microscopic Rock
Sections, both by ordinary and by polarised light. By EH. P. Quinn.
Knowing the difficulty experienced in pointing out to students any particular
crystal in a rock section when viewed with the microscope direct, I attempted to
project the images on the screen, and by the aid of comparatively simple apparatus
met with very gratifying success, both with ordinary and with polarised light.
The tube of the microscope was screwed out and replaced with a cork, through
which a hole had been cut to carry the ordinary one-inch micro-objective, and
behind it the analyser of the microscope. The polariscope and rock section
occupied their usual position as when used with the microscope in the ordinary
way. The microscope stand being inclined into the horizontal position was placed
in front of the object lens of the lime-light lantern. The object lens of a lantern
usually consists of a combination of two lenses. If so the back lens is taken out
and the front lens only used, acting as an extra condenser, concentrating the light
upon the rock section and causing it to pass through the polariser and the
analyser.
A_ little adjustment of the light was required to get it well through both
polariser and analyser, but this with a little care was soon done, and a bright
picture, several feet in diameter, was projected upon the screen, showing the crystals
well defined and exhibiting very strikingly the changes of colour, &c., characteristic
of the crystals when viewed by polarised light, and in such a manner as to be well
seen by a number of people at once, and also allowing the lecturer to readily point
out any particular crystal or crystals to which he desires to draw the attention of
his audience, As the optical axis of the lantern and microscope did not coincide,
the lantern was placed on a board provided with four levelling screws, with which
the necessary adjustments were readily made.
Much better effects may be got if the ‘Prazmowski’ form of prisms made by
Zeiss are used instead of the usual Nicolls prisms, on account of their greater
aperture and shorter length, and the most brilliant results with the one-inch ob-
jective of fifty angular apertures by Wray of London.
726 REPORT—1887.
Section D.—BIOLOGY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.—ALFRED NEWTON, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., V.P.Z.S.,
ETC., Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in the University of
Cambridge.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.
The PrEsipENT delivered the following Address :—
In opening the business of this Section I cannot but call to mind the last occasion
when the British Association met in the city of Manchester, just six-and-twenty
years ago; and, while my memory brings back to me many pleasing recollections
of that gathering, I cannot help dwelling upon the extraordinary difference between
the state of things that then existed and that which we have before us to-day.
The moral of the contrast I shall not seek to enforce. Those, if any there still be,
who despair of the future of our Association may reflect upon it at their leisure ; while
those who believe, as I do, that our Association has no justifiable cause for think-
ing that its work is accomplished, that it had better settle its worldly affairs, and
compose its robes around it in a becoming fashion, before lying down to die, will at
once appreciate the difference.
Yet there is one difference between our proceedings to-day and those of more than
a quarter of a century since which I, personally, do not appreciate. In that remote
and golden age it had not become obligatory on the President of this Section to
prepare beforehand an Address to be delivered to a critical, even though kindly,
audience. A few words of friendly greeting to old faces, and a hearty welcome to
those that were new, with a general statement of the objects of our coming
together, comprised all that was expected from the occupant of the chair. Such
was the case when my predecessor, who was, I may observe, my excellent friend
and colleague, Professor Babington, opened the proceedings of this Section—then
called the Section of Zoology and Botany—at Manchester in 1861; and I am
sure I have reason to envy his happy lot, for, on refreshing my memory by
turning to the Report of that meeting, I find that his introductory ‘ Remarks’
occupy a space of less than eight lines of print. In this respect, but in this only,
I must confess myself dawdator temporis acti, and it having now been for so many
years the practice of your President to deliver an Address on occasions like the
present, I feel that I should he fillimg my position under false pretences did I not
conform to established usage, though I am well aware that what I have to say will,
for many reasons, hardly bear comparison with what has been said by many of my
distinguished predecessors. ;
But to continue the contrast of what took place in this Section at our last
meeting in Manchester with what may be expected to happen now, I would remark
that the year 1861 was one which, when the history of biology comes to be written,
will be found to deserve particular recognition. This is not merely because of the
all-important discovery of Arche@opteryx, for that had not been made known when
the Association met, and did not affect our proceedings here. When we met, it
was a time, so to speak, of ‘slack water’; but slack water is commonly the effect
of two contrary streams, and perhaps I ought to state how this came about.
All present should be aware that it was before the Linnean Society on the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. D2
First of July, 1858, that the stupendous announcement was made of a thsory
which for the first time brought to the notice of biologists a reasonable explana-
tion of the mode by which what had hitherto passed under the name of the
Transmutation of Species could be effected. It is notorious that this announce-
ment attracted but little attention at first, and, though it were easy to account
for this fact, I see no need to occupy your time by so domg. I would, how-
ever, beg your attention to another fact which is by no means notorious. So far
as I am aware, the first zoologist publicly to accept and embrace the theory pro-
pounded on that memorable evening on behalf of Mr. Darwin and Mr. Wallace
was my old friend Canon Tristram, and moreover he did this ere little more than
a twelyemonth had expired.’ To me it will always be a matter of rejoicing that
the adoption of this theory was so early accepted, and additional evidence in its
favour adduced, by one who has devoted so much time and energy to the parti-
eular branch of zoology which has long recommended itself to me; for thereby I
hope that the study of ornithology may be said to have been lifted above its fellows.
This, however, is a digression, for introducing which I trust I may be pardoned.
And now to return to my main business. Late in the autumn of 1859, as you
know, Mr. Darwin’s essay on the ‘ Origin of Species’ appeared—a mere abstract,
as it still remains, of an enormous mass of materials industriously accumulated by
him through many long years—a mass out of which, as he himself has modestly
said, a competent man might have written ‘a splendid book’—but a mass with
which he, chiefly through ill-health, had been unable to deal properly. Yet Iam
not sure that we have any reason to lament the result. The handy size of that
celebrated little volume gave it a power of penetration and circulation that would
not have been possessed by a work of greater bulk, while the studied absence of
technicalities and of reference to scientific authorities in the form of foot-notes
(which last, I need scarcely point out, would have largely increased its dimensions)
brought its closely-reasoned argument within the comprehension of hundreds whom
it would have at once repelled had it been made up of learned phraseology.
Much of what followed on the publication of this work will be in the recollection
of many of my audience, while the rest must have heard of it from their seniors.
The ever-memorable meeting of this Association at Oxford in the summer of 1860
saw the first open conflict between the professors of the new faith and the adherents
of the old one. Far be it from me to blame those among the latter who honestly
stuck to the creed in which they had educated themselves; but my admiration is
for the few dauntless men who, without flinching from the unpopularity of their
cause, flung themselves in the way of obloquy, and impetuously assaulted the ancient
citadel in which the sanctity of ‘Species’ was enshrined and worshipped as a pal-
ladium. However‘ strongly I myself sympathised with them, I cannot fairly state
that the conflict on this occasion was otherwise than a drawn battle; and thus
matters stood when in the following year the Association met in this city. That, asI
have already said, was a time of ‘slack water.’ But though the ancient beliefs were
not much troubled, it was for the last time that they could be said to prevail; and
thus I look upon our meeting in Manchester in 1861 asa crisis in the history of
biology. All the same, the ancient beliefs were not allowed to pass wholly unchal-
lenged; and one thing is especially to be marked—they were challenged by one who
was no naturalist at all, by one who was a severe thinker no less than an active
worker; one who was generally right in his logic, and never wrong in his instinct ;
one who, though a politician, was invariably an honest man—I mean the late Pro-
fessor Fawcett. On this occasion he brought the clearness of his mental vision to
bear upon Mr. Darwin’s theory, with the result that Mr. Darwin’s method of in-
vestigation was shown to be strictly in accordance with the rules of deductive
philosophy, and to throw light where all was dark before.
Now the reason why I have especially mentioned this essay of Professor
Fawcett’s is not merely that the approval of the disputed’ theory by such a man did
not a little contribute to the success which was then impending, but because I have
for a long while maintained that, as a matter of fact, What is now known as the
1 This, October 1859, pp. 429-433.
728 REPORT— 1887.
Darwinian theory did not, except in one small point, require a naturalist—an@
much less naturalists of such eminence as Mr. Darwin and Mr. Wallace—to think
it out and establish its truth. Pray do not for a moment imagine that I wish to
detract from the value of their demonstration of a discovery that is almost unrivalled
in its importance when I say that the demonstration might have been perfectly well
made by any reflective person who was aided by that small amount of information
as to the condition of things around him, which is presumably possessed by every-
body of common sense. It might have been perfectly well made by any of the
sages of antiquity. It might have been as well made by any reasoning man of
modern time, even though he were innocent of the merest rudiments of zoology or
botany ; and, as is admitted, the discovery was partly and almost unconsciously
made by Dr. Wells in 1813, and again by Mr. Patrick Matthew in 1831—neither of
whom pretended to any special knowledge of those branches of science. It is
equally a fact that anyone who applied the doctrine of Malthus, the political
economist‘ to the animal and vegetable populations of the world, could have seen
that what came to be called ‘ Natural Selection’ was the necessary consequence of
the principles enunciated by him ; and we have Mr. Darwin’s acknowledgment that
his reading the ‘ Essay’ of Malthus was with him the turning-point which settled
his conviction as to the soundness of the crude speculations in which he had been
indulging. Moreover, years before Malthus wrote, a great French writer, though
no naturalist, had pointed out, in terms that were mutatis mutandis repeated as
regards plants at a later time by the elder De Candolle, that all animals were per—
petually at war; that each, with a few exceptions, was born to devour others; and
that the males of the same species carried on an internecine war for the females.
The fact of the ‘Struggle for Life’ being thus recognised all the rest should follow,
and really no close acquaintance with natural history was needed to guide an in-
vestigator to the end so far reached.
But in order to see the effect of this principle upon organic life the knowledge
—the peculiar knowledge—of the naturalist was required. This was the know-
ledge of those slight variations which are found in all groups of animals and
plants—a point on which I need not now dwell, for to my present audience it must
be known in thousands of instances. Herein lay the triumph of Mr. Darwin and
Mr. Wallace. That triumph, however, was not celebrated at Manchester. The
question was of such magnitude as to need another year’s incubation, and the
crucial struggle came a twelvemonth later, when the Association met at Cam-
bridge. The victory of the new doctrine was then declared in a way that none
could doubt. 1 have no inclination to join in the pursuit of the fugitives.
But in tracing briefly, as I am now doing, the acceptance of the teaching of
Mr. Darwin and Mr. Wallace, there is one point on which I should like to dwell
for a few moments, because it has, so far as I know, been very much neglected.
This is the great service rendered to the new theory by one who was its most
determined opponent, hy one of whom I wish to speak with the utmost respect, by
one who was thoroughly a philosophical naturalist, and yet pushed his philosophy
to overstep the verge of—I tear I must say—absurdity. I mean the late Professor
Louis Agassiz, whose labours in so many ways deserve far higher praise than it is
in my power to bestow. There must be many here present who will recollect the
time when the question ‘ What is a “ Species’? ’ was always coming up to plague
the mind of every zoologist and botanist. That question never received a definite
answer, and yet every zoologist and botanist of those days felt that an answer
ought to be given to it; for without one they knew that they were sailing on an
unknown sea, and that theirs was likely to be lost labour. The chief reason why no
answer was given lay in the fact that hardly any two zoologists or botanists could
agree as to the kind of reply which should be made, for hardly any two of them
’ Tous les animaux sont perpétuellement en guerre; chaque espéce est née pour
en dévorer une autre. I] n’y a pas jusqu’aux moutons et aux colombes qui n’avalent
une quantité prodigieuse d’animaux imperceptibles. Les males de la méme espéce
se font la guerre pour les femelles, comme Ménélas et Paris. L’air, la terre et les
eaux sont des champs de destruction.— Voltaire, Questions sur Encyclopédie par des
Amateurs, article ‘ Guerre.’
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 729
could agree as to how a ‘Species’ was constituted. It will be enough for me to say
now that Louis Agassiz pinned his faith on every ‘ Species’ being not merely the
result of a single direct act of creation, but, when he found that physical barriers
interposed (as they often do) between two or more parts of the area which the
‘Species’ occupied, he did not hesitate to declare that a ‘Species’ might have
been created directly in several places, at sundry times, and even in vast numbers.
If the same Species of freshwater Fish, for instance, was found in several rivers
which had no intercommunication, it had been, he asserted, separately created in
each. Before his time people had been content to talk of each Species having had
a single birthplace—its own ‘ Centre of Creation ’—but he maintained that many
species must have had several Centres of Creation, and creation was in his mind no
figurative expression. He meant by it, just as Linnzeus before him had meant, a
direct act of God ; in other words his belief was that there had been going on
around us a series of mysterious performances, not one of which had ever been
consciously witnessed by a human eye, but each of which had for its object the
independent formation of a new living being, animal or plant. That is to say that
there had been going on from time indefinite a continuous series of operations which
could only be termed miraculous, since there was no known natural law by means
of which they could be produced. Though the author of this theory was, in the
country of his adoption, regarded as the especial champion of opinions that are
commonly termed orthodox, it is not surprising that many minds revolted from
such a conclusion as it required—a conclusion which they not unfitly deemed a
reductio ad absurdum. Yet the position of Professor Agassiz was perfectly logical
when once his premisses were admitted ; and, more than that, it became obvious to
all clear-seeing men that one of these alternatives must be adopted—either Agassiz’s
logical doctrine of Centres of Creation, or the theory of the Transmutation of
Species, which had been so long condemned because no reasonable explanation of
its modus operandi was known.
I have called these alternative opinions because I believe that no third course
had been suggested by any naturalist, and yet it is hard to say which of them was
most unpalatable to the world at large. On the one hand people were called upon
to believe that Man was in some inexplicable and unaccountable way produced
from a Monad. On the other hand they were called upon to believe that the
inhabitants, vegetable and animal, whether bestial or human, of nearly every
group of islands in the Pacific Ocean were the result of innumerable special acts of
Creation entirely performed within the limits of almost each cluster of coral reefs.
The natural consequence of this was that most people, and even most biologists,
remained in an apathetic if not an unthinking condition on this subject, and went
on as their fathers had done, not caring to trouble themselves in this matter. It
was only a few—an extremely few—among them who ever gave the question
any consideration at all, and these few were not so much the men who had confined
their labours to museums, libraries, or laboratories, but they were, with scarcely an
exception, men who had studied Nature in the field, and had seen her works under
varied aspects in the most distant and diverse climes. They were of the men who
had personally compared the geological formations of the Old World and the New,
men who had circumnavigated the globe, who had surveyed Antarctic volcanoes
or Himalayan snows, who had dredged the depths of Australian oceans or had
explored Amazonian forests. Out of the abundance of their observation and
reflection these men—to this audience I need not name them—in due time delivered
their verdict, and when it was delivered its effect was crushing. The position of
the supporters of the doctrine of ‘Centres of Creation,’ logical as it had seemed,
Was swept away—not of course without a gallant struggle on the part of its
defenders—and the theory of the ‘Transmutation of Species,’ fanciful and un-
reasonable as it had been thought, was under a new name established, the very
fact of its success being an additional proof of, to use Mr. Herbert Spencer's happy
phrase, the ‘ Survival of the Fittest.’
But perhaps some of you have been thinking or whispering to your neighbours,
‘Why should our president be taking up our time by making us listen to all
these platitudes, this old story with which we are all familiar ?’ and if you have
730 REPORT—1887.
been so doing you will have some excuse, but I trust you will think that I also
have some excuse in thus recurring to what may be almost deemed a portion of
ancient history when I state that in my belief this year 1887 will in future be
remembered as that in which ‘The Life and Letters’ of our great biologist,
Charles Darwin, appeared ; and I hope that in a few minutes you will admit that
in accordance with the fitness of things it is meet and right that this should be so.
There can be little doubt that before the end of this year that work*which all
naturalists haye been expecting with so much anxiety will be published, and
published moreover in three languages. Jt can hardly fail to be accounted by
biologists as the chief event of the year. By favour of its author, Mr. Francis
Darwin, I have been allowed to see some of his proof-sheets, and 1am sanguine
that it will not disappoint the expectations of its readers. On one point I venture
to speak with some certainty. The noble character of the man will be made
manifest to the world in words and deeds that cannot be spoken against, and we
may feel assured that in future
Whatever record leap to light,
He never shall be shamed.
He is unsparing of his own mistakes or shortcomings; and, while admitting
with the utmost generosity the assistance he received from others, the dignified
way in which he thought and expressed himself toward the many who attacked
him, often unscrupulously and ina manner which he could not but deeply feel,
will ever redound to his credit, and prove him to have been that great philosopher
which all his friends and adherents would wish to believe him. Do not mistake
me, howeyer, in one respect ; there were times when he ‘did well to be angry’;
but his anger was slowly excited, and his occasional yehemence soon subsided into
his wonted calm. More than all this, you will find that the childlike simplicity
of his mind and the single-heartedness of his devotion to the study of Nature which
characterised the beginning of his scientific career endured unto the end. His ad-
mission at the outset of ‘utter ignorance whether I note the right facts’; his
confession that he was ‘nothing more than a lions’ provider’; his unfeigned
astonishment at discovering that his early observations were of any worth—uare all
of a piece with the humility he subsequently displayed when his success was de-
clared. As he found, one after another, many of his contemporaries and still more
of the younger g generation of naturalists adopting his views, his joy was great ; but
that joy was not alloyed by any feeling of pride. He did not care for making a
conyert to ‘ Darwinism ’—his exultation was that the streneth of truth, of reason,
and of observation had prevailed. In the same lowly spirit he, when at the height
of his fame, expressed his gratitude to those, whosoever they might be, that helped
him in his labours; and, if I might be critical on this point, I should say that his
inherent goodness of heart often caused him to exaggerate the importance of the
help they gave. Nota spark of jealousy was kindled in his mind; and at what
may be considered the most trying moment of all, when the theory he had for
twenty years been testing by every means in his power, the theory on which he
built all his hopes of future recognition, the theory which he not unnaturally be-
lieved to be his peculiar possession—when this theory, I say, was independently
conceived by another naturalist, his conduct was emphatically that of a man of
honour. It pained him acutely to think that this naturalist, a trusted correspondent,
an esteemed philosophical observer, and at the very time a wanderer far from
home, should be deprived of the full glory of his ingenuity; and, but for the counsel
of judicious friends (whose good advice on this occasion is indisputable), Mr.
Darwin would have withdrawn every claim of his own to this great discovery, and
left it entirely to Mr. Wallace! In the history of science and invention I think
there are few cases like this. When you come to read the book you will find that
though he unreservedly placed the matter in the hands of Sir Charles Lyell and of
Sir Joseph Hooker, it was some time before he could reconcile himself to the notion
that they were not unduly fayouring him at the expense of his competitor. Such
was the man! Though you are doubtless all aware of the fact, it would be wrong
in me if I omitted to remind you that Mr. Wallace’s conduct under these circum-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. (31
stances—sufficiently disappointing, as all must admit, to him—was in every way
worthy of Mr. Darwin’s. If in future you should meet with any cynic who may
point the finger of scorn at the petty quarrels in which naturalists unfortunately
at times engage, particularly in regard to the priority of their discoveries, you can
always refer him to this greatest of all cases, where scientific rivalry not only did
not interfere with, but even strengthened, the good-feeling which existed between
two of the most original investigators.
I said but a few minutes since that it was fitting that the memoir of Mr.
Darwin should appear this year—this year of jubilee—and a very remarkable
anniversary I now have to point out to you. I learn from the Memoir that Mr.
Darwin’s pocket-book for 1857—just fifty years ago—has this entry :—
‘In July opened first note-book on Transmutation of Species. Had been greatly
struck from about the month of previous March on character of South American
fossils, and species on Galapagos Archipelago. These facts (especially latter),
origin of all my views.’
Other passages in his already published works confirm this memorandum ; but we
had not hitherto known with certainty when the views originated. We may now,
therefore, celebrate among other jubilees that of Mr. Darwin’s adopting the theory
of the Origin of Species by Natural Selection, though I am bound to tell you that
it was not until a few months later—about the beginning of 1858—that, after
reading Malthus’s work, the full conviction of the truth and sure ground of his
speculative views came upon him.
I would not have my audience disperse with the impression that my business
here is merely to point out what has been done by the genius of the great man of
whose character and labours I have just been speaking. Enormous as are the
strides which he has enabled us to make, you will all admit that it behoves us to
follow in the paths he has indicated. We may depend upon it that what we know
bears a very small proportion to that which we do not know, and I venture to
recall your attention to that subject, which, as I have just said, was the origin of
all his views. That subject is the Geographical Distribution of animals and plants,
not only at the present time, but in bygone ages. As regards Botany, I do not
dare in the presence of so many distinguished authorities to say more than this—
that I believe the greatest and most important results of their labours in this direc-
tion are inadequately known to zoologists, while in Zoology 1am certain that there
are many large groups of whose distribution we are almost entirely ignorant.’ That
excellent work has been done in some groups all will admit, and in regard to the
difficulties which have precluded the investigation of the subject in other groups I
am well aware. But not only do we need further investigation in regard to them, we
want much more correlation of results than we yet possess, and still more a compari-
son of the results obtained by botanical and zoological enquirers. Here there is a wide
field, and a field worthy of cultivation. I do not know that a more competent body
of cultivators can be found than within this section of the British Association, and
if they can be persuaded to make common cause, the study of Biology will be much
advanced. We have been told that it isas useless to investigate the origin of life as
the origin of matter. That may be true or it may not; but it seems to me that to
learn the way in which lite has spread over the globe ought to be within the
capacity of man, and we can hardly learn that way except by far more intercom-
munication of special knowledge than has hitherto been.made. It is evident that
with the existing minute subdivision of biological research the subject is beyond the
power of any one man; but I should rejoice if anything I could say on this occasion
might put in train some alliance between Botanists and Zoologists for the object
I have just suggested. It may be said that we have not sufficient information as to
certain parts of the world to enable such an alliance to effect its work satisfactorily.
1 T say this after having studied Professor Heilprin’s recent work, The Geo-
graphical and Geological Distribution of Animals (International Scientific Series,
1887)—in many respects the fullest on the subject—and also Mr. Helmsley’s admir-
able Introduction to the Botany of the Biologia Centrali-Americana, which will
pam appear. The opportunity of reading the latter I owe to the kindness of Mr.
alvin.
732 REPORT—1887.
If that be the case I am sure you will join with me in thinking that these insuffi-
ciently-known parts of the world should be subjected to a thorough biological
exploration. For many years past I have been accustomed to hear an adage that
‘Property has its duties as well as its rights.’ If I am strongly in favour of the
rights of property, I am no less prepared to exact from it its duties. Various
events have given to this nation rights of property in many parts of the globe. I
think we ought to justify those rights, and there is no better way of doing this
than by performing the corresponding duties. It is incontestable that among the
dependencies of the British Crown there are innumerable places—islands, large and
small, territories the limits of which no geographer or diplomatist can define, and
so forth—of which the fauna and flora have never been scientifically investigated.
It is right, of course, that I should recognise the successful efforts made in many
instances by the directorate of the Royal Gardens at Kew, and to a less extent by
private persons. But why should not a properly organised biological investigation
of all the portions of the empire ke made? You will, I think, all agree that it 1s
our duty to carry out investigations of this kind. Whether they would be better
performed under the superintendence of Her Majesty's Government or not is a
point on which I reserve my opinion, only mentioning that the success which has
attended those instituted by the botanical authorities at Kew leads me to suppose
that an extension of the method there followed might produce results as satisfac-
tory ; but, if this be the course adopted, I must point out that the organisation of
a corresponding zoological and geological directorate will be needed. This matter
I merely throw out for your consideration ; but I would add that if anything is to
be done no time is to be lost.
When on a former occasion (at Glasgow in 1876) I had the honour of address-
ing a Department of this Section, I pointed out the enormous changes that were
swiftly and inevitably coming upon the fauna of many of our colonies. The
fears I then expressed have been fully realised. I am told by Sir Walter Buller
that in New Zealand one may now live for weeks and months without seeing
a single example of its indigenous birds, all of which, in the more settled districts,
haye been supplanted by the aliens that have been imported; while further inland
these last are daily extending their range at the cost of the endemic forms. A
letter I have lately received from Sir James Hector wholly confirms this statement,
and I would ask you to bear in mind that these indigenous species are, with scarcely
an exception, peculiar to that country, and, from every scientific point of view, of
the most instructive character. They supply a link with the past that once lost
can never be recovered. It is therefore incumbent upon us to know all we can
about them before they vanish. I have particularly instanced birds because I
happen to have studied them most ; but pray do not imagine that the same process
of extirpation is not extending to all other classes of animals, or that I take less
interest in their fate. The forms that we are allowing to be killed off, being almost
without exception ancient forms, are just those that will teach us more of the way
in which life has spread over the globe than any other recent forms, and for the
sake of posterity, as well as to escape its reproach, we ought to learn all we can
about them before they go hence and are no more seen.
I have just now applied to these expiring forms of New Zealand the epithet
ancient, and in connexion therewith I would, by way of conclusion, offer a few
remarks on the aspect which the subject of Geographical Distribution presents to
me. Some of us zoologists—I am conscious of having myself been guilty of what
I am about to condemn—hayve been apt to speak of Zoological Regions as if they
were, and always had been, fixed areas. I am persuaded that if we do this we fall
into an error as grievous as that of our predecessors, who venerated the fixity of
Species. One of the best tests of a biologist is his being able to talk or write of
‘ Species’ without believing that the term is more than a convenient counter for
the exchange of ideas, In the same way I hold that a good biologist should talk
or write of ‘Zoological Regions.’ The expression no doubt arose out of the belief,
now scouted by all, in Centres of Creation; and, as sometimes used, the vice of its
birth still clings to it. To my mind the true meaning of the phrase ‘ Zoological
Region’ is that of an area inhabited by a fauna which is, so to speak, a ‘function’
———
i eee
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 733
of the period of its development and prevalence over a great part of the habitable
globe, but at any rate of the period of its reaching the portion of the earth’s surface
where we now find it. One great thing to guard against is the presumption that
the fauna originated within its present area and has been always contained therein.
Thus I take it that the fauna which characterises the New-Zealand Region—for I
follow Professor Huxley in holding that a Region it is fully entitled to be called—
is the comparatively-little changed relic and representative of an early fauna of much
wider range ; that the characteristic fauna of the Australian Region exhibits in the
same way that of a later period; and that of the Neotropical Region of one later
still. But while the first two Regions have each been so long isolated that a large
proportion of their fauna remains essentially unaltered, the last has never been so
completely severed, and has received, doubtless from the north, an infusion of more
recent and therefore stronger forms ; while, perhaps impelled by the rivalry of these
stronger forms, the weaker have blossomed, as it were, into the richness and variety
which so eminently characterise the animal products of Central and South
America. I make no attempt to connect these changes with geological events,
but they will doubtless one day be explained geologically. It is not difficult to
conceive that North America was once inhabited by the ancestors of a large pro-
portion of the present Neotropical fauna, and that the latter was wholly, or almost
wholly, thrust forth—perhaps by glacial action, perhaps by the incursion of stronger
forms from Asia. The small admixture of Neotropical forms that now occur in
North America may have been survivors of this period of stress, or they may be
the descendants of the more ancient forms resuming their lost inheritance. Beyond
the fact that these few Neotropical forms continue to exist in North America, its
fauna seems to be in a broad sense inseparable from that of the Palearctic area,
and, in my belief, is not to be separated from it. The most difficult problems are
those connected with the Ethiopian and Indian (which Mr. Wallace calls the
Oriental) areas ; but I suppose we must regard them as offshoots from a somewhat
earlier condition of the great northern or ‘ Holarctic’ fauna, and as such to repre-
sent a state of things that once existed in Europe and the greater part of Asia. To
pursue this subject—one of most pleasing speculation—would now be impossibie.
I pray you to pardon my prolixity, and I have done.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee on Migration.—See Reports, p. 70.
2. Report of the Committee on the Fauna and Flora of the Cameroons
Mountains.—See Reports, p. 73.
3. Report of the Committee to arrange for the Occupation of a Table at the
Zoological Station at Naples.—See Reports, p. 77.
4, Report of the Committee on the Zoological Station at Granton.—See
Reports, p. 91.
5. Report of the Committee on the Marine Biological Association Laboratory
at Plymouth.—See Reports, p. 59.
6. The Exploration of Liverpool Bay and the Neighbouring Parts of the
drish Sea by the Liverpool Marine Biology Committee. By Professor
W. A. Herpman, D.Sc., 7.0.8.
The work which the L. M. B. C. have set before them is the thorough investi-
gation of the fauna and flora of Liverpool Bay. Their aim is not merely to draw
734 REPORT—1887.
up an accurate list of the species found in this locality, but also to observe and
record the relative numbers, the size, the colours, and the conditions generally of
the specimens, the exact localities in which they are found, the other species of
animals and plants associated with them, and their mutual relations as food,
enemies, or competitors. In this way it is hoped that a mass of observations will
be accumulated which may be of use in determining the geographical distribution
of species, the nature of the conditions which influence species, and the relations
existing between various plants and animals.
The operations of the Committee have been carried on now for three seasons,
and have consisted of dredging expeditions—lasting in some cases for several days
at a time—tow-netting expeditions in small boats, and shore expeditions for the
investigation of the littoral fauna. A considerable extent of the large quad-
rangular area! of the Irish Sea, extending around Liverpool Bay and bounded by
the Isle of Man and the coasts of Anglesey, North Wales, Cheshire, and Lan-
cashire, has now been explored, large collections have been made, and a first
volume of reports has been published ; but the Committee feel that their work will
be a matter of time, and that they must carry on their observations for a number
of years before they can be in a position to draw conclusions in regard to the fauna
they are investigating. In the meantime they are completing the local lists of
species, and they are recording the exact localities of the specimens they collect,
so as to provide the means for detecting any changes in the fauna which may take
place in the future.
A careful record of the habits of the moving animals, such as mollusca, is also
a part of the work of the L. M. B. C.
Tn order to make such observations and for various other purposes it is necessary
to study carefully limited regions in the district and to be able when necessary to
keep some species in captivity. The Committee have therefore during the present
summer established a small observing station or marine laboratory on the north-
east end of Puffin Island, near Anglesey. The shores of the island are rocky and
support an abundant fauna, and good dredging-ground is present in the immediate
vicinity. Altogether the Committee feel that this station, if they can afford to
keep it up, ought to be of very great service to them in carrying on their work.
The object of this paper is merely to give a general idea of the objects
and the plans of work of the Committee, for all further particulars reference
must be made to the detailed reports which they are publishing ;* while those
members of the British Association who take part in the dredging expedition on
Saturday, Sept. 3, will have an opportunity of inspecting the biological station
on Puffin Island and of making a practical acquaintance with the fauna of Liverpool
Bay.
7. On some Copepoda new to Britain found in Liverpool Bay.
By Isaac C. THompson, F'.R.M.S.
The paper supplemented one recording a considerable number of species of
Copepoda new to the district, and itself deals with several species, altogether new
to Britain, found in Liverpool Bay.
The first alluded to is the Lurytemora hirundo, taken on two separate occasions
by the tow net in the Crosby Channel, and hitherto recorded by Giesbrecht as oceur-
ring in one district of the Baltic. In general appearance it resembles the well-
known Temora longicornis of our seas, but the points of divergence are considered by
Giesbrecht sufficient to bring about a division of the genus Temora into the sub-
genera Lurytemora and Halitemora.
Dias discaudatus is another form, new to Britain, found by the author in
1 Generally called for short in the Reports, the L. M. B. C. district.
» The first volume of these (Wuuna of Liverpool Bay, Longmans, 1886) has already
appeared. Future reports will be published in the Proceedings of the Liverpool
Biological Society.
3 Original paper is published in vol. i. Yransactions of Liverpool Biological Society,
1887.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 735
Liverpool Bay, though from its general resemblance to Dias longiremis he considers
it probable that it may have been previously overlooked, the points of difference,
though important, being only distinguished by careful microscopical examination.
Pontella Wollaston’, first described by Sir John Lubbock in 1857, from
specimens taken by him at Weymouth, has not since been recorded as occurring
in British waters until now found in Liverpool Bay. This and the previously
named Copepoda were illustrated by drawings taken from specimens freshly
reserved.
¥ In conclusion the author stated: The presence and distribution of Copepoda
in our seas are most vitally interesting, forming as they unquestionably do by far
the largest proportion of the life of the ocean. And being themselves of the utmost
purifying utility as refuse-gatherers, they transform the same by their internal
biological and chemical laboratories into food for higher orders of pelagic denizens,
these again furnishing in illimitable quantity the food of man.
8. Marine Zoology in Banka Strait, North Celebes.
By Stoney J. Hickson, M.A.
9. Proposed Contributions to the Theory of Variation.
By Patrick GEDDEs.
With reference to a forthcoming more extended discussion of the laws of yaria-
tion (in the article Variation and Selection of the ‘Encyclopedia Britannica’
and elsewhere) the writer desires to submit for discussion (1) an hypothesis of the
internal mechanism of variation in terms of the familiar antagonism between vege-
tation and reproduction, this being treated especially in its bearing on the physio-
logy, morphology, and natural classification of plants; (2) a kindred hypothesis,
but treated with special reference to the animal kingdom, which endeavours to
account (1) for the variations in bulk (2), for at least many cases of the extinction
of species.
10. On the Early ‘Stages in the Development of Antedon Rosacea.
By H. Bury, B.A., F.L.S.
Segmentation is regular. The mesoderm is not formed until after the invagina-
tion of the archenteron, and arises solely from the latter and its derivatives.
Immediately after the closure of the blastopore the archenteron splits into two
halves: (1) anterior, hecomes constricted in the middle and soon divides completely
into the right and left body-cavities; (2) posterior, gives rise to three cavities—
(a) the gut which forms a ring round the constricted part of the peritoneal vesicle ;
(6) the hydrocele on the right-hand side; (c) an unpaired posterior body-cavity.
The ‘yellow cells’ appear before the larva is free. j
The free larva has five ciliated bands, the posterior one being incomplete ven-
trally. The right and left body-cavities are now anterior and posterior respectively :
the left body-cavity forms five longitudinal chambers in the stem; the hydrocele
forms an incomplete ring on the ventral side of the gut: and the unpaired body-
cavity opens to the exterior by a pore (water-pore) on the right-hand side. ‘
The larva now fixes itself by the ‘ pseudoproct.’ The ‘ pseudostome ’ invaginates
and becomes rotated round to the anterior end, where it forms the tentacular cavity.
The right and left body-cavities grow round to the ventral surface, and there form
two longitudinal mesenteries; in the anterior of these the stone canal depends
from the water-vascular ring, and opens into the unpaired body-cavity, which is
now quite small.
The anus subsequently opens (with rare exceptions) in the same interradius as
the stone canal.
Skeleton.—At the top of the stem three underbasals are formed, the smallest of
which is situated in the left dorsal radius, #.e., just opposite the anal interradius.
736 REPORT—1887.
These three plates soon fuse together and with the top stem joint, and they thus
form the angles of the large plate, hitherto mistaken for a simple centrodorsal.
From a comparison of the development of antedon with that of other Echino-
derms it seems almost certain that, as Barrois has suggested, the stalk represents the
preoral lobe.
11. On the True Nature and Function of the Madreporic System in Echino-
dermata. By Dr. M. Hartoe.
This, always regarded hitherto as an apparatus for taking up sea-water, is now
shown to be excretory ; for the following reasons :—
1. Phystological—An animal with a central cavity, or series of cavities, con-
tainine dissolved in their liquid substances of osmotic attraction, must tend to
turgesce like a vegetable cell, and hence require some apparatus to eliminate the
excess of liquid. This is provided by the nephridial system with its ciliated
nephrostomes in most animals, The only organ that can have this function in
echinodermata is the madreporic canal and plate.
2. Morphological.—The madreporic system, ontogenetically formed of an endo-
thelial sac opening through an epilelastic invagination, is equivalent to an Annelid
nephridium,
8. Comparative-—In most Holothurians the respiratory trees are sufficient to
expel the excess of water, and the madreporites have lost direct connection with
the outside ; in the Elasipoda, where the trees are absent, the madreporite opens on
the surface.
4, Demonstrative—In Echinus sphera the ciliary current in the madreporic
canal is seen to carry suspended bodies towards the plate, and this is the true test
of the direction of ciliary currents.
To meet the objection as to how enough liquid was supplied for a general
erection of the tube feet, I would suggest that a slight dilatation of the cavity of
the gut, freely taking up sea-water, would compensate for the withdrawal of liquid
from the ampull.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2."
The following Papers were read : —
1. Discussion in conjunction with Sectivn C on the ‘ Arrangement of
Museums.’
2. On the Vascular System and Colour of Arthropods and Molluses.
By Professor LanxKester.
3. Notes on the Genus Phymosoma. By W. F. R. Wetpon.
4. On the Degeneration of the Olfactry Organ of certain Fishes.
By Professor WIrpERSHEIM.!
Tt has been shown by Johannes Miiller that an olfactory organ similar to that
of other fishes is wanting in many species of the genus Tetrodon, but that in its
lace there is on either side of the head a solid tentacle-like process of the skin,
into which the olfactory nerve extends. ‘This is all that unfil now was known on
the subject.
Having, however, recently looked into the matter, Iam able to give the following
short account of my results.
1 Published in the Festschrift zw Koelliker’s 70ten Geburtstag. Leipzig, 1887.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 137
In Tetrodon hispidus, mmaculatus and nigropunctatus, a tentacle-like process of
the skin is present on either side of the head, between the snout and the eye, the
base of which is surrounded by a narrow circular fold, while distally it becomes
forked so as to form two broad divergent lamellae. The surfaces of these two
lamellae which are turned towards one another, are pigmented, and are covered
over by a network of delicate ridges, in the meshes of which the sensory organs
lie. ‘The outer surfaces of the lamellae are smooth.
Somewhat behind the middle line of the internal wall of the orbit, the exceed-
ingly delicate olfactory nerve passes out of the skull-wall. Directly after its exit,
it becomes surrounded by a thick fibrous sheath, which protects it from the move-
ments of the eyeball and its muscles.
After passing over the superior oblique muscle, the nerve comes to lie dorsally
to the well-developed muscles of the jaws, being closely jammed in between these
and the wall of the skull. At the same time itis protected from the pressure of the
masticatory muscles by a dense fibrous plate.
From this point, instead of passing to the base of an olfactory sac, it extends
directly outwards into the skin, and thence into the above-described cylindrical
nasal process; within this it branches out inte a series of twigs arranged in a
circle around the longitudinal axis of the process.
These nerve-twigs extend throughout each lamella, and pass outwards into the
sensory cells, the arrangement of which is exactly similar to that of segmental
sense organs in the skin of fishes.
The olfactory organ of Tetrodon papua is of special interest, inasmuch as it has
undergone a very considerable degeneration. No trace of projecting nasal folds
can be seen, and for some time I thought that a nasal organ was quite wanting in
this fish. Indeed, from a physiological point of view, this is very likely the case,
but if the brain be examined, the olfactory nerves can be distinguished by the aid
of a lens. They have the form of hair-like threads, the relations of which to the
orbit and to the muscles of the jaws are quite similar to those I have described
above in the case of other Tetrodonts. Instead, however, of branching out into a
process of the skin, they end on a level with the general surface of the integument,
which shows at this point a small pigment-spot. If I had not carefully followed
out the course of the olfactory nerve, this spot would have escaped my notice, for
the skin of the head is provided with numerous similar pigment-spots in this
region. I cannot state with certainty whether a neuro-epithelium was present, as
the specimen was not sufficiently well preserved for histological examination.
Besides the species of Tetrodon already named, I have also examined Tetrodon
pardalis and Diodon maculatus. In hoth of these, nasal processes are also present,
having the form of blunt cones. Instead, however, of being solid, they are hollow,
the enclosed cavity communicating with the exterior by two apertures, through
which a current of water can pass as the fish moves about.
The lining-wall of the cavity is raised into a number of fold-like processes, the
arrangement of which is similar to that of the valves in the conus arteriosus of
certain fishes; in this way a large surface is produced for the sensory organs.
As in the forms already described, a proper olfactory sac is wanting, and the
olfactory nerve passes directly towards the outer skin, finally ending in the nasal
processes.
These observations lead me to the following conclusions :—
The peculiar structure of the olfactory organ in the genus Tetrodon cannot be
looked upon as primitive, but must have arisen secondarily. Tetrodonts must
formerly have possessed a proper olfactory sac, more or less deeply sunk into the
skull. Moreover, this sac was provided with a membranous tube leading to the
exterior, similar to that present in Muraenoids, Polypterus, and many other fishes.
In the course of phylogenetic deyelopment, as the Tetrodonts began to browse
upon corals and hard shells of mollusks, the masticatory muscles must have under-
gone a correspondingly strong development. In consequence of this, the points of
origin of these muscles extended further and further over the anterior part of the
skull, and passed upwards between the snout and eyes. Thus they gradually
eee olfactory sac, which was formerly present in this region; while the
8 oR
738 REPORT—1887.
external nasal tube persisted, although in modified form. The olfactory nerve,
gradually decreasing in size, became at the same time pushed outwards until it
reached the level of the skin.
Thus the condition of things seen in Tetrodon pardalis and Diodon maculatus
was reached. The Schneiderian folds formerly present in the olfactory sac were
then replaced by the above-described processes on the inner wall of the nasal
folds.
The hollow olfactory tube may be considered as a protective arrangement for
the nerve end-organs, but its structure became changed in the course of phylo-
genesis. As the two apertures in its wall gradually became elongated, so as to
reach to the distal end, they eventually caused a splitting of the nasal process into
two solid limbs.
This stage is represented by Tetrodon nigropunctatus, immaculatus, and hispidus,
while a still further regressive development of the organ has taken place in
Tetrodon papua, in which the last stage of the whole process is reached.
It is not impossible that species of Tetrodonts exist in which a still further
degeneration has taken place, so as to cause an entire disappearance of the olfactory
nerve.
These facts seem to me to have a still further interest inasmuch as they show
that the olfactory organ, as well as the eye of vertebrates (compare Gymnophiona,
Proteus, Amblyopsis, &c.), may pass into an unstable condition, should it become
necessary in the interest of the animal as a whole.
Further histological researches must show whether this peculiarly modified
nasal organ in Tetrodonts is still physiologically an olfactory organ, or whether it
has undergone a change of function.
5. On the Torpid State of Protopterus. Ly Professor WirpERSHEIM.!
In July last I received some living specimens of Protopterus, from the river
Gambia, which had been taken during the torpid period and sent to this country,
still enclosed within clods of earth. One of them fad been set free on the previous
day, while two clods were still intact.
In both of the latter, as previously described by Mr. Bartlett, a round aperture
could be seen, leading into a smooth-walled tube about 15 centimétres in length.
Only one of the clods, however, was found to contain a specimen; from the other
the animal had already escaped.
In opening up the clod I intentionally followed a different method from that of
my predecessors, all of whom without exception set free the animal by softening
the earth in water.
Although this is undoubtedly the most delicate method of operation, it renders
it impossible to see the animal undisturbed in its natural position within the
enclosing capsule or so-called cocoon.
I therefore carefully broke away the earth, bit by bit, with a hammer and
chisel till the dark-brown capsule was exposed. This latter was of a tolerably
regular oval form except in that region where the tube abutted against it. In this
place it was flattened and oblique in position, reminding one of the human tym-
panic membrane. This does not correspond with Bartlett’s description, but my
observations closely agree with those of Krauss on this point.
I cannot be certain whether this flattened portion of the capsule was perforated
by an aperture, as described by former observers ; but it seems to me to be in the
highest degree probable that such an aperture was present, inasmuch as the snout
of the animal was closely pressed into the acute angle formed between the flattened
membrane and the rest of the capsule wall.
I have nothing to add to Krauss’s description of the enclosing membrane, but
I hope shortly to be able to give an account of its chemical nature, which is being
determined by my friend Professor Baumann, of Freiburg.
It may, however, be stated with certainty that the capsule consists of a
1 Published in the Anatomischer Anzeiger. Tena, 1887.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 739
hardened secretion, but how and where this secretion, or perhaps better, excretion
is formed is not known.
A clear, glistening substance of varnish-like consistency, which covers the
torpid animal within the capsule and keeps it moist is probably of the same nature.
This calls to mind the arrangement for protecting the young in Epierium described
by the two Sarasins.
The hard external covering may also partially perform a similar function, but it
serves chiefly to protect the animal from compression during the gradual contrac-
tion of the enclosing earth in drying.
Giinther has observed a mucus-secreting apparatus in Ceratodus, which opens to
the exterior near the articulation of the lower jaw, but it is not known whether a
similar structure is present in Profopterus.
The position of the animal during its long period of torpor is very peculiar, and,
as I believe, has not yet been described. I add the following exact details. At first
sight it is impossible to distinguish the different regions of the body, the animal
simply appearing like a mass of irregular form, the spaces between its individual
parts being filled up by the glairy secretion.
With careful examination, however, it is possible to distinguish the snout,
which is enclosed by a broad membrane covering the whole head like a veil. This
membrane, which is covered with spots of pigment, is the broad tail-fin, which,
gradually narowing as it passes backwards, ends in a whip-lash-like filament.
This caudal filament lies close against the left side of the body, near the point of
origin of the hinder extremity, and from here it becomes curved upwards towards
the anterior boundary of the dorsal fin. At this point the body is sharply bent on
itself towards the right side, and the angle thus formed corresponds to the position
of the filament described by Bartlett as arising from the capsule and passing
through its entire diameter from above downwards.
The body then curves forwards and passes into the tail, which, as already
described, covers the head and anterior part of the trunk. The ends of the two
anterior extremities project forwards like the ‘horns’ of a snail between the snout
and the overlying dorsal fin.
During the removal of the capsule the animal remained perfectly motionless,
and only began to move conyulsively on being irritated,
After being put into water an hour passed before the animal was completely
unrolled, and during this time the glairy mucus was drawn out into white
threads.
At first the head was gradually pushed out from under the tail-fin, the move-
ments being very slow, and reminding one of the manner in which a snail extends
itself out of its shell.
This is the only possible method for the animal to begin unrolling itself, for the
caudal filament is so firmly fixed to the body-wall that it can only be loosened
after the whole of the rest of the body is set free.
Soon afterwards bubbles of air, and then water, could be seen passing out of
the gill-opening, and then the animal began to swim about, seeming at once to be
quite at home in the water.
Both specimens are still living in the Anatomical Institute at Freiburg.
In conclusion I must mention two circumstances in connection with the physio-
logy of Protopterus during its torpid state, which seem to me of great interest.
In the neighbourhood of the snout I found a soft greyish-white mass, which
had evidently been excreted by the animal. This resembled the excretion of birds
and reptiles, and I have no doubt that it isto be explained in the same way, and
that the vital functions of the animal go on slowly during the whole period of
torpor. As this mass is deposited close to the small aperture in the capsule, it is
very probable that the latter serves to conduct it to the exterior.
I cannot decide with certainty whether this aperture, as former observers have
supposed, serves also for respiration, but I am able to show that Protopterus
possesses a special respiratory organ in its broad tail-fin.
Over the head and for some distance backwards, where it lies close against the
external wall of the capsule, the tail-jin was of a bright red colour, and an examina-
3B2
740 REPORT—1887.
tion with a lens showed it to be richly provided with distended blood-vessels. The
colour became momentarily still brighter when the capsule was removed.
There can be little doubt that the wall of the capsule in this region is per-
meable, and that the necessary interchange of gases can therefore take place
through it.
This condition of things is similar to that seen in a frog from the Antilles,
Hylodes martinicensis,in which also the broad tail-fin serves as a respiratory organ.
Probably the same thing occurs in the larva of Pipa; and I may also call attention
to another frog, found in Solomon’s Islands, Rana opisthodon, in which a row of
about nine transverse folds of the skin of the abdomen serve for respiration.
According then to my observations, Protopterus has three means of respiration,
and it would be interesting to discover in what relative importance the lungs and
the tail stand to one another in respiration during the torpid period. This would
be all the more interesting inasmuch as various observers differ greatly in their
descriptions of the pulmonary circulation of the Dipnoi.
6. The Larynz and Stomach of Cetacean Embryos.
By Professor D’Arcy THompson.
7. On Haplodiscus Piger. By W.F. R. Wetvon, M.A.,
Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge.
The name Haplodiscus is proposed for a small pelagic organism found by the
author in the Bahama Islands. It is a discvidal animal, about two millimétres in
diameter, convex dorsally and concave ventrally. The body is covered bya cuticle,
and is not ciliated. Within the cuticle is a continuous tunic of nucleated proto-
plasm, in which cell-outlines are not distinguishable, and which sends anastomosing
processes through the cavity of the body. In the centre is a solid mass of proto-
plasm, continuous laterally with the general somatic reticulum, and communicating
with the exterior by a small slit on the ventral surface, through which it can pro-
bably be partially extruded in the form of pseudopodia. This central protoplasmic
mass is the alimentary tract, and generally contains numerous ‘ food-vacuoles,’ in
which are imbedded the remains of various organisms such as copepods, &e.
At the anterior edge of the body is a brain, with a short nerve cord extending
from it on each side.
Reproduction is effected by means of ova and spermatozoa, the animals being
hermaphrodite. The ovaries lie one on each side of the mouth; the single testis
is situated in the middle dorsal line. The male genital opening is median and
posterior ; no female opening was observed.
Yellow cells are plentifully scattered through all the tissues.
8. The Blood-corpuscles of the Cyclostomata.
Dy Professor D’Arcy THompson.
Sus-Srecrion BOTANY.
1. Report on the Disappearance of Native Plants.—See Reports, p. 130.
2. Report of the China Flora Committee.—See Reports, p. 94.
3. Cocoa-nut Pearls. By 8. J. Hicxsoy.
Ge we
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 741
4. Note on the Nitrogenous Nutrition of the Bean.
By 8. H. Vines, D.Sc., £.R.S.
[Preliminary communication. ]
I give here the results of some observations on water-cultures of the bean
(Vicia faba) as a contribution to a subject which has already been much dis-
cussed, but without any generally accepted decision having been arrived at.
It is generally admitted that a leguminous crop does not impoverish the soil as
regards combined nitrogen but rather enriches it. It occurred to me to observe
_the effect of growing beans in solutions, some of which did and some of which did
not contain combined nitrogen.
Young bean-plants, about a week or ten days old, were placed, on June 25,
1887, with their roots in the following solutions (three in solution I., three in solu-
tion II.) :—
Solution I. Solution II.
Grms. Grms.
Distilled water. . 1,000:00 | Distilled water . - 1,000-00
Potassium nitrate . . 1:00 | Potassium phosphate . 50
Calcium sulphate . : 0°50 ay chloride , 50
Magnesium ,, . : 0-50 | Calcium sulphate . : 50
Calcium phosphate : 0-25 | Magnesium ,,. ; ‘50
Calcium phosphate : 25
Analysis of solution II. showed that no combined nitrogen, other than a trace
of free ammonia, was present.
After being ten days in the water-culture the cotyledons were removed from
two plants of I. and IL. respectively.
The plants all grew well, but those in solution II. grew better than those in I. ;
they all flowered, but in no case, possibly owing to non-fertilisation, was any seed
formed.
After flowering, the plants began to dry up: the experiment was closed on
August 12.
After the removal of the plants the liquid in the six pots was examined. The
liquid in the three pots of II. was turbid and of putrescent odour, whereas that in
the three pots I. was comparatively free from turbidity and from smell, The tur-
bidity in pots II. was largely due to bacteria.
For the purpose of tabulation the pots may he distinguished thus :—
a with Cotyledons. is
"1 Ly Without Cotyledons.
*3
IL,
They were examined qualitatively for ammonia and albuminoid nitrogen, and
quantitatively for nitrates. No nitrites were found.
odie ey Ri | Tig IL, | The | is |
Ammonia .| Trace | Trace | Trace Strong | Trace | Strong
Nitrates . 5°51 | Absent 4:35 | Absent 4:36 | Absent | Milligrms.
Albuminoid
Nitrogen. | Present | Present | Present | Present | Present
in 100 cc.
Present
The solutions I.,, I.,, I.,, each contained originally 14 mgrs. N in 100 cc. It will
be noticed that rather less of the combined nitrogen supplied was absorbed by the
plant which retained its cotyledons than by those which were deprived of them.
The general result of the experiment seems to indicate that a bean-plant can obtain
supplies of nitrogen even when growing in a soil in which no combined nitrogen is
. originally present.
It may, however, be objected that plants II, and IT, which retained their
742 REPORT—1887.
cotyledons for ten days in the water-culture absorbed from them sufficient com-
bined nitrogen for their nutrition during the whole period, and to account for the
combined nitrogen present in the liquid after the close of the experiment. This
objection does not seem to be a strong one, but the point cannot be regarded as
finally settled until exact quantitative determinations of the nitrogen in the seed,
in the plant, and in the water have been made. This I hope to do in another
series of experiments,
On removing the plants from the solutions at the close of the experiment I was
struck by certain differences in the roots of those grown in solutions I. and II. The
roots of the plants grown in solution I. were short and thick, and were entirely
destitute of those tubercles which so commonly occur on the roots of Leguminose ;
whereas those of the plants grown in solution II. were long and slender, and bore
a great number of tubercles. The tubercles were present on the roots both in and
out of the liquid.
As I only examined the tubercles when the plants were drying up I am unable
to say anything as to their mode of origin or as to their normal structure. I may
mention one point—that in many cases the contents of the tubercle had been ex-
truded, leaving a delicate sac, traversed by vascular tissue, attached to the root.
The concurrence of abundant tubercles on the roots of Leguminose with a
deficiency of combined nitrogen in the soil has already been dwelt upon by De Vries
and others; but the constancy of this correlation has been denied. My own obser-
vations lead me to support De Vries’ view. I cannot but regard these tubercles as
of great importance in the nutrition of the plant. They are not mere depositories
of proteid substances, as is urged by Tschirch and others, for they are far too small
to be of any significance in this direction. Moreover the structure of the cells,
when active, is not that of depositories. They are full of granular protoplasm,
including the peculiar ‘ bacterioid’ bodies which have been detected in them; but
there does not appear to be any masses of dead proteid resembling the aleurone-
grains of seeds. Judging from the published figures of sections of active tubercles
the ‘ bacterioid’ tissue suggests the actively metabolic tissue of a gland. The ques-
tion is, What is the nature of their metabolic activity ? Do they assimilate free
nitrogen, or do they simply assimilate combined nitrogen formed in the soil (or
solution) by bacteria? Iam inclined to conclude that the former is the case, but
my observations do not warrant a definite decision on this point. I hope to arrive
at it by further experiment.
5. On the Movement of the Leaf of Mimosa Pudica.
By 8S. H. Vinus, D.Sc., F.B.S.
[Preliminary communication. |
The special object in view was to obtain some further information as to the
nature of the mechanism of the movements of the leaf. With this object experi-
ments were made to ascertain the nature of the effects produced with atropin and
physostigmin—alkaloids which are known to produce well-marked effects in the
animal body.
Branches of Mimosa were cut off under water and were transferred to watery
solutions of the alkaloids. The salts used were tartrate of atropin and citrate of
physostigmin ; the solutions were made faintly acid with citric acid.
Various strengths of solution were tried, but the most gradual, and therefore
most instructive, results were obtained with solutions of 0°25 per cent. The quar-
tity of solution used was 10 cc., but in no case was more than 2 or 3 ce. absorbed
during the experiment, which extended over 24 to 30 hours.
Liffect of atropin :—
a. On the main pulvinus.—The movement of the petiole on stimulation be-
comes gradually less and less, until movement ceases altogether, the
petiole retaining the more or less nearly horizontal diurnal position.
b. On the leaflets—The induced movement of the leaflets is at first well
marked, and they readily recover the expanded position; but gradually
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 743
they fail to expand completely after stimulation, until at length they
remain completely closed.
Effect of physostigmen :—
a. On the main pulvinus—tThe effect is gradually to diminish the extent of
the recovery of the pulvinus after stimulation, until eventually the pul-
vinus retains the position characteristic of stimulation.
b. On the leaflets —The closing movement on stimulation becomes less and
less marked, until finally they make no movement at all, but remain
open.
Explanation of results—These results are readily intelligible when they are
considered in connection with the effect of the normal alternation of day and night.
From the researches of Briicke and of Millardet it is known that the tension in the
plant as a whole—that is, the state of expansion of its cells—diminishes during
the day and increases during the night. The closing of the leaflets when evening
comes on is the result of the commencing increase of tension or expansion. The
petiole also rises in the evening, as Pfeffer has shown, when the leaflets and
secondary petioles are removed ; but when these are present the petiole is mechani-
cally depressed for a time, though even then it rises during the night. The leaflets
remain closed during the night. During the day the leaflets remain open, and the
petiole sinks to a more or less nearly horizontal position.
The effect of atropin is just that of darkness; it causes the leaflets to close and
the petiole to maintain a horizontal position, even when stimulated—that is to say,
it promotes the tension, or expansion, of the cells.
Physostigmin, on the contrary, causes a diminution in the state or expansion—
or, in other words, a state of contraction—as is indicated by the position taken up
by the leaflets and by the petiole under its influence. Its effect 1s similar to that
of light.
tt must be borne in mind that, inasmuch as these observations were made
during the day-time, the effect of light must be taken into consideration, The
effect of light is antagonistic to that of atropin, but it coincides with that of phy-
sostigmin. Hence the effect of atropin is not so marked as it probably would he
in darkness.
It was found possible to cause the atropin position to be replaced by the phy-
sostigmin position by transferring a branch from one solution to the other.
The conclusion to be drawn is that it is the protoplasm which is the active
agent in the movement of the leaves, and not either the cell-wall or the cell-sap.
It is not conceivable that either the physical properties of the cell-wall or the
erotic properties of the cell-sap should be affected in such opposite ways by these
alkaloids.
Whilst making the above observations I noted some points which are of general
importance in the physiology of the movements of the leaves of Mimosa, and which
appear to have been overlooked in the descriptions given of the movements under
various conditions :—
1. The fall of the petiole is in no case caused by artificial darkness during the
day-time, but takes place only in the evening when the general tension diminishes.
2. The secondary petioles are likewise unaffected by darkness during the day-
time, and converge only in the evening. Their movement is dependent on the
general diminution of tension.
3. The secondary petioles are sensitive to mechanical stimulation only when the
leaf is young. }
6. On Flagella of Calamus. By Professor F. O. Bowsr.
7. Note on the Stomata and Ligules of Selaginella.
By Professor McNas, M.D., F.L.S.
At the meeting of the Dublin Microscopical Club on March 20, 1884, the
author exhibited leaves of Selaginella densa, Hort. Sim., and S. Powlter?, Wort.
744 REPORT—1 887.
Veitch., showing a triple series of stomata developed along each margin. On re-
cently examining the leaves of seedling plants of S. Krausstana the peculiar mar-
ginal stomata were also found to be present. The stomata are usually developed,
close to the midrib of the leaf, on one, rarely on both sides; but the special mar-
ginal stomata to which the author directed attention form three rows, one on the
actual edge of the leaf and one on the upper, another on the under side. In many
species the margin of the leaf is occupied by a series of elongated sclerous cells ;
but in the three species above mentioned these cells are wanting. The marginal
stomata are easily demonstrated with carbolic acid, which renders the whole part
exceedingly transparent. In such transparent specimens the course of the fibro-
vascular bundles can be readily traced, and the relation of the ligule to the bundle
clearly made out. The bundle is slightly dilated by the addition of two or three
tracheides just below the base of the ligule, and the author suggests that the
ligule is probably an organ of absorption.
8. On the Adventitious Buds on the Leaves of Lachenalia pendula.
By Professor McNas, M.D., F'L.S.
The author exhibited a leaf of Lachenalia pendula gigantea from the Royal
Botanic Garden, Glasnevin, with three adventitious buds close to the base and an
inflorescence of Lachenalia orchioides, with a bulb in the scape some distance below
the first flower of the raceme. Adventitious buds on leaves of monocotyledons
are rare, but occur on Hyacinthus fastigtatus (Pouzolzii), Ornithogalum thyrsoides,
Lucomis regia, Atherurus ternatus, and Malaais paludosa. The buds on both the
species of Lachenalia were first noticed by Mr. F. W. Moore, the Curator of Glas-
nevin Garden, to whom the author was indebted fcr the specimens exhibited.
9. On the Root-spines of Acanthorhiza aculeata, H. Wendl.
By Professor McNan, M.D., F.L.S.
The author exhibited two photographs of the stem of the Mexican palm,
Acanthorhiza aculeata growing in the palm-house in the Royal Botanic Garden, Glas-
nevin, Dublin. The upper part of the stem and bases of the leaves were covered with
the remarkable erect root-spines which characterise the genus. The apogeotropic
nature of the aérial roots is specially remarkable, and the slender erect main spine
contrasts with the thick descending roots which fix the stem to the soil. Triartea
ferox also possesses erect root-spines, while in the figure of Acanthorhiza Warcewiczii
(Flora Brasiliensis, pl. 182) the spines are spreading or depressed. The structure of
these roots, and the absence of root-caps, has been described by Friedrich in the
‘ Acta Horti Petropolitani,’ vol. vii. p. 535.
10. On the Gramineous Herbage of Water Meadows.
By Professor W. Fream, B.Sc., F.L.S., F.G.S.
The land on either side of the river Avon, flowing southward through Wiltshire
and South Hants to enter the sea at Christchurch, is extensively laid out in water-
meadows, of which the soil and the system of irrigation are described. The flora
of these meadows is interesting, inasmuch as it is the result of a long-continued
uniformity of conditions, the intermittent system of flooding rendering the area
practically independent of variations in the rainfall, and to some extent counteract-
ing the influence of extremes of temperature.
The herbage is more exclusively gramineous than is the case on ordinary
meadow land. There are at least sixty non-gramineous species, which are thus
distributed :— Thalamiflore 8, Calyciflore 15, Corolliflore 27, Incomplete 5, Mono-
cotyledones 5.
* Published in extenso in the Land Agents’ Record.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 745
The grasses comprise the following 26 species :—
Phalaris arundinacea, L. *Briza media, L.
*Anthoxanthum odoratum, L. Poa annua, lL.
Alopecurus geniculatus, L. *Poa pratensis, L.
Sapieaes ple L. ies ita alee J
eum pratense, Li. yceria aquatica, Sm,
Agrostis alba, L. Glyceria fluitans, Br., et var
* Agrostis vulgaris, With. Festuca duriuscula, L.
Aira cespitosa, Li. Festuca elatior, Li.
* Holcus lanatus, L. *Festuca pratensis, Huds.
* Avena flavescens, I. Festuca loliacea, Huds.
* Arrhenatherum avenaceum, Beauv. Bromus racemosus, L.
Phragmites communis, Trin. *Bromus mollis, L.
*Cynosurus cristatus, L. *Lolium perenne, L.
Another list is given, numbering twenty-five species, of grasses growiug in the
same locality, but never appearing upon the water-meadows. The cause of their
absence is discussed; the behaviour of two of them, Catabrosa aquatica, Beauy.,
and Dactylis glomerata, L., is found difficult to explain.
The Graminee of the water-meadows are next contrasted with those occurring
upon very old non-irrigated grass land in Rothamsted Park, Hertfordshire (‘ Phil.
Trans.,’ Part IV., 1882), where twenty species have been recorded. Thirteen
species, present both on the water-meadows and in Rothamsted Park, are distin-
guished by means of asterisks in the above list. Three Rothamsted species, Avena
pubescens, Huds., Dactylis glomerata, and Festuca ovina, L., are not found upon the
water-meadows. Seven water-meadow species do not occur at Rothamsted, viz.,
Phalaris arundinacea, Alopecurus geniculatus, Agrostis alba, Phragmites communis,
Glyceria fluitans, G', aquatica, and Bromus racemosus.
The struggle for existence amongst the water-meadow grasses is discussed, and
various morphological and physiological peculiarities of different species are noticed,
particularly in their relation to this struggle. The local distribution of certain
species, even within the limits of the meadows, is also mentioned.
Three species, Lolium perenne, Festuca pratensis, and Glycera fluitans, exhibit
numerous variations, which are described.
The hay crop is probably of far more constant botanical composition than that
of ordinary meadows, whereon it differs markedly (‘ Phil. Trans.,’ Part I., 1880)
with the character of the season. On the water-meadows the effect of seasonal
variations in rainfall is largely eliminated, so that temperature and the duration
of sunlight become the dominating factors. Assuming that, in accordance with the
researches of Boussingault, Gilbert, Risler, and Hervé-Mangon, it requires a cer-
tain total amount of heat above an ascertainable minimum temperature to ripen
the seed of any given plant, this amount will be the earlier acquired the hotter the
season, and certain species will benefit to the extent that more of their seed will
fall to the ground, and so they gain an advantage in the struggle.
Agriculturally Bromus and Holcus are the most objectionable of the water-
meadow grasses. The former, being annual, might be reduced in quantity by
early mowing year after year; this, however, might only serve to stimulate the
vegetative growth of the latter.
11. Juncus Alpinus, Vill., as new to Britain. By Cartes Balter.
The author reported to the Section the discovery of this plant at Blair Athole,
in Perthshire, by Dr. F. Buchanan White, of Perth, who had sent an example for
exhibition to the Section.
12. Studies on some New Micro-orqanisms obtained from Air. By Mrs.
Percy Franxianp and Percy F. Franxianp, Ph.D., B.Sc. (Lond.),
F.C.8., F.I.C., Assoc. Royal School of Mines.
In some papers on the micro-organisms present in air, previously communicated
to the Royal Society by one of us, the relative abundance of microbes in the air of
746 REPORT—1887.
different places has been called attention to, and the methods of experiment fully
described. As these investigations were carried out with the aid of solid nourish-
ing media, we were able to obtain a collection of pure cultivations of a number of
micro-organisms derived directly from the air. It is not unnatural that the brilliant
discoveries in connection with the etiology of infectious diseases should have ab-
sorbed the lion’s share of the attention of investigators in the field of bacteriology,
and that the non-pathogenic organisms should have come to be regarded as
comparatively uninteresting by the side of their more formidable brethren. But
the conversion of sugar into alcohol, the decomposition of nitrogenous organic
matter with elimination of ammonia, the oxidation of ammonia to nitrous and
nitric acids, besides many other natural transformations which are effected through
the agency of such micro-organisms, are certainly not second in importance to the
results, terrible as they often are, achieved by the pathogenic forms. The organisms
producing the above-mentioned changes are known to be present in the air, and
there can be little doubt that the numerous other aérial varieties will in the future
be found to discharge important duties in the laboratory of Nature.
We have provisionally given names to the various forms, by which we have
endeavoured to indicate some striking peculiarity which the organisms present when
examined either in their cultivations or under the microscope.
(1) Micrococcus carnicolor.—This is a micrococcus which, when microscopically
examined under a high power (x 1000), is seen to consist of almost round cocci,
varying in size from ‘5 » to about 15, The larger forms almost invariably exhibit
a division. It produces on gelatine-peptone a flesh-coloured expansion, and only
liquefies the gelatine in very old cultivations. On agar-agar it grows rapidly, pro-
ducing the same characteristic shining flesh-coloured expansion. In broth the
liquid is clear, free from pellicle, and has a pinkish deposit at the bottom of the
tube. When plate-cultivated, the colonies to which it gives rise are seen to be of
a faint pink colour. Under the microscope those in the depth are almost perfectly
circular and smooth-edged, whilst on the surface they form a thin, almost colourless
expansion, which, later, acquires the characteristic pink tint.
(2) Micrococcus albus.—This is seen under a high power to consist of cocci
varying in size from ‘8 to 15, the larger ones presenting a division. On gela-
tine-peptone it produces a white shining expansion, with a lobular and smooth edge.
It does not liquefy the gelatine. On agar-agar it forms a faintly white, almost
colourless, surface-expansion. In broth it renders it very slightly turbid, produces
no pellicle, and forms a yellowish-white deposit. The colonies look like small milk-
white discs, and under the microscope appear circular and with a sharp edge.
(3) Streptococcus liquefaciens—This is a small micrococcus, varying in size
from ‘5 p to ‘8, which hang together in short chains. It liquefies the gelatine
slowly, producing a light lemon-yellow deposit. On agar-agar it grows slowly,
producing an almost colourless shining expansion. In broth it produces a dirty
yellowish-white deposit, the liquid remaining clear and free from pellicle. The
colonies appear as yellowish pin-heads on the surface, each being surrounded by a
slight depression. Under the microscope they are seen to be not always circular,
but the edge is smooth.
(4) Sareina lutea.—Under a high power there are seen large cocci mostly
grouped together in cubical packets of four or more. It is best seen when lightly
stained with methylene-blue. On gelatine it produces a strong lemon-yellow pig-
ment, and causes very slow liquefaction of the medium. On agar-agar this cha-
racteristic lemon-yellow pigment is again produced. In broth the liquid is clear
and free from pellicle, but it has formed a lemon-yellow deposit. The colonies
appear as small yellow centres, whilst under the microscope they are seen to be
irregular in shape with a nearly smooth edge.
(5) Sarcina aurantiaca.—The packets which this organism forms are seen to be
much smaller than those of Sarcina lutea. It liquefies the gelatine and forms a
flocculent orange deposit. On agar-agar it. grows rapidly, producing a strong orange
pigment. In broth it renders the liquid turbid and forms an orange deposit. The
colonies appear as small, round, yellow dots, which exhibit a circular depression.
Under the microscope they are seen to be circular, with a slightly denticulated edge.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 747
(6) Sarcina iquefaciens—Under a high power it much resembles Sarcina lutea.
It liquefies the gelatine, however, much more rapidly, whilst on agar-agar its
growth is very rapid, producing an almost colourless (very faintly green) expansion.
In broth the liquid is clear, free from pellicle, with a deposit which later becomes
of an orange colour. The colonies appear very faintly green, and form slowly a
surface-depression. Under the microscope they are highly irregular in contour, with
a denticulated and lobular edge.
(7) Micrococcus gigas.—This is seen to be a large micrococcus, sometimes as
much as 17 » in diameter: they are frequently adherent in pairs. It liquefies the
gelatine slowly, rendering it turbid. On agar-agar it forms a cream-yellow expan-
sion. In broth it produces a whitish deposit, the liquid being clear and free from
pellicle. The colonies appear as pin-heads of a faint cream colour, which cause a
depression in the gelatine. Under the microscope they are seen to be circular in
shape, with a slightly irregular edge and a cloudy centre.
(8) Micrococcus chryseus.—This is a micrococcus varying in size, going up to
lp in diameter. The largest cells exhibit a division. It liquefies the gelatine
slowly, the depression being filled with semi-liquid cream-coloured matter. On
agar-agar it forms a shining expansion of a light orange colour. In broth it pro-
duces a dirty white deposit, the liquid remaining clear and free from pellicle. The
colonies appear as pin-heads of a yellowish colour. Under the microscope they are
seen to be generally round, the more developed colonies showing a finely granular
edge.
(1) Bacillus aurescens—This is seen under a high power to be a short bacillus
occurring singly, in pairs, and in threads of three and four. The individual bacilli
are from three to five times as long as broad, with rounded ends. In drop-cultiva-
tions they exhibit vigorous vibratory and rotatory motion, but no movement of
translation was observed. When grown on gelatine it forms a light orange-coloured,
dry, and much crumpled expansion. It does not liquefy the gelatine. On agar-
agar it forms also a dry, light-orange surface-growth. In broth the liquid is clear ;
there is a deposit of cream-yellow matter, and the surface is covered with a delicate
eream-yellow pellicle. The colonies appear as pin-heads of a faint orange colour.
Under the microscope they are seen to be not perfectly circular, and have a very
slightly jagged edge.
(2) Bacillus aureus.—With a high power this is seen to be a bacillus forming
fine graceful threads, which are considerably longer than those formed by Bacillus
aurescens. In drop-cultivations they exhibit only vibratory motion. On gelatine
it forms a dry crumpled expansion, which is of a much deeper orange colour than
B. aurescens. In old cultivations slight liquefaction of the gelatine takes place.
On agar-agar it forms an orange growth, which is less crumpled and less dry in
appearance, but deeper in colour than that of B. aurescens. In broth it resembles
B. aurescens, but the deposit and pellicle are deeper in colour. The colonies differ
little from B. aurescens, except that they are deeper in colour and more rapid in
their growth.
(8) Bacillus cttreus—This is seen under a high power to be a short fat
bacillus, about one-and-a-half to twice as long as broad. Sometimes they bang
together in chains of three and four. The average length of a pair is about 3:4 p ;
the ends are rounded and sometimes pointed, especially in those cases where
division has taken place. Often it assumes forms of peculiar shape, some of the
bacilli being bent and often club-shaped. It is non-motile. On gelatine it grows
slowly, producing shining and smooth lemon-yellow expansion. On agar-agar it
forms a moist, shining, sulphur-yellow expansion, When grown in broth the liquid
remains clear, free from pellicle, and forms a slight yellowish deposit at the bottom.
The colonies appear as dots of a strong yellow colour. Under the microscope they
are more or less circular in shape, with an almost smooth edge.
(4) Bacillus plicatus—Under a high power this is seen to be a very minute
bacillus about 14 times as long as broad. It forms short threads, and is very
motile. No spore-formation was observed. It forms a much crumpled and folded
greyish expansion, the surface of which is abundantly pitted and excavated. No
liquefaction of the gelatine takes place. On agar-agar it grows very similarly, only
748 REPORT—1887.
the expansion is rather more moist. In broth it renders the liquid very slightly
turbid, causing a dirty white deposit, and forms on the surface a tough, irregular
pellicle. The larger colonies, which are on the surface, exhibit an indentation in
the centre; as growth proceeds the centre remains depressed, whilst the edge
becomes irregularly folded and raised, until at length the colony is only attached
to the gelatine by a comparatively narrow portion of the growth. The substance
of the colony is very tough in character. Under the microscope the small colonies
have a rough, irregular edge, and vary in shape and degree of roundness. The
larger colonies are very irregular in shape.
(5) Bacillus chlorinus.—This is seen to be a very short bacillus, varying from
‘5 to 1p in length, and about half as broad as long; the ends are rounded.
It occurs singly and in short chains. Only vibratory motion was observed. It
liquefies gelatine slowly, producing a lemon-yellow deposit. On agar-agar it pro-
duces a strong, almost uniform, shining surface-growth of a greenish-yellow colour.
In broth it renders the liquid slightly turbid, and produces a dirty-yellow deposit ;
no pellicle is formed. The colonies form shining greenish expansions. Under the
microscope they are seen to have a thin, smooth edge, with very fine granular contents.
(6) Bacillus polymorphus.—This organism exhibits a great variety of forms,
even in cultivations only one day old. Small fat bacilli, almost like micrococci, are
found; then there are longer forms, frequently occurring in pairs and also forming
strings of irregular thickness. These strings show frequently no signs of division,
and sometimes reach 1°7 in length. ‘The isolated bacilli are ‘8p in length
and nearly as wide. All these various forms were obtained from one and the same
colony. Vibratory motion only was observed. On gelatine it grows slowly, pro-
ducing an expansion regular in its shape and minutely serrated at the edge. The
surface of the growth is white, but as the cultivation gets older the centre becomes
tinted slightly yellow. No liquefaction takes place. On agar-agar it grows also
with a highly serrated edge. In broth it forms a white deposit and produces a thin
cloudy-white pellicle on the surface. The colonies are circular and bluish-white,
with a small yellow spot in the centre. On the surface they form pin-heads,
Under the microscope the surface colonies are seen to be circular, with an irregu-
larly corrugated edge. The central portion is cloudy and surrounded by a distinct
ring. The smaller colonies in the depth are very irregular in shape and resemble
the corolla of a flower.
(7) Bacillus profusus.—This is seen to be a short fat bacillus with rounded ends.
The length reaches about 1°7 and the width about ‘5p, but its dimensions
are very variable. They only exbibit vibratory motion. On gelatine it spreads
over the surface in a thin layer, which has a beautiful opalescent appearance when
viewed by transmitted light. On agar-agar it forms a much thicker growth, form-
ing a smooth whitish lobular expansion. In broth it forms a whitish deposit,
whilst on the surface it produces thin granular floating matter. The colonies form
an opalescent expansion on the surface, with a very irregular contour. Under the
microscope the surface colonies exhibit a dense centre surrounded by a very thin
granular expansion haying a highly irregular contour. Against the light these
surface colonies are of a beautiful azure-blue colour.
(8) Bacillus pestifer—This is seen to be a large thick bacillus about 3:4» in
length and from ‘8p to 1:7 in thickness. It forms threads sometimes of
great length, which give rise to winding vermiform figures. Their movement is
slow and undulating, the single bacilli exhibiting most motility. No spore-formation
was observed. In gelatine it produces an almost colourless feathery expansion,
which causes slow liquefaction of the medium. On agar-agar it forms a moist and
shining grey-white expansion, which sometimes becomes very much wrinkled. In
broth the liquid is turbid, free from pellicle. A small quantity of white deposit is
formed. The colonies appear as white specks only to the naked eye, but under the
microscope they are seen to be very irregular in contour, consisting of threads
branching into the surrounding gelatine; later the centre becomes very dark and
cloudy, but the edge remains light. Later these feathery contours can be seen with
an ordinary magnifying glass, In all cultivations this organism gives rise to a most
disagreeable odour, somewhat resembling that of putrid blood.
: TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 749
(9) Bacillus levs.—This is seen to be a bacillus whose average length is 1-7 to
2°54, and is about five times as long as broad: the ends are distinctly rounded.
It occurs singly, in pairs, and occasionally in threads. It forms spores nearly as
long as the bacillus itself. It exhibited all the well-known forms of Bacillus
subtilis, but on a much smaller scale. It is very motile. It liquefies the gelatine,
rendering it turbid, producing a flocculent deposit and forming a tough, greyish,
wrinkled pellicle on the surface. On agar-agar it forms a moist, shining, greyish-
white surface-expansion, which grows quickly over the whole agar-agar. It
renders the broth at first turbid, but it subsequently becomes clear, a thin, granu-
lar pellicle forms on the surface, and there is a dirty-white flocculent deposit. The
colonies appear as small white dots, which subsequently liquefy the gelatine. Under
the microscope the depth colonies have a smooth edge which is irregular in shape.
Those on the surface exhibit a very fine thin film, of irregular shape, extending
from a small centre.
(10) Bacillus cereus.—The individual bacilli are from 3:4 p to 12 p in length ;
it also presents thickened forms about 3:4 long and 1:7 wide. The ends of
the bacillus are generally slightly rounded, whilst some are quite square. It forms
threads which are very variable in length. It also produces spores and is motile.
It liquefies the gelatine very rapidly and forms a pellicle on the surface, and
produces a flocculent deposit. On agar-agar it forms a smooth, grey-white, wax-
like expansion. It renders the broth turbid, and forms a pellicle on the surface.
The colonies are very characteristic. When small (under the microscope) they
appear as round or oval woolly masses with a finely spinose edge, from which, in
many cases, long whip-like and spirally-coiled threads extend into the surrounding
gelatine. Sometimes on reaching the surface they give rise to highly irregular
filamentous growths consisting of bands of fine thread. Subsequently the whole
plate becomes liquefied.
(11) Bacillus subtilis —Under a high power the individual bacilli are seen to
vary in length from 1:7 » to 6:8 », whilst in width they are about 1:7; the ends
are slightly rounded, but sometimes nearly rectangular. Prior to spore-formation
the bacilli become thicker and more square. It forms threads which are frequently
of great length. It is very motile. It liquefies the gelatine, forming a tough white
pellicle on the surface, On agar-agar it rapidly grows over the surface, forming a
white opaque expansion, which soon becomes dry and copiously wrinkled. In broth
it renders the liquid turbid, giving rise to a white deposit, and forming a pellicle on
the surface. It produces colonies of very characteristic appearance, of which only
the finely spinose edge colonies have been previously described. In addition it
forms what may be called whip-colonics, from the curiously twisted threads, like
the lash of a whip, which grow out from a compact centre. Another variety are
the meander-colonies, which consist of parallel bands of threads meandering in the
‘most capricious manner over the surface of the gelatine. Subsequently the whole
plate becomes liquefied.
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Recent Researches on Earthworms. By W.B. Brennan, D.Sc.
I. The genera (other than Lumbricus) formed before Perrier’s work in 1872 must
be, in most cases discarded, as only external features were noted. Only
Hoffmeister’s Criodrilus and Schmarda’s Pericheta are now retained.
II, Perrier described and figured the external and internal anatomy of eleven
genera: Anteus, Titanus, Rhinodrilus, Eudrilus, Periony2, Digaster, Monili-
gaster, Urocheta, Pontodrilus, Plutellus, Acanthodrijus. But his arrange-
ment of these into Preclitelliani, Intraclitelliari, Postclitelliani, Aclitelliani
is now seen to be unnatural.
750 nREPORT—1887.
III. More recent authors, and the genera formed by them—Beddard: Typheus,
Thamnodrilus, Microcheta. Benham: Diacheta, Urobenus, Trigaster.
Fletcher: Didymogaster, Cryptodrilus, Notoscolex. Various other observa-
tions by these, and by Bourne, Eisen, Horst, and Rosa, &c.
IV. Geographical distribution of these genera.
V. Description of primitive earthworm, with—
a. Complete circle of sete.
6. Numerous nephridia.
ec. Short clitellum.
d. Single pair of testes, seminal reservoirs, ovaries, ec.
e. Nephridia modified as genital ducts,
f. Gizzard and typhlosole and intestinal glands.
VI. Arguments in favour of the above statements, drawn from—
a. Arrangement of sete in Pericheta, Diacheta, Urocheta, penial set
of Acanthodrilus, scattered setae of many species.
6. Numerous nephridia of Perichzetee, and nephridia of A. multiporus.
Alternation of nephridia in Plutellus, Lankester’s theory sup-
ported.
ec. Short clitellum of many existing worms and in river worms.
d. Genital system in Urochzeta, Diacheeta, &c., with one pair testes, &c.
Increased production of spermatozoa necessitates increased means of
removal. Manner of modification of nephridia, as sperm-ducts and
spermathecze.
VII. Comparative morphology considered very briefly. Form, clitellum, sete,
position of malepore. Genital system in—
1. Lumbricide, &c.
2, Perichetide, &c.
3. Titanus, &c.
4, Eudrilus.
5. Moniligaster.
Alimentary system—degeneration of Pontodrilus and Criodrilus,
Vascular system—double dorsal vessel in Acanthodrilus sp., Microcheta,
and young Criodrilus.
2. The Problem of the Hop-plant Louse (Phorodon humuli, Scurank) in
Lurope and America. By C. V. Ritey, M.A., Ph.D.
The author has been for several years carrying on investigations with a view of
ascertaining the full annual life-history of Phorodon humuli, and especially with a
view of settling the hitherto mooted question as to its winter life. The importance of
the inquiry, both from the economic and the scientific sides, is self-evident. The hop
crop, in all parts of Europe where it is grown, and especially in England, annually
suffers more or less from the ravages of this its worst insect enemy, and in some years
is a total failure. The same is true in North America, at least east of the Rocky
Mountains, and last year the injuries of this Phorodon in the hop-growing regions
of the State of New York were so great that many hop-yards were abandoned and
have since been ploughed up; while but 10 per cent. of an average crop was har-
vested. From the purely scientific side, entomologists, notwithstanding the great
interest attaching to the subject, have been divided in opinion as to the identity, or
specific relationship, of the hop Phorodon and one that occurs on Prunus, while
the complete annual cycle of the insect’s life has remained a mystery. After full
and satisfactory investigations the writer has satisfied himself that, contrary to the
prevailing impression among hop-growers and previous investigators, the Hop-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. Gar
plant Louse does not hibernate underground on the roots of the hop; nor in, on, or
about anything in the hop-yard; but that, upon the advent of the first severe
frosts, the hop-plant and the hop-yards are entirely cleared of the species in any
form. I find that all statements to the contrary in America are based on misap-
prehension, or mistaken identity of species, and I believe (though admitting the
possibility of variation in this respect in milder climates) that the same will be
found to hold true in England, where hibernation on the hop-root has been accepted
by high authority. The positive statements made about eggs being laid in autumn,
whether on roots or upon the bines left in cutting, or which are carted away, are
based on conjecture, and have been blindly copied without credit by one writer
from another, a practice too common among secondhand writers on economic ento-
mology.
The conjectures of some of the best students of Aphidology that Phorodon
humuli had a form (mahaleb, Fonsc.) living on Prunus, and that there was a conse-
- quent migration from one plant to the other, I have positively proved to be correct,
by direct colonising from Prunus to Humulus, and by continuous rearing from the
original stem-mother hatched from the winter egg.
The observations have been made on growing plants and invivaria at Washington,
and checked by others made simultaneously in hop-yards at Richfield Springs, N.Y.
An incident may here be recorded as illustrating the effect of meteorological extremes
upon aphides. ‘The extreme heat (over 100° F.) and dryness of July 17th and 18th
lulled every one of the insects under observation at Washington, entirely clearing
the plants. The economic bearing of such exceptional phenomena, as also of the
biologic observations made, is readily understood.
The more important conclusions from the studies so far made are thus summed
up in a paper which I had the honour to read before the American Association at
its recent meeting in New York :—
1. Phorodon humuli hibernates in the winter-egg state, this erg being fastened
to the twigs (generally the previous year’s growth) of different varieties and species
of Prunus, both wild and cultivated. The ege is ovoid and 0:04 mm, long, green
when first laid, but polished black subsequently.
2. The annual life-cycle is begun upon Prunus by the stem-mother, which
hatches from this winter-egg. This stem-mother is stouter than the individuals of
any of the other generations, with the legs, antennz, and honey-tubes relatively
shorter, while the cornicles between the antenne are sub-obsolete. The colour is
uniform pale green, with bright red eyes and faintly dusky tarsi.
3, Three parthenogenetic generations are produced upon Prunus, the second at
once distinguished by its more elongate form, much longer members, distinct cor-
nicles, and markings of darker green; while the third (or typical mahaleb form)
becomes winged, and instinctively abandons the Plum and migrates to Humulus.
The habit of moving from plant to plant after giving birth to an individual, and
thus scattering the germs of infection on Humulus, is well marked in this winced
generation.
4. During the development of the three plum-feeding generations, the Hop is
always free and, subsequently, until the return migration, the Plum becomes more or
less fully free from infection by this species.
5. A number of parthenogenetic wingless generations are produced on the Hop
(seven, or the tenth from the stem-mother on Plum having been traced up to
August 5th, and advices of the eleventh up to August 19th having been received
since my arrival in England); and, finally, there is a return migration of winced
females to tte Plum in autumn. The wingless Hop generations are not only in-
gine of migrating to Plum, but do not thrive upon it when artificially transferred
thereto. -
6. Exact observations are not yet complete as to the full number of generations
produced upon the Hop before the winged return migrant appears, and another
month’s careful watching and experiment is needed to fill this hiatus in the annual
cycle, as also to ascertain the exact number of generations produced in autumn on
the Plum. From knowledge extant and previous general observation, the facts
will probably prove to be as follows :—-
752 REPORT—1887.
7. The eleventh or twelfth generation will produce winged females (from the
middle to the end of August), which will deposit their young upon the Plum; and
these will become the only sexed individuals of the year—the male winged and the
female wingless, the latter after coition consigning a few impregnated or- winter-
eggs to the twigs.
8. At the date of writing (August 5th) the first femaleson Hop were still alive
and breeding, having existed two months. There is, consequently, an increasing
admixture of generations from the first on Hop until frost overtakes the species in
all conditions and sweeps from the hop-yards all individuals alike, perpetuating in
the ege state those only which reach the sexual condition on the Plum.
9. Each parthenogenetic female is capable of producing on an average one hun-
dred young (the stem-mother probably being more prolific) at the rate of one to
six, or an average of three per day, under favourable conditions. Each generation
begins to breed about the eighth day after birth, so that the issue from a single
individual easily runs up, in the course of the summer, to trillions. The number of
leaves (700 hills, each with two poles and two vines) to an acre of Hops, as grown
in the United States, will not, on the average, much exceed a million before the
period of blooming or burring; so that the issue from a single stem-mother may,
under favouring circumstances, blight hundreds of acres in the course of two or
three months.
10. While meteorological conditions may materially affect the increase and
power for injury of the species, these are far more truly predetermined and
influenced by its natural enemies, many of which have been studied and will be
described.
11. The slight colorational differences, as also the structural differences, includ-
ing the variation in the cornicles on head and basal joints of antenns, whether
upon Plum or Hop, are peculiarities of brood, and have no specific importance what-
ever.
12. The exact knowledge thus gained simplifies the protection of the Hop-plant
from Phorodon attack. Preventive measures should consist in destroying the
insect on Plum in early spring where the cultivation of this fruit is desired,
and the extermination of the wild trees in the woods wherever the Hop interest is
paramount; also in avoiding the introduction of the pest into new Hop countries
in the egg state upon plum cuttings or scions. Direct treatment is simplified by the
fact that the careful grower is independent of slovenly neighbours, infection from
one hop-yard to another not taking place.
Experiments still under way have shown that there are many effective remedies,
and that the ordinary kerosene emulsion diluted with 25 parts of water. and
sprayed with the cyclone nozzle; or a soap made by boiling 11b. of pure potash
in 8 pints of fish oil and 3 gallons of water, and this dissolved in 8 gallons of water,
and sprayed in the same way—are thoroughly effectual remedies, and leave the plant
uninjured. The former costs 75 cents, the latter 30 cents, per acre, plus the time
of two men for three hours, plus appliances. The object of further‘experimentation
now being carried on is to simplify and reduce the cost of these last to a minimum.
As they consist, however, essentially of a portable tank and a force pump with hose
and spraying attachment which, together, need not involve a greater first outlay
than $5 to $10, and as every American Hop-grower can afford to expend the larger
sum for the protection of a single acre, there is no longer any excuse for allowing
this pest to get the better of us.
It is not my purpose, however, to enter into aphidicide details in this commu~
nication, which I will conclude by brief reference to the bearings of these
discoveries in America on the problem in Great Britain. The most comprehensive
and satisfactory review of the knowledge possessed on the subject in England that
has come to my notice, is that by my esteemed friend and correspondent, Miss
Eleanor A. Ormerod, consulting entomologist of your Royal Agricultural Society,
in her ‘Report of Observations of Injurious Insects,’ &c., made in 1885. So far
as her own careful observations are concerned they fully accord with the facts
here set forth; but on the authority of others, and especially on the evidence of
Mr. C. Whitehead, who reported finding young lice and large viviparous females on
~
———
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 753
Hop-shoots as early as March 29, and that of Mr. A. Ward, who experimented
with surface dressings near Hereford, Miss Ormerod concludes that attack on the
Hop begins in spring from wingless females which come up from the Hop hills;
and as a corollary, that dressings to prevent such ascent are strongly to be
recommended. It is quite within the range of possibility, and what is known of
aphid life, that where the winters are mild, with scarcely any frost, this Phorodon
may continue on the Hop from one year to another in the parthenogenetic con-
dition. If such is ever the case in England you have a somewhat different set
of facts to deal with here from what we have in America. But for the reasons
already stated in abstract, from many other detailed observations which it would
be tedious to record here, as well as from the ease with which erroneous con-
clusions are arrived at, where not checked and proved by the most competent
and careful study, I shall be inclined to believe that the facts in England are essen-
tially the same as I have found them in America, until convincing and trustworthy
evidence to the contrary be forthcoming. Mr. Whitehead may have had another
species under observation, and Mr. Ward's surface dressings may have acted by
repelling the winged female migrating from Prunus, in the same way that buck-
wheat sown among the Hops is believed to do with us.
3. Arteries of the Base of the Brain. By Berrram C. A. Winp1z,
M.A., M.D. (Dublin), Professor of Anatomy in the Queen’s College,
Birmingham.
The abnormalities of the basal arteries of the brain have not to my knowledge
been hitherto described from any extended observations. I have notes of twe
hundred cases, of which the following paper is a summary :—
Anterior Communicating Artery.
Double . : : . : : : : : : ee fold.
Triple. ; : : F : : i : é : 1
Union and subsequent division of anterior cerebrals : 6
” ” ” ” together
with a communicating : A : 5 ; ; 2
None from union of two anterior cerebral arteries 1
a5 absence of one anterior cerebral artery 2
A second communicating running into first 6
A median artery derived from communicating ‘ é 9
Normal . : P ; : , : : 5 : . 169
Anterior Cerebral Arteries.
A third or median from anterior communicating 9
None on R., but twig from left middle cerebral P * 1
is a re internal carotid : : : 1
Complete union of two arteries ; “ : : : 1
Normal 188
Posterior Cerebral Arteries.
From carotid on R . 11
x lbye : : : 9
rf ve both sides. : : . - . : 4
Two on L. side, one from basilar, one from carotid, with slight
anastomosis . : ; : - 3 : C : 1
Normal . : : - : : : ; ; : . 175
Posterior Communicating Artertes.
NoneonR . Fitri nn,: ‘ : : ; : : Pane
shes] UY veg : : d : - : : 5 Saati (33
» either . ‘ F : 5 : : : ; 3
1887. 3u
754 REPORT— 1887.
Posterior Communicating Artertes—continued.
Right greater than left . ; : : : ; : wees
Left 7 right . : ; : 3 . » 15
Both very small, ; ‘ : F - : 7
Normal . ; é ‘ ; : ; : ; 125
Arterial system completely normal in 76. The only abnormality in 43 was
difference in size between the two posterior cerebral arterics.
4, On Alteration of Iliac Divarication and other Changes of Pelvi: Forms
during Growth. By Professor Ciruanp, F.R.S.
It was pointed out that the iliac divarication diminishes from childhood to
early adult life, and after adult life is reached it tends again to increase. The
diminution was traced to the widening of the sacrum on each side opposite the
lower end of the auricular surface ; the later increase of the divarication is owing
to muscular action, and is greatest in heavily built elderly persons.
The conjugate and transverse diameters of the pelvis are found by the author
to be about equal in young children, while afterwards the conjugate diameter grows
more rapidly than the transverse, till about twelve or thirteen years of aze, after
which the adult form is approached by the method pointed out by Dr. Matthews
Duncan.
5. The Brain Mechanism of Smell. By Dr. Atux. Hitt.
6. The Nature and Development of the Carotid System.
By Joun Yue Mackay, M.D.
The study of the comparative anatomy of the carotid arteries brings to light
a series of facts which suggest a theory of development different from that at
present accepted. In the mammalia the common carotid artery divides after
a longer or shorter course into an internal and external branch, the former supply-
ing the brain, the latter the rest of the head. The common carotid is regarded as
the portion of the truncus arteriosus stretching between the ventral ends of the
third and fourth foetal branchial arterial arches, its external branch as the con-
tinuation of this towards the head, and the internal carotid as the third arch and
its dorsal prolongation to the head. The portion of the continuous dorsal vessel
between the third arch and the aorta, or fourth arch, has in the mammalia
disappeared in the course of development. The external carotid artery is thus
regarded as a ventral, the internal carotid as a dorsal, vessel. Notwithstanding
that in no other vertebrate group than mammals are the external carotid branches
gathered together into one stem distinct from the internal carotid artery, the same
scheme of development has been applied to the explanation of the details in the
other classes, the artery supplying the brain being looked upon as the sole dorsal
trunk, and all the other arteries of the head as ventral.
In the fish the blood-yessels which supply the head externally and internally
do not take their origin until the blood has become arterialised after its passage
through the gills, and spring consequently from a dorsal trunk. In the amphi-
bian, however, two vessels pass forwards from the third arch, one upon the
ventral and the other upon the dorsal aspect of the alimentary canal. The
ventral vessel is small and extends no farther forwards than the tongue, while, on
the other hand, the dorsal artery is large and supplies the whole of the head, its
branches in the frog being named, according to Keker,' ‘ ascending pharyngeal,’
‘ ophthalmic,’ ‘ palatine,’ and ‘internal carotid.’ This dorsal artery is in the young
amphibian in direct continuity with the aorta, but in the adult that portion of the
dorsal vessel between the third and fourth arches is often reduced to a solid cord.
In the lacertilian the arrangement of the carotid vessels is similar to that in
the amphibian. The ventral vessel supplies the under surface of the neck and the
tongue, and one branch reaches as far outwards as the shoulder, and comes into
' Anat. des Frosches. Braunschweig, 1864.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 755
anastomosis there with branches of the subclavian artery. This branch is of
greater size and importance in other reptilian forms and in birds. The dorsal
vessel supplies the whole of the head, its branches are numerous, and a number of
those which supply the outer aspect are grouped together at their origin into one
trunk. This dorsal vessel is in most cases continued directly backwards into the
aorta as in the young amphibian.
The carotid arteries of the chelonian when examined closely are found to
resemble in position and distribution the vessels described in the lacertilian. A
ventral vessel extending to the tongue, but not constituting the whole supply of
that organ, runs forward upon the under surface of the throat. This ventral vessel
is a branch of the subclavian, but the apparent anomaly of its origin is explained
by the fact that the subclavian of the chelonian does not correspond to the sub-
clavian of the lacertilian, but to that branch of the ventral carotid which has
been already described as passing outwards to the muscles of the shoulder. — The
dorsal artery of the chelonian is similar in all its more important characteristics to
that of the lacertilian, and supplies the head externally and internally.
-The arrangement of the vessels of the crocodile resembles that of the chelo-
nian. The ventral vessel ‘arteria collateratis colli’ arises with the subclavian,
and runs forwards to the tongue. The dorsal artery supplies the whole head and
partly also the tongue. This dorsal vessel may, upon each side in young
specimens of Crocodilus Niloticus, be seen to be continued back to the aorta by
a solid cord, and it is therefore obviously identical with the dorsal artery of
amphibia and lacertilia.
The arterial system of the bird resembles closely that of the crocodile. The
ventral vessel, however, is very small, and, taking origin from the base of the
subclavian, does not reach so far forward as the tongue. The dorsal vessel
supplies the tongue and the whole of the head, and is usually called ‘common
earotid artery.’ It is sometimes to be found connected with the aorta by a solid
cord as in the other groups.
As in all the groups less advanced than mammals the branches to the external
aspects of the skull are dorsal in origin, it is probable that the external carotid
artery of mammals ought also to be regarded as developed from a dorsal trunk.
In all the different classes the branches of the dorsal carotid trunk are freely
connected by longitudinal anastomosing chains with those of the dorsal aorta.
In the frog the occipital artery is prolonged from the subclavian to anastomose
with branches of the dorsal carotid upon the sknll. In the lacertilia an inferior
thyroid artery anastomoses with a branch of the carotid passing backwards. In
chelonia an occipital and a deep cervical artery form an anastomosis, while in
birds and crocodiles the vertebral artery marks an anastomotic chain. In the
mammal these three chains are all present as a rule, and two of them pass
between the external carotid and subclavian arteries. It is probable, therefore,
that the branches of the external carotid of the mammal are to be compared to
those of the dorsal carotid of other forms. The ventral carotid vessel in the
lower forms passing as far forwards as the tongue, but almost entirely continued
into the subclavian in crocodilia and aves, would seem to be represented in the
mammal by the thyroidea ima artery, a vessel rare in the human subject but
constant in the cetacez.
7. The Development of the Supra-renal Capsules in Man.
By Dr. C. S. Minor.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Discussion on ‘ Are Acquired Characters Hereditary ?’ in which Professor
Lankester, Professor WrEIsMANN, Professor Husrecut, PaTrick GEDDES,
M. Harroe, and E. B. Poutton took part.
3c 2
756 REPORT—1887.
2. Further Experiments upon the Colour-relation between Phytophagous
Larve and their Surroundings. By KE. B. Poutton.
From the instance of the larval Smerinthus ocellatus I have shown that certain
lepidopterous larvze are susceptible to the influence of surrounding colours, so that the
larvee themselves gain a corresponding appearance.' This larva varies from bright
yeliowish green to a dull whitish or bluish green, and either variety can be pro-
duced by the use of a food-plant with the appropriate colour on the undersides of
the leaves. Although the difference between the two varieties is very great when
they are placed together—so great in fact that I can readily distinguish three in-
termediate stages of variation between the extremes—yet it is not nearly so well
marked as in the case of the green and brown varieties of many dimorphic larvee.
I was therefore anxious to test one of these latter, and to ascertain whether either
variety can be produced at will by surrounding the Jarva with the appropriate
colour. Lord Walsingham had previously called my attention to the variable
larvee of Rumia crateyata, some of which are brown, some green, while many are
intermediate. ‘The larva exactly resembles the twigs of its food-plant, and always
rests upon the branches in atwiglike attitude; and this habit rendered the species
very favourable for the purpose of this inquiry, which was conducted as follows.
A glass cylinder was provided with a black paper roof, a similar floor, and a small
quantity of the food-plant (hawthorn), the rest of the space being entirely filled
with dark twigs. Owing to their habit the larve always rested upon these latter,
and after reaching maturity in two such cylinders forty dark varieties were pro-
duced. Three other cylinders were roofed and floored with green paper, and green
shoots bearing leaves were introduced as food, nothing brown being allowed inside
the cylinders, In these cylinders twenty-eight green varieties were produced. The
young larve were obtained from the eggs of three captured females. After hatch-
ing, the larvae were thoroughly mixed, and introduced into the cylinders when
quite small. Some of the dark varieties were greenish and some of the green larvee
brownish ; but the greenest in the dark cylinders was browner than the brownest
in the green cylinders. The larvee were compared by placing the sets side by side
upon white paper, and the contrast between the larvee brought up in different sur-
roundings was very marked. In this case the larve ate precisely the same kind of
leaf, so that it is clear that the effects follow from the surrounding colours, and not
from the action of food. The instance recorded above is the best among the many
cases of adjustable colour-relation which are now known in lepidopterous larve.
It is now extremely probable that all dimorphic species will show more or less of
this susceptibility to the colour of their environment.
3. Some Remarks on the Recent Researches of Zacharias and Dr. Boveri upon
the Fecundation of the Ascaris Megalocephala. By Professor J. B.
Carnoy, of the University of Louvain.
The first kinetic polar figure of this ascaris was given in the ‘ Prospectus ’ of my
‘ Biologie Cellulaire’ in 1883. Since then I have published three notices on the
polar globules and the fecundation of the nematoids. At the end of the first article,
which treated of the Ascaris Megalocephala, I expressed a desire to see my
remarks commented on by some earnest and disinterested writer. O. Zacharias and
Boveri have carried out this desire.
I. Polar Globules.
1. The remarks of Zacharias confirm my own on all important points: (a) There
is neither micropyle nor ‘ bouchon d’impregnation.’ He admits with me (vide ‘ Pro-
spectus ’) that the spermatozoid penetrates into the egg by digesting its membrane.
(4) The kinetic figures are opened and divided into two from their very commence-
ment; therefore the ypsiliform figure of van Beneden does not exist. (c) The
figures of the two globules are identical. (d@) Out of eight nucleinic primitive
' An account of these experiments will be found in Proc. Roy. Soc. No. 237, 1885,
p- 269, and No. 243, 1886, p. 135.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. (owt
elements, four are rejected with the first globule, without undergoing any change ;
two with the second. Only two therefore remain for the actual nucleus of the egg,
At no stage therefore is there any division of the nucleinic rods, whether longitu-
dinal or transversal, nor any clearing of the nuclein. On all these points O.
Zacharias supports me in opposition to E. van Beneden.
Stil we ditfer on a few details.
(a) According to Zacharias, the Wagnerian spot, which is at first single and
homogeneous, divides into two parts, which are likewise homogeneous, and in each
of which later on chromatic globules appear. We cannot admit these assertions.
The nucleus of the young eggs is an ordinary nucleus, and in which the nucleinic
thread gives birth to eight rods, forming two quarternary groups. The apparent
homogeneity of the Wagnerian spot is invariably the result of bad treatment in the
preparation. As for the presence of globules instead of rods, it is the effect of the
reagents or of the position of the rods as seen by the observer ; that is quite certain.
I have always maintained these various points in whatever I have published. My
opponent admits moreover that the two spots are not nucleoles in the sense in
which Zacharias takes them (I call them plasmatic nucleoles) ; but without coming
to any decision on their nature, he gives them the name of ‘mitoblast.’ I had
shown that they were ordinary nucleinic nucleoles—the name ‘ mitoblasts’ is there-
fore needless, and as such should be rejected.
(6) Zacharias did not notice any asters in the first figure. This may have been
perhaps from his haying only seen our compressed figures, for usually the presence
of asters, oftentimes well developed, is unquestionable.
(e) According to Zacharias, half the globules of each nuclear group are dis-
charged with the polar globules. When the groups are very close together it is
more difficult to come to a decision; but when the figures are well opened or
ruptured it is ascertained that one of the groups is discharged and that the other
remains in the egg. Moreover, the only essential point is that six of the primitive
elements are expelled in toto.
2. Boveri admits the existence of two Wagnerian spots, but according to him
these consist of a thick single prismatic rod, and are consequently homogeneous.
These rods would undergo a binary division at the equator of each figure, and
the halves would withdraw to the poles. The exterior group is then expelled with
the globule. We must reject these assertions. The two primitive rods do not
exist. They are undoubtedly formed of four distinct rods, which are blended,
owing to Boveri's imperfect preparations. His supposed equatorial division is then
but an illusion, as the eight rods have always been distinct. As for their motion
towards the poles, I have never noticed it in the Ascaris Megalocephala. The first
spindle disappears, and Boveri seems in this to be at one with me. The separating
spindle is consequently distinct from the first. However, in other species I have
studied the polar ascent really takes place, and the separation of the polar globule
sometimes occurs in the kinetic spindle itself. It would not at all astonish me to
come across these characteristics in some varieties of the Ascaris of the horse. I do
not intend to treat of the normal form of the figure: that question was treated, ex
professo, in the ‘ appendix’ to my lecture given at Brussels on March 5, 1887.
IL. Fecundation.—Nussbaum contends that the two fusing nuclei always fuse
in the centre of the egg. E.van Beneden contends that the fusion never takes
place before the figure of segmentation is formed. These two opinions are too
absolute. I have shown that this fusion sometimes takes place, sometimes does
not. As regards the fact itself, Zacharias and Boveri side with me. The former
of these two savants seeks to explain this difference. In his opinion, when the
figure is formed without previous fusion of the nuclei, the fusion had already taken
place at the top of the egg, and the result has been two hermaphrodite nuclei.
‘We do not think that is the case. In fact, his figures, 10 to 13, Plate IX.,
showing this fusion, have left me in doubt, for I have come across a number of
similar figures during my investigations, but the male nucleus, which it is difficult
to make out at that stage of its evolution, was still in the centre of the egg; it was
therefore not in a fair way of fusing with the female element. The figure of the
top of the ege simply represents the female nucleus in which the primitive rcds
7058 REPORT—1 887.
have separated, either apparently or in reality, into four and sometimes even eight
fragments. Could the presence of the male nucleus have by any chance escaped the
notice of Zacharias? ... In all the nematoids I have studied, I have nearly
always ascertained the progressive elaboration of the female nucleus, whilst at the
same time the male nucleus, which was visible at the various stages, was gradually
developing. Then, again, in such species as the Ascaris clavata, where the equa-
torial division takes place, the ultimate nucleus of the egg is completed, as at the
end of the ordinary kinesis.
In short, if the first mode exists, viz. the normal mode of Zacharias, it seems to:
me but to represent a special and, perhaps, an eventual mode of fecundation in the
nematoids. Whether the fusion of the male and female nucleus takes place at the
top of the egg, or later after their distinct elaboration, or Jastly during the kinesis
of segmentation, it matters little ; at all events the fusion, in my opinion, does take
place, and that is the essential point. I must, therefore, on this subject, maintain
my former conclusions.
I shall be happy to put at the disposal of my learned colleagues, to whom the
matter may be of interest, a number of preparations obtained from various
nematoids.
4, The Spermatogenesis of the Acarians and the Laws of Spermatogenesis
in general. By Professor GiLson.
This paper is but a very short abstract of a chapter of my work upon the sper-
matogenesis of the Arthropods, which is still in course of publication. The original
paper would have been too long to read in French without exhausting your patience,
but on the other hand I must claim your indulgence for this English abstract.
The spermatozoa of this group of Arthropods are not yet very much known.
Leydig and Pagenstecher give only a few drawings and a very short description
of them. Claparéde and Henking have also studied the spermatozoa of Atax,
Tetranychus, and Trombidium. But these are—according to their drawings—
thoroughly different from those we have found in the Gamasids and the Ixodids.
These bodies show, however, very interesting features in their constitution and
genesis.
The multiplication of the mother-cells, which give origin to the spermatic cells,
takes place by binary segmentation. The spermatic cell contains a large nucleus,
in which a little nucleolus is visible. In this are enclosed the bits of nucleinic
substance (or chromatin) perfectly colourable by the methyl-green.
According to the appellation proposed by Professor Carnoy for that kind of pro-
ductions this nucleolus is to be called in French ‘ nucléole-noyau,’ and could be
called in English ‘nucleo-nucleolus,’ or nucleus-shaped nucleolus.
This cell grows longer into a rather thick spindle. The nucleus takes also a
lengthened shape. But the nucleus-shaped nucleolus remains intact in form and
in internal structure.
Under the membrane of the cells appear longitudinal or transversal lines,
according to the species. Those details depend on the external layer of the proto-
plasmic reticle which is contiguous to the membrane. In the same time the
lengthened true nucleus becomes incrusted with a hyalin substance.
In several species the nucleus-shaped nucleolus pierces the cell’s membrane, and
remains entangled in the same and externally prominent.
The spermatozoa are free; ordinarily unmoved in the male; animated with
light contractions in the female.
Many might consider that the spermatogenesis of those animals I have just
shortly described is a deviation from what they would call the general law of sper-
matogenesis. As for me I rather think that there is no general law existing for
the spermatogenesis.
The phenomena of the genesis and the differentiation of the spermatic cell are,
indeed, extraordinarily diversified—to such a point that, in order to get them
together in a single formula, it would be necessary to say: the development of sper-
matozoa includes several different processes of cellular genesis and differentiation.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 759
In order to render this formula more determinate I consider it impossible,
in the actual state of science, to add to it any note concerning either the genesis
or the differentiation of the spermatic cell, without restraming its extension. More
specified, it would ne more apply to ail the living forms, and it would cease to be
general, since nothing is more diversified than the alterations of that genesis and
differentiation which were observed in the different degrees of the organic series.
But, such as I have expressed it, this formu!a, which can apply to every kind
of cells, is not the synthesis of the facts observed in spermatogenesis, It is not a
biological law, because a biological law is nothing other than the synthesis of the
facts. So I may say that there is no general-law existing for spermatogenesis.
There are no other general laws than these which regulate the genesis and the
differentiation of every kind of cells; laws which still totally evade research, and
are dependent on the inmost constitution of organised substance.
But no general law existing, it is evident, however, that after long comparative
and conscientious analytic researches, one may make the synthesis of the facts,
and look for special laws for the different groups of beings. It would be desirable
that this synthetical work were made from a comparative cytological point of view,
in order to avoid the false interpretations and the multiplication of useless terms.
Let us add that it would be also desirable that, in the synthetical summaries, as
well as in the statement of the researches, separate descriptions should be given of
the facts belonging to the three periods of spermatogenesis, namely :—
The period of the multiplication of the mother-cells; the period of the
differentiation of the spermatic cells; and the period of the different phenomena
which follow the completion of the spermatozoon. The summary I have just
made can be considered as being the special law for the Gamasids and the Txodids,
the only families of acarians I have studied up to this time.
5. On the Nesting Habit of Atypus Niger, a Florida Spider.
By Dr. McCook.
6. On Cephalodiscus. By S. F. Harmer.
7. On some new types of Madreporarian Structure.
By G. Hexserr Fowser, B.A., Ph.D.
The genera of Madreporaria, of which the anatomy has been hitherto studied,
appear to fall into two divisions, the one consisting of solitary forms and of colonies
in which the calices are free; the other including genera in which a coenenchyme,
or common skeleton, is present :.in the former division the body-wall is supported
by peripheral lamelle of the mesenteries, in the latter on the spines or echinula-
tions of the coenenchyme. (Fowler, ‘Anatomy of the Madreporaria,’ iii.
*Q. J. Mier. Sci.,’ 1887.)
Madracis asperula, however, forms a ccenenchymatous colony in which the
septa project somewhat above the general surface, and the presence of both means
of support for the body-wall appears to be correlated with this fact, Madracis
thus being morphologically intermediate between such forms as Caryophyllia and
Sertatopora.
Amphihelia ramea, an imperforate coral with free calices, varies from the normal
types in possessing a canal-system between body-wall and corallum, these being
otherwise in contact; while the peripheral lamelle of the mesenteries are only
recognisable immediately round the lip.
In Stephanophyllia formosissima also the so-called cost~ or ridges of coral to
which the mesenteries are attached are in direct contact with, and form the onl
means of support for, the body-wall, this genus bearing the same relation to the
Eupsammide as Amphihelia to the Oculinide. In the formation of stron
muscle-bundles between synapticule, as in some minor points, Stephanophyllia
760 REPORT—1887.
approaches Fungia. In this and some other genera may be detected laminated
offsets of mesogloea into the coral, for firmer attachment of the mesentery,
such structures haying been erroneously described by Mr. W. L. Sclater in
Stephanotrochus, and probably by Dr. von Heider in Dendrophyllia, as calicoblasts.
8. The Réle of the Heart in Vertebrate Morphology. By Dr. C. 8. Mryor.
9. On the Structure of the Human Placenta. By Dr. C. 8. Minor.
10. A New Species of Virgularia. By Major Pranr.
11. On some Rare and Remarkable Marine Forms at St. Andrews Marine
Laboratory. By Professor McIntosu.
12. On the Development of the Ovary and Oviduct in certain Osseous Fishes.
By Enowarp E. Prince.
15. On the Luminous Larviform Females in the Phengodint.
By Professor C. V. Riney.
Certain interesting phosphorescent coleopterous larvee reaching 2} to 3 inches
in length have been well known to occur in America ever since Baron Osten
Sacken first minutely described them in 1862, and discussed their affinities between
the Elateride, Lampyridz, and Telephoridee. The author gave a minute descrip-
tion of these larvee, calling attention particularly to the horizontal head, protrud-
ing labium, falciform, grooved, and untoothed mandibles inserted on the sides of the
head, certain ventral conchoid depressions, minute dorsal stigma-like glands open-
ing by a crescent slit between the joints, and the lateral spiracles.
The great interest attaching to these larve isnot so much in their luminosity as
in the fact that a portion of them are now known to be true and perfect females
of Phengodini, which have, until recently, been represented in coleopterological col-
lections in the male sex only. The history of this discovery furnishes another
instance of simultaneous and independent observations on the same point in
different parts of the world. In 1888, in conjunction with one of his assistants,
Mr. EK. A. Schwarz, he had arrived at this conclusion in Washington, with the
intention of some time publishing the facts upon which it was based, when the
same conclusion was being verified by Dr. Hieronymus, of Cordova, and the
announcement anticipated by him and by Dr. Haase in 1885.
The author has been accumulating material since 1869 with notes, and has
critically examined in all some thirty different lots in his own collection at the
National Museum and in the collections at Philadelphia, Boston, and Cambridge.
These all belong to Phengodes and Zarhipis, with the exception perhaps of Osten
Sacken’s No. 2, which may be Spathizus. The differences between the larva proper
and the adult female are so slight that it would he difficult to separate them with-
out some absolute index. ‘The author had been fortunate in obtaining undoubted
females, coupled with their males, of Phengodes laticollis and Zarhipis riversit, and
in both genera there were absolutely no other structural differences between larva
and adult female than the somewhat shorter (relatively) mandibles and tarsal claw
in the adult.
In reference to life-history, the food of Zarhipis is known to be myriapods. The
eggs in both genera are spherical, translucent, and laid in masses in the ground;
the néwly hatched larva in both are structurally identical with the parent, and
the female larva goes through a pseudo-pupal state prior to the final molt. No-
thing is yet known of the male larva and pupa, and the author only conjectures
that certain darker, more slender larvee, structurally identical, belong to this sex.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 761
The author, in conclusion, discussed the bearing of the facts presented on
the theory of evolution. We have many forms of degradational females in hexa-
pods, and we have true larval reproduction; but he considers that the females of
the Phengodini offer the most remarkable instances of imaginal or adult character-
istics associated with such truly larval characters. ‘In this larviform female of the
Phengodini we get a glimpse, so to speak, into the remote past, from which has
been handed down to us, with but little alteration, an archetypal hexapod form
which prevailed before complete metamorphosis had originated ; while, on the other
hand, her male companion, during the same period, has developed wing-power and
the most elaborate and complex sensorial organs—the eyes and antenne in these
beetles being among the most complex of their order.
‘ Whether we believe that the female Phengodes has never reached beyond her
present form—+.e., represents a case of arrested development—or that she has re-
trogressed from a higher type where the sexes were more nearly alike, one thing is,
I think, self-evident, viz., that there is direct relation between the phosphorescence
and the remarkable differentiation of the sexes; and, further, that such relationship
is explicable and full of meaning on evolutionary grounds, and that the theory of
natural selection accounts for the facts better than any other.’
Sus-Secrion BOTANY.
1. On Cramer's Gemmee borne by Trichomanes alata.
y
By Professor F. O. Bowrr.
2. On some points in the process of Secretion in Plant-glands.
By WATER GARDINER.
3. On Bennettites, the Type of a new group between Angiosperms and
Gymnosperms. By Count Soums-Lavusacu.
4. On the Presence of Callus-plates in the Sieve-tubes of certain gigantic
Laminarias. By ¥. W. Outver.!
SUMMARY OF RESULTs.
I, That in all Laminariacee the medullary string contains trumpet-hyphe.
II. That in Macrocystis, Nereocystis, and one unnamed Laminaria, these trumpet-~
hyphee form callus.
II. That in Macrocystis and Nereocystis sieve-tubes resembling those of Cucur-
dita occur around the central strand of hyphe, and become in time obliterated by
the development of callus on the sieve-plates.
IV. That the callus, both of the sieve-tubes proper and of the trumpet-hyphe,
is identical in its reactions with the callus of phanerogamic sieve-tubes.
V. That the callus in the trumpet-hyphe is formed from the cell-wall.
VI. That Macrocystis and Nereocystis are rightly placed as nearly allied genera
by systematists, their anatomicai structure entirely confirming this determination.
5. On the Physiology of some Pheeophycece.
By Tuomas Hick, B.A., B.Sc.
The author has made a series of observations and experiments in the larger
brown seaweeds found on the British coast for the purpose of determining whether
1 Vide Annals of Botany, vol. i. pt. 2 (1887).
762 REPORT—1887.
their physiological processes present any sp2cial features. The species chiefly dealt
with are Fucus vesiculosus, L.; F. serratus, L.; Ascophyllum nodosum, Le Jolis;
LF. canaliculatus, L.; Laminaria digitata, Lamour. ; and #limanthalia lorea, Lyngb.
He finds that the cell-walls possess chemical and physical properties which are
not met with in those of ordinary plants—although the fundamental composition is
that of cellulose—and concludes that these properties enable the walls to act as a
reservoir of water, on which the tissues may draw when the plants are exposed to
desiccating influences. Experiments made to determine the quantity of water the
walls may contain show it to be very great. A piece of Ascophyllum nodosum, Le
Jolis, which when dried weighed 0°65 gramme, absorbed artificial sea-water until
the weight reached 1:56 gramme, a gain of 140 per cent. Another piece, which
weighed 0:78 gramme, increased in fresh water to 2°53 grammes, showing a gain
of 225 per cent. Similar experiments, made with pieces of ZZimanthalia lorea,
Lyngb., showed a gain ranging from 200 to 240 per cent. There is thus some
difference in the quantity of water that can be stored up in the cell-walls of different
species, but it is sufficiently large in all cases to prevent injury from desiccation
when the plants happen to be left high and dry by the falling tide.
The function of absorption is performed, as in most aquatic piants, by the whole
surface. This is true both for liquids and gases, It isa significant fact that neither
stomata nor intercellular spaces have hitherto been met with in these plants. The
absence of these structures is usually correlated with the aquatic habit and the
consequent non-existence of transpiration. But in aquatic phanerogams, such as
Myriophyllum, Hippuris, Hottonia, Nymphea, Alisma, Potamogeton, and others,
we have a well-developed system of intercellular spaces which includes large
chambers filled with air. Hence the absence of these structures in the brown sea-
weeds can scarcely be due to the aquatic habit alone. It ought rather, perhaps, to
be correlated with the absence of any neces<ity for mechanical assistance in main-
taining the erect position, and may prevent transpiration when the plants are ex-
posed, but in any case it proves that intercellular spaces are not indispensable for
respiratory pepe and that in the plants under consideration the absorption of
gases is performed by the superficial cells alone.
The absence of transpiration is @ priori evidence that there is little or no move-
ment of water from below upwards, and experiment shows positively that such is
the case. Water and other fluids are readily conducted laterally from the surface
inwards, but not in the longitudinal direction.
The metabolic processes of the brown sea-weeds, especially those connected with
assimilation, present some interesting and important features. In the first place,
careful search has hitherto failed to show in them any trace of starch. The follow-
ing species have been specially examined with respect to this point, and all agree
in giving only negative results :—Fucus vesiculosus, L.; F. serratus, L. ; Ascophyllum
nodosum, Le Jolis; F. canaliculatus, L.; Halidrys siliquosa, Lyngb.; Himanthalia
lorea, Lyngb. ; Laminaria digitata, Lamour. ; L. saccharina, Lamour. ; Desmarestia
aculeata, Lamour.; Leathesia tuberiformis, Gray; Chordaria flagelliformis, Ag. ;
Mesoglova virescens, Carm.; Sphacelaria cirrhosa, Ag.
But if starch is absent the proteids are present, and generally in considerable
quantity, showing that the constructive metabolism which gives rise to these bodies
—proteosynthesis, as it may be called—is tolerably active in these plants.
The significance of these peculiarities is probably great, but is by no means clear.
Millardet has shown that the Fwcacee contain three pigments—viz., chlorophyll,
pavcoraninie, and phycophine. Hansen has recently confirmed and extended
Millardet’s observations, and finds that the chlorophyll of the higher plants is com-
posed of two constituents,a green and a yellow, the latter of which is identical with
the phycoxanthine of the Fucacee. Hence it is the presence of the phycopheine
which distinguishes the assimilating organs of the Fucacee from those of ordinary
green plants, and which may be directly or indirectly responsible for their peculiar
action.
The plastic materials being then wholly or for the most part proteinaceous, the
arrangements for their distribution through the plant must be adapted to their
chemical and physical properties. This is found to be the case. In the Fucacee,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 763
as the author has shown elsewhere, the medullary and cortical tissues have an
elaborate system of protoplasmic connections between the contents of the cells,
which give the rows of cells more or less the characters of sieve-tubes. Now in
the higher plants indiffusible proteids are conducted from the place of manufacture
to the place of consumption or storage along the sieve-tubes in the phloém.
Hence there can scarcely be a doubt that what may be called the sieved tissue of
the Fucacee is to be correlated with the large quantity of proteids they contain,
and the necessity that arises for their distribution to different parts of the thallus.
6. On Assimilation and the Evolution of Oxygen by Green Plant Cells.
By Professor PRiNGSHEIM.
7. Some Words on the Life-history of Lycopods. By Dr. M. Trevs.
8. On a point in the Morphology of Viola Tricolor.
By Professor BayLey BaLrour.
9. On the Morphology of some Ccesalpineew and the Value of Morphological
Criteria. By Professor Harroc.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Discussion on the Present Aspect of the Cell Question.
Professor Schiifer opened the discussion, which was continued by Professors
Lankester, Krause, H. M. Ward, Carnoy, and Hartog, and Messrs. Gardner and
Sedgwick.
2. On Polar Bodies. By Professor Weismann, and by Professors Lan-
KESTER and Krause, Messrs. GArpNeR, Sepewick, H. M. Warp,
Carnoy, and M. Harrtoa.
3. Report of the Committee on the Herds of Wild Cattle in Chartley Park
and other Parks in Great Britain.—See Reports, p. 135.
4. Further Experiments upon the Protective Value of Colour and Markings
in Insects. By HK. B. Pourron.
The experiments undertaken in 1886, of which a short account was given in a
paper read hefore Section D at Birmingham, Jed to such interesting results that I
determined to renew the investigation during the present year.1_ At the same time
the range of the inquiry has been widened, and for the first time a mammal has
been included in the list of insect-eating vertebrates used in the experiments. For
this purpose a marmoset has been employed, and this animal appears to be highly
insectivorous. With the kind help of Mr. A. G. Butler I have been able to add
largely to the number of experiments made with birds, and these results have been
especially needed. In addition to the species of lizards and frogs made use of last
’ For the complete account of the experiments in 1886, see a paper by the author
in Proc. Zool. Soc., London, March 1, 1887, pp. 191-274.
764 REPORT—1887.
year I have also experimented with a chameleon and a salamander. The com-
parison of the results obtained from these different groups of insect-eaters is
extremely interesting. In nearly all cases there is complete concurrence in their
treatment of highly coloured nauseous insects. But there are great differences in
the relative ease with which the different groups can be induced by hunger to eat
distasteful insect food.
The frogs and the birds appear to be the least scrupulous in this respect. It
seems probable that the superficial skin of the frog is more delicate than the lining
of the oral cavity. Thus the hymenopterous larvee of Cresus septentrionalis and
C. varus were eaten in considerable numbers, but the face was carefully wiped
with the paw after being touched by the everted ventral glands of the larve. I
am inclined to think that lizards are Jess unscrupulous in this respect than the most
completely insect-eating birds. Mammalia (z.c., the marmoset) appear to be far
more difficult to please than any of the other groups. The above arrangement
accords well with what is known on other grounds of the development of the sense
of taste in the vertebrate classes. I will now bring forward a few of the instances
which support the above-mentioned conclusions. The marmoset would never touch
a hairy or spinous larva of any kind: this was because of the presence of the
structures themselves, for the same species was alwas eaten in the pupal stage. All
the other vertebrates will sometimes eat hairy larve. Birds have a special
advantage in their power of getting rid of unpleasant appendages, such as hairs or
wings. Large lizards will eat unpalatable insects which are often refused by
smaller ones, probably because the former can swallow their prey without so much
biting, and thus without tasting it so much. Ladybirds were eaten by the nightin-
gale, and by frogs when very hungry; hitherto they have been invariably refused
by the other vertebrates. The green larva of Pieris rape was eaten but disliked
by the marmoset, relished by the lizards. The hairy larva of Acronycta aceris
was eaten by birds, refused by lizards and marmoset. The hairy larva of Orgyza
antiqua was eaten by birds, but refused by lizards, except on one occasion when
two lizards fought over the larva, and in the struggle tore out the hairs incidentally.
An experiment with this latter larva gave a very probable interpretation of the
meaning of the hairy tufts on many Bombyx larve. A lizard seized the larva by
one of these tufts, which immediately came out, leaving the lizard with a mouthful
of hairs. After this it did not again touch the larva. These tufts are placed on
the back in the part where larve are nearly always seized ; being formed of very
closely approximated fine hairs of the same height the whole tuft suggests a solid
part of the animal rather than a mass of loosely fixed hairs. The following
conspicuous nauseous forms have been eaten when the vertebrates have been
hungry :—
Euchelia jacobee—larva, by lizard. Diloba ceruleocephala—iarva, by lizard.
Pygera bucephala— ,, hs LIniparis salicis— a ”
Porthesia aurifua— _,, i$ rr * imago, by lizard
Lygena filipendule—imago, ,, and marmoset.
» trefolii » by frog. Abraxas grossulariata—imago, by lizard.
L. salicis (imago) is evidently very distasteful, but the very similar, although
smaller, P. auriflua (imago) is palatable; and the latter probably benefits by the
reputation of the former. Thus the marmoset when very hungry ate the former,
although it was much disliked ; immediately afterwards the mammal refused the
latter, although on another occasion he ate as many as four of these moths with
evident relish, Highly gilded pups of Vanessa urtice were eaten with relish by
birds and the marmoset, and it is clear that the appearance does not in this case
indicate an unpleasant taste, as has been suggested. The spider-like larva of
Stauropus fagi, in its terrifying attitude, somewhat impressed a lizard and the
marmoset, but not to such an extent as to prevent the larva from being eaten.
This was to be expected, for both animals will eagerly devour spiders. Such effect
as was produced was due to the suggestion of no ordinary English spider, but one
of much greater size and with the terrific aspect highly idealised. The terrifying
larva of Cerura vinula certainly frightened the marmoset, and either its appearance
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 765
or the secretion of formic acid greatly affected the lizards. The terrifying but
quite harmless larvie of Cherocampa elpenor, which is known to frighten all but
the boldest of birds, as Weismann has shown, was offered to a large lizard. The
latter examined the larva most cautiously and many times before touching it;
then it bit the larva gently, and retired to watch the effect, repeating this process
several times. Finally, finding that nothing happened, it seized the larva and soon
swallowed it. The effect produced by this serpent-like larva was not due to its
size, for the equally large larve of Smerinthus ocellatus were seized at once.
The imagines of Sesta bembeciformis and S. apiformis—resembling hornets—were
offered to a lizard. On the first occasion the moth was approached with the
greatest caution, examined carefully, and seized by the head and thorax, just as
though it possessed a sting. At the same time the lizard was evidently suspicious
of the apparent wasp or hornet at first sight. When a few days later a second
moth was offered to the same lizard it was immediately seized without any
caution or hesitation. The lizard had learnt its lesson. Instances of this kind
support the belief that insect-eating animals have no instinctive knowledge of the
palatable or unpalatable or dangerous character of their prey, but that they learn
by experience. Thus the chameleon was offered a bee, which was caught at once
with the tongue; as the organ was withdrawn the chameleon was stung, and
shook the bee off; after this it would never touch a bee again. Similarly with
many conspicuous nauseous insects; they were generally caught once, but rarely
a second time. Now if such instinctive knowledge existed, the chameleon, above
all, might be expected to possess it, because of the manner in which it catches
insects, Shooting its prey from a considerable distance, it can rarely gain any
knowledge of a new insect without, so to speak, committing itself; whereas other
lizards can make use of the tactile sense in their tongues, while their sense of smell?
must be more efficient because of their greater proximity before capture. It
appears, however, that the chameleon brought among the insects of a new country
relies solely upon a good memory and powerful sight: and these are so efficient ~
that a single instance of each species of insect is sufficient for a thorough
education. If, however, the chameleon depends upon instinctive knowledge for the
avoidance of nauseous insects in the countries where it is indigenous, we should not
expect that its education in strange countries would be so rapid and complete as it
has proved to be.
All the species of the genus Zygena hitherto tested are nauseous, and all are
conspicuous and strikingly similar, so that it is probable that we have here an
instance of divergence checked by the advantages which follow from simplifying
the education of enemies by setting them one pattern to learn instead of several.
Instances of this are well known in other countries, but this is the tirst example in
our own fauna.
Among all the experiments previously recorded there occurred no instance of an
unpalatable imago which had been palatable in earlier stages. I have paid especial
attention to working through many histories in this way, and as a result I have
found one such instance. The larva of Arctia caja is unpalatable because of the
presence of hairs, but apparently not otherwise; the pupa is palatable, while the
imago is highly conspicuous and extremely nauseous,
d. The Secretion of Pure Aqueous Formic Acid by Lepidopterous Larve for
the purpose of defence. By HK. B. Poutroy.
It has been long known that the larve of the genus Cerwra (Dicranura) haye
the power of ejecting a colourless fluid from the mouth of a gland which opens on
the prothoracic segment. The latter segment is dilated when the larva is irritated,
so that the fluid is thrown in a forward direction, and for a distance of several
inches. When the larva is touched the head and anterior part are immediately
turned towards the source of irritation, and the fluid is thrown in this direction.
In 1885 I found that the secretion was strongly acid to test paper, and that it
caused very strong effervescence when placed upon sodium bicarbonate; while a
766 REPORT— 1887.
little later I showed the fluid to Professor Wyndham R. Dunstan, who told me that
the characteristic smell of formic acid could be plainly detected. This opinion was
further confirmed when it was found that silver nitrate was readily reduced by the
secretion.! In 1886 I obtained a larger number of larvee, and with the kind help
of Mr. J. P. Laws I was enabled to show that the secretion contains about thirty-
three per cent. of anhydrous acid. All the well-known qualitative tests were
applied to the secretion and to the alkaline salts obtained by neutralising with a
standard alkali. Among other tests the secretion was found to dissolve the oxide
of lead, a white crystalline salt being deposited. Although only a very minute
weight of this was obtained, Professor Meldola kindly offered to estimate the
amount of lead present in the salt. The weight was found to correspond to one of
the basic formates of this metal, formed by the action of the normal formate upon
the excess of oxide. During the past summer I have had a very large number of
these larvee, and the investigation has been continued with larger amounts of
secretion. The pipette has been applied for the removal of secretion between 500
and 600 times, and between 20 and 380 volumetric determinations have been
made, A mature larva which has not been previously irritated will eject 050 grm.
of secretion, containing about 40 per cent. of anhydrous acid. Half-grown larvee
eject nearly as much, but the fluid is weaker, containing about 33 to 35 per cent. of
acid. The rate of secretion is comparatively slow; e.y., two days and a half after
ejection two large larve only yielded together -025 grm. of secretion. Two mature
captured laryee, to which the eggs of a parasitic Ichneumon had been affixed, only
ejected (035 and ‘045 grm. of secretion, having incompletely made up for the amount
lost during the attack of the hymenopterous insect. Starvation lessens the amount
of secretion and also decreases the proportion of acid; but probably both these
effects are due to general health, and do not imply the direct formation of the acid
from the food. The different food-plants—poplar and willow—do not make any
difference in the amount or strength of the secretion. About half the total quantity
of secretion obtained was made use of in preparing a relatively large amount of the
normal formate, which is now in Professor Meldola’s possession. The weights of
the constituent elements will be determined by combustion. [Since the above was
written, Professor Meldola has analysed the salt, and finds that it is formate of lead
in a state of almost complete purity, although he believes that a minute trace of some
other lead salt is also present. | The rest of the secretion has been used for other exact
methods of estimation and analysis under the kind direction of Mr. A. G. Vernon
Harcourt, the work having been conducted in his laboratory at Christchurch. Myr.
Harcourt suggested that it was most important to prove that the amount of acid shown
to be present by volumetric analysis is formic acid, and nothing else. This proof was
obtained in twoways. (1) Acertain weight of the secretion was divided into two
parts ; the amount of acid in one of these was determined by the volumetric method,
while the other was decomposed by strong sulphuric acid, and the carbon monoxide
which was evolved was exactly measured in the apparatus for gas analysis, and the
amount of formic acid present was calculated from the data thus obtained, The
two percentages nearly corresponded, and as the latter was the higher it was ob-
vious that no other acid could be present. (2) A certain weight (‘186 grm.) of
secretion was heated in a tube over a water-bath, and after drying at 100° C. only
‘0004 grm. of solid residue remained, and this was probably accidental. The rest
of the fluid was distilled into a tube containing carbonate of lead, and this was
afterwards heated to 100° C., and the water collected in drying tubes. As a result:
the increase in weight of the latter and the tube containing lead carbonate, the
weight of formate of lead obtained from the latter, and of sulphate of lead obtained
from the formate—all corresponded almost exactly to the weights which would
have been given by pure aqueous formic acid having the composition: water, 62°5
per cent. ; formic acid, 37:5 per cent. It therefore appears certain that the secretion
consists of a strong aqueous solution of very nearly pure formic acid.
1 See Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1886, pt. ii. June, pp. 156, 157.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 767
6. On Icerya Purchbasi, an insect injurious to Fruit Trees.
By Professor Riney.
The species is the most polyphagous of coccids, living on a great variety of
plants, and thriving particularly on acacia, lime, lemon, orange, quince, pome-
granate, and walnut. It is capable of motion at all stages of development after
hatching, and can survive without food for a long period. These characteristics
haye rendered it the most grievous enemy which the fruit-crower has to contend
with in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and California. It is believed to
have originated in Australia, and to have been introduced into other parts of the
world upon living plants. But in endeayouring to get accurate data for this belief
I have been led to question the specific value of Icerya Purchasi, Maskell, as com-
pared with Jcerya sacchari, Signoret. This last infests sugar-cane in the islands of
Bourbon and Mauritius, and, on the hypothesis that Purchasi is a synonym of it,
the wide distribution of the pest throuch the sugar trade becomes at once intelli-
gible, as it is a common practice in the Pacific islands to insert a piece or pieces
of the cane in the hogshead or other packages for the purpose of facilitating the
drainage of syrup; that is an accompaniment of the unrefined sugars produced there.
Thus the question of synonymy bears directly on the original source of this
pest, and this is important to us practically in any study of the natural enemies of
the species with a view to their artificial introduction into those countries which
Icerya has invaded without its natural checks.
This Icerya, on account of the protection offered by the fluted waxy ovisac, and
of its other characteristics already mentioned, is one of the most difficult of all
insects to control, as few insecticides will reach the eggs.
In my official paper ' will be found details of experiments whereby the diffi-
culties have been surmounted in California by judicious spraying of kerosene
emulsions and resin soaps, as well as by a combination of cyanhydric gas evolved
from potassic cyanide, and carbonic gas evolved from sodic bicarbonate, used under
a portable tent.
7. On a Luminous Oligochete. By Professor ALLEN Harker, F.L.S.
The author described a remarkable phenomenon of luminosity or phosphores-
cence exhibited on a large scale ona peaty moor in Northumberland at an elevation
of 600 feet. The imprint of recent footmarks on the peaty ground shone with a
brilliance recalling similar effects on sea-shores described by numerous authors,
while the feet of the horses of a riding party galloping across the wet peaty soil
threw off the luminous mud in what appeared to be showers of white glowing fire.
An examination of the peaty soil showed the presence of innumerable small Oli-
gochzte worms, which by a variety of experiments, detailed by the author, were
proved to be the producers of the luminosity. In a darkened room a single worm
on being gently rubbed glowed like a fine streak of phosphorus. The worm is a
small Enchytreeus, but will be fully described.
8. On the Hessian Fly, or American Wheat-midge, Cecidomyia destructor,
Say, and its appearance in Britain. By Professor W. Fram, B.Sc.,
F.LS., F.G.S8.
The Hessian fly was discovered in Britain in barley-fields near Hertford in
July 1886, previous to which date there is no record of its occurrence in this
country. During the present summer it has been traced over the greater part of
England and Scotland, and the author found it on July 14 in fields of wheat and
barley on the borders of South Wilts and South Hants. :
The pest is a true two-winged fly (order, Diptera; family, Cecidomytide),
and its habits and life-history are described. As a crop scourge it has proved
most disastrous in the United States, where only the Rocky Mountain locust
1 Report of the Entomologists, U.S. Department of Agriculture, for 1886; Bull.
15 Div. of Entomology, U.S. Dept. Agr.
768 REPORT—1887.
(Caloptenus spretus, Thomas), the cotton worm (Aletia wxylina, Say), and the
Chinch bug (Blissus leucopterus, Say) take precedence of it as noxious insects.
The first serious attack in the United States happened a century ago (1786-89),
and in 1788 the importation of American grain into Britain was prohibited until
it was ascertained that the ‘flaxseed’ pupa-case travels in the straw rather than
in the grain. The first authentic record of its occurrence in Europe was made in
1834 by J. Dana, who found it at Mahon, Toulon, and Naples. It is now known
to exist in the south of France, and in Germany, Austria, and Hungary. Mots-
chulsky noticed it in Russia in 1836; Lindemann again detected it there in 1879,
and has since determined its presence over an area several times the size of Great
Britain. It causes severe losses in southern and mid Russia.
The nature of the injury occasioned by the fly is described and illustrated with
the aid of specimens and diagrams. The Third Report of the United States
Entomological Commission (Washington, 1883) records disastrous losses, The
fly has ‘swept whole fields, occasioned ‘ almost a total failure of the crops,’ and
has ‘committed such ravages upon the wheat as scarcely to leave enough seed for
another year.’ In 1846 half a million bushels of wheat were estimated to have
been destroyed in the western section of New York State; in 1886 the loss in this
State was put at 20,0002.
The theory that the fly was introduced into the United States by Hessian
troops during the War of Independence is regarded as untenable. Packard, dis-
cussing Wagner's results, concludes that the Hessian fly had appeared in the
Eastern States before the Revolutionary War, that it has never been known to
inhabit England or northern Europe, that it was not known even in Germany
before 1857, that it has ‘ from time immemorial’ been an inhabitant of wheat-fields
on the Mediterranean coasts, that it most likely originated in this region, or
farther east (in the probable original habitat of wheat and other cereals), and that
it was introduced thence into the United States before the war. How it reached
Britain is not known, but it probably came as ‘flaxseeds’ in straw used for
packing or for litter.
Wheat, barley, and rye are the cereals attacked; oats appear to escape. The
‘ flaxseeds’ or puparia have also been found upon timothy grass (Phlewm pratense,
L.), but there is no evidence of any other grass being attacked.
American observations indicate that the fly flourishes best in warm, moist
seasons, so that the hot, droughty character of the recent summer can hardly have
specially favoured it ; in fact, it seems to have made headway under rather adverse
conditions, and with one of our usual moist summers the attack would probably
have been more severe. Many precautions have been suggested for the use of
agriculturists with the object of minimising the attacks in future years.
Several species of Hymenoptera are parasitic upon the Hessian fly. Specially
useful in this way are Semtotellus destructor, Say, one of the Chaleidide, which
deposits its eggs in the pupa of the Hessian fly, and Platygaster error, Fitch,
which places its eggs within those of the fly. These minute parasites have done
splendid service in the American wheat and barley fields, where they are as active
friends to the corn-grower as are the aphis-eating lady-birds in this country to the
hop-grower. It has been suggested that if the parasites have not accompanied
the fly to Britain they should be colonised here. On August 11, however, from a
‘flaxseed’ in the possession of the author there emerged a chalcis Hy, and other
observers have confirmed the presence in this country of insect parasites of this
much-dreaded crop scourge.
9, Note on the Hectocotylisation of the Cephalopoda.
By Wiiu1am E. Hoyte.
A female specimen of Rossia Owent, received from the Granton Marine Station,
had a number of spermatophores attached under the left eye.
'Fhese were small tadpole-shaped bodies, about 5 mm. in length. The head was
entirely embedded below the skin of the animal, the slender tails producing the
appearance of a bunch of hairs on the exterior. The apex of the head contains a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 769
peculiar valve-like apparatus, the nature of which has not been completely examined.
It is suggested as a probable account of the function of these structures that the
sperm may be caused to issue from the long slender extremity of the spermatophore,
and thus fertilise the eggs whilst they are being laid.
Some observations were added on the general systematic significance of the
hectocotylus.
10. On the so-called Luminous Organs of Manrolicus Pennantii (the British
Pearl-sides). By Ep. E. Prince.
This small and somewhat uncommon British fish is said in life to exhibit
phosphorescence. The luminous organs or photo-dises are arranged, in the main,
in two rows along the sides of head and trunk towards the ventral line. Each
organ exhibits an eye-like structure, viz., a chamber closed in by a dense fibrous
wall save at one point behind, and again in front, where it is provided with a clear
lens-like plate. In front of this lens the integument passes and forms a cornea.
The contents of the rounded chamber are composed of a network of glandular
tissue, the nodal points of which form multipolar corpuscles. It is a peculiar
kind of adenoid tissue, and is continuous with a large cylindrical mass of similar
tissue occupying a large space below the abdominal cavity. This mass bifurcates
and in the abdominal region proper forms a pair of lateral cylinders in close
proximity to the lateral sensory line—the nerve supplying this line (a branch of
the vagus) finally terminating, in fact, in the glandular meshwork. As the photo-
discs have precisely the arrangement of a lantern—a translucent lens in front,
with a protecting cornea, and a dense glistening reflecting wall behind—they are
without doubt for luminous purposes ; while as their energy becomes exhausted in
use the photo-discs are doubtless reinforced from the large glandular stores within.
11. On the Ova of Tomopteris onisciformis, Eschscholz.
By Ep. E. Privce.
The author holds that the figures and descriptions of previous authors do not
correctly represent the facts—the ova arising not as single nucleated cells which
subdivide and form compound masses, the so-called ‘ germ-cells’ of Dr. Carpenter,
but they appear to arise in a compound condition as groups of nucleated cells.
One of these cells seems to grow at the expense of the rest, and thus the mature
ovum of Tomopteris as in so many invertebrates is a product of several primary
ova, which are used as pabulum.
12. On a Ciliated Organ, probably Sensory, in Tomopteris onisciformis.
By Ep. E. Prince.
13. Report of the British Marine Area Committee.—See Reports, p. 95.
14. A Forgotten Species of Peripatus.
By Professor F, JErrrey Bexy, M.A., Sec.R.M.S.
In no account of the species of Peripatus does any writer ever make a reference
to a species described by Professor Schmarda in his ‘ Zoologie’ under the name of
P. quitensts; in the second edition of this handbook, which is now lying before
me, the species is figured on p. 76 of vol. ii. It is stated to come ‘vom iquato-
rialen Hochland Siidamericas,’ and with a total length of 26 mm. it has thirty-six
pairs of appendages. It is much to be desired that attention should be called to
this species, so that travellers in or near the neighbourhood of Quito may make a
careful search for it.
It is only by repeatedly directing attention to the existence of these rare and
1887. 3D
770 REPORT—1887.
not always easily found creatures that we c2n hope to obtain them. My persistency
in appealing to Mr. E. P. Ramsay has been lately rewarded by the arrival of P.
leuckarti, which has been found near Wice Bay, Queensland.
15. A Note on the Relations of Helminth Parasites to Grouse Disease.
By Professor F. Jevrrey Bett, M.A., Sec.R.V.S.
The death of a large number of grouse in the south-west of Scotland—or, to
use less exact language, the prevalence of grouse disease in that region—has again
brought into prominence the relation of tapeworms to the disease.
All those who have interested themselves in what has been written on the
subject during the past year will agree that, in the minds of many writers, sus-
picion is still attached to the Tenza which is so frequently found in the intestine
of the grouse ; many naturalists had come to the conclusion that the presence of
the tapeworm was in no sense the cause of the disease, whatever relation it might
have directly to the death of the bird; but as this view is by no means so widely
known or accepted as it should be, and as no real progress in the investigation can
be made till disturbing elements are withdrawn, I may here summarise the evi-
dence in favour of the benign, or at least non-malign, character of the tapeworm’s
presence, which I have lately obtained.
1. Of two grouse examined last October the better nourished had the larger
number of tapeworms.
2. A grouse killed on August 12 this year had a perforation of the small
intestine about 200 mm. beyond the end of the duodenal loop; all but one of the
tapeworms, which were numerous in this bird, were found in the rectum; only one
was found in the neighbourhood of the perforation, though that part of the gut is
commonly and the other very rarely infested.
3. A grouse killed on August 15 this year was found to have sporadic patches
of inflammation in the walls of the intestine and ceca; from 370 mm. of the
intestine no less than twenty-four tapeworms were taken, but for the whole of this
tract there was not the least trace of inflammation.
I may pass from these facts, which are quite sufficient to dispose of any theory
as to the possibility of ‘the secretion of the worms themselves’ poisoning the
blood, or indeed of any similar speculation, to note the relation between the ‘ disease’
and the worm, which the weight of the late Dr, Cobbold’s opinion has led many
to regard as the cause of the disease. I only found the Strongylus pergracilis of
Cobbold in one of three sets of birds examined between last autumn and this
spring; in the third set, which consisted of a single bird from Sir W. Wallace’s
moor near Stranraer, the nematode was abundant; in the grouse killed on August
12 the worm was again abundant, but it appeared to be much less numerously
represented in the one killed on the 15th. I think it should be borne in mind that
the two latter birds were likewise from Sir W. Wallace’s moor.
As the worm was absent from two sets out of five, and the three in which it
was found all came from the same moor, it is quite impossible to point to Strongylus
pergracilis as the cause of the disease.
The facts thus briefly set forth sufficiently dispose of the suspicion that hel-
minth parasites are the cause of what is called grouse disease. The pathology of
the affection or affections is beyond my province, and I have only to point out that
the elimination of helminth parasites makes the class of observations already begun
by Dr. Klein more necessary and urgent.
16. The Distrivution of the Nightingale in Yorkshire. By J. Lister.
17. Report of the Committee on Provincial Musewms.—See Reports, p. 97.
18. On the Muga Silkworm and Moth (Antherwa Assama) of Assam, and
other Indian silk-producing species. By THomas WARDLE.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 771
19. Note on a Point in the Structure of Fratercula Arctica. By Frank E.
BepparD, M.A., Prosector to the Zoological Society of London.
The posterior region of the oblique septa in this bird is largely muscular, as is
stated by Huxley (‘ Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1882, p. 566) to be the case in the duck.
This fact is an additional point of similarity between the representatives of these
two orders of birds, which are placed by some naturalists near together. The
presence of this muscular tissue in the oblique septum has, however, an obvious
use, which, perhaps, rather does away with its value as evidence of affinity. The
birds in question have an elongated sternum, and accordingly the abdominal
muscles are necessarily less in extent than in many other birds. The process of
respiration in birds depends to a large extent upon the abdominal muscles which
depress the sternum, and therefore exert pressure upon the underlying air-sacs.
In diving birds it is clear that there is, if anything, need of greater force for the
expulsion of air than in flying or wading birds; the presence therefore of muscular
fibres on the oblique septum enables this structure to be utilised as an additional
depressor of the sternum.
Professor Huxley in the paper referred to compares the oblique septum of the
bird to a structure in the crocodile, which consists of a broad thin muscle on
either side arising from the pubis, and attached to ventral face of pericardium and
to the ventral and lateral parts of the fibrous capsule of the stomach. He does
not, however, lay special stress upon the particular resemblance which this
structure bears to the oblique septum of the duck (and of the puffin) on account
of the presence of muscular tissue in these birds, This is another instance of
an ancient character being retained in a bird which is not one of the Struthionide,
and is still further evidence against regarding these birds as the most archaic living
form of bird.
20. On the Development of the Ovwm in Endrilus.!. By Franx HE, Bepparp,
M.A., Prosector to the Zoological Society of London.
The process of growth of the ovarian ovum in this aberrant earthworm differs
in detail from the corresponding processes in any other annelid. In each ‘com-
partment’ of the ovary (see ‘Proc. Roy. Soc., Edin.’ 1885-6, p. 672), only a few
germinal cells become ova; the remaining cells become for the most part meta-
morphosed into a semi-fluid mass of protoplasm. The nuclei of these cells are
at first recognisable, but afterwards degenerate. A certain number of cells form a
cap situated at one pole of the ovum, which when mature is surrounded by a single
vitelline membrane. These changes in the germinal cells which do not become
Ova appear to indicate that they take a share in the nutrition of the oyum.
Sus-Section BOTANY. 2
1. Alternation of Generations in Green Plants. By J. Reynoups Vaizey.
The object of this paper is twofold. First, to discuss the origin of alternation
of generations in all green plants. Second, to see what effect such a view has on
comparisons between the vegetative bodies of the oophyte and sporophyte of the
same or different species.
Comparisons of the life-histories of Coleochete, E:dogonium, Spheroplea, Hydro-
dictyon, Pandorina, also Chara and the Floridee, with that of the lowest mosses,
show that in all these forms there is virtually an alternation of generations. In the
lowest forms the sporophore generation is shown to consist of a simple mass of
cells produced by the division of the oospore, each cell becoming sooner or later a
spore which gives rise to the vegetative body of the oophyte; in the simplest. case,
namely, Pandorina, the oospore sometimes gives rise directly to a single sexual
1 Journ. Anat. Phys. October 1887.
3p 2
772 REPORT—1887.
Pandorina eenobium, or by division to several spores, each of which gives rise to a
sexual Pandorina coenobium.
Upon these comparisons it is suggested that alternation of generations arose
from polyembryony, not, as according to Pringsheim’s theory, by a process of dif-
ferentiation from a number of individuals which were both sexual aud asexual.
If this hypothesis is true it is then pointed out that the sporophyte, as it is more
generally known in the mosses and hivher plants, is a new body originating among
the higher Algz and lower Liverworts not genetically connected with the sexual
body. Consequently the tissues of the sporophyte cannot be homologous with those
of the oophyte, but may be analogous.
The Floridee and Characee receive special consideration.
2. On a Curious Habitat of certain Mosses. By C. P. Hopxirx, P.D.S.
The author exhibited specimens of two purely terrestrial mosses, Mniwm
hornum and Polytrichum commune, which he had found growing in a quarry pool
near Dewsbury (West Riding of Yorkshire), quite submerged, and apparently of
some years’ growth. The only difference from the normal type was in the attenua-
tion and elongation of the stems, the cell structure both of stem and leaves being
unaltered.
3. Report of the Peradeniya Committee.—See Reports, p. 96.
4, On the Constitution of Cell-walls and its Relation to Absorption in
Mosses.! By J. Reynoups Vatzey.
Potyrrichum Commune, Linn.
I. Cell-walls of Sporophyte.—(1) Transverse section placed in iod. chlor. zinc ;
walls of epidermal cells brownish-yellow, rest of the cells more or less blue, the
hypodermal sterome even slightly bluish in tint.
This is the case in both seta and apophysis. The guard-cells of Stomata on
apophysis have a delicate cuticle well seen with iod, chlor. zinc; the internal part
of cell-wall is pure cellulose, being turned blue with iod. chlor. zinc.
Chromic acid (strong) dissolves all the tissues more or less rapidly, leaving
behind only the delicate cuticle, which is then distinctly seen as a membrane isolated
from the tissues. The cuticle is dissolved by boiling in strong potash; is made dis-
tinctly visible and frequently partially separated from epidermis by chlorate of
potash and nitric acid.
age chloride + HCl turns the hypodermal sterome from brown to orange-
yellow. :
(2) Water is only absorbed by foot of seta. Water placed on capsule, apophysis
or seta goes off as from an oily surface.
Il. Cell-walls of Oophyte——(1) Iod. chlor. zine central strand of cells only
turned blue.
Chromic acid not quite concentrated rapidly dissolves all the tissues; no trace
of a cuticle or any cuticularised cell-walls to be seen.
Anniline chloride + HCI turns all peripheral tissues orange-yellow.
(2) Water sticks to leaves and stems, and is rapidly absorbed by them, as may
be easily seen if only a few drops of water are left on the stem and leaves after
immersion in water; after a few minutes it has all disappeared. A withered stem ;
placed in water, head foremost, it rapidly revives.
Hence it is seen that the seta and apophysis of sporophyte is cuticularised, and
consequently gases only can be absorbed by those structures, and water is (as I
have shown elsewhere) only absorbed by the foot. In the oophyte there is no
cuticle, and consequently water can be, and is, absorbed by both stems and leaves.
1 See also Annals of Botany, vol. i. No. 2.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. CTS
The leaves of mosses are therefore seen to have a function differing very greatly
from that of the vascular plants; while the apophysis of the sporophyte has
exactly the same functions as the leaves of the vascular plants.
Susp-Secrion PHYSIOLOGY.
1. Report of the Committee for the Investigation of the Secretion of Urine.
See Reports, p. 131.
2. Report of the Committee appointed fur the purpose of investigating the
Physiology of the Lymphatic System.—See Reports, p. 145.
3. On the Development of the Roots of the Nerves and on their Propagation
to the Central Organs and to the Periphery. By Professor His.
It is about fifty years since Theodor Schwann, in his fundamental work on the
animal cell, gave out the opinion that nervous fibres are formed by the connection
of rows of cells. This opinion has for a long time prevailed among all histologists,
and has also been adopted by the eminent embryologist that English science lost
at so early an age, the late Professor Balfour, and by Professor M. Marshall and
others.
Besides this older theory and that of Professor Hensen, which I can omit
to-day, there is another, first brought up by Messrs. Bidder and Kupffer in the
year 1858. These inauirers considered nervous fibres as direct outgrowths from
central cells. I myself have been led by my own inquiries a long time ago
to adopt this opinion, and I came, moreover, to the conviction that, while motor
fibres grow out from the cells of the spinal cord and of the brain, sensitive fibres
have their issue from the cells of the ganglions. In the last six years I have had
the opportunity of verifying this supposition, and I should think that on this point
discussion is no more possible. No motor cylinder axis, for instance, issues from
a row of cells ; everyone comes only from one cell situated in the spinal cord or in
the brain.
The observations of Professor Balfour, of Professor Marshall, and others on
cells in the path of motor nerves are completely true; it is also true that these
cells are in some way engaged in the formation of nerves, but they have nothing
to do with the cylinder axis; they form only the accessory parts of the nerves, the
neurilemma and the sheath of Schwann. In the dog-fishes these accessory cells are
very richly developed, while in the human embryo they appear slowly. Sections
of human embryos are, therefore, much better suited to all the studies of the
formation and the propagation of nervous fibres than the sections of dog-fishes
and of many other vertebrates.
In the human embryo the first nervous fibres are to be seen during the fourth
week, and the fibres emerging from the spinal cord appear a little sooner than
the fibres coming out of the ganglions. At this time there can be distinguished
in the spinal cord an outer and an inner layer of cells. The inner layer is more
compact, and it only contains karyokinetic figures, while every cell of the outer
layer sends out one fibre or one cylinder axis. The fibres of the dorsal half go
forwards, forming partly the white commissure, partly longitudinal cords. The
fibres of the ventral half run to the surface of the spinal cord; they pass out and
unite so as to form the motor roots, Every root is formed by a certain number
of fibres, all issuing from single cells of the corresponding floor of the spinal
cord. There are in this early period no ramified processes of the spinal cells.
The brain part of the medullary tube shows also a separation between an
outer and an inner layer of cells, and leaving out of consideration the fore-brain
that we actually can pass over, every one of the outer cells seems also to send out
774 REPORT—1887.
a cylinder axis. To a certain extent—namely, in the district of the rhomboid
sinus—there is at the end of the first month a well-pronounced separation between
the ventral and the dorsal half of the tube, the latter being of pentagonal shape,
and its roof being formed by a very thin layer of cells.
All motor fibres of the brain, from the hypoglosse to the oculomotor, issue
from cells of the ventral half of the brain tube, and there is in this point a perfect
correspondence with the spinal cord.
As far as the inferior end of the rhomboid sinus the continuity of motor-
fibrogenous cells is preserved; further upward these cells form certain groups,
partly separated by cells that do not form motor roots. We have in this way the
different motor centres of the 7th, 6th, 5th, 4th, and 8rd nerves.
The path that motor fibres follow in going out are more varied in the brain
than in the spinal cord. Lesides the accessory nerve of Willis all motor fibres of
the spinal cord go out from the ventral side of the organ. In the superior part of
the spinal cord many of the motor fibres run laterally to form the accessory nerve
of Willis, and the same will be found in the lower part of the brain.
There is a long double row of fibres coming out; one of these rows is given
by the roots of the hypoglosse, the other by those of the nerve of Willis. The
mner separation of the nuclei in the motor territory is at this time not distinct.
Hypoglossal fibres come from the more ventral, Willis’s fibres from the more dorsal
cells of this territory.
Going upwards, there are in the way of the hypoglosse only two nerves, the
sixth and the third. In the course of the nerve of Willis we find the motor
fibres of pneumogastric, glossopharyngeus, facial, and fifth nerve. But we find
also more peculiar courses of the interior motor fibres. The fibres of the fourth
nerve, coming out from a ventral nucleus, are going to the roof of the tube, and
they cross each other. The fibres of the facial nerve, coming from a nucleus be-
hind the auditory vesicle, form an interior arch before they reach the surface,
and they come out only in front of the auditory vesicle.
The sensitive nerves and also the auditory nerve grow out of the ganelions.
The cells of these organs become bipolar, and every one of them sends out two
fibres, one going to the centre, one to the periphery. The central fibres coming
to the spinal cord form generally a longitudinal bundle, the first beginning of the
posterior column. A certain number‘of them go more or less directly between
the cells of the spinal cord.
In the head, as is well known, four ganglion-masses are formed. Two of
them, the ganglions of pneumogastric and of glossopharyngeus, are behind—two
others, the facial-auditory and the trigeminus ganglion, in front of the auditory
vesicle. These ganglion-masses send out fibres also to the periphery and to the
brain. Besides the auditory nerve that spreads itself out near the point of its
entry the four other nerves come to the surface of the brain. They change the
direction of their fibres, and form in this way longitudinal bundles. The bundles
are the origins of the ascending roots of the pneumogastric, the glossopharyngeus,
and the fifth nerve. An ascending root of the facial nerve, or, more correctly, of
the nerve of Wrisberg, has also been discovered in the brain of man by the most
subtil investigations of Mr. Sapolini. All these ascending roots are in their
first origin very short, and they grow by degrees longer and longer. Their
position is at first very superficial ; afterwards they become deeper by a series of
foldings of the brain-wall.
The nerve-bundles formed by the motor and the sensory roots pass to the
periphery. Every one of them is formed by fine fibres without nuclei, some
connective cells being intermixed with them. The bundles are at first short and
comparatively very thick. They grow by degrees, and some weeks pass before
their last ends reach the periphery.
These first new trunks go straight in the direction in which they grow out,
and when there is no obstacle they run a long way in a straight course. This
is very conspicuous in the different nerves of the head, in the three muscular
nerves of the eye, in the branches of the fifth nerve, and also in the pneumo-
gastric nerve, which is going with its principal branch behind the brachial arches
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. Ces
in a direct way to the internal organs of the body. The nerves of the extremities
reach by the shortest route their territory, and only by-and-by they are drawn out
to their terminal length.
By secondary dislocations the nerve-trunks can be curved, and so the direction
of their actual end and of their growing out can be altered. This is to be seen in
the facial nerve and in many other nerves of the body. When the different
nerves that are near together grow out in a different direction they will cross,
partly unite, and form anastomoses. The relations in the angle between the head
and the body give a striking illustration to this assertion.
An outgrowing nerve can find obstacles in its straight way. In this case it
will undergo a deviation, and this deviation, not being the same for all its fibres,
will bring about a division of the trunk. Cartilages, blood-vessels, and similar
things act as such obstacles. The nerves are not all formed at the same time,
the nerves of the neck and of the hind part of the head being formed the first.
I have not followed as yet the history of the ramified processes of the nerve-
cells. They are formed much later than the cylinder-axis fibres, and the con-
ditions of their spreading out will be found more complicated. Every one of these
fibres must haye one cell as origin, but it seems to me very improbable that it
must generally have also terminal cells, and in this point I agree with the opinions
of Mr. Golgi and Mr. Forel.
I should nowenter upon the discussion of the morphological position of the nerves.
This, however, would take me too long, because different principles would have to
be fixed, and I confine myself therefore entirely to the facts I communicated. I
shall only give one general remark—lI could show that the way which Nature follows
in forming the nervous system is very simple. There is nothing more simple than
the formation of the process of a cell, nothing more simple than the straight out-
growing of these processes until they find an obstacle, or until they come to a
terminal station. Nothing can be, I dare say, more rough than the fact that
apparently accidental things, as a blood-vessel or a cartilage, should have an
influence on the final arrangement of the nerves of the body. And this final
arrangement gives at last a system of the most complicated organisation—a system
which determines all our functions, both of body and of mind. And this system
shows itself in the most delicate dependence on the general law of heredity.
The primary foldings of the blastoderm are of no less simplicity; their next
consequences are to a great extent comparable to the consequences indicated by
the geologist in the formation of our earth’s crust; and nevertheless they deter-
mine all the further development of the body.
We can pronounce the general proposition that in her way to the formation of
higher organisms Nature is not only passing through simple forms, but she is also
using the most simple mechanical means; and I must think that in the great ques-
tion of heredity the study of this means must obtain its full place.
A, The Morphology and Physiology of the Limb-plexuses.!
By A. M. Paterson, M.D
In bringing this subject before the Section my object is not so much to enter
into details regarding the plexus formation in mammals as to state the broad out-
lines of the results of some recent researches, and, if possible, to raise a discussion
on the physiological and morphological aspects of the question.
These plexuses are constant in their presence in higher vertebrates, but no satis-
factory reason for their existence is assigned either by the anatomist or the physio-
logist. The object of my inquiry is, why do they exist? Why does not any
given nerve (e.g., the human anterior crural) spring from a single primary division
1 This paper contains a summary of parts of two already published :—(1) Journal
of Anatomy and Physiology, vol. xxi., 1887, ‘On the Limb-plexuses of Mammals’ ; (2)
Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, August 1887, ‘On the Fate of the
Muscle-plate, and the Development of the Spinal Nerves and Limb-plexuses in Birds
and Mammals.’
776 REPORT—1 887.
of a spinal nerve instead of from several? In other words, why does not one
primary division contain within itself all the strands of the nerve? How is it that
a nerye does not pass from the cord directly to the parts which it supplies, but, on
the contrary, gives fibres to and gets fibres from adjacent nerves in its course ?
With the object of discovering if there is any fundamental plan upon which the
formation of the plexuses and the distribution of the nerves is based, complete dis-
sections were made of ten different animals—porcupine, rat, koala, rabbit, guinea-pig,
cat, camel, brindled gnu, capucinus, and entellus monkeys.
These dissections have led to certain conclusions regarding the constitution of
the plexuses, which are supported by a reference to the condition of things which
obtains in man ; and, still further, to the formulation of a general hypothesis which
appears adequate to explain their existence.
Without describing minutia, it is enough to say that by an analysis of the
plexuses of the fore and hind limbs one finds on the one hand that there are certain
minor differences in the arrangement of the nerves in different cases; on the other
hand that there are certain fundamental points in which all agree.
(A) The points of difference are, speaking broadly, two :—
1. Inthe number of nerves entering such plexus.
2. In the position of the limb-plexuses in the series of spinal nerves.
1. Examining the number of nerves which enter into the composition of the
brachial and lumbo-sacral plexus, both in the animals dissected and in all other
recorded cases to which I have had access, I find that five nerves, or thereabouts, are
engaged in the formation of the nerves of distribution to the limb proper. The
number, however, varies in different animals, being sometimes more and sometimes
less than five.
In the Brachial Plexus.—F¥ive nerves entered into the formation of the plexus in
five cases, four in four cases, and in the entellus monkey six nerves assisted in
forming the plexus.
In the Lumbo-sacral Plexus.—In all cases but one five nerves were engaged in
forming the branches which supplied the limb proper. In this category the ilio-
hypogastric ilioinguinal, small sciatic, and internal pudic are omitted, as only one of
them (the small sciatic) supplies any portion of the hind limb; and in most of the
animals that nerve merely supplies the skin of the buttock and upper part of the
flank. In other recorded cases I find the number of plexus-forming nerves in relation
to the hind limb to vary between four (in thylacine) to seven (in man).
While, however, there are slight individual variations, the number in all cases
is about five. This fact gives support to the late Professor Goodsir’s hypothesis,
that the mammalian limb derives elements from five vertebral somites.
2. With regard to the second point of difference, the position of the limb-
plexuses in the series of spinal nerves, the discrepancies are only slight.
In the brachial plexus the nerves which form it are always the sixth, seventh,
eighth, and ninth spinal nerves, with, in addition in certain cases, the fifth or fourth.
Occasionally in man the tenth nerve also joins the plexus.
In the lumbo-sacral plexus there is at first sight no regularity in the arrange-
ment of the nerves entering into it, with regard to the vertebral segments. The
plexus for the hind limb may be furmed wholly by lumbar nerves or by the addi-
tion of sacral nerves as well.
This discrepancy is due to two causes: first, the varying number of thoracico-
lumbar vertebree ; and secondly, the varying position of the lumbo-sacral articu-
lation. It disappears to a certain extent when the numbers of plexus-forming
nerves are counted in relation to the series of the spinal nerves. When this is done
it is seen that there is still considerable variation, from the twenty-first to the
twenty-ninth spinal nerves. The twenty-fifth nerve is the only one present in every
case.
(B) Points of agreement :—
Notwithstanding these minor differences. there are certain fundamental points
of agreement in the composition of the limb-plexuses of the limbs and in all the
animals dissected :—
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 777
1. In the arrangement of the nerves in the plexuses.
2. In the distribution of the nerves in the limbs.
1. From the dissections made and an analysis of results the three following
rules have been Jaid down :—
(a) The inferior primary divisions of the nerves entering the plexus divide
into dorsal (posterior) and ventral (anterior) branches.
(6) Dorsal branches always combine with dorsal branches, ventral branches
with ventral branches, to form the nerves of distribution.
(c) The essential constitution of a nerve of distribution consequently never
varies. A nerve arising from a combination of the dorsal divisions of certain
nerves in one animal is never found in another to spring from the ventral
divisions of these or any other nerves, and wee versd.
These three deductions are supported by an examination of both brachial and
lumbo-sacral plexuses.
In the case of the fore limb the inferior primary divisions of the nerves entering
the plexus split first of all into dorsal (posterior) and ventral (anterior) branches ;
secondly, the dorsal branches combine to form one set, the ventral branches to form
anvther set, of nerves of distribution.
In the case of the hind limb also there are two sets of nerves of distribution,
one derived from a combination of dorsal or posterior branches, the other from
ventral (anterior) branches of certain nerves.
In neither plexus do ventral divisions combine with dorsal divisions of adjacent
nerves ; in neither plexus does a nerve of distribution, derived in one animal from
ventral divisions, in another case spring from dorsal divisions, and vice versd.
The great sciatic nerve may be divided into three parts: —External popliteal,
Internal popliteal, Nerve to hamstrings; and this I find is the rule in the animals
dissected. ‘They lie side by side, more or less closely bound together in a fibrous
sheath, but with separate and distinctly different origins. The external popliteal
when traced up to the plexus is seen to be formed by a combination of dorsal
branches; the internal popliteal, of which the nerve to the hamstring muscles is to
be regarded as a part, is derived from certain ventral branches of the nerves
which form the plexus.
Ihave shown elsewhere that the same is the case with regard to the human
great sciatic nerve, and in birds also the two popliteal nerves are separate up to
their origins.
The nerves derived from the plexuses have, moreover, a fixed and definite
relation regarding their position and order of origin, from before backwards.
2. Turning now to the distribution in the limbs of the several nerves derived
from the plexuses, we find that a similar classification may be made from a con-
sideration of the parts supplied.
The mammalian limb originates as a bud which springs from the ventro-lateral
aspect of the body. It is at first directed downwards and outwards, and presents
a dorsal, superior, or external surface; « ventral, inferior, or internal surface ; and
a preaxial and a postaxial border. In the centre a formation of cartilage occurs,
which afterwards develops into the bones and joints of the limbs. Outside (and
above and below) this cartilaginous framework muscular envelopes are formed,
giving rise to a double dorsal and a double ventral layer.
Primitively then the limb presents a dorsal and a ventral surface, each consist-
ing of cutaneous and muscular strata, and lying respectively above and below the
cartilaginous framework of the limb. These muscular and cutaneous strata have
to be supplied with nerves.
The subsequent changes in the limbs, of elongation, angulation, and rotation,
along with the development of the muscular strata into complicated systems, pro-
duce important effects in the configuration and structure of the limbs; so that it
is a difficult matter to make out the relations between the parts of the foetal and
adult limbs.
It is sufficiently clear, however, for our present purpose that, in the case of the
fore and hind limbs respectively, the following parts in the adult mammal are
778 REPORT—1887.
identical with, and developed from, the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the embryonic
limb.
In the case of the fore limb the following parts are developed from the dorsal
surface: the parts in the scapula, the extensor surface of the humerus (the back of
the arm), the extensor suriace of the radius and ulna (back of forearm), and
back of hand.
From the ventral surface the following parts arise: the pectoral muscles, the
flexor surface of the humerus (front of arm), the flexor surface of the radius and
ulna (front of forearm), and the palm of the hand.
In the case of the hind limb, the region of the buttock, the extensor surface of
the thigh, the front of the leg, and dorsum of the foot are equally continuous with,
and developed from, the primitive dorsal surface. ‘The parts on the inner side and
back of the thigh (including the adductor and hamstring muscles), the back of the
leg, and the sole of the foot represent the ventral surface of the original out-
rowth.
Turning again to the nerves, we find that the parts of the fore and hind limbs,
which are derived from the originally dorsal surface of the embryonic limb, are
supplied by nerves of distribution, which are formed by a combination of dorsal
divisions of the nerves forming the limb-plexus. In the same way those parts
derived from the primitive ventral surfaces are supplied by nerves of distribution
derived from combinations of the ventral divisions of the nerves entering into
the plexus. This holds good without exception throughout the series of animals
examined.
From a consideration (1) of the origin of the nerves and constitution of the
plexuses, and (2) of the parts of the limbs supplied by them, viewed in the light of
the development of the mammalian limb, the following hypothesis has been
raised :—
That in a primitive condition of the limb, at an early period of development,
the nerves have a simple arrangement and distribution in the simple bud; the
more preaxial nerves supply the preaxial portion of the limb; the nerve postaxial,
the postaxial portion ; while the interior primary division of each nerve engaged in
forming the plexus or in supplying the limb divides into a dorsal and a ventral
branch for the supply of the dorsal and ventral surfaces respectively of its own
particular part of the embryonic limb.
The embryonic nerves become differentiated and complicated in their arrange-
ment part passu with the development of the muscular system, and the changes
which take place in the production of the adult condition.
Positive proof of this hypothesis can only be obtained from an examination of
the developing nerves in the embryo. This has been done in the chick, and to a
certain extent in mammals also. In a more recent paper I have shown that (1) at
the roots of the limbs the nerves divide into dorsal and ventral branches, which
unite respectively with adjacent dorsal and ventral branches, and can be traced to
the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the limb; (2) the formation of the plexuses and
the passage of the nerves to the distal extremity of the limbs occurs before the dif-
ferentiation of the tissues of the limb into muscular elements.
Conclusion.—F rom these data an adequate conception can, I think, be obtained
of the fundamental formation of the limb-plexuses. An analysis of these plexuses
in mammals has shown that in the production of the ‘ nerves of distribution’ out
of the ‘nerves of origin’ two events occur: (1) The nerves of origin divide into
dorsal and ventral trunks. (2) These dorsal and ventral trunks subdivide and
unite with the corresponding subdivisions of adjacent nerves to form the nerves of
distribution. The first step has been shown to be the result of an embryonic con-
dition—namely, a splitting of the original nerves into trunks for the supply of the
dorsal and ventral surfaces of the embryonic limb.
The second step follows as a necessary result of the changes which occur in the
limb in the production of the adult condition.
The bud which eventually forms the adult limb may be looked upon as the
result of the fusion of a certain number (say fixe) of primary buds—prolongations
from the ventrolateral aspects of certain vertebral somites. Each myotome is sup-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 779
plied by a distinct and separate nerve in the first-place. By the development and
evolution of the simple embryonic dorsal and ventral strata of muscles, formed of
mesoblastic tissue derived from the original somites, the complicated systems of
muscles are formed which exist in the adult.
These changes taking place in the myotomes it follows that similar alterations
will occur in the primitive nerves which supply them. The myotomes undergo
fusion, elongation, contraction, and a complex muscular system results. The nerves
distributed to the original parts of this complex system undergo similar changes ;
adjacent dorsal and ventral divisions become fused, and give rise to a compound
nerve, from which pari passw with the development of individual adult muscles
branches are given off to supply them. It follows, therefore, that as one muscle
may be formed from some only of the myotomes implicated in the limb, the par-
ticular nerve for this muscle may arise only from a certain number of the nerves of
origin. On the other hand, one muscle may represent the whole breadth of the
suriace of the primitive limb; in such a case the nerve supplying it will derive
fibres from all the nerves entering the limb-plexus.
From these considerations it is concluded that, as this first step in the forma-
tion of a limb-plexus, the division of the nerves of origin into dorsal and ventral
trunks is a primary process in the development of the limb; so the second step, the
interconnection of these adjacent dorsal and ventral divisions, is a secondary process
in the same direction.
The limb-plexuses, that is, the formation of the nerves of distribution from
certain nerves of origin by the division and union of the latter, are entirely the
effect of the mode of development of the limb itself. They possess no physio-
logical significance. There is no reason to believe that a nerve-fibre divides in its
course. Until the nerve breaks up into its terminal filaments there is no evidence
to show that it does not exist as a simple and individual fibre from its origin in
the spinal cord. In other words, it is not known that an axis cylinder divides
dichotomously in the limb-plexuses, so as to connect a single cell in the spinal cord
with two distinct and separate muscles, or parts of the same muscle. This being
the case, the existence of these plexuses is not explained by a vague reference to
‘the co-ordination of muscular action.’
The conclusion I would submit is that they are an integral part of the process
of evolution and development of the limb. They result in a convenience of nature
in the adult condition. They are due to the changes which produce that condi-
tion, concomitant with other processes, all tending to the conversion of the simple
into the more complex.
5. The Normal Phenomena of Entoptic Vision distinguished fronv those
produced by Mechanical Causes. By Buatrice Linpsay, Girton
College, Cambridge.
Experiments on the subject of entoptical vision, extending over a period of
three years, have led me to believe that the difficulty which has hitherto been
found in explaining the formation of entoptic images of retinal structure has been
largely due to want of clear distinction between those images which are formed in
accordance with the laws of optics, and those which are due to the specific energy
of the optic nerve, exhibited when mechanical stimuli affect its peripheral
branches. I have therefore framed the following classification of the entoptical
images of parts of the retina, that may be obtained by various experiments. ‘Those
images in the list which are marked with an asterisk are, I believe, now for the
first time described in their relation to the actual structure of the retina.
I, Entoptical images obtained by normal sight; distinguished by their vitreous
lustre, semi-transparency, colour as of natural tissues, translucent or red, and absence
under complete darkness.
1. Purkinje’s figures.
2. Images of blood-corpuscles. These, the existence of which has been dis-
puted, are apparent throughout the visual field, the theory of the non-vascularity
780 REPORT—1887
of the centre of the retina being thus disproved. They are approximately of such
size as if seen by a one-eighth objective, and are red in colour when best seen. They
appear under various circumstances of optical curvature, varying from far accom-
modation to the microscopic accommodation (effected, unlike the normal accommo-
dation, by alteration of the curvature of the cornea itself) which is possible to the
myopic eye when half-closed and squeezed by the eyelids; and the condition of
their perception seems to be the absence of other clearly defined images from the
retina, or perhaps from the combined field of vision—a condition fultilled under
the following circumstances: —(1) Far accommodation when the eye is confronted
by a near object; (2) near accommodation when the eye is confronted by a far
object ; (8) oblique vision of a bright source of light; (4) slipping the eyes into
a position in which the visual axes are parallel, so that the images of the two eyes
blur each other, The circulation of corpuscles observed under these conditions
is in all respects normal, its rapidity undergoing a variation with the rapidity of
the pulse, as described by Vierordt.
Although the determining condition of the perception of images of the blood-
corpuscles seems to be absence of other definite images from the retina, yet these
images are, of course, brought into view and removed from it by alterations of
focus in the eye. From the wide limits of accommodation under which the images
are visible, as above stated, it will be understood, however, that they do not
depend, except in a partial and indirect manner, upon accommodation brought
about in the normal way. The delicate focussing by which they are attained is
due, at least in the majority of instances and in the case of the best images, not to
ordinary accommodation, but to what may be called retinal accommodation, viz., a
backward movement of part of the retina accomplished directly by the muscles
acting on the eyeball. The existence of such a mode of accommodation, which
has been discussed by Professor Silvanus Thompson in another connection, is
shown by the manner in which the images of blood-corpuscles occur. The major
part of the circle of distinct vision is occupied by images of corpuscles, while
its margin presents the image of some exterior object, of which the middle is
wanting—a condition which corresponds exactly with the above-named theory
that a portion of the retina is pulled back out of its place, a local alteration of
its curvature being thus effected. The difficulty of explaining the manner in which
images of the blood-corpuscles occur has been greatly increased by the fact that
the strain of the muscles in producing this ‘retinal accommodation’ gives rise to
pressure images of blood-corpuscles, which are confused with normal images if
their different lustre is not carefuily noted.
3. Rim of the fovea centralis.
4, Rim of the blind spot.
*5 and 6. Two layers, one of small, brilliantly transparent, and round, the other
of larger, more irregular, and apparently reddish bodies, which probably, from their
relative sizes and distribution with reference to the fovea centralis, correspond
respectively to the peripheral and the proximal nuclear layer.
II. Entoptical images resulting from pressure, automatic or artificially applied :
distinguished by their metallic lustre; by their colour, varying from pale yellow
through pale green to electric blue or purple, according to the intensity of stimu-
lation, possibly complicated with other causes; and by their visibility in the dark,
although they are usually rendered more intense by the presence of the normal
stimulus of light.
1. A series of images beginning with the large nerve-branches radiating from
the blind spot, and extending finally to the terminal branchlets in the fovea centralis.
2. A second series, passing from the peripheral part of the retina to the
proximal, beginning with an image of the outer nuclear layer,* and proceeding to
an image of the ganglionic layer.*
3. A central grating, composed of sets of bright bars at right angles with one
another, indicating structure of some kind in the fovea centralis.
4, Pressure images of blood-corpuscles, in the form of discs usually, often of
dots, and occasionally of rings. Confusion of these, visible in darkness and
favoured by unhealthy conditions, with the normal images of blood-corpuscles,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 781
visible only by transmitted light, and best seen in the most healthy condition of
the eye, has hitherto hindered the complete explanation of either.
*The two kinds of images, of the same corpuscles, can be accurately superposed
by means of alteration in the curvature of the retina, produced by the action of
the rectus muscles of the eyeball in the manner above described, which is apparent
to consciousness as a strain on the eyeball.
*Pressure images and superposed normal images, arranged in a number of
circular whirls in the area of the fovea centralis, show that the so-called non-
vascular area of the retina is furnished with a highly complex system of capillary
loops. ‘These loops, which like the wajor part of the retinal capillary system, run
vertical to the plane of the retinal layers, are apparently derived from the deeper
or arterial plexus, which belongs to the ganglionic Jayer. They are doubled back
upon themselves, so that the corpuscles in the looped end are seen in the form of
a rapidly turning star as they turn round it ; the reason of this arrangement is
that there are here no venous branches to receive them, the venous or outer
plexus, belonging to the inner nuclear layer, having ceased with the boundary of
the fovea centralis, in the manner which is apparent in most injected preparations,
and which formerly gave rise to the belief that the fovea centralis was a non=
vascular area.
*5. Light-dots: these are minimal units of pressure stimulation which must
not be confounded with what the Germans call ‘light-dust,’ the latter consisting
(as appears from the description given by Helmholtz) in confused pressure images
of blood-corpuscles, and being therefore made up of shining spots which are at
once less distinct and much larger. These light-dots. which are constantly visible
and uniformly distributed over the whole of the field of vision, governed by
movements uniform in character but capable of different directions, are apparently
due to the pressure of the blood-current on the smallest structures of the retina,
either the constituents of the molecular layers or units of the layer of rods and
cones. The units are so small that the pressure image of a biood-corpuscle would
cover a number of them, together with the greatly larger intervals between them.
It is probable that the visibility of light-dots is largely a question of temperament ;
nevertheless they appear to be an important factor in the production of optical
illusions of motion.
6. Optical Illusions of Motion; conflicting theories referred to the test of
certain hitherto undescribed entoptical phenomena. By Buatrice
Linpsay, Girton College, Cambridge.
The chief examples of optical illusions of motion are the following :—1. Recti-
linear, usually horizontal illusion of motion, the typical instance of which is the
apparent backward movement perceived by passengers in a train which is going
through a tunnel; 2. Centrifugal illusion of motion, by which stationary objects
seem to expand after looking at an object diminishing in the distance ; 3. Rota-
tory illusion of motion (Thompson’s strobic wheels) by which stationary concentric
circles appear to rotate round their common centre.
Two theories have been propounded regarding these illusions, namely (a) that
they are due to an actual movement of the retina; (4) that they arise subjectively
by contrast with previous impressions. The latter is the more usually accepted
theory ; the former is the theory supported, and I think substantiated, by the facts
here adduced.
The chief objections to the former theory are as follows:—1. The first illusion
is supposed to be sufficiently accounted for by the opposite rush of necative
images described by Brewster as occurring when a train of moving images
suddenly ceases. To this it may be replied that these negative images only occur
when the eye is fatigued and not in its normal condition; furthermore, the opposite
direction of the rush of negative images requires in itself to be accounte! for.
2. With regard to the centrifugal illusion, it is supposed impossible for the retina
to move in all directions at the same time, so as to produce an ‘all-round’ illusion.
To this it may be replied that a very complex curve of illusion can be produced by
782 REPORT—1887.
known methods, and that the union of both eyes to accomplish similar but
opposite curves wouid produce this ‘all-round’ illusion. 5. With regard to the
rotatory illusion, it is contended that no proof can be given of the existence of a
movement in the eye. To this it may be replied that when the rotatory illusion is
voluntarily induced, pressure images of blood-corpuscles appear, showing that the
retina is being subjected to some peculiar muscular strain. 4, The most important
objection made to the theory of movement of the retina has been that the optical
illusions of motion cannot be voluntarily induced ; but, with the exception of the
centrifugal illusion, I find that they can, by practice, be so induced.
The voluntary production of optical illusions is dependent on the above described
eurious entoptical phenomenon, that there is constantly and invariably present to the
normal eye, when trained to such observations, a current of small uniform pressure
excitations, distinguished as such by their metallic lustre, faint yellow in colour,
and of minimal size and brilliancy. This current of minimal points of light, here-
after indicated by the name of ‘light-dots,’ is, as above stated, apparently to be
interpreted as an incessant wave-movement of pressure images, due to the mechanical
excitation produced by the circulation of the blood in its passage under or near
certain minimal units of the retina, possibly the rods or cones or the peripheral
nerve-fibrils respectively connected with each of these.
This interpretation of the current of ‘light-dots,’ although it appears startling,
seems to be warranted by the following data:—1l. The minimal size of the dots, a
number of which stand in the area which is filled by the pressure image of a blood-
corpuscle. 2. Their uniform size and uniform distribution at fixed intervals
throughout the circle of distinct vision. 8. The character of the current as a wave
of increased brilliancy affecting fixed points, without any movement of the individual
dots. 4. The constant and invariable presence of the phenomenon to the trained
eye under all circumstances of accommodation, and all circumstances of light and
darkness. 5. The uniform normal rate of the movement. 6. Its unmistakable
increase of speed, associated with a greater brilliancy of the dots, under cireum-
stances which increase the rate of the pulse, such as mental exertion or excitement,
or brisk physical exercise.
By practice the current of ‘light-dots’ can be made to move in any direction
desired. When the current is watched or altered its speed increases, a movement
of the retina, probably in the direction of the movement observed, being thereby
indicated. In the fovea centralis the ‘light-dots’ seem to go round in circles,
indicating the complex circulation in that region, which is apparent from other
experiments. The possibility of observing this current in all directions tallies with
the theory of its connection with the blocd-supply travelling in all directions ; its
variation in definite lines indicates that, in watching it, a movement of the retina
takes place in a definite direction; and the ordinary observation of the current, as
possessed of a horizontal movement, is probably governed by the easiest line of
movement for the eyeball, viz., in a more or less horizontal direction.
This current of light-dots, with its associated movements of the retina, is shown
by experiment to be connected with the conditions of optical illusion in the follow-
ing way. Four horizontal movements of the current may be distinguished, and,
after some practice, induced at will, by movements which are not apparent to
consciousness otherwise than as a vague sense of effort: namely (1 and 2),
movement respectively to the right or to the left at a normal rate ; these are con-
ditions of the still and resting eye; (3) a movement at the increased speed which
indicates some movement of the retina in the direction of a moving train of
objects ; this is the condition of the eye watching the landscape from a moving
railway-carriage ; (4) a movement, at the same increased speed, in the opposite
direction from the moving train of objects; this condition of the eye, when
induced involuntarily by the sudden removal of the train of objects watched, pro-
duces an illusion of sudden backward movement, as in the case of the familiar
illusion given when a train passes through a tunnel. The same illusion may be in-
duced voluntarily in a tunnel or in travelling by night, and either can be voluntarily
removed by the reverse movement of the eye. ‘This fourth condition of the eye,
when yoluntarily induced by daylight, produces an apparent extra speed of the
-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 183
train, blurring objects even when the train is slow. By the voluntary choice of
direction and speed for the current of ‘light-dots’ many similar illusions may be
determined—e.g., the apparent hastening of the moon or stars through clouds, the
apparent stationary position, notwithstanding its vibration, of a train in the dark,
or on one’s waking up from sleep ; the speed of a passing train attributed to a train
at rest, &c. In brief, the apparent movement voluntarily determined for the current
of light-dots determines, modifies, or destroys, according to its relative direction, the
occurrence of these tllusions.
The centrifugal illusion appears to be similarly induced by a more complex
movement of the retina; the rotatory, by watching the circling currents of the
fovea centralis. Involuntary continuation of the curved line of movement induced
by watching water makes flat surfaces appear to move in wavy lines. Reflex
reversal of the current, after long-continued reversal of the direction of moving
objects, as at sea, tends to repeat itself when the cause is past, producing by
comeidence with respiration, viz., of an upward movement with expiration, and
a downward movement with inspiration, the sensation of going down and up ina
boat—an illusion commonly experienced after a sea-voyage.
It must be added that this and other optical illusions are probably to be re-
garded, not as independent and purely optical phenomena, but as belonging to a
complex set of sensations, initiating, in voluntary illusion, or following upon, in
pathological illusion, those sub-conscious sensations connected with the ear which
are associated with the balance of the body in its various positions.
7. The demonstration of a new Myographion.
By Professor McKrnpricx.
8. A new Physiological Principle for the Formation of Natural Bodies.
By Professor JESSEN.
9. A new Geometry for the Bodies of Man and Animals.
By Professor JEssEN.
10. Further supplementary remarks on Supposed Cycloidal Rotation of
Arterial Red Discs.' By Sargeon-Major R. W. Woottcomse.
The author suggests that the difficulty of finding with a microscope in bodies so
small and symmetrical the existence of cycloidal rotation may be lessened by the
attention of the observer being less directed to the rotation itself than to some of
its consequences; thus, even in a gyroscopic disc of four inches it is not always
easy to say, even when rotation is rapid, whether there is rotation or not; but
when an attempt is made to impart rotation about a second axis of the disc, then
that about the first or shortest diameter is at once declared by the resulting pre-
cessional movement or tendency to rotate about a third axis intermediate to the
other two; so, by examining an artery that is not straight but spiral, a precessional
movement in the discs may be found there (?) caused by the spirality of the artery
superimposing a tendency to a rotation about a long diameter on the (assumed)
previously existing cycloidal rotation about the disc’s shortest diameter, and such a
compound movement towards a third axis may become visible when the ordinary
rotation (as within a straight artery) might not. Secondly, in the latter the mode
of travelling of discs would he more orderly than if there were no regular rotation,
as the planes of rotation would, by the rotation, be more or less fixed, and thus be
more parallel to one another than if the discs were devoid of rotation about their
shortest diameter. Thirdly, it might be possible for a skilled manipulator in such
' Continued from the British"Association Reports for 1881 and 1886.
784 REPORT—1887.
inquiries to impart a lateral impulse to discs, so that a precessional movement might
become visible when the simple rotation was not so.
To have been translated without rotation, a body, such as an arterial disc, must
have been subjected either to a force passing solely through its centre of gravity—
to suppose which is absurd—or it must have been subjected to forces (also in its
line of projection) about its centre of gravity and on either side of its line of motion
strictly equal and parallel to one another, the which, in the presence of the fact that
the arteries are so largely curved—a condition necessitating unbalanced impulses—
seems to the author equally an impossibility.
Any other direction of impulse during translation necessitates also rotation ;
thus impingement on the side of the vessel is a tangential force not passing through
the centre of gravity of the disc, and such would give rotation; also the other
tangential force described in the volume for 1881 of the British Association Report
by the author as evidenced by the experiment of Dr. Plateau with a rotating
globule of oil. Both this cause of rotation and that just before mentioned are in
harmony with the natural law above referred to; and when to these causes of
rotation is superadded the fact of the very oblate form of the disc, coupled with
the important nature of the functions assumed to be by such means fulfilled, the
author cannot but believe that the cycloidal rotation of arterial discs would long
since have been manifested by the microscope but for the extreme difficulty and
delicacy attending its recognition.
=~!
lo @)
Or
Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—Colonel Sir CHARLES WARREN, R.E., G.C.M.G.,,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1,
The PrEsIDENT delivered the following Address :—
‘The geographer should therefore chiefly devote himself to what is practically
important.’—Srrazo, c. i. § 19.
My predecessors in former years have used their discretion in the opening
address either to generalise on the science of geography or to lay stress upon those
particular subjects to which they considered it desirable to call attention. I pro-
pose on this occasion to refer to matters which have long been of importance to
those who are desirous of the spread of the knowledge of geography, and in which I
trust the public generally are acquiring an interest. I refer to the teaching of
geography in our schools and the economy and advantage to the State which
would result from a more perfect and skilful system of instruction.
The term geography covers a very wide area, and while limiting its use to-day
to the more restricted sense generally accorded to it in modern times, I must pro-
test against its being applied only to a dry digest of names of places and record of
statistics, rendering it a bugbear in the instruction of youth instead of allowing it
to cover all those interesting and engrossing subjects which truly belong to it, and
without the knowledge of which the mind of youth cannot be trained and expanded
in the direction to which the science tends.
As the geographer Strabo points out, our science embraces astronomy, natural
history, and is closely connected with meteorology and geometry, the arts, history,
and fable; but since his day so much progress has been made in the arts and
sciences that the branches of geography have become specialities to be taught
separately, and the old root geography has been almost laid aside and treated with
contempt, though it is only by a thorough acquaintance with it, the knowledge of
common things, that the branches which depend upon it can be thoroughly com-
prehended. We may take geography, then, to embrace all that knowledge of
common things connected with the surface of the earth, including the seas and the
atmosphere, which it is necessary for every human being to be acquainted with in
order that progress in other knowledge may be acquired and acquaintance with the
world be made which will fit man for life in any capacity, whether as occupying
the highest position even to the most humble. Indeed, it is difficult to say in what
capacity in life this knowledge is most required. No man can do practical work
without it, and to the theorist it is absolutely essential,
The science may be divided under two heads: that which we learn from others,
that which we acquire from our own observation and researches, All experience tells
us that the information is most valuable which we acquire by our own exertion,
and therefore every effort should be made by those interested in the welfare of
mankind to endeavour that each one should learn everything that can be learned
from his ownobservation properly directed.
Year by year, as the surface of the earth becomes better known, the districts in
1887. 35
786 REPORT—1887.
which explorations of an adventurous nature can be made diminish more and more,
and as scientific research takes the place of that of a ruder nature the chances of
excitement grow perceptibly less. Indeed, when we look upon the knowledge
possessed by the ancients and study their cosmogony we cannot but feel the loss
we have sustained in approaching the truth. The poetic halo with which every-
thing was encircled, the deep shadows and gloom, have gradually been dispersed and
dispelled, together with all the distant and uncertain light which gave so much scope
to the imagination, and we now view the hard stern realities of fact, brilliant and
gay in their colouring, but leaving no room for fancy, or for a change of ideas—
always the same vivid rigidity of outline which admits of no two opinions. It is
like the change of scenery from our own beautiful cloudy island, where the
tints and shades change from hour to hour, and where the grey and purple dis-
tances leave so much to the imagination, to the bright scenes of the Mediterranean
shores, where everything is bathed in intense sunlight, and distinctness of outline
reigns supreme, where there is no possibility as to doubt.
In each case we may balance the advantages and disadvantages ; but as we have
gained in knowledge so we are losing in understanding. We are fast losing our
humen nature and are becoming machines, and we call it being civilised. We are
drifting into a condition in which we learn nothing of ourselves or by our own
individual efforts ; we are coming to a time when, as we know more about science,
and are better educated in arts, we know less about mankind, and are the less able
to assist in gaining knowledge for the world ; all power of doing so is day by day
becoming vested in the hands of a few scientific men, on whose word we have to rely.
In this progress we are losing all we used to hold most dear; the desire of living
for others is departing, and with it hospitality, chivalry, enthusiasm, unselfishness,
and because we are unable to exercise the talents given to us they rust and corrode.
No doubt we are able to seek other channels for our energies of mind, but how are
we to exert our physical powers for the benefit of man? In days of yore it
was open to any man of spirit and strength and activity to set out in quest
of adventures of the unknown for the assistance of his fellow-men, to relieve
the world of its monsters, to risk everything for others. But those days of daring
are now gone by; the doubt, uncertainty, and mystery attached to unknown danger
are no longer to be met. with, and though the same chances are always pre-
sented to human nature to practise self-denial, they are now, though more difficult
perhaps, of a passive instead of an active nature, and do not so distinctly belong to
the domain of geography as they did in olden times.
As the people of olden times are to those of the present day, so may we
consider the child to the man; and we adults in this assembly must recollect that,
however strong may be our emotions and passions at the present time, they are but
of a mild and vapid nature when compared with the aspirations and feelings of
youth. Each prosaic-looking child is full of poetic and romantic feeling, to which
as a rule utterance is never given, but which, nevertheless, cannot be rudely
shattered without injury to the mind, and which, if taken advantage of, may assist
greatly in training the mind and developing a love of geography.
It should be a matter of great interest to those who instruct in geography to
study its gradual development from the earliest date and to watch the progress
it has made. And this is nota matter of very great difficulty, for as geography is
the knowledge of common things, and the ancients were more experienced observers
than ever we may hope to be, the earliest records we possess are full of geographical
accounts. In the books of Moses, three thousand years ago, we obtain our first
recorded view of the cosmogony of the ancients, at which time the world is sup-
posed to be a flat disc with water surrounding the land, and this idea pervades
later books, and is dwelt upon in the Psalms of David. Homer also held a similar
view, and to him is accorded by Strabo the honour of being the founder of
geographical science, because he excelled in the sublimity of his poetry and his
experience of social life; and a reason why he excelled is carefully related. He
could not have accomplished it had he not exerted himself to become not only
acquainted with historical facts, but also with the various regions of the inhabited
land and sea, some intimately, others in a more general manner. ‘ For otherwise
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 787
he would not have reached the utmost limits of the earth, traversing it in his
imagination.’ Herodotus, to whom we are indebted for furnishing us with the
earhest known system of geography, also held the same view concerning the earth ;
but it is worthy of remark that he speaks in his day (450 3.c.) of there being
another view, as to the world being round, which he considers to be exceedingly
ridiculous, and therefore it may be surmised that even at that early period there
were minds that had arrived generally at the conclusion which now obtains as to
the shape of the world. The idea that the sun, moon, stars, and planets revolved
round the earth was the view in early days, and continued up to quite a recent
period, and even now we are unable to prove that the generally received system is
correct, and only use it as being more convenient than that which makes the earth
the centre of the universe.
‘When we come, however, to consider the progress of discoveries on the surface
of the earth itself, the strides in latter years appear to be enormous, but yet we
must not forget that there is an ebb and flow constantly going on. Discoveries
are made and lost sight of, and again are brought forward as new. Sometimes
after an account of discoveries has been published a second account differs most
materially from the first, and the public have to wait for further examination.
Cases have occurred, as in the early Portuguese discoveries in Central Africa, in
which the plans and accounts have been laid on one side and forgotten, and the
territories rediscovered and surveyed years afterwards. Again, sketches of new
countries have been made, and the surveyor has omitted to show what is conjecture
and what is from actual observation, and his plans throughout have been dis-
credited. In some cases these mistakes have retarded discovery, in some they
have directly led up to it—as, for example, in the gigantic geographical error in
placing on the globes of the fifteenth century the eastern extremity of Asia no less
than 150 degrees of longitude too far east, which prompted Columbus to endeavour
to reach Asia from the west, and thus led to his discovery of America.
In gauging the progress of our Inowledge of geography we must not, however;,
simply take into account what has been made by ourselves, but by the known
world generally ; for example, although the Portuguese circumnavigated the Cape
and proved that it was practicable to do so, it is still a moot question whether they
were attempting what was known or unknown. At any rate it seems certain that
in the thirteenth century—not to go back earlier—the Arabians were aware of the
fact that Africa on the south was surrounded by the ocean, and the geography of
Abulfeda clearly points this out.
It is, then, a difficult matter to decide what is a discovery in geography. We.
may possess an exact description of a town and know its position, and yet it may
never have been visited by a traveller from what we term civilised Europe.
‘What we require, however, is precise and accurate information of the earth's:
surface, however it may be obtained, and to train the minds of our youth in the
power of observation sufficient to enable them to obtain this information; and if
im so doing our countrymen continue to be stimulated to deeds of daring, to enter-
prise and adventures, to self-denial and hardships, it will assist in preserving the
manhood of our country, which is more and more endangered year by year in con-
sequence of our endeavour to keep peace within our borders and to stave off strife:
with our neighbours.
Probably many of us here to-day of mature age, on looking back at our early
acquaintance with geography, will recollect little but a confused list of proper
names and statistics, learnt by rote, and only imperfectly carried in the
mind, so that only a few portions stand out still visible, and those probably
connected with pleasurable and, in some cases, painful accessories; perhaps those
particular lessons which we may have assisted some school friend to master still
remain as clear as ever; or, again, those learnt under the terror of the rod.
Taking schools and subjects all round, nothing probably has ever been worse
taught than geography was only a few years ago, and very little progress towards
a good system has even yet been introduced into higher class schools, though in the
schools of the people an effort has been made to render the subject more palatable
and instructive.
3n2
788 REPORT—1887.
The faults, however, of the system hitherto in use are now fully recognised,
and objections are general that the study has been made too painful a grind and
that the whole process has been of too severe a character. If this were the only
fault to be found in the old method, I for one would be inclined to adhere to it,
assured, as I am, that no training of the mind can take place without great denial
and sacrifice in learning self-control. But the real question is as to the practical
results of the old system. Are they of such a character with all or the majority of
minds (of all classes and conditions) that they have become stored with useful
lmowledge and at the same time trained to take a pleasure in increasing it in
the future? If the results are short of this we cannot but pronounce the old
system to be a failure, as the knowledge of geography is the knowledge of common
things inseparably connected with the life of each one of us, and there is no better
medium through which the mind can be trained to be always in a condition for
acquiring knowledge without making too great an effort.
Unfortunately for the pee of introducing a complete and perfect system ot
teaching geography (suitable to most minds), the reaction that has set in recently
is likely to lead to evil results if not carefully curbed. It seems now to be desired
to promote the acquirement of knowledge at the earliest age without effort and
without hard work; but this appears to be directed towards alleviating the toils of
the instructor as much as the instructed, and we have now, as a result, children
taught common things without any effort to strengthen their memories, and then a
system of cramming introduced at a later period, when the memory has ceased to be
capable of responding to the efforts made, and consequently all the information
crammed in is dropped again in a few months.
The memory of youth is like a cup swinging freely on a pin thrust horizontally
through its sides. Ifthe pin is below a certain line, the cup will tilt over and lose
its contents when filled up beyond a given level; but if the pin is near the upper
edge the cup can be filled with more and more security. By careful training in
the earliest years the cup may be constantly kept full in later years; but by the
training at present in use the cup tilts over far too soon.
It seems to me that the remedy recently adopted is worse than the disease it
was to eradicate, and that however injurious it was to attempt te store the mind
with mere names, yet the memory was trained thereby to retain something definite ;
and it is still worse to attempt to store the mind with mere ideas without the con-
nection of names, and leave the memory to rust.
There is obviously a middle course which may rid us of the errors of the past
without leading us into still greater difficulties. And if we keep the object to be
gained always in view, we cannot fail to take a direct line. We want first to lead
the memory to constant exertion of such a nature that it grows stronger day by
day, but is not overstrained or wearied ; at the same time it must be stored with
useful facts, which may be quite above the capacity of the mind to comprehend at
the time, but which will be required all through life: this can readily be done by
means of verses or rhymes set to simple airs and committed to memory by song.
There are facts of the greatest importance which can be learnt in this manner with
very little effort, and which, if not fixed in the mind at a very early age, the want
of them may be felt throughout life; as, for example, the directions in which
latitude and longitude are reckoned, in which the sun rises and sets, the relations
of the east and west respectively to the north and south, and many other matters
which appear to be of a trivial character, but which require to be as rigidly
committed to memory by rote as does the multiplication table.
These very small matters are the foundations of everything we require to know,
and if we do not have these foundations firmly and securely fixed, we shall be the
sufferers all our lives. Too much attention cannot be paid to them, as it is the early
lessons which remain most clearly fixed in our minds.
A point connected with this subject, which admits of much discussion, is as to
how such verses should be learnt, whether with the assistance of books, pictures, or
metaphor. Should they come to the memory through the eye, or the ear, or
through both? As a beginning, I think that geography should not be learnt from
books, but from the teacher, who may use diagrams and pictures, but at the same
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION IE. 789
time text-books should not be done away with, as is so constantly advocated ; on
the contrary, they should be adhered to most rigidly. There are few teachers who
could improve on a good text-book, but these books should be for the teachers,
and not for the children. But the teacher should not use the text-book while
teaching.
Children have a remarkable capacity for making pictures for their mind’s eye
of everything they think of, which is dulled gradually as books are taken into use.
This faculty, if made right use of, may be developed, and will greatly assist the
study of geography, and will lead to a ‘ picture memory,’ which will be most useful
in regard to maps, drawing, and spelling. This faculty can, of course, be over-cul-
tivated, but there is not the remotest danger of this occurring at present in any of
our schools. When highly developed, we find it employed by novelists, who can
bring their characters up before them and picture them enacting their parts, and
also by artists, who sometimes lose the power of discriminating between that
which they actually see and that which their picture-memories call up.
Although it seems to me absolutely essential to cultivate and develop the
memory, so often called the ‘ parrot memory,’ of young children, this is by no
means all that is necessary. At the same time must be taught the proper use of
the powers of observation with reference to nature, which in towns is so difficult a
matter, placing the bulk of our population at so great a disadvantage. One of the
first pots neglected by teachers generally is to explain to children what the
object or result of the lesson is to be. In most minds it is very difficult to pay
real attention unless it is known what is to be the general drift of the conversation,
for otherwise the mind will be directed to points quite irrelevant. Children should
be first told in a few words the line the lesson is going to take ; this will greatly
tend to secure the attention of what are termed dull children, who often, if properly
treated, would turn out the cleverest, but who cannot grasp a subject uutil they see
it from all sides, and know it thoroughly, while the ‘clever children’ are satisfied
with a view of one side only. The foundation should be laid slowly, the progress
being governed by that of the ‘dull children,’ who often will most amply repay the
teaching. The clever child will not be hurt by having the subject impressed upon
his mind over and over again, so long as it is made interesting.
Great care must be taken in the method of presenting maps at an early age
before children, and a distinct idea should be given of the difference between a
map and a picture.
It must be recollected that from the moment geography is taught, children will
make maps or pictures in their mind’s eye, whether they are actually presented to
them or not.
For example, if a house or a garden is mentioned, both the teacher and the child
must view it from the outside and from a certain distance, for it is impracticable
for most minds to look all round and behind at one time. To have a full view of
what is mentioned it is necessary to get outside and beyond it. Children will
differ among themselves in their method of viewing what is spoken of, but the
teacher can readily ascertain what mental pictures they have formed, and can make
use of this faculty in the first use of maps. Children should first be instructed in
maps of the village or town in which they live. It is remarkable how readily
uneducated natives in uncivilised countries can understand plans from their constant
observation of nature. Most intelligent Bedouins are able to make a rough plan
or diagram in the sand with a stick of the district they know, and will also
take care that the orientation is correct. Kaffirs can do the same, and can point
out the direction of a cattle post fifty or sixty miles distant with unerring
sagacity.
It is of vital importance that children in our island, who cannot under ordinary
circumstances have sufficient opportunities for using, cultivating, and developing
their powers of observation to any purpose, should have the use of maps put before
them in such a manner that they will not be led into error, Otherwise they will
have fixed in their minds factors of discord which the teacher may know nothing
of, and which will trouble them through life, and which if they do get rid of with
great labour in after-years will constantly return at unseasonable moments,
790 REPORT—1887.
It is very common for children to mistake east for west, north for south,
and even to make still more ridiculous errors which appear on reflection to be quite
impossible. Yet these errors remain often unobserved until the youth is eighteen or
nineteen years old, when he begins to think the matter out for himself, from finding.
that he is continually making absurd mistakes, but then it is too late for him to do
more than know that he is liable to the error, for on an emergency it will crop up
in spite of himself.
[ am aware of one instance in which an educated surveyor when thinking of
London invariably placed the portions about Regent Street and Charing Cross
in an inyerted position while picturing all the rest correctly, and it was only
by an effort that he could turn this portion upside down into its place.
Another, when thinking suddenly of Paris, always placed it to the north of London,
and another always thought of the west end of London as being towards the
eastern coast.
Out of thirty cases of well-instructed men at an age between eighteen and
twenty, I have found that about eighteen were under the impression that while
the sun rises in the east, the stars rise in the west, from having learned that the
sun has a proper motion among the stars.
I fancy there are few educated men who have not grown up with some curious
errors with reference to geographical facts which have bothered them all their
lives, and which they have found it impossible to get rid of even when they have
discovered where the errors lay, and I believe that many of the numerous blunders
and accidents which constantly occur on railways, with shipping, machinery, &c.,
and the causes of which cannot be accounted for, are really to be ascribed to some
early error in learning geography or the knowledge of common things, errors which,
when attention and watch over self is suddenly withdrawn, influence the actions
in a contrary direction to that which is right.
As an instance of the natural liability to error, even apart from those which
may be ingrained while under instruction, I may allude to the feeling when the
eyes are shut when travelling by rail or carriage that the vehicle is going in an
opposite direction to that in which it actually moves, to the impression when
approaching or leaving land in a boat or balloon that the earth is moving and that
oneself is stationary; even when on horseback under excessive fatigue in the
dark the traveller has been known to imagine that the horse was moving rapidly
backwards. The effect of excessive fatigue from physical exertion has somewhat
the same result as a want of self-control from bad training of the mind, and
perhaps those who have ridden for many hours on horseback or in a coach may
have noticed how in the dark a fixed lamp may be seen to make various fantastic
signals due to the motion of the horse or coach transferred by the eye to the lamp.
As another instance of the difficulty of self-control I may mention a case in which
a man well instructed in taking astronomical observations and in the rudiments
of astronomy could not divest himself of the idea, which he had gained as a child,
that the moon shines with light of her own, and that her phases are due to the
earth getting between her and the sun, this error continually interfering with
his mental astronomical pictures, though when his attention was specially called
to the subject he was aware of the error which intruded itself so constantly in his
views of the heavenly bodies. The difficulties regarding east and west, north and
south probably arise from a multiplicity of causes, such as the southern side of the
Mediterranean being the northern coast of Africa, or the southern view of a house
being obtained by looking towards it ina northerly direction, and these difficulties
as to orientation do not only occur in modern times, but are to be found in ancient
writings. Another constant source of error is inverting names unconsciously, such
as speaking of Jupiter's rings and Saturn’s belts. As an instance of this I mention
a case in which, a lecture being given on the Franco-Prussian War, the lecturer
inadvertently in the middle of his lecture used the word ‘ Prussiam’ for ‘ French,’
and vice versd continually throughout, and though he’ was quite aware of some
anomaly every now and then, he could not ascertain where he was in error until
near the end of his lecture. Another source of error which cannot be too carefully
guarded against results from placing the celestial globe by the side of the terrestrial
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 791
globe and treating them as though they are of the same character; this is certain
to confuse east and west with most children, as one has to be looked at. from the
outside and the other from the inside in actual fact. Again, as some star charts are so
made that they may be looked at from above and others from below, causing the east
and west points to differ, there issure to arise confusion. I venture to say that there
are few young minds which are not absolutely and hopelessly confused by the use
of celestial globes and charts. I believe it to be essential that until the mind is
fully trained and developed the stars should be looked at from within and not from
without, and it appears to me that all the information which a child can require,
apart from practical observation, concerning the phenomena of day and night, the
seasons and months, the circles and zones, the phases of the moon and eclipses,
can be imparted by the use of a lamp with a reflector and two globes, though a
good orrery placed in the school for children to examine and observe for themselves
would often enable the dull ones to keep up with the rest more easily.
It will be interesting to note whether the class of error alluded to does not arise
principally among those bred in towns, and who have not had an opportunity of
developing their observation in the country ; as with those who do use their observa-
tion a habit is acquired of unconsciously working out questions which arise, and the
mind arrives at a correct conclusion. This end should be the great aim and object in
instructing in geography, for as there is no royal road to knowledge divested of
grind and pain, there is yet the path which provides the greatest amount of result
with the least amount of grind, in which all the labour expended is productive, and
in which after a time labour even becomes a pleasure.
It seems very desirable that the first maps presented to a child, viz., those of
the school grounds and the parish, should be placed on the floor and properly
oriented ; this will go far to fix the correct positions of east and west, north and
south, and will prevent the idea of the north necessarily being wp and the south down.
It is to be observed that if the child looks up to a map it is almost equivalent
to looking at the map when lying on the back, in which case the east and west are
inverted. The motion of the sun over the map might with advantage be pointed
out at various times of the day, and if the position of the rays of the sun on the
floor when on the meridian could be shown each day when practicable on the line
drawn north and south, it would do much to fix in the mind the fact that the sun
is in the meridian at apparent noon each day. A sundial should also be available
in every school-yard to which children may have access.
The map of the district round the school should only be made use of in order
to clear the way to understand what a map is, for reference in describing other
maps and for practical purposes in giving the child useful information as to the
places in the neighbourhood. While this is going on the child should be taught to
point out the actual directions in space of the principal towns, &c., in the county
and island, and then an outline map of the British Isles with the principal places
and features marked on it should be brought under review. Too much detail
should not be crammed into the early lessons; a good firm foundation is required,
something to start upon before the great test of faith is made in teaching, viz. that
the world is round.
Children should be taught, as far as is practicable, to make this discovery for
themselves, and many will arrive at it one way or another, or think they do so,
which is equally important. It is far better they should grasp truths themselves
than have them drummed into them; it gives them confidence in their own deduc-
tions and leads to further observation of nature, In introducing the world as round,
a blackboard globe should be used, about three feet in diameter, on which the con-
tinents are outlined boldly in red, with some meridians and parallels of latitude
in white. It would be well if a portion of this globe could be taken to pieces to
show how a horizontal sundial for the particular latitude is constructed, and for other
matters of interest. It is material to show that the earth revolves on a fixed axis
from day to day, and in one direction. All the great difficulties in learning geo-
graphy are at the threshold of the science for those who have not observed nature ;
the more abstruse subjects are comparatively easy to teach.
The first difficulty common to all is that with reference to latitude and longitude,
792 REPORT—1887.
regarding which there are so many elements of error. It isso difficult for the child to
recollect which term means length and which breadth, and then to get the restive
imagination to grasp the fact that the length is sideways and not up and down, as it
apparently should be ; for evenif the earth is shown to be an oblate spheroid, there is
nothing to lead a child to see that there is a greater circumference round the equator
than round the poles, and the time has not arrived to perplex the child with the views
of the ancients on the subject. Then, again, if the child does recollect that the
meridians of longitude run from north to south, and the parallels of latitude from
east to west, it is probable that he may measure the longitude in degrees along the
meridian and the latitude along the parallels; a very common and recurring error,
difficult to deal with. The only practicable method is to put the facts of the case
into amusing verse and commit it to the memory by song. At this stage, also,
some easy standards of measurement put into verse and to music should be learnt
by rote, to enable the child readily to recollect the relative measurements of the
earth, sun, and moon, and the radii of their orbits and times of progression.
I lay great stress upon these matters at the beginning, because they are really
all in all to those who wish to succeed in the science in after-life, and I have
viewed the matter from the standpoint of what will be required at the age of
eighteen to twenty, when the mind ought to be capable of taking up any subject,
instead of considering what show of learning the child should be able to produce
in an examination at an early age. The stock-in-trade of knowledge for each
young person need be very slender, but it must be of the right sort and best quality.
No doubt there are many children badly trained who can gradually work out
matters correctly for themselves, but these are the few with originality of mind,
and even they would he benefited by not having to spend a portion of their lives in
unlearning.
Once the preliminary difficulties are over and the power of observation and
reflection is acquired, even in a small degree, the study of geography becomes
but a simple matter, for it is the learning of common things, matters of everyday
life, which we may, if in the country, acquire to a partial extent of our own experi-
ence; but though so simple it requires continuous application and attention.
In each calling or trade a man may become an experienced geographer to a
limited degree. The pilot, for example, is an expert in the geography of the seas he
works in, for he not only knows the ports, the coast lines, and the sunken rocks and
sandbanks, but he also knows the tides, the winds, he studies the clouds and the:
currents, and has an intimate knowledge of the contours of the shallows; moreover,
he knows the shipping of various countries, the merchandise they carry, and the
pe shipped from each port. In the same manner, by hunting, shooting, fishing,
icycling, birdsnesting, &c., we acquire a knowledge of natural history and topo-
graphy which aids us most materially in the study of geography, and which in a
limited degree zs the study of geography.
Even in large towns it is practicable to learn lessons in geography from actual
experience and observation, for if the markets and railway produce are examined,
it can soon be ascertained whence the articles come and from what ports, and
with careful attention most valuable lessons in political economy can be gained.
The bulk, however, of our children are cooped up in towns and walled play-
grounds, and even when in the country are too often confined to one field; they
have few opportunities of insensibly studying the wonders of nature, and therefore
in order to develop their powers of observation and to understand geography
artificial means must be made use of. Great efforts are now being made under
the New Code to produce these artificial means, by raised models and water and
other devices, and it is to be hoped that, if these schemes can be carried out, the
habit of observation will be induced; but the memory also must be at the same
time actively exercised and stored with fresh facts day by day.
The knowledge of geography thus, even in its restricted sense, embraces the life
of an Englishman of every class and occupation, and its study is of the greatest
importance to every man who has an occupation ; it is singular that so little com-
paratively is thought of cultivating the science, and how small interest the State
has hitherto taken in fostering this class of education,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 793
But while the Board and other schools for the people are gradually taking up
the work and endeavouring to work out a good system of education, it is morti-
fying to find how little progress has been made in the higher class schools where
such heavy fees are charged; and the question arises whether in these schools the
teachers of geography really understand the subject they teach, and would pass an
examination before a Government Inspector.
The boys of the wealthy classes are put to the greatest disadvantage with
regard to the study of geography. The son of a labourer Will hear the price of
provisions and clothing constantly discussed, so also with the son of a mechanic
and tradesman, and will learn much about geography on the subjects with which
the parents are connected, and will also in some measure learn to exercise his
observation ; but the son of wealthy parents is too often carefully kept from hear-
ing all that might teach him geography, and he is seldom obliged to exert himself
to use his observations in any essential matters of daily life; this is reserved for
the playground, where nothing of real importance is at stake, and must have the
most deleterious and detrimental effect on many young minds, and naturally results
in so large a proportion becoming useless for any occupation.
It is apparent that, as education throughout the country progresses, the sons
of the wealthy classes, if they are to compete successfully with others, must
have some better mental training than they obtain at present, otherwise they
will in a few years be distanced by the sons of the lahourers, artisans, and
shopkeepers. What an Englishman asks for is a fair field and no favour, and
it seems hard upon a parent who struggles through life to make money to be
enabled to give his children the best and most expensive education the country
affords, that with it he must risk a training of the mind which is inferior to
that in the less expensive schools of the people. As we are behind the Conti-
nental States and our colonies in so many of our institutions and land laws, so
we are behind them in our training of the mind in our upper-class schools; by
neglecting by artificial means to develop the power of observation among boys,
who until they are put out in the world are never accustomed to do anything
that will tend directly to any practical and useful result, we are putting them to
the greatest disadvantage, and handicapping them in the race of life.
We omit to train the memory in early years, to lay a foundation of facts in
the mind, and to develop any power of observation; we carefully prevent their
doing anything useful, and bring them up in a moral atmosphere in which the
idea of anything but amusement is practically excluded, and then in later years we
attempt to adjust all our errors by cramming, when the memory is incapable of
being crammed, and the mind has ceased to desire to acquire information ; the
result is that so many young mey are deliberately rendered unfit for work in life,
and those who have sufficient cgurage and energy to look their prospects in the
face find the enormous disadvantages to which their teaching has subjected them,
and lose precious years in unleajning and learning again.
More unfortunately still, the best and choicest of our minds cannot be crammed ;
and thus drop out at our examinations many minds of the class that for practical
purposes would be most useful to the State. I allude more particularly to
the minds endowed with reflective faculties, which tend to originality and
research ; these minds cannot be successfully trained unless combined with the
teaching there is something useful to do. It is often observable that an indolent,
inert, and lazy boy suddenly becomes filled with enthusiasm and emulation, both
at studies and in the playground, when subjected to a change of training. I
venture to assert that every year at our public examinations many men are
rejected who are of the most superior class of mind for all practical purposes,
who are physically most capable, who are so constituted that they cannot cram,
and who, though retarded by want of proper training, are beginning to train their
minds for themselves, and who if brought up under a good system in early years
would take the highest places inexamination. Weare thus losing year by year
from our front rank the men who would he of the greatest service to the State.
The pleas given for the study of geography by Strabo are worth bringing be-
fore the mind of youth, for he points out that while the success resulting from
794 REPORT—1887.
knowledge in the execution of great undertakings is great, the consequences of
ignorance are disastrous, and he refers, among other instances,to the shameful
retreat of the fleet of Agamemnon when ravaging Mysia, and to bring it more
home to our everyday life he says: ‘ Even if we descend to such trivial matters as
hunting, the case is still the same; for he will be most successful im the chase
who is acquainted with the size and nature of the wood, and one familiar with the
locality will be the most competent to superintend an encampment, an ambush, or
a march.’
He further calls attention to ‘ the importance of geography in a political view.
For the sea and the earth on which we dwell furnish theatres for action ; limited,
for limited action, vast, for grander deeds ; but that which contains them all, and
is the scene of the greatest undertakings, constitutes what we term the habitable
earth ; and they are the greatest generals who, subduing nations and kingdoms
under one sceptre and one political administration, have acquired dominion over
land and sea. It is clear, then, that geography is essential to all the transactions
of the statesman, informing us as it does of the positions of the continents, seas,
and oceans of the habitable earth.’
Of all persons who require a knowledge of geography stand first those who
are most concerned in the government of our empire, and yet, as has been men-
tioned, they have for the most part been brought up at schools where the mental
training for geography is most defective. Our statesmen as a rule have neither
theoretical teaching nor practical experience in the science, and it is perhaps not too
much to say that, putting on one side those who are merchants and sailors, there are
no more ignorant persons with regard to geography than our law-givers, This
ignorance endangers the safety of the country, for the people are continually per-
ceiving, with regard to matters of everyday life and practical experience, that their
law-givers are more ignorant than themselves, and are consequently continually
interfering and giving advice in the details of the administration of the empire.
The progress and development of a free country depend upon the characteristics
of the inhabitants, but these again depend in great measure upon the natural re-
sources of the country—the soil, climate, mineral wealth, navigation, mountain
ranges, risks and dangers from natural causes, and we must not omit the position
of the country both with reference to commerce and war.
It is not usually the country too greatly favoured by nature which develops
most rapidly, neither is it necessarily a long term of peace which favours progress ;
on the contrary, all experience shows that man requires a certain amount of
opposition to bring out his energies and stimulate him to exertion, and though we
are constantly talking in our country of the blessings of peace and horrors of war,
we must generally acknowledge that our present foremost place among nations is
due in a great degree to the keeping up of our innate energies by incessant turmoils
and differences of opinion within and little wars and commercial rivalry without.
It is not, then, to a reign of peace in which our energies would stagnate and become
efiete, but to a continuance of political excitement, which keeps the people on the
alert, that we should be indebted for progress, and our statesmen should be sutli-
ciently well educated and trained to take advantage of every time of excitement
in furthering the welfare of the empire.
‘We owe the benefit (before railways) in the improvement of our Great
Northern Roads for military purposes to the rebellion of 1745, leading to our being
able to run coaches between London and Manchester in 1754, and between
London and Edinburgh in 1763. Scotland and Ireland are both indebted to war
and disorder for the first roads, constructed for purely military purposes.
But while the duty of taking advantage of each fitting opportunity for develop-
ing a country lies with the statesman, his prospect of success depends in great
measure upon his geographical knowledge. His work may serve but for the purposes
of the moment, and never benefit posterity, if he has no knowledge or foresight, no
originality of purpose and perception of the fitness of things.
The measures that can be taken may be divided into two classes—domestic and
international. The former designed to benefit the country or empire directly ;
the latter to shield the land from hostilities from without, and in which the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 795
consideration of geographical position has a most all-important bearing. In this
latter class a complete knowledge of geography is an absolute necessity, as the
question arises so often as to whether the acquisition of geographical positions will
weaken or strengthen a kingdom. For example, were Ireland two degrees further
to the west, it is probable that all our views as to the method of connecting it for
administrative purposes with Great Britain would be greatly modified, Again, the
particular points at which our coaling stations may be situated about the world
may depend upon a variety of circumstances, changing from year to year. Thus
Gibraltar, from its geographical position, was an absolute necessity to us thirty
years ago, but, owing to various changes, it is not now of equal value, either
as a coaling station, for protecting our commerce, or as a depot for our wares, and
the question is arising with some geographers whether it might not with advantage
be exchanged for Ceuta on the opposite coast.
It is possible that a more full geographical knowledge of Egypt and the Suez
Canal might have materially modified our present occupation of Egypt. The canal
could not be held without a fresh-water supply, and the possession of Cairo and
the Nile is the key to the fresh-water canal supplying Ismailia and Suez. Had
it been known that a plentiful supply of water could be obtained close to the
maritime canal, independent of the Nile water, itis questionable how far any occu-
pation of Egypt would have been necessary.
In such cases it is not sufficient that the Government subordinates should have
a knowledge of geography, for even if they are fully conversant with what they
ought to know it would be almost impracticable for them to convey to statesmen
knowledge which their untrained minds render them incapable of retaining or
making use of.
In settling political boundaries it may appear at first sight that they should
coincide with certain geographical features, forming natural boundaries not only
in international matters, but also in cases of provincial, county, town, and parish
boundaries, and also in accordance with historical associations ; but we must do our
statesmen the justice to admit that the deviations they adopt may not always be
the result of ignorance, but arise from an astute perception that it may be necessary
in the future to have a cause for further modification, or even for raising the whole
question anew. It is difficult, however, to see how this can with any propriety
arise in domestic matters, and, apart from the doubtful political morality involved,
it would only occur in international matters on the assumption that our empire is
paramount, and can quarrel when it chooses; and, moreover, in such a case could
only be justified by being carried out with so perfect a knowledge of geography
that in any reopening of the question our country should be in the right; whereas
bitter experience has shown us that our statesmen haye almost invariably placed
us in the wrong.
_ Itis fatal in domestic matters to ignore the physical features within a country,
and attempt to obliterate its historical and topographical associations, as the French
Revolutionists attempted, by substituting their departments for the old provinces.
This has only led to an artificial division, which has not taken root among the
people, and French geographers are still calling attention to the absurdity of present
divisions. In such cases, we must keep alive to what are the ostensible and what
the actual reasons for such changes, and if the so-called simplicity introduced by
lawyer statesmen leads to increased law expenses, we may reasonably look with
suspicion on such an interference with the economical administration of the affairs
of the nation. In our own country geography is intimately connected with all kinds
of divisions of land, which are dealt with by the administration, A simplification
of the arbitrary political divisions, and a modification and synchronisation of
boundaries may lead directly to simplification of administrative machinery, and
saving of expenses in salaries, &c. Londonitself is a glaring instance of the waste
of money and friction of departments, from the extraordinary overlapping of boun-
daries—political, magisterial, petty-sessional, police, statistical, postal, public works,
&e. Probably a great portion of the time and energies of the superior officers in
the various departments is occupied in waging war on one another, keeping the
peace, or temporising with or watching each other; and this not from their own
796 REPORT — 1887.
desire to quarrel, but from the fault of the system which overlaps duties as well as
boundaries, and often gives one and the same duty to be performed by distinct
departments. Perhaps, in some instances, this friction may call out latent energy,
but it at least most successfully prevents departmental superiors from looking into
their own departmental affairs, and developing and perfecting the local administra-
tion, and keeping up to the times.
With regard to international boundaries, too little attention is usually paid to
the changes which are caused by the advance of civilisation. For example, a
natural boundary may, in time, become merely conventional owing to development
of communications.
At one time the Rhine wasa natural boundary, but it has now become a channel
of communication. Again, the Zambesi is at present a natural boundary, com-
pletely separating distinct tribes; the time may come when it also will be a
great channel of communication. The usual natural international boundaries are
broad or rapid rivers and arms of the sea, mountain ranges, deserts, and swamps ;
but the highlands and lowlands of a country are also naturally separated, as they
usually are inhabited by people of different nationality.
In Europe we find natural boundaries gradually losing their efficiency as
political boundaries, The Rhine, for example, throughout a great portion of its
length has ceased altogether to be a political boundary, for though it is still a
military line of great strength, each large town on either bank has its suburb on
the opposite side, and the population has become so assimilated that the river has
ceased to be a practical political line. Consequently the line of the Vosges is
deemed by many to haye become the natural boundary between France and
Germany, on account of its coinciding with the linguistic barrier. But, again,
linguistic boundaries are no tests of the limits of nationalities or national feel-
ing. When a foreign language is forced upon an unwilling people, they may for
many generations be acutely opposed to the nation whose language they have
adopted. On the Lower Danube, however, the physical, linguistic, and political
divisions all coincide, and the river has become neutralised and is a natural
boundary.
In central Europe we find the highlands of the Alps forming the natural and
political boundary, though the people speak three different languages ; but in these
cases the people probably will not be found to be of the same race as those speaking
the same language in the plains below.
Again, in the Pyrenees we find a natural, political, and linguistic barrier coin-
ciding, assisted by the fact that the mountain people are a different race from those
in the plains to the north and south.
In our own country we have a curious instance of language being no proof of
the nationality of the people, as the Iberians in Wales speak Celtic, and the Celts
in western Britain speak Anglo-Saxon. Again,in South Africa we have the people
of French extraction speaking Dutch and still feeling resentment to the government
on account of its having forced a foreign language upon them, although the British
have succeeded the Dutch.
Among Asiatic and African territories boundaries are often very ill-defined
and uncertain. Frequently it happens that between two powerful states there is a
large tract of country which owes a double allegiance, paying tribute to each, and
yet in some respects remaining independent, probably consisting of lands which
are easily ravaged and are comparatively speaking unprotected by nature.
When we look into the subject of boundaries among pastoral tribes, we find
curious anomalies. The land belongs in many instances to the tribe and not to the
individual, and cannot be alienated. In the desert of Arabia a tribe in one part will
have an interest in the date palms or corn lands of a tribe in another part, and this
system is rather fostered than discountenanced, so that when evil befalls an indi-
vidual in one part he may go and live with his tribal friends elsewhere. It is a
knowledge of the intricate connections of these tribes and the topographic divisions
of their lands which admits of any control being kept over these warlike people. A
mistake arising out of a misunderstanding of this Bedouin system nearly led toa
disastrous result in the Egyptian campaign of 1882, owing to an outlying branch
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 797
of one of the most powerful tribes in Arabia being supposed to be a petty inde-
pendent tribe of no consequence.
In many instances the cattle posts of tribes during peace time by mutual
consent intermingle and overlap, yet are kept separate and distinct, so that no
geographical boundary is practicable; in fact among such people it is the tribe
before the territory which is under the control of the chief. Thus it is quite
practicable to conceive instances of a tribe living on lands within the area
occupied by another tribe and yet governed by its own laws. Many of the diffi-
culties the British have encountered in South Africa have arisen from a complete
ignorance of, or wilfully ignoring, the native land laws. Under the tribal system
even the chiefs in council have not the power of disposing of any portion of the
land they use; it belongs to every individual of the tribe and of the tribal
branches and to their children’s children. Thus, when a chief gives over his
territory it does not follow that he gives over the land for disposal as crown lands,
but only the government of the people. It is on this account that the offer of
Khama and other chiefs of the Bechuanaland territory was of so great value.
They proposed by agreement in council in their respective territories to hand over
to Great Britain their territories, keeping for themselves the lands they used, and
offering for emigration purposes their vast extents of hunting lands, which are not
now of the same value for hunting purposes as they were in former days.
But this proposal has not been accepted, and a parallel of latitude has been pro-
claimed without consent of the Bechuana chiefs as the northern limit of the British
Protectorate, dividing Khama’s territory into two parts and cutting a portion of
Matabeleland off from Lobongolo’s territory ; so that the Boers of the Transvaal
cannot raid upon the Matabeles without violating the British Protectorate and
vice versd, while we have no means of securing its protection. Again the Mata-
beles when making their annual raid upon Lake Ngami will violate the portion of
the State of Khama without the Protectorate, and he, if he wishes to oppose
them, must do so from his capital within the Protectorate. This will bring us
into conflict with the Matabeles or else will practically deprive Khama of part of
his territory.
It is difficult to conceive any arrangement more likely to lead to complications
in the future. The Protectorate, based on geographical principles, should extend
as far as the Zambesi, taking in all Khama’s certain territory and as much of
the neutral territory as might be necessary to provide a natural boundary to east
and west.
In East Africa, again, the definition of spheres of action recently is anomalous,
A boundary ten miles from the coast for the Zanzibar dominions can of course
have only a tentative character, and the exact definition in the future cannot fail
to lead to conflicts. Far worse, however, is the adoption of the river Tana as the
northern boundary of the British sphere of influence—a river occupied on both
banks by the same agricultural tribes. It is not clear for what reason the commis-
sioners have left this difficulty for the future.
It would not be difficult to give many recent instances in which those charged
with diplomatic definitions of international boundaries have failed in their dut
owing to a want of geographical knowledge of the localities with which they had
to deal.
For example, the boundary treaty of 1783 with the United States was incapable
of being carried into effect, as the geographical features did not correspond with
the assumption of the commissioners. This led to a dispute lasting thirty years,
resulting in the boundary treaty of August 9, 1843. The ignorance of the
geography of the country in this case led to very inconvenient and even disastrous
results.
Again with the San Juan controversy. Historical and geographical knowledge
and ordinary care for the future development of Canada might have led to such
measures haying been taken in the first instance as would have prevented
cession of valuable positions to the United States in 1846.
In India, again, our want of knowledge of the country to the north of the Afghan
boundary has led to a series of unnecessary concessions to Russia. Had the
798 REPORT—1887.
slightest encouragement been given in former years by the Indian Government to
enable officers to acquire information as to the territories beyond our Indian
Empire, no doubt we should now be ina more secure position.
But, fortunately for the British Empire, foreign politicians have also much to
answer for to their respective countries on account of their ignorance of geography.
For many years past Germany has been increasing the population of the United
States and our own colonies without assisting to further the influence of the
German Empire; whereas had her statesmen been able to look forward, a German
colony might have been established. Many Germans as far back as 1866 were de-
sirous of establishing a colony in the Transvaal. But Germany now has to cast
about for unoccupied territory, and has chosen a piece of useless territory on the
western coast of South Africa, whereas with a little foresight Prince Bismarck might
have obtained on easy terms the whole of the French colonies in the Gulf of
Guinea and north of the Congo, which France had actually abandoned as worthless.
Germany would thus probably have held the position of France with reference to
the reversion of the Congo State.
By the treaty of Frankfort it was intended that all German-speaking villages
were to be ceded to Germany, but the boundary as originally laid down, for want
of geographical knowledge on the part of German employés, left several German
villages near Metz in possession of France, and it was necessary subsequently to
rectify the error.
As a section of the British Association we are interested in the development
of geographical knowledge in the world generally, but more particularly in our
own empire, and it is only by unceasingly calling attention to our shortcomings
with regard to the science which causes us to meet here to-day that we may
hope for that progress to be made which willenable us to maintain the proud
position we at present hold among nations, owing to our practical skill and energy.
Hitherto we have possessed so many other advantages that we have been able to
dispense with a good system of instruction, but owing to many causes other
nations are gaining upon us in various ways, and we in our turn should use every
effort to successfully grapple with a subject which if properly taught must affect
our welfare as a nation so deeply.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Explorations on the Upper Kasai and Sankuru.'
By Dr. Lupwie Wotr.
2. The Bangala, a Tribe on the Upper Congo.? By Captain Coquitmar,
3. The Congo below Stanley Pool. By Lieutenant Lr Mariyet.
4, Notice sur V Etat indépendant du Congo. By M. vax ErrveLpe.
5. The Lower Congo: a Sociological Study. By R. C. Puriures.
Tke author deals with the Congo up to Vivi, and with the coast between
Loango and Kinsembo. Among the factors which account for the present system of
society in this region, climate, similarity of soil, crops, food-stuffs, and the impenetra-
bility of the country, have proved great impediments to progress. The uncertainty
of the rains has a disturbing influence upon crops, whilst the ravages of insects
and mould render the storage of reserve supplies impracticable. The physical
* Published in extenso in the Proceedings of tie Royal Geographical Society.
* Published in extenso in the Jowrnal of the Manchester Geographical Society.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 799
features of the country render the establishment of a strong central government
exceedingly difficult, if not impossible.
Physically the natives have probably degenerated from a higher standard.
Their emotional nature exhibits a manifest inferiority. They are impulsive, easily
roused to laughter, and quarrelsome. Old customs are slavishly followed. The
sentiment of public justice is, however, very highly developed. The intellectual
development is stunted. All but the more patent and mechanical cases are beyond
the grasp of the native, and little progress is made after adolescence is reached. Mis-
fortune is generally attributed to the ill-will of a ndochz (wizard or witch) whose
detection and punishment is aimed at by the prison ordeal, and whose evil in-
fluence it is sought to counteract by charms. The foundation of the social system is
the family, consisting of the chief, his wives, children, dependents, and slaves, and °
marriages between families are much practised. Marriages between blood rela-
tions are, however, prohibited. White men are admitted as residents on payment
of ‘ black mail’ to the neighbouring chiefs.
6. A Visit to Diogo Cao’s ‘ Padréo’ at the Mouth of the Congo.
By R. E. Dennerr.
In April 1887 the author visited the supposed fragments of Diogo Cao’s
‘Padrad’ or pillar, immediately after their discovery by Baron Schwerin and
Senhor F. J. de Franca. Landing on the inner side of Shark’s Point the author
came past King George’s ‘ Palace’ and the old English cemetery (now submerged),
and on some neighbouring high ground he found the remains of the pillar sought
for. They consisted of a square base, 27 inches high, a fragment of the pillar, and
two ball-shaped pieces of stone, all in white marble. (There can be no doubt that
these fragments are identical with the fragments visited by Sir Richard Burton in
1863, and described by him in ‘ Gorilla Land,’ ii. p. 71._E. G. R.)
7. On Acclimatisation.! By Dr. A. OvrLeEr.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2,
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. The Ruian Moeris. By Core Wuirrenousr, M.A.!
The Raian basin is a depression to the south and west of the Fayoum, between
lat. 28° 40’ and lat. 29° 30’. Its northern extremity is nearly on a line with
Beni-Suef, 73 miles south of Cairo. It is connected on the south-east with a
narrow valley, hitherto unexplored, known as the Wadi Muélah. At previous
meetings of the British Association it has been shown how the author of this
paper was led to believe that some such depression must exist, and how, at first
alone and subsequently accompanied by competent engineers, his observations were
verified. It was his opinion that foreign engineers, about the fifteenth century
before our era, had conceived a gigantic scheme for the regulation of the flow of
the Nile and the redemption of the Delta, utilising a depression in the desert as a
storage reservoir, to avert the excessive rise of the river and to provide for the
season of drought. In Lower Egypt there are three seasons. From April 1 to
the end of July the discharge of the Nile is about 14,000 cubic feet per second, or
an average of about fifty million cubic metres per diem. A very high Nile dis-
charges 387,000 cubic feet per second, averaging 1,000 million cubic metres per
diem. Only about one-half of the Delta, 2,750,000 acres, is under cultivation, for
want of sufficient water. In the province of Gharbieh alone the area of land
' Publishel in the Proceedings of the Loyal Gvographical Society.
800 REPORT—1887.
capable of being reclaimed is reported by Mr. William Willcocks to be over
600,000 acres. Ten shillings an acre is the tax paid by inferior land in Egypt. If
the summer supply in the Nile were sufficient for the irrigation of all the land,
2,530,000 acres could be reclaimed. The Egyptian Government requested the
author in December 1886 to carry outfurther surveys and detailed engineers to
work under his direction, A line of levels was run from Mazurah on the Canal of
Joseph (Bahr Jusuf), 26 kilometres to the west. At the tenth kilometre
the desert is 54 metres above the Nile valley; at the fifteenth, 154 metres;
at the twenty-fourth, 131 metres, and at the twenty-sixth the Wadi Muélah is
about 2 metres below high Nile at Beni-Suef (photographs shown). This line was
continued to the N.W. into the Wadi Raian, down to the level of the sea. It
was checked by a line to the S.E. and E. back to the Bahr Jusuf. A third line
of levels was run between the Gharaq and the Raian basins, which showed that
at the level of high Nile (ca. 30 metres) these two basins are connected by a
narrow defile. Another, and fourth, independent line of levels was carried from
the west end of the Birket el-Qerun, whose surface level had been previously
established as — 40 metres, or 70 metres (ca. 225 feet) below high Nile, Major
Surtees, detailed by the War Office, at the request of Sir C. Scott-Moncrieff, to
accompany the author, draughted a map with contours which give the follow-
ing data for so much of the depression as is below the Nile and available as a
storage reservoir. Surface at +30 metres (above sea), 1,100 million square metres :
average depth, nearly 30 metres; contents, 31,000 million cubic metres. Major
Western, R.E., Director-General of Works, having been directed to examine the
whole project, prepared an elaborate and most valuable report, showing that a
further supply of 25 million cubic metres per diem for 100 days would meet all the
requirements of Lower Egypt. This could be effected by filling the Raian basin
at the time of high Nile, closing the canal of supply until the end of January,
when the difference between the water in the reservoir and the river (about 5
metres) would permit a sufficient amount to flow back by the same canal. Al
objections, such as evaporation, leakage, deposit, infiltration, impregnation, loss ol
head were considered, and shown to be of no serious importance. The project i
pronounced by the highest authority in all respects feasible. It is estimated tha
less than 1,000,0007. would suffice for the works, which would consist of a cana
across the Nile valley near Feshn, the improvement of the Bahr Jusuf, an embank-
ment and basins in the Nile valley, a cut or tunnel of less than three miles between
the Nile valley and the Gharaq basin, an embankment of twenty miles to guide
the water into the Raian basin, with incidental expenses for gates, bridges, &c.
Tt is estimated that the revenue would amount to about two millions sterling, and
the cost of maintenance would be inconsiderable. These researches, therefore,
represent a capital value of, say, 50,000,000/., and are believed to be unique if regard
is had to the historical, archzeological, and geographical results as well as to the
purely practical question of the relief which would he afforded by an addition of
more than one-third to the available resources of Egypt.
2. The Feasibility of the Raian Reservoir. By Colonel Arpacu,
R.E., O.B.
Having maintained a constant interest in the investigations of Mr. Cope White-
house, and having accompapied him into the Raian Basin, the author offers
the testimony of an impartial observer. Mr. Cope Whitehouse merits the thanks
alike of antiquarians as of modern engineers for his researches relative to Lake
Meeris. He has discovered a basin or depression, which is undeniably capable of
being turned into a storage reservoir, fulfilling all the purposes of the ancient Lake
Meeris at a comparatively moderate cost, and has shown that the financial result to
Egypt of the construction of such a storage reservoir, capable of supplementing
the insufficient quantity of water furnished by the Nile during the period of low
Nile, and of thus enabling larger tracts of land to be kept in cultivation, would
represent a very large profit on the capital invested, and a permanent increase in
the produce of the country.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 801
3. The Desert from Dahshur to Ain Raian.'
By Captain Conyers Surrees.
Captain Surtees, having been detailed at the request of the Department of Public
Works to accompany Mr. Cope Whitehouse, draughted a map with contours of the
Fayum and Raian depressions, a copy of which was shown and explained in
detail.
4. The Bahr Yusuf.! By Captain R. H. Browy, R.L.
5. Between the Nile and the Red Sea. By H. A. Fioyer.
The mountainous country between the Nile and the Red Sea partakes of much
of the interest, religious, commercial, and antiquarian, which so long has centred in
Kgypt itself.
Long before the Christian era its mountain solitudes and picturesque valleys
attracted the ophthoi, or the monks of paganism. Ata later period these mountains
sheltered the first Christian monks, and the existing monasteries of St. Anthony and
St. Paul carry us back to this early age. A hundred miles to the south of them are
the ruins of the monastery of the ‘ Deaf Men,’ and near it, in the beautiful Kittar
valley, near a crystal pool of water, and by the side of a running stream, rise the
ruins of a Catholic church, perhaps consecrated by Meletius, the Arian bishop of the
Thebaid, in the year 200. To the monks succeeded the convicts of the Roman
empire, who worked in the granite quarries of Mons Claudianus. For 1,400 years
the whole route between Hurope and the far east passed across these mountains, and
only ceased on the discovery by the Portuguese of the route round the Cape.
Three roads, leaving the Red Sea at Berenice, Kosseir, and Myos Hormos, converged
upon Koptos on the Nile, and were used according to circumstances. The crown-
ing interest of these mountains lies in the ancient quarries scattered among their
lofty peaks and winding valleys, and which were worked perhaps five or six
thousand years ago. But for many years a sleep has fallen over these mountains ;
the ring of hammers was no longer heard, and the wells along the desert roads had
become choked with sand. But a period of awakening has begun. Twenty years
ago the Marquis of Bassano, with his thousand workmen, began digging in the
Gimsa Well for sulphur; last year a colony of bearded miners set up their derricks
and boring engines on Jebel Zeit, the oil mountain; and last the fine porphyry,
which can be matched nowhere in the world, is once more being quarried, and Mr.
Brindley, of London, is actually the direct successor of Epaphroditos, the imperial
freedman of Vigirium, whom the Greek inscriptions show to have been the last
lessee in the year 147 a.p.—more than seventeen hundred years ago.
6. Trade Prospects with the Sudan.2, By Major Watson, R.E., C.M.G.
7. Account of a recent Visit to the ancient Porphyry Quarries of Egypt.
By W. Briyoizy, F/.R.MS.
Egyptian porphyry has been sought after from the earliest times, as one of the
most precious building stones. Ancient writers differed as to the whereabouts of
the quarries from which that stone was obtained, and in modern times they were
literally rediscovered by Burton and Wilkinson in 1823, and subsequently visited
by Lepsius in 1845. The information published by these visitors proving of no
immediate practical value, the author determined to follow in the footsteps of
Wilkinson, and, accompanied by his wife, he came to Cairo in February last.
1 Published in the Proceedings of the Royal Geograyhiew Society.
* This paper will be published in the Jowrnal of tie Manchester Geographical
Society.
1887. 3F
802 REPORT—1887.
Having examined the ancient granite quarries at the first_ cataract, which supplied
deep red, rose, and dark grey stone, which was quarried by metal wedges, and not
wood (as is generally supposed), the author started from Keneh with a small cara-
van and supplies calculated to last three weeks. Passing the remains of several
Roman stations, the author, on the fifth day, reached an excellent well in the
charming Wadi Kitar, hemmed in on three sides by precipitous mountains. Soon
after leaving this valley he crossed the watershed (2,400 feet above the Nile), and
then travelled along the flank of the immense porphyry mountain of Gebel
Dukhan as far as an old Roman station with an old fort. The morning after his
arrival the author ascended to the top of a pass (8,100 feet), without having found
even a fragment of porphyry ; but espying, by the aid of a good field-glass, porphyry
colouring on the opposite mountain he resolved to go there, and his delight knew
no bounds when he found the ground there strewn with pieces of the most sump-
tuous porphyry, and discovered a pitched way or slide, 16 feet wide, down which
the blocks were lowered. Further examination led him to the locality where the
Romans had extracted their grandest masses, and he found that these quarries had
yielded not only the usual spotted variety but also the brecciated sorts and green-
greys, The great quarry was at an altitude of 3,650 feet above the sea, and a road
led down to it to an ancient town with workshops. A path led hence to the
old town in the valley, further up which are the ruins of a Roman temple, The
blocks were formerly carried to the Nile, a distance of 96 miles, but they will in
future be conveyed by a gentle incline to the Red Sea, which is about 25 miles
distant. On his return to Cairo the author secured a concession to rework the
quarries, the terms of which have since been ratified.
8. On the Red Sea Trade.' By A. B. Wytor.
9. Matabeleland and the Country between the Zambexi and the Limpopo.
By Captain C. HE. Haynes, R.L.
This region has been famous from a very early age for its productive gold
mines. They were being worked when the Portuguese first arrived in the country,
and some of the mines still exist, but the slave trade and the inroad of the
Matabele power have reduced all native industries to a very indeterminate
quantity.
The Matabele are the near kinsmen of the Zulu, and have nearly identical
customs. Both wear that unique head-dress, the gum-ring, their badge of manhood.
The Matabele were driven out of Zululand about the beginning of the century, and
under their chief Umselikazi they became a terror to all the Bechuana tribes living
north of the Vaal river. Attacked by the Voortrek Boers, and by the Zulus under
Panda, they were forced to retire north of the Limpopo, and finally settled down
in the midst of the Makalaka and Mashona tribes. About the same period the
Gaza kingdom was established by Manikuza, one of Chaka’s generals, to the east of
the Sabi river. This tribe, under the government of Umzila, proved itself a fast
ally of the Matabele.
The invasion of the Matabele has caused the annihilation or disruption of the
tribes with whom they came into conflict. There are only fragments of the
aboriginal people now, who stiil carry on in a furtive manner some of their old
industries, such as gold digging, iron working, and weaving.
The climate of Matabeleland resembles that of the Transvaal, and the high
veldt which ranges from the Nata river to the vicinity of the Zambezi near Tete, is
well fitted for European settlers, and promises to become a prosperous agricultural
region, with numerous local markets at hand in the mining districts. Care should
be taken to protect the forests there. Their wholesale destruction has already
begun, The Gaza country and the low veldt is not so salubrious, and, generally
speaking, the Zambezi valley is malarious.
1 This paper will be published in the Jowrnal of the Manchester Geographical
Society.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 803
Agriculture at present is in a depressed state. There is plenty of arable land
on the high veldt and excellent wheat, as all English vegetables alongside the
banana and orange can be grown. The high and middle veldts are more suitable
for stockfarming. Facilities for irrigation abound. The tsetse does not exist on
the high veldt. The mineral wealth of the country still awaits development. The
Tati gold-field is now being worked by an English company, but a nod from the
Matabele king may at any time put an end to this. It is a pity that this infant
colony should not have been made the basis from which British interests in Mata-
beleland might be protected. The extension of the railway from Kimberley to the
Tati mines would have a most beneficial effect in attracting settlers. Complaints
have lately been made that northern Bechuanaland is gradually drying up, and it
is not difficult to prove that at one time Lake Ngami was drained through the
Botletle, Lake Makarikari, and the Shashi into the Limpopo.
10. A Note on Houghton, the African Traveller.'
By Major Sir Herserr Perror.
1_. Western Australia.' By Joun Forrest, 0.M.G.
12. Second Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of reporting
wpon the Depth of Permanently Frozen Soil in the Polar Regions.—
See Reports, p. 152.
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.
The Section did not meet.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. The Beginning of the Geography of Great Britain.
By Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, F.R.S.
2. Report of the Committee for co-operating with the Royal Geographical
Society in endeavouring to bring before the authorities of the Universities
of Oxford and Cambridge the advisability of promoting the study of
Geography by establishing special Chairs for the purpose.—See Reports,
p- 158.
3. Geography at the Universities.. By H. J. Macxinper, M.A.
4. The Ruby ‘Mines of Burma.! By J. SknrTon STREETER.
1 Published in the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society.
3 F2
804 REPORT—1887.
5. Siam. By J. McCarray.
6. The Valley of the Rio Doce (Brazil). By Wi11am Joun Sreains.
The author in 1881 left England for Brazil, in the employ of Messrs. Hugh
Wilson & Son, contractors for the construction of a railway in the flourishing little
province of Alagads. On the completion of this railway the author, at his own
expense, undertook an exploration of the Rio Déce and of its northern tributaries,
which, notwithstanding his narrow means, and in the face of considerable physical
obstacles, he carried to a successful conclusion. His expedition left Rio de Janeiro
on June 7, 1885, and for eight weary months it had to battle against hardships
and privations, such as want of provisions, inhospitable natives, fevers, and ague.
The valley of the Rio Déce is one of the most fertile regions of the empire.
Virgin forests cover nearly the whole of it. Gold is found in Cuithé, a district of
Minas Geraes, close to the right bank of the Déce, as also on the headwaters of the
Rio Tambaquary, a tributary of the Sussuhy Grande. Most of the basin of the
Rio Déce is inhabited by wild Botocudo Indians, who possess an inborn hatred of
the white man, who, on his side, looks upon these ‘ Bugres’ with feelings of intense
horror and dread. Until these wild Indians shall at least have been partially
civilised, the valley of the Rio Déce must necessarily remain a sealed Paradise.
The few attempts made hitherto in this direction have hopelessly failed, perhaps
because of the gross mismanagement on the part of those to whom the task was
entrusted.
The author’s arduous explorations have resulted in a carefully plotted map of
the Rio Déce and of its tributaries, based upon over 4,000 magnetic bearings and
careful dead reckonings.
7. On South-Eastern Alaska. By Professor Lipsey.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
The following Reports and Papers were read .—
1. Final Report of the Committee on the production of a Bathy-hypso-
graphical Map of the British Islands.—See Reports, p. 160.
2. On some Defects of the Ordnance Survey. By S. H. Witxinsoy, M.A.
The Ordnance Survey does not give us detailed maps of Great Britain on
scales reduced from 1 : 63000, which are much wanted.
The representation of the ground in both the 1-inch and the 6-inch maps is
inadequate.
3. On the Utilisation of the Ordnance Survey.
By Colonel Sir Cuartes Witson, K.0.B., FBS.
4. On the United States Geographical and Geological Survey.
By Jostau Pierce, jun.
5. On a Bathy-orographical Map of Scotland... By H. R. Mit, D.Sc.
* To be published in the Scottish Geographical Magazine.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 805
6. A Plea for the Metre. By E. G. Ravensrein, F.R.G.S.
The author pointed out the great advantages of the metre as a universal inter-
national standard of length. ‘There were at present in use three international
measures of length, viz., the English foot, in countries covering -18,188,112
square miles, with 471 millions of inhabitants, the metre (12,671,200 square miles,
347,091,000 inhabitants), and the Castilian foot (752,901 square miles, 5,905,000 in-
habitants). The English foot, at present in use throughout the British and Russian
empires, in the United States, and in some other countries, appeared to gain no
new adherents, whilst the metre was still engaged upon a career of conquest.
Denmark and Russia were the only countries in Europe which had not as yet
adopted it. The metrical system appeared to him to present great advantages to
business men, and in 1885 nearly one-half the commercial transactions of the
country were carried on with countries using the metre. The time at present
expended in our schools upon acquiring a knowledge of an absurdly complicated
system of weights and measures might be devoted to more useful objects. To
geographers and statisticians the universal acceptance of the metre would prove an
immense boon. Scientific men in other departments had freely adopted the metre,
and geographers should follow this laudable example. Owing, however, to the
intimate connexion of geography with the common affairs of life he despaired of
the general acceptance of the metre until it should have become the legal standard
of length.
7. Second Report of the Committee for drawing attention to the desirability
of further Research in the Antarctic Regions.
8. Formosa. By A. R. CoLqunoun.
9, On the Study of the Natural Divisions of the Earth, rather than the
National ones, as the Scientific Basis of Commercial Geography. By
Joun Yuats, LL.D.
10. On a Natural Method of Teaching Geography. By Joun J. CARDWELL.
The author proposes to approach his subject from the trayeller’s standpoint,
both as to the order of development, external survey, exploration of the interior,
deductions and inferences, and the threefold method of treatment—exploring,
mapping out, and describing—as also by giving no information which the pupils
may possibly be able to deduce from the map themselves,
The author thus deals successively with (1) the bearings of the country to be
explored, relatively to surrounding centres, and absolutely as regards its position on
the globe; (2) the external survey of the country, such as coast-line and land
frontiers, which he effects in a sail along the coast and in a balloon voyage; (3)
the exploration of the interior in a series of excursions up the rivers and the
mountains ; (4) productions of agriculture, manufacture, and mining, as also means
of communication. The information thus imparted is to be appropriated by the
pupils (1) by learning off by “eart the short notes taken down in class; (2) by
writing out, without notes, descriptions of the scenery, &c., of the different parts
of the country explored; (3) by learning to draw from memory a map of the
country.
The author fully explained his method with the aid of diagrams and on the
blackboard.
11. The Teaching of Geography in the Elementary Schools of England.
By A. Parx.
REPORT—1887.
ie.2)
=)
a
Srction F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
PRESIDENT OF THE SectioN—Rosert Gurren, LL.D., V.P.S.S.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.
The PREsipENt delivered the following Address :—
The Recent Raie of Material Progress in England.
In coming before you on this occasion it has occurred to me that a suitable topic in
the commercial capital of England, and at a time when there are many reasons for
looking around us and taking stock of what is going on in the industrial world,
will be whether there has been in recent years a change in the rate of material
progress in the country as compared with the period just before. Some such ques-
tion is constantly being put by individuals with regard to their own business. It is
often put in political discussions as regards the country generally, with some vague
idea among politicians that prosperity and adversity, good harvests and bad, in the
most general sense, depend on politics. And it must always be of perennial interest.
Of late years it has become specially interesting, and it still is so, because many con-
tend that not only are we not progressing, but that we are absolutely going back in
the world, while there are evident signs that it is not so easy to read in the usual
statistics the evidence of undoubted growth as it was just before 1870-73. The
general idea, in my mind, I have to add, is not quite new. I gave a hint of it in
Staffordshire last winter, and privately I have done something to propagate it so as
to lead people to think on what is really a most important subject. What I pro-
pose now to do is to discuss the topic formally and fully, and claim the widest atten-
tion for it that I possibly can.
There is much primd facie evidence, then, to begin with, that the rate of the
accumulation of wealth and the rate of increase of material prosperity may not have
been so great of late years, say during the last ten years, as in the twenty or thirty
years just before that. Our fair-trade friends have all along made a tactical mistake
in their arguments. What they have attempted to prove is that England lately
has not been prosperous at all, that we have been going backwards instead of ad-
vancing, and so on ; statements which the simplest appeal to statistics was sufficient
to disprove. But if they had been more moderate in their contentions, and limited
themselves to showing that the rate of advance, though there was still advance,
was different from and less than what it was, I for one should have been prepared to
admit that there was a good deal of statistical evidence which seemed to point to
that conclusion, as soon as a suflicient interval had elapsed to show that the
statistics themselves could not be misinterpreted. There has now been ample
time to allow for minor variations and fluctuations, and the statistics can be fairly
construed.
T have to begin by introducing a short table dealing with some of the principal
statistical facts which are usually appealed to as signs of general progress and the
reverse, and I propose to go over briefly the items in that table and to discuss along
with them a few broad and notorious facts which cannot conveniently be put in the
same form,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 807
Statement as to production or consumption of staple articles in the United Kingdom
im the undermentioned years, with the rate of increase in different periods
compared.
Ratio of increase %
1855] 1865 | 1875 1885
1855-65 1865-75 1875-85)
Income Tax assessments, mlln. £ | 308} 396 571 631 28 44 | 10
Production of coal, million tons | 64 98 132 159 3 35 20
s pig iron if 32} 4:8 6-4 T 4 50 33 16
Receipts from railway goods |
traffic per head of population | — | 11s.! | 18s.) | 21s.2¢.1} — 63 18
Clearances of shipping in foreign | | |
trade, milliontons . . 1/10] 15 | 24 32 50 | 60 | 33
Consumption of tea per head, Ibs. | 2°3| 3:3 | 4:4 5:0 3 33 133
+ sugar ,, », |80'6 | 39°83 | 62°7 74:3 30 58 19
The first figures are those of the income tax assessments. What we find is
that if we go back thirty years and compare the amount of income tax. assess-
ments in the United Kingdom at ten years’ intervals, there appears to be an immense
progress from 1855 to 1875, the first twenty years, and since 1875 a much less
progress. The total amount of the assessments themsclves, stated in millions, was
as follows :—
Millions | Millions
MSBEbritiios a0.) 8308 | TAG ¢ ke Pest ott Bagll
1865 . 4 210396 | 1885. : Pe Kasil
And the rate of growth in the ten yearly periods which these figures show is—
between 1855 and 1865, 28 per cent.; between 1865 and 1875, 44 per cent. ; and
between 1875 and 1885, 10 per cent. only.
Making all allowance for changes in the mode of assessment by which the
lower limit of the tax has been raised, for the apparent increase before 1875 which
may have been due to a gradual increase of the severity of the collection, and for
the like disturbing influences, I believe there is no doubt that these income tax assess-
ments correspond fairly well to the change in the money value of income and property
in the interval. How great the change in the rate of increase is, is shown by the
simple consideration that if the rate of increase in the last ten years, instead of being
10 per cent. only, had been 44 per cent., as in the ten years just before, the total of
the income tax assessments in 1885, which is actually 631 millions, would have
been 882 millions! Something then has clearly happened in the interval to change
the rate of increase.
These figures being those of money values, an obvious explanation is suggested
which would account in great part for the phenomenon of a diminished rate of increase
in such values without supposing a reduction of the rate of increase of real wealth,
of the things represented by the money values, to correspond. This is the fall of
prices of which we have heard so much of late years, and about which in some form
or another we shall no doubt hear something at our present meeting. It is quite clear
that if prices fall then income tax assessments must also be affected. The produce of
a given area of land, for instance, sells for less than it would otherwise sell ; there
1s less gross produce, and in proportion there is even less net produce, that is, less rent ;
consequently the net income appearing in the Income Tax Schedules is either less
than it was or does not increase as it did before. The same with mines, with rail-
ways, and with all sorts of business under Schedule D. The things themselves may
increase as they did before, but as the money values do not increase but diminish,
the income tax assessments cannot swell at the former rate. It is the same with
salaries and other incomes not dependent so directly in appearance on the fall in
prices. Salaries and incomes are of course related to a given range of prices of
1 These figures are for 1860-64, 1870-74, and 1880-84.
808 REPORT— 1887.
commodities, and a fall in the prices of commodities implies that the range of salaries
and incomes is itself lower than it would otherwise be, assuming the real relation
between the commodities and incomes to be the same after the fall in prices as it
would have been if there had been no fall in prices. Hence the income tax assess-
ments by themselves are not a perfectly good test in a question like the present.
The change implied may be nominal only, so far as the aggregate wealth and pro-
sperity of the community are concerned, though of course there can be no great and
general fall of prices without a considerable redistribution of wealth, which must
have many important consequences.
This criticism, however, does not apply to the remaining figures in the short
table submitted, and to various other well-known facts, which we shall now proceed
to discuss.
The production of coal, then, is found to have progressed in the last thirty years
as the income tax assessments have done. The figures in millions of tons at ten
years’ intervals are as follows :—
Million Tons | Million Tons
1855 . : : 04: | 1875 ; : . 1382
1865 . : : . 98 1885 "3 g . 159
And the rate of growth in the ten yearly periods which these figures show is be-
tween 1855 and 1865, 53 per cent.; between 1865 and 1875, 55 per cent.; and
between 1875 and 1885, 20 per cent. only. The rate of growth in the last ten
‘years is much less than in the twenty years just before. The percentages here,
it will be observed, are higher than in the case of the income tax assessments.
The increase in the last ten years in particular is 20 per cent. as compared with an
increase of 10 per cent. only in the income tax assessments. But the direction of
the movement is in both cases the same.
I need hardly say, moreover, that coal production has usually been considered
a good test of general prosperity. Coal is specially an instrumental article, the
fuel of the machines by which our production is carried on, Whatever the expla-
nation may be, we have now, therefore, to take account of the fact that the rate of
increase of the production of coal has been less in the last ten years than in the
twenty years just before.
Then with regard to pig-iron, which is also an instrumental article, the raw
material of that iron which goes to the making of the machines of industry, the
table shows the following particulars of production :—
Million Tons Million Tons
1855 . : ‘i dos, 1875 . ‘ r . 64
1865 . 3 : . 48 1885 . : 3 meer)!
And the rate of growth which these figures show is between 1855 and 1865, 50 per
cent.; between 1865 and 1875, 33 per cent.; and between 1875 and 1885, 16 per
cent. only. Whatever the explanation may be, we have thus to take account of
a diminution of the rate of increase in the production of pig-iron, much resembling
the diminution in the rate of increase of the production of coal.
At the same time the miscellaneous mineral production of the United Kingdom
has mostly diminished absolutely. On this head, not to weary you with figures,
I have not thought it necessary to insert anything in the above short table; but
I may refer you to the tables put in by the Board of Trade before the Royal
Commission on Trade Depression. Let me only state very briefly that while the
average annual amount of copper produced from British ores amounted in 1855 to
over 20,000 tons, in 1865 the amount was about 12,000 tons only, in 1875 under
5,000 tons, and in 1885 under 3,000 tons. As regards lead, again, while the pro-
duction about 1855 was 65,000 tons, and in 1865 about 67,000 tons, the amount
in 1875 had been reduced to 58,000 tons, and in 1885 to less than 40,000 tons.
In white tin there is an improvement up to 1865, but no improvement since, and
the only set-off, a very partial one, is in zinc, which rises steadily from about
3,500 tons in 1858, the earliest date for which particulars are given, to about
10,900 tons in 1885, considerably higher figures having been touched in 1881-88
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 809
There is nothing, then, in these figures as to miscellaneous mineral production to
mitigate the impression of the diminution in the rate of increase in the great
staples, iron and coal, in recent years.
Agricultural production, it is also notorious, has been at any rate no better, or
not much better, than stationary for some years past, although down to a com-
paratively recent period a steady improvement seemed to be going on. Making
all allowance for the change in the character of the cultivation, by which the gross
produce is diminished, although the net profit is not affected to the same extent,
and which might be held to argue no real decline in the rate of general growth if
the population, diverted from agriculture, were more profitably employed, yet
the facts, broadly looked at, taken in connection with the other facts stated as to
diminished rate of increase in other leading industries, seem to confirm the sup-
position that there may have been some diminution in the rate of increase
generally.
It is, unfortunately, impossible to state in a simple manner the progress at
different dates in the great textile industries of the country. Everything as regards
these industries is thrown out by the disturbance consequent on the American War.
It does not appear, however, that what has happened as regards the main textile
industries, cotton and wool, would alter sensibly the conclusions above stated,
drawn from the facts as to other main industries of the country. If we take the
consumption of raw materials as the test, it would appear that the growth in the
cotton manufacture is from a consumption of 28 lbs. per head in 1855 to about
38 lbs. per head in 1875, while in 1885 the consumption is nearly 42 lbs. per head,
an increase of 4 lbs. per head in the last ten years, against 10 lbs. per head in the
previous twenty. The percentage of increase in the last twenty years must there-
fore, on the whole, have been less than in the previous twenty, although in these
twenty years the great interruption due to the American Civil War occurred. Of
course the amount of raw material consumed is not here an absolute test. There
may be more spinning and weaving now in proportion to the same quantity of raw
material than was formerly the case. But the indications are at least not so
certain and direct as when the consumption of raw material could be confidently
appealed to. As regards wool the comparison is unfortunately very incomplete
owing to the defect of data for the earlier years; but what we find is that the
amount of wool consumed per head of the population of the United Kingdom has
in the last ten years rather declined than otherwise from nearly 11 Ibs. per head
in the five years 1870-74 to 10 lbs. per head only in the five years 1880-84. Here,
again, the explanation suggested as to cotton—viz., that there may be more
spinning and weaving now in proportion to the same quantity of raw material than
was formerly'the case—applies. But the answer is also the same, that at any rate
the indications of progress are no longer as simple as they were. The reality of
the former rate of advance is not so clearly manitest.
Of course I need hardly add that in the case of another great textile, silk, there
has been no progress, but the reverse, for some years; that this is also true of linen ;
and that the increase in the allied manufacture, jute, can only be a partial set-off.
In the textiles, then, as in other staple industries of the country, the rate of
advance in the last ten years, measuring by things, and not merely by values, has
been less than in the twenty years immediately before.
We pass on, then, to another set of figures included in the short table above
submitted. We may look not only at leading industries of production directly,
but at the broad figures of certain industries which are usually held to reflect, as
in a mirror, the progress of the country generally. I refer to the railway traflics as.
regards the home industries of the country, and the entries and clearances of
shipping in the foreign trade as regards our foreign business.
As regards railways what we find is, if we take the receipts from the goods
traffic in the form in which they were summarised for the Royal Commission on
Trade Depression, viz., reduced to so much per head of the population on the
average of quinquennial periods, that in the five years 1860-64, which is as far
back as the figures can be carried, the receipts per head were 1ls.; ten years
later, viz., in 1870-74, the receipts per head were 18s.; and ten years later, viz.,
$10 REPORT—1887.
1880-84, the receipts per head were 21s. 2d. The-rate of growth shown in the first
ten years’ interval is 63 per cent. ; in the second ten years’ interval it is only 18 per
cent.; and in the last year or two, I may add, there has been no further improve-
ment, Here the question of the value of money comes in again, but this would
only partially modify the apparent change. There is also a question as to railway
extension having been greater in the earlier than in the later period, so that growth
took place in the earlier period because there were railways in many districts
where they had not been before, and there was no room for a similar expansion in
the later period. But the difference in the rate of growth it will be observed is
very great indeed, and this explanationseems hardly adequate to account for allthe
difference. At any rate, to repeat a remark already made, the indications are no
longer so simple as they were. There is something to be explained.
The figures as to the number of tons of goods carried are not in the above
table; nor are such figures very good, so long as they are not reduced to show
the number of tons conveyed one mile. But, quantum valeant, they may be
quoted from the Board of Trade tables already referred to. The increase, then,
in minerals conveyed between 1855 and 1865 is from about 40 million to nearly 80
million tons, or 100 per cent.; between 1865 and 1875 it is from 80 to about 140
million tons, or 75 per cent. ; and in the last ten years it is from 140 to 190 million
tons only, if quite so much, or about 36 per cent. only. As regards general
merchandise, again, the progression in the three ten-yearly periods is in the first
from about 24 to 37 million tons, or rather more than 50 per cent.; in the second
from 87 to 65 million tons, or 70 per cent.; and in the third from 68 to 73 million
tons, or 16 per cent, only. As far as they go there is certainly nothing in these
figures to oppose the indications of a falling-off in the rate of increase of general
business already cited.
Coming to the movement of shipping in the foreign trade the series of figures
we obtain are the following, which relate to clearances only, those relating to
entries being of course little more than duplicate, so that they need not be
repeated: 1855, 10 million tons; 1865, 15 million tons; 1875, 24 million tons;
1885, 32 million tons. And the rate of growth thus shown is between 1855 and
1865 no less than 50 per cent.; between 1865 and 1875 no less than 60 per cent. ;
and between 1875 and 1885 about 33 per cent. only—-again a less rate of increase
in the last ten years than in the period just before. Here, too, it is to be noticed,
what is unusual in shipping industry, that in the last few years the entries and
clearances in the foreign trade have been practically stationary. The explanation
no doubt is in part the great multiplication of lines of steamers up to a compara-
tively recent period, causing a remarkable growth of the movement while the
multiplication of lines was itself in progress, and leaving room for less growth
afterwards because a new framework had been provided within which traffic could
grow. But here again it is to be remarked that the whole change can hardly,
perhaps, be explained in this manner, while the remark already made again applies,
that the fact of explanation being required is itself significant.
The figures of imports and exports might be treated in a similar manner, as they
necessarily follow the course of the leading articles of production and the move-
ments of shipping. But we should only by so doing get the figures we have been
dealing with in another form, and repetition is of course to be avoided.
The short table contains only another set of figures, viz. those of the consumption
of tea and sugar, which are again commonly appealed to as significant of general
material progress. What we find as regards tea is that the consumption per head
rises between 1855 and 1865 from 2°3 to 3'3 lbs., or 43 per cent. ; between 1865 and
1875 from 3°3 to 4:4 lbs., or 33 per cent. ; and between 1875 and 1885 from 4:4 to
5 lbs., or 18} per cent. In sugar the progression is in the first period from 30'6
to 39:8 lbs. per head, or 30 per cent. ; in the second period from 39°8 to 62°7 Ibs., or
58 per cent.; and in the third period from 62:7 to 74'3 lbs., or 19 per cent. only.
In the last ten years in both cases the rate of increase is less than in the twenty
years before.
These facts, I need hardly say, would be strengthened by a reference to the
consumption of spirits and beer, the decline in the former being especially notorious.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. &ll
In tobacco again in the last ten years there has been no increase of the consumption
per head ; which contrasts with a rapid increase in the period just before—viz., from
about 1:31 Ib. per head in 1865 to 1-46 lb. per head in 1875.
No doubt the observation here applies that the utmost prosperity wonid ob-
viously be consistent with a slower rate of increase per head from period to period
. in the consumption of these articles, and with, in the end, a cessation of the rate
of increase altogether. The consumption of some articles may attain a compara-
tively stationary state, the increased resources of the community being devoted to
new articles. But here, again, we have to observe the necessity for explanation.
The indications are no longer so sure and obvious in all directions as they were.
It is difficult, indeed, to resist the impressioa made when we put all the facts
together, leaving out of sight for a moment those of values only. We are able to
aflirm positively—(@) That the production of coal, iron, and other staple articles
has been at a less rate in the last ten years than formerly; (%) that this has taken
place when agricultural production has been notoriously stationary, and when the
production of other articles such as copper, lead, &c., has positively diminished ;
(c) that there has been a similar falling-off in the rate of advance in the great
textile industries; (d) that the receipts from railway traflic and the figures of
shipping in the foreign trade show a corresponding slackening in the rate of
increase in the business movement; and (c) that the figures as to consumption of
leading articles, such as tea, sugar, spirits, and tobacco, in showing a similar
decline in the rate of increase, and, in some cases, a diminution, are at least not in
contradiction with the other facts stated, although it may be allowed that there
was no antecedent reason to expect an indefinite continuance of a former rate of
increase.
From these facts, however, we may qualify them: and many qualifications have
already been suggested while others could be added: it seems tolerably safe to
draw the conclusion that there has probably been a falling-off in the rate of
material increase generally. The income tax assessment figures, though they could
not be taken by themselves in such a question, are, at least, not in contradiction,
and there is nothing the other way when we deal with these main figures only.
I should not put the conclusion, however, as more than highly probable. Some
general explanation of the facts may be possible on the hypothesis that there is no
real decline in the rate of growth generally at all; that the usual signs for
various reasons have become more difficult to read; that owing to the advance
already made the real growth of the country and, to some extent, of other countries,
has taken a new direction; and that the utmost caution must be used in forming
final conclusions on the subject. But the conclusion of a check having occurred
to the former rate of growth may be assumed meanwhile for the purposes of
discussion. The attempted explanation of the causes of change, on the hypothesis
that there is a real change, may help to throw light on the question of the reality
of the change itself.
Various explanations are suggested, then, not only for a decline in the rate of
our progress, but for actual retrogression. Let us look at the principal of these
explanations in their order and see whether they can account for the facts: either
for actual retrogression, or for a decline in the general rate of material growth
equal to what some of the particular facts above cited, if they were significant of a
general change in the rate of growth, imply—a decline, say, from a rate of growth
eee to 40 per cent, in ten years to one of 20 per cent. only in the same
period.
One of the most common explanations, then, as we all know, is foreign competi-
tion. The explanation has been discredited because of the exaggeration of the
alleged evil to be explained ; but it may possibly be a good enough explanation of
the actual facts when they are looked at in a proper way. In this light, then, the
assertion as to foreign competition would be found to mean that foreigners are
taking away from us some business we should otherwise have had, and that, con-
sequently, although our business on the whole increases from year to year, it does
not increase so fast as when foreign competition was less. Those who talk most
about foreign competition have actually in their mind the unfair element in that
812 REPORT— 1887.
competition, the stimulus which the Governments of some foreign countries give or
attempt to give to particular industries by means on the one hand of high tariffs
keeping out the goods we should otherwise send to such countries, and giving
their home industry of the same kind a monopoly which sometimes enables them
to produce a surplus they can sell ruinously cheap abroad, and, by means on the
other hand of direct bounties which enable certain industries to compete in the
home market of the United Kingdom itself as well as in foreign markets. But
there is a natural foreign competition as well as a stimulated foreign competition
to be considered, and it may be the move formidable of the two.
Dealing first with the stimulated competition, the most obvious criticism on
this alleged explanation of the recent decline in the rate of increase of our material
progress is that the stimulus given by foreign Governments in recent years has not
been increasing, or, at any rate, not materially increasing, so as to account for the
change in question. People forget very quickly; otherwise it would not be lost
sight of that after 1860, as far as European nations are concerned, there was a
great reduction of tariff duties—a change, therefore, in the contrary direction to
that stimulus which is alleged to have lately caused a change in the rate of our
own development. Since about five or six years ago the movement on the Con-
tinent seems again to have been in the direction of higher tariffs. France, Italy,
Austria, Germany, and Russia have all shown protectionist leanings of a more or
less pronounced kind. Some of our colonies, especially Canada, have moved in the
same direction. But, on the whole, these causes as yet have been too newly in
operation to affect our industry on a large scale. Asa matter of fact, with one
exception to be presently noticed, the period from 1860 to 1880 was one in which
the effect of the operation of foreign Governments in regard to their tariffs could
not be to stimulate additional competition of an injurious kind with us in the way
above described, but to take away, if anything, from the stimulus previously given.
The changes quite lately brought into operation, if big enough, and if really having
the effects supposed, might stimulate foreign competition in the way described in
the period now commencing; but, as an explanation of the past facts, it is impos-
sible to urge that foreign competition had recently been more stimulated by addi-
tions to tariffs than before, and that in consequence of this stimulus our own rate
of advance had been checked.
The one exception to notice is the United States. Immediately after 1860 the
civil war in that country broke out, and that war brought with it the adoption of
a very high tariff. Curiously enough, however, that tariff operated most against
us in the very years—that is, the years before 1875—in which our rate of advance
was greater to all appearance than it has lately been. In 1883 there was a great
revision of the tariff, having for its general result a slight lowering and not an
enhancement of the tariff, and it is with this reduction—that is, with a diminution
of the alleged adverse stimulus—that the diminution in our own rate of advance
has occurred.
Of course the explanation may be that, although Governments have not them-
selves been active till quite lately in adding to their tariffs, yet circumstances heve
occurred to make the former tariffs more injurious in recent years than they were
down to 1875. For instance, it may be said that owing to the fall of prices in recent
years the burden of specific duties has become higher than it was. The duty is
nominally unchanged, but by the fall of prices its proportion to the value of the
article has become higher. This is no doubt’the case to a large extent. On the
other hand ad valorem duties have been lowered in precisely the same way. The
fall of prices hus brought with it a reduction of duty, and especially on articles of
English manufacture, where the raw material is obtained from abroad, the reduc-
tion of duty, being applicable to the whole price, must certainly have had for effect
to render more effective than before the competition of the English manufacturer.
Whether on the whole the reduction of ad valorem duties consequent on the fall of
prices has heen sufficient throughout the range of our foreign trade to compensate
the virtual increase of the weight of specific duties from the same cause seems to
be a nice question. This being the case, it must be very difficult indeed to show
that, on the whole, the weight of foreign tariffs, apart from the action of foreign
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 813
Governments, has been increased in recent years so as to affect our own growth
injuriously.
Foreign tariffs, it may be said, have become more effective for another
reason. Manufacturing industry having itself developed abroad, the same amount
of protection given to the foreign industry becomes more efficient than it was.
But this, of course, raises the question of the effect of natural foreign competition,
which will presently be discussed.
So much for the stimulus to foreign competition due to high tariffs. With
regard to bounties very little need be said. They have been the subject of much
discussion and agitation for various reasons, and in what I have to say I propose
not to touch on the practical question whether these bounties are injurious, and
the nature of the political remedies that may or may not be possible. I limit
myself strictly to the point, how far any effect which such bounties can have had
would account for a diminution in the rate of material growth of the country
generally in the last ten years as compared with the ten years just before. Dealing
with the question in this strictly limited fashion, what I have to observe first is
that hitherto very few bounties have been complained of, except those on sugar
production and refining; and next that the whole industries of sugar produc-
tion and refining, important as they are in themselves, hardly count in a
question of the general industry of the United Kingdom. Even if we refined all
the sugar consumed in the United Kingdom and the maximum amount we haye
ever exported, the whole income from this source, the whole margin, would not
exceed about 2,000,000/. annually, not one-six-hundredth part of the income of the
people of the United Kingdom; and of this 2,000,000/. at the worst we only lose
a portion by foreign competition, while all that is really lost, it must be remem-
bered, is not the whole income which would have been gained if a certain portion
of our labour and capital had been employed in sugar refining, but only the
difference between that income and the income obtained by the employment of the
same labour and capital in other directions. The loss to the empire may be greater
because our colonies are concerned in sugar production to the extent at present
prices of 5,000,0007. to 6,000,000/. annually, which would probably be somewhat
larger but for foreign competition. But it does not seem at all certain that this
figure would be increased if foreign bounties were taken away, while in any case
the amounts involved are too small to raise any question of foreign bounties having
checked the rate of growth of the general industry of the country.
Per contra, of course, the extra cheapness of sugar, allezed to be due to the
bounties, must have been so great an advantage to the people of the United King-
dom, saving them perhaps 2,000,000/. to 3,000,000/. per annum, that the stimulus
thereby given to other industries must apparently have far more than compensated
any loss caused by the stimulus of foreign bounties to sugar production and refining
abroad. But to enlarge on this point would involve the introduction of controversial
matter, which I am anxious to avoid. I am content to show that nothing that
ean have resulted from sugar bounties could have affected seriously the general
rate of material growth in the country.
Mutatis mutandis, the same remarks apply to other foreign bounties, of which
indeed the only ones that have been at all heard of are those on shipping. But as
yet, at least, the increase of foreign shipping has not been such as to come into
comparison with our own increase, while the portion of the increase that can be
connected with the operation of bounties is very small. It would be useless to
enter into figures on so small a point; but few figures are so well known or
accessible as those relating to shipping.
In neither way, then, does there appear to be anything in the assertion that the
protectionist action of foreign Governments in recent years can have caused the
check alleged to the rate of growth in our industry generally, assuming such a check
to have occurred. I may be dispensed, therefore, from entering on the theoretical
argument, which I only notice pour mémoire, that in the nature of things no
enhancement of foreign taritls and no grants of foreign bounties could really check
See Appendix to Hirst Report of Royal Commission on Trade Depression, p. 130.
814 REPORT—1 887.
our own rate of growth, except by checking foreign growth still more, which is not
the case we are considering, because the allegation is that foreign competition is
increasing at our expense. That I do not insist on this argument is not to be con-
sidered as a sign that it is dropped or that I am not fully sensible of its logical
completeness. It seems enough, at present, to fortify it by considerations from
actual practical facts which no one can dispute.
The question of an increase of foreign competition from natural causes is more
difficult. It is beyond all question, as I have pointed out elsewhere, that foreign
competition in every direction from natural causes must continue to increase, and
that it has increased greatly in recent years. But when the facts are examined, it
does not appear that this competition has been the cause of a check to our own rate
of growth. One of the facts most commonly dwelt upon in this connection is the
great increase of the imports of foreign manufactured articles into the United King-
dom. But the increase in the last ten years is not more than about 18,000,0000.,
taking the facts as recorded in what is known as Mr. Ritchie's return, viz., from
about 37,000,000/. in the quinquennial period 1870-74 to 55,000,000/. in the quin-
quennial period 1880-84, or about 50 per cent. Out of 18,000,0002. increased
imports of such articles it is fair to allow that at least one-half, if not more, is the
value of raw material which we should have had to import in any case; so that
only 9,000,000/. represents the value of English labour displaced by these increased
imports. Even the whole of this 9,000,0002. of course is not lost, only the difference
between it and the sum which the capital and labour ‘ displaced ’ earns in some
other employment, which may possibly even be a plus and not a minus difference.
If we add articles ‘partly manufactured’ no difference would be made, for the
increase here is only from 26,000,000/. to 28,000,000/. in the ten years. Such
differences, it need not be said, hardly count in the general total of the industry of
the country. Further, the rate of increase of these imports was just as great in the
period when our own rate of growth was greater as in the last ten years, the
increase in manufactured articles between 1860-64 and 1870-74 being 19,000,0002.,
viz., from 18,000,000/. to 37,000,000/., or over 100 per cent. as compared with 50 per
cent. only in the last ten years, and in articles partly manufactured from 17,000,0007.
to 26,000,000/., an increase of 9,000,000Z. as compared with an increase of 2,000,0000.
only in the last ten years. Making all allowance for the fall in prices in recent
years, these figures still show a greater relative increase of imports of manufactured
articles before 1875 than afterwards. It cannot, therefore, be the increased import
of foreign manufactures which has caused the check to our own growth in the
last ten years.
But foreigners, it is said, exclude us from their own markets and compete with us in
foreign markets. Here again, however, we find that any check which may have
occurred to our foreien export trade is itself so small that its effect on the general
growth of the country would be almost /. Take it that the check is as great as
the diminution in the rate of increase in the movements of shipping, viz., from an
increase of about 55 per cent. to one of 33 per cent. only, that is, broadly speaking,
a diminution of one-third in the rate of increase of our foreign trade, whatever that
rate may have been. Assuming that rate to have been the same as the rate of
increase in the movements of shipping itself, the change would be from a rate of
increase equal to one-half in ten years to a rate of increase equal to about one-third
only. Applying these proportions to the exports of British and Irish produce and
manufactures, which represent the productive energy of the country devoted to
working for foreign exchange, and assuming that ten years ago the value of British
labour and industry in the produce and manufactures we exported, due deduction
being made for the raw material previously imported, was about 140,000,000/.,'
then it would appear that if the same range of values had continued the check to
the growth of this trade would have been that at the end of ten years the British
labour represented in it instead of having increased 50 per cent., viz., from
140,000,0007. to 210,000,0007., would have increased one-third only, or from
140,000,0002. to about 187,000,000/. The annual difference to the energy of the
1 See my Lssays in Finance, 1st series.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 815
country developing itself in the foreign trade would on this showing be about
23,000,000/. only, an insignificant sum compared with the aggregate income of the
people of the country ; while the country, it must be remembered, does not lose the
whole of this sum, but only the difference between it and the sum earned in those
employments to which those concerned have resorted, which again may be a plus
and not a minus difference. yen therefore if foreign competition is the cause of
a check to our general growth, yet the figures we are dealing with in our foreign
trade are such that any visible check to that trade which can have occurred must
have been insufficient to cause that apparent diminution in the rate of our material
growth generally which has to be explained.
It has to be remembered, moreover, that when the figures are studied and the
fall of prices allowed for it is not in our foreign trade that any check worth
mentioning seems to have occurred at all. The diminution in the rate of increase
in the movements of shipping is very largely to be accounted for in the way already
explained, viz., by the fact that the increase just before 1875 was largely owing to
the multiplication of lines of steamers, and that a framework had then been pro-
vided up to which the traffic has since grown. Even an increase of one-third in
the movements in the last ten years may thus show as great an increase in real
business as an increase of 50 or 60 per cent. in the movements in the twenty years
before. Foreign competition, even from natural causes, is thus insufficient to
account for the diminution in the rate of increase of our material growth in the
last ten years.
These figures may be put directly another way. The increase of our foreign
exports per head between 1860-64 and 1870-74 was from 4J. 14s. 11d. to 7/. 7s. 5d.,
or about 55 per cent., and allowing for an average rise of prices between the two
dates may be put as having been at the extreme about 50 percent. Between
1870-74 and 1880-84 instead of an increase there is a decrease, viz., from 7J. 7s. 5d.
to 61. 12s. 9d., but deducting about one-third from the former figure for the fall in
prices, the real increase in the last ten years would appear to be as from 4J, 16s. 3d.
to 67. 12s. 9d., or over 35 per cent. The difference in the rate of increase in the
last ten years compared with the previous ten is thus the difference between 35
and 50 per cent. only, equal to about 21,000,000/. annually on the amount of
140,000,900/., assumed to represent the value of British industry in cur foreign
exports, deduction being made for the value of raw material included. A deduction
of this sort from the annual income of the country is too small to account for such
a check to the rate of our growth generally as that we are now discussing as
probable, especially when we recollect that the labour is only diverted, and it is
not the whole 21,000,000/. that is lost, but only the difference between that sum
and what is otherwise earned, which may even be a plus and not a minus difference.
To bring the matter to a point, an increase of 40 per cent. in the income of the
country in ten years would on an assumed income of 1,000 millions only in 1875,
and the figure must then have been more, have brought the income up to 1,400
millions ; an increase of 20 per cent. would have brought it up to 1,200 millions
only, a difference of 200 millions, which must have arisen from the alleged differ-
ence in the rate of our material growth in question if it had occurred. Clearly
nothing can have happened in our foreign trade to account for anything more
than the smallest fraction of such a difference. The figures are altogether too
small. We may repeat again then that it is not the check to our foreign trade
which foreign competition may have caused to which we can ascribe the recent
check to our general rate of growth.
I need hardly add that in point of theory foreign competition was not likely to
have the effect stated. I have set forth elsewhere in an elaborate essay ! the reasons
for holding this opinion ; why it is, in fact, that as foreign nations grow richer we
should be better off absolutely than if they were to remain poor, though relatively
they might advance more than we do. But, whatever theory may say, in point of
fact the check to the rate of our material growth cannot, for the reasons stated,
have been due to anything which has happened to our foreign trade.
Seemy Essays in Finance, 2nd series, ‘ Foreign Manufactures and English Trade.’
$16 REPORT—1887.
Another explanation which has been suggested, and to which I have myselt
been inclined to attach considerable weight as being plainly, as far as it goes, a
vera causa, is the extent to which the hours of labour have been reduced in many
employments in consequence of the improvement in the condition of the working
classes in the last half-century, and the growth of a disposition to take things
easier, which has been the result of the general prosperity of the country. Such
causes when they exist, and when they are brought into operation, must tend to
diminish the rate of material growth in a country as compared with a period just
before when they were not in operation. If we could suppose them brought into
operation suddenly, all other things, such as the progress and development of in-
vention, remaining the same, such a reduction of hours of labour and growth of a
disposition to take things easy, must produce a check to the former rate of growth.
After some consideration, however, although there is no doubt of the general
tendency of the causes referred to, I begin to doubt whether they would explain
adequately such a check to the rate of material growth generally throughout the
country as is assumed to have occurred. As regards the shortening of the hours
of labour, which is the more definite fact to be dealt with, it cannot but be observed
that the shortening has by no means been universal. It has been conspicuous
among certain trades organised into trades unions ; but the unions, after all, only
include about a tenth part of the labour of the country. There has been no such
conspicuous shortening of the hours of labour among professional men, clerks,
domestic servants, and many others whose labour is an essential part of the general
sum total. Next—and this is perhaps even more important—the shortening of the
hours of labour is not coincident with the beginning of the last ten years, though it
has been in full operation for the whole of that period, but rather with the begin-
ning or middle of the previous ten years, viz., 1865-75; so that it should have been
fully in operation upon the production of 1874; and the check to our rate of growth
if due to this cause should thus have been felt between 1864 and 1875, rather than
between the latter date and the present time. ‘The same with the general disposi-
tion to take things easy. This disposition did not spring up in a day in 1874, but
was probably as effective as a cause of change in the earlier, as in the later, period. It
must count for something as a cause of the annual production of the country being
less at a given moment than it would otherwise be; but in comparing two periods
what we have to consider is whether the growth of this disposition has been greater
in one period than in another; and there are no data to support such a conclusion
as regards the last ten years compared with the previous ten.
We must apparently, therefore, reject this explanation also. It isnot adequate to
account for the apparent change that has occurred in the rate of our growth from the
year 1875 as compared with the period just before. Our progress in periods previous
to 1875 took place in spite of the operation of causes of a similar kind which were
then in operation, and there is no proof at all that the shortening of the hours of
labour and the growth of a disposition to take things easy have been greater
since 1875 as compared with the period just before than they were between 1865
and 1875 as compared with the period just before that. What is wanted is a new
cause beginning to operate in or about 1875, and the shortening of the hours of
labour and the growth of a disposition to take things easy do not answer that
description sufficiently. Something of the apparent change may be due to an
acceleration in recent years of the growth of a disposition to take things easy, but
on the whole the explanation halts when we make a strict comparison. :
Another cause which may properly be assigned as a vera causa of a check to the
rate of material growth in the country is the unfavourable weather to agriculture
and the generally unprofitable conditions of that industry in recent years. Pro
tanto such influences would make agricultural production less to-day than it would
otherwise be. Employment in that industry would also be diminished compara-
tively, and perhaps absolutely, and a check to production generally would take
place while labour was seeking new fields. But the check arising in this manner,
as far as the general growth is concerned, has obviously not been very great.
More land in propcrtion has been turned into permanent pasture, but very little
land has gone out of cultivation altogether, and even the amount under the plough
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 817
has not much diminished. Agricultural labour, in somewhat greater proportion
than before, has been obliged to seek other employments; the flow of population
from country to town has been increased somewhat ; but nothing new has happened
to diminish production generally to a serious extent, and it is a new cause, it must
be remembered, for which we are seeking. As far as unfavourable weather is con-
cerned, again, that is only a temporary evil. One year with another, the weather
is not worse now than at any former time; the remarkably unfavourable weather
which lasted from 1874 to.1880 has passed. The other conditions unfavourable to
agriculture, especially foreign competition, are more enduring; but these seem
much more unfavourable to rent than to production itself, which is the point now
under consideration; and we do not know that they will be permanent at all when
prices and wages are fully adjusted. :
The disturbance to industry by the fall of prices generally is also a vera causa
of a check to the rate of material growth. But the effect of such a cause seems to
be confined within narrow limits, and it is not a new cause. It occurs in every
time of depression due to discredit, being partly the effect and partly the cause of ~
the depression itself. All that is new recently is the extreme degree of the fall,
and I must express the greatest doubt whether a mere difference of degree aggra-
vates materially the periodical disturbance of industry, tending to check production,
which a fall of prices from a high to a low level causes. So far as past experience
has gone, at any rate, no such cause has been known to check production to any
material extent. If any such cause tended to have a serious effect we should
witness the results every time there is a shrinkage of values owing to the contrac-
tion and appreciation of an inconvertible paper currency, and I am not aware of
any such contraction having had the effect described on production, though the effect
in producing a feeling of depression is beyond all question. The facts as to the great
contraction in this country between 1815 and 1820 are on record, while the
experience of the United States after the civil war is also fresh in everyone’s recol-
lection. Contraction of currency and fall of prices, though they are painful things,
do not stop production materially.
Another explanation suggested is that there is in fact no antecedent reason for
supposing that the rate of material growth in a community should always be at the
same rate—that a community may, as it were, get ‘to the top’ as regards its
development under given conditions, and then its advance should be either less
rapid than it had been or it should even become stationary. The defect of this
explanation is that it assumes the very thing which would have to be proved.
Is there any other sign except the alleged check to the rate of our material growth
itself that in or about the year 1875 this country got ‘to the top’? It has, more-
over, to be considered that on @ prior? grounds it is most unlikely a community
would get to the top per saltum, and then so great a change should occur as the
apparent change we are considering. ‘The persistence of internal conditions in a
given mass of humanity is a thing we may safely assume, and if these conditions
are cousistent with a given rate of development in one period of ten years, it is most
unlikely that, save for an alteration of external conditions, there would be another
rate of development in the succeeding ten years. Human nature and capacities do
not change like that. Scientific opinion, I believe, is also to the effect that the
progress of invention and of the practical working of inventions, which have been
the main cause of our material growth in the past, have been going on in the last
_ ten years, are still going on, and are likely to go on in the near future, at as great
a rate as at any time in the last fifty years. Lxcept, as already said, the apparent
check to the rate of our material growth itself, there is no sign anywhere of our
having got to the top, so that a stationary condition economically, or a condition
nearly approaching it, has been reached.
Last of all, it is urged that the diminution in the rate of material growth, which is
. In question, must be due to the fact that we are losing the natural advantages of coal
and iron which we formerly had in comparison with the rest of the world. This is
perhaps only another way of saying that we have got to the top by comparison,
though the community of nations generally has not got to the top, and another way
of saying also that foreign competition affects us more than it formerly did; an
1887. 34
818 REPORT—1887.
argument already dealt with. But the question whether coal and iron at home are
really so indispensable to our material growth as is sometimes assumed appears
itself so important that I may be excused for specially discussing this question,
notwithstanding that it has virtually been disposed of, as far as any explanation of
past facts is concerned, by what has been already said.
The argument proceeds on the supposition—which is no doubt well founded in the
abstract and as far as the past experience of mankind is concerned—that in addi-
tion to natural capacities of its own a community requires for its prosperity certain
natural advantages: fertility of soil, rich and easily worked mines, a genial climate
in which labour may conveniently be carried on, and so forth. A community possess-
ing all these things, or the like things, will flourish, but as it begins to lose any of
them its prosperity must become precarious, and population must flow to the places
where they can be secured. Of course climate is not a thine which changes, as far
as any practical experience is concerned ; but relatively the advantage of a fertile soil
may be lost, as England has lately lost it in comparison with the United States and
other new countries, its soil having become inadequate for the whole population ; and
still more the advantage of mines, especially mines of coal and iron, on which the
miscellaneous industries of a manufacturing country depend, may be lost. Hence, it
is said, the check to our rate of growth in recent years. We have long since lost our
agricultural advantages by comparison. Now we are also beginning to lose the
special advantages which coal and iron have given. Our mines are becoming less
rich than those of foreign countries, and the balance is turning against us. Why
should not population relatively flow from England to the ‘United States and
other countries as it has passed within the limits of the United Kingdom itself from
Cornwall and Sussex to Staffordshire, Lancashire, Yorkshire, and the north? In
this view the coal famine of 1873 was the sign of a check such as Mr. Jevons anti-
cipated. What has happened since is only a sequence of the like causes.
J need not repeat in opposition to this view what has already been said as to
the inadequacy of any actual decline in our foreign trade to account for such a
check to our general growth as is supposed to have occurred. If the loss of our
natural advantages of coal and iron in addition to agriculture are having the
effects supposed, we ought to witness them in our foreign trade, and in fact we do
not witness them to the extent required for the production of the phenomenon in
question.
What I wish now specially to urge is that in consequence of the progress of
invention and the practical application of inventions in modern times the theory
itself has begun to be less true generally than it has been. It is no longer so neces-
sary, as it once was, as in fact it always has been until very lately, that people
should live where their food and raw materials are grown. ‘The industry of the
world haying become more and more manufacturing and, if one may say so, artistic,
and less agricultural and extractive, the natural advantages of a fertile soil and
rich mines are less important to a manufacturmg community than they were at
any former period of the world’s history, because of the new cheapness of convey-
ance. Under the new conditions, I believe it is impossible to doubt, climate, accu-
mulated wealth, acquired manufacturing skill, concentration of population become
more important factors than mere juxtaposition to the natural advantages of fertile
soil and rich mines. The facts seem at any rate worth investigating, judging by
what has happened in England and other old countries in the last half-century and
by what is still happening there.
Take first the question of food. Wheat is now conveyed from the American
Far West to Liverpool and London and any other ports in the Old World for
something like five shillmgs per quarter—equal to about half a farthing on the
pound of bread, or a halfpenny on the quartern loaf. The difference between the
towns of a country with fertile soil, therefore, and the towns of a country with
inadequate soil is represented by this small difference in the price of bread. At
about fivepence the quartern loaf the staff of life may be about 10 per cent. cheaper
in the fertile country than it is in a country which does not grow its own food at
all, and which may be thousands of miles away. As the staff of life only enters
into the expenditure of the artisan to the extent of 20 per cent. at the outside, and
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 819
into the expenditure of richer classes to a smaller extent, the difference on the
whole income of a community made by their living where the staff of life would
be cheaper would be less than 2 per cent.—too small to tell against other advan-
tages which may be credited to them. What is true of wheat is even more true
of meat and other more valuable articles of food where the cost of conveyance
makes a less difference in the proportionate value of the food zm situ and its value
at a distant point. The same more and more with raw materials. Cotton and
such articles cost so little to transport that the manufacturing may as well go on
in Lancashire or any other part of the Old World as i sztu or nearly in situ; and
even as regards metals or minerals, except coal and perhaps iron, the same rule
applies, the cost of conveyance being as nothing in proportion to the value of the
raw material itself. As regards coal and iron, moreover, there are many places
where they are not in absolute juxtaposition, and if they have to be conveyed at all
they may as well be conveyed to a common centre. Iron ore and iron at any rate
are beginning to be articles of import into the old countries of Europe to which
the cost, in fact, offers very little difficulty, The additional cost to the miscella-
neous manufacturing of a country through its having to bring iron and coal from
a distance may thus be quite inconsiderable, and apparently is becoming more and
more inconsiderable. As regards raw materials generally it has also to be con-
sidered that, owing to their immense variety, there is an undoubted convenience
in a common manufacturing centre to which they can be brought. Hitherto they
may have come to England and other old countries of Europe in part because coal
and iron were abundant there in juxtaposition; but the habit once set up, there
seems no reason why they should not concentrate themselves on the old manu-
facturing centres. The ruder parts of the coal and iron industry may be attracted
to other places, but the higher branches of manufacturing will be at no disadvan-
tage if carried on at the old centres.
On the other hand, the old centres will retain the advantages, which are
obviously very great, of climate, accumulated wealth, acquired skill, and con-
centration of population. That population under the new conditions is to go
from them merely because they do not grow food which can be transported to.
them at the cost of a mere fraction of the aggregate income, and because they
have not coal and iron in abundance and in juxtaposition, that abundance and
juxtaposition, owing again to the diminished cost of conveyance, being no longer
so indispensable as it was to the higher branches of manufacturing, appears
certainly to be a ‘large order.’ What I have to suggest most strongly at any rate
is that the advantages I have spoken of as possessed by old manufacturing centres
are not unlikely to tell more and more under the new conditions, and that the in-
dispensability of coal and iron is no longer to be spoken of as what it has been in
the last century, during which apparently England owed so much of its precedence
in manufacturing power to these causes.
To the same effect we may urge the specially great increase of the efficiency of
coal in recent years. Cheap coal in situ cannot be relatively so important as it
was in days when five or ten tons of coal were required to do the work which can
now be done by one.
The truth is that the whole change that has been occurring is only a con-
tinuation of much larger historical changes. There has almost always in English
history been some one industry that was supposed to be king. In the middle ages
it was the growth and export of raw wool; last century it was the woollen
manufacture itself; early in this century and down to a very late date cotton was
king; more lately, since the beginning of the railway and steamship era, it has
been coal and iron. How do we know, how can we know, that coal and iron are
to reign indefinitely, any more than wool, or the woollen manufacture, or cotton
themselves have done? Changes are always going on, and for that reason I
believe we should attach the more importance to the increasing signs that it is no
longer necessary or indispensable for prosperous communities to live where their
food and raw materials are grown—that there may be advantages of climate, of
accumulated wealth, of acquired skill, of concentration of population which are
now, under the new conditions, overwhelmingly more important. It would be
8a2
820 REPORT— 1887.
absurd to dogmatise in such a matter. I hope, however, I have said enough to
those who care to reflect to satisfy them that the indispensability even of coal and
iron to the continuance of our material growth is no longer to be assumed, that
there are wholly new conditions to be considered.
To come back to the practical point in all this discussion. Not only is there no
sign in anything that has yet happened that the apparent check to our former rate
of material growth is due to the loss of natural advantages which we once
possessed, but the theory of natural advantages itself requires to be revised. Equally
in this way as in the other ways that have been discussed, it is impossible to
account for the apparent check to the former rate of our material growth which
has been observed.
Having carried matters so far, however, and having found the insufficiency
of the various causes which have been assigned for the check to our former rate of
material growth, because they have not produced the sort of effect in detail which
they ought to have produced so as to lead to the general effect alleged, or because
they existed quite as much when the rate of growth was great as in recent years
when a diminution has apparently been cbserved, it would seem expedient to in-
quire whether, in spite of the accumulation of signs to that effect, the apparent
check to our rate of growth may, after all, not be areal one. To some extent I
think we must conclude that this is the case. There are other facts which are
inconsistent with a real and permanent check such as has been in question, and a
general explanation of the special phenomena of arrest seems possible without
supposing any such real check.
The first broad fact that does not seem quite reconcilable with the fact of a real
diminution of the kind alleged in the rate of material growth generally is the
real as distinguished from the apparent growth of the income tax assessments
when allowance is made for the fall of prices which affect, as we have seen, all
aggregate values. Assuming the fall of prices to be about 20 per cent., then
we must add one-fourth to the assessments in 1885 to get the proper figure for
comparison with 1875. The total of 631 millions for 1885 would thus become
787 millions, which is a falling-off of 35 millions, or 4 per cent. only, from the
figure of 822 millions, which should have been reached if the rate of growth had
been the same between 1875 and 1885 as between 1865 and 1875. Allowing for
the raising of the lower limit of the income tax in the interval, this is really no
decrease at all.
Of course this comparison may be thrown out if we are to assume the difference
made by the fall of prices on the income tax assessments to be 15 or 10 per cent.
only, instead of 20 per cent. But a point like this would involve a most elaborate
discussion, for which this address would hardly be the occasion. I hope to find a
better opportunity shortly in a continuation of my essay of ten years ago on the
Accumulations of Capital in the United Kingdom, There is no doubt, however,
that an allowance must be made for the difference of prices, and when any such
allowance is made the rate of material growth would not appear to be so very
much less between 1875 and 1885 than in the period just before, as it does in the
above figures.
Another broad fact not easily reconcilable with the fact of a great diminution
in the real rate of material growth in the last ten years is the steadiness of the
increase of population and the absence of any sign, such as an increase in the pro-
portion of pauperism, indicating that the people are less fully employed than they
were. The increasing numbers must either be employed or unemployed, and if
there is an increase in the proportion of the unemployed the fact should be revealed
in the returns of pauperism somehow. The existence of trade unions, no doubt,
prevents many workmen coming on the rates who might formerly have done so, but
there are large masses of workmen, tle most likely to feel the brunt of want
of employment, to whom this explanation would not apply.
What we find, however, is that population has increased as follows: between
1855 and 1865 from 27,800,000 to 29,900,000, or 73 per cent.; between 1865 and
1875 from 29,900,000 to 32,800,000, or nearly 10 per cent.; and between 1875
and 1885 from 32,800,000 to 36,300,000, or over 10 per cent. If it is considered
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 821
that the figures are not fairly comparable for the early period, owing to the
specially large emigration from Ireland, which took away from the apparent
numbers of the United Kingdom as a whole, but still allowed of as great an
increase in the manufacturing parts of the country as there has been later, then we
may take the figures for England only, and what we find is—between 1855 and
1865 an increase from 18,800,000 to 21,100,000, or 123 per cent.; between 1865
and 1875 from 21,100,000 to 24,000,000, or nearly 14 per cent.; and between
1875 and 1885 from 24,000,000 to 27,500,000, or 143 per cent. Whether, there-
fore, we take the figures for the United Kingdom or for England only, what we find
is a greater increase of population in the last ten years than in either of the previous
decades when the rate of material growth seemed so much greater. If there had
been such real diminution in the rate of material growth, ought there not to have
been some increase in the want of employment and in pauperism to correspond ?
It is one of the most notorious facts of the case, however, that there has been
no increase, but instead a very steady decrease of pauperism, excepting in Ireland,
which is so small, however, as not to affect the general result. As regards England
the figures are very striking indeed. The average number of paupers and pro-
portion to population have been as follows in quinquennial periods in England
since 1855 :—
Number of Proportion to
Paupers Population per Cent.
1855-59 ‘ : : : . 895,000 4:
1860_64 : - 2 - : : : 948,000 4-7
1865-69 3 : . ° : - > 962,000 4:5
1870-74 : . A " . : . 952,000 4:2
1875-79 ¢ : - : - ¢ . 753,000 31
1880-84 ‘ : < ° : : . 787,000 3
Thus there has been a steady diminution in the proportion to the population all
through, accompanied by a diminution in the absolute numbers between 1865-69 and
1875-79, though there has since been a slight increase. In spite of all that can be
urged as to a more stringent poor-law administration having made all the difference,
it is difficult to believe that a real falling-off of a serious kind in the rate of our
material growth in late years as compared with the period just before should not
have led to some real increase of pauperism. Change of administration may do
much, but it cannot alter the effect of any serious increase in the want of employment
in a country.
The corresponding figures as to Scotland are much the same :—
Number of Proportion to
Paupers Population per Cent.
1855-59 3 - : : A 5 e 123,000 4:2
1860-64 . ; c F * : : 125,000 4:2
1865-69 . - P ; é 5 131,000 4:3
1870-74 : 5 - : : 123,000 37
1875-79 A . : ‘ p : 2 103,000 2°9
1880-84 : 5 5 - - J : 100,000 27
Here there is the same steady diminution in the proportion of pauperism to
population all through as we have seen in the case of England, accompanied in
this case by a steady diminution of the absolute number of paupers since 1865-69.
The Scotch administration has been totally independent of the English, but the
same results are produced.
In Ireland, as already hinted, the history has been different. There has been
an increase in the pauperism accompanied by a decline of population. But Ireland
is too small to affect the general result.
We are thus confronted by the fact that if there had been a real check of
a serious kind to the rate of our material growth in the last ten years as compared
with the ten years just before, there ought to have been some increase in the want
of employment and in pauperism, but instead of there being such an increase there
is a decline. The population apparently, while increasing even more rapidly in the
822 REPORT— 1887.
last ten years than before, has been more fully employed than before. To make
these facts consistent with a check to the rate of our material growth we must
contrive some such hypothesis as that employment has been more diffused as
regards numbers, but the aggrecate amount of it has fallen off: another form of
the hypothesis as to the effect of shorter hours of labour already discussed; but a
little reflection will show that any such hypothesis is hardly admissible. It is
difficult to imagine any change in the conditions of employment in so short a
time which would make it possible for larger numbers to be employed along with
a diminution in the aggregate amount of employment itself.
Another fact corresponding to this decrease of pauperism is the steady increase
of savings bank deposits and depositors. These deposits are not, of course, the
deposits of working classes only, technically so called. They include the smaller
class of tradesmen and the lower middle classes generally. But, guantwm valeant,
the facts as to a growth of deposits and depositors should reflect the condition of
the country generally in much the same way as the returns of pauperism. What
we find then is, as regards deposits, that the increase between 1855 and 1865 was
from 34,300,000/. to 45,300,0002., or about one-third ; between 1865 and 1875 from
45,300,000/. to 67,600,000/., or about one-half; and between 1875 and 1885 from
‘67,600,000/. to 94,053,000/., or just about 40 per cent.—a less increase than in the
previous ten years, but not really less, perhaps, if allowance is made for the fall of
prices in the interval, and in any case a very large increase. Then, as regards
depositors, what we find is an increase between 1855 and 1865 from 1,304,000 to
2,079,000, or 59 per cent.; between 1865 and 1875 from 2,079,000 to 3,256,000, or
56 per cent.; and between 1876 and 1885 from 3,256,000 to over 5,000,000, or over
50 per cent. Whatever special explanations there may be, facts like these are at
least not inconsistent with a fuller employment of the population in the last ten
years than in the previous ten.
Yet another fact tending to the same conclusion may be referred to. The
stationariness or slow growth of the income tax assessments in general in the last
ten years, as compared with the rapid increase in the ten years just before, has
already been referred to as one of the signs indicating a check in the rate of ad-
vance in our material growth. But when the returns are examined in detail there
is one class of assessments, more significant, perhaps, than any, of the general con-
dition of the nation, viz., houses, which is found to exhibit as great an increase in
the last ten years as in the previous decade. Between 1865 and 1875 the increase
in the item of houses in the income tax assessments in the United Kingdom was
from 68,800,000/. to 94,600,000/., or just about 37 per cent. In the following ten
years the increase was from 94,600,000/. to 128,500,000/., or just about 36 per
cent. In ‘houses,’ then, as yet there is no sign of any check to the general rate
of the material growth of the country. Allowing, in fact, for the great fall in
prices in the last ten years, the real increase in houses would seem to have been
more in the last ten years than in the ten years just before.
Other facts, such as the increase of Post Office business, may be referred to as
tending to the same conclusion. But there is no need to multiply facts. If no
hypothesis is to be accepted except one that reconciles all the facts, then these facts
as to the increase of population, diminution of pauperism, increase of savings bank
deposits and depositors, increase of houses must all be taken into account, as well
as those signs as regards production and other factors, which have usually been
most dwelt upon in discussing the question of the accumulation of wealth and the
material growth of the people. If the signs of a check to production in some
directions can be reconciled with the fact of an unchecked continuance of the
former rate of growth generally, then the later facts cited as to increase of popula-
tion, diminution of pauperism, and the like, may be allowed to have their natural
interpretation and to be conclusive on the point.
Such a general explanation, then, of the facts as to production in leading indus-_
tries and the like, referred to in the earlier part of this address, consistent with
the fact that there is no serious falling-off in the rate of our material growth
generally, is to be found in the supposition that industry by a natural law is
becoming more and more miscellaneous, and that as populations develop the dis-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 823
proportionate growth of the numbers employed in such miscellaneous industries,
and in what may be called incorporeal functions, that is, as teachers, artists, and
the like, prevents the increase of staple products continuing at the former rate.
This supposition, it will be found, has a good deal to support it in the actual facts
as to industry and population in recent years.
The foreign trade shows some sign of the change that is going on. Looking
through the list of export articles some remarkable developments are to be noticed.
The following short table speaks for itself :—
Exports of the undermentioned Articles in the Years stated, with the Rates of
Increase in 1855-65, 1865-75, and 1875-85 compared.
Quantities exported Increase per Cent.
1855 1865 1875 | 1885 {1855-65|1865-75|1875-85
Candles, million lbs . 4 + 5:3 7S Nil 33 47
Cordage and twine, thou- 110 168 111 Nain 538 | —34?! 59
sand ewts.
Plate glass, million sq. ft. 0:3 0°6 16 39 | 100 | 166 | 143
Jute yarn, million lbs. not stated| 4°9 15:9 | 30-7 — 224 93
Jute manufacture, million = 15-4 |102:1 |) -215 — 563 110
yds.
Iron hoops, sheets, &c., - 116 204°) 331 — 76 62
thousand tons
Tinned plates, thousand + 63 138 298 — 119 116
tons
Other wrought iron, thou- ys 214 239 348 — 12 45
sand tons
Oil and floor cloth, million 0-5 2°4 Gio lel es 380 162 79
sq. yds.
Paper other than hangings, 106' | 145 319 | 733 37 120 | 130
thousand cwts.
Dressed skins and furs, | notstated|notstatea} 0°37) 3°45) —— = 832
millions
Soap, thousand ecwts. 205 140 251 | 402 |—32?) 79 60
Spirits, million gals. 3°8 2:0 10 27 |—47? | —50?| 170
Unenumerated, values } a :
millions. ; of 7 Srila eee ea (ee Tx a
Thus there are not a few articles, of which jute is a conspicuous example, in
which there has been an entirely new industry established within a comparatively
short period ; and, though the percentage of increase may not in all be so great
in the last ten years as in the previous ten just because the industry is so wholly
new, yet the amount of the increase is as great or greater. In other articles, such
as soap and British spirits, there is a new start in the last ten years after a decline
in the previous periods. Such cases as oil and floor cloth, paper other than
hangings, and plate glass are also specially noticeable as practically new trades.
The list I am satisfied could be considerably extended, but I am giving it mainly
by way of illustration. Finally, there is the item of other articles not separately
specified—an item which is always changing in the statistical abstract because
every few years one or more articles grow into sufficient importance to require
separate mention, so that any extended comparison of this item for a long series
of years is impossible. Still it is ever growing, and what we find in the last ten
years is that, in spite of the fall of prices, the growth is from 9,700,000/. to
10,600,000/., or nearly 10 per cent. Many of the articles referred to, it is plain,
cannot run into much money, but the indications of a tendency are none the less
clear. What is happening in the foreign trade is happening, we may be sure, in
1 1858 not separately stated before. 2 Decrease,
824 REPORI—1887.
the home trade as well, of which in another way the increase in the imports of
foreign manufactures, already referred to in another connection, is really a sign, as
it implies the growth of miscellaneous wants among the consumers.
The census figures as to occupations tend, I believe, to contirm this obser-
vation as to the special growth of miscellaneous industries, but the discussion of
the figures would require more preparation than 1 have had time for, and perhaps
more space than can well be spared.
As to the growth of incorporeal functions, which is another fact significant of
the supposed change in the direction of the employments of the people, I propose
to appeal to the testimony of the census figures. I need refer on this head only
to the paper read some time ago to the Statistical Society by Mr. Booth. Among
those classes of population whose numbers in England and Wales in the last ten
years have shown a disproportionate growth are the following :—
Numbers and Percentage of Scif-supporting Population employed.
Numbers Percentage
1871 1881 1871 1881
Transport : 5 - 5 : 524,000 654,000 49 56
Commercial Class . ; F \ 119,000 225,000 11 19)
Art and Amusement z P 3 38,000 47,000 03 Or4
Literature and Science . . ; 7,000 9,000 — O1
Education. ; x 7 ‘ 135,000 183,000 FS 16
Indefinite : ‘ : 5 . 124,000 269,000 1:2 2°3
Potalis. F 947,000 1,387,000 88 ibe)
Following the indication of these figures, whatever qualification they may be
subject to, we are apparently justified in saying that an increasing part of the
population has been lately applied to the creation of incorporeal products. Their
employment is industrial all the same. The products are consumed as they are
produced, but the production is none the less real. If a nation chooses to produce
more largely in this form as it becomes more prosperous, so that there is less
development than was formerly the case in what were known as stuple industries,
it need not be becoming poorer for that reason; all that is happening is that its
wealth and income are taking a different shape.
It is quite conceivable, then, and is in truth not improbable, that a check to
the former rate of material growth in certain directions may haye taken place of
late years without any corresponding check to the rate of material growth
generally, which would seem to be inconsistent with such facts as the growth of
population, diminution of pauperism, increase of houses, and the like. The truth
would seem to be that with the growth of staple industries, such as cotton, wool,
coal, and iron, up to a point, there being reasons for the remarkably quick deyvelop-
ment of each for many years up to 1875, there comes a growth of new wants, the
satisfaction of which drafts a portion of the national energy in new directions.
Just because certain staples developed themselves greatly between 1855 and 1875
the time was likely to arrive when they would grow not quite so fast. For the
same reason the rapid increase for a certain period in the consumption per head
of articles like sugar and tea was likely to be followed by a less rapid increase,
the wants of consumers taking a new direction. Probably owing to the more and
more miscellaneous character of modern industry, it will become more and more
difficult to follow its development by dealing with staple articles only, while
changes in aggregate values are untrustworthy as indications of real changes
owing to changes in prices. Already there seems to be no doubt the staple articles
are no longer a sufficient indication.
A supplementary explanation may be added which helps to explain another
difficulty in the matter by which people are puzzled. I can imagine them saying
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 825
that it is all very well to pooh-pooh the non-increase or slower increase of the pro-
duction of staple articles and to assume that industry is becoming more and more
miscellaneous; but other countries go on increasing their production of these same
staple articles. The increase of the manufactures of cotton, wool, coal, and iron in
Germany and the United States, they will say, has in recent years been greater in
proportion than in England, which is undoubtedly true. The explanation I have
to suggest, however, is that the competition with the leading manufacturing
country, which England still is, is naturally in the staple articles where manufac-
turing has been reduced to a system, the newer and more difficult manufactures
and the newer developments of industry generally falling as a rule to the older
country. Even in foreign countries, however, there are signs of slower growth of
recent years in the staple articles as compared with the period just before. In
Germany, for instance, the production of coal increased between 1860 and 1866
[I take the years which I find available in Dr. Neumann Spallart’s ‘ Uebersichten ”]
from 12,300,000 tons to 28,200,000, or nearly 129 per cent.; between 1866 and
1876 the increase was from the figure stated to about 50,000,000 tons, or about
77 per cent. only ; between 1876 and 1885, another period of ten years, from the
fizure stated to 74,000,000 tons, or less than 50 per cent.—a rapidly diminishing
rate of increase. In the United States of America the corresponding figures for
coal are 15, 22, 50, and 103 million tons, showing a greater increase than in
Germany, but still a rather less rate of increase since 1876 than in the ten years
before. The experience as to the iron production would seem to be different, the
increase in the United States and Germany having been enormously rapid in the
last ten years; but I have not been able here to carry the figures far enough hack
for comparison. Still the facts as to coal in Germany are enough to show how
rapidly the rate of increase of growth may fall off when a point is reached, and
that the experience of the United Kingdom is by no means exceptional. As the
staple articles develop abroad the rate of increase in such articles willdiminish too,
and foreign industry in turn will become more and more miscellaneous.
The conclusion would thus be that there is nothing unaccountable in the course
of industry in the United Kingdom in the last ten years. In certain staple indus-
tries the rate of increase has been less than it was in the ten years just before, but
there would seem to have been no increase or little increase in the want of employ-
ment generally, while there is reason to believe that certain miscellaneous industries
have grown at a greater rate than the staple industries or have grown into wholly
new being, and that there has also been some diversion of industry in directions
where the products are incorporeal. These facts also correspond with what is going
on abroad, a tendency to decline in the rate of increase of staple articles of pro-
duction being general, and industry everywhere following the law of becoming
more miscellaneous. Abroad also, we may be sure, as nations increase in wealth
the diversion of industry in directions where the products are incorporeal will also
take place. What the whole facts seem to bring out, therefore, is a change in the
direction of industry of a most interesting kind. If we are to believe that the
progress of invention and of the application of invention to human wants continues
and increases, no other explanation seems possible of the apparent check to the
rate of material growth which seems to be so nearly demonstrated by some of the
statistics most commonly appealed to in such questions.
At the same time I must apply the remark which I applied at the earlier stage
to the opposite conclusion that there had been a real check to the rate of increase
in our material growth. When the main statistics bearing on a particular point
all indicate the same conclusion, it is not difficult to reason from them and to con-
vince all who study them; but when the indications are apparently in conflict it
would be folly to dogmatise. I have indicated frankly my own opinion, but I, for
one, should like the subject to be more fully thrashed out. It is a very obvious
suggestion, moreover, that one may prove too much by such figures—that it is an
outrage on common sense to talk of there being no check to the rate of growth in
the country when times are notoriously bad and everybody is talking of want of
profit. What I should suggest finally, by way of a hypothesis reconciling all the
facts, would be that probably there is some check to the rate of material growth
826 REPORT—1887.
in the last ten years, though not of the serious character implied by the first set
of figures discussed; that this check may even be too small to be measured by
general statistics though it is sufficient to account for no small amount of malaise ;
and that the malaise itself is largely accounted for, as I have suggested on a
former occasion, by the mere fall of prices, whatever the cause, as it involves a
great redistribution of wealth and income, and makes very many people feel poorer,
including many who are not really poorer, but only seem so, and many who are
really richer if they only allowed properly for the increased purchasing power of
their wealth. All these facts are quite consistent with the fact of a very slight real
diminution in the rate of our material growth generally, and with that change in
the direction of the national industry, significant of a general change beginning
throughout the world which would seem to have occurred.
To some extent also it ought to be allowed that the tendency in the very latest
years seems unsatisfactory, and that the developments of the next few years should
he carefully watched. Up to now there is nothing really alarming in the statistics
when they are analysed and compared. It may be the case, though I do not think
it is the case, that causes are in operation to produce that great check and retro-
gression which have not as yet occurred, though many have talked as if they had
occurred. The exact limits of the discussion should be carefully kept in mind.
Fortunately, however, there is no doubt what some of the conclusions on
practical points should be. If it be the case that the hold of an old country like
England on certain staple industries of the world is less firm than it was, and, as I
believe, must be less and less firm from period to period, owing to the natural
development of foreign countries and the room there is among ourselves for develop-
ment in new directions, then we should make assurance doubly sure that the
country is really developing in new directions. If our dependence must be on the
new advantages that have been described, such as acquired manufacturing skill, con-
centration of population, and the like, then we must make sure of the skill and of the
best conditions of existence for the concentrated population. If, in point of fact,
shorter hours of labour and taking things easy have contributed to check our rate
of progress slightly, there is all the more reason for improving the human agent in
industry so as to make work in the shorter hours more efficient. Looking at the stir
there now is about technical education and such matters, and the hereditary character
of our population, I see no cause to doubt that the future will be even more prosper-
ous than the past. The national life seems as fresh and vigorous as ever. ‘The
unrest and complaints of the last few years are not bad signs. But the new con-
ditions must be fully recognised. The utmost energy, mobility, and resource must
be applied in every direction if we are only to held our own.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Limited Inability. By G. Avipso Jamieson.
Growth of limited liability :
Hither itself contributes to or is a symptom of widening of area of distribu-
tion of commercial and industrial profit.
Anticipations which heralded its adoption.
Royal Commission of 1853-54 :
Diversity of opinion therein.
Report of majority adverse.
Legislation speedily sanctioned views of minority.
Diversity of opinion of witnesses.
Leaders of commercial world and representatives of mercantile centres
adverse.
Alteration of law and adoption of limited liability advocated by lawyers.
Can now discern reason and significance of the diversity of opinion.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 827
Principle of combination :
Characterised earlier commercial adventures and infancy of trade,
But allied with or accompanied by principle of monopoly.
Conflict between the ancient corporations and companies and individualism,
Conflict now probably waged under different conditions.
The many better able to assert right to share profits.
Combination of small adventurers rival to practical monopoly of vast
individual wealth.
Yielding of the few to the many characteristies of the age. Levelling of
eminences of commercial wealth. Great trade fortunes not now con-
centrated and transmitted intact, but distributed.
Limited liability at once aids and denotes this widening of the borders :
Affects favourably middle class by creating demand for skill, &c., apart from
capital. Powers of initiation, superintendence, and direction differentiated
from labour as well as capital.
Reasons of complaint against results of limited liability :
Failures conspicuous ; successes attract no attention.
Growth necessarily slow.
Capacity for improvements—what are they to be ?
Functions of the State necessarily preliminary :
These must be defined.
Power of State to grant incorporation.
Incorporation by royal charter.
Incorporation is act of creation :
Right of State as creator of incorporations to impress on them as its creatures
characteristics necessary or expedient to public safety.
Limited liability implied by incorporation.
Logical extent of that limit ; doubtful expediency of ultimate limitation as
interpreted.
Parliament came to relief of Crown in granting incorporation :
Relation of State to companies not thereby affected.
Nor affected by general Act instead of separate Acts.
Limits of interference of State:
Must provide safeguards.
But abstain from direction or control.
Nor institute any preliminary inquiry implying sanction or approval.
What alterations in law regulating relations of State to companies necessary
or expedient ?
1. Memorandum of association may with advantage be made more flexible
under sanction of Court.
2. Powers of borrowing must be regulated.
In interest less of creditors than of shareholders and public.
Unlimited powers of borrowing without precedent or analogy.
Uncalled capital as fund of credit treacherous though more valuable
than generally admitted.
Principle by which dividend paid on partially paid shares delusive :
Paid-up capital erroneously credited with profits due to uncalled liability.
That liability thus obscured and often ignored.
Proper method znterest paid on capital paid up, and profits divided per
share irrespective of amount paid.
828 REPORT—1887.
Capital of trading companies might thus be from time to time reduced out
of reserve or depreciation, and right to profits reserved to holders of shares
thus paid off.
Paid-up capital and application thereof not sufficiently regarded by borrowers:
Position, stability, and success of company ought to be ground of credit, not
uncalled liability alone.
Limitation of powers of borrowing:
Regard to be had to amount paid up as well as to amount uncalled.
Inexpedient to encourage borrowing to extent now prevalent.
Abortive and fraudulent companies :
Analogy of companies incorporated by charter or special Act.
Provisional registration accompanied by deposit liable to forfeit.
Probably to require more considerable fees on registration advantageous.
No company to be completely registered or to commence business with limited
liability until specified proportion of its capital subscribed and paid up.
Compulsory publication of detailed accounts suggested, not expedient, probably
unfair to skill and power of administration by exposure.
Reckless trading of limited companies :
Companies often go on long after an individual trader would stop.
Inexpedient in interest of shareholders, public, and traders.
Reserve liability: exigible only on liquidation, benefits direct and indirect.
Could thus dispense with Schedule B, at present virtually illusory.
Summary of suggested amendments:
I. Inception or Company.
1. Provisional registration: accompanied by deposit proportional to amount of
capital.
2, Application for provisional registration to set forth.
(1) Full names of promoters, directors, and officials with written evidence
that they accept office.
(2) Proportion of nominal capital to be subscribed and paid as condition of
complete registration.
38. Complete registration.
(1) Certificate to be lodged by all parties named in provisional register that
minimum amount of capital subscribed, and stipulated proportion paid.
(2) Registration to be complete only on issue of certificate that stipulations
complied with and deposit then returned under deduction of ad valorem
stamp duty.
II, ADMINISTRATION OF COMPANY.
1. Flexibility of memorandum by vote of large majority and sanction by court.
2. Powers of borrowing to be specified, and restricted with relation both to
uncalled lability aud to amount paid up. ;
3. Where shares not fully paid, interest only to be paid on capital actually
paid up; but dvzdend to be made per share.
III. Winpine up or Company.
1. Reserve liability to be allocated to every share of from 10 to 80 per cent.
available only on winding-up.
2. No liability except that reserve to attach to shares duly transferred.
3. Liability for reserve to attach to holders of shares sold within a year of
liquidation.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 829
4. Creditors wnpaid after certain period from date of liquidation to have right
to apply to court to order levy on reserve liability from all parties liable,
sufficient to pay all debts; equities between shareholders and parties thus
levied on to be determined in liquidation; so that no creditor need wait
issue of liquidation if reserve liability sufficient to pay debt.
2. The Economic Policy of the United States.
By Professor Leone Levi, F.S.S.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2.
The following Report and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee on the methods of ascertaining and measuring
Variations in the Value of the Monetary Standard.—See Reports,
p. 247.
2. Monetary Jurisprudence. By S. Dana Horton.
The author dealt with the nature of money, the present state of monetary
knowledge, and the methods of enlarging that knowledge. Discussing the position
of money in the sciences, he placed money on the border, partly in the field of
economics and partly in that of jurisprudence, the latter being the controlling
portion. The peculiarity of monetary jurisprudence was its partial extra-territo-
riality. The laws are of one State, the data in large measure belonging to the family
of States ; the individual wealth-maker, wealth-exchanger, wealth-consumer sup-
plying the conditions in the midst of which the State acts. The mere name of
monetary jurisprudence carried with it the recognition of the importance of history,
for the education of a jurist is an education in the history of principles and of their
application. The neglect of this double jurisdiction of monetary science explained
the backwardness of its position to-day. The jurist cared little for economy ; the
economist little for law. A fashion of thought which grew up in the shadow of
Adam Smith favoured that neglect. A proper utilisation of monetary history
might therefore expect to dispel many of the difficulties of the subject. The
world has been wont to forget much that it knew; but in the monetary
field it is wont to forget it over and over again. It is necessary for science
to accept the responsibilities of statesmanship, to deal with principles as well
as with data—not only to inquire into the twisted bayonets and the officers
responsible for them, but also into the system that produced the officers. The time
that produces an address of such range as Dr. Giffen’s, and an epoch-making report
such as that just read, can afford to deal with the whole subject, and especially the
higher portions of it—the duty of the State in the regulation of money. The
author then gave illustrations of the extent to which history throws a light upon
questions of principle. The first point illustrated was the popular antithesis be-
tween the artificial and the natural—an antithesis which goes to the root of the
opposition between the political and the economic side of money. As an illus-
tration of the instructive lessons which history could give, he instanced gratuitous
_ coinage. Is it artificial or natural? The facts would show the fallacy of the cur-
rent application of this antithesis to money. If anything was artificial, gratuitous
coinage was artificial. By a law of gratuitous coinage the State gave a bounty to
bullion-owners. And yet that had been the law of England for 220 years. What
was the origin of that principle which the councillors of Charles II. introduced in
an age when the seigniorial system was the rule of Christendom? He would read
two quotations which stated the principle and reason of it and threw a light which
would be looked for in vain in monetary literature of the nineteenth century. The
830 REPORT—1887.
quotations were to the effect that ‘at common law money ought to be of the same
value, whether coined or not coined ; hence the expense of coining should be borne
by the public.’ Whence came these words? They implied a subtle insight into
the nature of money as a measure, and were parallel with the principle, old as, if
not older than, the law of the Jews, that ‘divers measures are an abomination to
the Lord.’ Those words were said three centuries before Charles II.’s time by the
great interpreters of the Roman law to the Middle Ages—Baldus, Bartholus, the
* Glossators,’ professors at Bologna and Pisa. A second illustration was the duty
of the State touching the stability of the value of money. The demand that
Government should interfere in that behalf had been spoken of as something new,
something modern, something made for the present occasion, and therefore factitious
and unsound. That was a contention which history alone could deal with. To
dispose of it he would introduce to the disciples of Smith and Ricardo another ally,
hitherto unknown, one of the great masters of thought of a date even earlier than
Baldus and Bartholus. This was Thomas Aquinas. On consulting that great man
on the point, he found it was his opinion that ‘money ought to be so instituted or
established that it may remain more stable in value than other things.’ A com-
parison was then made between this opinion and that of Aristotle.
A third illustration related to the English authorities for the modern anti-silver
laws of England. Lord Liverpool stood as the scientific sponsor for the origin of
these laws, but upon examination it appeared that he regarded himself as basing
his views upon the opinions of others. For him Sir Wm. Petty, John Locke, and
Joseph Harris were the masters of English monetary thought. But what had
they to do with anti-silver laws? History supplied the answer. Their ideas of
monetary reform in a country which maintained the gratuitous coinage of silver
and gold were limited to insisting that the silver pound should not be tampered
with, and that gold should be properly rated in terms of silver. The alleged pre-
cedent against silver, against two metals, existed only in imagination or in belief
based on error.
A fourth illustration dealt with Lord Liverpool himself, who in passing into
history had been the object of what might be called an instance of modern myth-
making. He had been regarded as the scientific expert and sponsor of the mone-
tary system adopted in 1816. Research proves that this was an error. The
system proposed by Lord Liverpool in 1805 was devoid of the important anti-silver
features which gaye the aggressively anti-silver character to England’s actual
system. Who, then, was the scientific sponsor of the law of 1816? He could not
say ; but it seemed probable the credit lay between the Hon. Wellesley Pole (Lord
Maryborough) and Mr. John Wilson Croker. Lastly, the author referred to the
battle of the standards, single standard against double standard, which had raged
for a generation. The issue of the standards was a false issue in important respects.
It implied a necessary opposition between the single standard and the double
standard. There was no such necessity. The word ‘standard’ was a slippery
place in the language, upon which millions slipped and fell. No one could escape
who had not armed his soles with definition. Now definition was made practicable
by history. Once it was understood that for centuries England had a single stan-
dard and a double standard at the same time (with its silver pound and rated
guinea) the monetary stumbling-place of this generation would lose its terrors.
3. Some Notes on Money. By Sir T. Farrer.
4. Changes in Real and in Money Prices. By Wynnarp Hooper, M.A.
Prices, though always stated in terms of money, for the purposes of economic
inquiry, are regarded as of two kinds. ‘The real price of an article is its value ex-
pressed in terms of all other commodities, including the precious metals. Its money
price is its value expressed in money, that is, in terms of the precious metals only.
A. Changes in real prices are produced by alterations in the supply-and-de-
mand relation of the commodities affected. There are eight possible cases of
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 831
change in this relation. In two of them the effect on prices is indeterminate. In
two a rapid fall or rise, of short duration, is produced; and in four a fall,
or rise, Which may or may not be rapid, according to the character of the com-
modity, is produced. In the case of a necessary, such as wheat, the fall in case of
an increase of supply, and the rise in case of a decrease, will be rapid because there is
no desire to increase, and at the same time the greatest unwillingness to diminish
the consumption of bread. A fall in wheat is ‘ taken out’ in increased consumption
of luxuries.
Changes in either component of the supply-and-demand relation of most articles
usually affect the other by producing alterations in prices. This is especially true
of luxuries. A ‘luxury’ might be defined as ‘a commodity of which people
would, if they could afford it, gladly obtain and consume much more than the
supply available.’
Changes in the supply of a large class of articles are due partly to meteorological
conditions, partly to the bringing of fresh portions of the earth under cultivation,
or to their becoming more accessible, owing to the extension of steam communica-
tion.
Increase of demand, apart from changes in price, is chiefly due to increase of
population.
Supply sometimes increases rapidly, owing to speculation, to an extent much
exceeding atcual demand, and the increased supply is absorbed comparatively
slowly.
B. Changes in money prices are due to changes in the supply-and-demand
relation of the precious metals.
The total mass of the precious metals is approximately constant, owing to their
durability. It does increase year by year, but the annual increment is usually
small relatively to the total mass. Unless the supply is added to year by year, to
an extent depending on the increase of the quantity of commodities in the world,
the money prices of commodities will tend to fall. Market prices will not
necessarily show any change, since real price may have moved in the opposite
direction.
The demand for the precious metals is always strong, but is only indefinitely
great as regards gold. Most countries would use gold if they conld, but have to do
without it. The natural bias in favour of gold, due to its peculiar qualities, is in-
tensified by the desire of the poorer countries of the world to possess a gold stan-
dard, under the mistaken idea that such a standard will help them to grow rich,
and also by the natural desire of bankers, who have great influence with Govern-
ments, that the standard of the country they live in should be the same as that of
the United Kingdom. Germany and Italy have adopted gold standards for these
reasons. They would have done more wisely if they had chosen silver. Italy has
some difficulty even in keeping all the silver she needs, and puts restrictions on its
free withdrawal.
Gold being the preferred currency of all the more advanced nations, changes in
the supply-and-demand relation of gold are a more effective influence on money
prices than changes in the supply-and-demand relation of silver. Gold changes
work through a more powerful machinery. Nevertheless silver changes must not
be disregarded. Even in silver-using countries money prices, and consequently
market prices, are, to some extent, influenced by gold. And in like manner in gold-
using countries’ prices are, to a smaller extent, influenced by silver.
If gold did not exist the silver in the more advanced countries would be a more
potent influence on money prices than the silver in the less advanced countries.
Changes in money prices are small compared with changes in real prices.
The richer of the more highly organised countries have, at present, enough gold
for their wants, but they have some difficulty in keeping it, as several of the poorer
countries are making efforts to get it. The Bank of England, the chief storehouse
of gold to which access is free, is often asked for it, and thus the bank’s stock of
bullion is kept down to about the minimum which is compatible with safety. All
surplus gold is, on our system, placed in a position where it can be easily got at,
since a very moderate excess in the bank’s stock forces down the rate of discount.
832 REPORT—1887.
Fresh supplies of gold would, in the first instance, come to London, but would
very soon be exported to the countries which wish to increase their stock of it. If
the increased supplies were continued ona large scale for several years a time
would come when these demands would be satisfied. If no fresh countries decided
to obtain gold, gold would begin to accumulate in the Bank of England, and then,
and not till then, would money prices begin to be raised by the addition to the
world’s stock of the precious metals.
Changes in money prices are always an evil, and it is uncertain whether a rise
or a fall is the worst. In any case attempts to alter them by Government inter-
ference are purely mischievous.
5. Graphic Illustrations of the Fall of Prices in Belgium, France, and
England. By Professor Drnts.
6. Effective Consumption and Effective Prices in their Economical and
Statistical Relations. By Hype Crarxn, F.S.S.
The author began by defining that the present paper had no connection with his
papers on prices and depression of prices consequent on the operation of industrial
inventions, read before this Section and other societies. He had latterly been in-
duced to call attention to the statistical discrepancies between the figures of the
importation of commodities derived from the Board of Trade returns and those of
actual consumption.
These discrepancies arose from the substitution for the imported commodity by
the retailer of other commodities, perhaps of home production. Thus the figures
of imports would not show the real consumption or the price which affected the
consumers. A decrease of the import might not signify a diminished demand for
the retail article. The same disturbance affects home production. If a town
consumed and paid for 100,000 gallons of beer, it might be supplied with 100,000
gallons from the breweries, or 75,000 gallons from the breweries and 25,000
gallons of water substituted by the publicans. The consumers would pay the
same, but the brewers would get money for 75,000 gallons only, and the publicans
for 25,000 gallons besides their retail charges on 100,000 gallons. In the case of
coffee, that consumed is sometimes the reverse of coffee, as it may consist of 90 per
cent. of chicory, ground date and olive stones, &c., and only 10 per cent. of coffee.
To ascertain the positive consumption of a working man it was not sufficient to
assume that he had so many pounds of butter, beer, tea, coffee, &c., when a portion
consists of water, butterine, chicory, bullock’s liver, &c. The matter to be
considered is not strictly adulteration in a sanitary sense, but the substitution of
one article for another and the statistical consequences, The increased consump-
tion of strong Indian tea has enabled the retailers to cover the substitution of
inferior mixtures for tea. The purchasing power of the community has no
immediate dependence on the conditions of importation, but rather on that of the
article presented by the retailer. If coffee is retailed at 20d. a pound the value of
the real coffee used may be 2d. and the whole cost of the article 3d. Consequently
importation and consumption do not exactly represent each other. The author
enumerated many articles which are subject to the operation of substitutes, includ-
ing beer, spirits, wine, vinegar, tea, butter, tobacco, soap, bread, milk, pepper,
mustard, oil, Water figures largely in the operation of substitution. Even in the
case of tobacco the revenue authorities recognise added water to the extent of 33
per cent., so that a pound of tobacco may represent two-thirds weight of tobacco
and one-third weight of water. Soaps may be made to absorb 40 per cent. of
water. His purpose was to invite closer attention to retail consumption and prices
as statistical bases.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 833
7. The Battle between Free Trade and Protection in Australia.
By Witi1aM WESTGARTH.
A sleepless contest, more or less earnest and animated, goes on amongst our
Australasian colonies on the merits respectively of free trade and protection. It
should be premised that when the Imperial Government conceded constitutional
self-government to these colonies, now rather over thirty years ago, they were all
launched upon the general free trade basis of their mother’s system. From that
they have mostly more or less departed since, but in no case to any material
extent excepting in that of Victoria, while her immediate neighbour New South
Wales has continued faithful to free trade. As these two colonies, although by
no means identical in circumstances, have, one thing with another, a fairly com-
pensatory adjustment, the race of progress between them is extremely interesting,
and that race will probably prove ere long a factor of decisive character in the
general question. Although Victoria has not yet plunged very deeply into pro-
tection, the extent consisting chiefly in a somewhat general ad valorem duty of
25 per cent., with certain lesser rates, and a maximum of 30 per cent. upon woollen
clothing, she would nevertheless appear, as statistics to be here quoted may show,
to have so far encumbered her action as to be threatened with the second place in
the closely competed race.
This contest has been very recently accentuated by two very able statements,
one on the Victorian side for protection, the other on that of New South Wales
for free trade. The first is in a series of articles in the ‘ Age’ (March-April
1887), a Melbourne daily newspaper of leading position and large circulation—over
68,000 copies—and which has always been firm to protection principles ; the other
is the special reply to these articles on the part of Mr. Pulsford, the secretary to
the New South Wales Free Trade Association. There are many expletives and
epithets on either side to amuse the reader. Each marshals forth a client brimful
of resource and progress. But while New South Wales permits freedom of
trading, and Victoria restricts her exchange sphere in favour of certain industries,
either advocate is equally sure that his own colony is on the best road.
New South Wales, which is now a century old, has had twice the length of
life of Victoria, but beginning in a small way as aconyict colony. There was
not much comparative attainment in either case until in 1851 the great avalanche
of gold-production precipitated all Australia into a nation, as the late Mr. Went-
worth happily phrased it. The ‘ Age’ writer claims that as New South Wales is
four times larger than Victoria the former had in that respect four times the
advantage. But as most of that larger area is of asterile character, and fit only for
pasture, while Victoria is a compact territory abounding in agricultural land, the
wider area is, perhaps, for the present at least, rather a disadvantage. There are
various pro and con data of this sort, such as that New South Wales has swelled
her accounts of late years by larger land sales and more railway-making than
Victoria ; while, on the other hand, as being much more largely pastoral, she has
more severely suffered during those years by the late severe drought. Altogether
there may be a fair comparison by reference to the respective totals of population,
revenue, and trade from a starting-point a few years before the gold discovery until
the present time, and to the accumulated wealth respectively as the result of their
different trading systems.
In commenting on these data, as given by the ‘ Age’ writer, Mr. Pulsford points
out a variety of errors in regard to New South Wales statistics, and particularly
one of so enormous a character as completely to vitiate the ‘Age’ writer's chief
argument. This is as to accumulated wealth as represented by ratable property in
the two colonies, the ‘ Age’ giving above 114 millions sterling for Victoria, and only
56 millions for New South Wales; while its opponent, from official documents,
gives for the latter 197 millions. He confirms this statement by quoting the well-
known statist Mulhall, who for 1883 gave property per head in Victoria as 1982.,
while in New South Wales it was 241/. Towards explaining so great an error in
one who seems otherwise both careful and discriminative in his facts there are
allusions on either side to the effect that the statistical method of the one colony is,
1887. 3H
834 REPORT—1887.
in some cases, not quite clear to the other. Thencomes the further and final test of
population, trade, and revenue. To understand fully the two tables here given itis
premised that Victoria started, relatively speaking at least, decidedly behind New
South Wales, but that her enormous gold-production—at first ten times that of New
South Wales—quickly sent her far ahead in all three items. Her gold, however,
gradually fell off, until it is now but about three millions to the one million of the
other colony. Victoria, then, with the spare labour from gold-digging, turned her-
self naturally to increased agriculture, and also, by means of protection, to manu-
factures, iM conaihilo, New South Wales, inevitably distanced for a time by the
Victorian gold, has since been gaining steadily on her sister, and is already equal in
population and substantially ahead in trade and revenue.
Sus-Secrion F,
1. Preventible Losses in Agriculture.. By Professor W. Fruam, B.Sc.
Whi SE Ye Cae I CB
In this paper losses in agriculture are classified under the two heads of con-
trollable and uncontrollable. The latter are chiefly due to meteorological causes,
The former are such as may be reasonably anticipated, and, therefore, provided
against. The circumstance that they are tolerated at all is attributable partly to
ignorance, partly to indifference, partly to empiricism.
Various sources of preventible loss are cited and discussed. Examples are—
imperfect working of the soil; use of bad seed ; encouragement of weeds; deterio-
ration of grass lands; farm pests; diseases of livestock ; injudicious purchases of
artificial fertilisers and feeding stuffs.
As remedies for preventible losses, and therefore as means for rendering agri-
culture a more profitable industry, two courses are suggested: (1) the extension
throughout the country of sound technical instruction in agriculture; (2) the
equipment by the nation of a thoroughly efficient Department of Agriculture.
These proposals are discussed at some length, and the practices of other countries
are noticed.
The paper concludes as follows :—
A properly equipped Department of Agriculture could do much to stimulate
agricultural inquiry and to promote agricultural prosperity in this country. Com-
pared with other industries, agriculture is handicapped, inasmuch as its workers
are more isolated, and have fewer opportunities of interchanging experiences, or ot
attending meetings for discussion or other objects. The Department could keep
agriculturists well instructed upon a variety of subjects, respecting which informa-
tion is now acquired only in a haphazard manner. Upon statistical matters of
current interest, upon impending crop scourges, upon the health of livestock, upon
the much-needed reforms in dairy practice, it could and should elaborate and dis-
seminate instruction and advice, and it would thus act as a powerful lever in the
direction of better technical instruction in agriculture. The demand for an efficient
Department of Agriculture is heard both in Parliament and in the shires; year by
year it becomes more pressing, and the time cannot be far distant when it must
be met.
It is estimated that about one-fourth of the inhabitants of the United Kingdom
are dependent upon the agricultural industry. It is desirable, therefore, that this
our leading productive industry should be encouraged and fostered in every legiti-
mate way. I have endeavoured to indicate two of the directions in which im-
provement may he effected. At the same time I am aware that some economists
would prefer to seek relief along other channels, and would, with this object, point
perhaps to our national fiscal policy, to the incidence of local taxation, to the ques-
? Published in extenso in the North British Agriculturist, &c.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 835
tion of rents, or to preferential railway rates. Without entering into these subjects
I submit that improved technical agricultural instruction on the one hand, and an
efficient Department of Agricultnre on the other, are urgently needed. Of all the
“pine arts agriculture is, in this country, the least provided for as regards
echnical education, and it is a reproach to us, as a nation, that this should be so.
The Rothamsted investigators, than whom I can quote no higher authority, assert
(Phil. Trans.’ Part I. 1880, p. 290) that ‘agriculture—the most primitive and
commonly esteemed the rudest of arts—requires for the elucidation of the principles
involved in its various practices a very wide range of scientific inquiry.’ This
means that in agriculture, as in all other progressive industries, empiricism must
die.
Obviously the question before us is this, Is British agriculture, already by
pessimists regarded as a moribund industry, really to be left to decay, with the
deplorable but inevitable result of crowding the rural population into the towns;
or is it, by a wise and enlightened policy, to be brought into harmony with the
scientific spirit of the times, and so to be embarked upon a new era of profitable
and progressive development ?
2. On the Future of Agriculture. By W. Borty.
The author advocated a return to the scale of rents existing previous to the
great French War, showing that the numerous committees, commissions, and Acts
of Parliament had been delusive and useless in sustaining prices.
He considered the remedy for the lamentable depression to be an equitable
adjustment of rents, tenant right, security of tenure, and compensation for all un-
exhausted improvements, whether to the outgoing or sitting tenant; decent cottages
for the labourers, with garden ground attached thereto; the tenant to have suffi-
cient capital to farm advantageously, with skill and enterprise to use it, and to
have a right to the game.
3. Recent Illustrations of the Theory of Rent, and their Effect on the Value
of Land. By G. Avtpso Jamieson.—See Reports, p. 536.
4. On Depreciation of Land as caused by recent Legislation.
By Courtenay C. PRance.
The author pointed out that land had hitherto had a factitious value in England;
that investors were content with a 2} or 3 per cent. return instead of 4 and 5 per
cent. as in banks, railways, or mortgages. He found an explanation of this in the
advantages and privileges which the possession of land brought with it: as for
example, (1) it was a wsible token of property and conferred a county status; (2)
it was permanent and safe, having increased in value with lapse of time ; (8) it had
a sentimental value—it was pleasant to walk over, gratifying to show to friends
and to admire as pictures; (4) it carried with it the right to sport; (5) it gave
political power over voters; (6) power also in the parish charities and Poor Law
relief, and was the qualification for the county magistrate ; and (7) it was a means,
by entails and settlements, to build up families, perpetuate names, and extend
possessions.
These were some of the effective causes in rendering land a coveted possession
and giving it an augmented value.
But this land-hunger was now gone. No longer are there competing purchasers
or competing tenants. In proof of this the author referred to the advertisement
columns of the Times and other newspapers now empty of estate sales, and said
that at present to attempt sales of land by auction is merely throwing away money.
That landlords were everywhere seeking tenants, not tenants farms, and too often
seeking in vain. He referred to the Income Tax returns as to vacant farms, and
to land out of cultivation, and to reduction of rents by 20 to 50 per cent. in order
to avoid this. He substantiated this by a table of the ‘ Decrease of land assess-
3H2
836 REPORT—1887.
ments under Schedule A’ in twenty-two counties of England, varying from 256,000/..
in York to 46,000/. in Devon. By Mr. Pryor’s recent table as to 21,000 acres in Essex
either out of cultivation or farmed by owners; and by Sir Jas. Caird’s evidence-
before the Commission on the Depression of Trade, who, on the average of England,
puts the landlords’ loss at 30 per cent. of their spendable income, and the tenant’s-
at 60 per cent. of his capital. He added further statistics of the value of the live
and dead stock employed in farming, and from the gigantic figures resulting argued
that the subject of the paper was well worthy the serious attention of Section F,
The paper then pointed out that while other causes had been at work and’
should not be overlooked, yet this depression and loss had been contemporaneous-
with recent land legislation, which had been directed to the abolition of those very
rights and privileges which had formerly rendered the acquisition of land desirable,
and the author thought it fair to connect such fall and depression with this legisla-
tion as cause and effect. He instanced—
1, The Repeal of the Corn Laws, which had flooded England with foreign
corn and provisions.
2. The Repeal of the Navigation Laws, which had created a swift and cargo--
bearing fleet, and raised the mercantile tonnage from 106,321 tons in 1850 to
3,889,000 tons in 1886, with a greatly reduced freight.
3. The Ballot Act, which took away the landlord’s political influence, and other
Acts abolishing landed qualification of the sportsman, the voter, the member of
Parliament, the justice, and now (in contemplation) the sheriff.
4, New Burdens and Taxes saddled on the Land.—As (a) the succession duty
under 16 & 17 Vic. c. 51, which produced, for the year ending March 1885,
£935,053 143 1d.; (6) abolition of turnpikes and throwing the highway repairs.
on country parishes, with statistics of expenditure; (c) rural sanitary Acts, rural
police, lunatics, burial boards, &c.
5. The Ground Game Acts, which, giving hares and rabbits to tenants, have
diminished landowners’ pleasure and inducement to country residence.
6. The Bankruptcy Acts and Act lessening the right to distrain, which, though
intended for the tenant’s benefit, the author contended injured him and crippled his
credit, particularly with his landlord and banker. ;
7. Lord Sandon’s Education Act of 1876.—Education Boards have rapidly
extended. In 1861 the accommodation was for 1,396,483 children, in 1885 for
5,658,819, is still increasing, and the expenses too. Allowing the propriety of
every child having a good education, the author contended that the Act prejudicially
affected land (a) by throwing an additional burden on it; (6) by abstracting boy
labour from the farm; (ce) by deteriorating the character of the labourer’s child,
making him dissatisfied with home and hard work, and anxious to be a clerk or
shop assistant, and to dress fine,
8. State-aided Kmigration, which takes away our best and most adventurous
workmen,
9. The Agricultural Holding Act.—The author gave an explanation of its pro-
visions ; insisted that the farmer, who has the land let to him, has already power to
protect himself, and that it is the landlord who, surrendering possession of an
important and easily injured property, needs the protection. At all events, that the
Act promises to be a fruitful source of litigation, and to again diminish the owner’s
interest in his possession. a
The writer then passed on to consider the results of the present state of things..
He thought these would be (a) an increasing disinclination to buy land; (0) a
permanent fall in rents; (c) a lower style of farming, and less inclination and
power in the landlords to assist their tenants ; (d) a reduction of agricultural wages ;
and (e) a fall in the current rate of interest on mortgages, and then of other
loans.
The paper concluded by suggestions as to improving the present state of things.
1. The author contended that the facts do not justify the present depression,
that agriculturists are needlessly frightened. The American corn-grower is tired.
of growing at a loss, the wheat breadth is diminishing and going ever farther west.
But the English farmer is not doing his best. He should get more from his land,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 837
‘and remember he but shares the present fate of every profession and trade. Also
that he now has all the necessaries of life cheaper than heretofore.
2. The hours and system of rural schools might be altered. After children
‘attained ten they might have the mornings free, and the teaching be confined to
‘afternoon, and spread over more years; and from thirteen to sixteen be distinctly
agricultural and practical in its character.
3. The farmer himself wants training; English farming is ‘Rule of Thumb,’
‘there is little or no scientific knowledge or practice. He should make it a trade.
Be careful for little things, value small profits, and shun small losses.
4, Existing depression should lead to landlords planting more timber, and
‘to its more systematic culture. Government to find the first cost at 3/. per cent.
interest. Orchard culture and combined dairies should be also followed out.
Lastly, the agricultural interest is so vast and so wide in its ramifications, that
“we may well insist on a Minister of Agriculture with under-secretaries who have,
-as a qualification, attended a full course in some agricultural college, and who shall
also be owners of landed estates; these should keep an eye on all foreign and
English agricultural statistics, and distribute them in accessible form ; have, perhaps,
travelling inspectors, and above all watch the legislation which is brought forward
in the House of Commons, and preserve us from those measures which, however
well-intentioned, are deleterious in their effects, and too often the crude ideas of
-doctrinaires who have never owned an acre of land or grown a sack of wheat.
5. Land Tenure in Bosnia and the Herzegovina. By Miss Irsy.
By the Treaty of Berlin, 1878, Austria-Hungary undertook to administer the
Turkish provinces of Bosnia and the Herzegovina in accordance with existing laws.
Many of these laws, which remained a half-dead letter under Turkish rule, are
admirable and worthy of our own consideration.
Passing over the Turkish definitions of the various kinds of land, and many
interesting and disputed questions as to their historic origin, the paper proceeded
to describe the actual and present conditions of landholding in Bosnia and the
Herzegovina. :
At this moment (in 1887) all land which is neither State property, nor Vakouf,
4.é., mosque property, nor common nor waste land is held on one or other of the
three following tenures :—
1. As freehold property, by the owner farming it himself. 2. On simple lease,
3. On what is known in France, Spain, and Italy as the Metayer tenancy.
By the Metayer system the landlord, or aga, and the cultivator, or kmet, share
the produce in kind in a proportion fixed by the custom of the district. The tenth,
due to the Government, is paid in money previously by the kmet. The kmet, or
tenant, cannot be ejected so long as he pays his dues and cultivates the land no
worse than his neighbours. As the standard of cultivation is extremely low, this
system renders the progress of agriculture very slow. It will take a long time for
them all to improve together. But this system is invaluable in Bosnia, as preserv-
‘ing the very existence of the native population, who must be given time to im-
prove. Here, as elsewhere, social and political interests do not appear at first sight
to coincide, but justice is ever the best policy.
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.
The following Papers were read :—
1. A Plan for County Councils. By J. Tayuor Kay.
The British political instinct has been largely in favour of local self-govern-
‘ment, instanced in our earlier history by the number of boroughs and guilds
838 REPORT—1887.
instituted by the people themselves, and in our later history by the settled systems
of government immediately instituted by our colonists, and the sincere imitations
exhibited by the people of the United States of America, Lately there is a
growing tendency to centralisation in what may be termed the home departments
of government, caused by the creation of many new local government areas and
authorities since the Reform Bill of 1832, and all placed under imperial control.
In counties there are now usually twenty-two different kinds of local government
districts, controlled by the Privy Council, the Home Office, the Local Government
Board, and the Board of Trade.
The Public Health Acts of 1872 and 1875 by the institution of the urban and
rural sanitary authorities have indicated a remedy for these incongruous areas and
authorities.
After indicating the authorities at present existing in counties and the methods
of taxation in vogue it is proposed that county councils should be formed, to be
constituted by the present justices of the peace in each county and five elected
representatives from each urban and rural sanitary authority in their area; the
urban authorities consisting of the town councils, the improvement commissioners,
and the local boards of health, and the rural authorities of the representatives of
the rural districts on the boards of guardians of the poor. <A tabular view is
submitted of the counties of England and Wales, with the number of urban and
rural sanitary authorities in each and a comparison of the justices of the peace
with the proposed number of elected representatives, together with the total
number of members of the proposed county councils. Though apparently the
justices would outnumber the elected representatives, this is only nominally so, as
it is officially stated that about 80 per cent. of the justices must be deducted
through repetitions (as being on the commission for more than one county), non-
attendance through age, non-residence, &c. The existing state of things shows
that the number of justices in each county and the number of the urban and
rural sanitary authorities are very much in proportion to the extent, the financial
importance, and the population of the areas, and the number of members of each
council would of course vary in that proportion. ¥
Such an arrangement would tend to unify county government and relieve the
Imperial Legislature. The councils would take over the civil administration of the
magistrates, the duties of overseers, the control of highways, county bridges,
lunatic asylums, and county buildings, and the assessment, rating, and general.
financial arrangements. They would regulate the local administrative policy, the
police, the licensing, and the poor-law systems, co-ordinating the general and
municipal public health requirements of boroughs and rural districts, and formu-
lating the exigencies of the School Board requirements of their areas. They would
report to the Imperial Legislature on all private parliamentary Bills affecting their
districts, public endowments, and charities, Bae submit a county budget. It is
proposed that all magisterial functions should be placed in the hands of well-
trained and well-paid lawyers. Thus outside the courts of law or judicial
business they would, under the direction of the principles laid down by the
Imperial Government, direct the local administration of their areas generally.
The variety of procedure would bring out the differences of custom, usage, and
political tendency. Questions of local option and other legislative measures of
the utmost importance, upon which the time of Parliament is now annually spent
without effect, would be tentatively passed in the county areas, with the advantage
to the Imperial Legislature of practical experien¢e locally of the measures proposed.
Centralised administration and subyentions from Government have necessarily
a tendency to encourage an increased though not always a thoughtful expenditure
of public money. If that portion of local taxation which is now collected by the
Imperial Government was allocated to the local authorities for collection, such as
the game, gun, and dog licenses, house duty, drink licenses, taxes for carriages
and armorial bearings, and the subventions were withdrawn, a healthier public
spirit would certainly be induced. The subventions by the Imperial Government
in aid of local government in England and Wales in 1885-6 amounted to
3,361,858/,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 839
Counties of England and Wales, with the number of Urban and Rural Sanitary
Authorities and the number of Justices of the Peace, compared with the proposed
number of elected Representatives and the total number of Members of the proposed
County Councils,
(Practically the number of members of each council would be much less, 80
per cent. of the justices not attending to county business through age, non-residence,
being on the commission for more than one county, &c.)
Authorities 5 a Meyers
County Justices eta Court
Urban Rural fhoritias Councils
England—
Bedford! . ‘ 7 J A 3 6 17 45 122
Berks . : : A : F 8 12 178 100 278
Buckingham ole - a 7 107 70 rer
Cambridge (with Ely) - 8 8 80 80 160
Chester ; : ‘ ‘ : + ial 299 75 374
Cornwall . ‘. A Z 20 13 157 165 322
Cumberland 5 : 3 “ 13 8 180 105 285
7 eS AR Bega ead Ae 9 197 210 407
Devon. : F 5 F 33 16 340 245 585
Dorset - i é ; : Ub 12 184 115 349
Durham. é i : je 28 16 215 215 430
Essex . ; ; “ : A 20 15 229 175 404
Gloucester . ‘ ; ; ; 18 16 260 170 430
Hereford . : : 5 Es 8 220 60 280
Hertford . i : ; ‘ 12 13 208 125 323
Huntingdon - : “ 2 5 3 58 40 98
Kent . j E ‘ : 7 39 26 331 325 656
Lancaster, North 4 ; ; an 6 140 85 225
- North-east : ; 20 5 134 125 259
in South-east 3 ; 56 6 260 310 570
. a South-west = 5 41 tf 188 240 428
Leicester . ¢ A é C iat 10 163 105 268
Lincoln : 5 ‘i F F 24 14 214 190 404
Middlesex? . sy ; 7 : 21 4 401 125 526
Monmouth . : é F F Wy 6 174 115 289
Norfolk , : a ; : 12 19 188 155 343
Northampton . : : : 9 12 150 105 255
Northumberland i : 3 20 11 126 155 281
Nottingham : : : : 13 7 116 100 216
Oxford é 3 ; F 3 9 8 137 85 222
Rutland. ‘ - ‘ : 9) 2 28 10 38
Salop . é ‘ ‘i Fi : 13 14 235 135 370
Somerset . é ; : 5 ny, igi 307 170 ATT
Southampton . ; : : 23 3 237 130 367
Stafford . ; - i 5 41 1S 312 280 592
Suffolk : - 5 B F 11 17 251 140 391
Surrey i : : ‘ F 16 11 260 135 395
Sussex 5 A rs - : 22 21 287 215 502
Warwick . F A ° - 15 12 209 135 344
Westmoreland . : Z : t 3 102 50 152
Wilts . ; 5 : é 3 13 17 214 150 364
Worcester . t é « ; 16 12 234 140 374
1 When the authority is both urban and rural it has been reckoned as urban
alone.
2 Forty-seven metropolitan urban authorities are not now considered, as no doubt
they will be specially legislated for under a London Municipal Reform Bill.
840 REPORT—-1887,.
COUNTIES OF ENGLAND AND WALES, &C.—continued.
a a ee
Authorities genre Members
Count Justices |sentatives| °
7 of Au- | County
thorities | Councils
England (continued )—
York, East Riding . ‘ : 9 9 130 90
» North ,, . s 6 20 7, 249 185
» West! ,, (north part) . 46 6 144 260
45 » (south part) . 59 12 144 355
5 s » (eastpart) . 37 9 143 230
Wales—
Anglesey 3 2 57 25
Brecknock . 4 4 125 40
Cardigan + 5 144 45
Carmarthen 5 5 119 50
Carnarvon . 10 4 96 70
Denbigh 5 2 126 40
Flint . : 4 B 89 35
Glamorgan . 16 9 244 125
Merioneth . 5 4 80 45
Montgomery D 5 87 50
Pembroke . 4 3 115 35
Radnor 2 2; 67 20
The Imperial Cabinet arrangements would be little affected, the Home Office
having at present some control over county police, prisons, reformatories, &c. ;
the Local Government Board taking poor-law administration, public health, and
sanitary supervision; and the Board of Trade having important duties with
regard to trade, bankruptcy, railways, and shipping. The Privy Council has
already been relieved of a great proportion of its local government duties by the
two latter comparatively new departments, and its functions in that respect are
now little more than the control (by committees) of the Education Acts, Phar-
macy, Medical, Dentists, and Veterinary Surgeons Acts, Destructive Insects and
Contagious Diseases (Animals) Acts, and the consideration of charters of incor-
poration. Under the proposals made the new county authorities would arrange
the police magistrates’ districts, the appointmeuts to which would probably be made
by the Treasury in conjunction with the highest law officers; and the cabinet
departments of the Imperial Government would still retain the regulative control
of the important local government matters committed to their charge.
2. On the Distribution of Wealth in Scotland.
By Ratrg Ricwarpson, F.R.S.L.
The author gave an analysis of Scottish personalty left in 1876, which
he estimated at 15,102,119/., and showed how it was distributed among the various
counties of Scotland, more than sixty per cent. belonging to the south-western and
south-eastern counties as grouped in the census of 1881. He then considered the
average estate given up, which was 3,222/. per estate for all Scotland ; and there-
after the testate and intestate estates, 13,425,916. representing the former, and
1,676,203/. the latter. After stating that 12,947,846/. had been left by males, and
2,154,273/. by females, and that the amount for the county of Edinburgh was
31, 18s. per head of the female population, whilst for Lanark it was only 15s., he
In the case of the West Riding the numbers are approximate in the divisions,
though the total is correct.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, 84]
‘investigated the personalty left by farmers, which was 1,073,348/., or an average
of 1,860/. per farmer, and concluded by noticing the large estates (100,000/. and
above) left in 1876.
3. On the Application of Physics and Biology to Practical Economics.
By Patrick GEDDES.
Having at the last two meetings brought before the Section—(1) An analysis
-of the biological aspects of political economy, ¢.e., of the facts of organisation of
labour, social progress, &c., viewed in terms of the laws of physiology and
evolution, and (2) an outline of the physical aspects of the subject, 7.e., of the pro-
duction and consumption of wealth expressed in terms of the doctrine of energy,
the writer now desires (8) to outline the combined application of these depart-
ments of theory to the systematisation of practical economics; the current vague
general conception of this, in terms of ‘ progress in wealth and population,’ being
replaced by that of the development of natural resources towards personal and
-social maintenance and evolution.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee for continuing the inquiries relating to the
teaching of Science in Elementary Schools.—See Reports, p. 163.
2. Schools of Commerce.' By Sir Puizie Maenvs.
For some time the opinion has been gaining ground that education must be
directed towards commercial pursuits as well as towards those connected with
productive industry ; that for the maintenance of our trade and commerce fitting
instruction must be provided for those who are to be engaged in distribution as
well as in production. The urgency of the need of improved technical instruction
has called attention, in the first place, to the importance of satisfying this great
want. During the last few years successful efforts have been made to place our
technical instruction on a more satisfactory footing. The improvement is seen in
the work of our university colleges, in the schemes of the Charity Commissioners
for the establishment of secondary schools, in the development of evening technical
classes under the City Guilds Institute, and in the opening of a central institution in
London for the training of teachers. There are many indications that the claims
of commerce will be now considered.
Of the want of more systematic commercial education there is little doubt.
Improvements in the means of production will not alleviate commercial de-
pression, unless markets are found for the cheapened products. The valuable
consular reports which are now periodically published show unmistakably that we
lose trade, not always and solely because we cannot manufacture as well as our
‘competitors, but often and equally for want of knowledge of the places where
markets for our goods may be found and of the requirements of the markets it
should be our business to satisfy. This knowledge is supplied to merchants abroad
by well-educated agents skilled in business habits, conversant with foreign lan-
guages, and familiar with the physical, social, political, and commercial circum-
stances of different parts of the world; and this knowledge, it is contended, is
afforded by the system of education adopted in Germany and in other countries,
and places men of commerce in these countries at an advantage over those at
home. Moreover, the answers to the important circular sent forth by the London
Published in the Contemporary Review, December 1887.
842 REPORT—1887.
Chamber of Commerce have shown that foreign clerks are employed largely by
mercantile firms in London, to the exclusion of our own. This is to be deplored,
not only because so many of our own young men are thereby displaced, but also
because these foreign clerks, when they return to their own country, often utilise,
as competitors in trade, their Inowledge and experience here acquired.
These facts necessitate (A) an investigation into foreign systems of education
with the view of ascertaining what advantages, if any, foreign youths possess over
our own as preparing them for mercantile pursuits; (B) a consideration of the
extent to which it may be desirable to modify or supplement our own system of
education in order to place similar advantages within reach of our own people.
A. (1) Foreign Schools of Commerce.—Inquiries into foreign systems of education,
made by the author, individually, and as a member of the Commission on Technical
Instruction, show that numerous special schools of commerce are found abroad, and
that besides these special schools secondary education abroad is better organised as
a preparation for commercial pursuits than it isat home. In France, besides the
Ecole des hautes Etudes commerciales in Paris, there are eight or nine commercial
schools, and several higher elementary schools having a commercial in addition to
a technical side. In Germany, the well-known Real Schulen afford a first-rate
preparation for industrial, including commercial, pursuits; but besides these there
are seventeen special schools of commerce, six gymnasiums, and real schools with
a commercial side, nine middle schools of commerce, and a large number of evening
commercial classes. For the highest commercial education there are special
courses at some of the polytechnic schools. Austria-Hungary has nine academies
of commerce, including the well-known school at Vienna, eleven middle commercial
schools, and forty-two schools intended principally for clerks. Italy, a country in
which education is making great strides, is distinguished by its numerous technical
institutes, many of which have a special commercial department. It possesses,
besides, five high schools of commerce, including the school at Genoa, which has
only recently been opened. Belgium, in addition to the excellent High School of
Commerce at Antwerp, has a well-organised system of middle schools which give
an education especially adapted to commercial purposes. Switzerland has a
number of good secondary schools, including the industrial schools, in which the
instruction of the children is specialised with a view to commerce. It appears,
therefore, that abroad abundant opportunities are afforded of giving a child a
special commercial training, and that a large proportion of children receive a good
secondary education on modern lines.
(2) Curriculum of Foreign Schools.—In the foreign schools of commerce special
attention is given to the teaching of modern languages, to which from ten to twenty
hours are devoted a week. Geography, a subject of wide import, the full meaning
of which the Royal Geographical Society is endeavouring to make Englishmen
understand, is well and carefully taught. The mother-tongue, mathematics,
elementary science, bookkeeping, political economy, the study of merchandise,
office practice, and some other subjects, which vary in different schools, occupy the
rest of the pupils’ time. In this wide curriculum, perhaps the only subject of un-
certain value is the office practice—the bureau commercial—which forms an impor-
tant part of the instruction in the schools of France and Belgium, and is taught to
a less extent in the schools of other countries. The system consists, briefly, of
cairying on between different classes of a school, as between different countries,
commercial transactions; in writing in the appropriate foreign language all letters
and necessary documents; in caleulating exchanges, and in making up and trans-
mitting bills and accounts, with due regard to different standards of measurement
and coinage. Whether this application is carried too far is a debatable question.
B. British Requirements.—We have now to consider in what respects our own
education needs to be improved or supplemented to afford the necessary prepara-
tory training for a commercial career. This leads us to inquire whether special
schools of commerce are necessary, and, if so, what should be the curriculum of
such schools. The higher fees paid abroad for instruction in these schools would
seem to show that the education provided in these schools is duly appreciated. At
the same time, what is most needed in this country is: (1) the establishment of
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 843.
good higher elementary and middle schools with a technical and commercial side ;
(2) the reorganisation of our secondary education with the view to the provision of
good modern ‘schools, or departments of schools; (3) the provision of facilities for
advanced commercial instruction at our local university colleges; and (4) the pro-
vision of adequate evening teaching, adapted to the requirements of clerks and of
others engaged in mercantile pursuits.
As regards subjects of instruction, the most important consideration is that of
foreign languages, which must be taught quite differently from hitherto, ¢.e., first,
for their wse in reading, writing, and speaking; secondly, for the discipline they
afford. This applies to the teaching in all grades of schools. Next comes instruction
in commercial geography, the teachers of which have yet to be trained. This also
applies to the teaching in all grades of schools. Then comes the question of com-
mercial museums, which should be found in all higher elementary and modern
secondary schools. Assistance in the furnishing of these museums should be afforded
by the Imperial Institute. This institute should do for commercial teaching what
the Science Museum, not yet erected, should do for science teaching throughout the
country. In the organisation of such commercial museums for schools of various
grades there is a great sphere of usefulness for the Imperial Institute. In the
higher elementary schools book-keeping should be taught as a branch of com-
mercial arithmetic, and in these and higher schools instruction should be given in
the principles of political economy. In our university colleges courses of lectures
might be given on various subjects connected with mercantile pursuits. Our evening
classes should afford opportunities for practice in speaking and writing foreign
languages, and should supply good instruction in commercial arithmetic, book-
keeping, shorthand, and commercial geography. If these additions were made to
our present means of education, the question of the establishment of special schools
of commerce, of courses of application, and of the advantage of introducing office
practice, or the bureau commercial, into school-work, might be postponed for
subsequent consideration.
3. Manual Training a Main Feature in National Education.
By Witu1aM Marurr, M.Inst.0.2.
Our national system of public elementary education having reached its full
development for present needs, so far as school accommodation and the effect of
compulsory attendance are concerned, it becomes of vital importance to the nation
to consider :—
Ist. Is the money of the nation being spent to the best advantage P
2nd. Are the children of school age from five to thirteen receiving such instruc-
tion and training as shall best fit them for the occupations of what are termed the
working classes, and do the results of the present method of teaching enable parents
to select occupations in accordance with the natural proclivities and aptitudes of
their children? Are the perceptive and constructive faculties awakened and
directed, the desire aroused to pursue productive physical work from the love of it,
and with a true sense of its dignity and use ?
drd. Is the influence of the teaching in our schools in the formation of
character such as to encourage individuality, a sense of responsibility and self-
respect, and a desire to pursue knowledge and virtue when the tasks and restraints
of school are removed ?
It is believed by many who, like the writer, are employers of labour, and who
come into close relations with the children of the working classes as they pass
from school to work, that the present methods of teaching in our public elementary
schools do not satisfy the wants of the nation, or do justice to the children who
are compelled to attend the public schools. ‘
That constant progress and improvement have been made in methods of teach-
ing since the Education Act of 1871 was passed all will joyfully admit, but the
traditional principle has not changed. Memory, rather than the whole mind, is
appealed to; names, dates, facts, grammar, rhetoric, literature, have an un-
reasonable share of the school time. The natural sciences, recently introduced
844 REPORT—1887.
into our school courses in the higher grades, take a secondary place in the order of
studies ; lectures and text-books, more than experimental work and proof by
illustration, have to be employed from lack of time; thus memory is again relied
upon instead of mental digestion and assimilation.
It has been found that the introduction of objects and pictorial illustrations
greatly facilitates the efforts of teachers and aids the comprehension of children,
although the faculty of observation alone is exercised. How much greater, then,
would be the benefit to teacher and pupil if to observation were added the exercise
of the faculty of manual production, and if the conception of a truth or a fact should
terminate in the creation of an object with the hands to fully demonstrate its
properties and qualities?
Thus manual exercises and training would become the best aid to mental
development and culture, when continued systematically in conjunction with class
instruction.
It will not be difficult to find ample place and time for manual or creative work
together with art work, both being based on drawing—mechanical and free-
hand—in all our elementary schools, by reducing the time bestowed on subjects of
an abstract character in the present Education Code. The change would be one of
gradual growth, depending on the qualifying of teachers.
As our technical schools develop, opportunity will be afforded for teachers to be
trained in accordance with the duties they will have to perform in the elementary
schools.
It is not desirable to teach trades or handicrafts in schools, but it is imperative
to combine work with instruction, that children may be better equipped mentally
than they are at present for all the trades, employments, and duties of life.
4. Technical Education: the Form it should take.'
By Epwarp J. WaTHERSTON.
The author, whose argument was completely elucidated by statistics, laid down
three propositions :—(1) That, side by side with the ordinary elementary instruc-
tion given at present, all children should be instructed in drawing, and, after seven
years, in elementary science. (2) That children between ten and thirteen years of
age should receive definite practical instruction in handicraft work, if necessary, by
the exclusion of some of the more purely literary instruction at present given in
our schools, (3) That children, after thirteen years of age, should, by means of
scholarships or the payment of fees, have the opportunity of perfecting their earlier
instruction in higher elementary schools, or, as they are called abroad, appren-
ticeship schools. Considerable difference of opinion existed as to the age at which
children should receive technical instruction. He thought that the Sixth Standard,
as proposed by the Technical Instruction Bill, was too high, because if that proposal
had been accepted, only 128,151 children, throughout 19,173 schools, would have
been eligible for technical instruction. If any standard was to be prescribed—a pre-
scription which he thought unnecessary—the Fourth—in which, last quarter,
454,752 scholars were presented for examination—would be more appropriate. It
seemed to be imperative that some technical handicraft instruction should be given, if
necessary, to the exclusion of some of the merely literary teaching. For one clever
and lucky youth who rose from the National School to the University a thousand
—aye, more—would, and must remain at the bench, the anvil, the loom, the engine,
the plough. That being so, after the child had learnt to read, write, and cipher
well, he should at once be inducted into at least the rudiments of some branch of
technical industry that would enable him to master, far more accurately than now,
the handicraft he adopted at a later period. He should become a half-time scholar,
spending one-half of his time in the literary department, where instruction in
drawing and mathematics should be the main features, and the other half in a
workshop-school, to which it might be affiliated. In the workshop-school, which
? Published by John Lindsay, 104 High Street, Edinburgh.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 845
a boy might reasonably be expected to enter at the age of ten, the instruction
should be of two kinds. First, theoretical teaching, including geometrical drawing,
machine drawing and construction, mechanics, and chemistry. Secondly, practical
workshop teaching, including the production of simple geometrical forms in metal
or wood, such as the cube or prism. Wood joints, dovetailing, and other simple
work might be added. While very valuable results would have been achieved if the
child’s school education terminated at that curriculum, he should propose to offer ex-
hibitions from these schools to higher grade or apprenticeship schools for the most
promising of the workshop scholars. The curriculum in these apprenticeship schools
would vary according to the social and economical conditions of the district. In an
agricultural district the pupils should be taught the principles of agriculture and
horticulture. The nature and properties of soils and crops and their rotation would,
of course, come in. In a manufacturing district the technical teaching would aim
at the inculcation of the scientific principles which underlay the particular processes
of production. In a district, for example, such as Kidderminster, the scholars
would, besides being taught the processes of weaving, have special instruction in
‘design and the artistic grouping of colours. In this way our great centres of agri-
culture, of manufacture, and commerce could easily establish central technical
schools, dealing especially with the productions of their own districts. Applying
these general propositions to present circumstances, the author stated that of the
4,553,751 children on the register of inspected schools, 1,411,999—very nearly one-
third—were under seven years ofage. With reference to them not much change was
needed, except that more time should be given to elementary drawing and to object
lessons. Drawing could not be taught at too early an age: the moment a child
entered a school he should be taught how to use his pencil. With regard to the chil-
dren between seven and ten years of age, who numbered 1,606,479, a certain amount
of elementary disciplinary handicraft teaching might well be introduced as an inte-
gral part of the elementary instruction, with the object of training the hand and
eye towork together. The evidence collected by the Royal Commission was clear,
that our Continental rivals had demonstrated that most valuable rudimentary handi-
craft teaching could be given in the elementary and primary schools. In all the
new elementary schools in large towns in France instruction in handicraft teaching
would find an important place. It was greatly to be hoped that under the im-
proved Act of next session they would see such schools largely prevailing in this
country. The tax for education need not be increased. The total school income
was nearly seven millions—upwards of 27, per head. The State already contributed
17s. per child, and, with a judicious distribution of the income between the two
kinds of teaching, the State need not pay more. Into the higher elementary
school, or apprenticeship school, boys might be drafted at the age of ten, eleven,
twelve, according to proficiency, but he should hope in a few years to find most
boys of eleven entering such schools. The schools ought to spring out of the indus-
tries of their particular districts, and the courses of instruction should be carefully
graded—the first and second year’s courses aiming at teaching the scientific basis of
the various arts and industries of the neighbourhood, and the third being more dis-
tinetly professional in character. Schools of a description similar to that were to
be found in towns in France and Belgium. The technical schools of the Society of
Christian Brothers were well known; and there were schools of the same kind in
Sheffield, Manchester, and Glasgow. It was not too much to hope that all over
the country there would not be faoking the funds and the public spirit required to
establish these much-needed technical schools, which, by judicious management, could
be made self-supporting. He strongly advised that night schools should be taken
advantage of for the purpose of promoting technical teaching. He believed it
would make them more popular, and he should like to see a National League for
the advancement and extension of evening schools. The question of the provision
of the teaching power was one not difficult of solution. Every training college
should be at once called on to provide skilled handicraft teaching for its students ;
and for the higher elementary schools the Science and Art Department and the
City and Guilds Institute would furnish an abundant supply of teachers. The un-
qualified success of the Science and Art Department argued that, with the permis-
846 REPORT—1887.
sion of Parliament, a system of workshop-schools would very quickly spread
throughout the country under their energetic management. With fully equipped
workshop-schools they would raise up a body of scientific handicraftsmen who
would quickly regain our former prestige in the great manufactures in metal, and
wood, and textile fabrics. Thus they would be able to defy the keenest competition
of our foreign rivals, and to maintain the commercial supremacy of this great
Empire.
5. Manual Training : an Experiment at Keswick.
By the Rev. H. D. Rawnstey.
Our country needs not only cleverer artisans with greater wage-earning capacity,
but men whose whole capacities, hand and brain and feeling, shall be drawn out,
that so happier lives, as well as more useful, may be the result. This should be
incentive to the industrial art-teacher.
Lower motives to the work of educating industrial art-workers exist.
(1) A rich class with taste to buy good hand work is bent on securing it for its
domestic luxury.
(2) Competition of foreign handcrafts bids us wake to the importance of
looking to the training of English hands.
Decentralising agencies needed. Industrial arts, by making people content to
stay and work at them in the country towns and villages, will help in this direction.
A feeling encouraged for art and observation of nature will keep alive and
preserve the individuality of the workmen in the hard mechanic city rounds of
industry.
The best nurse of art and feeling for it, a quiet country-side well loved. Our
country-sides feed the town, Let us push forward industrial arts in country
laces.
After a history of the industrial art experiment at Keswick and a description of
a visit to the school on a working night, the author summed up the results of the
attempt :—A possible focus for artistic feeling and talent in the community, Sur-
prise of speed in learning the use of the hand, A certain accustoming of the eyes to
good strong design, and a deep feeling for good design developed. Discovery
that good work is slow work, and that intrinsic merit, not money’s worth, is the
thing to be striven after.
6. Home Education in its Bearing on Technical Education.
By Miss C. M. Mason.
Twenty years hence it will be no longer necessary to urge so obvious a
necessity as that of technical education in the sense of the best conceivable special
training for a special calling. But, alas! those of us who are already engaged in
such training will echo a sigh over the material which comes to hand, You
cannot make a silken purse out of such sow’sear. We must ‘hark back;’ the
specialist is produced in his cradle, or earlier, and the technical educator makes
ropes of sand until he works with the co-operation of parents. ‘The training of
children,’ says Mr. Herbert Spencer, ‘ is dreadfully defective, and in great measure
it is so because parents are devoid of that knowledge by which this training can
alone be rightly guided.’ Send a youth, equipped with the habits of the trained
intelligence, the habits of the good life, to learn the technicalities of his calling,
and the enthusiast sees with leaps of heart all that might be made of him. But
such material is beyond hope to most of us. Our effort is to help lame dogs over
the stile, since few but lame dogs offer. But the lameness is preventible. Edu-
cation enfolds infinite possibilities, and perhaps we have yet to see the noble and
lovely human being resulting from an even approximately perfect scheme of
education worthily carried out. What, practically, is education? Let me offer a
definition, by no means exhaustive, but bearing on that view of the subject before
us to-day. Education is the formation of habits. Pending the development of
the will, which arrives at maturity, if ever, only with the maturity of the man, it
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 847
appears to me that adit is the instrument put into the hands of the educator
wherewith to supplement the weak will of the child, and to enable him to make
those good and necessary efforts to which human nature is averse. Doa thing a
hundred times in succession without lapses, and it becomes as easy to do it as not;
do it a thousand times and it becomes your nature, a habit which you must do
violence to yourself to break through.
It is well established that the tissues, as muscular tissue, form themselves
according to the modes of action required of them. Hence the importance of not
allowing the child in any posture which should lead to malformation or disease.
But what we are less prepared to admit is, that new brain-tissue is supposed to
‘grow to’ any habit of thought in force during the time of growth— thought’
including every exercise of mind and soul, ‘The cerebrum of man grows to the
modes of thought in which it is habitually exercised,’ and, says Professor Huxley,
“the possibility of all education is based upon the existence of this power which
the nervous system possesses of organising conscious actions with more or less un-
conscious or reflex operations.’ What follows? If the very conformation of the
child’s brain depends in no slight measure upon the habits which his parents per-
mit or encourage, and if the hadits of the child ensue in the character of the man,
then this theory of habit becomes the natural basis of a scientific scheme of educa-
tion. In a successful technical training, especially, a groundwork of carefully
considered, carefully laid habits is of fundamental importance. Further, it is in
the plastic seasons of infancy and early childhood that such foundation can best be
laid ; therefore parents are the primal and natural educators, and technical or
other advanced education can be attended by great success only so far as the
intelligent co-operation of parents is secured.
But how are parents to be reached? Is it to be expected that the average
parent should make on his own account the enormous educational effort which
should enable him to educate his child on rational principles? It 7s to be expected
of him, and he will do it, provided that the duty be duly and persistently put
before him. He may have lost some facility in acquiring new habits, but he has
gained in enthusiasm—parental enthusiasm, perhaps, with one exception, the
strongest of any. At last, perhaps, the time has come for organised, persistent
efforts to bring the principles of a rational, scientific education home to every
parent according to his degree—on simpler lines for the young artisan and his
wife ; on more scientific for the more highly educated. Associations or other
efforts for the further education of parents, made upon principles of self-help, of
give and take for mutual improvement, should meet with a ready response; and
thus the experience of the most thoughtful in any community would be utilised
for the benefit of all.
Sus-Section F.
1. The Classification of the Exports of Cotton Piece Goods in Board of
Trade Returns. By Frank Harpcastiz, M.P.
This paper is the outcome of an effort made last year by the Manchester
Chamber of Commerce and the United Bleachers’ Association to obtain a new and
more discriminating classification of the above exports.
Hitherto cotton piece goods have been classified as (1) ‘unbleached or bleached,’
(2) ‘printed or dyed,’ (8) ‘mixed goods, cotton predominating.’ Last autumn,
however, the Customs and Board of Trade consented to try experimentally for four
months at the beginning of this year a new classification—viz., ‘unbleached,’
‘bleached,’ ‘ printed,’ ‘dyed or manufactured of dyed yarns, ‘mixed goods, cotton
predominating,’ and a copy of these experimental returns is given along with the
paper.
‘When sending these returns in manuscript to the Manchester Chamber Mr.
Seldon, the head of the Statistical Department of the Customs, expressed grave
848 REPORT-——1887.
doubts as to their accuracy, as he had not received the support and assistance from.
the exporters that he expected, and the agents at the ports had in many cases to
make guesses as to the nature of the exports.
The object of this paper is to show that, notwithstanding this, the returns show
a considerable amount of substantial accuracy, and are most interesting and useful,
particularly to the bleaching and calico-printing industries.
As eyidence of this the returns from the Indian Customs are taken of the total
imports into India of cotton piece goods from all countries for 34 years—yviz., from
April 1, 1883, to September 30, 1886, which are compared with the Customs
Returns in the following statement :—
United Kingdom Customs
India Customs (34 Years) Returns (4 Months)
per cent. per cent.
Unbleached - : - 33 67
Bleached . - : - 173 18
Printed and dyed : 5 1h} 15
The paper goes on to examine the returns from the Chinese Imperial Customs,
which to a certain extent discriminate between unbleached and bleached goods.
The values of the different classes of exports to India as shown in the United
Kingdom Customs Returns are somewhat corroborative of the substantial accuracy
of the returns: unbleached, 2'1d.; bleached, 2:5d.; printed, 2‘95d.; dyed, 3°67d.
The differences here shown in the values of the different classes pretty closely
correspond with the average cost of each different operation of bleaching, printing,
and dyeing.
The paper goes on to point out some features of interest in the returns, and
claims that their value is sufficient to justify their being continued, and calls on
exporters to facilitate the work of the agents at the ports by furnishing the neces-
sary details of their exports.
2. The Statistics of owr Foreign Trade, and what they tell us.
By A. E. Baremayn, F.S.S.
The author submits this paper on the chief features of our trade returns in view
of the many misconceptions regarding them and the interest attaching thereto in
these times of controversies about free trade and currency questions.
He describes the various official publications, monthly accounts, annual state-
ment, &c., and discusses the methods adopted in their compilation in regard to
classification of articles, valuation, registration of real origin, and destination of
imports and exports compared with the systems in use abroad and in connection
with recent discussions at the Congress of the International Statistical Institute.
He shows the difficulty of classifying articles into manufactures, raw materials,
food, &c., and gives the various foreign classifications ; and he points out that our
system of declared values gives an immediate record of changes of price of imports
and exports which foreign systems of official values revised only yearly or bien-
nially fail to do; but the intelligent and benevolent co-operation of our manufac-
turers and merchants is essential to getting current returns. After showing the
importance of settling these bases of trade statistics he invites views and sugges-
tions for any improvement in the returns from the many competent authorities who
are likely to be present.
He concludes by some comments on the chief points of interest in the monthly
accounts, showing that if read intelligently they present a very graphic picture of
the economical changes which are daily, and almost hourly, taking place.
3. Report of the Committee on the Regulation of Wages by means of
Lists in the Cotton Industry.—See Reports, p. 303.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 849
4. Hapenditure of Wages. By D. Cuapwick.
5. History of the Cotton Trade. By W. ANDREWS.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Gold and Silver; their Geological Distribution and their probable Future
Production. By W. Toptny, F.G.S.—See Reports, p. 510.
2. An Attempt to bring the Issue between those who are called ‘ Mono-metallists’
and those who are called ‘ Bi-metallists’ into such Terms that an Intel-
ligent Public Opinion may be formed thereon. By Kpwarp ATKINSON.
Bi-metallism exists de facto everywhere.
_ Silver coin has not been demonetised anywhere.
Modern commerce cannot be conducted without the use of both metals in the
form of coin.
The real issue has been obscured by a misuse of terms.
It is simply this, Shall coin made only of gold be a full legal tender from a
debtor to a creditor, or shall coin made of either metal at a certain ratio of weight
be such full tender at the option of the debtor ?
Is not the enactment of any statute of legal tender a question of convenience or
economy rather than one of necessity ?
Can coins made of silver and of gold at the ratio of fifteen and a half parts of
the one to one part of the other, or at any other stipulated proportion, be made
universally convertible or interchangeable by an international act of legal tender ?
Would such an act do away with the existing variations in the rate of exchange,
and bring all coins of gold or silver to par, due regard being given to the cost of
moving coin or bullion, all mints being open to free coinage ?
What would be the probable effect of such a statute on the future production
of gold and silver bullion ?
in the investigation of this question I have been impressed by the want of
precision in the case. The issue is not fairly joined and is very indefinite.
3. On the Solution of the Anglo-Indian Monetary Problem.
By Professor L. Watras.
The problem of the organisation of the monetary relations of England and
India upon a rational footing would be determined in the following way, according
to the system of gold standard money with a regulating silver token currency
[monnate d'or avec billon d'argent régulateur.]
Neglecting, for the sake of simplicity, the fractional currency [la monnaie
divisionnaire |,
Let Q, be the quantity of gold money existing in England;
Q, the quantity of silver money existing in India;
w the market ratio [rapport actuel de la valeur between gold and silver.
Then if, after having first of all suspended the free mintage of silver in India,
we were, on the one hand, to take a quantity « of silver in India to carry it to
England and make it discharge the function of a regulating token currency,
alongside the gold standard currency, on the basis of the legal ratio w’ of the value
of gold to the value of silver; and if, on the other hand, we were to take a quantity
y of gold in England to carry it to India, and make it discharge the function of
1887. 31
850 REPORT—1887.
standard money, alongside the silver, now transformed into a regulating token
currency, on the basis of the legal ratio w’ of the value of gold to the value of
silver: it would be necessary, in order that the value of money should be the same
in England and India, that the new quantities of standard money, and of token
money valued in gold, should be in the same ratio as the former quantities valued
in the same way; that is to say, we must have
i FO
Pe OS a ne ae
Sy es pe Be Paes
Qy-¥ aw! w Q, w
from which it follows that
po (= W/)QQ, + 0"( Wy + QDY,
wQ, + ~Q,
w
It will be observed that w’, w’’, 7, and y are not absolutely determined, and that
three of these quantities may be arbitrarily assumed. Let us suppose, then, merely
for the sake of giving definiteness to our ideas, that the quantity of gold standard
money at present in England, Q,, is 750,000 kgr., and that we only wish to take
for transport to India a portion y, representing one-third of this total quantity,
say 250,000 ker.; and that the quantity of silver standard money at present in
India, Q,, is 25,000,000 kgr. Let us suppose that the actual market ratio of gold
to silver is 1 to 20. And lastly, let us suppose that, in order not to disturb Indian
usage, it should be decided to constitute the regulating token currency in India of
the present rupee, at.the rate of 10 rupees to the 1/., which would give w” =about
14-60; and that similarly, for some reason or other, it should be decided to consti-
tute the regulating token currency in England of four shilling pieces, of exactly the
same weight, fineness, and remedy as the Latin Union crown of 5 franes, which
would give w’=about 15°36. In the conditions thus assumed, the quantity x
of silver to be taken up in India for transport to England would be about
6,378,500 ker.
This quantity must be decomposed into two portions: one of 2,728,500 ker., to
be transported without equivalent, and one of 3,650,000 kgr., to be transported in
exchange for 250,000 ker. of gold. The first operation might be effected by means
of a loan raised by the State in India, the produce of which should be employed in
the purchase of Consols in England. The second operation might be effected by
means of an issue of notes by the Bank of England, by which gold might be
obtained to exchange against silver in India. These two operations would result
in a considerable loss, in the conditions we have assumed, on account of the
superiority of the ratio w’ = 15:36 over that of w’ =14-60, since the State and the
Bank would give 1 of gold (or its equivalent) for 1460 of silver in India, and
15:36 of silver against 1 of gold (or itsequivalent) in England. This loss might be
covered in the following way.
A fall in the value of gold would certainly bring about a transformation into
gold merchandise of part of the present amount of gold money, and the export
to foreign countries of another part. To supply the deficiency there would be
occasion for making a supplementary addition of regulating token currency to the
two quantities « = 6,378,500 ker., and Q, — « =18,621,500 kgr., which are assigned
by our formula to England and India respectively. That is to say, the quantity of
silver to be taken up in India for transport to England would have to be reduced ;
and in order to meet this reduction, as well as in order to defray the deficit, we
should have occasion in England to transform silver merchandise into silver regu-
lating token currency. Let us suppose the deficit to be provided against were
75,000 ker. of gold, of which 50,000 ker. were for England and 25,000 ker. for
India. We should be able to reduce the quantity of silver to be taken up in India
to 6,018,500 ker., or, in other words, to raise the quantity of silver to be left in
India to 18,986,500 kgr.; and to coin in England 1,133,000 kgr. of regulating
token currency ; and this mintage would give a profit sufficiently large to cover
the loss which would arise in the other part of the operation.
In this way the value of the rupee would be raised to two shillings. It is
/
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 851
evident that the difficulties of the operation would be diminished if the value were
only raised to a lower point. For instance, if it were enacted that 12 rupees
should go to the 17., which would only bring the value of the rupee to one shilling
and eightpence, thus giving us w’” =17°50 about, « would then be equal to 5,102,568
ker., of which 727,568 kgr. only would have to be transported without equivalent,
and 4,375,000 ker. would have to be transported in exchange for 250,000 ker. of
‘gold, And the two operations would give a profit, to which there would be added
the profit to be realised as the result of the transformation of silver merchandise
into regulating token currency.
If it were not thought possible or proper to make any movement of floating
capital, in the form of money, from India to England, we should have to lay down,
as a new condition, that the quantity of silver imported from India to England
should be exactly balanced by the quantity of gold imported from England to
India; that is to say, we should have to assume
Ds
an equation which, taken with the preceding one, gives us finally
_w'(w — we
w’(w’ —w’)
in which two quantities only remain to be arbitrarily determined. It follows
immediately that, in order that y may not be too large a fraction of Q,, w’ must be
as small as possible, and w” as large as possible.
9g,
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Food as an Aid to Elementary Education.'
By Georce Herpert SarGant.
The plan of providing needy children with food at school dates at least as far
back as 1846. Again, about 1859-60, a period of depressed trade like the present,
produced cheap dinners for school children, and schemes for providing cheap meals
for the working classes. Records have been preserved of the early successes of
such ventures, but none of their subsequent failure. Similar schemes are now
succeeding, and it will be interesting to watch whether they will be more
permanent.
Attention was directed by Mr. Mundella in the House of Commons on July 26,
1883, to Sir Henry Peek’s penny dinners at Rousdon. Dr, J. A. Campbell after-
wards gave particulars as to similar work at Farnell, N.B. And the experiment
was successfully tried on a large scale by the Rev. Moore Ede, at Gateshead.
At Birmingham in the winter of 1884-85, penny dinners were found to be
beyond the means of the really poor children. The price has therefore been
lowered to a halfpenny, and even to a farthing, but at the same time it has been
necessary to give large numbers of the meals free. During last winter (1886-87),
four-fifths of the meals were free.
The children to whom they were given get little or no food at home; they are
insufficiently clothed, usually in rags. Their home life is miserable, and though
in most cases the influences are not altogether for evil, in many they are hopelessly
bad. Reduced by privation, they cannot resist disease ; they cannot eat, many are
‘quite unfit for school work.
The reports as to the results of the children’s dinners have been so unsatisfac-
tory that I, last winter, tried to make some accurate observations. Children,
selected for their great need of food, were fed regularly for some time and their
condition before and after carefully recorded. The results thus observed, after
‘being compared with other information, have been divided under three heads :—
PuysicaL.—Marked improvement in appearance and spirits, and in power to
? The paper appears @ extensoin the Fortnightly Review for September 1887.
312
852 REPORT—1887.
resist disease, and to take food: boys who were 1% years behindhand in height and
weight seem to have grown faster than the normal rate.
Epucationat.—Chiefly improved attendance, amounting to at least six per
cent. at poor schools, and making winter attendance equal to summer. As to power
to work, evidence is conflicting.
Morat.—the beneficial effect on ill-disposed children is veryrapid. Moreover,
there is less casual begging and pilfering by children who might pick up their own
living if not compelled to attend school.
The cost of dinners sufficient to meet the needs of average poor-school
children is, at the kitchens under my control, less than a halfpenny each, including
all expenses except management. If the scheme stood quite alone the cost might
be three farthings per meal, or 6s. 5d. per 100. At 225 meals a year the cost of
feeding each child would therefore be 14s. There are rather more than eight
millions of children between 5 and 15 in the United Kingdom. Ofthese about 4
per cent., or 330,000, would appear to need free meals, more in winter, less in
summer. At 14s. a year each the cost would be 230,000/. A quarter of a million
a year would feed all underfed children.
Compulsory education precludes these children from picking up or earning their
own living, and a scheme for compensating this loss and for meeting the additional
strain of school work seems a natural complement of our Education Acts.
It would be far better that this should be done through private charity, but it
would seem desirable to enquire whether private charity is sufficient, and, if not,
whether other means might not be taken.
2. Phthisis Centres in Manchester and Salford.
By ArrHur Ransome.
Tubercular disease has been shown to be closely associated with the presence
of a micro-organism, derived from the atmosphere, but the spread of the disease in
a community is conditioned by many circumstances, the chief of which are:
a. Hereditary predisposition of the inhabitants.
6, The frequency of other respiratory affections.
c. Bad ventilation of workshops, living-rooms, &c.
d. Damp subsoils.
In Manchester and Salford all these circumstances are to be found in certain
districts, but more distinct in some parts than in others. Statistics of the preva-
lence of phthisis in a certain district (No. 1) of Ancoats, Manchester, and other
districts of Greengate and Regent Road, Salford, were supplied to the author by
the health authorities of the two boroughs. Descriptions of these districts are
given, and the distribution of phthisis is shown to be determined by the nature of
the dwellings and the subsoil, and by the nature of the ventilation of the streets
in these districts.
3. On some important Statistics relating to the Silk Industry.
By THomas WARDLE.
4. On Bimetallism. By J. NicHotson.
5. On the Position of Economics in Holland. By Professor GREVEN.
6. Socialism. By Professor W. Granam.
7. On the Increase of Wealth and Population in Lancashire.
By Wittram E. A. Axon. F
The growth of the wealth and population of Lancashire within the last century
and a half has been exceedingly rapid. When the British Association visited
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 853
Manchester in 1842 some particulars as to the increase of wealth in the county
were submitted by the late Mr. Henry Ashworth; and as th: progress made since
that date has been very remarkable, it may be useful to examine the subject once
more from a statistical point of view.
The name of the county of Lancashire does not occur in Domesday Book, but
the 188 manors in the district now known by that name are valued at 120/., a
sum which Baines, in his ‘ History of Lancashire,’ estimates as equivalent to
13,2007.
When the Great Council or Parliament of Westminster, 1352, was held for
the purpose of ‘ settling the staple’ or manufactures of the kingdom, the county
sent only one representative. The list of decayed towns of Lancashire in 1544
includes Lancaster, Preston, Lyrepool, and Wigan. In the military muster of
1553 Lancashire was called upon for 2,000 men, and in 1559 there were 1,919
‘harnessed men’ and 2,073 without armour. In 1574 it furnished 6,000 able men,
3,600 armed men, 600 pioneers and artificers, 12 demi-lances, and 90 light horse—
standing amongst the most important of the counties in a military sense.
In the same year the gross produce of the tenth and fifteenth taxes was
recorded as 376/. lls. 113d. The figures for the hundreds were: Leyland,
36/. 10s. 4d.; Blackburn, 48/7. 8s. 6d.; Salford, 48/7. 7s. 4d.; West Derby,
125. 8s. 7d.; Amounderness, 66/7. 17s.; Lonsdale, 502, i8s. 2d. The levy for ship-
money in 1636 shows the estimate as to the relative wealth of various places. The
contribution of Lancashire was one ship of 400 tons, 160 men, and 1,000/.
Preston contributed 40/.; Lancaster, 30/.; Liverpool, 25/.; Wigan, 50/.; Clitheroe,
71. 10s.; Newton, 77. 10s. Yorkshire contributed two ships of 600 tons and 12,0007.
Hull was assessed at 1407.; Leeds at 200/.; Bristol at one ship of 100 tons, 40
men, and 1,000/. London contributed seven ships, 4,000 tons, 1,560 men, and six
months’ pay.
Mr. Ashworth calculated the value of Lancashire from the land tax in 1692,
and compared it with that of the rateable value in 1841. This is the starting-
point of the following calculations. The increase of both population and of
rateable value has been due to the immense development, in the first instance, of
the cotton trade, and to the impetus given by it to other forms of industry. The
increase of population in Lancashire may be thus stated :—1801, 672,731; 1811,
828,309 ; 1821, 1,052,859 ; 1831, 1,335,800; 1841, 1,667,054; 1851, 2,081,236;
1861, 2,428,744; 1871, 2,819,495 ; 1881, 3,454,441. The rateable value of the six
hundreds into which the county is divided may now be stated. The figures for
1692 are those calculated by Mr. Ashworth, and the later dates are the official
estimates for the county basis or standard of rating :—
Rateable Value of the County of Lancaster.
The first column calculated from the land-tax returns; the remainder from the
basis or standard for county rates.
Hundreds 1692 1841 1853 1866 1872 1877 1884
|
£ £ £ £ £ & £
Lonsdale 8,500 291,963 298,275 423,665 | 514,402 767,630 | 1,010,772
Amounderness 10,288 364,994 414,691 525,239 592,544 718.018 896,956
Leyland . . 5,774 199,884 199,038 950,663 1,159,472 1,432,206 | 1,738.740
-Blackburn .| 11,131 498,286 574,607 248,795 282,236 321,114 370,946
Salford . . | 25,907 2,703,291 3,051,347 4,082,799 5,269,222 6,848,754 | 7,791,862
West Derby .| 35,642 2,124,925 2,375,115 3,798,806 4,734,124 5,539,168 | 6,789,222
95,242 | 6,183,343 | 6,913,073 | 10,029,967 | 12,552,000 | 15,626,890 | 18,598,498
If we take the townships forming and adjoining the city of Manchester and the
borough of Salford, the increase is shown to be very marked. It is notable that
the increase of wealth has been progressive, notwithstanding the complaints of
trade depression.
$54 REPORT—1887.
| Name of Place Value in 1692 Value in 1841 | Value in 1866 | Value in 1884
Be, | . £ se
Chorlton-on-Medlock ; 256 4 2 | 137,651 162,952 266,848
| Hulme . ~ ; lez 10) 5 75,733 180,073 252,034
| Ardwick . i ‘ A 175. 10) 0) | 46,471 69,171 128,928
Salford . : 5 . 809 19 7 | 162,847 189,587 382,904
Cheetham ‘ ‘ 2 215 18 4 | 38,933 75,470 137,920
Manchester . : . 14,025 0 0| 721,743 882,998 1,579,552
Broushion one. sw |. 280..6)-8| 33,956 70,551 158,896
Pendleton ‘ i 4 363 12 11 | | 48,150 84,497 192,420
Crumpsall F x . 95 6 38} 13,250 19,895 40,018
Rusholme ; : : 146 13 4 | 15,281 33,906 63,110
Moss Side : ; SAP Osmo) Bae 4,958 21,691 102,744
6,531 0 10 | 1,298,960 1,780,791 3,305,374
These figures measure the industrial progress of Lancashire. Whilst each
hundred has had its share of prosperity, the greatest increase of wealth has been
in the Salford hundred, which comprises the Manchester district, and West Derby,
which aoe Liverpool. The average value per acre was, in 1692, 1s. 612d. ; in
1841, 5/. 2s. 55d. ; and in 1884, 15/. 8s. 13d. If we compare the rateable value
with the _population, the proportion per ‘head in 1841 was 37. 14s. 24d., and in
1884, 5/. 7s. 8'd. In less than fifty years the material wealth of the county of
Lancaster has trebled,
855
Section G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor OsBorNE Reynotps, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
M.Inst.C.E.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1,
The PRESIDENT delivered the following Address :—
Av a meeting of the British Association in Manchester the subjects of interest to
the members of this Section are sure to be numerous, and the attendance of those
members whose opinions on the various subjects presented the Section will like
to hear is sure to be such that every moment of the time at the disposal of the
Section will be well occupied. It is also particularly undesirable to prolong the
sittings, and so reduce the opportunities of visiting the exhibition and numerous
works which abound with things which cannot fail to be of intense interest to
members of this Section.
For these reasons I feel extremely unwilling to occupy the time of the Section
with more than the briefest remarks by way of an address. Indeed, were it not
that when in this chair in 1872 Sir Frederick Bramwell laid down the rule that
for the President to break the custom of an address would be to show disrespect
to the Section, I should have felt justified in consulting my inclination and pro-
ceeding at once with the regular work which lies before us.
It is now twenty-six years since the last meeting of this Section was held in
Manchester, and it certainly seems fitting that in an address on this occasion
something should be said as to the achievements in mechanical science accom-
plished in the interval, I wish sincerely that the task had fallen to some of you
gentlemen whose far greater experience and power of expression would have
enabled you to do justice to the subject. But under the circumstances I can only
ask you to take it as a mark of my extreme respect for the Section, and proof of
the appreciation in which I hold the honour conferred upon me in placing me in
this chair, that I venture as a matter of duty to make a few remarks of the inade-
quacy of which I am only too conscious.
Jt is always difficult to arrive at a just appreciation of the relative importance
of the events of our own time; and in any endeavour to review or take stock of
the mechanical advance of the last quarter of a century, during which time things
mechanical have divided the attention of the civilised world with matters political,
it seems very necessary to remember that as the mechanical age gets older ity
relative activity is not to be gauged by the relative number and importance of such
epoch-marking mechanical departures as compared with those which have distin-
guished past periods.
If you recall—and again, to quote Sir Frederick Bramwell, the only purpose
of an address is to force you to recall what you already know—in 1861 not only
had we railways, ocean steamships, including the ‘ Great Eastern,’ still the giant
of the tribe, a complete system of machinery for cotton and textile fabrics, besides
the steam hammer, Armstrong’s accumulator, and types of all machine tools, but
also one attempt had been made to lay an Atlantic cable; the Suez Canal was in
course of construction; if not perfected, the Bessemer process was in use; as were
856 REPORT—1887.
steam ploughs, steam thrashing machines, reaping machines, and other agricultural
machinery ; we had also monster ironclads and rifled ordnance.
As new departures since 1861 which have already established themselves we
have the telephone, the incandescent electric light, the dynamo, and the secondary
battery, the gas engine arid sewing machine, not to mention the bicycle. We have
also the tin can and freezing machine and roller mills, as well as the machine gun
and Whitehead torpedo.
One of these departures, the telephone, both from its usefulness and from the
scientific interests which surround it, as affording, like the telescope, a means of
directly increasing the power and range of one of our senses, must for ever re-
main recognised as a step in mechanical science, for the introduction of which this
period will be distinguished,
The sewing machine, too, though little calculated to attract notice, in its
influence on the welfare and appearance of all grades of society yields in import-
ance to few, if any, previous mechanical steps. While the process of preserving
food by means of the tin can and its more striking contemporary, the freezing
machine, direct results of the discoveries of Pasteur, have already opened up the
food-producing resources of the whole world for the supply of the few chosen
spots, and in doing so created a most welcome demand for further advance in the
application of steam.
Great things have been and still are hoped from the electric departures which
have interested us so much during the last few years; also of the gas engine,
which has most usefully occupied ground for which the steam engine is not well
adapted ; and as to the importance of machine guns and torpedoes many will think
the less the better.
However high or low an estimate we may form of the probable future import-
ance of some of these inventions, and however much disappointment we may feel
at the non-success which has attended some of the boldest and apparently most
promising departures, such as the Crampton process for substituting a blast of coal-
dust for the ordinary furnace, or Sir Henry Bessemer’s endeavours to prevent
distressing motion at sea, there is still no ground for discouragement.
For whether or not this period be henceforth remarkable for what, to borrow
language from Section D, may be called the origination of new mechanical species,
is a small matter compared with the fact that it has undoubtedly been remarkable
for unprecedented achievements in the development of higher states of organisation
in those mechanical species which were already in existence.
There has never been a time in which mechanical revolutions have followed
one another with such rapidity. In all the main departments of practical
mechanics progress has been so rapid that appliances have been superseded long
before reaching the term of their natural existence. There are some steamboats
like the steel mail-boats between Dover and Calais still on the same service as in
1861, but very few, and only such as were then much in advance of their time. The
Atlantic fleet of Royal Mail steamers has twice undergone complete revolution.
Not only have the paddle-boats which constituted the Cunard line in 1861, and
which included the ‘ Scotia” then new, entirely disappeared off the line, but the
iron screw steamers which displaced them have given place to the steel boats with
compound engines—‘ Servia,’ ‘ Aurania,’ ‘ Etruria,’ and ‘ Umbria.’
In railway appliances the iron road has given place to that of steel, iron tires
and locomotives to steel, the block system has become general, as have continuous
brakes ; while the carriages in which members have spent four and a quarter hours
on their way from London to this meeting, although mostly still of the English
plan, are very different in size and ease from those in which five and a half hours
were spent in 1861.
In the works and mills the change is not less complete. It is, indeed, the
change here that has not only rendered possible, but forced on the revolution in our
means of communication. The great step in the production of steel was already
taken in 1861, and great results were then anticipated; there were, however,
doubts and difficulties, and it was not for some years that sufficient mastery was
obtained over the detail of the manufacture and use of the new material to bring
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 857
about the general revolution which has therefore only reached its height during the
last few years, if, indeed, it is yet reached—certainly it is yet far from complete.
To turn for one moment to the last year. Since the last meeting of this Section
in Birmingham, the second Tay Bridge has been completed, over two miles long,
having occupied only five years in construction.
The Severn Tunnel, one of the most difficult pieces of engineering ever
attempted, has been completed and opened for passenger traftic.
The Forth Bridge, that structure the very thought of which causes those who
have seen the place to hold their breaths, and of which the relative size may be best
realised from the fact that, held out in arms an eighth part of a mile long, at a
height of 200 feet above the sea, as a mother might hold out an infant, are
structures no less than the single spans of the Britannia Bridge, 400 feet long.
This gigantic structure, the progress of which Section G has watched since the
meeting at Southampton, has now attained its full height of 360 feet, although
otherwise not by any means fully formed.
Nor, as you well know, is it by the completion and progress only of great
undertakings that this year is marked in the annals of engineering. It will be
memorable, particularly in this district, as the year of the commencement of the
Manchester Ship Cana]. This undertaking, for which there is no precedent in this
country, has excited so much interest that it cannot be otherwise than a matter of
congratulation that a paper descriptive of this work is to be read before this meet-
ing by the engineer, Mr. Leader Williams.
The completion of the Tay Bridge, the Severn Tunnel, the progress of the Forth
Bridge, and the commencement of the Manchester Ship Canal in one year and in
one country is sufficient assurance that, as yet, there is no lack of enterprise or sign
of falling-off in heroic undertakings ; nor are these by any means the only signs of
great mechanical activity, notwithstanding the continual complaints of commercial
depression.
In one direction, in particular, after many years of progress, so slow as to be
something like stagnation, there has been a decided advance. The steam engine is
such a familiar institution, and has been for so long looked upon as the prime
mover of our entire mechanical system, that anything which affects its welfare
excites a deeper interest than would a mere mechanical advance. It was therefore
with anything but a feeling of pure exultation that we heard and felt the force of
predictions a very few years ago that the days of the supremacy of the steam engine
were numbered, that it would soon be a thing of the past, only to be found in the
museum, a relic like Newcomen’s engine and the stone implements by which our
children would gauge the depths of mechanical barbarism of the age from which they
had emerged. If sentiment be allowed in relation to anything mechanical, it must
be with a sense of relief that it is now perceived how, so far from succumbing in the
competition with what threatened to be formidable rivals, the only effect has
been to bring about an important step in that internal development of the steam
engine, which has been long looked for, but the accomplishment of which had for so
long baffled the utmost efforts to bring it to a practical issue that it was almost
despaired of—at least until it should be brought about by that circumstance which
» we all dread, the scarcity of coal.
The uppermost step of this advance yet reached is represented by the triple and
quadruple expansion engines. These engines, of which the first seem to have been
the triple engines of the ‘Propontis’ in 1874, designed by Mr. Kirk, the next those
of the steam yacht ‘Isa,’ by Messrs. Douglas and Grant in 1878, and the third
those of the ‘ Aberdeen,’ again by Mr. Kirk, in 1881, rapidly sprang into favour for
cargo steamers, in which they have already proved of such advantage as to more
than threaten the necessity of another revolution in steamships almost before the
last is complete. Each week brings the announcement of some new accomplish-
ment in the use of higher ratios of expansion and higher pressures of steam, so that
while 60 or 70 lbs. was the maximum three years ago, we now hear of 1380, 150,
and 175lbs.; and it is impossible to say to what they have not been carried at
the present moment, and with commercial success.
There can be no doubt but that this latest step, as well as those of the surface
858 REPORT—1887.
condenser, high-pressure boilers, and compound engines which led up to it have been.
the immediate results of the premium on economy of coal offered by the opening up
of the long steam routes, first through the Suez Canal and recently round the Cape.
But these steps must none the less be considered as the results of the unprecedented
attention and labour, theoretical and practical, which has been devoted to this
object during the last fifty years. They have been a result of the theoretical work of
Carnot and Regnault, crowned by the great discoveries of Joule and Meyer, and the
subsequent work of Rankine, Thomson, Clausens, and Hern, besides others, which
about the commencement of the period I am speaking of accomplished that com-
plete exposition of the principles underlying the internal economy of all heat
engines which have since furnished incitation and guidance to practical efforts.
And not less have they been a result of the many practical attempts which have in
the meantime been made to introduce similar and equally effective developments in
the steam engine without waiting till they were called forth by circumstances ;.
as notable amongst which I may instance the labours and successes of Mr. Periins,,
who has experimentally developed the organisation of the steam engine beyond
any poimt it has commercially reached. ach and all of these efforts has un-
doubtedly taken part in that readiness to take the forward step, as soon as circum-
stances were favourable, which is as necessary to development as are the favourable
circumstances themselves, The fact that a great advance has been made in the use
of higher-class steam engines, while it is the most gratifying circumstance one
could have to record, affords the greatest encouragement to all those numerous
workers for mechanical advance whose work is good, yet who do not see its imme-
diate effect. It also emphasises the lesson that the most perfect machine is that
which is most perfectly adapted to the circumstances under which it has to work ;
and amongst these circumstances is efficient attendance, which involves sufficient
knowledge of its requirements aud familiarity with its detail on the part of those
who have it in charge; and while in a process of gradual development this edu-
cation is insured, in the case of a sudden step it is generally wanting.
How far the present advance towards the limits to economy which are theo-
retically evident may extend in the immediate future it would be dangerous to pre-
dict. The present rate is immense, and not by any means confined to the marine
engine, although I am not aware of any other class of engine in which triple expan-
sion has yet been adopted as a system. The recent compound pumping engines have
attained to very high organisation ; and even in those classes of engines where economy
of coal is more a matter of morality than of proved commercial importance, as mill
engines and locomotives, great activity is evident in adapting and substituting
compound engines, so as to allow of the use of greater pressures and higher degrees
of expansion. The slow breathing compound locomotive of Mr. Webb has drawn
many members of this Association on their way to this meeting. Nor is the port-
able engine behind, as has been shown by the recent trials of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society at York. The result of these trials cannot but offer the greatest
encouragement to engine-malkkers of all kinds in their attempt at higher organisa-
tion. It is indeed difficult to say which has been the most gratifying—the high
state of economy which these trials have shown to be realised, or the reinstitution
of the trials themselves after a lapse of twenty years, during which interval their
non-continuance has called forth but one expression—that of regret.
These almost sudden steps towards the realisation of efforts now extending over
a century, to bring higher developments of the steam engine into practical use,
have not passed without notice. The interest and excitement amongst those more
directly acquainted and concerned with the steam engine and the use of steam are
probably such as have not existed since the very early days of the railway. It is
not therefore as something likely to be new to the members of this Section that I
have dwelt upon it. Remembering that there was another subject other than
actual mechanical achievements on which I was, as it were, in duty bound to say
something, it seemed hopeless for me to attempt to touch on all the many advances
towards a higher degree of organisation in mechanics which constitute the mechani-
cal feature of our era. I therefore have chosen this decided movement of the prime
mover as the most significant and most gratifying, besides being of a kind the full
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 859:
importance of which is not so likely to be generally apprehended until pointed out
as the importance of advances such as the electrical and metallurgical, involving:
some new departure or novel application.
That the character and rate of recent mechanical advance are both exactly such
as would be expected to follow, as the result of a deeper and broader knowledge of
scientific methods and the principles involved, seems to be the very best proof of
advance in that other side of mechanical science in which this Section takes inte-
rest, or, more correctly, for which it exists—the increase and spread of mechanical
knowledge.
Tt is as impossible as it is unnecessary for me to comment on the furore to
which the movement first for popular scientific and now for technical instruction
has reached—bringing into existence, by means of South Kensington, a complete
system of sensibly free elementary scientific education over the country; then the
City and Guilds Technical Schools, with a general system of examination ; and cul—
minating in a Parliamentary Commission on Technical Education, with the pro-
spect of seeing its labours result in an Act of Parliament providing for absolutely
free technical instruction.
Elementary education, whatever may be its subjects, must of necessity depend
for its permanent existence on some source of higher knowledge in those subjects.
Without raising such questions as whether there exist at present means of training
efficient teachers in all the branches for which technical education is promised, or
whether such means will be forthcoming as a result of the demand for teachers, I
would recall to your attention the recent progress made towards a higher training
in that branch of science which most directly relates to mechanical. progress, and.
which, according to no less an authority than the late Professor Rankine, received
its first impulse from the institution of Section G.
So long ago as 1855 Rankine, in his characteristically concise address, dwelt
upon the good work which this Section was doing in making it known that the
application of the laws and principles of abstract mechanics to the purposes of
practical mechanics constitutes a science of itself; a science the knowledge of
which is essential before a knowledge of mathematics and abstract science can be
of use to the practical engineer or mechanic; and for this science he then and there
claimed the name Applied Mechanics. As a proof of the influence of Section G
in making known the usefulness of this science he instanced the apparent increase
in the desire to profit by the lectures of the late Professor Lewis Gordon, which
had taken place since the Section was instituted.
Professor Gordon, who held the chair of mechanics in Glasgow University, was
the first in this country to collect and embody in his lectures, and subsequently in
a text-book, the important though scattered results of individual efforts to found
the laws of practical mechanics on exact science. And at the time Rankine was:
speaking, this chair, to which Rankine himself was called the same year, was the
only chair in this country from which such lectures were given.
Since that time the appreciation of that science has steadily increased ; other
colleges took up the subject mostly as forming part of courses entitled engineering
or naval science. Amongst these was Owens College, in which, not till after the-
last meeting in Manchester of this Association, the leading engineers founded and
endowed, which is more important, the chair which it has been my fortune to occupy
for nineteen years.
During the earlier part of this time both teachers and students were labouring
under the disadvantage arising from the novelty of the subject—the former having
to make an almost arbitrary selection of what they would teach, and the latter
not knowing exactly what it was they were going to learn. Gradually, however,
by the help of experience from the somewhat earlier French schools and with the
admirable works of Rankine as a foundation, the lectures or theoretical courses
have become clear and distinct, while the advantage to be gained has become so
generally recognised that of late years there has been almost a scramble to found
new colleges to teach engineering or to introduce such teaching into existing
colleges; and most satisfactory to those engaged in the introduction of this subject
is the fact that it is from the engineers themselves that the interest and funds
860 REPORT—1887.
necessary for this work have come. Since 1867 the Owens College has received
gifts and bequests from engineers, including those of highest standing in the neigh-
bourhood, of upwards of 150,000/. ; in the same way at Sheffield and at Leeds,
where, as is well known, an engineering school has just been founded by Sir John
Hawkshaw and the engineers of the town, and again at Liverpool.
It cannot for one moment be doubted that this movement has been brought
about by the conviction of the necessity of an education which, in its subjects and
methods of teaching, is much more closely related than was the older system of
the Universities, to the actual work which the students may eventually be called
upon to undertake ; that it is in fact evidence of the appreciation, by those having
the greatest experience, of the necessity of higher scientific training for engineers.
This is what engineering schools during their struggle for existence have endeavoured
to supply. And in spite of the danger which seems to beset all schools as
they become older, of falling into the academic or pure—not because it is the
most desirable to be learnt, but because it is by far the easiest to teach—in spite
of this danger, such in this case is the pressure from without, that it may be hoped
the schools of engineering and applied science may be kept up to the mark, both in
extending our knowledge of the laws and principles which more immediately
underlie the results of practical experience in art, and in teaching the methods of
most useful application; and that while encouraged to offer every inducement to
the attainment of a sound knowledge of the principles, they will not be allowed to
fall into the fatally easy errors of carrying the abstractions of this science outside
all possible application, or blocking the way by the insistance on impossible pre-
liminary attainments in mathematics and pure science.
To be hailed as one of the greatest inducements to keeping alive in engineering
schools a real scientific interest in the practical work which is going on around
them is the introduction of what are now called engineering laboratories, in which
students may familiarise themselves with the actual subjects for which the theo-
retical work is undertaken, and may have placed before them in their most naked
forms the data and mechanical actions on which practical achievements depend, and
in addition be taught the use of all those instruments and methods of measurement
which it is one of the first objects of these laboratories to extend and to perfect,
and which measurements are now, as the result of a better knowledge of principles,
rapidly displacing the older methods of arriving at conclusions in engineering.
It is to our Continental neighbours that we principally owe the origination of
these laboratories as a means of research, but, as a system of instruction distinct
from a workshop it owes much to Professor Kennedy, who was, I believe, the first
to introduce the testing machine and regular engine trials as part of the regular
course of instruction fer students in engineering, under the title of a laboratory course.
The want of such a course must, however, it would seem, have been severely
felt, to judge by the rapidity with which Professor Kennedy’s example has been
followed in almost all the engineering schools in the country.
It istrue that as adjuncts to academic institutions these laboratories can hardly
be said to have passed the experimental stage, and it evidently remains to be seen
whether when the present arrears of outstanding questions in engineering science
are worked up, and the courses of instruction become stereotyped, sufficient variety
of work will be found to justify the expense which, both as regards qualified
instructors and maintenance of apparatus, must, as compared with the number of
students receiving instruction, be greater than is general with academic instruction.
At present, however, thanks to the liberality of engineers and their friends, there
seems no ground for fear, each new laboratory being furnished with more complete
and expensive apparatus than the last. During the erection and fitting of the
Whitworth Laboratory in Owens College, which is only now on the verge of com-
pletion, it has been very impressing to see the goodwill shown toward the work by
everybody who has had to do with it; the ready help of engineers of the greatest
experience, like Mr. Rambottom and Mr. Robinson, who have spared neither time
nor trouble in giving it the benefit of their experience; also by those who have
undertaken the construction of the appliances, particularly Mr. William Mather,
of Salford Iron Works, where neither trouble nor money has been considered in
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 861
the efforts made to render the engines for the laboratory as perfectly adapted as
possible to the very novel and numerous requirements. Taking this particular
instance as evidence not only of the general feeling in favour of this movement,
but also of the solid support it is to receive, one cannot help concluding that there
is a great future before it, and that at last a method has been found of extending
and spreading the higher knowledge of mechanical science which commends itself
alike to the practical and theoretical.
Everyone who has paid attention to the history of mechanical progress must
have been impressed by the smallness in number of recorded attempts to decide
the broader questions in engineering by systematic experiments, as well as by the
great results which in the long run have apparently followed as the effect of these
few researches. I say apparently, because it is certain that there have been other
researches which probably, on account of failure to attain some immediate object,
have not been recorded, although they may have yielded valuable experience
which, though not put on record, has, before it was forgotten, led to other
attempts. But even discounting such lost researches, it is very evident that
mechanical science was in the past very much hampered by the want of sufficient
inducement to the undertaking of experiments to settle questions of the utmost
importance to general advance, but which have not promised pecuniary returns—
scientific questions which involved a greater sacrifice of time and money than
individuals could afford. In recent periods the aid and encouragement which it
has been one of the first objects of the British Association to afford such researches
has led to many results of the greatest importance, both directly and indirectly,
by the effect of example in calling forth aid from other institutions—that of
mechanical engineers, for instance, which recently induced Mr. Tower to carry
out his already celebrated research on ‘ The Friction of Lubricated Journals,’ the
results of which research certainly claim notice as constituting one of the most
important of recent steps in mechanical science. Such investigations it is now the
function as well as the interest of mechanical laboratories to undertake, and thus
what has hitherto been a great obstacle in the path of mechanical progress seems
in a fair way to be removed and steady advance to be insured.
To what all this may lead us it is no part of my undertaking to consider, but I
venture to end this imperfect address on the progress of mechanical science during
the past twenty-six years by what appears to me the most satisfactory conclusion—
viz. that to such mechanical progress there is apparently no end: for, as in the
past so in the future, each step in any direction will remove limits and carry us
past barriers which have till then blocked the way in other directions; and so
what for the time may appear to be a visible end or practical limit will turn out
but a bend in the road.
The following Papers were read :—
1. The Ivon Mines of Bilbao.’ By Jeremran Heap, M.Inst.0.L.
~ The author introduces his subject by calling attention to the fact that only one-
sixth of the iron ore produced in Great Britain is sufficiently pure to admit of
its being used in the manufacture of steel, except by processes involving extra
expense.
The steel now annually produced requires the importation of between two and
three million tons of hematite ore, in addition to a similar quantity yielded by
British mines. The bulk of the imported ore comes from Bilbao in Spain. This
trade has grown enormously during recent years, owing to steel having so largely
superseded iron. Many Briiish mines are idle, whilst those of Spain continue to
increase their production, and blast furnaces in England are now largely occupied
in smelting foreign in preference to native mineral.
After referring to previous papers on the Bilbao iron mining industry, the
physical features of the district, river, and port are described, and allusion is
1 Printed in extenso in Industries for September 16 and 23, 1887; also in Zron
and Jron and Coal Trades Review of September 9 and 16.
862 REPORT—1887.
made to evidences still existing of the richer veins of ore having been worked
by the ancients.
The position of the deposits generally at or near the tops of hills, and their dis-
tribution in six principal sub-districts or mining groups, is described, and the lead-
ing geological features alluded to. The ore obtained is of four kinds, viz., Rubio
(hydrated ferric oxide), Campanil (the same but less fully hydrated), Vena (ditto
ditto), and Spathic (or ferrous carbonate). The first-named greatly preponderates
over the other three. The origin of the deposits is aqueous. The author here
discusses at considerable length the question of how they may have been formed,
basing his views on the known action of water containing carbonic acid upon iron
and its oxides, and referring to evidence afforded by strong chalybeate springs at the
present day. The value of the Bilbao ores for smelting purposes is then considered,
in comparison with the ores of Cumberland and the Forest of Dean. Rubio and
Campanil differ from each other mainly in that the impurities in the former are of
a siliceous, and in the latter of a calcareous nature. Vena ore is very similar in
‘character to Cumberland red hematites. The best Forest of Dean ore appears to
be equal or superior to that of Bilbao, but it is unfortunately scarce, and expensive
to work. Spathic ore, if calcined, is likely to be of great value in the future.
The Spanish laws and customs in regard to concessions and the royalties payable
are then dealt with, and the mining industry in the past is said to have been much
impeded by the too great ease with which mere adventurers have been able to secure
possession without being obliged to work them. The marvellous development of
the district in recent years has been mainly due to foreign capital, enterprise, and
energy. Particulars are given of the principal foreign mine-owning companies.
The mining properties are defined by imaginary lines with boundary stones at
the intersections. They are worked rather as quarries than as mines, as that term
is usually understood, there being no winding or pumping shafts, no water adits, and
no pumps. The hills containing mineral are gradually cut away in levels or steps.
Tunnels are sometimes driven in at the level of the floor of the deposit, as far as
the working face, then a shaft down to it, and side entrances. The ore is poured
down the shaft and loaded up into wagons in the tunnel. In quarrying, holes are
driven into the working faces with a succession of jumpers, to a depth of 30 feet.
A small charge is exploded at the end to form a chamber, into which a large charge
is then introduced and afterwards fired. Two or three thousand tons are often
brought down in a single blast, and then broken up with wedges, hammers, and
crowbars. The impurities being separated, the good mineral is loaded into
incline wagons, aérial tramway tubs, or bullock carts, as the case may be. The
quarry work is usually let to a Spanish contractor. He employs his own labour,
and does the work at from 1s. to 2s. per ton. The wages paid vary from 2s, 6d. to
3s. 4d. per day for drillers, 1s. 6d. to 2s. 6d. for labourers and loaders, and 1s. to
ls. 6d. for women and boys.
The working hours are much longer, on an average, than in England, and in
summer reach seventy-two hours per week, excluding meal times and rests.
The following table makes comparison between the hours and earnings of the
Bilbao and Cleveland miners in the summer of 1886 :—
Per cent-| Cost for One eee | Metallic} Cost for Tees
Hours Daily age of labour y iron got | labour eS
per week | earnings | ironin | per hour j per week | per ton otenetatli a
ore per man | Per; Per | per man of ore .
hour | week iron
5, da. d. TonulPets Tons d. da,
Bilbao . 4 72 2 6 50°0 2°5 “5/3600 18°00 50 10°0
Cleveland . 46 5 6 315 8°25 *72 |33°12| 10°43 115 3675
Saturday
4 1h ey
To win a ton of ore in Cleveland costs more than twice as much for labour as a
ton of ore at Bilbao. But to obtain a ton of metallic iron in the condition of ore
.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 863
costs more than three and a half timesas much. No wonder that Cleveland mine-
owners find it difficult to compete, and that Cleveland blast furnaces are being more
and more engaged in smelting foreign rather than native ores.
The characteristics and habits of Spanish as compared with English miners are
then noticed. The former are said never to spend money in strikes, gambling, or
drunkenness, the three main sources of impoverishment to Englishmen of the same
class. They have their weaknesses, however, for whenever bull-fights take place
the mines must, be closed. From the quarries the mineral is taken to deposits
beside railways, or to barges at the river side, by (1) mules and donkeys with pan-
niers; (2) by bullock carts; (3) by shoots; (4) by aérial tramways, and (5) by
inclines. The first and second methods are still popular with some mine-owners
and under special circumstances. The third is only occasionally applicable. The
fourth is much in use, as it is capable of conveying considerable quantities up or
down hill and over unequal ground without much interfering with the surface,
and at moderate outlay and working cost. Hodgson’s and Bleichart’s aérial tram-
way systems are then described ; about 2,000 tons per rope per week of seventy-two
hours being about the capacity of the former and nearly 3,000 tons of the latter.
The cost of Hodgson’s system averages, 2,000/. per mile, and Bleichart’s 4,000J.
Hodgson’s is inapplicable where the inclination exceeds one in four, on account of
the tubs slipping on the ropes in wet weather. Bleichart’s, having a hauling as
well as a running rope, has not this disadvantage, and if the inclination exceeds
that mentioned it becomes self-acting. Hodgson’s system is the cheaper in mainten-
ance as well as in first cost. Both require powerful brakes. The cost of transport
is from 73d. to 1s. per ton per mile in either case, which is much higher than on
well-arranged railways or self-acting inclines.
Nine of the principal inclines by which mineral is brought down from mines to
deposits are then described. The steepest is that called San Fermin, where the
inclination is 80 per cent. The railway wagons are carried on wedge-shaped
trucks, running on to them at the top and off at the bottom. The longest and
cheapest worked is the Orconera, an incline which is 1,199 yards in length, 1 metre
in gauge, with an inclination of 17 per cent. ‘The daily traftic is here 1,500 tons,
and the approximate cost of working 6d. per ton per mile. Except in one case all
the inclines are self-acting. The counterbalanced cradles devised by Mr. J. P.
Roe, of Consett, whereby the incline wagons are made to empty their contents
automatically into main-line wagons below, is much commended.
The endless-chain system of working inclines, and especially the one made for
the Anita mine by Mr. George Lee, is then considered. In a length of 9,867 feet,
or nearly two miles, the fall is 1,180 feet. The line is a double one, divided into
sections, each having a separate chain ; and the direction is twice abruptly changed.
The gauge is 1’ 73”, and the rails 25 lbs. per yard. On the descending line, tubs
holding 10 ewts. of ore run continuously at the rate of three per minute as long as
the chains work and are kept supplied ; and the empties ascend on the other line at
the same rate. The whole works automatically, the speed being controlled by a
fan fly, assisted, if necessary, by a powerful friction brake. The cost of working is
a to be only 1:261d. per ton per mile, and appears to be below that of any other
system.
The six principal railways, whereby mineral is taken from the deposits along-
side them and put f.o.b. export ship lying at the staithes in the river, are then
described. They extend in the aggregate to about 40 miles. They comprise four
distinct gauges, the metre gauge with 54 1b. rails and 7-ton bottom door wagons
being the most usual. They abound in tunnels, sharp curves, high retaining walls,
and gradients up to 1 in 33. The usual speed is from 7 to 14 miles per hour, with
trains varying from 20 to 35 wagons each. The average cost of construction is
said to have been 50,000/. per mile. The charge for loading from deposits, convey-
ing and putting f.o.b. is about 1s. 8d. per ton. The lines terminate at their river
ends in one or more staithes, generally at right angles to the river. The wagons
are made either with bottom or with end doors, They run one by one to the end
of the staith, and their contents are discharged into a shoot projecting at an
inclination into the ship’s hold. Each wagon when emptied returns by gravity to
864 REPORT—1887.
another siding, and is succeeded by a full one. At the Orconera Co.’s Luchana
staithes, the height of the approaches was not sufficient to obtain the inclination
necessary for shoots. An ingenious arrangement, devised by Mr. Roe, was therefore
substituted. The staith terminates in a tower from which is suspended one end of
a platform, the other end being jointed to the staith at the level of the rails, draw-
bridge fashion. The platform has a discharging hole in the middle, and to the
underside is fixed a telescopic counterbalanced trunk, with doors at the bottom.
This is lowered or raised by a load of ore or by the balance weights controlled by a
brake respectively, the object being to introduce the first few loads of ore gently,
lest the bottom of the ship should’ be damaged. The Orconera Co.’s shipping
arrangements are considered the best in the port. About 150 tons per staith per
hour is the highest rate attained.
After some observations on wasteful selection, caused by the pressure of
consumers and others interested in maintaining a high percentage of metallic iron
in all ore exported, the author gives figures showing the cost of raising and putting
it f.o.b. to be usually from 4s, 11d. to 5s. 6d. per ton, but he thinks it is done in
some cases for less.
He then enters into the question of probable duration. The area of the
known deposits is about 7,000,000 square metres, equal to 12,600,000 tons per
metre of average depth. The quantity still remaining is estimated by different
authorities at from 50 to 200 million tons, and the duration at from 124 to 50
ears.
: The next question touched upon is whether the ore of Bilbao can be more cheaply
smelted into pig iron on the spot or in England. Inasmuch as two tons of ore at 5s.
per ton for freight are carried in the latter case, against one ton of coke at 5s. per
ton for freight in the former case, it would appear that Bilbao hasthe advantage.
An import duty of 10d, per ton on coke is balanced by the cheaper labour of
Spain. England has, however, better shipping facilities to most neutral markets.
Export statistics are given showing the following results, viz.:—That at present
hematite pig iron for British consumption can be obtained more cheaply by import-
ing ore, rather than pig iron, and the same applies to the north of France. The
British export trade, in the same article, has not yet been affected by Spanish
competition, as regards America, Holland, Belgium, Germany, and Austria.
But to Italy, Southern Russia, and Mediterranean ports generally, the Bilbao pig-
iron exports have increased nearly 300 per cent. since last year, and Great Britain
seems no longer able to compete.
In conclusion, the author tenders his thanks to the writers of the papers he has
consulted, and to various gentlemen connected with the iron-mining industry, who
have afforded him valuable assistance.
2. Improvements in the Manufacture of Portland Cement.
By Frepx. Ransome.
The author described the method up to the present time generally adopted in
making Portland cement, which he designated the ‘kiln process,’ and he pointed
out the several defects that he considers inherent in it. He then proceeded to
describe a method that he has devised and patented which is free from the defects
alluded to. Its main features consist in burning the materials of which the cement
is composed in the form of powder instead of in lumps, and he demonstrated the
economy of capital, space, time, fuel, &c., insured thereby.
He then gave a statement of facts bearing upon these results, describing actual
working details, illustrating his method by diagrams of the apparatus as devised,
and exhibiting samples of the materials employed, with sections of some briquettes
produced therefrom, with a table of the tensile strains to which they have been
subjected.
He concluded by alluding to further developments and the utilisation of other
materials capable of producing excellent cement, which could not be accomplished
economically by the ‘kiln process.’
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 865
3. The Severn Tunnel. By T. A. WALKER.
After referring to the inconvenience caused to traffic between Bristol and the
towns of South Wales before the introduction of railways by the broad tidal
estuary of the Severn and the détour which it necessitated in the Great Western
Railway, the author mentions that a bridge was designed by Sir J. Fowler to
cross the river at Chepstow; but this project was subsequently abandoned, and in
1862 the company established a steamboat ferry at New Passage which was met
by trains at either side. The tides, at times attaining a height of 45 ft., rendered
this arrangement very inconvenient, and in 1871 Mr. C. Richardson deposited
plans for the tunnel which has since been constructed.
It is situated about three-quarters of a mile south of the line followed by the
‘steamboats, where the river is 24+ miles wide at high water, and the deep water
channel is cut through hard Pennant rock of the Coal Measures. The Act was
obtained in the Session of 1872, and the Great Western Railway Company com-
menced the works in February 1873. The new line, as designed and approved
by Parliament, consisted of a railway descending from the South Wales Railway
for about four miles on a gradient of 1 in 100 to the deepest part of the river,
kmown as ‘ The Shoots,’ and ascending from that point by the same gradient of
1 in 100 to join the Bristol and South Wales Railway near Pilning station,
the total length of the railway being about eight miles, and the length of the
tunnel four and a half miles. The thickness of rock above the crown of the arch
was in one place 15 ft., in another 30 ft., but generally from 80 to 100 ft.
The company made numerous preliminary experiments with a view to ascer-
tain the nature of the work to be undertaken, during which considerable
difficulties were experienced, owing to the large quantity of water met with.
Thess were continued till October 1879, when the heading on formation level
then being driven westward from the Sudbrook shaft tapped a great spring
of fresh water which proved to be in vastly greater volume than the pumps
could master, and in twenty-four hours the whole of the works in connection
with that shaft were drowned. The pumps at the other shafts also proved
unequal to the quantity which percolated from the adjoining heading, and the
works were brought to an entire standstill at the end of October 1879.
The heading under the river had been advanced so far that only 130 yards
intervened between that being driven from Sudbrook eastwards and that driven
from the Gloucestershire side westwards. At this stage Sir John Hawkshaw, in
conjunction with Mr. Charles Richardson, took entire charge of the work, and the
contract was let to the author in December 1879.
After narrating the various steps taken to remove the large quantity of water
in the works and describing the difficulties met with, the paper states that by
November 1880 the depth of water was reduced to 30 ft. on the bottom heading. As
‘the progress was then particularly slow, and it was known that there existed at about
1,000 ft. under the river from the shaft an iron door, by which the water flowing
from under the river could be stopped from coming to the shaft, the author sent
-one.of the divers, named Lambert, with two assistant divers to help him, to try to
shut this door. As the length of hose he would have to drag with him to supply
air to his helmet was 1,200 !t., it was impossible for him to attempt this without
assistance. One diver was stationed in the bottom of the shaft to pull down the
hose and feed it forward into the heading. Lambert, with another diver, then
‘proceeded about 500 ft. up the heading, and then Lambert alone, the other man
remaining at the end of 600 it. to drag forward and feed to Lambert the floating
air hose as he advanced. By this means Lambert was enabled to reach within
‘about 100 ft. of the door, but the friction of the hose on the roof of the heading
then became too great for his powers, and though he sat down and pluckily began
to draw the hose forward, and so proceed a few feet ata time, he was at last.
compelled to give it up in despair and to return to the shaft defeated.
Wearing the Fleuss diving dress, however, Lambert again proceeded on
November 8 to shut the door. He reached the door in safety, pulled up one of
the rails of the tramway which passed through it, but then, no doubt overcome by
1887. 8K
866 REPORT—1887.
the novelty of his situation, he returned to the shaft without shutting the door.
On the 10th he made another attempt, reached the door in safety, passed through
and let down a flap valve upon a pipe which passed under the door, pulled up the
other rail, closed the door, and then screwed round the rod of a sluice valve on a
pipe which passed under the door on the opposite side from the one which was
protected by the flap valve, and returned in triumph to the shaft.
He was absent on this journey one hour and twenty minutes in total darkness
up a small heading, in which he met with iron skips standing on the rails, or
overturned by the side of them, lumps of rock or falls from the roof, enough to
make the bravest man nervous. It was not, however, till December 6 that the
water was all out of the iron pit, and there was then only 2 ft. of water in the
heading under the river. On the 7th a foreman walked up the heading to the
door which Lambert had closed, and found that all the work had been thoroughly
done, but that the sluice valve having a left-handed screw, Lambert, instead of
closing the sluice, had opened it wide, and that accounted for our obtaining no
relief from the shutting of this door. By closing the sluice valve we obtained
immediate relief, and were able from that time forward to keep the heading dry
and to have always one pump in reserve.
On December 18, 1880, Mr. J. Clarke Hawkshaw and the author, with the
principal foreman of the miners, went into the heading into which the great
spring had broken, and were able from some little distance to see the point where
the timbering had given way, and where the water was pouring in, and arranged
for the building of a head wall across the heading to stop back the water from the
spring.
: As soon as possible the heading under the river was examined. So far as it
was in the Pennant sandstone it was in a fairly good condition, but where on the
ascending gradient towards the Gloucestershire side, it passed from the Pennant
sandstone to the red marl, the timber had given way, and a great cavity existed
nearly 20 ft. high, above the roof of the heading, into which there was great fear
that the river itself might break.
The total number of men employed when the works were progressing most
actively was about 5,000.
In the construction of the tunnel itself there were no exceptional difficulties
except those arising from the quantity of water.
The mining and lining of the tunnel proper was commenced early in the year
1881, and after many difficulties and unforeseen obstacles the whole was completed
in April 1885.
Immediately after Sir John Hawkshaw had taken charge of the works as chief
engineer, he decided to lower the gradients under the river by 15 ft.
On October 10, 1883, being within a week of four years from the time the
tunnel had been drowned by the great spring, the heading on the new gradient,
. 15 ft. below the existing heading, tapped nearly at the same point the same spring
in much greater volume, but by again sending up the diver the door was closed.
in this heading, into which the spring had broken, and the works again cleared
of water.
Only three days after this spring flooded the works, one of the largest pumps
in the next shaft broke down, and that shaft was also filled with water, and on
October 17 a great tidal wave passed up the Bristol Channel, submerging all the
low-lying parts of Cardiff and Newport, drowning hundreds of cattle in the
marshes near the estuary of the river, passing through the houses inhabited by the
men near Caldicot, first reaching the engine fires at the Marsh pit and extinguish-
ing them, and then flowed down the Marsh pit in a cataract 110 ft. deep, im-
prisoning below eighty-three men who were at work upon the night shift. Being
totally dark, and the whole of the district around the shaft for a width of a
' quarter of a mile being from 3 ft. to 4 ft. under water, it was with great difficulty
that assistance could be sent to the men; and the water continuing to rise in the
finished tunnel and the bottom of the shaft till it reached within 8ft. of the
crown of the arch, the men who had retreated before the rising water in the
tunnel had reached a stage in one of the partially finished lengths, where they
aie
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 867
remained in great terror till those upon the surface succeeded in stopping the
water from flowing down the shaft, when a boat was obtained and the men were
rescued. These three disasters occurred within one week.
The bricks used in the tunnel were all vitrified bricks from Staffordshire or
Cattybrook, near Bristol, or made upon the ground from shale excavated from the
tunnel itself, which made a stronger brick than either Staffordshire or Cattybrook.
The whole of the brickwork was set in Portland cement mortar mixed with washed
sand in the proportion of two of sand to one of cement. The laying of the per-
manent road through the tunnel was completed at the end of August 1885. The
water was finally shut out from the works on August 11, 1885. The first
passenger train passed through the tunnel on September 5, 1885.'
The water from the great spring, which was blocked out of the tunnel on
August 11, began to rise through the ground till on October 24 it showed on the
pressure gauges fixed in the brickwork a pressure of 533 Ibs. on the square inch.
‘When the pressure reached this point the bricks began to fly with reports like
pistol shots, and to break, so that considerable quantities of water entered the
tunnel. The pressure rose at one time to 57 lbs. on the square inch, when Sir
John Hawkshaw decided that it would be unsafe to work the tunnel under so
great a pressure, and arrangements were made to pump the spring permanently.
On November 22, 1886, the line was inspected by Colonel Rich, and it
was finally opened for passenger traffic on December 1. During the six months
that have since elapsed not the slightest hitch has occurred in working the tunnel.
The speed of the trains has often been as much as a mile a minute.
The ventilation has been perfect, and the relief to the traffic between South
Wales and the south-west of England has been very sensibly felt; this traffic
will no doubt, with the accommodation afforded by the tunnel, be greatly increased
when the trains from London to South Wales run direct through the tunnel, instead
of, as at present, by Gloucester.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On certain Laws relating to the Régime of Rivers and Estuaries, and on
the possibility of Experiments on a small scale. By Professor OsBoRNE
Reynotps, LL.D., F.R.S.—See Reports p. 555.
2. Inyprovement of the Access to the Mersey Ports.
By W. Suetrorp, M.Inst.C.H.
The author, whose attention was specially directed to the condition of the
Liverpool bar during the parliamentary inquiries relating to the Manchester Ship
Canal, after referring briefly to the past history of the bar, draws attention to the
geographical situation of Liverpool Bay as having an important bearing on the
proper mode of dealing with the bar.
The tide in Liverpool Bay has a great vertical range,” and the capacious natural
tidal reservoir of the Mersey causes a strong local current into and out of the bay ;
but there is no external or alongshore current independent of this capable of
removing heavy detritus to a distance, although the character of the bottom shows
that the finer suspended matters brought down by the river are carried away and
deposited in deep water. :
The reasons for the absence of such an external current are evident, since the
bay is not only considerably landlocked by the Welsh and Lancashire coasts, but
' The paper has been printed in extenso in the Liverpool Daily Post of September
3, 1887
= Thirty feet at springs.
3K 2
868 REPORT—1887.
almost directly opposite to it is that part of the Irish Sea where there is no~
perceptible current, owing to the meeting of the branches of the Atlantic tidal wave
which have passed round the north and south of Ireland.
Admitting the disadvantage of the absence of a transporting current, the author
considers the great volume of the local tidal flow sufficient, if properly directed, to
maintain a navigable charmel at the bar, which would greatly reduce the delay and
risk to shipping caused by the present want of depth over it, and thus materially
benefit the trade of the Mersey.
The fact that the same tidal flow where directed by natural sandbanks does
now maintain a channel about 6,000 feet wide at low water springs, and from 24
to 48 feet deep for over nine miles from New Brighton, is adduced as a proof that
the quantity of tidal water is sufficient to maintain such a channel.
That it fails to do so now where the bar occurs (i.e., from 93 to 11 miles from
New Brighton) is sufficiently explained by the increase of the effective width of the
channel at the bar from 6,000 to 23,000 feet.
The author finds that the sectional area of the low-water channel from New
Brighton to the bar is tolerably constant, as might be expected from its being
formed and maintained by a constant flow of water through yielding materials.
He accounts for the increase of 30 per cent. in the effective area at the bar
itself by the eddies and irregularities in the flow which attend so great an increase
of width, and by the tendency of the flood tide to break through the south side of
the horseshoe ridge of the bar.
The author considers that a channel formed through the bar by dredging
would not be self-maintaining on account of this tendency of the flood tide to
break through the sides, and so to keep open subsidiary channels which would rob
the main channel of the full scouring power of the ebb.
In order to enable a permanent channel to be made, or at least maintained by
natural scour, the author would restrict the width of the low-water channel over
the bar by extending the natural sandbanks seaward.
To do this he would deposit mounds of rough stone, protected where necessary
by larger blocks.
The proper direction in which the channel should be fixed by the works, and
their height and distance apart, can only be determined by a minute examination of
the present channel and tidal currents, but the present direction of the bar channel
appears particularly favourable, and it is not anticipated that the works need be
carried to a greater height than four feet above low water of spring tides.
They would leave undisturbed the present navigation of the Rock and Formby
Channels, and they would not involve a disturbance of the natural regimen of the
bay.
The communication is illustrated by a model of the bay, extending from
Liverpool to the deep water outside the bar, which shows clearly the advantage
of the present line of the channel as an access to deep water, and the prevalence of
shallows and shifting sands on the south side of the Burbo banks which render
extremely undesirable the opening of a new channel in that direction.
The possibility of such an occurrence has long been recognised, and in the
author’s opinion is a danger to be carefully guarded against in the interests of the
Mersey ports.
3. The Manchester Ship Canal. By E. Leaver WILLIAMS.
The author mentioned that, after unsuccessful attempts in the years 1883 and
1884, Acts of Parliament have been obtained in the sessions of 1885, 1886, and
1887, which give the Manchester Ship Canal Co. power to construct a large ship
canal from the deep water at Eastham, near Liverpool, to Manchester.
The Board of Trade having certified that the conditions in the Acts relating to
capital have been complied with, the contract for the whole of the works has
been let to Mr. T. A. Walker, of Westminster, and the construction of the canal
will be commenced as soon as the arrangements, now in progress, for the purchase
of the lands required are completed.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 869
The canal will be of greater bottom width than the Suez, Amsterdam, or any
other ship canal, and it will absorb the whole of the waters of the rivers Mersey
and Irwell and their tributaries between Manchester and Warrington.
From Eastham to Warrington, a distance of twenty miles, the tidal water of
the Mersey estuary will be impounded on one level by large entrance locks at
Hastham.
The depth of the water in the canal will vary with the height of the tide, but
will never be less than twenty-six feet. The minimum bottom width of the canal
will be 120 feet, or nearly forty feet more than the Suez Canal.
Above Warrington large ship locks will be constructed at Latchford, Irlam, and
Barton to raise the canal to the level of Manchester. The total length of the canal
will be thirty-five and a half miles.
Docks, quays, and basins will be constructed at Manchester, Barton, Warring-
ton, Partington, and Weston Point.
The existing docks at Runcorn (now the property of the Manchester Ship
Canal Co.) are connected with the ship canal, and will afford the means of develop-
ing the trade of Staffordshire and the Potteries.
The docks at Weston Point and Ellesmere Port are on the ship canal.
The Bridgwater canals recently purchased by the Ship Canal Co. are in con-
nection with the proposed new docks at Manchester, and all the inland canals are
in direct communication with the Bridgwater Canal, which will also join the ship
canal at Runcorn and Barton.
A model of the canal was exhibited, and reference was made to a larger model
on view at the Manchester Jubilee Exhibition.
4. Experiments on the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat on a large scale.
By E. A. Cowrrr and W. Anperson.—See Reports, p. 562.
5. What is a Drought?! By G. J. Symons, F.R.S.
After referring to the difficulties he experienced more than twenty years ago in
arriving at a definition of a ‘rainy day,’ and, at a later period, in regard to
drought, the author stated that in 1880 he adopted a classification in regard to
droughts which has been generally used up to the present time: it is as follows :—
Absolute droughts.—Periods of fourteen or more consecutive days absolutely
without rain.
Partial droughts.—Periods of twenty-eight or more consecutive days in which
the total rainfall does not exceed 0°25 inch.
These definitions include the two elements of quantity of rain and of duration,
and neither opinion nor imagination can affect them. They have, however, no
connection with or resemblance to that which engineers, who are familiar with
water-works construction, consider as a drought. And the object of this paper is
to try and find a common ground whereby the records of the nearly three thousand
observers of rainfall in the British Isles may be utilised in the form most useful to
engineers.
Among water engineers, however, droughts of 140, 160, 200, and even 240
days are recognised. It is quite certain that these are not ‘absolute ’ nor even
‘ partial’ droughts, according to the definition that we have laid down, because
even in a dry place like London a register for thirty years gives no ‘absolute’ drought
of more than twenty-eight days, nor ‘ partial’ drought of more than forty-one
days. It is therefore evident that the drought of the engineer is something much
less severe than even my ‘ partial’ drought.
The author then discusses this discrepancy, and concludes with a suggestion
which might meet the requirements of engineers; at any rate, it will afford some-
thing to criticise.
Long droughts.—Periods of not less than sixty days with a total rainfall of less
than 2°00 in.
1 Monthly Meteorological Magazine, vol. xxii. (1887), p. 121.
870 REPORT—1887.
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.
The following Papers were read :—
1. The Forth Bridge Works.! By A. 8. Biaeart.
The erection of the main steel piers of the Forth Bridge is now practically com-
pleted. The only exception from the lines indicated in my paper two years ago
requiring to be noticed is the case of the internal viaduct, which was built in
position instead of being raised in a completed state.
The working of the plant proved satisfactory in all respects. On some occa-
sions the piers and platforms were raised as much as 48 feet within eight days.
A point of vital importance is the starting of the various members of the piers
at their proper angle. A slight movement at the point of fixture may be found to
produce an initial stress as great as the full working stress. Hence, in setting out,
not only had great care to be exercised, but many points involving careful calcula-
tion and supervision arose.
Erection of Cantilevers—This was commenced before the piers had attained
their full height. The bottom member was built on the overhang system, at first,
by means of an ordinary crane. Resort was afterwards had to a cage placed at
the end of each tube within which the men can work. This cage is secured to rings
encircling the tube, and as it is built of exactly similar sections, it can easily be
moved forward by removing the two back sections and placing them in front.
Above the cage is placed a hydraulic crane for manipulating the beams and plates
brought out on a tramway running alongside the tube.
When fully 100 feet out support was given to the tube by carrying up temporary
ties to the main piers. Two kinds of ties are employed, the main object of the one
being to assist in the erection of the other, and afterwards serve to carry it. On the
completion of the ties the platforms for erecting Bay No. 1 were built immediately
over the bottom member, and afterwards raised into position. Subsequent raisings
are accomplished by hydraulic jacks. From these platforms the struts, ties, and
other parts of the bridge are being built.
A most interesting and important part of the work consists in observing and pro-
viding for the vertical movements and stresses of the various members of the canti-
levers. Those of the bottom member are alike numerous and intricate. First there is
a deflection due to the tube’s own weight and that of the plant ; then an upward rise
from the pull of the link ties; an upward again, occasioned by the weight of the
other tie and its supports hanging on the link tie; another upward caused by the
hydraulic rams raising the tube ; a fall due to the weight of permanent material of
the cantilever being built in position; a rise when the permanent ties will be con-
nected, and finally a gradual fall as the cantilevers are built out. These form seven
clearly marked movements to be considered and provided for, the ultimate aim
being to leave in the tube only the normal initial stress.
The experience gained from the work of erection already completed has assisted
greatly in enabling us to prepare the plant for the future work. Thus, after full
consideration, Sir John Fowler, Mr. Baker, and Mr. Arrol feel warranted in
adopting another principle for the erection of the next bay of the cantilevers.
Cranes, some at high altitudes above their work, and light cages and platforms,
will be the distinguishing feature of the new method.
2. The City of London and Southwark Subway.”
By J. H. Greatuean, M.Inst.C.#.
The Subway Company was incorporated by an Act of Parliament in 1884, and
authorised to construct a double line of subway from King William Street to the
} Published in extenso in Industries.
? Published in the Zngineer, Oct. 7, 1887 ; and in Industries, Oct. 21, 1887.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 871
«Elephant and Castle’; and by an Act of the present year the company has been
invested with power to extend the line to the Clapham Road at Stockwell. The
subway is intended to give better access to and from the City for the densely
populated and rapidly growing districts on the south side of the Thames, now only
directly served by omnibuses traversing crowded thoroughfares, including London
Bridge.
= her over three miles in length, the ‘up’ and ‘ down’ lines will be carried in
separate tunnels placed at such a depth under the surface of the roads as to avoid
all interference with sewers and pipes. Where not under the river the subway
will be under the roads entirely. At each station, of which there will be six,
powerful hydraulic lifts will be provided in addition to the stairs.
The traction will be by stationary engines and endless cables, similar to the
system adopted on cable tramways. By this means light trains can be economi-
cally run at short intervals in place of the heavy locomotive trains now run on the
underground railways.
The whole power, both for traction and lifts, will be placed at one station about
the middle of the line.
The carriages, which will be very commodious, are to be of the longitudinal
type, similar to Pullman and ordinary tramway cars.
The first tunnel was commenced on the north side of the Thames in November
last year. By the beginning of September it had been driven under the river
Thames and the roads for a distance of 1,600 feet. The second tunnel, commenced
at a later date, was progressing at the same rate. The mode of construction is very
simple. An overlapping ‘shield’ at the advanced end of the tunnel, forced for-
ward by hydraulic pressure as the material is excavated from before it, enables six
rings of cast iron, each 1 foot 7 inches long, to be built up under cover of the over-
lapping cylinder every day. As the shield is advanced an annular space is left
outside the iron tunnel lining, and this is filled with semi-fluid cement by means of
an apparatus worked by compressed air, which is fully described in the paper.
Arrangements for tunnelling through soft or loose water-bearing material were also
described, with illustrations and a model.
3. On a High-speed Steam or Hydraulic Revolving Engine."
By Artur Rice.
The author describes results of further experience with a new description of
revolving engine, of which a general account was given at the meeting of the
Association last year.
The engine consists of several cylinders, all of which revolve on a common
centre, while their pistons are connected with crank-pins on the rim of a wheel
which turns on a different centre. By this arrangement there is obtained a move-
ment of the pistons within the cylinders, corresponding in effect with a true
reciprocation ; and as all the pistons and cylinders are balanced with each other,
there is no loss of power or excessive vibration such as is found to accompany
ordinary reciprocation; and engines of this revolving type can be driven at very
high speeds with a perfectly steady and uniform motion.
One hydraulic engine of this class has been running for some months in London,
driving a dynamo and 100 incandescent lights from the pressure mains of the
Hydraulic Power Supply Co. The pressure is 700 lbs. per square inch, and this
particular engine makes 250 revolutions per minute, developing 15 horse-power,
with 33 gallons of water per minute; this corresponds with a duty of 80 per cent.
It is governed by causing the piston-stroke to vary; and this method of re-
gulation maintains a uniform speed, although the power may vary, so that the
lights remain quite steady, however many be switched on or off.
A similar engine has been driving a capstan at the Millwall Docks, London, It
can be reversed or give any variation of power in either direction of motion.
1 Published in extenso in Iron, Sept. 9, 1887.
872 REPORT—1887.
Steam engines of this revolving type have been in continuous regular work tor
more than a year, and much useful experience acquired in their use.
In these engines governing is accomplished by varying the rate of expansion,
with a result that great economy in fuel is secured with a high speed. Their
dynamic balance is perfectly adjusted ; they work smoothly and quietly, and drive
with remarkable regularity.
4. An improved Steel Railway Sleeper, with Chairs pressed out of the Solid.
By Henry WHITE.
The author’s object has been to produce out of steel plate, or, still better, strip,
rolled to a trough-like section, a sleeper which shall have chairs, solid with it, to
suit any ordinary type of rail, thus avoiding bolts and rivets.
To accomplish this he has special dies, which are fitted to a suitable hydraulic
or other press, or pair of presses, if it be desired to make both chairs at the same
time. The trough steel being first cut to the required length, is heated and inserted
between the open dies of a first or preliminary press or pair of presses, which
roughly form two corrugations at each end corresponding with the jaws of the
chairs. The metal for this is gathered up endwise, thus shortening the original
length of the piece of steel operated on. Another heat being taken upon it, the
partly made sleeper is placed between the dies of the finishing press or presses,
which give the jaws their final form. The lower dies in this case haye two hinged
pieces which project upwards, and when the upper ones descend they close inwards,
causing one of each pair of jaws to assume the * undercut’ form necessary to fit the
rail and hold it firmly in its place. A loose piece resembling the lower part of the
rail is inserted between the jointed pieces, to form a resistance-block for them to
close against.
The paper is illustrated by a sectional drawing showing the action of the dies,
and also by a model made on the scale of 14 inch to the foot. It is claimed that
sleepers so formed give a larger base to the rail, hold it more firmly, and are stiffer
than any others hitherto used.
5. Specimens of Steel produced by skidding Railway Wheels.'
By Jerumian Hwan, M.List.C.L.
Where a heavy gradient or incline occurs upon a railway, necessitating the
frequent and severe use of brakes to prevent too rapid descents, pieces of metal of
a peculiar form resembling the leaves of ferns have frequently been found alongside
the rails.
Close examination of the specimens will satisfy the observer :—
1. That though differing in size and colour, they have all the same origin and
the same cause.
2, That being found on steep inclines only, they are probably due in some way
to the action of the brakes of descending trains.
5. That being (as will hereafter be shown) of steel, they must have come from
the tyres or rails, and not from the brake blocks.
4, That in assuming their present form, they have undergone considerable
pressure, and at a temperature higher than ordinary.
It is the purpose of the paper to consider, and determine if possible, how these
specimens have been produced, and how far their existence has significance ; either
practically as an element of destruction or danger on railways, or scientifically
as indicating what may happen when the power of metals to resist pressure or
abrasion has been exceeded. The following table of analyses made by Mr.
Routledge, chemical analyst to the North Eastern Railway Company, makes «
comparison between the composition of the specimens and that of tyres and rails.
The author proceeds to give the opinions of certain authorities connected with
1 This paper will be found in extenso in the Engineer for Sept. 9, 1887, and also-
in various other technical journals. j
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 873.
railway working, or otherwise interested in the matter, as to the origin of the
specimens. The prevalent opinion seems to be that they were torn from the tyres
of skidding wheels, rather than from the rails upon which they skidded during the
descent of trains upon inclines. Mr. Routledge, however, having regard to the
evidence of the analyses, is of opinion that they have come from the rails, and not
from the tyres. It appears that the steel of which the tyres analysed were com-
posed differs from that of which the rails were made by higher silicon and lower
manganese, which is not the case with the specimens. The presence of tin in the
latter is somewhat remarkable, but that element has sometimes been found in pig
1von.
eee Greatest
lose | Tyres Rails resem-
mene i | blance to |
ee - f
Column No. . | 1 2 3 | 4 Dreeee 7 | 8
eee 2 = =e | | ee ee ee x = =
| from} to | average from, to | average
| Phosphorus -| 06 |:04./-05 | 046 | -03 } -07 05 Rails
) Sulphur | O07 |-01 |-09) 062 | -04 | 14 ‘OT Rails
; Carbon -B7 | -24 | -63 | 486 | 35 | “60 “475 Tyres
Silicon : | 09 [16 | °33 | ‘274 | -O4 | 10 ‘07 Rails
Manganese . F a4} AO | 2M a2) "390 | -80 pa “90 Rails
Tin ‘ | O07 |—]— —
re, 98°35 | — | —| 98-742 | — | —| 98-435] Rails
| | | | | -
Total 10000 | | {10000 | | | 100-00
The author thinks, however, that inasmuch as blows, or charges, of steel are
often run indiscriminately into ingots for rails or for tyres, and as it cannot be
stated certainly what was the composition of the identical tyres and rails con-
cerned in forming the specimens analysed, it is scarcely prudent to found any
strong argument upon these analyses.
The practical lesson taught by the specimens is that wheels should never be
skidded. But, on the other hand, trains, whether passenger, goods, or mineral,
should always be retarded by braking a sufficient number of wheels to effect the
desired object, with a pressure somewhat short of skidding. Skidding wheels is
indeed a barbarous and ineffectual attempt at retardation, whilst it is a most
effectual cause of disintegration.
The specimens looked at from a scientific point of view are interesting. Their
colour indicates that they have been formed at a high temperature, as they have
clearly all been originally coated with magnetic oxide (Fe,0,). The comparatively
large body of metal forming the rail and its continual presentation of new surfaces
during skidding make it improbable that it could have reached any high tempera-
ture: whereas skidded wheels might easily present the same surface long enough
to accumulate heat locally to a greater extent than could be, pari passu, dissipated
by conduction. The multitude of folds which appear in all the specimens, and the
tendency to spread into various forms, seem to indicate that under the pressure to
which they have been subjected the metal has ‘flowed’ with great freedom.
Reviewing the evidence obtained so far, the author inclines to accept the
following conclusions, viz. :—
4 1. That the pieces have come from the tyres of skidding wheels, and not from
the ratls.
2. That they were produced at a sufficiently high temperature for the formation
of magnetic oxide, z.e., at a red heat.
3. That they were forced out from behind the skidding wheels (the folds being:
on the under side) until from their accumulated length and weight they fell off.
4, That the only way to avoid the destructive action which they indicate is to.
brake more wheels to an extent short of skidding.
S74. REPORT—1887.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On Copper Wire. By W.H. Prexce, F.R.S.
Four copper wires have recently been erected between London and Dublin.
The aérial portion was built with No. 123, 097 inch in diameter, weighing 150
pounds per mile, having a specified resistance of 6-05° per mile and a tensile
strength of 490 pounds, or 293 tons per inch.
The resistance per mile when erected was 5:695* at 30° F. The capacity per
mile was 01319 microfarad, and the insulation per mile was 70 megohms at 30° F.
Copper wire is subject to strict inspection. It is gauged and tested for ductility
and for tensile strength. The wire now supplied exceeds the specified demand.
Its tensile strength equals 30°6 tons per square inch, and its conductivity is 98 per
cent. of that of pure copper. An entirely new method of wiring has been adopted.
The wire is drawn up and regulated to its proper stress by a dynamometer. ‘The
factor of safety is 4, A table is given showing the sags and stresses with varying
spans and temperatures for iron and copper. The wire is bound to the insulator
by finer copper wire, and the joints are the form known as the ‘ Britannia’ and
soldered. It requires very careful handling to avoid indentation. Scratches and
kinks are very injurious. It is practically free from the throttling effect of electro-
magnetic inertia, and by the reduction in resistance and capacity it has trebled the
efficiency of aérial wires. Various copper wires are now being erected.
2. Fast Speed Telegraphy.' By W. H. Prexce, F.R.S.
The author explained that the object of his paper was to describe the evolution
of the system of fast speed telegraphy since it left the hands of Wheatstone and
Stroh. The following table illustrates the progress made :—
Year Words per minute Speed to Ireland
1870 80 ) 50°3
1875 100 70
| 1880 200 150
1885 350 250
| Now | 600 462 |
These results have been the consequences of: (1) Greater perfection of appara-
tus; (2) the elimination of electromagnetic inertia; (3) the improvement of cir-
cuits ; (4) introduction of high-speed repeaters.
A complete set of automatic instruments consists of: (1) the perforator, which
punches a strip of paper with holes on the principle of the Jacquard loom, so as to
regulate the number, order, and rate at which alternate currents of electricity are
sent along a wire by (2) the transmitter, which is the automatic part of the appara-
tus, sending along the line those currents which at the distant end are recorded as
words in the form of dots and dashes, replacing the slow and uncertain manipula-
tion of the hand; (3) the receiver, which is an ink writer of extreme delicacy and
great rapidity, recording the words in the Morse character.
As the speed of transmission increased, it was found that one great source of
trouble was the sparking at the points of contact, which dirties them by disintegrating
the metal. Small condensers of 3, microfarad capacity have been applied, and the
evil thereby considerably modified ; but it has been still further reduced by switch-
ing out the galvanometer while the transmitter is at work, for sparking is princi-
pally due to the presence of electromagnetic inertia in the apparatus.
! Published in extenso in Industries, vol. iii. p. 296.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 875
It was thought at one time that the speed of working was limited by the retard-
ation of the line circuit, but a careful inquiry into the phenomena of electromag-
netic inertia (‘ Journal of the Society of Telegraph Engineers,’ 1887, vol. v. p. 27) led
to the conclusion that the principal source of slowness was in the electromagnet.
Every electromagnet has thus a time constant which determines the rate beyond
which it cannot work. This time constant can be obtained only by experiment,
for it depends on the quality and quantity of iron used, on the form of the core, on
the resistance and quality of insulated copper wire, on the number of turns, and on
the way they are wound. After numerous experiments it was found that this
effect of the electromagnet could be eliminated by the use of a shunted condenser,
and the introduction of this instrument has had the most marvellous effect on the
speed of working. It has entirely eliminated any hindrance caused by the electro-
magnet, and now the only cause of slow working is the mechanical efficiency of the
apparatus and the condition of the circuit.
Four hundred and fifty words a minute are now obtained with ease on circuits
two hundred miles in length, and on some circuits six hundred words per minute
are reached; but four hundred and fifty are more than can practically be coped
with, and therefore at present the apparatus exceeds in efficiency the capacity of the
staff; but this speed rapidly falls off as the retardation of the circuit increases, and
while it is possible to work at the highest speed between London and Leeds, only
one-fourth of this speed is practicable to Glasgow. If, however, we place at Leeds
a repeater, which will respond to and relay on these frequent currents, we ought
to get the maximum speed to Glasgow, and this is done by the high-speed repeater.
These instruments are very extensively used. There are special relay offices at
Haverfordwest, Nevin, and Anglesey to provide full speed to Ireland. The speed
to Ireland in 1870 was fifty words per minute. It is now four hundred and sixty
two words—a ninefold advance. Leeds, Manchester, Bristol, and Preston have
also special relay rooms, and there are 101 repeaters in use.
The introduction of high-speed repeaters and the use of shunted condensers have
marked epochs in the evolution of telegraphy as eventful as the introduction of
duplex working or of the telephone.
3. Underground Conductors for Electric Lighting, Sc.
By Professor G. Forzes, M.A., F.R.S. L. & HE.
The author has designed the proposed system to fulfil several important
conditions, :
1, The conductors and their insulation should be economical in construction.
2. They should be protected from injury by a trough or casing.
a This trough should be of small cost and its merits must have been well
tested.
4, The trough must be capable of carrying conductors at several different
potentials.
5. It must be possible gradually to add to the conductors as the consumption
of electricity in a district increases.
; 6. An easy means must be provided for taking branches from the mains into
ouses.
7. An easy means must be provided for leading the conductors round gas and
water pipes, and other obstacles.
The first condition can best be secured by having bare copper-wire conductors
and air-insulation. The second and third conditions by using ordinary cast-iron
gas pipes whose qualities are thoroughly well known, and whose laying and repair-
ing and keeping water-tight is everyday work in every town in the country.
The fourth condition is attained by having porcelain insulating discs, two in
each cast-iron pipe. Lach insulator has as many holes through it as there are
different potentials to be maintained. These porcelain discs are supported on the
iron pipes only at a few points, the intervening spaces allowing drainage in the
cast-iron pipes, and also permitting dry air to be forced through a system of
pipes.
876 REPORT—1887.
The fifth and sixth conditions are attained by the special peculiarity of this
invention, which consists in using thin split copper tubes with a quarter-inch gap.
at the split. These are each six inches longer than one of the iron pipes. By
pinching the end of one of these tubes and inserting it in the end of another and
continuing the process, a long continuous tube can be made for carrying the bare
copper-wire conductors. These continuous tubes pass through the holes in the
insulators. The number of copper wires can be added to as the requirements of a
district increase. When two-thirds full these wires are all withdrawn and a bare
wire cable filling the whole space of the tubes is drawn through. The wires are
drawn through from man-hole to man-hole. A man-hole is placed at each corner
ot a street and serves also asa sump for pumping out accumulations of water.
When it is required to connect a house to the mains the iron pipe is drilled and
tapped with a one-inch hole. Insulated wires are soldered to the copper tubes of
the required potentials, and are led to the houses through one-inch gas pipes, which
are screwed into the hole tapped in the cast-iron pipes. It will be noticed that the
split tubes do not act primarily as the conductors of the main current, but mainly
as a support for the conductors, and secondarily by contact with these as a means
of connection to the houses, leaving the wires free to be removed or added to.
The seventh condition is to provide for getting round an obstacle. This is best
done by having hand-holes at the ends of the cast-iron pipes on each side of the
obstacle and joining these by lead-covered insulated cables of the full current-carry-
ing capacity of the system. These cables can be bent round the obstacle and are in
no way a weak point of the system.
After describing, in these general terms, the special features of the split tube
system of laying underground conductors, the author proceeded to explain the
method of laying them in the ordinary routine. For a three-wire system and a
maximum of 2,000 lamps of three-quarter ampéres a three-inch gas pipe may be
used. Each insulating disc has three one-inch holes in the positions of the angles
of an equilateral triangle. In adding fresh lengths of conductor three split tubes
are first pinched at their ends and pushed into the ends of the three split tubes
projecting from the last cast-iron pipe laid. Two insulators are next run along
the split tube to a distance from either end of the tubes of one-fourth of their length.
A fresh cast-iron pipe is now run along over the split tubes and their insulators,
the latter fitting loosely in the pipes. The joint of the pipes is made with packing
in the ordinary way. A new length is added in the same way. Man-holes must
be placed at each corner of a street, and may be half a mile apart. The cast-iron
pipes fit into side-holes in these boxes, and are fitted in with water-tight cement or
packing. Wires are pulled through from man-hole to man-hole and may be
soldered together across the man-hole. Finally holes are drilled and tapped in the
cast-iron pipes beside those houses which require a supply of electricity. Two
insulated wires, bared and flattened at their ends, are soldered to those split
copper tubes which are of the right potentials, a one-inch gas pipe is screwed into
the hole tapped in the main pipe, and the insulated wire is thus led into the house.
4. On an Electric Owrrent Meter.
By Professor G. Forzes, M.A., F.R.S. L. & L.—See Reports, p. 564.
5. On the Condition of Maximum Work obtainable from a given source of
alternating Electromotive Force. By Gisprrr Kapp.
A circuit having a sensible self-induction L, and resistance 7, receives current
either from an alternate current dynamo direct or through a transformer, the E.M.F.
impressed on the terminals of the circuit being supposed to vary according to a
simple sine function, such as e =: E sin (a +), where e is the E.M.F. at any moment,
E is its maximum value, ¢ is the angle of lag, and a=2znt, being the reciprocal
of the periodic time, and ¢ the time at which the electromotive force e is taken.
Graphically this electromotive force can be represented by the projection of OE=E
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 877
upon the vertical and the current ¢=I sin a can be represented by the projection
of OL=I upon the vertical. In the diagram the maximum electromotive force of
self-induction is given by the line OK. = Ex, and the maximum electromotive force
necessary to overcome the inert resistance of the circuit by the line OEp = Fp.
The work in time dt is dW = s sin (a+q) sin ada, which integrated be-
<7
tween the limits a=o and a=2z, and divided by the periodic time, gives the rate
of working—
w= EL cos o.
Let e and 7 represent the measured values of electromotive force and current;
then we have also—
W =ei cos ¢.
In a continuous current system @ =0, and the measured volt-ampére capacity of
the plant is e?, all of which is available for doing work. In an alternate current
system the available work is reduced in the ratio of 1 to cos @; hence cos @ might
be called the plant efficiency.
To make the work a maximum for a given E, I cos ¢ must be a maximum.
From diagram
E.=E sin ¢;
and since Ke =27nLi, I = ee 2 and
2nnL
E sin ¢ cos d
u Se ee
con 2nnL :
which becomes a maximum, for ¢=45°. In this case
Ep = Ex,
878 REPORT—1887.
Maximum work is done in the circuit if the electromotive force of self-induction
equals the electromotive force necessary to overcome the inert resistance.
In case the circuit contain a source of counter electromotive force, such for
instance as a series wound, continuous current motor, with well-laminated field,
excited to a low degree of magnetisation, the same reasoning applies. For the
counter electromotive force is in this case proportional to the current, and therefore
of the same character and period as the electromotive force necessary to overcome
the inert resistance— Ep =(r+K)I,
where K is a coefficient depending on the constructive data of the machine, and on
its speed, but not depending on its self-induction and periodic time. In a good
motor 7 must be small as compared with K, and therefore the approximate con-
dition to obtain maximum work is that the counter electromotive force developed
in the armature should equal the electromotive force of self-induction. In this
case the plant efficiency is about 71 per cent.
Motors as usually constructed, and running at moderate speed, do, however,
not fulfil this condition, the electromotive force of self-induction being far too
high. Improvements are necessary in the direction of reducing the self-induction,
and at the same time increasing the counter electromotive force of these machines.
6. Distribution by Transformers and Alternate Current Machines.
: By C. H. W. Biccs and W. H. Snect.
The authors noticed the frequency in industrial applications of science of
results, which in the initial stages were indirect, becoming direct and of the
greatest importance. The leading requirements of a general system of electrical
distribution are well known, and may be considered under the heads of economy,
safety, and availability. Considerations of economy require high potential in the
mains, while safety requires a low potential at the point of use. The authors
considered the advantages and disadvantages of the various systems in use, and
concluded that in the immediate future the best prospect of economic and safe
distribution was in the use of transformers, with constant current in the mains,
When Gauland and Gibbs first introduced the system they used constant current,
but could not overcome the practical difficulties of the case. Subsequently
Messrs. Snell and Kent suggested a method of overcoming the difficulties, but
found that the same device had previously been suggested by Elihu Thomson in
America. This device utilises from ‘5 to 1 per cent. of the current, and as far as
experiments yet show with almost perfect regulation. Several other schemes of
regulation have been devised, and the authors contended that, if the devices
were as stated by the inventors, the method of distribution should revert back to
the constant current, in preference at all points to the constant potential. The use
of transformers, it was pointed out, would lead to a renewed use of alternate
current machines, which would probably be in the future constructed on the lines
indicated.
7. The Telemeter System. By F. R. Upron.
The author explains that the ‘Telemeter System,’ invented by C. L. Clarke of
New York, is a method by which the slow movement of a revolving hand of any
indicating instrument may be reproduced by the movement of a similar hand at a
distant place, using electricity to convey the impulse.
The primary hand moves until it makes electrical contact, thus sending an
impulse. It is here that all previous methods have failed. This contact should be
absolute and positive, for if it is not, the receiver will not work in unison. ‘The
contact could often be doubled by the jarring of the instrument, thus making the
receiver jump twice.
Clarke has overcome this defect by so arranging his mechanism that the faintest
contact in the primary instrument closes two platinum points in multiple are with
it, thus making a firm and positive contact, which is not disturbed by any jar on
the primary contact. This gives the. instruments a positive start for the series of
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 879
operations, instead of the faint contact which would be given, for example, by the
light and slowly moving hand of a metallic thermometer.
The other trouble with previous methods was that the contact points would
corrode, and, in consequence of such corrosion, the instrument would fail to send
impulses. Corrosion of the contacts is due to breaking the circuit slowly on a
small surface. This is entirely remedied by breaking the circuit elsewhere than the
primary contact, using a quick motion, and also by giving this breaking contact
large surface and making it firm.
The instrument, as applied to a thermometer, is made as follows:—From the
free end of the light spiral of a metallic thermometer fixed at the other end, an
arm is attached the end of which moves over an arc of a circle when the tempera-
ture varies. This end carries on either side of its extremity platinum contacts
which, when the thermometer is at rest, lie between two other platinum points
carried on radial arms. Any variation in temperature brings a point on the
thermometer arm in contact with one of these points and thus gives the initial
start to the series of operations without opposing any friction to the free motion of
the instrument.
The first result is the closing of a short circuit round the initial point of
contact, so that no current flows through it. Then the magnets which operate one
set of pawls come into play. The two contact points are attached to a toothed
wheel in which the pawls play, and these pawls are so arranged that they drive the
wheel whenever moved by their magnets: thus the primary contact is broken.
In the receiver there is a similar toothed wheel bearing the hand of the
indicating instrument, and actuated at the same moment as the transmitter. The
primary contacts are so arranged that the contact is made for each degree of
temperature to be indicated. This series of operations leaves the imstruments
closed, and the pawls home in the toothed wheel. To break the circuit another
wire and separate set of contacts are employed. These are arranged on the arms
carrying the pawls, and so adjusted that no contact is made until after the toothed
wheel has moved a degree, when a circuit is closed and a magnet attracts an
armature attached to apendulum. This pendulum after starting breaks the circuit
of the magnets which hold the pawls down, as well as of the short-circuiting device.
As the pendulum takes an appreciable time to vibrate, this allows all the magnets
to drop back, and breaks all circuits, leaving the primary contacts in the same
relation as at first.
The many details of the instruments are carefully worked out. All the contacts
are rukbing contacts, thus avoiding danger from dirt, and they are made with
springs so as not to be affected by jar.
The receiving instruments can be made recorders also by simple devices. Thus,
having only a most delicate pressure in the primary instrument, a distinct ink record
may be made in the receiver, even though the paper be rough and soft.
The method is applicable to steam-gauges, water-level indicators, clocks,
barometers, &c., in fact to any measuring instrument where a moving hand can be
employed.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
The following Report and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Comivittee on the Endurance of Metals under repeated
and varying Stresses—See Reports, p. 424.
2. On the Resistance of Stone to Crushing, as affected by the material on
which it is bedded. By Professor W. C. Unwin, F.£.8.
Twenty years ago, it was common in experiments on crushing to bed the test
specimens of rigid materials like stone on lead plates, with an idea of securing
uniform distribution of pressure on the faces at which the crushing pressure is
applied, The author has long had the opinion that to support blocks for crushing
880 REPORT—1887.
on a plastic support is wrong in principle. Hence in experiments on the crushing
of stone, and of Portland cement and concrete, he has adopted the plan of
preparing the faces on which the crushing pressure acts, with a thin layer of
plaster. This can easily be worked to smooth and parallel surfaces, used to
receive the iron plates of the crushing shackles directly, if necessary; but the
author generally interposes a sheet of millboard, which is a very hard and only
slightly compressible material. It seemed desirable to try what was the
ditference of the crushing strength of blocks supported in these two ways. Two
series of 4 in. cubes of Portland stone and Yorkshire grit were obtained of very
uniform quality. The results of the tests are given below. The author has been
surprised at the very great reduction of strength which occurs when a thin plate
of plastic material like lead is used on the faces to which the crushing pressure is
applied. It will be seen that the crushing pressure of blocks between lead plates
is in one case only three-fifths, and in another only three-sevenths of that of blocks
prepared with plaster and crushed between millboard. One block was cemented
carefully between two rigid iron plates with parallel surfaces, and this carried a
little more, but only a little more, load than the block prepared with plaster and
crushed between loose millboards, An examination of the mode of fracture of
the blocks shows why the lead has so dangerous an effect on the strength. The
blocks crushed between millboards sheared approximately at 45° in the way well
understood, forming regular pyramids ; but the blocks crushed between lead broke
up into a number of vertical prisms with nearly vertical faces. The lead, flowing
under the crushing pressure, produced by friction a tension in the block at right
angles to the crushing pressure, tearing the block in pieces and completely altering
the angle of fracture. The pressure of fluidity of lead is known to be from 15 to
3 tons per square inch, and these pressures were exceeded in the crushing
experiments.
The result seems important, because it is still a common practice to use lead, or
deal, or some other plastic or compressible material, in crushing experiments, and
it is not generally known that this has the effect of diminishing the crushing
resistance.
Crushing of Stone Blocks, 4 in. cubes (approximately).
| Description of Crushing | Stress in tons
Stone Load in tons | per sq. ft.
' }
} ee = E -
| PORTLAND—
535 57-665 5167384 Between two millboards on each face. |
| 536 52°600 469°872 One plate of lead on each face.
538 45°65 408°8 One plate of lead on each face {}”
smaller than face all round.
537 33°50 299-952 Three plates of lead on each face.
’ YORKSHIRE
Grit—
539 T97F2 712-080 Between two millboards on each face. |
542 80:05 716°86 Cemented between two strong iron |
: plates with plaster of Paris. |
540 56°20 504:432 One lead plate on each face.
541 35°90 322°272 Three plates of lead on each face.
~ ‘The lead plates were 0°085 in. thick.
3. Expansive Working in Direct-acting Pumping Engines.
By Henry Davey, M.Inst.C.H.
In the Report of the Swansea meeting of the British Association is printed a
paper by the author on the above subject, describing a method by means of which
expansive working is secured without the use of a flywheel.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 881
The present paper describes a more recent invention of the author's by means
of which a far greater degree of expansion is made possible.
When an engine has heavy reciprocating parts, such as long pump rods or
loaded plungers, expansive working is possible because of the inertia at the
beginning and the momentum towards the end of the stroke, expressed by the
2
formula - By this method for a considerable degree of expansion a very
24
high velocity must be given to the mass when the weight is small. In engines
which have not long pump-rods it is not always convenient to provide weights
sufficiently heavy to enable a high degree of expansion to be employed. The
mechanism which the author proceeds to describe practically equates the engine
power and the pump resistance by causing the decreasing pressures of the expanding
steam on the piston of the engine to bring a nearly constant force to bear on the
pump throughout the stroke.
In figure 1 let the pump resistance be represented by the parallelogram a, b,c, d,
and the engine power diagram by the figure ec, e, f,
y, d, and supposing the parts of the engine to have
no weight, then means are required by which the
piston of the engine may move with varying velo-
cities relative to that of the pump piston, exceeding
the mean velocity by the ordinates 1, 2, 3, and fall-
ing short of that velocity by the ordinates 4, 5, 6.
Let A (figure 2) be the engine, and B the pump
' piston, and C a triangular frame turning on the ful-
crum D. The pump piston is attached to the frame
at the point E by means of a vibrating connecting
rod, and the engine piston to the point F by means
of a similar rod. Whilst the engine is making its
stroke in the direction of the arrow the pump piston
is decreasing in velocity relative to that of the en-
gine piston, the ratio being determined by the rela-
tive positions of E and F. é
In applying this mechanism to pumping engines
it is first necessary to determine the ratio of ex- :
pansion to be employed, and then to see how nearly Sees
the force and resistance can be equated.
Let a, 6, c, d, e (fig, 3) be the combined
diagrams of a compound engine working with
the given ratio of expansion, a, f, g, e, the diagram of effects of the varying
velocities of the engine and pump pistons, and a, h, 7, e, the pump-resistance dia-
gram. Then acceleration of velocity takes place from h, c, and knowing the
weight of the moving parts the acceleration may be calculated. It will at once be
seen that the mechanical advantage obtained by this mechanism greatly reduces
the acceleration for a given mass.
cen,
4, Reinforcing Electrical Contacts so as to increase their Reliability, with
Ezample of Application to Reeling Silk from the Cocoon. By KH. W.
SERRELL, Jun,
The object of the paper is to explain a method of securing a good electric con-
tact under circumstances in which ordinary solid or mercury contacts will not work.
The method consists in the use of a sucking coil or small electro-magnet, placed
near the contact and traversed by the whole or a part of the current when the
circuit is closed. When the contacts touch, no matter how lightly or imperfectly,
the magnet or coil is excited, and acts on an armature in such manner as to cause
the parts of the contact to be drawn more firmly together and to scrape over one
another so as to be cleaned by a mechanical action produced by the current itself
every time that contact is made. By this method all the difficulties commonly
1887. ol
882 | REPORT—1887.
experienced in the use of electric contacts may be overcome. If the parts are
made to touch eyen in the slightest degree a thoroughly good contact is instantly
secured.
' The method is applicable to signalling apparatus and many other purposes, and
is already used with success by the inventor in automatic machinery for reeling
silk from the cocoon. By its use contacts have worked reliably for very long
periods under circumstances which would give rise to insuperable difficulties
without it.
Its application to automatic machinery for reeling silk from the cocoon was
explained. This machinery has created a new industry, all silk having hitherto
been reeled by hand. ee
The use of electrical appliances for reeling silk is greatly facilitated by the
employment of this device and is leading to important results; and the inventor
considers that, as by this means a perfectly reliable contact is easily obtained, the
use of electricity for controlling textile and other machinery may be very greatly
and advantageously extended, especially in all cases in which light contacts must
be used.
5. A new Form of Secondary Battery. By Kittineworta Hepers.
This battery is of the Planté type and designed to obtain the maximum of
surface for the peroxide plate, while the total weight is much reduced and the
available electro-motive force is increased by using a strip of zinc for the positive
plate instead of lead as in all modifications of the Planté form. The peroxide plate
is constructed on M. Bailly’s method, the main conductor ramifying throughout the
mass of the plate. A basket work of lead wool is tightly pressed into the space
left between a porous pot or plate and the outside receptacle of the battery, this
diaphragm offering little resistance to the passage of the current as it is made of
compressed sand, and it prevents any possibility of short circuit with the positive or
reduced electrode. The current is led from the zinc plate by causing it and the
‘connecting wire to dip in mercury; this plan helps to keep up the amalgamation.
The lead-zine battery 1s not new, but this is the first in which ordinary zine has
been employed instead of lead or copper coated with zinc electrolytically. The
action is as follows :—the zinc is attacked by the sulphuric acid in the presence of
the peroxide of lead, the latter acting as a perfect depolariser ; the reaction is much
more energetic than in a lead-lead couple, the available EMF being 2°5 volts.
Tn discharging, the zinc plate dissolves in the dilute acid, and the sulphate of zinc
formed is decomposed on re-charging, metallic zinc being deposited on the zinc
plate. Thus the zinc is never consumed but is only dissolved and re-deposited. The
external cells are made of very thin celluloid. A basket containing six of these
cells, each of 60 ampére-hour capacity, which will maintain six four-candle lamps
for over eight hours, weighs under one hundredweight. ‘The lamps were shown at
work,’
6. Underground Electrical Work in America. By ¥. Brewer.
7. Improvements in Lifeboats. By J. T. Morris.
8. Link Motion for Steam Engines. By J. M. McCutxocn.
9. On the Communication of Motion between bodies moving at different
Velocities. By J. Watter PuaRseE.
This combination, devised by M. R. Suyers, of Brussels, is described by him as
the ‘ infinitesimal division of a mass into elastic elements and their dynamical in-
1 For illustration see Hlectrical Review, May 24, 1887.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. S83
tegration.’ Its effect is, without shock or breakage, to set in motion a body at
rest by the instantaneous action of another moving at a high velocity or to arrest
any mass, whatever be its velocity. The principle is carried out by dividing the
mass into flexible elements, which take the form of metallic fibres resembling a
‘brush. On impact each fibre actsindependently of the rest, the mass being neglige-
‘able, but the dynamic effect exerted by the sum of the fibres is considerable.
The flexibility of the fibres must be in direct ratio to the speed of the moving
body or the difference in velocity of two moving bodies. The most obvious appli-
cations are taking up the recoil of a cannon, arresting a mine cage on the rope
breaking, preventing a motor from ‘running away’ on the load being suddenly
taken off, or the prevention of shock on the load being suddenly increased, and the
setting of a signal to danger by a train so as to protect it, or the automatic arrest
of a train by the signal.
10. The Tangye Gas Hammer! By Ducarp Cierx.
The paper gives details as to the working, &c., of a gas hammer which is the
invention of Mr. Jas. Robson, and was exhibited at the Inventions Exhibition in
1885. Since then it has been continually in action at Cornwall Works, Birmine-
ham ; it has been much simplified and improved in its details, and is as reliable and
controllable as any steam hammer.
It resembles a steam hammer in design, and contains a piston, a piston rod
connecting with the top containing the hammer, and an anvil block.
The cylinder, however, is longer, and a space is left above the hammer piston
to. contain the necessary charge of gas and air. A second piston is arranged to fill
and discharge the explosion space.
The impulse for the blow is given to the hammer piston by the explosion above
it, and the return of the hammer to its highest position is effected by means of
a volute spring ; when out of action, therefore, the hammer always remains up.
The charging piston is actuated by a hand lever, and is an easy fit in the
cylinder. When the hand lever is moved in one direction, the charging piston
moves downwards towards the hammer piston, and the products of a previous
explosion pass through automatic lift valves in it to the upper side. On the
return moyement the charging piston rises, and the automatic valves, closing,
cause the spent gases to be discharged at a port in the top of the cylinder, while
a fresh charge of gas and air is drawn in between the pistons; at the upper
extremity of the stroke the charging piston covers the exhaust port, and then an
igniting valve opens to effect the explosion; the hammer descends, strikes its blow,
and when the hand lever is moved to transfer the exhaust gases again, the spring
returns it to its upper position. This is the complete cycle of action.
The hand lever actuating the second or charging piston is arranged to move
precisely like the hand lever commonly used in steam hammers for controlling the
slide valve; the similar movement produces precisely similar results, and the
effort required is no greater. The blows can easily be given at the rate of 120 per
minute.
To reduce the force of the blow the hand or foot is moved through a smaller
range and a smaller volume of explosive mixture drawn in, and therefore a more
feeble explosion obtained. For very light blows a relief valve is opened to dis-
charge a portion of the pressure.
The energy of the blow may be determined in two ways—tirst by taking an
indicator diagram, and second by measuring the velocity acquired by the hammer
before it strikes the forging.
Diagrams so taken proved the maximum pressure to be 56 lbs. per square inch
above the atmosphere, and an average of 22°5lbs. during the whole downward
movement of the hammer piston. As the cylinder is 7 in. in diameter and the fall of
the hammer 6 in., this amounts to 433 foot-pounds, which, after adding on the
energy due to the fall of the hammer and deducting that due to the resistance of
‘the springs, becomes 406 foot-pounds, or 3-62 cwt. falling through one foot.
? Published in eatenso in Industries, October 14, 1887, p. 414.
3142
884 REPORT—1887.
This is the case when the hammer cylinder is cold; when hot the average-
driving pressure falls to 20 lbs. per square inch and the blow to 3:19 ewt., falling
through a foot, or 358 foot-pounds. The gas used is 1 cubic foot for 94 of the
latter blows.
Birmingham gas with which these experiments were made costs 2s. 6d. per
1,000 cubie feet or 33 cubic feet for one penny, and 33 x 94=3,102 blows are thus
obtained at the cost of one penny. ‘This is an exceedingly economical and satis-
factory result.
The paper concludes with a statement of the several purposes to which this
hammer can with adyantage be applied.
11. On the British Association Standard Screw Gauge.
By W. H. Preece, F.R.S.
Owing to the large number of telegraph instruments made by different manu--
facturers the number of screws of different forms and sizes in use was very great,
and this was found to be a great disadvantage and a great source of expense.
When the Post Office commenced to manufacture its own apparatus it was
decided to make all parts to template, so as to be interchangeable ; and it was also.
decided to adopt some standard for screws. The standard recommended by the
Committee appointed by the British Association is now being introduced in all
instruments and apparatus manufactured by and for the Post Office Department, a
circular to that effect haying been issued to all firms manufacturing for the
Gio;
A set of standard taps and plates was exhibited.
12. A Fire-damp Indicator. By J. Wiuson Swan.
13. On an improved Railway Reading Lamp. By W. H. Preece, F.R.S.
885
Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor A. H. Saycr, M.A.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.
The PresrpEnt delivered the following Address :-—
‘Surprise has sometimes been expressed that anthropology, the science of man,
should have been the last of the sciences to come into being. But the fact is not so
strange as it seems at first sight to be. Science originated in curiosity, and the
curiosity of primitive man, like the curiosity of a child, was first exercised upon the
objects around him. he fact that we are separate from the world about us, and
that the world about us is our own creation, is a conviction which grows but slowly
in the mind either of the individual or of the race in general. ‘The child says,
‘Charley likes this, before he learns to say, ‘ Z like this,’ and in most languages the
objective case of the personal pronoun exhibits earlier forms than the nominative.
Moreover, it is only through the relations that exist between mankind and
external nature that we can arrive at anything like a scientific knowledge of man.
Science, it must be remembered, implies the discovery of general laws, and general
laws are only possible if we deal, not with the single individual, but with indi-
viduals when grouped together in races, tribes, or communities. We can never
take a photograph of the mind of an individual, but we can come to know the
principles that govern the actions of bodies of men, and can employ the inductive
method of science to discover the physical and moral characteristics of tribes and
races. It is through the form of the skull, the nature of the language, the manners
and customs, or the religious ideas of a people that we can gain a true conception
of their history and character. The thinker who wishes to carry out the precept
of the Delphian oracle and to ‘know himself’ must study himself as reflected in
the community to which he belongs. The sum of the sciences which deal with the
relations of the community to the external world will constitute the science of
anthropology.
The field occupied by the science is a vast one, aud the several workers in it
must be content to cultivate portions of it only. The age of ‘admirable Crichtons’
is past; it would be impossible for a single student to cover with equal success the
whole domain of anthropology. All that he can hope to do is to share the labour
with others, and to concentrate his energies on but one or two departments in the
wide field of research. A day may come when the work we have to perform will
be accomplished, and our successors will reap the harvest that we have sown. But
meanwhile we must each keep to our own special line of investigation, asking only
that others whose studies have lain in a different direction shall help us with the
results they have obtained.
I shall therefore make no apology for confining myself on the present occasion
to those branches of anthropological study about which I know most. It is more
particularly to the study of language, and the evidence we may derive from it as
to the history and development of mankind, that I wish to direct your attention.
it is in language that the thoughts and feelings of man are mirrored and embodied ;
it is through language that we learn the little we know about what is passing in
the minds of others, Language is not only a means of intercommunication, it is
886 REPORT—-1887.
also a record of the ideas and beliefs, the emotions and the hopes of the past gene-
rations of the world. In spoken language, accordingly, we may discover the
fossilised records of early humanity, as well as the reflection of the thoughts that
move the society of to-day. What fossils are to the geologist words are to the
comparative philologist.
But we must be careful not to press the teStimony of language beyond its
legitimate limits. Language is essentially a social product, the creation of a com-
munity of men living together and moved by the same wants and desires. It is one
of the chief bonds that bind a community together, and its existence and develop-
ment depend upon the community to which it belongs. If the community is
changed by conquest or intermarriage or any other cause the language of the com-
munity changes too. The individual who quits one community for another has
at the same time to shift his language. The Frenchman who naturalises himself in
England must acquire English ; the negro who is born in the United States must
adopt the language that is spoken there.
Language is thus a characteristic of a.community, and not of an individual.
The neglect of this fact has introduced untold mischief not only into philology, but
into ethnology as well. Race and language have been confused together, and the
fact that a man speaks a particular language has too often been assumed, in spite of
daily experience, to prove that he belongs to a particular race. When scholars had
discovered that the Sanskrit of India belonged to the same linguistic family as the
European languages, they jumped to the conclusion that the dark-skinned Hindu
and the light-haired Scandinavian must also belong to one and the same race.
Time after time have I taken up books which sought to determine the racial
affinities of savage or barbarous tribes by means of their language. Language and
race, in short, have been used as synonymous terms.
The fallecy is still so common, still so frequently peeps out where we should
least expect it, that I think it is hardly superfluous, even now, to draw attention
to it. And yet we have only to look around us to see how contrary it is to all the
facts of experience. We Englishmen are bound together by a common language,
but the historian and the craniologist will alike tell us that the blood that runs
in our veins is derived from a very various ancestry. Kelt and Teuton, Scan-
dinavian and Roman have struggled together for the mastery in our island since it
first came within the horizon of history, and in the remoter days of which history
and tradition are silent archzeology assures us that there were yet other races who
fought and mingled together. The Jews have wandered through the world adopt-
ing the larguages of the peoples among whom they have settled, and in Transyl-
vania they even look upon an old form of Spanish as their sacred tongue. The
Cornishman now speaks English; is he on that account less of a Kelt than the
Welshman or the Breton ?
Language, however, is not wholly without value to the ethnologist. Though a
common language is not a test of race, it is a test of social contact. And social
contact may mean—indeed very generally does mean—a certain amount of inter-
marriage as well. The penal laws passed against the Welsh in the fifteenth century”
were not sufficient to prevent marriages now and then between the Welsh and
the English, and in spite of the social ostracism of the negro in the Northern States
of America intermarriages have taken place there between the black and the white
population. But in the case of such intermarrying the racial traits of one member
only of the union are, as a general rule, preserved. The physical and moral type of
the stronger parent prevails in the end, though it is often not easy to tell before-
hand on which side the strength will lie. Sometimes, indeed, the physical and
moral characters are not inherited together, the child following one of his parents
in physical type while he inherits his moral and intellectual qualities from the other.
But even in such cases the types preserve a wonderful fixity, and testify to the:
difficulty of changing what we call the characteristics of race.
Herein lies one of the most obvious differences between race and language, a
difference which is of itself sufficient to show how impossible it must be to argue
from the one to the other. While the characteristics of race seem almost indelible,
language is as fluctuating and variable as the waves of the sea. It is perpetually
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 887
changing in the mouths of its speakers; nay, the individual can even forget the
language of his childhood and acquire another which has not the remotest connec-
tion with it. A man cannot rid himself of the characteristics of race, but his
language is like his clothing which he can strip off and change almost at will.
Tt seems to me that this is a fact of which only one explanation is possible. The
distinctions of race must be older than the distinctions of language. On the monu-
ments of Egypt, more than four thousand years ago, the Libyans are represented
with the same fair European complexion as that of the modern Kabyles, and the
painted tomb of Rekh-mi-ra, a Theban prince who lived in the sixteenth century
before our era, portrays the black-skinned negro, the olive-coloured Syrian, and
the red-skinned Egyptian with all the physical peculiarities that distinguish their
descendants to-day. The Egyptian language has ceased to be spoken even in its
latest Coptic form, but the wooden figure of the ‘ Sheikh-el-beled’ in the Bulag
Museum, carved 6,000 years ago, reproduces the features of many a fel/ah in the
modern villages of the Nile. Within the limits of history racial characteristics
have undergone no change.
I see, therefore, no escape from the conclusion that the chief distinctions of race
were established long before man acquired language. If the statement made by
M. de Mortillet is true, that the absence of the mental tubercle, or bony excrescence
in which the tongue is inserted, in a'skull of the Neanderthal type found at La
Naulette, indicates an absence of the faculty of speech, one race at least of palzo-
lithic man would have existed in Europe before it had as yet invented an articulate
language. Indeed, it is difficult to believe that man has known how to speak for any
very great length of time. On the one hand, it is true, languages may remain fixed
and almost stationary for a long series of generations. Of this the Semitic languages
afford a conspicuous example. Not only the very words, but even the very forms of
grammar are still used by the Bedouin of Central Arabia that were employed by
the Semitic Babylonians on their monuments five thousand years ago. At that
early date the Semitic family of speech already existed with all its peculiarities,
which have survived with but little alteration up to the present day. And when
it is remembered that Old Egyptian, which comes before us as a literary and decay-
ing language a thousand years earlier, was probably a sister of the parent Semitic
speech, the period to which we must assign the formation and development of the
latter cannot fall much short of ten thousand years before the Christian era. But
on the other hand there is no language which does not bear upon its face the marks
of its origin. We can still trace through the thin disguise of subsequent modifica-
tions and growth the elements, both lexical and erammatical, out of which language
must have arisen. The Bushman dialects still preserve the inarticulate clicks which
preceded articulate sounds in expressing ideas; behind the roots which the philo-
logist discovers in allied groups of wordslie, plainly visible, the imitations of natural
sounds, or the instinctive utterances of human emotion ; while the grammar of lan-
guages like Eskimaux or the Aztec of Mexico carries us back to the first mechanism
for conveying the meaning of one speaker to another. The beginnings of articulate
language are still too transparent to allow us to refer them to a very remote era.
I once calculated that from thirty to forty thousand years is the utmost limit that
we can allow to man asa speaking animal. In fact, the evidence that he is a
drawing animal, derived from the pictured bones and horns of the paleolithic age,
mounts back to a much earlier epoch than the evidence that he is a speaking animal.
Mr. Horatio Hale has lately started a very ingenious theory to account, not
indeed for the origin of language in general, but for the origin of that vast number
of apparently unallied families of speech which have existed in the world. He has
come across examples of children who have invented and used languages of their own,
refusing at the same time to speak the language they heard around them. As the
children belonged to civilised communities the languages they invented did not spread
beyond themselves, and after a time were forgotten by their own inventors. In an
uncivilised community, however, it is quite conceivable that such a language might
continue to be used by the children after they had begun to grow up and be com-
municated by them to their descendants. In this case a wholly new language would
be started, which would have no affinities with any other, and after splitting into
888 REPORT—1887.
dialects would become the parent of numerous derived tongues. I must confess that
the evidence brought forward by Mr. Hale in support of his theory is not quite
convincing tome. It has yet to be proved that the words used by the children to
whom he refers were not echoes of the words used by their elders. If they were, a
language that originated in them would show more signs of lexical affinity to the older
language than is the case with one family of speech when compared with another.
On the other hand, the theory would tend to throw light on the curious fact that
the morphological divisions of language are also geographical.
By the morphology of a language I mean its structure, that is to say, the mode
in which the relations of grammar are expressed in a sentence, and the order in
which they occur. These vary considerably, the chief variations being represented
by the polysynthetic languages of America, the isolating languages of Kastern Asia,
the postfixal languages of Central Asia, the prefixal languages of Africa, and the
inflectional languages of Europe and Western Asia. Now it will be observed that
each of these classes of language is associated with a particular part of the globe,
the isolating languages, for example, being practically confined to Eastern Asia,
and the polysynthetic languages to America. Within each class there are numerous
families of speech between which no relationship can be discovered beyond that of
a common structure ; they agree morphologically, but their grammar and lexicon
show no signs of connection. If we adopt Mr. Hale’s theory we might suppose that
the genealogically distinct families of speech grew up in the way he describes, while
their morphological agreement would be accounted for by the inherited tendency of
the children to run their thinking into a particular mould. The words and contri-
vances of grammar would be new, the mental framework in which they were set
would be an inheritance from former generations.
I have spoken of the inflectional languages as belonging to Europe and Western
Asia, This is true if we give a somewhat wide extension to the term inflectional,
and make it include not only the Indo-European group, but the Georgian and
Semitic groups as well. But, strictly speaking, the Indo-European, or Aryan, lan-
guages have a structure of their own, which differs very markedly from that of either
the Georgian or the Semitic families. The Semitic mode of expressing the relations
of grammar by changing the vowels within a framework of consonants differs as
much from the Aryan mode of expressing them by means of suffixes as does the
Semitic partiality for words of three consonants from the Indo-European careless-
ness about the number of syllables in a word. Though it is quite true that the
Semitic languages at times approach the Indo-European by using suffixes to
denote the forms of grammar, while at other times the Indo-European languages
may substitute internal vowel change for external flection, nevertheless, in general,
the kind of flection employed by the two families of speech is of a totally different
character.
This difference of structure, coupled with a complete difference in phonology,
grammar, and lexion, has always seemed to me to negative the attempts that have
been made to connect the Aryan and Semitic families of language together. The
attempts have usually been based on the old confusion between language and
race; both Aryans and Semites belong to the white race ; therefore it was assumed
their languages must be akin. As long as it was generally agreed that the primi-
tive home.of the Aryan languages was, like that of the Semitic languages, the
western part of Asia, the confusion was excusable. If the earliest seats of the
speakers of each were in geographical proximity, there was some reason for believ-
ing that languages which were alike spoken by members of the white race, and
were alike classed as inflectional, would, when properly questioned, show signs of a
common origin.
But that general agreement no longer exists. While the Asiatic origin of the
Semitic languages is beyond dispute, scholars have of late years been coming more
and more to the conclusion that Europe was the cradle of the Aryan tongues.
Their European origin was first advocated by our countryman Dr. Latham, and
was subsequently defended by the eminent comparative philologist Dr. Benfey ; but
it is only within the last half-dozen years that the theory has won its way to scien-
tific recognition. Different lines of research have been converging towards the
' TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 889
same result, and indicating north-eastern Europe as the starting-point of the Indo-
European languages, while the evidences invoked in favour of their Asiatic origin
have one and all broken down.
These evidences chiefly rested on the supposed superiority of Sanskrit over the
other Indo-European languages as a representative of the parent-speech from which
they were all descended. The grammar and phonology of Sanskrit were imagined
to be more archaic, more faithful to the primitive pattern than those of its sister-
tongues. It was argued that this implied a less amount of migration and change
on the part of its speakers, a nearer residence, in fact, to the region where the
parent-speech had once been spoken. As a comparison of the words denoting
certain objects in the Indo-European languages showed that this region must have
had a cold climate, it was placed on the slopes of the Hindu-Kush or at the sources
of the Oxus and Jaxartes.
But we now lnow that instead of being the most faithful representative of the
parent-speech, Sanskrit is in many respects far less so than are its sister-languages
of Europe. Its vocabulary, for instance, has been thrown into confusion by the
coalescence of the three primitive vowel sounds a, 6, 6 into the single monotonous
@, a corruption which is paralleled by the coalescence of so many vowels in modern
cultivated English in the so-called ‘neutral’ e. Greek, or even the Lithuanian,
which may still be heard to-day from the lips of unlettered peasants, has preserved
more faithfully than the Sanskrit of India the features of the parent Aryan. If
the faithfulness of the record is any proof of the geographical proximity of one of
the Indo-European languages to their common mother, it is in the neighbourhood
of Lithuania, rather than in the neighbourhood of India, that we ought to look for
traces of the first home of the Aryan family.
But the theory of the Asiatic origin of the Indo-European family has not only
been deprived of its main support by the dethronement of Sanskrit, and the transfer
of its primacy to the languages of Europe, what Professor Max Miiller has termed
‘linguistic paleontology’ has further assisted in overthrowing the crumbling edifice.
‘When we find words of similar phonetic form and similar meaning in both the
Asiatic and the European branches of the Aryan family—words, too, which it can
be shown have not been borrowed by one Indo-European language from another
we are justified in concluding that the objects or phenomena denoted by them were
already known to the speakers of the parent language. When we find, for instance,
that the birch is known by the same name in both Sanskrit and Teutonic, we may
infer that it was a tree with which the speakers of the mother tongue of Sanskrit
and Teutonic were acquainted, and that consequently they must have lived in a cold
climate.
Four years ago a valuable contribution to the linguistic paleontology of the
Aryan languages was made by Professor Otto Schrader. For the first time the
question was approached from the present level of comparative philology, and all
words were excluded from comparison which did not satisfy the requirements of
phonetic law. The results were sadly disquieting to the believers in that idyllic
picture of primitive Aryan life to which we had so long been accustomed. Professor
Schrader proved that the speakers of the parent Aryan language must not only have
lived in a cold climate—a fact which was known already—but that they must have
lived in the stone age, with the skins of wild beasts only to protect them from the
rigours of the winter, and nothing better than stone weapons with which to ward
off the attacks of savage animals. Their general culture was on a level with their
general surroundings. It was little better than that of the Fuegian before he came
into contact with European missionaries. The minuteness with which the varying
degrees of family relationship were named, instead of indicating an advanced social
life, as was formerly imagined, really indicated the direct contrary. The primitive
Aryan was indeed acquainted with fire; he could even sew his skins together by
means of needles of bone; and possibly could spin a little with the help of rude
spindle-whorls; but beyond this his knowledge of the arts does not seem to have
extended. If he made use of gold or meteoric iron, it was only of the unwrought
pieces which he picked up from the ground and employed as ornaments; of the
working of metals he was'entirely ignorant. But he already practised a kind of
890 REPORT—1887.
rude agriculture, though the art of grinding corn was as yet unknown, and crushed
spelt was eaten instead of bread ; while the community to which he belonged was
essentially that of pastoral nomads, who changed from season to season the miserable:
beehive huts of wattled mud in which they lived. They could count at least as far
as a hundred, and believed in a multitude of ghosts and goblins, making offerings
to the dead, and seeing in the bright sky a potent deity.
In calling the speaker of the Aryan parent speech the primitive Aryan I must
not be supposed to be prejudging the question as to the particular race to which he
belonged. This is a question which has recently been handled with great ability
by an Austrian anthropologist—Dr. Karl Penka. In a remarkable book, published
at the end of last year, he endeavours to substantiate the hypothesis advanced in an
earlier work, and to show that the first speakers of the Aryan languages were the
fair-haired, blue-eyed, light-complexioned dolichocephalic race, which is still found
in its greatest purity in Scandinavia ; that it was this race which in the neolithic
period spread southwards, imposing its yoke upon subject populations, like the
Norsemen and Normans of later days, and carrying with it the dialects, which after-
wards developed into the Aryan languages ; and that, finally, it was the same race
which in the remote days of the paleolithic age inhabited western and central
Europe, where it has left its remains in the typical skulls of Cannstatt and Engis.
Dr. Penka would ascribe to its long residence in the semi-arctic climate of palzeo-
lithic Europe the permanent blanching of its skin and hair—a form of albinoism
which Dr. Poesche in 1878 endeavoured to explain by the climatic conditions of
the Rokitno marshes in Russia, where he placed the cradle of the white Aryan
race.
It cannot be denied that all the probabilities are at present on Dr. Penka’s side,
so far as his main contention is concerned. Without denying that the speakers of
the Aryan parent speech may have already included slaves or wives of alien race,
it is probable that the majority of them were of one blood. They formed a single
community, nomad it is true, and therefore less likely to mix with foreigners, but
still sufficiently a single community to speak a language the several dialects of
which were so alike as to be mutually intelligible. In the social condition in which
the speakers were, and in an age when the waste lands of the world were still
extensive, the greater part of such a community must necessarily, we should think,
have belonged to the same race. The evidences of language, moreover, as we have
seen, point to a cold and northerly climate as the original seat of the community ;
and since they further inform us that the beech was known to it, we may conclude
that this climate lay westward of Kénigsberg and Russia. Penka has striven to
show that the animals whose bones or shells are found in the Scandinavian kitchen-
middens are just those whose names are common to the Indo-European languages,
or at all events the European section of the latter. Now, the skulls disinterred
from the prehistoric burial-places of Denmark and the southern districts of Sweden
and Norway are, for the most part, identical with the skulls still characteristic of the
Scandinavian population where they accompany a fair skin and light hair and eyes.
By combining these two facts we arrive at the conclusion that the fair Scandinavian
race is the modern descendant of the race which spoke the parent language of the
primitive Aryan community, and left traces of itself in the Scandinavian kitchen-
middens. The conclusion is supported by the testimony of history. On the one
hand, we have the testimony of classical writers that the Aryan-speaking Kelts of
the Christian era were not the dark small-limbed population which now occupies
the larger part of France, but men of large stature, with the blue eyes and fair
hair of their Teutonic brethren; while the ideal specimens of humanity conceived
of by the aristocratic art of Italy and Greece were the golden-haired Apollo and
the blue-eyed Athéné. On the other hand, it was from Scandinavia that in later
times other bands of warriors poured forth, who made their way into the countries
of the Mediterranean, and even Asia, and established themselves as conquering
aristocracies in the midst of subject populations. The Kelts succeeded in reaching
Asia Minor, the Scando-German hordes overthrew the Roman empire, the North-
men established themselves from Russia on the east to Iceland and Greenland on
the west, and the Normans made Sicily their own long before the days of the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 891
German Frederick. The only point in which the later historical irruptions of the
Scandinavian peoples differed from their prehistoric ones was, that while the later
irruptions were made by sea, the older were made by land. The sail was unknown
to the tribes of the north until the age of their intercourse with the Romans,
from whom they borrowed both the conception and the name of the sagulum, or
‘sail. The course of their migrations must have followed the valleys of the great
rivers.
If southern Scandinavia is thus to be regarded as the original home of the
Aryan languages, and the race which first spoke those languages, and which we may
therefore call Aryan, is to be identified with the Scandinavian type, it follows that
the further south and east we advance from this primary starting-point the less
pure will the type become. It will be in the neighbourhood of that starting-point
and in northern Europe that we shall expect to find the largest number of un-
diluted Aryan languages and the purest examples of the Aryan breed. In Greece
and Armenia, in Persia and India we must look for mixture and decay. And
such indeed is the fact. Mr. Wharton has found, by a careful analysis of the
Greek lexicon, that out of 2,740 primary words only 1,580 can be referred with
any probability to an Indo-European origin, while the prevailing racial type in
ancient as in modern Greece was distinctly non-Aryan. Indeed, I am inclined
to believe that the culture revealed by the excavations at Mykénz, Tiryns, and on
other prehistoric Greek sites belonged not to a Hellenic but to a pre-Hellenic
population, and that the Aryan Greeks first made their appearance in Hellas at the
epoch of what later tradition called the Dorian immigration. It was to the north
that Greek legends pointed as the primeval home of the Hellenic race and civilisa-
tion, and Dédéna ever continued to be revered as the oldest sanctuary of the
Hellenic world. In India it is notorious that the Aryan-speaking Hindus entered
the country from the north-west, and failed to spread far into the burning plains
of the south. The date of their invasion is uncertain, but for myself I have grave
doubts whether it was earlier than the eighth or even the seventh century B.c. At
all events it was not until after the seventh century B.c.,as we now know from the
express testimony of the cuneiform inscriptions of Van, that the Aryan-speaking
Armenians entered the land which now bears their name, and recent philological
researches have confirmed the assertion of Greek writers that the Armenians were
a colony of the Phrygians who had themselves emigrated from Thrace. Up to the
closing days of the Assyrian empire the monuments make it clear that no Aryans
had as yet settled between the Kurdish ranges on the east and the Halys on the:
west.
But while the extension into Asia of what I will now, following Penka’s ex-
ample, call the Aryan race, seems to be referred to a comparatively recent period,
there is a curious fact which goes to show that the same, or a closely allied, race
once spread along the northern coast of Africa. On Egyptian monuments, which
date back to the sixteenth century before our era, the Libyan tribes of this district
ate described and depicted as white. Their descendants are still to be found in the
mountainous parts of the coast, those of Algeria being commonly known under the
name of Kabyles. I saw a good deal of them last winter, and must confess to being”
greatly struck by their appearance. I had known, of course, that they belonged
to the white race and were characterised by blue eyes and light hair, but I was not
prepared to find that their complexion was of that transparent whiteness which
freckles readily and is supposed to mark the so-called red Kelt. They are dolicho-
cephalic, and as their skulls agree with those discovered in the prehistoric cromlechs
of Roknia and other places it is plain that their distinctive features are not due,
as was formerly supposed, to intermixture with the Vandals.
The cromlechs in which they once buried their dead are quite as remarkable
as their physical characteristics. Cromlechs of a similar shape are found extend--
ing through Spain and western France to the northern portion of the British Isles.
Since dolichocephalic skulls occur in connection with them, while the physical
characteristics of the modern Kabyle resemble so strikingly those of a particular
portion of the modern Irish population, we seem driven to infer that the Kabyle and
the ‘red Kelt’ are alike fragments of a race that once spread from Scotland and [re-
892 REPORT—1887.
land to the northern coast of Africa and interred its dead in chambers formed of
five large blocks of stone. Though the custom of burying in these cromlechs con-
tinued into the bronze age, the majority of them go back to the neolithic period.
Are we to suppose, then, that one stream of Aryan immigrants, after making
its way to the west, wandered along the western coast of Europe, and even-
tually crossed the Straits of Gibraltar and took possession of Africa? Or are
we to believe that the Aryan race of southern Scandinavia was allied in blood,
though not im language, with a population which inhabited the extreme west of
Europe, and had, it may be, at the close of the glacial epoch, passed over to the
neighbouring mountains of Africa? It must be remembered that the Kabyle com-
plexion is not precisely the same as that of the Scandinavian. Both are white, but
the skin of the one has a semitransparent appearance, while the whiteness of the
other may be described as mealy. It will be worth while to determine whether
between the dolichocephalism of the Kabyle and the dolichocephalism of the
Scandinavian any distinction can be drawn.
The question has a bearing on the origin of a part of our own population. I
have already compared the Kabyle with the ‘red Kelt.’ But the expression ‘ red
Kelt,’ like most popular expressions, is by no means exact. It confuses in one two
distinct types. The large-limbed, red-haired Highlander, who calls to mind the
description given of the Kelts by the Latin historians, stands in marked contrast
to the small-limbed, light-complexioned Kelt of certain districts in Ireland, whose
skin is freckled rather than burnt red by the sun. The determination of the
several racial elements in these islands is particularly difficult on account of the
intermixture of population, and nowhere is the difficulty greater than in the case
of the Keltic portion of the community. Long before the Roman conquest the
intrusive Aryan Kelt had been intermarrying with the older inhabitants of the
country, who doubtless belonged to more than one race, the result being that the
so-called Keltic race is an amalgamation of races differing physiologically but
dominated by a common moral and intellectual character—the consequence of sub-
jection for a long series of generations to the same conditions of life. It has
become a commonplace of ethnology that the so-called Keltic race includes not only
the fair-complexioned Aryan Kelt, but also the ‘black Kelt’ or Iberian with dark
skin, black hair and eyes, and small limbs. The subject, however, is much more
complex than this simple division would imply. We have seen that under the
‘red Kelt’ are included two distinct varieties; the ‘black Kelt’ is equally irre-
ducible to a single type, while the fact that the two types of ‘red’ and ‘ black’
recur in the same family—my own, for example—not only indicates their long-
continued intermixture, but suggests the existence of intermediate varieties. The
limitations and relations of dolichocephalism and brachycephalism within the race
also need further investigation. I hope that this meeting, held as it is on the
borders of what is still a distinctively Keltic country, may help to settle these and
similar problems.
Meanwhile I will conclude this address, which has already extended to an
inordinate length, by directing your attention to two lines of evidence which have
an important bearing on the question of the extent to which the Keltic element
enters into the existing British population. A few years ago it was the fashion to
assert that the English people were mainly Teutonic in origin, and that the older
British population had been exterminated in the protracted struggle it carried on
with the heathen hordes of Anglo-Saxon invaders. The statement in the ‘Saxon
Chronicle’ was quoted, that the garrison of Anderida, or Pevensey, when captured
by the Saxons in a.p. 491, was all put to the sword. But it is obvious that the
fact would not have been singled out for special mention had it not been exceptional,
while it is equally obvious that invaders who came by sea can hardly have brought
their wives and children with them, and must have sought for both wives and
slaves in the natives of the island. Mr. Coote, in his ‘Romans of Britain,’ and
Mr. Seebohm, in his ‘English Village Community,’ have pointed out the con-
tinuity of laws and customs and territorial rights between the Roman and the
Saxon eras, presupposing a continuity of population, and anthropologists have in-
sisted that the survival of early racial types in all parts of the country cannot be
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 893
accounted for by the settlement of the Bretons who followed William the Con-
queror, or of the Welsh who came into England when the penal laws against them
were repealed by Henry VIII. But the advocates of the theory of extermination
had always one argument which seemed to them unanswerable, and which indeed
was the origin of their theory. The language of the Anglo-Saxons contains scarcely
any words borrowed from Keltic. Such a fact was held to be inexplicable except
on the hypothesis that the speakers of the Keltic dialects were all exterminated
before any intercourse was possible between them and the invading Teuton.
But I think I can show that the fact admits of quite another explanation.
Roman Britain was in the condition of Roman Gaul; it was a Roman province,
so thoroughly Romanised indeed that before the end of the first century, accordine
to Tacitus (‘Agric.’ 18-21), even the inhabitants of North Wales had ‘adopted the
Roman dress and the Roman habits of luxury. After four centuries of Roman
domination it is not likely under these circumstances that the dialects of the British
tribes would have resisted the encroachment of the Latin language any more than
did the dialects of Gaul. The language, not only of government and law, but also
of trade and military service, was Latin, while the slaves and servants who culti-
vated the soil were bound to understand the language of their masters. Moreover,
Britain was a military colony; the natives were drafted into the army, and there
perforce had to speak Latin. If Latin had not been the language of the country
at the time the Romans left it, the fact would lave been little short of 2
miracle.
That it was so is certified by more than one piece of evidence. The inscriptions
which have survived from the period of the Roman occupation are numerous; with
the exception of three or four Greek ones, they are all in Latin. Of a Keltic
language or dialect there is no trace. When the Romans had departed, and the
inhabitants of Wales and Cornwall had been cut off from intercourse with the
civilised world, Latin was still the ordinary language of the mortuary texts. It
is only gradually that Keltic oghams take their place by the side of the Roman
characters. When St. Patrick writes a letter to the Welsh prince of Cardiganshire,
addressed not only to him but to his people as well, it is in the Latin language ;
when St. Germanus crosses into Britain to settle a theological controversy, and
leads the people to victory against the Saxon invader, he has no difficulty in being
understood ; and the proper names of the British leaders continue to be Roman
long after the departure of the Roman legions. What clinches the matter, however,
is the positive statement of Gildas, the British writer, the solitary witness who has
survived to us from the dark period of heathen invasion. He asserts that the ships
called ‘keels’ by the Saxons were called Jonge naves ‘in our language’ (‘nostra
lingua ’).' In the middle of the sixth century, therefore, Latin was still the language
of the Kelt south of the Roman Wall. Such being the case, it is not Keltie but
Latin words that we must expect to have been borrowed by Anglo-Saxon, if the
British population, instead of being exterminated, lived under and by the side of
their Teutonic invaders. Now these borrowed Latin words exist in plenty. They
haye come not only from the speech of the towns, but also from the speech of the
country, proving that the country population must have used Latin like the in-
habitants of the towns. In an interesting little book by Professor Earle on the
Anglo-Saxon names of plants a list is given of the names of trees and vegetables
that have been taken from a Latin source. Where the tree or the vegetable was
one with which the invaders had not been acquainted in their original home, the
name they gave to it was a Latin one, like the cherry or cerasus, the box or buxrus,
the fennel or feniculum, the mallow or maiva, the poppy or papaver, the radish or
radiz. Such names they could have heard only from the serfs who tilled the
ground for their new lords, not from the traders and soldiers of the cities. It is
much the same when we turn to the names of agricultural implements which imply
a higher order of culture than the simple plough or mattock, the name of which
last, however, is itself of Keltic origin. Thus the coulter is the Latin culter, the
sickle is the Latin secula. That other agricultural implements bore Teutonic names
) Hist. 23.
894 REPORT—1887.
proves merely that the Saxons and Angles were already acquainted with them
before they had quitted their primitive seats.
The philological argument has thus been cut away from under the feet of the
advocates of the theory of extermination, and shown to tell precisely the contrary
tale. It has disappeared like the philological argument by which the theory of the
origin of the Aryans in Asia was once supposed to be supported. But there still
remains one difficulty in our path.
This is the fact that the languages spoken in Wales, and till recently in Corn-
wall, are Keltic and not Latin. If Latin had been the language of the Keltic
population of southern Britain when the Romans left the island, how is it that
where the Keltic population still retains a language of its own that language is
Keltic? The answer to this question is to be found in history and tradition. Up
to the sixth century the Teutonic invaders gained slowly but steadily upon the
resisting Britons. They forced their way to the frontiers of what is now Wales,
and there their further course was checked. The period when this took place is
the period when Welsh literature first begins. But it begins, not in Wales, but in
Strathclyde or south-western Scotland, to the north of the Roman Wall. Its first
records relate to battles that took place in the neighbourhood of Carlisle. From
thence its bards and heroes moved southwards into North Wales. Tradition com-
memorated the event as the arrival in Wales of ‘Cunedda’s men.’ The sons of
(unedda founded the lines of princes who subsequently ruled in Wales, and the
old genealogies mark the event by suddenly substituting princes with Welsh names
for princes with Latin names. The rude Keltic tribes of Strathclyde came to the
assistance of their more cultured brethren in the south, checking the further pro-
gress of the foreigner and imposing their domination and language upon the older
population of the country. It is probable that the disappearance of Latin was further
aided not only by the destruction of the cities and the increasing barbarism of the
people, but also by the settlement of Irish colonies, more especially in South Wales.
At all events the ruin of cities like Caerleon and Caerwent must be ascribed to
Irish marauders. We can now explain why it is not only that Wales speaks
Welsh and not Latin, but also why a part of the country, which, according to
Professor Rh¥s, was mostly peopled by Gaelic tribes before the Roman conquest,
speaks Cymric and not Gaelic. As for Cornish its affinities are with Breton, and
since history knows of frequent intercourse between Cornwall and Brittany in the
age that followed the departure of the Romans we may see in the Cornish dialect
the traces of Breton influence.
The arrival of ‘ Cunedda’s men’ and the re-Keltisation of Wales lead me to the
second line of evidence to which I have alluded above. The bearing of the costume
of a people upon their ethnography is a matter which has been much neglected.
But there are few things about which a population—more especially in an early
stage of society—is so conservative as in the matter of dress. When we find the
Egyptian sculptor representing the Hittites of the warm plains of Palestine clad in
the snow-shoes of the mountaineer we are justified in concluding that they must
have descended from the ranges of the Taurus, where the bulk of their brethren
continued to live, just as the similar shoes with turned-up ends which the Turks
have introduced among the upper classes of Syria, Egypt, and northern Africa
point to the northern origin of the Turks themselves. Such shoes are utterly
unsuited for walking in over a country covered with grass, brushwood, or even
stones ; they are on the contrary admirably adapted for walking on snow.
Now the dress of Keltic Gaul and of Southern Britain also when the Romans
first became acquainted with it was the same as the dress which ‘linguistic
palzontology ’ teaches us had been worn by the primitive Aryans in their first
home. One of its chief constituents were the bracce, or trousers, which accordingly
became to the Roman the symbol of the barbarian. We learn, however, from
sculptures and other works of art that before the retirement of the Romans from
the northern part of Europe they had adopted this article of clothing, at all events
during the winter months. That the natives of southern Britain continued to wear
it after their separation from Rome is clear from a statement of Gildas (‘ Hist.’ 19)
in which he refers in no flattering terms to the kilt of the Pict and the Scot. Yet
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 895
from within a century after the time of Gildas there are indications that the
northern kilt which he regards as so strange and curious had become the common
garb of Wales. When we come down to the twelfth century we find that it is the
national costume. Giraldus Cambrensis gives us a description of the Welsh dress
in his own time, from which we learn that it consisted simply of a tunic and plaid.
It was not until the age of the Tudors, according to Lluyd, the Welsh historian of
the reign of Elizabeth, that the Welsh exchanged their own for the English dress,
The Welsh who served in the army of Edward II. at Bannockburn were remarked
even by the Lowland Scotch for the scantiness of their attire,” and we have evidence
that it was the same a century later. If we turn to Ireland we find that in the
days of Spenser, and later, the national costume of the Irish was the same as that
of the Welsh and the Highland Scotch. The knee-breeches and sword-coat which
characterise the typical Irishman in the comic papers are survivals of the dress
worn by the English at the time when it was adopted in Ireland.
The Highland dress, therefore, was once worn not only in the Scotch Highlands
and in Ireland, but also in Wales. It characterised the Keltic parts of Britain with
the exception of Cornwall and Devonshire. Yet we have seen that up to the middle
of the sixth century, at the period when Latin was still the language of the fellow-
countrymen of Gildas, and when ‘Cunedda’s men’ had not as yet imposed their
domination upon Wales, the old Keltic dress with trousers must have been the one
in common use. Now we can easily understand how a dress of the kind could have
been replaced by the kilt in warm countries Jike Italy and Greece; what is not
easily conceivable is that such a dress could have been replaced by the kilt in the
cold regions of the north. In warm climates a lighter form of clothing is readily
adopted ; in cold climates the converse is the case.
I see, consequently, but one solution of the problem before us. On the one
hand, there was the distinctive Keltic dress of the Roman age, which was the same
as the dress of the primitive Aryan, and was worn alike by the Kelts of Gaul and
Britain and the Teutons of Germany ; on the other hand, there was the scantier and
colder dress which originally characterised the coldest part of Britain, and subse-
quently medizval Wales also. Must we not infer, in the first place, that the
aboriginal population of Caledonia and Ireland was not Keltic—or at least not
Aryan Keltic—and, secondly, that the dominant class in Wales after the sixth
century came from that northern portion of the island where the kilt was worn?
Both inferences, at all events, agree with the conclusions which ethnologists and
historians have arrived at upon other grounds.
Perhaps what I have been saying will show that even a subject like the history
of dress will yield more results to ethnological study than is usually supposed. It
will be another illustration of the fact that the student of humanity cannot afford
to neglect any department of research which has to do with the life of man, however
widely removed it may seem to be from science and scientific methods of enquiry.
“Homo sum ; humani nihil a me alienum puto.’
The following Papers were read :—
1. The Primitive Seat of the Aryans.
By Canon Isaac Taytor, LL.D., Litt.D.
In this paper the author discussed recent theories as to the region in which the
Aryan race originated. The prescientific Japhetian theory and the Caucasian
theory of Blumenbach have long been abandoned. A few years ago the theory
advocated by Pott, Lassen, and Max Miiller, which made the hichlands of Central
Asia the cradle of the Aryans, was received with general acquiescence, the only
protest of note coming from Dr. Latham, who urged that the Asiatic hypothesis
was mere assumption based on no shadow of proof. The recent investigations
1 The Breviary of Brytaine, Twyne’s translation, p. 35 (ed. 1573).
2 Barbour’s Bruce, ix. 600-603.
* See Jones, History of the County of Brecknock, vol. i. p. 283; comp. Archeo-
logia Cambrensis, 5th ser. No. 7 (1885), p. 227.
896 REPORT—1887.
of Geiger, Cuno, Penka, and Schrader have brought about an increasing con-
viction that the origin of the Aryan race must be sought not in Central Asia,
but in Northern Europe. These writers have urged that the evidence of language
shows that the primitive Aryans must have inhabited a forest-clad country in
the neighbourhood of the sea, covered during a prolonged winter with snow,
the vegetation consisting largely of the fir, the birch, the beech, the oak, the
elm, the willow, and the hazel; while the fauna comprised the beaver, the wolf,
the fox, the hare, the deer, the eel, and the salmon—conditions which restrict us to
a region north of the Alps and west of a line drawn from Dantzic to the Black Sea.
Tt has also been urged that the primitive Aryan type was that of the Scandi-
navian and North German peoples—dolichocephalic, tall, with white skin, fair
hair, and blue eyes, and that those darker and shorter races of Eastern and
Southern Europe who speak Aryan languages are mainly of Iberian or Turanian
blood, having acquired their Aryan speech from Aryan conquerors. It has been
urged that the tendency in historic times has been to migration from north to
south, the inhabitants of the fertile and sunny regions of Southern Europe,
where the conditions of life are easy, having no inducements to migrate to the
inhospitable north, Moreover, in Central Asia we find no vestiges of any people
of the pure Aryan type, while the primitive Aryan vocabulary points to the fauna
and flora of Northern Europe rather than to that of Central Asia.
Fair races have a greater tendency to become dark in a southern clime than
dark races to become fair in northern regions, as is proved by the fact that the
complexion of the polar peoples, such as the Eskimo, the Lapps, and the Samojeds,
has been unaffected by their sojourn for uncounted centuries in the north, while
there is much evidence to prove that the noble classes in the Mediterranean lands
were formerly lighter in colour than at present.
A vast body of evidence, of which the foregoing is a brief summary, has been
adduced to show that Northern Europe rather than Central Asia was the home of
the undivided Aryan race.
But the Aryans must have had forefathers from whom they were developed,
and the inquiry suggests itself, what could have been the race from which the
Aryans might have been evolved? A Semitic, an Iberian, an Egyptian, a Chinese,
a Turkic, or a Mongolic parentage is out of the question, and the author proposed to
show that, both from the anthropological and the linguistic point of view, the Finnic
people come closest to the Aryans, and are the only existing family of mankind
from which the Aryans could have been evolved. The Tchudic branch of the
Finnic family approaches very nearly to what we must assume to have been the
primitive Aryan type. The Tchuds are either mesocephalic or dolichocephalic.
They are a tall race, the hair yellow, reddish, or light brown, the skin white,
while blue or grey eyes are usual. As we go westward from the Baltic we find
that the Ugro-Finnic tribes approximate more and more to the Turko-Tatar ethnic
type, just as when we go southward the southern Aryans conform increasingly to
the Iberian type. Hence in the Baltic provinces of Russia we discover what
seems to be the centre of dispersion, a region where the ethnic characteristics of
Finns and Aryans do not greatly differ. Of this fact only two explanations are
possible. Hither the Baltic Finns have been Aryanised in blood while retaining
their Finnie speech—an hypothesis supported by no evidence, and in itself im-
probable—or else we have here in their original seats a survival of the people from
whom the Aryans were evolved. Anthropological considerations tend therefore
to show that the Aryans are an improved race of Finns, while on the other hand
the Finnic speech approaches more nearly than any other to the Aryan, and is
the only family of speech from which the Aryan languages can have been evolved,
The chief argument for deriving the proto-Aryans from Central Asia was the
belief that Sanskrit comes the nearest to the primitive Aryan speech. It is now
believed the Lithuanian, a Baltic language, represents a more primitive form of
Aryan speech than Sanskrit, and hence the argument formerly adduced in support
of the hypothesis that the Aryans originated in Central Asia becomes an argument
in favour of Northern Europe.
The separation of the Aryan from the Finnic races must have taken place at a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 897
period so remote that we cannot expect to find any marked identity in their
vocabulary. The words common to the Aryan and Finnic tongues are, for the
most part, loan words. But the words denoting the primary relations of life, the
names for father, mother, son, daughter, brother, and sister, can hardly be loan
words, and these are substantially identical in the Finnic and Aryan languages.
The same is the case with a few of the numerals, the pronouns, and the names for
some of the primary necessities of life, such as the words denoting salt, shelter,
food, and the rudest implements. But when we go back to the verbal roots which
constitute the very basis of language, we find a remarkable identity between the
Aryan and Finnie tongues. Thus the eighteen triliteral roots beginning with k,
given in Skeats’ ‘ Etymological Dictionary,’ are all found in Finnic with the same
fundamental signification. It is quite incredible that this identity in the ultimate
roots can be accidental. Bothin Aryan and Finnic these verbal roots are combined
with formative suffixesto form nominal stems, We have the same formatives with
the same significations. The conjugation of the verb is also effected in the same
way by the addition of identical pronominal suffixes to the verbal roots. The
accusative, the ablative, and the genitive, which appear to be the three original
cases, are formed in similar fashion by the addition of identical post-positions. The
only fundamental differences between Aryan and Finnic grammar lie in the absence
of gender in the Finnic languages, and in the wholly different formations of the
plural. But Professor Sayce has shown reasons for believing that the proto-Aryan
speech possessed no gender, thus agreeing with its Finnic prototype; and he also
believes that it possessed only the dual, the plural being a later development. But
the dual is formed in precisely the same manner in the Aryan and Finnic languages,
while the comparatively recent origin of the Finnic plural is proved by the fact
that in the Finnic and the allied Turkic languages the plural is diversely formed.
Hence the proto-Finnic speech agrees in every respect, both as to the grammar
and the roots, with the proto-Aryan speech, and there is therefore no difliculty in
the supposition that the one represents an archaic stage out of which the other
was developed.
These considerations modify considerably our conceptions as to the way in
which we may conjecture that the Aryan race originated. Instead of supposing a
single Aryan tribe in Central Asia, which sent olf successive swarms to the west
and south, we may rather conceive of the whole of Northern Europe, from the
Rhine to the Vistula, as occupied by a Finnic race, whose southern and western
members gradually developed ethnic and linguistic peculiarities of that higher type
which we associate with the Aryan name. The Baltic Finns are survivals of this
race. The Celts, owing to their remoteness, diverged at an early time from the
eastern type, while the Lithuanians and the Hindus preserved many archaic
features both of grammar and vocabulary. The Slaves must be regarded mainly as
Ugrians, and the South Europeansas Iberians, who acquired an Aryan speech from
Aryan conquerors. The time of the separation of the Aryan from the Finnic stock
must be placed at the least 5,000, or perhaps even 10,000 years ago. At that time
the linguistic evidence shows that the united peoples possessed only the rudiments
of civilisation. Of the metals they possibly knew gold and copper, but their tools
were mainly of stone or horn. They sheltered themselves in rude huts, they knew
how to kindle fire, they could count up to ten, and family relations and marriage
were recognised. They were acquainted with the sea, they used salt, and they
caught salmon ; but it is doubtful whether they were acquainted with the rudiments
of agriculture, though they gathered herbs for food and collected honey. They
possessed herds of domesticated animals, consisting probably of oxen and swine,
and perhaps of reindeer; but the sheep seems to have been unknown.
If this hypothesis as to the primitive identity of the Aryan and Finnic races
be established, a world of light is thrown upon many difficulties as to the primitive
significances of many Aryan roots and the nature of the primitive Aryan grammar.
We are furnished, in fact, with a new and powerful instrument of philological
investigation, which can hardly fail to yield important results. Comparative
Aryan philology must henceforward take account of the Finnic languages as
ated the oldest materials which are available for comparison.
1887. 3M
898 REPORT—1887.
2. The Non-Aryan and Non-Semitic White Races, and their Place in the
History of Civilisation. By J. S. Stuart-Guenniz, M,A.
The general thesis of this paper may be thus stated. The first civilisations of
Chaldea and of Egypt appear to have been founded by the action on dark races of
white races, neither Aryan nor Semitic. The combined results of a great variety
of recent researches show that such white races are an important, and hitherto
quite inadequately recognised, element in the ethnology of Asia, and of Oceania, of
Africa, of Europe, and of America; and not only in Chaldea and in Egypt, but
throughout the world, the civilisations of Semites and of Aryans have been founded
on civilisations initiated by some one of these non-Aryan and non-Semitic, or, as in
one word they may, perhaps, fitly be called, Archaian white races. ‘
The three great divisions of this paper are indicated by this statement of its
thesis :—
First, classification and summary of the facts which seem to lead to the con-
clusion that the initiators of the Chaldean and Egyptian civilisations belonged to a
white stock different from both the Aryan and the Semitic white stock.
Secondly, an endeavour to give an approximately complete indication, at
least, if not statement, of the facts only partially stated by Quatrefages (Hommes
fossils et hommes sauvages) with respect to the white races which he names Allo-
phyllian, and for which the term Archazan is proposed.
Thirdly, classification and summary of the facts which—the wide dispersion of
an Archaian stock of white races being established—seem to indicate that the
vexed questions with respect to the Hittites, the Pelasgians, the Tyrrhenians, the
Iberians, the Picts, &c.,and with respect also, in part, to the origin of the Chinese,
the Mexican, and the Peruvian civilisations—the facts which indicate that these
questions may be solved by reference to the general facts with regard to the
migrations and characteristics of the Archaian white races.
The bearing of these results on the questions raised by the essential identity of
the varying forms of folklore tales all over the world are also pointed out.
3. On the Picture Origin of the Characters of the Assyrian Syllabary.
By the Rev. W. Houcuron.
All written language probably originated in pictures representing objects or
ideas, as in Chinese and Egyptian. At first the characters were rude figures of
animals or other objects. In time the resemblance would be fainter, till at length
all similarity between the character and the object represented would disappear.
This process may be expressed by the term ‘pictorial evanescence.’ Of the
522 characters of the Assyrian syllabary, as given in Professor Sayce’s Grammar,
very few of the simple characters exhibit their primitive form, but the composite
characters often clearly reveal themselves. We must look to the older forms
of the characters for evidences of their pictorial origin. Thus, the character for a
‘fish’ in the modern Assyrian may be traced back through the hieratic Assyrian,
the hieratic Babylonian, and the linear Babylonian to a figure of a fish, with head,
body, fins and tail. The ideograph for a ‘month’ is in its ancient form a figure of
a square with 3 x 10 inside it—ze., thirty days within the sun’s circle. The
ancient forms of the character denoting a ‘man’ are rude figures of a man with
head, neck, shoulders, body, and legs—such a picture as a schoolboy would draw
on his slate, or the North American Indians depict.
4, Wusum and other Remains in Egyptian Arabia.
By Core Wuirenouse, M.A.
In March 1887 the author accompanied Major Surtees on a political mission
to the south-eastern frontier of Egypt, in Arabia, and the frontier of the
Hedjaz. It is guarded by a modern fort, whose crumbling walls were photo-
graphed while a gun was being fired: and by a solid straight-curtained fortress,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 899
five miles to the west, on the pilgrim road to Medina and Mecca, with an in-
scription of Ahmed ibn-Tulun (A.D. 868-894). Up the valley to the north-east,
scratched in greenstone porphyry, are ‘ so-called’ Wuswm, or ‘tribal marks’ (photo-
graphsshown). Further to the west are the ‘ Gold Mines of Midian’ of Sir R. Burton.
There are three mistakes in this appellation. The quartz is not auriferous; the
holes are not mines; the region was never called Midian. To the south, in the
Wadi Hamz are ruins of a Greco-Roman temple, near a Gebel Kibrit or sulphur
mountain, interesting as the only Greco-Roman ruins ever found in Arabia. Pho-
tographs of these were also shown.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2.
The following Report and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee for procuring Racial Photographs from the
Ancient Hgyptian Pictures and Sculptures.—See Reports, p. 439.
2. Notes on the Accuracy of the Sculptures and Paintings of Races on the
Egyptian Monuments. By W.M. Fuinpers Perris.
3. Studies on some Groups of Mr. W. M. Flinders Petrie’s Casts and Photo-
graphs of Ethnographic Types from Egypt, 1887.1 By the Rev. Henry
Georce TomKIns.
The paper treats of local points of interest in Mr. Petrie’s collection geogra-
phically and ethnologically, under the four heads: I. Westerns; IL. Southerns ;
III. Northerns ; 1V. Egyptians:
I. Westerns.—Tahennu. The clear-complexioned races. Ha-nebu. People of
Mediterranean isles and coasts (later applied to Greeks). Zebu. Libyans, of
Hamitic stock. Early doings as enemies, tributaries, subjects, invaders; founders
of an Egyptian dynasty. Mashwasha. Maxyans. Personal appearance, supposed
connection with Northern Syria. Dardani. Trojan leaders, afterwards succeeded
by Tsekkriu. Teukrians, in time of Rameses III. Shakalsha, Sicilians. Twirsha,
Tyrsenes, Etruscans. Pulista. Pelasgians, Philistines (?).
Il. Sournerns.— Cush. Among the four typical races. Deshfu, Turses, Tarau,
Arma, Awawa, Adal, M’am, Khama. Piin, where? A list of eighteen places, with
heads of chiefs, considered. Zzek. xxvii. 19, 20, Yavan of Arabia, &c. Queen
Hatasu’s expedition, whither, and the port. The incense trees identified. Her
palace-temple at Deir-el-Bahri and its style. The tomb of Hii. A group of
Punite nobles considered.
II. Norruerns.—Menti of Sati, who? Shdsu, Arabs. The extent and
historical importance. Rutens, Lower and Upper, Syria. Lemenen, Lebanon, its
people. Khal or Khar, Northern Syria. Keft, Phoenicia, and its people. Am’ar,
the Amorite in, and out of, the Bible; their extent, affinities, and history. Kheta,
the Hittites, considered. Their characteristics and connections.
Asgaluna.—Kaw dna and its defenders, where? Dapur, Tabor. Its fortress
and defenders. Brta-Anta, Beth-Anath. Marm, Merom, its people. Diémesqu,
Damascus. The Karnak lists of Thothmes III. Their very high interest and
importance. Janu, where? Shishak’s list. Khdnimd. Adir. Yudah-melek,
the celebrated name and head, considered.
IV. Eayprrans.—The old kingdom. The XIIth dynasty. The Hyksés. ‘The
Patriots and their success, The XVIIIth dynasty. Hatasu, ThothmesIII, Khu-
1 This paper is printed (in an abridged form) as an appendix to the Report on
Mr. Flinders Petrie’s Collection of Ethnic Types.
3M 2
900 REPORT—1887.
en-aten and his connections considered. The Ramessids. The priest-kings. The
XXIInd dynasty, called Bubastite. Various types recounted, and remarks on the
whole matter considered as a subject of study and of educational information.
4. Boat-shaped Graves in Syria.' By Groree Sr. Crain, F.G.S.
In passing through the Anti-Lebanon lately, from Damascus to Baalbec, the
writer noticed that the graves at the hamlet of £7 Fijeh have the form of a flat-
bottomed boat; those at Ain Hawar are formed like long narrow boats, with an
ark or house occupying the middle part; and the graves at the village of Yafufeh
are built in three tiers, of which the upper one may be representative of the ark,
while the head- and foot-stones are almost certainly the conventional reproduction
of the head and stern of the boat.
The author asks the question: What led these people in the mountains to build
their graves on the model of a boat? Authors are quoted to show that arks or
ships were carried in procession by the Phcenicians, as also were sacred boats in
the funeral processions of the ancient Egyptians. The Heyptians conveyed the
body across a lake, and both the lake and the boat were symbolical, typifying the
voyage of the Soul in the Underworld.
The system passed into Greece, where we have Charon and his boat. Charon’s
boat is sculptured on a funeral monument in the Ceramicon at Athens—a recently
uncovered cemetery; and the bas-relief of a ship appears on a tomb at Pompeii.
From these facts and others the writer of the paper would infer that the boat-
shaped graves of Syria are fashioned by traditional custom in perpetuation of a
practice which appears to have originated with the ancient Egyptians.
As a supplementary conclusion, it is suggested that the head-stones and foot-
stones of modern graves may be the surviving representatives of the prow and
poop of the sacred boat of the dead.
5. On 108 Skulls from Tombs at Assouan. By W.S. MELsoMe.
6. Account of a ‘ Witch’s Ladder’ found in Somerset.
By Dr. Epwarp B. Tytor, F.R.S.
7. The Effect of Town Life upon the Human Body.
By J. Miutyer Fornerciir, M.D.
It is generally recognised that the effect of town life upon the physique is not
beneficial ; and as the population of boroughs has now exceeded that of the country
the fact becomes one worthy of our attention. The great and rapid increase of
large towns at the present time adds to the importance of the subject and deepens
its gravity.
Of old there were but few large towns, in our modern sense of a ‘ large’ town ;
but Lugol, the great French authority on ‘ scrofula,’ noted how the population of
Paris deteriorated, and how scrofulous were the third generations of persons who
came in from the country perfectly healthy. Other observers have noticed the bad
effect of town life elsewhere. And the recent researches of Mr. James Cantlie
have demonstrated the rarity of a pure-bred Cockney of the fourth generation. If
physical deterioration and early extinction are the fate of town dwellers —and of
that there seems no question—it behoves us next to inquire as to the how and the
why of it all.
It may be well to begin by contrasting the actual circumstances of country life
and of town life. Of old the baron lived in his castle, while the populace lived
around in villages of limited size. For men of all conditions of life the one thing
1 This paper is printed im extenso in the Quarterly Statement of the Palestine
Exploration Fund, October 1887.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 901
to be coveted above all others was physical prowess. For work, for war, for games
which were largely mimic war, bodily strength was essential. No courage, no
skill could effectually compensate for the want of thews and sinews. Work, war,
sports, revels, all, too, were conducted in the open air. But civilisation brought
about changes profoundly influencing the life of the individual. The development
of commerce entailed the growth of towns; and then it was found that in the new
struggle for existence the battle went rather to the man with the active brain than
the man with a massive framework. The active brain became now the one great
thing to be coveted rather than physical prowess.’
From this brief consideration of the altered life of the town dweller it may be
well to take a step forward and consider some facts in regard to the development of
the individual. At the very threshold of existence the embryo consists of three primi-
tive layers. The outer one gives the brain and sensitive skin ; in other words, the
means by which the organism is in communication with its environment. The inner
layer gives the glandular apparatus of organic life—the digestive organs. The middle
layer gives the locomotor apparatus and, what more immediately concerns us at
present, the vascular system. By means of the latter it feeds its own proper
structures, and the outer and inner layer on either side of it.
In a country child the structures of the three layers wax and grow side by side
with each other in due proportion. The child gambols about in the open air
pretty much like the other young animals, with little to diversify the monotony of
its existence or stimulate its nervous system. Thews and sinews, nervous system
and digestive organs, keep pace with each other ; not one growing at the expense of
the rest. Far otherwise is it with the town child. ‘You cannot eat your cake
and have it’ says the old adage. So it is with the growing town child. Instead
of the quiet country road it has the crowded street with all the excitement
connected therewith, the swiftly recurring incident, the chaff which gives it its
charm with many. All this stimulates the nervous system. The self-possessed
town child is a man or woman of the world, while the country child of like years
is a bashful bumpkin, hiding behind its mother’s dress. The town child eats too
much of its cake daily and every day to have any great store. Its precocious
nervous system makes such demands upon its nutritive powers that the rest of the
body sutfers. Say the three layers in the healthy country child stand thus:
3+3+4+3=9; we find in the town child something like this: 2+2+3=7. And
in their ultimate development this is found to be the case as to weight. The town
man may be said to weigh nine stones, while the country man averages eleven
stones and one half.
The nervous system has grown at the expense of the other structures. The
stature is dwarfed. The tendency of town populations is to dwindle, and this
dwindling is seen markedly in the feeble digestive capacity of town dwellers. They
cannot eat the pastry, the pie-crust, the cakes which form so large a portion of the
dietary of their country cousins, If they attempt these articles of food they give
themselves the stomach-ache. Consequently they live on such food as they can
digest without suffering —bread, and fish, and meat. Above all the last—the
sapid, tasty flesh of animals, which sits lightly on the stomach, and gives an accept-
able feeling of satiety, so pleasant to experience. The town dweller, in his
selection of food, is guided by his feelings; he avoids what is repugnant to him.
Such selection is natural and intelligible, but it is fraught with danger all the
same.
Let us now consider what these dangers are. He loathes fat, especially in the
solid form of animal fat. Every bit is carefully cut away from the lean and
rejected. Possibly this in some instances is due to silliness, which decides that it
is not the proper thing to eat fat. Far more frequently, it is to be feared,
the rejection is based on an instinctive feeling that it cannot be digested.
Else why should delicate children turn away from sweet animal fat with loathing,
and yet take readily enough the nauseous fishy cod-liver oil—the most digestible
form of fat? When a patient about to die of consumption can take cod-liver oil,
’ The effects of mental activity upon the physique are not included in the present
paper.
902 REPORT—1887.
often his doom is deferred and very frequently averted. The absence of fat in the
dietary predisposes the town dweller to phthisis. The prevalance of consumption
among town populations is notorious. But there is another grave malady also seen to-
be more and more frequent among town dwellers, viz., the disease commonly spoken
of as ‘ chronic Bright’s disease.’ It has been said before that the town dweller
does not eat cakes, pastry, and pie-crusts because they give him pain. He eats fish,
bread, and meat. We have just considered the effects of an absence of fat in the
dietary ; now we must estimate the effects of an excess of meat in it. Meat
ultimately escapes from the body by the kidneys. When a dietary consists too
largely of meat sundry evil consequences follow. Gout is one, chronic Bright’s
disease is another ; and the two are very commonly found together. In the form of
uric acid this excess of excrementitious matter sets up a widespread change in the
vascular system and the kidneys. It has been proposed to apply the term
‘ vasorenal’ to the widespread pathological process involving numerous maladies as
outcomes of it. Uric acid is derived from the albuminous elements of our food, of
which the flesh of animals is the type. From its digestibility meat is chosen by the
town dweller in ignorance of the danger underlying indulgence in it. Normally
the bulk of nitrogenised matter is excreted as soluble urea. When the work of the
liver is too much for that viscus it reverts or falls back upon the primitive uric
acid formation. The congenitally feeble liver—part of the imperfect digestive
organs—of the town dweller feels the burden of a dietary rich in albuminoid
elements. The formation of the comparatively insoluble uric acid becomes
established, and with it many morbid sequences; including chronic change in the
kidneys, set up by the irritation of the uric acid constantly passing through them.
Such changes must have gone on from the dawn of history, but they are most
marked amidst degenerating town populations.
Pulmonary phthisis and Bright’s disease seem Dame Nature’s means of weeding
out degenerating town dwellers. The offspring of urban residents are another race
from their cousins who remain in the country. The latter are large-limbed, stal-
wart, fair-haired Anglo-Danes ; while their urban cousins are smaller, slighter, darker
beings, of an earlier and lowlier ethnic form, and resembling the Celto-Iberian
race. And amidst this general reversion we can recognise a distinct liver-reversion
to the early primitive uric acid formation of the bird and reptile.
A recognition of these facts must lead to such modifications of the food customs
of town dwellers as are indicated. The spread of teetotalism and vegetarianism
tells of a dark groping in the right direction ; in blind obedience to the law of self=
preservation. It must also lead to some modification of the existing system of
education for it is by the imperfectly nourished town child that the weight of the
burden of education is most acutely felt.
8. Gn ine Bosjes Pelvis. By Professor Curtanp, F.R.S.
The unbroadened brim found in certain savage tribes is a retention of a feature
of adolescence. This is seen well in the Bosjes, and the peculiarity may be corre-
lated with others which have escaped attention. There is feeble development of
the iliac blades, especially at the back part, probably owing to early anchylosis of
the epiphysis of the crest. Connected with this the post-auricular levers of the
ilia are very feeble, as they also are in early life in Europeans, causing shallowness
of the post-sacral fossa occupied by the strongest part of the multifidus spine
muscle, a most important muscle for erecting the lumbar part of the column on
the pelvis. The action of the iliac levers in broadening the brim in the European
is recognised. Their shortness, and the lightness of the superincumbent weight of
the body, are circumstances which account for the brim failing to broaden out in
the Bosjes.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 903
SATURDAY, SHPTEMBER 3.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. The Experimental Production of Chest-types in Man.
By G. W. HAmBLeron.
The object of this paper was to place the following facts before the Association,
in the hope that the important points they raise may form the subject of further
investigation by a committee appointed for that purpose.
Whilst engaged in research the author's attention was drawn to the fact that
the size and shape of the chest varied as he varied the conditions to which it was
subject. He ascertained that this sequence of events was absolutely constant,
and could be carried out within such wide limits that it appeared to him to
present an insuperable objection to the present accepted theory of the inheritance
of chest-types. Taking a well-marked example of the so-called inherited con-
sumption chest, he subjected it to conditions that tend to develop the lungs till it
corresponded in size and shape first with that of the town artisan, then with that
of a man of the privileged class, and finally with that of a man of the best class
of insurable lives in America. By subjecting that same chest to conditions that
tend to reduce the breathing capacity, the author brought it back through the same
types to nearly that with which he commenced. And similar results were obtained
on other chests. Evidence was adduced showing that there is the same relation-
ship between the size and shape of other parts of the body and the conditions to
which they are subject; therefore the author contended that the type of man after
birth was solely produced by the conditions to which he is subjected. Hence the
formation of race and the return of man, animal, or plant to former types on being
subjected to the conditions that produced that type.
This opens up a wide and most important field for our investigation. We have
to ascertain what the conditions are that produce those changes in each part of
man that together form a class or type, so that we may produce the type that is
es suitable for different places and occupations, and then we shall have a Science
of Man.
2. The Scientific Treatment of Consumption. By G. W. HamBieton.
At the last meeting of the Association the author read a paper on that part of
his research that referred to the prevention of consumption, and he now completed
the subject by giving an explanation of the mode in which the disease is produced,
and by laying down the principles that must guide us in its successful treatment
Whether there are any means by which we can be certain of successfully treat-
ing consumption is a question of such grave importance, and the author's contention
in the affirmative is so entirely opposed to the results of treatment—with one too
long forgotten great exception—that it was necessary to draw attention to the
whole evidence that can be adduced in support of that contention.
The case may be conveniently divided into three branches, dealing with the cause
of the disease, its mode of operation, and the principles of treatment. Taking these
in their natural order we come first to the consideration of the cause of the disease,
and the theory held by the author is this: that consumption is the direct result of
the reduction of the breathing surface of the lungs below a certain point in pro-
portion to the remainder of the body, and is solely produced by conditions that tend
to reduce the breathing capacity.
In support of that interpretation of the cause of consumption the following
evidence was adduced: (A) that referring to the known production of the disease
by such conditions in certain trades and occupations, its experimental production in
animals, evidence of the effect of such conditions in the disease itself, and the
absence of a recorded case, experimental or other, in which such conditions were
not present.
904. REPORT—1887.
(B) That referring to the known absence of consumption in the absence of such
conditions, and (C) that referring to the known introduction of such conditions
being invariably followed by the appearance of the disease.
Theory of the mode in which consumption is produced. The first step is the
reduction of the lungs to such an extent that they have not only lost their power
of adjustment to their external conditions, but are also no longer able to perform
their ordinary functions, Interchanges uneffected are thrown on one or more of
the other organs. Process of reduction continues and a time comes when compen-
satory work is not effected. Greater pressure on the lungs which tells on the
weaker parts, producing the phenomena of irritation, manifested by tubercular
change. Each centre of change produces an additional factor in the process of
reduction. Hence more irritation, followed by further reduction, till there is not
sufficient lung left to perform those functions without which life cannot continue.
Having ascertained the cause of consumption and traced the mode in which it
operates from the commencement to its termination, we are in a position to lay
down the principles that must guide us in the adequate treatment of the disease.
They are four in number, and may be stated as follows :—
To establish an equilibrium between the amount of interchange required to be
effected and that effected.
To enable the other organs of the body to perform their ordinary functions.
To restore to the lungs the power of adjustment to their external conditions,
And to effect the above without producing indications of friction.
The effect of this method of treatment is to arrest the process of irritation, to
gradually restore the general health, and to develop the lungs. This is shown by a
gradual cessation of chest symptoms, a healthy appearance, and a greatly increased
vital capacity, range of expansion and size of chest-girth. The author has invari-
ably obtained these results in his experiments, and also in the few cases he has had
an opportunity of treating.
In the literature of consumption are found a multitude of cases in which a tem-
porary arrest had been effected, and a careful examination of the conditions under
which that occurred proves that they were invariably those that tended to remove
the irritation by effecting a temporary adjustment between work to be done and
work effected associated with others tending to develop the lungs. Further, many
cases of absolute recovery are recorded, and in them also there were the same con-
ditions acting continuously for a long time. Sydenham undoubtedly cured con-
sumption by ordering continuous horse exercise in the country till the patient
recovered. And the author is satisfied that if we carefully treat consumption—
before the disease has been permitted to become too extensive—on the principles
advocated in this paper we shall be able to secure complete recovery.
3. Ancient and Modern Methods of Arrow Release.
By Professor E. S. Morsz.
4. Tattooing. By Miss A. W. Bucktanp.
The object of this paper is to show that, although tattooing seems to have been
almost universal among savages, yet the mode of performing the operation varies
so much, and the various methods in use seem to have such definite limits, as to
make them anthropologically valuable, as showing either racial connection or some
intercourse formerly subsisting between races long isolated. In Africa, Australia,
and some of the islands in the Indian Ocean, principally among the black races,
tattooing consists of a series of short cuts, so treated as to leave cicatrices in various
parts of the body. Colouring matter is not often employed, but on the west coast
of Africa three cuts on the face seem to be a distinctive mark, and these, judging
from the masks, &c., are coloured red and blue. These marks are either tribal or
the sign of some secret society resembling freemasonry, and it is noteworthy that
these three cuts are shown on the cheek of an ancient bronze head found at
Bologna.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 905
The method of tattooing in New Zealand, America, the Pacific Islands, among
some of the tribes of India, Burmah, Borneo, New Guinea, and Japan, differs en-
tirely from these cicatrices, The pattern is first drawn and afterwards punctured
with needles, thorns, or often with sharp implements formed of human bone, and
into the wounds thus made a pigment is rubbed, either of charcoal or more fre-
quently of indigo blue, thus forming indelible marks, which sometimes cover the
whole body and sometimes are confined to certain parts. In the men, tattooing of
this kind denotes a chieftain or warrior, and is undergone as a test of courage and
endurance, but the pattern is the totem, or emblem, of the tribe or individual. One
great peculiarity is, that in almost all countries in which this form of tattooing
exists, the women are tattooed on the chin, and this mark almost invariably denotes
marriage. In connection with this, Miss Buckland pointed out that the custom
seemed to follow the line of route indicated in her former papers on ‘ Prehistoric
Intercourse between East and West’ and ‘ American Shell-work,’ thus corrobo-
rating the views therein expressed ; and further called attention to a peculiar mark
on the chin of a shell mask found in a grave-mound in Virginia, U.S.A., which is
seen also on the chin of the great stone figure from Easter Island in the portico of
the British Museum. In both cases this mark may probably denote tattooing, but
whether in those remote times it was the distinctive mark of a female is not easily
determined.
5. Report of the Committee appointed to edit a new Edition of ‘ Anthropo-
logical Notes and Queries.’—See Reports, p. 172.
6. Third Report of the Committee for investigating and publishing reports
on the physical characters, languages, and industrial and social con-
dition of the North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada.—See
Reports, p. 173.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
The following Report and Papers were read :—
1. Second Report of the Committee for investigating the Prehistoric Race m
the Greek Islands.—See Reports, p. 200.
2. The Early Ages of Metal in South-East Spain.
By Hewrt and Louis Srrevr.
The authors explored a coast region, about 75 kilometers in length, between
Cartagena and Almeria. They investigated some forty stations, belonging to three
prehistoric epochs—(1) The Neolithic; (2) Transition between Stone and Metal;
3) Metal age. The following details are given :—
(1) In the Neolithic period man employs instruments in bone, stone, and flint ;
also the vases in baked earth, which characterise this age in other parts of Europe ;
ornaments of shells, bone, and stone used. The dead are buried in polygonal
spaces, surrounded by stones.
(2) Transition. Appearance of bronze bracelets and beads ; cremation of the
dead. These new customs imported by some foreign people. At the same time,
evidence of the first attempts at a native metallurgy, utilising the ores of the
country ; arms and utensils cast in metal, imitating the form of those in bone and
stone.
(3) Metal epoch.—Copper and bronze employed simultaneously, as in preceding
age ; but copper predominates. Stone implements still common. Silver appears:
this is a new fact in the early Bronze age. In this region prehistoric man found
906 REPORT— 1887.
and utilised the native silver gathered on the surface of the soil. 1,300 sepultures
explored ; al/ the bodies interred, and not cremated. Generally in large terra-cotta
vases, in which the body is doubled up. Enormous quantity of copper and bronze
arms and utensils ; of vases in pottery; bracelets, rings, earrings, in copper, bronze,
gold, silver; necklace-beads in bone, ivory, serpentine, bronze, copper, silver, gold.
The following is a summary enumeration of the objects found by the authors :—
400 flint knives; 150 flint arrowheads; 700 flint saws; 80 axes of polished stones;
200 whetstones ; 300 various stones—polishers, discs, hammers, moulds, &c.; 900-
awls and other implements in bone and ivory; 70 flat copper axes; 300 copper
and bronze knives and daggers; 4 bronze swords; 140 copper arrowheads ; 4,000
necklace-beads in stone, shell, bone, ivory, copper, bronze, silver, gold, &c.; 400
borers in copper, bronze, silver ; 700 bracelets, rings, and pendants in bronze and
copper; 400 bracelets, rings, and pendants in silver; 8 bracelets, rings, and pen-
dants in gold; 7 diadems in silver; 1,300 terra-cotta vases, of which two-thirds
are entire vases ; 500 perforated shells, &c. A very important and complete mono-
graphy relating all these discoveries has just been published in Antwerp.
3. The Origin of Totemism.! By C. STANtLAND WAKE.
The term ¢otem signifies the device of a gens or tribal division, and it may be
an animal or a vegetable, or any natural object or phenomenon, or even a mere
quality. The nature of totemism as a system is shown by the fact that among the
Australians the totem is the symbol of a group of kinsmen. It is thus equivalent
to a family name, and it is properly defined as a ‘ badge of fraternity,’ answering to
the ‘device of a gens.’ The gens was defined by Schoolcraft as the totemic institu-
tion, and a consideration of the rights and obligations of the gens throws light on
the subject of totemism. The gens is founded on two chief conceptions, the bond
of kin and non-intermarriage of persons belonging to the same gens. The former
implies the obligation of mutual help, defence, and redress of injuries among the
members of the gens. This obligation applies not only to human beings, but also
to the totem group of objects, which are regarded as sacred by the members of the
gens, although they may be killed and eaten by persons not belonging to it.
These notions show a close connection of totemism with animal-worship and
ancestor-worship. The conception of kinship is essential to ancestor-worship,
which, like totemism, rests on the obligation of mutual aid and protection; and
this, again, is associated with the superstitious regard for certain animals and other
objects, which are viewed by their human allies as guardian spirits.
The fundamental basis of totemism is to be found in the phase of human
thought which supposes spirits ‘to inhabit trees and groves, and to move in the
winds and stars,’ and which personifies almost every phase of nature. These
notions were not unknown to the religious philosophy of antiquity, according to
which the Universe or Great Cause was divided into two principles, that of light
or good, answering to the active cause in nature; and that of darkness or evil,
answering to the passive cause; each of which was subdivided into a multitude of
partial causes, likewise intelligent. The idea of dualism in nature is found in
Australian totemism, which is said to ‘divide not mankind only, but the whole
universe into what may almost be called gentile divisions.’ It is connected also
with the idea of transmigration, which was considered by ancient Oriental teaching
as essential to the attainment of perfection by the human soul, the forms through
which it was supposed to pass including not only beasts, birds, and fishes, but also
trees, stones, and other inanimate objects. The problem of totemism receives its
solution in the fact that the totem is the re-incarnated form of the legendary
ancestor of the gens or family group allied to the totem. The totem is thus some-
thing more than a ‘badge of fraternity’ or ‘ device of a gens.’ It is regarded as
having actual vitality, as the embodiment of an ancestral spirit. Any object is
fitted for this spirit re-incarnation, and therefore totemism may be looked upon as
1 The paper has been published én extenso as chap. xii. of Serpent-worship, ana
other Essays, by the same author.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 909
an expression of nature-worship and ancestor-worship in combination. The
ancestral character of the totem accounts for the association with it of the idea of
protection, which is based on the existence of a fraternal relationship between the
totem and all the individuals belonging to a particular group of kin. The totem as
a badge, device, or symbol thus represents the group of individuals, dead or alive,.
towards whom a man stands in a fraternal relation, and the protection of whom he
is therefore entitled to, so long as he performs all the obligations on his part which
flow from the existence of that relationship.
4, Observations on Mr. Petrie’s Ethnological Casts from Egypt.
By Dr. Isaac Taytor.
5. Certain Degenerations of Design in Papuan Art.
By 8. J. Hickson.
I. On a prau figure-head is a design which, although considerably modified,.
can readily be recognised as a design of the human figure: the long crimpled
hair of the Papuan, two tufts of which are coloured red, in imitation of the red
mud with which the Papuans complete their coiffure ; the eyes, nose, and mouth of
the face are clearly indicated, but the rest of the body is degenerated into a mere
conventional sign.
On the prau side-boards and figure-heads from Merkhuis Island are similar
designs, but the modification by degeneration has proceeded further, the features
of the face by the appearance of an ornament inthe middle of the forehead being
considerably obscured. The two central tufts of hair, still coloured red, are drawn.
out considerably, as also are the lateral black tufts.
II. Upon the same prau figure-head, as in I., there is a figure of an animak
(probably a gecko), fairly good and complete as a work of art, but upon the same
is a design, evidently degenerated, of this in which all that remains unconven--
tionalised is the anterior pair of legs.
Upon a house fetish in the author’s possession this pair of legs appears, but the
head and body of the animal is not represented even in conventional design.
Comparing this design with several in the Leyden museum still further de-
generations may be noticed.
In two cases one of the legs has completely disappeared, in another one digit
has disappeared, in another two, and in others the two legs become so blended that
one would hardly recognise them as legs at all.
The designs are wrought by the old men or priests of the villages, and are made-
for the purpose of keeping off spirits of storm, thunder, sickness, &c.
Modifications are produced by the artist through want of time, ability, or inclina-
tion, and these modifications become permanent by being copied by subsequent artists,
and thus in some cases mere conventional signs take the place of figures of men,.
birds, and other animals.
6. On the Occurrence of Stone Mortars in the Ancient (Pliocene ?) River-.
gravels of Butte Oo., California. By Sypney B. J. Sxurrcuty, F.G.S.
Numerous stone objects, apparently ancient mortars, have been found during
the working of auriferous gravels in California. It has been assumed that these
gravels are of Pliocene age. The author recently visited the Spring Valley Gold:
Mine at Cherokee, Butte Co., California, where he obtained one of the mortars,.
which was exhibited. He concludes that the gravels may be of Glacial rather than
Pliocene age. Their high antiquity is proved by the fact that they are overlain
by a capping of lava, which has been cut through by the present rivers, and the-
gravels themselves worn down to a depth in some cases of 2,000 feet. They were,.
therefore, formed before the present drainage-system of the region was established.
908 REPORT—1 887.
7. On Inscribed Stones from Mevagh and Barnes, Co. Donegal.
By G. H. Kinanan, M.R.LA.
The author exhibited rubbings of several inscribed stones from Mevagh and
Barnes, and read descriptive notes on their occurrence. The presence of crosses
-associated with certain circles was very notable. Several rubbings were exhibited
from the inscribed monumental stones at Barnes. These standing stones are
known as ‘ dallans.’
8. Gipsies, and an Ancient Hebrew Race, in Sus and the Sahara.
By R. G. Hatreurron.
Part I.
The province of Sus, as respects the customs of its people, is, and always has
been, a terra incognita. Excepting a few lines by Herodotus, nothing has ever
been written as to them, and this paper is the first attempt to describe them.
The Berbers of Morocco are divided into the Riffs and Susis ; the first, light-
haired and large men, living in the mountains ; the latter, smaller, darker, and gene-
rally nomadic. The people of North Africa were called ZLzbu, or Ribu, on the
monuments, and hence the word Libyan. But the Riffs are called Refi, or Ribi ;
hence, Libyan is the same as Riffian.
The Susis speak a dialect of Berber, called Shilhach, and are most of them
gipsies of different descriptions. Some are skilful bellfounders, others make
-ornaments and arms, others saddlery, others dishes. Others are silver- and gold-
smiths, and are famous for their skill as artificers. Most of them tell fortunes—
some by sand, who are called Amlad, or Remliien; others by beads; others by a
flower ; some by watching a fowl after its head has been struck off; some by a
shoulder-blade. The women in some tribes tell fortunes by the hand, and are
called Guessani, or De Guessan. Some indulge in a sort of magic, and profess to
-call up spirits, or to make persons at a distance appear, using a powder on a
fire which stupefies the inquirer. They also make charms for finding money,
curing illness, calling back vagrant husbands, or for the production of olive
branches, and for supplying all the wants of humanity.
These people have been for thousands of years, no doubt, connected with the
Timbuctoo gold trade, and have picked up wandering habits, which have become
hereditary.
They have secret signs and passes among themselves, called ‘the words of the
Kafila’ (tent or lodge), which is probably the same word as the well-known
‘Cabala’ of the Jews.
It was shown that the Hyperboreans were the people to the south of the Atlas,
or Riffian mountains (called in Greek mythology Ripean mountains). There the
prevailing N.K. wind is very pleasant in the winter, that place being beyond the
rage of ‘rude Boreas.’ Beyond the Hyperboreans were, according to Herodotus,
the ‘one-eyed Arimaspians.’ These, the writer contended, were the Suszs. In
proof of this he exhibited a bournous with an ‘all-seeing eye’ on the back, a yard
In length. This ornament is peculiar to the Susis, and is like ‘the eye of Osiris’
and a well-known Masonic symbol. He showed that there are vestiges of the
“Osirian cult lingering among these people.
There is an ancient Jewish town near the Sahara, an entrepét of the gold trade,
called Ophran, on the river Ophrar; not far from it are the Owlad bu Seba, and
farther south the Oulad bu Saba, or Sabaeen. The latter guide the caravans by the
Seven Stars, and are, he contended, the old Sabzeans, whose caravans wandered all
over the ancient world. They are superior to the other tribes, and looked up to
very much, as they know secret lore not mown to others. Heeren conjectures
that the gold trade of Africa must always have been in the hands of a religious
guild.
A bracelet from the Sahara was exhibited, of horn, in the form of a serpent,
with twelve divisions representing the months. In each division were two groups
-of seven stars, making twenty-four groups in all.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 909
These gipsy tribes speak generally a language of their own, called in the west
Zinagari, or Zingari, and to the south Zenagari. Leo Africanus calls it Sungai.
The Zenagar race (the old Getulian) extend beyond the Senegal, which owes its
name to them. While there are many words in the European Zingari to be
found in the Zindgari of the Sahara, there are very many words that are not
common to them. A careful comparison of these languages by a philologist is
yery desirable.
Part II.
Ancient writers, referred to by Josephus, and an eminent authority, Tacitus, con-
tend that Libya was the cradle of the Hebrew race. An old author, quoted by
Josephus, describes a race that were in Western Ethiopia before the time of Abra-
ham, the Judadeans. These were probably the Hebrews of Libya and the Sahara.
They are different from what are known as the Barbary Jews, the descendants of
fugitives from Spain and Portugal. They are rarely seen, living with the Riffs and
Susis as their tradesmen and business men, and securing protection by a small annual
payment. But there are independent tribes who own no master—some on the southern
Atlas, some far east near the desert of Touareg, some, called Daggata,in the Sahara
and as far south as the Niger. These tribes were described, one of which is pro-
tected by ‘ The Tomb of Our Beloved Lady ’—that of the Jean of Arc of the Berbers,
a Jewish woman, Kahina, who headed them against the Arabs and became their
queen. The Arabs were compelled to make peace with her followers, and so great
was her reputed sanctity, that the district around is a safe asylum for the Jews.
Some of the Jews in the Sahara are black, with woolly hair; but most of the
Berber Jews are very good-looking, and their women have the repute of being the
most beautiful in the world. The Berber Jews look down on the coast Jews as
schismatics, and are very rigid in their discipline, differing from the others in their
dress and rites.
The writer showed that from a remote period there must have been in Libya a
building which was claimed to be the Temple of Solomon. In Smith’s ‘ Dictionary
of the Bible’ (v. ‘ Onias’) is something on the subject of this temple. What has
become of it since it fell into the hands of the Moslems is not known. The writer
pointed out a singularly large number of the names of places in Sus which can be
traced in Genesis, and suggested the inquiry, Has there been a migration of
Hebrews from Palestine to Libya, or vice versa?
The Jews and the gipsies must have been cast in the same mould, but must
have been made of very different material. That mould, he believed, was the life
in common in North Africa for thousands of years, in connection with the gold
trade and the caravans of that country. They are Siamese twins, like, and yet,
in some respects, utterly unlike, and equally unchangeable and distinct from the
rest of mankind. We are almost tempted to call the gipsies ‘the other peculiar
people.’
9. Colour-names amongst the English Gipsies.
By Wiiiam H. A. Axon.
Considerable discussion has taken place as to the development of the colour-
sense within the historic period. Mr. W. E. Gladstone’s observations in 1858 as
to the poverty of the Homeric colour-vocabulary were amplified by Geiger and
Magnus. Itis stated that blue, as an epithet applied to the sky, does not occur in
the Old Testament, the Zend-Avesta, the Rig-Veda, the Homeric poems, or in the
Koran. Mr. Gladstone in 1877 held that archaic man had a positive perception
only of light and darkness, and that in the Homeric age he had advanced to the
imperfect discrimination of red or yellow, but no further; green of grass and
foliage or the blue of the sky being never once mentioned. ‘The theory depends
upon philological evidence, and the weak part of such an argument is that it may
confuse mere poverty of nomenclature with defective perception. In several
instances this danger has been shown to be real. As far back as the Stone Age
there is evidence of the existence of the colour-sense.
‘910 REPORT— 1887,
The very basis of Geiger’s theory is the exact conformity of the colour-sense
and the colour-vocabulary. This theory may be tested by the facts as to the
colour-names used by the English gipsies of to-day. ‘Taking the learned monograph
on ‘The Dialect of the English Gipsies,’ by Mr. B. C. Smart and Mr. H. T.
Crofton, it is an easy matter to collect the words forming the scanty colour-vocabu-
lary of the Anglo-Romanies. For ‘ gray’ they use the word bal, balaw—hair, hairs.
Thus the tribe-name of the Greys is the plural Balaws, and the same word is used
for the Hernes, whose name is apparently connected with hair. The tribe of the
Herrings are similarly styled Balaw-Matchho— hair-fish, apparently a punning
translation of their English name. Gray, it may be remarked, when used in the
Bible, is used in the sense of hoary and applied to hair. To express ‘ green’ the
Gipsies say Chor-diking-——‘ grass-looking.’ Sometimes they use greeno instead.
Leland mentions also sedno. The word for ‘black’ is Kalo. The word is applied
also to common-heath from the waste lands of the Black Country and of Birming-
ham. The turkey is called Kauli-rauni— black lady.’ The word for ‘red’ is ddlo
or lélo. Cherries are ldélo-kodvau—‘ red things.’ The salmon is lolo-matchho— red
fish.’ Znuiler is to ‘blush.’ The word for ‘ white’ is pdérno, which is also used for
“flour” A swan is pérni-rauni— white lady.’ Pérno-saster is tin— white iron.’
When the words for ‘sky,’ ‘ morning,’ &c., are examined, they are found not to
have relation to colour. The sky is divel—‘God, or méduvelesto-tem— God's
country’; or poodj—a ‘bridge.’ ‘ Morning’ is Saéla—the ‘dawn.’ The moon is
miduvelesko-dood— God’s light’; or Stkermeugro—the ‘showman.’ Its common
name is shoon, probably from the Sanscrit root Tchadi—to ‘shine.’ The sun is
kam, from the Sanscrit root gharma, meaning ‘heat.’ It is also called tam, prob-
ably a corruption of kam. Tamlo means both ‘light’ and ‘dark.’ Amongst the
Turkish gipsies tam means ‘ blind, from the Sanskrit ¢ama— darkness.’ The name
of the ‘orange,’ Pobomus, is derived from Pobo—‘apple.’ The orange is sometimes
called Waver-temeski-lolo-pobo, ‘ the-other-country-red-apple.’
The colour-vocabulary of the English gipsies is thus limited to ‘ green,’ ‘ black,’
‘ved,’ and ‘white.’ We have, then, the notable fact that ‘blue,’ on which so much
stress has been laid in the discussion of the colour-sense, is entirely absent from the
Enelish gipsy vocabulary. This is emphasised by the fact that the gipsies some-
times use the word blue-asar, the suffix being that which is generally added in
Romany to disguise a borrowed word. So their word for ‘toadstools’ is blue-
leggi, because the Agaricus personata, which they regard as a delicacy, has blue
stalks, Clearly if they had now in Romany a word for ‘blue’ they would not
appropriate that of Gawjo. And if any evidence were needed that the Romanies
are not colour-blind it is afforded by their appropriation of the English word for
‘blue.’ It only remains to add that Yack and Erescare are both given by Pottas gipsy
equivalents for ‘blue.’ If these words are genuine—which may be open to doubt
—it is apparently possible for a race to possess and to lose a colour-name. This
brief investigation of the English gipsy colour-vocabulary will show the danger of
accepting the negative testimony of philology as conclusive. The positive evidence
of linguistics no one need doubt. It is clear that there'is no relation between the
colour-perception and the colour-nomenclature of the English gipsies.
10. The Seneca Indians of North America: their present Customs, Legends,
and Language. By Joun Wenrworts Sansorn, A.D.
This paper opened with a description of the geographical location of the head-
quarters of the Seneca Indian nation in the State of New York, where upwards of
3,000 of these strange people dwell.
Their religious ideas and practices were set forth.
The ceremony of the adoration of the maple and the green-corn dance, as wit-
nessed by the author, and their annual New Year's Festivals, and the sacrifice of a
white dog, as now practised by their pagan population, were described.
Curious facts concerning their domestic lite, games, hospitality, &c., were pre-
sented.
Their peculiar modes of dress were treated of. Their unique methods of com-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 911
puting time and measuring land were given, and their marriage customs and burial
customs sketched.
The author described his adoption into the tribe, and inauguration as successor
to the chief of the Wolf clan. He treated of their rich legendary lore, giving a
short legend as related to him by the eldest man of the tribe, whom, together with
all narrators or writers of fiction, the Indians call a ‘ great liar ’"—not in disrespect,
however.
The language of the Senecas presents remarkable peculiarities, and these were
pointed out. The language contains no labials, hence the Senecas know nothing
of such letters as 6, f,1,m,p,and v. Every letter in the language is sounded.
There is not a noun of one syllable in the language.
There are three numbers, as in the Greek—-viz., singular, dual, and plural.
Pronouns are few. The word wh means J, me, we, and us. Tis means thou, thee,
you, and ye.
The verb has an optative mood, like the Greek, and also an aorist tense.
Adjectives abound in the language, and are generally compounded with the nouns
which they are designed to qualify.
The numerals, as employed by the Senecas in everyday life, run up to about
‘one hundred.
The paper closed with an account of the great Iroquois Confederation, which
gave the North American continent to the English-speaking race.
11. Contributions to the Remote History of Mankind.
By Axiyn Kiroty.
Although foreign to his avocations or pursuits, the question of the Turanian
origin of the first founders of Babylon has from the first exercised considerable
fascination on the mind of the writer. From fortuitous circumstances he has
been led, within recent years, to identify various, hitherto believed distinct, terms
of great importance in the history of religions; and, leisure permitting, he has
within the last year or two followed up the same subject, into which he is now
making assiduous researches.
The outcome of the latter has been, hitherto, the discovery of affinities or
points of contact, heretofore unsuspected, between the religions of the more important
races of the Aryan, Semitic, and Turanian sections of mankind, which will throw
considerable light on the remote history of the civilised world.
A further result of these investigations, as yet, however, only begun, will be,
more particularly, striking evidence of the great and unsurmised part enacted by
the Turanian races in the history of the old world, comprising Asia, Africa, and
Europe.
‘A final analysis of the subject-matters treated has, furthermore, revealed to the
writer new views concerning the original formation of words, a question distinct,
as he views it, from the origin of language.
The present paper forms a first.instalment of these researches, and comprises
the identification of several very important terms derived from what, for want of a
better word, the writer would call the theography (denoting a means between
mythology and theology) of ancient nations; added to which are new explanations
of some geographical and ethnological terms also relating to the same.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
The following Report and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee for ascertaining and recording the localities in
the British Islands in which evidences of the existence of Prehistoric In-
habitants of the country are found.—See Reports, p. 168.
912 REPORT—1887.
2. On the Migrations of Pre-glacial Man. By Henry Hicks, M.D., F.R.S.
Referring to the further researches carried on this summer at Cae-Gwyn Cave,
North Wales, the author stated that the additional evidence obtained proved most
conclusively that the flint implement found there last year in association with the
remains of pleistocene animals was under entirely undisturbed glacial deposits.
He maintained also that the evidence is equally clear in regard to the implements
found within the caverns, which he said must have been introduced before the
glacial deposits blocked up and covered over the caverns. The question as to the
direction trom which pre-glacial man reached this country is an exceedingly interest-
ing one, and seems now to be fairly open todiscussion. It is admittedly fraught with
difficulties, but the facts recently obtained seem to require that an attempt should
be made to unravel it. The evidence, so far as it goes, points to a migration to
this country from some northern source, as the human relics found in the caverns,
and also in the older river gravels (which Professor Prestwich is now disposed to
assign also to the early part of the glacia] epoch, when the ice-sheet was advancing),
occur in association with the remains of animals of northern origin, such as the
mammoth, rhinoceros, and reindeer. Up to the present time no human relics have
been found in this country (and it is very doubtful whether they have been found
in any other part of Europe) in deposits older than those containing the remains
of these northern animals. If man arrived in this country from some eastern area
it is but natural to think that he would have arrived when the genial pliocene
climate tempted numerous species of deer of southern origin, and other animals
suitable as food for man, to roam about in the south-east of England. Hitherto,
however, not a relic has been found to show that man had arrived in this country
at that time. But in the immediately succeeding period, with the advent of cold
conditions and of the northern animals, evidences of the presence of man become
abundant.
Whether man at an earlier period migrated northward from some tropical or
sub-tropical area, and that he then lived on fruit and such-like food, there is no
evidence at present to show ; but it seemscertain that the man of the glacial period
in this country had to live mainly on animal food, and that he found the reindeer
to be the most suitable to supply his wants. He followed the reindeer in their
compulsory migrations during the gradually increasing glacial conditions, and kept
mainly with them near the edge of the advancing ice.
3. The Harly Neolithic Floor of East Lancashire.
By H. Cottey Marcu, M.D.
1. The extent and relative position of the floor.
2. The nature of the early neolithic material.
3. The source of this material.
4, The kinds and character of the implements.
5. Negative evidence from the floor.
6. Indications of antiquity.
7. General remarks and conclusions.
4. On recent Researches in Bench Cavern, Brixham, Devon.
By W. Pencetzy, F.R.S.—See Section C, p. 710.
5. Observations on recent Hxuplorations made by General Pitt-Rivers at
Rushmore. By J. G. Garson, M.D., V.P.A_Inst.
The author began his paper by defining the early British races. The earliest
people of whom osteological remains are found were characterised by being of short
stature and haying long narrow heads and feebly-developed brow-ridges. Their
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 913
‘weapons were of stone, and they buried their dead very frequently in long barrows.
It is generally accepted that the small dark people found in South Wales and other
parts of the West of England to whom the name ‘ Iberian’ is applied are the repre-
sentatives of this early race. The country was next invaded by a tall race, with
round heads and prominent brow-ridges, whose weapons were of bronze, and who
interred their dead in round barrows. These are identified as the people against
whom the Romans had to contend when they took possession of England, and who
are known as the Kelts. Although many discoveries of the remains of these two
races have been made at different times and in various parts of, the country, much
uncertainty still exists as to their history. During the last three years, and parti-
cularly during the past year, however, important information has been obtained
regarding them from the discoveries of General Pitt-Rivers at Rushmore, near
Salisbury, in the extreme south of Wiltshire. He has found on his estate there no
less than four British villages of the Roman period, besides many other tumuli and
cists. Two of these villages have now been excavated with the greatest care, and
a very full description of the one first examined and of the several neighbouring
tumuli has just been published in a handsome volume, containing no less than
seventy-four quarto plates, and numerous woodcuts and tables. Both villages are
situated on the Downs, on high ground, and were only marked, previous to their
excavation, by slight elevations and depressions of the surface, which, on examina-
tion, proved to be the remains of what were once ditches and ramparts, Many
parts of the village, however, showed no trace on the surface, and were only brought
to light by carefully trenching nearly every foot of the ground within the ramparts,
Very careful drawings have been made both of the villages and of all the other
excavations, as well as of the objectsfound. The feature which particularly attracted
the attention of everyone who saw these ancient villages after they had been exca-
vated was the complicated system of ditches and pits they contained. The general
plan of both villages is essentially the same. A main ditch and rampart situated
internally to the former marks the external boundaries of each village, and nume-
rous smaller ditches intersect the interior, all conducting in the direction of the water-
shed of thecountry. In the pits and in the ditches were found many human remains,
several of which had been interred with the legs drawn up and the body resting
on one or other side. Sometimes the interments were single, and in other cases two
bodies were found together, with the heads in opposite directions. In most instances
little care had been bestowed on the interments, and no rule had been followed in
depositing the body. At different parts of the camp, and in the ditches and pits,
were found considerable quantities of Roman pottery, coins, fibule, and various
ornaments of bronze and iron, as well as worked stone implements. The village
of Woodcuts, described in the work referred to, was particularly rich in these objects.
In the interior of this village were found several wells, one of which was 188 feet
in depth, and at the bottom of it was found the iron portions of a bucket. In the
outskirts of the village were four hypocausts, or heating-places. Besides the
human remains many remains of domestic animals, which proved to be those of
Bos longifrons, a small long-legged variety of sheep, dogs of various sizes, pig, roe,
red-deer, and horse were found. Also a considerable quantity of oyster-shells.
Grains of wheat were found in one of the pits, associated with a bronze fibula and
fragments of pottery. The human remains are extremely interesting, and throw
much light on the characters of the people to whom they belonged. The chief
oint of interest which they show is the small stature of the people—the average
height of the males being 5 feet 4 inches, and of the females 4 feet 11:8 inches,
in the village of Woodcuts; and in that of Rotherly—the other village excavated
this year—5 feet 1 inch and 4 feet 10 inches respectively. The skulls are of a long
narrow oval form, with one or two exceptions, which are of rounder form. These
latter were found associated with longer limb-bones, and evidently belonged to a
different race from the majority of the inhabitants. Two types of skull are fre-
quently met with in long barrows, both of a long narrow form, but differ from
each other in one having a regular oval outline, while the other broadens out from
a narrow forehead, and, having obtained its greatest width, terminates rapidly
behind. yo skulls found in the village correspond exactly to the first type. It
1887. 3N
914 REPORT—1887.
is therefore probable that there were two distinct races of the long-headed people,
which will have to be distinguished in future.
The indications as to the history of the country derived from the discoveries of
General Pitt-Rivers are, in the opinion of the author, that at one time the long-
headed race inhabited the whole country; a race of round-headed people—the
Kelts—came in from the East, and drove the long-headed persons westwards as far
as the dense forests which covered the middle and west parts of England. These
were in turn displaced and driven northwards and along the south coast, when the
country was open, by the Roman invaders; hence the latter came in immediate
contact with the older long-headed race.
6. Note on the Ethnic Type of the Inhabitants of the Hvolena Valley in
Switzerland. By Mrs. Kyicur.
7. On Berber and Guanche Tradition as to the Burial-place of Hercules.
By R. G. Harreurton.
As shown in a previous paper, the people of Mount Atlas still claim to be the
oldest of nations, as they did in the time of Diodorus Siculus, who says that not
only they, but also Greek mythologists believed that that country was ‘ the birth-
place of all the gods of antiquity.’ The oldest myths of Greece point to the West
and to Mount Atlas; but in later times Mount Atlas and its myths were shifted
to the north of the Danube, and even to Mount Caucasus.
The people to the south of Morocco, a very different race from those to the
north, are nomadic, and given to necromancy and magic. They have a vast store
of ancient traditions, and resemble the gipsies of Europe in their unchangeable
characteristics.
It has been shown by French and other writers that the myth of Hercules and
Geryon came from the Gauls and Kelts, and that it was borrowed by the Greeks
and Romans from them. The Keltic Hercules is described fully in Smith’s
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Mythology. There isclear proof that the Northern
nations of Europe derived these myths from the people of Mount Atlas, which
was the scene of them. Hercules visits Atlas, and studies astronomy with him;
resides among the Hyperboreans in Mount Atlas ; makes the Straits of Gibraltar,
and sets up the Pillars of Hercules. He sails west to the island of Erytheia, and
steals the cows of Geryon; finds his way to the Eden of those daughters of Atlas,
the Hesperides, or the ‘ Western ones,’ and steals the famous golden apples.
It is interesting, therefore, to trace, if possible, local legends which connect him
with that country. Ancient maps represent near Mogador ‘the promontory of
Hercules,’ Why was it thus called? It is known only to the natives as ‘the
Mountain of Iron,’ ;
I have heard tales of Hercules from many of the natives of Sus. A Beni
Bacchar, or Bes Carn (the name of a tribe near Massa), said that ‘ Bacchar, or
Bibaween (the drunken), made Ben Cantin’s enemies drunk, and took them prisoners,
and Ben Cantin lived forty years in the temple at Massa ; but, in consequence of an
outbreak, sailed away with all his treasures to the Mountain of Iron, and hid them
there. Du Karnaiin, or Herge, a great freebooter, hearing of this, sailed there
to find them, but without success. He then sailed to the Canaries in search
of the 366 cows of Geryon, and went into a cave there, in which was a large dog
with feet like those of a camel. The cave looked towards the sea, and was at the
foot of a great mountain. He never came out, and the people closed the cave
with stones.’
Another gave me a still more ancient tradition:—‘Du Kernaiin, called
Herklein, or Herkla, made the Straits of Gibraltar. In his time Sus and the
Canaries were one country. He went to a large mountain in the Canaries to steal
the 366 cows of Geryon, that came out always to pasture at sunset, and were
watched by a dog named Terras, There was a great cave at the foot of the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 915
mountain, called Heber, or Kafoun Herge. He went inté the cave and was never
seen again; and the cave was closed up with stones and lime, and cannot be found
by men. There is a prophecy that when it is opened, the world will be changed.’
That time arrived a hundred years ago, when an earthquake exposed a vast
mummy cave. At the far end of it is an opening in the face of a perpendicular
cliff, which is hundreds of feet above the sea.
The Guanches must have had a similar tradition as to that cave, as it is called
mow (no one knows why) ‘ the cave of Herke.’
It is evident why Hercules remained in thatcave. He went into it as a mummy.
How was it that this secret cave, closed ages ago, was known to the Susi, and
even the fact that there was an opening in it that ‘ looked out towards the sea’?
It is difficult to suppose that this story is not a historical tradition, It must
have been known to the Romans that Hercules sailed from the Mountain of Iron
when they named it ‘the promontory of Hercules’; and the Guanches must have
heard that he was buried in a secret mummy cave in Teneriffe when they called it
“the cave of Herke.’
“Soca Rit ere hat iat” Fate Soares
ict Si) nua Rw s Biiels aber
Bes iherhied DE Pi oie
‘ ie enw oun Wier hdd yy *
igo BY tis Wie sa eis? bee a dl .
2 ae fob od eae tae ie
“ oe , fit ax om ihe U saltirt: Dagar wots a
By ‘ ie "dolielt T7 saab ane? (rae Be ma e
Pe 00 osbiet Means oils wi bunting sel) wiraeae
‘’ : TOMial an? aun na huis wabo torso edt tatty ull
} yi ll Biiess tye be wngh * tngt tis quran Bk Anise “egal, Tay
‘yes
¥
ae .
‘ en etd lexiroyas a jo ai ‘iow ald? seit etoqgell
eat) ddl host yo fe alvin ll todd ecient aed
“red suebiurnais) see Dias 7 anlage ‘sie tecsoray oft * fi hee
tt pede raid we SiteaeT af gragiyeneira: sexes en habsurd ave ‘Necks Dish a
bal > OE 7 worl a Pee 4 Tee Yi ae mats
F ak , : 7 fly P, ~~
oh ee a an wie Pigs ‘
ey ri hee n'a i
Rs als Cae Aro! Ate 24a sip tet +
(i 0 aS Car TA At 44 ta ‘
- TGS ier ee Ca id Tec oe ot
i, ee ee Ar Ge OO Sie d Moctly, tal if: :
; r Y ie! oe ae a. a : Ln ee .
‘I b 7 » r seals i ate seh Laas 4 “7
wan eek thes hm, a ke “
: eeptbedipel é
‘e ‘oat bbe ret La ten Pi diciy ‘eka
st) ine iat feb ag |
hs) mat Spal Pe rta ake iad ih. Pe
se taertiee PASI ieee ee : ay
tie, metlinarlg ° Sam
fiwke ie pit Pues
ot & or bf,
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seers
we rh
INDEX.
[An asterish (*) signifies that no abstract of the communication is given.]}
BJECTS and rules of the Association,
XXxi.
Places and times of meeting, with names
of officers, from commencement, xli.
List of former Presidents and Secretaries
of Sections, xlix.
List of evening lectures, Ixiv.
Lectures to the Operative Classes, Ixvi.
Officers of Sectional Committees present
at Manchester, Ixviii.
Treasurer’s account, lxx.
-Table showing the attendance and re-
ceipts at the annual meetings, lxxii.
Officers and Council for 1887-88, Ixxiv.
Report of the Council to the General
Committee at Manchester, Ixxv.
Recommendations adopted by the General
Committee at Manchester: involving
grants of money, Ixxvii; not involving
grants of money, Ixxxii; communica-
tions ordered to be printed tn extenso,
lxxxv; resolution referred to the
Council for consideration, and action
if desirable, 7d.
Synopsis of grants of money appropriated
to scientific purposes, Ixxxvi.
Places of meeting in 1888 and 1889,
1xxxvil.
.General statement of sums which have
been paid on account of grants for
scientific purposes, lxxxviii.
General meetings, c.
‘Address by the President, Sir Henry £.
Roscoe, M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D.,
F.B.S., V.P.CS., 1
Abbe (C.), the general bibliography of
meteorology and terrestrial magnetism,
compiled by the Signal Office, Wash-
ington, 593.
Abercromby (Hon. BR.) on the different
kinds of thunderstorms, and on a
scheme for their systematic observa-
tion, 597.
Abney (Capt.) on the best methods of
recording the direct intensity of solar
radiation, 32; on standards of light,
47 ; on electrolysis in its physical and
chemical bearings, 336.
Absorption spectra, the, of rare earths, by
Dr. G. H. Bailey, 654.
of the haloid salts of didymium,
by Dr. G. H. Bailey, 654.
Abt (Dr.) and Dr. Noelting on the con-
stitution of the azimido-compounds,
642.
Acanthorhiza aculeata, H. Windl., the
root-spines of, Prof. McNab on, 744.
*Acclimatisation, Dr. A. Oppler on,
799.
*Acetic ether, the rate of velocity of
formation of, Prof. Menschuthen on,
646.
Acland (A. H. D.) on the regulation of
wages by means of lists in the cotton
industry, 303.
Aconitine, a new process for the prepa-
ration of, by J. Williams, 665.
*Acquired characters, are they here-
ditary ? discussion on, 755.
*Adams (Prof. J. C.), some notice of a
new computation of the Gaussian con-
stants, 600.
Adams (Prof. W. G.) on standards of
light, 47; on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 206; on the
best means of comparing and reducing
magnetic observations, 320.
Agriculture, preventible losses in, by
Prof. W. Fream, 834. :
——, the future of, by W. Botly, 835.
Ain Raian, the desert from Dahshur to,
by Capt. C. Surtees, 801,
*Air, apparatus for the examination of,
by Dr. Ransome, 672.
*Alaska, South-eastern, Prof, Libbey on,
804.
*Alcohol and water combinations, by
Prof. Mendeléef, 647.
Alcoholic liquors, a new and rapid method
of testing, Dr. W. Bott on, 660.
918
Alkali manufacture, A. E. Fletcher on
the present position of the, 638.
Alkyl nitrites, the reduction-products
of the, by Prof. Dunstan and T. 8.
Dymond, 649.
Allen (A. H.) on the utilisation of blast-
furnace creosote, 640.
Alps, traverses of the western and of
the eastern, made during the summer
of 1887, preliminary note on, by Prof.
T. G. Bonney, 705.
Alternation of generations in green
plants, by J. R. Vaizey, 771. ;
Anderson (W.) and EH. A. Cowper, ex-
periments on the mechanical equiva-
lent of heat on a large scale, 562.
*Andrews (W.), history of the cotton
trade, 849.
Anglesey, the older rocks of, report on
the microscopical examination of, 230.
Anglo-Indian monetary problem, Prof.
L. Walras on the solution of the, 849.
Anharmonies, note on the general theory
of, by A. Buchheim, 607.
*Antarctic regions, second report of the
Committee for drawing attention to
the desirability of further research in
the, 805.
Antedon rosacea, the early stages in the
development of, H. Bury on, 735.
‘Anthropological Notes and Queries,’
report of the Committeee for editing
a new edition of, 172.
Anthropological Section, Address by
Prof. A. H. Sayce to the, 885.
Archean rocks, G. H. Kinahan on, 709.
, the older, of Malvern and Angle-
sey, notes on, by Dr. C. Callaway,
706.
Archibald (Prof. E. D.), the direction of
the upper currents over the equator in
connection with the Krakatoa smoke-
stream, 619.
Ardagh (Col.), the feasipility of the
Raian reservoir, 800.
*Are acquired characters hereditary ?
discussion on, 755.
Armstrong (Prof.) on the desirability of
combined action for the translation of
foreign memoirs, 41 ; on the teaching
of science in elementary schools, 163 ;
on isomeric naphthalene derivatives,
231; on electrolysis in its physical and
chemical bearings, 336; *note on
valency, especially as defined by Helm-
holtz, 647.
and Dr. Arrhenius, comparison
between the views of, on Electrolysis,
by Prof. O. Lodge, 351; reply thereto,
by Prof. Armstrong, 354.
*Arrow release, ancient and modern
methods of, by Prof. E. 8. Morse, 904.
Arteries of the base of the brain, by
Prof. B. C. A. Windle, 753.
INDEX.
*Arthropods, the vascular system and
colour of, Prof. Lankester on, 736.
Aryans, the primitive seat of the, by
Canon I, Taylor, 895.
Ascaris megalocephala, the fecundation
of the, some remarks on the recent
researches of Zacharias and Dr. Boveri
upon, by Prof. J. B. Carnoy, 756.
* Assimilation and the evolution of oxygen
by green plant cells, Prof, Pringsheim
on, 763.
Assyrian syllabary, the picture origin of
the characters of the, by Rev. W.
Houghton, 898.
Atchison (A. T.) on the endurance of
metals under repeated and varying
stresses, and the proper working
stresses on railway bridges, &c., 424.
Atkinson (E.) on ‘mono-metallists’ an@
*bi-metallists,’ 849.
Atomic weight of gold, preliminary
notice of a re-determination of the,
with some remarks on the present
state of our knowledge as to the de-
termination of atomic weights in
general, by Prof. J. W. Mallet, 635.
Atomic weight of zirconium, the, by Dr.
G. H. Bailey, 636.
Atropine, Prof. Ladenburg on the consti-
tution of, 647.
*Atypus niger, a Florida spider, Dr.
McCook on the nesting habit of the,
759.
*Australia, Western, by J. Forrest, 803.
Axon (W. E. A.) on the increase of
wealth and population in Lancashire,
852: colour-names amongst the English
gipsies, 909.
Ayrton (Prof.) on standards of light,
47; on standards for use in electrical
measurements, 206.
Azimido-compounds, Drs. Noelting and
Abt on the constitution of the, 642.
*B.A. standards of resistance, R. T.
Glazebrook on the permanence of the,
608.
*B.A. unit of electrical resistance, final
value of the, as determined by the
American Committee, by Prof. H. A.
Rowland, 609.
Badger (E. W.) on the disappearance of
native plants from their local habitats,
130.
*Bahr Yusuf, the, by Capt. R. H. Brown,
801.
Bailey (C.), Juncus alpinus, Vill., as
new to Britain, 745.
Bailey (Dr. G. H.), the atomic weight of
zirconium, 636; the absorption spectra.
of rare earths, 654; the absorption
spectra of the haloid salts of didy-
mium, id.
INDEX.
Baker (B.) on the endurance of metals
under repeated and varying stresses,
and the proper working stresses on
railway bridges, &c., 424.
Balfour (Prof. B.) on the steps taken for
establishing a botanical station at
Peradeniya, 96; *on a point in the
morphology of Viola tricolor, 763.
Ball (Mr.) on our present knowledge of
the flora of China, 94.
Ball (Prof. Sir R. S.), Address to the
Mathematical and Physical Section by,
569.
Ball (Prof. V.) on the provincial museums
of the United Kingdom, 97.
*Bangala, the, a tribe on the Upper
Congo, by Capt. Coquilhat, 798.
Barlow (C.) on the endurance of metals
under repeated and varying stresses,
and the proper working stresses on
railway bridges, &c., 424.
Barlow (W. H.) on the endurance of
metals under repeated and varying
stresses, and the proper working
stresses on railway bridges, &c., 424.
Barrett (Prof, W. F.) on the physical pro-
perties of a nearly non-magnetisable
(manganese) steel, 610.
Barrington (R. M.) on the migration of
birds, 70.
Bateman (A. E.), the statistics of our
ao trade, and what they tell us,
48.
Bates (H. W.) on the depth of perma-
nently frozen soil in the Polar regions,
152; on the combination of the Ord-
nance and Admiralty surveys, and the
production of a bathy-hypsographical |
map of the British Islands, 160.
Bathy-hy psographical map of the British
Islands, final report on the combina-
tion of the Ordnance and Admiralty
surveys and the production of a, 160.
*Bathy-orographical map of Scotland,
Dr. H. R Mill on a, 804.
Bauerman (H.) on the volcanic pheno-
mena of Vesuvius and its neighbour-
hood, 226.
Bean, the nitrogenous nutrition of the,
Dr. 8. H. Vine on, 741.
Becker (Miss L.) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 163.
Beddard (F. E.), note on a point in the
structure of Fratercula arctica, 771;
on the development of the ovum in
Hudrilus, ib.
Beddoe (Dr.) on the preparation of anew
edition of ‘Anthropological Notes and
Queries,’ 172.
Beer, a new and rapid method of testing,
Dr. W. Bott on, 660.
Bell (A.) on the ‘manure’ gravels of
Wexford, 209.
Bell (Prof. F. J.), a forgotten species of
919
Peripatus, 769; a note on the relations
of helminth parasites to grouse disease,
770.
Bell (L.), recent determinations of abso-
lute wave-lengths, 584.
Bell (R. G.), the pliocene beds of St.
Erth, Cornwall, 718.
*Ben Nevis, a peculiarity of the cyclonic
winds of, R. T. Omond on, 595.
——., meteorological observations on,
report of the Committee for co-oper-
ating with the Scottish Meteorological
Society in making, 34.
——, the hygrometry of, H. N. Dickson
on, 594.
Ben Nevis Observatory, the thermal
windrose at, A. Rankin on, 595.
Bench Cavern, Brixham, Devon, recent
researches in, by W. Pengelly, 710.
Benham (Dr. W. B.), recent researches
on earthworms, 749. :
*Bennettites, the type of a new group
between angiosperms and gymno-
sperms, Count Solms-Laubach on, 761.
Bent (Mr.), report on the ancient marble
commerce of Thasos, 201.
*Benzene, the action of nitric acid on, a
study of, by Prof. L. Meyer, 653.
Bernthsen (Prof.) on methylene blue and
methylene red, 645.
Bidwell (E.) on the herds of wild cattle
in Chartley Park and other parks in
Great Britain, 135.
Bidwell (S.) on electrolysis in its physical
and chemical bearings, 336.
Biggart (A. S.), the Forth Bridge works,
870.
Biggs (C. H. W.) and W. H. Snell, dis-
tribution by transformers and alternate
current machines, 878.
Bilbao, the iron mines of, by J. Head,
861.
*Bimetallism, J. Nicholson on, 852.
‘ Bi-metallists’’ and ‘ mono-metallists,”
E. Atkinson on, 849.
Binder (Dr.) and Dr. Noelting on the
constitution of the mixed diazoamido-
compounds, 643.
Biological Section, Address by Prof. A.
Newton to the, 726.
Blackfoot tribes, report on the, by Rev.
E. F. Wilson, 183; notes thereon, by
H. Hale, 197.
Blake (Prof. J. F.) on the microscopical
examination of the older rocks of
Anglesey, 230; on a star-fish from the
Yorkshire lias, 716.
Blanford (Dr. W. T.) on the fossil plants
of the tertiary and secondary beds of
the United Kingdom, 229.
Bloxam (G. W.) on the North-westerm
tribes of the dominion of Canada, 173;
on the prehistoric race in the Greek
islands, 200; on racial photographs
920
from the ancient Egyptian pictures
and sculptures, 439.
Boat-shaped graves in Syria, by G. St.
Clair, 900.
*Bodies, natural, a new physiological
principle for the formation of, by Prof.
Jessen, 783.
*Bodies of man and animals, a new
geometry for the, by Prof. Jessen, 783.
Bonney (Prof. T. G.) on the desirability
of combined action for the translation
of foreign memoirs, 41; on the pro-
motion of the study of geography,
158; on the microscopical examina-
tion of the older rocks of Anglesey,
230; on the erratic blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, 236; preliminary
note on traverses of the western and
of the eastern Alps made during the
summer of 1887, 705; observations on
the rounding of pebbles by Alpine
rivers, with a note on their bearing
upon the origin of the Bunter conglo-
merate, 721.
Bosjes pelvis, Prof. Cleland on the, 902.
Bosnia, land tenure in, by Miss Irby, 837.
Botly (W.) on the future of agriculture,
835.
Bott (Dr. W.) on a new and rapid method
of testing beer and other alcoholic
liquors, 660.
and Prof. H. Schwarz on the deri-
vatives and the constitution of the
pyrocresols, 669.
Bottomley (J. T.) on standards for use
in electrical measurements, 206; on
electrolysis in its physical and chemi-
cal bearings, 336; on expansion with
rise of temperature in wires under
elongating stress, 620.
Boulder-stones, the many remarkable, to
be found along the eastern margin of
the Wicklow mountains, note on a few
of, by Prof. E. Hull, 691.
Boulders, foreign, in coal seams, M. Stir-
rup on, 686.
Bourne (8.) on the teaching of science
in elementary schools, 163 ; on the best
methods of ascertaining and measuring
variations in the value of the mone-
tary standard, 247.
Bovey (Prof. H. T.) on promoting tidal
observations in Canada, 31.
Bower (Prof. F. O.) on the desirability
of combined action for the translation
of foreign memoirs, 41; on the steps
taken for establishing a botanical
station at Peradeniya, 96; *on flagella
of calamus, 743 ; *on Cramer's gemmz
borne by Trichomanes alata, 761.
Bowman (Dr. F. H.), the chemistry of the
cotton fibre, 641.
Brady (H. B.) on the work of the British
Marine Area Committee, 95.
INDEX.
*Braham (P.), apparatus for demonstrat-
ing the explosion of nitro-glycerine,
672.
Brain, arteries of the base of the, by Prof.
B. C. A. Windle, 753.
Bramwell (Sir F. J.) on the endurance
of metals under repeated and varying
stresses, and the proper working stresses
on railway bridges, &c., 424.
“Brewer (F.), underground electrical
work in America, 882.
Bridge ( Prof.) on the herds of wild cattle
in Chartley Park and other parks in
Great Britain, 135.
Brindley (W.), account ofa recent visit to
the ancient porphyry quarries of Egypt,
801.
British Association standard screw gauge,
W. H. Preece on the, 884.
British Marine Area Committee, report of
the, 95.
Brown (Prof. Crum) on meteorological
observations on Ben Nevis, 34; on elec- +
trolysis in its physical and chemical
bearings, 336.
Brown (J.) on electrolysis in its physical
and chemical bearings, 336.
*Brown (Capt. R. H.), the Bahr Yusuf,
801.
Buchan (A.) on meteorological observa-
tions on Ben Nevis, 34; on the depth
of permanently frozen soil in the Polar
regions, 152; on the combination of
the Ordnance and Admiralty surveys,
and the production of a bathy-hypso-
graphical map of the British Islands,
160.
Buchanan (J. Y.) on the depth of perma-
nently frozen soil in the Polar regions,
152; on the combination of the Ord-
nance and Admiralty surveys, and the
production of a bathy-hypsographical
map of the British Islands, 160.
Buchheim (A.), note on the general theory
of anharmonics, 607.
Buckland (Miss A. W.), tattooing, 904.
Bunter conglomerate, note on the origin
of the, by Prof. T. G. Bonney, 721.
*Burma, the ruby mines of, by J. S.
Streeter, 803.
Bury (H.) on the early stages in the de-
velopment of Antedon rosacea, 735.
Buys-Ballot (Dr.) on comparing and re-
ducing magnetic observations, 323, 324.
Cae Gwyn Cave, the, North Wales, second
report on the exploration of, 301.
*Cesalpinez, the morphology of some,
Prof. Hartog on, 763.
*Calamus, flagella of, Prof. F. O. Bower.
on, 743.
Calcareous organisms, the mineralogical
constitution of, V. Cornish and P. F.
Kendall on, 700.
INDEX.
Calcédoine enhydrique, la, de Salto Orien-
tal( Uruguay) et son véritable gisement,
by Prof. Vilanova, 699.
Calico printing and the tinctorial arts,
the extent to which they have been af-
fected by the introduction of modern
colours, by C. O’Neill, 640.
Callaway (Dr. C.), notes on the origin of
. the older archean rocks of Malvern
and Anglesey, 706.
Callus-plates in the sieve-tubes of certain
gigantic laminarias, F. W. Oliver on the
presence of, 761.
Cameroons mountain, the flora and fauna
of the, report on, 73.
Canada, tidal observations in, third report
of the Committee for promoting, 31.
Carboniferous flora of Halifax and its
neighbourhood, report on the, 235.
Carboniferous fossilsin a conglomerate at
Moughton Fell, near Settle, Yorkshire,
R. Law and J. Horsfall on the discovery
of, 690.
Cardwell (J. J.) on a natural method of
teaching geography, 805.
Carnelley (Prof.), the melting points of
organic compounds in relation to their
chemical constitution: Part I.—In-
fluence of orientation in aromatic
compounds, 647.
and Miss H. Johnston, the antisep-
tic properties of metallic salts in rela-
tion totheir chemical composition, and
the periodic law, 667.
-—— and Dr. A. Thomson, the solubility
of isomeric organic compounds, 647.
— and T. Wilson, a new method for
determining micro-organisms in air,
654.
Carnoy (Prof. J. B.), some remarks on the
recent researches of Zacharias and Dr.
Boveri upon the fecundation of the
ascaris megalocephala, 756.
Carotid system, the nature and develop-
ment of the, by Dr. J. Y. Mackay, 754.
Carpenter (W. L.) on the best means of
comparing and reducing magnetic ob-
servations, 320, 332.
Carpmael (Prof. C. H.) on the depth of
permanently frozen soil in the Polar
regions, 152; on the best means of
comparing and reducing magnetic ob-
servations, 320.
Carruthers (W.) on the flora and fauna of
the Cameroons mountain, 73; on our
present knowledge of the flora of China
94; on the work of the British Marine
Area Committee, 95 ; on the steps taken
* for establishing a botanical station at
Peradeniya, 96; on the fossil plants of
the tertiary and secondary beds of the
United Kingdom, 229.
Carver (Rev. Canon) on the promotion of
the study of geography, 158.
921
Cash (Mr.) on the carboniferous flora of
Halifax and its neighbourhood, 235.
*Cell question, discussion on the present
aspect of the, 763.
Cell-walls, on the constitution of, and its
relation to absorption in mosses, by J.
R. Vaizey, 772.
*Cephalodiscus, S. F. Harmer on, 759.
Cephalopoda, note on the hectocotyli-
sation of the, by W. EH. Hoyle, 768.
*Cetacean embryos, the larynx and sto-
mach of, by Prof. D’A. Thompson, 740.
*Chadwick (D.), expenditure of wages,
849.
Chambers (C.), luni-solar variation of the
vertical magnetic force at Bombay,
334.
Channel tunnel, on the present state of
the, and on the boring at Shakespeare
Cliff, near Dover, by Prof. W. Boyd
Dawkins, 722.
*Chemical action in a magnetic field,
Prof. H. A. Rowland on, 589.
Chemical attraction, as a mechanical
stress, a probable manifestation of,
Prof. J. W. Langley on, 657.
Chemical nomenclature, suggested a-
mendment of, by Prof. A Smithells,
652.
Chemical Section, Address by Dr. E.
Schunck to the, 624.
Chemistry, integral weights in, by Dr. T.
S. Hunt, 637.
——, the teaching of, M. M. P. Muir on,
651.
Cherriman (Prof. J. B.) on promoting
tidal observations in Canada, 31.
Chert in the carboniferous limestone
series of Ireland, the organic origin of
the, and its similarity to that in the
corresponding strata in North Wales
and Yorkshire, Dr.G. J. Hinde on,
688.
Chest-types in man, the experimental
production of, by G. W. Hambleton,
903.
China, the flora of, report on our present
knowledge of, 94.
Christie (W. H. M.) on the best means
of comparing and reducing magnetic
observations, 320.
Chrystal (Prof. G.) on the work of
the Differential Gravity Meter Com-
mittee, 41; on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 206; on the
best means of comparing and reducing
magnetic observations, 320.
Cinnamic acids, some new, by Prof.
Perkin and Dr. J. B. Cohen, 667.
City of London and Southwark subway,
the, by J. H. Greathead, 870.
Clarke (F. W.), the chemical structure
of some natural silicates, 650. :
Clarke (Hyde), effective consumption
922
and effective prices in their economical
and statistical relations, 832.
Clarke (W. E.) on the migration of
birds, 70.
Cleland (Prof.) on the mechanism of the
secretion of urine, 131; on alteration
of iliac divarication and other changes
of pelvic forms during growth, 754;
on the Bosjes pelvis, 902.
Clerk (D.), the Tangye gas hammer,
883.
Cockroach, Jtoblattina wpeachii (H.
Woodw.), the discovery of the larval
stage of a, from the coal-measures of
Kilmaurs, Ayrshire, Dr. H. Woodward
on, 696. :
Cocks (A. H.) on the herds of wild
cattle in Chartley Park and other
parks in Great Britain, 135.
*Cocoa-nut pearls, by S. J. Hickson, 740.
Coefficient of self-induction in telegraph
wires, W. H. Preece on the, 612.
Cohen (Dr. J. B.) and Prof. Perkin,
some new cinnamic acids, 667.
Colour-names amongst the English
gipsies, by W. E. A. Axon, 909.
Colour-relation between phytophagous
larve and their surroundings, further
experiments upon the, by E. B. Poulton,
756.
*Colouring matters, exhibition of a new
class of, by Dr. C. A. Martius, 641.
*Colquhoun (A. R.), Formosa, 805.
Communication of motion between bodies
moving at different velocities, by J.
W. Pearse, 882.
Comparison-magnetometer, W. W. H.
Gee on a, 620.
*Congo, l’etat indépendant du, notice
sur, by M. van Eetvelde, 798.
, the, below Stanley Pool, by Lieut.
Le Marinel, 798.
, the Lower, by R. C. Phillips, 798.
Constant current with varying electro-
motive force, the production of a, from
a dynamo, A. P. Trotter on, 616.
Consumption, the scientific treatment of,
by G. W. Hambleton, 903.
Continental lands, the effect of, in alter-
ing the level of the adjoining oceans,
Prof. E. Hull on, 596.
Copepoda, some, new to Britain found
in Liverpool Bay, I. C. Thompson on,
734.
Copper wire, W. H. Preece on, 874.
*Coquilhat (Capt.), the Bangala, a tribe
on the Upper Congo, 798.
Cordeaux (J.) on the migration of birds,
70.
Cornish (V.) and P. F. Kendall on the
mineralogical constitution of cal-
careous organisms, 700.
Corresponding Societies Committee, re-
port of the, 459.
+
INDEX.
Cotton fibre, the chemistry of the, by
Dr. F. H. Bowman, 641.
Cotton industry, report on the regulation
of wages in the, by means of lists,.
303 ; spinning, 7b. ; weaving, 314.
Cotton piece goods, the classification of
the exports of, in Board of Trade re-
turns, by F. Hardcastle, 847.
*Cotton trade, history of the, by W.
Andrews, 849.
County councils, a plan for, by J. T. Kay,
837.
Cowper (E. A.) and W. Anderson, ex-
periments on the mechanical equivalent
of heat on a large scale, 562.
*Cramer’s gemmz borne by Zrichomanes-
alata, Prof. F. O. Bower on, 761,
Creak (Staff-Comm.) on the best means.
of comparing and reducing magnetic
observations, 320.
Creosote, blast-furnace, A. H. Allen on
the utilisation of, 640.
Crew (H.) on the period of rotation of
the sun as determined by the spectro-
scope, 583.
Criteria for discriminating between:
maxima and minima solutions in the
calculus of variations, E. P. Culverwell
on the, 598.
Criticoids, R. Rawson on, 604.
Crookes (W.) on the desirability of
combined action for the translation of
foreign memoirs, 41; on electrolysis
in its physical and chemical bearings,.
336.
Crosskey (Dr. H. W.) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 163 ; on
the erratic blocks of England, Wales,.
and Ireland, 236; on the circulation
of underground waters, 358.
Culverwell (E. P.) on the criteria for
discriminating between maxima and
minima solutions in the calculus of
variations, 598.
Cumnoria, an iguanodont genus founded
upon the Zgwanodon Prestwichi, Hulke,.
Prof. H. G. Seeley on, 698.
Cundall (J. T.) on the action of the
silent discharge of electricity on
oxygen and other gases, 42.
Cunningham (J. T.), report on the zoologi-
cal work done at the marine biological
station at Granton, 92.
Cunningham (Rev. W.)on the regulation:
of wages by means of lists in the
cotton industry, 303.
Cycloidal rotation, a supposed, of arterial
red discs, further supplementary re-
marks on, by Surg.-Maj. R. W. Woole
combe, 783.
*Cyclonic winds of Ben Nevis, a peculi-
arity of the, R. T. Omond on, 595.
* Cyclostomata, the blood-corpuscles of,
by Prof. D’A. Thompson, 740.
INDEX.
Dahshur, the desert from, to Ain Raian,
by Capt. C. Surtees, 801.
Darwin (Prof. G. H.) on the work of the
Differential Gravity Meter Committee,
41; on the best means of comparing
and reducing magnetic observations,
320,
Davey (H.), expansive working in direct-
acting pumping engines, 880.
Davis (J. W.) on the prehistoric inhabit-
ants of the British Islands, 168; on the
discovery and excavation of an ancient
sea-beach, near Rridlington Quay,
containing mammalian remains, 694.
Dawkins (Prof. W. Boyd) on the herds
of wild cattle in Chartley Park and
other parks in Great Britain, 135; on
the prehistoric inhabitants of the
British Islands, 168; on the erratic
blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland,
236 ; on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 459; on the geo-
graphy of the British Isles in the car-
boniferous period, 684; on the struc-
ture of the millstone grit of the
Pennine chain, 686 ; on the phyllites of
the Isle of Man, 700; on the present
state of the Channel tunnel, and on
the boring at Shakespeare Cliff, near
Dover, 722; *the beginning of the
geography of Great Britain, 803.
Dawson (Dr. G. M.) on the North-
western tribes of the dominion of
Canada, 173.
Dawson (Sir J. W.) on new facts relating
to Eozoon Canadense, 702.
Dawson (Capt. W. J.) on the depth of
permanently frozen soil in the Polar
regions, 152.
*Denis (Prof.), graphic illustrations of
the fall of prices in Belgium, France,
and England, 832.
Dennett (R. E.), a visit to Diogo Cao’s
*Padrao’ at the mouth of the Congo,
799.
De Rance (C. E.) on the erratic blocks
of England, Wales, and Ireland, 236 ;
on the circulation of underground
waters, 358.
Devonian rocks, the, of West Somerset,
on the borders of the trias, by W. A.
E. Ussher, 720.
Dewar (Prof.) on standards of light, 47.
Diamond, the matrix of the, by Prof.
H. C. Lewis, 720.
Diazoamido-compounds, the mixed, Drs.
Noeltingand Binder on the constitution
of, 643.
Dickson (H. N.) on the hygrometry of
Ben Nevis, 594.
Differential gravity meter, a good, report
of the Committee for inviting designs
for, in supersession of the pendulum,
41.
923
*Diffraction bands near the edge of the
shadow of an obstacle, Prof. G. F.
Fitzgerald on the, 584.
Dinosaurie, the classification of the, by
Prof. H. G. Seeley, 698.
*Dinotherium, deux espéces, trouvées en
Espagne, notice du, by Prof. Vilanova,.
717.
Diogo Cio’s ‘ Padrao’ at the mouth of the
Congo, a visit to, by R. E. Dennett, 799.
Disappearance of native plants from
their local habitats, report on the, 130.
*Dispersion equivalents and constitu-
tional formule, by Dr. J. H. Glad-
stone, 660.
Distribution by transformers and alter-
nate current machines, by C. H. W-
Biggs and W. H. Snell, 878.
Distribution of wealth in Scotland, R.
Richardson on the, 840.
Dixon (Prof. H. B.) on the desirability
of combined action for the translation
of foreign memoirs, 41 ; on standards:
of light, 47; on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 336.
Douglas (J.) and Dr. T. S. Hunt, the
Sonora earthquake of May 3, 1887,
712.
Douglass (Sir J.) on standards of light,
47
Drought, what is a? by G. J. Symons,
869.
Dunstan (Prof.) and T. S. Dymond, the
reduction-products of the nitro-parafiins:
and alky) nitrites, 649.
Durham (W.) on solution, 655.
Dymond (T. 8.) and Prof. Dunstan, the
reduction-products of the nitro-parafiins:
and alkyl nitrites, 649.
Dynamics, elementary, the nomenclature
of, J. Walmsley on, 622.
Dynamo machines, the general theory of,.
Dr. E. Hopkinson on, 612.
Farthworms, recent researches on, by
Dr. W. B. Benham, 749.
Echinodermata, the true nature and
function of the madreporic system
in, by Dr. M. Hartog, 736.
*Economic policy of the United States,.
the, by Prof. L. Levi, 829.
Economic Science and Statistics, Address:
by Dr. R. Giffen to the Section of, 806.
*Economics, the position of, in Holland,
Prof. Greven on, 852.
, practical, on the application of
physics and biology to, by P. Geddes,.
841.
Edgeworth (F. Y.) on the best methods:
of ascertaining and measuring varia-
tions in the value of the monetary
standard, 247, 254.
*Eetvelde (M. van), notice sur l’etat in
depéndant du Congo, 798.
9924
Effective consumption and effective prices
in their economical and statistical re-
_ lations, by Hyde Clarke, 832.
Egypt, Mr. Flinders Petrie’s collection
of ethnographic types in, remarks on,
by Rev. H. G. Tomkins, 450, 899; by
Dr. I. Taylor, 907.
*Egyptian monuments, notes on the
accuracy of the sculptures and paint-
ings of races on the, by W. M. F.
Petrie, 899.
Egyptian pictures and sculptures, the
ancient, report of the committee for
obtaining racial photographs from,
439,
Electric balances, new, by Sir W. Thom-
son, 582.
Electric current, the action of an, in
hastening the formation of lagging
compounds, by Dr. J. H. Gladstone,
344.
Electric current meter, Prof. G. A.
Forbes on an, 564.
Electric endosmose and other allied
phenomena, the theory of, Prof. H.
Lamb on, 495.
Electric lighting, &c., underground con-
ductors for, by Prof. G. Forbes, 875.
Electrical contacts, reinforcing, so as
to increase their reliability, by E. W.
Serrell, jun., 881.
Electrical measurements, report of the
Committee for constructing and issuing
practical standards for use in, 206.
*Hlectrical measuring instruments, com-
pensation of, for temperature errors,
by J. Swinburne, 621.
~ Electrical work, underground, in
America, by F’. Brewer, 882.
Electricity, the action of the silent dis-
charge of, on oxygen and other gases,
report on, 42.
, conduction of, through gases, by
Prof. A. Schuster, 580.
, atmospheric, observations of, by
Prof. L. Weber, 592.
Electro-calorimetry, a null method in,
by Prof. W. Stroud and W. W. H. Gee,
581.
*Electro-deposition of alloys, Prof. 8. P.
Thompson on the, 590.
*Electro-deposition of platinum, the
industrial, Prof. S. P. Thompson on,
590.
Electrolysis, comparison between the
views of Dr. Arrhenius and Prof.
Armstrong on, by Prof. O. Lodge, 351;
reply thereto, by Prof. Armstrong, 354.
Electrolysis and_ electro-convection,
Prof. G. Wiedemann on some points
in, 347.
Hlectrolysis and electrolytic polarisa-
tion, experiments on, by W. W. H.
Gee, H. Holden, and C. H. Lees, 589.
INDEXe
Electrolysis in its physical and chemical
bearings, second report on, 336.
*Electrolysis of a solution of ammonic
sulphate, Prof. McLeod on the, 621.
*Electrolysis of water, further researches
concerning the, by Prof. von Helm-
holtz, 589.
Electrolytes, Ohm’s law in, G. F. Fitz-
gerald and F. Trouton on, 345.
*Electrolytic conduction, the action of
the solvent in, T. C. Fitzpatrick on,
590.
Electrolytic decomposition, the possible,
of certain alloys, experiments on, by
Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen, 341.
Elementary education, food as an aid to,
by G. H. Sargant, 851.
Ellis (W.) on the best means of com-
paring and reducing magnetic observa-
tions, 320.
E. M. F. of a single cell, on the applica-
tion of the centi-ampere or the deci-
ampere balance for the measurement
of the, by Prof. Sir W. Thomson, 610.
Endurance of metals, the, under repeated
and varying stresses, and the proper
working stresses on railway bridges
and other structures subject to varying
loads, report on, 424.
Entoptic vision, the normal phenomena
of, distinguished from those produced
by mechanical causes, by Miss B.
Lindsay, 779.
Eozoon Canadense, on new facts relating
to, by Sir J. W. Dawson, 702.
Erratic blocks of England, Wales, and
Ireland, fifteenth report on the, 236.
Etheridge (R.) on the fossil phyllopoda
of the palzozoic rocks, 60; on the
‘manure’ gravels of Wexford, 209;
on the volcanic phenomena of Japan,
212.
*Ethnic type of the inhabitants of the
Evolena valley in Switzerland, note on
the, by Mrs. Knight, 914.
Ethnographic types in Egypt, 1887, re-
marks on Mr. Flinders Petrie’s collec-
tion of, by Rev. H. G. Tomkins, 450.
Eudrilus, on the development of the
ovum in, by F. E. Beddard, 771.
*Hurhodine and saffranine classes of
colouring matters, the constitution
and relationship of the, and their con-
nection with other groups of organic
compounds, by Dr. O. N. Witt, 642.
Eurypterus, a new species of, from the
lower carboniferous shales, Eskdale,
Scotland, Dr. H. Woodward on, 696.
Evans (Dr. J.) on the prehistoric in-
habitants of the British Islands, 168;
on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 459.
Everett (Prof.) on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 206.
INDEX.
Ewart (Prof. C.) on the marine biological |
station at Granton, 91.
Ewing (Prof. J. A.) and W. Low on the |
magnetisation of iron in strong fields,
586; onthe magnetisation of Hadfield’s
manganese steel in strong fields, 587 ;
on the influence of a plane of trans-
verse section on the magnetic perme-
ability of an iron bar, 609.
Expansive working in direct-acting
pumping engines, by H. Davey, 880.
Explorations, recent, made by Gen. Pitt-
Rivers at Rushmore, observations on,
by Dr. Garson, 912.
Extra-morainic boulder-clay, Prof. H. C.
Lewis on the origin of, 692.
Extra-morainic lakes, some, important in
Central England, North America, and
elsewhere, during the period of maxi-
mum glaciation, Prof. H.C. Lewis on,
692.
*Fahlberg (Dr.), saccharine, the new
sweet product from coal-tar, 649.
*Fairley (T.), vacuum injector pumps for
use in chemical laboratories, 669.
*Farrer (Sir T.), some notes on money,
830.
Fauna and flora of the Cameroons moun- |
tain, report on the, 73.
*Fire-damp indicator, a, by J. W. Swan,
884.
*Fittica (Prof.) on the second mono-
bromo-benzene, 649.
Fitzgerald (Prof. G. F.) on standards fer
use in electrical measurements, 206;
on electrolysis in its physical and
chemical bearings, 336; *on the dif-
fraction bands near the edge of the
shadow of an obstacle, 584.
—— and F. Trouton on Ohm’s law in
electrolytes, 345.
*Fitzpatrick (T. C.) on the action of the
solvent in electrolytic conduction, 590.
Fleming (Dr. J. A.) on standards for use
in electrical measurements, 206; on
electrolysis in its physical and chemical
bearings, 336.
Fletcher (A. E.) on the present position
of the alkali manufacture, 638.
Flora and fauna of the Cameroons
mountain, report on the, 73.
Flora of China, report on our present
knowledge of the, 94.
Flower (Prof.) on the preparation of a
new edition of ‘ Anthropological Notes
and Queries,’ 172; on racial photo-
graphs from ancient Egyptian pictures
and sculptures, 439. ;
Floyer (E. A.), between the Nile and the
Red Sea, 801.
Fluorine compounds, the antiseptic pro-
perties of some of the, W. Thomson
on, 667.
925.
Food as an aid to elementary education,.
by G. H. Sargant, 851.
Foord (A. H.) on the genus Piloceras,
Salter, as elucidated by examples lately
discovered in North America and in
Scotland, 717.
Forbes (Mr.) on our present knowledge
of the flora of China, 94.
Forbes (Prof. G.) on standards of light,.
47 ; on an electric current meter, 564 ;
underground conductors for electric
lighting, &c., 875.
Fordham (H. G.) on the _ provincial
museums of the United Kingdom, 97 ;
on the erratic blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, 236; on the work
of the Corresponding Societies Com--
mittee, 459.
Foreign trade, our, the statistics of, and
og they tell us, by A. E. Bateman,,.
848.
*Formosa, by A. R. Colquhoun, 805.
*Forrest (J.), Western Australia, 803.
Forth Bridge works, the, by A. S..
Biggart, 870.
Fossil phyllopoda of the paleozoic rocks,
fifth report on the, 60.
Fossil plants of the tertiary and secondary
beds of the United Kingdom, third re-
port on the, 229.
Foster (Prof. G. C.) on standards of light,.
47; on standards for use in electrical
measurements, 206; on electrolysis in
nae physical and chemical bearinys,
Foster (Prof. M.) on arrangements for
assisting the Marine Biological Asso-
ciation laboratory at Plymouth, 59;
on the occupation of a table at the
zoological station at Naples, 77 ; on the
steps taken for establishing a botanical:
station at Peradeniya, 96; on the phy-
siology of the lymphatic system, 145.
Fothergill (Dr. J. M.), the effect of town:
life upon the human body, 900.
Fowler (Dr. G. H.) on some new types of
madreporarian structure, 759.
Fox (H.) and A. Somervail on the oc-
currence of porphyritic structure im
some rocks of the Lizard district, 708.
Foxwell (Prof. H. S.) on the best methods
of ascertaining and measuring varia-
tions in the value of the monetary
standard, 247; on the regulation of
wages by means of lists in the cotton
industry, 303.
Frankland (Prof.) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 336.
Frankland (Mrs. and Dr. P. F.), studies
on some new micro-organisms obtained
from air, 745.
Fratercula arctica, note on a point in the
structure of, by F. E. Beddard, 771.
Fream (Prof. W.) on the gramineous
926
herbage of water meadows, 744; on
the Hessian fly, or American wheat-
midge, Cecidomyia destructor, Say, and
its appearance in Britain, 767; pre-
ventible losses in agriculture, 834.
Free trade and protection, the battle be-
tween, in Australia, by W. Westgarth,
833
Fritsch (Prof. A.) on the permian fauna
of Bohemia, 716.
Functional equations, a certain method
in the theory of, Prof. E. Schroder on,
621.
Galton (Sir D.) on the promotion of the
study of geography, 158; on the cir-
culation of underground waters, 358 ;
on the endurance of metals under re-
peated and varying stresses, and the
proper working stresses on railway
bridges, &c., 424; on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee,
459.
‘Galton (F.) on the preparation of a new
edition of ‘ Anthropological Notes and
Queries,’ 172; on racial photographs
from the ancient Egyptian pictures
and sculptures, 439; on the work of
the Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee, 459. ;
Gardiner (J.), report on the occupation
of the table at the zoological station at
Naples, 79. :
*Gardiner (W.) on some points in the
process of secretion in plant-glands,
761.
Gardner (J.S.) on the fossil plants of
the tertiary and secondary beds of the
United Kingdom, 229; on the Higher
Eocene beds of the Isle of Wight, 414.
Garnett (Prof. W.) on standards for use
in electrical measurements, 206.
Garson (Dr. J. G.) on the preparation of
a new edition of ‘ Anthropological
Notes and Queries,’ 172; on the pre-
historic race in the Greek islands, 200;
on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 459 ; observations
on recent explorations made by Gen.
Pitt-Rivers at Rushmore, 912.
Gas evolved in various chemical actions,
apparatus for measuring the volume of,
by F. W. Watkin, 650.
*Gases, a new apparatus for condensing,
by contact with liquids, by Prof. Lunge,
640.
Gastaldi on Italian geology and the
crystalline rocks, by Dr. T. S. Hunt,
703.
“Gaussian constants, some notice of a
new computation of the, by Prof. J. C.
Adams, 600.
Geddes (P.), proposed contributions to
the theory of variation, 735; on the
INDEX.
application of physics and biology to
practical economics, 841.
Gee (W. W. H.) on a comparison-mag-
netometer, 620.
—— and Prof. W. Stroud, a null method
in electro-calorimetry, 581.
——, H. Holden, and C. H. Lees, experi-
ments on electrolysis and electrolytic
polarisation, 589.
Geographical Section, Address by Col. Sir
C. Warren to the, 785.
Geography, a natural method of teaching,
J. J. Cardwell on, 805.
, report of the Committee for co-
operating with the Royal Geographical
Society in endeavouring to bring before
the authorities of Oxford and Cam-
bridge the advisibility of promoting
the study of, 158.
*___., the teaching of, in the elementary
schools of England, by A. Park, 805.
* , commercial, the study of thenatural
divisions of the earth, rather than the
national ones, as the scientific basis
of, Dr. J. Yeats on, 805.
*____ at the Universities, by H. J. Mac-
kinder, 803.
*____ of Great Britain, the beginning of
the, by Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, 803.
of the British Isles in the carboni-
ferous period, Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins
on the, 684.
Geological Section, Address by Dr. H.
Woodward to the, 673.
Geology, primary, elements of, by Dr. T. 8,
Hunt, 704.
Geology of Wicklow and Wexford, some
preliminary observations on the, by
Prof. Sollas, 708. ‘
*Geometrical structure, the relation of,
to chemical properties, by Prof. Wisli-
cenus, 647,
Geometry of circles, transformations in
the, by A. Larmor, 607.
George (Rev. H. B.) on the promotion of
the study of geography, 158.
Giffen (R.) on the best methods of ascer-
taining and measuring variations in
the value of the monetary standard, |
247; Address to the Section of Eco-
nomic Science and Statistics by, 806.
*Gilbert (Prof. J. H.) and Sir J. B. Lawes
on the present aspect of the question
of the sources of the nitrogen of
vegetation, 660.
Gilson (Prof.), the spermatogenesis of
the acarians and the laws of sper-
matogenesis in general, 758.
Gipsies, and an ancient Hebrew race,
in Sus and the Sahara, by R. G. Hali-
burton, 908.
Gladstone (Dr. J. H.) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 163; on
electrolysis in its physical and chemical
INDEX.
bearings, 336; on the action of an
electric current in hastening the for-
mation of lagging compounds, 344;
*dispersion equivalents and constitu-
tional formule, 660.
Glaisher (J.) on the circulation of under-
ground waters, 358.
Glazebrook (R. T.) on standards for use
in electrical measurements, 206; sup-
plement to a report on optical theories,
208; on electrolysis in its physical and
chemical bearings, 336; *on the per-
manence of the B.A. standards of
resistance, 608.
‘Gneisses, banded, the origin of, by J. J.
H. Teall, 707
Gold, preliminary notice of a redeter-
mination of the atomic weight of, by
Prof. J. W. Mallet, 635.
Gold and silver: their geological distribu-
tion and their probable future produc-
tion, by W. Topley, 510.
‘Goodwin (Prof. W. L.) on the investiga-
tion of certain physical constants of |
solution, especially the expansion of
saline solutions, 48.
*Graham (Prof. W.), socialism, 852.
‘Gramineous herbage of water meadows,
Prof. W. Fream on the, 744,
Gray (T.) on the volcanic phenomena of
Japan, 212.
Greathead (J. H.), the City of London
and Southwark subway, 870.
*Green plant cells, on assimilation and
the evolution of oxygen by, by Prof.
Pringsheim, 763.
*Greven (Prof.) on the position of econo-
mics in Holland, 852.
Grouse disease, the relation of helminth
parasites to, by Prof. F. J. Bell, 770.
Grubb (Sir H.), instruments for stellar
photography, 580.
Haddon (Prof. A. C.) on arrangements
for assisting the Marine Biological
Association laboratory at Plymonth,
59; on the occupation of a table at
the zoological station at Naples, 77;
on the work of the British Marine
Area Committee, 95; on the provincial
museums of the United Kingdom, 97.
Hale (H.), notes on Rey. E. F. Wilson’s
report on the Blackfoot tribes, 197.
Haliburton (R. G.) on the North-western
tribes of the dominion of Canada, 173 ;
gipsies, and an ancient Hebrew race,
in Sus and the Sahara, 908; on Berber
‘and Guanche tradition as to the burial-
place of Hercules, 914.
Hall (J. A.) on some organic vanadates,
660.
Halliburton (Dr. W. D.) on the physio-
logy of the lymphatic system, 145.
Halogens and sulphur in organic com-
927
pounds, Dr. R. T. Plimpton on the esti-
mation of the, 669.
Hambleton (G. W.), the experimental pro-
duction of chest-types in man, 903; the
scientific treatment of consumption, éb.
Hamel (HE. de) on the herds of wild
cattle in Chartley Park and other parks
in Great Britain, 135.
Haplodiscus piger, W. F. R. Weldon on,
740,
Harcourt (A. Vernon) on the desirability
of combined action for the translation
of foreign memoirs, 41; on standards
of light, 47; on the promotion of the
study of geography, 158; on a standard
lamp, 617.
Hardcastle (F.), the classification of the
exports of cotton piece goods in Board
of Trade returns, 847.
Harker (Prof, A.) on a luminous oligo-
cheete, 767.
Harley (Rev. R.) on the umbral notation,
600; complete integral of the n-ic dif-
ferential resolvent, 606.
*Harmer (8. F.) on cephalodiscus, 759.
Hart (W. B.) on some organo-silicon com-
pounds, 661.
Harting (J. E.) on the herds of wild
cattle in Chartley Park and other parks
in Great Britain, 135.
Hartley (Prof.) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 336.
Hartog (Prof. M.) on the steps taken for
establishing a botanical station at
Peradeniya, 96; on the true nature and
function of the madreporic system in
Echinodermata, 736; *on the morpho-
logy of some cxsalpine and the value
of morphological criteria, 763.
Harvie-Brown (J. A.) on the migration
of birds, 70.
Haynes (Capt. C. E.), Matabeleland and
the country between the Zambezi and
the Limpopo, 802.
Head (J.), the iron mines of Bilbao, 861;
specimens of steel produced by skidding
railway wheels, 872.
*Heart, the rdle of the, in vertebrate
morphology, by Dr. C. 8. Minot, 760.
Heat, the mechanical equivalent of, ex-
periments on, on a large scale, by E.
A. Cowper and W. Anderson, 562.
Hectocotylisation of the cephalapoda,
note on the, by W. H. Hoyle, 768
Hedges (K.), a new form of secondary
battery, 882.
*Helmholtz (Prof. von), further researches
agai the electrolysis of water,
Helminth parasites, the relation of, to
grouse disease, a note on, by Prof. F.
J. Bell, 770.
Henry Draper memorial photographs of
stella spectra, exhibition and de-
. 928
scription of, by Prof. E. C. Pickering,
622.
Hercules, the burial-place of, on Berber
and Guanche tradition as to, by R. G.
Haliburton, 914.
Herdman (Prof. W. A.) on the work of
the British Marine Area Committee,
95; the exploration of Liverpool Bay
and the neighbouring parts of the
Irish Sea by the Liverpool Marine
Biology Committee, 733.
Herschel (Prof. A.) on the work of the
Differential Gravity Meter Committee,
41.
Herzegovina, land tenure in the, by Miss
Irby, 837.
Hessian fly, the, or American wheat-
midge, Cecidomyia destructor, Say, and
its appearance in Britain, Prof. W.
Fream on, 767.
Heywood (J.) on the teaching of science
in elementary schools, 163.
Hick (T.) on the physiology of some
phzophycee, 761.
Hicks (Dr. H.) on the prehistoric in-
habitants of the British Islands, 168 ;
on the exploration of the Cae Gwyn
Cave, North Wales, 301; on the mi-
grations of pre-glacial man, 912.
Hickson (8. J.), * marine zoology in
Banka Strait, North Celebes, 735;
*cocoa-nut pearls, 740; certain de-
generations of design in Papuan art,
907.
Higgs (G.), exhibition of negatives of
photographs of the solar spectrum,
583 ; description of an induction coil,
616.
Higher Eocene beds of the Isle of Wight,
report of the Committee for exploring
the, 414.
*Hill (Dr. A.), the brain mechanism of
smell, 754.
Hill (Rev. E.), the disaster at Zug on
July 5, 1887, 715.
Hillhouse (Prof.) on the provincial mu-
seums of the United Kingdom, 97;
on the disappearance of native plants
from their local habitats, 130.
Hinde (Dr. G. J.) on the organic ori-
gin of the chert in the carboniferous
limestone series of Ireland and its
similarity to that in the corresponding
strata in North Wales and Yorkshire,
688.
His (Prof.) on the development of the
roots of the nerves, and on their pro-
pagation to the central organs and to
the periphery, 773.
Hobkirk (C. P.) on a curious habitat of
certain mosses, 772.
Holden (H.), W. W. H. Gee, and C. H.
Lees, experiments on electrolysis and
electrolytic polarisation, 589.
INDEX.
Home (M.) on meteorological observa-
tions on Ben Nevis, 34.
Home education in its bearing on tech-
nical education, by Miss C. M. Mason,
846.
Hooper (W.), changes in real and im
money prices, 830.
Hopkinson (Dr. E.) on the general theory
of dynamo machines, 612.
Hopkinson (Dr. J.) on standards of light,
47 ; on standards for use in electrical
measurements, 206; on electrolysis in
its physical and chemical bearings,
336.
Hopkinson (J.) on the provincial mu-
seums of the United Kingdom, 97 ; on
the work of the Corresponding Societies.
Committee, 459
Hop-plant louse (Phorodon humuli,
Schrank), the problem of the, in
Europe and America, by Dr. C. V.
Riley, 750.
Horsfall(J.) and R. Law on the discovery
of carboniferous fossils in a conglome-
rate at Moughton Fell, near Settle.
Yorkshire, 690.
Horton (8. Dana), monetary jurispru-
dence, 829.
*Houghton, the African traveller, a
note on, by Major Sir H. Perrot, 803.
Houghton (Rev. W.) on the picture
origin of the characters of the Assyrian
syllabary, 898.
Hoyle (W. E.), note on the hectocotylisa-
tion of the cephalopoda, 768.
Hughes (Prof. T. McK.) on the promotion
of the study of geography, 158; on the
erratic blocks of England, Wales, and
Treland, 236; on the exploration of the
Cae Gwyn Cave, North Wales, 301.
Hughes (W. R.) on the herds of wild
cattle in Chartley Park and otherparks
in Great Britain, 135.
Hull (Prof. E.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 358 ; on the effect
of continental lands in altering the
level of the adjoining oceans, 596;
note on a few of the many remarkable
boulder-stones to be found along the
eastern margin of the Wicklow moun-
tains, 691.
Hunt (Dr. T. §.), integral weights in-
chemistry, 637; Gastaldi on Italian
geology and the crystalline rocks, 703 ;
elements of primary geology, 704.
—— and J. Douglas, the Sonora earth-
quake of May 3, 1887, 712.
Hydracids of the halogens, the action of
light on the, in the presence of oxygen,
Dr. A. Richardson on, 638,
Hydrated salts, Dr. E. Wiedemann on the
resistance of, 346.
Hygrometry of Ben Nevis, H. N. Dick-
son on the, 594.
INDEX.
JIcerya pwrchasi, an insect injurious to
fruit trees, Prof. Riley on, 767.
TIguanodon, the reputed clavicles and in-
terclavicles of, Prof. H. G. Seeley on,
698.
Tliac divarication, alteration of, and
other changes of pelvic forms during
growth, Prof. Cleland on, 754.
Increase of wealth and population in
Lancashire, W. E. A. Axon on the, 852.
Induction between wires and wires, W.
H. Preece on, 611.
Induction coil, description of an, by G.
Higgs, 616.
Inscribed stones from Mevagh and
Barnes, co. Donegal, G. H. Kinahan
on, 908.
Integral weights in chemistry, by Dr.
TS. Hunt, 637.
* Tons, experiments on the speeds of, by
Prof. O. J. Lodge, 589.
Irby (Miss), land tenure in Bosnia and
the Herzegovina, 837.
Iron mines of Bilbao, the, by J. Head,
861.
*Jsomeric change in the phenol series,
by A. R. Ling, 642.
Tsomeric naphthalene derivatives, second
report on, 231.
Isomeric organic compounds, the solu-
bility of, by Prof. Carnelley and Dr. A.
Thomson, 647.
Italian geology and the crystalline rocks,
Gastaldi on, by Dr. T. S. Hunt, 703.
Jamieson (G. A.), recent illustrations of
the theory of rent, and their effect on
the value of land, 536; limited lia-
bility, 826.
Japan, the volcanic phenomena of,
seventh report on, 212.
Jarrowite and thinolite, Prof. G. A.
Lebour on, 700.
Jessen (Prof.), *a new physiological
principle for the formation of natural
bodies, 783; * a new geometry for the
bodies of man and animals, 7d.
Johnson (Prof. A.) on promoting tidal
observations in Canada, 31.
Johnston (Miss E.) and Prof. Carnelley,
the antiseptic properties of metallic
saltsin relation to their chemical com-
position, and the periodic law, 667.
Johnston-Lavis (Dr. H. J.) on the vol-
canic phenomena of Vesuvius and its
neighbourhood, 226.
Jones (Prof. T. R.) on the fossil phyl-
lopoda of the palseozoic rocks, 60.
Judd (Prof. J. W.) on the fossil plants
_ of the tertiary and secondary beds of
the United Kingdom, 229; the natural
history of lavas, as illustrated by the
materials ejected from Krakatoa,
AQIS
1887.
929
Juncus alpinus, Vill., as new to Britain,
by C. Bailey, 745.
Kapp (G.) on the condition of maximum
work obtainable from a given source
of alternating electromotive force, 876.
Karoly (A.), contributions to the remote
history of mankind, 911.
Kasai, the Upper, and the Sankuru, ex-
plorations on, by Dr. L. Wolf, 798.
Kay (J. T.), a plan for county councils,
837.
Keeping (H.) on the Higher Eocene beds
of the Isle of Wight, 414.
Kendall (P. F.) and V. Cornish on the
mineralogical constitution of cal-
careous organisms, 700.
Kennedy (Prof. A. B. W.) on the endur-
ance of metals under repeated and
varying stresses, and the proper work-
ing stresses on railway bridges, &c.,
424,
Kinahan (G. H.) on archzan rocks, 709 ;
on inscribed stones from Mevagh
and Barnes, co. Donegal, 908.
*Knight (Mrs.), note on the ethnic type
of the inhabitants of the Evolena valley
in Switzerland, 914.
Krakatoa smoke-stream, the direction of
the upper currents over the equator in
connection with the, by Prof. E. D.
Archibald, 619.
Lachenalia pendula, the adventitious
buds on the leaves of, Prof. McNab on,
744.
Ladenburg (Prof.) on the constitution
of atropine, 647.
Lake George, New South Wales, some
variations in the level of the water in,
H. A. Russell on, 597.
Lamb (Prof. H.) on the theory of electric
endosmose and other allied phe-
nomena, and on the existence of a
sliding coefticient for a fluid in contact
with a solid, 495.
Lamp, a standard, A. Vernon Harcourt
on, 617.
Lancashire, the increase of wealth and
population in, W. H. A. Axon on, 852.
Land, depreciation of, as caused by recent
legislation, C. C. Prance on, 835.
Land tenure in Bosnia and _ the
Herzegovina, by Miss Irby, 837.
Langley (Prof. J. W.) on a probable
manifestation of chemical attraction
as a mechanical stress, 657.
Lankester (Prof. Ray) on arrangements
for assisting the Marine Biological
Association laboratory at Plymouth,
59; on the occupation of a table at
the zoological station at Naples, 77;
on the physiology of the lymphatic
system, 145; *on the vascular system
30
930
and colour of arthropods and molluscs,
736.
Larmor (A.), transformations in the
geometry of circles, 607.
Larmor (J.) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 336.
Laughton (J. K.) on Mr. E. J. Lowe’s
project of establishing a meteorogical
observatory near Chepstow, 39.
Lavas, the natural history of, as illustrated
by the materials ejected from Krakatoa,
by Prof. J. W. Judd, 711.
Law (R.) and J. Horsfall on the discovery
of carboniferous fossils in a conglo-
merate at Moughton Fell,.near Settle,
Yorkshire, 690.
*Lawes (Sir J. B.) and Prof. J. H.
Gilbert on the present aspect of the
question of the sources of the a ha
of vegetation, 660.
Lebour | (Prof. G. A.) on the circulation
of underground waters, 358; on
thinolite and jarrowite, 700.
Leeds (Dr. A. R.) on the bibliography of |
solution, 57.
Lees (C. H.), W. W. H. Gee, and H.
Holden, experiments on electrolysis
and electrolytic polarisation, 589.
Lefroy (Sir J. H.) on the work of the
Differential Gravity Meter Committee,
41; on the depth of permanently
frozen soil in the Polar regions, 152;
on the combination of the Ordnance
and Admiralty surveys, and the pro-
duction of a bathy-hypsographical map
of the British Islands, 160; on the
North-western tribes of the dominion
of Canada, 173; on the best means of
comparing and reducing magnetic ob-
servations, 320, 333.
and G. M. Whipple, preliminary list
of magnetic observatories, 327.
*Le Marinel (Lieut.), the Congo below
Stanley Pool, 798.
*Levi (Prof. L.), the economic policy of
the United States, 829.
Lewis (Prof. H. C.), the terminal mo-
raines of the great glaciers of England,
691; on some important extra-mo-
rainic lakes in central England, North
America, and elsewhere, during the
period of maximum glaciation, and
on the origin of extra - morainic
boulder-clay, 692; the matrix of the
diamond, 720; on the terminal moraine
near Manchester, 724.
*Libbey (Prof.) on South-eastern Alaska,
804
*Lifeboats, improvements in, by J. T.
Morris, 882.
Light, standards of, third report on, 47.
, the action of, on the hydracids of
the halogens in the presence of oxygen,
Dr. A. Richardson on, 638.
INDEX.
Limb-plexuses, the morphology and
physiology of the, by Dr. A. M. Pater-
son, 775.
Limited liability, by G. A. Jamieson, 826.
Lindsay (Miss B.), the normal phe-
nomena of entoptic vision distin-
guished from those produced by
mechanical causes, 779; optical illu-
sions of motion; conflicting theories
referred to the test of certain hitherto
underscribed entopical phenomena,
781.
*Ling (A. R.), isomeric change in the
phenol series, 642.
*Link motion for steam engines, by J. M.
McCulloch, 882.
*Lister (J.), the distribution of the night-
ingale in Yorkshire, 770.
Liverpool Bay and the neighbouring
parts of the Irish Sea, the exploration
of, by the Liverpool Marine Biology
Committee, by Prof. W. A. Herdman,
733.
Lockyer (J. N.), on the publication by the
Meteorological Society of the Mauritius:
of daily synoptic charts of the Indian
Ocean for the year 1861, 40.
Lodge (Prof. O. J.) on the desirability of
combined action for the translation of
foreign memoirs, 41 ; on standards for
use in electrical measurements, 206 ;
on electrolysis in its physical and chem-
ical bearings, 336 ; comparison between
the views of Dr. Arrhenius and Prof.
Armstrong on electrolysis, 351; reply
thereto,
*experiments on the speeds of ions,
589.
Love (H. F. J.) on the desirability of
combined action for the translation of
foreign memoirs, 41; on electrolysis
in its physical and chemical bearings,
336.
Low (W.) and Prof. J. A. Ewing on the
magnetisation of iron in strong fields,
586 ; on the magnetisation of Hadfield’s
manganese steel in strong fields, 587 ;
on the influence of a plane of trans-
verse section on the magnetic permea-
bility of an iron bar, 609.
Lowe, Mr. E. J., fourth report of the
Committee for co-operating with, in
his project of establishing a meteoro-
logical observatory near Chepstow, 39-
Lubbock (Sir J.) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 163; on
the prehistoric inhabitants of the
British Islands, 168.
Lunge (Prof.) *on the composition of
some coke oven tars of German origin,
640; *a new apparatus for condensing
‘gases by contact with liquids, 20.
Luxmoore (E. B.) on the exploration of
the Cae Gwyn Cave, North Wales, 301.
by Prof. Armstrong, 354 ;
pee
INDEX.
*Lycopods, the life-history of, Dr. M.
Treub on, 763. :
Lymphatic system, report on the physi-
ology of the, 145.
Macalister (Prof. A.) on racial photo-
graphs from the ancient Egyptian pic-
tures and sculptures, 439
McCarthy (Rev. E. F. M.) on the promo-
tion of the study of geography, 158.
*McCarthy (J.), Siam, 804.
*McCook (Dr.) on the nesting habit of
Atypus niger, a Florida spider, 759.
*McCulloch (J. M.), link motion for
steam engines, 882.
Macfarlane (Dr.) on the provincial mu-
seums of the United Kingdom, 97.
MacGregor (Prof. J. G.) on promoting
tidal observations in‘ Canada, 31.
McGregor-Robertson (Dr.) on the me-
chanism of the secretion of urine, 131.
McIntosh (Prof.) on the marine biological
station at Granton, 91; on the work of
the British Marine Area Committee,
95; *on some rare and remarkable
marine forms at St. Andrews marine
laboratory, 760.
Mackay (Dr. J. Y.), the nature and
development of the carotid system,
754.
McKendrick (Prof.) on the marine bio-
logical station at Granton, 91; on the
mechanism of the secretion of urine,
131; *the demonstration of a new
myographion, 783.
*Mackinder (H. J.), geography at the
Universities, 803.
Mackintosh (D.) on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 236.
McLaren (Lord) on meteorological ob-
servations on Ben Nevis, 34. :
McLeod (Prof.) on the action of the
silent discharge of electricity on oxy-
gen and other gases, 42; on the biblio-
graphy of solution, 57; on electrolysis
in its physical and chemical bearings,
336; *on the electrolysis of a solution
of ammonic sulphate, 621.
McNab (Prof.), note on the stomata and
ligules of Selaginella, 743; on the ad-
ventitious buds on the leaves of Za-
chenalia pendula, 744; on the root-
spines of Acanthoriza aculeata, H.
Wendl., ib.
Madreporarian structure, some new types
of, Dr. G. H. Fowler on, 759.
Madreporic system, the true nature and
function of the, in Echinodermata, by
Dr. M. Hartog, 736.
Magnetic force, the vertical, at Bombay,
luni-solar variation of, by C. Chambers,
334.
Magnetic observations, third report of
the Committee for considering the
931
best means of comparing and reduc.
ing, 320.
Magnetic observatories, preliminary list
of, by Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy and G. M.
Whipple, 327.
Magnetic permeability of an iron bar,
the influence of a plane of transverse
section on the, Prof. J. A. Ewing and
W. Low on, 609.
Magnetic properties
Quincke on the, 608.
Magnetisation of Hadfield’s manganese
steel in strong fields, Prof. J. A. Ewing
and W. Low on the, 587.
Magnetisation of iron in strong fields,
Prof. J. A. Ewing and W. Low on the,
586.
Magnus (Sir P.), schools of commerce,
841.
Mallett (Prof. J. W.), preliminary notice
of a re-determination of the atomic
weight of gold, with some remarks on
the present state of our knowledge as
to the determination of atomic weights
in general, 635; on a partial separa-
tion of the constituents of a solution
during expansion by rise of tempera-
ture, 649.
Manchester, phthisis centres in, by A.
Ransome, 852.
Manchester ship canal, the, by T. L.
Williams, 868.
Mankind, contributions to the remote
history of, by A Karoly, 911. ;
Manual training a main feature in
national education, by W. Mather,
843.
Manual training, an experiment at
Keswick, by Rev. H. D. Rawnsley, 846. .
‘Manure’ gravels of Wexford, first report
on the, 209.
Marble commerce of Thasos, the ancient,
report on, by Mr. Bent, 201.
March (Dr. H. C.), the early neolithic
floor of East Lancashire, 912.
Marine Biological Association laboratory
at Plymouth, the; report of the Com-
mittee for making arrangements for
assisting, 59.
Marine biological station at Granton,
Scotland, report of the Committee for
aiding in the maintenance of the es-
tablishment of a, 91; reports to the
Committee: by J. T. Cunningham, 92 ;
by Dr. H. R. Mill, 93.
*Marine forms, some new and remarkable,
at St. Andrews marine laboratory,
Prof. McIntosh on, 760.
Marr (J. E.), some effects of pressure on
the sedimentary rocks of North Devon,
706.
Marsh (J. E.), and Prof. W. Odling on
some xenoene or diphenyl products
and reactions, 646.
of gases, Prof.
302
932
Marshall (Prof.) on the investigation of
certain physical constants of solution,
especially the expansion of saline
solutions, 48.
Marshall (Prof. A.) on the best methods
of ascertaining and measuring varia-
tions in the value of the monetary
standard, 247.
Marshall (Prof. A. M.) on the desira-
bility of combined action for the
translation of foreign memoirs, 41 ; on
arrangements for assisting the Marine
Biological Association laboratory at
Plymouth, 59; on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 77 ; on the provincial museums
of the United Kingdom, 97; on the
herds of wild cattle in Chartley Park
and other parks in Great Britain, 135,
Marten (HE. B.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 358.
Martin (J. B.) on the best methods of
ascertaining and measuring variations
in the value of the monetary standard,
247.
*Martius (Dr. C. A.), exhibition of a
new class of colouring matters, 641.
Maskelyne (Prof. N. 8.) on the teaching
of science in elementary schools, 163.
Mason (Miss C. M.), home education in its
bearing on technical education, 846.
Matabeleland and the country between
the Zambezi and the Limpopo, by Capt.
C. E. Haynes, 802.
Mathematical and Physical Section, Ad-
dress by Prof. Sir R. 8. Ball to the,
569.
Mather (W.), manual training a main
feature in national education, 843.
Maurolicus pennantii (the British pearl-
sides), the so-called luminous organs
of, E. E. Prince on, 769.
Maximum work obtainable from a given
source of alternating electromotive
force, the condition of, G. Kapp on,
876.
Mechanical equivalent of heat, experi-
ments on the, on a large scale, by H. A.
Cowper and W. Anderson, 562.
Mechanical Section, Address by Prof. O.
Reynolds to the, 855.
Meldola (Prof. R.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee,
459.
*Melsome (W. §S.) on 108 skulls from
tombs at Assouan, 900.
Melting points, the, of organic com-
pounds, in relation to their chemical
constitution, by Prof. Carnelley, 647.
*Mendeléef (Prof.), alcohol and water
combinations, 647.
*Menschutkin (Prof.) on the rate of
velocity of formation of acetic ether,
646.
INDEX.
Mersey ports, improvement of the access
to the, by W. Shelford, 867.
Metal, the early ages of, in South-east
Spain, by H. and L. Siret, 905.
Metallic salts, the antiseptic properties
of, in relation to their chemical com-
position, and the periodic law, by
Prof. Carnelley and Miss E. Johnston,
667.
Meteorological observations on Ben
Nevis, report of the Committee for
co-operating with the Scottish Me-
teorological Society in making, 34.
Meteorological observatory near Chep-
stow, fourth report of the Committee
for co-operating with Mr. E. J. Lowe
in his project of establishing a, on
a permanent and scientific basis, 39.
Meteorology, marine, contributions to,
from the Scottish Marine Station, by
Dr. H. R. Mill, 618. °
Meteorology and terrestrial magnetism,
the general bibliography of, compiled
by the Signal Office, Washington, C.
Abbe on, 593.
Methylene blue and methylene red, Prof.
Bernthsen on, 645.
Metre, a plea for the, by E. G. Ravenstein,
805.
Meyer (Prof. L.), *a study of the action
of nitric acid on benzene, 6538; *on
Prof. Ramsay’s method of determining
specific volumes, 7b.
Micro-organisms, some new, obtained
from air, studies on, by Mrs. and Dr. P.
F. Frankland, 745.
in air,a new method for determining,
by Prof. Carnelley and T. Wilson, 654.
Microscopic rock sections, a simple
method of projecting upon the screen,
both by ordinary and polarised light,
E. P. Quinn on, 725.
Migration of birds, report on the, 70.
Mill (Dr. H. R.), report on the physical
work done at the marine biological
station at Granton, 93; contributions
to marine meteorology from the Scottish
Marine Station, 618 ; *on a bathy-oro-
graphical map of Scotland, 804.
Miller (H.), a comparative study of the
till or lower boulder-clay in several of
the glaciated countries of Europe—
Britain, Scandinavia, Germany, Swit-
zerland, and the Pyrenees, 694.
Millstone grit of the Pennine chain,
Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins on the structure
of the, 686.
Milne (Prof. J.) on the voleanic pheno-
mena of Japan, 212.
Mimosa pudica, the movement of the leaf
of, Dr. S. H. Vines on, 742.
Mineralogical constitution of calcareous
organisms, V. Cornish and P. F.
Kendall on the, 700.
INDEX.
Minot (Dr. C. S.), *the development of
the supra-renal capsules in man, 755;
*the rdle of the heart in vertebrate
morphology, 760; *on the structure of
the human placenta, 7d.
*Molluses, the vascular system and colour
of, Prof. Lankester on, 736.
Monetary jurisprudence, by 8. Dana
Horton, 829.
Monetary standard, the, variations in the
value of, report on the best methods
of ascertaining and measuring, 247.
*Money, some notes on, by Sir T. Farrer,
830.
*Monobromo-benzene, the second, Prof.
Fittica on, 649.
‘Mono-metallists’ and
EK. Atkinson on, 849.
Moraine, the terminal, near Manchester,
Prof. H. C..Lewis on, 724.
Moraines, the terminal, of the great
glaciers of England, by Prof. H. C.
Lewis, 691.
More (A. G.) on the migration of birds,
70.
Morgan (H.) on the exploration of the
Cae Gwyn Cave, North Wales, 301.
*Morphology, the, of some czsalpinez
and the value of morphological criteria,
Prof. Hartog on, 763.
*Morris (J. T.),improvements in lifeboats,
882.
*Morse (Prof. E. 8.), ancient and modern
methods of arrow release, 904.
Morton (G. H.) on the exploration of
the Cae Gwyn Cave, North Wales,
301 ; on the circulation of underground
waters, 358.
* bi-metallists,’
Moseley (Prof.) on arrangements for as-
sisting the Marine Biological Associa-
tion laboratory at Plymouth, 59; on -
the occupation of a table at the
zoological station at Naples, 77; on
the promotion of the study of geo-
graphy, 158.
Mosses, a curious habitat of certain,
C. P. Hobkirk on, 772.
Mott (F. T.) on the provincial museums
of the United Kingdom, 97.
*Muga silkworm and moth (Antherea
assama), the, of Assam, and other
Indian silk-producing species, T.
Wardle on, 770.
Muir (M. M. P.) on the teaching of
chemistry, 651.
Muirhead (Dr.) on the herds of wild
cattle in Chartiey Park and other parks
in Great Britain, 135; onthe prehistoric
inhabitants of the British Islands, 168.
Muirhead (Dr. A.) on standards for use
in electrical measurements, 206.
Munro (Prof.) on the regulation of wages
by means of listsin the cotton industry,
303.
933
Munro (Dr. R.) on the prehistoric inhabi-
tants of the British Islands, 168.
Murray (J.) on meteorological observa-
tions on Ben Nevis, 34; on the marine
biological station at Granton, 91; on
the work of the British Marine Area
Committee, 95; on the depth of per-
manently frozen soil in the Polar
regions, 152.
*Museums, the arrangement of, discus-
sion on, 736.
Musical slide rule, a, by J. Swinburne,
621.
*Myographion, the demonstration of a
new, by Prof. McKendrick, 783.
n-ic differential resolvent, complete in-
tegral of the, by Rev. R. Harley, 606.
Neolithic floor, the early, of East Lan-
cashire, by Dr. H. C. March, 912.
Nerves, on the development of the roots
of the, and on their propagation to the
central organs and to the periphery, by
lfagcres CR Y/Sy
Neutralisation, the thermal phenomena
of, and their bearing on the nature of
solution, by Dr. W. W. J. Nicol, 656.
Newton (Prof. A.) on the migration of
birds, 70; on the work of the British
Marine Area Committee, 95; on the
promotion of the study of geography,
158 ; Address to the Biological Section
by, 726.
Nicholson (Prof. A.) on the marine bio-
logical station at Granton, 91.
*Nicholson (J.) on bimetallism, 852.
Nicholson (Prof. J. §.) on the best
methods of ascertaining and mea-
suring variations in the value of the
monetary standard, 247.
Nicol (Dr. W. W. J.) on the nature of
solution, 55; on the bibliography of
solution, 57; on the thermal phe-
nomena of neutralisation and their
bearing on the nature of solution,
656; *description of a shortened self-
acting Sprengel pump, 669.
*Nightingale, the distribution of the, in
Yorkshire, by J. Lister, 770.
Nile, between the, and the Red Sea, by
E. A. Floyer, 801.
Nitrates, the reduction of, by micro-
organisms, by R. Warington, 653.
*Nitric acid, the action of, on benzene,
a study of, by Prof. L. Meyer, 653.
*Nitrogen of vegetation, the sources of
the, the present aspect of the question
of, Sir J. B. Lawes and Prof. J. H.
Gilbert on, 660.
*Nitro-glycerine, apparatus for demon-
strating the explosion of, by P.
Braham, 672.
Nitro-parafiins, the reduction-products
934
of the, by Prof. Dunstan and T. §.
Dymond, 649.
Niven (Prof. C.) on the work of the
Differential Gravity Meter Committee,
41.
Noelting (Dr.) and Dr. Abt on the
constitution of azimido-compounds,
642.
—— and Dr. Binder on the constitution
of the mixed diazoamido-compounds,
643.
Non-Aryan and non-Semitic white races,
the, and their place in the history of
civilisation, by J. 8. Stuart-Glennie,
898.
Norman (Canon), report on the occupa-
tion of the table at the zoological
station at Naples, 85; on the work of
the British Marine Area Committee,
95.
North-western tribes of the dominion of
Canada, third report on the physical
characters, languages, and industrial
and social condition of the, 173; re-
port to the Committee on the Blackfoot
tribes, by Rev. E. F. Wilson, 183;
notes thereon by H. Hale, 197.
Northwich and its neighbourhood, the
history and cause of the subsidences
at, by T. Ward, 713.
Odling (Prof. W.) and J. E. Marsh on
some xenoene or diphenyl products and
reactions, 646.
Ohm’s law in electrolytes, G. F. Fitz-
gerald and F’. Trouton on, 345.
Olfactory organ of certain fishes, the
degeneration of the, Prof. Wiedersheim
on, 736.
Oligochzte, a luminous, Prof. A. Harker
on, 767.
Oliver (Prof.) on our present knowledge
of the tlora of China, 94; on the
presence of callus-plates in the sieve-
tubes of certain gigantic laminarias,
761.
*Omond (R. T.) on a peculiarity of the
cyclonic winds of Ben Nevis, 595.
O'Neill (C.), the extent to which calico
printing and the tinctorial arts have
been affected by the introduction of
modern colours, 640.
*Oppler (Dr. A.) on acclimatisation,
799.
Optical illusions of motion; conflicting
theories referred to the test of certain
hitherto undescribed entoptical phe-
nomena, by Miss B. Lindsay, 781.
Optical theories, supplement to a report
on, by R. T. Glazebrook, 208.
Ordnance Survey, the, some defects of,
8. H. Wilkinson on, 804.
*___, the utilisation of,
Wilson on, 804.
Col. Sir C.
INDEX.
Organic vanadates, J. A. Hall on some,
660.
Organo-silicon compounds, W. B. Hart
on some, 661.
Orientation, the influence of, in aromatic
compounds, by Prof. Carnelley, 647.
*Ovary and oviduct in certain osseous
fishes, E. E. Prince on the development
of the, 760.
Palgrave (R. H. Inglis) on the best
methods of ascertaining and measur-
ing variations in the value of the
monetary standard, 247.
Panton (Prof. J. H.), places of geological
interest on the banks of the Saskat-
chewan, 714.
Papuan art, certain degenerations of
design in, by 8. J. Hickson, 907.
*Park (A.), the teaching of geography in
the elementary schools of England, 805.
Paterson (Dr. A. M.), the morphology
and physiology of the limb-plexuses,
175.
Pearse (J. W.) on the communication of
motion between bodies moving at dif-
ferent velocities, 882.
Pengelly (W.) on the prehistoric inhabi-
tants of the British Islands, 168; on
the prehistoric race in the Greek is-
lands, 200; on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 236; on
the circulation of underground waters,
358; recent researchesin Bench Cavern,
Brixham, Devon, 710.
Pennant (P. P.) on the exploration of
the Cae Gwyn Cave, North Wales, 301.
Peradeniya, Ceylon, report on the steps
taken for establishing a botanical
station at, 96.
Peripatus, a forgotten species of, by
Prof. F. J. Bell, 769.
Perkin (Prof.) and Dr, J. B. Cohen, some
new cinnamic acids, 667.
Permanently frozen soil in the Polar
regions, the depth of, its geographical
limits and relation to the present poles
of greatest cold, second report on, 152.
Permian fauna of Bohemia, Prof. A.
Fritsch on the, 716.
*Perrot (Major Sir H.), a note on Hough-
ton, the African traveller, 803.
Perry (Prof. J.) on the desirability of
combined action for the translation of
foreign memoirs, 41; on standards for
use in electrical measurements, 206.
Perry (Prof. 8. J.) on the best means of
comparing and reducing magnetic ob-
servations, 320.
Petrie (W. M. F.) on racial photographs
from the ancient Egyptian pictures
and sculptures, 439; remarks on his ©
collection of ethnographic types in
Egypt, 1887, by Rev. H. G, Tomkins,
INDEX.
450; *notes on the accuracy of the
sculptures and paintings of races on
the Egyptian monuments, 899; studies
on some groups of his casts and
photographs of ethnographic types
from Egypt, 1887, by Rev. H. G. Tom-
kins, ib.; *observations thereon, by
Dr. I. Taylor, 907.
Phzeophycex, the physiology of some, T.
Hick on, 761.
Phengodini, the luminous _larviform
females in the, Prof. C. V. Riley on,
760.
*Phenol series, isomeric change in the,
by A. R. Ling, 642.
Phillips (R. C.), the Lower Congo: a
sociological study, 798.
Photographic star-discs, the nature of
the, and the removal of a difficulty in
measurements for parallax, Prof. C.
Pritchard on, 580.
Phthisis centres in Manchester and Sal-
ford, by A. Ransome, 852.
Phyllites of the Isle of Man, Prof. W.
Boyd Dawkins on the, 700.
Phyllopoda, the fossil, of the paleeozoic
rocks, fifth report on, 60.
*Phymosoma, the genus, notes on, by W.
F. R. Weldon, 736.
Physical constants of solution, third re-
_ port on the investigation of certain,
especially the expansion of saline so-
lutions, 48.
Physical Section, the Mathematical and,
Address by Prof. Sir R. 8. Ball to,
569.
Physiology of the lymphatic system, re-
port on the, 145.
Pickering (Prof.) on the bibliography of
solution, 57.
Pickering (Prof. E. C.), exhibition and
description of Henry Draper memorial
photographs of stellar spectra, 622.
Picrite, a Shropshire, by W. W. Watts,
700.
*Pierce (J., junr.) on the United States
geosraphical and geological survey,
804.
Piloceras, Salter, the genus, as elucidated
by examples lately discovered in North
America and in Scotland, A. H. Foord
on, 717.
Pitt-Rivers (Gen.) on the preparation of
anew edition of ‘Anthropological Notes
and Queries, 172; on racial photo-
graphs from the ancient Egyptian
pictures and sculptures, 439; on the
work of the Corresponding Societies
Committee, 459.
*Placenta, the human, Dr. C. 8. Minot on
the structure of, 760.
Plant (J.) on the erratic blocks of Eng-
land, Wales, and Ireland, 236; on the
circulation of underground waters, 358.
935
*Plant (Major), a new species of virgu-
laria, 760.
Plesivsaurus, the mode of development of
the young in, Prof. H. G. Seeley on,
697.
Plimpton (Dr. R. T.) on the estimation
of the halogens and sulphur in organic
compounds, 669,
Pliocene beds of St. Erth, Cornwall, the,
by R. G. Bell, 718.
*Polar bodies, Prof. Weismann on, 763.
Poole (R. 8.) on racial photographs
from the ancient Egyptian pictures
and sculptures, 439.
Porphyritic structure in some rocks of
the Lizard district, H. Fox and A.
Somervail on the occurrence of, 708.
Porphyry quarries, the ancient, of Egypt,
account of a recent visit to, by W.
Brindley, 801.
Portland cement, improvements in the
manufacture of, by F. Ransome, 864.
Poulton (E. B.), further experiments upon
the colour-relation between phyto-
phagous larvze and their surroundings,
756; further experiments upon the
protective value of colour and markings
in insects, 763; the secretion of pure
aqueous formic acid by lepidopterous
larvee for the purpose of defence, 765.
Poynting (Prof. J. H.) on the work of the
Differential Gravity Meter Committee,
41; on electrolysis in its physical and
chemical bearings, 336.
Prance (C. C.) on depreciation of land as
caused by recent legislation, 835.
Preece (W. H.) on the desirability of
combined action for the translation of
foreign memoirs, 41; on standards of
light, 47 ; on standards for use in elec-
trical measurements, 206 ; on the spe-
cific resistance of commercial iron, 609 ;
on induction between wires and wires,
611; on the co-efficient of self-induc-
tion in telegraph wires, 612 ; on copper
wire, 874; fast speed telegraphy, %0. ;
on the British Association standard
screw gauge, 884; *on an improved
railway reading-lamp, 2d.
Pre-glacial man, the migrations of, Dr.
H. Hicks on, 912.
Prehistoric inhabitants of the British
Islands, the localities in which evi-
dences of the existence of, are found,
report of the Committee for ascertain-
ing and recording, 168.
Prehistoric race in the Greek Islands,
second report on the, 200; report by
Mr. Bent on the ancient marble com-
merce of Thasos, 201.
Prestwich (Prof. J.) on the erratic blocks
of England, Wales, and Ireland, 236;
on the circulation of underground
waters, 358.
936
*Prices, the fall of, in Belgium, France,
and England, graphic illustrations of,
by Prof. Denis, 832.
-——, real and money, changes in, by
W. Hooper, 830.
Prince (E. E.) *on the development of
the ovary and oviduct in certain
osseous fishes, 760; on the so-called
luminous organs of Mawrolicus pen-
nantii (the British pearl-sides), 769 ;
on the ova of Zomopteris onisciformis,
Eschscholz, ib.; *on a ciliated organ,
probably sensory, in Zomopteris onisci-
Sormis, ib.
Princeton eclipse expedition, Prof. C. A.
Young on the, 590.
*Pringsheim (Prof.) on assimilation and
the evolution of oxygen by green plant
cells, 763.
Pritchard (Prof. C.) on the nature of the
photographic star-dises and the re-
moval of a difficulty in measurements
for parallax, 580.
Protection and free trade, the battle be-
tween, in Australia, by W. Westgarth,
833.
Protective value of colour and markings
in insects, further experiments upon
the, by E. B. Poulton, 763.
Protopterus, the torpid state of, Prof.
Wiedersheim on, 738.
Provincial museums of the United King-
dom, report on the, 97.
Pyrocresols, the derivatives and the con-
stitution of the, Dr. W. Bott and Prof.
H. Schwarz on, 669.
Quincke (Prof.) on the magnetic proper-
ties of gases, 608.
Quinn (E. P.) on a simple method of pro-
jecting upon the screen microscopic
rock sections, both by ordinary and by
polarised light, 725.
Racial photographs from the ancient
Egyptian pictures and sculptures, re-
port of the Committee for procuring,
439.
Rae (Dr. J.) on the depth of perma-
nently frozen soil in the Polar regions,
152.
Raian Moeris, the, by Cope Whitehouse,
799.
Raian reservoir, the feasibility of the, by
Col. Ardagh, 800.
*Railway reading-lamp, an
W. H. Preece on, 884.
Railway sleeper, an improved steel, with
chairs pressed out of the solid, by H.
White, 872.
Ramsay (Prof.) on the action of the silent
discharge of electricity on oxygen and
other gases, 42; on the investigation
of certain physical constants of solu-
improved,
INDEX.
'
tion, especially the expansion of saline:
solutions, 48; on the nature of solution,
55; on the bibliography of solution,
57; on electrolysis in its physical and
chemical bearings, 336.
*Ramsay’s, Prof., method of determining
specific volumes, Prof. L. Meyer on,
653.
Rankin (A.) on the thermal windrose at
the Ben Nevis Observatory, 595.
*Ransome (Dr.), apparatus for the exami-
nation of air, 672.
Ransome (A.), phthisis centres in Man-
chester and Salford, 852.
Ransome (F.), improvements in the
manufacture of Portland cement, 864.
Ratio of the two elasticities of air, Prof.
S. P. Thompson on the, 581.
Ravenstein (H. G.) on the promotion of
the study of geography, 158; on the
combination of the Ordnance and Ad-
miralty surveys, and the production of
a bathy-hypsographical map of the
British Islands 160; a plea for the
metre, 805.
Rawnsley (Rev. H. D.), manual training,
an experiment at Keswick, 846.
Rawson (Sir R.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee,
459.
Rawson (R.) on criticoids, 604.
Rayleigh (Prof. Lord) on standards of
light, 47; on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 206; on elec-
trolysis in its physical and chemical
bearings, 336; on the existence of
reflection when the relative refractive
index is unity, 585.
Red Sea, between the Nile and the, by
E. A. Floyer, 801.
* Red Sea trade, A. B. Wylde on the, 802..
Reduction-products, the, of the nitro-
paraffins and alkyl nitrites, by Prof.
Dunstan and T. 8. Dymond, 649.
Reflection, the existence of, when the re-
lative refractive index is unity, Lord
Rayleigh on, 585.
Regulation of wages by means of lists
in the cotton industry, report on the,
303 ; spinning, ib.; weaving, 314.
Reinold (Prof.) on the desirability of
combined action for the translation of
foreign memoirs, 41; on electrolysis in
its physical and chemical bearings, 336.
Rent, the theory of, recent illustrations
of, and their effect on the value of
land, by G. A. Jamieson, 536.
Resistance of stone to crushing, as.
affected by the material on which it is
bedded, Prof. W. C. Unwin on the, 879.
Revolving engine, a high-speed steam or
hydraulic, A. Rigg on, 871.
Reynolds (Prof. O.) on certain laws.
relating to the régime of rivers and.
INDEX.
estuaries, and on the possibility of ex-
periments ona small scale, 555; Ad-
dress to the Mechanical Section by, 855.
Richardson (Dr. A.) on the action of
light on the hydracids of the halogens
in the presence of oxgen, 638.
Richardson (R.) on the distribution of
wealth in Scotland, 840.
Rigg (A.) on a high-speed steam or hy-
draulic revolving engine, 871.
Riley (Dr. C. V.), the problem of the
hop-plant louse (Phorodon humuli,
Schrank) in Europe and America,
750; on the luminous” larviform
females in the Phengodini, 760; on
LIcerya purchasi, an insect injurious to
fruit trees, 767.
Rio Déce, Brazil, the valley of the, by
W. J. Steains, 804.
Rivers and estuaries, certain laws relat-
ing to the régime of, Prof. O. Reynolds
on, and on the possibility of experi-
ments on a small scale, 555.
Roberts (I.) on the circulation of under-
ground waters, 358.
Roberts-Austen (Prof. W. C.) on the in-
fluence of silicon on the properties of
steel, 43; on electrolysis in its physi-
cal and chemical bearings, 336 ; experi-
ments on the possible electrolytic
decomposition of certain alloys, 341;
on the endurance of metals under
repeated and varying stresses, and the
proper working stresses on railway
bridges, &c., 424.
Roscoe (Sir H. EH.) on the best methods of
recording the direct intensity of solar
radiation, 32; on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 163.
Rounding of pebbles by Alpine rivers,
observations on the, with a note on their
bearing upon the origin of the Bunter
conglomerate, by Prof. T. G. Bonney,
721.
Rowland (Prof. H. A.), *description of a
map of the solar spectrum, 583; *on
chemical action in a magnetic field,
589; *final value of the B.A. unit of
electrical resistance as determined by
the American Committee, 609.
*Ruby mines of Burma, the, by J. S.
Streeter, 803.
Riiicker (Prof.) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 336.
Rudler (F. W.) on the prehistoric race in
the Greek Islands, 200; on the volcanic
phenomena of Vesuvius and its neigh-
bourhood, 226; on racial photographs
from the ancient Egyptian pictures
and sculptures, 439.
Russell (H. A.) on some variations in the
level of the water in Lake George, New
South Wales, 597.
937
*Saccharine, the new sweet product from
coal-tar, by Dr. Fahlberg, 649.
St. Clair (G.), boat-shaped graves in
Syria, 900.
Salford, phthisis centres in, by A. Ran-
some, 852.
Saline solutions, third report on the ex-
pansion of, 48.
Sanborn (J. W.), the Seneca Indians of
North America, their present customs,
legends, and languages, 910.
*Sankuru, the, and the Upper Kasai, ex-
plorations on, by Dr. L. Wolf, 798.
Sargant (G. H.), food as an aid to ele-
mentary education, 851.
Saskatchewan, places of geological in-
terest on the banks of the, by Prof. J.
H. Panton, 714.
Sayce (Prof. A. H.), Address to the An-
thropological Section by, 885.
Scandinavian ice, the extension of the,
to eastern England in the glacial
period, by Prof. O. Torell, 723.
Schifer (Prof.) on the physiology of the
lymphatic system, 145.
Schools of commerce, by Sir P, Magnees,
841.
Schréder (Prof. E.) on a certain method
in the theory of functional equations,
621.
Schunck (Dr. E.), Address to the Chemical
Section by, 624.
Schuster (Prof. A.) on the best methods
of recording the direct intensity of
solar radiation, 32; on the work of the
Differential Gravity Meter Committee,
41; on standards of light, 47; on
standards for use in electrical measure-
ments, 206; on the best means of
comparing and reducing magnetic ob-
servations, 320; on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 336 ;
conduction of electricity through gases,
580.
Schwarz (Prof. H.) and Dr. W. Bott on
the derivatives and the constitution of
the pyrocresols, 669.
Science, the teaching of, in elementary
schools, report on, 163.
Sclater (Dr. P. L.) on arrangements for
assisting the Marine Biological Associ-
ation laboratory at Plymouth, 59; on
the flora and fauna of the Cameroons
mountain, 73; on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 77; on the work of the British
Marine Area Committee, 95; on the
herds of wild cattle in Chartley Park
and other parks in Great Britain, 135.
Scott (Dr. A.) on the composition of
water by volume, 668; on some vapour
densities at high temperatures, id.
Scott (R. H.) on Mr. E, J. Lowe’s project
of establishing a meteorological obser-
838
vatory near Chepstow, 39; on the pub-
lication by the Meteorogical Society
of the Mauritius of daily synoptic
charts of the Indian Ocean for the
year 1861, 40.
Screw gauge, the British Association
standard, W. H. Preece on, 884.
Sea-beach, an ancient, near Bridlington
Quay, containing mammalian remains,
J. W. Davis on the discovery and ex-
cavation of, 694.
Secondary battery, a new form of, by K.
Hedges, 882.
Secretion, the, of pure aqueous formic
acid by lepidopterous larvz for the
purpose of defence, by E. B. Poulton,
765.
*Secretion in plant-glands, some points
in the process of, W. Gardiner on, 761.
Sedgwick (A.) on arrangements for as-
sisting the Marine Biological Associa-
tion laboratory at Plymouth, 59; on
the occupation of a table at the zoolo-
gical station at Naples, 77.
Sedimentary rocks of North Devon, some
effects of pressure on the, by J. EH.
Marr, 706.
Seebohm (H.) on the flora and fauna of
the Cameroons mountain, 73.
Seeley (Prof. H. G.) on the mode of de-
velopment of the young in Plesiosaurus,
697 ; on the reputed clavicles and in-
terclavicles of Zguanodon, 698; on
Cumnoria, an iguanodont genus
founded upon the Zguanodon prest-
wichi, Hulke, ib.; the classification of
the Dinosauria, ib.
Selaginella, note on the stomata and
ligules of, by Prof. McNab, 743.
Selwyn (Dr. A.) on the depth of per-
manently frozen soil in the Polar
regions, 152.
Seneca Indians of North America, the,
their present customs, legends, and
language, by J. W. Sanborn, 910.
Separation, a partial, of the consti-
tuents of a solution during expansion
by rise of temperature, by Prof. J. W.
Mallet, 649.
Serrell (H. W., jun.), reinforcing electrical |
contacts so as to increase their relia- |
bility, with example of application to |
reeling silk from the cocoon, 881.
Severn tunnel, the, by T. A. Walker, 865.
Shaw (Prof. H. 8. H.) on the endurance
of metals under repeated and varying
stresses, and the proper working stresses
on railway bridges, &c., 424.
Shaw (W. N.) on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 206; on elec-
trolysis in its physical and chemical
bearings, 336.
Shelford (W.), improvement of the access
to the Mersey ports, 867.
INDEX.
Shenstone (W. A.) on the action of the
silent discharge of electricity on oxy-
gen and other gases, 42.
Shropshire picrite, a, by W. W. Watts,
700.
*Siam, by J. McCarthy, 804.
Sidgwick (Prof. H.) on the best methods
of ascertaining and measuring varia-
tions in the value of the monetary
standard, 247; on the regulation of
wages by means of lists in the cotton
industry, 303.
Silicates, some natural, the chemical
structure of, by F. W. Clarke, 650.
Silicon, the influence of, on the properties
of steel, report on, 43.
*Silk industry, the, T. Wardle on some
important statistics relating to, 852.
Silver and gold: their geological distri-
bution and their probable future pro-
duction, by W. Topley, 510.
Siret (H. and L.), the early ages of metal
in South-east Spain, 905.
Skertchly (5. B. J.) on the occurrence
of stone mortars in the ancient
(Pliocene ?) river-gravels of Butte Co.,
California, 907.
*Skulls, 108, from Assouan, W.S. Melsome
on, 900.
Sladen (P.) on arrangements for assisting
the Marine Biological Association
laboratory at Plymouth, 59 ; on the oc-
cupation of a table at the zoological
station at Naples, 77.
Sliding coefficient for a fluid in contact
with a solid, the existence of a, Prof.
H. Lamb on, 495.
*Smell, the brain mechanism of, by Dr.
A. Hill, 754.
*Smith (Watson) on the constituents of
the light oils of blast furnace coal tar
from Gartsherrie works, 640.
Smithells (Prof. A.), suggested amend-
ment of chemical nomenclature, 662.
Snell (W. H.) and C. H. W. Biggs, dis-
tribution by transformers and alternate
current machines, 878.
*Socialism, by Prof. W. Graham, 852.
Solar radiation, fourth report on the
best methods of recording the direct
intensity of, 32.
*Solar spectrum, description of a map of
the, by Prof. H. A. Rowland, 583.
, exhibition of negatives of photo-
graphs of the, by G. Higgs, 583.
Sollas (Prof.), some preliminary observa-
tions on the geology of Wicklow and
Wexford, 708.
*Solms-Laubach (Count) on bennettites,
the type of a new group between
angiosperms and gymnospernis, 761.
Solution, W. Durham on, 655.
, the bibliography of, report on, 57.
——., the nature of, report on, 55.
INDEX.
Solution, the nature of, the bearing of the
thermal phenomena of neutralisation
on, by Dr. W. W. J. Nicol, 656.
, certain physical constants of, third
report on the investigation of, espe-
cially the expansion of saline solutions,
Somervail (A.) and H. Fox on the occur-
rence of porphyritic structure in some
rocks of the Lizard district, 708.
Sonora earthquake, the, of May 3, 1887,
by Dr. T. S. Hunt and J. Douglas, 712.
Specific resistance of commercial iron,
W. H. Preece on the, 609.
*Specific volumes, Prof. Ramsay’s method
of determining, Prof. L. Meyer on,
653.
Spermatogenesis of the acarians, the,
and the laws of spermatogenesis in
general, by Prof. Gilson, 758.
*Sprengel pump, description of a short-
ened self-acting, by Dr. W. W. J.
Nicol, 669.
Springer (Dr. A.), torsion balances, 636.
Star-fish, a, from the Yorkshire lias, Prof.
J. F. Blake on, 716.
Statistics, Economic Science and, Address
by Dr. R. Giffen to the Section of, 806.
Statistics of our foreign trade, the, and
what they tell us, by A. E. Bateman,
848.
Steains (W.J.), the valley of the Rio Doce,
Brazil, 804.
Steel, a nearly non-magnetisable (manga-
nese), the physical properties of, Prof.
W. F. Barrett on, 610.
——, the influence of silicon on the
properties of, report on, 43.
— produced by skidding railway
wheels, specimens of, by J. Head,
872.
Stellar photography, instruments for, by
Sir H. Grubb, 580.
Stellar spectra, exhibition and descrip-
tion of Henry Draper memorial photo-
graphs of, by Prof. H. C. Pickering, 622.
Stewart (Prof. Balfour) on the best
methods of recording the direct in-
tensity of solar radiation, 32; on Mr.
EH. J. Lowe’s project of establishing a
meteorological observatory near Chep-
stow, 39; on the publication by the
Meteorological Society of the Mauri-
tius of daily synoptic charts of the
Indian Ocean for the year 1861, 40;
on the best means of comparing and
reducing magnetic observations, 320,
332.
Stirling (Prof.) on the desirability of
combined action for the translation of
foreign memoirs, 41.
Stirrup (M.) on foreign boulders in coal-
seams, 686.
Stokes (Prof. G. G.) on the best methods
939
of recording the direct intensity of
solar radiation, 32; on the publication
by the Meteorological Society of the
Mauritius of daily synoptic charts of
the Indian Ocean for the year 1861,
40. .
Stone mortars in the ancient (Pliocene ?)
river-gravels of Butte Co., California,
S. B. J. Skertchly on the occurrence of,
907.
Stoney (G. J.) on the best methods of
recording the direct intensity of solar
radiation, 32; on Mr. E. J. Lowe’s
project of establishing a meteorologi-
cal observatory near Chepstow, 39.
Stooke (T.S.) on the circulation of under-
ground waters, 358.
Strachey (Gen. R.) on the work of the
Differential Gravity Meter Committee,
41.
*Streeter (J.S.), the ruby mines of Burma,
803.
Stroud (Prof. W.) and W. W.H. Gee, a
null methodin electro-calorimetry, 581.
Struthers (Prof.) on the marine biological
station at Granton, 91.
Stuart-Glennie (J. S.), the non-Aryan and
non-Semitic white races, and their
place in the history of civilisation,
898.
Subsidences at Northwich and its neigh-
bourhood, the history and cause of, by
T. Ward, 713.
*Sudan, trade prospects with the, by
Major Watson, 801.
Sun, the period of rotation of the, as
determined by the spectroscope, H.
Crew on, 583.
*Supra-renal capsules in man, the de-
velopment of the, by Dr. C. 8. Minot,
755.
Surtees (Capt. C.), the desert from
Dahshur to Ain Raian, 801.
*Swan (J. W.), a fire-damp indicator,
884.
Swinburne (J.), *compensation of elec-
trical measuring instruments for tem-
perature errors, 621; a musical slide
rule, ib.
Symons (G. J.) on the best methods of
recording the direct intensity of solar
radiation, 32; on Mr. EH. J. Lowe’s
project of establishing a meteorological
observatory near Chepstow, 39; on
the publication by the Meteorological
Society of the Mauritius of daily
synoptic charts of the Indian Ocean
for the year 1861, 40; on the circula-
tion of underground waters, 358; on
the work of the Corresponding Societies
Committee, 459; what is a drought?
869.
Synoptic charts, daily, of the Indian
Ocean, for the year 1861, final report
940
of the Committee for co-operating with
the Meteorological Society of the
Mauritius in the publication of, 40.
Tangye gas hammer, the, by D. Clerk,
883.
*Tar, blast furnace coal, from Gartsherrie
works, the constituents of the light
oils of, Watson Smith on, 640.
*Tars, some coke oven, of German origin,
Prof. Lunge on the composition of,
640.
Tattooing, by Miss A. W. Buckland, 904.
Taylor (H.) on standards for use in elec-
trical measurements, 206.
Taylor (Canon I.), the primitive seat of
the Aryans, 895 ; *observations on Mr.
Petrie’s ethnological casts from Egypt,
907.
Teall (J. J. H.) on the volcanic phe-
nomena of Vesuvius and its neigh-
bourhood, 226; on the microscopical
examination of the older rocks of
Anglesey, 230; the origin of banded
gneisses, 707.
Technical education, the bearing of home
education on, by Miss C. M. Mason,
846.
, the form it should take, by E. J.
Watherston, 844.
Telegraphy, fast speed, by W. H. Preece,
874.
Telemeter system, the, by F. R. Upton,
878.
Temple (Sir R.) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 163.
Terrestrial magnetism, the general biblio-
graphy of meteorology and, compiled
by the Signal Office, Washington, C.
Abbe on, 593.
Thasos, the ancient marble commerce of,
report on, by Mr. Bent, 201.
Thermal windrose at the Ben Nevis Ob-
servatory, A. Rankin on the, 595.
Thinolite and jarrowite, Prof. G. A.
Lebour on, 700.
Thiselton-Dyer (Mr.) on our present
knowledge of the flora of China, 94;
on the steps taken for establishing a
botanical station at Peradeniya, 96.
Thompson (C.) and Dr. C. R. A. Wright,
notes on some peculiar voltaic com-
binations, 657.
Thompson (Prof. D’A.) on the desirability
of combined action for the translation
of foreign memoirs, 41; * the larynx
and stomach of cetacean embryos,
740; *the blood-corpuscles of the
Cyclostomata, ib.
Thompson (I. C.) on some copepoda new
to Britain found in Liverpool Bay,
734.
Thompson (Prof. 8. P.) on electrolysis in
its physical and chemical bearings, 336; !
INDEX.
on the ratio of the two elasticities
of air, 581; twin-prisms for polari-
meters, 585; *on the electro-deposition
of alloys, 590; *on the industrial
electro-deposition of platinum, ib.
Thomson (Dr. A.) and Prof. Carnelley,
the solubility of isomeric organic
compounds, 647.
Thomson (Prof. J.) on the endurance of
metals under repeated and varying
stresses, and the proper working stresses
on railway bridges, &c., 424.
Thomson (Prof. J. J.) on standards for
use in electrical measurements, 206 ;
on electrolysis in its physical and
chemical bearings, 336.
Thomson (J. M.) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 336.
Thomson (Prof. Sir W.) on the work of
the Differential Gravity Meter Com-
mittee, 41; on the depth of perma-
nently frozen soil in the Polar regions,
152; on the combination of the Ord-
nance and Admiralty surveys, and the
production of a bathy-hypsographical
map of the British Islands, 160; on
standards for use in electrical measure-
ments, 206; on the best means of
comparing and reducing magnetic ob-
servations, 320; on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 336 ;
on the vortex theory of the luminiferous
ether, 486; *on the turbulent motion
of water between two planes, 581 ; new
electric balances, 582; on the applica-
tion of the centi-ampere or the deci-
ampere balance for the measurement
of the E.M.F. of a single cell, 610.
Thomson (W.) on the antiseptic proper-
ties of some of the fluorine compounds,
667.
Thunderstorms, on the different kinds of,
and on a scheme for their systematic
observation, by Hon. R, Abercromby,
597.
Tidal observations in Canada, third re-
port of the Committee for promoting,
31.
Tiddeman (R. H.) on the erratic blocks
of England, Wales, and Ireland, 236.
Tilden (Prof.) on the desirability of
combined action for the translation of
foreign memoirs, 41; on the influence
of silicon on the properties of steel,
43; on the investigation of certain
physical constants of solution, espe-
cially the expansion of saline solutions,
48; on the nature of solution, 55; on
the bibliography of solution, 57; on
isomeric naphthalene derivatives, 231 ;
on electrolysis in its physical and
chemical bearings, 336.
Till or lower boulder-clay, the, in several
of the glaciated countries of Hurope, a
li
INDEX.
comparative study of, by H. Miller,
694.
Tomkins (Rev. H. G.) on Mr. Flinders
Petrie’s collection of ethnographic
types in Egypt, 1887, 450; 899.
Tomlinson (H.) on the work of the
Differential Gravity Meter Committee,
41; on standards for use in electrical
measurements, 206.
*Tomopteris onisciformis, on a ciliated
organ, probably sensory, in, by HE. EH.
Prince, 769.
, Lschscholz, E. EH. Prince on the ova
of, 769.
‘Topley (W.) on the desirability of com-
bined action for the translation of
foreign memoirs, 41; on the circula-
tion of underground waters, 358; on
the work of the Corresponding Socie-
ties Committee, 459; gold and silver:
their geological distribution and their
probable future production, 510.
Torell (Prof. O.) on the extension of the
Scandinavian ice to Eastern England
in the glacial period, 723.
Torpedo (Cyclobatis, Egerton), the so-
called, from the cretaceous of Mount
Lebanon, A. §. Woodward on the
affinities of, 716.
Torsion balances, by Dr. A. Springer, 636.
Totemism, the origin of, by C. 8. Wake,
906.
Town life, the effect of, upon the human
body, by Dr. J. M. Fothergill, 900.
Translation of foreign memoirs, report
on the desirability of combined action
for the purpose of, 41.
Traquair (Dr.) on the provincial mu-
seums of the United Kingdom, 97.
*Treub (Dr. M.), some words on the life-
history of lycopods, 763.
Triassic rocks of West Somerset, the, by
W. A. E. Ussher, 719.
Trilobites, the discovery of, in the upper
green (Cambrian) slates of the Penrhyn
Quarry, Bethesda, near Bangor, North
Wales, Dr. H. Woodward on, 696.
Trimen (Dr.) on the steps taken for
establishing a botanical station at
Peradeniya, 96.
Trimen (R.) on the flora and fauna of
the Cameroons mountain, 73.
Tristram (Rev. Canon) on the herds of
wild cattle in Chartley Park and other
parks in Great Britain, 135; on the
promotion of the study of geography,
158.
Trotter (A. P.) on the production of a
constant current with varying electro-
motive force from a dynamo, 616.
Trouton (F.) and G. F. Fitzgerald on
Ohm’s law in electrolytes, 345.
*Turbulent motion of water between two
planes, Prof.Sir W. Thomson on the, 581.
941
Turner (T.) on the influence of silicon
on the properties of steel, 43.
Twin-prisms for polarimeters, by Prof.
S. P. Thompson, 585.
Tylden-Wright (Mr.) on the circulation
. of underground waters, 358.
Tylor (Dr. E. B.) on the preparation of
a new edition of ‘ Anthropological
Notes and Queries,’ 172; on the North-
western tribes of the dominion of
Canada, 172; *account of a ‘ witch’s
ladder’ found in Somerset, 900.
Umbral notation, Rev. R. Harley on the,
600.
Underground conductors for electric
lighting, &c., by Prof. G. Forbes, 875.
*Underground electrical work in America,
by F. Brewer, 882.
Underground water, England and Wales,
chronological list of works referring to,
by W. Whitaker, 384.
Underground waters in the permeable
formations of England and. Wales, the
circulation of, and the quantity and
character of the water supplied to
various towns and districts from these
formations, thirteenth report on, 358.
*United States, the economic policy of
the, by Prof. L. Levi, 829.
*United States geographical and geo-
logical survey, J. Pierce, jun., on the,
804.
Unwin (Prof. W. C.) on the endur-
ance of metals under repeated and
varying stresses, and the proper work-
ing stresses on railway bridges, &c.,
424; on the resistance of stone to
crushing, as affected by the material
on which it is bedded, 879.
Upton (F. R.), the telemeter system, 878.
Urine, the mechanism of the secretion of,
report on, 131.
Ussher (W. A. E.), the triassic rocks of
West Somerset, 719; the Devonian
rocks of West Somerset on the borders
of the trias, 720.
*Vacuum injector pumps for use in
chemical laboratories, by T. Fairley,
669.
Vaizey (J. R.), alternation of generations
in green plants, 771; on the constitu-
tion of cell-walls and its relation to
absorption in mosses, 772.
*Valency, especially as defined by Helm-
holtz, note on, by Prof. Armstrong, 647.
Vapour densities at high temperatures,
Dr. A. Scott on some, 668.
Vardy (Rev. A. R.) on the promotion of
the study of geography, 158.
Variation, the theory of, proposed con-
tributions to, by P. Geddes, 735.
942
Vesuvius and its neighbourhood, the
volcanic phenomena of, report on, 226.
Vilanova (Prof.), la calcédoine enhy-
drique de Salto Oriental (Uruguay) et
son véritable gisement, 699 ; *notice
du Dinotherium, deux espéces, trou-
vées en Espagne, 717.
Vines (Dr. 8. H.), note on the nitrogenous
nutrition of the bean, 741; on the
movement of the leaf of Mimosa
pudica, 742.
* Viola tricolor, a point in the morpho-
logy of, Prof. B. Balfour on, 763.
*Virgularia, a new species of, by Major
Plant, 760.
Volcanic phenomena of Japan, seventh
report on the, 212.
Volcanic phenomena of Vesuvius and its
neighbourhood, report on the, 226.
Voltaic combinations, notes on some
peculiar, by Dr. C. R. A. Wright and
C. Thompson, 657.
Vortex theory of the luminiferous ether,
Sir W. Thomson on the, 486.
* Wages, expenditure of, by D. Chad-
wick, 849.
, the regulation of, by means of
lists in the cotton industry, report
on, 303
Wake (C. §.), the origin of totemism, 906.
Walker (Gen. J. T.) on the work of the
Differential Gravity Meter Committee,
41; on the depth of permanently frozen
soil in the Polar regions, 152; on the
combination of the Ordnance and Ad-
miralty surveys, and the production
of a bathy-hypsographical map of the
British Islands, 160.
Walker (T. A.), the Severn tunnel, 865.
Walmsley (J.) on the nomenclature of
elementary dynamics, 622.
Walras (Prof. L.) on the solution of the
Anglo-Indian monetary problem, 849.
Ward (Prof. M.) on the steps taken for
establishing a botanical station at
Peradeniya, 96.
Ward (T.), the history and cause of the
subsidences at Northwich and its neigh-
bourhood, in the salt district of
Cheshire, 713.
Wardle (T.) *on the Mugasilkworm and
moth (Antherea assama) of Assam,
and other Indian silk-producing
species, 770; *on some important
statistics relating to the silk industry,
852.
Warington (R.), the reduction of nitrates
by micro-organisms, 653.
Warren (Col. Sir C.), Address to the
Geographical Section by, 785.
Water, the composition of, by volume, Dr.
A. Scott on, 668.
INDEX.
Watherston (E. J.), technical education :
the form it should take, 844.
Watkin (F. W.), apparatus for measuring
the volume of gas evolved in various
chemical actions, with or without the
application of heat, with proposed ex-
tension to organic.analysis, and to the
continuous determination of abnormal
vapour densities, 650.
* Watson (Major), trade prospects with
the Sudan, 801.
Watson (Rev. H. W.) on the promotion
of the study. of geography, 158.
Watts (W. W.), a Shropshire picrite, 700.
*Wave-length tables of the spectra of
the elements, report of the Committee
for preparing a new series of, 624.
Wave-lengths, absolute, recent determi-
nations of, by L. Bell, 584.
Weber (Prof. L.), observations of atmo-
spheric electricity, 592.
*Weismann (Prof.) on polar bodies, 763.
Weldon (W. F. R.), *notes on the genus
Phymosoma, 736 ; on Haplodiscus piger,
740.
Westgarth (W.), the battle between free
trade and protection in Australia, 833.
Wethered (E.) on the circulation of un-
derground waters, 358.
Wexford, the geology of, preliminary ob-
servations on, by Prof. Sollas, 708.
Whipple (G. M.) on the best means of
comparing and reducing magnetic ob-
servations, 320.
and Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy, pre-
liminary list of magnetic observatories,
327.
Whitaker (W.) on the circulation of un-
derground waters, 358; chronological
list of works referring to underground
water, England and Wales, 384; on
the work of the Corresponding So-
cieties Committee, 459.
White (H.), an improved steel railway
sleeper, with chairs pressed out of the
solid, 872.
White (W.) on the work of the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee, 459.
Whitehouse (Cope), the Raian Moeris,
799; Wusum and other remains in
Egyptian Arabia, 898.
Wicklow, the geology of, preliminary ob-
servations on, by Prof. Sollas, 708.
Wiedemann (Dr. E.) on the resistance of
hydrated salts, 346.
Wiedemann (Prof. G.) on some points in
electrolysis and electro-convection, 347.
Wiedersheim (Prof.) on the degeneration
of the olfactory organ in certain fishes,
736; on the torpid state of Protopterus,
738.
Wild cattle, the herds of, in Chartley Park
and other parks in Great Britain, re-
port on, 135.
INDEX.
Wilkinson (S. H.) on some defects of the
Ordnance Survey, 802.
Williams (J.), a new process for the pre-
paration of aconitine, 665.
Williams (T. L.), the Manchester ship
canal, 868.
Williamson (Prof. A. W.) on the desira-
bility of combined action for the
translation of foreign memoirs, 41 ; on
the work of the Corresponding So-
cieties Committee, 459.
Williamson (Prof. W. C.) on the carboni-
ferous flora of Halifax and its neigh-
bourhood, 235.
Wills (A. W.) on the disappearance of
native plants from their local habitats,
130.
*Wilson (Col. Sir C.) on the utilisation
of the Ordnance Survey, 804.
Wilson (Dr. D.) on the North-western
tribes. of the dominion of Canada, 173.
Wilson (Rey. E. F.), report on the Black-
foot tribes, 183; notes thereon by H.
Hale, 197.
Wilson (T.) and Prof. Carnelley, a new
method for détermining micro-organ-
isms in air, 654.
Windle (Prof. B. C. A.), arteries of the
base of the brain, 753.
Wires under elongating stress, expansion
with rise of temperature in, J. T.
Bottomley on, 620.
*Wislicenus (Prof.), the relation of
geometrical structure to chemical pro-
perties, 647.
*¢ Witch’s ladder,’ a, found in Somerset,
account of, by Dr. E. B. Tylor, 900.
*Witt (Dr. O. N.), the constitution and
relationship of the eurhodine and
saffranine classes of colouring matters,
‘and their connection with other groups
of organic compounds, 642.
*Wolf (Dr. L.), explorations on the Upper
Kasai and the Sankurn, 798.
Woodward (A. 8S.) on the affinities of
the so-called torpedo (Cyclobatis,
Egerton), from the cretaceous of
Mount Lebanon, 716.
Woodward (Dr. H.) on the fossil phyl-
lopoda of the palzeozoic rocks, 60; on
the provincial museums of the United
Kingdom, 97; on the ‘manure’ gravels
of Wexford, 209; on the fossil plants
of the tertiary and secondary beds of
943
the United Kingdom, 229; on the ex-
ploration of the Cae Gwyn Cave, North
Wales, 301; on the Higher Eocene beds
of the Isle of Wight, 414; Address to
the Geological Section by, 673; on the
discovery of the larval stage of a
cockroach, toblattina peachii (H.
Woodw.). from the coal-measures
of Kilmaurs, Ayrshire, 696; on a
new species of HLurypterus from the
lower carboniferous shales, Eskdale,
Scotland, id.; on the discovery of
trilobites in the upper green (Cam-
brian) slates of the Penrhyn Quarry,
Bethesda, near Bangor, North Wales,
ab.
Woolcombe (Surg.-Maj.), further supple-
mentary remarks on supposed cycloidal
rotation of arterial red discs, 783.
Wright (Dr. C. R. A.) and C. Thompson,
notes on some peculiar voltaic combi-
nations, 657.
Wusum and other remains in Egyptian
Arabia, by Cope Whitehouse, 898.
*Wylde (A. B.) on the Red Sea trade,
802.
Xenoene or diphenyl products and re-
actions, Prof. W. Odling and J. E.
Marsh on some, 646.
*Yeats (Dr. J.) on the study of the
natural divisions of the earth, rather
than the national ones, as the scientific
basis of commercial geography, 805.
Young (Dr.) on the bibliography of solu-
tion, 57.
Young (Prof.) on the marine biological
station at Granton, 91.
Young (Prof. C. A.) on the Princeton
eclipse expedition, 590.
Zirconium, the atomic weight of, by Dr
G. H. Bailey, 636.
Zoological station at Naples, report of the
Committee appointed to arrange for
‘ the occupation of a table at the, 77;
reports to the Committee: by Mr. J.
Gardiner, 79 ; by Rev. Dr. Norman, 85,
*Zoology, marine, in Banka Strait, North
Celebes, by 8. J. Hickson, 735.
Zug, the disaster at, on July 5, 1887, by
Rey. E. Hill, 715.
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Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt’s
Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tae TENTH MEETING, at Glasgow, 1840,
Published at 15s. (Out of Print.)
ContTENnTs :—Rev. B. Powell, Report on the Recent Progress of discovery relative
to Radiant Heat, supplementary to a former Report on the same subject inserted in
the first volume of the Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science ;—J. D. Forbes, Supplementary Report on Meteorology ;—W. S. Harris, Re-
port on Prof. Whewell’s Anemometer, now in operation at Plymouth ;—Report on
<The Motion and Sounds of the Heart,’ by the London Committee of the British
Association, for 1839-40;—Prof. Schénbein, an Account of Researches in Electro-
Chemistry ;—R. Mallet, Second Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether
fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at various temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought
Tron, and Steel ;—R. W. Fox, Report on some Observations on Subterranean Tempe-
rature ;—A. F. Osler, Report on the Observations recorded during the years 1837,
1838, 1839, and 1840, by the Self-registering Anemometer erected at the Philosophical
Institution, Birmingham ;—Sir D. Brewster, Report respecting the Two Series of
Hourly Meteorological Observations kept at Inverness and Kingussie, from Nov. Ist,
1838, to Nov. Ist, 1839 :—W. Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Verte-
3P2
948
brata;—C. J.B. Williams, M.D., Report of Experiments on the Physiology of the Lungs.
and Air-Tubes ;—Rev. J. 8. Henslow, Report of the Committee on the Preservation
of Animal and Vegetable Substances.
Together with the Transactions of the. Sections, Mr. Murchison and Major E..
Sabine’s Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tae ELEVENTH MEETING, at Plymouth,
1841, Published at 13s. 6d.
CONTENTS :—Rev. P. Kelland, on the Present State of our Theoretical and Expe-
rimental Knowledge of the Laws of Conduction of Heat ;—G. L. Roupell, M.D., Re-
port on Poisons;—T. G. Bunt, Report on Discussions of Bristol Tides, under the
direction of the Rev. W. Whewell;—D. Ross, Report on the Discussions of Leith
Tide Observations, under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell;—W. S. Harris,
upon the working of Whewell’s Anemometer at Plymouth during the past year ;—
Report of a Committee appointed for the purpose of superintending the scientific
co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Observations in
Terrestrial Magnetism and Meteorology ;—Reports of Committees appointed to pro-
vide Meteorological Instruments for the use of M. Agassiz and Mr. M‘Cord ;—Report of
a Committee appointed to superintend the Reduction of Meteorological Observations ;
—Report of a Committee for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars ;—Report of a
Committee for obtaining Instruments and Registers to record Shocks and Earthquakes
in Scotland and Ireland ;—Report of a Committee on the Preservation of Vegetative
Powers in Seeds ;—Dr. Hodgkin, on Inquiries into the Races of Man ;—Report of the
Committee appointed to report how far the Desiderata in our knowledge of the Con-
dition of the Upper Strata of the Atmosphere may be supplied by means of Ascents
in Balloons or otherwise, to ascertain the probable expense of such Experiments, and
to draw up Directions for Observers in such circumstances ;—R. Owen, Report on
British Fossil Reptiles ;—Reports on the Determination of the Mean Value of Rail-
way Constants ;—Dr. D. Lardner, Second and concluding Report on the Determi-
nation of the Mean Value of Railway Constants;—E. Woods, Report on Railway
Constants ;—Report of a Committee on the Construction of a Constant Indicator for
Steam Engines.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Whewell’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tar TWELFTH MEETING, at Manchester,
1842, Published at 10s. 6d.
CONTENTS :—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of
the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological
Observations ;—Dr. J. Richardson, Report on the present State of the Ichthyology
of New Zealand ;—W. S. Harris, Report on the Progress of Meteorological Observa-
tions at Plymouth ;—Second Report of a Committee appointed to make Experiments
on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;—C. Vignoles, Report of the Committee on
Railway Sections ;—Report of the Committee for the Preservation of Animal and
Vegetable Substances ;—Dr. Lyon Playfair, Abstract of Prof. Liebig’s Report on
Organic Chemistry applied to Physiology and Pathology ;—R. Owen, Report on the
British Fossil Mammalia, Part I.;—R. Hunt, Researcheson the Influence of Light on
the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants ;—L. Agassiz, Report on the Fos-
sil Fishes of the Devonian System or Old Red Sandstone ;—W. Fairbairn, Appendix
to a Report on the Strength and other Properties of Cast Iron obtained from the Hot
and Cold Blast ;— D. Milne, Report of the Committee for Registering Shocks of Earth-
quakes in Great Britain ;—Report of a Committee on the construction of a Constant
Indicator for Steam-Engines, and for the determination of the Velocity of the Piston
of the Self-acting Engine at different periods of the Stroke ;—J. 8. Russell, Report of
a Committee on the Form of Ships ;—Report of a Committee appointed ‘to consider
of the Rules by which the Nomenclature of Zoology may be established on a uniform
and permanent basis;’—Report of a Committee on the Vital Statistics of Large
Towns in Scotland ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Re-
searches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Francis Egerton’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
949
PROCEEDINGS or tas THIRTEENTH MEETING, at Cork,
1848, Published at 12s.
Conrrents:—Robert Mallet, Third Report upon the Action of Air and Water,
whether fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at Various Temperatures, upon Cast Iron,
Wrought Iron, and Steel ;—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the Co-
operation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and
Meteorological Observations ;—Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., Report of the Committee
appointed for the Reduction of Meteorological Observations ;—Report of the Com-
mittee appointed for Experiments on Steam-Engines ;—Report of the Committee ap-
pointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds ;—J. 8. Russell, Report
of a Series of Observations on the Tides of the Frith of Forth and the East Coast of
Scotland ;—J. S. Russell, Notice of a Report of the Committee on the Form of Ships ;
—J. Blake, Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines ;—Report of the Com-
mittee on Zoological Nomenclature ;—Report of the Committee for Registering the
Shocks of Earthquakes, and making such Meteorological Observations as may appear
to them desirable ;—Report of the Committee for conducting Experiments with Cap-
tive Balloons ;—Prof. Wheatstone, Appendix to the Report;—Report of the Com-
mittee for the Translation and Publication of Foreign Scientific Memoirs ;—C. W.
Peach, on the Habits of the Marine Testacea ;—H. Forbes, Report on the Mollusca
and Radiata of the Hgean Sea, and on their distribution, considered as bearing on
Geology ;—L. Agassiz, Synoptical Table of British Fossil Fishes, arranged in the
order of the Geological Formations ;—R. Owen, Report on the British Fossil Mam-
malia, Part II. ;—E. W. Binney, Report on the excavation made at the junction of
the Lower New Red Sandstone with the Coal Measures at Collyhurst ;—W. Thomp-
son, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Invertebrata ;—Provisional Reports, and
Notices of Progress in Special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Earl of Rosse’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or roe FOURTEENTH MEETING, at York, 1844,
Published at £1.
ConTENTS :—W. B. Carpenter, on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—J. Alder
and A. Hancock, Report on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca;—R. Hunt,
Researches on the Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth
of Plants ;—Report of a Committee appointed by the British Association in 1840,
for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on the Meteorology
of Toronto in Canada ;—J. Blackwall, Report on some recent researches into the
Structure, Functions, and Economy of the Avaneidea made in Great Britain ;—Earl
of Rosse, on the Construction of large Reflecting Telescopes ;—Rev. W. V. Harcourt,
Report on a Gas-furnace for Experiments on Vitrifaction and other Applications of
High Heat in the Laboratory ;—Report of the Committee for Registering Earth-
quake Shocks in Scotland ;—Report of a Committee for Experiments on Steam-
Engines ;—Report of the Committee to investigate the Varieties of the Human
Race ;—Fourth Report of a Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on
the Vitality of Seeds ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Consumption of Fuel and the Preven-
tion of Smoke;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the British
Association at Kew;—Sixth Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the
Co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical
and Meteorological Observations ;—Prof. Forchhammer on the influence of Fucoidal
Plants upon the Formations of the Earth, on Metamorphism in general, and par-
ticularly the Metamorphosis of the Scandinavian Alum Slate ;—H. E. Strickland,
Report on the Recent Progress and Present State of Ornithology ;—T. Oldham,
Report of Committee appointed to conduct Observations on Subterranean Tempera-
ture in Ireland ;—Prof. Owen, Report on the Extinct Mammals of Australia, and
descriptions of certain Fossils indicative of the former existence in that continent
of large Marsupial Representatives of the Order Pachydermata ;—W. S. Harris,
Report on the working of Whewell and Osler’s Anemometers at Plymouth, for the
years 1841, 1842, 1843 ;—W. R. Birt, Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—L. Agassiz,
Rapport sur les Poissons Fossiles de l’Argile de Londres, with translation ;—J. S.
950
Russell, Report on Waves;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special
Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Dean of Ely’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or toe FIFTEENTH MEETING, at Cambridge,
1845, Published at 12s,
CONTENTS :—Seventh Report of a Committee appointed to conduct the Co-opera-
tion of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and
Meteorological Observations ;—Lieut.-Col. Sabine, on some Points in the Meteorology
of Bombay ;—J. Blake, Report on the Physiological Actions of Medicines ;—Dr. Von
Boguslawski, on the Comet of 1843 ;—R. Hunt, Report on the Actinograph ;—Prof.
Schénbein, on Ozone ;—Prof. Hrman, on the Influence of Friction upon Thermo-
Electricity ;—Baron Senftenberg, on the Self-registering Meteorological Instru-
ments employed in the Observatory at Senftenberg ;—W. R. Birt, Second Report on
Atmospheric Waves ;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress and Present Extent of Savings
Banks in the United Kingdom ;—Prof. Bunsen and Dr. Playfair, Report on the Gases
evolved from Iron Furnaces, with reference to the Theory of Smelting of Iron ;—
Dr. Richardson, Report on the Ichthyology of the Seas of China and Japan ;—
Report of the Committee on the Registration of Periodical Phenomena of Animals
and Vegetables ;—Fifth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds;—
Appendix, &e.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir J. F. W. Herschel’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or toe SIXTEENTH MEETING, at Southampton,
1846, Published at 15s.
ConTENTS :—G. G. Stokes, Report on Recent Researches in Hydrodynamics ;—
Sixth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds;—Dr. Schunck, on the
Colouring Matters of Madder ;—J. Blake, on the Physiological Action of Medicines ;
—R. Hunt, Report on the Actinograph ;—R. Hunt, Notices on the Influence of Light
on the Growth of Plants ;—R. L. Ellis, on the Recent Progress of Analysis ;—Prof.
Forchhammer, on Comparative Analytical Researches on Sea Water ;—A. Erman, on
the Calculation of the Gaussian Constants for 1829 ;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress,
present Amount, and probable future Condition of the Iron Manufacture in Great
Britain ;—W. R. Birt, Third Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—Prof. Owen, Report
on the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton ;—J. Phillips, on
Anemometry ;—Dr. J. Percy, Report on the Crystalline Flags;—Addenda to Mr.
Birt’s Report on Atmospheric Waves.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir R. I. Murchison’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tas SEVENTEENTH MEETING, at Oxford,
1847, Published at 18s.
CONTENTS :—Prof. Langberg, on the Specific Gravity of Sulphuric Acid at
different degrees of dilution, and on the relation which exists between the Develop-
ment of Heat and the coincident contraction of Volume in Sulphuric Acid when
mixed with Water ;—R. Hunt, Researches on the Influence of the Solar Rays on the
Growth of Plants;—R. Mallet, on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Prof..
Nilsson, on the Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia;—W. Hopkins, Report on the
Geological Theories of Elevation and Earthquakes ;—Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Report
on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—Rev. W. Whewell and Sir James C. Ross,
Report upon the Recommendation of an Expedition for the purpose of completing
our Knowledge of the Tides ;—Dr. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—Seventh Report
of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—J. Glynn, on the Turbine or Horizontal
Water-Wheel of France and Germany ;—Dr. R. G. Latham, on the present state and
951
recent progress of Ethnographical Philology ;—Dr. J. C. Prichard, on the various
methods of Research which contribute to the Advancement of Ethnology, and of the
relations of that Science to other branches of Knowledge ;—Dr. C. C. J. Bunsen, on
the results of the recent Egyptian researches in reference to Asiatic and African
Ethnology, and the Classification of Languages ;—Dr. C. Meyer, on the Importance of
the Study of the Celtic Language as exhibited by the Modern Celtic Dialects still
extant ;—Dr. Max Miiller, on the Relation of the Bengali to the Aryan and Aboriginal
Languages of India ;—W. R. Birt, Fourth Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—Prof. W.
H. Dove, Temperature Tables, with Introductory Remarks by Lieut.-Col. E. Sabine ;
—A. Erman and H. Petersen, Third Report on the Calculation of the Gaussian Con-
stants for 1829.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Robert Harry Inglis’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tur EIGHTEENTH MEETING, at Swansea,
1848, Published at 9s.
CONTENTS :—Reyv. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous
Meteors ;—J. Glynn, on Water-pressure Engines;—R. A. Smith, on the Air and
Water of Towns ;—Eighth Report of Committee on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;
—wW. R. Birt, Fifth Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—E. Schunck, on Colouring
Matters ;—J. P. Budd, on the advantageous use made of the gaseous escape from the
Blast Furnaces at the Ystalyfera Iron Works ;—R. Hunt, Report of progress in the
investigation of the Action of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Plants allied to those
of the Coal Formations ;—Prof. H. W. Dove, Supplement to the Temperature Tables
printed in the Report of the British Association for 1847 ;—Remarks by Prof. Dove on
his recently constructed Maps of the Monthly Isothermal Lines of the Globe, and on
some of the principal Conclusions in regard to Climatology deducible from them ;
with an introductory Notice by Lieut.-Col. E. Sabine ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the progress
of the investigation on the Influence of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Ferns ;—J.
Phillips, Notice of further progress in Anemometrical Researches ;—Mr. Mallet’s
Letter to the Assistant-General Secretary ;—A. Erman, Second Report on the
Gaussian Constants ;—Report of a Committee relative to the expediency of recom-
mending the continuance of the Toronto Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory
until December 1850.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Marquis of Northampton’s
Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or razr NINETEENTH MEETING, at Birmingham,
1849, Published at 10s.
ConTENTS:—Rey. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous
Meteors ;—Earl of Rosse, Notice of Nebule lately observed in the Six-feet Reflector ;
—Prof. Daubeny, on the Influence of Carbonic Acid Gas on the health of Plants,
especially of those allied to the Fossil Remains found in the Coal Formation ;—Dr.
Andrews, Report on the Heat of Combination ;—Report of the Committee on the
Registration of the Periodic Phenomena of Plants and Animals ;—Ninth Report of
Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;—F. Ronalds,
Report concerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from Aug. 9,
1848 to Sept. 12, 1849 ;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experimental Inquiry on Railway
Bar Corrosion ;—W. R. Birt, Report on the Discussion of the Electrical Observations
at Kew.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. T. R. Robinson’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tae TWENTIETH MERTING, at Edinburgh,
1850, Published at 15s. (Out of Print.)
CoNnTENTS:—R. Mallet, First Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—
Rev. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Dr. T. Williams, on the
Structure and History of the British Annelida ;—T. C. Hunt, Results of Meteoro-
logical Observations taken at St. Michael’s from the 1st of January, 1840, to the 31st
952
of ‘December, 1849;—R. Hunt, on the present State of our Knowledge of the
Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Tenth Report of Committee on Hxperi-
ments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Major-Gen. Briggs, Report on the
Aboriginal Tribes of India ;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the
British Association at Kew;—EH. Forbes, Report on the Investigation of British
Marine Zoology by means of the Dredge ;—R. MacAndrew, Notes on the Distribution
and Range in depth of Mollusca and other Marine Animals, observed on the coasts
of Spain, Portugal, Barbary, Malta, and Southern Italy in 1849 ;—Prof. Allman, on
the Present State of our Knowledge of the Freshwater Polyzoa ;—Registration of
the Periodical Phenomena of Plants and Animals ;—Suggestions to Astronomers for
the Observation of the Total Eclipse of the Sun on July 28, 1851.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir David Brewster’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tar TWENTY-FIRST MEETING, at Ipswich,
1851, Published at 16s. 6d.
CoNTENTS:—Rev. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—
Eleventh Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of
Seeds ;—Dr. J. Drew, on the Climate of Southampton ;—Dr. R. A. Smith, on the
Air and Water of Towns: Action of Porous Strata, Water, and Organic Matter ;—
Report of the Committee appointed to consider the probable Effects in an Econo-
mical and Physical Point of View of the Destruction of Tropical Forests ;—A.
Henfrey, on the Reproduction and supposed Existence of Sexual Organs in the
Higher Cryptogamous Plants ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the Nomenclature of Organic Com-
pounds ;—Rev. Dr. Donaldson, on two unsolved Problems in Indo-German Philology ;
—Dr. T. Williams, Report on the British Annelida ;—R. Mallet, Second Report on
the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Letter from Prof. Henry to Col. Sabine, on
the System of Meteorological Observations proposed to be established in the United
States ;—Col. Sabine, Report on the Kew Magnetographs ;—J. Welsh, Report on the
Performance of his three Magnetographs during the Experimental Trial at the
Kew Observatory ;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the British
Association at Kew, from September 12, 1850, to July 31, 1851 ;—Ordnance Survey
of Scotland.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Airy’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees,
PROCEEDINGS or tur TWENTY-SECOND MEETING, at Belfast,
1852, Published at lds.
ConTENTS :—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Harthquake Phenomena ;—
Twelfth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;
—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1851-52 ;—Dr.
Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants ;
—A Manual of Ethnological Inquiry ;—Col. Sykes, Mean Temperature of the Day,
and Monthly Fall of Rain at 127 Stations under the Bengal Presidency ;—Prof, J.
D. Forbes, on Experiments on the Laws of the Conduction of Heat ;—R. Hunt, on
the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Dr. Hodges, on the Composition and
Economy of the Flax Plant ;—W. Thompson, on the Freshwater Fishes of Ulster ;—
W. Thompson, Supplementary Report on the Fauna of Ireland ;—W. Wills, on the
Meteorology of Birmingham ;—J. Thomson, on the Vortex-Water-Wheel;—J. B.
Lawes and Dr. Gilbert, on the Composition of Foods in relation to Respiration and
the Feeding of Animals.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Colonel Sabine’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tor TWENTY-THIRD MEETING, at Hull,
18538, Published at 10s. 6d.
CONTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors,
1852-53 ;—James Oldham, on the Physical Features of the Humber ;—James Old-
ham, on the Rise, Progress, and Present Position of Steam Navigation in Hull;—
‘
953
William Fairbairn, Experimental Researches to determine the Strength of Locomo-
‘tive Boilers, and the causes which lead to Explosion ;—J. J. Sylvester, Provisional
Report on the Theory of Determinants ;—Professor Hodges, M.D., Report on the
Gases evolved in Steeping Flax, and on the Composition and Economy of the Flax
Plant ;—Thirteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and
Vitality of Seeds ;—Robert Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;
—Dr. John P. Bell, Observations on the Character and Measurements of Degrada-
‘tion of the Yorkshire Coast ;—First Report of Committee on the Physical Character
of the Moon’s Surface, as compared with that of the Earth ;—R. Mallet, Provisional
Report on Earthquake Wave-Transits; and on Seismometrical Instruments ;—
William Fairbairn, on the Mechanical Properties of Metals as derived from repeated
Meltings, exhibiting the maximum point of strength and the causes of deterioration ;
—Robert Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena (continued).
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Hopkins’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or razr TWENTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Liver-
pool, 1854, Published at 18s.
CoNTENTS:—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena
continued) ;—Major-General Chesney, on the Construction and General Use of
Efficient Life-Boats ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Third Report on the present State of our
Knowledge of Radiant Heat ;—Colonel Sabine, on some of the results obtained at
the British Colonial Magnetic Observatories ;—Colonel Portlock, Report of the
Committee on Earthquakes, with their proceedings respecting Seismometers ;—Dr.
Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants,
Part 2 ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1853-54 ;
—Second Report of the Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Surface ;
—W. G. Armstrong, on the Application of Water-Pressure Machinery ;—J. B. Lawes
and Dr. Gilbert, on the Equivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food ;—Archibald
Smith, on the Deviations of the Compass in Wooden and Iron Ships ;—Fourteenth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Harl of Harrowby’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tuzr TWENTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Glasgow,
1855, Published at 15s.
ConTENTS:—T. Dobson, Report on the Relation between Explosions in Coal-
Mines and Revolving Storms ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radia-
tions on the Vital Powers of Plants growing under different Atmospheric Conditions,
Part 3;—C. Spence Bate, on the British Edriophthalma;—J. F. Bateman, on the
present state of our knowledge on the Supply of Water to Towns ;—Fifteenth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev.
Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1854-55 ;—Report of
Committee appointed to inquire into the best means of ascertaining those properties
of Metals and effects of various modes of treating them which are of importance
to the durability and efficiency of Artillery ;—Rev. Prof. Henslow, Report on Typical
Objects in Natural History ;—A. Follett Osler, Account of the Self-registering
Anemometer and Rain-Gauge at the Liverpool Observatory ;—Provisional Reports.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Duke of Argyll’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tae TWENTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Chel-
tenham, 1856, Published at 18s.
CONTENTS :—Report from the Committee appointed to investigate and report
upon the effects produced upon the Channels of the Mersey by the alterations which
within the last fifty years have been made in its Banks;—J. Thomson, Interim
Report on progress in Researches on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards ;—
954
Dredging Report, Frith of Clyde, 1856;—Rev. B. Powell, Report on Observations of
Luminous Meteors, 1855-1856 ;—Prof. Bunsen and Dr. H. E. Roscoe, Photochemical
Researches ;—Rey. James Booth, on the Trigonometry of the Parabola, and the
Geometrical Origin of Logarithms;—R. MacAndrew, Report on the Marine
Testaceous Mollusca of the North-east Atlantic and neighbouring Seas, and the
physical conditions affecting their development ;—P. P. Carpenter, Report on the
present state of our knowledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of
North America;—T. C. Eyton, Abstract of First Report on the Oyster Beds and
Oysters of the British Shores ;—Prof. Phillips, Report on Cleavage, and Foliation in
Rocks, and on the Theoretical Explanations of these Phenomena, Part 1;—Dr. T.
Wright, on the Stratigraphical Distribution of the Oolitic Echinodermata ;—W.
Fairbairn, on the Tensile Strength of Wrought Iron at various Temperatures ;—C.
Atherton, on Mercantile Steam Transport Economy ;—J. 8. Bowerbank, on the Vital
Powers of the Spongiade ;—Report of a Committee upon the Experiments con-
ducted at Stormontfield, near Perth, for the artificial propagation of Salmon ;—Pro-
visional Report on the Measurement of Ships for Tonnage ;—On Typical Forms of
Minerals, Plants and Animals for Museums;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on Pro-
gress in Researches on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards ;—R. Mallet, on
Observations with the Seismometer;—A. Cayley, on the Progress of Theoretical
Dynamics ;—Report of a Committee appointed to consider the formation of a
Catalogue of Philosophical Memoirs.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Daubeny’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tas TWENTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at
Dublin, 1857, Published at 15s.
CONTENTS :—A. Cayley, Report on the recent progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;
—Sixteenth and Final Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and
Vitality of Seeds ;—James Oldham, C.E., continuation of Report on Steam Navigation
at Hull ;—Report of a Committee on the Defects of the present methods of Measur-
ing and Registering the Tonnage of Shipping, as also of Marine Engine-Power, and
to frame more perfect rules, in order that a correct and uniform principle may be
adopted to estimate the Actual Carrying Capabilities and Working-power of Steam
Ships ;—Robert Were Fox, Report on the Temperature of some Deep Mines in Corn-
—a gt| + 1pt] 4.18t) 42
wall ;—Dr. G. Plarr, de quelques Transformations dela Somme >t, ee
a étant entier négatif, et de quelques cas dans lesquels cette somme est exprimable
par une combinaison de factorielles, la notation a‘|+!désignant le produit des
facteurs a (a+1) (a+2) &c....(a+t -1) ;—G. Dickie, M.D., Report on the Marine
Zoology of Strangford Lough, County Down, and corresponding part of the Irish
Channel ;—Charles Atherton, Suggestions for Statistical Inquiry into the Extent to
which Mercantile Steam Transport Economy is affected by the Constructive Type of
Shipping, as respects the Proportions of Length, Breadth, and Depth ;—J. S! Bower-
bank, Further Report on the Vitality of the Spongiade ;—Dr. John P. Hodges, on
Flax ;—Major-General Sabine, Report of the Committee on the Magnetic Survey of
Great Britain ;—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors,
1856-57 ;—C. Vignoles, on the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to sustain the
passage of Railway Trains;—Prof. W. A. Miller, on Electro-Chemistry ;—John
Simpson, Results of Thermometrical Observations made at the Plover’s Wintering-
place, Point Barrow, latitude 71° 21’ N., long. 156° 17’ W., in 1852-54 ;—Charles
James Hargreave, on the Algebraic Couple ; and on the Equivalents of Indetermi-
nate Expressions ;—Thomas Grubb, Report on the Improvement of Telescope and
Equatorial Mountings ;—Prof. James Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots
in the Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester ;—William
Fairbairn, on the Resistance of Tubes to Collapse ;—George C. Hyndman, Report of
the Proceedings of the Belfast Dredging Committee ;—Peter W. Barlow, on the
Mechanical Effect of combining Girders and Suspension Chains, and a Comparison
of the Weight of Metal in Ordinary and Suspension Girders, to produce equal de-
flections with a given load ;—J. Park Harrison, Evidences of Lunar Influence on
Temperature ;—Report on the Animal and Vegetable Products imported into Liver-
955
pool from the years 1851 to 1855 (inclusive) ;—Andrew Henderson, Report on the Sta-
tistics of Life-boats and Fishing-boats on the Coasts of the United Kingdom.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. H. Lloyd’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tas TWENTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Leeds,
September 1858, Published at 20s.
CONTENTS :—R. Mallet, Fourth Report upon the Facts and Theory of Earthquake
Phenomena ;—Revy. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1857—
1858 ;—R. H. Meade, on some Points inthe Anatomy of the Araneidea or true Spiders,,.
especially on the internal structure of their Spinning Organs ;—W. Fairbairn, Report
of the Committee on the Patent Laws ;—S. Eddy, on the Lead Mining Districts of
Yorkshire ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Collapse of Glass Globes and Cylinders ;—Dr. E.
Perceval Wright and Prof. J. Reay Greene, Report on the Marine Fauna of the South
and West Coasts of Ireland ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on Experiments on the Measurement
of Water by Triangular Notches in Weir Boards ;—Major-General Sabine, Report of
the Committee on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain ;—Michael Connel and
William Keddie, Report on Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Substances imported
from Foreign Countries into the Clyde (including the Ports of Glasgow, Greenock,
and Port Glasgow) in the years 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, and 1857 ;—Report of the-
Committee on Shipping Statistics ;—Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., Notice of the Instruments
employed in the Magnetic Survey of Ireland, with some of the Results ;—Prof. J. R.
Kinahan, Report of Dublin Dredging Committee, appointed 1857-58 ;—Prof. J. R.
Kinahan, Report on Crustacea of Dublin District ;—Andrew Henderson, on River
Steamers, their Form, Construction, and Fittings, with reference to the necessity for
improving the present means of Shallow-Water Navigation on the Rivers of British
India ;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee ;—Appendix
to Mr. Vignoles’ Paper ‘On the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to sustain the
passage of Railway Trains;’—Report of the Joint Committee of the Royal Society
and the British Association, for procuring a continuance of the Magnetic and!
Meteorological Observatories ;—R. Beckley, Description of a Self-recording Ane-
mometer.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Owen’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or txz— TWENTY-NINTH MEETING, at Aberdeen,
September 1859, Published at 15s.
CONTENTS :—George C. Foster, Preliminary Report on the Recent Progress and
Present State of Organic Chemistry ;—Professor Buckman, Report on the Growth of
Plants in the Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;—Dr. A. Voelcker,
Report on Field Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of
Manures essential to Cultivated Crops;—A. Thomson, of Banchory, Report on
the Aberdeen Industrial Feeding Schools ;—On the Upper Silurians of Lesmahagow,.
Lanarkshire ;—Alphonse Gages, Report on the Results obtained by the Mechanico-
Chemical Examination of Rocks and Minerals ;—William Fairbairn, Experiments to.
determine the Efficiency of Continuous and Self-acting Brakes for Railway Trains ;—
Professor J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee for 1858-59 ;—
Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors for 1858-59 ;—
Professor Owen, Report on a Series of Skulls of various Tribes of Mankind inhabiting
Nepal, collected, and presented to the British Museum, by Bryan H. Hodgson, Esq.,
late Resident in Nepal, &c. &c. ;—Messrs. Maskelyne, Hadow, Hardwich, and Llewelyn,
Report on the Present State of our Knowledge regarding the Photographic Image ;—
G. C. Hyndman, Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee for 1859 ;—James
Oldham, Continuation of Report of the Progress of Steam Navigation at Hull ;—
Charles Atherton, Mercantile Steam Transport Economy as affected by the Con-
sumption of Coals ;—Warren De La Rue, Report on the present state of Celestial
Photography in England ;—Professor Owen, on the Orders of Fossil and Recent
Reptilia, and their Distribution in Time ;—Balfour Stewart, on some Results of the
Magnetic Survey of Scotland in the years 1857 and 1858, undertaken, at the request
of the British Association, by the late John Welsh, Esq., F.R.S.;—W. Fairbairn, The
956
Patent Laws: Report of Committee on the Patent Laws ;—J. Park Harrison, Lunar
Influence on the Temperature of the Air :—Balfour Stewart, an Account of the Con-
struction of the Self-recording Magnetographs at present in operation at the Kew
Observatory of the British Association ;—Professor H. J. Stephen Smith, Report on
the Theory of Numbers, Part I.;—Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance ;
—Report of the Proceedings of the Balloon Committee of the British Association
appointed at the Meeting at Leeds;—Prof. William K. Sullivan, Preliminary
Report on the Solubility of Salts at Temperatures above 100° Cent., and on the
Mutual Action of Salts in Solution. '
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prince Albert’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tas THIRTIETH MEETING, at Oxford, June
and July 1860, Published at lds.
CoNTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors,
1859-60 ;—J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee ;—Rev. J.
Anderson, Report on the Excavations in Dura Den ;—Prof. Buckman, Report on
the Experimental Plots in the Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College,
Cirencester ;—Rey. R. Walker, Report of the Committee on Balloon Ascents ;—Prof.
W. Thomson, Report of Committee appointed to prepare a Self-recording Atmo-
spheric Electrometer for Kew, and Portable Apparatus for observing Atmospheric
Electricity ;—William Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Effect of Vibratory
Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon Wrought-iron Girders ;—R. P.
Greg, Catalogue of Meteorites and Fireballs, from A.D. 2 to A.D. 1860;—Prof. H. J. 5S.
Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part II.;—Vice-Admiral Moorsom, on the
Performance of Steam-vessels, the Functions of the Screw, and the Relations of its
Diameter and Pitch to the Form of the Vessel ;—Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Report on the
Effects of long-continued Heat, illustrative of Geological Phenomena ;—Second
Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance ;—Interim Report on the Gauging
of Water by Triangular Notches ;—List of the British Marine Invertebrate Fauna.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Wrottesley’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or trot THIRTY-FIRST MEETING, at Manches-
ter, September 1861, Published at £1.
CONTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—
Dr. E. Smith, Report on the Action of Prison Diet and Discipline on the Bodily
Functions of Prisoners, Part I. ;—Charles Atherton, on Freight as affected by Differ-
ences in the Dynamic Properties of Steamships;—Warren De La Rue, Report on the
Progress of Celestial Photography since the Aberdeen Meeting ;—B. Stewart, on the
Theory of Exchanges, and its recent extension ;—Drs. E. Schunck, R. Angus Smith,
and H. E. Roscoe, on the Recent Progress and Present Condition of Manufacturing
‘Chemistry in the South Lancashire District ;—Dr. J. Hunt, on Ethno-Climatology ;
or, the Acclimatization of Man ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on Experiments on the Gauging
of Water by Triangular Notches;—Dr. A. Voelcker, Report on Field Experiments
and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to cultivated
Crops ;—Prof. H. Hennessy, Provisional Report on the Present State of our Knowledge
respecting the Transmission of Sound-signals during F'ogs at Sea ;—Dr. P. L. Sclater
and F. von Hochstetter, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Birds
of the Genus Apteryx living in New Zealand ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Results
of Deep-sea Dredging in Zetland, with a Notice of several Species of Mollusca new
to Science or to the British Isles ;—Prof. J. Phillips, Contributions to a Report on
the Physical Aspect of the Moon ;—W. R. Birt, Contribution to a Report on the Phy-
sical Aspect of the Moon;—Dr. Collingwood and Mr. Byerley, Preliminary Report
of the Dredging Committee of the Mersey and Dee ;—Third Report of the Committee
on Steamship Performance ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Preliminary Report on the Best Mode of
preventing the Ravages of Zeredo and other Animals in our Ships and Harbours ;
R. Mallet, Report on the Experiments made at Holyhead to ascertain the Transit-
Velocity of Waves, analogous to Earthquake Waves, through the local Rock Formations ;
957
——-T. Dobson, on the Explosions in British Coal-Mines during the year 1859 ;—J. Old-
ham, Continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull ;—Prof. G. Dickie, Brief
Summary of a Report on the Flora of the North of Ireland ;—Prof. Owen, on the
Psychical and Physical Characters of the Mincopies, or Natives of the Andaman
Islands, and on the Relations thereby indicated to other Races of Mankind ;—Colonel
Sykes, Report of the Balloon Committee ;—Major-General Sabine, Report on the Re-
petition of the Magnetic Survey of England ;—Interim Report of the Committee for
Dredging on the North and Hast Coasts of Scotland ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Resist-
ance of Iron Plates to Statical Pressure and the Force of Impact by Projectiles at
High Velocities ;—W. Fairbairn, Continuation of Report to determine the effect of
Vibratory Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon Wrought-Iron Girders ;
—Report of the Committee on the Law of Patents;—Prof. H. J. 8. Smith, Report on
the Theory of Numbers, Part III.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Fairbairn’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tat THIRTY-SECOND MEETING at Cam-
bridge, October 1862, Published at £1.
ConTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1861-
62 ;—G. B. Airy, on the Strains in the Interior of Beams ;—Archibald Smith and F,
J. Evans, Report on the three Reports of the Liverpool Compass Committee ;—Report
on Tidal Observations on the Humber ;—T. Aston, on Rifled Guns and Projectiles
adapted for Attacking Armour-plate Defences ;—Extracts, relating to the Observa-
tory at Kew, from a Report presented to the Portuguese Government, by Dr. J. A.
de Souza ;—H. T. Mennell, Report on the Dredging of the Northumberland Coast
and Dogger Bank ;—Dr. Cuthbert Collingwood, Report upon the best means of ad-
vancing Science through the agency of the Mercantile Marine ;—Messrs. Williamson,
Wheatstone, Thomson, Miller, Matthiessen, and Jenkin, Provisional Report on Stan-
dards of Electrical Resistance ;—Preliminary Report of the Committee for investiga-
ting the Chemical and Mineralogical Composition of the Granites of Donegal ;—Prof.
H. Hennessy, on the Vertical Movements of the Atmosphere considered in connec-
tion with Storms and Changes of Weather ;—Report of Committee on the application
of Gauss’s General Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism to the Magnetic Variations ;—
Fleeming Jenkin, on Thermo-electric Currents in Circuits of one Metal ;—W. Fair-
bairn, on the Mechanical Properties of Iron Projectiles at High Velocities ;—A. Cay-
ley, Report on the Progress of the Solutionof certain Special Problems of Dynamics;
—Prof, G. G. Stokes, Report on Double Refraction ;—Fourth Report of the Committee
on Steamship Performance ;—G. J. Symons, on the Fall of Rain in the British Isles
in 1860 and 1861 ;—J. Ball, on Thermometric Observations in the Alps;—4J. G.
Jeffreys, Report of the Committee for Dredging on the North and East Coasts of
Scotland ;—Report of the Committee on Technical and Scientific Hvidence in Courts
of Law;—James Glaisher, Account of Hight Balloon Ascents in 1862 ;—Prof. H. J. 8.
Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part IV.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. Prof. R. Willis’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tos THIRTY-THIRD MEETING, at New-
castle-npon-Tyne, August and September 1863, Published at £1 5s.
ConTENTSs :—Report of the Committee on the Application of Gun-cotton to War-
like Purposes ;—A. Matthiessen, Report on the Chemical Nature of Alloys ;—Report
of the Committee on the Chemical and Mineralogical Constitution of the Granites of
Donegal, and on the Rocks associated withthem ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Com-
mittee appointed for exploring the Coasts of Shetland by means of the Dredge ;—
G. D. Gibb, Report on the Physiological Effects of the Bromide of Ammonium ;—C. K.
Aken, on the Transmutation of Spectral Rays, Part I. ;—Dr. Robinson, Report of the
Committee on Fog Signals ;—Report of the Committee on Standards of Electrical
Resistance ;—E. Smith, Abstract of Report by the Indian Government on the Foods
958
cused by the Free and Jail Populations in India ;—A. Gages, Synthetical Researches
on the Formation of Minerals, &c.;—R. Mallet, Preliminary Report on the Experi-
mental Determination of the Temperatures of Volcanic Foci, and of the Temperature,
State of Saturation, and Velocity of the issuing Gases and Vapours;—Report of the
Committee on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Fifth Report of the Committee
on Steamship Performance ;—G. J. Allman, Report on the Present State of our Know-
ledge of the Reproductive System in the Hydroida ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Five Bal-
Joon Ascents made in 1863 ;—P. P. Carpenter, Supplementary Report on the Present
State of our Knowledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North
America ;—Prof. Airy, Report on Steam Boiler Explosions ;—C. W. Siemens, Obser-
vations on the Electrical Resistance and Electrification of some Insulating Materials
under Pressures up to 300 Atmospheres ;—C. M. Palmer, on the Construction of Iron
Ships and the Progress of Iron Shipbuilding on the Tyne, Wear, and Tees ;—Messrs.
Richardson, Stevenson, and Clapham, on the Chemical Manufactures of the Northern
Districts ;—Messrs. Sopwith and Richardson, on the Local Manufacture of Lead,
Copper, Zinc, Antimony, &c. ;—Messrs. Daglish and Forster, on the Magnesian Lime-
stone of Durham ;—I. L. Bell, on the Manufacture of Iron in connexion with the
Northumberland and Durham Coal-field ;—T. Spencer, on the Manufacture of Steel
in the Northern District ;—Prof. H. J.S. Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers,
Part V.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir William Armstrong’s Address,
and Recommendations of the. Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Bath,
September 1864, Published at 18s.
CONTENTS :—Report of the Committee for Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—
Report of the Committee on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights
and Measures ;—T. 8. Cobbold, Report of Experiments respecting the Development
and Migration of the Entozoa ;—B. W. Richardson, Report on the Physiological
Action of Nitrite of Amyl;—-J. Oldham, Report of the Committee on Tidal Observa-
tions ;—G. §. Brady, Report on Deep-sea Dredging on the Coasts of Northumberland
and Durham in 1864 ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Nine Balloon Ascents made in 1863
and 1864 ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Further Report on Shetland Dredgings ;—Report of the
Committee on the Distribution of the Organic Remains of the North Staffordshire
Coal-field ;—Report of the Committee on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—G. J.
Symons, on the Fall of Rain in the British Isles in 1862 and 1863;—W. Fairbairn,
Preliminary Investigation of the Mechanical Properties of the proposed Atlantic
‘Cable.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Charles Lyell’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tut THIRTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Birming-
ham, September 1865, Published at £1 5s.
CONTENTS :—J. G. Jeffreys, Report on Dredging among the Channel Isles ;—F,
Buckland, Report on the Cultivation of Oysters by Natural and Artificial Methods ;—
Report of the Committee for exploring Kent’s Cavern ;—Report of the Committee
on Zoological Nomenclature ;—Report on the Distribution of the Organic Remains
of the North Staffordshire Coal-field ;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of
the South Coast of Devon and Cornwall ;—Interim Report on the Resistance of
Water to Floating and Immersed Bodies;—Report on Observations of Luminous
Meteors ;—Report on Dredging on the Coast of Aberdeenshire ;—J. Glaisher, Account
of Three Balloon Ascents;—Interim Report on the Transmission of Sound under
Water ;—G. J. Symons, on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—W. Fairbairn, on the
Strength of Materials considered in relation to the Construction of Iron Ships ;—
Report of the Gun-Cotton Committee ;—A. F. Osler, on the Horary and Diurnal
Variations in the Direction and Motion of the Air at Wrottesley, Liverpool, and
Birmingham ;—B. W. Richardson, Second Report on the Physiological Action of
certain of the Amyl Compounds ;—Report on further Researches in the Lingula-
959
flags of South Wales ;—Report of the Lunar Committee for Mapping the Surface of
the Moon ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—Report of the Com-
mittee appointed to communicate with the Russian Government respecting Mag-
netical Observations at Tiflis ;—Appendix to Reporton the Distribution of the Verte-
brate Remains from the North Staffordshire Coal-field ;—H. Woodward, First Report
on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Prof. H. J. S. Smith,
Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part VI. ;—Report on the best means of providing
for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the interests of Science:
—A. G. Findlay, on the Bed of the Ocean ;—Prof. A. W. Williamson, on the Com-
position of Gases evolved by the Bath Spring called King’s Bath,
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Phillips’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees,
PROCEEDINGS or rue THIRTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Notting-
ham, August 1866, Published at £1 4s.
CONTENTS :—Second Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire ;—A. Matthiessen,
Preliminary Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Report on Observations
of Luminous Meteors ;—W. S. Mitchell, Report on the Alum Bay Leaf-bed ;—
Report on the Resistance of Water to Floating and Immersed Bodies ;—Dr. Norris,
Report on Muscular Irritability ;—Dr. Richardson, Report on the Physiological
Action of certain compounds of Amy] and Ethyl;—H. Woodward, Second Report on
the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Second Report on
the ‘Menevian Group,’ and the other Formations at St. David’s, Pembrokeshire ;
—J.G. Jeffreys, Report on Dredging among the Hebrides ;—Rev. A. M. Norman,
Report on the Coasts of the Hebrides, Part II. ;—J. Alder, Notices of some Inverte-
brata, in connexion with Mr. Jefireys’s Report;—G. 8. Brady, Report on the
Ostracoda dredged amongst the Hebrides ;—Report on Dredging in the Moray Firth ;
—Report on the Transmission of Sound-Signals under Water ;—Report of the Lunar
Committee ;—Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Report on the best means of
providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the Interests
of Science ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Three Balloon Ascents ;—Report on the Extinct
Birds of the Mascarene Islands ;—Report on the Penetration of Ironclad Ships by
Steel Shot ;—J. A. Wanklyn, Report on Isomerism among the Alcohols ;—Report on
Scientific Evidence in Courts of Law ;—A. L. Adams, Second Report on Maltese
Fossiliferous Caves, &c.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Grove’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tHe THIRTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at
Dundee, September 1867, Published at £1 6s.
ConTENTS :—Report of the Committee for Mapping the Surface of the Moon ;—
Third Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire ;—On the present State of the Manu-
facture of Iron in Great Britain ;—Third Report on the Structure and Classification
of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Report on the Physiological Action of the Methyl Com-
pounds ;—Preliminary Report on the Exploration of the Plant-Beds of North Green-
land ;—Report of the Steamship Performance Committee ;—On the Meteorology of
Port Louis, in the Island of Mauritius ;—On the Construction and Works of the
Highland Railway ;—Experimental Researches on the Mechanical Properties of
Steel ;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of the South Coast of Devon and
Cornwall ;—Supplement to a Report on the Extinct Didine Birds of the Mascarene
Islands ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Fourth Report on Dredging
among the Shetland Isles ;—Preliminary Report on the Crustacea, &c., procured by
the Shetland Dredging Committee in 1867 ;—Report on the Foraminifera obtained
in the Shetland Seas ;—Second Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Report on the
best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference
to the interests of Science ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, and Recommendations of the
Association and its Committees.
960
PROCEEDINGS or tar THIRTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Nor-
wich, August 1868, Published at £1 5s.
ConTENTS:—Report of the Lunar Committee ;—Fourth Report on Kent’s Cavern,.
Devonshire ;—On Puddling Iron ;—Fourth Report on the Structure and Classifica-
tion of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Report on British Fossil Corals ;—Report on Spectro-
scopic Investigations of Animal Substances ;—Report of Steamship Performance
Committee ;—Spectrum Analysis of the Heavenly Bodies ;—On Stellar Spectro-
metry ;—Report on the Physiological Action of the Methyl and allied Compounds ;—
Report on the Action of Mercury on the Biliary Secretion ;—Last Report on Dredg-
ing among the Shetland Isles ;—Reports on the Crustacea, &c., and on the Annelida
and Foraminifera from the Shetland Dredgings ;—Report on the Chemical Nature of
Cast Iron, Part I.;—Interim Report on the Safety of Merchant Ships and their
Passengers ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Preliminary Report
on Mineral Veins containing Organic Remains ;—Report on the Desirability of
Explorations between India and China;—Report of Rainfall Committee ;—Re-
port on Synthetical Researches on Organic Acids ;—Report on Uniformity of Weights
and Measures ;—Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations ;—Report of the
Committee on Underground Temperature ;—Changes of the Moon’s Surface ;—Re-
port on Polyatomic Cyanides.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Hooker’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or toe THIRTY-NINTH MEETING, at Exeter,
August 1869, Published at £1 2s.
ContTENTS :—Report on the Plant-beds of North Greenland ;—Report on the
existing knowledge on the Stability, Propulsion, and Seagoing qualities of Ships;
—Report on Steam-boiler Explosions ;—Preliminary Report on the Determination
of the Gases existing in Solution in Well-waters;—The Pressure of Taxation on
Real Property ;—On the Chemical Reactions of Light discovered by Prof. Tyndall ;—
On Fossils obtained at Kiltorkan Quarry, co. Kilkenny ;—Report of the Lunar Com-
mittee ;—Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Report on the Marine Fauna
and Flora of the South Coast of Devon and Cornwall ;—Report on the Practicability
of establishing a ‘Close Time ’ for the Protection of Indigenous Animals ;—Experi-
mental Researches on the Mechanical Properties of Steel;—Second Report on
British Fossil Corals ;—Report of the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared
Sections of Mountain-Limestone Corals for Photographing ;—Report on the Rate of
Increase of Underground Temperature ;—Fifth Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devon-
shire ;—Report on the Connexion between Chemical Constitution and Physiological
Action;—On Emission, Absorption, and Reflection of Obscure Heat ;—Report on
Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Report on Uniformity of Weights and Measures ;
—Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Supplement to Second
Report of the Steamship-Performance Committee ;—Report on Recent Progress in
Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions ;—Report on Mineral Veins in Carboniferous
Limestone and their Organic Contents ;—Notes on the Foraminifera of Mineral
Veins and the Adjacent Strata ;—Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Interim Re-
port on the Laws of the Flow and Action of Water containing Solid Matter in
Suspension ;—Interim Report on Agricultural Machinery ;—Report on the Physio-
logical Action of Methyl and Allied Series ;—On the Influence of Form considered
in Relation to the Strength of Railway-axles and other portions of Machinery sub-
jected to Rapid Alterations of Strain;—On the Penetration of Armour-plates with
Long Shells of Large Capacity fired obliquely ;—Report on Standards of Electrical
Resistance.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Stokes’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tas FORTIETH MEETING, at Liverpool,
September 1870, Published at 18s.
ConTENTS :—Report on Steam-boiler Explosions ;—Report of the Committee on
the Hematite Iron-ores of Great Britain and Ireland ;—Report on the Sedimentary
961
Deposits of the River Onny ;—Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Re-
port on the practicability of establishing a ‘Close Time’ for the protection of
Mndigenous Animals ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—Sixth Report
on Kent’s Cavern ;—Third Report on Underground Temperature ;—Second Report of
the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared Sections of Mountain-Limestone
Corals ;—Second Report on the Stability, Propulsion, and Seagoing Qualities of
Ships ;—Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Report on the Treatment and Utili-
zation of Sewage ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1869-70 ;—Report
on Recent Progress in Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions;—Report on Tidal Ob-
servations ;—On a new Steam-power Meter ;—Report on the Action of the Methyl
and Allied Series;—Report of the Rainfall Committee;—Report on the Heat
generated in the Blood in the Process of Arterialization ;—Report on the best
means of providing for Uniformity of Weights and Measures.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Huxley’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees,
PROCEEDINGS or tas FORTY-FIRST MEETING, at Edinburgh,
August 1871, Published at 16s.
CONTENTS :—Seventh Report on Kent’s Cavern;—Fourth Report on Under-
ground Temperature ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1870-71 ;—
Fifth Report on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Report
of the Committee appointed for the purpose of urging on Her Majesty’s Government
the expediency of arranging and tabulatirig the results of the approaching Census
in the three several parts of the United Kingdom in such a manner as to admit of
ready and effective comparison ;—Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose
of Superintending the Publication of Abstracts of Chemical Papers ;—Report of the
Committee for discussing Observations of Lunar Objects suspected of change ;—
Second Provisional Report on the Thermal Conductivity of Metals ;—Report on
the Rainfall of the British Isles;—Third Report on the British Fossil Corals ;—
Report on the Heat generated in the Blood during the Process of Arterialization
—Report of the Committee appointed to consider the subject of Physiological
Experimentation ;—Report on the Physiological Action of Organic Chemical Com-
pounds ;—Report of the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared Sections of
Mountain-Limestone Corals ;—Second Report on Steam-Boiler Explosions ;—Re-
port on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Report on promoting the Foun-
dation of Zoological Stations in different parts of the World ;—Preliminary Report
on the Thermal Equivalents of the Oxides of Chlorine ;—Report on the practica-
bility of establishing a ‘Close Time’ for the protection of Indigenous Animals ;
—Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Report on the best means of providing for
a Uniformity of Weights and Measures ;—Report on Tidal Observations.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir William Thomson’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tar FORTY-SECOND MEETING, at Brighton,
Angust 1872, Published at £1 4s.
CONTENTS :—Report on the Gaussian Constants for the Year 1829 ;—Second Sup-
plementary Report on the Extinct Birds of the Mascarene Islands ;—Report of the
Committee for Superintending the Monthly Reports of the Progress of Chemistry ;—
Report of the Committee on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of
Weights and Measures ;—Eighth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Report on promoting the
Foundation of Zoological Stations in different parts of the World ;—Fourth Report
on the Fauna of South Devon ;—Preliminary Report of the Committee appointed to
Construct and Print Catalogues of Spectral Rays arranged upon a Scale of Wave-
numbers ;—Third Report on Steam-Boiler Explosions ;—Report on Observations of
Luminous Meteors, 1871-72 ;—Experiments on the Surface-friction experienced by
a Plane moving through Water ;—Report of the Committee on the Antagonism be-
tween the Action of Active Substances ;—Fifth Report on Underground Tempera-
ture ;—Preliminary Report of the Committee on Siemens’s Electrical-Resistance
Pyrometer ;—Fourth Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Interim
1887. 3 @
962
Report of the Committee on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships and
Currents ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—Report of the Committee
on a Geographical Exploration of the Country of Moab ;—Sur l’élimination des
Fonctions Arbitraires ;—Report on the Discovery of Fossils in certain remote parts
of the North-western Highlands ;—Report of the Committee on Harthquakes in
Scotland ;—Fourth Report on Carboniferous-Limestone Corals ;—Report of the Com-
mittee to consider the mode in which new Inventions and Claims for Reward in
respect of adopted Inventions are examined and dealt with by the different Depart-
ments of Government ;—Report of the Committee for discussing Observations of
Lunar Objects suspected of change ;—Report on the Mollusca of Europe ;—Report of
the Committee for investigating the Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties
of Essential Oils ;—Report on the practicability of establishing a ‘Close Time’ for
the preservation of Indigenous Animals ;—Sixth Report on the Structure and Classi-
fication of Fossil Crustacea ;—Report of the Committee appointed to organize an Ex-
pedition for observing the Solar Eclipse of Dec. 12, 1871 ;—Preliminary Report of
a Committee on Terato-embryological Inquiries ;—Report on Recent Progress in
Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions ;—Report on Tidal Observations ;—On the
Brighton Waterworks ;—On Amsler’s Planimeter. —
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Carpenter’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tae FORTY-THIRD MEETING, at Bradford,
September 1878, Published at £1 5s.
ConTENTS :—Report of the Committee on Mathematical Tables ;—Observations
on the Application of Machinery to the Cutting of Coal in Mines ;—Concluding Re-
port on the Maltese Fossil Elephants ;—Report of the Committee for ascertaining
the Existence in different parts of the United Kingdom of any Erratic Blocks or
Boulders ;—Fourth Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Ninth Report on Kent’s
Cavern ;—On the Flint and Chert Implements found in Kent’s Cavern ;—Report of
the Committee for Investigating the Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties
of Essential Oils ;—Report of Inquiry into the Method of making Gold-assays ;.
—Fifth Report on the Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical and Electrical
Units ;—Report of the Committee on the Labyrinthodonts of the Coal-measures ;—
Report of the Committee appointed to construct and print Catalogues of Spectral
Rays ;—Report of the Committee appointed to explore the Settle Caves;—Sixth Report
on Underground Temperature ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—Seventh
Report on Researches in Fossil Crustacea ;—Report on Recent Progress in Elliptic
and Hyperelliptic Functions ;—Report on the desirability of establishing a ‘ Close
Time’ for the preservation of Indigenous Animals ;—Report on Luminous Meteors ;
——On the Visibility of the Dark Side of Venus ;—Report of the Committee for the
Foundation of Zoological Stationsin different parts of the World ;—Second Report of
the Committee for collecting Fossils from North-western Scotland ;—Fifth Report
on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Report of the Committee on Monthly
Reports of the Progress of Chemistry ;—On the Bradford Waterworks ;—Report on
the possibility of Improving the Methods of Instruction in Elementary Geometry ;
—Interim Report of the Committee on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of
Ships, &c.;—Report of the Committee for Determinating High Temperatures by
means of the Refrangibility of Light evolved by Fluid or Solid Substances ;—On a
Periodicity of Cyclones and Rainfall in connexion with Sun-spot Periodicity ;—Fifth
Report on the Structure of Carboniferous-Limestone Corals ;—Report of the Com-
mittee on preparing and publishing brief forms of Instructions for Travellers,
Ethnologists, &c. ;—Preliminary Note from the Committee on the Influence of Forests
on the Rainfall ;—Report of the Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee ;—Report of
the Committee on Machinery for obtaining a Record of the Roughness of the Sea
and Measurement of Waves near shore ;—Report on Science Lectures and Organi-
zation ;—Second Report on Science Lectures and Organization.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. A. W. Williamson’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
963
PROCEEDINGS or raz FORTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Belfast,
August 1874, Published at £1 5s.
ConTENTS :—Tenth Report on Kent’s Cavern;—Report for investigating the
Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties of Essential Oils ;—Second Report of
the Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee ;—On the Recent Progress and Present
State of Systematic Botany ;—Report of the Committee for investigating the Nature
of Intestinal Secretion ;—Report of the Committee on the Teaching of Physics in
Schools ;—Preliminary Report for investigating Isomeric Cresols and their Deriva-
tives ;—Third Report of the Committee for collecting Fossils from localities in
North-western Scotland ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—On the Bel-
fast Harbour ;—Report of Inquiry into the Method of making Gold-assays ;—Report
of a Committee on Experiments to determine the Thermal Conductivities of certain
Rocks ;—Second Report on the Exploration of the Settle Caves ;—On the Industrial
uses of the Upper Bann River ;—Report of the Committee on the Structure and
Classification of the Labyrinthodonts ;—Second Report of the Committee for record-
ing the position, height above the sea, lithological characters, size, and origin of the
Erratic Blocks of England and Wales, &c. ;—Sixth Report on the Treatment and
Utilization of Sewage ;—Report on the Anthropological Notes and Queries for the
use of Travellers ;—On Cyclone and Rainfall Periodicities ;—Fifth Report on Earth-
quakes in Scotland ;—Report of the Committee appointed to prepare and print
Tables of Wave-numbers ;—Report of the Committee for testing the new Pyrometer
of Mr. Siemens ;—Report to the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty on Experi-
ments for the Determination of the Frictional Resistance of Water on a Surface
&e. ;—Second Report for the Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical and Elec-
trical Units ;—On Instruments for measuring the Speed of Ships ;—Report of the
Committee on the possibility of establishing a ‘Close Time’ for the Protection of
Indigenous Animals ;—Report of the Committee to inquire into the economic effects
of Combinations of Labourers and Capitalists ;—Preliminary Report on Dredging on
the Coasts of Durham and North Yorkshire ;—Report on Luminous Meteors ;—Re-
port on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. John Tyndall’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tas FORTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Bristol,
August 1875, Published at £1 5s.
ConTENTS :—Eleventh Report on Kent’s Cavern;—Seventh Report on Under-
ground Temperature ;—Report on the Zoological Station at Naples ;—Report of a
Committee appointed to inquire into the Methods employed in the Estimation of
Potash and Phosphoric Acid in Commercial Products ;—Report on the present state
of our Knowledge of the Crustacea;—Second Report on the Thermal Conduc-
tivities of certain Rocks ;—Preliminary Report of the Committee for extending the
Observations on the Specific Volumes of Liquids ;—Sixth Report on Harthquakes
in Scotland ;—Seventh Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Re-
. port of the Committee for furthering the Palestine Explorations ;— Third Report. of
the Committee for recording the position, height above the sea,) lithological
characters, size, and origin of the Erratic Blocks of England and Wales, &c.;—
Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Report of the Committee for investigating
Isomeric Cresols and their Derivatives ;—Report of the Committee for investigating
the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the New Red Sandstone and Permian
Formations of England ;—On the Steering of Screw-Steamers ;—Second Report of
the Committee on Combinations of Capital and Labour ;—Report on the Method of
making Gold-assays;—Highth Report on Underground Temperature ;—Tides in the
River Mersey ;—Sixth Report of the Committee on the Structure of Carboniferous
Corals ;—Report of the Committee appointed to explore the Settle Caves ;—On
the River Avon (Bristol), its Drainage-Area, &c.;—Report of the Committee on
the possibility of establishing a ‘Close Time’ for the Protection of Indigenous
Animals ;—Report of the Committee appointed to superintend the Publication of
the Monthly Reports of the Progress of Chemistry ;—Report on Dredging off the
Coasts of Durham and North Yorkshire in 1874 ;—Report on Luminous Meteors ;—On
3 Q2
964
the Analytical Forms called Trees;—Report of the Committee on Mathematical
Tables ;—Report of the Committee on Mathematical Notation and Printing ;—Second
Report of the Committee for investigating Intestinal Secretion ;—Third Report of
the Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir John Hawkshaw’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or raz FORTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Glasgow,
September 1876, Published at £1 5s.
CONTENTS :—Twelfth Report on Kent’s Cavern;—Report on Improving the
Methods of Instruction in Elementary Geometry ;—Results of a Comparison of the
British-Association Units of Electrical Resistance ;—Third Report on the Thermal
Conductivities of certain Rocks ;—Report of the Committee on the practicability of
adopting a Common Measure of Value in the Assessment of Direct Taxation ;—
Report of the Committee for testing experimentally Ohm’s Law ;—Report of the
Committee on the possibility of establishing a ‘Close Time’ for the Protection of
Indigenous Animals ;—Report of the Committee on the Effect of Propellers on the
Steering of Vessels ;—On the Investigation of the Steering Qualities of Ships ;—
Seventh Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Report on the present state of our
Knowledge of the Crustacea ;—Second Report of the Committee for investigating
the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the New Red Sandstone and Permian
Formations of England ;—Fourth Report of the Committee on the Erratic Blocks of
England and Wales, &c.;—Fourth Report of the Committee on the Exploration of
the Settle Caves (Victoria Cave);—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors,
1875-76 ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles, 1875-76 ;—Ninth Report on
Underground Temperature ;—Nitrous Oxide in the Gaseous and Liquid States ;—
Eighth Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Improved Investiga-
tions on the Flow of Water through Orifices, with Objections to the modes of treat-
ment commonly adopted ;—Report of the Anthropometric Committee ;—On Cyclone
and Rainfall Periodicities in connexion with the Sun-spot Periodicity ;—Report of
the Committee for determining the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat ;—Report of the
Committee on Tidal Observations ;—Third Report of the Committee on the Condi-
tions of Intestinal Secretion and Movement ;—Report of the Committee for collect-
ing and suggesting subjects for Chemical Research.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. T. Andrews’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tose FORTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at Ply-
mouth, August 1877, Published at £1 As.
CONTENTS :—Thirteenth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Second and Third Reports
on the Methods employed in the estimation of Potash and Phosphoric Acid in Com-
mercial Products ;—Report on the present state of our Knowledge of the Crustacea -
(Part III.) ;—Third Report on the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the New
Red Sandstone and Permian Formations of England ;—Fifth Report on the Erratic
Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland ;—Fourth Report on the Thermal Conducti-
vities of certain Rocks ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1876-77 ;—
Tenth Report on Underground Temperature ;—Report on the Effect of Propellers on
the Steering of Vessels ;—Report on the possibility of establishing a ‘Close Time’
for the Protection of Indigenous Animals ;--Report on some Double Compounds of
Nickel and Cobalt ;—Fifth Report on the Exploration of the Settle Caves (Victoria
Cave);—Report on the Datum Level of the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain ;—
Report on the Zoological Station at Naples ;—Report of the Anthropometric Com-
mittee ;—Report on the Conditions under which Liquid Carbonic Acid exists in
Rocks and Minerals.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Allen Thomson’ 8 Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
965
PROCEEDINGS or tie FORTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Dublin,
August 1878, Published at £1 4s.
CoNTENTS :—Catalogue of the Oscillation-Frequencies of Solar Rays;—Report
on Mr. Babbage’s Analytical Machine ;—Third Report of the Committee for deter-
mining the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat ;—Report of the Committee for arrang-
ing for the taking of certain Observations in India, and Observations on Atmospheric
Electricity at Madeira ;—Report on the commencement of Secular Experiments upon
the Elasticity of Wires ;—Report on the Chemistry of some of the lesser-known
Alkaloids, especially Veratria and Bebeerine ;—Report on the best means for the
Development of Light from Coal-Gas ;—Fourteenth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—
Report on the Fossils in the North-west Highlands of Scotland ;—Fifth Report on
the Thermal Conductivities of certain Rocks ;—Report on the possibility of estab-
lishing a ‘Close Time’ for the Protection of Indigenous Animals ;—Report on the
occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples ;—Report of the Anthro-
pometric Committee ;—Report on Patent Legislation ;—Report on the Use of Steel
for Structural Purposes ;—Report on the Geographical Distribution of the Chiro-
ptera ;—Recent Improvements in the Port of Dublin;—Report on Mathematical
Tables ;—Eleventh Report on Underground Temperature ;—Report on the Hxplora-
tion of the Fermanagh Caves ;—Sixth Report on the Erratic Blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland ;—Report on the present state of our Knowledge of the Crus-
tacea (Part IV.) ;—Report on two Caves in the neighbourhood of Tenby ;—Report on
the Stationary Tides in the English Channel and in the North Sea, &e. ;—Second
Report on the Datum-level of the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain ;—Report on
instruments for measuring the Speed of Ships;—Report of Investigations into a
Common Measure of Value in Direct Taxation ;—Report on Sunspots and Rainfall ;
—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Sixth Report on the Exploration
of the Settle Caves (Victoria Cave) ;—Report on the Kentish Boring Exploration ;—
Fourth Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters in the Jurassic, New Red
Sandstone, and Permian Formations, with an Appendix on the Filtration of Water
through Triassic Sandstone ;—Report on the Effect of Propellers on the Steering of
Vessels.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Spottiswoode’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tats FORTY-NINTH MEETING, at Sheffield,
August 1879, Published at £1 4s.
ConTENTS :—Report on the commencement of Secular Experiments upon the
Elasticity of Wires ;—Fourth Report of the Committee for determining the Mechan-
ical Equivalent of Heat ;—Report of the Committee for endeavouring to procure
reports on the Progress of the Chief Branches of Mathematics and Physics ;—Twelfth
Report on Underground Temperature ;—Report on Mathematical Tables ;—Sixth
Report on the Thermal Conductivities of certain Bocks ;—Report on Observations
of Atmospheric Electricity at Madeira ;—Report on the Calculation of Tables of the
Fundamental Invariants of Algebraic Forms ;—Report on the Calculation of Sun-
Heat Coefficients ;—Second Report on the Stationary Tides in the English Channel
and in the North Sea, &c. ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Report
on the question of Improvements in Astronomical Clocks ;— Report of the Committee
for improving an Instrument for detecting the presence of Fire-damp in Mines ;—
Report on the Chemistry of some of the lesser-known Alkaloids, especially Veratria
and Beeberine ;—Seventh Report on the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ire-
land ;—Fifteenth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Report on certain Caves in Borneo ;—
Fifth Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters in the Jurassic, Red Sand-
stone, and Permian Formations of England ;—Report on the Tertiary (Miocene)
Flora, &c., of the Basalt of the North of Ireland ;—Report on the possibility of
Establishing a ‘Close Time’ for the Protection of Indigenous Animals ;—Report on
the Marine Zoology of Devon and Cornwall ;—Report on the Occupation of a Table
at the Zoological Station at Naples ;—Report on Excavations at Portstewart and
elsewhere in the North of Ireland ;—Report of the Anthropometric Committee ;—
Report on the Investigation of the Natural History of Socotra ;—Report on Instru-
966
ments for measuring the Speed of Ships;—Third Report on the Datum-level of the
Ordnance Survey of Great Britain ;—Second Report on Patent Legislation ;—On
Self-acting Intermittent Siphons and the conditions which determine the com-
mencement of their Action;--On some further Evidence as to the Range of the
Paleozoic Rocks beneath the South-east of England ;—Hydrography, Past and
Present.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Allman’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or raz FIFTIETH MERTING, at Swansea, August
and September 1880, Published at £1 4s.
CoNTENTS :—Report on the Measurement of the Lunar Disturbance of Gravity ;—
Thirteenth Report on Underground Temperature ;—Report of the Committee for
devising and constructing an improved form of High Insulation Key for Electrometer
Work ;—Report on Mathematical Tables ;—Report on the Calculation of Tables
of the Fundamental Invariants of Algebraic Forms;—Report on Observations of
Luminous Meteors;—Report on the question of Improvements in Astronomical
Clocks ;—Report on the commencement of Secular Experiments on the Elasticity
of Wires ;—Sixteenth and concluding Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Report on the
mode of reproduction of certain species of Ichthyosaurus from the Lias of England
and Wiirtemburg ;—Report on the Carboniferous Polyzoa ;—Report on the ‘ Geological
Record ’;—Sixth Report on the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the
Permian, New Red Sandstone, and Jurassic Formations of England, and the Quantity
and Character of the Water supplied to towns and districts from these formations ;—
Second Report on the Tertiary (Miocene) Flora, &c., of the Basalt ofthe North of
Treland ;—Highth Report on the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland ;—
Report on an Investigation for the purpose of fixing a Standard of White Light ;—
Report of the Anthropometric Committee ;—Report on the Influence of Bodily Exercise
on the Elimination of Nitrogen ;—Second Report on the Marine Zoology of South
Devon ;—Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples ;—
Report on accessions to our knowledge of the Chiroptera during the past two years
(1878-80) ;—Preliminary Report on the accurate measurement of the specific in-
ductive capacity of a good Sprengel Vacuum, and the specific resistance of gases at
different pressures ;—Comparison of Curves of the Declination Magnetographs at
Kew, Stonyhurst, Coimbra, Lisbon, Vienna, and St. Petersburg ;—First Report on
the Caves of the South of Ireland ;—Report on the Investigation of the Natural
History of Socotra ;—Report on the German and other systems of teaching the Deaf
to speak ;—Report of the Committee for considering whether it is important that
H.M. Inspectors of Elementary Schools should be appointed with reference to their
ability for examining in the scientific specific subjects of the Code in addition to
other matters ;—On the Anthracite Coal and Coalfield of South Wales ;—Report on
the present state of our knowledge of Crustacea (Part V.) ;—Report on the best means
for the Development of Light from Coal-gas of different qualities (Part II.) ;—Report
on Paleontological and Zoological Researches in Mexico ;—Report on the possibility
of establishing a‘ Close Time’ for Indigenous Animals ;—Report on the present state
of our knowledge of Spectrum Analysis ;—Report on Patent Legislation ;—Pre-
liminary Report on the present Appropriation of Wages, &c. ;—Report on the present
state of knowledge of the application of Quadratures and Interpolation to Actual
Data;—The French Deep-sea Exploration in the Bay of Biscay ;—Third Report on
the Stationary Tides in the English Channel and in the North Sea, &c. ;—List of
Works on the Geology, Mineralogy, and Paleontology of Wales (to the end of 1873) :—
On the recent Revival in Trade.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. A. C. Ramsay’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,
PROCEEDINGS or rae FIFTY-FIRST MEETING, at York,
August and September 1881, Published at £1 As.
CONTENTS :—Report on the Calculation of Tables of the Fundamental Invariants
of Algebraic Forms;—Report on Recent Progress in Hydrodynamics (Part I.) ;—
Report on Meteoric Dust;—Second Report on the Calculation of Sun-heat Co-
967
efficients;—Fourteenth Report on Underground Temperature;—Report on the
Measurement of the Lunar Disturbance of Gravity;—Second Report on an In-
vestigation for the purpose of fixing a Standard of White Light ;—Final Report on
the Thermal Conductivities of certain Rocks;—Report on the manner in which
Rudimentary Science should be taught, and how Examinations should be held
therein, in Elementary Schools;—Third Report on the Tertiary Flora of the North
_of Ireland ;—Report on the Method of Determining the Specific Refraction of Solids
from their Solutions ;—Fourth Report on the Stationary Tides in the English Channel
and in the North Sea, &c.;—Second Report on Fossil Polyzoa;—Report on the
Maintenance of the Scottish Zoological Station;—Report on the Occupation of a
Table at the Zoological Station at Naples;—Report on the Migration of Birds ;—
Report on the Natural History of Socotra;—Report on the Natural History of
Timor-laut ;—-Report on the Marine Fauna of the Southern Coast of Devon and
Cornwall;—Report on the Earthquake Phenomena of Japan ;—Ninth Report on
the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland;—Second Report on the
Caves of the South of Ireland;—Report on Patent Legislation;—Report of the
Anthropometric Committee ;—Report on the Appropriation of Wages, &c.;—Re-
port on Observations of Luminous Meteors;—Report on Mathematical Tables ;—
Seventh Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters in the Jurassic,
New Red Sandstone, and Permian Formations of England, and the Quality and
Quantity of the Water supplied to Towns and Districts from these Formations ;—
Report on the present state of our Knowledge of Spectrum Analysis ;—Interim Report
of the Committee for constructing and issuing practical Standards for use in Electrical
Measurements ;—On some new Theorems on Curves of Double Curvature ;—Observa-
tions of Atmospheric Electricity at the Kew Observatory during 1880;—On the
Arrestation of Infusorial Life by Solar Light ;—On the Effects of Oceanic Currents
upon Climates ;—On Magnetic Disturbances and Earth Currents ;—On some Applica-
tions of Electric Energy to Horticultural and Agricultural purposes ; —On the Pressure
of Wind upon a Fixed Plane Surface ;—On the Island of Socotra ;—On some of the
Developments of Mechanical Engineering during the last Half-Century.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir John Lubbock’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
REPORT or tue FIFTY-SECOND MEETING, at Southampton,
August 1882, Published at £1 4s.
ConTENTS :—Report on the Calculation of Tables of Fundamental Invariants of
Binary Quantics ;—Report (provisional) of the Committee for co-operating with the
Meteorological Society of the Mauritius in their proposed publication of Daily
Synoptic Charts of the Indian Ocean from the year 1861 ;—Report of the Committee
appointed for fixing a Standard of White Light ;—Report on Recent Progress in
Hydrodynamics (Part II.) ;—Report of the Committee for constructing and issuing
practical Standards for use in Electrical Measurements ;—Fifteenth Report on Under-
ground Temperature, with Summary of the Results contained in the Fifteen Reports
of the Underground Temperature Committee ;—Report on Meteoric Dust ;—Second
Report on the Measurement of the Lunar Disturbance of Gravity ;—Report on the
present state of our Knowledge of Spectrum Analysis ;—Report on the Investigation
by means of Photography of the Ultra-Violet Spark Spectra emitted by Metallic
Elements, and their combinations under varying conditions ;—Report of the Com-
mittee for preparing a new Series of Tables of Wave-lengths of the Spectra of the
Elements ;—Report on the Methods employed in the Calibration of Mercurial Ther-
mometers ;—Second Report on the Earthquake Phenomena of Japan ;—Kighth Report
on the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the Permeable Formations of
England, and the Quality and Quantity of the Water supplied to various Towns and
Districts from these Formations ;—Report on the Conditions under which ordinary
Sedimentary Materials may be converted into Metamorphic Rocks;—Report on
Explorations in Caves of Carboniferous Limestone in the South of Ireland ;—Report
on the Preparation of an International Geological Map of Europe ;—Tenth Report on
the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland ;—Report on Fossil Polyzoa
(Jurassic Species—British Area only) ;—Preliminary Report on the Flora of the
‘Halifax Hard Bed,’ Lower Coal Measures ;—Report on the Influence of Bodily
Exercise on the Elimination of Nitrogen ;—Report of the Committee appointed for
obtaining Photographs of the Typical Races in the British Isles ;—Preliminary
Report on the Ancient Earthwork in Epping Forest known as the Loughton Camp;
968
—Second Report on the Natural History of Timor-laut ;—Report of the Committee
for carrying out the recommendations of the Anthropometric Committee of 1880,
especially as regards the anthropometry of children and of females, and the more
complete discussion of the collected facts ;—Report on the Natural History of
Socotra and the adjacent Highlands of Arabia and Somali Land ;—Report on the
Maintenance of the Scottish Zoological Station;—Report on the Migration of
Birds ;—Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples ;—
Report on the Survey of Eastern Palestine ;—Final Report on the Appropriation of
Wages, &e. ;—Report on the working of the revised New Code, and of other legisla-
tion affecting the teaching of Science in Elementary Schools ;—Report on Patent
Legislation ;—Report of the Committee for determining a Gauge for the manufacture
of various small Screws ;—Report on the best means of ascertaining the Hffective
Wind Pressure to which buildings and structures are exposed ;—On the Boiling
Points and Vapour Tension of Mercury, of Sulphur, and of some Compounds of
Carbon, determined by means of the Hydrogen Thermometer ;—On the Method of
Harmonic Analysis used in deducing the Numerical Values of the Tides of long
period, and on a Misprint in the Tidal Report for 1872 ;—List of Works on the
Geology and Paleontology of Oxfordshire, of Berkshire, and of Buckinghamshire ;—
Notes on the oldest Records of the Sea-Route to China from Western Asia ;—The
Deserts of Africa and Asia ;—State of Crime in England, Scotland, and Ireland in
1880 ;—On the. Treatment of Steel for the Construction of Ordnance, and other pur-
poses ;—The Channel Tunnel ;—The Forth Bridge.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. C. W. Siemens’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
REPORT or tHe FIFTY-THIRD MEETING, at Southport,
September 1883, Published at £1 As.
CONTENTS :—Report of the Committee for constructing and issuing practical
Standards for use in Electrical Measurements ;—Sixteenth Report on Underground
Temperature ;—Report on the best Experimental Methods that can be used in ob-
serving Total Solar Eclipses ;—Report on the Harmonic Analysis of Tidal Observa-
tions ;—Report of the Committee for co-operating with the Meteorological Society of
the Mauritius in their proposed publication of Daily Synoptic Charts of the
Indian Ocean from the year 1861 ;—Report on Mathematical Tables ;—Report of the
Committee for co-operating with the Scottish Meteorological Society in making
Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis ;— Report on Meteoric Dust ;—Report of
the Committee appointed for fixing a Standard of White Light ;—Report on Chemical
Nomenclature ;—Report on the investigation by means of Photography of the Ultra-
Violet Spark Spectra emitted by Metallic Elements, and their combinations under
varying conditions ;—Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives ;—Report on
Explorations in Caves in the Carboniferous Limestone in the South of Ireland ;—
teport on the Exploration of Raygill Fissure, Yorkshire ;—Eleventh Report on the
Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Jreland ;—Ninth Report on the Circulation of
the Underground Waters in the Permeable Formations of England, and the Quality
and Quantity of the Water supplied to various Towns and Districts from these For-
mations ;—Report on the Fossil Plants of Halifax ;—Fourth Report on Fossil
Polyzoa ;—Fourth Report on the Tertiary Flora of the North of Ireland;—Report on
the Earthquake Phenomena of Japan ;—Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the
Palzozoic Rocks ;—Third Report on the Natural History of Timor Laut ;—Report on
the Natural History of Socotra and the adjacent Highlands of Arabia and Somali
Land ;—Report on the Exploration of Kilima-njaro and the adjoining mountains of
Eastern Equatorial Africa ;—Report on the Migration of Birds ;—Report on the
Maintenance of the Scottish Zoological Station ;—Report on the Occupation of a Table
at the Zoological Station at Naples ;—Report on the Influence of Bodily Exercise on
the Elimination of Nitrogen;—Report on the Ancient Earthwork in Epping Forest,
known as the ‘ Loughton’ or ‘ Cowper’s’ Camp ;—F inal Report of the Anthropometric
Committee ;—Report of the Committee for defining the Facial Characteristics of the
Races and Principal Crosses in the British Isles, and obtaining Illustrative Photo-
graphs ;—Report on the Survey of Eastern Palestine ;—Report on the workings of
the proposed revised New Code, and of other legislation affecting the teaching
of Science in Elementary Schools ;—Report on Patent Legislation ;—Report of the
969
Committee for determining a Gauge for the manufacture of various small Screws ;—
Report of the ‘ Local Scientific Societies’ Committee ;—On some results of photo-
graphing the Solar Corona without an Eclipse ;—On Lamé’s Differential Equation ;—
Recent Changes in the Distribution of Wealth in relation to the Incomes of the
Labouring Classes ;—On the Mersey Tunnel ;—On Manganese Bronze ;—Nest Gearing.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Professor Cayley’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
REPORT or tae FIFTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Montreal,
August and September, 1884, Published at 1l. 4s.
ConTENTS :—Report of the Committee for considering and advising on the best
means for facilitating the adoption of the Metric System of Weights and Measures
in Great Britain ;—Report of the Committee for considering the best methods of
recording the direct intensity of Solar Radiation ;—Report of the Committee for
constructing and issuing practical Standards for use in Electrical Measurements ;—
Report of the Committee for co-operating with the Meteorological Society of the
Mauritius, in their proposed publication of Daily Synoptic Charts of the Indian
Ocean from the year 1861;—Second Report on the Harmonic Analysis of Tidal
Observations ;—Report of the Committee for co-operating with Mr. H, J. Lowe in
his project of establishing a Meteorological Observatory near Chepstow on a per-
manent and scientific basis ;—Report of the Committee for co-operating with the
Directors of the Ben Nevis Observatory in making Meteorological Observations on
Ben Nevis ;—Report of the Committee for reducing and tabulating the Tidal Obser-
vations in the English Channel, made with the Dover Tide-gauge, and for connecting
+hem with Observations made on the French Coast ;—Fourth Report on Meteoric
Dust ;—Second Report on Chemical Nomenclature ;—Report on Isomeric Naphtha-
lene Derivatives ;—Second Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks ;—
Tenth Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters in the Permeable Formations
of England and Wales, and the Quantity and Character of the Water supplied to
various Towns and Districts from these Formations ;—Fifth and last Report on Fossil
Polyzoa ;—Twelfth Report on the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland ;—
Report upon the National Geological Surveys of Europe;—Report on the Rate of
Erosion of the Sea-coasts of England and Wales, and the Influence of the Artificial
Abstraction of Shingle or other material in that action ;—Report on the Exploration
of the Raygill Fissure in Lothersdale, Yorkshire ;—Fourth Report on the Harth-
quake Phenomena of Japan ;—Report on the occupation of a Table at the Zoological
Station at Naples;—Fourth Report on the Natural History of Timor Laut ;—Report
on the Influence of Bodily Exercise on the Elimination of Nitrogen ;—Report on the
Migration of Birds ;—Report on the Preparation of a Bibliography of certain groups
of Invertebrata;—Report on the Exploration of Kilima-njaro, and the adjoining
mountains of Eastern Equatorial Africa ;—Report on the Survey of Eastern Pales-
tine ;—Report of the Committee for defraying the expenses of completing the Pre-
paration of the final Report of the Anthropometric Committee ;—Report on the
teaching of Science in Elementary Schools;—Report of the Committee for deter-
mining a Gauge for the manufacture of the various small Screws used in Telegraphic
nd Electrical Apparatus, in Clockwork, and for other analogous purposes ;—Report
on Patent Legislation ;—Report of the Committee for defining the Facial Charac-
teristics of the Races and Principal Crosses in the British Isles, and obtaining
Illustrative Photographs with a view to their publication ;—Report on the present
state of our knowledge of Spectrum Analysis ;—Report of the Committee for pre-
paring a new series of Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements ;—On the
Connection between Sun-spots and Terrestrial Phenomena;—On the Seat of the
Blectromotive Forces in the Voltaic Cell ;—On the Archean Rocks of Great Britain ;
—On the Concordance of the Mollusca inhabiting both sides of the North Atlantic
and the intermediate Seas ;—On the Characteristics of the North American Flora ;—
On the Theory of the Steam Engine ;—Improvements in Coast Signals, with Supple-
mentary Remarks on the New Eddystone Lighthouse ;—On American Permanent
Way.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Rayleigh’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,
970
REPORT or toe FIFTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Aberdeen, Sep-
tember 1885, Published at £1 4s.
ConTENTS :—Report of the Committee for constructing and issuing practical
Standards for use in Electrical Measurements ;—Report of the Committee for pro-
moting Tidal Observations in Canada;—Fifth Report on Meteoric Dust ;—Third
Report on the Harmonic Analysis of Tidal Observations ;—Report of the Committee
for co-operating with the Meteorological Society of the Mauritius in their proposed
publication of Daily Synoptic Charts of the Indian Ocean from the year 1861 ;—
Report of the Committee for reducing and tabulating the Tidal Observations in the
English Channel, made with the Dover Tide-gauge, and for connecting them with
Observations made on the French Coast ;—Report on Standards of White Light ;—
Report of the Committee for co-operating with Mr. E. J. Lowe in his project of
establishing a Meteorological Observatory near Chepstow on a permanent and
scientific basis ;—Report on the best means of Comparing and Reducing Magnetic
Observations ;—Report of the Committee for co-operating with the Scottish Meteoro-
logical Society in making Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis ;—-Seventeenth
Report on Underground Temperature ;—Report on Electrical Theories ;—Second
Report of the Committee for considering the best methods of recording the direct
intensity of Solar Radiation ;—Report on Optical Theories ;— Report of the Committee
for investigating certain Physical Constants of Solution, especially the Expansion of
Saline Solutions ;—Third Report on Chemical Nomenclature ;—Report of the Commit-
tee for the Investigation by means of Photography of the Ultra-Violet Spark Spectra
emitted by Metallic Elements and their Combinations under varying conditions ;—
Report of the Committee for investigating the subject of Vapour Pressures and
Refractive Indices of Salt Solutions ;—Report of the Committee for preparing a new
series of Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds ;—
Thirteenth Report on the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland ;—Third
Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks ;—Fifth Report on the
Earthquake Phenomena of Japan ;—Eleventh Report on the Circulation of Under-
ground Waters in the Permeable Formations of England and Wales, and the
Quantity and Character of the Water supplied to various Towns and Districts from
these Formations ;—Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius ;—Report on the
Fossil Plants of the Tertiary and Secondary Beds of the United Kingdom ;—Report on
the Rate of Erosion of the Sea-coasts of England and Wales, and the Influence of the
Artificial Abstraction of Shingle or other material in that action ;— Report on the occu-
pation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples ;—Report of the Committee for
promoting the Establishment of a Marine Biological Station at Granton, Scotland ;—
Report on the Aid given by the Dominion Government and the Government of the
United States to the Encouragement of Fisheries, and to the Investigation of the va-
rious forms of Marine Life on the coasts and rivers of North America ;—Report of
the Committee for promoting the Establishment of Marine Biological Stations on the
coast of the United Kingdom ;—Report on recent Polyzoa;—Third Report on the
Exploration of Kilima-njaro and the adjoining mountains of Hquatorial Africa ;—
Report on the Migration of Birds ;—Report of the Committee for furthering the Ex-
ploration of New Guinea by making a grant to Mr. Forbes for the purposes of his
Hxpedition ;—Report of the Committee for furthering the Scientific Examination of
the country in the vicinity of Mount Roraima in Guiana by making a grant to Mr.
Everard F. im Thurn for the purposes of his Expedition ;—Report of the Committee
for promoting the Survey of Palestine ;—Report on the Teaching of Science in Ele-
mentary Schools ;—Report on Patent Legislation ;—Report of the Committee for
investigating and publishing reports on the physical characters, languages, and
industrial and social condition of the North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of
Canada ;—Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee ;—On Electrolysis ;—A
tabular statement of the dates at which, and the localities where Pumice or Volcanic
Dust was seen in the Indian Ocean in 1883—4;—List of Works on the Geology, Mine-
ralogy, and Paleontology of Staffordshire, Worcestershire, and Warwickshire ;—
On Slaty Cleavage and allied Rock-Structures, with special reference to the Mecha-
nical Theories of their Origin ;—On the Strength of Telegraph Poles ;—On the Use
of Index Numbers in the Investigation of Trade Statistics ;—The Forth Bridge
Works ;—Electric Lighting at the Forth Bridge Works ;—The New Tay Viaduct.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Lyon Playfair’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
971
REPORT or tHe FIFTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Birmingham,
September 1886, Published at £1 4s.
ConTENTS :—Repori on Standards of Light ;—Report of the Committee for pre-
paring Instructions for the practical work of Tidal Observation, and Fourth Report
on the Harmonic Analysis of Tidal Observations ;—Report of the Committee for co-
operating with the Scottish Meteorological Society in making Meteorological Obser-
vations on Ben Nevis ;—Third Report on the best methods of recording the Direct
Intensity of Solar Radiation ;—Second Report on the best means of Comparing and
Reducing Magnetic Observations ;—First Report on our Experimental Knowledge of
the Properties of Matter with respect to Volume, Pressure, Temperature, and Specific
Heat ;—Third Report of the Committee for co-operating with Mr. E. J. Lowe in his
project of establishing a Meteorological Observatory near Chepstow on a permanent
and scientific basis ;—Report of the Committee for inviting designs for a good
Differential Gravity Meter in supersession of the Pendulum ;—Report of the Com-
mittee for constructing and issuing practical Standards for use in Electrical Measure-
ments;—Second Report of the Committee for promoting Tidal Observations in
Canada ;—Report of the Committee for the reduction and tabulation of Tidal Obser-
vations in the English Channel, made with the Dover Tide-gauge, and for connecting
them with Observations made on the French Coast ;—Report of the Committee for
preparing a new series of Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements ;—
Second Report of the Committee for investigating the subject of Vapour Pressures
and Refractive Indices of Salt Solutions;—Second Report of the Committee for
investigating certain Physical Constants of Solution, especially the Expansion of
Saline Solutions ;—Report (provisional) on the influence of the Silent Discharge of
Electricity on Oxygen and other Gases ;—Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives ;
—Report on the Exploration of the Caves of North Wales ;—Fourteenth Report on
the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland ;—Report on the Volcanic Phe-
nomena of Vesuvius and its neighbourhood ;—Fourth Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda
of the Palzeozoic Rocks ;—Twelfth Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters
in the Permeable Formations of England and Wales, and the Quantity and Character
of the Water supplied to various Towns and Districts from these Formations ;—
Second Report on the Fossil Plants of the Tertiary and Secondary Beds of the United
Kingdom ;—Report on the Mechanism of the Secretion of Urine ;—Report of the
Committee for promoting the establishment of a Marine Biological Station at
Granton, Scotland ;—Report on the occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station
at Naples ;—Report on the Migration of Birds;—Report of the Committee for con-
tinuing the Researches on Food-Fishes and Invertebrates at the St. Andrews Marine
Laboratory ;—Report on the Depth of the Permanently Frozen Soil in the Polar
Regions, its Geographical Limits and relation to the Pole of greatest cold ;—Report
of the Committee for taking into consideration the Combination of the Ordnance and
Admiralty Surveys, and the Production of a Bathy-hypsographical Map of the British
Isles ;—Report of the Committee for drawing attention to the desirability of further
Research in the Antarctic Regions;—Report on the teaching of Science in Ele-
mentary Schools ;—Report on the Regulation of Wages by means of Sliding Scales ;
—Report on the Endurance of Metals under repeated and varying Stresses, and the
proper working Stresses on Railway Bridges and other structures subject to varying
loads ;—Report on the Prehistoric Race in the Greek Islands ;—Report of the Com-
mittee for investigating and publishing reports on the physical characters, languages,
and industrial and social condition of the North-western Tribes of the Dominion of
Canada ;—Report to the Council of the Corresponding Societies Committee ;— Report
on Electrolysis in its Physical and Chemical Bearings;—Sixth Report on the Vol-
canic Phenomena of Japan ;—Second Report on the Rate of Erosion of the Sea-coasts
of England and Wales, and the Influence of the Artificial Abstraction of Shingle or
other Material in that action;—The Modern Development of Thomas Young’s
Theory of Colour-vision ;—On the Explicit Form of the Complete Cubic Differential
Resolyent ;—On the Phenomena and Theories of Solution ;—On the Exploration of
the Raygill Fissure in Lothersdale, Yorkshire ;—An Accurate and Rapid Method of
estimating the Silica in an Igneous Rock:—On some Points for the Consideration
of English Engineers with reference to the Design of Girder Bridges ;—The Sphere
and Roller Mechanism for Transmitting Power ;—On Improvements in Electric
Safety Lamps ;—On the Birmingham, Tame, and Rea District Drainage.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir J. William Dawson’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,
iy Sige aes ves +e
ee eid jiget
} rueha
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR
THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
OF
OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND MEMBERS,
CORRECTED TO JANUARY 21, 1888.
[Office of the Association:—22 Albemaile Street, London, W’. |
#
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1887-88.
PRESIDENT.
SIR H. E. ROSCOE, M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P.C..8.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.,
His Grace the DuKE or DEVONSHIRE, K.G., M.A.,
LL.D., F.RB.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.
The Right Hon. the EARL or Derby, K.G., M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
The Right Rev. the Lorp BisHop oF MANCHES-
TER, D.D.
The Right Rev. the Lorp BIsHop oF SALFORD.
The Right Worshipful the Mayor oF Man-
) CHESTER.
The Right Worshipful the MAYOR OF SALFORD.
The Vick-CHANCELLOR of Victoria University,
Manchester.
The PRINCIPAL of the Owens colleges Manchester.
Sir WILLIAM RoBERTS, B.A., oa ., E.R.S. 4
THOMAS ASHTON, Esq., J.P., D.L.
OLIVER Hxrywoop, Esq., J. P., D.L.
JAMES PreEscoTtr JouLn, Esq., D.C.L.,*LL.D.,
E.B.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S,
PRESIDENT ELECT,
SIR FREDERICK J. BRAMWELL, D.C.L., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
The Right Hon. the Eart oF CorRK AND ORRERY,
K.P., Lord Lieutenant of Somerset.
The Most Noble the Marquis or BATH.
The Right Hon. and Right Rey. the LorD BIsHop
OF BATH AND WELLS, D.D.
The Right Rey. the BisHor oF CLIFTON.
The Right Worshipful the Mayor or BATH.
The Right Worshipful the MAyor oF BRISTOL.
Sir F. A. Apgt, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
The Venerable the ARCHDEACON OF BATH.
The mee LEONARD BLOMEFIELD, M.A., F.LS.,
GS.
Professor MicHarL Foster, M.A., M.D., LL.D.,
ec.R.S., F.L.S., F.C.S.
W.S. GorrE- LANGTON, Esq., J.P.
H. D. SKRInz, Esq., J.P.
Colonel R. P. Laurin, M.P.
E. R. WoDEHOUSE, Esq., M.P.
JEROM Morcu, Esq., J.P.
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT BATH.
W. PUMPHREY, Esq. |
J. L, STOTHERT, Esq. |
B. H. Watts, Esa.
LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING. AT BATH.
JOHN STONE, Esq.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
ABNEY, Capt. W. DE W., F.B.S.
BALL, Sir R. S., F.R.S.
Bariow, W. H., Esq., F.R.S.
BLANFORD, W. T., Esq., F.RB.S.
CROOKES, W., Esq., F.R.S.
Darwiy, Professor G. H., F.R.S.
DAWEINS, Professor W. Boyp, F.R.S.
De La Rog, Dr. WARREN, F.R.S.
Drwark, Professor J., F.R.S.
FLowWER, Professor W. H., F.R.S.
GLADSTONE, Dr. J. H., F.R.S.
GopWIN-AUSTEN, Lieut.-Col. H. H., F.R.S.
HENRICI, Professor O., F.R.S.
Jupp, Professor J. W., F.R.S.
M‘LEoD, Professor H., F.R.S.
Martw, J. B., Esq., F.S.8.
MOSELEY, Professor H. N., F.
OMMANNEY, Admiral Sir E,
ROBERTS-AUSTEN, Professor
ScHAFER, Professor E. A., F.R.S.
ScuustrER, Professor A., F.R.S.
SmpGwick, Professor H., M.A.
THISELTON-DyER, W. T.,
F.R.S.
THORPE, Professor T. E., F.R.S.
Woopwarp, Dr. H., F.R.S.
B.S.
C.B., F.R.S.
W.C., F.R.S.
Esq., C.M.G.,
GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Capt. Sir DoveLas GALTON, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 12 Chester Street, London, S.W.
A. G. VERNON Harcourt, Esq., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Cowley Grange, Oxford.
SECRETARY.
ARTHUR T. ATCHISON, Esq., M.A., 22 Albemarle Street, London, W.
GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor A. W. WILLIAMSON, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., University College, London, W.C.
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and
Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).
Sir Jonn Luseock, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Pres. LS.
The Right Hon. Lord RayLeEIcH, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec. R.S., F.R.A.S.
The Right Hon. Sir Lyon Puayratrr, K.C.B., M.P., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
. PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.
The Duke of Devonshire, K.G. Prof. Stokes, D.C.L., Pres. B.S. | Sir A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S.
Sir G. B. Airy, K.C.B., F.R.S. Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S.
The Duke of Argyll, K.G., K.T. Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson, LL.D. | Prof. Cayley, LL. D., E.RS.
Sir Richard Owen, K.C.B., F.R.S. | Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S. | Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., c. B.S.
Lord Armstrong, C.B., LL.D. Prof. Tyndall, D.C.L., F.R.S. Sir Lyon Playfair, fe
Sir William R. Grove, F.R.S. Sir John Hawkshaw, F.R.S. | Sir Wm. Dawson, “G., FVR.S.
Sir Joseph D. Hooker, K.C.S.I. Prof. Allman, M.D., F.R.S. |
GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.
F. Galton, Esq., F.R.S. Dr. Michael Foster, Sec. R.S. P. L. Sclater, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S.
Dr.T. A. Hirst, F.R.S. George Griffith, Esq., M.A., F.C.S.{ Prof. Bonney, D.Sc., F.R.S.
AUDITORS.
| W. H. Preece, Esq., F.R.S.
A2
Dr, W. H. Perkin, F.R.S. | Prof. W. G. Adams, F.R,S
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LIST OF MEMBERS
OF THE
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE. .
1887.
indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report.
indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Annual Report,
indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names without any mark before them are Life Members not entitled
to the Annual Report.
Names of Members of the GENERAL COMMITTEE are printed in
SMALL CAPITALS. :
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known
are in italics.
++ %
Notice of changes of residence should be sent to the Secretary, 22 Albemarle
Street, London, W.
Election.
Abbatt, Richard, F.R.A.S. Marlborough House, Burgess Hill,
Sussex. '
1887. *Abbe, Cleveland. Weather Bureau, Army Signal Office, Washing-
ton, U.S.A.
1881. *Abbott, R. T. G. Quarry Cottage, Norton, Malton,
1887, §Abbott,T. C. Eastleigh, Queen’s-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.
1863. *Apet, Sir Freperick Avevustus, C.B., D.C.L., F.RS., F.CS.,
Director of the Chemical Establishment of the War Department,
Royal Arsenal, Woolwich. ~
1856. tAbercrombie, John, M.D. 39 Welbeck-street, London, W.
1886. §Abercromby, The Hon. Ralph, F.R.Met.Soc. 21 Chapel-street,
Belgrave-square, London, 8. W.
1885. *ABERDEEN, The Right Hon. the Earl of, LL.D. 37 Grosyenor-
square, London, W. :
1885. tAberdeen, The Countess of. 37 Grosyenor-square, London, W.
1885. {Abernethy, David W. Ferryhill Cottage, Aberdeen.
1863. *AsERNETHY, James, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. 4 Delahay-street, West-
minster, S. W.
1885. tAbernethy, James W. 2 Rubislaw-place, Aberdeen.
1873. *Apnuy, Captain W. pr W.,R.E., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. Willeslie
House, Wetherby-road, South Kensington, London, 8. W.
G LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1886. §Abraham, Harry. 147 High-street, Southampton.
1877. tAce, Rev. Daniel, D.D., F.R.A.S. Laughton, near Gainsborough,
Lincolnshire.
1884. {Achison, George. Collegiate Institute, Toronto, Canada.
1873, tAckroyd, Samuel. Greaves-street, Little Horton, Bradford, York-
shire.
1882. *Acland, Alfred Dyke. Oxford.
1869. tAcland, Charles T. D., M.P. Sprydoncote, Exeter.
1877. *Acland, Captain Francis E. Dyke, R.A. School of Gunnery, Shoe-
buryness.
1873. *Acland, Rev. H. D.,M.A. Nymet St. George, South Molton, Devon.
1873. *Actanp, Sir Henry W. D., K.C.B., M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S., Radcliffe Librarian and Regius Professor of Medicine
in the University of Oxford. Broad-street, Oxford.
1877, *Acland, Theodore Dyke, M.A. 7 Brook-street, London, W.
1860. {ActAND, Sir Tuomas Dyxz, Bart., M.A., D.C.L., M.P. Sprydon-
cote, Exeter; and Athenzeum Club, London, S.W.
1887. §Apami, J.G., B.A. New Museums, Cambridge.
1884. {Adams, Frank Donovan. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.
1876. tAdams, James. 9 Royal-crescent West, Glasgow.
*Apams, Joun Covcu, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of
the Observatory and Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and
Geometry in the University of Cambridge. The Observatory,
Cambridge.
1871. §Adams, John R. 35 Queen’s-gate-terrace, London, 8. W.
1879. *Apams, Rey. Toomas, M.A., Principal of Bishop’s College, Lennox-
ville, Canada.
1877. {ApAms, WixLIAM, 3 Sussex-terrace, Plymouth.
1869, *ApAms, Wixt1t1amM Gryrtts, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S.,F.C.P.8., Professor
of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in King’s College, London.
43 Notting Hill-square, London, W.
1873. {Adams-Acton, John. Margutta House, 103 Marylebone-road,
London, N.W.
1887. §Adamson, Daniel, The Towers, Didsbury, Manchester.
1879. {Adamson, Robert, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Logie and Political
Economy in Owens College, Manchester. 1 Derby-road,
Fallowfield, Manchester.
1887. §Adamson, Samuel A., F.G.S. 52 Wellclose-terrace, Leeds.
1865. *Adkins, Henry. Northfield, near Birmingham.
1883. §Adshead, Samuel. School of Science, Macclesfield.
1884, {Agnew, Cornelius R. 266 Maddison-avenue, New York, U.S.A.
1887. §Agnew, William. Summer Hill, Pendleton, Manchester.
1884, tAikins, Dr. W. T. Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada.
1864. *Ainsworth, David. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.
1871. *Ainsworth, John Stirling. Harecroft, Cumberland.
1871. {Ainsworth, William M. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.
Arry, Sir Groner Bropett, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S. The White House, Croom’s Hill, Greenwich, S.E.
1871. §Aitken, John, F.R.S.E. Darroch, Falkirk, N.B.
Aitken, Thomas, Ashfield, Fallowfield, Manchester.
Akroyd, Edward. Bankfield, Halifax.
1884. *Alabaster, H. 22 Paternoster-row, London, H.C.
1886. *Albright,G.S. The Elms, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1862. {Ancock, Sir Rurmerrorp, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.G.S. The Athe-
neum Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W.
1861. *Alcock, Thomas, M.D. Oakfield, Sale, Manchester,
*Aldam, William. Frickley Hall, near Doncaster.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 7
Year of
Blection.
1887. §Alexander, B. Fernlea, Fallowfield, Manchester.
1883. ¢Alexander, George. Kildare-street Club, Dublin.
1873.
1858.
1883.
1883.
1885.
1867.
1859.
1885.
1871.
1871.
1887.
1879.
1887.
1884.
1887.
1878.
1861.
1887.
1863.
1887.
1886.
1887.
1878.
1883.
1883.
1884,
1876.
1878.
1885.
1850.
1885.
1885.
1874.
1859.
1887.
1880.
1886.
1880.
1883.
1880.
1886.
1883.
1877.
1886.
1886.
1878.
1868.
1886.
tAlexander, Reginald, M.D. 18 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
ALEXANDER, Witt1AM, M.D. Halifax.
tAlger, Miss Ethel. Widey Court, near Plymouth.
§Alger, W. H. Widey Court, near Plymouth.
tAlger, Mrs. W. H. Widey Court, near Plymouth.
{Alison, George L. C. Dundee.
tAllan, Alexander. Scottish Central Railway, Perth.
+Allan, David. West Cults, near Aberdeen.
+Allan, G., M.Inst.C.E. 10 Austin Friars, London, E.C.
§ALLEN, Atrrep H., F.0.8. 67 Surrey-street, Sheffield.
*Allen, Arthur Ackland. Overbrook, Kersal, Manchester.
*Allen, Rev. A. J.C. The College, Chester.
*Allen, Charles Peter. Overbrook, Kersal, Manchester.
§ Allen, Rev. George. Shaw Vicarage, Oldham.
§Allen, John. Kilgrimol School, St. Anne’s-on-the-Sea, via Preston.
tAllen, John Romilly. 5 Albert-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
NAVE
tAllen, Richard. Didsbury, near Manchester.
*Allen, Russell. 2 Parkwood, Victoria Park, Manchester.
tAllhusen, ©. Elswick Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Attuan, GzorcE J., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.L. & E., MRA. F.LS.,
Emeritus Professor of Natural History in the University of
Edinburgh. Ardmore, Parkstone, Dorset.
*Allnutt, J. W. F., B.A. 12 Chapel-row, Portsea, Hants.
{Allport, Samuel. 50 Whitall-street, Birmingham.
§Alward, G. L. 11 Hamilton-street, Grimsby, Yorkshire.
tAmbler, John. North Park-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
§Amery, John Sparke. Druid House, Ashburton, Devon.
§Amery, Peter Fabyan Sparke. Druid House, Ashburton, Devon.
tAmi, Henry. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.
{Anderson, Alexander. 1 St. James’s-place, Hillhead, Glasgow.
tAnderson, Beresford. Saint Ville, Killiney.
{Anderson, Charles Clinton. 4 Knaresborough-place, Cromwell-
road, London, S.W.
{Anderson, Charles William. Cleadon, South Shields.
tAnderson, Miss Constance. 17 Stonegate, York.
*Anderson, Hugh Kerr. Frognal Park, Hampstead, London, N.W.
{Anderson, John, J.P., F.G.S. Holywood, Belfast.
{Anpgrson, Patrick. 15 King-street, Dundee.
§ Anderson, Professor R. J., M.D. Queen’s College, Galway.
*AnperRson, Tempest, M.D., B.Sc. 17 Stonegate, York.
*Anderson, William, M.Inst.C.E. Lesney House, Erith, Kent.
tAndrew, Mrs. 126 Jamaica-street, Stepney, London, E.
{Andrew, Thomas, F.G.8. 18 Southernhay, Exeter.
*Andrews, Thornton, M.Inst.C.E. Cefn Eithen, Swansea.
§Andrews, William. Gosford Green, Coventry.
§Anelay, Miss M. Mabel. Girton College, Cambridge.
§ANGELL, Joun, F.C.S. The Grammar School, Manchester.
§Annan, John. Wolverhampton.
tAnsell, Joseph. 38 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
{Anson, Frederick H. 9 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.
Anthony, John, M.D, 6 Greentield-crescent, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.
{ Appleby, C. J. Emerson-street, Bankside, Southwark, London, S.E.
§Arblaster, Edmund, M.A. The Grammar School, Carlisle.
8
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1884.
1870.
1874.
1884.
1851.
1884.
1883.
1885.
1887.
1861.
1867.
1857.
1879.
1886.
1875.
tArchhbold, George. Oswego, New York, U.S.A.
tArcher, Francis, jun. 3 Brunswick-street, Liverpool.
tArcher, William, F.R.S., M.R.I.A. 11 South Frederick-street,
Dublin.
*Archibald, E. Douglas. Grosvenor House, Tunbridge Wells.
tAreytt, His Grace the Duke of, K.G., K.T., D.C.L., F.R.S. L. & E.,
F.G.5. Argyll Lodge, Kensington, London, W. ; and Inyerary,
Argyleshire.
§Arlidge, John Thomas, M.D., B.A. The High Grove, Stoke-upon-
Trent.
§Armistead, Richard. Wharncliffe House, Beaufort-road, Brooklands,
near Manchester.
*Armistead, William. 15 Rupert-street, Compton-road, Wolver-
hampton.
§Armitage, Benjamin. Chomlea, Pendleton, Manchester.
tArmitage, William. 95 Portland-street, Manchester.
*Armitstead, George. Errol Park, Errol, N.B.
*ArmstronG, The Right Hon. Lord, C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S-
Jesmond Dene, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Armstrong, Sir Alexander, K.C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
The Albany, London, W.
§Armstrong, George Frederick, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Regius Pro-
fessor of Engineering in the University of Edinburgh. The
University, Edinburgh.
§Armstronc, Henry E., Ph.D., F.R.S., Sec.C0.8., Professor of
Chemistry in the City and Guilds of London Institute Centra!
Institution, Exhibition-road, London, 8.W. 55 Granville
Park, Lewisham, 8.E.
. {Armstrong, James. Bay Ridge, Long Island, New York, U.S.A.
. tArmstrong, Robert B. Junior Carlton Club, Pall Mall, London,
S.W.
Armstrong, Thomas. Higher Broughton, Manchester.
. tArnott, Thomas Reid. Bramshill, Harlesden Green, London, N.W.
. *Arthur, Rev. William, M.A. Clapham Common, London, 8.W.
. {Ascough, Jesse. Patent Borax Company, Newmarket-street, Bir-
mingham.
. *Ash, Dr. T. Linnington. Holsworthy, North Devon.
. tAshe, Isaac, M.B. Dundrum, Co. Dublin.
. *Asher, Asher, M.D. 18 Endsleigh-street, Tavistock-square,
London, W.C.
. tAshton, John. Gorse Bank House, Windsor-road, Oldham.
Asuton, THomas, J.P. Ford Bank, Didsbury, Manchester.
. §Ashton, Thomas Gair, M.A. 36 Charlotte-street, Manchester.
. tAshwell, Henry. Woodthorpe, Nottingham.
*Ashworth, Edmund. Egerton Hall, Bolton-le-Moors.
. §Ashworth, Mrs. Harriet. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor, near Stock-
ort.
Ashworth, Henry. Turton, near Bolton.
. §Ashworth, John Wallwork. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor, near
Stockport.
. §Aspland, Arthur P. Werneth Lodge, Gee Cross, near Manchester.
. *Aspland, W. Gaskell. Care of Manager, Union Bank, Chancery-
lane, London, W.C.
. §Asquith, J. R. Infirmary-street, Leeds.
. tAston, Theodore. 11 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
. *Arcutson, ArntHUR T., M.A. (Sucrerary.) 22 Albemarle-street.
London, W.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 9
Year of
Election, ;
1858. { Atherton, Charles. Sandover, Isle of Wight.
1865. *Arkinson, Epuunp, Ph.D., F.C.S. Portesbery Hill, Camberley,
Surrey.
1884, { Atkinson, Hewat. Brookline, Massachusetts, Boston, U.S.A.
1863. *Atkinson, G. Clayton. 21 Windsor-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1887. §Atkinson, Rey. G. C. Goresfield, Ashton-on-Mersey.
1861. {Atkinson, Rev. J. A. Longsight Rectory, near Manchester.
1858. *Atkinson, John Hastings.. 12 East Parade, Leeds.
1881. {Atkinson, J.T. The Quay, Selby, Yorkshire.
1881. {Atkinson, Robert William. Town Hall-buildings, Neweastle-on-
ne.
1863. Seatennat Professor J.,M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Bloomsbury-
square, London, W.C.
1884, tAuchincloss, W.S. 209 Church-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.
1886. §Aulton, A. D., M.D. Walsall.
1860. *Austin-Gourlay, Rey. William E.C., M.A. The Rectory, Stanton
St. John, near Oxford.
1865. *Avery, Thomas. Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1881. {Axon, W. E. A. Fern Bank, Higher Broughton, Manchester,
1877. *Ayrton, W. E., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Physics in the City
and Guilds of London Institute Central Institution, Exhibition-
road, London, 8. W.
_ “BaBrneTon, CHARLES CarDaLe, M.A., F.R.S., E.L.S., F.G.S., Pro-
1884.
1863.
1883.
1887.
1887.
1881.
1877.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1870.
1887.
1878.
1865.
1855.
1887.
1866,
1878.
1857.
1885.
1873.
1885.
fessor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. 5 Brookside,
Cambridge.
{Baby, The Hon. G. Montreal, Canada.
Backhouse, Edmund. Darlington.
{Backhouse, T. W. West Hendon House, Sunderland.
“Backhouse, W. A. St. John’s Wolsingham, near Darlington.
“Bacon, Thomas Walter. 4 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead, London, N. W.
§Baddeley, John. 1 Charlotte-street, Manchester.
{Baden-Powell, Sir George S., C.M.G., M.A., M.P., F.R.AAS., F.S,8.
8 St. George’s-place, Hyde Park, London, 8. W.
{Badock, W. F. Badminton House, Clifton Park, Bristol.
{Bagrual, P. H. St. Stephen’s Club, Westminster, S.W.
{Baildon, Dr. 65 Manchester-road, Southport.
“Bailey, Charles, F.L.S, Ashfield, College-road, Whalley Lange,
Manchester.
§Bailey, Dr. Francis J. 51 Groye-street, Liverpool.
“Bailey, G. H., D.Se., Ph.D. Owens College, Manchester.
{Bailey, John. The Laurels, Wittington, near Hereford.
{Bailey, Samuel, F.G.S. The Peck, Walsall.
{Bailey, William. Horseley Fields Chemical Works, Wolver-
hampton.
§ Bailey, W. H. Summerfield, Eccles Old-road, Manchester.
{Baillon, Andrew. British Consulate, Brest.
{Baily, Walter. 176 Havyerstock-hill, London, N.W.
{Barty, Witr1aM Herrimr, F.L.S., F.G.S., Acting Palzontolocist to
the Geological Survey of Ireland. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
tBary, AtexanpER, M.A., LL.D., Rector of the University of
Aberdeen. Ferryhill Lodge, Aberdeen.
{Bain, Sir James, 8 Park-terrace, Glasgow.
§Bain, William N. Collingwood, Pollockshiels, Glasgow.
*Bainbridge, Robert Walton. 2 Stoke-villas, Exeter,
“Barnts, Sir Epwarp, J.P. Belgrave-mansions, Grosvenor-gardens,
London, 8.W. ; and St. Ann’s Hill, Burley, Leeds.
10
Year
LIST OF MEMBERS.
of
Election.
1858. {Baines Frederick. Burley, near Leeds.
1858.
1882.
1866.
1886.
1861.
1881.
1865.
1865.
1875.
1875.
1881,
1884.
1871.
1875.
{Baines, T. Blackburn. ‘ Mercury’ Office, Leeds.
“Baker, BensaMin, M.Inst.0.E, 2 Queen Square-place, West-
minster, 8. W.
{Baker, Francis B. Sherwood-street, Nottingham.
§Baker, Harry. 262 Plymouth-grove, Manchester.
*Baker, John. The Gables, Buxton.
{Baker, Robert, M.D. The Retreat, York.
{Baker, Robert L. Barham House, Leamington.
{tBaker, William. 6 Taptonville, Sheffield.
*Baker, W. Mills. The Holmes, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.
{BaxeEr, W. Proctor. Brislington, Bristol.
{Baldwin, Rey. G. W. de Courcy, M.A. Lord Mayor’s Walk.
York.
{Balete, Professor E. Polytechnic School, Montreal, Canada.
{Balfour,G. W. Whittinghame, Prestonkirk, Scotland.
{Barrovr, Isaac Baytey, D.Sc., M.D., F.R.S.L. & E., Professor of
Botany in the University of Oxford. Fairacres, Oxford.
1883, {Balfour, Mrs. I. Bayley. Fairacres, Oxford.
1878. *Ball, Charles Bent, M.D. 16 Lower Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin.
1835, *Batt, Joun, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., M.R.LA. 10 Southwell-cardens
’
South Kensington, London, S.W.
1866. *Batt, Sir Roperr Srawett, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
Andrews Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin,
and Astronomer Royal for Ireland. The Observatory, Dunsink,
Co. Dublin.
. {Batt, Varentrnn, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of the Museum
of Science and Art, Dublin.
1883. *Ball, W. W. Rouse, M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
. §Ballantyne, J. W., M.B. 50 Queen-street, Edinburgh.
. Ballon, Dr. Naham. Sandwich, Illinois, U.S.A.
. }Bamber, Henry K., F.C.S. 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-
street, Westminster, 8S. W. j
. {Bance, Major Edward. Limewood, The Avenue, Southampton.
. {Bangor, Viscount. Castleward, Co. Down, Ireland.
. {Banham, H. French. Mount View, Glossop-road, Sheffield.
. {Bantsrer, Rev. Wittiam, B.A. St. James’s Mount, Liverpool.
. {Bannatyne, Hon. A.G. Winnipeg, Canada.
. [Barbeau, E. J. Montreal, Canada.
. {Barber, John. Long-row, Nottingham.
. [Barber, Rev. S. F. West Raynham Rectory, Swaffham, Nor-
folk.
. *Barbour, George. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Chester.
. {Barbour, George F. 11 George-square, Edinburgh.
. [Barclay, Andrew. Kilmarnock, Scotland.
. TBarclay, George. 17 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.
. *Barclay, J. Gurney. 54 Lombard-street, London, E.C.
. *Barclay, Robert. High Leigh, Hoddesden, Herts.
. *Barclay, Robert. 21 Park-terrace, Glasgow.
. *Barclay, Robert. Springfield, Kersal, Manchester.
. {Barclay, Thomas. 17 Bull-street, Birmingham.
. *Barclay, W. L. 54 Lombard-street, London, E.C.
. {Barfoot, William, J.P. Whelford-place, Leicester.
. {Barford, J.G. Above Bar, Southampton.
- “Barford, James Gale, F.C.S. Wellington College, Wokingham,
Berkshire.
. [Barham, F. F. Bank of England, Birmingham.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 11
Year of
Election.
1860. *Barker, Rev. Arthur Alcock, B.D. East Bridgford Rectory
Nottingham.
1879. { Barker, Elliott. 2 High-street, Shefiield.
1882. *Barker, Miss J. M. Hexham House, Hexham.
1879. *Barker, Rey. Philip C., M.A., LL.B, North Petherton, Bridg-
water.
1865. {Barker, Stephen. 30 Frederick-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1870. {Barxzy, Sir Henry, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 1 Bina-
gardens, South Kensington, London, S.W.
1886. {Barling, Gilbert. 85 Edmund-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1875. tBarlow, Crawford, B.A. 2 Old Palace-yard, Westminster, S.W.
1883. {Barlow, J.J. 537 Park-street, Southport.
1878. {Barlow, John, M.D., Professor of Physiology in And@erson’s Col-
lege, Glasgow.
1883. {Barlow, John R. Greenthorne, near Bolton.
Barlow, Lieut.-Col. Maurice (14th Regt. of Foot). 5 Great George-
street, Dublin.
1885. {Barlow, William. Hillfield, Muswell Hill, London, N.
1873. {Bartow, Wirtiam Henry, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 2 Old Palace-
yard, Westminster, 8. W.
1861. *Barnard, Major R. Cary, F.L.S. Bartlow, Leckhampton, Chelten-
am.
1881. {Barnard, William, LL.B. Harlow, Essex.
1868. §Barnes, Richard H. Heatherlands, Parkstone, Dorset.
1884, §Barnett, J. D. Port Hope, Ontario, Canada.
1886. {Barnsley, Charles H. 32 Duchess-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1881. {Barr, Archibald, B.Sc., Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineer-
ing in the Yorkshire College, Leeds.
1859. {Barr, Lieut.-General. Apsleytoun, East Grinstead, Sussex.
1883. {Barrett, John Chalk. Errismore, Birkdale, Southport.
1883. {Barrett, Mrs. J.C. Enrismore, Birkdale, Southport.
1860. {Barrett, T. B. 20 Victoria-terrace, Welshpool, Montgomery.
1872. *Barrert, W. F., F.R.S.E., M.R.LA., Professor of Physics in the
Royal College of Science, Dublin.
1883. {Barrett, William Scott. Winton Lodge, Crosby, near Liverpool.
1887. §Barrington, Miss Amy. Centre School, West Grove, Darlington.
1874, *Barrineton, R. M., M.A., LL.B., F.L.S. Fassaroe, Bray, Co.
Wicklow.
1874. *Barrington-Ward, Mark J., M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., H.M. Inspector
of Schools. Thorneloe Lodge, Worcester.
1885. *Barron, Frederick Cadogan, M.Inst.C.E. Nervion, Beckenham-
grove, Shortlands, Kent.
1881. §Barron, G. B., M.D. Summerseat, Southport.
1866. {Barron, William. Elvaston Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby.
1886. §Barrow, George William. Baldraud, Lancaster.
1887. §Barrow, John. Beechfield, Folly-lane, Swinton, Manchester.
1886. {Barrow, Richard Bradbury. Lawn House, 13 Ompton-road, Edg-
baston, Birmingham.
1886, {Barrows, Joseph. The Poplars, Yardley, near Birmingham.
1886. {Barrows, Joseph, jun. Ferndale, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.
1862. *Barry, CHARLES. 15 Pembridge-square, London, W.
1883. {Barry, Charles E. 15 Pembridge-square, London, W.
1875. {Barry, John Wolfe. 23 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.
1881. {Barry, J. W. Duncombe-place, York.
1884, *Barstow, Miss Frances. Garrow Hill, near York.
1858. *Bartholomew, Charles. Castle Hill House, Ealing, Middlesex, W.
,
12
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1858
1884.
1878.
1884,
1852.
1887.
1882.
1876.
1876,
1866.
1869.
1871.
1848,
1883.
1873.
1868.
1842.
1864.
1852.
1884,
1851.
1881.
1856.
1869,
1863.
1867.
1867.
1868,
1875.
1876.
1887.
1887.
1883.
1886.
1886.
1860.
1882.
1884,
1872.
*Bartholomew, William Hamond. Ridgeway House,Cumberland-road,
Headingley, Leeds.
{Bartlett, James Herbert. 148 Mansfield-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Bartley, George C. T., M.P. St. Margaret’s House, Victoria-street,
London, 8. W.
{Barton, H. M. Foster-place, Dublin.
tBarton, James. Farndreg, Dundalk.
§Bartrum, John 8. 18 Gay-street, Bath.
*Bashforth, Rey. Francis, B.D. Minting Vicarage, near Horncastle.
*Basine, The Right Hon, Lord, F.R.S. 74 St. George’s-square,
London, 8. W.
{Bassano, Alexander. 12 Montagu-place, London, W.
tBassamo, Clement. Jesus College, Cambridge.
*BassErt, Henry. 26 Belitha-villas, Barnsbury, London, N.
tBastard, 8.8. Summerland-place, Exeter.
tBasrian, H. Cuartron, M.D., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S.. 20 Queen
Anne-street, London, W.
{Bars, C. Spence, F.R.S., F.L.S. 8 Mulgrave-place, Plymouth.
{Bateman, A. EK. Board of Trade, London, 8.W.
*Bateman, Daniel. Wissahickon, Philadelphia, U.S.A.
{Bateman, Frederick, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
Bateman, James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Home House,
Worthing.
*BATEMAN, JOHN Freprric La Tross, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.,
M.Inst.C.H. 16 Great George-street, London, S.W.
{Bares, Henry Water, F.R.S., F.L.S., Assist.-Sec. R.G.S. 1 Savile-
row, London, W.
{Bateson, Sir Robert, Bart. Belvoir Park, Belfast.
{Bateson, William, B.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
{Bara anp WELLS, The Right Rey. Lord AnrHur Hervey, Lord
Bishop of, D.D. The Palace, Wells, Somerset.
*Bather, Francis Arthur, M.A., F.G.S. 20 Campden Hill-road,
Kensington, London, W.
{Batten, Edmund Chisholm. 25 Thurloe-square, London, S.W.
{ Batten, John Winterbotham. 35 Palace Gardens-terrace, Kensington,
London, W.
§BavERMAN, H., F.G.S. 41 Acre-lane, Brixton, London, 8. W.
tBaxter, Hdward. Hazel Hall, Dundee.
{Baxter, The Right Hon. William Edward, M.P. Ashcliffe, Dundee.
{Bayes, William, M.D. 58 Brook-street, London, W.
Bayly, John. Seven Trees, Plymouth.
*Bayly, Robert. Torr-grove, near Plymouth.
*Baynes, Ropert H., M.A. 14 Bradmore-road, Oxford.
*Baynes, Mrs. R. KE, 14 Bradmore-road, Oxford.
§Baynton, Alfred. 28 Gilda Brook Park, Eccles, Manchester.
*Bazley, Gardner. Hatherop Castle, Fairford, Gloucestershire.
Bazley, Sir Thomas Sebastian, Bart., M.A. Hatherop Castle,
Fairford, Gloucestershire.
§Beale,C. Lime Tree House, Rowley Regis, Dudley.
{Beale, Charles G. Maple Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
“Beate, Lionget 8., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of the Principles and
Practice of Medicine in King’s College, London. 61 Grosvenor-
street, London, W.
§Beamish, Major A. W., R.E. 28 Grosyenor-road, London, 8.W.
{Beamish, G. H. M. Prison, Liverpool.
{Beanes, Edward, F.C.S. Moatlands, Paddock Wood, Brenchley,
Kent.
LIST OF MEMBERS.
ed
Co
Year of
Election.
1870.
1883.
1887.
1842.
1855.
1886.
1861.
1887.
1885.
1871.
1859,
1864,
1887.
1860.
1885.
1866,
1870.
1858.
1878.
1884.
1873.
1874,
1873.
1871.
1884.
1860.
1880.
1862.
1875.
1871.
1883.
1853.
1864.
1876.
1863.
1867.
1882.
1842.
1882,
1884,
1886,
{Beard, gs Charles, 13 South-hill-road, Toxteth Park, Liver-
ool.
{Beard, Mrs. 18 South-hill-road, Toxteth Park, Liverpool.
§Beaton, John, M.A. 219 Upper Brook-street, Chorlton-on-Medlock,
Manchester. ;
*Beatson, William. Ash Mount, Rotherham.
*Beaufort, W. Morris, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.M.S., F.S.S. 18 Picea-
dilly, London, W.
{Beaugrand, M.H. Montreal.
*Beaumont, Rey. Thomas George. Chelmondiston Rectory, Ipswich.
*Beaumont, W. J. Angel Hotel, Knutsford.
§Beaumont, W. W. 163 Strand, London, W.C.
*Beazley, Lieut.-Colonel George G. 74 Redcliffe-square, London,
S.W
*Beck, Joseph, F.R.A.S. 68 Cornhill, London, E.C.
§Becker, Miss Lydia E. 155 Shrewsbury-street, Whalley Range,
Manchester.
*Beckett, John Hampden. Wilmslow Park, Wilmslow, Manchester.
ee SamvueEt H., F.R.S., F.G.S. 9 Grand-parade, St. Leonard’s-
on-Sea.
§BepparpD, Frank E., M.A., F.Z.8., Prosector to the Zoological
Society of London. Society’s Gardens, Regent’s Park, London,
N.W.
tBeddard, James. Derby-road, Nottingham.
§Beppog, Jonny, M.D., F.R.S. Clifton, Bristol.
TBedford, James. Woodhouse Cliff, near Leeds.
{Bepson, P. Putres, D.Sc., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
College of Physical Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{Beers, W.G., M.D. 34 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada.
{Behrens, Jacob. Springfield House North-parade, Bradford, York-
shire.
{Belcher, Richard Boswell. Blockley, Worcestershire.
TBell, Asahel P. 32 St. Anne’s-street, Manchester.
§Bell, Charles B. 6 Spring-bank, Hull.
{Bell, Charles Napier. Winnipeg, Canada.
Bell, Frederick John. Woodlands, near Maldon, Essex.
{Bell, Rev. George Charles, M.A. Marlborough College, Wilts.
{Bell, Henry Oswin. 13 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth.
*BetL, Sir Isaac Lowruran, Bart., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.Inst.C.2.
Rounton Grange, Northallerton.
tBell, James, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. The Laboratory, Somerset
House, London, W.C.
“Bert, J. Carter, F.C.S. Bankfield, The Cliff, Higher Broughton,
Manchester.
*Bell, John Henry. Dalton Lees, Huddersfield.
{Bell, John Pearson, M.D. Waverley House, Hull.
tBell, R. Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada.
{Bell, R. Bruce, M.Inst.C.E. 203 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
*Bell, Thomas. Oakwood, Epping.
{Bell, Thomas. Belmont, Dundee.
tBell, W. Alevander, B.A. 3 Madeira-terrace, Kemp Town, Brighton.
Bellhouse, Edward Taylor. Eagle Foundry, Manchester.
Bellingham, Sir Alan. Castle Bellingham, Ireland. ,
tBellingham, William. 15 Killieser-ayenue, Telford Park, Streat-
ham Hill, London, S.W.
tBemrose, Joseph. 15 Plateau-street, Montreal, Canada.
§Benger, Frederick Baden. 7 Exchange-street, Manchester,
‘
14 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1885. §Bennam, Wiit1aAmM Braxtanp, D.Sc. 34 Belsize-road, London,
NeW.
1870, {Bennerr, Atrrep W., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. 6 Park Village East,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
1836. §Bennett, Henry. Bedminster, Bristol.
1887. §Bennett, James M. St. Mungo Chemical Company, Ruckhill, Glas-
Ow.
1881. sBennett, John R. 16 West Park, Clifton, Bristol.
1883. *Bennett, Laurence Henry. Bedminster, Bristol.
1881. {Bennett, Rey. S. H., M.A. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Bishophill Junior,
York.
1870. *Bennett, William. Heysham Tower, Lancaster.
1870. *Bennett, William. Oak Hill Park, Old Swan, near Liverpool.
1887. §Bennion, James A., M.A. 1 St. James’-square, Manchester.
1852. *Bennoch, Francis, F.S.A. 5 Tavistock-square, London, W.C.
1848. {Benson, Starling, F.G.S. Gloucester-place, Swansea.
1870. t{Benson, W. Alresford, Hants.
1863. {Benson, William. Fourstones Court, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1885. *Bent, J. Theodore. 13 Great Cumberland-place, London, W.
1884. {Bentham, William. 724 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada
1842. Bentley John. 2 Portland-place, London, W.
1863. {BentLey, Rosert, F.L.S., Professor of Botany in King’s College,
London. 38 Penywern-road, Harl’s Court, London, S.W.
1886. {Benton, William Elijah. Littleworth House, Hednaford, Stafford-
shire.
1876. {Bergius, Walter C. 9 Loudon-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
1868. {Berxetey, Rev. M. J., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. Sibbertoft, Market
Harborough.
1863. {Berkley, C. Marley Hill, Gateshead, Durham.
1886. tBernard, W. L. 1 New-court, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
1887. §Berry, William. Harpurhey Cottage, Harpurhey, Manchester.
1870. {Berwick, George, M.D. 36 Fawcett-street, Sunderland.
1862. tBesant, William Henry, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. St. John’s College,
Cambridge.
1865. *Brssemer, Sir Henry, F.R.S. Denmark Hill, London, S.E.
1882. *Bessemer, Henry, jun. 5 Palace-gate, Kensington, London, W.
1858. {Best, William. Leydon-terrace, Leeds.
1883. {Betley, Ralph, F.G.S. Mining School, Wigan.
1876. *Bettany, G. T., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S., F.R.M.S. 33 Oakhurst-grove,
East Dulwich-road, London, 8.E.
1883. tBettany, Mrs. 35 Oakhurst-grove, East Dulwich-road, London, 8.E.
1880. *Bevan, Rey. James Oliver, M.A., F.G.S. The Vicarage, Vow-
church, Hereford.
1885. {Beveridge, R. Beath Villa, Ferryhill, Aberdeen,
1884. *Beverley, Michael, M.D. 52 St. Giles’-street, Norwich.
1874. *Bevineton, James B. Merle Wood, Sevenoaks.
1863. {Bewick, Thomas John, F.G.S. Suffolk House, Laurence Pountney
Hill, London, E.C.
1844, *Bickerdike, Rev. John, M.A. Shireshead Vicarage, Garstang.
1886, §Bickersteth, The Very Rev. E., D.D., Dean of Lichfield. The
Deanery, Lichfield.
1870. {Bickerton, A.W., F.C.S. Christchurch, Canterbury, New Zealand.
1885. *Bipwrett, SHEtrorp, M.A., LL.B., F.R.S. Riverstone Lodge,
Southfields, Wandsworth, Surrey, S.W.
1863. {Bigger, Benjamin. Gateshead, Durham.
1882. §Biggs, C. H. W., F.C.S. 1 Bloomfield, Bromley, Kent.
1864. {Biges, Robert. 16 Green Park, Bath.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 15
Election.
1886.
1887.
1884.
1881.
1879.
1873.
1880.
1866.
1887.
1871.
1868.
1888.
1885.
1886,
1877.
1884.
1881.
1869,
1834.
1876.
1884,
1877.
1859.
1876.
1855.
1884.
1883.
1884.
1878.
1883.
1865.
1886.
1849.
1883.
1846.
1878.
1886.
1861.
1887.
1881.
1884.
1869.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1884,
Bilton, Rey. William, M.A., F.G.S. United University Club, Suffolk-
street, London, 8S. W.
§Bindloss, G.F. Carnforth, Brondesbury Park, London, N.W.
*Bindloss, James B. Elm Bank, Eccles, Manchester.
*Bingham, John E. Electric Works, Sheffield.
{Binnie, Alexander R., F.G.S. Town Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Binns, EK. Knowles, F.R.G.8S. 216 Heavygate-road, Sheffield.
{Binns, J. Arthur. Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Bird, Henry, F.C.S. South Down, near Devonport.
*Birkin, Richard. Aspley Hall, near Nottingham.
*Birley, H. K. 18 Hyde-road, Ardwick, Manchester.
*Bischor, Gustav. 4 Hart-street, Bloomsbury, London, W.C.
{ Bishop, John. Thorpe Hamlet, Norwich.
§Bishop, John le Marchant. 100 Mosley-street, Manchester.
TBissett, J. P. Wyndem, Banchory, N.B.
*Bixby, Captain W. H. War Department, Washington, U.S.A.
{Buacurorp, The Right Hon. Lord, K.C.M.G. Cornwood, Ivybridge.
{Black, Francis, F.R.G.S. 6 North Bridge, Edinburgh.
§Black, Surgeon-Major William Galt, F.R.C.S.E. Caledonian United
Service Club, Edinburgh.
{Blackall, Thomas. 13 Southernhay, Exeter.
Blackburn, Bewicke. Calverley Park, Tunbridge Wells.
tBlackburn, Hugh, M.A. Roshyen, Fort William, N.B.
{Blackburn, Robert. New Edinburgh, Ontario, Canada.
Blackburne, Rey. John, M.A. Yarmouth, Isle of Wight.
Blackburne, Rey. John, jun., M.A. Rectory, Horton, near Chip-
enham.
tBlackie, J. Alexander. 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.
{Blackie, John Stewart, M.A., Professor of Greek in the University
of Edinburgh.
{Blackie, Robert. 7 Great Western-terrace, Glasgow.
*Buackiz, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S._ 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.
{Blacklock, Frederick W. 25 St. Famille-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Blacklock, Mrs. Sea View, Lord-street, Southport.
{Blaikie, James, M.A. 14 Viewforth-place, Edinburgh.
§Blair, Matthew. Oakshaw, Paisley.
§Blair, Mrs. Oakshaw, Paisley.
{Blake, Oe Carter, D.Sc. 27 Hastings-street, Burton-crescent, London,
WwW
{Blake, Dr. James. San Francisco, California.
*Brakn, Henry Wottaston, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 8 Devonshire-
place, Portland-place, London, W.
*BuakgE, Rey. J. F., M.A., F.G.8., Professor of Natural Science in
University College, Nottingham.
*Blake, William. Bridge House, South Petherton, Somerset.
{Blakeney, Rey. Canon, M.A., D.D. The Vicarage, Sheffield.
{Blakie, John. The Bridge House, Neweastle, Staffordshire.
§Blakiston, Matthew, F.R.G.S. Free Hills, Burledon, Hants.
§Blamires, George. Cleckheaton.
§Blamires, Thomas H. Close Hill, Lockwood, near Huddersfield.
*Blandy, William Charles, B.A. 1 Friar-street, Reading.
{BuanForp, W.T., LL.D., F.R.S., Sec.G.S., F.R.G.S. 72 Bedford-
gardens, Campden Hill, London, W.
*Bles, A. G.S. Moor End, Kersal, Manchester.
*Bles, Edward J. Moor End, Kersal, Manchester,
§Bles, Marcus S. The Beeches, Broughton Park, Manchester.
*Blish, William G. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.
16
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1869.
1880.
18858.
1870.
1859.
1859.
1885.
1883.
1887.
1867.
1870.
1887.
1884.
1871.
1887.
1881.
1876.
1885.
1885.
1871.
1866.
1861.
1883.
1883.
1876.
1883.
1876.
1882.
1876.
1881.
1867
1887.
1872
1868
1887
1871.
1884.
1876
1870.
1883
*BromErFIEtp, Rey. Leonarp, M.A., F.LS., F.G.S. 19 Belmont,
Bath.
§Bloxam, G. W., M.A., F.L.8. 11 Chalcot-crescent, Regent’s Park,
London, N.W.
{Blumberg, Dr. 65 Hoghton-street, Southport. -
{Blundell, Thomas Weld. Ince Blundell Hall, Great Crosby, Lan-
cashire.
{Blunt, Sir Charles, Bart. Heathfield Park, Sussex.
tBlunt, Captain Richard. Bretlands, Chertsey, Surrey.
§Bryra, James, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
Anderson’s College, Glasgow.
Blyth, B. Hall. 155 George-street, Edinburgh.
{Blyth, Miss Phebe. 3 South Mansion House-road, Edinburgh.
§Blythe, William S. 65 Mosley-street, Manchester.
{Blyth-Martin, W. Y. Blyth House, Newport, Fife.
{Boardman, Edward. Queen-street, Norwich.
*Boddington, Henry. Pownall Hall, Wilmslow, Manchester.
{Body, Rey. C. W. E., M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.
tBohn, Mrs. North End House, Twickenham.
*Boissevain, Gideon Maria. 4 Jesselschade-straat, Amsterdam.
{Bojanowski, Dr. Victor de. 27 Finsbury-circus, London, E.C.
tBolton, J. OC. _Carbrook, Stirling.
Bond, Henry John Hayes, M.D. Cambridge.
§Bonney, Frederic, F.R.G.S. Colton House, Rugeley, Stafford-
shire.
§Bonney, Miss S. 28 Denning-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.
*Bonnry, Rev. Tuomas GHORGE, D'Se;, LLD{ Ee Seb SA,
F.G.S., Professor of Geology in University College, London.
23 Denning-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.
tBooker, W. H. Cromwell-terrace, Nottingham.
{Booth, James. Elmfield, Rochdale.
§Booth, James. Hazelhurst House, Turton.
{Booth, Richard. 4 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, London,
Week
tBooth, Rev. William H. St. Germain’s-place, Blackheath, Londen,
S.E.
{Boothroyd, Benjamin. Rawlinson-road, Southport.
*Borland, William. 260 West George-street, Glasgow.
{Borns, Henry, Ph.D., F.C.S. Friedheim, Springfield-road, Wimble-
don, Surrey.
seacene H. M., M.A., F.C.S., F.R.A.S. St. John’s College,
xford.
*Bossey, Francis, M.D. Mayfield, Oxford-road, Redhill, Surrey.
§Bothamley, Charles H. Yorkshire College, Leeds.
§Botly, William, F.S.A. Salisbury House, Hamlet-road, Upper
Norwood, London, 8.E.
§Bott, Dr. Owens College, Manchester.
{Bottle, Alexander. Dover.
Bottle, J.T. 28 Nelson-road, Great Yarmouth,
§Bottomley, Dr. John. 220 Lower Broughton-road, Manchester.
*Borrominy, James Tomson, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 13 Univer-
sity-gardens, Glasgow.
*Bottomley, Mrs. 13 University-gardens, Glasgow.
Bottomley, William. 11 Delamere-street, London, W.
{Bottomley, William, jun. 6 Rokeley-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
{Boult, Swinton. 1 Dale-street, Liverpool.
§Bourdas, Isaiah. 59 Belgrave-road, London, S.W.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS, 17
Election.
1883,
1866.
1884.
1870.
1881.
1867.
1856.
1886.
1884.
1880.
1887.
1865.
1863.
1869.
1887.
1863.
1884,
1887.
1871.
1865.
1884,
1872.
1869.
1884.
1880.
1857.
1863.
1862.
1880.
1864.
1870,
1879.
1865.
1872.
1867.
1861.
1885,
1852.
1868.
1877.
1882.
1881.
tBovuryg, A. G., D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in the Presidency
College, Madras.
§ Bourne, STEPHEN, F.S.S. Abberley, Wallington, Surrey.
§Bovey, Henry T., M.A., Professor of Civil Engineering and
Applied Mechanics in McGill University, Montreal. Ontario-
avenue, Montreal, Canada.
tBower, Anthony. Bowersdale, Seaforth, Liverpool.
*Bownr, F. O., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the University of
Glasgow.
tBower, Dr. John. Perth.
*Bowlby, Miss F. E. 23 Lansdowne-parade, Cheltenham.
{Bowlby, Rev. Canon. 101 Newhall-street, Birmingham.
tBowley, Edwin. Burnt Ash Hill, Lee, Kent.
t{Bowly, Christopher. Cirencester.
§Bowly, Mrs. Christopher. Cirencester.
§Bowman, F. H., D.Se., F.R.S.E. Halifax, Yorkshire,
{Bowman, R. Benson. Neweastle-on-Tyne.
Bowman, Sir Wit11am, Bart., M.D., LL.D. F.RS., F.R.C.S.
5 Clifford-street, London, W.
{Bowring, Charles T. Elmsleigh, Prince’s-park, Liverpool.
§Box, Alfred M. Scissett, near Huddersfield.
{Boyd, Edward Fenwick. Moor House, near Durham,
“Boyd, M. A., M.D. 30 Merrion-square, Dublin.
§Boyd, Robert. Manor House, Didsbury, Manchester.
tBoyd, Thomas J. 41 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
tBortz, The Very Rey. G. D., M.A., Dean of Salisbury. The
Deanery, Salisbury.
“Boyle, R. Vicars, O.S.I. Care of Messrs, Grindlay & Co., 55
Parliament-street, London, S,W.
*BrABROOK, E, W., F.S.A. 28 Abingdon-street, Westminster, 8, W.
*Braby, Frederick, F.G.S., F.C.S. Bushey Lodge, Teddington,
Middlesex.
*Brace, W. H., M.D. 7 Queen’s Gate-terrace, London, S.W.
tBradford, H. Stretton House, Walters-road, Swansea.
*Brady, Cheyne, M.R.I.A. Trinity Vicarage, West Bromwich.
{Brapy, Grorez S§., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Natural
History in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
2 Mowbray-villas, Sunderland.
tBrapy, Henry Bowman, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 5 Robert-street,
Adelphi, London, W.C.
*Brady, Rev. Nicholas, M.A. Rainham Hall, Rainham, Romford,
Essex, E.
§Branam, Purrip, F.C.S. Bath.
tBraidwood, Dr. 35 Park-road South, Birkenhead.
{Bramley, Herbert. Claremont-crescent, Sheffield.
§BraMweLL, Sir FRepERIcK J., D.C.L., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Prusi-
DENT Execr). 5 Great George-street, London, S.W.
{Bramwell, William J. 17 Prince Albert-street, Brighton.
{Brand, William. Milnefield, Dundee.
*Brandreth, Rev. Henry. Dickleburgh Rectory, Scole, Norfolk.
*Bratby, W. Pott-street, Ancoats, Manchester.
tBrazier, James S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in Marischal
College and University of Aberdeen.
{Bremridge, Elias. 17 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C.
tBrent, Francis. 19 Clarendon-place, Plymouth.
*Bretherton, C. E. 1 Garden-court, Temple, London, E.C.
*Brett, Alfred Thomas, M.D. Watford House, Watford.
B
18 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1866. {Brettell, Thomas (Mine Agent), Dudley.
1875. {Briant, T. Hampton Wick, Kingston-on-Thames.
1886. §Bridge, T. W., M.A., Professor of Zoology in the Mason Science
College, Birmingham.
1884. {Bridges, C. J. Winnipeg, Canada.
1870. *Bridson, Joseph R. Sawrey, Windermere.
1887. §Brierley, John, J.P. The Clough, Whitefield, Manchester.
1870. {Brierley, Joseph. New Market-street, Blackburn.
1886, {Brierley, Leonard. Somerset-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1879. {Brierley, Morgan. Denshaw House, Saddleworth.
1870. *Briee, Jon. Broomfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.
1866. *Briggs, Arthur. Cragg Royd, Rawdon, near Leeds.
1863. *Bricur, Sir Coartes Trston, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.,
F.R.A.S. 20 Bolton-gardens, London, S.W.
1870. ¢Bright, H. A., M.A., F.R.G.S. Ashfield, Knotty Ash.
BricHt, The Right Hon. Jonny, M.P. Rochdale, Lancashire.
1868. {Brine, Captain Lindesay, F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall,
London, S.W.
1884. {Brisette, M. H. 424 St. Paul-street, Montreal, Canada.
1879. {Brittain, Frederick. Taptonville-crescent, Sheffield.
1879. *Britrain, W. H. Storth Oaks, Ranmoor, Sheffield.
1878. {Britten, James, F.L.S. Department of Botany, British Museum,
London, 8. W.
1884. *Brittle, John R., M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. Farad Villa, Vanbrugh Hill,
Blackheath, London, 8.E.
1859. *BropHurst, Bernarp Epwarp, F.R.C.S., F.L.8. 20 Grosvenor-
street, Grosvenor-square, London, W.
1883. *Brodie, David, M.D. Care of J. G. Johnson, Esq., Southwood-
court, Highgate, London, N.
1865. {Bropre, Rey. Perrr Betrrverr, M.A., F.G.S. Rowington Vicar-
age, near Warwick. :
1884. PBrodie, Bek ae M.D. 64 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan,
S.A.
1878. *Brook, George, F.L.S. The University, Edinburgh.
1880. {Brook, G. B. Brynsyfi, Swansea.
1881. §Brook, Robert G. Rowen-street, St. Helen’s, Lancashire.
1855. {Brooke, Edward. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire.
1864. *Brooke, Rev. Canon J. Ingham. Thornhill Rectory, Dewsbury.
1855. {Brooke, Peter William. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire.
1878. {Brooke, Sir Victor, Bart., F.L.S. Colebrook, Brookeborough, Co.
Fermanagh.
1887. laa James Howard. Green Bank, Monton, Eccles, Man-
chester.
1863. {Brooks, John Crosse. 14 Lorain-place, Neweastle-on-Tyne.
1887. §Brooks, 8. H. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester.
1846. *Brooks, Thomas. Cranshaw Hall, Rawtenstall, Manchester.
1847. {Broome, C. Edward, F.L.S. Elmhurst, Batheaston, near Bath.
1887. *Bros, W. Law. Sidcup, Kent.
1883. §Brotherton, E. A. Fern Cliffe, Ilkley, Leeds.
1886. §Brough, Joseph. University College, Aberystwith.
1885. *Browett, Alfred. 14 Dean-street, Birmingham.
1863. *Brown, ALEXANDER OrnvM, M.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.C.8., Professor
of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. 8 Belgrave-
crescent, Edinburgh.
1867. {Brown, Charles Gage, M.D. 88 Sloane-street, London, 8, W.
1855. tBrown, Colin. 192 Hope-street, Glasgow.
1871. {Brown, David. 93 Abbey-hill, Edinburgh.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 19
Year of
Election.
1863.
1883.
1881.
1887.
1883.
1884,
1883.
1884,
1883.
1870.
1883.
1870.
1876.
1881.
1882.
1859.
1874.
1882,
1885,
1886.
1863.
1871.
1850.
1865.
1885,
1884.
1879.
1866.
1862.
1872.
1865.
1887.
1865.
1883.
1855.
1865.
1863.
1875.
1875.
1868.
1878.
1886.
1877.
1884.
1859.
1871.
1867.
*Brown, Rey. Dixon. Unthank Hall, Haltwhistle, Carlisle.
eae as. ee a 27 Abercromby-square, Liverpool,
{Brown, Frederick D. 26 St. Giles’s-street, Oxford.
Brown, George. Cadishead, near Manchester.
{Brown, George Dransfield. Henley Villa, Ealing, Middlesex, W.
{Brown, Gerald Culmer. Lachute, Quebec, Canada.
ca ie H. ea - te be gale eal
rown, Harry. University College, London, W.C.
{Brown, Mrs. Helen. 52 Grange Loan, Edinburgh.
pc epee a ean Burton-on-Trent.
rown, Hugh. Broadstone, Ayrshire.
{Brown, Miss Isabella Spring. 52 Grange Loan, Edinburgh.
ROW, a gee J. Campsett, D.Sc., F.C.S. University College,
iverpool.
tBrown, John. Edenderry House, Belfast.
*Brown, John, M.D. 68 Bank-parade, Burnley, Lancashire.
*Brown, John. Swiss Cottage, Park-valley, Nottingham.
tBrown, Rey. John Crombie, LL.D., F.LS. Haddington, N,B.
{Brown, John S. Edenderry, Shaw’s Bridge, Belfast.
Brown, Mrs. Mary. 68 Bank-parade, Burnley, Lancashire.
{Brown Miss. woe House, Ilkley, Yorkshire.
§Brown R., R.N. Laurel Bank, Barnhill, Perth,
{Brown, Ralph. Lambton’s Bank, Neweastle-on-Tyne.
es Pee ee geal” F.R.G.S. Fersley, Rydal-
road, Streatham, London, 8.W.
ae ee, PRSE. 25 Dublin-street, Edinburgh.
Brown, William. 414 New-street, Birmingham.
{Brown, W.A. The Court House, Aberdeen.
{Brown, William George. Ivy, Albemarle Oo., Virginia, U.S.A.
tBrowne, J. meee Heat Soo rie L. & E. 7 Cumberland-
terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
*Browne, Rev. J.H. Lowdham Vicarage, Nottingham.
*Browne, Robert Clayton, jun., B.A. Browne’s Hill, Carlow, Ire-
land.
{Browne, R. Mackley, F.G.S. Redcot, Bradbourne, Sevenoaks,
Kent.
*Browne, William, M.D. Heath Wood, Leighton Buzzard.
ole ae = ti ees oH z epee at Manchester.
{Browning, Jo .R.A.S. 63 Strand, London, W.C.
{Browning, Oscar, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge.
{Brownlee, James, jun. 30 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.
*Brunel, H. M. 25 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.
tBrunel, J. 23 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.
*BRUNLEES, ou JAMES, age ee F.G.S., MInst.C.E. 5 Victoria-
street, Westminster, S. W.
tBrunlees, John. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster, 8. W.
pe saa ine et Wie M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. 50 Welbeck-street,
ondon, W.
§Brutton, J oseph. Yeovil.
*Bryan, G. H. Trumpington-road, Cambridge.
{Bryant George. 82 Claverton-street, Pimlico, London, S.W.
inves, ae gat Se The College, Manitoba, Canada.
RYCE, Rev. R. J., .D. Fitzroy-avenue, Belfast.
{Bryson, William Gillespie. Cullen, Aberdeen.
§Bucnan, AexanperR, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Sec. Scottish
Meteorological Society. 72 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.
tBuchan, Thomas. Strawberry Bank, Dundee.
B 2
20
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1885. *Buchan, William Paton. Fairyknowe, Cambuslang, N.B.
Buchanan, Archibald. Catrine, Ayrshire.
Buchanan, D.C. 12 Barnard-road, Birkenhead, Cheshire.
1881. *Buchanan, John H., M.D. Sowerby, Thirsk.
1871.
- 1884,
1883.
1886,
t{Bucwanan, Jonn Youne, F.R.S. 10 Moray-place, Edinburgh,
tBuchanan, W. Frederick. Winnipeg, Canada.
§Buckland, Miss A. W. 54 Doughty-street, London, W.C.
*Buckle, Edmund W. 23 Bedford-row, London, W.C.
1864. §Buckiz, Rev. Grorcr, M.A. The Rectory, Weston-super-Mare.
1865. *Buckley, Henry. 27 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Bumingham,
1886. §Buckley, Samuel. 76 Clyde-road, Albert-park, Didsbury.
1884,
1880,
1869,
1851,
1887.
1875.
1883.
1871.
1881.
1883.
1865.
1863,
1886.
1842,
1876.
1869.
1881,
1884,
18838.
1876.
1885.
1877.
1884,
1883.
1881.
1883.
1887.
1860,
1866,
1887.
1864.
1878.
1884,
1884.
1884.
1872.
1870.
*Buckmaster, Charles Alexander, M.A., F.C.S. Science and Art
Department, South Kensington, London, S.W.
§Buclmey, Thomas, F'.R.A.S. Delhi House, Coventry Park, Streat-
ham, 8.W.
tBucknill, J.C., M.D., F.R.S. E 2 Albany, London, W.
*Buckton, GrorcE Bownter, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.C.S.. Weycombe,
Haslemere, Surrey.
§Budenberg, C. F., B.Sc. Buckau Villa, Demesne-road, Whalley
Range, Manchester.
§Budgett, Samuel. Cotham House, Bristol.
| Buick, Rev. George R., M.A. Cullybackey, Co. Antrim, Ireland.
{Bulloch, Matthew. 4 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.
tBulmer, T. P. Mount-villas, York.
tBulpit, Rey. F. W. Crossens Rectory, Southport.
tBunce, John Mackray. ‘ Journal’ Office, New-street, Birmingham.
{Bunning, T. Wood. Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
§Burbury, 8. H. 1 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
*Burd, John. 5 Gower-street, London, W.C.
tBurder, John, M.D. 7 South-parade, Bristol.
tBurdett-Coutts, Baroness. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, London, W.
{Burdett-Coutts, W. L. A. B., M.P. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly,
London, W.
*Burland, Jeffrey H. 287 University-street, Montreal, Canada.
*Burne, Colonel Sir Owen Tudor, K.C.S.L, C.LE., F.R.G.S. 57
Sutherland-gardens, Maida Vale, London, W.
tBurnet, John. 14 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
*Burnett, W. Kendall, M.A. 1234 Union-street, Aberdeen.
tBurns, Dayid. Alston, Carlisle.
§Burns, Professor James Austin. Southern Medical College, Atlanta,
Georgia, U.S.A.
tBurr, Percy J. 20 Little Britain, London, E.C.
§Burroughs, 8. M, Snow Hill-buildings, London, E.C.
*Burrows, Abraham. Greenhall, Atherton, near Manchester.
§Burrows, Eggleston, M.D. Snow Hill-buildings, London, E.C.
{Burrows, Montague, M.A., Professor of Modern History, Oxford.
*Burton, Frepertck M., F.G.S. Highfield, Gainsborough,
*Bury, Henry. Trinity College, Cambridge.
{Bush, W. 7 Circus, Bath.
Bushell, Christopher. Royal Assurance-buildings, Liverpool.
tBurcuer, J.G., M.A. 22 Coilingham-place, London, S.W.
*Butcher, William Deane, M.R.C.S.Eng. Clydesdale, Windsor.
tButler, Matthew I. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.
*Butterworth, W. Greenhill, Church-lane, Harpurhey, Manchester.
{Buxton, Charles Louis. Cromer, Norfolk.
{Buxton, David, Ph.D. 298 Regent-street, London, W.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 21
Year of
Election
1883.
1887.
1868.
1881.
1883,
1872.
1854,
1885.
1852.
1883.
1875.
1863.
1863.
1876.
1861.
1855.
1875.
1886.
1868.
1857.
1887.
1854.
1884.
1876.
1857.
1884.
1870.
1881.
1884,
1874.
1883.
1876.
1859.
1862.
1882.
1880.
1888.
1887.
1873.
1883.
1877.
tBuxton, Miss F. M. Newnham College, Cambridge.
*Buxton, J. H. ‘Guardian’ Office, Manchester.
{Buxton, 8S. Gurney. Oatton Hall, Norwich.
tBuxton, Sydney. 15 Eaton-place, London, S.W.
{Buxton, Rey. Thomas, M.A. 19 Westclitte-road, Birkdale, South-
port.
{Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, Bart., F.R.G.S. Warlies, Waltham
Abbey, Essex. :
t{Byertey, Isaac, F.L.S. Seacombe, Cheshire.
tByres, David. 63 North Bradford, Aberdeen.
tByrne, Very Rev. James. Ergenagh Rectory, Omagh.
§Byrom, John R. Mere Bank, Fairfield, near Manchester.
tByrom, W. Ascroft, F.G.S. 31 King-street, Wigan.
{Cail, Richard. Beaconsfield, Gateshead.
{Caird, Edward. Finnart, Dumbartonshire.
{Caird, Edward B. 8 Scotland-street, Glasgow.
*Caird, James Key. 8 Magdalene-road, Dundee.
*Caird, James Tennant. Belleaire, Greenock.
tCaldicott, Rev. J. W., D.D. The Rectory, Shipston-on-Stour.
*Caldwell, William Hay. 12 Harvey-road, Cambridge.
tCaley, A. J. Norwich.
tCallan, Rev. N. J., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Maynooth
College.
§Callaway, Charles, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. Pembroke Lodge, Welling-
ton, Shropshire.
{Calver, Captain E. K., R.N., F.R.S. 23 Park-place East, Sunder-
land, Durham.
t{Cameron, Aineas. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.
{Cameron, Charles, M.D., LL.D., M.P. 1 Huntly-gardens, Glasgow.
{Oameron, Sir Coartzs A., M.D. 15 Pembroke-road, Dublin.
{Cameron, James C., M.D. 41 Belmont-park, Montreal, Canada.
f{Cameron, John, M.D. 17 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
t{Cameron, Major-General, CB. 3 Driffield-terrace, York.
t~Campbell, Archibald H. Toronto, Canada.
*CAMPBELL, Sir Georer, K.C.S.L, M.P., D.C.L., F.R.G.S., FSS.
Southwell House, Southwell-gardens, South Kensington,
London, 8.W.; and Edenwood, Cupar, Fife.
t{Campbell, H. J. 81 Kirkstall-road, Talfourd Park, Streatham
Hill, S.W.
Campbell, Sir Hugh P. H., Bart. 10 Hill-street, Berkeley-square,
London, W.; and Marchmont House, near Dunse, Berwick-
shire.
tCampbell, James A., LL.D., M.P. Stracathro House, Brechin.
Campbell, John Archibald, M.D., F.R.S.E. Albyn-place, Edinburgh.
tCampbell, William. Dunmore, Argyllshire.
CAMPBELL-J OHNSTON, ALEXANDER RoBERT, F.R.S. 84 St.George’s-
square, London, 8. W.
*Campion, Rey. Witt1am M., D.D. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
tCandy, F. H. 71 High-street, Southampton.
{Capper, Robert. Westbrook, Swansea.
tCapper, Mrs. R. Westbrook, Swansea.
§Capstick, John Walton. University College, Dundee.
*Oarpurr, Epwarpd Hamer. 19 Hyde Park-gardens, London, W.
*Carew, William Henry Pole. Antony, Torpoint, Devonport.
tCarey-Hobson, Mrs. 54 Doughty-street, London, W.C.
{Carkeet, John. 3 St. Andrew’s-place, Plymouth.
LIST OF MEMBERS.
tCarlile, Thomas. 5 St. James’s-terrace, Glasgow.
CaRLIsLE, The Right Rev. Harvey Goopwiy, D.D., D.C.L., Lord
Bishop of. Carlisle.
{Carlton, James. Mosley-street, Manchester.
{Carmichael, David (Engineer). Dundee.
tCarmichael, George. 11 Dudhope-terrace, Dundee.
}Carmichael, Neil, M.D. 22 South Cumberland-street, Glasgow.
tCarnegie, John. Peterborough, Ontario, Canada.
*CARNELLEY, THomAs, D.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in University
College, Dundee.
. §Carpenter, A., M.D. Duppas House, Croydon.
§Carpenter, Louis G. Agricultural College, Lansing, Michigan,
U.S.A.
*Carpenter, P, Hersert, D.Sc., F.R.S. Eton College, Windsor.
{Carpenter, Rev. R. Lant, B.A. Bridport.
§CARPENTER, W1xLI4M Lanz, B.A., B.Sc., F.C.S, 86 Craven-park,
Harlesden, London, N.W
*Carpmael, Charles. Toronto, Canada.
tCarRuTHers, WILLIAM, Pres.L.S., F.R.S.,F.G.S. British Museum,
London, 8. W.
{Carstake J. Barwa. 80 Westfield-road, Birmingham.
. §Carson, John. 51 Royal Avenue, Belfast.
*Carson, Rev. Joseph, D.D., M.R.LA. 18 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
TCarteighe, Michael, F.C.S. 172 New Bond-street, London, W.
. [Carter, H. H. The Park, Nottingham.
tCarter, Richard, F.G.S. Cockerham Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.
{Carter, Dr. William. 62 Elizabeth-street, Liverpool.
tCarter, W. C._ Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.
tCarter, Mrs. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.
. *Cartwright, E. Henry. Magherafelt Manor, Co. Derry.
§Cartwright, Joshua, M.Inst.C.E., Borough Surveyor. Bury,
Lancashire.
2. {Carulla, Facundo. Care of Messrs. Daglish and Co., 8 Harring-
ton-street, Liverpool.
*Carver, Rey. Canon Alfred J., D.D.,F.R.G.S. Lynnhurst, Streatham
Common, London, S.W.
. {Carver, Mrs, Lynnhurst, Streatham Common, London, S.W.
. §Carver, James. Garfield House, Elm-avenue, Nottingham.
§Casartelli, Rev. L. C., M.A., Ph.D. St. Bede’s College, Manchester.
. {Casella, L. P., F.R.A.S. The Lawns, Highgate, London, N.
tCasey, John, LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.1.A., Professor of Higher Mathe-
matics in the Catholic University of Ireland. 86 South
Circular-road, Dublin.
tCash, Joseph. Bird-grove, Coventry.
*Cash, William, F.G.S. 38 Elmfield-terrace, Saville Park, Halifax.
Castle, Charles. Clifton, Bristol.
tCaton, Richard, M.D., Lecturer on Physiology at the Liverpool
Medical School. 184 Abercromby-square, Liyerpool.
{Catto, Robert. 44 King-street, Aberdeen.
*Cave, Herbert. Christ Church, Oxford.
§Cawley, George. 8 Lansdowne-road, Didsbury, Manchester.
{Cay, Albert, Ashleigh, Westbourne-road, Birmingham.
§Caytry, Arruur, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S.,
Sadlerian Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University
of Cambridge. Garden House, Cambridge.
Cayley, Digby. Brompton, near Scarborough.
Cayley, Edward Stillingfleet. Wydale, Malton, Yorkshire.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 23
Year of
Election.
1871. *Cecil, Lord Sackville. Hayes Common, Beckenham, Kent.
1870. {Chadburn, C. H. Lord-street, Liverpool.
1860. {Cuapwick, Davi. The Poplars, Herne Hill, London, S.E.
1842. OCxapwick, Epwin, C.B. Park Cottage, East Sheen, Middlesex, S.W.
1883. {Chadwick, James Percy. 651 Alexandra-road, Southport.
1859. {Chadwick, Robert. Highbank, Manchester.
1883. {Chalk, William. 24 Gloucester-road, Birkdale, Southport.
1859. {Chalmers, John Inglis. Aldbar, Aberdeen.
1883. {Chamberlain, George, J.P. Helensholme, Birkdale Park, Southport.
1884. {Chamberlain, Montague. St. John’s, New Brunswick, Canada.
1883. {Chambers, Benjamin. Hawhkshead-street South, Southport.
1883. {CHAMBERS, CHARLES, F.R.S. Colaba Observatory, Bombay.
1883. {Chambers, Mrs. Colaba Observatory, Bombay.
1885. { Chambers, Charles, jun. The College, Cooper's Hill, Staines.
1842. Chambers, George. High Green, Sheffield.
1868. {Chambers, W. O. Lowestoft, Suffolk.
*Champney, Henry Nelson. 4 New-street, York.
1881. *Champney, John E. Woodlands, Halifax.
1865. {Chance, A. M. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1865. *Chance, James T. 51 Prince’s-gate, London, 8.W.
1886. *Chance, John Horner. 40 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1865. {Chance, Robert Lucas. Chad Hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1861. *Chapman, Edward, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. Hill End, Mottram, Man-
chester.
1884. {Chapman, Professor. University College, Toronto, Canada.
1877. §Chapman, T. Algernon, M.D. Burghill, Hereford.
1871. {Chappell, William, F.S.A. Strafford Lodge, Oatlands Park, Wey-
bridge Station.
1874. {Charles, John James, M.A., M.D. 11 Fisherwick-place, Belfast.
1836. CHARLESWoRTH, EpwarD, F.G.S. 277 Strand, London, W.C.
1874. {Charley, William. Seymour Hill, Dunmurry, Ireland.
1866. {CHarnock, Richarp SrepHen, Ph.D., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. Junior
Garrick Club, Adelphi-terrace, London, W.C.
1886. §Chate, Robert W. Southfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
1883. {Chater, Rev. John. Part-street, Southport.
1884, *Chatterton, George. 46 Queen Anne’s-gate, London, S.W.
1886. §Chattock, A. P. University College, Bristol.
1867. *Chatwood, Samuel, F.R.G.S. Irwell House, Drinkwater Park,
Prestwich.
1884. {CHavvEAv, The Hon. Dr. Montreal, Canada.
1883. {Chawner, W., M.A. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
1864. {CuEapiz, W.B., M.A., M.D., F.R.G.S. 2 Hyde Park-place, Cum-
berland-gate, London, S. W.
1887. §Cheetham, F, W. Limefield House, Hyde.
1887. §Cheetham, John. Limefield House, Hyde.
1874. *Chermside, Lieut.-Colonel H. C., R.E.,C.B. Care of Messrs. Cox &
Co., Craig’s-court, Charing Cross, London, 8. W.
1884, {Cherriman, Professor J. B. Ottawa, Canada.
1879. *Chesterman, W. Broomsgrove-road, Sheffield.
1879. { Cheyne, Commander J. P., R.N, 1 Westgute-terrace, West Bromp-
ton, London, S.W.
Cuicuzster, The Right Rey. Rrcuarp Durnrorp, D.D., Lord
Bishop of. Chichester.
1865. *Child, Gilbert W., M.A., M.D., F.L.S. Cowley House, Oxford.
1883. §Chinery, Edward F. Monmouth House, Lymington.
_ 1884, {Chipman, W. W. L. 6 Place d’Armes, Ontario, Canada.
1842. *Chiswell, Thomas. 17 Lincoln-groye, Plymouth-grove, Manchester.
24
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Blection.
1863.
1882.
1887.
1861.
1884.
1875.
1876.
1870.
1860.
1881.
1857.
1868.
1869.
1857.
1876.
1877.
1876.
- 1876,
1881.
1861.
1855.
1883.
1865.
1875.
1886.
1886.
1872.
1875.
1861.
1877.
1851.
1883.
1884.
1861.
1866.
1850.
1859.
1875.
1861.
1873.
1886.
1883.
tCholmeley, Rey. C. H. Dinton Rectory, Salisbury.
{Chorley, George. Midhurst, Sussex.
§Chorlton, J. Clayton. New Holme, Withington, Manchester.
{Christie, Professor R. C., M.A. 7 St. James’s-square, Manchester.
*Christie, William. 13 Queen’s Park, Toronto, Canada.
*Christopher, George, F.C.S. 6 Barrow-road, Streatham Common,
London, S.W.
*CurysTAL, GuorGE, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Mathematics in the
University of Edinburgh. 5 Belgrave-crescent, Edinburgh.
§CourcH, A. H., M.A., FO. S., Professor of Chemistry to the
Royal ‘Academy of Arts, London. Shelsley, Ennerdale-road,
Kew, Surrey
tChurch, William i Belby; M.A. St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, London,
EO,
tCuurcui1, Lord ALFRED SPENcER. 16 Rutland-gate, London,
SBME
{Churchill, F., M.D. Ardtrea Rectory, Stewartstown, Co, Tyrone.
tClabburn, W. H. Thorpe, Norwich.
*Clapp, Frederick. Roseneath, St. James’s-road, Exeter.
tClarendon, Frederick Villiers. 1 Belvidere-place, Mountjoy-square,
Dublin.
{Clark, David R., M.A. 381 Waterloo-street, Glasgow.
*Clark, F. J. Street, Somerset.
tClark, George W. 31 Waterloo-street, Glaszow.
Clark, G. T. 44 Berkeley-square, London, Ws
{Clark, Dr. John. 138 Bath-street, Glasgow.
{Clark, J. Edmund, B.A., B.Sc., F. GS. 20 Bootham, York.
{Clark, Latimer. 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-street, London,
{Clark, Rey. William, M.A. Barrhead, near Glasgow.
{Clarke, Rey. Canon, D.D. 59 Hoghton-street, Southport.
{Clarke, Rev. Charles. Charlotte-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tClarke, Charles S. 4 W orcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
tClarke, David. Langley-road, Small Heath, Birmingham.
Clarke, George. Mosley-street, Manchester.
§Clarke, Rey. H. J. Great Barr Vicarage, Birmingham.
*CLARKE, Hyper. 32 St. George’s-square, Pimlico, London, S.W.
tCLARKE, Joun Henry. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
*Clarke, John Hope. 45 Nelson-street, Chorlton- on-Medlock, Man-
chester.
tClarke, Professor John W. University of Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.
tCrarxe, Josuva, F.L.S. Fairycroft, Saffron W ‘alden.
Clarke, Thomas, M.A. Knedlington Manor, Howden, Yorkshire.
{Clarke, W.P., J.P. 15 Hesketh-street, Southport.
{Claxton, T. J. ames. 461 St. Urbain-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Clay, Charles, M.D. 101 Piccadilly, Manchester.
*Clay, Joseph Travis, F.G.S. Rastrick, near Brighouse, Yorkshire.
{Clayden, P, W. 18 Tavistock-square, ‘London, W.C.
{CiecHorNn, Huey, M.D., F.LS. Stravithie, St. Andrews, Scot-
land.
tCleghorn, John. Wick.
tClegram, T. W. B. Saul Lodge, near Stonehouse, Gloucestershire.
§CLELAND, Joun, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the
University ‘of Glasgow. 2 College, Glasgow.
{Cliff, John, F.G.S Nesbit Hall, Fulneck, Leeds.
tClifford, Arthur. "Beechcroft, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tClift, Frederic, LL.D. Norwood, “Surrey.
.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 25
Election.
1861.
1878
1878
1861
18885
1863.
1881.
1885.
1868
1855
1884.
1864,
1884.
1883.
1861.
1881.
1865.
1884.
1887.
1887.
1876.
1853.
1868.
1879.
1876.
1860.
1878.
1854.
1857.
1887.
1887.
1869.
1854,
1861.
1865.
1876.
1876.
1884,
1883.
1868.
1882.
*Currton, R. Bettamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Portland
Lodge, Park Town, Oxford.
Clonbrock, Lord Robert. Clonbrock, Galway.
§Close, Rev. Maxwell H., F.G.S. 40 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.
tClough, John. Bracken Bank, Keighley, Yorkshire.
*Clouston, Peter. 1 Park-terrace, Glasgow.
*Citowrs, Frank, D.Sc., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in Uni-
versity College, Nottingham. University College, Notting-
ham.
*Clutterbuck, Thomas. Warkworth, Acklington.
*Clutton, William James, The Mount, York.
§Clyne James. Rubislaw Den South, Aberdeen.
tCoaks, J. B. Thorpe, Norwich.
*Coats, Sir Peter. Woodside, Paisley.
Cobb, Edward. Falkland House, St. Ann’s, Lewes.
§Cobb, John. 29 Clarendon-road, Leeds.
*Cochrane, James Henry. Elm Lodge, Prestbury, Cheltenham.
*Cockburn-Hood, J. J. Walton Hall, Kelso, N.B.
{Cockshott, J. J. 24 Queen’s-road, Southport.
*Coe, Rey. Charles C., F.R.G.S. Fairfield, Heaton, Bolton.
§Corrin, Watter Harris, F.C.S. 94 Cornwall-gardens, South
Kensington, London, 8. W.
tCoghill, H. Newcastle-under-Lyme.
*Cohen, B. L. 80 Hyde Park-gardens, London, W.
§Cohen, Julius B. Hawkesmoor, Wilbraham-road, Fallowfield,
Manchester.
§Cohen, Sigismund. 111 Portland-street, Manchester.
t{Colbourn, EB. Rushton. 5 Marchmont-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
tColchester, William, F.G.S. Springfield House, Ipswich.
{Colchester, W. P. Bassingbourn, Royston.
tCole, Skelton. 3887 Glossop-road, Sheffield.
{Colebrooke, Sir T. E., Bart., F.R.G.S. 14 South-street, Park-lane,
London, W.; and Abington House, Abington, N.B.
{Cotmman, J. J., F.C.S. Ardarrode, Bearsden, near Glasgow.
}Coles, John, Curator of the Map Collection R.G.S. 1 Savile-row,
London, W.
*Colfox, William, B.A. Westmead, Bridport, Dorsetshire.
{Colles, William, M.D. 21 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
§Collie, Norman. Exeter Lawn, Grosyenor-street, Cheetham, Man-
chester.
§Collier, Thomas. Ashfield, Alderley Edge, Manchester.
{Collier, W. F. Woodtown, Horrabridge, South Devon.
{tCottinewoop, Curupert, M.A., M.B., F.L.S. 2 Gipsy Hill-
villas, Upper Norwood, Surrey, 8.E.
*Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. 96 Great Portland-street,
London, W.
*Collins, James Tertius. Churchfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Cotuins, J. H., F.G.S. 64 Bickerton-road, London, N.
{Collins, Sir William. 3 Park-terrace East, Glasgow.
§Collins, William J., M.D., B.Sc. Albert-terrace, Regent’s Park,
London, N.W.
tCols W. Elliott. 3 Lincoln’s-Inn-fields, London, W.C.
*Corman, J. J..M.P. Carrow House, Norwich; and 108 Cannon-
street, London, E.C.
{Colmer, Joseph G. Office of the High Commissioner for Canada,
9 Victoria-chambers, London, 8. W.
26 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1884. tColomb, Capt. J. C. R., M.P., F.R.G.S. Dromquinna, Kenmare,
Kerry, Iveland; and Junior United Service Club, London, 8. W.
1870. {Coltart, Robert. The Hollies, Aigburth-road, Liverpool.
1884. §Common, A. A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 63 Eaton-rise, Ealing, Middle-
sex, W.
1884, §Conklin, Dr. William A. Central Park, New York, U.S.A.
1852. {Connal, Sir Michael. 16 Lynedock-terrace, Glasgow.
1871. *Comnor, Charles C. Notting Hill House, Belfast.
1881. {Conroy, Sir Joun, Bart. Arborfield, Reading, Berks.
1876. {Cook, James. 162 North-street, Glasgow.
1882. {Cooxr, Major-General A. C., R.E., O.B., F.R.G.S8., Director-General
of the Ordnance Survey. Southampton.
1876. *Cooxr, Conran W. 2 Victoria-mansions, Victoria-street, London,
S.W.
1881. {Cooke, F. Bishophill, York.
1868. {Cooke, Rey. George H. Wanstead Vicarage, near Norwich.
Cooke, J. B. Cavendish-road, Birkenhead.
1868. {Cooxn, M. C., M.A. 2 Grosvenor-villas, Upper Holloway, London, N.
1884. tCooke, R. P. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.
1878. tCooke, Samuel, M.A., F. GS. Poona, Bombay.
1881. tCooke, Thomas. Bishophill, York,
1859. *Cooke, His Honour Judge, M.A., F.S.A. 42 Wimpole-street,
London, W.; and Rainthorpe Hall, Long Stratton.
1883. §Cooke-Taylor, R. Whateley. Frenchwood House, Preston.
1883. tCooke-Taylor, Mrs. Frenchwood House, Preston.
1865. {Cooksey, Joseph. West Bromwich, Birmingham.
1883. {Coomer, John. Willaston, near Nantwich.
1884. {Coon, John 8. 604 Main-street, Cambridge Pt., Massachusetts,
U.S.A
1883. {Cooper, George B. 67 Great Russell-street, London, W.C.
1850. {Cooprr, Sir Henry, M.D. 7 Charlotte-street, Hull.
1838. Cooper, James. 58 Pembridge-villas, Bayswater, London, W.
1884. tCooper, Mrs. M.A. West Tower, Marple, Cheshire.
1846. {Cooper, W illiam White, F.R.C.S. 19 LBerkeley-square, Lon-
don, W.
1868. {Cooper, W. J. The Old Palace, Richmond, Surrey.
1884. {Cope, E. D. Philadelphia, U.S.A.
1878. {Cope, Rey. 8. W. Bramley, Leeds.
1871. tCopeland, Ralph, Ph.D., F.R.A.S. Dun Echt, Aberdeen.
1868. {Copeman, Edward, M.D. Upper King-street, Norwich.
1885. {Copland, W., M.A. ‘Tortorston, Peterhead, N.B.
1881. {Copperthwaite, H. Holgate Villa, Holgate-lane, York.
1863. {Coppin, John. North Shields.
1842. Corbett, Edward. Grange Avenue, Levenshulme, Manchester,
1887. *Corcoran, Bryan. 31 Mark-lane, London, E.C.
1881. §Cordeaux, John. Great Cotes, Ulceby, Lincolnshire.
1883. *Core, Thomas H. Fallowfield, Manchester.
1870. *Corrretp, W. H., M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.G.S., Professor of Hygiéne
and Public Health in University College. 19 Savile-row,
Londons W.
1884. *Cornwallis, F.S8. W. Linton Park, Maidstone.
1885. {Corry, John. Rosenheim, Parkhill- road, Croydon.
1886. {Cossins, Jethro A. Warwick- chambers, Corporation-street, Bir-
mingham.
1883. {Costelloe, B. F. C., M.A., B.Sc. 83 Chancery-lane, London, W.C.
Cottam, George. 2 Winsley-street, London, W.
1857. {Cottam, Samuel. King-street, Manchester.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 27
Election.
1874.
1864.
1869.
1879.
1876.
1876.
1874.
1834.
1863.
1863.
1876.
1872.
1886.
1871.
1860.
1867.
1867.
1870.
1882.
1867.
1867.
1883.
1884,
1876.
1879.
1858.
1884.
1887.
1887.
1876.
1871.
1871.
1883.
1870.
1885.
1879
1876.
1887.
1880.
1878.
1859.
*Corrmritt, J. H., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mechanics.
Royal Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.
tCorron, General FREDERICK Cs RE, C.S.I. 13 Longridge-road,
Earl’s Court-road, London, SW.
{Corron, WILLIAM. Pennsylvania, Exeter.
{Cottrill, Gilbert I. Shepton Mallett, Somerset.
tCouper, James. City Glass Works, Glasgow.
{Couper, James, jun. City Glass W orks, Glasgow.
{Courtauld, John M. Bocking Bridge, Braintree, Essex.
{Cowan, Charles. 38 West Register- -street, Edinburgh.
Cowan, John. Valleyfield, Pennycuick, Edinburgh.
tCowan, John A. Blaydon Burn, Durham.
{Cowan, Joseph, jun. Blaydon, Durham.
tCowan, J. B., M.D. 4 Eglinton-crescent, Edinburgh
*Cowan, Thomas William, F.G.S. Comptons Lea, Horsham.
§Cowen, Mrs. G. R. 9 The Ropewalk, Nottingham.
Cowie, The Very Rey. Benjamin Morgan, M.A., D.D., Dean of
Exeter. The Deanery, Exeter.
Cowper, C. E. 6 Great George-street, Westminster, 8.W.
{Cowper, Edward Alfred, M.Inst.C.E. 6 Great Gecrge-street,
Westminster, S. W.
*Cox, Edward. Lyndhurst, Dundee.
*Cox, George Addison. Beechwood, Dundee.
*Cox, James. 8 Falkner-square, Liverpool.
{Cox, Thomas A., District Engineer of the S., P., and D. Railway.
Lahore, Punjab. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., Parliament-
street, London, 8.W.
*Cox, Thomas Hunter. Duncarse, Dundee.
Cox, William. Fogeley, Lochee, by Dundee.
§Crabtree, William, ‘M.Inst.C.E. Manchester-road, Southport.
§CraierzE, Major P. G., FSS. 6 Lyndhurst-road, ee es
London, N.W,
{Cramb, John. Larch Villa, Helensburgh, N.B,
{Crampton, Thomas Russell, M.Inst.C.E. 19 Ashley-place, London,
S.W.
tCranage, Edward, Ph.D. The Old Hall, Wellington, Shropshire.
{Crathern, James. Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
§Craven, John. Smedley Lodge, Cheetham, Manchester.
*Craven, Thomas, J.P. Merlewood, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Man-
chester.
t Crawford, Chalmond. Ridemon, Crosscar.
*Crawford, William Caldwell, M.A. 1 Lockharton-gardens, Slate-
ford, Edinburgh.
*CRAWFORD AND Batcarres, The Right Hon. the Earl of, LL.D.,
FE.R.S., F.R.A.S. The Observatory, Dun Echt, Aberdeen.
*Crawshaw, Edward. 25 Tollington-park, London, N.
*Crawshay, Mrs. Robert. Cathedine, Bwlch, Breconshire.
§Creak, Staff Commander E. W., RN., F.R.S. Richmond Lodge,
Blackheath, London, 8.E.
. {Creswick, Nathaniel. Chantry Grange, near Sheffieid.
*Crewdson, Rey. George. St. George’s Vicarage, Kendal.
*Crewdson, Theodore, Norcliffe Hall, Styal, Cheshire.
*Crisp, Frank, B.A., LL.B., F.LS. 5 Lansdowne-road, Notting Hill,
London, W.
tCroke, John O’Byrne, M.A. The French College, Blackrock,
Dublin
tCroll, A. x 10 Coleman-street, London, E.C.
28
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1857.
1885,
1885.
1885,
1885.
1885.
1887.
1886,
1887.
1870.
1865.
1879.
1855.
1870.
1870,
1870.
1887,
i861.
1883.
1868.
1886.
1867.
1853.
1870.
1871.
1866,
1887.
1883,
1882.
1861.
1883,
1863,
1885.
1860.
1859.
1878.
1883.
1883.
1878.
1883.
1859.
1874.
1861.
1861.
1882.
1887.
1877.
1852.
1885,
1869.
{Crolly, Rev. George. Maynooth College, Ireland.
tCrombie, Charles W. 41 Carden-place, Aberdeen.
Crombie, John. Balzownie Lodge, Aberdeen.
tCrombie, John, jun. Daveston, Aberdeen,
{Cromsrs, J. W., M.A. Balgownie Lodge, Aberdeen.
t{Crombie, Theodore. 18 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
§Crompton, A. 1 St. James’s-square, Manchester.
{Crompton, Dickinson W. 40 Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
§Crook, Henry T. 9 Albert-square, Manchester.
tCrookes, Joseph. Marlborough House, Brook Green, Hammersmith,
London, W.
§Crooxrs, WixL1AM, F.R.S., F.C.S. 7 Kensington Park-gardens,
London, W.
{Crookes, Mrs. 7 Kensington Park-gardens, London, W.
*Cropper, Rev. John. 8 The Polygon, Eccles, near Manchester.
}Crostield, C. J. 16 Alexandra-drive, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.
{Crosfield, William. Annesley, Aigburth, Liverpool.
*Crosfield, William, jun. Annersley, Aigburth, Liverpool.
§Cross, John. Beancliffe, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
tCross, Rev. John Edward, M.A. Appleby Vicarage, near Brigg.
tCross, Rey. Prebendary, LL.B, Part-street, Southport.
tCrosse, Thomas William. St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
{Crosskey, Cecil. 117 Gough-road, Birmingham.
§Crossxkry, Rev. H. W., LL.D., F.G.S. 117 Gough-road, Birmingham.
tCrosskill, William. Beverley, Yorkshire.
*Crossley, Edward, M.P., F.R.A.S. Bemerside, Halifax.
{Crossley, Herbert. Ferney Green, Bowness, Ambleside.
*Crossley, Louis J., F.R.M.S. Moorside Observatory, near Halifax.
*Crossley, William J. Glenfield, Bowdon, Cheshire.
§Crowder, Robert. Stanwix, Carlisle.
§Crowley, Frederick. Ashdell, Alton, Hampshire.
{Crowley, Henry. Trafalgar-road, Birkdale Park, Southport.
{Crowther, Elon. Cambridge-road, Huddersfield.
{Cruddas, George. Elswick Engine Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{Cruickshank, Alexander, LL.D. 20 Rose-street, Aberdeen,
{Cruickshank, John. Aberdeen.
t{Cruickshank, Provost. Macduff, Aberdeen.
tCrust, Walter. Hall-street, Spalding.
*Cryer, Major J. H. The Grove, Manchester-road, Southport.
Culley, Robert. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.
*Culverwell, Edward P. 40 Trinity Colleve, Dublin.
{Culverwell, Joseph Pope. St. Lawrence Lodge, Sutton, Dublin.
{Culverwell, T. J. H. Litfield House, Clifton, Bristol.
tCumming, Sir A. P. Gordon, Bart. Altyre.
{Cumming, Professor. 33 Wellington-place, Belfast.
*Cunliffe, Edward Thomas. The Parsonage, Handforth, Manchester.
*Cunliffe, Peter Gibson. Dunedin, Handforth, Manchester.
*Cunningham, Major Allan, R.E., A.LC.E. Brompton Barracks,
Chatham.
§Cunningham, David. Viewbank, Newport, Fife, Scotland.
ecg hint D, J., M.D., Professor of Anatomy in Trinity College,
ublin.
{Ounningham, John. Macedon, near Belfast.
{CunnineHam, J. T., B.A., F.R.S.E. Scottish Marine Station,
Granton, Edinburgh.
t{Cunninenam, Roprrt O., M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Natural His-
tory in Queen’s College, Belfast.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 29
lection. |
1883. *Cunningham, Rev. William, B.D., D.Sc. Trinity College, Cambridge.
1850. {Cunningham, Rey. William Bruce. Prestonpans, Scotland.
1881. {Curley, T., F.G.S. Hereford.
1885.
1884.
1867.
1857.
1878.
1884.
1883.
1881.
1854,
1883,
1887.
1863.
1865.
1867.
1870.
1862.
1859.
1876.
1849.
1861.
1883.
1876.
1884.
1882.
1881.
1878.
1882.
1848,
1878.
1872.
1880.
1884.
1870.
1885.
1875.
1870.
1887.
1842.
§Curphey, William S. 268 Renfrew-street, Glasgow.
§Currier, John McNab. Castleton, Vermont, U.S.A.
*Cursetjee, Manockjee, F.R.G.S., Judge of Bombay. Villa-Byculla,
Bombay.
{Curtis, ARTHUR Hitt, LL.D. 1 Hume-street, Dublin.
{Curtis, William. Caramore, Sutton, Co. Dublin.
{Cushing, Frank Hamilton. Washington, U.S.A.
tCushing, Mrs. M. Croydon, Surrey.
§Cushing, Thomas, F.R.A.S. India Store Depét, Belvedere-road,
Lambeth, London, 8.W.
{Daglish, Robert, M.Inst.C.E. Orrell Cottage, near Wigan.
{Dahne, F. W., Consul of the German Empire. 18 Somerset-place,
Swansea.
§Dale, Henry F., F.R.MS., F.Z.S, Sutgrove, Miserden, Gloucester-
shire.
{Dale, J.B. South Shields.
tDale, Rev. R. W. 12 Calthorpe-street, Birmingham.
tDalgleish, W. Dundee.
{DattincER, Rev. W. H., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. Wesley College,
Glossop-road, Sheffield.
Dalmahoy, James, F.R.S.E. 9 Forres-street, Edinburgh.
Dalton, Edward, LL.D., F.S.A. Dunkirk House, Nailsworth.
*Dalton, Rey. J. E., B.D. Seagrave, Loughborough.
tDansy, T. W., M.A., F.G.S. 1 Westbourne-terrace-road, Lon-
don, W.
{Dancer, J. B., F.R.A.S. Old Manor House, Ardwick, Manchester.
{Dansken, John. 4 Eldon-terrace, Partickhill, Glasgow.
*Danson, Joseph, F.C.S. Montreal, Canada.
*DaRBIsHIRE, Robert DuKINFIELD, B.A.,F.G.S. 26 George-street,
Manchester.
tDarbishire, S. D., M.D. 60 Hich-street, Oxford.
TDarling, G. Erskine. 247 West George-street, Glasgow.
{Darling, Thomas. 99 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.
aaa et Francis, M.A., F.RS., F.L.S. Huntingdon-road, Cam-
ridge.
*Darwin, GEorcE Howarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Plumian
Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy in the
University of Cambridge. Newnham Grange, Cambridge.
*Darwin, Horace. The Orchard, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.
§Darwin, W. E., F.G.S. Bassett, Southampton.
aime ke ohnson. Burntwood, Wandsworth Common, London,
S.W.
TD’ Aulmay, G. 22 Upper Leeson-street, Dublin.
{Davenport, John T. 64 Marine Parade, Brighton.
§Davey, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 3 Prince’s-street, Westminster, S.W.
fDavid, A. J., BA., LL.B. 4 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, Lon-
don, E.C.
{Davidson, Alexander, M.D. 2 Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.
t{Davidson, Charles B. Roundhay, Fonthill-road, Aberdeen.
{Davies, David. 2 Queen’s-square, Bristol.
{Davies, Edward, F.C.S. Royal Institution, Liverpool.
*Davies, H. Rees. Treborth, Bangor, North Wales.
Davies-Colley, Dr. Thomas. Newton, near Chester.
30
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1887.
1873.
1870.
1864,
1887.
1881.
1882.
1875.
1856,
1883.
1883,
1885.
1882.
1886.
1886.
1864.
1857.
1869.
1869.
1860.
1864.
1886.
1885.
1884.
1855.
1859.
1879.
1871.
1870.
1861.
1887.
1861.
1870.
1884.
1866.
1884.
1882.
1887.
1878.
1854.
1879.
§Dayies-Colley, T. C. Hopedene, Kersal, Manchester.
*Davis, Alfred. Parliament Mansions, London, 8. W.
*Davis, A.S. 6 Paragon-buildings, Cheltenham.
{Davis, Cuartus E., F.S.A. 55 Pulteney-street, Bath.
§Davis, David. 55 Berkley-street, Liverpool.
Davis, Rey. David, B.A. Lancaster.
tDavis, George E. The Willows, Fallowfield, Manchester.
§Davis, Henry C. Berry Pomeroy, Springfield-road, Brighton.
*Davis, JAMES W., F.G.S., F.S.A. Chevinedge, near Halifax.
*Davis, Sir Jonn Francis, Bart., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Holly-
wood, near Compton, Bristol.
tDavis, Joseph, J.P. Park-road, Southport.
{Davis, Robert Frederick, M.A. Larlstield, Wandsworth Common,
London, S.W.
*Davis, Rudolf. Castle Howell School, Lancaster.
tDavis, W. H. Gloucester Lodge, Portswood, Southampton.
{Davis, W. H. Hazeldean, Pershore-road, Birmingham.
tDavison, Charles, M.A. 38 Charlotte-road, Birmingham.
*Dayison, Richard. Beverley-road, Great Driffield, Yorkshire.
t{Davy, Epmunp W., M.D. Kimmage Lodge, Roundtown, near
Dublin.
{Daw, John. Mount Radford, Exeter.
{Daw, R. M. Bedtord-circus, Exeter.
*Dawes, John T., F.G.8. Blaen-y-Roe, St. Asaph, North Wales.
t{Dawxins, W. Boyp, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., Professor of
Geology and Paleontology in the Victoria University, Owens
College, Manchester. Woodhurst, Fallowfield, Manchester.
§Dawson, Bernard. The Laurels, Malvern Link.
*Dawson, Captain H. P., R.A. Junior United Service Club, Pall
Mall, London, 8. W.
Dawson, John. Barley House, Exeter.
t{Dawson, Samuel. 258 University-street, Montreal, Canada.
§Dawson, Sir Witt1am, C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., F.RS., F.G.S.,
Principal of McGill University. McGill University, Montreal,
Canada.
*Dawson, Captain William G. Plumstead Common, Kent.
{Day, Francis. Kenilworth House, Cheltenham.
tDay, Sr. Jonn Vincent, M.Inst.0.E., F.R.S.E. 166 Buchanan-
street, Glasgow.
*Dracon, G. F., M.Inst.C.E. Municipal Offices, Liverpool.
{Deacon, Henry. Appleton House, near Warrington.
§Deakin, H.T. Egremont House, Belmont, near Bolton.
{Dean, Henry. Colne, Lancashire.
*Deane, Rev. George, B.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. 388 Wellington-road,
Birmingham.
*Debenham, Frank, F.S.S. 26 Upper Hamilton-terrace, London,
N.W
{Dzsvs, Herneicu, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry
at Guy’s Hospital, London, S.E.
§Deck, Arthur, F.C.S. 9 King’s-parade, Cambridge.
*Dz Cuavumont, Francors, M.D.. F.R.S., Professor of Hygiéne in the
Royal Victoria Hospital, Netley.
§Dehn, R. Olga Villa, Victoria Park, Manchester.
{Delany, Rev. William, St. Stanislaus College, Tullamore.
*De La Roux, Warren, M.A., D.C.L., Ph.D., F.RS., F.CS.,
F.R.A.S. 78 Portland-place, London, W.
{De la Sala, Colonel. Sevilla House, Nayarino-road, London, N.W.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 31
Year of
Election.
1884.
1887,
1870.
1873.
1884,
1870.
1874,
1856.
1874.
1878.
1868.
1869.
1868.
1881.
1883,
1884.
1872.
1884,
1873.
1883.
1864,
1863.
1887.
1884.
1881.
1887.
1885.
1883.
1862.
1877.
1848.
1869.
1876.
*De Laune, C. DeL. F. Sharsted Court, Sittingbourne.
§De Meschin, Miss Hannah Constance. Sandycove Castle, Kings-
town, Ireland.
{De Meschin, Thomas, B.A., LL.D. Sandycove Castle, Kingstown,
Treland.
Denchar, John. Morningside, Edinburgh.
t{Denham, Thomas. Huddersfield.
{Denman, Thomas W. Lamb’s-buildings, Temple, London, E.C.
Dent, William Yerbury. Royal Arsenal, Woolwich.
*Denton, J. Bailey. Orchard Court, Stevenage.
§Dr Rance, Cuarzs E., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.
*Derspy, The Right Hon. the Karl of, K.G., M.A., LL.D.,F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S. 23 St. James’s-square, London, 8.W.; and Knowsley,
near Liverpool.
*Derham, Walter, M.A., LL.M., F.G.S. Henleaze Park, Westbury-
on-Trym, Bristol.
{De Rinzy, James Harward. Khelat Survey, Sukkur, India.
{Dessé, Etheldred, M.B., F.R.C.S. 483 Kensington Gardens-square,
Bayswater, London, W.
De Tastry, Grorar, Lord, F.Z.S. Tabley House, Knutsford,
Cheshire.
{Drvon, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.C.L. Powderham Castle,
near Exeter.
*DrvonsHireE, His Grace the Duke of, K.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.8., F.R.G.S., Chancellor of the University of Cambridge.
Devonshire House, Piccadilly, London, W.; and Chatsworth,
Derbyshire.
{Drwar, James, M.A., F.R.S.L. & E., F.C.8., Fullerian Professor of
Chemistry in the Royal Institution, London, and Jacksonian
Professor of Natural Experimental Philosophy in the University
of Cambridge. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.
{Dewar, Mrs. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.
Dewar, James, M.D., F.R.C.S.E. Drylaw House, Davidson’s Mains,
Midlothian, N.B.
*Dewar, William. 6 Montpellier-crove, Cheltenham.
}Dewick, Rev. E. S., M.A., F.G.S. 2 Southwick-place, Hyde Park,
London, W.
{De Wolf, 0. C., M.D. Chicago, U.S.A.
*Dew-SuirH, A. G., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
{Dickinson, A. P. Fair Elms, Blackburn.
*Dickinson, F.H., F.G.S. Kingweston, Somerton, Taunton; and 121
St. George’s-square, London, §
{Dickinson, G. T. Claremont-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
§Dickinson, Joseph, F.G.S. South Bank, Pendleton.
{Dickson, Charles R., M.D. Wolfe Island, Ontario, Canada.
{Dickson, Edmund. West Cliff, Preston.
§Dickson, H. N. 388 York-place, Edinburgh.
{Dickson, Patrick. Laurencekirk, Aberdeen.
{Dickson, T. A. West Cliff, Preston.
*Ditxe, The Right Hon. Sir Coartes WENtTWoRTH, Bart., F.R.G.S.
76 Sloane-street, London, 8. W.
§Dillon, James, M.Inst.C.E. 86 Dawson-street, Dublin.
{Dritwyy, Lewis Lirwetyn, M.P., F.LS., F.G.S. Parkwerne,
near Swansea.
tDingle, Edward. 19 King-street, Tavistock.
at Arthur. 12 Tayiton-street, Gordon-square, London,
32
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1868.
1884,
1874.
1883.
1858.
1886,
1879.
1885.
1887.
1885.
1885.
1860.
1878.
1864,
1875.
1870.
1876.
1851.
1867.
1867.
1887.
1885.
1882.
1869.
1877.
1874.
1861.
1887.
1887.
1881.
1867.
1871.
1863.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1884.
1886.
1883.
1884,
1884,
1884.
1870.
1876.
1884.
1878.
1857.
{Dittmar, William, F.R.S. L. & E., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry
in Anderson’s College, Glasgow.
§Dix, John William H. Bristol.
*Dixon, A. E. Dunowen, Cliftonville, Belfast.
tDixon, Miss E. 2 Cliffterrace, Kendal.
{Dixon, Edward. Wilton House, Southampton.
{Dixon, George. 42 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Dixon, Haron B., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Ohemis‘ry in
the Owens College, Manchester.
{Dixon, John Henry. Inveran, Poolewe, Ross-shire, N.B.
§Dixon, Thomas. Buttershaw, near Bradford, Yorkshire.
t{Doak, Rev. A. 15 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.
§Dobbin, Leonard. The University, Edinburgh.
*Dobbs, Archibald Edward, M.A. 34 Westbourne Park, London, W.
*Dozson, G. E., M.A., M.B.,F.R.S.,F.L.S. Colyford Villa, Exeter.
*Dobson, William. Oakwood, Bathwick Hill, Bath.
*Docewra, George, jun. Liberal Club, Colchester.
*Dodd, John. 34 Fern-grove, Lodge-lane, Liverpool.
tDodds, J. M. St. Peter’s College, Cambridge.
Dolphin, John. Delves House, Berry Edge, near Gateshead.
tDomvile, William C., F.Z.S. Thorn Hill, Bray, Dublin.
tDon, John. The Lodge, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
tDon, William G. St. Margaret’s, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
*Donald, Provost Robert. City Chambers, Dunfermline, Scotland.
{Donaldson, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Regius Professor of
Humanity in the University of Aberdeen. Old Aberdeen.
{Donaldson, John. Tower House, Chiswick, Middlesex.
tDonisthorpe,G. T, St. David’s Hill, Exeter.
*Donkin, Bryan, jun. May’s Hill, Shortlands, Kent.
tDonnell, Professor, M.A. 76 Stephen’s-green South, Dublin.
tDonnelly, Oolonel, R.E., C.B. South Kensington Museum, Lon-
don, W.
§Donner, Edward, B.A. 4 Anson-road, Victoria Park, Manchester.
§Dorning, Elias, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 41 John Dalton-street, Man-
chester.
{Dorrington, John Edward. Lypiatt Park, Stroud.
{Dougall, Andrew Maitland, R.N. Scotscraig, Tayport, Fifeshire.
tDougall, John, M.D. 2 Cecil-place, Paisley-road, Glasgow.
*Doughty, Charles Montagu. Care of H. M. Doughty, Esq., 5 Stone-
court, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
“Douglas, Rev. G.C. M. 18 Royal-crescent West, Glasgow.
*Doverass, Sir JAmus N., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Trinity House, Lon-
don, E.C.
TDouglass, William. 104 Baggot-street, Dublin.
Douglass, William Alexander. Freehold Loan and Savings Com-
pany, Church-street, Toronto, Canada.
{Dovaston, John. West Felton, Shropshire.
§Dove, Arthur. Crown Cottage, York.
{Dove, Miss Frances. St. Leonard’s, St. Andrews, N.B.
{TDove, P. Edward, F.R.A.S., Sec.R.Hist.Soc. 23 Old-buildings,
Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
tDowe, John Melnotte. 69 Seventh-ayenue, New York, U.S.A.
tDowie, J. Muir. Gollanol, by Kinross, N.B.
tDowie, Mrs. Muir. Gollanol, by Kinross, N.B.
*Dowling, D. J. Bromley, Kent.
tDowling, Thomas. Claireville House, Terenure, Dublin.
{Downrne, 8., LL.D. 4 The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 83
Year of
Election.
1878.
1865.
1881.
1887.
1883.
1868.
1873.
1879.
1887.
1870.
1884.
1856.
1870.
1867.
1882.
1877.
1875.
1884,
1883.
1859.
1866.
1867.
1880.
1881.
1881.
1865,
1882.
1883,
1876.
1878.
1884,
“1859.
1885.
1866.
1869.
1860.
1887.
1887.
tDowse, The Right Hon. Baron. 38 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.
*Dowson, E. Theodore, F.R.M.S. Geldeston, near Beccles, Suffolk.
*Dowson, Joseph Emerson, M.Inst.C.E. 38 Great Queen-street, Lon-
don, S.W.
§Doxey, R. A. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester.
{Draper, William. De Grey House, St. Leonard’s, York.
{Dresser, Henry E., F.Z.S. 6 Tenterden-street, Hanover-square,
London, W.
§Drew, Freperic, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Eton Colleze, Windsor.
{Drew, Samuel, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 10 Laura-place, Bath.
§Dreyfus, Dr. Daisy Mount, Victoria Park, Manchester.
§Drysdale, J. J., M.D. 56a Rodney-street, Liverpool.
{Du Bois, Henrt. 39 Bentick-street, Glasgow.
*Ducrz, The Right. Hon. Henry Jonn Reynoips Moreron, Earl
of, F.R.S.,F.G.S. 16 Portman-square, London, W. ; and Tort-
worth Court, Wotton-under-Edge.
{Duckworth, Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. Holme House, Columbia-road,
Oxton, Birkenhead.
*Durr, The Right Hon. Sir Mountstuart ELpurstone GRANT-,
G.0.B., G.C.S.L, F.R.S., F.R.G.S. York House, Twickenham.
{Dufferin and Clandeboye, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.P., G.C.B. ;
LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., Governor-General of India. Clande-
boye, near Belfast, Ireland.
{Duffey, George F., M.D. 30 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
{Duffin, W. E. L’Estrange. Waterford.
§Dugdale, James H. 9 Hyde Park-gardens, London, W.
§Duke, Frederic. Conservative Club, Hastings.
*Duncan, Alexander. 7 Prince’s-gate, London, S.W.
*Duncan, James. 9 Mincing-lane, London, E.C.
Duncan, J. F., M.D. 8 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.
{Doncan, Perer Martin, M.B.,F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology
in King’s College, London, 6 Grosvenor-road, Gunnersbury,
London, W.
{Duncan, William S. 22 Delamere-terrace, Bayswater, London, W
tDuncombe, The Hon. Cecil. Nawton Grange, York.
tDunhill, Charles H. Gray’s-court, York.
{Dunn, David. Annet House, Skelmorlie, by Greenock, N.B.
ea ik T., M.8e., F.C.S. High School for Boys, Gateshead-on-
'yne.
tDunn, Mrs. 115 Scotswood-road, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tDunnachie, James. 2 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
}Dunne, D. B., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Logic in the Catholic Uni-
versity of Ireland. 4 Clanwilliam-place, Dublin.
§Dunnington, F. P. University of Virginia, Albemarle Co., Vir-
ginia, U.S.A.
{Duns, Rey. John, D.D., F.R.S.E. New Oollege, Edinburgh.
*Dunstan, Wyndhan, F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry to the Pharma~
ceutical Society of Great Britain, 17 Bloomsbury-square,
London, W.C.
{Duprey, Perry. Woodberry Down, Stoke Newington, London, N.
tD’Urban, W.S.M.,F.L.S. 4 Queen-terrace, Mount Radford , Exeter.
}Durnam, Arruur Epwarp, F.R.C.S., F.L.S., Demonstrator of
Anatomy, Guy’s Hospital. 82 Brook-street, Grosyenor-square,
London, W.
§Durham, William. Seaforth House, Portobello, Scotland.
§Dyason, John Sanford, F.R.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. Boscobel-gardens,
London, N.W. ;
c
84
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1884,
1885.
1869.
1868.
1861.
1883.
1877.
1833.
1874.
1871.
1863.
1876.
1883.
1887.
1884,
1861.
1858.
1870.
1887.
1884.
1887.
1859.
1870.
1883.
1884,
1883.
1867.
1867.
1855.
1884.
1887,
1876.
1885,
1868.
1863.
1885.
1885.
1880.
1864.
1883.
1872.
1879.
1886,
tDyck, Professor Walter. The University, Munich.
*Dyer, Henry, M.A. 8 Highburgh-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
Dykes, Robert. Kilmorie, Torquay, Devon.
*Dymond, Edward E. Oaklands, Aspley Guise, Woburn.
tEade, Peter, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
{Eadson, Richard. 13 Hyde-road, Manchester.
{Eagar, Rev. Thomas. The Rectory, Ashton-under-Lyne,
tEarle, Ven. Archdeacon, M.A. West Alvington, Devon.
*HarnsHAw, Rey. Samvuzt, M.A. 14 Beechhill-road, Sheffield.
tEason, Charles. 30 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, Dublin.
*Easron, Epwarp, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 11 Delahay-street, West-
minster, 8S. W.
tEaston, James. Nest House, near Gateshead, Durham.
tEaston, John. Durie House, Abercromby-street, Helensburgh, N.B.
§Eastwood, Miss. Littleover Grange, Derby.
§Eccles, Mrs. S. White Coppice, Chorley, Lancashire.
{Eckersley, W. T. Standish Hall, Wigan, Lancashire.
tEcroyd, William Farrer. Spring Cottage, near Burnley.
*Eddison, Francis. Syward Lodge, Dorchester.
*Eddison, John Edwin, M.D., M.R.C.S. 29 Park-square, Leeds.
*Eddy, James Ray, F.G.S. The Grange, Carleton, Skipton.
§Ede, Francis J. Silchar, Cachar, India.
Eden, Thomas. Talbot-road, Oxton.
*Edgell, R. Arnold, M.A.,F.C.S. Ashburnham House, Little Dean’s-
yard, Westminster, S.W.
Siger one Y., M.A., F.S.5. Savile Club, 107 Piccadilly, Lon-
don, W.
t{Edmond, James. Cardens Haugh, Aberdeen.
*Edmonds, F.B. 72 Portsdown-road, London, W.
{Edmonds, William. Wiscombe Park, Honiton, Devon.
*Edmunds, James, M.D. 8 Grafton-street, Piccadilly, London, W.
Edmunds, Lewis, D.Sc., LL.B. 60 Park-street, Park-lane, London,
W.
*Edward, Allan. Farington Hall, Dundee.
t{Edward, Charles. Chambers, 8 Bank-street, Dundee.
*Epwarpbs, Professor J. Baker, Ph.D., D.C.L. Montreal, Canada.
tEdwards, W. F. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.
*Eegerton of Tatton, The Right Hon. Lord. Tatton Park, Knuts-
ford.
tElder, Mrs. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.
*Elear, Francis, LL.D., F.R.S.E., Director of H.M. Dockyards.
The Admiralty, London, 8.W.
tElger, Thomas Gwyn Empy, F.R.A.S. Manor Cottage, Kempston,
Bedford.
tEllenberger, J. L: Worksop.
§Ellingham, Frank. Thorpe St. Andrew, Norwich.
fEllington, Edward Bayzand, M.Inst.C.E. Palace-chambers, Bridge-
street, Westminster, 8.W.
*Elliot, Colonel Charles, C.B. 18 Roland-gardens, London, S.W.
tElliott, E. B. Washington, U.S.A.
*EiLiLiotr, Epwin Bartuy, M.A. Queen’s College, Oxford.
Elliott, Rev. LH. B. 11 Sussex-square, Kemp Town, Brighton.
Elliott, John Foge. Elvet Hill, Durham.
§Elliott, Joseph W. Post Office, Bury, Lancashire.
§ Elliott, Thomas Henry, F.S.S. Inland Revenue Derartment, Somer-
set House, London, W.C.
Year
LIST OF MEMBERS. 35
of
Election.
1864
. “ELLIS, ALEXANDER JouN, B.A., F.RS., FSA. 25 Argyll-road,
Kensington, London, W.
1877. {Hllis, Arthur Devonshire. School of Mines, Jermyn-street, London,
1875
S.W.; and Thurnscoe Hall, Rotherham, Yorkshire,
. *Ellis, H. D, 6 Westbourne-terrace, Hyde Park, London, W.
1883. {Ellis, John, 17 Church-street, Southport.
1880.
1864,
1864,
1884,
1869.
1887,
1862,
1883.
1887.
1870.
1863.
1884,
1863.
1886.
*Exxis, Joan Henry. New Close, Cambridge-road, Southport.
*Ellis, Joseph. Hampton Lodge, Brighton.
tEllis, J. Walter. High House, Thornwaite, Ripley, Yorkshire.
tEllis, W. Hodgson. Toronto, Canada.
tEtris, Wittr1am Horron. Hartwell House, Exeter.
Ellman, Rey. E, B. Berwick Rectory, near Lewes, Sussex.
§Elmy, Ben. Eaton Hall, Congleton, Manchester.
tElphinstone, H. W., M.A,, F.L.S, 2 Stone-buildings, Lincoln's Inn,
London, W.C.
tElwes, George Robert. Bossington, Bournemouth.
§Elworthy, Frederick T. Foxdown, Wellington, Somerset.
*Eny, The Right Rev. Lord Atwynz Compton, D.D., Lord Bishop
of, The Palace, Ely, Cambridgeshire,
{Embleton, Dennis, M.D. Northumberland-street, Newcastle-on-
‘yne.
tEmery, Albert H. Stamford, Connecticut, U.S.A.
Emery, The Ven. Archdeacon, B.D. Ely, Cambridgeshire.
{Emmons, Hamilton, Mount Vernon Lodge, Leamington.
1858. {Empson, Christopher. Bramhope Hall, Leeds.
1866, {Enfield, Richard. Low Pavement, Nottingham.
1884,
{tEngland, Luther M. Knowlton, Quebec, Canada.
1853. {English, Edgar Wilkins. Yorkshire Banking Company, Lowgate,
1869.
Hull.
{English, J.T. Wayfield House, Stratford-on-Avon.
1883. {Entwistle, James P. Beachfield, 2 Westclyffe-road, Southport,
1869,
1844.
1864.
1885.
1862.
*Enys, John Davis. Care of F. G. Enys, Esq., Enys, Penryn,
Cornwall.
fErichsen, John Eric, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.S., Professor of Surgery
in University College, London. 6 Cavendish-place, - Lon-
don, W.
*Eskrigge, R. A., F.G.S. 18 Hackins-hey, Liverpool.
{Esselmont, Peter, M.P. 34 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
*Esson, Wiit1aM, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.R.A.S. Merton College,
and 13 Bradmore-road, Oxford.
1878. {Estcourt, Charles, F.C.S. 8 St. James’s-square, John Dalton-street,
Manchester.
1887. *Estcourt, Charles. Vyrnieu House, Talbot-road, Old Trafford,
Manchester.
1887, *Esteourt, P. A. WVyrnieu House, Talbot-road, Old Trafford, Man-
chester. ; :
Estcourt, Rev. W. J. B. Long Newton, Tetbury.
1869. {ErHeripes, Rosert, F.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S., Assistant Keeper (Geo-
logical and Paleontological Department) Natural History
Museum (British Museum). 14 Carlyle-square, London,
S.W.
1883. §Eunson, Henry J. 20St. Giles-street, Northampton.
1881, tEvans, Alfred. Exeter College, Oxford.
1870, *Evans, Arthur John, F.S.A. 33 Holywell, Oxford.
1865
. *Evans, Rev. Cuartes, M.A. The Rectory, Solihull, Birmingham.
1884, §Evans, Horace L. Moreton House, Tyndall Park, Bristol.
1869. *Evans, H. Saville W. Wimbledon Park House, Wimbledon, Surrey.
Cc 2
36 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1861. *Evans, Jon, D.C.L., LL.D., Treas.R.S., F.S.A., F.L.5.,F.G.S. 65
Old Bailey, London, E.C.; and Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.
1883. §Evans, J.C. Nevill-street, Southport.
1883. §Evans, Mrs. J.C. Nevill-street, Southport.
1881. tEvans, Lewis. Llanfyrnach R.S.0., Pembrokeshire.
1876. {Evans, Mortimer, M.Inst.C.E. 97 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
1885. *Evans, Percy Bagnall. The Spring, Kenilworth.
1865. {Evans, SEBASTIAN, M.A., LL.D. Heathfield, Alleyne Park, Lower
Norwood, Surrey, S.E.
1875. tEvans, Sparke. 3 Apsley-road, Clifton, Bristol.
1865. *Evans, William. The Spring, Kenilworth.
1886. {Eve, A. S. Marlborough College, Wilts.
1871. §Eve, H. Weston, M.A. University College, London, W.C.
1868. *Everert, J. D., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of
Natural Philosophy in Queen’s College, Belfast. 5 Prince’s-
gardens, Belfast.
1880. tEveringham, Edward. St. Helen’s-road, Swansea.
1863. *Everitt, George Allen, F.R.G.S. Knowle Hall, Warwickshire.
1886. §Everitt, Wiliam E. Finstall Park, Bromsgrove.
1883. tEves, Miss Florence. Uxbridge.
1881. tEwart, J. Cossar, M.D., Professor of Natural History in the
University of Edinburgh. .
1874, tEwart, William, M.P. Glenmachan, Belfast.
1874. tEwart, W. Quartus. Glenmachan, Belfast.
1859. *Ewing, Sir Archibald Orr, Bart., M.P. Ballikinrain Castle, Killearn
Stirlingshire. ;
1876. *Ewine, Jamus ALFRED, B.Sc., F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of Engineer-
ing in University College, Dundee. Fe
1883. {Ewing, James L. 52 North Bridge, Edinburgh.
1871. *Exley, John T., M.A. 1 Cotham-road, Bristol.
1884. §Eyerman, John. Easton, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
1882. {Eyre,G. E. Briscoe. Warrens, near Lyndhurst, Hants.
Eyton, Charles. Hendred House, Abingdon.
1884. tFairbairn, Dr. A. M. Airedale College, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1865. *FarrtEy, THomas, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 8 Newton-grove, Leeds.
1876. { Fairlie, James M. Charing Cross Corner, Glasgow.
1870. tFairlie, Robert. Woodlands, Clapham Common, London, 8.W.
1886. §Fairley, William. Beau Desert, Rugeley, Staffordshire.
1864, {Falkner, F. H. Lyncombe, Bath.
1886. Fallon, T. P., Consul General. Australia.
1883. {Fallon, Rev. W.S. 1 St. Alban’s-terrace, Cheltenham.
1877. §Faravay, F. J., F.L.S., F.S.S. College Chambers, 17 Brazenose-
street, Manchester.
1887. §Farmer, Sir James. Hope House, Eccles Old-road, Manchester.
1886. §Farncombe, Joseph, J.P. Lewes.
1879, *Farnworth, Ernest. Clarence Villa, Penn Fields, Wolverhampton.
1883. §Farnworth, Walter. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn.
1883. {Farnworth, William. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn.
1885. {Farquhar, Admiral. Carlogie, Aberdeen.
1859. {Farquharson, Robert F.O. Haughton, Aberdeen.
1885. {Farquharson, Mrs. R. F.O. Haughton, Aberdeen.
1866. *Farrar, Ven. Freperick Witriam, M.A., D.D., F.R.S., Arch-
deacon of Westminster. St. Margaret’s Rectory, Westminster,
S.W.
1883. tFarrell, John Arthur. Moynalty, Kells, North Ireland.
1857 { Farrelly, Rey. Thomas. Royal College, Maynooth.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 37
Yer of
Hection.
1869.
1883.
1887.
1863.
1873.
1886.
1864.
1852.
1883.
1876.
1883,
1859.
1871.
1867.
1857.
1854,
1867.
1883.
1883.
1862.
1873.
1882.
1887.
1875.
1868.
1886.
1869.
1887.
1882.
1883.
1883,
1885.
1878.
1885.
1884,
1887.
1881.
1863.
1851.
1858.
1884.
1869.
1873.
*Faulding, Joseph. Ebor Villa, Godwin-road, Clive-vale, Hastings.
§Faulding, Mrs. Ebor Villa, Godwin-road, Cive-vale, Hastings.
§Faulkner, John. 13 Great Ducie-street, Strangeways, Manchester.
{Faweus, George. -Alma-place, North Shields.
*Fazakerley, Miss. Banwell Abbey, Weston-super-Mare, Somerset.
§Felkin, Robert W., M.D.,F.R.G.S. 20 Alva-street, Edinburgh.
‘Fell, John B. Spark’s Bridge, Ulverstone, Lancashire.
*Fettows, Frank P., K.S.JJ., F.S.A., F.S.S. 8 The Green, Hamp-
stead, London, N.W.
tFenton,S.Greame. 9 College-square ; and Keswick, near Belfast.
+Fenwick, E.H. 29 Harley-street, London, W.
{Ferguson, Alexander A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow.
tFerguson, Mrs. A. A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow.
tFerguson, John. Cove, Nigg, Inverness. eps
*Ferguson, John, M.A., Professor of Chemistry in the University of
Glasgow.
tFerguson, Robert M., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. 8 Queen-street, Edinburgh.
{Ferguson, Sir Samuel, LL.D.,Q.C. 20 Great George’s-street North,
Dublin.
tFerguson, William, F.L.S., F.G.S8. Kinmundy, near Mintlaw,
Aberdeenshire.
*Fergusson, HB. 18 Airlie-place, Dundee.
{Fernald, H. P. Alma House, Cheltenham.
*Fernie John. 113 South 40th Street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.
tFrrrers, Rev. Norman Macrzop, D.D., F.R.S. Caius College
Lodge, Cambridge. ‘
tFerrier, David, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Forensic Medicine
in King’s College. 34 Cavendish-square, London, W.
§Fewings, James, B.A., B.Sc. The Grammar School, Southampton.
§Fiddes, Thomas, M.D. Penwood, Urmston, near Manchester.
tFiddes, Walter. Clapton Villa, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton, Bristol.
tField, Edward. Norwich.
{Field, H.C. 4 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Fretp, Rogers, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. 4 Westminster-chambers, West-
minster, S. W.
§Fielden, John ©. 145 Upper Brook-street, Manchester.
{Filliter, Freeland. St. Martin’s House, Wareham, Dorset.
*Finch, Gerard B., M.A. 10 Lyndhurst-road, London, N. W.
{ Finch, Mrs. Gerard. 10 Lyndhurst-road, London, N.W.
Finch, John, Bridge Work, Chepstow.
Finch, John, jun. Bridge Work, Chepstow.
{Frxpiater, Joun. 60 Union-street, Aberdeen.
*Findlater, William. 22 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.
{Findlay, George, M.A. 50 Victoria-street, Aberdeen.
{Finlay, Samuel. Montreal, Canada.
§Finnemore, Rev. J., F.G.S. 175 Oldbam-road, Manchester.
{Firth, Colonel Sir Charles. Heckmondwike.
Firth, Thomas. Northwick.
*Firth, William. Burley Wood, near Leeds.
*Fiscuer, Professor Wituiam L. F., M.A., LL.D., F.RS. St.
Andrews, N.B.
{Fishbourne, Admiral E.G., R.N. 26 Hogarth-road, Earl’s Court-
road, London, S. W.
*Fisher, L. C. Galveston, Texas, U.S.A.
tFisoer, Rev. Osmonp, M.A., F.G.S. Harlton Rectory, near
__ Cambridge.
{Fisher, William. Maes Fron, near Welshpool, Montgomeryshire.
38
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1879
1875,
1887
1850.
1881.
1876.
1876.
1867.
1870.
1886.
1869.
1862.
1877.
1887.
1883.
1881.
1879.
1879.
1880.
1873.
1883.
1885.
1866.
1875.
1883.
1887.
1867.
1883.
1884.
1854.
1877.
1882.
1858.
{Fisher, William. Norton Grange, near Sheffield.
*Fisher, W. W., M.A., F.C.S. 5 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford.
{Fishwick, Henry. Carr-hill, Rochdale.
. *Fison, Alfred H., D.Sc. 1 Melcombe-place, Dorset-square, London,
N.W
1885.
Lez,
1871.
1883.
1868.
1878.
1878.
1885.
1857.
1865.
tFison, E. Herbert. Stoke House, Ipswich.
*Fison, Frepprick W., M.A., F.C.S. Eastmoor, Ilkley, York-
shire.
tFircn, J. G., M.A., LL.D. 5 Lancaster-terrace, Regent’s Park,
London, N.W.
{Fitch, Rev. J. J. Ivyholme, Southport.
{Fitch, Robert, F.G.S., F.S.A. Norwich.
tFitzgerald, C. E., M.D. 27 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.
§Firz@ERALD, Gror@r Francis, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Natural
and Experimental Philosophy. Trinity College, Dublin.
*Fitzgerald, Professor Maurice, B.A. 387 Botanic-avenue, Belfast,
{Fitzpatrick, Thomas, M.D. 31 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.
tFleetwood, D. J. 45 George-street, St. Paul’s, Birmingham.
Fleetwood, Sir Peter Hesketh, Bart. Rossall Hall, Fleetwood,
Lancashire.
tFleming, Professor Alexander, M.D. 121 Hagley-road, Birmingham.
{Fleming, Rev. Canon James, B.D. The Residence, York.
tFleming, James Brown. Beaconsfield, Kelvinside, near Glasgow.
tFleming, Sandford. Ottawa, Canada.
§Frercumr, Atrrep E., F.C.S. 57 Gordon-square, London, W.C.
{Fletcher, B. Edgington. Norwich.
tFletcher, Frank M. 57 Gordon-square, London, W.C.
tFiercumr, Lavineron E., M.Inst.C.E, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
§Ftowrr, Witi1am Henry, C.B., LL.D., F.RS., F.LS., F.GS.,
F.R.C.S., Director of the Natural History Department, British
Museum, South Kensington, London, 8. W. ;
*Floyer, Ernest A., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Cairo.
§Foale, William. 38 Meadfoot-terrace, Mannamead, Plymouth.
{Foale, Mrs. William. 3 Meadfoot-terrace, Mannamead, Plymouth.
{Foljambe, Cecil G. S., M.P. 2 Carlton House-terrace, Pall Mall,
London, S. W.
tFoote, Charles Newth, M.D. 3 Albion-place, Sunderland.
tFoote, Harry D’Oyley, M.D. Rotherham, Yorkshire.
tFoote, R. Bruce. Care of Messrs. H. S. King & Co., 65 Cornhill,
London, E.C.
*Forbrs, Groner, M.A., F.R.S. L. & E. 34 Great George-street,
London, 8. W.
tForbes, Henry O., F.Z.S. Rubislaw Den, Aberdeen.
tForbes, The Right Hon. Lord. Castle Forbes, Aberdeenshire.
{tFord, William. Hartsdown Villa, Kensington Park-gardens East,
London, W.
*Forpuam, H. Groren, F.G.S. Odsey Grange, Royston, Cambridge-
shire.
§Formby, R. Formby, near Liverpool.
§Forrest, Joun, C.M.G., F.R.G.S. Perth, Western Australia.
{Forster, Anthony. Finlay House, St. Leonard’s-on-Sea.
tForsyth, A. R. Trinity College, Cambridge.
{Fort,George H. Lakefield, Ontario, Canada.
*Fort, Richard. Read Hall, Whalley, Lancashire.
{Forrrscur, The Right Hon. the Earl. Castle Hill, North Devon.
§Forward, Henry. 2 St. Agnes-terrace, Victoria Park-road, Lon-
don, E.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 39
Year of
Election.
1870. {Forwood, Sir William B. Hopeton House, Seaforth, Liverpool.
1875. {Foster, A. Le Neve. 51 Cadogan-square, London, 8.W.
1865. tFoster, Balthazar, M.D., Professor of Medicine in Queen’s College,
Birmingham. 16 Temple-row, Birmingham.
1865. *Foster, Crement Lz Neve, B.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. Llandudno.
1883. {Foster, Mrs. C. Le Neve. Llandudno.
1857.
1845.
1877.
1859.
1863.
1866.
1868.
1876.
1882.
1870.
1884.
1885.
1883.
1860.
1883.
1876.
1860.
1876.
1886.
1881.
1866.
1884.
1846.
1887.
1882,
1885.
1859.
1865.
1871.
1859.
1871.
1884.
*Fostpr, Grorcr Carer, B.A., F.RS., F.C.S., Professor of
Physics in University College, London. 18 Daleham-gardens,
Hampstead, London, N.W.
tFoster, John N. Sandy Place, Sandy, Bedfordshire.
§Foster, Joseph B. 6 James-street, Plymouth.
*Fosrer, Micwart, M.A., M.D., LL.D., Sec. R.S., F.LS., F.CS.,
Professor of Physiology in the University of Cambridge. Trinity
College, and Great Shelford, near Cambridge.
{Foster, Robert. 30 Rye-hill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Fowler, George, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Basford Hall, near Nottingham.
{Fowler, G. G@. Gunton Hall, Lowestoft, Suffolk.
*Fowler, John. 4 Kelvin Bank-terrace, Glasgow.
{Fow1er, Sir Joun, K.C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 2 Queen Square-
place, Westminster, S.W.
*Fowler, Sir Robert Nicholas, Bart., M.A., M.P., F.R.G.S.
50 Cornhill, London, E.C.
{Fox, Miss A.M. Penjerrick, Falmouth.
*Fox, Charles. 28 Glasshouse-street, Regent-street, London, W.
§Fox, Sir Charles Douglas, M.Inst.C.E. 5 Delahay-street, Westmin-
ster, S.W.
*Fox, Rev. Edward, M.A. Upper Heyford, Banbury.
{Fox, Howard, United States Consul. Falmouth.
*Fox, Joseph Hayland. The Cleve, Wellington, Somerset.
tFox, Joseph John. Lordship-terrace, Stoke Newington, London, N.
{Fox, St. G. Lane. 9 Sussex-place, London, 8. W.
{Foxwell, Arthur, M.A., M.B. 17 Temple-row, Birmingham.
*FoxweEL, Hersert S., M.A., F.S.S., Professor of Political Economy
in University College, London. St. John’s College, Cam-
bridge.
*Francis,G.B. Vale House, Hertford.
{Francis, James B. Lowell, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Francis, Wini1AM, Ph.D., F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Red Lion-court,
Fleet-street, London, E.C.; and Manor House, Richmond,
Surrey.
{FRANKLAND, Epwanrp, M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., F.B.S., F.C.S.
The Yews, Reigate Hill, Surrey.
§Frankland, Percy F.,Ph.D. Royal School of Mines, South Kensing-
ton, London, 8.W.
§Fraser, Alexander, M.B. Royal College of Surgeons, Dublin.
{Fraser, Anevs, M.A., M.D., F,C.S. 232 Union-street, Aberdeen.
{Fraser, George B. 3 Airlie-place, Dundee.
Fraser, James William. 8a Kensington Palace-gardens, London, W.
*Fraser, JoHn, M.A., M.D. Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton.
{Frasrr, Tuomas R., M.D., F.R.S.L.&E., Professor of Materia
Medica and Clinical Medicine in the University of Edinburgh.
87 Melville-street, Edinburgh.
*Frazer, Daniel. 127 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.
{Frazer, Evan L. R. Brunswick-terrace, Spring Bank, Hull.
*Frazer, Persifor, M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in_ the
Franklin Institute of Pennsylvania. 917 Clinton-street, Phila~
delphia, U.S.A.
40
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1884.
1860.
1847.
1877.
1865,
1880,
1841,
1884.
1869.
1886.
1886.
1887.
1857.
1883.
1887
1882.
1883.
1887.
1875.
1875.
1884,
1872.
1859.
1869.
1884,
1881.
1887.
1857.
1863,
1876.
1850,
1876.
1863.
1885,
1861.
1861.
1875.
1887,
1860.
1860,
1869,
1887.
*Fream, W., BSc, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.S., Professor of Natural
History in the College of Agriculture, Downton, Salisbury.
{Freeborn, Richard Fernandez. 88 Broad-street, Oxford.
*Freeland, Humphrey William, F.G.S. West-street, Chichester.
§Freeman, Francis Ford. 8 Leigham-terrace, Plymouth.
{Freeman, James. 15 Francis-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Freeman, Thomas. Brynhyfryd, Swansea.
Freeth, Major-General S. 30 Royal-crescent, Notting Hill, London,
W.
*Fremantle, Hon. C. W.,C.B. Royal Mint, London, E,
tFrere, Rey. William Edward. The Rectory, Bilton, near Bristol.
{Freshfield, Douglas W., Sec.R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, London, W.
{Freund, Miss Ida. Eyre Cottage, Upper Sydenham, 8.E.
§Fries, Harold H., Ph.D. 92 Reade-street, New York, U.S.A.
*Frith, Richard Hastings, M.R.LA., F.R.G.S.I. 48 Summer-hill,
Dublin.
{Froane, William. Beech House, Birkdale, Southport.
§Froehlich, The Chevalier. Grosyenor-terrace, Withington, Man-
chester,
§Frost, Edward P., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire.
{Frost, Major H., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire.
*Frost, Robert, B.Sc. St. James’s Chambers, Duke-street, London, 8. W.
tFry, F. J. 104 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.
*Fry, Joseph Storrs. 2 Charlotte-street, Bristol.
§Fryer, Joseph, J.P. Smelt House, Howden-le-Wear, Co. Durham.
*Fuller, Rev. A. Pallant, Chichester.
tFutier, Freperick, M.A. 9 Palace-road, Surbiton.
{Futter, Grorer, M.Inst.C.E. 71 Lexham-gardens, Kensington,
London, W.
§Fuller, William. Oswestry.
tGabb, Rey. James, M.A. Bulmer Rectory, Welburn, Yorkshire.
§Gaddum, G. H. Adria House, Toy-lane, Withington, Manchester.
*Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A. Ewell Castle, Surrey.
{Gacxs, Atpoonsr, M.R.ILA. Museum of Irish Industry, Dublin.
*Gansford, W. D. Aswardby Hall, Spilsby.
{Gairdner, Charles. Broom, Newton Mearns, Renfrewshire.
fGairdner, Professor W. T., M.D. 225 St. Vincent-street, Glas-
cow.
Gatprarru, Rey. J. A.. M.A., M.R.LA. Trinity College, Dublin.
tGale, James M. 23 Miller-street, Giaszow.
TGale, Samuel, F.C.S. 225 Oxford-street, London, W.
*Gallaway, Alexander. ‘Tighnault, Aberfeldy, N.B.
tGalloway, Charles John. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester.
{Galloway, John, jun. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester.
tGarttoway, W. Cardiff.
*Galloway, W. The Cottage, Seymour-grove, Old Trafford, Man-
chester.
*Gatton, Sir Doveras, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.RS., F.LS.,
F.G.S., F.R.G.S. (Guyrrat Srcrerary.) 12 Chester-street,
Grosvenor-place, London, S.W.
*Gatron, Francis, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 42 Rutland-
gate, Knightsbridge, London, S.W.
fGatron, Jonn C., M.A., F.L.S. 40 Great Marlborough-street,
London, W.
*Galton, Miss Laura Gwendolen Douglas. 12 Chester-street, Gros-
venor-place, London, S.W.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 41
Year of
Election,
1870,
1870.
1872.
1877.
1868,
1885.
1887.
1882.
1882,
1884.
1862.
1865.
1887.
1882.
1873.
1883.
1874.
1882.
1870.
1870.
1847.
1862.
1875.
1875.
1871.
1883.
1885,
1854,
1887.
1867.
1871,
1882.
1875.
1885,
1884,
1870.
1884,
1865.
1874,
1876.
§Gamble, Lieut.-Colonel D. St. Helen’s, Lancashire.
tGamble, J.C. St. Helen’s, Lancashire.
*Gamble, John G., M.A. Capetown. (Care of Messrs. Ollivier and
Brown, 37 Sackville-street, Piccadilly, London, W.)
tGamble, William. St. Helen’s, Lancashire.
{Gamerg, Arraor, M.D., F.R.8., Fullerian Professor of Physiology
in the Royal Institution, London. 11 Warrior-square, St.
Leonard’s-on-Sea.
tGant, Major John Castle. St. Leonard’s.
§GARDINER Water, M.A. Clare College, Cambridge.
*Gardner, H. Dent, F.R.G.S. 25 Northbrook-road, Lee, Kent.
}Gardner, John Starkie, F.G.S. 7 Damer-terrace, Chelsea, London,
S.W
tGarman, Samuel. Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
{Garner, Ropert, F.L.S. Stoke-upon-Trent.
t¢Garner, Mrs. Robert. Stoke-upon-Trent.
*Garnett, J. W. The Grange, near Bolton, Lancashire.
fGarnett, William, D.C.L., Principal of the College of Physical
Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tGarnham, John. Hazelwood, Crescent-road, St. John’s, Brockley,
Kent, S.E.
§Garson, J. G., M.D. 14 Suffolk-street, Pall Mall, London, S.W.
*Garstin, John Ribton, M.A., LL.B., M.R.LA., F.S.A. Bragan:-
town, Castlebellingham, Ireland.
tGarton, William. Woolston, Southampton.
tGaskell, Holbrook. Woolton Wood, Liverpool.
*Gaskell, Holbrook, jun. Clayton Lodge, Aigburth, Liverpool.
*Gaskell, Samuel. Church House, Weybridge.
*Gatty, Charles Henry, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. Felbridge Place, East
Grinstead, Sussex.
tGavey, J. 43 Stacey-road, Routh, Cardiff.
tGaye, Henry S., M.D. Newton Abbot, Devon.
tGeddes, John. 9 Melyille-crescent, Edinburgh.
{Geddes, John, 33 Portland-street, Southport.
§Geddes, Patrick. 6 James-court, Edinburgh.
tGee, Robert, M.D. 5 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
§Gee, W. W. Haldane. Denbigh Meadows, Heaton Chapel, Stock-
port.
{GEIKIg, ARcHIBALD, LL.D., F.R.S. L.& E., F.G.S., Director-General
of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Geological
Survey Office, Jermyn-street, London, S.W.
tGeikie, James, LL.D., F.R.S. L.& E., F.G.S., Murchison Professor
of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Edinburgh.
10 Bright’s-crescent, Mayfield, Edinburgh.
*Genese, R. W., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University Col-
lege, Aberystwith.
*George, Rev. Hereford B., M.A., F.R.G.S. New College, Oxford.
tGerard, Robert. Blair-Devenick, Cults, Aberdeen.
*Gerrans, Henry T., M.A. Worcester College, Oxford.
*Gervis, Walter S., M.D., F.G.S. Ashburton, Devonshire.
tGibb, Charles. Abbotsford, Quebec, Canada.
{Gibbins, William. Battery Works, Digbeth, Birmingham.
see Pig Right Hon. Edward, Q.C. 23 Fitzwilliam-square,
ublin.
"Gibson, George Alexander, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Secretary to the
Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. 17 Alva-street,
Edinburgh,
42
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1884.
1885,
1887.
1884,
1842.
1883.
1857.
1884,
1883,
1882,
1878,
1878.
1871.
1868.
1864.
1887.
1884.
1861.
1867.
1887.
1867.
1884.
1874.
1884
1886.
1883.
1883.
1850.
1849.
1861.
1871.
1883.
1881.
1887.
1881.
1870.
1867.
1874.
1887.
1870.
1872.
1886.
1887.
{Gibson, Rev. James J. 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Panada. ’
§Gibson, John, Ph.D. The University, Edinburgh. fi
§Girren, Rosert, LL.D., V.P.S.S. 44 Pembroke-road, London, S.W.
tGilbert, EH. E. 945 St. ‘Antoine-street, Montreal, Canada.
GitBeRt, JosepH Henry, Ph.D., LL. 'D., E.R. S, F.0.8., Professor
of Rural Economy in the University of Oxford. Harpenden,
near St. Albans.
§Gilbert, Mrs, Harpenden, near St. Albans.
tGilbert, J.T., M.R.LA. Villa Nova, Blackrock, Dublin.
*Gilbert, Philip H. 245 St. Antoine-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Gilbert, Thomas. Derby-road, Southport.
Gilderdale, Rev. John, M.A. Walthamstow, Essex.
tGiles, Alfred, M.P., M.I.C.E. Cosford, Godalming.
tGiles, Oliver. Park Side, Cromwell-road, St. Andrew’s, Bristol.
Giles, Rev. William. Netherleich House, near Chester.
{Gill, Rev. A. W. H.. 44 Eaton-square, London, 8.W.
*Gitt, Davin, LL.D., F.R.S. Royal Observatory, Cape Town.
tGill, Joseph. Palermo, Sicily. (Care of W. H. Gill, Esq., General
Post Office, St. Martin’s-le~-Grand, E.C.)
tGitt, THomas. 4 Sydney-place, Bath.
§Gillett, Charles Edwin. Wood Green, Banbury, Oxford.
{tGillman, Henry. 79 East Columbia-street, Detroit, Michigan,
U.S.A.
*Gilroy, George. Woodlands, Parbold, near Wigan.
tGilroy, Robert. Craigie, by Dundee.
*Gimingham, Charles H. Stamford House, Northumberland Park,
Tottenham, Middlesex.
§Ginspure, Rev. C. D., D.C.L., LL.D, Holmlea, Virginia Water
Station, Chertsey.
tGirdwood, Dr. G. P. 28 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada.
*Girdwood, James Kennedy. Old Park, Belfast.
{Gisborne, Frederick Newton. Ottawa, Canada.
*Gisborne, Hartley. Battleford, Saskatchewan District, Canada.
*Gladstone, Miss. 17 Pembridge-square, London, W.
*Gladstone, Miss EK. A. 17 Pembridge-square, London, W.
*Gladstone, George, F.C.S., F.R.G.S. 34 Denmark-villas, Hove,
Brighton.
*GrapstonE, Joun Hatt, Ph.D., F.RS., F.C.8. 17 Pembridge-
square, London, W.
*GLAISHER, JAMES, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 1 Dartmouth-place, Black-
heath, London, 8.E.
*GuiaisHer, J. W. L., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Pres.R.A.S. Trinity
College, Cambridge.
tGlasson, L. T. 2 Roper-street, Penrith.
*GrazEBRook, R. T., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.
§Glazier, Walter H. Courtlands, Hast Molesey, Surrey.
*Gleadow, Frederic. Forth Bridge Works, South Queensferry, N.B.
§Glen, David Corse, F.G.S. 14 Annfield-place, Glasgow.
tGloag, John A. Tit) 20 Inverleith-place, Edinburgh.
Glover, George. Ranelagh-road, Pimlico, London, S.W.
tGlover, George T. 850 Donegall-place, Belfast.
Glover, Thomas. 124 Manchester-road, Southport.
§Glover, Walter T. Moorhurst, Kersal, Manchester.
tGlynn, Thomas R. 1 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
{Gopparp, RicHarp. 16 Booth-street, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tGodlee, Arthur. 3 Greenfield-crescent, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
§Godlee, Francis. 51 Portland-street, Manchester.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 43
Year of}
Election,
1878.
1880.
1883.
1852.
1879.
1876.
1886.
1881.
1887.
1873.
1884,
1878.
1852.
1884.
1886.
1885,
1865.
1869,
1884.
1884.
1883.
1885.
1885.
1885.
1871.
1884.
1857.
1885.
1887.
1865.
1875.
1873.
1849.
1857.
1881,
1868.
1873.
1867
1876
1883.
1873.
.
*Godlee, J. Lister. 3 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.O.
tGopman, F. Dv Cant, F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S. 10 Chandos-street,
Cavendish-square, London, W.
tGodson, Dr. Alfred. Cheadle, Cheshire.
t{Godwin, John. Wood House, Rostrevor, Belfast.
§Gopwin-Avsren, Lieut.-Colonel H. H., F.R.S., F.R.GS., F.Z.8.
Shalford House, Guildford.
{Goff, Bruce, M.D. Bothwell, Lanarkshire.
§Gotpsmi1p, Major-General Sir F. J., C.B., K.CS.1., F.R.G.S.
3 Observatory-avenue, London, W.
tGoldschmidt, Edward. Nottingham.
§Goldschmidt, Philip. Oldenburg House, Rusholme, Manchester.
{Goldthorp, Miss R. F.C. Cleckheaton, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tGood, Charles E. 102 St. Francois Xavier-street, Montreal, Canada.
tGood, Rev. Thomas, B.D. 51 Wellington-road, Dublin,
tGoodbody, Jonathan, Clare, King’s County, Ireland.
{Goodbody, Robert. Fairy Hill, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
tGoodman, F. B. 46 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tGoopmay, J. D., J.P. Peachfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tGoodman, J. D. Minories, Birmingham.
tGoodman, Neville, M.A. Peterhouse, Cambridge.
§Goodridge, Richard E. W. Box No. 382, Post Office, Winnipeg,
Canada.
t{Goodwin, Professor W.L. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario,
Canada.
tGoouch, B., B.A. 2 Oxford-road, Birkdale, Southport.
tGordon, General the Hon. Sir Alexander Hamilton, 50 Queen’s
Gate-gardens, London, 8. W.
§Gordon, Rey. Cosmo, D.D., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Chetwynd Rectory,
Newport, Salop.
t{Gordon, Rev. George, LL.D. Birnie, by Elgin, N.B.
*Gordon, Joseph Gordon, F.C.S. Queen Anne’s Mansions, West-
minster, 8. W.
Sots Robert, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.G.S. Fernhill, Henbury, near
ristol.
tGordon, Samuel, M.D. 11 Hume-street, Dublin.
§Gordon, Rev. William. Braemar, N.B.
§Gordon, William John. 21 Catherstone-terrace, London, S.W.
tGore, George, LL.D., F.R.S. 50 Islington-row, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.
*Gotch, Francis, B.A., B.Sc. Holywell Cottage, Oxford.
*Gotch, Rey. Frederick William, LL.D. Stokes Croft, Bristol.
*Gotch, Thomas Henry. Kettering.
§Gott, Charles, M.Inst.C.E. Parkfield-road, Manningham, Bradford,
Yorkshire.
{Gough, The Hon. Frederick. Perry Hall, Birmingham.
t{Gough, The Right Hon. George S., Viscount, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.
St. Helen’s, Booterstown, Dublin.
{Gough, Thomas, B.Sc., F.C.S. Elmfield College, York.
t¢Gould, Rev. George. Unthank-road, Norwich.
t{Gourlay, J. McMillan. 21 St. Andrew’s-place, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Gourley, Henry (Engineer). Dundee.
tGow, Robert. Cairndowan, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
§Gow, Mrs. Cairndowan, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
Gowland, James. London-wall, London, E.C.
§Goyder, Dr. D. Marley House, 88 Great Horton-road, Bradford,
Yorkshire.
44
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election,
1886,
1861.
1867.
1875.
1852.
1870.
1855.
1854,
1864.
1887.
1881.
1887.
1881.
1864.
1865.
1876.
1881.
1859.
1887.
1887.
1886.
1881.
1883.
1873.
1885.
1883.
1886.
1883.
1866.
1887.
1869.
1872.
1872,
1879.
1887.
1887,
1858.
1882.
1881.
1884.
1884,
1884,
1887.
1863.
1875.
1862.
§Grabham, Michael C., M.D. Madeira.
tGrafton, Frederick W. Park-road, Whalley Range, Manchester.
*GraHam, Crrit, C.M.G., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Travellers’ Club, Pall
Mall, London, 8S. W.
tGRaHAME, JAMES. 12 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
*GRAINGER, Rey. Canon Joun, D.D.,M.R.LA. Skerty and Rathcavan
Rectory, Broughshane, near Ballymena, Co. Antrim.
t{Granr, Colonel Jamzus A., O.B., C.S.L, F.R.S., F.LS., F.R.GS.
19 Upper Grosvenor-street, London, W.
*Grant, Rosert, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Regius Professor of
Astronomy in the University of Glasgow. The Observatory,
Glasgow.
{GranrHam, Ricwarp B., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Northumberland-
chambers, Northumberland-avenue, London, W.C.
{Grantham, Richard F. Northumberland-chambers, Northumberland-
' avenue, London, W.C.
§Gratrix, Samuel. Alport Town, Manchester.
tGraves, HE. 22 Trebovir-road, Earl’s Court-road, London, S.W.
§Grayes, John. Broomhurst, Eccles Old-road, Manchester.
tGray, Alan, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.
*Gray, Rev. Charles. The Vicarage, Blyth, Worksop.
tGray, Charles. Swan-bank, Bilston.
tGray, Dr. Newton-terrace, Glasgow.
tGray, Edwin, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.
tGray, Rev. J. H. Bolsover Castle, Derbyshire.
§Gray, Joseph W., F.G.S. Spring Hill, Wellington-road South,
Stockport.
§Gray, M. H., F.G.S. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.
§Gray, Robert Kaye. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.
{Gray, Thomas, The University, Glasgow.
tGray, Thomas. Spital Hill, Morpeth.
tGray, William, M.R.I.A. 8 Mount Charles, Belfast.
*Gray, Colonel Witttam. Farley Hall, near Reading.
tGray, William Lewis. 36 Gutter-lane, London, E.C.
{Gray, Mrs. W. L. 36 Gutter-lane, London, E.C,
tGreaney, Rev. William. Bishop’s House, Bath-street, Birmingham.
§Greathead, J. H. 8 Victoria-chambers, London, S.W.
§Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 101 Friar-gate, Derby.
§Greaves, H. R. The Orchards, Mill End, Stockport.
{Greaves, William. Station-street, Nottingham.
TGreaves, William. 38 South-square, Gray’s Inn, London, W.C.
*Grece, Clair J., LL.D. Redhill, Surrey.
Green, A. F. 15 Ashwood-villas, Headingley, Leeds.
§Green, Frieze, 34 Gay-street, Bath.
§Greenhalgh, Richard. 1 Temple-gardens, The Temple, London, E.C.
*Greenhalgh, Thomas. Thornydikes, Sharples, near Bolton-le-Moors.
GREENHILL, A. G., M.A., Professor of Mathematics at the Royal
Artillery Institution, Woolwich. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
§Greenhough, Edward. Matlock Bath, Derbyshire.
{Greenish, Thomas, F'.C.S. 20 New-street, Dorset-square, London, N. W.
tGreenshields, EK. B. Montreal, Canada. ;
{Greenshields, Samuel. Montreal, Canada.
§Greenwell, G. C., jun. Poynton, near Stockport.
{Greenwell, G. E. Poynton, Cheshire.
t{Greenwood, Frederick. School of Medicine, Leeds.
*Greenwood, Henry. 32 Castle-street, and the Woodlands, Anfield-
road, Anfield, Liverpool.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 45
Year of
Election.
1877. {Greenwood, Holmes. 78 King-street, Accrington.
1883, {Greenwoop, J. G., LL.D., Vice-Chancellor of Victoria University.
Owens College, Manchester.
1849, {Greenwood, William. Stones, Todmorden.
1887. §Greenwood, Professor W. H., C.K. Firth College, Sheffield.
1887. *Greg, Arthur. Eagley, near Bolton, Lancashire.
1861. *Grec, Ropert Parris, F.G.8., F.R.A.S. Coles Patk, Bunting-
ford, Herts.
1833. Gregg, T. H. 12 Alexandra-road, Finsbury Park, London, N.
1860. {GrEGoR, Rey. Watrer, M.A. Pitsligo, Rosehearty, Aberdeenshire.
1868. {Gregory, Sir Charles Hutton, K.C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E. 2 Delahay-
street, Westminster, S.W.
1883. tGregson, Edward, Ribble View, Preston.
1888. {Gregson, G. E. Ribble View, Preston.
1861. *Gregson, Samuel Leigh. Aigburth-road, Liverpool.
1881. {Gregson, William. Baldersby, Thirsk.
1875. {Grenfell, : . Granville, B.A., F.G.S. 5 Albert-villas, Clifton,
Bristol.
1875. {Grey, Mrs. Maria G. 18 Cadogan-place, London, S.W.
1871. *Grierson, Samuel, Medical Superintendent of the District Asylum,
Melrose, N.B.
1859. {Gri=rson, Tuomas Bortz, M.D. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.
1875. {Grieve, David, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Lockharton-gardens, Slateford,
Edinburgh.
1878. (Griffin, Robert, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin.
1859. *GrirritH, Groren, M.A., F.C.S. Harrow.
1870. {Griffith, Rev. Henry, F.G.S. Brooklands, Isleworth, Middlesex.
1884. {Griffiths, E.H. 12 Park-side, Cambridge.
1884. tGriffiths, Mrs. 12 Park-side, Cambridge.
1847. {Griffiths, Thomas. Bradford-street, Birmingham.
1879. §Griffiths, Thomas, F.C.S., F.S.S._ Heidelberg House, King’s-road,
Clapham Park, London, 8.W.
1875. {Grignon, James, H.M. Consul at Riga. Riga.
1870. {Grimsdale, T. F., M.D. 29 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
1884, {Grinnell, Frederick. Providence, Rhode Island, U.S.A.
1881. {Gripper, Edward. Nottingham.
1864. {Groom-Naprer, Cartes Orriny. 18 Elgin-road, St. Peter’s
Park, London, N.W.
Grove, The Hon. Sir Wrir1aAm Roser, Knt., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S. 115 Harley-street, London, W.
1863. *Groves, Tomas B., F.C.S. 80 St. Mary-street, Weymouth.
1869. {Gruss, Sir Howarp, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 141 Leinster-road, Rath-
mines, Dublin.
1886. §Grundy, John. Park Drive, Nottingham.
1867. {Guild, John. Bayfield, West Ferry, Dundee.
1887. §GuitLEmMaRD, F. H. H. Eltham, Kent.
Guinness, Henry. 17 College-green, Dublin.
1842. Guinness, Richard Seymour. 17 College-green, Dublin.
1862. tGunn, John, M.A., F.G.S. 82 Prince of Wales-road, Norwich.
1885. tGunn, John. Dale, Halkirk, Caithness.
1877. tGunn, William, F.G.S, Office of the Geological Survey of Scot-
land, Sheriff's Court House, Edinburgh.
1866. {GunrHer, Arsert C. L.G., M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., Keeper of
the Zoological Collections in the British Museum. British
Museum, South Kensington, London, S.W.
1880. §Guppy, John J. Ivy-place, High-street, Swansea.
1868. *Gurney, John. Sprouston Hall, Norwich.
46
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1876.
1883.
1857.
1876.
1884,
1887.
1865.
1884.
1881.
1842.
1888.
1870.
1848.
1870.
1879,
1875.
1887.
1885.
1872.
1879.
1883.
1881.
1854.
1887.
1872.
1885.
1884.
1866.
1860.
1883.
1875.
1868.
1886.
1858.
1883.
1885.
1869.
1851.
1881,
1878.
1878.
1875.
1863.
1861.
tGuthrie, Francis. Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope.
{Guthrie, Malcolm. 2 Parkfield-road, Liverpool.
tGwynne, Rev. John. Tullyagnish, Letterkenny, Strabane, Ireland.
{Gwyruer, R. F., M.A. Owens College, Manchester.
tHaanel, E., Ph.D, Cobourg, Ontario, Canada.
§Hackett, Henry Eugene. Hyde-road, Gorton, Manchester.
tHackney, William. 9 Victoria-chambers, Victoria-street, London,
S.W,
tHadden, Captain C. F., R.A. Woolwich.
*Happon, ALFRED Cort, B.A., F.Z.8., Professor of Zoology in the
Royal College of Science, Dublin. :
Haden, G. N. Trowbridge, Wiltshire.
Hadfield, George. Victoria-park, Manchester.
*Hadfield, R. A. Hecla Works, Sheffield.
tHadivan, Isaac. 3 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
tHadland, William Jenkins. Banbury, Oxfordshire.
tHaigh, George. Waterloo, Liverpool.
*Hailstone, Edward, F.S.A. Walton Hall, Wakefield, Yorkshire.
tHaxs, H. Witsoy, Ph.D., F.C.S. Queenwood College, Hants.
tHale, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S.,F.R.G.S. Eton College, Windsor,
§Hale, The Hon. E. J. 9 Mount-street, Manchester.
{Haliburton, Robert Grant. National Club, Whitehall, London,
S.W,
{Hall, Dr. Alfred. 8 Mount Ephraim, Tunbridge Wells.
*Hall, Ebenezer. Abbeydale Park, near Sheffield.
*Hall, Miss Emily. 24 Scarisbrick-street, Southport.
tHall, Frederick Thomas, F.R.A.S, 15 Gray’s Inn-square, London,
W.C
*Hart, Hueu Ferrer, F.G.S. Sunnyside, Wavertree, Liverpool.
§Hall, John. Springbank, Leftwich, Northwich.
*Hall, Captain Marshall, F.G.S. St. John’s, Bovey Tracey, South
Devon.
§Hall, Samuel. 19 Aberdeen Park, Highbury, London, N.
t{Hall, Thomas Proctor. School of Practical Science, Toronto,
Canada.
*Hatt, TownsHEND M.,F.G.S. Pilton, Barnstaple.
tHall, Walter. 11 Pier-road, Erith.
*Hall, Miss Wilhelmina. The Gore, Eastbourne.
*Haurert, T. G. P., M.A. Claverton Lodge, Bath.
*Hatrerr, Witr1am Henry, F.L.8. Buckingham House, Marine
Parade, Brighton.
Halsall, Edward. 4 Somerset-street, Kingsdown, Bristol.
§Hambleton, G. W. 76 Upper Gloucester-place, London, N.W.
*Hambly, Charles Hambly Burbridge, F.G.S. Holmeside, Hazelwood,
Derby.
*Hamel, Egbert D. de. Middleton Hall, Tamworth.
tHamilton, David James. 1a Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
tHamilton, Rowland. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London, W.
tHammond, C. C. Lower Brook-street, Ipswich.
*Hammond, Robert. Hilldrop, Highgate, London, N.
tHanagan, Anthony. Luckington, Dalkey.
§Hance, Edward M., LL.B. 6 Sea Bank-avenue, Egremont, Cheshire.
tHancock, C. F.,M.A. 125 Queen’s-gate, London, S.W.
tHancock, John. 4 St. Mary’s-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tHancock, — 10 Upper Chadwell-street, Pentonville, Lon-
don, N.
1860,
LIST OF MEMBERS. 47
Year of
Election.
1857. t{Hancock, William J. 23 Synnot-place, Dublin.
1847. fHancock, W. Nersoy, LL.D., M.R.LA. 64 Upper Gardiner-
street, Dublin.
1876. {Hancock, Mrs. W. Neilson. 64 Upper Gardiner-street, Dublin.
1865. {Hands, M. Coventry.
1882. tHankinson, R.C. Bassett, Southampton.
1884. §Hannaford, EK. C. 1591 Catherine-street, Montreal, Canada.
1859. {Hannay, John. Montcoffer House, Aberdeen.
1886. §Hansford, Charles. 3 Alexandra-terrace, Dorchester.
1859, *Harcourt, A. G. Vernon, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. (GENERAL
SrcRETARY.) Cowley Grange, Oxford.
1886. *Hardcastle, Basil W., F.S.S. Beechenden, Hampstead, London,
N.W.
1884. *Hardcastle, Norman C., M.A., LL.M. Downing College, Cambridge.
1865. {Harding, Charles. Harborne Heath, Birmingham.
1869. {Harding, Joseph. Millbrooke House, Exeter.
1877. {Harding, Stephen. Bower Ashton, Clifton, Bristol.
1869. {Harding, William D. Islington Lodge, King’s Lynn, Norfolk.
1886. {Hardman, John B. St. John’s, Hunter’s-lane, Birmingham.
1872. { Hardwicke, Mrs. 192 Piccadilly, London, W.
1880. {Hardy, John. 118 Embden-street, Manchester.
1858. *Harz, Cuartes Jonny, M.D. Berkeley House, 15 Manchester-
square, London, W.
1858. {Hargrave, James. Burley, near Leeds.
1883. §Hargreaves, Miss H. M. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.
1883. {Hargreaves, Thomas. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.
1881. {Hargrove, William Wallace. St. Mary’s, Bootham, York.
1876. {Harker, Allen, F.L.S., Professor of Natural History in the Royal
Agricultural College, Cirencester.
1887. §Harker, T. H. Brook House, Fallowfield, Manchester.
1878. *Harlness, H. W. California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco,
California, U.S.A.
1871. esos; William, F.C.S. Laboratory, Somerset House, London,
W.C.
1875. *Harland, Rev. Albert Augustus, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.S.A. The
Vicarage, Harefield, Middlesex.
1877. *Harland, Henry Seaton. 8 Arundel-terrace, Brighton, Sussex.
1883. *Harley, Miss Clara. 4 Wellineton-square, Oxford.
1862. *Hartey, Groner, M.D., F.RS., F.C.S. 25 Harley-street, Lon-
don, W.
1883. *Harley, Harold. 14 Chapel-street, Bedford-row, London, W.C.
1862. *Hartey, Rev. Ropert, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 4 Wellington-square,
Oxford.
1868, *Harmer, F. W., F.G.S._ Oakland House, Cringleford, Norwich.
1881. *Harwer, Srpney F., B.Sc. King’s College, Cambridge.
1882. {Harper, G. T. Bryn Hyfrydd, Portswood, Southampton.
1872. {Harpley, Rev. William, M.A. Clayhanger Rectory, Tiverton.
1884. {Harrington, B. J., B.A., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry and
Mineralogy in McGill University, Montreal. Wallbrac-place,
Montreal, Canada.
1872. *Harris, Alfred. Lunefield, Kirkby-Lonsdale, Westmoreland.
1871. ere GroreE, F.S,A. Iselipps Manor, Northolt, Southall, Mid-
esex.
aa *Harris, G. W., M.Inst.C.E. Mount Gambier, South Australia.
884.
§Harris, Miss Katherine E. 73 Albert Hall Mansions, Kensington-
gore, London, SW.
tHarrison, Rey. Francis, M.A. North Wraxall, Chippenham.
48
Year of
Election
1864,
18738.
1874.
1858.
1870.
1853.
1883.
1863.
1886.
1886.
1854.
1885.
1876.
1881.
1875.
1871.
1886.
1887.
1870.
1885.
1885.
1862.
1884.
1882.
1875.
1886.
1857.
1874.
1887.
1872.
1864.
1868.
1884.
1887.
1887.
1886.
1863.
1859.
1877.
LIST OF MEMBERS.
{Harrison, George. Barnsley, Yorkshire.
amen George, Ph.D., F.LS., F.CS. 96, Northgate, Hudders-
ela,
tHarrison, G. D. B. 3 Beaufort-road, Clifton, Bristol.
ee eg Park, M.A. 22 Connaught-street, Hyde Park,
ondon, W.
tHarrison, RuGrINap. 51 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
{Harrison, Robert. 36 George-street, Hull.
{Harrison, Thomas. 384 Ash-street, Southport.
{Harrison, T. E. Engineers’ Office, Central Station, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.
§Harrison, William. The Horsehills, Wolverhampton.
tHarrison, W. Jerome, F.G.S. 365 Lodge-road, Hockley, Birmingham.
{Harrowby, The Right Hon. the Earl of. 39 Grosvenor-square
London, W.; and Sandon Hall, Lichfield. ;
{Hart, Cartes J. 10 Calthorpe-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Hart, Thomas. Brooklands, Blackburn. a
igi es F.G.S. Yewbarrow, Grange-over-Sands, Carn-
orth.
tHart, W. E. Kilderry, near Londonderry.
Hartley, James. Sunderland.
t{Harriey, Water Nort, F.RS.L.&E, F.CS., Professor of
Chemistry in the Royal College of Science, Dublin.
§Harroe, Professor M. M., D.Sc. Queen’s College, Cork.
§Hartog, P. J., B.Sc. 5 Portsdown-road North, London, W.
{Harvey, Enoch. Riversdale-road, Aigburth, Liverpool.
tHarvey, Surgeon Major Robert, M.D. Calcutta.
§Harvie-Brown, J. A. Dunipace, Larbert, N.B.
*Harwood, John, jun. Woodside Mills, Bolton-le-Moors.
tHaslam, Rev. George, M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.
{Haslam, George James, M.D. Owens College, Manchester.
tHasrines, G. W., M.P. Barnard’s Green House, Malvern.
enese es The Right Hon, Lord, C.B. Haws Hall, Birmine-
am.
t{Haventon, Rey. Samvuzt, M.A., M.D., D.C.L., LLD., F.R.S.
Le F.G.S., Senior Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin.
ublin.
Hawkins, B. Waterhouse, F.G.S. Century Club, East Fi -
: street, New York, U.S.A. z Ee Sehl
*Hawkins, William. 11 Fountain-street, Manchester.
nalts a Henry Paul. 58 Jermyn-street, St. James’s, London,
*HawksHaw, Sir Jonny, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S., F.G.S8., F.R.G.S.
Hollycombe, Liphook, Petersfield; and 83 Great George-street
London, S.W. ‘i :
*HawxksHaw, JoHN CrarKE, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8. 50 Harring-
ton-gardens, South Kensington, S.W.; and 83 Great George-
street London, 8S. W.
§HawksLzEY, THomas, M.Inst.C.E.,F.R.S., F.G.S. 80 Great George-
street, London, 8S. W. p
*Haworth, Abraham, Hilston House, Altrincham.
*Haworth, Jesse. Woodside, Bowdon, Cheshire.
§Haworth, 8. E. Warsley-road, Swinton, Manchester.
tHaworth, Rev. T. J. Albert Cottage, Saltley, Birmingham.
tHawthorn, William. The Cottage, Benwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tHay, Sir Andrew Leith, Bart. Rannes, Aberdeenshire.
tHay, Arthur J, Lerwick, Shetland.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 49
Blection.
1861. *Hay, Admiral the Right Hon. Sir Jonn C. D., Bart., K.C.B.,
D.C.L., F.R.S. . 108 St. George’s-square, London, 8. W.
1858. tHay, Samuel. Albion-place, Leeds.
1867. {Hay, William. 21 Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee.
1885, *Haycraft, Professor John Berry, M.B., B.Se., F.R.S.E. Physiological
Laboratory, the University, Edinburgh,
1873. *Hayes, Rev. William A., M.A. Dromore, Co. Down, Ireland.
1869. {Hayward, J. High-street, Exeter,
1858, *Haywarp, Ropert Batpwiy, M.A., F.R.S. Fishers, Harrow.
1879.
1851.
1869.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1871.
1883.
1861.
1885.
1883.
1882.
1877.
1877.
1883.
1866.
1863.
1884,
1861.
1883.
1886.
1886.
1865.
1884.
1833.
1855.
1867.
1869.
1882.
1887.
1863.
1887.
1867.
1873.
1883.
1880.
1876.
1885.
1856,
1857.
*Hazlehurst, George S. Rhyl, North Wales,
§Huap, Juremran, M.Inst.C.E., F.C.S. Middlesbrough, Yorkshire.
tHead, R. T. The Briars, Alphineton, Exeter.
{Headley, Frederick Haleombe. Manor House, Petersham, 8.W.
tHeadley, Mrs. Marian. Manor House, Petersham, S.W.
§Headley, Rev. Tanfield George. Manor House, Petersham, S,W.
§Healey, George. Brantfield, Bowness, Windermere.
*Heap, Ralph, jun. 1 Brick-court, Temple, London, E.C,
*Heape, Benjamin. Northwood, Prestwich, near Manchester.
tHeape, Charles. 14 Hawkshead-street, Southport.
tHeape, Joseph R. 96 Tweedale-street, Rochdale.
*Heape, Walter. Royal Western Yacht Club, Plymouth.
tHearder, Henry Pollington. Westwell-street, Plymouth.
{Hearder, William Keep, F.S.A. 195 Union-street, Plymouth.
tHeath, Dr. 46 Hoghton-street, Southport.
tHeath, Rev. D. J. Esher, Surrey.
THeath, G. Y.,M.D. Westgate-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tHeath, Thomas, B.A. Royal Observatory, Calton Hill, Edinburgh.
tHzuarurretD, W. E., F.C.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.S.E. 1 Powis-grove,
Brighton ; and Arthur’s Club, St. James’s, London, S.W.
tHeaton, Charles. Marlborough House, Hesketh Park, Southport.
{Heaton, C. W. Tower House, Belvedere, Kent.
§Heaton, Miss Ellen. Woodhouse-square, Leeds.
tHeaton, Harry. Harborne House, Harborne, near Birmingham.
§Heaviside, Rev. George, B.A., F.R.G.S. The Hollies, Stoke Green,
Coventry.
}Huavisrz, Rev. Canon J. W. L., M.A. The Close, Norwich.
tHxcror, Sir James, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.RS., F.G.S., F.R.GS.,
Director of the Geological Survey of New Zealand. Wellineton,
New Zealand.
tHeddle, M. Forster, M.D., F.R.S.E. St. Andrews, N.B.
tHedgeland, Rey. W. J. 21 Mount Radford, Exeter.
tHedger, Philip. Cumberland-place, Southampton.
§Hedges, Killingworth. 25 Queen Anne’s-gate, London, S.W.
tHedley, Thomas. Cox Lodge, near Newcastle-on-Tyne.
§Hembry, Frederick William, F.R.M.S. Sussex Lodge, Sidcup, Kent.
Henderson, Alexander. Dundee.
*Henderson, A. L. 16 Lee-road, Blackheath, London, S.E.
§Henderson, Mrs. A. L. 16 Lee-road, Blackheath, London, S.E.
“Henderson, Captain W. H., R.N. 21 Albert Hall Mansions,
London, 8. W.
*Henderson, William. Williamfield, Irvine, N.B.
tHenderson, William. Devanha House, Aberdeen.
fHenvessy, Huyry G., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Professor of Applied
Mathematics and Mechanics in the Royal College of Science
for Ireland. Brookvale, Donnybrook, Co. Dublin.
tHennessy, Sir John Pope, K.C.M.G., Governor and Commander-in-
Chief of Mauritius.
D
50
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1873.
1873.
*Hewricr, Oraus M. F. E., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Mechanics
and Mathematics in the City and Guilds of London Institute.
Central Institution, Exhibition-road, London, 8. W.
Henry, Franklin. Portland-street, Manchester.
Henry, J. Snowdon. East Dene, Bonchurch, Isle of Wight.
Henry, Mitchell. Stratheden House, Hyde Park, London, W.
*Hunry, WILLIAM Cuartes, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.C.S.
Haffield, near Ledbury, Herefordshire.
. {Henshaw, George H. 43 Victoria-street, Montreal, Canada.
. tHenty, William. 12 Medina-villas, Brighton.
. *Hepburn, J. Gotch, LL.B., F.C.S. Dartford, Kent.
. {Hepburn, Robert. 9 Portland-place, London, W.
Hepburn, Thomas. Monkbridge, Robinhood-lane, Sutton, Surrey.
. *Herdman, William A., D.Sc., Professor of Natural History in
University College, Liverpool.
. *HerscHet, Professor ALEXANDER 8., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F,R.A.S.
College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
. {Herschel, Miss F. Collinewood, Hawkhurst, Kent.
. §Herscuet, Lieut.-Colonel Joun, R.E., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Colling-
wood, Hawkhurst, Kent.
. {Hesketh, Colonel E. Fleetwood. Meol’s Hall, Southport.
. §Hewett, George Edwin. The Leasowe, Cheltenham.
. §Hewson, Thomas. Care of J. C. C. Payne, Esq., Botanic-avenue,
The Plains, Belfast.
. {Hey, Rev. William Croser, M.A. Clifton, York.
. §Heycock, Charles T., B.A. King’s College, Cambridge.
. §Heyes, John Frederick, M.A., F.C.S., F.R.G.S. 9 King-street,
Oxford ; and 5 Rufford-road, Fairfield, Liverpool.
. “Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire.
. {Heywood, A. Percival. Duffield Bank, Derby.
. *Heywood, Arthur Henry. Elleray, Windermere.
. §Heywood, Henry. Cardiff.
*Herywoop, Jamus, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., F.R.G.S., F.S.8. 26 Ken-
sington Palace-gardens, London, W.
. *Huywoop, Ortver, J.P., D.L. Claremont, Manchester.
. §Heywood, Robert. Mayfield, Victoria Park, Manchester.
Heywood, Thomas Percival. Claremont, Manchester.
. §Hick, Thomas, B.A.,B.Sc. Brighton-grove, Rusholme, Manchester.
. tHicxs, Hyry, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.8. Hendon Grove, Hendon,
Middlesex, N. W.
. §Hicks, Professor W. M., M.A., F.R.S., Principal of Firth College,
Sheffield. Firth College, Sheffield.
. §Hicks, Mrs. W. M. 18 Newbould-lane, Broomhill, Sheffield.
. {Hickson, Joseph. 272 Mountain-street, Montreal, Canada.
. *Hickson, Sydney J., M.A. Downing College, Cambridge.
. *Hiern, W. P., M.A. Castle House, Barnstaple.
. *Higgin, James. Lancaster-avenue, Fennel-street, Manchester.
. tHiggins, Charles Hayes, M.D., M.R.O.P., F.R.C.S., F.R.S.E. Alfred
House, Birkenhead.
. {Hieers, Crement, B.A., F.C.S. 103 Holland-road, Kensington,
London, W.
. {Hiaerns, Rev. Henry H., M.A. The Asylum, Rainhill, Liverpool.
Hildyard, Rev. James, B.D., F.C.P.S. Ingoldsby, near Grantham,
Lincolnshire.
*Hill, Alexander, M.A., M.B. Grantchester, near Cambridge.
Hill, Arthur. Bruce Castle, Tottenham, Middlesex,
{Hill, Benjamin. Cwmdwr, near Clydach, Swansea.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 51
Year of
Election.
1883.
1872.
1881.
1887.
1884.
1857.
1871.
1886
1881.
1872.
1885.
1876.
1885.
1886,
1863.
1871.
1887.
1858.
1870.
1883.
1886.
1881.
1884.
1884.
1858.
1861.
1870.
1884.
1881.
1864.
1864,
1864,
1879.
1887.
1883.
1879.
1877.
1883.
1877.
1876.
1852.
1863.
§Hill, Berkeley, M.B., Professor of Clinical Surgery in University
College, London. 66 Wimpole-street, London, W.
§Hill, Charles, F.S.A. Rockhurst, West Hoathley, East Grinstead.
§Hit1, Rey. Epwin, M.A., F.G.S._ St. John’s College, Cambridge.
§Hill, G. H. Albert-chambers, Albert-square, Manchester.
THill, Rev. James Edgar, M.A., B.D. 2488 St. Catherine-street,
Montreal, Canada.
§Hall, John, M.Inst.C.E., MR.LA., F.R.G.S.I. County Surveyor’s
Office, Ennis, Ireland.
till, Lawrence. The Knowe, Greenock.
{Hill, M. J. M. 16 Pembury-road, Lower Clapton, London, E.
THill, Pearson. 50 Belsize Park, London, N.W.
*Hill, Rey. Canon, M.A., F.G.S. Sheering Rectory, Harlow.
*Hill, Sidney. Langford House, Langford, Bristol.
THill, William H. Barlanark, Shettleston, N.B.
*Hi~~Hovsn, WixLttAM, M.A., Professor of Botany in Mason Science
College, Birmingham.. 95 Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.
§Hillier, Rey. E. J. Cardington Vicarage, Bedford.
tHills, F.C. Chemical Works, Deptford, Kent, S.E.
*Hills, Thomas Hyde. 225 Oxford-street, London, W.
§Hilton, Edwin. Oak Bank, Fallowfield, Manchester.
t{Hincrs, Rey. Tuomas, B.A., F.R.S. Stancliff House, Clevedon,
Somerset.
tHinpsg, G. J., Ph.D., F.G.S. Avondale-road, Croydon, Surrey.
*Hindle, James Henry. 67 Avenue-parade, Accrington.
*Hindmarsh, Luke.. Alnbank House, Alnwick.
tHingley, Benjamin, M.P. Hatherton Lodge, Cradley, Worcester-
shire.
Hingston, J.T. Clifton, York.
tHineston, Wittram Hates, M.D., D.C.L. 87 Union-avenue,
Montreal, Canada.
{Hirsehfilder, C. A. Toronto, Canada.
tHirst, John, jun. Dobcross, near Manchester.
*Hirst, T. ArncHer, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 7 Oxford and Cam-
bridge Mansions, Marylebone-road, London, N. W.
tHitchman, William, M.D., LL.D., F.L.S. 144 Phythian-street,
Low Hill, Liverpool.
tHoadrey, John Chipman. Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Hoare, J. Gurney. Hampstead, London, N.W.
§ Hobbes, Robert George. Livingstone House, 374 Wandsworth-road,
London, S.W.
{Hobhouse, Arthur Fane. 24 Cadogan-place, London, S.W.
tHobhouse, Charles Parry. 24 Cadogan-place, London, S.W.
}Hobhouse, Henry William. 24 Cadogan-place, London, S.W.
§Hobkirk, Charles P., F.L.S. West Riding Union Bank, Dews-
bury.
*Hobson, Bernard, B.Sc. Tapton Elms, Sheffield.
tHobson, Rev. E. W. 55 Albert-road, Southport.
§Hobson, John. Tapton Elms, Sheffield.
tHockin, Edward. Poughill, Stratton, Cornwall.
tHocking, Rey. Silas K. 21 Scarisbrick New-road, Southport.
tHodge, Rey. John Mackey, M.A. 38 Tavistock-place, Plymouth.
tHodges, Frederick W. Queen’s College, Belfast.
tHodges, John F., M.D., F.C.8., Professor of Agriculture in Queen’s
College, Belfast.
*Hopexin, THomas. Benwell Dene, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
D2
52
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1887.
1880.
1873.
1873.
1884,
1863.
1863,
1865.
1854,
1885.
1873.
1883.
1883,
1884,
1857.
1887.
1879.
1886.
1865.
1883.
1883.
1866.
1873.
1882.
*Hodgkinson, Alexander. 18 St. John-street, Manchester.
tHodgkinson, W. R. Eaton, Ph.D. Science Schools, South Kensing-
ton Museum, London, 8.W.
*Hodgson, George. Thornton-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tHodgson, James. Oalfield, Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tHodgson, Jonathan. Montreal, Canada.
tHodgson, Robert. Whitburn, Sunderland.
tHodgson, R. W. 7 Sandhill, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Hormann, Aveust WitHeLm, M.D., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
10 Dorotheen Strasse, Berlin.
*Holeroft, George. Tyddyn-Gwladis, Ganllwyd, near Dolgelly, North
Wales.
tHolden, Edward. Laurel Mount, Shipley, Yorkshire.
*Holden, Isaac, M.P. Oakworth House, near Keighley, Yorkshire.
tHolden, James. 12 Park-avenue, Southport.
tHolden, John J. 23 Duke-street, Southport.
tHolden, Mrs. Mary E. Dunham Ladies’ College, Quebec, Canada.
*Holder, Henry William. Owens College, Manchester.
*Holdsworth, C.J. Wilmslow, Cheshire.
tHolland, Calvert Bernard. Ebbw Vale, South Wales.
*Holland, Philip H. 8 Heath-rise, Willow-road, Hampstead, Lon-
don, N. W.
tHolliday, J. R. 101 Harborne-road, Birmingham.
tHolliday, William. New-street, Birmingham.
tHollingsworth, Dr. T. S. Elford Lodge, Spring-grove, Isleworth,
Middlesex.
*Holmes, Mrs. Basil. 5 Freeland-road, Ealing, Middlesex, W.
*Holmes, Charles. 59 London-road, Derby.
tHolmes, J. R. Southbrook Lodge, Bradford, Yorkshire.
*Holmes, Thomas Vincent, F.G.8. 28 Croom’s-hill, Greenwich,
S.E.
. {Holms, Colonel William, M.P. 95 Cromwell-road, South Kensing-
ton, London, S.W.
. §Holt, Thomas. Atlas Iron Works, Molesworth-street, Rochdale.
tHolt, William D. 23 Edge-lane, Liverpool.
*Hood, John. The Elms, Cotham Hill, Bristol.
. t{Hooxer, Sir JosrpH Datron, K.C.8.1., C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S., V.P.L.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S. The Camp, Sunningdale.
. *Hooper, John P. Coventry Park, Streatham, London, 8.W.
*Hooper, Rev. Samuel F., M.A. 389 Lorrimore-square, London,
8.E
tHooton, J onathan, 80 Great Ducie-street, Manchester.
Hope, Thomas Arthur. 14 Arlie-gardens, Campden Hill, London, W.
. *Hopkins, Edward M. 38 Upper Berkeley-street, Portman-square,
London, W.
tHopkins, J. 8. Jesmond Grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
- *HoPKINson, CHARLES. 29 Princess-street, Manchester.
. *Hopkinson, Edward, D.Sc. Ireton Bank, Platt-lane, Rusholme,
Manchester.
. *Hopxinson, Jonny, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. 3 Holland Villas-road,
Kensington, London, W.
*Horrriyson, Joun, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. 95 New Bond-
street, London, W.; and The Grange, St. Albans.
tHopkinson, Joseph, jun. Britannia Works, Huddersfield.
Hornby, Hugh. Sandown, Liverpool.
§Horne, Edward H. Innisfail, Beulah Hill, Norwood, 8.E.
{Horne. John, F.R.S.E.; F.G.8S. 41 Southside-road, Inverness.
‘LIST OF MEMBERS. 53
Year of
Election.
1876.
1875.
1884.
1887.
1856,
1884,
1868.
1859.
1886.
1887.
1858,
1884,
1883.
1879.
1883.
1886,
1887.
1882.
1883.
1886.
1876.
1885.
1857.
1887.
1868.
1886.
1884.
1884,
1865.
1863.
1883.
1883,
1883,
1887,
1870.
1835.
1879.
1883.
1867,
1858,
1857.
1887.
1883.
1871.
*Horne, Robert R. 150 Hope-street, Glasgow.
*Horniman, F. J., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Surrey Mount, Forest Hill,
London, 8.E.
*Horsfall, Richard. Stoodley House, Halifax.
§Horsfall, T. C. Bollin Tower, Alderley Edge, Chester.
tHorsley, John H. 1 Ormond-terrace, Cheltenham.
*Hotblach, G.S. Prince of Wales-road, Norwich.
tHotson, W. C. Upper King-street, Norwich.
tHough, Joseph, M.A., F.R.A.S. Codsall Wood, Wolverhampton.
tHoughton, F. T. S., M.A. 119 Gough-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.
§ Houldsworth, Sir W. H., Bart., M.P., Norbury Booths, Knutsford.
tHounsfield, James. Hemsworth, Pontefract.
tHouston, William. Legislative Library, Toronto, Canada.
*Hovenden, Frederick, F.L.S., F.G.S. Glenlea, Thurlow Park-road,
West Dulwich, Surrey, S.E.
Hovenden, W. F., M.A. Bath.
“Howard, D. 60 Belsize Park, London, N.W.
§Howard, James Fielden, M.D., M.R.C.S. Sandyeroft, Shaw.
§Howard, James L., B.Sc. 20 Oxford-road, Waterloo, near Liver-
ool.
Meow, S. 8, Llanishen Rise, near Cardiff.
tHoward, William Frederick, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 13 Oavendish-
street, Chesterfield, Derbyshire.
{Howarth, Richard. York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
tHowatt, David. 8 Birmingham-road, Dudley.
tHowatt, James. 146 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.
§Howden, James C., M.D. Sunnyside, Montrose, N.B.
tHowell, Henry H., F.G.S., Director of the Geological Survey cf
Scotland. Geological Survey Office, Victoria-street, Edinburgh.
§Howell, J. A. Edward-street, Werneth, Oldham.
tHowe tt, Rey. Canon Hryps. Drayton Rectory, near Norwich,
§Howes, Professor G. B., F.L.S. Science Schools, South Kensington,
London, 8. W.
{Howland, Edward P.,M.D. 211 414-street, Washington, U.S.A.
{Howland, Oliver Aiken. Toronto, Canada.
“Howzerr, Rey. Freperick, F.R.A.S. East Tisted Rectory, Alton,
Hants.
tHoworru, H. H., M.P., F.S.A. Derby House, Eccles, Manchester.
tHoworth, John, J.P. Springbank, Burnley, Lancashire.
tHoyle, James. Blackburn.
tHoyle, William. Claremont, Bury, Lancashire.
§Hoyle, William E., M.A. 32 Queen-street, Edinburgh.
tHubback, Joseph. 1 Brunswick-street, Liverpool.
*Hupson, Henry, M.D., M.R.LA. Glenville, Fermoy, Co. Cork.
tHudson, Robert 8., M.D. Redruth, Cornwall.
t Hudson, Rev. W.C. 58 Belmont-street, Southport.
“Hupson, Wittram H. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in King’s
College, London, 15 Altenburg-gardens, Clapham Common,
London, 8S. W.
*Hueeins, Wiriiam, D.C.L. Oxon., LL.D. Camb., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Upper Tulse Hill, Brixton, London, S.W.
tHuggon, William. 80 Park-row, Leeds.
§Hughes, E.G. 4 Roman-place, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
tHughes, Miss E. P. Newnham College, Cambridge.
ee Geers Pringle, J.P. Middleton Hall, Wooler, Northum-
erland.
54 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1887. §Hughes, John Taylor. Thorleymoor, Ashley-road, Altrincham.
1870. *Hughes, Lewis. Fenwick-court, Liverpool.
1876. *Hughes, Rev. Thomas Edward. Walltield House, Reigate.
1868. §Hueuss, T. M‘K., M.A., F.G.S., Woodwardian Professor of Geology
in the University of ‘Cambridge.
1865. {Hughes, W. R., F.L.S., Treasurer of the Borough of Birmingham.
Birmingham.
1883. {Hutxe, Jonn Wuitaxrer, F.R.S., F.R.CS., F.G.S. 10 Old Bur-
lington-street, London, W.
1867. §Hutt, ‘Epwaro, M. A,, LL. D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of the Geo-
logical Survey of Ireland and Professor of ‘Geology i in the Royal
College of Science. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
*Hulse, Sir Edward, Bart., D.C.L. 47 Portland-place, London, W. ;
and Breamore House, ’ Salisbury.
1887. *Hummel, Professor J. J. Yorkshire College, Leeds.
1884. *Humphreys, A.W. 45 William-street, New York, U.S.A.
1878. t{Humphreys, H. Castle-square, Carnarvon.
1880. {Humphreys, Noel A., F.S.S. Ravenhurst, Hook, Kingston-on-
Thames. ;
1856. {Humphries, David James. 1 Keynsham-parade, Cheltenham.
1862. *Humpury, Grorce Murray, M.])., F.R.S., Professor of Surgery
in the University of Cambridge. Grove Lodge, Cambridge.
1877. *Hunt, ArtHur Roorg, M.A., F.G.S. Southwood, Torquay.
1886. {Hunt, Charles. The Gas Works, Windsor-street, Birmingham.
1865. tHunt, J. P. Gospel Oak Works, Tipton.
1884, {Hunt, T. Sterry, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. 105 Union-avenue,
Montreal, Canada.
1864. {Hunt, W. Folkestone.
1875. *Hunt, William. Northcote, Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol.
1881. {Hunter, F. W. 4 Westmoreland-road, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1881. {Hunter, Rey. John. University-gardens, Glasgow.
1884, *Hunter, Michael, jun. Greystones, Sheffield.
1869, *Hunter, Rev. Robert. LL.D., F.G.S. Forest Retreat, Staples-road,
Loughton, Essex.
1879. {Huntmeron, AK. , F.C.S., Professor of Metallurgy in King’s College,
London. King’s College, London, W.C.
1885. {Huntly, The Right Hon. the Marquis of. Aboyne Castle, Aber-
deenskire.
1863. {Huntsman, Benjamin. West Retford Hall, Retford.
1883. *Hurst, Charles Herbert. Owens College, Manchester.
1869. {Hurst, George. Bedford.
1882. {Hurst, Walter, B.Sc. West Lodge, Todmorden.
1861. *Hurst, William John. Drumaness Mills, Ballynahinch, Lisburn,Iveland.
1870. {Hurter, Dr. Ferdinand. Appleton, Widnes, near Warrington.
Husband, William Dalla. May Bank, Bournemouth.
1887. §Husband, W. HE. 56 Bury New-road, Manchester.
1882. {Hussey, Captain E. R., R.K. 24 Waterloo-place, Southampton.
1876. tHutchinson, John. 23 Hamilton Park-terrace, Glasgow.
1868. *Hutchison, Robert, F.R.S.E. 29 Chester-street, Edinburgh,
Hutton, Cr ompton. Harescombe Grange, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
1864. *Hutton, Darnton. 14 Cumberland-terrace, Regent's Park, London,
N.W.
1857. {Hutton, Henry D. 17 Palmerston-road, Dublin.
1887. §Hutton, J. A. 29 Dale-street, Manchester.
1861. *Hurron, T. Maxwett. Summerhill, Dublin.
1852. {Huxtny, THomas Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
F.G.S. 4 Marlborough-place, London, N.W.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 85
Year of
Election.
1883,
1871,
1882.
1873.
1861,
1884.
1885.
1858.
1871.
1876.
1883.
1852.
1885.
1886.
1882.
1883.
1881.
1887.
1886.
1859.
1884.
1876.
1883.
1879.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1885.
1874.
1886.
1887.
1885.
1866,
1869.
1863.
1887.
1874.
1865.
1872.
1860.
1886.
1886.
1863.
1884.
1858.
1884.
Hyde, Edward. Dukinfield, near Manchester.
tHyde, George H. 23 Arbour-street, Southport.
*Hyett, Francis A. Painswick House, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
*V’Anson, James, F.G.S. Fairfield House, Darlington.
Ihne, William, Ph.D. Heidelberg.
tIkin, J. I. 19 Park-place, Leeds.
tIles, The Ven. Archdeacon, M.A. The Close, Lichfield.
§Iles, George. Windsor Hotel, Montreal, Canada.
{im-Thurn, Everard F. British Guiana.
tIncham, Henry. Wortley, near Leeds.
tiyents, The Right Hon. Jonny, D.C.L., LL.D., Lord Justice-General
of Scotland. Edinburgh.
Inglis, John, jun. Prince’s-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
tIngram, Rev. D. C. Church-street, Southport.
fIneram, J. K., LL.D., M.R.LA., Librarian to the University of
Dublin. 2 Wellington-road, Dublin.
tIngram, William, M.A. Gamrie, Banff.
§Innes, John. The Limes, Alcester-road, Moseley, Birmingham.
§Irying, Rev. A., B.A., B.Sc., F.G.S. Wellington College, Woking-
ham, Berks.
tIsherwood, James. 18 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
{Ishiguro, Isoji. Care of the Japanese Legation, 9 Cavendish-square,
London, W.
§Ito, Tokutaro. 14 Masagochio, Hongo, Tokio, Japan.
tIzod, William. Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tJack, John, M.A. Belhelvie-by-Whitecairns, Aberdeenshire.
tJack, Peter. People’s Bank, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.
*Jack, William, LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Glasgow. 10 The College, Glasgow.
tJackson, A. H. College of Pharmacy, Melbourne, Australia.
tJackson, Arthur, F.R.C.S. Wilkinson-street, Sheftield.
tJackson, Mrs. Esther. 16 East Park-terrace, Southampton.
tJackson, Frank. 11 Park-crescent, Southport.
*Jackson, F. J. 1 Morley-road, Southport.
tJackson, Mrs. F. J. 1 Morley-road, Southport.
*Jackson, Frederick Arthur. Belmont, Lyme Regis, Dorset.
§Jackson, George. Clareen, Higher Warberry, Torquay.
*Jackson, George. 53 Elizabeth-street, Cheetham, Manchester.
{Jackson, Henry. 19 Golden-square, Aberdeen,
jJackson, H. W., F.R.AS., F.G.S. 15 The Terrace, Hich-road,
Lewisham, 8.E.
§Jackson, Moses. The Vale, Ramsgate.
*Jackson-Gwilt, Mrs. H. Moonbeam Villa, The Grove, New Wim-
bledon, Surrey,
§Jacobson, Nathaniel. Olive Mount, Cheetham Hill-road, Manchester.
*Jaffe, John. Hdenvale, Strandtown, near Belfast.
*Jaffray, John. Park-grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{James, Christopher. 8 Laurence Pountney-hill, London, E.C.
tJames, Edward H. Woodside, Plymouth.
§James, Frank, Portland House, Aldridge, near Walsall.
*James, Harry Berkeley, F.R.G.S. 16 Ashburn-place, London, S.W.
*JamEs, Sir WALTER, Bart., F.G.S, 6 Whitehall-gardens, London,S.W.
§James, W. Culver, M.D. 11 Marloes-road, London, W.
{James, William C. Woodside, Plymouth.
tJameson, W.C. 48 Baker-street, Portman-square, London, W
.
56 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1881. {Jamieson, Andrew, Principal of the College of Science and Arts,
Glasgow.
1887. §Jamieson, G. Auldjo. 3 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.
1885. tJamieson, Patrick. Peterhead, N.B
1885. {Jamieson, Thomas. 173 Union-street, Aberdeen.
1859. *Jamieson, Thomas F., F.G.S8. Ellon, Aberdeenshire.
1850. tJardine, Alexander. Jardine Hall, Lockerby, Dumfriesshire.
1886. *James, Harry Berkeley, F.R.G.S. 16 Ashburn-place, London, 8. W.
1870. {Jardine, Edward. Beach Lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool.
1853. *Jarratt, Rey. Canon J., M.A. North Cave, near Brough, Yorkshire.
1870. {Jarrold, John James. London-street, Norwich.
1886. §Jeffcock, Rey. John Thomas. The Rectory, Wolverhampton.
1856. §Jurrery, Henry M., M.A., F.R.S. 9 Dunstanyille-terrace, Fal-
mouth.
1855. *Jeffray, John. Winton House, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
1883. {Jeffreys, Miss Gwyn. 1 The Terrace, Kensington, London, W.
1867. {Jeffreys, Howel, M.A., F.R.A.S. Pump-court, Temple, London,
E.C
1885. §Jefireys, Dr. Richard Parker. Eastwood House, Chesterfield.
1852, {JEwLETT, Rev. Jonn H., D.D., D.C.L., M.R.1.A., Provost of Trinity
College, Dublin.
1881. §Jettricon, C. W. A. Southampton.
1864. {Jelly, Dr. W. Aveleanas, 11, Valencia, Spain.
1873. §Jenkins, Major-General J. J. 16 St. James’s-square, London, S.W.
1880. *JENnKINS, Sir Jonnw Jones. The Grange, Swansea.
1852. {Jennings, Francis M., F.G.S.,M.R.I.A. Brown-street, Cork.
1872. {Jennings, W. 13 Victoria-street, London, S.W.
1878. tJephson, Henry L. Chief Secretary's Office, The Castle, Dublin.
Jessop, William, jun. Overton Hall, Ashover, Chesterfield.
1884. {Jewell, Lieutenant Theo. F. Torpedo Station, Newport, Rhode
Island, U.S.A.
1884. {Johns, Thomas W. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada. —
1884. §Johnson, Alexander, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in
McGill University, Montreal. 5 Prince of Wales-terrace, Mont-
real, Canada.
1883. {Johnson, Miss Alice. Llandaff House, Cambridge.
1883. {Johnson, Ben. Mickleeate, York.
1871. *Johnson, David, F.C.8., F.G.S. 52 Fitzjohn’s-avenue, South
Hampstead, London, N.W.
1881. {Johnson, Major E. Cecil. Junior United Service Club, Charles-
street, London, 8.W.
1883. {Johnson, Edmund Litler. 73 Albert-road, Southport.
1865. *Johnson, G. J. 36 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
1875. {Johnson, James Henry, F.G.S. 73 Albert-road, Southport.
1872. tJohnson, J.T. 27 Dale-street, Manchester.
1870. {Johnson, Richard C., F.R.A.S. 19 Catherine-street, Liverpool.
1863. {Johnson, R. 8. Hanwell, Fence Houses, Durham.
1881. {Johnson, Samuel George. Municipal Offices, Nottingham.
1887. §Johnson, W. H. Woodleigh, Altrincham, Cheshire.
1883. {Johnson, W. H. F. Llandaff House, Cambridge.
1883. {Johnson, William. Harewood, Roe-lane, Southport.
1861. {Johnson, William Beckett. Woodlands Bank, near Altrincham,
Cheshire.
1883. {Johnston, H. H. Tudor House, Champion Hill, London, S.E.
1859, tJohnston, James. Newmill, Elgin, N.B.
1864. {Johnston, James. Manor House, Northend, Hampstead, London,
N.W.
LIST OF MEMBERS.
NI
cr
Year of
Election.
1884.
1883.
1884.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1864,
1864.
1876.
1864.
1871.
1881.
1849,
1856.
1887.
1887.
1883.
1884.
1877.
1883.
1881.
1873.
1880.
1860.
1885.
1875.
1884.
1875.
1842.
1847.
1858.
1879.
1872.
1848.
1883.
1886.
1848.
1870.
1883.
1868.
1887.
{Johnston, John L. 27 St. Peter-street, Montreal, Canada.
§Johnston, Thomas. Broomsleigh, Seal, Sevenoaks.
{Johnston, Walter R. Fort Qu’Appele, N.W. Territory, Canada,
*Johnston, W. H. 6 Latham-street, Preston, Lancashire.
tJohnston-Lavis, H. J., M.D., F.G.S. Palazzo Caramanico, Chiato-
mone, Naples,
tJohnstone, G. H. Northampton-street, Birmingham.
*Johnstone, James. Alva House, Alva, by Stirling, N.B.
{Johnstone, John. 1 Barnard-villas, Bath.
tJohnstone, William. 5 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.
tJolly, Thomas. Park View-villas, Bath.
{Jotty, WitiiaAm, F.RS.E., F.G.S., H.M. Inspector of Schools.
St. Andrew’s-road, Pollokshields, Glasgow.
tJones, Alfred Orlando, M.D. Cardigan Villa, Harrogate.
{Jones, Baynham. Walmer House, Cheltenham.
tJones, C. W. 7 Grosvenor-place, Cheltenham.
§Jones, D. E., B.Sc. University College, Aberystwith.
§Jones, Francis. Beaufort House, Alexandra Park, Manchester.
*Jones, George Oliver, M.A. 5 Cook-street, Liverpool.
§Jones, Rey. Harry, M.A. Savile Club, Piccadilly, London, W.
{Jones, Henry C., F.C.S. Normal School of Science, South Kensing-
ton, London, 8. W.
tJones, Rev. Canon Herbert. Waterloo, Liverpool.
{Jones, J. Viriamu, M.A., B.Sc., Principal of the University College
of South Wales and Monmouthshire. Cardiff.
{Jones, Theodore B. 1 Finsbury-circus, London, E.C.
{Jones, Thomas. 15 Gower-street, Swansea.
{Jonus, THomas Rupert, F.R.S., F.G.S8. 10 Uverdale-road, King’s-
road, Chelsea, London, S.W.
tJones, William. Elsinore, Birkdale, Southport.
*Jose, J. E. 11 Cressington Park, Liverpool.
tJoseph, J. H. 738 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.
*Joule, Benjamin St. John B., J.P. 12 Wardle-road, Sale, near
Manchester.
*Joutz, James Prescorr, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 12 Wardle-road,
Sale, near Manchester.
tJowerr, Rey. B., M.A., Regius Professor of Greek in the University
of Oxford. Balliol College, Oxford.
tJowett, John. Leeds.
tJowitt, A. Hawthorn Lodge, Clarkehouse-road Sheffield.
ee eomen, Junior United Service Club, St. James’s, London,
Ww.
*Joy, ee Charles Ashfield. West Hanney, Wantage, Berk-
shire.
§ Joyce, Rev. A. G., B.A. St. John’s Croft, Winchester.
§ Joyce, The Hon. Mrs. St. John’s Croft, Winchester.
*Jubb, Abraham. Halifax.
tJupp, Joun WEsLEY, F.R.S., Pres. G.S., Professor of Geology in the
Royal School of Mines. Hurstleigh, Kew.
tJustice, Philip M. 14 Southampton-buildings, Chancery-lane,
London, W.C.
*Kaines, Joseph, M.A., D.Sc. 8 Oshborne-road, Stroud Green-road,
London, N,
Kane, Sir Rosert, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., F.C.S. Fort-
lands, Killiney, Co. Dublin.
§Kay, Miss. Hamerlaund, Broughton Park, Manchester.
58
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1859.
1883.
1884.
1884.
1875.
1886.
1878.
1887.
1884.
1864.
1885.
1887.
1855.
1884,
1875.
1884.
1876.
1884.
1884.
1886,
1886.
1857.
1855.
1876.
1881.
1884.
1887.
1885.
1887.
1869.
1869.
1861.
18853.
1876.
1886,
1876.
1885.
1865.
1878.
1860.
1875.
1872.
1875.
1885.
1871.
{Kay, David, F.R.G.S. 19 Upper Phillimore-place, Kensington,
London, W.
Kay, John Cunliff. Fairfield Hall, near Skipton.
{Kearne, John H. Westcliffe-road, Birkdale, Southport.
Keefer, Samuel. Brockville, Ontario, Canada
{Keefer, Thomas Alexander. Port Arthur, Ontario, Canada.
{Keeling, George William. Tuthill, Lydney.
{Keen, Arthur, J.P. Sandyford, Augustus-road, Birmingham.
*Kelland, William Henry. 110 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.; and
Grettans, Bow, North Devon.
§Kellas-Johnstone, J. F. 69 Princess-street, Manchester.
{Kelloge, J. H.,M.D. Battle Creek, Michigan, U.S.A.
*Kelly, W. M., M.D. 11 The Crescent, Taunton, Somerset.
§Keltie, J. Scott, Librarian R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, London, W.
§Kemp, Harry. 254 Stretford-road, Manchester.
{Kemp, Rey. Henry William, B.A. The Charter House, Hull.
§Kemper, Andrew C., A.M., M.D. 101 Broadway, Cincinnati,
U.S.A.
{Kuynepy, AtrxanpER B. W., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of
Engineering in University College, London.
tKennedy, Gporge L., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and
Geolog” fin King’s College, Windsor, Nova Scotia, Canada.
{Kennedy, Hugh. Redclyffe, Partickhill, Glasgow.
{tKennedy, John. 113 University-street, Montreal, Canada.
§Kennedy, William. Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
{Kenrick, George Hamilton. Whetstone, Somerset-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
Kent, J.C. Levant Lodge, Earl’s Croome, Worcester.
§Kenward, James, F.S.A. 280 Hagley-road, Birmingham,
*Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland.
*Ker, Robert. Dougalston, Milngavie, N.B.
{Ker, William. 1 Windsor-terrace West, Glasgow.
{Kermode, Philip M. C. Ramsay, Isle of Man.
{Kerr, James, M.D, Winnipeg, Canada.
§Kerr, James. Dunkenhalgh, Accrington.
§Kerr, Dr. John. Garscadden House, near Kilpatrick, Glasgow.
§Kershaw, James. Holly House, Bury New-road, Manchester.
*Kesselmeyer, Charles A. Villa ‘ Mon Repos,’ Altrincham, Cheshire.
*Kesselmeyer, William Johannes. Villa ‘Mon Repos,’ Altrincham,
Cheshire.
*Keymer, John. Farker-street, Manchester.
*Keynes, J. N., M.A., B.Se., F.S.S. 6 Harvey-road, Cambridge.
{Kidston, J.B. West Regent-street, Glasgow.
§Kidston, Robert, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 24 Victoria-place, Stirling.
{Kidston, William. Ferniegair, Helensburgh, N.B.
*Kileour, Alexander. Loirston House, Cove, near Aberdeen.
*Kinahan, Sir Edward Hudson, Bart, M.R.I.A. 11 Merrion-square
North, Dublin.
{Kinahan, Edward Hudson, jun. 11 Merrion-square North, Dublin.
tKinanan, G. Henry, M.R.LA. Geological Survey of Iveland, 14
Hume-street, Dublin.
*Kincu, Epwarp, F.C.S. Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester.
*King, Mrs. E. M. 34 Cornvall-road, Westbourne Park, London,
W
*King, F. Ambrose. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.
*King, Francis. Thornhill, Penrith.
*King, Rev. Herbert Poole. St. Oswald’s College, Ellesmere, Salop.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 59
Year of
Election.
1855. {King, James. Levernholme, Hurlet, Glasgow.
1888. *King, John Godwin. Welford House, Greenhill, Hampstead, Lon-
don, N. W.
1870. §King, John Thomson. 4 Clayton-square, Liverpool.
King, Joseph. Welford House, Greenhill, Hampstead, London,
N.W
1883. *King, J oseph, jun. Welford House, Greenhill, Hampstead, London,
N.W.
1860. *King, Mervyn Kersteman. 1 Vittoria-square, Clifton, Bristol.
1875. *King, Percy L. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.
1870. {King, William. 5 Beach Lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool.
1869. {Kingdon, K. Taddiford, Exeter.
1861. {Kingsley, John. Ashfield, Victoria Park, Manchester.
1876. §Kingston, Thomas. The Limes, Clewer, near Windsor.
1835. Kingstone, A. John, M.A. Mosstown, Longford, Ireland.
1875. §Krnezerr, Cuartezs T., F.C.S. Trevena, Amhurst Park, London, N.
1867. {Kinloch, Colonel. Kirriemuir, Logie, Scotland.
1870. {Kinsman, William R. Branch Bank of England, Liverpool.
1860. {Krrxman, Rey. THomas P., M.A., F.R.S. Croft Rectory, near
Warrington.
1876. *Kirkwood, Anderson, LL.D., F.R.S.E. 7 Melville-terrace, Stir-
ling, :
1875. tKirsop, John. 6 Queen’s-crescent, Glasgow.
1883. {Kirsop, Mrs. 6 Queen’s-crescent, Glasgow.
1870. {Kitchener, Frank E. Newcastle, Staffordshire.
1881. { Kitching, Langley. 50 Caledonian-road, Leeds.
1886. {Klein, Rev. L. Martial. University College, Dublin.
1869. {Knapman, Edward. The Vineyard, Castle-street, Exeter.
1886. §Knight, J. M. Bushwood, Wanstead, Essex.
1888. {Knight, J. R. 32 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, London, W.C.
1872. *Knott, George, LL.B., F.R.A.S. Knowles Lodge, Cuclifield, Hay-
ward’s Heath, Sussex.
1887. *Knott, Herbert. Wharf Street Mills, Ashton-under-Lyne.
1887. *Knott, John F. Staveleigh, Stalybridge, Yorkshire.
1887. §Knott, Mrs. Staveleigh, Stalybridge, Yorkshire.
1887. §Knott, T. B. Ellerslie, Cheadle Hulme, Cheshire.
1873. *Knowles, George. Moorhead, Shipley, Yorkshire.
1872. {Knowles, James. The Hollies, Clapham Common, 8.W.
1870. {Knowles, Rey. J. L. 103 Larl’s Court-road, Kensington, Lon-
don, W.
1874. {Knowles, William James. Flixton-place, Ballymena, Co. Antrim.
1883. {Knowlys, Rev. C. Hesketh. The Rectory, Roe-lane, Southport.
1883. tKnowlys, Mrs. C. Hesketh. The Rectory, Roe-lane, Southport.
1876. {Kmnox, David N., M.A., M.B., 24 Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow.
: *Knox, Gere James. 29 Portland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
1875. *Knubley, Rey. E. P. Staveley Rectory, Leeds.
1883. tKnubley, Mrs. Staveley Rectory, Leeds.
188]. {Kurobe, Hiroo. Legation of Japan, 9 Cavendish-square, London, W.
1870, {Kynaston, Josiah W., F.C.8. Kensington, Liverpool.
1865. {Kynnersley, J.C.S. The Leveretts, Handsworth, Birmingham.
1882. {Kyshe, John B. 19 Royal-avenue, Sloane-square, London S.W.
1858. {Lace, Francis John. Stone Gapp, Oross-hill, Leeds.
1884, ren Rey. Professor J. C. K. Laval University, Quebec,
anada.
1885. *Laing, J. Gerard. 1 Elm-court, Temple, London, E.C.
60
Year
LIST OF MEMBERS,
of
Election.
1870.
1870.
1882.
1880,
1877.
1859.
1887.
1887.
1883.
1883.
1884.
1884.
1871.
1886.
1877.
1885.
1859.
1886.
1870,
1865.
1880.
1884,
1878.
1886.
1885.
tLaird, H.H. Birkenhead.
§Laird, John, Grosvenor-road, Claughton, Birkenhead.
tLake, G. A. K., M.D. East Park-terrace, Southampton.
jLake, Samuel. Milford Docks, Milford Haven.
tLake, W.C., M.D. Teignmouth.
tLalor, John Joseph, M.R.I.A. City Hall, Cork Hill, Dublin.
§Lamb, Horace, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics in the
Owens College, Manchester. Manchester.
§Lamb, James. Kenwood, Bowdon, Cheshire.
tLamb, W. J. 11 Gloucester-road, Birkdale, Southport.
{LamBert, Rev. Brooke, LL.B. The Vicarage, Greenwich, Kent,
S.E.
tLamborn, Robert H. Montreal, Canada.
{Lancaster, Alfred. Fern Bauk, Burnley, Lancashire.
{Lancaster, Edward. Karesforth Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.
tLancaster, W. J., F.G.S. Colmore-row, Birmingham.
fLandon, Frederic George, M.A., F.R.A.S. 59 Tresillian-road, St.
John’s, 8.E.
{Lang, Rey. Gavin. Inverness.
{Lang, Rev. John Marshall, D.D. Barony, Glasgow.
*Lanetey, J. N., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.
tLangton, Charles. Barkhill, Aigburth, Liverpool.
tLanxesrer, E. Ray, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Comparative
Anatomy and Zoology in University College, London. 11
Wellington Mansions, North Bank, London, N. W.
*LAwnspELL, Rev. Henry, D.D., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. Care of Mr.
Wheldon, 58 Great Queen-street, Lincoln’s Inn-fields, London,
W.C.
Lanyon, Sir Charles. The Abbey, White Abbey, Belfast.
§Lanza, Professor G. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston,
U.S.A
tLapper, E., M.D. 61 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
tLapraik, W. 9 Malfort-road, Denmark Hill, London, S.E.
§Lapwortu, Cuartes, LL.D., F.G.S., Professor of Geology and
Mineralogy in the Mason Science College, Birmingham. 46
George-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1887. §Larmor, Alexander. Clare College, Cambridge.
1881
. {Larmor, Joseph, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Queen’s
College, Galway.
1883. §Lascelles, B. P. Harrow.
1870
1870
. *LarHam, Batpwin, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 7 Westminster-chambers,
Westminster, S.W,
. {Laucuton, Jonn Knox, M.A., F.R.G.S. 180 Sinclair-road, West
Kensington Park, London, W.
1883. {Laurie, Major-General. Oakfield, Nova Scotia.
1870, *Law, Channell. Ilsham Dene, Torquay. ,
1878. {Law, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-chambers, London, S.W.
1862
. [Law, Rey. James Edmund, M.A. Little Shelford, Cambridgeshire.
i884, §Law, Robert. 11 Cromwell-terrace, West Hill Park, Halifax,
1870
1881
1875
1885
Yorkshire.
. [Lawrence, Edward. Aigburth, Liverpool.
. [Lawrence, Rey. F., B.A. The Vicarage, Westow, York.
. [Lawson, George, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Chemistry and Botany.
Halifax, Nova Scotia.
. {Lawson, James. 8 Church-street, Huntly, N B.
1857. {Lawson, The Right Hon. James A., LL.D., D.C.L., M.R.LA.
27 Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 61
Year of
Election.
1868.
1853.
1856.
1875.
1883.
1883.
1870.
1884.
1884,
1847.
1863.
1884.
1872.
1884,
1883.
1861.
1883.
1853.
1887.
1884,
1887.
1886.
1882.
1859.
1885.
1883.
1881.
1872.
1869.
1868.
1861.
1856.
1870.
1886.
1867.
1870.
1859.
1882,
1863.
1867.
1878.
*Lawson, M. Alexander, M.A., F.L.S, Ootiécamund, Bombay.
tLawton, William. 6 Victoria-terrace, Derringham, Hull.
thea, Henry. 88 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.
tLeach, Colonel R. HE. Mountjoy, Phoenix Park, Dublin.
*Leach, Charles Catterall. Care of Swan & Leach (Limited), 141
Briggate, Leeds.
§Leach, John. Haverhill House, Bolton.
*Leaf, Charles John, F.L.S., F.G.8., F.S.A. 6 Sussex-place, Regent’s
Park, London, N.W.
*Leahy, John White, J.P. South Hill, Killarney, Ireland.
tLearmont, Joseph B. 120 Mackay-street, Montreal, Canada.
*LeatHamM, Epwarp Atpam, M.P. Whitley Hall, Huddersfield ;
and 46 Eaton-square, London, S. W.
tLeavers, J. W. The Park, Nottingham.
*Leavitt, Erasmus Darwin. 604 Main-street, Cambridgzeport, Mas-
sachusetts, U.S.A.
tLesour, G. A., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Col-
lege of Physical Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tLeckie, R. G. Springhill, Cumberland County, Nova Scotia.
tLee, Daniel W. Halton Bank, Pendleton, near Manchester.
tLee, Henry, M.P. Sedgeley Park, Manchester.
tLee, J. H. Warburton. Rossall, Fleetwood.
*Ler, Jonny Epwarp, F.G.S., F.S.A. Villa Syracusa, Torquay.
*Lee, Sir Joseph Cooksey. Park Gate, Altrincham,
*Leech, Bosdin T. Oak Mount, Temperley, Cheshire.
§Leech, D. J. Elm House, Whalley Range, Manchester.
*Lees, Lawrence W. Claregate, Tettenhall, Wolverhampton.
tLees, R. W. Moira-place, Southampton.
tLees, William, M.A. St. Leonard’s, Morningside-place, Edin-
burgh.
*Leese, Miss H. K. Fylde-road Mills, Preston, Lancashire.
*Leese, Joseph. TF ylde-road Mills, Preston, Lancashire.
tLeese. Mrs. Hazeldene, Fallowfield, Manchester.
{Lx Fevvyer, J. E. Southampton.
{Lerrver, The Right Hon. G. Smaw, F.R.G.S. 18 Bryanston-
square, London, W.
*Lerroy, General Sir Jonn Henry, R.A., K.C.M.G., C.B., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 82 Queen’s-gate, London, S.W.; and Pen-
quite, Par Station, Cornwall.
.*Legh, Lieut.-Colonel George Cornwall. High Lech Hall, Cheshire.
tLe Grice, A. J. Trereife, Penzance.
{Lercesrer, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.G. Holkham, Nor-
folk.
*Leigh, Henry. Moorfield, Swinton, near Manchester.
tLuien, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L. 37 Portman-square,
London, W.; and Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth.
{Leighton, Andrew. 385 High-park-street, Liverpool.
§Leipner, Adolph, Professor of Botany in University College, Bristol.
47 Hampton Park, Bristol.
tLeishman, James. Gateacre Hall, Liverpool.
tLeister, G. F. Gresbourn House, Liverpool.
{Leith, Alexander, Glenkindie, Inverkindie, N.B.
tLemon, James, M.Inst.C.E. 11 The Avenue, Southampton.
*“Lenpz, Major AveustE Freprric, F.L.S., F.G.8. Sunbury House
Sunbury, Middlesex.
tLeng, John. ‘Advertiser’ Office, Dundee.
tLennon, Rev. Francis. The College, Maynooth, Neland.
62
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1887.
1871.
1874.
1872.
1884.
1871.
1883.
1880.
1887.
1866.
1887.
1879.
1870.
1884,
1853.
1860.
1887.
1876.
1887.
1862.
1887.
1878.
1881.
1870.
1871.
1876.
1883.
1882.
1870.
1876,
1881.
1861.
1876.
1864.
1880.
1842.
1865.
Lentaigne, Joseph. 12 Great Denmark-street, Dublin.
*Leon, John F. 17 Mortlake-road, Kew, Surrey.
tLzonarp, Hven, F.G.S., M.R.LA., F.R.G.S.L St. David’s, Mala-
hide-road, Co. Dublin.
tLepper, Charles W. Laurel Lodge, Belfast.
tLermit, Rev. Dr. School House, Dedham.
§Lesage, Louis. City Hall, Montreal, Canada.
tLeslie, Alexander, M.Inst.C.E. 72 George-street, Edinburgh.
§Lester, Thomas. Fir Bank, Penrith.
tLercnEer, R. J. Lansdowne-terrace, Walters-road, Swansea.
§Leverkus, Otto. The Downs, Prestwich, Manchester.
§Lzvi, Dr. Lzonn, F.S.A., F.S.S., F-R.G.S., Professor of Com-
mercial Law in King’s College, London. 6 Crown Oflice-row,
Temple, London, E.C.
*Levinstein, Ivan. Villa Newberg, Victoria Park, Manchester.
t{Lewin, Colonel, F.R.G.S. Garden Corner House, Chelsea Embank-
ment, London, 8. W.
t{Lewis, Atrrep Lionet. 35 Colebrooke-row, Islington, London,
N.
*Lewis, Sir W. T. The Mardy, Aberdare.
tLiddell, George William Moore. Sutton House, near Hull.
tLipprtt, The Very Rev. H. G., D.D., Dean of Christ Church,
Oxford.
§Liebermann, L. 54 Portland-street, Manchester.
tLietke, J. O. 30 Gordon-street, Glasgow.
*Lightbown, Henry. Weaste Hall, Pendleton, Manchester.
{Lizrorp, The Right Hon. Lord, F.L.S. Lilford Hall, Oundle, North-
amptonshire.
*Livertcr, The Right Rev. Cuartzs Graves, Lord Bishop of, D.D.,
F.R.S., M.R.I.A. The Palace, Henry-street, Limerick.
§Limpach, Dr. Crumpsall Vale Chemical Works, Manchester.
{Lincolne, William. Ely, Cambridgeshire. :
*Lindley, William, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 10 Kidbrooke-terrace, Black-
heath, London, 8.E.
tLindsay, Thomas, F.C.S. Maryfield College, Maryhill, by Glasgow.
{Lindsay, Rey. T. M., M.A., D.D. Free Church College, Glasgow.
Lingwood, Robert M., M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 6 Park-yvillas, Chel-
tenham.
tLinn, James. Geological Survey Office, India-buildings, Edin-
burgh.
§Lisle, H. Claud. Nantwich.
*Lister, Rev. Henry, M.A. Hawridge Rectory, Berkhampstead.
§Lister, Thomas. Victoria-crescent, Barnsley, Yorkshire.
tLittle, Thomas Evelyn. 42 Brunswick-street, Dublin.
Littledale, Harold. Liscard Hall, Cheshire.
{Littlewood, Rev. B. C., M.A. Holmdale, Cheltenham.
*Lrveine, G. D., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Cambridge. Cambridge.
*Liversidge, Archibald, F.R.S., F.C.8., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Professor
of Chemistry and Mineralogy in the University of Sydney,
N.S.W. (Care of Messrs. Triibner & Co., Ludgate Hill, Lon-
don, E.C.)
§Livesay, J.G. Cromartie House, Ventnor, Isle of Wight.
tLlewelyn, John T. D. Penllegare, Swansea.
Lloyd, Rev. A. R. Hengold, near Oswestry.
Lloyd, Edward. King-street, Manchester.
{Lloyd, G. B., J.P. Edgbaston-grove, Birmingham.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 63
Year of
Election.
et George, M.D., F.G.S. 41 York-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
am
1865. tLloyd, John. Queen's College, Birmingham.
1886. {Lloyd, John Henry. Ferndale, Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.
1886. {Lloyd, Samuel. Farm, Sparkbrook, Birmingham.
1865. *Lloyd, Wilson, F.R.G.S. Myvod House, Wednesbury.
1854, *Losiey, James Logan, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 19 Stonebridge Park,
Willesden, N. W.
1853. *Locke, John. 153 Leinster-road, Dublin.
1867. *Locke, John. Whitehall Club, London, S.W.
1863. {Lockxyrr, J. Norman, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Science Schools, South
Kensington, London, 8. W.
1886. *Lodge, Alfred, M.A. Cooper’s Hill, Staines.
1875. *Lopex, OtrvEr J., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in University
College, Liverpool. 21 Waverley-road, Sefton Park, Liverpool.
1883. {Lofthouse, John. West Bank, Rochdale.
1883. {London, Rev. H. High Lee, Knutsford.
1862. {Long, Andrew, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge.
1876. {Long, H. A. Charlotte-street, Glasgow.
1872. {Long, Jeremiah. 50 Marine Parade, Brighton.
1871. *Long, John Jex. 11 Doune-terrace, Kelvinside, Glas¢ow.
1851. {Long, William, F.G.S. Hurts Hall, Saxmundham, Suffolk.
1883. *Long, William. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.
1883. tLong, Mrs. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.
1883. {Long, Miss. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.
1866. {Longden, Frederick. Osmaston-road, Derby.
18883. {Longe, Francis D. Coddenham Lodge, Cheltenham,
1883. {Longmaid, William Henry. 4 Rawlinson-road, Southport.
1875. *Longstaff, George Blundell, M.A., M.B., F.C.S., F.S.8. Southfield
Grange, Wandsworth, S. W.
1871. phone sia George Dixon, M.D.,F.C.S. Butterknowle, Wandsworth,
)
1872. “| aman Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S. Ridgelands, Wimbledon,
urrey.
1881. *Longstaff, Mrs. Ll. W. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, Surrey.
1883. *Longton, E. J., M.D. Lord-street, Southport.
1861. *Lord, Edward. Adamroyd, Todmorden.
1863. tLosh, W.S. Wreay Syke, Carlisle.
1883. *Louis, D. A., F.C.S. 77 Shirland-gardens, London, 8.W.
1887. *Love, A. E. H. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1886. *Love, K. F. J., M.A. Mason College, Birmingham.
1876. *Love, James, F.R.A.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. 75 Oval road, Croydon.
1883. §Love, James Allen. 8 EKastbourne-road West, Southport.
1875. *Lovett, W. Jesse, FIC. Jessamine Cottage, Thornes, Wakefield.
1867. *Low, James F. Monifieth, by Dundee.
1885. §Lowdell, Sydney Poole. Baldwyn’s Hill, East Grinstead, Sussex.
1885, *Lowe, Arthur C. W. Gosfield Hall, Halstead, Essex.
1863. Geeep oes Arthur 8. H., F.R.A.S. 76 Lancaster-gate, Lon-
on, W.
1861. *Lows, Epwarp Josrru, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., FR.MS.
Shirenewton Hall, near Chepstow.
1884. {Lowe, F. J. Elm-court, Temple, London, E.C,
1868. tLowe, John, M.D. King’s Lynn.
1886. *Lowe, John Lander. 132 Bath-row, Birmingham.
1850. ee natty Henry, M.D., F.R.S.E. Balgreen, Slateford, Edin-
urgh.
64
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1881.
1853.
1881.
1870.
1878.
1849.
1875.
1881.
1867.
1873.
1885.
1866.
1873.
1850.
1853.
1883.
1858.
1874.
1864.
1871.
1884.
1884.
1884.
1874.
1885.
1857.
1878.
1862.
1852.
1854,
1876.
1868.
1878.
1879.
1885.
1883.
1866.
1884,
1884,
1840.
1840.
1884,
1855.
1886.
{Lubbock, Arthur Rolfe. High Elms, Hayes, Kent.
*Lussock, Sir Joun, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.LS.,
F.G.S. Down, Farnborough, Kent.
tLubbock, John B. High Elms, Hayes, Kent.
tLubbock, Montague, M.D. 19 Grosvenor-street, London, W.
tLucas, Joseph. Tooting Graveney, London, S.W.
*Luckcock, Howard. Oak-hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Lucy, W. C., F.G.S. The Winstones, Brookthorpe, Gloucester.
tLuden, C.M. 4 Bootham-terrace, York.
*Luis, John Henry. Cidhmore, Dundee.
t{Lumley, J. Hope Villa, Thornbury, near Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Lumspen, Rozert. Ferryhill House, Aberdeen,
*Lund, Charles. Ilkley, Yorkshire.
tLund, Joseph. Ilkley, Yorkshire.
*Lundie, Cornelius. 821 Newport-road, Cardiff.
tLunn, William Joseph, M.D. 23 Charlotte-street, Hull.
*Lupton, Arnold, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S8., Professor of Mining Engineer-
ing in Yorkshire College. 6 De Grey-road, Leeds.
*Lupton, Arthur. Headingley, near Leeds.
*Lupton, SypNey, M.A. The Harehills, near Leeds.
*Lutley, John, Brockhampton Park, Worcester.
{Lyell, Leonard, F.G.S. 92 Onslow-gardens, London, 8.W.
{Lyman, A. Clarence. 84 Victoria-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Lyman, H. H. 74 McTavish-street, Montreal, Canada.
tLyman, Roswell C. 74 MecTavish-street, Montreal, Canada.
tLynam, James. Ballinasloe, Ireland.
§Lyon, Alexander, jun. 52 Carden-place, Aberdeen.
tLyons, Robert D., M.B., M.R.I.A. 8 Merrion-square West, Dublin.
tLyte, Cecil Maxwell. Cotford, Oakhill-road, Putney, 8.W.
*Lyrn, F. Maxwett, F.C.S. 60 Finborough-road, London, 8. W.
{McAdam, Robert. 18 College-square East, Belfast.
*MacapaM, Srevenson, .Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Lecturer on
Chemistry. Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh ; and Brighton House,
Portobello, by Edinburgh.
*Macapam, WititAm Ivison. Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh.
tMacatisrer, ALEXANDER, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in
the University of Cambridge. Strathmore House, Harvey-road,
Cambridge.
§MacAnisrer, Donatp, M.A.,M.D., B.Sc. St. John’s College, Cam-
bridge.
§MacAndrew, James J. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon,
§MacAndrew, Mrs. J. J. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.
§MacAndrew, William. Westwood House, near Colchester.
*M‘Arthur, Alexander, M.P., F.R.G.S. Raleigh Hall, Brixton Rise,
London, 8. W.
{Macarthur, Alexander. Winnipeg, Canada.
{Macarthur, D. Winnipeg, Canada.
Macautay, James, A.M., M.D. 25 Carlton-road, Maida Vale,
London, N. W.
*MacBrayne, Robert. Messrs. Black and Wingate, 5 Exchange~
square, Glasgow.
t{McOabe, T., Chief Examiner of Patents. Patent Office, Ottawa,
Canada.
{M‘Cann, Rev. James, D.D., F.G.S. The Lawn, Lower Norwood,
Surrey, 8.E.
{MacCarthy, Rev. E. F. M., M.A, 93 Hagley-road, Birmingham.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 65
Year of
Election.
1887.
1884.
1884.
1876.
1863.
1872.
1874.
1878.
1858.
1883.
1876.
1884.
1886.
1884.
1884.
1878.
1884.
1883.
1878.
1878.
1884.
1884.
1881.
1871.
1885.
1879.
1884.
1854.
1867.
1855.
1872.
1884.
1884.
1873,
1885.
1884.
1886.
1885.
1876.
1867.
1884.
1885.
1884.
1885.
*McOarthy, James. Bangelok, Siam.
“McCarthy, J. J.,M.D. Junior Army and Navy Club, London, S.W.
tMcCausland, Orr. Belfast.
*M‘CrELLAND, A.S. 4 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glascow.
{M‘Cxrintock, Admiral Sir Francis L., R.N., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
United Service Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W.
“M‘Clure, J. H., F.R.G.S. Chavoire, Annecy, Haute Savoie, France.
{M‘Clure, Sir Thomas, Bart. Belmont, Belfast.
*M‘Comas, Henry. Homestead, Dundrum, Co. Dublin.
t¢M‘Oonnell, J: E. Woodlands, Great Missenden.
tMcCrossan, James. 92 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
{M‘Culloch, Richard. 109 Douglas-street, Blythswood-square, Glas-
ow.
Dane voniank The Right Hon. Sir Joun Auexanper, G.O.B,, D.C.L.,
LL.D. Ottawa, Canada.
§McDonald, John Allen. 6 Holly-place, Hampstead, London, N.W.
tMacDonald, Kenneth. Town Hall, Inverness.
*McDonald, W. C. 891 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
{McDonnell, Alexander. St. John’s, Island Bridge, Dublin.
tMacDonnell, Mrs. F. H. 1433 St. Catherine-street, Montreal, Canada.
MacDonnell, Hercules H: G. 2 Kildare-place, Dublin.
{MacDonnell, Rev. Canon J.C.,D.D. Maplewell, Loughborough.
{McDonnell, James. 82 Upper Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin.
t{McDonnell, Robert, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA. 89 Merrion-square
West, Dublin.
tMacdougall, Alan. Toronto, Canada.
tMcDougall, John. 35 St. Francois Xavier-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Macfarlane, Alexander, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physics in the
University of Texas. Austin, Texas, U.S.A.
{M‘Farlane, Donald. The Oollege Laboratory, Glasgow.
tMacfarlane, J. M., D.Sc. 3 Bellevue-terrace, Edinburgh.
{Macfarlane, Walter, jun. 12 Lynedoch-crescent, Glascow,
{Macfie, K. N., B.A., B.C.L. Winnipeg, Canada.
*Macfie, Robert Andrew. Dreghorn, Colinton, Edinburgh.
*M‘Gavin, Robert. Ballumbie, Dundee.
{MacGeorge, Andrew, jun. 21 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.
tM‘George, Mungo. Nithsdale, Laurie Park, Sydenham, S.E.
{MacGillivray, James, 42 Catchurt-street, Montreal, Canada.
tMacGoun, Archibald, jun., B.A., B.C.L. 19 Place d’Armes, Mont-
real, Canada. :
fMcGowen, William Thomas. Oak-ayenue, Oak Mount, Bradford,
Yorkshire.
{Macgregor, Alexander, M.D. 256 Union-street, Aberdeen.
*MacGreeor, James Gorpon, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Physics in Dalhousie College, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.
§McGregor, William. Kohima Lodge, Bedford.
{M‘Gregor-Robertson, J.. M.A., M.B. 400 Great Western-road,
Glasgow.
tM‘Grigor, Alexander B., LL.D. 19 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.
*M‘Intosu, W. C., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.L. &E., F.L.S., Professor
of Natural History in the University of St. Andrews. 2 Abbots-
ford-crescent, St. Andrews, N.B.
tMcIntyre, John, M.D. Odiham, Hants.
{Mack, Isaac A. Trinity-road, Bootle.
§Mackay, Alexander Howard, B.A., B.Sc. The Academy, Pictoi,
Nova Scotia, Canada.
§Mackay, Joun YuLe, M.D. The University, Glaszow.
E
66
Year
LIST OF MEMBERS.
of
Election.
1873.
1883.
1880.
1885.
1884,
1884.
1883.
1865.
1872.
1867.
1884,
1887.
1867.
1865.
1884.
1886.
1850.
1867.
1872.
t{McKzyorick, Joun G., M.D., F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of Phy-
siolory in the University of Glasgow. The University,
Glasgow.
{McKendrick, Mrs. The University, Glasgow.
*Mackenzie, Colin. Junior Atheneum Club, Piccadilly, London, W.
t Mackenzie, J.T. Glenmuick, Ballater, N.B.
§McKenzie, Stephen, M.D. 26 Finsbury-cireus, London, E.C.
{McKenzie, Thomas, B.A. School of Science, Toronto, Canada.
{Mackeson, Henry. Hythe, Kent.
tMackeson, Henry B., F.G.8. Hythe, Kent.
*Mackey, J. A. 1 Westbourne-terrace, Hyde Park, London, W.
t{Macxig, Samurt Jossrnu. 17 Howley-place, London, W.
¢{McKilligan, John B. 387 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada,
§Mackinder, H. J., F.R.G.S. Christ Church, Oxford.
*Mackinlay, David. 6 Great Western-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
tMackintosh, Daniel, F.G.S. 32 Glover-street, Birkenhead.
{Mackintosh, James B. Lehigh University, South Bethlehem, Pa.,
U.S.A.
*Mackintosh, J. B. School of Mines, Fourth Avenue, New York,
U.S.A.
tMacknight, Alexander. 20 Albany-street, Edinburgh.
tMackson, H.G. 25 Cliff-road, Woodhouse, Leeds.
*McLacuian, Ropert, F.R.S., F.L.S. West View, Clarendon-road,
Lewisham, S.E. .
. t{McLandsborough, John, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Manning-
ham, Bradford, Yorkshire.
5. *M‘Laren, The Right Hon. Lord, F.R.S.E. 46 Moray-place, Edin-
burgh.
to)
. {Maclaren, Archibald. Summertown, Oxfordshire.
3. {MacLaren, Walter 8S. B. Newington House, Edinburgh.
2. {Maclean, Inspector-General,O.B. 1 Rockstone-terrace, Southampton.
. ¢{McLennan, Frank. 317 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.
. t{McLennan, Hugh. 317 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.
. {McLennan, John. Lancaster, Ontario, Canada.
, {Macleod, Henry Dunning. 17 Gloucester-terrace, Campden Hill-road,
London, W
. §M‘Leop, Hererrr, F.R.S., F.C.S.. Professor of Chemistry in the
Royal Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper's Hill, Staines.
. tMacliver, D. 1 Broad-street, Bristol.
1875. {Macliver, P.S. 1 Broad-street, Bristol.
. *Maclure, John William, M.P., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. Whalley Range,
Manchester.
. *McMahon, Colonel C. A. 20 Nevern-square, South Kensington,
London, 8. W.
. {MacMahon, Captain P. A., R.A., Instructor in Mathematics at the
Royal Military Academy, Woolwich.
1878. *M‘Master, George, M.A., J.P. Donnybrook, Ireland.
1862
1884
1874
1884
. {Maemillan, Alexander. Streatham-lane, Upper Tooting, Surrey,
S.W
2 *Macmillan, Angus, M.D. The Elms, Beverley-road, Hull.
. {MacMordie, Hans, M.A. 8 Donegall-street, Belfast.
. {MeMurvrick, Playfair. Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, Ontario,
Canada.
1871. {M‘Nas, Wrrtam Ramsay, M.D., Professor of Botany in the
1870
Royal College of Science, Dublin. St. Lawrence-road, Clontarf,
Dublin.
. {Macnaught, John, M.D. 74 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 67
Year of
Election.
1867.
1883.
1878.
1887.
1883.
1886.
1887.
1876,
1885.
1887.
1883.
1883,
1868.
1875.
1878.
1869,
1887.
1885.
1883.
1881.
1874.
1857.
1887.
1870.
1885.
1878.
1864
1887.
1870.
1887.
1883.
1887.
1864,
1863.
1881.
1857.
1887.
1887,
1842,
1884.
1883.
1887.
1870.
1864.
{tM‘Neill, John. Balhousie House, Perth.
tMeNicoll, Dr. E. D.. 15 Manchester-road, Southport.
tMacnie, George. 59 Bolton-street, Dublin.
§Maconochie, Archibald White. Care of Messrs. Maconochie Bros.,
Lowestoft.
tMacpherson, J. 44 Frederick-street, Edinburgh.
§Macpherson, Lieut.-Colonel J. C., R.E. Ordnance Survey Office,
Southampton.
§McRae, Charles, M.A. Science and Art Department, South Ken-
sington, London, 8. W.
*Macrory, Epmunp, M.A. 2 Ilchester-gardens, Prince’s-square,
London, W.
*Mactear, James. 16 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.
{MeWhirter, Wiliam. 170 Kent-road, Glasgow.
§Macy, Jesse. Grinnell, Iowa, U.S.A.
tMadden, W.H. Marlborough College, Wilts.
Maggs, Thomas Charles, F.G.S. Culver Lodge, Acton Vale, Middle-
sex, W.
tMagnay, F. A. Drayton, near Norwich.
*Magnus, Sir Philip, B.Sc. 48 Gloucester-place, Portman-square,
London, W.
{Mahony, W. A. 34 College-creen, Dublin.
{Main, Robert. Admiralty, Whitehall; London, S.W.
§Mainprice, W. 8S. Longcroft, Altrincham, Cheshire.
*Maitland, Sir James R. G., Bart. Stirling, N.B.
§Maitland, P.C. 136 Great Portland-street, London, W.
*Malcolm, Frederick. Morden College, Blackheath, London, S.E.
{Malcolm, Lieut.-Colonel, R.E. 72 Nunthorpe-road, York.
tMalcolmson, A. B. Friends’ Institute, Belfast.
tMallet, John William, Ph.D., M.D., F.R.S., F.0.8., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Virginia, U.S.A.
§MancuestErR, The Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of, D.D. Bishop's
Court, Manchester.
tManifold, W, H. 45 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
{Mann, George. 72 Bon Accord-street, Aberdeen.
Manning, His Eminence Cardinal. Archbishop’s House, West-
minster, S. W.
§Manning, Robert. 4 Upper Ely-place, Dublin.
{Mansel-Pleydell, J.C. Whatcombe, Blandford.
*March, Henry Colley. 2 West-sireet, Rochdale.
tMarcoartu, Senor Don Arturo de. Madrid.
§Margetson, J. Charles. The Rocks, Limpley, Stoke.
tMarginson, James Fleetwood. The Mount, Fleetwood, Lancashire.
§Markham, Christopher. Sedgebrook, Northampton.
tMarknam, Crements R., C.B., F.R.S., F.L.S., Sec.R.G.S., F.S.A.
21 Kccleston-square, London, 8. W.
tMarley, John. Mining Office, Darlineton.
*Marr, John Edward, M.A., F.G.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
TMarriott, William, F.C.S. 8 Belgrave-terrace, Huddersfield.
§Marsden, Benjamin. Westleigh, Heaton Mersey, Manchester.
§Marsden, Joseph. Ardenlea, Heaton, near Bolton.
Marsden, Richard. Norfolk-street, Manchester.
*Marsden, Samuel. St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A.
*Marsh, Henry. Cressy House, Woodsley-road, Leeds.
§Marsh, J. E. Oxford.
{Marsh, John. Rann Lea, Rainhill, Liverpool.
}Marsh, Thomas Edward Miller. 37 Grosvenor-place, Bath.
E2
LIST OF MEMBERS.
68
Year of
Election.
1882. *Marswatt, A. Miunes, M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of
Zoology in Owens College, Manchester.
1881. {Marshall, D. H. Greenhill Cottage, Rothesay.
1881. *Marshall, John, F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Church Institute, Leeds.
1881. §Marshall, John Incham Fearby. 28 St. Saviourgate, York.
1876, {Marshall, Peter. 6 Parkgrove-terrace, Glasgow.
1858. {Marshall, Reginald Dykes. Adel, near Leeds.
1887. §Marshall, William. Thorncliffe, Dukinfield.
1886, *Marshall, William Bayley. 15 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, . Bir-
mingham.
1849, *Marsnatt, WittiAm P., M.Inst.C.E. 15 Augustus-road, Birming-
ham.
1865. §Marren, Epwarp Brypon. Pedmore, near Stourbridge.
1883.
1887.
1848.
1878.
1883,
1884.
1856.
1865.
1886.
1865.
1886.
1875.
1883.
1878.
1847.
1886,
1879.
1868.
1876.
1876.
1885.
“1888.
1887.
“1865.
1861.
1881.
1883,
1865.
18658.
1885.
1885.
1863.
1865.
tMarten, Henry John. 4 Storey’s-gate, London, 8.W.
*Martin, Rev. H. A. Laxton Vicarage, Newark.
{Martin, Henry D. 4 Imperial-circus, Cheltenham.
t{Marrin, H. Newett, M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of
Biology in Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, U.S.A.
*Martin, Joun Brppurrg, M.A., F.S.S. 17 Hyde Parli-gate, London,
S.W
§Martin, N. H., F.L.S. 29 Moseley-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
Martin, Studley. Liverpool.
*Martineau, Rev. James, LL.D., D.D. 35 Gordon-square, London,
W.C.
{Martineau, R. F. Highfield-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
{Martineau, R. F. 18 Highfield-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Martineau, Thomas. 7 Cannon-street, Birmingham.
tMarrrneav, Sir Toomas, J.P. West Hill, Augustus-road, Edg-
baston, Birmingham.
tMartyn, Samuel, M.D. 8 Buchingham-villis, Clifton, Bristol.
t{Marwick, James, LL.D. Killermont, Maryhill, Glasgow.
{Masaki, Taiso. Japanese Consulate, 84 Bishopsgate-street Within,
London, E.0.
{MaskeLyne, Navin Srory, M.A., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of
Mineralogy in the University of Oxford. Salthrop, Wroughton,
Wiltshire.
tMason, Hon. J. EK. Fiji.
tMason, James, M.D. Montgomery House, Sheffield.
{Mason, James Wood, F.G.S. The Indian Museum, Calcutta.
(Care of Messrs. Henry 8. King & Co., 65 Cornhill, Lon-
don, E.C.)
§Mason, Robert. 6 Albion-crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
{Mason, Stephen. M.P. 9 Rosslyn-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
Massey, Hugh, Lord. Hermitage, Castleconnel, Co. Limerick.
tMasson, Orme, D.Sc. 58 Great King-street, Edinburgh.
{Mather, Robert V. Birkdale Lodge, Birkdale, Southport.
*Mather, William, M.Inst.C.E. Salford Iron Works, Manchester.
*Mathews, G.S. 32 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Maruews, WritttAm, M.A., F.G.S. 60 Harborne-road, Birmingham.
{Mathwin, Henry, B.A. Bickerton House, Southport.
{Mathwin, Mrs. 40 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
{Matthews, C. E. Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
{Matthews, F. C.. Mandre Works, Driffield, Yorkshire.
{Marruews, James. Springhill, Aberdeen.
t{Matthews, J. Duvcan. Springhill, Aberdeen.
t{Mauchan, Rev. W. Benwell Parsonage, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Maw, Grored, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. Kenley, Surrey.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 69
Year of
Election.
1876.
1864.
1887.
1883.
1883.
1868.
1884.
1835.
1878.
1863.
1878.
1884.
1883.
1881.
1871.
1879.
1887.
1881.
1867.
1883.
1879.
1866.
1883.
1854,
1881.
1887.
1847.
1863.
1877.
1862.
{Maxton, John. 6 Belgrave-terrace, Glasgow.
*Maxwell, Francis. 4 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
§Maxwell, James. 29 Princess-street, Manchester.
*Maxwell, Robert Perceval. Finnebrogue, Downpatrick.
§May, William, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Northfield, St. Mary Cray,
Kent.
tMayall, George. Clairville, Birkdale, Southport.
{Mayall, J. E., F.C.S. Stork’s Nest, Lancing, Sussex.
*Maybury, A. C., D.Sc. 19 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C.
Mayne, Edward Ellis. Roclkdlands, Stillorgan, Ireland.
*Mayne, Thomas, M.P. 33 Castle-street, Dublin.
tMease, George D. Lydney, Gloucestershire.
§Meath, The Most Rev. C. P. Reichel, D.D., Bishop of. Meath,
{Mecham, Arthur. 11 Newton-terrace, Glasgow.
{Medd, John Charles, M.A. 99 Park-street, Grosvenor-square,
London, W.
;Meek, Sir James. Middlethorpe, York.
{Meikie, James, F.S.S8. 6 St. Andrew’s-square, Edinburgh.
§Meiklejohn, John W.S., M.D. 105 Holland-road, London, W.
§Meisekke-Smith, W. 31 Plantage, Amsterdam.
*MeLpoia, RapHAst, F.R.S., F-R.A.S., F.C.S., F.1.C., Professor of
Chemistry in the City and Guilds of London Institute, Finsbury
Technical Institute. 6 Brunswick-square, London, W.C.
tMerprum, Cuartzs, C.M.G., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Port Louis,
Mauritius.
tMellis, Rey. James, 23 Park-street, Southport.
*Mellish, Henry. Hodsock Priory, Worksop.
{Matto, Rev. J. M., M.A., F.G.S. Mapperley Vicarage, Derby.
§Mello, Mrs. J. M. Mapperley Vicarage, Derby.
tMelly, Charles Pierre. 11 Rumford-street, Liverpool.
§Melrose, James. Clifton, York.
§Melvill, J. Cosmo, M.A. Kersal Cottage, Prestwich, Manchester.
{Melville, Professor Alexander Gordon, M.D. Queen’s College, Gal-
way.
tMelvin, Alexander. 42 Buccleuch-place, Edinburgh.
*Menabrea, General Count, LL.D. 14 Rue de l’Elysée, Paris.
{MenneLL, Henry T. St. Dunstan’s-buildings, Great Tower-street,
London, E.C.
. §Merivale, John Herman, M.A., Professor of Mining in the College of
Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
. {Merivale, Walter. Indian Midland Railway, Sangor.
. tMerrifield, John, Ph.D., F.R.A.S. Gascoigne-place, Plymouth.
. {Merry, Alfred S. Bryn Heulog, Sketty, near Swansea.
. *Messent, John. 429 Strand, London, W.C.
. tMessent, P. T. 4 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth.
. {Mzatt, Louts C., F.G.S., Professor of Biology in Yorkshire College,
Leeds.
. §Middlemore, Thomas. Holloway Head, Birmingham.
. {Middlemore, William. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. *Middlesbrough, The Right Rey. Richard Lacy, D.D., Bishop of.
Middlesbrough.
§Middleton, Henry. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
. Middleton, R. Morton, F.L.S., F.Z.S. Hudworth Cottage, Castle
Eden, Co. Durham.
. *Middleton, Robert T. 197 West George-street, Glasgow.
. §Miles, Charles Albert. Buenos Ayres.
. §Mitgs, Morris. 44 Carlton-road, Southampton.
70
Year of
Election
1885.
1859.
1865.
1876.
1876.
1882.
1876.
1875.
1884,
1885.
1886,
1861.
1876.
1884.
1884.
1876.
1868.
1880.
1834,
1885.
1882.
1885.
1885.
1867.
1882.
1880.
1855.
1859.
1876.
1883.
1883.
1863,
1873.
1885.
1870.
1868,
1885.
1862.
1879,
1884.
1885.
1864.
LIST OF MEMBERS.
§Mill, Hugh Robert, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.0.S. 3 Glenorchy-terrace,
Edinburgh.
{Millar, John, J.P. Lisburn, Ireland.
{Millar, John, M.D., F.L.S., F.G.S, Bethnal House, Cambridge-road,
London, E.
Millar, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E, Perth.
tMillar, William. Highfield House, Dennistoun, Glasgow.
{Millar, W. J. 145 Hill-street, Garnethill, Glascow.
tMiller, A, J. 12 Cumberland-place, Southampton.
{Miller, Daniel. 258 St. George’s-road, Glasgow.
tMiller, George. Brentry, near Bristol.
{Miller, Mrs. Hugh. 51 Lauriston-place, Edinburgh.
tMiller, John. 9 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.
§Miller, Rey. John. The College, Weymouth.
*Miller, Robert. Cranage Hall, Holmes Chapel, Cheshire.
*Miller, Robert. 1 Lily Bank-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
*Miller, Robert Kalley, M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the Royal
Naval College, Greenwich, London, S.E.
tMiller, T. F., B.Ap.Sc. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.
tMiller, Thomas Paterson. Cairns, Cambuslang, N.B.
*Mitts, Epmunp J., D.Sc, F.RS., F.0.S., Young Professor of
Technical Chemistry in Anderson’s College, Glasgow. 60 John-
street, Glasgow.
{Mills, Mansfeldt H. Tapton-grove, Chesterfield.
Milne, Admiral Sir Alexander, Bart., G.C.B., F.R.S.E. 13 New-
street, Spring-gardens, London, S.W.
{Milne, Alexander D. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
*Milne, John, F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Imperial
College of Engineering, Tokio, Japan. Ingleside, Birdhirst Rise,
South Croydon, Surrey.
tMilne, J.D. 14 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.
{Milne, William. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
*MitnE-Home, Davin, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 10 York-
place, Edinburgh.
{Milnes, Alfred, M.A., F.S.S. 30 Almeric-road, London, S.W.
§Minchin, G. M., M.A. Royal Indian Engineering College, Cooper’s
Hill, Surrey.
{Mirrlees, James Buchanan. 45 Scotland-street, Glasgow.
{Mitchell, Alexander, M.D. Old Rain, Aberdeen.
{Mitchell, Andrew. 20 Woodside-place, Glasgow.
{Mitchell, Charles T., M.A, 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington,
London, W.
j Mitchell, Mrs. Charles T, 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington,
London, W.
tMitchell, C. Walker. Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{Mitchell, Henry. Parktield House, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Mitchell, Rey. J. Mitford, B.A. 6 Queen’s-terrace, Aberdeen,
§Mitchell, John, J.P. York House, Clitheroe, Lancashire.
{Mitchell, John, jun. . Pole Park House, Dundee.
§Mitchell, P. Chalmers. Christ Church, Oxford.
*Mitchell, W. Stephen, M.A., LL.B.
tMivarz, Sr. Gzorex, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.8., Professor of
Biology in University College, Kensington. 71 Seymour-street,
London, W.
§Moat, Robert. Spring Grove, Bewdley.
§Moffat, William. 7 Union-place, Aberdeen.
tMogg, John Rees. High Littleton House, near Bristol.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 71
Election.
1885.
1861.
1883.
1878.
1877.
1884.
1887.
1853.
1882.
1872.
1872.
1884,
1881.
1854.
1877.
1857.
1877.
1871.
1881.
18758.
1885.
1887.
1882.
1878.
1867.
1883.
1881.
1880.
1883,
1883.
1880.
1883.
1880.
1876.
1874.
1871.
1886.
1865.
1869.
1857.
tMoir, James. 25 Carden-place, Aberdeen.
{Morzsworru, Rey. Canon W. Nassav, M.A., LL.D. Spotland,
Rochdale.
§Mollison, W.L., M.A. Clare College, Cambridge.
{Molloy, Constantine, Q.C. 65 Lower Leeson-street, Dublin.
Molloy, Rev. Gerald, D.D. 86 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
Monaghan, Patrick. Halifax (Box 317), Nova Scotia, Canada.
Mond, Ludwig. 20 Avenue-road, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
Monroe, Henry, M.D. 10 North-street, Sculcoates, Hull.
Montagu, Samuel, M.P. 12 Kensington Palace-gardens, London, W.
Montgomery, R. Mortimer. 38 Porchester-place, Edgware-road,
London, W.
Moon, W., LL.D. 104 Queen’s-road, Brighton.
Moore, George Frederick. 25 Marlborough-road, Tue Brook,
Liverpool.
Moore, Henry. Collingham, Maresfield-gardens, Fitzjohn’s-avenue,
London, N.W.
*Moorz, Joun Carrick, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. 118 Eaton-square,
London, S.W.; and Corswall, Wigtonshire.
{Moorn, Tuomas Jonny, Cor. M.Z.S. Free Public Museum, Liver-
ool.
ees W.F. The Friary, Plymouth.
*Moore, Rey. William Prior. The Royal Schvol, Cavan, lreland.
tMoore, William Vanderkemp. 15 Princess-square, Plymouth.
tMorz, ALExanvER G., F.L.S., M.R.LA. 3 Botanic View, Glas-
neyin, Dublin.
{Morean, Atrrep. 50 West Bay-street, Jacksonville, Florida,
U.S.A.
age Edward Delmar, F.R.G.S. 15 Roland-gardens, London,
{
§
§
t+ ++ ¥
tr Ott +t
S.W.
Morgan, John. 57 Thomson-street, Aberdeen.
Morgan, John Gray. 38 Lloyd-street, Manchester.
Morgan, Thomas. Cross House, Southampton.
t¢Morean, Wrt1iAM, Ph.D., F.C.S. Swansea.
tMorison, William R. Dundee.
§Morley, Henry Forster, M.A., D.Sc., F.C.S. University Hall,
Gordon-square, London, W.C.
{Morrell, W. W. York City and County Bank, York.
{Morris, Alfred Arthur Vennor. Wernolau, Cross Inn R.8.0., Car-
marthenshire.
{Morris, C. 8S. Millbrook Iron Works, Landore, South Wales.
*Morris, Rey. Francis Orpen, B.A. Nunburnholme Rectory, Hayton,
York.
tMorris, George Lockwood. Millbrook Iron Works, Swansea,
tMorris, James. 6 Windsor-street, Uplands, Swansea.
{Morris, John. 40 Wellesley-road, Liverpool.
{Morris, M. I. E._ The Lodge, Penclawdd, near Swansea.
Morris, Samuel, M.R.D.S. Fortview, Clontarf, near Dublin.
tMorris, Rev. 8. S.0., M.A., R.N., F.C.S. H.MS. § Garnet,’
S. Coast of America.
tMorrison, G. J., M.Inst.C.E. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster,
S.W.
*Morrison, James Darsie. 27 Grange-road, Edinburgh.
tMorrison, John T. Scottish Marine Station, Granton, N.B.
{Mortimer, J. R. St. John’s-villas, Driffield.
{Mortimer, William. Bedford-circus, Exeter. _
§Morron, Gores H., F.G.S. 209 Edge-lane, Liverpool.
72
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1858.
1871.
1887.
1886.
1868.
1883.
1878.
1870.
1876.
1873.
1864.
1873.
1869.
1865.
1866.
1862.
1856.
1878.
1863.
1861.
1877.
1882.
1850.
1887.
1886,
1884,
1884.
1876.
1874.
1876.
1884,
1872.
1871.
1876.
1884.
1883.
1883.
*Morton, Henry JosepH. 2 Westbourne-villas, Scarborough.
t{Morton, Hugh. Belvedere House, Trinity, Edinburgh.
§Morton, Percy, M.A. Illtyd House, Brecon, South Wales.
*Morton, P. F. 10 The Grove, Highgate, London, N.
{Mosgrey, H. N., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Linacre Professor of Human
and Comparative Anatomy in the University of Oxford. 14St.
Giles’s, Oxford.
tMoseley, Mrs. 14 St. Giles’s, Oxford.
Mosley, Sir Oswald, Bart., D.C.L. MRolleston Hall, Burton-upon-
Trent, Staffordshire.
Moss, John. Otterspool, near Liverpool.
*Moss, JoHN Francis, F.R.G.S. Beechwood, Brincliffe, Sheffield.
tMoss, John Miles, M.A. 2 Esplanade, Waterloo, Liverpool.
§Moss, Ricnarp Jackson, F.C.S., MR.LA. St. Aubin’s, Bally-
brack, Co, Dublin.
*Mosse, George Staley. 13 Scarsdale-villas, Kensington, Lon-
don, W.
*Mosse, J. R. Conservative Club, London, 8.W.
tMossman, William. Ovenden, Halifax.
§Morr, Arpert J., F.G.S. Detmore, Charlton Kings, Cheltenham.
tMott, Charles Grey. The Park, Birkenhead.
§Mort, Freprerick T., F.R.G.S. Birstall Hill, Leicester.
*Movar, Freprrick Jonny, M.D., Local Government Inspector. 12
Durham-yillas, Campden Hill, London, W.
tMould, Rey. J.G., B.D. Fulmodeston Rectory, Dereham, Norfolk.
*Moulton, J. Fletcher, M.A., F.RS. 74 Onslow-gardens, Lon-
don, 8. W.
{Mounsey, Edward. Sunderland.
Mounsey, John. Sunderland.
*Mountcastle, William Robert. Bridge Farm, Ellenbrook, near
Manchester.
tMovunt-Epecumss, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.C.L. Mount-
Edgcumbe, Devonport.
{Mount-Temp xe, The Right Hon. Lord. Broadlands, Romsey, Hants.
Mowbray, James. Combus, Clackmannan, Scotland,
{Mowbray, John T. 15 Albany-street, Edinburgh.
§Moxon, Thomas B. County Bank, Manchester.
*Moyles, Mrs. Thomas. The Beeches, Ladywood-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
tMoyse, C. E., B.A., Professor of English Language and Literature
in McGill College, Montreal. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal,
Canada.
tMoyse, Charles E. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
*Muir, John. 6 Park-gardens, Glasgow.
{Muir, M. M. Pattison, M.A. F.R.S.E. Caius College, Cambridge.
§Muir, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Beechcroft, Bothwell, near
Glascow.
*Muir, William Ker. Detroit, Michigan, U.S.A.
tMuirhead, Alexander, D.Sc.,F.C.S. Cowley-street, Westminster,S.W.
*Mourruead, Henry, M.D., LL.D. Bushy Hill, Cambuslang, Lanark-
shire.
*Muirhead, Robert Franklin, M.A., B.Sc. Meikle Cloak, Lochwinnoch,
Renfrewshire.
*Muirhead-Paterson, Miss Mary. Laurieville, Queen’s Drive, Cross-
hill, Glasgow. ;
§MurHaxt, Micnarin G. 19 Albion-street, Hyde-park, London, W.
tMulhall, Mrs. Marion, 19 Albion-street, Hyde-park, London, W.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 73
Year of
Election.
1884.
1880.
1866.
1876.
1885.
1885.
1872.
1864.
1864.
1855.
1852.
1852.
1884,
1887.
1869.
*Mutiter, Huco, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 13 Park-square East,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
{Muller, Hugo M. 1 Griinanger-gasse, Vienna.
Munby, Arthur Joseph. 6 Fig-tree-court, Temple, London, E.C.
tMunperta, The Right Hon. A. J.. M.P., FERS. F.RGS. 16
Elvaston-place, London, 8.W.
tMunro, Donald, F.C.S. The University, Glasgow.
§Munro, J. E. Crawford, LL.D., Professor of Political Economy in
Owens College, Manchester.
*Munro, Robert. Braehead House, Kilmarnock, N.B.
*Munster, H. Sillwood Lodge, Brighton.
tMourcu, JErom. Cranwells, Bath.
*Murchison, K. R. Brockhurst, East Grinstead.
tMurdoch, James B. Hamilton-place, Langside, Glasgow.
tMurney, Henry, M.D. 10 Chichester-street, Belfast.
tMurphy, Joseph John. Old Forge, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim.
§Murphy, Patrick. Newry, Ireland.
§Murray, A. Hazeldean, Kersal, Manchester.
tMurray, Adam. Westbourne Sussex-gardens, Hyde-park, London, W.
Murray, John, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 50 Albemarle-street, London, W. ;
and Newsted, Wimbledon, Surrey.
. {Murray, John, M.D. Forres, Scotland.
*Murray, John, M.Inst.C.E. Downlands, Sutton, Surrey.
. §Murray, Jonny, F.R.S.E. Challenger Expedition Office, Edinburgh.
. {Murray, J. Clark, LL.D., Professor of Logic and Mental and Moral
Philosophy in McGill University, Montreal, 111 McKay-street,
Montreal, Canada,
. [Murray, J. Jardine, F.R.C.S.E. 99 Montpellier-road, Brighton.
. {Murray, William. 354 Clayton-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
. {Murray, W. Vaughan. 4 Westbourne-crescent, Hyde Park,
London, W.
. §Musgrave, James, J.P. Drumglass House, Belfast.
- {Musgrove, John, jun. Bolton.
. *Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool.
. §Mytyz, Roperr Witiam, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. 7 Whitehall-
place, London, S. W.
Nadin, Joseph. Manchester.
. §Nagel, D. H. Trinity College, Oxford.
. {Napier, James S. 9 Woodside-place, Glascow.
. *Napier, Captain Johnstone. Laverstock House, Salisbury.
. }Nares, Captain Sir G. S., K.C.B., R.N., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Maple-
road, Surbiton.
. *Nasmyru, JAMEs. Penshurst, Tunbridge.
- §Nason, Professor Henry B., Ph.D., F.C.S. Troy, New York,
U.S.A
“ sNeale, E. Vansittart. 14 City-buildings, Corporation-street, Man-
chester.
. §Neild, Charles. 19 Chapel Walks, Manchester.
. *Neild, Theodore. Dalton Hall, Manchester.
. §Neill, Joseph S. Claremont, Broughton Park, Manchester.
. §Neill, Robert, jun. Beech Mount, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
Neilson, Robert, J.P., D.L. Halewood, Liverpool.
- {Neilson, Walter. 172 West George-street, Glasgow.
. tNelson, D. M. 11 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.
. {Nettlefold, Edward. 51 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. tNevill, Rev. H.R. The Close, Norwich.
74
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1866,
1857.
1869.
1842,
*Nevill, The Right Rev. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.S., Bishop of
Dunedin, New Zealand.
tNeville, John, MR.ILA. Roden-place, Dundalk, Ireland.
tNevins, John Birkbeck, M.D. 5 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
New, Herbert. Evesham, Worcestershire.
Newall, Henry. Hare Hill, Littleborough, Lancashire.
*Newall, Robert Stirling, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Ferndene, Gateshead-
upon-Tyne.
. §Newbolt, F.G. Edenhurst, Addlestone, Surrey.
. t{Newbould, John. Sharrow Bank, Sheffield.
. *Newdigate, Albert L. Engineer’s Office, The Harbour, Dover.
. { Newman, Albert Robert. 33 Lisson-grove, Marylebone-road, London,
TAU
. *NEwmMAN, Professor Francis Wititram. 15 Arundel-crescent,
Weston-super-Mare.
. *Newron, ALFRED, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology and
Comparative Anatomy in the University of Cambridge. Mag-
dalene College, Cambridge.
. t{Newton, A. W. 7A Westcliffe-road, Birkdale, Southport.
. {Newton, Rev. J. 125 Eastern-road, Brighton.
. {Newton, William. 18 Fenchurch-street, London, E.C.
. {Nias, Miss Isabel. 56 Montagu-square, London, W.
tNias, J. B., B.A. 56 Montagu-square, London, W.
. {Nicholl, Thomas. Dundee.
. {Nicholls, J. F. City Library, Bristol.
. {NicHorson, Sir CuHarrzs, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D, F.GS.,
F.R.G.S. The Grange, Totteridge, Herts.
. *Nicholson, Cornelius, F.G.S., F.S.A. Ashleigh, Ventnor, Isle of
Wight.
. §Nicholson, E. Chambers. Herne Hill, London, 8.E.
. {NicHotson, Henry Atteynz, M.D., D.Sc., F.G.S., Professor of
Natural History in the University of Aberdeen.
. *Nicholson, John Carr. Ashfield, Headingley, Leeds.
. §Nicholson, Joseph 8., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Political Economy in
the University of Edinburgh. Eden Lodge, Newbattle-terrace,
Edinburgh,
. {Nicholson, Richard, J.P. Whinfield, Hesketh Park, Southport.
. §Nicholson, Robert H. Bourchier. 21 Albion-street, Hull.
. [Nicholson, William R. Clifton, York.
. §Nickson, William. Shelton, Sibson-road, Sale, Manchester.
. §Nicol, W. W. J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Mason Science College,
Birmingham.
. {Niven, Charles, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Natural
Philosophy in the University of Aberdeen. Aberdeen.
. §Niven George. Erkingholme, Coolhurst-road, London, N.
. {Niven, James, M.A. King’s College, Aberdeen.
. tNixon, Randal C. J., M.A. Royal Academical Institution, Belfast.
. tNixon, T. Alcock. 33 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
. *Noste, Captain Anprew, C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. Elswick
Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
. {Noble, John. Rossenstein, Thornhill-road, Croydon, Surrey.
. Noble, T.S., F.G.S. Lendal, York.
. §Nock, J. B. 8 Vicarage-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. §Nodal, John H. The Grange, Heaton Moor, near Stockport,
. {Nolan, Joseph, M.R.I.A. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
. §Norfolk, F. Elm Villa, Ordnance-road, Southampton.
. Norfolk, Richard. Ladygate, Beverley.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 75
Year of
Election.
1868.
1863.
1865.
1872.
1883.
1881.
1881.
1886,
1868.
1861.
1878.
- 1883.
1887.
1883.
1882.
1878.
1878.
1878.
TR83_
1858.
{Norgate, William. Newmarket-road, Norwich.
tNorman, Rev. Canon Atrrep Murty, M.A., D.C.L., F.L.S, Burn-
moor Rectory, Fence House, Co. Durham.
Norreys, Sir Denham Jephson, Bart. Mallow Castle, Co. Cork.
{Norris, Ricuarp, M.D. 2 Walsall-road, Birchfield, Birmingham.
{Norris, Thomas George. Gorphwysfa, Llanrwst, North Wales.
*Norris, William G. Coalbrookdale, Shropshire.
§North, Samuel William, M.R.C.S., F.G.S. 84 Micklegate, York.
tNorth, William, B.A., F.C.S. 28 Regent’s Park-road, London, N.W.
*Nortuwick, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A. 7 Park-street, Grosvenor-
square, London, W.
Norton, The Right Hon. Lord, K.C.M.G. 35 Eaton-place, London,
S.W.; and Hamshall, Birmingham.
tNorton, Lady. 35 Eaton-place, London, 8.W.; and Hamshall,
Birmingham.
tNorwich, The Hon. and Right Rey. J.T. Pelham, D.D., Lord Bishop
of. Norwich.
tNoton, Thomas. Priory House, Oldham.
Nowell, John. Farnley Wood, near Huddersfield.
tNugent, Edward. Seel?s-buildings, Liverpool.
tNunnerley, Jobn. 46 Alexandra-road, Southport.
§Nursey, Perry Fairfax. 161 Fleet-street, London, E.C.
§Nutt, Miss Lilian. Rosendale Hall, West Dulwich, London, 8.E.
§Obach, Eugene, Ph.D. 2 Victoria-road, Old Charlton, Kent.
tO’ Brien, Murrough. 1 Willow-terrace, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
O'Callaghan, George. Tallas, Co. Clare.
tO’Carroll, Joseph F. 78 Rathgar-road, Dublin.
{O’Conor Don, The. Clonalis, Castlerea, Ireland.
JOdgers, William Blake, M.A., LL.D. 4 Elm-court, Temple,
London, F.C.
*Opiine, Witriam, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S., Waynflete Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Oxford. 15 Norham-gardens,
Oxford.
1884. {Odlum, Edward, M.A. Pembroke, Ontario, Canada.
1857.
1877.
1885.
1876.
1885.
1874.
1859.
1863.
1837
1884
1887.
1881
18538.
1885.
1863.
fO’Donnavan, William John. 54 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar,
Dublin.
§Oeden, Joseph. 21 Station-road, South Norwood, London, S.E.
tOgilvie, Alexander, LL.D. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen.
fOgilvie,Campbell P. Sizewell House, Leiston, Suffolk.
tOgilvie, F. Grant, M.A., B.Sc. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen.
“gto Thomas Robertson. Bank Top, 3 Lyle-street, Greenock,
N.B.
tOgilvy, Rev. C. W. Norman. Baldovan House, Dundee.
{Oeixvy, Sir Jonny, Bart. Inverquharity, N.B.
*Ogle, William, M.D., M.A. The Elms, Derby.
. {O’Hagan, John, M.A.,Q.C. 22 Upper Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin.
. §O’Halloran, J. S., F.R.G.S. Royal Colonial Institute, Northum-
berland-avenue, London, W.C.
§Oldham, Charles. Syrian House, Sale, near Manchester.
. {Oldfield, Joseph. Lendal, York.
tOLpHAM, James, M.Inst.C.E. Cottingham, near Hull.
tOldham, John. River Plate Telegraph Company, Monte Video.
tOliver, Daniel, F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in University
College, London. Royal Gardens, Kew, Surrey.
1887. §Oliver, F. W. Royal Gardens, Kew, Surrey.
1883,
{Oliver, J. A. Westwood. Braehead House, Lochwinnoch, Scotland.
76
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1883.
1882.
1880.
1887.
1872.
1883.
1867.
1883.
1883,
1880.
1842,
1861.
1858.
1835.
1883.
1884.
1884,
1858.
1873.
1887.
1865.
1869.
1884,
1884.
1882.
1881.
1882.
1870.
1877.
1883.
1883.
1872.
1884.
1875.
1870.
1883,
1873.
1878.
1887.
1866.
1872.
§Oliver, Samuel A. Bellingham House, Wigan, Lancashire.
§Olsen, O. T., F.R.AS.,F.R.G.S. 116 St. Andrew’s-terrace, Grimsby.
*Ommanney, Admiral Sir Erasmus, C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S.
The Towers, Yarmouth, Isle of Wight.
*Ommanney, Rev. E. A. 123 Vassal-road, Brixton, London, S.W.
§O’Neill, Charles. 72 Denmark-road, Manchester.
fOnslow, D. Robert. New University Club, St. James’s, London,
S.W.
tOppert, Gustav, Professor of Sanskrit. Madras.
tOrchar, James G. 9 William-street, Forebank, Dundee.
§Ord, Miss Maria. Fern Lea, Park-crescent, Southport.
§Ord, Miss Sarah. Fern Lea, Park-crescent, Southport.
{O’Reilly, J. P., Professor of Mining and Mineralogy in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.
OrweRop, Grorce Warrrne, M.A., F.G.S. Woodway, Teign-
mouth.
tOrmerod, Henry Mere. Clarence-street, Manchester; and 11 Wood-
land-terrace, Cheetham Hill, Manchester.
fOrmerod, T. T. Brighouse, near Halifax.
OrpEn, Jonny H., LL.D., M.R.LA. 58 Stephen’s-creen, Dublin.
tOrpen, Miss. 658 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
*Orpen, Captain R.T., R.E. 58 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
*Orpen, Rey. T. H., M.A. Binnbrooke, Cambridge.
Orr, Alexander Smith. 57 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin.
tOsborn, George. 47 Kingscross-street, Halifax.
§O’Shea, L. J., B.Sc. Firth College, Sheffield.
*Ostmr, A. Fouterr, F.R.S. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.
*Osler, Henry F. Coppy Hill, Linthurst, near Bromsgrove,
Birmingham.
*Osler, Sidney F. Chesham Lodge, Lower Norwood, Surrey, S.E.
tOsler, William, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine in
McGill University, Montreal, Canada.
fO'Sullivan, James, F.C.S. 71 Spring Terrace-road, Burton-on-
Trent.
*Oswald, T. R. New Place House, Southampton.
*Ottewell, Alfred D. 83 Siddals-road, Derby.
Owen, Rev. C. M., M.A. St. George’s, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
fOwen, Harold. Tue Brook Villa, Liverpool.
OwEn, Sir Ricwarp, K.C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.LS.,
F.G.S., Hon. F.R.S.E. Sheen Lodge, Mortlake, Surrey, S.W.
fOxland, Dr. Robert, F.C.S. 8 Portland-square, Plymouth.
tPage, George W. Fakenham, Norfolk.
tPage, Joseph Edward. 12 Saunders-street, Southport.
*Paget, Joseph. Stuffynwood Hall, Mansfield, Nottingham.
{Paine, Cyrus F. Rochester, New York, U.S.A.
{Paine, William Henry, M.D., F.G.S. Stroud, Gloucestershire.
*PaterRAvE, R. H. Ines, F.R.S., F.S.S. Belton, Great Yar-
mouth.
tPalgraye, Mrs, R. H. Inglis. Belton, Great Yarmouth.
{Palmer, George, M.P. The Acacias, Reading, Berks,
*Palmer, Joseph Edward. Lyons Mills, Straffan Station, Dublin.
“Palmer, Miss Mary Kate. Kilburn House, Sherwood, Notts.
tPalmer, William. Kilbourne House, Cavendish Hill, Sherwood,
Notts.
*Palmer, W. R. 1 The Cloisters, Temple, E.C.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 77
Year of
Election.
Palmes, Rev. William Lindsay, M.A. Naburn Hall, York.
1883. §Pant, F. J. van der. Clifton Lodge, Kingston-on-Thames.
1886. {Panton, George A., F.R.S.E. 47 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
1884. §Panton, Professor J. Hoyes, M.D. Ontario Agricultural College,
Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
1883. {Park, Henry. Wigan.
1883. {Park, Mrs. Wigan.
1880. *Parke, George Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. Barrow-in-Furness, Lanca-
shire.
1863. {Parker, Henry. Low Elswick, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1863. {Parker, Rev. Henry. Idlerton Rectory, Low Elswick, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.
1874. {Parker, Henry R., LL.D. Methodist College, Belfast.
Parker, Richard. Dunscombe, Cork.
1886. {Parker, Lawley. Chad Lodge, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1853. {Parker, William. Thornton-le-Moor, Lincolnshire.
1865. *Parkes, Samuel Hickling, F.L.S. 6 St. Mary’s-row, Birmingham.
1864. {Parkus, Wirt1au. 23 Abingdon-street, Westminster, S.W.
1879. §Parkin, William, F.S.S. The Mount, Sheffield.
1887. §Parkinson, James. Station-road, Turton, Bolton.
1859. {Parkinson, Robert, Ph.D, West View, Toller-iane, Bradford, York-
shire.
1841. Parnell, Edward A., F.C.S. Ashley Villa, Swansea.
1862. *Parnell, John, M.A. 1 The Common, Upper Clapton, London, E.
Parnell, Richard, M.D., F.R.S.E. Gattonside Villa, Melrose, N.B.
1883. {Parson, T. Cooke, M.R.C.S._ Atherston House, Clifton, Bristol.
1877. {Parson, T. Edgcumbe. 36 Torrington-place, Plymouth.
1865. ice Charles Thomas. Norfolk-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
am.
1878. {Parsons, Hon. C. A. 10 Connaucht-place, London, W.
1878. {Parsons, Hon. and Rey. R. C. 10 Connaught-place, London, W.
1883. {Part, C. T. 5 King’s Bench-walk, Temple, London, E.C.
1883. {Part, Isabella. Rudleth, Watford, Herts.
1875. {Pass, Alfred C. Rushmere House, Durdham Down, Bristol.
1881. §Patchitt, Edward Cheshire. 128 Derby-road, Nottingham.
1884, *Paton, David. Johnstone, Scotland.
1883. *Paton, Henry, M.A. 15 Myrtle-terrace, Edinburgh.
1884. *Paton, Hugh. 992 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
1883, {Paton, Rev, William. The Ferns, Parkside, Nottingham.
1887. §Paterson, A. M., M.D. The Owens College, Manchester.
1861. cen, Andrew. Deaf and Dumb School, Old Trafford, Man-
chester.
1871. *Patterson, A. Henry. 3 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
1884. {Patterson, Edward Mortimer. Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada.
1863. {Patterson, H. L. Scott’s House, near Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1867. {Patterson, James. Kinnettles, Dundee.
1876. §Patterson,T. L. Belmont, Margaret-street, Greenock.
1874. {Patterson, W.H., M.R.LA. 26 High-street, Belfast.
1863. {Pattinson, John, F.C.S. 75 The Side, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1863. {Pattinson, William. Felling, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1867. pr acheons Samuel Rowles, F.G.S. 11 Queen Victoria-street, London,
1864, {Pattison, Dr. T. H. London-street, Edinburch.
1879. *Patzer, F. R. Stoke-on-Trent.
1863, {Pavn, Beyzamin H., Ph.D. 1 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.
1883. {Paul, G., F.G.S. Filey, Yorkshire.
78
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1865.
1887.
1887.
1864,
1881.
1877.
1881.
1866.
1886.
1876.
1879.
1885.
1883.
t{Pavy, Freprerick Wirr11am, M.D., F.R.S. 35 Grosvenor-street,
London, W.
§Paxman, James, Hill House, Colchester.
*Payne, Miss Edith Annie. Hatchlands, Cuckfield, Hayward’s Heath.
tPayne, Edward Turner. 38 Sydney-place, Bath.
tPayne, J. Buxton. 15 Mosley-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Payne, J. C. Charles. Botanic-avenue, The Plains, Belfast.
t{Payne, Mrs. Botanic-avenue, The Plains, Belfast.
{Payne, Dr. Joseph F. 78 Wimpole-street, London, W.
{Payton, Henry. Eversleigh, Somerset-road, Birmingham.
tPeace, G. H. Monton Grange, Eccles, near Manchester.
tPeace, William K. Moor Lodge, Sheffield.
ee B. N., F.RS.E., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Edin-
urgh.
{Peacock, Ebenezer. 8 Mandeyville-place, Manchester-square, Lon-
don, W.
. {Peacock, Thomas Francis. 12 South-square, Gray's Inn, London,
: *PRARcE, Horace, F.R.AAS., F.L.S., F.G.S. The Limes, Stourbridge.
. *Pearce, Mrs. Horace. The Limes, Stourbridge.
. §Pearce, Walter, M.B., B.Sc., F.C.S. St. Mary’s Hospital, Padding-
ton, London, W.; and Craufurd, Ray Mead, Maidenhead.
. tPearce, Sir William, Bart., M.P. Elmpark House, Govan, Glasgow.
. tPearce, William. Winnipeg, Canada.
. tPearsall, Howard D. 3 Cursitor-street, London, E.C.
. §Pearse, J. Walter. Brussels.
. {Pearse, Richard Seward. Southampton.
. tPearson, Arthur A. Colonial Office, London, S.W.
. {Pearson, Miss Helen E. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.
. {Pearson, John. Glentworth House, The Mount, York,
. tPearson, Mrs. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.
. *Pearson, Joseph. Grove Farm, Merlin, Raleigh, Ontario, Canada,
. tPearson, Richard. 23 Bootham, York.
. t{Pearson, Rev. Samuel. 48 Prince’s-road, Liverpool.
. *Pearson, Thomas H. Golborne Park, near Newton-le-Willows,
Lancashire.
. §Pease, H. F. Brinkburn, Darlington.
. {Pease, Sir Joseph W., Bart., M.-P. Hutton Hall, near Guis-
borough.
. {Pease, J. W. Newcastle-on-Tyne.
. {Peck, John Henry. 52 Hoghton-street, Southport.
Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire.
. *Peckover, Alexander, F.S.A., F.L.5., F.R.G.S. Bank House,
Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.
*Peckover, Algernon, F.L.S. Sibald’s. Holme, Wisbech, Cam-
bridgeshire.
. tPeddie, W. Spring Valley Villa, Morningside-road, Edinburgh.
. {Peebles, W. E. 9 North Frederick-street, Dublin.
. {Peek, C. E. Conservative Club, London, 8. W.
. *Peek, William. 16 Belgrave-place, Brighton.
. {Peel, Thomas. 9 Hampton-place, Bradford, Yorkshire.
. tPeggs, J. Wallace. 21 Queen Anne’s-gate, London, S.W.
. tPegler, Alfred. Elmfield, Southampton.
. *Peile, George, jun. Shotley Bridge, Co. Durham.
: ae Charles Seaton. 44 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, London,
W.
: {Pemberton, Oliver. 18 Temple-row, Birmingham.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 79
Year of
Election.
1861.
1887.
1856,
1881.
1875.
1845.
1886.
1868.
1884,
1877.
1864.
1885.
1886.
1886.
~ 1879.
1874,
1885.
1883.
1870.
1886.
1883.
1883.
1871.
1882.
1886.
1884.
1884.
1886.
1886.
1863.
1870.
1853.
1858.
1877.
1868.
1883.
1862.
1887.
1880.
1883.
1883.
1881.
1868.
*Pender, Sir John, K.C.M.G.,M.P. 18 Arlington-street, London, S.W.
§Pendlebury, William H. Christ Church, Oxford.
§PENGELLY, WILLIAM, F.R.S., F.G.S. Lamorna, Torquay.
{Penty, W.G. Melbourne-street, York.
{Perceval, Rev. Canon John, M.A., LL.D. Rugby.
{Pxroy, Joun, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.8. 1 Gloucester-crescent, Hyde
Park, London, W.
*Perical, Frederick. hatched House Club, St. James’s-street,
London, 8. W.
§Perkin, T. Dix. Greenford Green, Harrow, Middlesex.
*PERKIN, Wi~ttAM Huyry, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. The Chestnuts,
Sudbury, Harrow, Middlesex.
tPerkin, William Henry, jun., Ph.D. The Chestnuts, Sudbury,
Harrow, Middlesex.
tPerkins, Loftus. Seaford-street, Regent-square, London, W.C.
*Perkins, V. R. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.
§Perrin, Miss Emily. Girton College, Cambridge.
§Perrin, Henry 8. 31 St. John’s Wood Park, London, N.W.
{Perrin, Mrs. 23 Holland Villas-road, Kensington, London, W.
Perry, The Right Rey. Charles, M.A., D.D. 32 Avenue-road,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
tPerry, James. Roscommon.
*Perry, Joun, LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Engineering and Applied
Mathematics in the Technical College, Finsbury. 10 Penywern-
road, South Kensington, London, S.W.
tPerry, Ottley L., F.R.G.S. Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire.
TPerry, Russell R. 34 Duke-street, Brighton.
*Prrry, Rey. 8. J., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.M.S. Stonyhurst
College Observatory, Whalley, Blackburn.
tPerry, William. Hanbury Villa, Stourbridge.
§Petrie, Miss Anne 8. Stone Hill, Rochdale.
tPetrie, Miss Isabella. Stone Hill, Rochdale.
*Peyton, John E. H., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 5 Fourth-avenue, Brighton.
{Pfoundes, Charles, F.R.G.S. Spring Gardens, London, 8.W.
§Phelps, Colonel A. 23 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tPhelps, Charles Edgar, Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham.
{Phelps, Mrs. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham.
{Phelps, Hon. E.J. American Legation, Members’ Mansions, Victoria-
street, London, S.W.
tPhelps, Mrs. Hamshall, Birmingham.
*PHENE, JOHN SamvEL, LL.D., F.S.A., F.G.8S., F.R.G.S. 5 Carlton-
terrace, Oakley-street, London, 8. W.
tPhilip, T. D. 51 South Castle-street, Liverpool.
*Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire.
*Philips, Herbert. The Oak House, Macclesfield.
Philips, Robert N., M.P. The Park, Manchester.
§Philips, T. Wishart. 53 Tredegar-square, Bow, London, E.
{Philipson, Dr. 1 Savile-row, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{Philips, Arthur G. 20 Canning-street, Liverpool.
{Phillips, Rev. George, D.D. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
§Phillips, H. Harcourt, F.C.S. 18 Exchange-street, Manchester.
§Phillips, John H., Hon. Sec. Philosophical and Archeological
Society, Scarborough.
tPhillips, Mrs. Leah R. 1 East Park-terrace, Southampton.
{Phillips, S. Rees. Wanford House, Exeter.
TPhillips, William. 9 Bootham-terrace, York.
fPurrson, T. L., Ph.D., F.C.S. 4 The Cedars, Putney, Surrey, S. W.
80
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1884.
1883.
1885.
1864,
1884,
1870.
1871.
i884.
1865.
1873.
1857.
1883.
1877.
1884,
1868.
1876,
1884.
1887.
1875.
1883,
1864.
1885.
1868.
1872.
1869.
1886,
1842,
1867.
1884.
1883.
1857.
1861.
1881.
1846, +
1887,
1862,
1868.
1883.
¥874.,
*Pickard, Rey. H. Adair, M.A. 5 Canterbury-road, Oxford.
*Pickard, Joseph William. Lindow-square, Lancaster.
*PICKERING, SPENCER U. 48 Bryanston-square, London, W.
tPickering, William. Oak View, Clevedon.
pee Thomas E., M.D. Maysville, Mason County, Kentucky,
S.A.
tPicton, J. Allanson, F.S.A. Sandyknowe, Wavertree, Liverpool.
tPigot, Thomas F., M.R.I.A. Royal College of Science, Dublin.
{Pike, L. G., M.A., F.Z.S.. 4 The Grove, Highgate, London, N.
{Pixr, L.OwxEn. 201 Maida-vale, London, W.
tPike, W. H. University College, Toronto, Canada,
ee Henry M., LL.D., Q.C. 45 Upper Mount-street,
Dublin.
§Pilling, R. C. The Robin’s Nest, Blackburn.
Pim, George, M.R.LA. Brenanstown, Cabinteely, Co. Dublin.
{Pim, Joseph T. Greenbank, Monkstown, Co. Dublin,
{Pinart, A. G. N. L. 74 Market-street, San Francisco, U.S.A.
tPinder, T. R. St. Andrew’s, Norwich.
{Prrim, Rev. G., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Aberdeen. 83 College Bounds, Old Aberdeen,
{Pirz, Anthony. Long Island, New York, U.S.A.
§Pitkin, James. 56 Red Lion-street, Clerkenwell, London, E.C.
tPitman, John. Redcliff Hill, Bristol.
{Pitt, George Newton, M.A., M.D. 54 Ashburn-place, South
Kensington, London, 8.W.
tPitt, R. 5 Widcomb-terrace, Bath.
§Pitt, Sydney. 84 Ashburn-place, South Kensington, London, S.W.
{Prrr-Rrvers, Lieut.-General A. H. L., F.RS., F.G.S., FSA.
4 Grosvenor-gardens, London, 8. W.
{Plant, Mrs. H. W. 28 Evington-street, Leicester.
§Prant, Jamus, F.G.S. 40 West-terrace, West-street, Leicester.
§Player,J.H. 5 Prince of Wales-terrace, Kensington, London, W.
Prayratr, The Right Hon. Sir Lyon, K.C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., M.P.,
F.R.S. L. & E., F.C.8. 68 Onslow-gardens, South Kensington,
London, 8.W.
{Prayratr, Lieut.-Colonel Sir R. L., K.C.M.G., H.M. Consul, Algeria.
(Messrs. King & Co., Pall Mall, London, 8. W.)
*Playfair, W. S., M.D., LL.D., Professor of Midwifery in King’s
College, London. 31 George-street, Hanover-square, London, W.
*Plimpton, R.T.,M.D. 23 Lansdowne-road, Clapham-road, London,
S.W
{Plunkett, Thomas. Ballybrophy House, Borris-in-Ossory, Ireland.
*Pocuin, Henry Davis, F.C.S. Bodnant Hall, near Conway.
§Pocklington, Henry. 20 Park-row, Leeds. .
Potz, Writ1aM, Mus.Doc., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E, Athenzeum Club,
Pall Mall, London, 8. W.
*Poles, A. J. S. Moor End, Kersal, Manchester.
*Pollexfen, Rey. John Hutton, M.A. Middleton Tyas Vicarage,
Richmond, Yorkshire.
Pollock, A. 52 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin.
*Polwhele, Thomas Roxburgh, M.A., F.G.S. Polwhele, Truro,
Cornwall.
tPorrat, WrnpHam 8. Malshanger, Basingstoke.
*Porter, Rev. ©. T., LL.D. Brechin Lodge, Cambridge-road, South-
port.
{Porter, Rev. J. Leslie, D.D., LL.D., President of Queen’s College,
Belfast.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 81
Year of
Election.
1886.
1866.
1883.
1863.
1887.
1883.
1883.
1886.
1873.
1887.
1883.
1875.
1887.
1867.
1855.
1883.
1884,
1884,
1869.
1884.
1884.
1871.
1856.
1872.
1882.
1881.
1875.
1875.
1876.
1875.
1883.
1864,
1846,
1876.
1881.
1863.
§Porter, Paxton. Birmingham and Midland Institute, Birming-
ham.
§Porter, Robert. Highfield, Long Eaton, Nottingham.
{Postgate, Professor J. P., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
{Potter, D. M. Cramlington, near Newcastle-on-Tyne.
§Potter, Edmund P. Hollinhurst, Bolton.
{Potter, M.C., B.A. St. Peter’s College, Cambridge.
Potter, Richard, M.A. 10 Brookside, Cambridge.
§Potts, John, 33 Chester-road, Macclesfield.
*Poulton, Edward B., M.A. Wykeham House, Oxford.
*Powell, Francis S., M.P., F.R.G.S. Horton Old Hall, Yorkshire ;
and 1 Cambridge-square, London, W.
“Powell, Horatio Gibbs. Wood Villa, Tettenhall Wood, Wolver-
hampton.
§Powell, John, Wannarlwydd House, near Swansea.
tPowell, William Augustus Frederick. Norland House, Clifton,
Bristol.
§Pownall, George H. Manchester and Salford Bank, Mosley-street,
Manchester,
tPowrie, James. Reswallie, Forfar.
*Poynter, John E. Clyde Neuk, Uddingston, Scotland.
{Porntine, J. H., M.A., Professor of Physicsin the Mason College,
Birmingham. 385 Hagley-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
§Prance, Courtenay C. Hatherley Court, Cheltenham.
*Prankerd, A. A., D.C.L. Brazenose College, Oxford.
*Premce, Wittiam Henry, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Gothic Lodge,
‘Wimbledon Common, Surrey.
*Premio-Real, His Excellency the Count of. Quebec, Canada.
*PrestwicH, JosppH, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.S. Shoreham, near
Sevenoaks,
*Prevost, Major L. de T. 2nd Battalion Argyll and Sutherland
Highlanders.
tPrice, Astley Paston, 47 Lincoln’s-Inn-fields, London, W.G.
*Price, Rev. Barryotomew, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Sedleian
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford,
11 St. Giles’s, Oxford. ;
tPrice, David 8., Ph.D. 26 Great George-street, Westminster,
5.W
fPrice, John E., F.S.A. 27 Bedford-place, Russell-square, Lon-
don, W.C.
Price, J. T. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire.
§Price, Peter. Crockherbtown, Cardiff.
*Price, Rees. 1 Montague-place, Glasgow.
*Price, William Philip. Tibberton Court, Gloucester.
tPriestley, John. 174 Lloyd-street, Greenheys, Manchester.
{Prince, Thomas. 6 Marlborough-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
§Prince, Thomas. Horsham-road, Dorking.
*Prior, R. C. A., M.D. 48 York-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
INE VV
*PRITCHARD, Rey. Cuarwns, D.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Professor
of Astronomy in the University of Oxford. 8 Keble-terrace,
Oxford.
*PRITCHARD, Ursan, M.D., F.R.C.S. 3 George-street, Hanover-
square, London, W.
§Procter, John William. Ashcroft, Nunthorpe, York.
{Proctor, R. S. Summerhill-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Proctor, William. Elmhurst, Higher Erith-road, Torquay.
F
82
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1885.
1863.
1884.
1879.
1865.
1872.
1871.
1873.
1867.
1888.
1842.
1887.
1885.
1852.
1860.
1881.
1882.
1874.
1866.
1878.
1884,
1860.
1885.
1888.
1868.
1879.
1861.
1870,
1887.
1860.
1870.
1887.
1877.
1879.
1855.
1878.
1854.
1887.
1864.
18653.
1845.
1884,
tProfeit, Dr. Balmoral, N.B.
{Proud, Joseph. South Hetton, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Proudfoot, Alexander. 2 Phillips-place, Montreal, Canada.
*Prouse, Oswald Milton, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 4 Cambridge-villas,
Richmond Park-road, Kingston-on-Thames.
{Prowse, Albert P. Whitchurch Villa, Mannamead, Plymouth.
*Pryor, M. Robert. Weston Manor, Stevenage, Herts.
*Puckle, Thomas John. Woodcote-grove, Carshalton, Surrey.
{Pullan, Lawrence. Bridge of Allan, N.B.
*Pullar, Robert, F.R.S.E. Tayside, Perth.
*Pullar, Rufus D., F.C.S. Tayside, Perth.
*Pumphrey, Charles. Southfield, King’s Norton, near Birmingham.
§PumpHRey, Wittiam. lLyncombe, Bath. -
Punnet, Rey. John, M.A., F.C.P.S. St. Earth, Cornwall.
§Purdie, Thomas, B.Sc., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the Uni-
versity of St. Andrews. St. Andrews, N.B.
tPurdon, Thomas Henry, M.D. Belfast.
{Purpy, FREDERICK, F.N.S., Principal of the Statistical Department of
the Poor Law Board, Whitehall, London. Victoria-road, Ken-
sington, London, W.
{Purey-Cust, Very Rev. Arthur Percival, M.A., Dean of York. The
Deanery, York.
tPurrott, Charles. West End, near Southampton.
{Purser, Freperick, M.A. Rathmines, Dublin.
tPurser, Professor Joun, M.A., M.R.IL.A. Queen’s College,
Belfast.
{Purser, John Mallet. 3 Wilton-terrace, Dublin.
*Purves, W. Laidlaw. 20 Stafford-place, Oxford-street, London, W.
*Pusey, 8. E. B. Bouverie. Pusey House, Faringdon.
§Pye-Smith, Arnold. 16 Fairfield-road, Croydon.
§Pye-Smith, Mrs. 16 Fairfield-road, Croydon.
§Pyz-Saoru, P. H., M.D., F.R.S. 54 Harley-street, W.; and Guy’s
Hospital, London, 8.1.
§Pye-Smith, R. J. 350 Glossop-road, Sheffield.
*Pyne, Joseph John. The Willows, Albert-road, Southport.
tRabbits, W. T. Forest Hill, London, 8.E.
§Rabone, John. Penderell House, Hamstead-road, Birmingham.
wie Cuartes Branp, M.D. 25 Cavendish-square, Lon-
don, W.
tRadcliffe, Sir D. R. Phoenix Safe Works, Windsor, Liverpool.
§Radcliffe, James. 108 Higher King-street, Dukinfield, Cheshire.
tRadford, George D. Mannamead, Plymouth.
tRadford, R. Heber. Wood Bank, Pitsmoor, Sheffield.
*Radford, William, M.D. Sidmount, Sidmouth.
*Radstock, The Right Hon. Lord. 70 Portland-place, London, W.
tRaz, Joun, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 4 Addison-gardens,
Kensington, London, W.
{Raffles, Thomas Stamford. 13 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
*Ragdale, John Rowland. Derby-place, Whitefield, Manchester.
}Rainey, James T. St. George’s Lodge, Bath.
Rake, Joseph. Charlotte-street, Bristol.
{Ramsay, ALEXANDER, F.G.S. 2 Cowper-road, Acton, Middlesex, W.
tRamsay, Sir AnpRew Cromprz, LL.D. F.RS., F.G.S. 15
Cromwell-crescent, South Kensington, London, 8. W.
tRamsay, George G., LL.D., Professor of Humanity in the University
of Glasgow. 6 The College, Glasgow.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 83
Year of
Plection.
1884.
1861.
1884.
1867.
1876.
1883.
1885.
1887.
1875.
1836.
1869.
1865.
1868.
1865.
1861.
{Ramsay, Mrs. G. G. 6 The College, Glasgow.
{Ramsay, John. Kildalton, Argyleshire.
tRamsay, R. A. 1154 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
“Ramsay, W. F.,M.D. Inveresk House, Nevern-road, London, 8. W.
*Ramsay, WitiramM, Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in University
College, London, W.C.
{Ramsay, Mrs. 12 Arundel-cardens, London, W.
tRamsay, Major. Straloch, N.B.
§Ramsbottom, John. Fernhill, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
*Ramsden, William. Bracken Hall, Great Horton, Bradford York-
shire.
*Rance, Henry. St. Andrew’s-street, Cambridge.
*Rance, H. W. Henniker, LL.D. 10 Castletawn-road, West Ken-
sington, London, 8.W.
{Randel, J. 50 Vittoria-street, Birmingham.
*Ransom, Edwin, F.R.G.S. Ashburnham-road, Bedford.
§Ransom, William Henry, M.D.,F.R.S. The Pavement, Nottingham.
{Ransome, Arthur, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. Devisdale, Bowdon,
Manchester.
Ransome, Thomas. Hest Bank, near Lancaster.
2. *Ranyard, Arthur Cowper, F.R.A.S. 25 Old-square, Lincoln’s Inn,
London, W.C.
Rashleigh, Jonathan. 3 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
N.W
. {Rate, Rev. John, M.A. Lapley Vicarage, Penkridge, Staffordshire.
. {Rathbone, Benson. Exchange-buildings, Liverpool.
. {Rathbone, Philip H. Greenbank Cottage, Wavertree, Liverpool.
. §Rathbone, R. R. Beechwood House, Liverpool.
. TRavenstern, E. G., F.R.G.S. 29 Lambert-road, Brixton, London,
S.W.
Rawdon, William Frederick, M.D. Bootham, York.
{Rawlins, G. W. The Hollies, Rainhill, Liverpool.
. *Rawztyson, Rey. Canon Groner, M.A., Camden Professor of An-
cient History in the University of Oxford. The Oaks, Precincts,
Canterbury.
. *Rawirnson, Major-General Sir Huyry C., K.C.B., LL.D., F.RS.,
F.R.G.S. 21 Charles-street, Berkeley-square, London, W.
. §Rawson, Harry. Earlswood, Ellesmere Park, Eccles, Manchester.
. §Rawson, Sir Rawson W., K.C.M.G., C.B., F.R.G.S. 68 Corn-
wall-gardens, Queen’s-gate, London, S.W.
. §Rawson, W. Stepney, M.A., F.C.S. 68 Cornwall-gardens, Queen’s
gate, London, 8. W.
. }Ray, Miss Catherine. Mount Cottage, Flask-walk, Hampstead,
London, N.W.
. *RayercH, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec.B.S.,
E.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. Terling Place, Witham, Essex.
. *Rayne, Charles A., M.B., B.Sc., M-R.C.S. 3 Queen-street, Lan-
caster.
. {Read, William. Albion House, Epworth, Rawtry.
*Read, W. H. Rudston, M.A., F.L.S. 12 Blake-street, York.
. {Reavz, Toomas Metiarp, F.G.S. Blundellsands, Liverpool.
. §Readman, J. B., F.R.S.E. 9 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
. *Readwin, Thomas Allison, M.R.LA., F.G.S. 5 Crowhurst-ruad,
Brixton, London, 8. W.
. *REDFERN, Professor PEteR, M.D. 4 Lower-crescent, Belfast.
. §Redhead, R. Milne. Springfield, Seedley, Manchester.
. [Redmayne, Giles. 20 New Bond-street, London, W.
EZ
&4
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
Redwood, Isaac. Cae Wern, near Neath, South Wales.
. tReep, Sir Epwarp J., K.C.B., M.P., F.R.S. 74 Gloucester-road,
South Kensineton, London, W.
{Rees-Mogg, W. Wooldridge. Cholwell House, near Bristol.
§Reid, Arthur S., B.A., F.G.S. Trinity College, Glenalmond, N.B.
*Rerp, Crement, F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, 8.W.
{Reid, James. 10 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.
tReid, Rev. James, B.A. Bay City, Michigan, U.S.A.
“Reid, Walter Francis. Tieldside, Addlestone, Surrey.
{Reid, William, M.D. Cruivie, Cupar, Fife.
tReid, William. 193 Blake-street, York.
§Rurvotp, A. W., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physical Science in the
Royal Naval College, Greenwich, 8.E.
. §Renats, E. ‘Nottingham Express’ Office, Nottingham,
tRennett, Dr. 12 Golden-square, Aberdeen.
tRenny, W. W. 8 Douglas-terrace, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
{ Retallack, Captain Francis. 6 Beawchamp-avenue, Leamington,
*Reynolds, A. H. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.
tRuynorps, James Emursoy, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.R.LA,, Pro-
fessor of Chemistry in the University of Dublin. The Laboratory,
Trinity College, Dublin.
. *Reynotps, Ospornz, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor
of Engineering in Owens College, Manchester. Fallowfield,
Manchester.
§Rernoups, Ricward, F.C.S. 15 Briggate, Leeds.
. §Rhodes, George W. The Cottage, Victoria Park, Manchester.
{Rhodes, Dr. James. 25 Victoria-street, Glossop.
*Rhodes, John. 18 Albion-street, Leeds.
*Rhodes, John. 360 Blackburn-road, Accrington, Lancashire.
{Rhodes, Lieut.-Colonel William. Quebec, Canada.
*Riccardi, Dr. Paul, Secretary of the Society of Naturalists. Via
Stimmate, 15, Modena, Italy.
{Ricwarpson, Bensamrn Warp, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 25
Manchester-square, London, W.
{Richardson, Charles. 10 Berkeley-square, Bristol.
*Richardson, Charles. 4 Northumberland-avenue, Putney, 5. W.
*Richardson, Edward. Warkworth, Northumberland.
*Richardson, Miss Emma. Conway House, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim.
§Richardson, Rev. George, M.A. The College, Winchester.
*Richardson, George Straker. Kingsley House, Holland-road, Brighton.
*Richardson, J. Clarke. Derwen Fawr, Swansea.
tRichardson, Ralph, F.R.S.E. 10 Magdala-place, Edinburgh.
tRichardson, W. B, Elm Bank, York.
tRichardson, William. 4 Edward-street, Werneth, Oldham.
§Richardson, William Haden. City Glass Works, Glasgow.
§Richmond, Robert, Leighton Buzzard.
tRichter, Otto, Ph.D. 407 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
{Ricknrrs, Cuartes, M.D.,F.G.S. 18 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead.
TRicketts, James, M.D. St. Helen’s, Lancashire.
*RippEtt, Major-General Cuartes J. Bucwanan, C.B., R.A., F.RS.
Oaklands, Chudleigh, Devon.
*Riddell, Henry B. Whitefield House, Rothbury, Morpeth.
*Rideal, Samuel. Mayow-road, Forest Hill, Kent, 8.E.
{Ridge, James. 98 Queen’s-road, Brighton.
+Ridgway, Henry Ackroyd, B.A. Bank Field, Halifax.
{Ridley, John. 19 Belsize-park, Hampstead, London, N.W.
{Ridout, Thomas. Ottawa, Canada.
hie Arr
LIST OF MEMBERS. 85
Year of
Hlection.
1865.
1881.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1875.
1867.
1855.
1867.
1869.
1854.
1869.
1878.
1887.
1859.
1870.
1883.
1881.
1879.
1879.
1883.
1868.
1883.
1884,
1859.
1884.
1871.
1885.
1885.
1870.
1876.
1866.
1886.
1886.
1861.
1852.
1887.
1873.
1887.
1861.
1865.
1878.
1876.
1887.
1881.
1875.
1860.
1884.
*Rigby, Samuel. Fern Bank, Liverpool-road, Chester.
*Rige, Arthur. 71 Warrington-crescent, London, W.
*Rige, Edward, M. A. pat he: Mint, London, E
tRigg, F. F., M.A. 32 Queen’s-road, Southport.
*Riese, Samuel Taylor. Balmoral-place, Halifax.
{Ripley, Sir Edward, Bart. Acacia, Apperley, near Leeds.
*Rrpon, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.G.,G.C.8.1., C.LE., D.C.L.,
ER. S.; HaliaS.,) RG... Lb Carlton-gardens, London, S.W.
tRitchie, John, Fleuchar Craig, Dundee.
{ Ritchie, Robert. 14 Hill-street, Edinburgh.
{Ritchie, William. Emslea, Dundee.
*Rivineton, John. Babbicombe, near Torquay.
{tRobberds, Rev. John, B.A. Battledown Tower, Cheltenham.
*Rossins, JOHN, F.C.S. 57 Warrington-crescent, Maida Vale, London,
W
Roberts, Charles, F. R.C.S. 2 Bolton-row, London, W.
*Roberts, Evan. 3 Laurel-bank, Alexandra- road, Manchester.
tRoberts, George Christopher. Hull.
*ROBERTS, Isaac, F.G.8. Kennessee, Maghull, Taneasisee.
tRoperts, RatpH A. 23 Clyde-road, Dublin.
TRoberts, R. D., M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. Clare College, Cambridge.
{Roberts, Samuel. The Towers, Sheffield.
tRoberts, Samuel, jun. The Towers, Sheffield.
{Roperts, Sir Wit11amM, M.D., F.R.S. 89 Mosley-street, Man-
chester.
*Roperts-AvusteN, W. CHanpier, F.R.S., F.C.8., Chemist to the
Royal Mint, and Professor of Metallurgy in the Royal School
of Mines. Royal Mint, London, E.
{Robertson, Alexander. Montreal, Canada.
*Robertson, Andrew. Elmbank, Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.
tRobertson, Dr. Andrew. Indego, Aberdeen.
{Robertson, E. Stanley, M.A. 43 Waterloo-road, Dublin.
{Robertson, George, M.Inst.C.E., FR.S.E. 47 Albany-street, Edin-
bureh.
t Robertson, George H. The Nook, Gateacre, near Liverpool.
{Robertson, Mrs. George H. The Nook, Gateacre, near Liverpool.
*Robertson, John. 4 Albert-road, Southport.
{Robertson, R. A. Newthorn, Ayton-road, Pollokshields, Glasgow.
tRobertson, Sir William Tindal, M.D., M.P. 9 Belgrave-terrace,
Brighton.
*Robinson, C. R. 27 Elvetham-road, Birmingham.
§Robinson, Edward E. 56 Dovey-street, Liverpool.
tRobinson, Enoch. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.
tRobinson, Rey. George. Beech Hill, Armagh.
§Robinson, Henry. 7 Westminster-chambers, London, 8. W.
tRobinson, Hugh. 82 Donegall-street, Belfast.
§Robinson, James. Akroydon Villa, Halifax, Yorkshire.
{Rosinson, Jonny, M.Inst.C.E. Atlas Works, Manchester.
{Robinson, J. H. 6 Montallo-terrace, Barnard Castle.
tRobinson, John L. 198 Great Brunswick-street, Dublin.
Robinson, M. E. 6 Park-circus, Glasgow.
§Robinson, Richard. Bellfield Mill, Rochdale.
§Robinson, Richard Atkinson. 195 Brompton-road, London, 8.W.
*Robinson, Robert, M.Inst.C.E., F.4 8. 2 West-terrace, Darlington.
TRobinson, Admiral Sir Robert Spencer, K.C.B., F.R.S. 61 Eaton-
place, London, 8. W.
{Robinson, Stillman. Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A.
86
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
BHlection.
1863.
1870.
1870.
1876.
1855.
1872.
1885.
1885.
S72:
1866.
1560.
1867.
1833.
1852.
1870.
18853.
1884.
1886.
1876.
1876.
1846.
1869,
1872.
1831.
1855.
1833,
1885.
1874.
1857.
1887.
1880,
1872.
1859,
1874.
1880.
1869,
1865.
1876.
1884.
1861.
1881.
1872.
{Robinson, T. W. U. Houghton-le-Spring, Durham.
tRobinson, William. 40 Smithdown-road, Liverpool.
*Robson, EH. R. Palace Chambers, 9 Bridge-street Westminster, S. W..
t{Robson, Hazleton R. 14 Royal-crescent West, Glasgow.
t{Robson, Neil. 127 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
*Robson, William. Marchholm, Gillsland-road, Merchiston, Edin-
burgh.
§ Rodger, ‘Edward. 1 Claremont-gardens, Glasgow.
*Rodriguez, Epifanio. 12 John-street, Adelphi, London, W.C.
{Ropwertrt, Grorer F., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. Marlborough College,
Wiltshire.
tRoe, Thomas. Grove-villas, Sitchurch.
{Rocrrs, James E. THorotp, Professor of Economic Seience
and Statistics in King’s College, London. Beaumont-street,
Oxford.
tRogers, James 8. Rosemill, by Dundee.
tRogers, Major R. Alma House, Cheltenham.
§ Rogers, Rey. Saltren, M.A. Gwennap, Redruth, Cornwall.
{Rogers, T, L., M.D. Rainhill, Liverpool.
tRogers, Thomas Stanley, LL.B. 77 Albert-road, Southport.
*Rogers, Walter M. Lamowa, Falmouth.
{Rogers, W. Woodbourne. Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.
§Rotiit, Sir A. K., M.P., B.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.A.S., Hon.
Fellow K.C.L. Thwaite House, Cottingham, East Yorkshire.
t}Romanes, Grores Jonn, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. 18 Corn-
wall-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
tRonalds, Edmund, Ph.D. Stewartfield, Bonnington, Edinburgh.
tRoper, C. H. Magdalen-street, Exeter.
tRoper, Freeman Clarke Samuel, F.L.S., F.G.S. Palgrave House,
Eastbourne.
*Roper, W.O. LKadenbreck, Lancaster.
*Roscoz, Sir Henry Enrtierp, B.A., Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., M.P.,
F.R.S., F.C.S..(Presipent). 10 Bramham-gardens, London,
S.W.; and Victoria Park, Manchester.
*Rose, J. Holland, M.A. Aboyne, Bedford Hill-road, Balham,
London, 8.W.
{Ross, Alexander. Riverfield, Inverness.
tRoss, Alexander Milton, M.A., M.D., F.G.S. Toronto, Canada.
tRoss, David, LL.D. 32 Nelson-street, Dublin.
§Ross, Edward. Marple, Cheshire.
tRoss, Captain G. E. A., F.R.G.S. 8 Collingham-gardens, Cromwell-
road, London, 8. W.
tRoss, James, M.D. Tenterfield House, Waterfoot, near Manchester.
*Ross, Rev. James Coulman. Baldon Vicarage, Oxford.
tRoss, Rev. William. Chapelhill Manse, Rothesay, Scotland.
§Ross, Major William Alexander. Acton House, Acton, London, W.
*Rossg, The Right Hon. the Earl of, B.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S., M.R.IL.A. Birr Castle, Parsonstown, Ireland.
*Rothera, George Bell. 17 Waverley-street, Nottingham.
tRottenburgh, Paul. 13 Albion-crescent, Glasgow.
*Rouse, M. L. 343 Church-street, Toronto, Canada.
tRouru, Epwarp J., M.A., DSc., F.RS., F.RAS., F.G.S. — St.
Peter’s College, Cambridge.
tRouth, Rev. William, M.A. Clifton Green, York.
*Row, A. V. Nursing Observatory, Daba-gardens, Vizagapatam,
India. (Care of Messrs. King § Co., 45 Pall Mall, London,
S.W.)
LIST OF MEMBERS. 87
Year of
Election.
1861.
1885.
1887.
1881.
1865.
1877.
1855,
L881.
1881.
1862.
1876.
1883.
1885.
1861.
1875.
1869.
1882,
1884.
1887.
1847.
1875.
1884.
1885.
1852.
1876.
1886.
1862.
1852.
1886.
1883.
1871.
1887.
1881.
1879.
1875.
1886.
1865.
1861.
1883.
1883.
tRowan, David. Elliot-street, Glasgow.
tRowan, Frederick John. 134 St. Vincent-street, Glascow.
SRowe, Rey. Alfred W. Felstead, Essex.
TRowe, Rev. G. Lord Mayor’s Walk, York.
§Rowe, Rev. John. Load Vicarage, Langport, Somerset.
tRows, J. Brooxrine, F.L.S., F.S.A. 16 Lockyer-street, Plymouth.
*Rowney, THomas H., Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
Queen’s College, Galway. Salerno, Salthill, Galway.
*Rowntree, Joseph. 37 St. Mary’s, York.
*RownteReeE, J.S. The Mount, York.
tRowsell, Rey. Evan Edward, M.A. Hambledon Rectory, Godal-
ming.
tRoxburgh, John. 7 Royal Bank-terrace, Glasgow.
tRoy, Charles $., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathology in the Uni-
versity of Cambridge. Trinity College, Cambridge.
tRoy, John. 33 Belvidere-street, Aberdeen.
*Royle, Peter, M.D., L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S. 27 Lever-street, Man-
chester.
tRtcxer, A. W., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the Royal
School of Mines. Errington, Clapham Park, London, 8.W.
§Roupier, F. W.,F.G.S. The Museum, Jermyn-street, London, S.W.
tRumball, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Queen Anne’s-gate, London, S.W.
§Runtz, John. Linton Lodge, Lordship-road, Stoke Newington,
London, N.
§Ruscoe, John, F.G.S, Ferndale, Gee Cross, near Manchester.
{tRusxin, Joun, M.A., F.G.S. Brantwood, Coniston, Ambleside.
*Russell, The Hon. F. A. R. Pembroke Lodge, Richmond Park,
Surrey.
§Russell, George. Hoe Park House, Plymouth.
*Russell, J. W. Merton College, Oxford.
Russell, John. 39 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.
*Russell, Norman Scott. Arts Club, Hanover-square, London, W.
§Russell, R.. F.G.S. 1 Sea View, St. Bees, Carnforth.
TRussell, Thomas H. 3 Newhall-street, Birmingham.
§RussecL, W. H. L., B.A., F.R.S. 3 Ridgmount-terrace, Highgate,
London, N.
*RussELL, Wiii1AM J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry
in St. Bartholomew’s Medical College. 34 Upper Hamilton-
terrace, St. John’s Wood, London, N.W.
§Rust, Arthur. Eversleigh, Leicester.
*Ruston, Joseph, M.P. Monk’s Manor, Lincoln.
§RourHERFoRD, WitrtiAM, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of the
Institutes of Medicine in the University of Edinburgh.
§Rutherford, William. 7 Vine-grove, Chapman-street, Hulme, Man-
chester.
tRutson, Albert. Newby Wiske, Thirsk.
Rutson, William. Newby Wiske, Northallerton, Yorkshire.
tRuxton, Rear-Admiral Fitzherbert, R.N., F.R.G.S. 41 Cromwell-
gardens, London, 8. W.
tRyalls, Charles Wager, LL.D. 3 Brick-court, Temple, London,‘E.C.
{Ryland, F. Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Ryland, Thomas. The Redlands, Erdington, Birmingham.
*RyLands, THomas GLAzEBROOK, F.L.S., F.G.S. Highfields, Thel-
wall, near Warrington.
*Sabine, Robert. 3 Great Winchester-street-buildings, London, E.C,
tSadler, Robert. 7 Lulworth-road, Birkdale, Southport.
88
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1871,
1885.
1866.
1886,
1887,
1881.
1857.
1883.
1873.
1883.
1872.
1887.
1861.
1861.
1876,
1883.
1878.
1883.
1884,
1872.
1883.
1872.
1885.
1864,
1886.
1886.
1886.
1868.
1886.
1881.
1885.
1846.
1864,
1884,
1884,
1887.
1871.
1885.
1883.
1872.
1887.
1884,
1883.
1883.
1884,
1868.
{Sadler, Samuel Champernowne. Purton Court, Purton,near Swindon,
iltshire.
{Saint, W. Johnston. 11 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.
*St. Albans, His Grace the Duke of. Bestwood Lodge, Arnold, near
Nottingham.
§St. Clair, George, F.G.S. 127 Bristol-road, Birmingham.
*SALForD, the Right Rev. the Bishop of. Bishop’s House, Salford.
{Salkeld, William. 4 Paradise-terrace, Darlington.
{Satmon, Rev. Gxoren, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Regius Pro-
fessor of Divinity in the University of Dublin. Trinity College,
Dublin.
{Salmond, Robert G. The Nook, Kingswood-road, Upper Norwood,
S.E.
*Salomons, Sir David, Bart. Broomhill, Tunbridge Wells.
{Salt, Shirley H., M.A. 73 Queensborough-terrace, London, W.
{Saxtvin, Osperr, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. Hawlhsfold, Haslemere.
§Samson, C. L. Carmona, Kersal, Manchester.
*Samson, Henry. 6 St. Peter’s-square, Manchester.
*Sandeman, Archibald, M.A. Garry Cottage, Perth,
{Sandeman, David. Woodlands, Lenzie, Glascow.
{Sandeman, E. 53 Newton-street, Greenock.
tSanders, Alfred, F.L.S. 2 Clarence-place, Gravesend, Kent.
*Sanders, Charles J. B. Pennsylvania, Exeter.
{Sanders, Henry. 185 James-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Sanders, Mrs. 8 Powis-square, Brighton.
{Sanderson, Surgeon Alfred. East India United Service Club, St.
James’s-square, London, S. W.
jSanpgerson, J. S. Burpon, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of
Physiology in the University of Oxford. 50 Banbury-road, Oxford.
{Sanderson, Mrs. Burdon. 50 Banbury-road, Oxford.
Sandes, Thomas, A.B. Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co, Kerry.
{Sandford, William. 9 Springfield-place, Bath.
§Sankey, Perey E. Lyndhurst, St. Peter’s, Kent.
§Sauborn, John Wentworth. Albion, New York, U.S.A.
fSaundby, Robert, M.D. 834 Edmund-street, Birmingham.
tSaunders, A., M.Inst.C.E. King’s Lynn.
{Saunders, C. T, Temple-row, Birmingham.
tSaunpers, Howarp, F.L.S., F.Z.S. 7 Radnor-place, London, W.
{Saunders, Rey. J. C. Cambridge.
{Saunvers, TRELAwNEY W., F.R.G.S. 3 Elmfield, on the Knowles,
Newton Abbot, Deyon.
{Saunders, T. W., Recorder of Bath. 1 Priory-place, Bath.
{Saunders, William. London, Ontario, Canada.
{Saunderson, C. HE. 26 St. Famille-street, Montreal, Canada.
§Savage, Rey. E. B., M.A. St. Thomas’ Parsonage, Douglas, Isle of
Man.
§Savage, W. D. Ellerslie House, Brighton.
{Savage, W. W. 109 St. James’s-street, Brighton.
§Savery, G. M., M.A. The College, Harrogate.
*Sawyer, George David, F.R.M.S. 55 Buckingham-place, Brighton.
§Sayce, Rey. A. H., M.A., Deputy Professor of Comparative Philo-
logy in the University of Oxtord. Queen’s College, Oxford.
{Sayre, Robert H. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
*Scarborough, George. Holly Bank, Halifax, Yorkshire.
{Scarisbrick, Charles. 5 Palace-gate, Kensington, London, W.
{Scarth, William Bain. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
§Schacht, G. F. 1 Windsor-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 89
Year of
Election.
1879.
1883.
1880.
1842.
1887.
1883.
1885.
1887,
*ScuArmr, HE. A., F.R.S., M.R.C.S., Professor of Physiology in Uni-
yersity College, London. 149 Harley-street, London, W.
t{Schifer, Mrs. Boreham Wood, Elstree, Herts.
*Schemmann, Louis Carl. Hamburg. (Care of Messrs. Allen Everitt
& Sons, Birmingham.)
Schofield, Joseph. Stubley Hall, Littleborough, Lancashire.
§Schofield, T. Thornfield, Talbot-road, Old Trafford, Manchester.
{Schofield, William. Alma-road, Birkdale, Southport.
§Scholes, L. The Limes, Cleveland-road, Manéhester.
§Schorlemmer, Carl, F.R.S., Professor of Organic Chemistry in the
Owens College, Manchester.
. {Schuman, Sigismond. 7 Royal Bank-place, Glasgow.
ScHunck, Epwarp, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Oaklands, Kersall Moor,
Manchester.
*Scuuster, ARTHUR, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Applied
Mathematics in Owens College, Manchester.
*Schwabe, Edmund Salis. Ryecroft House, Cheetham Hill, Mau-
chester.
§Schwabe, Colonel G. Salis. Portland House, Higher Crumpsall,
Manchester.
*Sciarer, Paap Lurtry, M.A., Ph.D.-E.RBS., E.LS., F:GS.,
F.R.G.S., Sec.Z.8. 3 Hanover-square, London, W.
. *Scrarer, WittraM Lurtry, B.A., F.Z.8. 3 Hanover-square, Lon-
den, W.
{Scorr, ALExanDER. Clydesdale Bank, Dundee.
*Scott, Alexander, M.A., D.Se. 4 North Bailey, Durham.
{Scott, Colonel A.deC.,R.E. Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton.
{Scott, Arthur William, M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Natural
Science in St. David’s College, Lampeter.
§Scott, Miss Charlotte Angus. Lancashire College, Whalley Range,
Manchester,
{Scott, Mr. Bailie. Glasgow.
. [Scott, George Jamieson. Bayview House, Aberdeen.
. §Scott, Robert. 161 Queen Victoria-street, London, E.C.
. *Scorr, Ropert H., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.M.S., Secretary to
the Council of the Meteorological Office. 6 Elm Park-gardens,
London, 8S. W.
§Seott, Rev. Robert. Selkirk, D.D. 16 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill,
Glasgow.
*Scott, Sydney C. 15 Queen-street, Cheapside, London, E.C.
. [Scott, William. Holbeck, near Leeds.
{Scott, William Bower. Chudleigh, Devon.
. {Scott-Moncrieff, W. G. The Castle, Banff.
. *Serivener, A. P. Haglis House, Wendover.
. tScrivener, Mrs. Haglis House, Wendover.
. {Seaton, John Love. The Park, Hull.
. {Sepewick, Apam, M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.
. {Seppoum, Henry, F.L.S., F.Z.S8. 6 Tenterden-street, Hanover-
square, London, W.
. *SEELEY, Harry Govisr, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.B.G.S., F.Z.S.,
Professor of Geography in King’s College, London. The Vine,
Sevenoaks,
. {Seligman, H. L. 27 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.
. §Selim, Adolphus. 21 Mincing-lane, London, E.C.
. §Semple, Dr. United Service Club, Edinburgh.
. §Semple, James, C., M.R.I.A. 64 Grosvenor-road, Rathmines, Dublin.
. {Semple, R. H., M.D. 8 Torrington-square, London, W.C.
90 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1858. *Senior, George, F.S.8. Old Whittington, Chesterfield.
1870, *Sephton, Rey. J. 90 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
1883. §Seville, Miss M.A. Blythe House, Southport.
1875. §Seville, Thomas. Blythe House, Southport.
1868. {Sewell, Philip E. Catton, Norwich.
1883. tShadwell, John Lancelot. 21 Nottingham-place, London, W.
1871. *Shand, James. Parkholme, Elm Park-gardens, London, 8S.W.
1867. §Shanks, James. Dens Iron Works, Arbroath, N.B.
1881. {Shann, George, M.D. Petergate, York.
1869. *Shapter, Dr. Lewis, LL.D. 1 Barnfield-crescent, Exeter.
1878. {Suarp, Davin, M.B. Bleckley, Shirley Warren, Southampton.
Sharp, Rey. John, B.A. Horbury, Wakefield.
1886. §Sharp, T. B. French Walls, Birmingham.
*Sharp, William, M.D., F.R. a: F.G.S. Horton House, Rugby.
Sharp, Rey. William, B.A. Mareham Rectory, near Boston, Lincoln-
shire,
1883. {Sharples, Charles H., F.C.S. 7 Fishergate, Preston.
1870. {Shaw, Duncan. Cordova, Spain.
1865. {Shaw, George. Cannon-street, Birmingham.
1881. *Suaw, H. S. Hers, M.Inst.C ‘E, , Professor of Engineering in Univer-
sity College, Liverpool.
1887. *Shaw, James B. Holly Bank, Cornbrook, Manchester.
1870. {Shaw, John, 21 St. James’ s-road, Liverpool.
1845. {Shaw, John, M.D., F.L.S., F.G.S8. Viatoris Villa, Boston, Lincoln-
shire.
1887. §Shaw, Saville. College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1885, {Shaw, W. N., M.A. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
1883. {Shaw, Mrs. W. N. Emmanuel House, Cambridge.
1835, {Sheard, J. 42 Hoghton-street, Southport.
1883. *Shearer, Miss A. M. Bushy Hill, Cambuslang, Lanark.
1884, {Sheldon, Professor J. P. Downton College, near Salisbury.
1878. §Shelford, William, M.Inst.C.E. 35a Great George-street, West-
minster, 8. W.
1865. {Shenstone, Frederick 8. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes.
1881. {SHenstongr, W. A. Clifton College, Bristol.
1885. {Shepherd, Rev. Alexander. Ecclesmechen, Uphall, Edinburgh.
1865. {Shepherd, A. B. 17 Great Cumberland-place, Hyde Park, London,
WwW.
1885. {Shepherd , Charles. 1 Wellington-street, Aberdeen.
1883. {Shepherd, James. Birkdale, Southport.
1870. §Shepherd, Joseph. 29 Everton-crescent, Liverpool.
Sheppard, Rey. Henry W., B.A. The Parsonage, Emsworth, Hants.
1883. §Sherlock, David. Lower Leeson-street, Dublin.
1883. §Sherlock, Mrs. David. Lower Leeson-street, Dublin.
1883. {Sherlock, Rev. Edgar. Bentham Rectory, wd Lancaster.
1886. §Shield, Arthur H. 35a Great George-street, London, S.W.
1883. *Shillitoe, Buxton, F.R.C.S. 2 Frederick-place, Old Jewry, London,
E.C.
1867. {Shinn, William C. 4 Varden’s-road, Clapham Junction, Surrey,
S.W.
1887. "SaipLey, ArtHuR E., M.A. Charist’s College, Cambridge.
1885. {Shirras,G. F. 16 Carden-place, Aberdeen.
1883. {Shone, Isaac. Pentrefelin House, Wrexham.
1870. *SHootsreEp, James N., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 3 Westminster-chambers,
London, 8. W.
1875. {Shore, Thomas W., F.C.S., F.G.S. Hartley Institution, Southamp-
ton.
ae
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 91
Election.
1882.
1881.
1885.
1885.
1883.
1877.
1885.
1873.
1878.
1859.
1871.
1862.
1874.
1876.
1887,
1847,
1866.
1871.
1883.
1887.
1867.
1859.
1863.
1857.
1883.
1884.
1887.
1874.
1884.
1870.
1864.
1865.
1879.
1883.
1885.
1870.
1873.
1842.
1884,
1877.
1884.
1849,
1860.
{Suors, T. W., jun., M.D., B.Sc. 13 Hill Side, Crouch Hill, Lon-
don, N.
{Shuter, James L. 9 Steele’s-road, Haverstock Hill, London, N.W.
§Sibly, Miss Martha Agnes. Flook House, Taunton.
*Sidebotham, Edward John. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.
*Sidebotham, James Nasmyth. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.
*Sidebotham, Joseph Watson. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.
*Sipewicx, Henry, M.A., Litt.D., Professor of Moral Philosophy
in the University of Cambridge. Hillside, Chesterton-road,
Cambridge.
Sidney, M. J. F. Cowpen, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.
*Siemens, Alexander. 12 Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster, S. W.
tSigerson, Professor George, M.D., F.L.S., M.R.LA. 8 Clare-street,
Dublin.
{Sim, John. Hardgate, Aberdeen.
{Sime, James. Craigmount House, Grange, Edinburgh.
{Simms, James. 138 Fleet-street, London, E.C.
{Simms, William. The Linen Hall, Belfast.
tSimon, Frederick. 24 Sutherland-gardens, London, W.
*Simon, Henry. Darwin House, Didsbury.
{Simon, Sir John, C.B., D.O.L., F.R.S., F.R.C.S., Consulting Sur-
geon to St. Thomas’s Hospital. 40 Kensington-square, Lon-
don, W.
tSimons, George. The Park, Nottingham.
*Smrpson, ALEXANDER R., M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the Uni-
versity of Edinbureh. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh.
§Simpson, Byron R. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
§Simpson, F. Estacion Central, Buenos Ayres.
{Simpson, G. B. Seafield, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
{Simpson, John. Maykirk, Kincardineshire.
tSimpson, J. B., F.G.8. Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne.
tSmurpson, Maxwert, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in Queen’s College, Cork.
{Simpson, Walter M. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
Simpson, William. Bradmore House, Hammersmith, London, W.
*Simpson, W. J. R., M.D. Town House, Aberdeen.
§Sinclair, Dr. 268 Oxford-street, Manchester.
{Sinclair, Thomas. Dunedin, Belfast.
{Senclair, Vetch, M.D. 48 Albany-street, Edinburgh.
*Sinclair, W. P.,M.P. 19 Devonshire-road, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.
*Sirear, The Hon. Mahendra Lal, M.D., C.I.E. 51 Sankaritola, Cal-
cutta. (Care of Messrs. S. Harraden & Co., 3 Hill’s-place,
Oxford-street, London, W.)
{Sissons, William. 92 Park-street, Hull.
{Skertchly, Sydney B. J., F.G.S. 8 Loughborough-terrace, Carshal-
ton, Surrey.
{Skillicorne, W. N. 9 Queen’s-parade, Cheltenham.
§Skinner, Proyost. Inverurie, N.B.
= ‘Watrer Percy, F.G.8., F.L.S. Orsett House, Ewell,
Surrey.
{Slater, Clayton. Barnoldswick, near Leeds.
*Slater, William. Park-lane, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
{Slattery, James W. 9 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
tSleeman, Rev. Philip, L.Th., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Clifton, Bristol.
tSlooten, William Venn. Nova Scotia, Canada.
{Sloper, George Elgar. Devizes.
{Sloper, S. Elgar. Winterton, near Hythe, Southampton.
92
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Hlection.
1867.
1887.
1887.
1881.
1885.
1858.
1876.
1877.
1876
{Small, David. Gray House, Dundee.
§Small, E. W. 11 Arthur-street, Nottingham.
§Small, William. Cavendish-crescent Nor th, The Park, Nottincham.
{Smallshan, John. 81 Manchester-road, Southport.
§Smart, James. Valley Works, Brechin, N.B.
{Smeeton, G. H. Commercial-street, Leeds.
§Smellie, Thomas D. 213 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
{Smelt, Rey. Maurice Allen, M.A., FRA. S. Heath Lodge, Chel-
tenham.
{Smieton, James. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
- {Smieton, John G. 3 Polworth-road, Coventry Park, Streatham,
London, 8.W.
{Smieton, Thomas A. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
. (Smith, Aquilla, M.D., M.R.I. a 121 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.
*Smith, Basil Woodd, F.R.A Branch Hill Lodge, Hampstead
Heath, London, N.W.
. *Smith, Benjamin Leigh, F.R.G.S. Oxford and Cambridge Club,
Pall Mall, London, S. W.
. §Smith, Bryce. Rye Bank, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Manchester.
. {Smith, C.” Sidney College, Cambridge.
*Smith, Charles. 739 Rochdale-road, Manchester.
D. {Suarn, Davin, F.R.A.S. 40 Bennett’s- hill, Birmingham.
. {Smith, E. Fisher, J.P. The Priory, Dudley,
. {Smith, E. O. Council House, Birmingham.
. {Smith, Edwin. 33 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. *Smith, F.C. Bank, Nottingham.
. §Smith, Rev. F. J., MLA. Trinity College, Oxford.
. {Smith, George. Port Dundas, Glasgow.
5. {Smith, Rev.G. A., M.A. 91F ountainhall-road, Aberdeen.
. “Smith, Heywood, M. A., M.D. 18 Harley-street, Cavendish-square,
London 5 W..
. {Smith, H. L. Crabwall Hall, Cheshire.
. {Smith, Rev. James, B.D. Manse of Newhills, N.B.
*Smith, J. Guthrie. 54 West Nile-street, Glasgow.
1 Smith, John Haigh. 77 Southbank-road, Southport.
Smith, John Peter George. Sweyney Chiff Coalport, Iron Bridge,
Shropshire.
. Smith, J. William Robertson, M.A., Lord Almoneyr’s Professor of
Avabic in the University of Cambridge.
3. {Smith, M. Holroyd. Fern Hill, Halifax.
. *Smith, Mrs. Hencotes House, "Hexham.
*SmirH, Prorupron, M.D. 42 Park-street, Grosvenor-square, Lon-
don, W.
Smith, Richard Bryan. Villa Nova, Shrewsbury.
: {Surrw, Rozert H., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in the
Mason Science College, Bir mingham.
. *Smith, Robert Mackay. 4 Bellevue-crescent, Edinburgh.
; {Smith, Samuel. Bank of Liv erpool, Liverpool.
. {Smith, Samuel. 33 Compton-street, Goswell-road, London, E.C.
53. [Smith, Swire. Lowfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.
. {Smith, Thomas. Dundee.
. tSmith, Thomas. Poole Park Wovlks, Dundee.
. {Smith, Thomas James, F.G.8., F.C.S. Hornsea Burton, East York-
shire.
. {Smith, Vernon. 127 Metcalfe-street, Ottawa, Canada.
. *Smith, Watson. 147 High-street, Chorlton-on-Medlock,Manchester,
. §Smith, Dr. Wilberforce. 14 Stratford-place, London, W.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 93
Year of
Election.
1852.
1875.
1876.
1885.
1883.
1883.
1878.
1882.
1874.
1850.
1883.
1874.
1878.
1857.
1864,
1854.
1883.
1887.
1878.
1879.
1859.
1879.
1886.
1865.
1859.
1887.
1865.
1883.
1863.
1869.
1887.
1881.
1884,
1861.
1861.
1865,
1875.
1884.
1864,
1864.
1878.
1864.
1854,
tSmith, William. Eglinton Engine Works, Glasgow.
“Smith, William. Sundon House, Clifton, Bristol.
tSmith, William. 12 Woodside-place, Glasgow.
{Smithells, Arthur, B.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in the Yorkshire
College, Leeds.
tSmithson, Edward Walter. 15 Lendal, York.
TSmithson, Mrs. 15 Lendal, York.
{Smithson, Joseph $. Balnagowan, Rathmines, Co. Dublin.
§Smithson, T. Spencer. Facit, Rochdale.
tSmoothy, Frederick. Bocking, Hssex.
*Smyru, CHARLes Prazzi, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal for
Scotland, Professor of Astronomy in the University of Edin-
burgh. 15 Royal-terrace, Edinburgh.
{Smyth, Rev. Christopher. Woodford Rectory, Thrapston.
tSmyth, Henry. Downpatrick, Ireland.
§Smyth, Mrs. Isabella. Wigmore Lodge, Cullenswood-avenue, Dublin.
*Smyra, Joun, jun., M.A., F.R.M.S. Milltown, Banbridge, Ireland.
{Swryry, Sir Warreton W., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Lecturer
on Mining and Mineralogy at the Royal School of Mines, and
Inspector of the Mineral Property of the Crown. 5 Inyerness-
terrace, Bayswater, London, W.
tSmythe, General W. J., R.A., F.R.S. Athenzeum Club, Pall
Mall, London, 8. W.
tSnape, Joseph. 13 Scarisbrick-street, Southport.
§Snell, Bernard J. 5 Park-place, Broughton, Manchester.
§Snell, H. Saxon. 22 Southampton-buildings, London, W.C.
*Souras, W. J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of Geology
in the University of Dublin. Trinity College, Dublin.
Sorbey, Alfred. The Rookery, Ashford, Bakewell.
*Sorsy, H. Crrrron, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.8. Broomfield, Sheffield.
*Sorby, Thomas W. Storthfield, Sheffield.
fSouthall, Alfred. Carrick House, Richmond Hill-road, Birmingham.
*Southall, John Tertius. Parkfields, Ross, Herefordshire.
fSouthall, Norman. 44 Cannon-street West, London, E.C.
§Sowerbutts, Eli. Market-place, Manchester.
Sowerby, John. Shipcote House, Gateshead, Durham.
{Spanton, William Dunnett, F.R.C.S. Chatterley House, Hanley,
Staffordshire.
*Spark, H. King. Starforth House, Barnard Castle.
*Spence, J. Berger. 31 Lombard-street, London, H.C.
§Spencer, F. M. Fernhill, Knutsford.
TSpencer, Herbert E. Lord Mayor’s Walk, York.
§Spencer, John, M.Inst.M.E. Globe Tube Works, Wednesbury.
tSpencer, John Frederick. 28 Great George-street, London, 8. W.
*Spencer, Joseph. Springbank, Old Trafford, Manchester.
“Spencer, Thomas. The Grove, Ryton, Blaydon-on-Tyne, Co.
Durham.
TSpencer, W. H. Richmond Hill, Clifton, Bristol.
*Spice, Robert Paulson, M.Inst.C.E. 21 Parliament-street, West-
minster, 8. W.
*Spicer, Henry, B.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 14 Aberdeen Park, High-
bury, London, N.
*SPILLER, JOHN, F.C.S. 2 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, London, N.
§Spottiswoode, George Andrew. 3 Cadogan-square, London, 8. W.
*Spottiswoode, W. Hugh, F.C.S. 41 Grosvenor-place, London, S.W.
*Spracuz, THomas Bonn, M.A., F.R.S.E. 29 Buckingham-terrace,
Edinburgh.
94 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1883. §Spratling, W. J., B.Sc., F.G.S. Maythorpe, 74 Wickham-road,
Brockley, 8.E.
1853. {Spratt, Joseph James. West Parade, Hull.
1884. *Spruce, Samuel. Beech House, Tamworth.
Square, Joseph Elliot. 147 Maida Vale, London, W.
1877. {SquarE, WittraM, F.R.C.S., F.R.G.S. 4 Portland-square, Ply-
mouth.
*Squire, Lovell. 6 Heathfield-terrace, Chiswick, Middlesex.
1879. {Stacye, Rev. John. Shrewsbury Hospital, Shetfield.
1858. *Srarinton, Henry T., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. Mountsfield, Lewis-
ham, 8.E.
1884. {Stancoffe, Frederick. Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.
1883. *Stanford, Edward, jun., F.R.G.S. 17 Spring-gardens, London, S.W.
1865. {Sranrorp, Epwarp C.C., F.C.8. Glenwood, Dalmuir, N.B.
1837. Staniforth, Rev. Thomas. Storrs, Windermere.
1881. *Stanley, William Ford, F.G.S. Cumberlow, South Norwood,
Surrey, 8.E.
1883. §Stanley, Mrs. Cumberlow, South Norwood, Surrey, S.E.
Stapleton, M. H., M.B., M.R.I.A. 1 Mountjoy-place, Dublin.
1883. {Stapley, Alfred M. Marion-terrace, Crewe.
1866, {Starey, Thomas R. Daybrook House, Nottingham.
1876. §Starling, John Henry, F.0.S. The Avenue, Erith, Kent.
Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire.
1873. *Stead, Charles. Saltaire, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1881. {Stead, W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, London, E.
1881. {Stead, Mrs. W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, London, E.
1884. {Stearns, Sergeant P. U.S. Consul-General, Montreal, Canada.
1873. {Steinthal,G. A. 15 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1887. §Steinthal, S. Alfred. 81 Nelson-street, Manchester.
1887. §Stelfox, John L. 6 Hilton-street, Oldham, Manchester.
1884, {Stephen, George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.
1884, {Stephen, Mrs. George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreai, Canada.
1884, *Stephens, W. Hudson. Lowville (P.0.), State of New York,
U.S.A.
1879, *SrepHEnson, Henry, J.P. Endcliffe Vale, Sheffield.
1881. {Stephenson, J. F. 3 Mount-parade, York.
1876, {Steuart, Walter. City Bank, Pollockshaws, near Glasgow.
1870, *Stevens, Miss Anna Maria. 1 Sinclair-road, West Kensington,
London, W.
1880. *Stevens, J. Edward. 16 Woodlands-terrace, Swansea.
1886. §Stevens, Marshall. Highfield House, Urmstone, near Manchester.
1868, {Stevenson, Henry, F.LS. Newmarket-road, Norwich.
1878. {Stevenson, Rev. James, M.A. 21 Garville-avenue, Rathgar, Dublin.
1863, *Srpvenson, JaAmzEs C., M.P., F.C.S. Westoe, South Shields.
1887. *Stewart, A. H. Heather-lane, Bowdon, Manchester.
1882. {Steward, Rev. C. E., M.A. The Polygon, Southampton.
1885. {Stewart, Rev. Alexander. -Heathcot, Aberdeen.
1864, {Srewarr, Caries, M.A., F.L.8. St. Thomas's Hospital, London,
S.E
1885. {Stewart, David. 295 Union-street, Aberdeen.
1886. *Stewart, Duncan. Kelvinside, Glaszow.
1887. §Stewart, George N. Physiological Laboratory, Owens College, Man-
chester.
1875. *Stewart, James, B.A., M.R.C.P.Ed. Duanmurry, Sneyd Park, near
Clifton, Gloucestershire.
1876. tStewart, William. Violet Grove House, St. George’s-road, Glasgow.
1867. {Stirling, Dr. D. Perth.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 95
Election.
1876.
1867.
1865.
1883.
1854.
1845.
1887.
1862.
1886.
1886.
1874.
1876.
1883,
1859.
1857.
1878.
1861.
1876.
1883.
1854.
1887.
1887.
1873.
1884.
1859.
1874.
1871.
1881,
1876,
1865.
1882.
1881.
1879.
1884.
1859.
1888.
1867.
1887.
1887.
1876.
{Srrrtine, Witt1AM, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiolory
in the Owens College, Manchester.
*Stirrup, Mark, F.G.S. Stamford-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.
*Stock, Joseph 8S. St. Mildred’s, Walmer.
*Stocker, W. R. Cooper's Hill, Staines.
{Stoess, Le Chevalier Ch. de W. (Bavarian Consul). Liverpool.
*Stokes, Grorcre GABRIEL, M.P., M.A., D.O.L., LL.D., Pres. R.S.,
Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cam-
bridge. Lensfield Cottage, Cambridge.
§Stone, E. D., F.C.S. The Depleach, Cheadle, Cheshire.
{Sronz, Epwarp James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of the
Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford.
{Stone, J.B. The Grange, Erdington, Birmingham.
{Stone, J. H. Grosvenor-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.
{Stone, J. Harris, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. 11 Sheffield-gardens, Ken-
sington, London, W.
{Stone, Octavius C., F.R.G.S. Springfield, Nuneaton.
§Stone, Thomas William. 189 Goldhawk-road, Shepherd’s Bush,
London, W.
{Sronz, Dr. Wret1am H. 14 Dean’s-yard, Westminster, S.W.
{Sronzy, Bryvon B., LL.D.,F.R.S., M-Inst.C.E., M.R.1.A., Engineer
of the Port of Dublin. 14 Elgin-road, Dublin.
*Stoney, G. Gerald. 9 Palmerston Park, Dublin.
*Sronry, GrorcE Jonnstonz, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., M.R.I.A. 9 Pal-
merston Park, Dublin.
§Stopes, Henry, F.G.S. Kenwyn, Cintra Park, Upper Norwood,
S.E.
§Stcpes, Mrs. Kenwyn, Cintra Park, Upper Norwood, S.E.
{Store, George. Prospect House, Fairfield, Liverpool.
§Storer, Edwin. Woodlands, Crumpsall, Manchester.
*Storey, H. L. Lancaster.
{Storr, William. The ‘Times’ Office, Printing-house-square, Lon-
don, E.C.
§Storrs, George H. Fern Bank, Stalybridge.
§Story, Captain James Hamilton. 17 Bryanston-square, London, W.
{Stott, William. Scar Bottom, Greetland, near Halifax, Yorkshire.
*Srracuey, Lieut.-General Ricwarp, R.E., C.S.L, F.R.S., Pres.R.G.S.,
F.LS., F.G.S. 69 Laneaster-gate, Hyde Park, London, W.
{Strahan, Aubrey, M.A., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-
street, London, 8. W.
{Strain, John. 143 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
{Straker, John. Wellington House, Durham.
{Strange, Rev. Cresswell, M.A. Edgbaston Vicarage, Birmingham.
{Strangways, C. Fox, F.G.S. Geological Museum, J evmyn-street,
London, S.W.
*Strickland, Charles. 21 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
{Strickland, Sir Charles W., K.C.B. Hildenley-road, Malton.
Strickland, William. French Park, Roscommon, Ireland.
{Stringham, Irving. The University, Berkeley, California, U.S.A.
{Stronach, William, R.E. Ardmellie, Banff.
§Strong, Henry J., M.D. Whitgift House, Croydon.
{Stronner, D. 14 Princess-street, Dundee.
*Stroud, Professor H. College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Stroud, William, D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the Yorkshire Col-
lege, Leeds.
*StrurHERS, Joun, M.D., LL.D., Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Aberdeen.
96
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1878.
1876.
1872.
1886.
1884,
1885.
1879.
1857.
1885.
1884,
1887.
1883.
1875.
1873.
1863.
1862.
1886.
1884,
1865.
1881.
1881.
1876.
1881.
1861.
1862.
1879.
18838.
1887.
1870.
1863.
1885.
1887.
18738,
1858,
1883.
1873.
1887.
1862.
1887.
1885.
{Strype, W.G. Wicklow.
*Stuart, Charles Maddock. . High School, Newcastle, Staffordshire.
*Stuart, Rev. Edward A.,M.A. 116 Grosvenor-road, Highbury New
Park, London, N.
TStuart, G. Morton, M.A. East Harptree, near Bristol.
{Stuart, Dr. W. Theophilus. 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Canada.
§Stump, Edward C. 26 Parkfield-street, Moss-lane East, Manchester.
*Styring, Robert. 3 Hartshead, Sheffield.
{Suniivay, Witrram K., Ph.D., M.R.LA. Queen’s College, Cork.
{Summers, William, M.P. Sunnyside, Ashton-under-Lyne.
{Sumner, George. 107 Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada.
§Sumpner, W. E. 37 Pennyfields, Poplar, London, E.
tSutcliffe, J. 8., J.P. Beech House, Bacup.
{Sutcliffe, J. W. Sprink Bank, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tSutcliffe, Robert. Idle, near Leeds.
tSutherland, Benjamin John. 10 Oxford-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
*SUTHERLAND, GEORGE GRANVILLE Wintram, Duke of, K.G.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S.. Stafford House, London, 8. W.
tSutherland, Hugh. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
tSutherland, J.C. Richmond, Quebec, Canada.
t{Surron, Francis, F.C.S. Bank Plain, Norwich.
{Sutton, William. Town Hall, Southport.
tSwales, William. Ashville, Holgate Hill, York.
{Swan, David, jun. Braeside, Maryhill, Glasgow.
§Swan, Joseph Wilson, M.A. Mosley-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Swan, Patrick Don 8. Kirkcaldy, N.B.
*Swan, WitiiaM, LL.D., F.R.S.1., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the University of St. Andrews, N.B.
tSwanwick, Frederick. Whittington, Chesterfield.
jSweeting, Rev. T. E. 50 Roe-lane, Southport.
§Swinburne, James. Shona, Chelmsford.
*Swinburne, Sir John, Bart., M.P: Capheaton, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.
{Swindell, J. S. E. Summerhill, Kingswinford, Dudley.
{Swindells, Miss. Springfield House, Ilkley, Yorkshire.
*Swindells, Rupert, F.R.G.S. Wilton Villa, The Firs, Bowdon,
Cheshire.
*Swinglehurst, Henry. “Hincaster House, near Milnthorpe.
ee Right Rev. Atrrep Barry, Bishop of, D.D., D.C.L.
ney.
pas, Alied, Highfield, Huddersfield.
§Sykes, Benjamin Clifford, M.D, St. John’s House, Cleckheaton.
*Sykes, George H. 12 Albert-square, Clapham, London, S.W.
{Sykes, Thomas. Cleckheaton.
*Sykes, T. H. Cheadle, Cheshire.
Sytvester, JAMES Josepu, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Savilian
Professor of Geometry in the University of Oxford. Oxford.
. [Symus, Rrowarp Guascorr, B.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey of
Treland, 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
§Symington, Johnson, M.D, 2 Greenhill Park, Edinburgh,
*Symington, Thomas. Wardie House, Edinburgh.
*Symonds, Frederick, M.A., F.R.C.S. 35 Beaumont-street, Oxford.
{Symonds, Captain Thomas Edward, R.N. 10 Adam-street, Adelphi,
London, W.C.
See J., F.B.S., Sec.R.Met.Soc. 62 Camden-square, London,
Symons, Simon. Belfast House, Farquhar-road, Norwood, S.E.
ve
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS, 97
‘Election.
1855.
1886.
1872.
1865.
‘1877.
1871.
1867,
1883.
1878.
1861.
1857.
1870.
1858.
1876.
1879.
1886.
1878.
1884,
1887.
1874.
1887.
1881,
1884,
1882.
1887.
1879.
1861.
1873.
1881.
1865.
1883.
1876.
1878.
1884,
1881.
1883.
1870.
1887,
1883.
(1884,
1858.
1885.
1869.
1876.
1879,
*Symons, Wixt1aM, F.0.S. 26 Joy-street, Barnstaple.
§Symons, W. H., F.C.S., F.R.M.S. 130 Fellowes-road, Hampstead,
London, N.W.
Synge, Francis. Glanmore, Ashford, Co. Wicklow.
tSynge, Major-General Millington, R.E., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. United
Service Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W.
{Tailyour, Colonel Renny, R.E. Newmanswalls, Montrose, N.B.
*Tart, Lawson, F.R.C.S. The Crescent, Birmingham.
{Tarr, Perer Gururig, F.R.S.E,, Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the University of Edinburgh. George-square, Edinburgh.
Tat, P. M., F.R.GS., FSS. Oriental Club, Hanover-square,
London, W.
§Tapscott, R. L, 41 Parkfield-road, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.
{Tarpry, Huex. Dublin.
*Tarratt, Henry W. Ferniebrae, Dean Park, Bournemouth.
*Tate, Alexander. Longwood, Whitehouse, Belfast.
tTate, Norman A. 7 Nivell-chambers, Fazackerley-street, Liverpool.
*Tatham, George, J.P. Springfield Mount, Leeds.
tTatlock, Robert R. 26 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.
{Tattershall, William Edward. 15 North Church-street, Sheffield.
tTaunton, Richard. Brook Vale, Witton.
*Taylor, A. Claude. North Circus-street, Nottingham.
*Taylor, Rev. Charles, D.D. St. John’s Lodge, Cambridge.
Taylor, Frederick, Laurel Cottage, Rainhill, near Prescot, Lan-
cashire.
§Taylor,G. H. Holly House, 235 Eccles New-road, Salford.
tTaylor,G. P. Students’ Chambers, Belfast.
§Taylor, George Spratt, F.C.S. 13 Queen’s-terrace, St. John’s
Wood, London, N.W.
*Taylor, H. A. 25 Collingham-road, South Kensington, London,
S.W.
*Taylor, H. M.,M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
*Taylor, Herbert Owen, M.D. 17 Castlegate, Nottingham.
§Taylor, Rev. Canon Isaac, D.D. Settrington Rectory, York.
{Taylor, John. Broomhall-place, Sheffield.
*Taylor, John, M.Inst.C.H., F.G.S. 29 Portman-square, London, W.
fTaytor, Joun Extor, Ph.D., F.LS., F.G.S. The Mount,
Ipswich.
*Taylor, John Francis. Holly Bank House, York.
{Taylor, Joseph. 99 Constitution-hill, Birmingham.
TTaylor, Michael W., M.D, Hatton Hall, Penrith.
tTaylor, Robert. 70 Bath-street, Glasgow.
tTaylor, Robert, J.P., LL.D. Corballis, Drogheda.
*Taylor, Miss S. Oak House, Shaw, near Oldham.
tTaylor, Rev. 8. B., M.A. Whixley Hall, York.
{Taylor, S. Leigh. Birklands, Westcliffe-road, Birkdale, Southport.
TTaylor, Thomas. Aston Rowant, Tetsworth, Oxon.
§Taylor, Tom. Grove House, Sale, Manchester.
tTaylor, William, M.D. 21 Crockherbtown, Cardiff.
tTaylor-Whitehead, Samuel, J.P. Burton Closes, Bakewell.
{Teale, Thomas Pridgin, jun. 20 Park-row, Leeds.
§Teall, J. J. H., M.A., F.G.S. 12 Cumberland-road, Kew, Surrey,
tTeesdale, C.S. M. Whyke House, Chichester.
*Temperley, Ernest, M.A. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
{Temple, Lieutenant George T., R.N., F.R.G.S. The Nash, near
‘Worcester.
G
98
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1880.
1863.
1882,
1881.
1883.
1883.
1887.
1882.
1885.
1871.
1871.
1835.
1870.
1871.
1875.
1883.
1884,
1875.
1869.
1881,
1869.
1880.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1886.
1886.
1875.
1887.
1885.
1885.
1882.
1883.
1859.
1870.
1883.
1883.
1861.
1864.
1873.
1876.
1883.
1874.
1876.
§TempPLE, Sir Ricwarp, Bart., G.C.S.I., C.LE., D.O.L., LL.D...
M.P., F.R.G.S. Atheneum Club, London, S.W.
{Tennant, Henry. Saltwell, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
§Terrill, William. 3 Hanover-street, Swansea.
{Terry, Mr. Alderman. Mount-villas, York.
tTetley,C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.
tTetley, Mrs. C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.
§Tetlow, T. 273 Stamford-street, Ashton-under-Lyne.
*Thane, George Dancer, Professor of Anatomy in University College,.
Gower-street, London, W.C.
{Thin, Dr. George, 22 Queen Anne-street, London, W.
{Thin, James. 7 Rillbank-terrace, Edinburgh. ;
{Tutsetron-DyEr, W. T., C.M.G., M.A., B.Se., F.R.S., F.L.S.
Royal Gardens, Kew.
Thom, John. Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire.
¢Thom, Robert Wilson. Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire.
{Thomas, Ascanius William Nevill. Chudleigh, Devon.
*THOMAS, CHRISTOPHER JAMES. Drayton Lodge, Redland, Bristol.
tThomas, Ernest C.,B.A. 13 South-square, Gray’s Inn, London, W.C..
{THomas, F. Wonrerstan. Molson’s Bank, Montreal, Canada.
Thomas, George. Brislington, Bristol.
tThomas, Herbert. Ivor House, Redlands, Bristol.
{Thomas, H. D. Fore-street, Exeter.
§THomas, J. Buount. Southampton.
{Thomas, J. Henwood, F.R.G.S. Custom House, London, E.O.
*Thomas, Joseph William, F.C.S. The Laboratory, West Wharf,.
Cardiff.
{Thomas, P. Bossley. 4 Bold-street, Southport.
§Thomas, Thomas H. 45 The Walk, Carditt.
tThomas, William. Lan, Swansea.
{Thomas, William. 109 Tettenhall-road, Wolverhampton.
§Thomasson, Yeoville. 9 Observatory-gardens, Kensington, Lon--
don, W.
{Thompson, Arthur. 12 St. Nicholas-street, Hereford.
§Thompson, C. St. Mary’s Hospital, London, W.
{Thompson, Miss C. E. Heald Bank, Bowdon, Manchester.
§Thompson, D’Arcy W., B,A., Professor of Physiology in University
College, Dundee. University College, Dundee.
tThompson, Charles O. Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A.
*Thompson, Francis. 1 Avenue-villas, St. Peter’s-road, Croydon.
t{Thompson, George, jun. Pitmedden, Aberdeen.
Thompson, Harry Stephen. Kirby Hall, Great Ouseburn, Yorkshire.
{THompson, Sir Henry. 35 Wimpole-street, London, W.
*Tbompson, Henry G., M.D. 8 Addiscombe-villas, Croydon.
Thompson, Henry Stafford. Fairfield, near York.
*Thompson, Isaac Cooke, F.L.S., F.R.M.S. Woodstock, Wayerley--
road, Liverpool.
*THompson, JosePH. Riversdale, Wilmslow, Manchester.
{THompson, Rey. JosepH HussencRavn, B.A. Cradley, near
Brierley Hill.
{Thompson, M. W. Guiseley, Yorkshire.
*Thompson, Richard. Park-street, The Mount, York.
{Thompson, Richard. Bramley Mead, Whalley, Lancashire.
{Thompson, Robert. Walton, Fortwilliam Park, Belfast.
}{THompson, Sitvanus Purups, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.A.S., Professor
of Physics in the City and Guilds of London Institute, Finsbury
Technical Institute, E.C.
Year
LIST OF MEMBERS. : 99
of
Election.
1884, {Thompson, Sydney de Courcy. 16 Canonbury-park South, London, N.
1883. *Thompson, T. H. Heald Bank, Bowdon, Manchester.
1863
1867
. Thompson, William. 11 North-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
. {Thoms, William. Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee.
Thomson, Guy. Oxford.
. *THomson, Professor Jamus, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.L.& E.
2 Florentine-gardens, Hillhead-street, Glasgow.
. §THomson, James, F.G.S. 3 Abbotsford-place, Glasgow.
. {Thomson, James'R. Mount Blow, Dalmuir, Glasgow.
. TTHomson, J. J., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Experimental Physics in
the University of Cambridge. Trinity College, Cambridge.
. *Txomson, Joun Mrxxar, F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in King’s
College, London, W.C.
. Thomson, Joseph. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.
- [Thomson, Robert, LL.B. 12 Rutland-square, Edinburgh.
. *THomson, Sir Wiiiiam, M.A., LL.D., D.O.L., F.RS. L&E,
F.R.A.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of
Glasgow. The University, Glasgow,
- *Thomson, Lady. The University, Glasgow.
. §THomson, Witt1aM, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Royal Institution, Manchester.
. §Thomson, William J. Ghyllbank, St. Helen’s.
. {Thornburn, Rey. David, M.A. 1 John’s-piace, Leith.
. {Thornburn, Rev. William Reid, M.A. Starkies, Bury, Lancashire.
. §Thornley, J. E. Lyndon, Bickenhill, near Birmingham,
. §Thornton, John. 3 Park-street, Bolton.
. {Thornton, Thomas. Dundee.
. §Thorowgood, Samuel. Castle-square, Brighton.
. {Thorp, Dr. Disney. Lyppiatt Lodge, Suffolk Lawn, Cheltenham.
. {Thorp, Fielden. Blossom-street, York.
. Thorp, Henry. Briarleigh, Sale, near Manchester.
. *Thorp, Josiah. 159 Field-street, Liverpool.
- “Thorp, Wiliam, B.Sc., F.CS. 89 Sandringham-road, Kingsland,
London, E.
. {THorpr, T. E., Ph.D., F.R.S.L.& E., F.C.S., Professor of Che-
mistry in the Normal School of Science. Science Schools.
South Kensington, London, S.W.
. §Threlfall, Henry Singleton. 5 Prince’s-street, Southport.
. {Thresh, John C., D.Sc. The Willows, Buxton.
. {Tuurtirer, General Sir H. E. L., R.A., O.S.1, F.R.S., F.R.G.S
11 Sussex-gardens, Hyde Park, London, W.
. {Tichborne, Charles R. C., LL.D., F.C.S., M.R.I.A. Apothecaries’
Hail of Ireland, Dublin.
. *Trppeman, R. H., M.A., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.
. §Tipy, Cartes Meymorr, M.D. 3 Mandeville-place, Cavendish-
square, London, W.
. }Trpey, Wiiiiam A., D.Se., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry
and Metallurgy in the Mason Science College, Birmingham,
36 Frederick-road, Birmingham.
. {Tilghman, B. C. Philadelphia, U.S.A.
. {Tillyard, A. I, M.A. Fordfield, Cambridge.
. {Tillyard, Mrs. Fordfield, Cambridge.
Tinker, Ebenezer. Mealhill, near Huddersfield.
. {Timmins, Samuel, J.P., F.S.A. Hill Cottage, Fillongley, Coventry.
. {Todd, Rev. Dr. Tudor Hall, Forest Hill, London, 8.E.
. §Tolmé, Mrs. Melrose House, Higher Broughton, Manchester,
. [Tombe, Rey. Canon. Glenealy, Co. Wicklow.
. [ Tomes, Robert Fisher. Littleton, Worcestershire.
G2
100
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1864.
1887.
1887.
1865.
1865.
1873.
1887.
1861.
1872.
1886.
1875.
1886.
1884.
1884.
1859.
1873.
1875.
1883.
1861,
1877.
1876,
1883.
1870.
1883.
1875.
1868.
1884,
1868.
1869,
1870.
1883.
1884.
1884.
1879.
1877,
1871.
1860.
1884,
1885.
1887.
1869,
1885.
*Tomiinson, OHARLES, F.R.S., F.C.S. 7 North-road, Highgate,
London, N. ;
§Tonge, Rev. Canon. Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Manchester.
§Tonge, James. Woodbine House, West Houghton, Bolton.
tTonks, Edmund, B.C.L. Packwood Grange, Knowle, Warwickshire.
*Tonks, William Henry. The Rookery, Sutton Coldfield.
*Tookey, Charles, F.C.S. Royal School of Mines, Jermyn-street,
London, 8.W.
§Topham, F. 15 Great George-street, London, S.W.
*Topham, John, A.ILC.E. High Elms, 265 Mare-street, Hackney,
London, E.
*Torptey, WituiaM, F.G.S., A.I.C.E. Geological Survey Office,
Jermyn-street, London, 8. W.
§Topley, Mrs. W. Hurstbourne, Elgin-road, Croydon.
§Torr, Oharles Hawley. 7 Regent-street, Nottingham.
¢Torr, Charles Walker. Cambridge-street Works, Birmingham.
{Torrance, John F. Folly Lake, Nova Scctia, Canada.
*Torrance, Rev. Robert, D.D. Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
megs bbe Rev. John, Dean of St. Andrews. Coupar Angus,
Towgood, Edward. St. Neot’s, Huntingdonshire.
t{Townend, W.H. Heaton Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Townsend, Charles. Avenue House, Cotham Park, Bristol.
{Townsend, Francis Edward. 19 Aughton-road, Birkdale, Southport.
{Townsend, William. Attleborough Hall, near Nuneaton.
{Tozer, Henry. Ashburton.
*Trait, Professor J. W. H., M.A., M.D., F.L.S. University of Aber-
deen, Old Aberdeen.
{Trait, A., M.D., LL.D. Ballylough, Bushmills, Ireland.
{Traint, Wittram <A. Giant’s Causeway Electric Tramway,
Portrush, Ireland.
{Traill, Mrs. Portrush, Ireland.
{Trapnell, Caleb. Severnleigh, Stoke Bishop.
{TRaqvarr, Ramsay H., M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the Natural
History Collections, Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh.
{Trechmann, Charles O., Ph.D., F.G.S. Hartlepool.
Tregelles, Nathaniel. Liskeard, Cornwall.
tTrehane, John. Exe View Lawn, Exeter.
{Trehane, John, jun. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
{Trench, Dr. Municipal Offices, Dale-street, Liverpool.
Trench, F. A. Newlands House, Clondalkin, Ireland.
{Trendell, Edwin James, J.P. Abbey House, Abingdon, Berks.
{Trenham, Norman W. 18 St. Alexis-street, Montreal, Canada.
§Tribe, His C. M. 44 West Oneida-street, Oswego, New York,
U.S.A
{Trickett, F. W. 12 Old Haymarket, Sheffield.
{Trmen, Hevry, M.B., F.L.S. British Museum, London, 8.W.
{Trren, Rotanp, F.R.S., F.LS., F.Z.S. Colonial Secretary’s
Office, Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope.
§TristRaM, Rev. Henry Baxsr, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Canon
of Durham. The College, Durham.
*Trotter, Alexander Pelham. 53 Addison Mansions, Blythe-road,
West Kensington, London, W.
§Trotter, Coutts. 17 Charlotte-square, Edinburgh.
*Trouton, Frederick T. Trinity College, Dublin.
{Troyte,C. A. W. Huntsham Court, Bampton, Devon.
*Tubby, A. H. Guy’s Hospital, London, 8.E.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 101
Year of
Election.
1869.
1847.
1871.
1887.
1883.
1854.
1855.
1871.
1873.
1882.
1883.
1875.
1886.
1863.
1883.
1884.
1842.
1884,
1886.
1847.
1882.
1865.
1858.
1883.
1861.
1884,
1886.
1885.
1883.
1883.
1876.
1887.
1872.
1876.
1859.
1866.
1880.
1885.
1887.
1887.
1863.
1884.
1883.
{Tucker, Charles. Marlands, Exeter.
*Tuckett, Francis Fox. Frenchay, Bristol.
Tuke, James H. Bancroft, Hitchin.
tTuke, J. Batty, M.D. Cupar, Fifeshire.
§Tuke, W. C. 29 Princess-street, Manchester.
{Tuprer, The Hon. Sir Cuarzs, G.C.M.G.,C.B., High Commissioner
for Canada. 9 Victoria-chambers, London, S.W.
{Turnbull, James, M.D. 86 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
{Turnbull, John. 37 West George-street, Glasgow.
{Turnbull, William, F.R.S.E. Menslaws, Jedburgh, N.B.
*Turner, George. Horton Grange, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tTurner, G. 8. 9 Carlton-crescent, Southampton.
tTurner, Mrs. G. S. 9 Carlton-crescent, Southampton.
{Turner, Thomas, F.S.S. Ashley House, Kingsdown, Bristol.
*Turner, Thomas, M.A. Mason Science College, Birmingham.
*TuRNER, Sir WILLIAM, M.B., F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of Anatomy
in the University of Edinburgh. 6 Eton-terrace, Edinburgh.
{Turrell, Miss S.S. High School, Redland-grove, Bristol.
*Tutin, Thomas. Weston-on-Trent, Derby.
Twamley, Charles, F.G.S. Ryton-on-Dunsmore, Coventry.
*Tweddell, Ralph Hart. Provender, Faversham, Kent.
*Twige, G@. H. Church-road, Moseley, Birmingham.
{Twiss, Sir Travers, Q.C., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 3 Paper-
buildings, Temple, London, E.C.
ee: Horneck, Fitzjohn’s-avenue, Hampstead, London,
W.
¢Tyzor, Epwarp Burnett, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Keeper of the
University Museum, Oxford.
*TynpaLL, Joun, D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Hon. Pro-
fessor of Natural Philosophy in the Royal Institution, London.
Hindhead House, Hindhead, Surrey.
tTyrer, Thomas, F.C.S. Garden-wharf, Battersea, London, S.W.
*Tysoe, John, 28 Heald-road, Bowdon, near Manchester.
*Underhill, G. E., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.
{Underhill, Thomas, M.D. West Bromwich.
{Unwin, Howard. Newton-grove, Bedford Park, Chiswick, London.
§Unwin, John. Park-crescent, Southport.
§Unwin, William Andrews. The Briars, Freshfield, near Liverpool.
*Unwin, W. C., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering at
the Central Institute, City and Guilds of London. 7 Palace-
gate Mansions, Kensington, London, W.
§Upton, Francis R. Orange, New Jersey, U.S.A.
tUpward, Alfred. 11 Great Queen-street, Westminster, London, S.W,
tUre, John F. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.
gee ba Pollard. COraigston Castle, N.B.; and Castlepollard,
eland.
tUrquhart, William W. Rosebay, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee,
tUssuer, W. A. E., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, 8.W.
{Vachell, Charles Tanfield, M.D. Cardiff.
§Vaizey, J. Reynolds. Broxbourne, Herts.
*Valentine, Miss Anne. The Elms, Hale, near Altrincham.
tVandoni, le Commandeur Comte de, Chargé d’Affaires de S. M.
Tunisienne, Geneva.
¢Van Horne, W.C. Dorchester-street West, Montreal, Canada.
*VanSittart, The Hon. Mrs. A. A. 11 Lypiatt-terrace, Cheltenham,
102
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1886,
1868,
1865.
1870.
1869.
1884.
1875.
1883.
1881.
1873.
1883.
1883,
1864,
1868.
1883.
1856.
1884,
1869.
1886,
1860.
1884,
1886.
1879.
1870.
1884.
1873.
1882.
1885.
1885.
1883.
1883.
1888.
1866.
1885,
1866,
1881.
1867.
1886.
1866.
1884,
1887.
1883.
{Varpy, Rev, A.R., M.A. King Edward’s School, Birmmgham,
{Varley, Frederick H., F.R.A.S. Mildmay Park Works, Mildmay-
avenue, Stoke Newington, London, N.
*VARLEY, e ALFRED. 2 Hamilton-road, Highbury Park, Lon-
don, N.
tVarley, Mrs. S. A. 2 Hamilton-road, Highbury Park, London, N,
TVarwell, P. Alphington-street, Exeter.
§ Vasey, Charles, 112 Cambridge-gardens, London, W.
{ Vaughan, Miss. Burlton Hall, Shrewsbury.
{Vaughan, William. 42 Sussex-road, Southport.
§ Very, V. H., M.A., F.0.S. University College, Oxford.
*VeRNEY, Captain Epmunp H., R.N., F.R.G.S. Rhianva, Bangor,
North Wales.
*Verney, Mrs. Rhianva, Bangor, North Wales.
Verney, Sir Harry, Bart., M.P. Lower Claydon, Buckinghamshire.
Vernon, George John, Lord. Sudbury Hall, Derbyshire.
{Vernon, H.H.,M.D. York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
*Vicary, Witt1AM, F.G.S. The Priory, Colleton-crescent, Exeter.
{Vincent, Rey. William. Postwick Rectory, near Norwich.
{ Vines, Sydney Howard, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. 66 Hills-road,
Cambridge.
tVivian, Epwarp, M.A. Woodfield, Torquay
*Vivian, Sir H. Hussry, Bart., M.P., F.G.S. Park Wern-
Swansea; and 27 Belerave-square, London, S.W.
{Von Linden, Frangois Hermann. Amsterdam, Holland.
tVose, Dr. James. Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.
*Wackrill, Samuel Thomas, J.P. Leamington.
§Waddingham, John. Guiting Grange, Winchcombe, Gloucestershire,
tWait, Charles E. Rolla, Missouri, U.S.A.
tWaite, J. W. The Cedars, Bestcot, Walsall.
*Wake, Bernard. Abbeyfield, Sheffield.
§Waxke, CHARLES Sranizanp. Welton, near Brough, East Yorke
shire.
tWaldstein, Charles, M.A., Ph.D., Director of the Fitzwilliam
Museum, Cambridge. Cambridge.
Wales, James. 4 Mount Royd, Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire,
*Walkden, Samuel. The Thorne, Bexhill, near Hastings, Sussex.
{ Walker, Baillie. 52 Victoria-street, Aberdeen.
§ Walker, Charles Clement, F.R.A.S. Lillieshall Old Hall, Newport,
Shropshire.
§Walker, Mrs. Emma. 14 Bootham-terrace, York.
t Walker, E. R. Pagefield Ironworks, Wigan.
Walker, Frederick John. The Priory, Bathwick, Bath.
tWalker, George. 11 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead, Liverpool.
tWalker, H. Westwood, Newport, by Dundee.
§Watxker, General J. T., CB, RE, LLD., F.BS., F.R.GS.
13 Cromwell-road, London, S.W.
*WaLKER, JoHN Francis, M.A., F.C.8., F.G.S., F.L.S. 16 Gillygate,
York.
{Walker, John Sydenham. 83 Bootham, York.
*Walker, Peter G. 2 Airlie-place, Dundee.
*Walker, Major Philip Billingsley. Sydney, New South Wales.
{Walker, S. D. 38 Hampden-street, Nottingham.
Walker, Samuel. Woodbury, Sydenham Hill, London, S.E.
§Walker, T. A. 15 Great George-street, London, S.W.
§Walker, Thomas A. 66 Leyland-road, Southport.
1883,
1863.
1883.
1859.
1887.
1862.
1886.
1883.
1884.
1886,
1883.
1887.
1887.
1883.
1862.
1863.
1881.
1863.
1884.
1872,
1887.
1874.
1881.
1879,
1874.
1887.
1857
1880.
1884,
1883.
1887.
1882.
1867.
1858.
1884.
1865.
1887.
1878,
1882.
1884,
1875.
1887.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 103
Year of
-Election.
Walker, William. 47 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.
1881, *Walker, William. 14 Bootham-terrace, York.
tWall, Henry. 14 Park-road, Southport.
}Wattace, AtFRED RvussEtL, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Nutwood Cottage,
Frith Hill, Godalming.
§ Wallace, George J. Hawthornbank, Dunfermline.
}Wattace, Wi111AM, Ph.D., F.C.S. Chemical Laboratory, 138 Bath-
street, Glasgow.
*Waller, Augustus, M.D. Weston Lodge, 16 Grove End-road, Lon-
don, N.W.
tWallich, George Charles, M.D., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 26 Addison-road
North, Notting Hill, London, W.
tWalliker, Samuel. Grandale, Westfield-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.
t Wallis, Rey. Frederick. Caius College, Cambridge.
§ Wallis, Herbert. Redpath-street, Montreal, Canada.
Wallis, Whitworth. Westfield, Westfield-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.
tWalmesley, Oswald. Shevington Hall, near Wigan.
*Walmsley, Miss Isabella. 1 Wynnstay-terrace, Stretford-road, Old
Traftord, Manchester.
§Walmsley, J. Winton, Patricroft, Manchester.
{Walmsley, T. M. Clevelands, Chorley-road, Heaton, Bolton.
tWaxpote, The Right Hon. Spencer Horatio. M.A., D.C.L.,
F.R.S. Ealing, Middlesex, W.
tWalters, Robert. Hldon-square, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{Walton, Thomas, M.A. Oliver’s Mount School, Scarborough.
TWanklyn, James Alfred. 7 Westminster-chambers, London, S.W.
tWanless, John, M.D. 88 Union-avenue, Montreal, Canada.
t Warburton, Benjamin. Leicester.
§ Ward, A. W., M.A., Litt.D., Professor of History and English Lite-
rature in Owens College, Manchester.
tWard, F. D., J.P., M.R.LA. Clonaver, Strandtown, Co. Down.
§ Ward, George, F.C.S. Buckingham-terrace, Headingley, Leeds.
Ward, H. Marshall, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Royal
Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper’s Hill, Egham.
§ Ward, John, F.S.A., F.G.8., F.R.G.S. Lenoxvale, Belfast.
§ Ward, John, F.G.S. 28 Stafford-street, Longton, Manchester.
{Ward, John 8. Prospect Hill, Lisburn, Ireland.
*Ward, J. Wesney. 5 Holtham-road, St. John’s Wood, London,
N.W
*Ward, John William. Newstead, Halifax.
}Ward, Thomas, F.C.S. Arnold House, Blackpool.
§Ward, Thomas. Brookfield, House, Northwich.
{Ward, William. Cleveland Cottage, Hill-lane, Southampton,
{ Warden, Alexander J, 23 Panmure-street, Dundee.
tWardle, Thomas. Leek Brook, Leek, Staffordshire.
§ Wardwell, George J. Rutland, Vermont, U.S.A.
Waring, Edward John, M.D., F.L.S, 49 Clifton-gardens, Maida Vale,
London, W.
*Waring, Richard 8. Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
§ Warineron, Ropert, F.R.S., F.C.S. Harpenden, St. Albans, Herts.
t{ Warner, F.. W., F.L.S. 20 Hyde-street, Winchester.
*Warner, James D. 199 Baltic-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A.
tWarren, Algernon. Naseby House, Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.
§Warren, Colonel Sir Cuartzs, R.E., K.C.B., G.C.M.G., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S. 44 St. George’s-road, London, 8. W.
104
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1856.
1876,
1875.
1854.
1870.
1875.
1881.
1887.
1884,
1867.
1886.
1885,
1867.
1885.
1882.
1873.
1887,
1884,
1859.
1863.
1863.
1867.
1882.
1884.
1869.
1875.
1884,
1870.
{ Washbourne, Buchanan, M.D. Gloucester.
t Waterhouse, A. Wahllenhall House, Barnet, Herts.
*Waterhouse, Lieut.-Colonel J. 40 Hamilton-terrace, London,.
N.W.
t Waterhouse, Nicholas. 5 Rake-lane, Liverpool.
{Waters, A. T. H., M.D. 29 Hope-street, Liverpool.
{Watherston, Rev. Alexander Law, M.A., F.R.A.S. The Grammar:
School, Hinckley, Leicestershire.
§Watherston, E. J. 12 Pall Mall East, London, 8.W.
§ Watkin, F. W. 46 Auriol-road, West Kensington, London, W.
{Watson, A. G., D.C.L. The School, Harrow, Middlesex.
t{ Watson, Rey. Archibald, D.D. The Manse, Dundee.
*Watson, C. J. 34 Smallbrook-street, Birmingham.
{ Watson, C. Knight, M.A. Society of Antiquaries, Burlington House,
London, W.
tWatson, Frederick Edwin. Thickthorne House, Cringleford,.
Norwich.
§ Watson, Deputy Surgeon-General G. A. 4 St. Margaret’s-terrace,
Cheltenham.
}Warson, Rey. H. W., D.Sc., F.R.S. Berkeswell Rectory, Coventry..
*Watson, Sir James. 9 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.
§ Watson, J. Beauchamp. Gilt Hall, Carlisle.
tWatson, John. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada. ~
}Warson, Joun Forszs, M.A., M.D., F.L.S. India Museum, Lon--
don,
} Watson, Joseph. Bensham-grove, near Gateshead-on-Tyne.
tWatson, R.S. 101 Pilgrim-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Laer Thomas Donald. 23 Cross-street, Finsbury, London,.
E.
tWatt, Alexander. 89 Hartington-road, Sefton Park, Liverpool.
{Watt, D. A. P. 284 Upper Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Watt, Robert B. E., F.R.G.S. Ashley-avenue, Belfast.
*Warts, Joun, B.A., D.Sc. Merton College, Oxford.
*Watts, Rey. Robert R. Stourpaine Vicarage, Blandford.
§Watts, William, F.G.S. Oldham Corporation Waterworks, Pie--
thorn, near Rochdale.
. “Warts, W. Marswatt, D.Sc. Giggleswick Grammar School, near
Settle.
. §Watts, W. W., M.A., F.G.S. Broseley, Shropshire.
Waud, Rey. 8. W., M.A., F.R.A.S., F.C.P.S. Rettenden, near
Wickford, Essex.
. {| Waugh, Edwin. New Brighton, near Liverpool.
. {Way, Samuel James. Adelaide, South Australia.
{Webb, George. 5 Tenterden-street, Bury, Lancashire.
. [Webb, Richard M. 72 Grand-parade, Brighton.
. *Wess, WILLIAM FREDERICK, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Newstead Abbey,
near Nottingham.
. §Webber, Major-General CO. E., C.B. 112 Belvedere-road, Lon=
don, 8.E.
. {Webster, John. Edgehill, Aberdeen.
. [ Webster, Richard, F.R.A.S. 6 Queen Victoria-street, London, E.C.
. *Webster, Sir Richard Everard, Q.C., M.P. Hornton Lodge,
Hornton-street, Kensington, London, 8. W.
. *Wedekind, Dr. Ludwig, Professor of Mathematics at Karlsruhe.
Karlsruhe.
. { Weightman, William Henry. Fern Lea, Seaforth, Liverpool,
. {Weiss, Henry, Westbourne-road, Birmingham.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 105:
Year of
Election.
1865.
1876.
1880.
1881.
1879.
1881.
1883.
1883.
1887.
1850.
1881.
1864.
1886,
1865,
1853.
1870.
1853.
1853.
1870.
1882.
1882.
1882.
1863.
1875.
1864.
1860.
1882.
1884,
1885.
1853.
1866,
1884.
1847.
1883.
1878.
1883.
1879.
1878.
1884.
1887.
1874.
1883,
{Welch, Christopher, M.A. United University Club, Pall Mall
East, London, 8. W.
*Wexpon, W.F.R.,M.A. 14 Brookside, Cambridge.
*Weldon, Mrs. 14 Brookside, Cambridge.
ftWellcome, Henry S, First Avenue Hotel, Holborn, London,
W.C
§Wetts, CHaRtEs A. Lewes; and 45 Springfield-road, Brighton,
tWells, Rey. Edward, B.A. West Dean Rectory, Salisbury.
{ Wells, G.I. J. Cressington Park, Liverpool.
{ Welsh, Miss. Girton College, Cambridge.
*Welton, T. A. Rectory House-grove, Clapham, London, S.W.
{ Wemyss, Alexander Watson, M.D. st. Andrews, N.B.
*Wenlock, The Right Hon. Lord. 8 Great Cumberland-place, Lon-
don, W.; and Escrick Park, Yorkshire.
Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon. Wentworth Castle, near
Barnsley, Yorkshire.
*Were, Anthony Berwick. Hensingham, Whitehaven, Cumberland.
§ Wertheimer, J., B.A., B.Sc., F.C.S. 32 Lyddon-terrace, Leeds.
tWesley, William Henry. Royal Astronomical Society, Burlington.
House, London, W.
tWest, Alfred. Holderness-road, Hull.
{West, Captain E. W. Bombay.
tWest, Leonard. Summergangs Cottage, Hull.
tWest, Stephen. Hessle Grange, near Hull.
*Westgarth, William. 10 Bolton-gardens, South Kensington, Lon-
don, S. W.
§ Westlake, Ernest, F.G.S. Fordingbridge, Hants.
Westlake, Richard. Portswood, Southampton.
{Westlake, W. C. Grosvenor House, Southampton.
{Westmacott, Percy. Whickham, Gateshead, Durham.
*Weston, Sir Joseph D. Dorset House, Clifton Down, Bristol.
{Westropp, W.H.S.,M.R.IL.A. Lisdoonvarna, Co. Clare.
}Westwoop, Joun O., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in the-
University of Oxford. Oxford.
§WETHERED, Epwarp, F.G.S. 5 Berkeley-place, Cheltenham.
{Wharton, KH. R., M.A. 4 Broad-street, Oxford.
*Wharton, Captain W. J. L., R.N., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Florys, Prince’s-.
road, Wimbledon Park, Surrey.
tWheatley, E. B. Cote Wall, Mirfield, Yorkshire.
aaa ag Charles C. 19 Park-crescent, Regent’s Park, London,
{Wheeler, Claude L. 123 Metcalfe-street, Montreal, Canada.
} Wheeler, Edmund, F.R.AS. 48 Tollington-road, Holloway, Lon-
don, N.
*Wheeler, George Brash. Elm Lodge, Wickham-road, Beckenham,
Kent.
*Wheeler, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Boston, Lincolnshire.
{Whelpton, Miss K. Newnham College, Cambridge.
*WuHIDBORNE, Rey. Grorce Ferris, M.A., F.G.S. Charante, Tor--
quay.
tWhipple, George Matthew, B.Sc., F.R.A.S. Kew Observatory,
Richmond, Surrey.
{Whischer, Arthur Henry. Dominion Lands Office, Winnipeg,
Canada.
§ Whitaker, EK. J. Burnley, Lancashire.
Whitaker, Henry,M.D. 33 High-street, Belfast.
{Whitaker, T. Helm View, Halifax.
106
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1859.
1886
1886.
1876.
1886.
1883.
1882.
1885.
1873.
1859.
1883.
1865.
1869,
1884,
1859.
1877.
1883.
1886,
1861.
1861.
1885.
1855.
1871.
1884,
1881.
1866.
1852.
1857.
1887.
1874.
1883.
1870.
1887.
1887.
1865.
1886.
1885.
1881.
1883.
1881.
1878.
1888.
1884.
1881.
1887.
1857.
1886
1879
1887
*WaitakerR, WILLIAM, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. Geological Survey
Office, Jermyn-street, London, 8.W.; and 33 East Park-
terrace, Southampton.
{Whitcombe, E. B. Borough Asylum, Winson Green, Birmingham.
{White, Alderman, J.P. Sir Harry’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
tWhite, Angus. LHasdale, Argyleshire.
White, A. Silva, Secretary to the Scottish Geographical Society,
Edinburgh.
{ White, Charles. 23 Alexandra-road, Southport.
{ White, Rev. George Cecil,M.A. St. Paul’s Vicarage, Southampton.
*White, J. Martin. Spring Grove, Dundee.
tWhite, John. Medina Docks, Cowes, Isle of Wight.
{Wauutte, Joun Forses. 311 Union-street, Aberdeen.
{ White, John Reed. Rossall School, near Fleetwood.
{White, Joseph. Regent’s-street, Nottingham.
tWhite, Laban. Blandford, Dorset.
tWhite, R. ‘Gazette’ Office, Montreal, Canada.
{tWhite, Thomas Henry. Tandragee, Ireland.
*White, William. 365 Euston-road, London, N.W.
*White, Mrs. 365 Euston-road, London, N.W.
§ White, William. 4 Mecklenburgh-square, London, W.C.
*Whitehead, John B. Ashday Lea, Rawtenstall, Manchester,
*Whitehead, Peter Ormerod. 25 Peel-avenue, Ardwick, Manchester.
t Whitehead, P. J. 6 Cross-street, Southport.
*Whitehouse, Wildeman W. O. 18 Salisbury-road, West Brighton.
tWhitelaw, Alexander. 1 Oakley-terrace, Glasgow.
§ Whiteley, Joseph. Hudderstield.
§ Whitfield, John, F.C.S. 113 Westborough, Scarborough.
{ Whitfield, Samuel. LEversfield, Hastnor-grove, Leamington.
tWhitla, Valentine. Beneden, Belfast.
Whitley, Rev. Charles Thomas, M.A., F.R.A.S. Bedlington,
Morpeth.
*Whitty, Rev. John Irwine, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. 92 Mortimer-
street, Herne Bay, Kent.
§Whitwell, William. Overdene, Saltburn-by-the-Sea.
*Whitwill, Mark. Redland House, Bristol.
tWhitworth, James. 88 Portland-street, Southport.
{WaurtrwortH, Rev. W. Auten, M.A. Glenthorne-road, Hammer-
smith, London, W.
§Wild, George. Bardsley Colliery, Ashton-under-Lyne.
*Wilde, Henry, F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley Edge, Manchester.
{Wiggin, Henry, M.P. Metchley Grange, Harborne, Birmingham,
tWigegin, Henry A. The Lea, Harborne, Birmingham.
{tWigglesworth, Alfred. Gordondale House, Aberdeen.
*Wigglesworth, James. New Parks House, Falsgrave, Scar-
borough.
tWigelesworth, Mrs. New Parks House, Falsgrave, Scarborough.
*Wigglesworth, Robert. Harrogate Club, Harrogate.
¢Wigham, John R. Albany House, Monkstown, Dublin.
tWigner, G. W. Plough-court, 37 Lombard-street, London, E.C,
{ Wilber, Charles Dana, LL.D. Grand Pacific Hotel, Chicago, U.S.A.
tWuserrorce, W. W. Fishergate, York.
§ Wilkinson, C. H. Slaithwaite, near Huddersfield.
{ Wilkinson, George. Temple Hill, Killiney, Co. Dublin.
*Wilkinson, J. H. Corporation-street, Birmingham.
{ Wilkinson, Joseph. York.
*Wilkinson, Thomas Read. The Polygon, Ardwick, Manchester.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 107
Year of
Election.
1872,
1869.
1859.
1872,
1861.
1887.
1883.
1861.
1875.
1883.
1857.
1887.
1870.
1875.
1879.
1886,
1883.
1869.
1883.
1883.
1877.
1865.
1883,
1850.
1857.
1876.
1863.
1876,
1883.
1882.
1859.
1886,
1886,
1885.
1878.
1859.
1876.
1874,
1850.
1876.
1863.
{ Wilkinson, William. 168 North-street, Brighton.
§ Wilks, George Augustus Frederick, M.D. Stanbury, Torquay.
tWillet, John, M.Inst.C.E. 35 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
{Wuterr, Henry, F.G.S. Arnold House, Brighton.
WituraMs, Cuartus James B., M.D., F.R.S. 47 Upper Brook-
street, Grosvenor-square, London, W.
*Williams, Charles Theodore, M.A., M.B. 47 Upper Bruok-street,
Grosvenor-square, London, W.
§ Williams, E, Leader, M.Inst.C E. The Oaks, Altrincham.
*Williams, Edward Starbuck. Ty-ar-y-graig, Swansea.
*Williams, Harry Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S. 1 Gorse-lane, Swansea.
atin, Rey. Herbert A., M.A. S.P.G. College, Trichinopoly,
ndia,
{ Williams, Rev. H. A. The Ridgeway, Wimbledon, Surrey.
TWilliams, Rev. James. Llanfairinghornwy, Holyhead.
§ Williams, J. Francis, Ph.D. Salem, New York, U.S.A.
§Wituiams, Jonn, F.C.S. 63 Warwick-gardens, Kensington,
London, W.
*Williams, M. B. Killay House, near Swansea.
tWitt1aMms, Matruew W., F.C.S. Queenwood College, Stock-
bridge, Hants.
§ Williams, Richard, J.P. Brunswick House, Wednesbury.
Williams, Robert, M.A. Bridehead, Dorset.
}Williams, R. Price. North Brow, Primrose Hill, London, N.W.
{Witt1aMs, Rey. SrrpHen. Stonyhurst College, Whalley, Blackburn.
§ Williams, T, H. 2 Chapel-walk, South Castle-street, Liverpool.
§ Williams, T. Howell. 125 Fortess-road, London, N.W.
*Wixiiams, W. Carterton, F.C.S. Firth College, Sheffield.
{Williams, W. M. Stonebridge Park, Willesden.
{Williamson, Miss. Sunnybank, Ripon, Yorkshire
*WILLIAMSON, ALEXANDER WILLIAM, Ph.D., LL.D., For. Sec. R.S.,
F.C.S., Corresponding Member of the French Academy. (GENE-
RAL TREASURER.) University College, London, W.C.
t Witriamson, Bensamrn, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Natural Phi-
losophy in the University of Dublin. Trinity College, Dublin.
{ Williamson, Rev. F.J. Ballantrae, Girvan, N.B. ;
tWilliamson, John. South Shields.
{ Williamson, Stephen. 19 James-street, Liverpool.
Witiramson, Witiiam C., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Botany
- in Owens College, Manchester. 4 Egerton-road, Fallowfield,
Manchester.
tWittis, T. W. 51 Stanley-street, Southport.
{ Willmore, Charles. Queenwood College, near Stockbridge, Hants,
*Wills, The Hon. Sir Alfred. Clive House, Esher, Surrey.
{Wills A. W. Wylde Green, Erdington, Birmingham.
{Wilson, Alexander B. Holywood, Belfast.
{ Wilson, Alexander H. 2 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
t Wilson, Professor Alexander 8., M.A., B.Sc. 124 Bothwell-street,
Glasgow.
t Wilson, Alexander Stephen. North Kinmundy, Summerhill, by
Aberdeen.
tWilson, Dr. Andrew. 118 Gilmore-place, Edinburgh.
tWiutson, Colonel Sir C. W., R.E., K.0.B., K.C.M.G., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Mountjoy Barracks, Phoenix Park, Dublin.
{ Wilson, Dr. Daniel. Toronto, Upper Canada.
Wilson, David. 124 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.
t Wilson, Frederic R. Alnwick, Northumberland.
108
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1847,
1885.
1875.
1874.
1863,
1883.
1879.
1885.
1886.
1857.
1865.
1884.
1858.
1879.
1876.
1847.
1885,
1861.
1867.
1887.
1871.
186].
1877.
1886.
1887.
1886,
1887.
1863.
1883,
1884.
1881.
1883.
1863.
1861.
1888.
1875.
1878.
1883.
1881.
1885.
1886.
1883.
1883.
1864,
*Wilson, Frederick. 73 Newman-street, Oxford-street, London, W.
t Wilson, Brigade-Surgeon G. A. East India United Service Club,.
St. James’s-square, London, S. W.
t Wilson, George Fergusson, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.L.S. Heatherbank,
Weybridge Heath, Surrey.
*Wilson, George Orr. Dunardagh, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
Wilson, George W. Heron Hill, Hawick, N.B.
*Wilson, Henry, M.A. Eastnor, Malvern Link, Worcestershire.
t Wilson, Henry J. 255 Pitsmoor-road, Sheffield.
{Wilson, J. Dove, LL.D. 17 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.
} Wilson, J. E. B. Woodslee, Wimbledon, Surrey.
} Wilson, James Moncrieff. Queen Insurance Company, Liverpool.
}Wutson, Rev. James M., M.A.,F.G.S. The College, Clifton, Bristol.
t{ Wilson, James 8. Grant. H.M. Geological Survey, Sheriff Court-
buildings, Edinburgh.
*Wilson, John. Seacroft Hall, near Leeds.
Wuson, Jonny, F.R.S.E., F.G.8., Professor of Agriculture in the
University of Edinburgh. The University, Edinburgh.
t{ Wilson, John Wycliffe. Eastbourne, East Bank-road, Sheffield.
f{ Wilson, R. W. R. St. Stephen’s Club, Westminster, S. W.
*Wilson, Rey. Sumner. Preston Candover Vicarage, Basingstoke.
{Wilson, T. Rivers Lodge, Harpenden, Hertfordshire.
{ Wilson, Thos. Bright. 4 Hope View, Fallowfield, Manchester.
Wilson, Rev. William. Free St. Paul’s, Dundee.
§ Wilson, W., jun. Hillock, Terpersie, by Alford, Aberdeenshire.
*Wilson, William E. Daramona House, Rathowen, Ireland.
* WILTSHIRE, Rey. THomas, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.R.A.S., Assistant
Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in King’s College, London.
25 Granville-park, Lewisham, London, S.E.
{Windeatt, T. W. Dart View, Totnes.
§Windle, Bertram C. A. 195 Church Hill-road, Handsworth, Bir-
mingham.
§Windsor, William Tessimond. Sandiway, Ashton-on-Mersey.
{ Winter, George W. 55 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
§ Winton, Colonel Sir F. de, K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S. 28 Wynnstay-
gardens, Kensington, London, W.
*Winwoop, Rey. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. 11 Cavendish-crescent, Bath.
§Wolfenden, Samuel. Cowley Hill, St. Helen’s, Lancashire.
tWomack, Frederick, Lecturer on Physics and Applied Mathematics.
at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. 68 Abbey-road, London, N.W,
*Wood, Alfred John. 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey.
§Wood, Mrs. A. J. 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey.
*Wood, Collingwood L. Freeland, Forgandenny, N.B.
*Wood, Edward T. Blackhurst, Brinscall, Chorley, Lancashire.
t Wood, Miss Emily F. Egerton Lodge, near Bolton, Lancashire.
*Wood, George B., M.D. 1117 Arch-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A,
*Wood, George William Rayner. Singleton, Manchester.
§Woop, H. Trueman, M.A. Society of Arts, John-street, Adelphi,
London, W.C.
*Woop, JAmEs, LL.D. Grove House, Scarisbrick-street, Southport.
§Wood, John, B.A., F.R.A.S. Wharfedale College, Boston Spa,,
Yorkshire.
*Wood, J. H. Woodbine Lodge, Scarisbrick New-road, Southport.
tWood, Rey. Joseph. Carpenter-road, Birmingham.
§Wood, Mrs. Mary. Ellison-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{ Wood, P. F. Ardwick Lodge, Park-avenue, Southport.
{Wood, Richard, M.D. Driffield, Yorkshire.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 109
Year of
Election.
1871.
1850,
1865.
1872,
1863.
1870.
1884.
1883.
1884.
1884.
1850.
1865.
1871.
1872.
‘1869.
1883.
‘1887.
1886.
1866.
1870.
1881.
1884.
1877.
1883,
1856.
1874.
1878.
1863.
1855.
1856.
1884.
1879.
1883,
{Wood, Provost T. Barleyfield, Portobello, Edinburgh.
tWood, Rev. Walter. Elie, Fife.
Wood, William. Edge-lane, Liverpool.
*Wood, William, M.D. 99 Harley-street, London, W.
§Wood, William Robert. Carlisle House, Brighton.
*Wood, Rev. William Spicer, M.A., D.D. Higham, Rochester.
*WoopaLt, JoHN Woopat., M.A., F.G.S. St. Nicholas House,
Scarborough,
f{Woodburn, Thomas, Rock Ferry, Liverpool.
f{Woodbury, C. J. H. 31 Devonshire-street, Boston, U.S.A,
t{ Woodcock, Herbert S. The Elms, Wigan.
tWoodeock T., B.A. The Old Hall School, Wellington, Shropshire,
tWoodd, Arthur B. Woodlands, Hampstead, London, N.W.
*Woodd, Charles H. L., F.G.S. Roslyn House, Hampstead, London,
N.W,
tWoodhill, J. C. Pakenham House, Charlotte-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
t Woodiwis James. 51 Back George-street, Manchester.
{Woodman, James. 26 Albany-villas, Hove, Sussex.
t Woodman, William Robert, M.D. Ford House, Exeter.
*Woops, Epwarp, M.Inst.C.E. 68 Victoria-street, Westminster,
London, S.W.
t Woods, Dr. G. A., F.R.S.E., F.R.M.S. Carlton House, 57 Hoghton-
street, Southport.
Woops, SamvuEL. 1 Drapers-gardens, Throgmorton-street, London,
E.C
*Woodward, Arthur Smith, F.G.S., F.L.S. 1838 King’s-road, Chel-
sea, London, 8. W.
*Woopwarp, C. J., B.Sc. 97 Harborne-road, Birmingham,
§ Woodward, Harry Page, F.G.S. 129 Beaufort-street, London, S.W.
}Woopwarp, Henry, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the Depart-
ment of Geology, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-
road, London, 8.W.
TWoopwarp, Horace B., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
London, S. W.
tWooler, W. A. Sadberge Hall, Darlington.
*Woolcock, Henry. Rickerby House, St. Bees.
tWoollcombe, Surgeon-Major Robert W. 14 Acre-place, Stoke,
Devonport.
*Woolley, George Stephen. 69 Market-street, Manchester.
Woolley, Thomas Smith, jun. South Collingham, Newark.
Worcester, The Right Rev. Henry Purtporr, D.D., Lord Bishop
of. Hartlebury Castle, Kidderminster.
t Workman, Charles. Ceara, Windsor, Belfast.
ome Richard, M.A., D.Sc. Roydon, near Ware, Hertford-
shire.
*Worsley, Philip J. Rodney Lodge, Clifton, Bristol.
*Worthington, Rev. Alfred William, B.A. Stourbridge, Worcester-
shire.
Worthington, Archibald. Whitchurch, Salop.
Worthington, James. Sale Hall, Ashton-on-Mersey.
{Worthy, George S. 2 Arlington-terrace, Mornington-crescent,
Hampstead-road, London, N. W.
tWragge, Edmund. 109 Wellesley-street, Toronto, Canada.
hha ae Francis, 34 Holland Villas-road, Kensington, London,
*Wricht, Rey. Arthur, M.A, Queen’s College, Cambridge.
110
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1883. *Wright, Rev. Benjamin, M.A. The Rectory, Darlaston.
1871.
1861.
1857.
1886.
1884.
1876.
1874.
1865.
1884.
1876.
1871.
1887.
1867.
1883.
1885.
1871.
1862.
1875.
1865.
1883.
1867.
1887.
1884.
1879.
1877.
1879.
1884.
1886.
1884,
1884,
1876.
1885.
1886.
1885.
1887.
1868.
1876.
1871.
tWrieut, C. R. A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry
in St. Mary's Hospital Medical School, Paddington, London, W..
*Wright, E. Abbot. Castle Park, Frodsham, Cheshire.
}Werreut, E. Percevat, M.A., M.D., F.L.S., M.R.LA., Professor
of Botany, and Director of the Museum, Dublin University.
5 Trinity College, Dublin.
t}Wright, Frederick William. 4 Full-street, Derby.
{Wright, Harrison. Wilkes’ Barré,; Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
Wright, James, 114 John-street, Glasgow.
tWright, Joseph. Cliftonville, Belfast.
t{Wright, J.S. 168 Brearley-street West, Birmingham.
t{Wright, Professor R. Ramsay, M.A., B.Sc. University College,
Toronto, Canada.
Wricut, T.G.,M.D. Milnes House, Wakefield.
{ Wright, William. 31 Queen Mary-avenue, Glasgow.
{ Wrightson, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S, Norton Hall, Stockton-
on-Tees.
§ Wrigley, Rev. Dr., M.A., M.D., F.R.A.S. 15 Gauden-road, Lon=-
don, S.W.
Wyld, James, F.R.G.S. Charing Cross, London, W.C.
{Wylie, Andrew. Prinlaws, Fifeshire.
t{Wyllie, Andrew. 10 Park-road, Southport.
t{Wyness, James D., M.D. 53 School-hill, Aberdeen.
{Wynn, Mrs. Williams. Cefn, St. Asaph.
{Wrwnz, ArtauR Beevor, F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 14
Hume-street, Dublin.
{Yabbicom, Thomas Henry. 37 White Ladies-road, Clifton, Bristol.
*Yarborough, George Cook. Camp’s Mount, Doncaster.
tYates, Edwin. Stonebury, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Yates, James. Public Library, Leeds.
tYeaman, James. Dundee.
§ Yeats, Dr. Chepstow.
{Yee, Fung, Secretary to the Chinese Legation, 49 Portland-place,
London, W.
Yeomans, John. Upperthorpe, Sheffield.
tYonge, Rev. Duke. Puslinch, Yealmpton, Devon.
*Yorx, His Grace the Archbishop of, D.D., F.R.S. The Palace,
Bishopthorpe, Yorkshire.
§ York, Frederick. 87 Lancaster-road, Notting Hill, London, W.
*Youne, A. H., M.B., F.R.C.S., Professor of Anatomy in Owens:
College, Manchester.
tYoung, Frederick. 5 Queensberry-place, London, S.W.
{Young, Professor George Paxton. 121 Bloor-street, Toronto, Canada.
{Youne, Joun, M.D., Professor of Natural History in the University
of Glasgow. 38 Cecil-street, Hillhead, Glasgow.
§Young, R. Bruce. 8 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
§Young, R. Fisher. New Barnet, Herts.
*Youne Sypney, D.Sc.. University College, Bristol.
§Young, Sydney. 29 Mark-lane, London, E.C.
{Youngs, John. Richmond Hill, Norwich.
{Yuille, Andrew. 7 Sardinia-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
{Yu.e, Colonel Henry, C.B., F.R.G.S, 3 Penywern-road, South
Kensington, London, S.W.
Year of
Election
1871.
1887.
1881.
1887.
1870.
1887.
1880.
1887.
1887.
1884.
1884,
1887.
1864,
1887.
1887,
1887.
1861.
1887.
1882.
1855.
1871.
1881.
1873.
1880.
1870.
1876.
1866.
1862.
1864,
1872.
1870.
1882.
1876.
1874.
1886.
111
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
HIS IMPERIAL MAJESTY tae EMPEROR or tux BRAZILS.
Cleveland Abbe. Weather Bureau of the Army Signal Oftice, Wash--
ington, U.S.A.
Professor G. F. Barker. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
United States.
Professor de Bary. Strasburg.
Professor Van Beneden, LL.D. Louvain, Belgium,
Professor Dr. Bernthsen. Heidelberg, Germany.
Professor Ludwig Boltzmann. Halbirtgasse, 1, Griz, Austria.
His Excellency R. Bonghi. Rome.
Professor Lewis Boss. Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York,.
United States.
Professor H. P. Bowditch, M.D. Boston, Massachusetts, United’
States.
aaron George J. Brush. Yale College, New Haven, United’
tates.
Professor J. W, Bruhl. Freiburg.
Dr. H. D. Buys-Ballot, Superintendent of the Royal Meteorological
Institute of the Netherlands. Utrecht, Holland.
Professor G. Capellini. Royal University of Bologna.
Professor J. B. Carnoy. Louvain.
H. Caro. Mannheim.
Dr. Carus. Leipzig.
F. W. Clarke. United States Geological Survey, Washington, U.S.A.
Dr. R. Clausius, Professor of Physics. The University, Bonn.
Dr. Ferdinand Cohn. Breslau, Prussia.
Professor Dr. Colding. Copenhagen.
Professor Josiah P. Cooke. Harvard University, United States.
Professor Guido Cora. 74 Corso Vittorio Emanuele, Turin.
Professor Cornu. L’Ecole Polytechnique, Paris.
J. M. Crafts, M.D. -L’Kcole des Mines, Paris.
Professor Luigi Cremona. The University, Rome.
Dr. Geheimrath von Dechen. Bonn.
pee: Delfts, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Heidel-
erg.
M. Des Cloizeaux. Paris. ;
Professor G. Dewalque. Liége, Belgium.
Dr. Anton Dohrn. Naples.
Dr. Pale Bois-Reymond, Professor of Physiology. The University,.
Berlin.
Professor Alberto Eccher. Florence.
Dr. W. Feddersen. Leipzig.
Dr. Otto Finsch. Bremen.
112
Year
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS,
of
Election.
1887.
1872.
1856.
1887.
1881,
1866,
1861.
1884.
1884.
1870.
1876.
Professor R. Fittig. Strasburg.
W. de Fonvielle. 50 Rue des Abbesses, Paris.
Professor E. Frémy. L’Institut, Paris.
Dr. Anton Fritsch. Prague.
C. M. Gariel, Secretary of the French Association for the Advance-
ment of Science. 4 Rue Antoine Dubois, Paris.
Dr. Gaudry. Paris.
Dr. Geinitz, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology. Dresden.
Professor J. Willard Gibbs. Yale College, New Haven, United
States.
Professor Wolcott Gibbs. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, United States.
Governor Gilpin. Colorado, United States.
Dr. Benjamin A. Gould. Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States.
1852. Professor Asa Gray, LL.D., D.C.L. Harvard University, Cambridge,
1884.
1862.
1876.
1881,
1872.
1881.
1864.
1887.
1877.
1872.
1887.
1887.
1881.
1887.
1884.
1867.
1876.
1862,
1881.
1887,
1876.
1877.
1862.
1884.
1873.
1874.
1856,
1887.
1887.
1877.
1887.
Massachusetts, United States.
Major A. W. Greely. Washington, United States.
Dr. D. Bierens de Haan, Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences,
Amsterdam. Leiden, Holland.
Professor Ernst Haeckel. Jena.
Dr. Edwin H. Hall. Baltimore, United States.
Professor James Hall. Albany, State of New York.
M. Halphen. 21 Rue Ste. Anne, Paris.
M. Hébert, Professor of Geology in the Sorbonne, Paris.
Fr. von Hefner-Alteneck. Berlin.
Professor H. L. F. von Helmholtz. Berlin,
J. E. Hilgard, Assist.-Supt. U.S. Coast Survey. Washington, United
States.
Professor W. His. Leipzig.
S. Dana Horton. New York.
Dr. A. A. W. Hubrecht. Leiden.
Dr. Oliver W. Huntington. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, United States.
Professor C. Loring Jackson. Harvard University, Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts, United States.
Dr. Janssen, LL.D. 21 Rue Labat (18° Arrondissement), Paris,
Dr. W. J. Janssen. Davos-Doerfli, Graubunden, Switzerland.
Charles Jessen, Med. et Phil. Dr. Kastanienallee, 69, Berlin.
W. Woolsey Johnson, Professor of Mathematics in the United States
Naval Academy. Annapolis, United States.
Professor C. Julin. Liége.
Dr. Giuseppe Jung. 7 Via Principe Umberto, Milan.
M. Akin Karoly. 22Elisabeth-strasse, Vienna.
Aug. Kekulé, Professor of Chemistry. Bonn.
Professor Dairoku Kikuchi, M.A. Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan.
Dr. Felix Mein. The University, Leipzig.
Dr. Knoblauch. Halle, Germany.
Professor A. Kélliker. Wurzburg, Bavaria.
Dr. Arthur Konig. The University, Berlin.
Professor Krause. Gdttingen.
Dr. Hugo Kronecker, Professor of Physiology. 35 Dorotheen-strasse,
Berlin.
Lieutenant R. Kund. German African Society, Berlin.
1887. Professor A. Ladenburg Kiel.
1887
1882
1887
. Professor J. W. Langley. Michigan, United States
. Professor 8S. P. Langley. Alleghany, United States.
. Professor Count von Laubach. Gottingen.
Year of
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 115
Election.
1856.
1887.
1872.
1887.
1887.
1885.
1877.
1887.
1887.
1871.
1871.
1869.
1887.
1867.
1881.
1867.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1884.
1848.
1887.
1855.
1877.
1864.
1887.
1866.
1864,
1884.
1869,
1887.
1887.
1856.
1857.
1884.
1887.
1887.
1886.
1887.
1868.
1882.
1884,
Laurent-Guillaume De Koninck, M.D., Professor of Chemistry and
Paleeontology in the University of Liége, Belgium.
Dr. Leeds, Professor of Chemistry at the Stevens Institute, Hoboken,
New Jersey, United States.
M. Georges Lemoine. 76 Rue d’Assas, Paris.
H. Carvill Lewis, M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Mineralogy in the
Academy of Natural Science, Philadelphia, United States.
Professor A. Lieben. Vienna.
Dr. F. Lindemann, Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Konigsberg.
Dr. M. Lindemann, Hon. Sec. of the Bremen Geographical Society,
Bremen.
Professor G. Lippmann. Paris.
Dr. Georg Lunge. Zurich.
Professor Jacob Liroth. The University, Freiburg, Germany.
Dr. Liitken. Copenhagen.
Professor C, 8. Lyman. Yale College, New Haven, United States.
Dr. Henry C. McCook. Philadelphia, United States.
Professor Mannheim. Rue de la Pompe, 11, Passy, Paris.
Professor O, C. Marsh. Yale College, New Haven, United States.
Professor Ch. Martins, Director of the Jardin des Plantes. Montpellier,
France.
Dr. C. A. Martius. Berlin.
Professor D. Mendeléef. St. Petersburg.
Professor N. Menschutkin. St. Petersburg.
Professor Lothar Meyer. ‘Tiibingen.
Albert A. Michelson. Cleveland, Ohio, United States.
Professor J. Milne-Edwards. Paris,
Dr. Charles Sedgwick Minot. Boston, Massachusetts, United States.
M.VAbbé Motyno. Paris. 5
Professor V. L. Moissenet. L’Ecole des Mines, Paris.
Dr. Arnold Moritz. The University, Dorpat, Russia.
E. 8. Morse. Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Massachusetts,
United States.
Chevalier C. Negri, President of the Italian Geographical Society, ©
Turin, Italy.
Herr Neumayer. Deutsche Seewarte, Hamburg.
Professor Simon Newcomb. ‘Washington, United States.
Professor H. A. Newton. Yale College, New Haven, United
States.
Professor Noelting. Miihlhausen, Elsass,
Dr. Pauli. Héchst-on-Main, Germany.
M. E. Peligot, Memb. de l'Institut, Paris.
Gustave Plarr, D.Sc. 22 Hadlow-road, Tunbridge, Kent.
Major J. W. Powell, Director of the Geological Survey of the
United States. Washington, United States.
Professor W. Preyer. Jena.
N. Pringsheim. Berlin.
Professor Putnam, Secretary of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science. Harvard University, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, United States.
Professor G. Quincke. Heidelberg.
L. Radlkofer, Professor of Botany in the University of Munich.
Professor G. vom Rath. Bonn.
Captain P. H. Ray. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts,
United States.
x
114
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1886.
1872.
1873.
1887.
1866.
1881.
1887.
1857.
1857.
1885.
1874.
1846,
1872.
1873.
1861.
1849,
1876,
1887.
1866.
1881.
1881.
1871.
1870,
1852.
1884,
1864.
1887,
1887.
1887.
1886.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1881.
1874.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1876.
1887.
1887.
Rey. A. Renard. Royal Museum, Brussels.
Professor Victor von Richter. St. Petersburg.
Baron von Richthofen. The University, Leipzig.
Dr. C. V. Riley. Washington, United States.
F. Romer, Ph.D., Professor of Geology and Paleontology in the
University of Breslau. Breslau, Prussia.
Professor Henry A. Rowland. Baltimore, United States.
M. le Marquis de Saporta. Aix-en-Provence, Bouches du Rhone.
Professor Robert Schlagintweit. Giessen.
Baron Herman de Schlagintweit-Sakiinliinski. Jaegersberg Castle,
near Forchheim, Bavaria.
Dr. Ernst Schréder. Karlsruhe, Baden.
Dr. G. Schweinfurth. Cairo.
Baron de Selys-Longchamps. Liége, Belgium.
Professor Carl Semper. Wurzburg, Bavaria,
Dr. A. Shafarik. Prague.
Dr. Werner Siemens. Berlin.
Dr. Siljestrém. Stockholm.
Professor R. D. Silva. L’Ecole Centrale, Paris.
Ernest Solvay. Brussels.
Professor Steenstrup. Copenhagen.
Dr. Cyparissos Stephanos. 28 Rue del Arbaléte, Paris.
Professor Sturm. Miinster, Westphalia.
Dr. Joseph Szab6. Pesth, Hungary.
Professor Tchebichef, Membre de l’Académie de St. Pétersbourg.
M. Pierre de Tchihatchef, Corresponding Member of the Institute of
France. 1 Piazza degli Zuaai, Florence.
Professor Robert H. Thurston. Sibley College, Cornell University,
Ithaca, New York, United States.
Dr. Otto Torell, Professor of Geology in the University of Lund,
Sweden.
Dr. T. M. Treub. Java.
Professor John Trowbridge. Harvard University, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, United States.
Arminius Vambéry, Professor of Oriental Languages in the University
of Pesth, Hungary.
Professor John Vilanova. Madrid.
M. Jules Vuylsteke. 80 Rue de Lille, Menin, Belgium,
Professor H. F. Weber. Zurich,
Professor L. Weber. Breslau.
Professor August Weismann. Freiburg.
Dr. H. C. White. Athens, Georgia, United States.
Professor H. M. Whitney. Beloit College, Wisconsin, United
States.
Professor Wiedemann. Leipzig.
Professor G. Wiedemann. Leipzig.
Professor R. Wiedersheim. Freiburg.
Professor J. Wislicenus. Leipzig.
Dr. Otto Witt. Berlin.
Dr. Ludwig H. Wolf. Leipzig.
Professor Adolph Willner. Aix-la-Chapelle,
Professor C. A. Young. Princeton College, United States.
Professor F. Zirkel. Leipzig.
5
Ll
‘LIST OF SOCIETIES AND
PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS
TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED.
GREAT BRITAIN
Admiralty, Library of the.
Anthropological Institute.
Arts, Society of.
Asiatic Society (Royal).
Astronomical Society (Royal).
Belfast, Queen’s College.
Birmingham, Midland Institute.
Bristol Philosophical Institution.
Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Cardiff, University College of South
Wales.
Chemical Society.
Civil Engineers, Institution of.
Cornwall, Royal Geological Society
of.
Dublin, Royal College of Surgeons in |
Treland.
, Royal Geological Society of
Ireland.
——,, Royal Irish Academy.
, Royal Society of. _
Dundee, University College.
East India Library.
Edinburgh, Royal Society of.
——, Royal Medical Society of.
——., Scottish Society of Arts.
Exeter, Albert Memorial Museum.
Geographical Society (Royal).
Geological Society.
Geology, Museum of Practical.
Glasgow Philosophical Society.
, Institution of Engineersand Ship-
builders in Scotland.
Greenwich, Royal Observatory.
Kew Observatory.
Leeds, Mechanics’ Institute.
AND IRELAND.
Leeds, Philosophical and Literary So-
ciety of.
Linnean Society.
Liverpool, Free Public Library and
Museum.
, Royal Institution.
London Institution.
Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society.
— , Mechanics’ Institute.
Mechanical Engineers, Institution of.
Meteorological Office.
Meteorological Society (Royal).
Newcastle-upon-Tyne Literary and
Philosophical Society.
Norwich, The Free Library.
Nottingham, The Free Library.
Oxford, Ashmolean Society.
——., Radcliffe Observatory.
Plymouth Institution.
Physicians, Royal College of.
Royal Engineers’ Institute, Chatham.
Royal Institution.
Royal Society.
Royal Statistical Society.
Salford, Royal Museum and Library.
Sheffield, Firth College.
Southampton, Hartley Institution.
Stonyhurst College Observatory.
Surgeons, Royal College of.
United Service Institution.
University College.
War Office, Library of the.
Wales (South), Royal Institution of.
Yorkshire Philosophical Society.
Zoological Society.
EUROPE.
ln Der Kaiserlichen Aka- | Dorpat, Russia... University Library,
; demie der Wissen- | Frankfort. ...... Natural History So-
schaften. ciety.
| oe Royal Academy of | Geneva ......... Natural History So-
Sciences. ciety.
0) ee University Library. Gottingen ...... University Library.
Brussels ......... Royal Academy of | Halle ............ Leopoldinisch-
Sciences. Carolinische
Charkow ......... University Library. Akademie.
Goimbra ......... Meteorological Ob- | Harlem ......... Société Hollandaise
servatory. des Sciences.
Copenhagen ...Royal Society of | Heidelberg ...... University Library.
Sciences. Helsingfors ...... University Library.
Kasan, Russia ... University Library. IPAOIS: -conseeadeted Royal Academy of
Wiel’ xe ss-pck 3s Royal Observatory. Sciences.
I ateNeatee eee age University Library. | —— _ .......-..- School of Mines.
Lausanne......... The Academy. Palltiovaivecsca-- Imperial Observatory.
Leyden ......... University Library. ROM eGSs renee ses Accademiadei Lincei.
TH6G O50. :. 5.057. University Library. | —— ............ Collegio Romano,
Tishon'...-2. 8... Academia Real des | —— .........-.- Italian Geographical
Sciences. Society.
VIVIAN oe orcecces te The Institute. ——eseeeeeeees Italian Society of
Modena ......... Royal Academy. Sciences.
Moscow .-..-..... Society of Naturalists. | St. Petersburg . University Library.
Sensor casa University Library. ssseeeeeeeeeLnperial Observatory.
Wika eke University Library. Stockholm ...... Royal Academy.
Naples’.<..:...-.-. Royal Academy of | Turin ............ Royal Academy of
Sciences. Sciences.
Nicolaieff......... University Library. techy; ve~ 92-ens University Library.
LEAR epesaseer he Association Frangaise| Vienna............ The Imperial Library.
pour l’Avancement | ——_ .......e+00 Central Austalt fir
des Sciences. Meteorologie und
eo Geographical Society. Erdmagnetismus.
———deceeeeeeeee Geological Society. | Zurich............ General Swiss Society.
ASIA.
Alora, dated ded The College. | Calcutta ......... Hindoo College.
Bombay v..esesnss Elphinstone Institu- | —— ..........+. Hoogly College.
tion. See Medical College.
=) Seadaneas ts Grant Medical Col- | Madras............ The Observatory.
lege, | nen e wens University Library.
Calcutta ......... Asiatic Society. ,
AFRICA.
Cape of Good Hope. . . The Royal Observatory.
AMERICA.
Albany 2222.28: The Institute. Philadelphia...American Medical As-
Boston...........- American Academy of sociation.
Arts and Sciences. | —— ........--. American Philosophical
California ...... The University. Society.
Cambridge ...... Harvard University | —— ............ Franklin Institute.
Library. Toronto ...... The Observatory.
Manitoba ......... Historical and Scien- | Washington ...The Naval Observatory.
tific Society. es oagoehee Smithsonian Institution.
Montreal ......... McGill College. ——— sagceiev ever United States Geolo-
New Yorn -...<2 Lyceum of Natural gical Survey of the
History. Territories.
AUSTRALIA.
Adelaide. . . . The Colonial Government.
Victoria . . . . The Colonial Government.
NEW ZEALAND.
Canterbury Museum.
Spottiswoode 5 Co., Printers, New-street Square, London.
ALBEMARLE STREET, LONDON.
July, 1887,
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14 LIST OF WORKS
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18 LIST OF WORKS
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20 LIST OF WORKS
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MARKHAM (Mrs.). History of England. From the First Inva-
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History of France. From the Conquest of Gaul by
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MARSH (G. P.). Student's Manual of the English Language.
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MARTIN (Sir Tuxoporz). Life of Lord Lyndhurst. With
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MEREDITH (Mrs. Cuartrs). Notes and Sketches of New South
Wales. Post 8vo. 2s.
oth a eet ee eee
PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY. 21
MEXICO. [See Brocxirenurst Rvuxton.]
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MOORE (Tuomas). Life and Letters of Lord Byron. [See Byron. ]
MOTLEY (J. 1L.). History of the United Netherlands: from the
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——_—————— Life and Death of John of Barneveld.
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MUNRO’S (Generat) Life and Letters. By Rev. G. R. Guzra.
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MURRAY (A. §.). A History of Greek Sculpture from th
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MURRAY’S MAGAZINE. A New Home and Colonial Monthly
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[TTL Ln nnn nn nn nn ee eo
22 LIST OF WORKS
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(Gunz. Sir Gxrorcre T.). Passages in his Early
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——_— (Sir Wm.). English Battles and Sieges of the Peninsular
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NAPOLEON ar Fontarnesteau AND Epa. Journals. Notes
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NEW TESTAMENT. With Short Explanatory Commentary.
By Arcupgacon Cuurton, M.A., and the Bishop or St, Davin’s.
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NEWTH (Samvzt). First Book of Natural Philosophy ; an Intro-
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Elements of Mechanics, including Hydrostatics,
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Mathematical Examples. A Graduated Series
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NORDHOFF (Cuas.). Communistic Societies of the United
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Containing Proceedings during its First Session, 1640, Edited, with
a Memoir, by A. H. A. Hamilton. Crown Svo. 9s,
ORNSBY (Pror. R.). Memoirs of J. Hope Scott, Q.C. (of
Abbotsford). With Selections from his Correspondence. 2 vols. 8yo. 24s.
OTTER (R. H.). Winters Abroad: Some Information respecting
Places visited by the Author on account of his Health. Intended for
the Use and Guidance of Invalids. 7s. 6d.
OVID LESSONS. [See Eron. ]
OWEN (Lrevr.-Cot.). Principles and Practice of Modern Artillery,
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Artillery in Warfare, With Illustrations, 8vo. 15s.
OXENHAM (Rev. W.). English Notes for Latin Elegiacs ; with
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PAGET (Lorp Grorcr), The Light Cavalry Brigade in the
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PALGRAVE (R. H. 1). Local Taxation of Great Britain and
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PALLISER (Mrs.). Mottoes for Monuments, or Epitaphs selected
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PANKHURST (E. A.). The Wisdom of Edmund Burke: Being
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24 LIST OF WORKS
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[See Hzrovortvs. |
REED (Sir E. J.) Iron-Clad Ships; their Qualities, Performances,
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ROBINSON (Rev. Dr.). Biblical Researches in Palestine and the
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ROME (History or). [See Grsson—LippeLr—Suira—Stvpens’. |
ROMILLY (Hueu H.). The Western Pacific and New Guinea.
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RUMBOLD (Sir Horace). The Great Silver River: Notes of a
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a a a a
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SELBORNE (Lorn). Notes on some Passages in the Liturgical
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SHADOWS OF A SICK ROOM. Preface by Canon Lippon.
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SHAH OF PERSIA’S Diary during his Tour through Europe in
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SHAW (T. B.). Manual of English Literature. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
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nn 3) 7272353332009 ssssSISIISIII_—II I,
26 LIST OF WORKS
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Cuaracter. A Book of Noble Characteristics, Post 8vo. 6s.
Turirt. A Book of Domestic Counsel. Post 8vo. 63.
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SMITH (Dr. Grorex) Student’s Manual of the Geography of British
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Life of John Wilson, D.D. (Bombay), Missionary and
Philanthropist. Portrait. Post 8vo. 9s.
Life of Wm. Carey, D.D., 1761—1834. Shoemaker and
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(Puiuip). History of the Ancient World, from the Creation
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SMITH’S (Dr. Wu.) DICTIONARIES :—
DiotronaRyY oF THE BrsiE; its Antiquities, Biography,
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SmatteR Bisie Diotionary. Illustrations. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
Curist1an Anrtiquitixs. Comprising the History, Insti-
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CurisTIAN Brograpuy, Literature, Sxcots, anp Doctrines;
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Vols. I. II. & III. 31s.6d.each. (To be completed in 4 Vols.)
GREEK AND RomAN Antiquitizs. Illustrations. Med. 8vo. 28s.
GrrEk AnD Roman BirograpHy AND Myrtnotoey. Illustrations.
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Greek AND Roman GnograpHy. 2 Vols, Illustrations,
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Atuas oF AnorentT GxrogRAPHY—BIsLICAL AND CLASSIOAL.
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Cuasstoan Dictionary or Myruonoay, Bro@RAPHY, AND
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Smatter Cuassroan Dior. Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d.
Smatuer Dicorionary or GREEK AND RoMAN ANTIQUITIES.
Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
Compiets Larin-Enerish Dictionary. With Tables of the
Roman Calendar, Measures, Weights,and Money. 8vo. 21s.
SmatteR Larin-Enerish Dictionary. New and thoroughly
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Copious anp CriticaL Eneuisn-Latin Diotionary. 8vo. 21s.
SmaLieR Enetisn-Latin Dictionary. 12mo. 7s. 6d.
PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY. 27
SMITH’S (Dr. Wu.) ENGLISH COURSE :—
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Primary Eneuish Grammar, for Elementary Schools, with
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SMITH’S (Dx. Wu.) FRENCH COURSE :—
Frenon Principia. Part I. A First Course, containing a
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Apprnpix To Frencw Parinorpra. Part I. Containing ad-
ditional Exercises, with Examination Papers. 12mo. 2s, 6d.
Frenon Prinorpra. Part Il. A Reading Book, containing
Fables, Stories, and Anecdotes, Natural History, and Scenes from the
History of France. With Grammatical Questions, Notes and copious
Etymological Dictionary. 12mo. 4s. 6d.
Frenon Princrpra. Part III. Prose Composition, containing
Hints on Translation of English into French, the Principal Rules of
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SmatuerR Grammar oF THE FRenoH Language. Abridged
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SMITH’S (Dz. Wu.) GERMAN COURSE :—
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Germany. With Questions, Notes, and Dictionary, 12mo. 3s. 6d.
Practica, German Grammar. Post 8vo. 3s. 6d.
SMITH’S (Dr. Wu.) ITALIAN COURSE :—
Iranian Prinorpta. Part I. An Italian Course, containing a
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Tratran Princrpra. Part II. A First Italian Reading Book,
containing Fables, Anecdotes, History, and Passages from the best
Italian Authors, with Grammatical Questions, Notes, and a Copious
Etymological Dictionary. 12mo. 3s. 6d.
SMITH’S (Dr. Wu.) LATIN COURSE:—
Tux Youne Brainner’s First Latin Boox: Containing the
Rudiments of Grammar, Easy Grammatical Questions and Exercises,
with Vocabularies. Being a Stepping stone to Principia Latina, Part I,
for Young Children. 12mo. 2s,
Tux Youna Brecinner’s Sxconp Latin Book: Containing an
easy Latin Reading Book, with an Analysis of the Sentences, Notes,
andaDictionary. Being a Stepping-stone to Principia Latina, Part I].
for Young Children, 12mo. 238.
Prinorra Latina. Part I. First Latin Course, containing a
Grammar, Delectus,and Exercise Book, with Vocabularies. 12mo. 3s. 6d.
*,* In this Edition the Cases of the Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns
are arranged both asin the orpINARY GRAMMARS and as in the PuBiio
Scuoon Primer, together with the corresponding Exercises.
28
LIST OF WORKS
SMITH’S (Dr. Wm.) Latin Course—continued.
APPENDIX To Principra Latina. Part I.; being Additional
Exercises, with Examination Papers. 12mo, 23. 6d.
Principia Latina. Part II. A Reading-book of Mythology,
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Prinorpra Latina. Part III. A Poetry Book. Hexameters
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Principia Latina, Part 1V. Prose Composition. Rules of
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on the Syntax. 12mo. 3s. 6d.
Princip1a Latina. Part V. Short Tales and Anecdotes for
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