S<L.f^
REPORT
OF THE
FIFTY-EIGHTH MEETING
OF THE
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE
HELD AT
BATH IN SEPTEMBER 1888.
LONDON :
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1889.
Office of the Association : 22 Albemarle Street, London. W.
PMNTED BY
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STRKET SQUARE
LONDON
CONTENTS.
—•*.■♦-
Page
Objects and Rules of the Association xxvi
Places and Times of Meeting and Officers from commencement xxxvi
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from com-
mencement xliv
List of Evening Lectures lix
Lectures to the Operative Glasses Ixii
Officers of Sectional Committees present at the Bath Meeting Ixiii
Officers and Council, 1888-89 Ixv
Treasurer's Account Ixvi
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at the Annual Meetings Ixviii
Report of the Council to the Oeneral Committee Ixx
Committees appointed by the General Committee at the Bath Meeting in
September 1888 Ixxiii
Synopsis of Grants of Money Ixxxii
Places of Meeting in 1889 and 1890 Ixxxiii
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of Grants
for Scientific Purposes Ixxxiv
Arrangement of the General Meetings xcvi
Address by the President, Sir Frederick Bramweli,' D.C.L., F.R.S.,
M.Inst.C.E 1
EEPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors A. Johnson (Secre-
tary), J. G. MacGeegor, J. B. Cherriman, and H. T. BovEr and Mr. C.
Carpmael, appointed for the purpose of promoting Tidal Observations in
Canada 27
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir R. S. Bail, Dr. G. Johnstone
Stonet, Professors Everett, Fitzgerald, Hicks, Caret Foster, 0. J.
Lodge, Potnting, Macgeegor, Genese, W. G. Adams, and Lamb, Messrs.
Batnes, a. Lodge, Fleming, AV. N. Shaw, Glazebrook, Hatward,
Lant Carpenter, Culyerwell (Secretary), and Greenhill, Dr. Muir,
and Messrs. G. Griffith and J. Larmor, appoiafted for the purpose of con-
sidering the desirability of introducing a Uniform Nomenclature for the
Fundamental Units of Mechanics, and of co-operating with other bodies
engaged in similar work 27
a2
iv CONTENTS.
Page
Fourth Report of tlie Committee, consisting of Professor Balfour Stewart
(Secretary), Professor W. Grtlls Adams, Mr. W. Lant Carpenter, Mr.
C. H. Cakpmael, Mr. W. H. Christie (Astronomer Royal), Professor G. .
Chrxstal, Captain Creak, Professor G. H. Darwin, Mr. William
Ellis, Sir J. H. Lefrot, Professor S. J. Perrt, Professor Schuster,
Professor Sir W. Thomson, and Mr. G. M. Whipple, appointed for the
purpose of considering the best means of Comparing and Reducing Magnetic
Observations 28
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor G. Forbes (Secretary),
Captain Abney, Dr. J. Hopkinson, Professor W. G. Adams, Professor G. C.
Foster, Lord Ratleigh, Mr. Preece, Professor Schuster, Prorfessor Dewar,
Mr. A. Vernon Haecourt, Mr. H. Trueman Wood, Sir James DoaGLAss,
Professor H. B. Dixon, and Mr. Dibdin, appointed for the purpose of
reporting on Standards of Light 3D
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Crum Brown (Secretary),
Mr. Milne-Home, Dr. John Murray, Lord McLaren, and Dr. Buchan,
appointed for the purpose of co-operating with the Scottish Meteorological
Society in making Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis 49
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors Tilden, McLeod,
Pickering, Ramsay, and Young and Drs. A. R. Leeds and Nicol (Secre-
tary), appointed for the purpose of reporting on the Bibliography of Solution 54
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor G. Carey Foster, Sir
William Thomson, Professor Ayrton, Professor J. Perry, Professor W.
G. Adams, Lord Rayleigh, Dr. 0. J. Lodge, Dr. John Hopkinson, Dr.
A. Muirhead, Mr. W. H. Preece, Mr. Herbert Taylor, Professor Everett,
Professor Schuster, Dr. J. A. Fleming, Professor G. F. Fitzgerald,
Mr. R. T. Glazebrook (Secretary), Professor Chrystal, Mr. H. Tomlin-
SON, Professor W. Garnett, Professor J. J. Thojison, Mr. W. N. Shaw,
Mr. J. T. Bottomley, and Mr. T. Gray, appointed for the purpose of
constructing and issuing Practical Standards for use in Electrical Measure-
ments 66
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors Tilden and W.
Chandler Roberts- Austen and Mr. T. Turner (Secretary), appointed for
the purpose of investigating the Influence of Silicon on the properties of
Steel. (Drawn up by Mr. T, Turner) 69
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of General J. T. Walker, Sir
William Thomson, Sir J. 11. Lefroy, General R. Strachey, Professors
A. S. Herschel, G. Chrystal, C. Niven, J. H. Poynting (Secretary), and
A. Schuster, and Mr. C. V. Boys, appointed for the purpose of inviting
designs for a good Differential Gravity Meter in supersession of the pen-
dulum, whereby satisfactory results may be obtained at each station of
observation in a few hours instead of the many days over which it is neces-
sary to extend pendulum observations 72
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor H. E. Armstrong, Mr.
J. T. Dunn, Professor W. R. Dunstan (Secretary), Dr. J. H. Gladstone,
Mr. A. G. Vernon PIarcourt, Mr. Francis Jones, Professor H. McLeod,
Professor Meldola, Mr. Pattison Muir, Dr. W. J. Russell, Mr. W. A.
Shenstone, Professor Smithells, and Mr. Stallard, appointed for the
purpose of inquiring into and reporting on the present methods of teaching
Chemistry. (Drawn up by Professor Dunstan) 73
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Russell, Captain Abney, Professor
Hartley, and Dr. A. Richardson (Secretary), appointed for the investiga-
tion of the action of Light on the Hydracids of Halogens in presence of
Oxygen. (Drawn up by Dr. A. Richardson) 89
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors Tilden and
CONTENTS. V
Page
Ramsay and Dr. Nicol (Secretary), .appointed for the purpose of inves-
tigating the Nature of Solution. 93
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Rat Lankester, Mr. P. L.
ScLATER, Professor M. Foster, Mr. A. Sedgwick, Mr. Walter Heape,
Professor A. 0. IJaddon, Professor Moseley, and Mr. Percy Slaben
(Secretary), appointed for the purpose of making arrangements for assisting
the Marine Biological Association Laboratory at Plymouth 94
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors Tilden and Arm-
strong (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of investigating Isomeric
Naphthalene Derivatives. (Drawn up by Professor- Armstrong) 96
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Garson, Mr. Pengelly,
Mr. F. W. Rudler, Mr. G. W. Bloxam (Secretary), Mr. J. Theodore
Bent, and Mr. J. Stuart Glennie, appointed for the purpose of investi-
gating the Prehistoric Race in the Greeli Islands 99
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Rawson Rawson, General Pitt-
Rivers, Dr. Mttirhead, Mr. C. Roberts, Dr. J. Beddoe, Mr. II. H.
HowoETH, Mr. F. W. Rudler, Dr. G. W. Hambleton, Mr. Horace
Darwin, Mr. G. W. Bloxam, Dr. Gaeson, and Dr. A. M. Paterson,
appointed for the purpose of investigating the effects of different occupa-
tions and employments on the Physical Development of the Human Body . 1 00
Sixteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors J. Prestwtch,
W. Boyd Da^vkins, T. McK. Hughes, and T. G. Bonney, Dr. H. W.
Crosskey (Secretary), and Messrs. C. E. De Rance, H. G. Fordham,
D. Mackintosh, \V. Pengelly, J. Plant, and R. II. Tiddeman, appointed
for the piu-pose of recording the position, height above the sea, lithological
characters, size, and origin of the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and
Ireland, reporting other matters of interest connected with the same, and
taking measures for their preservation. (Drawn up by Dr. Crosskey,
Secretary) 101
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Valentine Ball, Mr. H. G.
Fordham, Professor Haddon, Professor Hillhouse, Mr. John Hopkinson,
Dr. Macfaklane, Professor Milnes Marshall, Mr. F. T. Mott (Secretary),
Dr. Traquair, and Dr. II. Woodward, reappointed at Manchester for the
purpose of preparing a further Report upon the Provincial Museums of the
United Kingdom 124
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. Etheridge, Dr. H.
Woodward, and Mr. A. Bell (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of
reporting upon the * Manure ' Gravels of Wexford. (Drawn up by Mr. A.
Bell) 133
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors McIniosh (Secretary),
Allman, Lankester, Burdon Sanderson, Cleland, Ewart, Stirling,
and McKendrick, Drs. Cleghorn and Traquair, for continuing the
Reseai'ches on Food-Fishes at the St. Andrews Marine Laboratory 141
Fourteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Drs. E. Hull and
H. W. Crosskey, Sir Douglas Galton, Professor G. A. Lebour, and
Messrs. James Glaishee, E. B. Marten, G. H. Morton, W. Pengelly,
James Plant, J. Prestwich, I. Roberts, T. S. Stookb, G. J.
Stmons, W. Toplet, Ttlden- Wright. E. A^'ethered, W. Whitakee,
and C. E. De Rance (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of investigating
the Cii-culation of Underground Waters in the Permeable Formations of
England and Wales, and the Quantity and Character of the Water supplied
to various Towns and Districts from these Formations. (Drawn up by
C. E. De Rance, Reporter) 145
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. John Coedeaux (Secretary),
Professor A. Newton, Mr. J. A. Harvie-Brown, Mr. William Eagle
Clarke, Mr. R. M. Barrington, and Mr. A. G. More, reappointed at Man-
VI CONTENTS.
Page
Chester for the purpose of obtaining (with the consent of the Master and
Brethren of the Trinity House and the Commissioners of Northern and
Irish Lights) observations on the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and
Lightvessels, and of reporting on the same 146
Ileport of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. 0. Williamson and
Mr. W. Cash, appointed for the purpose of investisrating the Flora of the
Carboniferous Rocks of Lancashire and West Yorkshire. (Drawn up by
Professor W. C. Williamson) 150
Ileport of the Committee, consisting of Professor Rat Lankestek, Mr. P. L.
ScLATER, Professor M. Foster, Mr. A. Sedgwick, Professor A. M. Mar-
shall, Professor A. C. IIaddon, Pi-ofessor Moseley, and Mr. Perct
Sladen (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of arranging for the occu-
pation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples 150
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. J. H. Gladstone (Secretaiy),
Professor Armstrong, Mr. Stephen Bourne, Miss Ltdia Becker, Sir
John Litbbock, Bart., Dr. H. W. Orosskey, Sir Richard Temple, Bart,
Sir Henry E. Roscoe, Mr. James Heywood, and Professor N. Story
Maskelyne, appointed for the purpose of continuing the inquiries relating
to the teaching of .Science in Elementary Schools 164
Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. Etheridge, Dr. H.
Woodward, and Professor T. Rupert Jones (Secretary), on the Fossil
Phyllopoda of the Palaeozoic Rocks 173
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. S. Bourne, Professor F.
Y. Edgeworth (Secretary), Professor II. S. Foxwell, Mr. Robert Gipfen,
Professor Alfred Marshall, Mr. J. B. JMartin, Professor J. S. Nicholson,
Mr. R. H. Inglis Palgrate, and Professor II. Sidgwick, appointed for
the purpose of investigating the best method of ascertaining and measur-
ing Variations in the Value of the Monetary Standard. (Drawn up by Mr.
Giffen) 181
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. S. Bourne, Professor F. Y.
Edgeworth (Secretary), Professor II. S. Foxwell, Mr. Robert Giffen,
Professor Alfred Marshall, Mr. J. B. Martin, Professor J. S. Nicholson,
and Mr. R. 11 Inglis Palgraye, appointed for the purpose of inquiring and
reporting as to the Statistical Data available for determining the amount of
the Precious Metals in use as Money in the primipal Countries, the chief
forms in which the Money is employed, and the amount annually-used in
the Arts. (Drawn up by the Secretary) 219
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. E. B. Tylor, Dr. G. M.
Dawson, General Sir J. II. Lefroy, Dr. Daniel Wilson, Mr. R. G.
Haliburton, and Mr. George W. Bloxam (Secretary), appointed for
the purpose of investigating and publishing reports on the physical cha-
racters, languages, and industrial and social condition of the North- Western
Tribes of the Dominion of Canada 233
Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee, consisting of Mr. Francis
Galton (Chairman), Professor A. W. Williamson, Sir Douglas Galton,
Professor Boyd Dawkins, Sir Rawson Rawson, Dr. J. Q. Garson, Dr. J.
Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Professor R. Meldola (Secretary), Mr. W.
Whitaker, Mr. G. J. Stmons, General Pitt-Rivers, Mr. W. Toplet,
Mr. H. G. Fordham, and Mr. William White 255
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir John Lubbock, Dr. John
Evans, Professor Boyd Dawkins, Dr. Robert Munro, Mr. Pengelly, Dr.
Henry Hicks, Professor Meldola, Dr. Muirhead, and Mr. James W.
Davis, appointed for the purpose of ascertaining and recording the localities
in the British Islands in which evidences of the existence of Prehistoric
Inhabitants of the country are found. (Drawn up by James W. Davis) ... 289
1
CONTENTS. Vll
Page
Third Keport of the Committee, consisting of Sir Joseph D. Hooker, Sii-
John Lubbock, Sir George Nares, General J. T. Walker, Sir Leopold
McClintock, Admiral Sir George H. Richards, Professor Flower, Pro-
fessor Huxley, Dr. Sclater, Professor Moselet, Mr. John Mtjrrat,
General Strachet, Sir William Thomson, and Admiral Sir Erasmus
Ommannet (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of drawing attention to
the desirability of prosecuting further research in the Antarctic Regions ... 316
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Alex. Buchan, Professor
McKendrick, Professor Chrystal, and Dr. John Murray (Secretary), ap-
pointed for the purpose of aidiug in the maintenance of the establishment
of a Marine Biological Station at Granton, Scotland 319
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. H. Bauerman, Mr. F. W. Rudler,
Mr. J. J. H. Teall, and Dr. H. J. Johnston-Lavis, appointed for the in-
vestigation of the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius and its neighbourhood.
(Drawn up by Dr. II. J. Johnsxon-Lavis, M.D., F.G.S., Secretary) 320
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. John Murray (Secretary),
Professor Chrystal, Dr. A. Buchan, Rev. C. J. Steward, the Hon. R.
Abercromby, Mr. J. Y. Buchanan, Mr. David Cunningham, Mr. Isaac
Roberts, Dr. H. R. Mill, and Professor Fitzgerald, appointed to arrange
an investigation of the Seasonal Variations of Temperature in Lakes, Rivers,
and Estuaries in various parts of the United Kingdom in co-operation with
the local societies represented on the Association 326
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. J. W. Davis, Mr. W. Cash,
Dr. H. Hicks, Mr. G. W. Lamplugh, Mr. Clement Reid, Dr. H. Wood-
ward, and Mr. T. Botnton, appointed for the purpose of investigating an
ancient Sea-beach near Bridlington Quay. (Drawn up by G. W. Lamplugh,
Secretary) " 328
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Lankester, Professor
Milnes Marshall, Mr. Sedgwick, and Mr. G. H. Fowler (Secretary),
appointed for the purpose of investigating the Developrnent of the Oviduct
and connected structures in certain iresh- water Teleostei 338
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors Armstrong, Lodge,
Sir William Thomson, Lord Rayleigh, Fitzgerald, J. J. Thomson,
Schuster, Poynting, Crum Brown, Ramsay, Frankland, Tilden,
Hartley, S. P. Thompson, McLeod, Roberts- Austen, Rtjcker, Reinold,
Carey Foster, and H. B. Dixon, Captain Abney, Drs. Gladstone, Hop-
KINSON, and Fleming, and Messrs. Crookes, Shelford Bidwell, W. N.
Shaw, J. Lakmor, J. T. Botxomley, R. T. Glazebrook, J. Brown, E. J.
Love, and John M. Thomson, appointed for the purpose of considering
the subject of Electrolysis in its Physical and Chemical Bearings 339
Report of the Committee, consisting of Messrs. W. Careuthers, W. F. R.
Weldon, J. G. Baker, G. M. Murray, and W. T. Thiselton-Dyer (Secre-
tary), appointed for the purpose of exploring the Flora of the Bahamas 361
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors Schaper (Secretary),
Michael Foster, and Lankester and Dr. AV. D. Halliburton, ap-
pointed for the purpose of investigating the Physiology of the Lymphatic
System. (Drawn up by Dr. W. D. Halliburton) 363
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. J. J. H.
Teall, and Professor J. F. Blake (Secretary), appointed to mvestigate
the Microscopic Structure of the Older Rocks of Anglesey. (Drawn up by
the Secretary) ^^'
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Thiselton-Dyer (Secretary), Mr.
Carruthers, Mr. Ball, Professor Oliver, and Mr. Forbes, appointed for
the purpose of continuing the preparation of a Report on our present know-
ledge of the Flora of China *20
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Foster, Professor
Vlll CONTENTS.
Page
Batlet Baifoue, Mr. Thiselton-Dtee, Dr. Trimen, Professor Maeshall
Waed, Mr. Carruthers, Professor Hartog, and Professor Bower (Secre-
tary), appointed for tbe purpose of taking steps for the establishment of a
Botanical Station at PeradcDiya, Ceylon 4i}l
Eighth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. Etheridge, Mr. Thomas
Gray, and Professor John ^Iilne (Secretary), appointed for the purpose
of investigating the Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of Japan.
(Drawn up by the Secretary) 422
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Thiselton-Dter (Secretary),
Professor Newton, Professor Flower, Mr. Carrtjthees, and Mr. Sclater,
appointed for the purpose of reporting on the present state of our know-
ledge of the Zoology and Botany of the West India Islands, and taking
steps to investigate ascertained deficiencies in the Fauna and Flora 437
Second Report on our Experimental Knowledge of the Properties of Matter
with respect to Volume, Pressure, Temperature, and Specific Heat. By
P. T. Main, M.A 465
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir F. J. Beamwell, Mr. E. A.
CowpBE, Mr. G. J. Stmons, Pi'ofessors G. H. Daewin and Ewing, Mr.
Isaac Robeets, Mr. Thomas Gray, Dr. John Evans, Professors Lebotte,
Prestwich, Hxtll, Meldola, and Judd, and Mr. J. Glaishee, appointed
for the purpose of considering the advisability and possibility of establishing
in other parts of the country observations upon the prevalence of Earth
Tremors similar to those now being made in Durham 522
The Relations between Sliding Scales and Economic Theory. By L. L.
Price, M.A 523
Index-numbers as illustrating the Progressive Exports of British Produce and
Manufactures. By Stephen Botjene, F.S.S 536
The Friction of Metal Coils. By Professor Hele Shaw and Edward Shaw 540
Sur I'application de I'analyse spectrale a la m^canique moldculaire et sur lea
spectres de I'oxygene. Par Dr. J. Janssen 547
TEANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
Section A. —MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
Page
Address by Professor G. F. Fitzgerald, MA., F.E.S., President of the
Section 557
1. Fourth Report of the Committee for promoting Tidal Observations in
Canada 562
2. On the Behaviour of Water under great Provocation from Heat. By
Professor W. Ramsay, F.R.S 662
3. On the Proof of the Logarithmic Law of Atomic Weights. By Dr. G.
Johnstone Stoney, F.R.S ." 562
4. On the Oscillations of a Rotating Liquid Spheroid and the Genesis of the
Moon. By A. E. H. Love, B.A 562
5. Waves in a Viscous Liquid. By A. B. Basset, M.A 563
6. On a Hydrostatic Balance. By J. Jolt, M.A., B.E 664
7. On the Meldometer. By J. Joly, M.A., B.E 564
8. Electro-calorimetry. By Professor William Stkoud, B.A., D.Sc, and
W. W. Haldanb Gee, B.Sc 666
9. On Figures produced by Electric Action on Photographic Drv Plates.
By .L Brovtn ! 665
10. Comparison of Gassner's Dry Cells vpith Leclanch6's. By Wm. Lant
Carpenter 566
11. On the Intensity of Magnetisation of soft Iron Bars of various lengths
in a uniform Magnetic Field. By A. Tanakadate 566
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBilR 7.
1. Recent Progress in the Use of Concave Gratings for Spectrum Analysis.
By Professor H. A. Rowland 566
2. Is the Velocity of Light in an Electrolytic Liquid influenced by an
Electric Current in the direction of propagation ? By Lord Rayleigh,
LL.D., Sec. R.S 666
3. On the Measurement of the Length of Electro-magnetic Waves. By
Professor Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S 667
4. On the Impedance of Conductors to Leyden-jar Discharges. By Professor
Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S 567
X CONTENTS.
Page
5. A simple hypothesis for Electro-magfnetic Iiiductiou of incomplete
circuits, with consequent equations of Electric Motion in fixed homoge-
neous or heterogeneous solid matter. By Professor Sir William
Thomson, LL.D.,F.RS 567
6. On the Transference of Electricity within a Homogeneous Solid Con-
ductor. By Professor Su- William Thomson, LL.D., F.Pi.S 570
7. Five Applications of Fourier's Law of Diffusion, illustrated by a Diagram
of Curves with Absolute Numerical Values. Bv Professor Sir William
Thomson, LL.D., F.RS .' 571
8. On Flux and Reflux of Water in Open Channels or in Pipes or other
Ducte. By Professor James Thomson, LL.D., F.R.S 574
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
Depaetmbnt for Light and Electriciit.
1. Siu: rapphcatiou de I'analyse spectrale a la m^canique mol^culaire et sur
les spectres de I'oxjgene. By Dr. J. Janssen 576
2. On the Absorption Spectrum of Oxygen. By Professors Liveing, F.R.S.,
and Desvar, F.R.S 576
3. The Spectra of Meteorites compared with the Solar Spectrum. By J.
Norman Lockter, F.R.S ". 576
4. On the Harmonic Series of Lines in the Spectra of the Elements. By
Professor Carl Runge 576
5. A Vortex Analogue of Static Electricity. By Professor W. M. HiCKS,
M.A., F.RS 577
6. On a DiflFusion Photometer. By J, Jolt, M.A., B.E 578
7. Third Report of the Committee on Electrolysis 578
Department for Mathematics and General Physics.
1. On Centres of Finite Twist and Stretch. By Professor R. W. Genese,
M.A 579
2. On Recurring Decimals and Fermat's Theorem. By Professor R. W.
Genese, M.A 580
3. On the Relations between Orbits, Catenaries, and Curved Rays. By
Professor J. D. Everett, F.R.S 581
4. On the Stretching of Liquids. By Professor A. M. Worthington,
M.A., F.R.A.S 583
5. A new Sphere Planimeter. By Professor Hele Shaw, M.Inst.C.E 584
6. On Composition of Sensation and Notion of Space. By L. de la Rive... 585
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
1. Third Report of the Committee for inviting Designs for a good Differential
Gravity Meter 586
2. Fourth Report of the Committee for considering the best means of Com-
paring and Reducing Magnetic Observations 586
3. Third Report of the Committee appointed to co-operate with the Scottish
Meteorological Society in making Meteorological Observations on Ben
Nevis 586
CONTENTS. XI
Page
4. Modern Views about Hurricanes, as compared witli the Older Theories.
By Hon. Ralph Abeecrombt, F.H.Met.Soc 586
5. Report of the Committee appointed to arrange an investigation of the
Seasonal Variations of Temperature in Lakes, Rivers, and Estuaries in
various parts of the United Kingdom 587
6. On the Temperature of some Scottish Rivers. By Hugh Robert Mill,
D.Sc, F.R.S.E 588
7. On the recent Magnetic Survey of Japan. By Professor Cargill G.
KiioTT, D.Sc, F.R.S.E 588
8. On Reading Electrically Jleteorological Instruments distant from the
Observer. By J. Jolt, M.A., B.E 589
9. On the Mechanical Conditions of a Swarm of Meteorites, and on Theories
of Cosmogony. By Professor G. H. Darwin, F.R.S 590
10. On some accurate Charts of Kew Corrections for Mercury Thermometers.
By W. N. Shaw, M.A. •' 590
11. On an Apparatus for determining Temperature by the Variation of
Electrical Resistance. By W. N. Shaw, M.A 590
12. Fourth Report of the Committee on Standards of Light 591
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
1. Joint Discussion with Section G on Lightning-conductors 591
2. On the Burning by Lightning of a Magnet on a Generating Dynamo at
the Waterfall on the Bush River, County Antrim, belonging to the
Giant's Causeway and Portrush Electric Railway and Tramway Com-
pany. By Anthony Traill, LL.D., M.D 615
3. Analyse chronometrique des PbiSnomenes ^lectriques lumineux. Par
Dr. J. Janssen 615
4. Report of the Committee for constructing and issuing Practical Standards
for use in Electrical Measurements 616
5. On Standards of Electrical Resistance. By R. T. Glazebrook, F.R.S. ... 616
6. On the C.G.S. Units of Measurement. By W. H. Preece, F.R.S 616
7. Electrometric Determination of 'v.' By Professors Sir W. Thomson,
F.R.S., AxRTON, F.R.S., and Perry, F.R.S 616
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
1. Report of the Committee for considering the desirability of introducing a
Uniform Nomenclature for the Fundamental Units of Mechanics 616
2. Second Report on our Experimental Knowledge of the Properties of
Matter. By P. T. Main, M.A 616
3. On the Mechanical Arrangements of the Analytical Engine of the late
Charles Babbage, F.R.S. By Major-General H. P. Babbage 616
4. On a Modification of Maxwell's Equations of Electromagnetic Waves.
By Professor H. A. Rowland 617
5. On a Photographic Image of an Electric Arc Lamp, probably due to
Phosphorescence in the Eye, and on some Photographs of an Eclipse of
the Moon. By Friese Greene 617
6. On the Errors of the Argument of Statistical Tables. By Joseph
Kleiber 618
Xli CONTENTS
Page
7. On Geometry of Four Dimensions. By Edwaed T. Dixon 618
8. A Suggestion from the Bologna Academy of Science towards an agree-
ment on the Initial Meridian for the Universal Hour. By Dr. Cffis.
ToNDiNi DE Qtjakenghi 618
Section B.— CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
Address by Professor W. A. Tilden, D.Sc, F.R.S., F.C.S., President of the
Section 620
1. Report of the Committee for the investigation of the action of Light on
the Hydracids of Halogens in presence of Oxygen 627
2. Second Report of the Committee on the Bibliography of Solution 627
3. Second Report of the Committee for investigatiug the Nature of Solution 627
4. Second Report of the Committee for investigating the Influence of Silicon
on the properties of Steel 627
5. On the Study of Mineralogy. By T. Stkrrt Hunt, LL.D., F.R.S 627
6. On the Logarithmic Law and its connection with the Atomic Weights.
By Dr. G. Johnstone Stoney, F.R.S 630
7. On Dissociation. By the Rev. A. Irving, D.Sc, B.A 630
8. On Closed-chain Formula. By J. E. Marsh, B.A 631
9. On Van't Hotf's Hypothesis and the Constitution of Benzene. By J. E.
Marsh, B.A 631
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
1. Discussion on the Chemical Problems presented by Living Bodies, opened
by Professor Michael Foster, Sec.R.S 631
2. On the Atomic Weight of Oxygen. By Alexander Scott, M.A., D.Sc,
F.R.S.E 631
3. The Incompleteness of Combustion in Explosions. By Professor H. B.
Dixon, F.R.S., and H. W. Smith, B.Sc 632
4. A new Gas Analysis Apparatus. By W. W. J. Niool, M.A., D.Sc 632
5. The Determination of Vapour-densities at High Temperatures and under
Reduced Pressure. By Dr. William Bott, F.C.S 632
6. On Photographing Hydrogen and Chlorine Bulbs by aid of the Flash of
Light which caused their Explosion. By Prolessor P. Phillips Bedson,
D.Sc : ; 633
7. On the Formation of Crystals of Calcium Oxide and Magnesium Oxide in
the Oxyhydrogen Flame By J. Jolt, M.A., B.E 634
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
1. Report of the Committee on the present methods of teaching Chemistry... 634
2. Chemistry as a School Subject. By the Rev. A. Irving, D.Sc, B.A. ... 634
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
1. Discussion on Valency, opened by Professor H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S. ... 635
2, Evidence of the Tetravalency of Oxygen derived from the Constitution of
the Azonaphthol-Compounds. By Professor R. Meldola, F.R.S., F.C.S.,
^•I-t' 635
CONTENTS. Xlll
Page
3. The Theory of Solution. By T. Steeet Hunt, LL.D., F.R.S 636
4. The Composition of Copper-Tin Alloys. By A. P. Lattrie 637
5. The Composition of the ancient Roman Mortar from the London "Wall.
By JoHK Spujjer, F.C.S 637
6. On the Rate of Solution of Copper in Acids. By V. H. Velet, M.A. ... 638
7. Recoverv of the Ammonia and Chlorine in the Ammonia-soda Process.
By F. Bale 638
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
1. Third Report of the Committee for investigating Isomeric Naphthalene
Derivatives , 640
■2. Note on the Molecular Weight of Caoutchouc and other Colloids. By Dr.
J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S., and W. Hibbert, F.I.C 640
3. On some new Silicon Compounds. By Professor J. Emekson Reynolds,
M.D., F.R.S 640
4. On some new Thiocarhamide Compounds. By Professor J. Emerson
Reynolds, M.D., F.R.S 640
5. Proposed International Standards to control the Analysis of Iron and
Steel. By Professor J. W. Langley 640
6. On the Action of Light on Water Colours. By Arthur Richard-
son, Ph.D T 641
7. Further Researches on the Pyrocresols. By Dr. William Bott, F.C.S.,
and J. Bruce Miller, F.I.C 642
Section C— GEOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
Address by Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A.,
President of the Section , 644
L Further Note on the Midford Sands. By Horace B. AVoodward, F.G.S. 650
2. The Relations of the Great Oolite to the Forest Marble and Fuller's-earth
in the South-west of England. By Horace B. Woodward, F.G.S 651
3. Note on the Portland Sands of Swindon and elsewhere. By Horace B.
Woodward, F.G.S 652
4. On Local Geological Photography. By Osmund W. Jeffs 653
5. Further Notes on the Origin of the Crystalline Schists of Malvern and
Anglesey. By Charles Callaway, D.Sc, M.A., F.G.S 653
6. Sketch of the Geology of the Crystalline Axis of the Malvern Hills. By
Charles Cauaway, D.Sc, M.A., F.G.S 654
7. Archean Characters of the Rocks of the Nucleal Ranges of the Antilles.
By Dr. Persifor Frazer 654
8. On a Specimen of Quartz from Australia and Three Specimens of Oligo-
clase Irom North Carolina exhibiting curious Optical Properties. By
Dr. P EEsiFOR Frazer ". 655
FRIDA Y, SEPTEMBER 7.
1. Sixteenth Report on the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ii-eland... 656
2. On a Hiffh Level Boulder-clay in the Midlands. By Dr. H. W. Cross-
key, F.G.S : 656
XIV CONTENTS.
Page
3. On the Extension of the Bath Oolite under London, as shown by a Deep
Boring at Streatham. By W. Whitaker, B.A., F.R.S 656
4. On the Lower Carboniferous Rocks of Gloucestershire. By E. Wetheeed,
F.G.S., F.O.S., F.R.M.S ". 657
5. On the Tytherington and Thornbury Section. By the Rev. H. H. Win-
wooD, F.G.S ". 658
6. The Northern Section of the Bristol Coal-field. By Handel Cossham,
M.P., F.G.S 659
7. Some Points of Interest in the Geology of Somerset. By W. A. E.
Usshee, F.G.S 659
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER S.
1. Comparison of the principal Forms of Dinosauria of Europe and America.
By Professor 0. C. Maesh 660
2. The Evolution of the Mammalian Molar Teeth to and from the Trituber-
cular Type. By Henex Faiefield Osboen 660
3. On the Gigantic Size of some extinct Tertiary Mammalia. By Professor
A. Gatjdey 660
4. Note on the Relation of the Percentage of Carbonic Acid in the Atmo-
sphere to the Life and Growth of Plants. By the Rev. A. Ieving, D.Sc,
B.A., F.G.S 661
6. On the Occurrence of a Boulder of Granitoid Gneiss or Gneissoid Granite
in the Halifax Hard-bed Coal. P>y .James Spejtcek. With a Note by
Professor T. G. Bonnet 661
6. The Caverns of Luray. By the Chevalier R. E. Reynolds 662
7. Report on the Rate of Erosion of the Sea-coasts of England and Wales ... 663
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
1. The Volcanoes of the Two Sicilies. By Tempest Andeeson, M.D., B.Sc. 663
2. Notes on the late Eruption in the island of Vulcano. By Tempest
Andeeson, ]M.D., B.Sc, and H. J. Johnston-Lavis, M.D., F.G.S 664
3. Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius and its neighbourhood ... 666
4. On the Conservation of Heat in Volcanic Chimneys. By H. J. Johnston-
Lavis, M.B., F.G.S 666
6. Note on a Mass containing Metallic Iron found on Vesuvius. By H. J.
Johnston-Lavis, M.D., F.G.S 667
6. Note on the Occurrence of Leucite at Etna. Bv H. J. Johnston-Lavis
M.D., F.G.S :. 669
7. Note on some recent Investigations into the Condition of the Interior of
the Earth. By Professor E. W. Clatpole, B.A., D.Sc, F.G.S 669
8. On the Causes of Volcanic Action. By J. Logan Loblet, F.G.S 670
9. Eighth Report on the Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of Japan 671
10. On the recent Volcanic Structure of the Azorean Archipelago. By
OSBEEX H. HOWAETH ° Q'^\
11. Report of the Earth Tremor Committee 671
contents. xv
Sub-Section C.
Page
1. The Watcombe Terra-Cotta Clay. By W. A. E. Ussher, F.G.S 672
2. Second Report ou the ' Manure ' Gravels of Wexford 672
3. Beds exposed in the Southampton New Dock Excavation. By T. W.
Shore, E.G. S., F.C.S 672
4. Fossil Arctic Plants from the Lacustrine Deposit at Hoxne, in Suffolk.
By Clement Reid, F.G.S., and H. N. Ridley, M.A., F.L.S 674
5. Report on an ancient Sea Beach near Bridlington Quay 674
6. On the Origin of Oolitic Texture in Limestone Rocks. By Professor
H. G. Seelet,F.R.S 674
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
1. Notes of some Researches on the Fossil Fishes of Chiaron, Vicentino
(Stratum of Sotzka, Lower Miocene). By Professor Feancesco
Bassani 675
2. Sixth Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Palaeozoic Rocks 677
3. Report of the Committee for investigating the Flora of the Carboniferous
Rocks of Lancashire and West Yorkshire 677
4. On an Ichthyosaurus from Mombasa, East Africa, with Observations on
the Vertebral Characters of the Genus. By Professor H. G. Seelet
F-KS .'677
5. A Comparison of the Cretaceous Fish-fauna of Mount Lebanon with that
of the English Chalk. By A. Smith Woodwaed, F.G.S., F.Z.S 678
6. On Bucklandium diluvii, Konig, a Siluroid Fish from the London Clay
ofSheppey. By A. Smith Woodward, F.G.S., F.Z.S 679
7. On the Origin of Graphite in the Archaean Rocks, with a Review of the
alleged Evidence of Life on the Earth in Archaean Time. By the Rev.
A. Irving, D.Sc, B.A., F.G.S 679
8. On some Devonian Cephalopods and Gasteropods. By the Rev. G. F.
Whtdborne, M.A., F.G.S 680
9. On some Devonian Crustaceans. By the Rev. G. F. Whidboene, M A
FG-s .'. '. ::^i
10. On some Fossils of the Limestones of South Devon. By the Rev. G F
Whidborne, M.A., F.G.S 681
Sub- Section C.
1. Mineralogical Evolution. By T. Sterrt Hunt, LL.D., F.R.S 682
2. Report on the Microscopic Structure of the Older Rocks of Anglesey 684
3. On a probable Cause of Contortions of Strata. By Charles Ricketts,
M.D., F.G.S .•: : 684
4. On the Temperature at which Beryl is decolorised. By J. Joly, M.A.,
^•^ , 684
6. On the Occurrence of lolite in the Granite of County Dublin. Bv J.
Jolt, M.A., B.E : 685
6. An Igneous Succession in Shropshire. By W. W. Watts, M.A., F.G.S. . 685
7. Fourteenth Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters 685
8. A List of ^^'orks referring to ^British Mineral and Thermal Waters. By
W. H. Dalton 685
\
XVI CONTENTS.
Section D.— BIOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
Page
Address by W. T. Thiselton-Dter, C.M.G., M.A., B.Sc, F.K.S., F.L.S.,
President of the Section 686
1. Report of the Committee for exploring the Flora of the Bahamas 701
2. Second Report of the Committee for taking steps for the estahlishment of
a Botanical Station at Peradeniya, Ceylon 701
3. Report of the Committee for continuing the preparation of a Report on
our present knowledge of the Flora of China 701
4. A Lily Disease. By Professor H. Maesham- Waed, F.R.S 702
5. On the Morphology of the Pitcher of Nepenthes. Bv Professor Bower,
F.L.S .". 702
6. On Adelphotaxij : an undescribed Form of Irritability. By Professor
Marcus M. Hartog, D.Sc, M.A 702
Zoological Department.
1. Report of the Committee for reporting on the present state of our know-
ledge of the Zoology and Botany of the West India Islands, and taking
steps to investigate ascertained deficiencies in the Fauna and Flora 702
2. Report of the Committee to arrange for the occupation of a Table at
the Zoological Station at Naples 703
3. Report of the Committee for making arrangements for assisting the
Marine Biological Association Laboratory at Plymouth 703
4. Report of the Committee for continuing the Researches on Food-Fishes
at the St. Andrews Marine Laboratory 703
5. Report of the Committee on the Migration of Birds 703
6. On the Irruption of Syrrhaptes paradoxus. By Professor Newtox, M.A.,
F.R.S 703
7. Remarks on some Teleostean Ova, and their Development. Bv J. T.
Cunningham, B.A., F.R.S.E " 703
FRIDA F, SEPTEMBER 7.
PHYSIOLOfilCAL DEPARTMENT.
1. On the Physiological Bearing of Waist-belts and Stays. By Professor
Roy, M.D., F.R.S., and J. G. Adami, M.A 704
Zoological Department.
1. Some Remarks on the Instincts of Solitary Wasps and Bees. By Sir
John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S 706
2. Restoration of Brontops Robiutm, from the Miocene of America. By
Professor 0. C. Marsh, Ph.D., LL.D 706
3. Heredity in Cats with an extra Number of Toes. By E. B. Poulton, M.A. 707
4. On the Nature of the Geological Terrain as an important factor in the
Geographical Distribution of Animals. By Hans Gabow, M.A., Ph.D.... 707
5. On the Natural History of Christmas Island. By J. J. Lister, M.A.,
F.Z.S 708
CONTENTS. XVll
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
Page
1. Report of the Committee for aiding- in the maintenance of the establish-
ment of a Marine Biological Station at Granton, Scotland 7 10
2. Report of the Committee on the Development of the Oviduct in certain
fresh-water Teleostei 710
3. On certam Adaptations for the Nutrition of Embryos. By F. W.
Oliver 710
4. On the Development of the Bulb in Laminaria bullosa. By C. A.
Barber 710
5. On Packytheca, a Silurian Alga of doubtful Affinities. By C. A. Barber 711
6. On the Plant-remains discovered by Mr. W. M. Flinders Petrie in the
Cemetery of Hawara, Lower Egypt, By Percy E. Newberry 712
7. Abnormal Ferns, Hybrids, and their Parents. By E. J. Lowe, F.R.S.,
and Colonel Jones ' 713
8. Preliminary Note on the Functions and Homologies of the Contractile
Vacuole in Plants and Animals. By Professor Marctts M. Hartog,
D.Sc., M.A 714
9. On the Contrivances for the Seed Protection and Distribution in
Blumenbachia Hiei-onymi, Urban. By W. Gardiner 716
Zoological Department.
1. On Locusts in Cyprus. By S. Brown 710
2. On the Fauna of the Firth of Clyde. By W. E. Hotle, M.A 717
3. On a Deep-sea Tow Net. By W. E. Hoyle, M.A 717
4. On some Points in the Natural History of the Coral Fungia. By J. J.
Lister, M.A., F.Z.S 717
5. On the Echinodermata of the Sea of Bengal. By Professor F. Jeffrey
Bell, M.A., Sec. R.M.S 718
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
1. Discussion on Coral Reefs , 718
2. Second Report of the Committee on the Physiology of the Lymphatic
System 723
3. Contributions to the Anatomy of the Tubificidae. By F. E. Beddard,
M.A., F.Z.S 72.']
4. On the Flora of Madagascar. By the Rev. R. Baron 724
5. On the Efi'ects of the Weather of 1888 on the Animal and Vegetable
Kingdoms. By E. J, Lowe, F.R.S 720
6. The Odoriferous Apparatus of the Blaps mortisaga (Coleoptera). By
Professor GusTAVE Gilson 727
7. Report of the Committee on Provincial Museums 728
8. The effect of various substances (chiefly members of the aromatic series
of organic compounds) upon the rate of secretion and constitution of the
BUe. By W. J. Collins, M.D., M.S., B.Sc. (Lond.), F.R.C.S 728
1888. a
Xviii CONTENTS.
Section E.— GEOGRAPHY,
THUBSBAT, SEPTEMBER 6.
Page
Address by Colonel Sir 0. W. Wilson, R.E., K.C.B., K.C.M.G., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S., President of the Section 7J9
1. Le Canal de Panama. Par F. de Lesseps 738
2. Meteorological Conditions of the Eed Sea. By Lieut.-General Steachet,
F.R.S '^^
3. Sea Temperatures in the neighboui-hood of Cape Guardafui. By Lieut.-
General Steachey, F.R.S "38
4. The Salinity of the Clyde Sea Area. By Hugh Robert Mill, D.Sc,
F.R.S.E "3°
5. Sea Temperatures on the Continental Shelf. By Hugh Robert Mill,
D.Sc, F.R.S.E "39
6. Perspective Maps and Common Maps. By Arthur W. Olatden, M.A,,
F.GS 740
7. • Little Russia.' By E. Delmar Morgan, F.R.G.S 740
8. Third Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of drawing
attention to the desirability of prosecuting further research in the Ant-
arctic Regions 741
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
1. Explorations on the Chindwin River, Upper Burmah, in 1886-87. By
Colonel WooDTHOEPE, R.E 741
2. A new Route from India to Tibet. By Captain W. J. Elwes 741
3. Russian Topographical Surveys. By E. Delmar Morgan, F.R.G.S 741
4. Notes on the Geography of the Region from the Nile to the Euphrates as
known to the ancient Egyptians. By the Rev. Henry George Tomkins 741
5. Remarks on Mr. Tomkins's Paper. By Major Condbr, R.E 743
6. Recent Explorations East of the Jordan. By Captain A. M. Mantell,
R.E 743
7. Jerusalem : Nehemiah's AVall and the Royal Sepulchres. By George
St. Clair, F.G.S 744
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
1. Tunis since the French Protectorate. By Colonel Sir Lambert Playfair,
K.C.M.G 745
2. The Commercial Future of Central Africa. By Colonel Sir Francis de
WiNTON 745
3. Bechuanaland and the Land of Ophir. By the Rev. John Mackenzie ... 745
4. The Transvaal, or South African Republic. By P. H. Ford 745
5. The Cameroons. By H. H. Johnston 745
6. Dr. Livingstone and Lake Bangweolo. By E. G. Ravenstein 745
7. Notes from the Atlas Mountains. By Jos. Thomson 745
8. Akkas and Dwarfs in Southern Morocco. By R. G. Haliburton 745
9. Through Kakongo. By Q. E. Dennett 745
CONTENTS. iix
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
Page
1. Pbotogi-apliic and Pliotozincoffraphic Processes employed in the Ordnance
Survey. By ColonelJ. H. Bolland, K.E 746
2. Note on Geographical Terminology. By H. J. Mackinder, M.A 746
3. The Piver of Joseph, the Fayum and Raian Basins. By Cope White-
house, M.A 746
4. Mission to El-Wedj. By Captain Coxters Surtees 747
5. Notes on Topographic Maps produced by the United States Geological
Survey. By G. K. Gilbert 747
6. On Pahang, an Independent State in the Malayan Peninsula. By W.
Barrijjgton d'Almeida 747
7. Formosa : Characteristic Traits of the Island and its Aboriginal Inhabi-
tants. By George Taylor 747
■8. On the general adoption of the Gregorian Calendar in relation with that
of the universal hour. By Dr. 0^8. Tondixi de Quarenghi 747
Section F.— ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER G.
Address by The Right Hon. Lord Bramwell, LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.S., Presi-
dent of the Section 749
1. On Mining Royalties and theii- effect on the Iron and Coal Industries.
By Professor W. R. Sorlet 755
2. The Relations between Sliding Scales and Economic Theory. By L. L.
Price, M.A 757
3. On Wage Statistics and Theories. By James Mayor 767
4. The Growth of American Industries and Wealth. By Michael George
Mulhall, F.S.S 757
6. Somersetshire Cider. By John Higgins 759
6. Agricultural, Commercial, Industrial, and Banking Statistics. By VVir.
BoTLY, M.R.A.S.E '. 760
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER!.
1. An Analysis of the Cun-ent Conception of State Socialism. By Professor
Henry Sidgwick, M.A 760
2. The Transition to Social Democracy. By G. Bernard Shaw 761
3. The Tendency of Competition to result in Monopoly. By Professor Fox-
well 762
4. Associative Economics applied to Colonisation. By W. L. Rees 762
5. On the Statistics of Examination. By Professor F. Y. Edgeworih,
M.A.,F.S.S 763
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
1. The Revenue System of the United States. By Albert Shaw, Ph.D. ... 763
2, On the Distribution of the Licences proposed to be transferred in aid of
Local Expenditure. By R. H. Ixglis Palgrave, F.R.S., F.S.S 764
XX CONTENTS.
Page
3. The Standard, or Basis, of Taxation. By Clair J. Grece, LL.D 765
4. The Suitability of Small Towns for Factory Industries. By Russell R.
Tanner 767
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
1. Second Report of the Committee on the method of ascertaining and
measuring Variations in the Value of the Monetary Standard 767
2. Index-numbers as illustrating the Progressive Exports of British Produce
and Manufactures. By Siephen Botjrne, F.S.S 767
3. Report of the Committee on the Statistical Data available for determining
the amount of the Precious Metals in use as Money in the principal
Countries, the chief forms in which the Money is employed, and the
amount annually used in the Arts 767
4. An Examination into the Reasons of the Price of Wheat rising or falling
contemporaneously with the Variation in the Value of Foreign Curren-
cies. By W. J. Harris, F.S.S 767
5. The Effects on Indian Exports of the Fall in the Gold Price of Silver.
By L. C. Probtn 768
6. On Statigrams, with some suggestions for Greater Uniformity in Com-
parative Graphics. By the Rev. J. F. Heies, M.A., F.C.S., F.R.G.S. ... 76&
7. Reasons for a Quinquennial Census. By G. B. Lonqstaff, M.A., M.B.,
F.Il.C.P 760
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER II.
1 . Leasehold Enfranchisement. By Charles Harrison 770
2. Report of the Committee for continuing the inquiries relating to the
teaching of Science in Elementary Schools 771
3. The Industrial Education of Women abroad and at home. By E. J.
Watherston 771
4. Irishwomen's Industries. By Miss Helen Blackburn 772
5. Education: a Chapter of Economics. By T. W. Dunn, M,A 773
6. L'orgaiiisation et la statistique de I'enseignement technique secondaire en
Italic. By Signor BoNGHi 774
7. Agricultural Education. By Professor James Long 776
8. Economy in Education and in Writing. By Eizak Pitman 776
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
1. The Malthusian Theory. By Edavin C had wick, C.B 777"
2. Dairy Industry. By George Gibbons 778
3. Amendments founded on Experiences submitted for the Local Government
Bill. By Edwin Chadwick, C.B i 779
4. The Vital and Commercial Statistics of Bath. By F. Norfolk 780
5. Old Age and Sickness Assurance for the Mercantile and Professional
Classes. By F. Norfolk 780'
CONTENTS. XXI
Section G.— MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
Page
Address by W. H. Peeecb, F.E.S., M.Inst.C.E., President of the Section 781
1. The Phonograph. By Colonel G. E. Goueatjd 792
2. The Graphophone. By Henkt Edmdtsds 792
3. Mechanical Pathology considered in its relation to Bridge Design. By
G. H. Thomson, M.Am.S.E 793
4. A few Arguments in favour of Light or Road Railways. By Thos.
Stephen P. W. D'Alte Sellon, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E 794
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
1. The Barry Docks. By John Wolfe Baeet, M.Inst.C.E 795
2. Plant and Machinery in use on the Manchester Ship Canal. By Lionel
B. Wells, M.Inst.C.E 796
3. On an improved Canal Lift. By S. Llotd 797
4. On the Replenishment of the Underground Waters of the Permeable
Formations of England. By J. Bailey Denton, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. ... 797
5. The Raiyan Project for the Storage of Nile Flood. By Cope White-
house, M.A 799
€. The Severn Watershed. By J, W. AVillis Bttnd 799
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
1. On Rolling Seamless Tubes from Solid Bars or Ingots, by the Mannesmanu
Process. By Feedeeick Siemens 804
2. Gaseous Fuel. By J. Emeeson Dowson, M.Inst.C.E 805
3. The Shipman Engine. By W. R. Pidgeon, M.A 806
4. On the Disengaging of Boats, &c. By E. J. Hill 807
6. The old Orkney Click Mill. By Professor A. Jamleson, M.Inst.C.E 807
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
1. On the application of Electricity to the working of a 20-ton Travelling
Crane. By W. Anbeeson, M.Inst.C.E 808
2. On recent Developments of the Cowles Aluminium Process. By R. E.
Crompton 809
3. Electric Lighting in America. By Professor Geo ege Foebes, F.R.S, ... 813
4. On a System of Electrical Distribution. By Henet Edmunds 813
6. The Measurement of Electricity in a House to House Supply. By W.
LowEiE 814
€. Electric Light applied to Night Navigation upon the Suez Canal. By
R. Peect Sellon 814
7. Electricity as applied to Mining. By Feank Beain 815
8. Miners' Electric Safety Lamps. By Nicholas Watts, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 816
9. On an Automatic Fire-damp Detector. By Joseph Wilson Swan, M.A. 817
XXll CONTENT.*.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
Page
1. An improved Seismograph. By E. A. Cowpee, M.Inst.C.E 818
2. The Friction of Metal Coils. By Professor H. S. Hele Shaw and E.
Shaw 819
3. Steam Engine Diagrams. By M. F. Fitzgerald 819'
4. The Efficiency of Steam at High Pressures and the Carnot Theorem. By
AV. WoRBT Beattmont, M.Inst.C.E 820-
5. Rerolving Sails, or Air-propellers. By H. 0. Vogt 820
6. A new Sphere Plauimeter. By Professor 11. S. Hele Shaw 821
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
1. Underground Railway Communication in great Cities. By Colonel Row-
land R. Hazard " 821
2. Transmission of Motion and Power, By J. Walter Pearse 823
3. An Annual AVinding Clock, with Torsion Pendulum. Bv W. H.
Douglas " 823
4. A new form of Air-compressor for Variable Pressures. By H. Da vet,
M.Inst.C.E 824
5. On controlling the direction of Rotation of a Dynamo. By A. AVinter... 824
Section H.— ANTHROPOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
Address by Lieut.-General Pitt-Rivers, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A.,
President of the Section 825
1. Report of the Committee for investigating the effects of different occupa-
tions and employments on the Phvsical Development of the Human
Body '. '. 836
2. Second Report of the Committee for ascertaining and recording the locali-
ties in the British Islands in which evidences of the existence of Pre-
historic Inhabitants of the country are found 836
3. The Constitutional Characteristics of those who dwell in large Towns, as
relating to Degeneracy of Race. By G. B. Barron, M.D., L.R.C.S.E.,
M.R.C.S., Hon. Surgeon-Major 836
4. The Physique of the Swiss as influenced by Race and by Media. By Dr.
Beddoe, F.R.S., V.P.A.1 837
5. On Colour-blindness. By Karl Grossmann, M.D 838
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
1. On Human Bones discovered by General Pitt-Rivers at A\'oodcuts,
Eotherley, &c. By Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S 839
2. Human Remains from Wiltshire. By J. G. Garson, M.D., A' .P.A.I 839
3. On a Method of investigating the Development of Institutions ; applied to
Laws of Marriage and Descent. By Edward B. Tylor, F.R.S 840
4. Australian Message-sticks and Messengers. By A. W. Howitt, F.G.S ... 842
5. Social Regulations m Melanesia. By the Rev. R. H. Codrington, D.D. 843
CONTKNTS. XXlll
Page
6. On the Funeral Rites and Ceremonies of tlie NicoLar Islanders. By
E. H. Man 844
7. Notes on the Shell-Mounds and Ossuaries of the Choptank River, Mary-
land, U.S.A. By the Chevalier R. Elmek Reynolds 845
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
1. Marriage Customs of the New Britain Group. By the Rev. Benjahin
Danks 847
2. Totem Clans and Star Worship. By George St. Clate, F.G.S 848
3. The Survival of Corporal Penance. By Osbert H. Howarth 849
4. Notes on Chest-types. By Dr. G. W. Hambleton 849
5. Third Report of the Committee for investigating the Prehistoric Race
in the Greek Islands 849
6. Fourth Report of the Committee for mvestigatuig and puhlishing reports
on the physical characters, languages, and industrial and social condition
of the North- Western Trihes of the Dominion of Canada 849
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
1. Necklaces in relation to Prehistoric Commerce. By Miss A. W. Buck-
land 849
2. The Definition of a Nation. By J. Park Harrison, M. A 850
3. Sun-myths in Modern HeUas. By J. Theodore Bent 850
4. The Ancient Inhabitants of the Canary Islands. By J. Harris Stone,
M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S 851
5. Some Account of the Ancient (prje-Roman) Stronghold of Worlehury,
near Weston-super-Mare. By the Rev. Henry George Tomkins 851
6. Celtic Earthworks in Hampshire, in reference to the Density of the Celtic
Population. By T. W. Shore, F.G.S., F.C.S 852
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
1. The Monument known as ' King Orry's Grave ' compared with Tumuli in
Gloucestershire. By Miss A. W. Buceiand 854
2. Observations made in the Anthropometric Laboratory at Manchester. By
George W. Bloxam, M.A., and J. G. Garson, M.D 854
3. On the Early Races of Western Asia. By Major C. R. Conder, R.E. ... 855
4. Discoveries in Asia Minor. By J. Theodore Bent 856
6. Notes on the Hyksos or Shepherd-Kings of Egypt. By the Rev. Henry
George Tomkins 856
6. Pelasgians, Etruscans, and Iberians ; their relations to the Founders
of the Chaldean and Egyptian Civilisations. By J. S. Stuart Glennie,
MA 857
XXIV CONTENTS.
APPENDIX.
Page
A List of Works referring to British Mineral and Thermal Waters. By
W. H. Dalton, F.G.S 859
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. B. Grantham, Major-
General Sir A. Clarke, Sir J. N. Douglass, Capt. Sir Q. Nares, Admiral
Sir E. Ommannet, Capt. J. Parsons, Capt. W. J. L. Wharton, Professor
J. Peestwich, Messrs. C. E. De Range, E. Easton, J. B. Redman, W.
TopiET, J. S. Valentine, L. F. Vernon-Haecotjet, W. Whitaier,
and J. W. WooDALL, appointed for the purpose of inquiring into the
Rate of Erosion of the Sea-coasts of England and Wales, and the Influ-
ence of the Artificial Abstraction of Shingle or other material in that
Action. C. E. De Range and AV. Toplet, Secretaries. (The Report
edited by W. Toplet) 898
Irj)Ex 935
LIST OF PLATES. XXV
LIST OF PLATES.
PLATE I.
Illustrating the Report of the Committee for constructing and issuing Practical
Standards for use in Electrical Measurements.
PLATES II., IIL, IV., Ain) V.
illustrating the Report of the Committee for investigating the Microscopical
Structure of the Older Rocks of Anglesey.
OBJECTS AND RULES
OF
THE ASSOCLITION.
OBJECTS.
Thk Association contemplates no interference with the ground occupied
by other institutions. Its objects are : — To give a stronger impulse and
a moie systematic direction to scientific inquiry, — to promote the inter-
course of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British
Empire, with one another and with foreign philosophers, — to obtain a
more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any
disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress.
KULES.
Admission of Memhers and Associates.
All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to
become Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to
conform to its Rules.
The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical
Societies publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled,
in like manner, to become Members of the Association.
The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees,,
of Philosophical Institutions shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.
All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Coun-
cil or Managing Committee shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.
Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the
General Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Asso-
ciation, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the
approval of a General Meeting.
Compositions, Subscriptions, and Privileges.
Life Members shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be
published after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the
offices of the Association.
Annual Subscribers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive
KtTLBS OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXVll'
gratuitotisly the Reports of tte Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay ivithout intermission their
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this subscription in any par-
ticular year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and-
all future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association
gratis : but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any
subsequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the
sum of One Pound. They are eligible to all the Offices of the Association.
Associates for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.
The Association consists of the following classes : —
1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid'
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.
2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on
admission Ten Pounds as a composition.
3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to-
the payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership-
after intermission of Annual Payment.]
4. Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the
payment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each
following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of
Annual Payment.]
5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.
6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.
And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual,
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members')-
price, according to the following specification, viz. : —
1. Gratis. — Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further
sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845,
a further sum of Five Pounds.
New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a composition.
Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.
2. At reduced or Members' Price, viz., two-thirds of the Publication Price.
— Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a composi-
tion for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a Book
Subscription.
AnnualMembers who have intermitted their Annual Subscription.
Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for
that year only.]
3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any
of the volumes of the Reports of the Association up to 1874>.
of which more than 15 copies remain, at 2s. 6d. per volume.^
Application to be made at the Office of the Association, 22 Albemarle
Street, London, W.
Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can
only be issued by direction of the Council.
Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.
• A few complete sets, 1831 to 1874, are on sale, at £10 the set.
-XXVIU BULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Meetings.
The Association shall meet annnally, for one week, or longer. The
place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the Greneral Committee two
years in advance ; and the arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the
Officers of the Association.
General CoiwrniUee.
The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
1 longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
•following persons : —
Class A. Permanent Meiibers.
1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association, and Presi-
• dents of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of
iReports in the Transactions of the Association.
2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers have fur-
' thered the advancement of those subjects which are taken into considera-
tion at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. With a view of sub-
mitting new claims under this Rule to the decision of the Coicncil, they must
he sent to the Secretary at least one month before the Meeting of the
Association. The decision of the Council on the claim,s of any Member of
■ the Association to be placed on the list of the General Gommittee to be final.
Class B. Temporary Members.'
1. Delegates nominated by the Corresponding Societies under the
■ conditions hereinafter explained. Claims under this Rule to be sent to the
Secretary before the opening of the Meeting.
2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not ex-
ceeding three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place of
Meeting. Claims under this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries
I before the opening of the Meeting.
3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and
who are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by
>the President and General Secretaries.
4. Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections.
Organizing Sectional Committees.'^
The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sec-
tions are nominated by the Council, and have power to act until their
■names are submitted to the General Committee for election.
From the time of their nomination they constitute Organizing Com-
mittees for the purpose of obtaining information upon the Memoirs and
Reports hkely to be submitted to the Sections,^ and of preparing Reports
' Revised by the General Committee, 1884.
2 Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871.
' Notice to Contributors of Memoirs. — Authors are reminded that, under an
. arrangement dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which
they are to be read, are now as far as possible determined by Organizing Committees
for the several Sections before the beginning of the Meeting. It has therefore become
1 necessary, in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the
RULES OP THE ASSOCIATION. XXIX-
thereon, and on the order in whicli it is desirable that they should be
read, to be presented to the Committees of the Sections at their first
meeting. The Sectional Presidents of former years are ex officio members-
of the Organizing Sectional Committees.'
An Organizing Committee may also bold such preliminary meetings as
the President of the Committee thinks expedient, but shall, under any
circumstances, meet on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting, at
11 A.M., to nominate the first members of the Sectional Committee, if
they shall consider it expedient to do so, and to settle the terms of their
report to the General Committee, after which their functions as art
Organizing Committee shall cease. ^
Constitution of the Sectional Committees.^
On the first day of the Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presi-
dents, and Secretaries of each Section having been appointed by the
Greneral Committee, these Officers, and those previous Presidents and
Vice-Presidents of the Section who may desire to attend, are to meet, at
2 P.M., in their Committee Rooms, and enlarge the Sectional Committees
by selecting individuals from among the Members (not Associates) present
at the Meeting wbose assistance they may particularly desire. The Sec-
tional Committees thus constituted shall have power to add to their
number from day to day.
The List thus formed is to be entered daily in the Sectional Minute-
Book, and a copy forwarded without delay to the Printer, who is charged
with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on the next day in the Journal of
the Sectional Pi'oceedinsrs.
-"&'-
Business of the Sectional Committees.
Committee Meetings are to be held on the Wednesday at 2 p.m., on the
following Thursday, Friday, Saturday,'' Monday, and Tuesday, from 10 to
11 A.M., punctually, for the objects stated in the Rules of the Association,
and specified below.
The business is to be conducted in the following manner : —
1, The President shall call on the Secretary to read the minutes of
the previous Meeting of the Committee.
2 No paper shall be read until it has been formally accepted by the
several Communications, that each Author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir, .
of a length suitable for insertion in tlie published Transactions of the Association,
and that he should send it, together with the original Memoir, hy book-post, on or
before .addressed thus — 'General Secretaries, British Associa-
tion, 22 Albemarle Street, London, W. For Section ' If it should be incon-
venient to the Author that his paper should be read on any particular days, he is
requested to send information thereof to the Secretaries in a separate note. Authors
who send in their MSS. three complete weeks before the Meeting, and whose papers
are accepted, will be furnished, before the Meeting, with printed copies of their
Reports and Abstracts. No Report, Paper, or Abstract can be inserted in the Annual
Volume unless it is handed either to the Recorder of the Section or to the Secretary,
before the conclusion of the Meeting.
' Added by the General Committee, Sheffield, 1879.
' Revised by the General Committee, Swansea, 1880.
' Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871.
* The meeting on Saturday was made optional by the General Committee at?
Routhport, 1883.
XXX RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Committee of the Section, and entered on the minutes accord-
ingly.
3. Papers which have been reported on unfavourably by the Organiz-
ing Committees shall not be brought before the Sectional
Committees.^
At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of
last year's proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis
of Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association and
printed in the last volume of the Transactions. He will next proceed to
read the Report of the Organizing Committee.^ The list of Communi-
^cations to be read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general
distribution of business throughout the week shall be provisionally ap-
pointed. Atthecloseof the CommitteeMeetingthe Secretaries shall forward
to the Printer a List of the Papers appointed to be read. The Printer is
charged with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on Thursday in the Journal.
On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days,
the Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers
which have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed
to be read on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early
in the day as possible to the Printer, who is charged with printing the
•same before 8 A.M. next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one
of the Secretaries of each Section (generally the Recorder) should call
at the Printing Office and revise the proof each evening.
Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily
in the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of
the Committee.
Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts
of Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwa,rded, at the close of the
Sectional Meetings, to the Secretary.
The Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ex officio
temporary Members of the Greneral Committee (vide p. xxxiii), and will
receive, on application to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets
entitling them to attend its Meetings.
The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may
be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are
specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association and the com-
munications made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of
selecting definite points of research to which individual or combined
exertion may be usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the
state and progress of which Reports are wanted ; to name individuals or
Committees for the execution of such Reports or researches ; and to state
whether, and to what degree, these objects may be usefully advanced by
■the appropriation of the funds of the Association, by application to
Government, Philosophical Institutions, or Local Authorities.
In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science,
it is expedient that all Members of the Committee should be named, and
one of them appointed to act as Chairman, who shall have notified personally
' These rules were adopted by the General Committee, Plymouth, 1877.
■* This and the following sentence were added by the General Committee, Edin-
burgh, 1871.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXI
■or in writing his willingness to accept the office, the Chairman to have the
responsibility of receiving and disbursing the grant {if any has been Tnade)
and securing the presentation of the Report in due time ; and, further, it is
■expedient that one of the tnembers should be appointed to act as Secretary, for
insuring attention to business.
That it is desirable that the number of Members appointed to serve on a
■Committee should be as small as is consistent tvith its efficient working.
That a tabidar list of the Committees appointed on the recommendation
of each Section should be sent each year to the Recorders of the several Sections,
to enable them to fill in the statement whether the several Committees
appointed on the recommendation of their respective Sections had presented
their reports.
That on the proposal to recommend the appointment of a Committee for a
special object of science having been adopted by the Sectional Committee, the
number of Members of such Committee be then fixed, but that the Members to
serve on such Committee be nominated and selected by the Sectional Committee
at a subsequent ineeting.^
Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assist-
ance they may require.
The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to
be registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of
«ach is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Secretary for presentation
to the Committee of Recommendations. Unless this be done, the Recom-
mendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association.
N.B. — Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sec-
tions must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they
-can be referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by
the General Committee.
The Committees of the Sections shall ascertain whether a Report has
been made by every Committee appointed at the previous Meeting to whom
a sum of money has been granted, and shall report to the Committee of
Recommendations in every case where no such Report has been received.*
Notices regarding G^xmts of Money.
Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money have been
entrusted by the Association for the prosecution of particular researches
in science, are required to present to each following Meeting of the
Association a Report of the progress which has been made ; and the
Chairman of a Committee to whom a money grant has been made must
(previously to the next Meeting of the Association) forward to the General
Secretaries or Treasurer a statement of the sums which have been ex-
pended, and the balance which remains disposable on each grant.
Grants of money sanctioned at any one Meeting of the Association
"■expire a week before the opening of the ensuing Meeting; nor is the
Treasurer authorized, after that date, to allow any claims on account of
such grants, unless they be renewed in the original or a modified form by
the General Committee.
No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices
• Revised by th6 General Committee, Bath, 1888.
' Passed by the General Committee at Sheffield, 1879,
xxxii RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
of the British Association without special permission from the General
Committee to do so ; and no money so raised shall be expended except in
accordance with the rules of the Association.
In each Committee, the Chairman is the only person entitled
to call on the Treasurer, Professor A. W. "Williamson, 17 Buckingham
Street, London, W.C, for such portion of the sums granted as may from
time to time be required.
In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contem-
plate the payment of personal expenses to the members.
In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the con-
tinuation of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named is
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, whatever balance may remain
unpaid on the former grant for the same object.
All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Associa-
tion are to be deposited at the Office of the Association, 22 Albemarle
Street, Piccadilly, London, W., when not employed in carrying on scien-
tific inquiries for the Association.
Business of the Sections.
The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation from
10 to 11 daily. The Section Booms and approaches thereto can be used for
no notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the Association.
At 11 precisely the Chair will be taken,' and the reading of communi-
cations, in the order previously made public, commenced. At 3 P.M. the
Sections will close.
Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications
delivered in may render such divisions desirable.
A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which
originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of
the Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author.
Duties of the Doorkeepers.
1. — To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are
appointed during the whole time for which they are engaged.
2. — To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the ex-
hibition of a Member's, Associate's, or Lady's Ticket, or Reporter's
Ticket, signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the
Secretary.
3. — Persons unprovided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted
to any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room.
No person is exempt from these Rules, except tbose Officers of the
Association whose names are printed in the programme, p. 1.
Duties of the Messengers.
To remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed dur-
ing the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed on
messages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms.
» The sectional meetings on Saturday and on Wednesday may begin at any time
which may be fixed by the Committee, not earlier than 10 or later than 11. Passed by
the General Committee at Bath, 1888.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. SXXUl
Committee of Recomm^endations.
The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee,
which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional
Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which
they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science.
All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the
Committee of Recommendations, and not taken into considex-ation by the
General Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of
Recommendations.
Coi'respondi7ig Societies}
(1.) Any Society is eligible to be placed on the List of Corresponding
Societies of the Association which undertakes local scientific investiga-
tions, and publishes notices of the results.
(2.) Applications may be made by any Society to be placed on the
List of Corresponding Societies. Application must be addressed to the
Secretary on or before the 1st of June preceding the Annual Meeting at
which it is intended they should be considered, and must be accompanied
by specimens of the publications of the results of the local scientific
investigations recently undertaken by the Society.
(3.) A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be annually nomi-
nated by the Council and appointed by the General Committee for the
purpose of considering these applications, as well as for that of keeping
themselves generally informed of the annual work of the Corresponding
Societies, and of superintending the preparation of a list of the papers
published by them. This Committee shall make an annual report to the
General Committee, and shall suggest such additions or changes in the
List of Corresponding Societies as they may think desirable.
(4.) Every Corresponding Society shall return each year, on or before the
1st of June, to the Secretary of the Association, a schedule, properly filled
up, which will be issued by the Secretary of the Association, and which will
contain a request for such particulars with regard to the Society as may
be required for the information of the Corresponding Societies Committee.
(5.) There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the Association
a list, in an abbreviated form, of the papers published by the Corre-
sponding Societies during the past twelve months which contain the
results of the local scientific work conducted by them ; those papers only
being included which refer to subjects coming under the cognisance of
one or other of the various Sections of the Association.
(6.) A Corresponding Society shall have the right to nominate any
one of its members, who is also a Member of the Association, as its dele-
gate to the Annual Meeting of the Association, who shall be for the time
a Member of the General Committee.
Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies.
(7.) That the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies be
empowered to send recommendations to the Committee of Recommenda-
tions for their consideration, and for report to the General Committee.'
' Passed by the General Committee, 1884.
1888. b
XXxiv RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
(8.) The Delegates of the various Corresponding Societies shall con-
stitute a Conference, of which the Chairman, Vice-Chairmen, and Secre-
taries shall be annually nominated by the Council, and appointed by the
General Committee, and of which the members of the Corresponding
Societies Committee shall be ex officio members.
(9.) The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by the Secretaries
to hold one or more meetings during each Annual Meeting of the Associa-
tion, and shall be empowered to invite any Member or Associate to take
part in the meetings.
(10.) The Secretaries of each Section shall be instructed to ti'ansmit to
the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates copies of any recommen-
dations forwarded by the Presidents of Sections to the Committee of
Recommendations bearing upon matters in which the co-operation of
Corresponding Societies is desired ; and the Secretai'ies of the Conference
of Delegates shall invite the authors of these recommendations to attend
the meetings of the Conference and give verbal explanations of their
objects and of the precise way in which they would desire to have them
carried into effect.
(11.) It will be the duty of the Delegates to make themselves familiar
with the purport of the sevei-al recommendations brought before the Confer-
ence, in order that they and others who take part in the meetings may be
able to bring those recommendations clearly and favourably before their
respective Societies. The Conference may also discuss propositions bear-
ing on the promotion of more systematic observation and plans of opera-
tion, and of greater uniformity in the mode of publishing results.
Local Committees.
Local Committees shall be formed by the OflBcers of the Association
to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.
Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers
those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.
Ojfficers.
A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries,
and a Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.
Council.
In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall
be managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The
Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week
of the Meeting.
(1) The Council shall consist of '
1. The Trustees.
2. The past Presidents.
3. The President and Vice-Presidents for the time being.
4. The President and Vice-Presidents elect.
5. The past and present General Treasurers, General and
Assistant General Secretaries.
* Passed by the General Committee, Belfast, 1874.
KULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXV
6, The Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the ensuing
Meeting.
7. Ordinary Members.
(2) The Ordinary Members shall be elected annually from the
General Committee.
(8) There shall be not more than twenty-five Ordinary Members, of
whom not more than twenty shall have served on the Council,
as Ordinary Members, in the previous year.
(4) In order to carry out the foregoing rule, the following Ordinary
Members of the outgoing Council shall at each annual election
be ineligible for nomination : — 1st, those who have served on
the Council for the greatest number of consecutive years ; and,
2nd, those who, being resident in or near London, have
attended the fewest number of Meetings during the year
— observing (as nearly as possible) the proportion of three by
seniority to two by least attendance.
(5) The Council shall submit to the General Committee in their
Annual Report the names of the Members of General Com-
mittee whom they recommend for election as Members of
Council.
(6) The Election shall take place at the same time as that of the
Officers of the Association.
Papers and Communications.
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to
reserve his right of property therein.
A ccounts.
The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the General Committee.
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xliv
EEPOET 1888.
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OP SCIENCES, I. — MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS.
1832.
1833.
1834.
Oxford
Cambridge
Edinburs-h
Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S
Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.
Rev. H. Coddington.
Prof. Forbes.
Prof. Forbes, Prof. Lloyd.
SECTION A. — MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
1836.
1836.
1837.
1838.
1839.
1840.
1841.
1842.
1843.
1844.
1845.
1846.
1847.
1848.
1849.
1850.
1851.
1852.
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856.
1857.
Dublin
Bristol
Liverpool...
Newcastle
Birmingham
Glasgow ...
Plymouth
Manchester
Cork
York
Cambridge
Southamp-
ton.
Oxford
Swansea ...
Birmingham
Edinburgh
Ipswich ...
Belfast
Hull
Liverpool...
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham
Dublin
1858. Leeds
Rev. Dr. Robinson
Rev. William Whewell, F.R.S.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S
Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
F.R.S.
Rev. Prof . Whewell, F.R.S....
Prof. Forbes, F.R.S
Rev. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S
Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D.,
F.R.S.
Prof. M'Culloch, M.R.I. A. ...
The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ...
The Very Rev. the Dean of
Ely.
Sir John F. W. Herschel,
Bart., F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Powell, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S
William Hopkins, F.R.S
Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S.,
Sec. R.S.E.
Rev. W. Whewell, D.D.,
F.R.S.
Prof. W. Thomson, M.A.,
F.R.S. L. & E.
The Very Rev. the Dean of
Ely, F.R.S.
Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec.
R.S.
Rev. Prof. Kelland, M.A.,
F.R.S. L. & E.
Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S.
Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.,
F.R.S., M.R.I.A.
Rev. W. Whewell, D.D..
V.P.R.S.
Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof.
Wheatstone.
Prof. Forbes, W. S. Harris, F. W.
Jerrard.
W. S. Harris, Rev. Prof. Powell,
Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine,
Prof. Stevelly.
J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof.
Stevelly.
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly,
Arch. Smith.
Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. M'Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev.
W. Scoresby.
J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. H. Goodwin, Prof. Stevelly,
G. G. Stokes.
John Drew, Dr. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.
Rer. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.
Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Stevelly, G, G. Stokes, W.
Ridout Wills.
W. J.Macquorn Rankine,Prof .Smyth,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
S. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Dixon, W. J. Macquorn Ran-
kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall.
B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt,
Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh.
J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof.
Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh.
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof.
Tyndall.
C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull.
Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A.
Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. S. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy,
Prof. Stevelly, H. J. S. Smith, Prof.
Tyndall.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
xlv
Date and Place
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee ...
1868. Norwich ...
1869. Exeter
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton...
1873. Bradford...
1874. Belfast
1876. Bristol
1876. Glasgow ...
1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin
1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
1881. York
1882. Southamp-
ton.
1883. Southport
1884. Montreal ...
Presidents
The Earl of Eosse, M.A., K.P.,
F.R.S.
Rev. B. Price, M.A., F.R.S....
G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L.,
Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Prof .W. J. MacquornRankine,
C.E., F.R.S.
Prof. Cayley, M.A., P.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.
W. Spottiswoode,M.A.,F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.
Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D.,
F.R.S.
Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D.,
F.R.S.
.J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. P. G. Tait, F.R.S.E. ,
W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. H. J. S. Smith, F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett, M.A.,
M.R.I.A.
Prof. Balfour Stewart, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.
D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. G. C. Foster, B.A., F.R.S.,
Pres. Physical Soc.
Rev. Prof. Salmon, D.D.
D.C.L., F.R.S.
George Johnstone Stoney,
M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. W. Grylls Adams, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. Prof. Lord Rayleigh,
M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. O.Henrici, Ph.D., F.R.S.,
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
LL.D., D.C.L, F.R.S
Secretaries
J. P. Heimessy, Prof. Maxwell, H.
J. S. Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. G. C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison,
Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. .J. S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. N. Ferrers, Prof. Fuller, F.
Jenkin, Prof. Stevelly, Rev. C. T.
Whitley.
Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G.
Buckle, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G.
S. Mathews, Prof. H. J. S. Smith,
J. M. Wilson.
Fleeming Jenkin, Prof. H. J.S.Smith,
Rev. S. N. Swann.
Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster,
Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan.
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley,
R. B. Hay ward.
Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,
W. K. Clifford.
Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford,
Prof. G. C. Poster, Rev. W. Allen
Whitworth.
Prof. W, G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D.
Everett, Rev. R. Harley.
Prof. W. K. Clifford, J. W. L. Glaisher,
Prof. A. S. Herschel, G. F. Rodwell.
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J.
W.L. Glaisher, Prof. A. S. Herschel.
J. W. L. Glaisher, Prof. Herschel,
Randal Nixon, J. Perry, G. F.
Rodwell.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. W.L. Glaisher,
C. T. Hudson, G. F. Rodwell.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. G. Forbes, J. W. L. Glaisher,
T. Muir.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
J. W. L. Glaisher, F. G. Landon.
Prof. J. Casey, G. F. Fitzgerald, J.
W. L. Glaisher, Dr. O. J. Lodge.
A. H. Allen, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr.
0. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
W. E. Ayrton, J. W. L. Glaisher,
Dr. 0. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, Prof. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Rev. W. Routh.
W. M. Hicks, Prof. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Rev. G. Richard-
son.
W. M. Hicks, Prof. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Prof. R. C. Rowe.
C. Carpmael, W. M. Hicks, Prof. A.
Johnson, Prof. 0. J. Lodge, Dr. D.
MacAlister.
xlvi
REPORT 1888.
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
1885. Aberdeen...
Prof. G. Chi-ystal,
M.A.,
E. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
F.E.S.E.
W. M. Hicks, Prof. W. Ingram.
1886. Birmingham
Prof. G. H. Darwin,
M.A.,
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
LL.D., F.E.S.
J. H. Poynting, W. N. Shaw.
1887. Manchester
Prof. Sir R. S. Ball,
M.A.,
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
LL.D., F.R.S.
H. Lamb, W. N. Shaw.
1888. Bath
Prof. G. F. Fitzgerald,
M.A.,
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A.
F.R.S.
Lodge, W. N. Shaw.
CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, II. — CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY.
1832. Oxford
1833. Cambridge
1831. Edinburgh
.John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Dr. Hope
James F. W. Johnston.
Prof. Miller.
Mr. Johnston, Dr Christison.
SECTION B. — CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.
1835. Dublin
1836. Bristol
1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...
1841. Plymouth...
1842. Manchester
1843. Cork
1844. York
1845. Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
ton
1847. Oxford
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich ...
1852. Belfast
1858. Hull
1854. Liverpool
1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham
1857. Dublin
1858. Leeds
1859. Aberdeen...
Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Cummins' ..
Michael Faraday, F.R.S
Rev. William Whewell.F.R.S.
Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S
Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.S.
Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S
John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. Apjohn, M.R.LA
Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S
Rev. Prof. Cumminff
Michael Faraday, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Rev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Richard Phillips, F.R.S
John Perc}', M.D., F.R.S
Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E.
Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.S.
Thomas Andrews,M.D.,r.R.S.
Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Prof.W. A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.
Dr. Lyon Playfair,C.B.,F.R.S.
Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ...
Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.R.S.,
M.R.LA.
Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
D.C.L.
Dr. LyonPlayfair, C.B.,F.R.S.
Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston.
Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera-
path.
Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr.
Reynolds.
Prof. Miller, H. L. Pattinson, Thomas
Richardson.
Dr. Goldins- Bird. Dr. J. B. Melson.
Dr. R. D. '^Thomson, Dr. T. Clark,
Dr. L. Playfair.
.J. Prideaux, Robert Hunt, W. M.
Tweedy.
Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham.
U. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.
Dr. L. Playfair, E. Solly, T. H. Barker.
R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof. Miller,
E. Solly.
Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall.
B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly.
T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams.
R. Hunt, G. Shaw.
Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson.
T. J. Pearsall, W. S. Ward.
Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof.
Ronalds.
H. S. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J.
Pearsall.
Dr.Edwards,Dr.Gladstone,Dr.Price.
Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe.
J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley, Prof.
Voelcker.
Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul-
livan.
Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey-
nolds.
J. S. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D,
Liveing, Dr. Odling.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
xlvii
Date and Place
Presidents
1860. Oxford.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.
1865.
1866.
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle
Bath
Birmingham
Nottingham
Dundee . . .
Norwich ...
Exeter
Liverpool...
Edinburgh
Brighton ...
Bradford ...
Belfast
Bristol
Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
Dublin
Sheffield ...
Swansea ...
Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.E.S
Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.
Dr. Alex. W. Williamson,
■pi T) Q
W. Odiing, M.B., F.R.S.,
Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D.,
V.P.R.S.
H. Bence Jones, M.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. T. Anderson, M.D.,
F.R.S.E.
Prof. E. Frankland, F.R.S.,
Ti^ p ^
Dr. H. Debus, F.R.S., F.C.S.
Secretaries
1881. York.
A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing,
A. B. Northcote.
A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing.
H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odiing, Prof.
Roscoe.
Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C.
Stevenson.
A. V. Harcom-t, Prof. Liveing, R.
Biggs. \
A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof,
Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills.
J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J.
Russell, J. White.
A. Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing,
W. J. Russell.
Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus-
sell, F. Sutton.
Prof. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J.
Russell, Dr. Atkinson.
Prof. H. E. Roscoe, B.A.,:Prof. A. Crum Brown, A. E.Fletcher,
F.R.S., F.C.S. ! Dr. W. J. Russell.
Prof. T. Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S.: J. T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T.
i E, Thorpe.
Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S.... Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr.
W. J. Russell, Dr. T. Wood.
ProL W. J. Russell, F.R.S.... Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe.
Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D., Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand-
F.R.S.E., F.C.S. I ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe.
A. G.Vernon Harcourt, M.A., [ Dr. H. E. Armstrong, W. Chandler
F.R.S., F.C.S. Roberts, W. A. Tilden.
W. H. Perkin, F.R.S W. Dittmar, W. Chandler Roberts,
' J. M. Thomson, W. A. Tilden.
F. A. Abel, F.R.S., F.C.S. ...Dr. Oxland, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson.
W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thom-
son, Dr. C. R. Tichborne, T. Wills.
H. S. Bell, W. Chandler Roberts, J.
M. Thomson.
P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon, Dr.
W. R. Eaton Hodgkinson, J. M.
Thomson.
Prof. A. W.Williamson, Ph.D., P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
1882. Southamp-
ton.
1883. Southport
1884. Montreal ...
1885. Aberdeen...
1886. Birmingham
1887. Manchester
1888. Bath
Prof. Maxwell Simpson, M.D.,
F.R.S., F.C.S.
Prof. Dewar, M.A., F.R.S.
Joseph Henry GUbert, Ph.D.,
F.R.S.
F.E.S.
Prof. G. D. Liveing, M.A.,
Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.E.S...
Prof. Sir H. E Roscoe, Ph.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. H. E. Armstrong, Ph.D.,
F.R.S., Sec. C.S.
W. Crookes, F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
Dr. E. Schunck, F.R.S., F.C.S.
Prof. W. A. Tilden, D.Sc,
F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
T. Gough.
P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
J. L. Kotter.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley.
Prof. P. PhiUips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
T. McFarlane, Prof. W. H. Pike.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
H.ForsterMorley.Dr. W.J.Simpson.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley, W. W.
■ .7. Nicol, C. J. Woodward.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. Forster
Morley, W. Thomson.
Prof. H.' B. Dixon, Dr. H. Forster
Morley, R. E. Moyle, Dr. W. W.
J. Nicol.
xlviii
KEPORT — 1888.
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
GEOLOGICAL (and, until 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, III. — GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
1832. Oxford
1833. Cambridge.
1834. Edinburgh.
E. I. Murcliison, F.K.S.
G. B. Greenough, F.R.S.
Prof. Jameson ,
John Taylor.
W. Lonsdale, John Phillips.
Prof. Phillips, T. Jameson Torrie,
Eev. J. Yates.
SECTION C. — GEOLOGY AND GEOGEAPHY.
1835. Dublin U. J. Griffith I Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie.
1836. Bristol (Bev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S. — IWilliam Sanders, S. Stutchbury
[ Geoff7-aj)hi/,R. I. Mwcchison,} T. J. Torrie.
: F.K.S.
1837. Liverpool... ■ Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.—
i Geography, G. B .Greenough,
1838. Newcastle. . I C. Lyell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.—
I Geography, Lord Prudhope.
1889. Birmingham 'Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S. —
I Geoqraphy,Q(.V>SjX&G.xi(ya.^,
F.R.S.
1840. Glasgow ...! Charles Lyell, F.R.S.— fi^eo-
I grajyhy, G. B. Greenough,
I F.R.S.
1841. Plymouth... H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S. ...
1842. Manchester I R. I. Murchison, F.R.S
1843. Cork Richard E. Griffith, F.R.S.,
i M.R.I.A.
1844. York ! Henry Warburton, M.P.,Pres.
Geol. Soc.
1845. Cambridge .' Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Leonard Horner,F.R.S. — Geo-
graphy, G. B. Greenough,
F.R.S.
Very Rev.Dr.Buckland,F.R.S.
1846. Southamp-
ton.
1847. Oxford
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850, Edinburgh'
Sir H. T. De la Beche, C.B.,
F.R.S.
Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
Sir Roderick I. Murchison,
F.R.S.
Captain Portlock, R. Hunter. — Geo-
graphy, Captain H. M. Denham,
R.N.
W. C. Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.—
Geograjihy, Capt. Washington.
George Lloyd, M.D., H. E. Strick-
land, Charles Darwin.
W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh
Murray, H. E. Strickland, John
Scoular, M.D.
W. J. Hamilton, Edward Moore, M.D.,
R. Hutton.
E. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R.
Lloyd, H. E. Strickland.
Francis M. Jennings, H. E. Strick-
land.
Prof. Ansted, E, H. Bunbury,
Rev. J. C. Gumming, A. C. Ramsay,
Rev. W. Thorp.
Robert A. Austen, Dr. J. H. Norton,
Prof. Oldham. — Geography, Dr. C.
T. Beke.
Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C.
Ramsay, J. Ruskin.
Starling Benson, Prof. Oldham,
Prof. Ramsay.
J. Beete Jukes, Prof. Oldham, Prof.
A. C. Ramsay.
A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller,
Prof. Nicol.
1851. Ipswich
1852. Belfast..
SECTION c {continued). — geology
WilliamHopkins,M.A.,F.R.S.
R.E.,
Lieut. -Col. Portlock
F.R.S.
C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod,
Searles Wood.
James Bryce, James MacAdam,
Prof. M'Coy, Prof. Nicol.
' At a meeting of the General Committee held in 1850, it was resolved 'That
the subject of Geography be separated from Geology and combined with Ethnology,
to constitute a separate Section, under the title of the "Geographical and Ethno-
logical Section,'" for Presidents and Secretaries of which see page liv.
1
PEESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
xlii
Date and Place
1853. Hull
1854. Liverpool . .
1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham
1857. Dublin
1858. Leeds
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee ...
1868. Norwich ...
1869. Exeter
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton...
1873. Bradford...
1874. Belfast
1875. Bristol
1876. Glasgow ...
1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin
1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
1881. York
1882. Southamp-
ton.
1888.
Presidents
Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S
Prof. Edward Forbes, F.E.S.
Sir E. L Murchison, F.R.S... .
Prof. A. C. Eamsay, F.E.S... .
The Lord Talbot de Malahide
William Hopkins,M.A.,LL.D.,
F.E.S.
Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D.,
D.C.L., F.E.S.
Eev. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D..
F.E.S., F.G.S.
Sir E. L Murchison, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.E.S.
J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.E.S.
Prof. Warington W. Smyth,
F.E.S., F.G.S.
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,
F.E.S., F.G.S.
Sir E. I. Murchison, Bart.,
K.C.B.
Prof. A. C. Eamsay, LL.D.,
F.E.S.
Archibald Geikie, F.E.S.,
F.G.S,
E. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.E.S., F.G.S.
Prof. E. Harkness, F.E.S.,
F.G.S.
Sir Philip de M.Grey Egerton,
Bart., M.P., F.E.S.
Prof. A. Geikie, F.E.S., F.G.S.
R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.E.S., F.G.S.
Prof. J. Phillips, D.C.L.,
F.E.S., F.G.S.
Prof. Hull, M.A., F.E.S.,
F.G.S.
Dr. Thomas Wright, F.E.S.E.,
F.G.S.
Prof. John Young, M.D
W. Pengelly, F.E.S
John Evans, D.C.L., F.E.S.,
F.S.A., F.G.S.
Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B.,
F.E.S., F.G.S.
H. C. Sorby, LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
A. C. Eamsay, LL.D., F.E.S.,
K P s
E. Etheridge, F.E.S., F.G.S.
Secretaries
Prof. Harkness, William Lawton.
John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness,
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.
James Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof.
Nicol.
Eev. P. B. Brodie, Eev. E. Hep-
worth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall,
T. Wright.
Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders,
Eobert H. Scott.
Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E, W.
Shaw.
Prof. Harkness, Eev. J. Longmuir,
H. C. Sorby.
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, Capt.
D. C. L. Woodall.
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T.
Eupert Jone?, G. W. Ormerod.
Lufas Barrett, Prof. T, Eupert
Jones, H. C. Sorby.
E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H, C.
Sorbv, Thomas Sopwith.
W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H, C,
Sorby, W. Pengelly.
Eev. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Eev. E,
Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly,
E. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil-
son, G. H. Wright.
Edward Hull, W, Pengelly, Henry
Woodward.
Eev. 0. Fi.sher, Eev. J. Gunn, W.
Pengelly, Eev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins,
Eev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood,
W. Boyd Dawkins. G. H. Morton.
E. Etheridge, J. Geikie, T. McKenny
Hughes, L. C. Miall.
L. C. Miall, George Scott, William
Topley, Henry Woodward.
L. C. Miall, E. H. Tiddeman, W.
Topley,
F. Drew, L. C. Miall, E. G. Symes,
E. H. Tiddeman.
L. C. Miall, E. B. Tawney, W, Top-
ley.
J, Armstrong, F. W. Eudler, W.
Topley.
Dr. Le Neve Foster, E. H. Tidde-
man, W. Topley.
E. T. Hardman, Prof. J, O'Eeilly,
E. H. Tiddeman.
W. Topley, G. Blake Walker.
W. Topley, W. Whitaker.
J. E. Clark, W. Keeping, W. Topley,
W. Whitaker.
T. W. Shore, W. Topley, E. West-
lake, W. Whitaker.
c
KEPOET — 188».
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
1883. Southport
Prof. "W. C. Williamson,
R. Betley, C. E. Da Ranee, W. Top-
LL.D., F.R.S.
ley, W. Whitaker.
1884. Montreal ...
W. T. Blanford, F.E.S., Sec.
F. Adams, Prof. E. W. Claypole, W.
G.S.
Topley, W. Whitaker.
1885. Aberdeen...
Prof. J. W. Judd, F.E.S., Sec.
C. E. De Ranee, J. Home, J. J. H.
G.S.
Teall, W. Topley.
1886. Birmingham
Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc,
W. J. Harrison, J. J. H. TeaU, W.
LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Topley, W. W. Watts.
1887. Manchester
Henry Woodward, LL.D.,
J. E. Marr, J. J. H. Teall, W. Top-
F.R.S,, F.G.S.
ley, W. W. Watts.
1888. Bath
Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A.,
Prof. G. A. Lebour, W. Topley, W.
F.R.S., F.G.S.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV. — ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY.
1832. Oxford
1833. Cambridge'
1834. Edinburgh.
Rev. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. ...
Rev. W. L. P. Garnons, F.L.S.
Prof. Graham
Rev. Prof. J. S. Henslow.
C. C. Babington, D. Don.
W. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett.
1835. Dublin.
1836. Bristol.
1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle
] 839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...
1841. Plymouth...
1842. Manchester
SECTION D. — ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY,
Dr. Allman
Rev. Prof. Henslow
1843. Cork.
1844. York.
1845. Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
ton.
1847. Oxford
W. S. MacLeay
Sir W. Jardine, Bart.
Prof. Owen, F.R.S
Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D.
John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.
Hon. and Very Rev. W. Her-
bert, LL.D., F.L.S.
William Thompson, F.L.S. ...
Very Rev. the Dean of Man-
chester.
Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S....
Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,
F.R.S.
H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S.
I J. Curtis, Dr. Litton.
J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, S.
Rootsey.
C. C. Babington, Rev. L. Jenyns, W.
Swainson.
J, E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen,
Dr. Richardson.
E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson.
Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat-
terson.
J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson.
Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A.
Turner.
G. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R.
Patterson.
Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King.
Dr. Lankester.
Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston.
Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H.
Wooldridge.
Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V.
Wollaston.
SECTION D (continued). — zoology and botany, including physiology.
[For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Subsec-
tions and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. liii.]
Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen-
frey. Dr. Lankester.
Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell.
Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan.
' At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee,
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. liii.
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
L, W. Dillwyn, F.R.S
William Spence, F.R.S
Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L. & E.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
Date and Place
1851. Ipswich ..
1852. Belfast
1853. Hull
1854. Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham
Presidents
Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A.,
F.R.S.
W. Ogilby
1857. Dublin
1858. Leeds
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford
1-861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Nevfcastle
1864. Bath
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee ,
C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S... .
Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E.
Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres.L.S.
Prof, W. H. Harvey, M.D.,
F.R.S.
C. C. Babington, M,A., F.R.S.
Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E.
Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S....
Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S.
Prof. Huxley, F.R.S
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....
Dr. John E, Gray, F.R.S. ...
T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. ...
Secretaries
Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E.
Lankester.
Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr,
Edwin Lankester.
Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester.
Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.
William Keddie, Dr. Lankester.
Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman,
Dr. Lankester.
Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester,
Robert Patterson, Dr. W. E. Steele.
Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E.
Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester,
Dr. Ogilvy.
W. S. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P.
L. Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr.
P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H.
B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.
H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T.
Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Dr. J. Anthonj', Rev. C. Clarke. Rev.
H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.
SECTION D (continued). — biology.'
i
1868. Norwich
»
1869. Exeter,
»
1870. Liverpool.
1871. Edinburgh
k
Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.
— Physiolor/ical Dep., Prof.
Humphry, M.D., F.R.S.—
Anthropoiogical Dep., Alf.
R. Wallace, F.R.G.S.
Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.
— Dep. of Zool. and Dot.,
George Busk, M.D., F.R.S.
Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.
— Dep. of Physwhgy, W.
H. Flower, F.R.S.
George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S.
— Dep. of Dot. and Zool.,
C. Spence Bate, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Etlino., E. B. Tylor.
Prof. G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D.,
F.R.S., F.L.S. — J?e//. of
Anat. and Pki/siol.,Fiof.M.
Foster, M.D., F.L.S.— Dep.
of JSthno., J. Evans, F.R.S.
Prof. Allen Thomson, M.D.,
F.Ii..S.— Dep. of Dot. and
.2ooZ.,Prof.WyvilleThomson,
F.R.S. — Dep. of Anthropol.,
Prof. W. Turner, M.D.
Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H,
B. Tristram, W. Turner, E. B.
Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright.
C. Spence Bate, Dr. S. Cobbold, Dr,
M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rev. H.
B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.
Dr. T. S. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr.
M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H. T,
Stainton, Rev. Dr. H. B. Tristram,
Dr. E. P. Wright.
Dr. T. S. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster,
E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T Stainton, Rev, H. B. Tris-
tram.
Dr. T. S. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans,
Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H.
T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram,
C. Staniland Wake, E. Ray Lan-
kester.
Dr. T. R. Eraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee,
E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake,
Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne
King.
1 At a meeting of the General Committee in 1865, it was resolved:- 'That the
title of Section D be changed to Biology;' and 'That for the word "Subsection "
mthe niles for conducting the business of the Sections, the word "Department"
c 2
Hi
BEPORT — 1888.
Date and Place
1872. Brighton ..
1873. Bradford ...
1874. Belfast .
1875. Bristol ..
1876. Glasgow ...
1877. Plymouth..
1878. Dublin .
1879. Sheffield
1880. Swansea ..,
1881. York.
1882. Southamp-
ton.
Presidents
Sir J. Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anat. and PJujsiol.,
Dr. Burdon Sanderson,
F.R.S. — Dep. of Anthropol.,
Col. A. Lane Fox, F.G.S.
Prof. Allman.F.R.S.— i>ri7. of
Anat. and Pk!/siol.,Fioi. Ru-
therford, M.t>.—Dfp. of An-
thropol., Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S.
Prof. Redfern, M.B.—Dep. of
Zool. and Jiot., Dr. Hooker,
C.B.,Pres.R.S.— />^'^.o/'^?i-
throp.,'&\x VV.R. Wilde, M.D.
P. L. Sclater, F.R.S.— Z)<|/?.o/
Anat.niidIVn/s'iol.,Tiof.C\e-
land, M.D., i\R.fi.—Dep.of
Anthropol., Prof. Rolleston,
M.D., F.R.S.
A. Rus.sel Wallace, F.R.G.S.,
F.L.S. — Zlej?. of Zuol. and
Bot., Prof. A. Newton, M.A.,
F.R.S. — Dep. of Anat. and
Physiol., Dr. J. G. McKen-
dri'ck, F.R.S.E.
J.GwynJearcys,LL.D.,F.R.S.,
¥.lj.?>.—Dflp. of Anat. and
Physiol., Prof. Macalister,
M.D. — Pep. of Anthropol.,
Francis Gallon, M. A.,F.R.S.
Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.—
Dej}. of Anthropol., Prof.
Huxley, Sec. R.S. — Dtp.
of Anat. and Physiol., R.
McDonnell, M.D.,'F.R.S.
Prof. St. George Mivart,
F.R.S.— Z»e/A of Anthropol.,
E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S.
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-
siol., Dr. Pye-Smith.
A. C. L. Giinther, M.D., F.R.S.
— Dtp. of Anat. and Phy-
siol., F. M. Balfour, M.A
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
F. W. Rudler, F.G.S.
Richard Owen, C.B., M.D.,
¥.R.S.—Dep.of Anthrojwl.,
Prof. W. H. Flower, LL.D.,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anat. and
Phydol., Prof. J. S. Burdon
Sanderson, M.D., F.R.S.
Prof. A. Gamgee, M.D., F.R.S.
— Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
Prof. M. A. Lawson, M.A.,
F.L.S. — Dej). of Anthropol.,
Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins,
M.A., F.R.S.
Secretaries
Prof. Thiselton-Dyer.H. T. Stainton,
Prof. Lawson, F. W. Rudler, J. H.
Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, E. Ray
Lankester, Dr. Pye-Smith.
Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson,
R. M'Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E.
Ray Lankester, F. W. Rudler, J.
H. Lamprey.
W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, R. O. Cunning-
ham, Dr. J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H.
Pye-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F. W.
Rudler.
E. R. Alston, Dr. McKendrick, Prof.
W. R. M'Nab, Dr. Martyn, F. W.
Rudler, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, Dr.
W. Spencer.
E. R. Alston, Hyde Clarke, Dr.
Knox, Prof. W. R. M'Nab, Dr.
Muirhead, Prof. Morri.son Wat-
son.
E. R. Alston, F. Brent, Dr. D. J.
Cunningham, Dr. C. A. Kingston,
Prof. W. R. M'Nab, J. B. Rowe,
F, W. Rudler.
Dr. R. J. Harvey, Dr. T. Hayden,
Prof. W. R. M'Nab, Prof. J. M.
Purser, J. B . Rowe, F. W. Rudler.
Arthur Jackson, Prof. W. R. M'Nab,
J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler, Prof.
Schiifer.
G. W. Blo.xam, John Priestley,
Howard Saunders, Adam Sedg-
wick.
G. W. Bloxam, W. A. Forbes, Rev.
W. C. Hey, Prof. W. R. M'Nab,
W. North, John Priestley, Howard
Saunders, H. E. Spencer.
G. W. Bloxam, W. Heape, J. B.
Nias, Howard Saunders, A. Sedg-
wick, T. W. Shore, jun.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
liii
Date and Place
1883. Southport'
1884.
1885.
1886
1887
1888
Montreal^...
Aberdeen...
Birmingham
Manchester
Bath
Presidents
Secretaries
Prof. E. KayLankester, M.A.,
F.K.S. — Dep. of A iithrojiol.,
W. Pengelly, F.R S.
Prof. H. N. Moseley, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Prof. W. C. Mcintosh, M.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S. L. k E.
W. Carruthers, Pres. L.S.,
F.R.S,, F.G.S.
Prof. A. Newton, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.L.S., V.P.Z.S.
W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, C.M.G.,
F.R.S., F.L.S.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. G. J. Haslam,
W. Heape, W. Hurst, Prof. A. M.
Marshall, Howard Saunders, Dr.
G. A. Woods.
Prof. W. Osier, Howard Saunders, A.
Sedgwick, Prof. R. R. Wright.
W. Heape, J. McGregor-Robertson,
J. Duncan Matthews, Howard
Saunders, H. Marshall Ward.
Prof. T. W. Bridge, W. Heape, Prof.
W. Hillhouse, W. L. Sclater, Prof.
H. Marshall Ward.
C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, S. F. Har-
mer, W. Heape, W. L. Sclater,
Prof. H. Marshall Ward.
F. E. Beddard, S. F. Harmer, Prof.
H. Marshall Ward, W. Gardiner,
Prof. W. D. Halliburton.
ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V. — ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.
1833. Cambridge ]Dr. Haviland Dr. Bond, Mr. Paget.
1834. Edinburgh I Dr. Abercrombie Dr. Iloget, Dr. William Thomson.
SECTION E (until 1847). — ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.
1835. Dublin
1836. Bristol
1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...
Dr. Pritchard
Dr. Roget, F.R.S
Prof. W. Clark, M.D
T. E. Headlam, M.D
John Yelloly. M.D., F.R.S.
James Watson, M.D
Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart.
Dr. Symonds.
Dr. J. Carson, ]'un., James Long,
Dr. J. R. W. Vose.
T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Yose.
Dr. G. 0. Rees, F. Ryland.
Dr. J. Brown, Prof. Couper, Prof,
Reid.
SECTION E. — PHYSIOLOGY.
1841. Plymouth... P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S
1842, Manchester
1843, Cork
1844. York
1845. Cambridge
1846, Southamp-
ton.
1847. Oxford' ...
Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S
Sir James Pitcairn, M.D.
:j. C. Pritchard, M.D
iProf. J. Haviland, M.D. .
Prof, Owen, M.D., F.R.S,
I Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S, ,
Dr, J, Butter, J, Fugc, Dr, E. S.
Sargent.
Dr. Chaytor, Dr, E, S. Sargent.
Dr. John Popham, Dr, R. S. Sargent,
..il. Erichsen, Dr. R. S. Sargent,
..'Dr. R. S. Sargent, Dr. Webster,
C. P. Keele, Dr, Laycock, Dr, Sar-
gent.
Dr. Thomas K, Chambers, W. P.
Ormerod.
' By direction of the General Committee at Southampton (1882) the Departments
of Zoology and Botany and of Anatomy and Physiology were amalgamated.
* By authority of the General Committee, Anthropology waa made a separate
Section, for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. lix.
' By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were
incorporated uader the name of 'Section D — Zoology and Botany, including Phy-
Biology' (see p, 1), The Section being then vacant was assigned in 1851 to
Geography.
liv
KEroRT — 1888.
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
1850.
1855.
18.57.
1858.
1859.
18G0.
1861.
1862.
186.3.
1864.
1865.
Edinburgh
Glasgow ...
Dublin
Leeds
Aberdeen...
Oxford
Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle
Bath
Birming-
ham.'
Prof. Bennett, M.D.,F.R.S.E.
Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S.
Prof. K. Harrison, M.D
Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart.,
F.R.S.
Prof. ShaiTDcy, M.D., Sec.R.S.
Prof.G.Rolleston,M.D.,F.L.S.
Dr. John Davy, F.R.S.L.& E.
G. B. Paget, M.D
Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S.
Dr. Edward Smith, LL.D.,
F.R.S.
Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D.,
F.R.S.
Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers.
Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Eedfern.
C. G. Wheeihouse.
Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern.
Dr. R. M'Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith.
Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith,
G. F. Helm. Dr. Edward Smith.
Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner.
J. S. Bart rum. Dr. W. Turner.
Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop,
Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner.
GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
[For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C.
p. xlviii.]
ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
1 84 6. Southampton
1847. Oxford
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
Dr. Pritchard
Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A.
Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm
Dr. King.
Prof. Buckley.
G. Grant Francis.
Dr. R. G. Latham.
Daniel Wilson.
SECTION E. — GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.
1851. Ipswich ...Sir R. L Murchison, F.R.S.,[R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr.
I Pres. R.G.S. Norton Shaw.
1852. Belfast Col. Chesney, R.A., D.C.L.,Ir. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton
1 F.R.S. Shaw.
1853. Hull :R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S. R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr.
I Norton Shaw.
1854. Liverpool..., Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L., Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr.
F.R.S. Ihne, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1855. Glasgow ... Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,' Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr.
F.R.S. Norton Shaw.
1856. Cheltenham Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson, R. Cull, F. D. Havtland, W. H.
I K.C.B. Rumsey, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1857. Dublin Rev. Dr. J. Henthorn Todd, R. Cull, S. Ferguson, Dr. E. R.
Pres. R.I.A. Madden, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1858. Leeds Sir R.L Murchison, G.C.St.S., R. Cull, Francis Galton, P. O'Cal-
I F.R.S. laghan. Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas
I "Wright.
1859. Aberdeen... Rear - Admiral Sir James Richard Cull, Prof. Geddes, Dr. Nor-
Clerk Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S. '
1860. Oxford Sir R. L Murchison, D.C.L.,
! F.R.S.
1861. Manchester John Crawfurd, F.R.S
i
1862. Cambridge Francis Galton, F.R.S
I
ton Shaw.
Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C.
Lemprifere, Dr. Norton Shaw.
Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode.
J.W.Clarke, Rev. J. Glover, Dr. Hunt,
Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.
' Vide note on page xlviii.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
Iv
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
1863. Newcastle
Sir E. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield,
F.R.S.
C. R. Markham, E. S. "Watson.
1864. Bath
Sir R. I Murchison. K C.B
H. W. Bates, C. E. Markham, Capt.
E. M. Jlurchison, T. "Wright.
F.E.S.
1865. Birmingham
Major-General Sir H. Raw-
H. W. Bates, S. Evans, G. Jabet, C.
linson, M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S.
R. Markham, Thomas "Wright.
1866. Nottingham
Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,
H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, R,
LL.D.
H. Major, Clements R. Markham,
D. "W. Nash, T. "Wright.
1867. Dundee ...
Sir Samuel Baker, F.E.G.S.
H. W.Bates, Cyril Graham, Clements
E. Markham, S. J. Mackie, R.
Sturrock.
1868. Norwich ...
Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N.,
T. Baines, H. "W. Bates, Clements R.
F.R.S.
Markham, T. Wright.
SECTION E (continued'). — geography.
1869. Exeter
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ...
1873. Bradford...
1874. Belfast
1875. Bristol
1876. Glasgow ...
1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin
1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
1881. York
1882. Southamp.
ton.
1883. Southport
1884. Montreal ...
1885. Aberdeen...
1886. Birmingham
1887. Manchester
1888. Bath.
L
Sir Bartle Frere, K.C.B.,
LL.D., F.R.G.S.
SirR.I.Murchison,Bt.,K.C.B.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S.
Francis Galton, F.R.S...
Sir Rutherford Alcock, K. C.B.
Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S.,
F.E.G.S.
Lieut. - General Strachey,
E.E.,C.S.I.,F.E.S., F.E.G.S.,
F.L.S., F.G.S.
Capt. Evans, C.B., F.E.S
Adm. Sir E. Ommanney, C.B.,
F.E.S., F.E.G.S., F.E.A.S.
Prof. Sir C. Wyville Thom-
son, LL.D., F.E.S.L.&E.
Clements E. Markham, C.B.,
F.E.S., Sec. E.G.S.
Lieut.-Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy,
C.B., K.C.M.G., E.A., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S.
Sir J. D. Hooker, K.C.S.L,
C.B., F.R.S.
Sir R. Temple, Bart., G.C.S.I.,
F.R.G.S.
Lieut.-Col. H. H. Godwin-
Austen, F.R.S.
Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy, C.B.,
K.C.M.G., F.R.S., V.P.R.G.S.
Gen. J. T. Walker, C.B., R.E.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Maj.-Gen. Sir. F. J. Goldsmid,
K.C.S.L, C.B., F.R.G.S.
Col. Sir C. Warren, R.E.,
G.C.M.G., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
Col. Sir C. W. Wilson, E.E.,
K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham
J. H. Thomas.
H.W.Bates, David Buxton, Albert J.
Mott, Clements R. Markham.
A. Buchan, A. Keith Johnston, Cle-
ments R. Markham, J. H. Thomas.
H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Rev. J. Newton, J. H. Thomas.
H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Clements R. Markham.
E. G. Eavenstein, E. C. Eye, J. H.
Thomas.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Eye, F. F.
Tuckett.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, R. Oliphant
Wood.
H. W, Bates, F. E. Fox, B. C. Rye.
John Coles, E. C. Eye.
H. W. Bates, C. E, D. Black, E. C.
Eye.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Eye.
J. W. Barry, H. W. Bates,
E. G. Eavenstein, E. C. Eye.
John Coles, E. G. Eavenstein, E. C.
Eye.
Eev.AbbeLaflamme, J.S. O'HaUoran,
E. G. Eavenstein, J. F. Torrance.
J. S. Keltie, J. S. O'HaUoran, E. G.
Eavenstein, Rev. G. A. Smith.
F. T. S. Houghton, J. S. Keltie,
E. G. Ravenstein.
Rev. L. C. Casartelli, J. S. Keltie,
H. J. Mackinder, E. G. Eaven-
stein.
J. S. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, E. G.
Eavenstein.
Ivi
KEroRT — 1888.
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
1833.
1834.
STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, YI. — STATISTICS.
Cambridge I Prof. Babbacre, F.R.S i J. E. Drinkwater.
Edinburgli | Sir Charles Lemon, Bart | Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean.
SECTION F. — STATISTICS.
1835.
1836.
Dublin .
Bristol .
1837. Liverpool...
1838.
1839.
1840,
1841.
1842.
1843.
1844.
1845.
1846.
1847.
1848.
1849.
Newcastle
Birmingham
Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
Manchester
Cork.
York.
Cambridge
Southamp-
ton.
Oxford
Swansea ...
Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851.
1862.
1853.
1864.
Ipswich
Belfast..
Hull
Liverpool.
1866. Glasgow
Charles Babbage, F.R.S
Sir Chas. Lemon, Bart., F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon
Colonel Sykes, F.R.S
Henry Hallam, F.R.S
Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon, M.P.,
F.R.S.
Lieut.- Col. Sykes, F.R.S
G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S. ...
Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ...
Lieut. - Col. Sykes, F.R.S.,
F.L.S.
Rt.Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam
G. R. Porter, F.R.S
Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S.
J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.R.S. ...
Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton
Very Rev. Dr. John Lee,
V.P.R.S.E.
Sir John P. Boileau, Bart. ...
His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin.
James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S.
Thomas Tooke, F.R.S
R. Monckton Milnes, M.P. ...
W. Greg, Prof. Longfield.
Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp,
James Hej'wood.
W. R. Greg.'w. Langton, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.
W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W. R. Wood.
F. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.
C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W.
Rawson.
Rev. Dr. B3-rth, Rev. R. Luney, R.
W. Rawson.
Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr.
W. C. Tayler.
Dr. D. BuUen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Lay-
cock.
J. Fletcher, Dr. W. Cooke Tavler.
J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Nelson, Dr. W.
C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott.
Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G.
P. Neison.
J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede.
Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F. G. P.
Neison.
Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J.
Stark.
J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock.
Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James
MacAdam, jun.
Edward Cheshire, W. Newmarch.
E. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H.
Duncan, W. Newmarch.
J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-
march, Prof. R. H. Walsh.
SECTION P (continued). — economic SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
1856.
Cheltenham
1857.
Dublin
1858.
Leeds
1859.
Aberdeen...
1860.
Oxford
1861.
Manchester
Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P.
His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin, M.R.LA.
Edward Baines
CoL Sykes, M.P., F.R.S
Nassau W. Senior, M. A
William Newmarch, F.R.S..
Rev. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr.
W. N. Hancock, W. Newmarch, W.
M. Tartt.
Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W.
Newmarch.
T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, S. Brown,
Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang.
Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M,
Smith, Dr. John Strang.
Edmund Macrorj', W. Newmarch,
Rev. Prof. J. E. T. Rogers.
David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie,
E. Macrory, Rev. Prof. J. E. T.
Rogers.
PEESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
Ivii
Date and Place
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich....
1869. Exeter
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton..
187.S. Bradford ...
187-1. Belfast
1875. Bristol
1876. Glasgow ...
1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin
1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
1881. York
1882. Southamp-
ton.
1883. Southport
1884. Montreal ...
1885. Aberdeen...
1886. Birmingham
1887. Manchester
1888. Bath
Presidents
Edwin Chadwick, C.B
William Tite, M.P., F.K.S. ...
William Farr, M.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,
M.P.
Prof. J. E. T. Rogers
M. E. Grant Duff, M.P
Samuel Brown, Pres. Instit.
Actuaries.
Rt.Hon. Sir StaEEordH. North-
cote, Bart., C.B., M.P.
Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A.
Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves
Prof. Henry Fawcett, M.P. ...
Rt. Hon. W. E. Forster, M.P.
Lord O'Hasran
James Heywood, M.A., F.R.S. ,
Pres.S.S.
Sir George Campbell, K.C.S.I.,
M.P.
Rt. Hon. the Earl Fortescue
Prof. J. K. Ingram, LL.D.,
M.R.LA.
G. Shaw Lefevre, M.P., Pres.
S.S.
G. W. Hastings, M.P
Rt. Hon. M. E. Grant-Duff,
M.A., F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. G. Sclater-Booth,
M.P., F.R.S.
R. H. Inglis Palgrave, F.R.S.
Sir Richard Temple, Bart.,
G.C.S.L, CLE., P.R.G.S.
Prof. H. Sidgwick, LL.D.,
Litt.D.
J. B. Martin, M.A., F.S.S.
Robert Qiffen, LL.D.,V.P.S.S.
Rt. Hon, Lord Bramwell,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Secretaries
H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory.
T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory,
Frederick Purdy, James Potts.
E. Macrory, E. T. Payne. F. Purdy.
G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston,
E. Macrory.
R. Birkin, jun., Prof. Leone Levi, E.
Macrory.
Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J.
Warden.
Rev. W. C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi,
E. Macrory, F. Purdy, C. T. D.
Acland.
Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, E. Macrory
J. Miles Moss.
J. G. Fitch, James Meikle.
J. G. Fitch, Barclay Phillips.
J. G. Fitch, Swire Smith.
Prof. Donnell, F. P. Fellows, Han»
MacMordie.
F. P. Fellows, T. G. P. Hallett, E.
Macrory.
A. M'Neel Caird, T. G. P. Hallett, Dr.
W. Neilson Hancock, Dr. W. Jack.
W. F. Collier, P. Hallett, J. T. Pirn.
W. J. Hancock, C, MoUoy, J. T. Pirn.
Prof. Adamson, R. E. Leader, C.
Molloy.
N. A. Humphreys, C. Molloy.
C. Molloy, W. W. Morrell, J. F.
Moss.
G. Baden-Powell, Prof. H. S. Fox-
well, A. Milues, C. Molloy.
Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. S.
Foxwell, J. N. Keynes, C. Molloy.
Prof. H. S. Foxwell, J. S. McLennan,
Prof. J. Watson.
Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. S.
Foxwell, C. McCombie, J. F. Moss.
F. F. Barham, Rev. W. Cunningham,
Prof. H. S. Foxwell, J. F. Moss.
Rev. W. Cunningham, F. Y. Edge-
worth, T. H. ElUott, C. Hughes,
Prof. J. E. C. Munro, G. H. Sar-
gant.
Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, T. H. EUiott,
Prof. H. S. Foxwell, L. L. F. R.
Price.
I
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
SECTION G. — MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
1836. Bristol
1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle
Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Rev. Dr. Robinson
Charles Babbage, F.R.S
T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West.
Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
R. Hawthorn, C. Vignoles, T.
Webster.
Iviii
BEPOBT — 1888.
Date and Place
1839.
1840.
1841.
1842,
1843.
1844.
1845.
1846.
1847.
1848.
1849.
1850.
1851.
1852.
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.
1865.
1866.
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
Birmingham
Glasgow .,
Plymouth
Manchester
Cork
York
Cambridge
Southamp-
ton.
Oxford
Swansea ..
Birmingham
Edinburgh
Ipswich
Belfast
Hull
Liverpool...
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham
Dublin
Leeds
Aberdeen...
Oxford
Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle
Bath
Birmingham
Nottingham
Dundee
Norwich ...
Exeter
Liverpool...
Edinburgh
Brighton ...
Bradford ...
Presidents
Prof. Willis, F.K.S., and Eobt.
Stephenson.
Sir John Robinson
1874. Belfast.
John Taylor, F.E.S
Kev, Prof. Willis, F.R.S
Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.LA....
John Taylor, F.R.S
George Rennie, F.R.S
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.
Rev. Prof .Walker, M. A.,F.R.S.
Rev. Prof .Walker, M.A.,F.R.S.
Robt. Stephenson, M.P., F.R.S.
Rev. R. Robinson
WQliam Cubitt, F.R.S
John Walker, C.E., LL.D.,
F.R.S.
William Fairbairn, C.E.,
F.R.S.
John Scott Russell, F.R.S. ...
W. J. Macquorn Eankine,
C.E., F,R.S.
George Eeimie, F.R.S
Et. Hon. the Earl of Rosse,
F.R.S.
William Fairbairn, F.R.S. ...
Rev. Prof. Willis, M,A., F.R.S.
Prof .W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S....
Wm. Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.E.S.
J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S
Sir W. G. Armstrong, LL.D.,
F.R.S.
Thomas Hawksley, V.P.Inst.
C.E., F.G.S.
Prof . W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.R.G.S.
C. W. Siemens, F.R.S
Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., F.R.S.
Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S.
F. J. Bramwell, C.E
W. H. Barlow, F.E.S
Prof. James Thomson, LL.D.,
C.E., F.E.S.E.
Secretaries
W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, T.
Webster.
J. Scott Eussell, J. Thomson, J. Tod,
C. Vignoles.
Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster.
J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Eussell, J.
Thomson, Charles Vignoles.
James Thomson, Robert Mallet.
Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
Rev. W. T. Kingsley.
William Betts, jun., Charles Manby.
J. Glynn, E. A. Le Mesurier.
E. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struve.
Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall.
Dr. Lees, David Stephenson.
John Head, Charles Manby.
John F. Bateman, C. B, Hancock,
Charles Manby, James Thomson.
James Oldham, J. Thomson, W.
Sykes Ward.
John Grantham, J. Oldham, J.
Thomson.
L. Hill, jun., William Eamsay, J.
Thomson.
C. Atherton, B. Jones, jun., H. M.
JefEery.
Prof. Downing, W.T. Doyne, A. Tate,
James Thomson, Henry Wright.
J. C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright.
R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H,
Wright.
P. Le Neve Foster, Rev. F, Harrison,
Henry Wright.
P. Le Neve Foster, John Eobinson,
H. Wright.
W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster.
P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott,
J. F. Spencer.
P. Le Neve Foster, Eobert Pitt.
P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea, W.
P. Marshall, Walter May.
P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M.
O. Tarbotton.
P. Le Neve Foster, John P. Smith,
W. W. Urquhart.
P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, C.
Manby, W. Smith.
P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.
H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T,
King, J. N. Shoolbred.
H. Bauerman, Alexander Leslie, J.
P. Smith.
H. M. Brunei, P. Le Neve Foster,
J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
Crawford Barlow, H. Bauerman,
B. H. Carbutt, J. C. Hawkshaw,
J. N. Shoolbred.
A. T. Atchison, J. N. Shoolbred, John
Smyth, jun.
PEESIDENTS AND SECRETABIES OF THE SECTIONS.
lix
Date and Place
1875. Bristol
1876. Glasgow ...
1877. Pljinouth...
1878. Dublin
1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
1881. York
1882. Southamp-
ton.
1883. Southport
1884. Montreal...
1885. Aberdeen...
1886. Birmingham
1887. Manchester
1888. Bath
Presidents
W. Froude, C.E., M.A., F.K.S.
C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S
Edward Woods, C.E
Edward Easton, C.E
J. Robinson, Pres. Inst. Mech.
Eng.
James Abernethy, V.P.Inst.
O.B., F.R.S.E.
Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
John Fowler, C.E., F.G.S. ...
James Brunlees, F.R.S.E.,
Pres.Inst.C.E.
Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S.,
V.P.Inst.C.E.
B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E
Sir J. N. Douglass, M.Inst.
C.E.
Prof. Osborne Reynolds, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
W. H. Preece, F.R.S.,
M.Inst.C.E.
Secretaries
W. R. Browne, H. M. Brunei, J. G.
Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
W. Bottomley, jim., W. J. Millar,
J. N. Shoolbred, J. P. Smith.
A. T. Atchison, Dr. Merrifield, J. N.
Shoolbred.
A. T. Atchison, R. G. Symes, H. T.
Wood.
A. T. Atchison, Emerson Bainbridge,
H. T. Wood,
A. T. Atchison, H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, J. F. Stephenson,
H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, F. Churton, H. T.
Wood.
A. T. Atchison, E. Rigg, H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, W. B. Dawson, J.
Kennedy, H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, F. G. Ogilvie, E.
Rigg, J. N. Shoolbred.
C. W. Cooke, J. Kenward, W. B.
Marshall, E. Rigg.
C. F. Budenberg, W. B. Marshall,
E. Rigg.
C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, B.
Rigg, P. K. Stothert.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE.
SECTION H. — ANTHROPOLOGY.
1884. Montreal ...]E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S. ...
1885. Aberdeen... Francis Galton, M.A., F.R.S.
1886. Birmingham Sir G. Campbell, K.C.S.L,
M.P., D.C.L., F.R.G.S.
Prof. A. H. Sayce, M.A
1887. Manchester
1888. Bath
Lieut. -General Pitt-Rivers,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
G. W. Bloxam, W. Hurst.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.
Hurst, Dr. A. Macgregor.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.
Hurst, Dr. R. Saundby
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
A. M. Paterson.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, J.
Harris Stone.
LIST OF EVENING
LECTUEES.
Date and Place
Lecturer
Subject of Discourse
1842.
Manchester
Cork
Charles Vignoles, F.R.S
Sir M. I. Brunei
The Principles and Construction of
Atmospheric Railways.
The Thames Tunnel.
R. I. Murchison
The Geology of Russia.
The Dinornis of New Zealand.
1843.
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S
Prof. E. Forbes, F.R.S
Dr. Robinson
York
The Distribution of Animal Life in
the .SIgean Sea.
The Earl of Rosse's Telescope.
Geology of North America.
1844.
Charles Lyell, F.R.S
Dr. Falconer, F.R.S
The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik
Hills in India.
EEPOET 1888.
ate and Place
1845. Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
ton.
1847. Oxford.
1848. Swansea
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich
1852. Belfast.
1853. Hull .
Subject of Discourse
G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron.Royal
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...
Charles Lyell, F.R.S
W. R. Grove, F.R.S
Rev. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S.
Prof. M. Faraday, F.R.S
Hugh K Strickland, F.G.S....
John Percy, M.D., F.R.S
W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S....
Dr. Faradav, F.R.S
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. J. H.
F.R.S.E.
Bennett, M.D.,
Dr. Mantell, F.R.S. ,
Prof. R. Owen, M.D.,
F.R.S.
1854, Liverpool..
1855. Glasgow
1856. Cheltenham
G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron. Royal
Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.
Prof.J.Phillips,LL.D.,F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
Robert Hunt, F.R.S
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
Col. E. Sabine, V.P.R.S
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.
Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson ..,
1857. Dublin.
1858. Leeds .
1859. Aberdeen.
1860. Oxford.
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
Col. Sir H. Rawlinson
W. R. Grove, F.R.S
Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.S. ...
Rev. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L.
Prof. J. Phillips,LL.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
Sir R. L Murchison, D.C.L....
Rev. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. ...
Rev. Prof. Walker, F.R.S.
Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N.
Prof. W. A. Miller, M.A.,F.R.S.
G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron. Royal
Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Odling, F.R.S
Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.
Geology of Russia.
Fossil Mammaliaof the British Isles.
Valley and Delta of the Mississippi.
Propertiesof the Explosive substance
discovered by Dr. Schonbein ; also
some Researches of his own on
the Decomposition of Water by
Heat.
.Shooting Stars.
Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno-
mena.
The Dodo {Diduf inejyttis).
Metallurgical Operationsof Swansea
and its neighbourhood.
Recent Microscopical Discoveries.
Mr. Gassiot's Battery.
Transit of different Weights with
varying velocities on Railways.
Passage of the Blood through the
minute vessels of Animals in con-
nexion with Nutrition.
Extinct Birds of New Zealand.
Distinction between Plants and Ani-
mals, and their changes of Form.
Total Solar Eclipse of July 28, 1851.
Recent discoveries in the properties
of Light.
Recent discovery of Rock-salt at
Carrickf ergus, and geological and
practical considerations connected
with it.
Some peculiar Phenomena in the
Geology and Physical Geography
of Yorkshire.
The present state of Photography,
Anthropomorphous Apes.
Progress of researches in Terrestrial
Magnetism.
Characters of Species.
Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities
and Ethnology.
Recent Discoveries in Assyria and
Babylonia, with the results of
Cuneiform research up to the
present time.
Correlation of Physical Forces.
The Atlantic Telegraph.
Recent Discoveries in Africa,
The Ironstones of Yorkshire.
The Fossil Mammalia of Australia.
Geology of the Northern Highlands.
Electrical Discharges in highly
rarefied Media.
Physical Constitution of the Sun.
Arctic Discovery.
Spectrum Analysis.
The late Eclipse of the Sun.
The Forms and Action of Water.
Organic Chemistry.
LIST OF EVENING LECTDKES.
Ixi
Date and Place
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich ..
1869. Exeter
1870. Liverpool..
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ..
1873. Bradford ..
1874. Belfast
1875. Bristol ....
1876. Glasgow .
1877. Plymouth.
1878. Dublin
1879. Sheffield
1880. Swansea
1881. York
Lecturer
Prof. Williamson, F.R.S.,
James Glaisher, F.R.S...
Prof. Roscoe, F.R.S
Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S.
J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S. ...
William Huggins, F.R.S. ...
Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S
Archibald Geikie, F.R.S
Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S.
J. Fergusson, F.R.S
Dr. W. Odling, F.R.S
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.
J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof .W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
F. A. Abel, F.R.S
E. B. Tylor, F.R.S
Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B.,
F R S
Prof. W.' K. Clifford
Prof. W. C.Williamson, F.R.S.
Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S.
Sir John Lubbock,Bart.,M.P.,
F.R.S.
Prof. Huxley, F.R.S
W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.
F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S
Prof. Tait, F.R.S.E
SirWyville Thomson, F.R.S.
W. Warington Smyth, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Prof. Odling, F.R.S
G. J. Romanes, F.L.S
Prof. Dewar, F.R.S
W. Crookes, F.R.S
Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S.
Prof .W.Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S
Francis Galton, F.R.S ,
Prof. Huxley, Sec. R.S
W. Spottiswoode, Pres. R.S.
Subject of Discourse
The Chemistry of the Galvanic Bat-
tery considered in relation to
Dynamics.
The Balloon Ascents made for the
British Association.
The Chemical Action of Light.
Recent Travels in Africa.
Probabilities as to the position and
extent of the Coal-measures be-
neath the red rocks of the Mid-
land Counties.
The results of Spectrum Analysis
applied to Heavenly Bodies.
Insular Floras.
The Geological Origin of the present
Scenery of Scotland.
The present state of knowledge re-
garding Meteors and Meteorites.
Archseology of the early Buddhist
Monuments.
Reverse Chemical Actions.
Vesuvius.
The Physical Constitution of the
Stars and Nebulae.
Scientific Use of the Imagination.
Stream-lines and Waves, in connec-
tion with Naval Architecture.
Some recent investigations and ap-
plications of Explosive Agents.
The Relation of Primitive to Modern
Civilization.
Insect Metamorphosis.
The Aims and Instruments of Scien-
tific Thought.
Coal and Coal Plants.
Molecules.
Common Wild Flowers considered
in relation to Insects.
The Hypothesis that Animals are
Automata, and its History.
The Colours of Polarized Light.
Railway Safety Appliances.
Force.
The Cliallenger Expedition.
The Physical Phenomena connected
with the Mines of Cornwall and
Devon.
The new Element, Gallium.
Animal Intelligence.
Dissociation, or Modern Ideas of
Chemical Action.
Radiant Matter.
Degeneration.
Primeval Man.
Mental Imagery.
The Rise and Progress of Palseon-
tology.
The Electric Discharge, its Forms
and its Functions.
Ixii
REPORT — 1888.
D&te and Place
Lecturer
Subject of Discourse
1882. Southamp-
Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson, F.R.S.
Tides.
ton.
Prof. H. N. Moseley, F.R.S.
Pelagic Life.
1883, Southport
Prof. R. S. BaU, F.R.S
Recent Researches on the Distance
of the Sun.
Prof. J. G. McKendrick,
Galvani and Animal Electricity.
F.R.S.E.
1884. Montreal...
Prof. 0. J. Lodge, D.Sc
Dust.
Rev. W. H. Dallinger, F.R.S.
The Modern Microscope in Re-
searches on the Least and Lowest
Forms of Life.
1885. Aberdeen...
Prof. W. G. Adams, F.R.S. ...
The Electric Light and Atmospheric
Absorption.
John Murray, F.R.S.E
The Great Ocean Basins.
1886. Birmingham
A. W. Rucker, M.A., F.R.S.
Soap Bubbles.
Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D. ...
The Sense of Hearing.
1887. Manchester
Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S. ...
The Rate of Explosions in Gases.
Col. Sir F. de Winton,
Explorations in Central Africa.
K.C.M.G.
1888. Bath
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, f.H.S. ...
The Electrical Transmission of
Power.
Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc,
The Foundation Stones of the Earth's
F.R.S.
Crust.
LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES.
1867.
1868.
1869.
Dundee..
Norwich
Exeter . ,
1870. Liverpool .
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
Brighton .
Bradford .
Belfast....
Bristol ....
Glasgow .
Plymouth .
Sheffield .
Swansea .
York
Southamp-
ton.
Southport
Montreal ...
Aberdeen...
Birmingham
Manchester
Bath
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Huxlev, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Miller, M.D., F.R.S. ...
Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,M.P.,
F.R.S.
W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.
C.W.Siemens, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. Odling, F.R.S
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.
Commander Cameron, C.B.,
R.N.
W. H. Preece
W. E. Ayrton
H. Seebohm, F.Z.S
Prof. Osborne Reynolds,
F.R.S.
John Evans, D.C.L. Treas. R.S.
Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S. ...
Prof. R. S. Ball, F.R.S
H. B. Dixon, M.A
Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
F.R.S.
Prof. G. Forbes, F.R.S
Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P.,
F.R.S.
Matter and Force.
A Piece of Chalk.
Experimental illustrations of the
modes of detecting the Composi-
tion of the Sun and other Heavenly
Bodies by the Spectrum.
Savages,
Sunshine, Sea, and Sky,
Fuel.
The Discovery of Oxygen.
A Piece of Limestone.
A Journey through Africa.
Telegraphy and the Telephone.
Electricity as a Motive Power.
The North-East Passage.
Raindrops, Hailstones, and Snow-
flakes.
Unwritten History, and how to
read it.
Talking by Electricity — Telephones.
Comets.
The Nature of Explosions.
The Colours of Metals and their
Alloys.
Electric Lighting.
The Customs of Savage Races.
Ixiii
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COJklMITTEES PRESENT AT THE
BATH MEETING.
SECTION A. — MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
President — Professor 0. F, Fitzgerald, M.A., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.— Ca-pt. W. de W. Abney, C.B., F.R.S. ; "William Esson,
F.R.S. ; Dr. Janssen, For.Memb.R.S. ; Lord Rayleigh, Sec.R.S. ;
Professor Sir W. Thomson, F.R.S., F.R.A.S.; Professor Stokes,
Pres.R.S. ; Professor H. A. Rowland; Rev. R. Harley, F.R.S.
Secretaries. — Robert E. Baynes, M.A. (Recorder) ; R. T. Glazebrook,
F.R.S. ; Alfred Lodge, M.A. ; W. N. Shaw, M.A.
SECTION B. — CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
Prm'(iew*.— Professor W. A. Tilden, D.Sc, F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
Vice-Presidents. — Professor H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S. ; Dr. J. H. Glad-
stone, F.R.S.; Professor T. Sterry Hunt, F.R.S. ; Professor W.
Odling, F.R.S. ; Dr. W. H. Perkin, F.R.S. ; Professor J. Emerson
Reynolds, F.R.S. ; Sir H. E. Roscoe, F.R.S. ; Dr. W. J, Russell,
F.R.S. ; Professor A. W. Williamson, F.R.S.
Secretaries. — Professor H. B. Dixon, F.R.S. ; H. Forster Morley, D.Sc.
(Recorder) ; R. E. Moyle, B.A. ; Dr. W. W. J. Nicol, M.A.
SECTION C. — GEOLOGY.
" President.— Froiessor W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Vice-Presidents.— W. Whitaker, F.R.S. ; Rev. H. H. Winwood, M.A. ;
Professor A. Gandry ; Professor 0. C. Marsh ; Professor S. Nikitin ;
Dr. Max von Hantken ; Professor G. Stefanescu ; Professor Baron
P. von Richthofen ; Professor J. Szabo.
Secretaries. — Professor G. A. Lebour, M.A. ; W. Topley, F.R.S. (Recorder) ;
"W. W. Watts, M.A. ; H. B. Woodward, F.G.S.
SECTION D. — BIOLOGY.
President— W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, C.M.G., M.A., B.Sc, F.R.S., F.L.S.
Vice-Presidents. — Professor Bayley Balfour, F.R.S. ; Professor M. Foster,
Sec.R.S. ; Professor Newton, F.R.S. ; Professor E. A. Schafer,
F.R.S. ; P. L. Sclater, F.R.S. ; Rev. Leonard Blomefield, M.A.
Ixiv BEPOBT — 1888.
Secretaries.— F. E. Beddard, M.A. ; S. F. Harmer, M.A. ; Professor H.
Marshall Ward, F.R.S. {Recorder) ; Walter Gardiner, M.A. ; Pro-
fessor W. D. Halliburton, M.D.
SECTION E. — GEOGRAPHY.
Preside^it.— Colonel Sir C. W. Wilson, R.E., K.C.B , K.C.M.G., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
Vice-Presidents.— E. Delmar Morgan, F.R.G.S. ; H. W. Bates, F.R.S. ;
Sir Lambert Playfair, K.C.M.G. ; Lient.-Gen. Richard Strachej,
R.E., F.R S. ; General J. T. Walker, C.B., R.B., F.R.S.
Secretaries. — J. S. Keltie ; H. J. Mackinder, M.A. ; E. G. Ravenstein
(Recorder),
SECTION F. — ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
President.— The Right Hon. Lord Bramwell, LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.S.
Vice-Presidents. — S. Boarne, F.S.S. ; G. W. Hastings, M.P. ; R. H.
Inglis Palgrave, F.R.S. ; Professor H. Sidgwick, Litt.D.
Secretaries.— Proiessov F, T. Edgeworth, M.A., F.S.S. ; T. H. Elliott,
F.S.S. (Recorder); Professor H. S. Foxwell, M.A., F.S.S.; L. L.
F. R. Price, M.A., F.S.S.
SECTION G. — MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
President.— W. H. Preece, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.
Vice-Presidevts. — W. Anderson, M.Inj3t.C.E.;BenjarainBaker, M.Inst.C.E.;
Sir J. N. Douglass, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. ; William Pole, Mus.Doc,
F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. ; W. Shelford, M.Inst.C.E. ; J. L. Stothert,
M.Inst.C.E.
Secretaries.— ConraA W. Cooke; W. Bayley Marshall, M.Inst.C.E.; E.
Rigg, M.A. (Recorder) ; JP. K. Stothert. }
SECTION n. — ANTHROPOLOGY.
President— Ueni.-General Pitt-Rirers, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A.
Vice-Presidents.— J. Beddoe, M.D., F.R.S.; J. Evans, D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S. ; Professor A. H. Sayce, M.A. ; Edward B. Tylor, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Secretaries. — G. W. Bloxam, M.A. (Recorder) ; J. G, Garson, M.D. ;
J. Harris Stone, M.A.
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1888-89.
PRESIDENT.
SIR FREDERICK J. BRAMWELL, Baut., D.C.L., F.R.S., M.IusT.C.E.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
The Bight Hon. the Earl of Cor.K axd Orreuy,
K.P., Lord Lieutenant of Somerset.
The Most Noble the Marquis op Bath.
The Riglit Hon. and Right Rev. the Lord Bishop
OF Bath and Wells, D.D.
The Right Rev. the Bishop of Clifton.
The Worshipful the Mayor of Bath.
The Worshipful the Mayor of Bristol.
Sir F. A. Abel, C.B., D.C.L.. F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
The Venerable the Archdeacox of Bath.
The Rev. Leonard BLc-tfEriELD, M.A.,
F.G.S.
Professor Michael Foster, M.A., M.D., LL.D.,
Sec.R.S., F.LS., F.C.S.
W. S. CtORE-Lanqton, Esq., J.P., D.L.
H. D. Skrine, Esq., J.P., D.L.
Colonel R. P. Laurie, C.B., M.P.
E. R. Wodebouse, Esq., M.P.
Jerom MurCH, Esq., J.P., D.L.
PRESIDENT ELECT.
PROFESSOR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.S., Pres.Z.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
Director of the Natural History Department of tiie British Museum.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
His Grace the Duke of North u.mbeui.and, K.G.,
D.C.L., LL.D., Lord-Lieuteuaut of Northum-
berland.
The Right Hon. the Earl of Durham, Lord
Lieutenant of Durham.
The Right Hon. the E,akl op Ravbnsworth.
The Right Rey. the Lord Bishoi- ofNewc.vstle,
D.D.
The Right Hon. Lord Armstrong, C.B., D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S. I
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
ProfeBsor P. P. Bedson, D.So., F.C.S. | Professor J. H. Merivale, M.A. | Howard Pease, Esq.
LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
TlIOM.lS HODGKI.S', Esq.
The Very Rev. the Warded of tlie University of
Durham, D.D.
The Worshipful the Mayor op Newc.vstle.
The Worshipful the Mayor Of Gateshead.
Sir I. Lowthia.v Bell, Bart., P.R.S., F.C.S.,
M.Inst.C.E.
Sir Charles Mark Palmer, Bart., M.P. (nimi-
valid by thf Council).
The Rigtit Hon. John Morlst, LL.D., M.P.
ORDINARY MEMBERS
Arney, C«pt. W. de W., C.B., F.R.S.
Ball, Sir R. S., F.R.S.
Barlow, W H., E.sq., F.R.S.
Blanpord, W. T., Esq., F.R.S.
CnooKES, W., Esq., F.R.S.
Darwin, Professor G. H., F.R.S.
DouGL.^ss, Sir J. N., F.R.S.
G-AMGEE, Dr. A., F.R.S.
Geikir, Dr. A., F.R.S.
Godwin-Austen, Lieut.-Col. H. II., F.R.S.
Henrici, Professor O., F.R.S.
Jddd, Professor J. W., F.R.S.
LivEiXG, Professor G. D., F.R.S.
OF THE COUNCIL.
M'Leod, Professor H., F.R.S.
Marti.v, J. B., Esq., F.S.S.
Ommanney, Admiral Sir E., C.B., F.R.S.
Pkef.cE, W. H.,Eiq., F.R.S.
Roberts- AU.STEN-, Professor W. C, F.R.S.
RtjCKER, Professor A., F.R.S.
Schaper, Profes.sor E. A., F.R.S.
Schuster, Professor A., F.R.S.
SiDGWK-K, Professor H., M.A.
Tuiselto.v-Dver, W. T., Esq., C.M.G.,
F.R.S.
Thorpe, Professor T. E.. F.R.S.
Woodward, Dr. H., F.R.S.
GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Capt. Sir Douglas G.u.ton, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. , F.G.S., 12 Chester Street, London, S.W.
A. G. Vernon Harcourt, Esq., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Cowley Grange, O.^forJ.
SECRETARY.
Arthur T. Atchison, Esq., M.A., 22 Albemarle Street, London, W.
GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor A. W. Williamson, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., 17 Buckingham Street, London, W-C.
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents anil
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and -Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and
Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).
Sir John LUBBICK, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R..S., Pres.L.S.
The Right Hon. Lord R.atleigh, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec.R.S., F.R..A.S.
The Right Hon. Sir Lyon Playpair, K.C.B., M.P., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.
The Duke of Devonshire, K.G.
Sir G. B. Airy, K.C.B.. F.R.S.
The Duke of Argyll, K.G., K.T.
Sir Richard Owen, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Lord Armstrong, C.B., LL.D.
Sir William R. Grove, F.R.S.
Sir Joseph D. Hooker, K.C.S.I.
Prof. .Stokes, D.C.L., Pres.R..S.
Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson, LL.D.
Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Tyndall, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir John Hawkshaw, F.R.S.
Prof. AUman, M.D., F.R.S.
Sir A. C.Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S.
Sir John Lubbock, Bart, F.R.S.
Prof. Cayley, LL.D., F.R.S.
Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L.. Sec.R.S.
Sir Lyon Playfair, K.C.B.
Sir Wm. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S.
Sir H. E. Roscoe, F.R.S.
P, Galton, Esq., F.R.S.
Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S.
GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.
I Dr. Michael Foster, Sec.R.S. 1 P. L. Sclater, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S.
I George Griffith, Esq., M.A., F.C.S. | Prof. Bonney, D.Sc, F.R.S.
Dr. W. H. Perkin, F.R.S. |
1888.
AUDITORS.
Dr. John Evans, F.R.S.
Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S.
d
Ixvi
REPOKT 1888.
THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR
Dr.
THE GENERAL TREASURER'S ACCOUNT
1887-88. RECEIPTS.
£ *. d.
Balance of account rendered at Manchester Meeting 1718 10 1
By Life Compositions 940
„ New Annual Members 502
„ Annual Subscriptions 730
„ Associate Tickets at Manchester Meeting 1985
„ Ladies' Tickets at Manchester Meeting 493
„ Sale of Publications 190 5 5
„ Interest on Exchequer Bills 58 4 8
„ Dividends on Consols 295 8 2
„ Pi,ent received from London Mathematical Society, year ending
September 29, 1887 .\ 12 15
„ Unexpended balance of grant made to ' Sliding Scale '
Committee 7 10 10
„ Sale of Exchequer Bills 1509 2 4
£8441 16 6
Investment Account: September, 1887, to Septemhrr, 1888.
Consols .
Exchequer Bills
Cash
Excess of receipts
over expenditure
Per contra
£ .5.
8500
2000
1718 10
534 G
86 19 10
12,83!) 10 5
Profit on change :
To Contra .
£
s.
d.
.,
4
77
17
6
86 19 10 1
New Consols .
Exchequer Bills
India 3 per cent.
Cash
£
8500
500
3600
239 10
5
12,839 10 5
BALANCE SHEET, 1887-88.
Ixvii
THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
(not including receipts at the Bath Meeting).
Cr.
1887-88.
PAYMENTS.
To Expenses of Manchester Meeting, including Printing, Ad-
vertising, and incidental expenses 31-t
Salaries, one year (1887-88) 538
Kent of Oflice at Albemarle Street (1887-88) 117
Spottiswoode & Co. printing account to July, 1887 1028
„ „ to February, 1888 1170
Purchase of India 3 per Cent. Stock 3522
18
15
3
6
o
GR-OJTS.
Flora of Ealiamas 100
Biological Station at Grautoa 60
Flora of China 75
Carboniferous Flora of Lancashire and West Yorkshire .... 2.i
Propcrt ies of Solutions 25
Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives 25
Influence of Silicon on steel 20
Action of Light on H yJraoicls 20
Marine Laboratory, I'l ymoutli 100
Naples Zoological Station 100
Development of Teleostei 15
Precibus Metals in Circulation 20
Value of Monetary Standard 10
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius 20
Prehistoric Race in Greek Islands 20
PaliEontoloprical Sociery 60
Zoology and Botany of West Indies 100
Development of Fishes — St. Andrews SO
Pliocene Fauna of St. Erth 50
Lymphatic System 25
Ben Nevis Observatory 150
North-Western Tribes of Canada 100
.Silent Discharge of Electricity 9 11 10
Manure Gravefs of Wexford 10
Sea Beach near Bridlington 2U
Effects of Occupations on Physical Development 25
Magnetic Observations 15
Methods of Teaching Chemistry 10
Uniform Nomenclature in Mechanics 10
Geological Record 50
Migration of Birds 30
Depths of Frozen Soil in Polar Regions 5
Circulation of Underground Waters 5
.Standards of Light 79
Electrical Standards 2
Peradeniya Botanical Station 50
Erosion of Sea Coasts 10
Electrolysis 30
— 1511 5
Ey Balance at Bank of England, "Western Branch 239 10 5
£8441 16 6
Alex. W. Williamson, General Treasurer.
John Evans.
J. H. Gladstone. \Audiiorx.
W. H. Perkin. J
a.
d2
Ixviii
2EP0RT — 1888.
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts
Date of Meeting
1831,
1832,
1833,
1834,
1835,
1836,
1837,
1838,
1839,
1840,
1841,
1842,
1843,
1844,
1845,
1846,
1847,
1848,
1849,
1850,
1851,
1852,
1853,
1854,
1855,
1856,
1857,
Sept. 27 .
June 19 .
June 25 .
Sept. 8 .
Aug. 10 .
Aug. 22 .
Sept. 11 .
Aug. 10 .
Aug. 26 .
Sept. 17 .
July 20 .
June 23 .
Aug. 17 .
Sept. 26 .
June 19 ,
Sept. 10 ,
June 23 ,
Aug. 9 .
Sept, 12 .
July 21 ,
July 2 ,
Sept. 1 ■ ,
Sept. 3
Sept. 20
Sept. 12
Aug. 6
Aug:. 26
1858,
1859,
1860,
1861,
1862,
1863,
1864,
1865,
1866,
1867,
1868,
1869,
1870,
1871,
1872,
1873,
1874,
187.5,
1876,
1877,
1878,
1879,
1880,
1881,
1882,
1883,
1884,
1885,
1886,
1887,
1888,
Sept. 22 .
Sept. 14 .
June 27 .
Sept. 4 .
Oct. 1 .
Aug. 26 .
Sept. 13 .
Sept. 6 .
Aug. 22 .
Sept. 4 .
Aug. 19 .
Aug. 18 .
Sept. 14 .
Aug. 2 .
Aug. 14 .
Sept. 17 .
Aug. 19 .
Aug. 25 .
Sept. 6 .
Aug. 15 .
Aug. 14 .
Aug. 20 .
Aug. 25 .
Aug. 31 .
Aug. 23 ,
Sept. 19 .
Aug. 27 ,
Sept. 9 ,
Sept. 1
Aug. 31 .
Sent. 5 ,
Where held
Presidents
York
Oxford
Cambridge
Edinburgh
Dublin
Bristol
Liverpool
Newcastle-on-Tyne
Birmingham
Glasgow
Plymouth
Manchester
Cork
York
Cambridge
Southampton
Oxford
Swansea
Birmingham
Edinburgh
Ipswich
Belfast
Hull ,
Liverpool
Glasgow
Cheltenham ,
Dublin
Leeds
Aberdeen
Oxford
Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle-on-Tyne
Bath
Birmingham
Nottingham
Dundee
Norwich
Exeter
Liverpool
Edinburgh
Brighton
Bradford
Belfast
Bristol
Glasgow
Pl3'mouth
Dublin
Sheffield
Swansea
York
Southampton ...
Southport
Montreal
Aberdeen
Birmingham
Manchester
Bath
The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L.
The Rev. W. Buckland, F.R.S.
The Rev. A. Sedgwick, F.K.S.
Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L
The Rev. Provost Lloyd, LL.D.
The Marquis of Lansdowne ...
The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S.
The Duke of Northumberland
The Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt
The Marquis of Breadalbane...
The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.
The Lord Francis Egerton
The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S
The Rev. G. Peacock, D.D. ...
Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart.
Sir Roderick I. Murchison,Bart.
Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart
The Marquis of Northampton
The Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.
Sir David Brewster, K.H
G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal
Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S.
William Hopkins, F.R.S
The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S.
The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. ...
Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D.
The Re V.Humphrey Llovd, D.D,
Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L....
H.R.H. the Prince Consort ...
The Lord Wrottesley, M.A. ...
WilliamFairbairn,LL.D.,F.R.S
The Rev. Professor Willis, M.A,
Sir William G.Armstrong, C.B
Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A.
Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D.
William R. Grove, Q.C., F.R.S.
The Duke of Buccleuch,K.C.B.
Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S.
Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L
Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D.
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. ...
Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S,
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
SirJohnHawkshaw,C.E.,F.R.S.
Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S.
Prof. A. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S.
W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof .G. J. Allman, M.D., F.R.S,
A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S....
Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S.
Dr. C. W. Siemens, F.R.S
Prof. A. Caylev, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. Lord Rayleigh, F R.S. ...
SirLyonPlayfair,K.C.B.,F.R.S
Sir J.W. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S
Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L.,F.R.S
Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S
Old Life
Members
169
303
109
226
313
241
314
149
227
235
172
164
141
238
194
182
236
222
184
286
321
239
203
287
292
207
167
196
204
314
246
245
212
162
239
221
173
201
184
144
272
178
203
235
225
314
428
266
Ladies were not admitted by purchased Tickets until 1843.
t Tickets of Admission to Sections only.
ATTENDANCE AND RECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS.
at Annual Meetings of the Association.
Ixix
Attended by
Amount
received
during the
Meeting
Sums paid on
Account of
Grants for Scien-
tific Purposes
Year
Old Annual
Members
New Annua
Members
Ass
ciat
es I'^'ii'=5
Foreig
•ners Total
• ■•
...
> • • • •
353
1831
1832
1833
1834
1835
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
1841
1842
1843
1844
1845
1846
1847
...
...
, ,
...
...
,,
■ • •
900
...
...
,,
...
1298
£20
...
...
, ,
167
...
...
^,
...
1350
435
...
...
,,
1840
922 12
6
...
...
, ,
1106*
2400
932 2
2
...
...
,,
...
34
1438
1595 11
46
75
71
45
94
65
197
317
376
185
190
22
39
40
33
"9
407
270
495
60*
t 331*
160
t 200
172
196
203
4C
28
35
36
53
1353
891
1315
1079
857
1320
1546 16
1235 10
1449 17
1565 10
981 12
831 9
685 16
208 5
4
11
8
2
8
9
4
64
25
376
197
15
819
£707
275 1
8
1848
, 93
33
447
237
22
1071
903
159 19
6
1849
■ 128
42
510
273
44
1241
10S5
345 18
1850
61
47
244
141
37
710
620
391 9
7
1851
63
60
510
292
9
1108
1085
304 6
7
1852
56
57
367
230
6
876
903
205
1853
' 121
121
765
524
10
1802
1882
.380 19
7
1854
142
101
1094
543
26
2133
2311
480 16
4
1855
104
48
412
346
9
1115
1098
734 13
9
1856
156
120
900
509
26
2022
2015
507 15
4
1857
111
91
710
509
13
1698
1931
618 18
2
1858
125
179
1206
821
22
2504
2782
684 11
1
1859
177
59
636
463
47
1089
1004
766 19
6
1860
184
125
1589
791
15
3138
3944
nil 5
10
1861
150
57
433
242
25
1101
1089
1293 16
6
1862
154
209
1704
loot
25
3335
3640
1008 3
10
1863
182
103
1119
1058
13
2802
2905
1289 15
8
1864
215
149
766
508
23
1997
2227
1591 7
10
1865
218
105
960
771
11
2303
2409
1750 13
4
1866
193
118
1163
771
7
2444
2013
1739 4
1867
226
117
720
682
45
t 2004
2042
1940
1868
229
107
678
600
17
1856
1931
1622
1869
303
195
1103
910
14
2878
3096
1572
1870
311
127
976
754
21
2403
2575
1472 2
6
1871
280
80
937
912
43
2533
2649
1285
1872
237
99
796
601
11
1983
2120
1685
1873
232
85
817
630
12
1951
1979
1151 16
1874
307
93
884
672
17
2248
2397
960
1875
331
185
1265
712
25
2774
3023
1092 4
2
1876
238
59
446
283
11
1229
1268
1128 9
7
1877
290
93
1285
674
17
2578
2615
725 16
6
1878
239
74
529
349
13
1404
1425
1080 11
11
1879
171
41
389
147
12
915
899
731 7
7
1880
313
176
1230
614
24
2557
2089
476 3
1
1881
253
79
516
189
21
1253
1280
1126 1
11
1882
330
323
952
841
5
2714
3369
1083 3
3
1883
317
219
826
74
26&60
H.§ 1777
1538
1173 4
1884
332
122
1053
447
6
2203
2256
1385
1885
428
179
10G7
29
11
2453
2532
995
6
1886
510
244
1985
493
92
3838
4336
1186 18
1887
399
100
639
509
35
1984
2107
1611
5
1888
Including L
idies. §
Fellow
s of the Ameri
:an Asso
elation were adr
nitted as Trnn
Mpmliora fnr
fhio
UTaaHr^r,
Ixx
■REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.
Report of the Council for the year 1887-88, ])rasented to the General
Committee at Bath, on Wednesday, September 5, 1888.
The Council liave received reports during the past year from the
General Ti-easurer, and his account for the year will be laid before the
General Committee this day.
Since the Meeting at Manchester the following have been elected
Corresponding Members of the Association : —
Cleveland Abbe.
Professor de Bary.
Professor Bernthsen.
His Excellency E. Bonghi.
Professor Lewis Boss.
Professor J. W. Bruhl.
Professor G. Capellini.
H. Caro.
Professor J. B. Carnoy.
F. W. Clarke.
Professor E. Fittig.
Dr. Anton Fritsch.
Professor W. His.
Fr. von Hefner-Alteneck.
Professor C. Julin.
Professor Krause.
Professor A. Ladenburg.
Professor J. W. Langlej-.
Professor Count Solms von Laubach.
Professor H. Le Chatelier.
Professor A. Lieben.
Professor G. Lippmann.
Dr. Georg Lunge.
Dr. Henry C. McCook.
Dr. C. A. Martius.
Professor D. Meudelccff.
The Council have nominated tlie Venerable Archdeacon Browne a
Vice-Pi-esident of the meeting at Bath.
Invitations for the year 1890 will be presented from Leeds and Cardiff,
and from Edinburgh for the year 1891.
The following resolution was referred by the General Committee to
the Council for consideration, and action if desirable : —
' That the Council be requested to take such action as they may think
most expedient in order to bring before the Signal Office of the United
States a statement of the high value which British metcoi'ologists attach
to the manuscript bibliography prepared by the Signal Office.'
The Council, after consideration of the question, are of opinion that it
is inexpedient to take action in the matter.
The Council, having considered a motion of Mr. TV. T. Thiselton-
Dyer calling attention to the present mode of appointing Committees,
Professor N. Menschutkin.
Professor Lothar Mej'er.
Dr. Charles Sedgwick Minot.
E. S. Morse.
Professor Xoelting.
Dr. Pauli.
I'rofessor W. Prc3'er.
N. Pringsheim.
Professor G. Quincke.
C. V. Eilev.
M. Ic Jlarrjuis de Saporta.
Ernest Solvay.
Dr. Alfred Springer.
Dr. T. M. Treub.
Professor John Vilanova.
I'rofessor H. F. "Weber.
Professor L. 'A'eber.
Professor jiugust Weismann.
Professor E. Wiedersheim.
I'rofessor G Wiedemann.
Professor J. Wislicenus.
Dr. Otto Witt.
Dr. Ludwig H. Wolf.
Professor C. A. Young.
Professor F. Zirkel.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. Ixxi
witli a view to securing more responsible action, are of opinion that
the following rule of the Association, ' In case of appointment of
Committees for special objects of science, it is expedient that all Members
of the Committee should be named, and one of them appointed to act as
Secretary, for insuring attention to business,' should be amended as follows :
' In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of science
it is expedient that all Members of the Committee should be named,
and one of them appointed to act as Chairman, who shall have notified
personally or in writing his willingness to accept the office, the Chairman
to have the responsibility of receiving and disbursing the grant (if any
has been made) and securing the presentation of the report in due time ;
and, further, it is expedient that one of the Members should bo appointed
to act as Secretary for insuring attention to business.
' That it is desirable that the number of Members appointed to serve
on a Committee should be as small as is consistent with its efficient
working.
' That a tabular list of the Committees appointed on the recommen-
dation of each Section should be sent each year to the Recorders of the
several Sections, to enable them to fill in the statement whether the
several Committees appointed on the recommendation of their respective
Sections had presented their reports.
' That on the proposal to recommend the appointment of a Committee
for a special object of science having been adopted by the Sectional
Committee, the number of Members of such Committee be then fixed,
but that the Members to serve on such Committee be nominated and
selected by the Sectional Committee at a subsequent meeting.'
The Council have received the following report from a Committee of
Council appointed to consider the question of grants to marine biological
stations in this country, together with a letter from Professor E. Ray
Lankester, Secretary of the Marine Biological Association, suggesting
that the British Association should complete its donations to the funds of
that Association, so as to make up the sum given to the amount of 5001.,
thereby securing certain rights.
' The British Association has up to the present time granted altogether
300Z. to the Marine Biological Association, and by a further grant of 200Z.
the British Association would be entitled to nominate a representative on
the Council of the Marine Biological Association. The Committee are of
opinion that the Council should recommend the General Committee to
grant the 200Z., and appoint a member to represent them on the Council
of the Marine Biological Association.
' With reference to the grants to Marine Biological Stations generally,
the Committee are of opinion that in all these cases it is desirable that
grants in future should be made to individuals for specific researches rather
than for the general maintenance of institutions ; and with reference to
the Scottish Stations they would further call the attention of the Council
to the fact that the Scotch Fishery Board has a parliamentary grant of
2,000L per annum for scientific investigations, the whole of which, it
appears from the appropriation accounts, is not at present expended.'
The Council, having received the above Report, have forwarded it,
together with the letter of Professor Lankestei', to the Committee of
Section D.
The report of the Corresponding Societies Committee is herewith,
submitted to the General Committee.
Ixxii
EEroRT — 1888.
The Correspondini^ Societies Committee consisting of Mr. Francis
Galton (Chairman), Professor A. W. Williamson, Sir Douglas Galton,
Professor Boyd Dawkins, Sir Rawson Rawson, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr. J.
Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Professor R. Meldola (Seci-etary), Mr. W.
Whitaker, Mr. G. J. Symons, General Pitt-Rivers, Mr. W. Topley, Mr.
H. G. Pordham, and Mr. William White, with the addition of Professor
T. G. Bonney, is hereby nominated for reappointment by the General
Committee.
The Council hereby nominate Dr. John Evans, Treasurer R.S.,,
Chairman, Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., Vice-Chairman, and Professor R.
Meldola, F.R.S., Secretary to the Conference of Delegates of Correspond-
ing Societies to be held during the Bath meeting.
In accordance with the regulations the five retiring Members of the
Council will be : —
Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.
Prof. J. Dewar, F.R.S.
Prof. W. H. Flower, C.B.
Dr. J. H. Gladstone.
Prof. H. N. Moseley.
The Council recommend the re-election of the other ordinary Members
of Council, with the addition of the gentlemen whose names are distin-
guished by an asterisk in the following list : —
Abney, Capt. W. de W., C.B., F.R.S.
Ball, SirR. S., F.R.S.
Barlow, W. H., Esq., F.R.S.
Blanford, W. T., Esq., F.R.S.
Crookes, W., Esq., F.R.S.
Darwin, Prof. G. H., F.R.S.
Douglass, Sir James, F.R.S.
*Gamgee, Dr. A., F.R.S.
*Geikie, Dr. A., F.R.S.
Godwin- Austen, Lieut.-Col. H. H., F.R.S.
Henrici, Prof. O., F.R.S.
Judd, Prof. J. W., F.R.S.
*LiveiDg, Prof., F.R.S.
Martin, J. B., Esq., F.S.S.
M'Leod, Prof. H., F.R.S.
Ommannev, Admiral Sir E., C.B., F.R.S,
*Preece, W. H., Esq., F.R.S.
Roberts-Austen, Prof. W. C, F.R.S.
*Rucker, Prof., F.R.S.
Schuster, Prof., F.R.S.
Sidgwick, Prof. H., M.A.
Schiifer, Prof , F.R.S.
Thiselton-Dyer, W. T., Esq., C.M.G.„
F.R.S.
Thorpe, Prof. T. E., F.R.S.
Woodward, Dr. H., F.R.S.
Ixxiii
Committees appointed by the Gteneeal Committee at the
Bath Meeting in September 1888.
1. Receiving Grants of Money.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
The Possibility of Calculating
Tables of certain Mathematical
Functions, and, if necessary, of
taking steps to carry out the
calculations, and to publish the
results in an accessible form.
Co-operating with the Scottish
Meteorological Society in
making Meteorological Observa-
tions on Ben Nevis.
Making Experiments for improv-
ing the Construction of Practical
Standards for use in Electrical
Measurements.
Considering the subject of Elec-
trolysis in its Physical and
Chemical Bearings.
Members of the Committee
Chairman. — Lord Kayleigh.
Secretary. — Mr. A. Lodge.
Sir William Thomson, Professor Cay-
ley, Professor B. Price, and Messrs.
J. W. L. Glaisher, A. G. Greenhill,
and W. M. Hicks.
Chairman. — Hon. R. Abercromby.
Secretary. — Professor Crum Brown.
Messrs. Milne-Home, John Murray,
and Buchan, and Lord McLaren.
Chairman. — Professor Carey Foster.
Secretary. — Mr. R. T. Glazebrook.
Sir William Thomson, Professor Ayr-
ton, Professor J. Perry, Professor
W. G. Adams, Lord Rayleigh, Dr.
O. J. Lodge, Dr. John Hopkinson,
Dr. A. Muirhead, Mr. W. H.
Preece, Mr. Herbert Taylor, Pro-
fessor Everett, Professor Schuster,
Dr. J. A. Fleming, Professor G.
F. Fitzgerald, Professor Chrystal,
Mr. H. Tomlinson, Professor W.
Garnett, Professor J. J. Thomson,
Mr. W. N. Shaw, Mr. J. T. Bottom-
ley, and Mr. T. C. Fitzpatrick.
Chairman. — Professor Fitzgerald.
Secretaries. — Professors Armstrong
and O. J. Lodge.
Professors Sir William Thomson,
Lord Rayleigh, J. J. Thomson,
Schuster, Poynting, Crum Brown,
Ramsay, Frankland, Tilden, Hart-
ley, S. P. Thompson, M'Leod,
Roberts-Austen, Riicker, Reinold,
Carey Foster, and H. B. Dixon,
Captain Abney, Drs. Gladstone,
Hopkinson, and Fleming', and
Messrs. Crookes, Shelford Bidwell,
W. N. Shaw, J. Larmor, J. T.
Bottomley, R. T. Glazebrook, J.
Brown, E. J. Love, and John M.
Thomson.
Grants
£
10
50
100
20
Ixxiv
EEPOKT 1888.
1. licceiving Grants of Money — continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Considering the best Methods of
Kecording the Direct Intensity
of Solar Kadiation.
Inviting Designs for a good Diffe-
rential Gravity Meter in sm3(?r-
session of the Pendulum, where-
by satisfactory results may be
obtained at each station of
observation in a few hours
instead of the many days over
which it is necessary to extend
pendulum observations.
Seasonal Variations in the Tem-
peratures of Lakes, Rivers, and
Estuaries in Various Parts of
the United Kingdom in Co-
operation with the Local Socie-
ties represented on the Associa-
tion.
Considering the Desirability of
introducing a Uniform Nomen-
clature for the Fundamental
Units of Mechanics and of co-
operating with other bodies
engaged in similar work.
The Action of Light on the Hy-
dracids of the Halogens in
presence of Oxygen.
The Influence of the Silent Dis-
charge of Electricit}- on Oxygen
and other gases.
Inquiring into and reporting on
the present Methods adopted
for teaching Chemistry.
Members of the Committee
Grants
Chairman. — Professor Stokes.
Secretartj. — Mr. G. J. Symons.
Professor Schuster, Mr. G. Johnstone
Stoney, Sir H. E. Roscoe, Captain
Abney, and Mr. Whipple.
Chairman. — General J. T. Walker.
Secretary. — Professor Poynting.
Sir William Thomson, Sir J. H.
Lefroy, General R. Strachey, Pro-
fessors A. S. Herschel, G. Chrystal,
C. Niven, and A. Schuster, and Mr.
C. V. Boys.
Chairman. — Mr. John Murray.
Secretary.— Dv. H. E. Mill.
Professor Chrystal, Dr. A. Buchan,
Kev. C. J. Steward, the Hon, R.
Abercromby, Mr. J. Y. Buchanan,
Mr. David Cunningham, Mr. Isaac
Roberts, Professor Fitzgerald, Mr.
Sorby, and Mr. Willis Bund.
Chairman. — Sir K. S. Ball.
Secretary. — Sir. Culverwell.
Dr. G. Johnstone Stoney, Professors
Everett, Fitzgerald, Hicks, Carey
Foster, O. J. Lodge, Poynting,
MacGregor, Gencse, W. G. Adams,
and Lamb, and Messrs. Baynes,
A. Lodge, Fleming, W. N. Shaw,
Glazebrook, Hayward, Lant Car-
penter, Greenhill, Muir, G.
Griffith, and J. Larmor.
Chairman. — Dr. Russell.
Secretary. — Dr. A. Richardson.
Captain Abney, and Professors Noel
Hartley and W. Ramsay.
Chairman. — Professor H. M'Leod.
Secretary. — W. A. Shenstone.
Professor Ramsay and Mr. J. T.
Ciindall.
Chairman. — Dr. AV. J. Russell.
Secretary. — Professor W. R. Dunstan.
Sir H. E. Roscoe, Professor H. E.
Armstrong, Professor Meldola, Pro-
fessor M'Leod, Dr. J. H. Glad-
stone, Mr. A. G. Vernon Harcourt,
Mr. M. M. Pattison Jluir, Professor
Smithells, Mr. W. A. Shenstone,
and Mr. G. Stallard.
10
10
10
10
10
10
COMMITTEES! ArPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.
1. Receiving Grants of Money — continued.
Ixxv
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Recording the Position, Height
above the sea, Lithological Cha-
racters, Size, and Origin of
the Erratic Blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, reporting
other matters of interest con-
nected with the same, and tak-
ing measures for their preserva-
tion.
The Volcanic Phenomena of
Japan.
The Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
vius and its neighbourhood.
Reporting on the Fossil Phyllo-
poda of the Palasozoic Rocks.
Exploring the Higher Eocene Beds
of the Isle of Wight.
Reporting on the Fossil Plants of
the Tertiary and Secondary Beds
of the United Kingdom.
Carrpng
Record.'
on the ' Geological
To improve and experiment with
a Deep-sea Tow-net for opening
and closing under water.
The Natural History of the
Friendly Islands, or other
.groups in the Pacific, visited by
"h.M.S. ' Egeria.'
Continuing the Preparation of a
Report on our present Know-
ledge of the Flora of China.
The Physiology of the Lymphatic
System.
Members of the Committee
Cliairina/n. — Professor J. Prestwich,
Secretary. — Dr. H. W. Crosskey.
Professors W. Boyd Dawkins.T. McK.
Hughes, and T. G. Bonney and
Messrs. C. E. De Ranee, D. Mackin-
tosh, W. Pengelly, J. Plant, and R.
H. Tiddeman.
Chairman. — ]\Ir. R. Etheridge.
Secretary. — Professor J. Milne.
Mr. T. Gray.
Chairman. — Mr. H. Bauerman.
Secretary. — Dr. H. J. Johnston- Lavis.
Messrs. F. W. Rudler and J. J. H.
Teall.
Chairman. — Mr. R. Etheridge.
Secretary. — Professor T. R. Jones.
Dr. H. Woodward.
Chairman. — Dr. H. Woodward.
Secretary. —Mr. J. S. Gardner.
Mr. Clement Reid.
Chairman.— T)r. W. T. Blanford.
Secretary. — Mr. J. S. Gardner.
Professor J. W. Judd, Mr. W. Car-
ruthers, and Dr. H. Woodward.
Chairman. — Dr. J. Evans.
Secretary. — Mr. W. Topley.
Dr. G. J. Hinde and Messrs. R. B.
Newton, J. J. H. Teall, F. W. Rud-
ler, and W. Whitaker.
Clia irman. — Professor Schiif er.
Sccretary.—MT. W. E. Hoyle.
Professor W. A. Herdman.
Chairman. — Professor Newton.
Secretary. — Mr. Harmer.
Mr. W. T. Thiselton-Dyer and
Professor M. Foster.
Chairman. — Mr. John Ball.
Secretary. — Mr. Thiselton-Dyer.
Mr. Carruthers, Professor Oliver,
and Mr. Forbes.
Chairman. — Professor Schiifer.
Secretary. — Dr. W. D. Halliburton.
Professor M. Foster and Professor
E. Ray Lankester.
10
25
20
20
15
15
80
10
100
25
25
Ixxvi
EEPOUT — 1888.
1. Receiving Grants of Money — continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
Arranging for the Occupation of a
Table at the Zoological Station
at Naples.
Keporting on the present state of
our Knowledge of the Zoology
and Botany of the West India
Islands, and taking steps to in-
vestigate ascertained deficien-
cies in the Fauna and Flora.
Geography and Geology of the
Atlas ranges in the Empire of
Morocco, by Mr. Joseph Thom-
son.
Inquiring and reporting as to the
Statistical Data available for
determining the Amount of the
Precious Metals in use as Money
in the principal countries of the
world, the chief forms in which
the money is employed, and
the amount annually used in
the arts.
The best method of ascertaining
and measuring Variations in the
Value of the Monetary Standard.
The Action of Waves and Currents
on the Beds and Foreshores of
Estuaries by means of Working
Models.
To report on the Development of
Graphic Methods in Mechanical
Science.
Editing a new Edition of ' Anthro-
pological Notes and Queries.'
Chairman. — Dr. P. L. Sclater.
Secretary. — Mr. Percy Sladen.
Professor B. Ray Lankester, Profes-
sor Cossar Ewart, Professor M.
Foster, Mr. A. Sedgwick, and Pro-
fessor A. M. Marshall.
Chairman. — Professor Flower.
Secretary. — Mr. D. Morris.
Mr. Carruthers, Dr. Sclater, Mr.
Thiselton-Dyer, Dr. Sharp, Mr. F.
Du Cane Godman, and Professor
Newton.
Chairman. — General J. T. Walker.
Secretary.— Mi. H. W. Bates.
General R. Strachey, Mr. W. T.
Thiselton-Dyer, and Professor W.
Boyd Dawkins.
Chairman. — Mr. Robert Giffen.
Secretary.— Vioi. F. Y. Edgeworth.
Mr. S. Bourne, Professor H. S. Fox-
well, Professor Alfred Marshall,
Mr. J. B. Martin, Professor J. S.
Nicholson, Mr. R. H. Inglis Pal-
grave, and Professor H. Sidgwick.
Cluiirman. — Mr. Robert Giffen.
Secretary.— Fioi. F. Y. Edgeworth.
Mr. S. Bourne, Professor H. S. Fox-
well, Professor Alfred Marshall,
Mr. J. B. Martin, Professor J. S.
Nicholson, Mr. R. H. Inglis Pal-
grave, and Professor H. Sidgwick.
Chairman.— Sir J. N. Douglass.
Secretary. — Professor W. C. Unwin.
Professor Osborne Reynolds and
Messrs. W. Topley, E. Leader Wil-
liams, W. Slielford, G. F. Deacon,
A. R. Hunt, and W. H. Wheeler.
Chairman.— Mt. W. H. Preece.
Secretary. — Professor H. S. Hele
Shaw.
Messrs. B. Baker, W. Anderson, and
G. Kapp and Professors J. Perry
and R. H. Smith.
Chairman.— General Pitt-Rivers.
Secretary.— Tir. Garson.
Dr. Beddoe, Professor Flower, Mr.
Francis Galton, Dr. E. B. Tylor.
25
50
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Ixxvii
1. Receiving Grants of Money — continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
The Habits and Customs and Phy-
sical Characteristics of the No-
mad Tribes of Asia Minor, and
to excavate on sites of ancient
occupation.
The Physical Characters, Lan-
guages, and Industrial and So-
cial Condition of the North-
western Tribes of the Dominion
of Canada.
The Effects of different Occupa-
tions and Employments on the
Physical Development of the
Human Body.
Calculating the Anthropological
Measurements taken at Bath
Carrying on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee.
Cliairman. — Dr. Garson.
Secretary. — Mr. Bent.
Mr. Pengelly, Jlr. Eudler, Mr.
Bloxam, Mr. J. Stuart Glennie.
Chairman. — Dr. E. B. Tylor.
Secretary. — Mr. G. W. Bloxam.
Sir Daniel Wilson, Dr. G. M. Daw-
son, General Sir H. Lefroy, Mr.
E. G. Haliburton.
Chairman. — Sir Rawson Rawson.
Secretary. — Mr. G. W. Bloxam.
General Pitt-Rivers, Dr. J. Beddoe,
Dr. H. Muirhead, Mr. C. Roberts,
Dr. G. W. Hambleton, Mr. F. W.
Eudler, Mr. Horace Darwin, Dr.
J. G. Garson, and Dr. A. M.
Paterson.
Chairman. — General Pitt-Rivers.
Secretary. — Dr. Garson.
Mr. Bloxam.
Chairman. — Dr. John Evans.
Secretary. — Professor E. Meldola.
Mr. Francis Galton, Professor A. W.
Williamson, Sir Douglas Galton,
Professor Boyd Dawkins, Sir Raw-
son Eawson, Dr. J. G. Garson, Mr.
J. Hopkinson, Mr. W. Whitaker,
Mr. G. J. Symons, General Pitt-
Eivers, Mr. W. Topley, Mr. H. G.
Fordham, Mr. William White, and
Professor Bonney.
2. "Not receiving Grants of Mone%j.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
To consider the proposals of M. Tondini
de Quarenghi relative to the Unifica-
tion of Time, and the adoption of a
Universal Prime Meridian, which have
been brought before the Committee by
a letter from the Academy of Sciences
of Bologna.
Considering the advisability and possi-
1 bility of establishing in other parts
of the country Observations upon the
' Prevalence of Earth Tremors similar
I to those now being made in Durham
in connection with coal-mine explo-
BJons.
Members of the Committee
Grants
30
150
20
20
Chairman. — Mr. J. Glaisher.
Secretary. — Mr. J. Glaisher.
Mr. Christie (Astronomer Royal), Sir E.
S. Ball, and Dr. G. B. Longstaff.
Chairman.— 'Mr. G. J. Sjinons.
Secretary. — Professor Lebour.
Sir F. J. Bramwell, Mr. E. A. Cowper,
Professor G. H. Darwin, Professor
Ewing, Mr. Isaac Roberts, Mr. Thomas
Gray, Dr. John Evans, Professor Prest-
wich. Professor Hull, Professor Mel-
dola, Professor Judd, Mr. M. Walton
Brown, and Mr. J. Glaisher.
Ixxviii
KEPOBT — 1888.
2. Not receiving Grants of Money— continned.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
The Molecular Phenomena connected
with the Magnetisation of Iron.
The Collection and Identification of
Meteoric Dust.
The Promotion of Tidal Observations in
Canada.
Calculating certain tables in the Theory
of Numbers connected with the Divi-
sors of a Number.
The Harmonic Analysis of Tidal Obser-
vation.
Preparing instructions for the practical
Work of Tidal Observation.
Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Ob-
servations.
The Rate of Increase of Underground
Temperature downwards in various
Localities of dry Land and under
Water.
Conferring with a Committee of the
American Association v,'ith a view of
forming a Uniform System of Piccord-
ing the Results of Water Analysis.
Members of the Committee
Chairman. — Professor Fitzgerald.
Secretary. — Professor Barrett.
Mr. Trouton.
Chairman. — Mr. John Murray.
Secretary. — Mr. John IMurray.
Professor Schuster, Sir AVilliam Thom-
son, the Abbe Eenard, Mr. A. Buchan,
the Hon. R. Abercromby, and Dr. M.
Grabham.
Chairman. — Professor Johnson.
Secretary. — Professor Johnson.
Professors Macgregor, J. B. Cherriman,
and H. J. Bovey and Mr. C. Carp-
mael.
Chairman. — Professor Cayley.
Secretary. — Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher.
Sir W. Thomson and Mr. James
Glaisher.
Chairmen.-
Secretary.-
-Professor J. C. Adams.
-Professor G. H. Darwin.
Chairman. — Professor Darwin.
Secretary. — Professor Darwin.
Sir W. Thomson and Major Baird.
Chairman. — Professor W. G. Adams.
Secretary. — Professor W. G. Adams.
Sir W. Thomson, Sir J. H. Lefroy, Pro-
fessors G. H. Darwin, G. Chrystal, and
S. J. Perry, Blr. C. H. Carpmael, Pro-
fessor Schuster, Mr. G. M. Whipple,
Captain Creak, the Astronomer Royal,
Mr. William Ellis, and Sir. W. Lant
Carpenter.
Chairman.— Vi-o[cs?.or Everett.
Secretary. — Professor Everett.
Professor Sir William Thomson, Mr. G.
J. Symons, Sir A. C. Ramsay, Dr. A.
Geikie, Mr. J. Glaisher, Mr. Pengelly,
Professor Edward Hull, Professor
Prestwich, Dr. C. Le Neve Foster, Pro-
fessor A. S. Herschel, Professsor G. A.
Lebour, Mr. A. B. Wynne, Mr. Gallo-
way, Mr. Joseph Dickinson, Mr. G. F.
Deacon, Mr. E. Wethered, and Mr. A.
Strahan.
Chairman. — Professor Dewar.
Secretary.— YYoiessox P. F. Frankland.
Professor Odling and Mr. Crookes.
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.
2. Not receiving Grants of Money — continued.
Ixxix
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
The Continuation of the Bibliography
of Spectroscopy.
To consider the best !Method of Estab-
lishing an International Standard for
the Analysis of Iron and Steel.
Preparing a new series of Wave-length
Tables of the Spectraof the Elements.
Absorption Spectra of Pure Compounds.
The Influence of Silicon on the Proper-
ties of Steel.
Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives .
Certain Physical Constants of Solution,
especially the Expansion of Saline
Solutions.
Reporting on the Bibliography of Solu-
tion.
The Properties of Solutions
The Circulation of the Underground
Waters in the Permeable Formations
of England, and the Quality and
Quantity of the Waters supplied to
various Towns and Districts from
these Formations.
Reporting upon the
of Wexford.
Manure Gravels '
An Ancient Sea-beach near Bridlington.
Members of the Committee
Cliairman. — Professor H. M'Leod.
Secretary. — Professor Roberts-Austen.
Professor Reinold.
Chairvian. — Professor Roberts-Austen.
Secretary. — Mr. T. Turner.
Mr. J. W. Langley.
Chairman. — Sir H. E. Roscoe.
Secretarij. — Dr. Marshall Watts.
Mr. Lockyer, Professors Dewar, Liveing,
Schuster, W. N. Hartley, and Wolcott
Gibbs and Captain Abney.
Cliairman. — General Festing.
Secretary. — Dr. H. E. Armstrong.
Captain Abney and Professor W. N.
Hartley.
Chairman. — Professor W. A. Tilden.
Secretary. — Mr. Tliomas Turner.
Professor Roberts-Austen.
Chairman. — Professor W. A. Tilden.
Secretary.— YioiessQT H. E. Armstrong.
Chairman. — Professor W. Ramsay.
Secretary.— ?xotessoT W. L. Goodwin.
Professors Marshall and Tilden.
Chairma7i.—?ioiQssox W. A. Tilden,
Secretary.— Dv. ^V. W. J. Nicol.
Professors M'Leod, Pickering, Ramsay,
and Young and Dr. A. R. Leeds.
Chairman. — Professor W. A. Tilden.
Secretary.— Tit. W. W. J. Nicol.
Professor Ramsay.
Cliairman. — Professor E. Hull.
Secretary. — Mr. C. E. De Ranee.
Dr. H. W. Crosskey, Sir D. Galton, Pro-
fessor J. Prestwich, and Messrs. J.
Glaisher, E. 13. Marten, G. H. Mor-
ton, J. Parker, W. Pengelly, J. Plant,
I. Roberts, C. Fox-Strangways, T. S.
Stooke, G. J. Symons, W. Topley,
Tyld en- Wright, E. Wethered, and W.
Whitaker.
Clmirman. — Mr. R. Etheridge.
Secretary. — Mr. A. Bell.
Dr. H. Woodward.
Chairman. — Jfr. J. W. Davis.
Secretary.— Ilx. G. W. Lamplugh.
Mr. W. Cash, Dr. H. Hicks, Mr. Clement
Reid, Dr. H. Woodward, and Mr. T.
■ Boynton.
Ixxr
REPORT — 1888.
2. Not receiving Grants of Money. — continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
The Rate of Erosion of the Sea-coasts of
England and Wale?, and the Influence
of the Artificial Abstraction of
Shingle or other material in that
action.
The Flora of the Carboniferous Eocks
of Lancashire and West Yorkshire.
The Development of the Oviduct and
connected Structures in certain Fresh-
water Teleostei.
Taking steps for the Establishment
of a Botanical Station at Peradeniya,
Ceylon.
To make a Digest of the Observations
on Migrations of P>irds at Lighthouses
and Light-vessels, which have been
carried on during the past nine years
by the Migrations Committee of the
British Association (with the consent
of the Masters and Elder Brethren
of the Trinity House, and the Com-
missioners of" Northern Lights), and
to report upon the same at New-
castle.
Collecting Information as to the Dis-
appearance of Native Plants from
their Local Habitats.
The Teaching of Science in Elementary
Schools.
Chmrman.—yir. K. B. Grantham.
Secretaries.— 'iileasTS. C. E. De Ranee and
W. Topley.
Messrs. J. B. Redman, W. Whitaker, and
J.W.Woodall, Maj.-Gen. Sir A. Clarke,
Admiral Sir E. Ommanney, Sir J. N.
Douglass, Capt. Sir G. Nares, Capt.
J. Parsons, Capt. W. J. L. Wharton,
Professor J. Prestwich, and Messrs. E.
Easton, J. S. Valentine, and L. F.
Vernon Harcourt.
ClMlrman.—Vxoiessor W. C. Williamson.
Secretary. — Mr. W. Cash.
Chairman. — Professor Lankester.
Secretary.— ^Ir. G. H. Fowler.
Professor Milnes Marshall and Mr. Sedg-
wick.
Chairman. — Professor M. Foster.
Secretary. — Professor F. O. Bower.
Professor Bayley Balfour, Mr. Thiselton-
Dyer, Dr. Trimen, Professor Marshall
Ward, Mr. Carruthers, and Professor
Hartog.
Chairman. — Professor Newton.
Secretary. — Mr. John Cordeaux.
Mr. Harvie-Brown, Mr. R. M. Barrington,
llr. W. E. Clarke, and Rev. E. P.
Knubley.
Chairman.— ^iT. A. W. Wills.
Secretary. — Professor W. Uillhouse.
Mr. E. W. Badger.
Chairman.— T)T. J. H. Gladstone.
Secretary.— ?roiessor Armstrong.
Mr. S. Bourne, Miss Becker, Sir J. Lub-
bock, Dr. Crosskey, Sir R. Temple, Sir
H. E. Roscoe, Mr. J. Heywood, and
Professor N. Story Maskelyne.
Other Resolutions adopted by the General Committee.
That it is desirable that the Association should become a Governor of the Marine
Biological Association, and that a grant of 200/. be made to the Marine Biological
Association with that view.
KESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENEBAL COMMITTEE. Ixxii
That the sum of 100?. be placed at the disposal of the Baths Committee of the
Bath Corporation to assist in tlie prosecution of further researches in the Roman
Baths.
That Mr. R. E. Baynes and Mr. J. Larmor be requested to draw up a Report on
the present state of our knowledge in Thermodynamics, specially with regard to the
second law. ^r ^ o
That Mr W. N. Shaw be requested to continue his Report on the present state of
our knowledge in Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry.
That Mr. P. T. Main be requested to continue his Report on our experimental
knowledge of the Properties of Matter with respect to Volume, Pressure, Tempera-
ture, and Specific Heat. ^
That Mr. Glazebrook be requested to continue his Report on Optics.
Theorfe*^ Professor J. J. Thomson be requested to continue his Report on Electrical
Communications ordered to he printed in extenso in the Annual Report
of the Association.
Dr. J. Janssen's paper, ' Sur I'application de I'analyse spectrale a la mecaniqu.
moleculaire et sur les spectres de I'oxygene.' ^<^^^h^i
Mr. Stephen Bourne's paper, ' The Use of Index-numbers.'
Thew'' ^' ^' ^' ^' ■^"^^'^ ^^^^^' ' ^^^ delation between Sliding Scales and Economic
Professor H. S. Hele Shaw and Mr. E. Shaw's paper on 'The Friction of Metal
t/jils, with the necessary illustrations.
The Report of the Conference on Lightning Conductors, as far as is desirable.
Mr. Dalton s paper giving a List of British Mineral Waters.
The Bibliography of the Lesser Antilles, as an appendix to the Report of the
Committee on the Zoology and Botany of the West India Islands.
Besolutions referred to the^ Council for consideration, and action
if desirable.
That the Council be recommended to consider what measures, if any, it might be
desirable to take with respect to the apparatus from time to time purchased by funds
voted by the Association. •'
BpfrtlVJ! ^''Tv^ °V^^ Association be requested to urge upon the Corporation of
fhiJt iu^t^^^ °^^^{i.°? ^^'" ^ ^"'■'^"^ P°^'^°'^ °^ *^^ ^"iq^e Koman Baths at
].Ia k ^' V. ,!> u "'^^"^ *° *''®''" permanent preservation ; and that the part already
laid bare should be protected from the weather. F«"'' «*i'^-auy
nf ItfKr''if*^°'"'°'^ ^^ requested to memorialise her Majesty's Government in favour
nnftpf^ !^^ ^ permanent Census Sub-Department, and taking the census of the
United Kingdom every five years.
1888.
Ixxxii KEPORT — 1888.
Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Pur-
poses by the General Committee at the Bath Meeting, in
September, 1888. The Names of the Members entitled to call
on the General Treasurer for the respective Grants are
prefixed.
Mathematics and Physics.
£ s. d.
*Abercromby, Hon. R. — Ben Nevis Observatory 50
♦Foster, Professor G. Carey. — Electrical Standards 100
♦Fitzgerald, Professor.— Electrolysis 20
*Stokes, Professor.— Solar Radiation 10
*"Walker, GeneralJ. T.— Differential Gravity Meter 10
*Ball, Sir R. S. — Uniform Nomenclature iu Mechanics 10
Rayleigh, Lord. — Calculating Tables of certain Matbematical
Functions 10
*Mnrray, Mr. J. — Seasonal Variations in the Temperature of
Lakes, Rivers, and Estuaries 30
Chemistry.
*McLeod, Professor H. — The Influence of the Silent Discharge
of Electricity on Oxygen and other Gases 10
♦Russell, Dr. W. J.— Methods of Teaching Chemistry 10
♦Russell, Dr. W. J.— Oxidation of Hydracids in Sunlight ... 10
Geology.
*EVans, Dr. J. — Geological Record 80
*Prestwich, Professor J. — Erratic Blocks 10
*Etheridge, Mr. R. — Volcanic Phenomena of Japan 25
*Bauerman, Mr. H. — Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius 20
*Etheridge, Mr. R. — Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic
Rocks 20
*Woodward, Dr. H. — Higher Eocene Beds of the Isle of
Wight 15
*Blanford, Dr. W. T.— Fossil Plants of the Tertiary and
Secondary Beds of the United Kingdom 15
Biology.
*Flower, Professor. — Zoology and Botany of the West India
Islands 100
*Ball, Mr. John.— Flora of China 25
*Sclater, Dr. P. L.— Naples Zoological Station 100
Carried forward ^680
* Eeappointed.
SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY. Ixxxiii
£ s. d.
Brought forward. 680
*Scliafer, Professor. — Physiology of the Lymphatic System... 25
*Schafer, Professor. — To Improve and Experiment with a
Deep Sea Tow- Net, for opening and closing under water 10
Newton, Professor. — Natural History of the Friendly
Islands TOO
Geography.
Walker, General J. T. — Geography and Geology of the Atlas
Ranges 100
Economic Science and Statistics.
*GifEen, Mr. R. — Precious Metals in Circulation 20
*GiffeD, Mr. R. — Variations in the Value of the Monetary
Standard 10
Mechanical Science.
*Douglass, Sir J. W. — Investigation of Estuaries by Means
ofModels 100
Preece, Mr. W. H. — Development of Graphic Methods in
Mechanical Science 25
Anthropology.
*Rawson, Sir R. — Effect of Occupations on Physical Develop-
ment 20
*Tylor, Dr. E. B.— North -Western Tribes of Canada 150
*Pitt- Rivers, General. — Editing a New Edition of Anthropo-
logical Notes and Queries 50
Pitt- Rivers, General. — Calculating the Anthropological Mea-
surements taken at Bath 5
Garson, Dr. — Characteristics of Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor 30
*Evans, Dr. J. — Corresponding Societies 20
Marine Biological Association 200
Exploration of Roman Baths at Bath 100
£1,645
* Reappointerl.
The Annual Meeting in 1889.
The Meeting at Newcastle-upon-Tyne will commence on Wednesday,
September 11.
Place of Meeting in 1890. ;
The Annual Meeting of the Association will be held at Leeds.
e2
Ixxxiv
KEPORT — 1888.
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of
Grants for Scientific Purposes.
£ s. d.
1834.
Tide Discussions 20
1835.
Tide Discussions 62
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105
£167 U
1836.
Tide Discussions 163
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105
Thermometric Observations,
&c 50
Experiments on long-con-
tinued Heat 17 1
Kain-Gauges 9 13
Eef Faction Experiments 15
Lunar Nutation 60
Thermometers 15 6
£435
1837.
Tide Discussions 284 1
Chemical Constants 24 13 6
Lunar Nutation 70
Observations on Waves 100 12
Tides at Bristol 150
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature 93 3
Vitrification Experiments ... 150
Heart Experiments 8 4 6
Barometric Observations 30
Barometers 11 18 6
£922 12 6
1838.
Tide Discussions 29
British Fossil Fishes 100
Meteorological Observations
and Anemometer (construc-
tion) 100
Cast Iron (Strength of) 60
Animal and Vegetable Sub-
stances (Preservation of) ... 19
Railway Constants 41
Bristol Tides 50
Growth of Plants 75
Mud in Rivers 3
Education Committee 50
Heart Experiments 5
Land and Sea Level 267
Steam- vessels 100
Meteorological Committee ... 31
1
12
6
3
8
9
10
10
6
7
5
£932 2 2
1839.
Fossil Ichthyology 110
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth, &c 63 10
Mechanism of Waves 144
Bristol Tides 35
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature 21
Vitrification Experiments ... 9
Cast-iron Experiments 103
Railway Constants 28
Land and Sea Level 274
Steam- vessels' Engines 100
Stars in Histoire Celeste 171
Stars in Lacaille 11
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue ... 166
Animal Secretions 10
Steam Engines in Cornwall... 50
Atmospheric Air 16
Cast and Wrought Iron 40
Heat on Organic Bodies 3
Gases on Solar Spectrum 22
Hourly Meteorological Ob-
servations, Inverness and
Kingussie 49
Fossil Reptiles 118
Mining Statistics 50
#. d.
2
18 6
11
4 7
7 2
1 4
18 6
16 6
10
1
7 8
2 9
£1695 11
1840.
Bristol Tides 100
Subterranean Temperature ... 13 13 6
Heart Experiments 18 19
Lungs Experiments 8 13
Tide Discussions 50
Land and Sea Level 6 11 1
Stars (Histoire Celeste) 242 10
Stars (Lacaille) 4 15
Stars (Catalogue) 264
Atmospheric Air 15 15
Water on Iron 10
Heat on Organic Bodies 7
Meteorological Observations . 62 17 6
Foreign Scientific Memoirs... 112 1 6
Working Population 100
School Statistics 50
Forms of Vessels 184 7
Chemical and Electrical Phe-
nomena 40
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth 80
Magnetical Observations 185 13 9
:ei546 16 4
1841.
Observations on Waves 30
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature 8
Actinometers 10
Earthquake Shocks 17
Acrid Poisons 6
Veins and Absorbents 3
Mud in Rivera 6
8
7
GENERAL STATEMENT.
Ixxxv
£ s. d.
Marine Zoology 15 12 8
Skeleton Maps 20
Mountain Barometers 6 18 6
Stars (Histoire Celeste) 185
Stars (LacaLlle) 79 5
Stars (Nomenclature of) 17 19 6
Stars (Catalogue of ) 40
Water on Iron 60
Meteorological Observations
at Inverness 20
Meteorological Observations
(reduction of ) 23
Fossil Eeptiles 50
Foreign Memoirs 62 6
Railway Sections 38 1
Forms of Vessels 193 12
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth 55
Magnetical Observations 01 18 8
Fishes of the Old Red Sand-
stone 100
Tides at Leith 50
Anemometer at Edinburgh ... 69 1 10
Tabulating Observations 9 6 3
Races of Men 5
Radiate Animals . 2
¥l2H5 10 iT
1842.
Dynamometric Instruments . . 113 11 2
Anoplura Britannioe 52 12
Tides at Bristol 59 8
Gases on Light 30 14 7
Chronometers 26 17
Marine Zoology 15
British Fossil Mammalia 100
Statistics of Education 20
Marine Steam-vessels' En-
gines 28
Stars (Histoire C61este) 59
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of) ... 110
Railway Sections 161 10
British Belemnites 50
Fossil Reptiles (publication
of Report) 210
Forms of Vessels 180
Galvanic Experiments on
Rocks 5 8
Meteorological Experiments
at Plymouth 68
Constant Indicator and Dyna-
mometric Instruments 90
Force of Wind 10
Light on Growth of Seeds ... 8
Vital Statistics 50
Vegetative Power of Seeds ... 8 1 11
Questions on Human Race ... 7 9
£1449 17 8
1843.
Revision of the Nomenclature
of Stars 2
£ t. d.
Reduction of Stars, British
Association Catalogue 25
Anomalous Tides, Frith of
Forth 120
Hourly Meteorological Obser-
vations at Kingussie and
Inverness 77 12 8
Meteorological Obsen'ations
at Plymouth 55
Whewell's Meteorological
Anemometer at Plymouth . 10
Meteorological Observations,
Osier's Anemometer at Ply-
mouth 20
Reduction of Meteorological
Observations 30
Meteorological Instruments
and Gratuities 39 6
Construction of Anemometer
at Inverness 56 12 2
Magnetic Co-operation 10 8 10
Meteorological Recorder for
Kew Observatory 50
Action of Gases on Light 18 16 I
Establishment at Kew Ob-
servatory, Wages, Repairs,
Furniture, and Sundries ... 133 4 7
Experiments by Captive Bal-
loons 81 8
Oxidation of the Rails of
Railways 20
Publication of Report on
Fossil Reptiles 40
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
way Sections 147 18 S
Registration of Earthquake
Shocks 30
Report on Zoological Nomen-
clature 10
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester 4 4 6
Vegetative Power of Seeds ... 5 3 8
Marine Testacea (Habits of) . 10
Marine Zoology 10
Marine Zoology 2 14 11
Preparation of Report on Bri-
tish Fossil Mammalia 100
Physiological Operations of
Medicinal Agents 20
Vital Statistics 36 5 8
Additional Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels 70
Additional Experiments on
the forms of Vessels 100
Reduction of Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels 100
Morin's Instrument and Con-
stant Indicator 69 14 10
Experiments on the Strength
of Materials 60
£1565 10 2
Ixxxvi
KEPOBT — 1888.
£ t. d.
1844.
Meteorological Observations
at Kingussie and Inverness 12
Completing Observations at
Plymouth 35
Magnetic and Meteorological
Co-operation 25 8 4
Publication of the British
Association Catalogue of
Stars 35
Observations on Tides on the
East Coast of Scotland ... 100
Kevision of the Nomenclatui-e
of Stars 1842 2 9 6
Maintaining the Establish-
ment in Kew Observa-
tory 117 17 3
Instruments for Kew Obser-
vatory 56 7 3
Influence of Light on Plants 10
Subterraneous Temperature
in Ireland 5
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
way Sections 15 17 6
Investigation of Fossil Fishes
oftheLowerTertiaryStrata 100
Eegistering the Shocks of
Earthquakes 1842 23 11 10
Structure of Fossil Shells ... 20
Eadiata and Mollusca of the
^gean and Red Seas 1842 100
Geographical Distributions of
Marine Zoology 1842 10
Marine Zoology of Devon and
Cornwall 10
Marine Zoology of Corfu 10
Experiments on the Vitality
of Seeds 9
Experiments on the Vitality
of Seeds 1842 8 7 3
Exotic Anoplura 15
Strength of Materials 100
Completing Experiments on
the Forms of Ships 100
Inquiries into Asphyxia 10
Investigations on the Internal
Constitution of Metals 50
Constant Indicator and Mo-
rin's Instrument 1842 10
£981 12 8
£ s. d.
Electrical Experiments at
Kew Observatory 43 17 8
Maintaining- the Establish-
ment in Kew Observatory 149
For Kreil's Barometrograph 25
Gases from Iron Furnaces... 50
The Actinograph 15
Microscopic Structure of
Shells 20
Exotic Anoplm-a 1843 10
Vitality of Seeds 1843 2
Vitality of Seeds 1844 7
Marine Zoology of Cornwall . 10
Physiological Action of Medi-
cmes 20
Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York 20
Earthquake Shocks 1 8 43 15 14 8
£831 9 9
1845.
Publication of the British As-
sociation Catalogue of Stars 351 14 6
Meteorological Observations
at Inverness 30 18 11
Magnetic and Meteorological
Co-operation 16 16 8
Meteorological Instruments
at Edinburgh 18 11 9
Reduction of Anemometrical
Observations at Plymouth 25
15
7
1846.
British Association Catalogue
of Stars 1844 211
Fossil Fishes of the London
Clay 100
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1829 5
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 146
Strength of Materials 60
Researches in Asphyxia 6
Examination of Fossil Shells 10
Vitality of Seeds 1844 2
Vitality of Seeds 1845 7
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10
Marine Zoology of Britain ... 10
Exotic Anoplura 1844 25
Expenses attending Anemo-
meters 11
Anemometers' Repairs 2
Atmospheric Waves 3
Captive Balloons 1844
Varieties of the Human Race
1844 V
Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York .^ 12
£685
15
16
7
16
2
15
10
12
3
7
6
3
6
3
3
8 19 8
7 6 3
16
1847.
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1829 50
Habits of Marine Animals ... 10
Physiological Action of Medi-
cines 20
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10
Atmospheric Waves 6
Vitality of Seeds 4
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 107
£208
9
7
3
7
8
6
5
4
GENEEAL STATEMENT.
Ixxxvii
£ s. d.
1848.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 171 15 11
Atmospheric Waves 3 10 9
Vitality of Seeds 9 15
Completion of Catalogue of
Stars • 70
On Colouring Matters 5
On Growth of Plant s 15
£275 1 8
1849.
Electrical Observations at
Kew Observatory 50
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at ditto 76 2 5
Vitality of Seeds 5 8 1
On Growth of Plants 5
Kegistration of Periodical
Phenomena 10
Bill on Account of Anemo-
metrical Observations 1.3 9
£159 19 6
1850.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 255 18
Transit of Earthquake Waves 50
Periodical Phenomena 15
Meteorological Instruments,
Azores 25
£345 18
1851.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(includes part of grant in
1849) 309 2 2
Theory of Heat 20 1 1
Periodical Phenomena of Ani-
mals and Plants 5
Vitality of Seeds 5 6 4
Influence of Solar Kadiation 30
Ethnological Inquiries 12
Kesearches on Annelida 10
£391 9 7
1852.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(including balance of grant
for 1850) 233 17 8
Experiments on the Conduc-
tion of Heat 5 2 9
Influence of Solar Kadiations 20
Geological Map of Ireland ... 15
Kesearches on the British An-
nelida 10
Vitality of Seeds 10 6 2
Strength of Boiler Plates 1
£304 6 7
£ *. d.
1853.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 165
Experiments on the Influence
of Solar Radiation 15
Kesearches on the British
Annelida 10
Dredging on the East Coast
of Scotland 10
Ethnological Queries 5
£205
1854.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(including balance of
former grant) 330 15 4
Investigations on Flax 11
Effects of Temperature on
Wrought Iron 10
Registration of Periodical
Phenomena 10
British Annelida 10
Vitality of Seeds 5 2 3
Conduction of Heat 4 2
£380 19 7
1855.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 425
Earthquake Movements 10
Physical Aspect of the Moon 11
Vitality of Seeds 10
Map of the World 15
Ethnological Queries 5
Dredging near Belfast 4
£480 16 4
8
5
7
11
575
1856.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observa-
tory :—
1854 £ 75 0\
1855 £500 0/
Strickland's Ornithological
Synonyms 100
Dredging and Dredging
Forms 9 13
Chemical Action of Light ... 20
Strength of Iron Plates 10
Kegistration of Periodical
Phenomena 10
Propagation of Salmon 10
£734 13 9
1857.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 350
Earthquake Wave Experi-
ments 40
Dredging near Belfast 10
Dredging on the West Coast
of Scotland 10
Ixxxviii
REPORT — 1888.
& s. d.
Investigations into the Mol-
lusca of California 10
Experiments on Flax 5
Natural History of Mada-
gascar 20
Eesearches on British Anne-
lida 25
Eeport on Natural Products
imported into Liverpool ... 10
Artificial Propagation of Sal-
mon ^2 ° ^
Temperature of Mines 7 8
Thermometers for Subterra-
nean Observations 5 7 4
Life-boats -500
£507 15 4
1858.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500
Earthquake Wave Experi-
ments 25
Dredging on the West Coast
of Scotland 10
Dredging near Dublin 5
Vitality of Seeds 5 5
Dredging near Belfast 18 13 2
Report on the British Anne-
lida 25
Experiments on the produc-
tion of Heat by Motion in
Fluids 20
Pieport on the Natural Pro-
ducts imported into Scot-
land 10
£6 18T8~~2
1850.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500
Dredging near Dublin 15
Osteology of Birds 50
Irish Tunicata 5
Manure Experiments 20
British MedusidiE 5
Dredging Committee 5
Steam- vessels' Performance... 5
Marine Fauna of South and
West of Ireland 10
Photographic Chemistry 10
Lanarkshire Fossils 20 1
Balloon Ascents .39 11
£684 11 1
1860.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500
Dredging near Belfast 16 6
Dredging in Dublin Bay 15
Inquiry into the Performance
of Steam-vessels ]24
Explorations in the Yellow
Sandstone of Dura Den ... 20
£ t. d.
Chemico-mechanical Analysis
of Kocks and Minerals 25
Eesearches on the Growth of
Plants 10
Eesearches on the Solubility
of Salts 30
Eesearches on the Constit uent s
of Manures 25
Balance of Captive Balloon
Accounts 1 13 6
£766 lir~6
1861.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory. . 500
Earthquake Experiments 25
Dredging North and East
Coasts of Scotland 23
Dredging Committee : —
1860 £50 "\ ,g
1861 £22 0/'-'
Excavations at Dura Den 20
Solubility of Salts 20
Steam-vessel Performance ... 150
Fossils of Lesmahago 15
Explorations at Uriconium ... 20
Chemical Alloys 20
Classified Index to the Trans-
actions 100
Dredging in the Mersey and
Dee 5
Dip Circle 30
Photoheliographic Observa-
tions 50
Prison Diet 20
Gauging of Water 10
Alpine Ascents 6
Constituents of Manures 25
1862.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory 500
Patent Laws 21
Molluscaof N.-W. of America 10
Natural History by Mercantile
Marine 6
Tidal Observations 25
Photoheliometer at Kew 40
Photographic Pictures of the
Sun 1.50
Eocks of Donegal 25
Dredging Durham and North-
umberland 25
Connexion of Storms 20
Dredging North-east Coast
of Scotland 6
Eavages of Teredo 3
Standards of Electrical Ee-
sistance 50
Eailway Accidents 10
Balloon Committee 200
Dredging Dublin Bay 10
5
10
£1111 5 10
6
9
6
11
GENERAL STATEMENT.
Ixxxix
£
Dredging the Mersey 5
Prison Diet 20
Gauging of Water 12
Steamships' Performance 150
Thermo-Electric Currents ... 5
£1293
«.
d.
10
16 6
1863.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory... 600
Balloon Committee deficiency 70
Balloon Ascents (other ex-
penses) 2.5
Entozoa 25
Coal Fossils 20
Herrings 20
Granites of Donegal 5
Prison Diet 20
Vertical Atmospheric Move-
ments 13
Dredging Shetland 50
Dredging North-east coast of
Scotland 25
Dredging Northumberland
and Durham 17 3 10
Dredging Committee superin-
tendence 10
Steamship Performance 100
Balloon Committee 200
Carbon under pressure 10
Volcanic Temperature 100
Bromide of Ammonium 8
Electrical Standards 100
Electrical Construction and
Distribution 40
Luminous Meteors 17
Kew Additional Buildings for
Photoheliograph 100
Thermo-Electricity 15
Analysis of Rocks 8
Hydroida 10
£16 08 3 1
1864.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600
Coal Fossils 20
Vertical Atmospheric Move-
ments 20
Dredging Shetland 75
Dredging Northumberland... 25
Balloon Committee 200
Carbon under pressure 10
Standards of Electric Re-
sistance 100
Analysis of Rocks 10
Ilydroida 10
Askham's Gift 60
Nitrite of Amyle 10
Nomenclature Committee ... 5
Kain-Gauges 19 15 8
Cast-iron Inrestigation 20
£ i. d.
Tidal Observations in the
Humber 50
Spectral Rays 45
Luminous Meteors 20
£1289 15 8
1865. — — — —
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600
Balloon Committee 100
Hydroida 13
Rain-Gauges 30
Tidal Observations in the
Humber 6 8
Hexylic Compounds 20
Amyl Compounds 20
Irish Flora 25
American Mollusca 3 9
Organic Acids 20
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 10
Eurypterus 50
Electrical Standards 100
Malta Caves Researches 30
0}'ster Breeding 25
Gibraltar Caves Researches... 150
Kent's Hole Excavations 100
Moon's Surface Observations 35
Marine Fauna 25
Dredging Aberdeenshire 25
Dredging Channel Islands ... 60
Zoological Nomenclature 5
Resistance of Floating Bodies
in Water 100
Bath Waters Analysis 8 10 10
Luminous Meteors 40
£1591 7 10
1866.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory. . 600
Lunar Committee 64 13 4
Balloon Committee 50
Metrical Committee 60
British Rainfall 50
Kilkenny Coal Fields 16
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf -Bed ... 15
Luminous Meteors 60
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 20
Chemical Constitution of
Cast Iron 50
Amyl Compounds 25
Electrical Standards 100
Malta Caves Exploration 30
Kent's Hole Exploration 200
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon
and Cornwall 25
Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast 25
Dredging Hebrides Coast ... 60
Dredging the Mersey 5
Resistance of Floating Bodies
in Water 60
Polycyanides of Organic Radi-
cals 29
xc
REPORT — 1888.
&
Rigor Mortis 10
Irish Annelida 15
Catalogue of Crania 50
Didine Birds of Mascarene
Islands 50
Typical Crania Researches ... 30
Palestine Exploration Fund ... 100
£:i750
1867.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600
Meteorological Instruments,
Palestine 50
Lunar Committee 120
Metrical Committee 30
Kent's Hole Explorations ... 100
Palestine Explorations 50
Insect Fauna, Palestine 30
British Rainfall 50
Kilkenny Coal Fields 25
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed ... 25
Luminous Meteors 50
Bournemouth, &c., Leaf-Beds 30
Dredging Shetland 75
Steamship Reports Condensa-
tion 100
Electrical Standards 100
Ethyl and Methyl series 25
Fossil Crustacea 25
Sound under Water 24
North Greenland Fauna 75
Do. Plant Beds 100
Iron and Steel Manufactvire... 25
Patent Laws 30
£1739'
1868.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory. . 600
Lunar Committee 120
Metrical Committee 50
Zoological Record 100
Kent's Hole Explorations ... 1.50
Steamship Performances 1 00
British Rainfall 50
Luminous Meteors 50
Organic Acids 60
Fossil Crustacea 25
Methyl Series 25
Mercury and Bile 25
Organic Remains in Lime-
stone Rocks 25
Scottish Earthquakes 20
Fauna, Devon and Cornwall.. 30
British Fossil Corals 50
Bagshot Leaf-Beds 50
Greenland Explorations 100
Fossil Flora 25
Tidal Observations 100
Underground Temperature... 50
Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances 5
s.
d.
13 4
4
4
£ i. d.
Secondary Reptiles, &c 30
British ISIarine Invertebrate
Fauna 100
£1940
1869.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory. . 600
Lunar Committee 50
Metrical Committee 25
Zoological Record 100
Committee on Gases in Deep-
well Water 25
British Rainfall 50
Thermal Conductivity of Iron,
&c 30
Kent's Hole Explorations 150
Steamship Performances 30
Chemical Constitution of
Cast Iron 80
Iron and Steel Manufacture 100
Methyl Series 30
Organic Remains in Lime-
stoneRocks 10
Earthquakes in Scotland 10
British Fossil Corals 50
Bagshot Leaf-Beds 30
Fossil Flora 25
Tidal Observations 100
Underground Temperature... 30
Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances 5
Organic Acids 12
Kiltorcan Fossils 20
Chemical Constitution and
Physiological Action Rela-
tions 15
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25
Utilization of Sewage 10
Products of Digestion 10
£'1622
1870.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory 600
Metrical Committee 25
Zoological Record 100
Committee on Marine Fauna 20
Ears in Fishes 10
Chemical Nature of Cast Iron 80
Lujninous Meteors 30
Heat in the Blood 15
British Rainfall 100
Thermal Conductivity of
Iron, &c 20
British Fossil Corals 50
Kent's Hole Explorations ...150
Scottish Earthquakes 4
Bagshot Leaf-Beds 15
Fossil Flora 25
Tidal Observations 100
Underground Temperature ... 50
Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils ... 20
GENERAL STATEMENT.
XCl
£ s. d.
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25
Utilization of Sewage 50
Organic Chemical Compounds 30
Onny Kiver Sediment 3
Mechanical Equivalent of
Heat 50
£1572
1871.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory 600
Monthly Reports of Progi-ess
in Chemistry 100
Metrical Committee 25
Zoological Eecord 100
Thermal Equivalents of the
Oxides of Chlorine 10
Tidal Observations 100
Fossil Flora 25
Luminous Meteors 30
British Fossil Corals 25
Heat in the Blood 7
British Rainfall 50
Kent's Hole Explorations ... 150
Fossil Crustacea 25
Methyl Compounds 25
Lunar Objects 20
Fossil Coral Sections, for
Photographing 20
Bagshot Leaf -Beds 20
Moab Explorations 100
Gaussian Constants 40
£1472
1872.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory 300
Metrical Committee 75
Zoological Record 100
Tidal Committee 200
Carboniferous Corals 25
Organic Chemical Compounds 25
Exploration of Moab 100
Terato-Embryological Inqui-
ries 10
Kent's Cavern Exploration.. 100
Luminous Meteors 20
Heat in the Blood 15
Fossil Crustacea 25
Fossil Elephants of Malta ... 25
Lunar Objects 20
Inverse Wave -Lengths 20
British Rainfall 100
Poisonous Substances Antago-
nism 10
Essential Oils, Chemical Con-
stitution, &c 40
Mathematical Tables 50
Thermal Conductivity of Me-
tals
2
6
... 25
£1285
£ s. d.
1873.
Zoological Record 100
Chemistry Record 200
Tidal Committee 400
Sewage Committee 100
Kent's Cavern Exploration... 150
Carboniferous Corals 25
Fossil Elephants 25
Wave-Lengths 150
British Rainfall 100
Essential Oils 30
Mathematical Tables 100
Gaussian Constants 10
Sub- Wealden Explorations... 25
Underground Temperature... 150
Settle Cave Exploration 50
Fossil Flora, Ireland 20
Timber Denudation and Rain-
fall 20
Luminous Meteors 30
£1685
1874.
Zoological Record 100
Chemistry Record 100
Mathematical Tables 100
Elliptic Functions 100
Lightning Conductors 10
Thermal Conductivity of
Rocks 10
Anthropological Instructions,
&c 50
Kent's Cavern Exploration... 150
Luminous Meteors 30
Intestinal Secretions 15
British Rainfall 100
Essential Oils 10
Sub- Wealden Explorations... 25
Settle Cave Exploration 50
Mauritius Meteorological Re-
search 100
Magnetization of Iron 20
Marine Organisms 30
Fossils, North- West of Scot-
land 2 10
Physiological Action of Light 20
Trades Unions 25
Mountain Limestone-Corals 25
Erratic Blocks 10
Dredging, Durham and York-
shire Coasts 28 5
High Temperature of Bodies 30
Siemens's Pyrometer 3 6
LabjTrinthodonts of Coal-
Measures 7 15
£115 1 16
1875. '^~~~^~'
Elliptic Functions 100
Magnetization of Iron 20
British Rainfall 120
LTiminous Meteors 30
Chemistry Record 100
xcu
KEJfORT — 1888.
£ s. d.
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid 10
Isometric Cresols 20
Sub- Wealden Explorations... 100
Kent's Cavern Exploration... 100
Settle Cave Exploration 50
Earthquakes in Scotland 15
Underground Waters 10
Development of Myxinoid
Fishes 20
Zoological Eecord 100
Instructions for Travellers ... 20
Intestinal Secretions 20
Palestine Exploration 100
£960
1876.
Printing Mathematical Tables 159 4 2
British Rainfall 100
Ohm's Law 9 15
Tide Calculating Machine ... 200
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25
Isomeric Cresols 10
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-
rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-
acetate 5
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid 13
Exploration of Victoria Cave,
Settle 100
Geological Kecord 100
Kent's Cavern Exploration... 100
Thermal Conductivities of
Eocks 10
Underground Waters 10
Earthquakes in Scotland 1 10
Zoological Eecord 100
Close Time 5
Physiological Act ion of Sound 25
Zoological Station 75
Intestinal Secretions 15
Physical Characters of Inha-
bitants of British Isles 13 15
Measuring Speed of Ships ... 10
Effect of Propeller on turning
of Steam Vessels 5
£1092 i 2
1877.
Liquid Carbonic Acids in
Minerals 20
Elliptic Functions 250
Thermal Conductivity of
Eocks 9 11 7
Zoological Eecord 100
Kent's Cavern 100
Zoological Station at Naples 75
Luminous Meteors 30
Elasticity of Wires 100
Dipterocarpse, Report on 20
'
£ t. d.
Mechanical Equivalent of
Heat 35
Double Compounds of Cobalt
and Nickel 8
Underground Temperatures 50
Settle Cave Exploration 100
Underground Waters in New
Eed Sandstone 10
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-
rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-
acetate 10
British Earthworks 25
Atmospheric Elasticity in
India 15
Development of Light from
Coal-gas 20
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid 1
Geological Eecord 100
Anthropometric Committee 34
Physiological Action of Phos-
phoric Acid, &c 15
£1128 9 7
18
1878.
Exploration of Settle Caves 100
Geological Eecord 100
Investigation of Pulse Pheno-
mena by means of Syphon
Eecorder 10
Zoological Station at Naples 75 ]
Investigation of Underground
Waters 15
Transmission of Electrical
Impulses through Nerve
Structure 30
Calculation of Factor Table
of Fourth Million 100
Anthropometric Committee... 66
Chemical Composition and
Structure of less known
Alkaloids 25
Exploration of Kent's Cavern 50
Zoological Eecord 100
Fermanagh Caves Exploration 15
Thermal Conductivity of
Eocks 4 16 6
Luminous Meteors 10
Ancient Earthworks 25
£725 16 6
1879.
Table at the Zoological
Station, Naples 75
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of the North of Ireland ... 20
Illustrations for a Monograph
on the Mammoth 17
Eecord of Zoological Litera-
ture 100
Composition and Structu»e of
less-known Alkaloids 26
GENEBAL STATEMENT.
XClll
£ I. d.
Exploration of Caves in
Borneo 50
Kent's Cavern Exploration . . . 100
Eecord of the Progress of
Geology 100
Fermanagh Caves Exploration 5
Electrolysis of Metallic Solu-
tions and Solutions of
Compound Salts 25
Anthropometric Committee... 50
Natural History of Socotra ... 100
Calculation of Factor Tables
for 5th and 6th Millions ... 150
Circulation of Underground
Waters 10
Steering of Screw Steamers... 10
Improvements in Astrono-
mical Clocks 30
Marine Zoology of South
Devon 20
Determination of Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat 12 15 6
Specific Inductive Capacity
of Sprengel "Vacuum 40
Tables of Sun-heat Co-
efficients 30
Datum Level of the Ordnance
Survey 10
Tables of Fundamental In-
variants of Algebraic Forms 36 14 9
Atmospheric Electricity Ob-
servations in Madeira 15
Instrument for Detecting
Fire-damp in Mines 22
Instruments for Measuring
the Speed of Ships 17 1 8
Tidal Observations in the
English Channel 10
£1080 11 11
1880.
New Form of High Insulation
Key 10
Underground Temperature ... 10
Determination of the Me-
chanical Equivalent of
Heat 8 5
Elasticity of Wires 50
Luminous Meteors 30
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30
Fundamental Invariants 8 6
Laws of Water Friction 20
Specific Inductive Capacity
of Sprengel Vacuum 20
Completion of Tables of Sun-
heat Coefficients 60
Instrument for Detection of
Fire-damp in Mines 10
Inductive Capacity of Crystals
and Parafl^es 4 17 7
Report on Carboniferous
Polyzoa 10
£ t. d^
Caves of South Ireland 10
Viviparous Nature of Ichthyo-
saurus 10
Kent's Cavern Exploration... 50
Geological Record 100
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of North Ireland 15
Underground Waters of Per-
mian Formations 5
Eecord of Zoological Litera-
ture 100
Table at Zoological Station
at Naples 75
Investigation of the Geology
and Zoology of Mexico 50
Anthropometry 50
Patent Laws 5
£731 7 7
1881.
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30
Underground Temperature ... 20
High Insulation Key 5
Tidal Observations 10
Fossil Polyzoa 10
Underground Waters 10
Earthquakes in Japan 25
Tertiary Flora 20
Scottish Zoological Station ... 50
Naples Zoological Station ... 75
Natural History of Socotra ... 50
Zoological Record 100
Weights and Heights of
Human Beings 30
Electrical Standards ... 25
Anthropological Notes and
Queries 9
Specific Refractions 7 3 1
£476 3 1
1882.
Tertiary Flora of North of
Ireland 20
EiDloration of Caves of South
o*f Ireland 10
Fossil Plants of Halifax 15
Fundamental Invariants of
Algebraical Forms 76
Record of Zoological Litera-
ture 100
British Polyzoa 10
Naples Zoological Station ... 80
Natural History of Timor-laut 100
Conversion of Sedimentary
Materials into Metamorphic
Rocks 10
Natural History of Socotra... 100
Circulation of Underground
Waters 15
Migration of Birds 15
Earthquake Phenomena of
Japan 25
1
11
XCIV
EEPORT — 1888.
£
Geological Map of Europe ... 25
Elimination of Nitrogen by-
Bodily Exercise 50
Anthropometric Committee... 50
Photographing Ultra-Violet
Spark Spectra 25
Exploration of Raygill Fis-
sure 20
Calibration of Mercurial Ther-
mometers 20
Wave-length Tables of Spec-
tra of Elements 50
Geological Record 100
Standards for Electrical
Measurements 100
Exploration of Central Africa 100
Albuminoid Substances of
Serum 10
£1126
1883.
Natural History of Timor-laut 50
British Fossil Polyzoa 10
Circulation of Underground
Waters 15
Zoological Literature Record 100
Explo'ration of Mount Kili-
ma-njaro 500
Erosion of Sea-coast of Eng-
land and "Wales 10
Fossil Plants of Halifax
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise 38
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
vatives 15
Zoological Station at Naples 80
Investigation of Loughton
Camp 10
Earthquake Phenomena of
Japan ^0
Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis 50
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palaeo-
zoic Kocks 25
Migration of Birds 20
Geological Record 50
Exploration of Caves in South
of Ireland 10
Scottish Zoological Station... 25
Screw Gauges • 5^
£1083
1884.
Zoological Literature Record 100
Fossil Polyzoa 10
Exploration of Mount Kili-
ma-njaro, East Africa 500
Anthropometric Committee... 10
Fossil Plants of Halifax 15
International Geological Map 20
Erratic Blocks oE England ... 10
Natural History of Timor-laut 50
s. d.
1 11
3 3
3 3
£
Coagulation of Blood 100
Naples Zoological Station ... 80
Bibliography of Groups of
Invertebrata 50
Earthquake Phenomena of
Japan 75
Fossil Phyllopoda of Paleo-
zoic Rocks 15
Meteorological Observatory at
Chepstow 25
Migrationof Birds 20
Collecting and Investigating
Meteoric Dust 20
Circulation of Underground
Waters 5
Ultra- Violet Spark Spectra ... 8
Tidal Observations 10
Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis 50
£1173
1885.
Zoological Literature Record. 100
Vapour Pressures, &c., of Salt
Solutions 25
Physical Constants of Solu-
tions 20
Recent Polyzoa 10
Naples Zoological Station ... 100
Exploration of Mount Kilima-
njaro 25
Fossil Plants of British Ter-
tiary and Secondary Beds . 50
Calculating Tables in Theory
of Numbers 100
Exploration of New Guinea... 200
Exploration of Mount Ro-
raima 100
Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis 50
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesv:-
vius 25
Biological Stations on Coasts
of United Kingdom 150
Meteoric Dust 70
Marine Biological Station at
Granton 100
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palaeozoic
Rocks 25
Migration of Birds 30
Synoptic Chart of Indian
Ocean 50
Circulation of Underground
Waters 10
Geological Record 50
Reduction of Tidal Observa-
tions 10
Earthquake Phenomena of
Japan 70
Raygill Fissure 15
£1385^
s.
d.
4
4
GENERAL STATEMENT.
XCV
1886. & t. d.
Zoological Literature Record. 100
Exploration of New Guinea... 150
Secretion of Urine 10
Eesearches in Food- Fishes and
Invertebrata at St. Andrews 75
Electrical Standards 40
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
vius 30
Naples Zoological Station 50
Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis 100
Prehistoric Eace in Greek
Islands 20
North- Western Tribes of Ca-
nada 50
Fossil Plants of British Ter-
tiary and Secondary Beds... 20
Eegulation of Wages under
Sliding Scales 10
Exploration of Caves in North
Wales 25
Migration of Birds 30
Geological Record 100
Chemical Nomenclature 5
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palffiozoic
Rocks 15
Solar Radiation 9 10 6
Magnetic Observations 10 10
Tidal Obsei-vations 50
Marine Biological Station at
Granton 75
Physical and Chemical Bear-
ings of Electrolysis 20
£995 6
1887.
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
(1886 grant) 50
Standards of Light (1886
grant) 20
Silent Discharge of Elec-
tricity 20
Exploration of Cae Gvtryn
Cave, North Wales 20
Investigation of Lymphatic
System 25
Granton Biological Station... 75
Zoological Record 100
Flora of China 75
Nature of Solution 20
Influence of Silicon on Steel 30
Plymouth Biological Station 50
Naples Biological Station ... 100
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
vius 20
Eegulation of Wages 10
Microscopic Structure of the
Rocks of Anglesey 10
Ben Nevis Observatory 75
Prehistoric Race of Greek
Islands 20
£, s. d.
Flora and Fauna of the
Cameroons 75
Provincial Museum Reports 5
Harmonic Analysis of Tidal
Observations 15
Coal Plants of Halifax 25
Exploration of the Eocene
Bedsof the Isle of Wight... 20
Magnetic Observations 26 2
' Manure ' Gravels of Wexford 10
Electrolysis .30
Fossil Phyllopoda 20
Racial Photographs, Egyptian 20
Standards of Light (1887
grant) 10
Migration of Birds 30
Volcanic Phenomena of JajDan
(1887grant) 50
Electrical Standards 50
Bathy-hypsographical Map of
British Isles 7 C
Absorption Spectra 40
Solar Radiation 18 10
Circulation of Underground
Waters 5
Erratic Blocks 10
£1186 18
1888.
Flora of Bahamas 100
Biological Station at Granton 60
Flora of China 75
Carboniferous Flora of Lan-
cashire and West Yorkshire 25
Properties of Solutions 25
Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva-
tives 25
Influence of Silicon on Steel 20
Action of Light on Hydracids 20
Marine Laboratory, Plymouth 100
Naples Zoological Station ... 100
Development of Teleostei ... 15
Precious Metals in Circula-
tion 20
Value of Monetary Standard 10
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
vius 20
Prehistoric Eace in Greek
Islands 20
Palffiontographical Society ... 50
Zoology and Botany of West
Indies lOQ
Development of Fishes — St.
Andrews 50
Pliocene Fauna of St. Erth 50
Lymphatic System 25
Ben Nevis Observatory 150
North-Western Tribes of
Canada JOO
Silent Discharge of Elec-
tricity 9
Manure Gravels of Wexford... 10
11
10
XCVl
BEPORT — 1888.
£ s. d.
Sea Beach near Bridlington... 20
EflEect of Occupations on Phy-
sical Development 25
Magnetic Observations 15
Methods of Teaching Chemis-
try 10
Uniform Nomenclature in
Mechanics 10
Geological Record 50
Migration of Birds 30
Depth of Frozen Soil in Polar
Regions 5
£ s. d.
Circulation of Underground
Waters 5
Standards of Light 79 2 3
Electrical Standards 2 6 4
Peradeniya Botanical Sta-
tion 50
Erosion of Sea Coasts 10
Electrolysis 30
£1511 5
General Meetings.
On Wednesday, September 5, at 8 p.m., in the Drill Hall, Sir H. E.
Roacoe, M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., resigned the office of
President to Sir F. J. Bramwell, D.C.L., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., who took
the Chair, and delivered an Address, for which see page 1.
On Thursday, September 6, at 8.30 p.m., a Soiree took place in the
Assembly Rooms.
On Friday, September 7, at 8.30 p.m , in the Drill Hall, Professor
W. B. Ayrton, F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on ' The Electrical Trans-
mission of Power.'
On Monday, September 10, at 8.30 p.m., in the Drill Hall, Pro-
fessor T. G. Bonney, D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S., delivered a
Discourse on ' The Foundation Stones of the Earth's Crust.'
On Tuesday, September 11, at 8 p.m., a Soiree took place in the
Assembly Rooms.
On Wednesday, September 12, at 2.30 p.m., in the Assembly Rooms, the
concluding General Meeting took place, when the Proceedings of the
General Committee and the Grants of Money for Scientific purposes
were explained to the Members.
The Meeting was then adjonrned to Newcastle-upon-Tyne. [The
Meeting is appointed to commence on Wednesday, September 11, 1889.]
PEESIDENT'S ADDEESS.
1888.
ADDEESS
BY
SIE FEEDEEICK BEAMWELL,
D.C.L., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.,
PRESIDENT.
The iate Lord Iddesleigh delighted an audience, for a whole evening,
by an address on * Nothing.' Would that I had his talents, and could
discourse to you as charmingly as he did to his audience, but I dare not
try to talk about ' Nothing.' I do however propose, as one of the two
sections of my Address, to discourse to you on the importance of the
' Next-to-Nothing.' The other section is far removed from this micro-
scopic quantity, as it will embrace the ' Eulogy of the Civil Engineer
and will point out the value to science of his works.'
I do not intend to follow any system in dealing with these two
sections. I shall not even do as Mr. Dick, in ' David Copperfield,' did —
have two papers, to one of which it was suggested he should confine his
Memorial and his observations as to King Charles's head. The result is,
you will find, that the importance of the next-to-nothing, and the lauda-
tion of the Civil Engineer, will be mixed up in the most illogical and
haphazard way, throughout my Address. I will leave to such of you as
are of orderly minds, the task of rearranging the subjects as you see fit,
but I trust — arrangement or no arrangement — that by the time I have
brought my Address to a conclusion, I shall have convinced you that
there is no man who more thoroughly appreciates the high importance
of the ' next-to-nothing,' than the Civil Engineer of the present day, the
object of my eulogy this evening.
If I may be allowed to express the scheme of this Address in modern
musical language, I will say that the ' next-to-nothing ' ' motive ' will
commonly usher in the ' praise-song ' of the Civil Engineer ; and it seems
to me will do this very fitly, for in many cases it is by the patient and
discriminating attention paid to the effect of the ' next-to-nothing ' that
4 EEPORT 1888.
the Civil Engineer of the present day has achieved some of the labours
of vrhich I now wish to speak to you.
An Association for the Advancement of Science is necessarily one of
such broad scope in its objects, and is so thoroughly catholic as regards
Science, that the only possible way in which it can carry out those
objects at all, is to segregate its members into various subsidiary bodies,
or sections, engaged on particular branches of Science. Even when this
division is resorted to, it is a hardy thing to say that every conceivable
scientific subject can be dealt with by the eight Sections of the British
Association. Nevertheless, as we know, for fifty-seven years the Asso-
ciation has carried on its labours under Sections, and has earned the
right to say that it has done good service to all branches of Science.
Composed, as the Association is, of a union of separate Sections, it is
only right and according to the fitness of things that, as time goes on,
your Presidents should be selected, in some sort of rotation, from the
various Sections. This year it was felt, by the Council and the Members,
that the time had once more arrived when Section G — the Mechanical
Section — might put forward its claim to be represented in the Presidency ;
the last time on which a purely engineering Member filled the chair
havinsr been at Bristol in 1875, when that position was occujiied by Sir
John Hawkshaw. It is true that at Southampton, in 1882, our lamented
friend, Sir William Siemens, was President, and it is also true that he
was a most thorough engineer and representative of Section G ; but all
who knew his great scientific attainments will probably agree that, on that
occasion, it was rather the Physical Section A which was represented, than
the ]Mechanical Section G.
I am aware, it is said. Section G does not contribute much to
pure Science by original research, but that it devotes itself more to the
application of Science. There may be some foundation for this assertion,
but I cannot refrain from the observation, that when Engineers, such as
Siemens, Rankine, Sir William Thomson, Fairbairn, or Armstrong, make
a scientific discovery. Section A says it is made, not in the capacity
of an Engineer, and, therefore, does not appertain to Section G, but in
the capacity of a Physicist, and therefore appertains to Section A — an
illustration of the danger of a man's filling two positions, of which the
composite Prince-Bishop is the well-known type. But I am not careful
to labour this point, or even to dispute that Section G does not do much
for original research. I don't agree it is a fact, but, for the purposes of
this evening, I will concede it to be so. But what then ? This Associa-
tion is for the ' Advancement of Science ' — the Advancement be it remem-
bered ; and I wish to point out to you, and I trust I shall succeed
in establishing, that for the Advancement of Science it is absolutely
necessary there should be the Application of Science, and that, therefore,
the Section, which as much as any other (or, to state the fact more truly,
which more than any other) in the Association applies Science, is doing
I
ADDKESS. O
a very large share of the work of advancing Science, and is fully entitled
to be periodically represented in the Presidency of the whole Association.
I trust also I shall prove to you that applications of Science, and
discoveries in pure Science, act and re-act the one upon the other.
I hope in this to carry the bulk of my audience with me, although there
are some, I know, whose feelings, from a false notion of respect for
Science, would probably find vent in the ' toast ' which one has heard in
another place — this ' toast ' being attributed to the Pui-e Scientist —
' Here's to the latest scientific discovery : may it never do any good to
anybody ! '
To give an early illustration of this action and re-action, which I con-
tend occurs : take the well-worn story of Galileo, Torricelli, and the pump-
maker. It is recorded that Galileo first, and his pupil Torricelli afterwards,
were led to investigate the question of atmospheric pressure, by observing
the failure of a pump to raise water by ' suction,' above a certain level.
Perhaps you will say the pump-maker was not applying science, but was
working without science. I answer, he was unknowingly applying it, and
it was from that which arose in this unconscious application that the mind
of the Pure Scientist was led to investigate the subject, and thereupon to
discover the primary fact, of the pressure of the atmosphere, and the
subsidiary facts which attend thereon. It may appear to many of you
that the question of the exercise of pressure by the atmosphere should
have been so very obvious, that but little merit ought to have accrued to the
discoverer ; and that the statement, once made, must have been accepted
almost as a mere truism. This was, however, by no means the case.
Sir Kenelm Digby, in his ' Treatise on the Nature of Bodies,' printed
in 1658, disputes the proposition altogether, and says, in effect, he is
quite sure, the failure of the pump to raise water was due to imperfect
workmanship of some kind or description, and had nothing to do with
the pressure of the air ; and that there is no reason why a pump should
not suck up water to any height. He cites the boy's sucker, which, when
applied to a smooth stone, will lift it, and he says the reason why the
stone follows the sucker is this. Each body must have some other body
in contact with it. Now, the stone being in contact with the sucker,
there is no reason why that contact should be broken up, for the mere
purpose of substituting the contact of another body, such as the air. It
seems pretty clear, therefore, that even to an acute and well- trained
mind, such as that of Sir Kenelm Digby, it was by no means a truism,
and to be forthwith accepted when once stated, that the rise of water on
the ' suction side ' of a pump was due to atmospheric pressure. T hardly
need point out that the pump-maker should have been a member of ' G.'
Galileo and Torricelli, led to reflect by what they saw, should have been
members of ' A ' of the then ' Association for the Advancement of
Science.'
But, passing away from the question of the value of the application
6 REPORT — 1888.
of Science of a date some two and a half centuries ago, let us come a
little nearer to our own times.
Electricity — known in its simplest form, to the Greeks by the results
arising from the friction on amber, and named therefrom ; afterwards
produced from glass cylinder machines, or from plate machines ; and
produced a century ago by the 'Influence' machine — remained, as did the
discoveries of Volta and Galvani, the pursuit of but a few, and even the
brilliant experiments of Davy did not suffice to give very great impetus
to this branch of physical science.
Ronalds, in 1823, constructed an electric telegraph. In 1837 the
first commercial use was made of the telegraph, and from that time
electrical science received an impulse such as it had never before ex-
perienced. Further scientific facts were discovered ; fresh applications
were made of these discoveries. These fresh applications led to renewed
vigour in research, and there was the action and reaction of which I
have spoken. In the year 1871 the Society of Telegraph Engineers was
established. In the year 1861 our own Association had appointed a Com-
mittee to settle the question of electrical standards of resistance, which
Committee, with enlarged functions, continued its labours for twenty
years, and of this Committee I had the honour of being a member. The
results of the labours of that Committee endure (somewhat modified, it is
true), and may be pointed to as one of the evidences of the value of the
work done by the British Association. Since Ronalds's time, how vast
are the advances which have been made in electrical communication of
intelligence, by land lines, by submarine cables all over the world, and by
the telephone! Few will be prepared to deny the statement, that pure
electrical science has received an enormous impulse, and has been ad-
vanced by the commercial application of electricity to the foi'egoing, and
to purposes of lighting. Since this latter application, scores, I may say
hundreds, of acute minds have been devoted to electrical science, stimulated
thereto by the possibilities and probabilities of this application.
In this country, no doubt, still more would have been done if the
lighting of districts from a central source of electricity had not been,
since 1882, practically forbidden by the Act passed in that year. This
Act had in its title the facetious statement that it was ' to facilitate
Electrical Lighting' — although it is an Act which, even modified as it
has been this year, is still a great discouragement of free enterprise,
and a bar to progress. The other day a member of the House of Com-
mons was saying to me : ' I think it is very much to our discredit in
England that we should have allowed ourselves to be outrun in the dis-
ti'ibution of electric lighting to houses, by the inhabitants of the United
States, and by those of other countries.' Looking upon him as being
one of the authors of the ' facetious ' Act, I thought it pertinent t&
quote the case of the French parricide, who, being asked what he has
to say in mitigation of punishment, pleads, ' Pity a poor orphan ' —
ADDRESS. t
the parricide and the legislator being both of them authors of con-
ditions of things which they affect to deplore. I will say no more on
this subject, for I feel that it would not be right to take advantage of
my position hei-e to-night to urge Political Economy views, which should
be reserved for Section F. I will merely, and as illustrative of my views
of the value of the application of Science to Science itself, say there is
no branch of physics pursued with more zeal and with moi'e happy
results than that of electricity, with its allies, and there is no branch of
Science towards which the pablic looks with greater hope of practical
benefits ; a hope that, I doubt not, will be strengthened after we have had
the advantage of hearing one of the ablest followers of that science,
Professor Ayrton, who, on Friday next, has been good enough to promise
to discourse on ' The Electrical Transmission of Power.'
One of the subjects which, as much as (or probably more than) any
other, occupies the attention of the engineer, and therefore of Section G,
is that of (the so-called) Prime Movers, and I will say boldly that, since
the introduction of printing by the use of movable type, nothing has done
so much for civilisation as the development of these machines. Let us
consider these prime movers — and, first, in the comparatively humble
function of replacing that labour which might be performed by the mus-
cular exertion of human beings, a function which at one time was looked
upon by many kindly but short-sighted men as taking the bread out of
the mouth of the labourer (as it was called), and as being therefore
undesirable. I remember revisiting my old schoolmaster, and his saying
to me, shaking his head : ' So you have gone the way I always feared you
would, and are making things of iron and brass, to do the work of men's
hands.'
It must be agreed that all honest and useful labour is honourable, but
when that labour can be carried out without the exercise of any intelli-
gence, one cannot help feeling that the result is likely to be intellectually
lowering. Thus it is a sony thing to see unintelligent labour, even
although that labour be useful. It is but one remove from unintelligent
labour which is not useful ; that kind of labour generally appointed
(by means of the tread-wheel or the crank) as a punishment for crime.
Consider even the honourable labour (for it is useful, and it is honest) of
the man who earns his livelihood by turning the handle of a crane, and
compare this with the labour of a smith, who, while probably developing
more energy by the use of his muscles, than is developed by the man
turning the crane-handle, exercises at the same time the powers of
judgment, of eye, and of hand in a manner which I never see without
my admiration being excited. I say that the introduction of prime
movers as a mere substitute for unintelligent manual labour is in itself a
great aid to civilisation and to the raising of humanity, by rendering it
veiy diflicult, if not impossible, for a human being to obtain a livelihood
by unintelligent work — the work of the horse in the mill, or of the turnspit.
8 REPORT— 1888.
But there are prime taovers and prime movers — those of small
dimensions, and employed for purposes where animal power or human
power might be substituted, and those which attain ends that by no
conceivable possibility could be attained at all by the exertion of muscular
power.
Compare a galley, a vessel propelled by oars, with the modern Atlantic
liner ; and first let us assume that prime movers are non-existent and
that this vessel is to be propelled galley-fashion. Take her length as
some 600 feet, and assume that place be found for as many as 400 oars
on each side, each oar worked by three men, or 2,400 men ; and allow that
six men under these conditions could develop work equal to one horse-
power : we should have 400 horse-power. Double the number of men,
and we should have 800 horse-power, with 4,800 men at work, and at
least the same number in reserve, if the journey is to be carried on
continuously. Contrast the puny result thus obtained with the 19,500
horse-power given forth by a large prime mover of the present day,
such a power requiring, on the above mode of calculation, 117,000
men at work and 117,000 in reserve; and these to be carried in a
vessel less than 600 feet in length. Even if it were possible to carry
this number of men in such a vessel, by no conceivable means could
their power be utilised so as to impart to it a speed of twenty knots
an hour.
This illustrates how a prime mover may not only be a mere substitute
for muscular work, but may afEord the means of attaining an end, that
could not by any possibility be attained by muscular exertion, no
matter what money was expended or what galley-slave suffering was
inflicted.
Take again the case of a railway locomotive : from 400 to 600 horse-
power developed in an implement which, even including its tender, does
not occupy an area of more than fifty square yards, and that draws us at
sixty miles an hour. Here again, the prime mover succeeds in doing that
which no expenditure of money or of life could enable us to obtain from
muscular effort.
To what, and to whom, are these meritorious prime movers due ? I
answer : to the application of science, and to the labours of the civil
engineer, using that term in its full and proper sense, as embracing all
engineering other than military. I am, as you know, a Civil Engineer,
and I desire to laud my profession and to magnify mine office ; and I know
of no better means of doing this than by quoting to you the definition of
' civil engineering,' given in the Charter of The Institution of Civil
Engineers, namely, that it is ' the art of directing the great sources
of power in Nature for the use and convenience of man.' These words
are taken from a definition or description of engineering given by one of
our earliest scientific writers on the subject, Thomas Tredgold, who com-
mences that description by the words above quoted, and who, having given
ADDEESS. y
various illustrations of the civil engineer's pursuits, introduces this preg-
nant sentence : —
' This is, however, only a brief sketch of the objects of civil engineer-
ing ; the real extent to which it may be applied is limited only by the
progress of science ; its scope and utility will be increased with every
discovery in philosophy, and its resources with every invention in
mechanical or chemical art, since its bounds are unlimited, and equally
so must be the researches of its professors.'
' The art of directing the great sources of power in Nature for the use
and convenience of man.' Among all secular pursuits, can there be
imagined one more vast in its scope, more beneficent, and therefore more
honourable, than this ? There are those, I know — hundreds, thousands —
who say that such pursuits are not to be named as on a par with those
of literature; that there is nothing ennobling in them; nothing elevating;
that they are of the earth, earthy; are mechanical, and are unintellectual,
and that even the mere bookworm, who, content with storing his own
mind, neither distributes those stores to others nor himself originates, is
more worthily occupied than is the civil engineer.
I deny this altogether, and, while acknowledging, with gratitude, that,
in literature, the masterpieces of master minds have afforded, and will
afford, instruction, delight, and solace for all generations, so long as
civilisation endures, I say that the pursuits of civil engineering are
worthy of occupying the highest intelligence, and that they are elevating
and ennobling in their character.
Remember the kindly words of Sir Thomas Browne, who said, when
condemning the uncharitable conduct of the mere bookworm, ' I make
not, therefore, my head a grave, but a treasure of knowledge, and study
not for mine own sake only, but for those who study not for themselves.'
The engineer of the present day finds that he must not make his ' head
a grave,' but that, if he wishes to succeed, he must have, and must
exercise, scientific knowledge ; and he realises daily the truth that
those who are to come after him must be trained in science, so that they
may readily appreciate the full value of each scientific discovery as it is
made. Thus the application of science by the engineer not only stimu-
lates those who pursue science, but adds him to their number.
Holding, as I have said I do, the view that he who displaces unintelli-
gent labour is doing good to mankind, I claim for the unknown engineer
who, in Pontus, established the first water-wheel of which we have a record,
and for the equally unknown engineer who first made use of wind for a
motor, the title of pioneers in the raising of the dignity of labour, by
compelling the change from the non-intelligent to the intelligent.
With respect to these motors — wind and water — we have two proverbs
which discredit them : ' Fickle as the wind,' ' Unstable as water.'
Something more trustworthy was needed — something that we were
sure of having under our hands at all times. As a result, Science was
10 REPORT 1888.
applied, and tlie ' fire ' engine, as it was first called, the ' steam ' engine,
as it was re-named, a form of ' lieat ' engine, as we now know it to be,
was invented.
Think of the early days of the steam-engine — the pre- Watt days. The
days of Papin, Savory, Newcomen, Smeaton ! Great effects were produced,
no doubt, as compared with no fire engine at all ; effects so very marked as
to extort from the French writer, Belidor, the tribute of admiration he paid
to the ' fire ' engine erected at the Fresnes Colliery by English engineers.
A similar engine worked the pumps in York Place (now the Adelphi) for
the supply of water to portions of London. We have in his work one of
the very clearest accounts, illustrated by the best engravings (absolute
working di-awings), of the engine which had excited his admiration.
These drawings show the open-topped cylinder, with condensation taking
place below the piston, but with the valves worked automatically.
It need hardly be said that, noteworthy as such a machine was, as
compared with animal power, or with wind or water motors, it was of
necessity a most wasteful instrument as regards fuel. It is difficult to
conceive in these days how, for years, it could have been endured that
at each stroke of the engine the chamber that was to receive the steam
at the next stroke was carefully cooled down beforehand by a water
injection.
Watt, as we know, was the first to perceive, or, at all events, to cure,
this fundamental error which existed prior to his time in the 'fire' engine.
To him we owe condensation in a separate vessel, the doing away with
the open-topped cylinder, and the making the engine double-acting ; the
parallel motion ; the governor ; and the engine indicator, by which we
have depicted for us the way in which the work is being performed
within the cylinder. To Watt, also, we owe that great source of economic
working — the knowledge of the expansive force of steam ; and to his
prescience we owe the steam jacket, without which expansion, beyond,
cei'tain limits, is practically worthless. I have said ' prescience ' — fore-
knowledge — but I feel inclined to say that, in this case, prescience may
be rendered ' pre-Science,' for I think that Watt /eZi the utility of the
steam jacket, without being able to say on what ground that utility was
based.
I have already spoken in laudatory terms of Tredgold, as being one ol
the earliest of our scientific engineering writers, but, as regards the ques-
tion of steam jacketing. Watt's prescience was better than Tredgold's
science, for the latter condemns the steam jacket, as being a means
whereby the cooling surfaces are enlarged, and whereby, therefore,
the condensation is increased.
I think it is not too much to say, that engineers who, since Watt's
days, have produced machines of such marvellous power — and, compared
with the engines of Watt's days, of so gi-eat economy — have, so far as
principles are concerned, gone upon those laid down by Watt. Details
ADDRESS. 1 1
of the most necessary character — necessary to enable those principles to
be carried out — have, indeed, been devised since the days of Watt.
Although it is still a very sad confession to have to make, that the very
best of our steam engines only utilises about one-sixth of the work which
resides (if the term may be used) in the fuel that is consumed, it is, never-
theless, a satisfaction to know that great economical progress has been made,
and that the 6 or 7 lbs. of fuel per horse-power per hour consumed by the
very best engines of Watt's days, when working with the aid of condensa-
tion, is now brought down to about one-fourth of this consumption ; and
this in portable engines, for agricultural purposes, working without con-
densation — engines of small size, developing only 20 horse-power ; in such
engines the consumption has been reduced to as little as 1'85 lb. per
brake horse-power per hour, equal to 1"65 lb. per indicated horse-power
per hour, as was shown by the trials at the Royal Agricultural Society's
meeting at Newcastle last year — trials in which I had the pleasure of
participating.
In these ti-ials, Mr. William Anderson, one of the Vice-Presidents of
Section Gr, and I were associated, and, in making our report of the results,
we adopted the balance-sheet system, which I suggested and used so
long ago as 1873 (see vol. 52, pages l-r<4 and 155, of the ' Minutes of Pro-
ceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers '), and to which I alluded in
my address as President of Section G at Montreal.
I have told you that the engineer of the present day appreciates the
value of the 'next-to-nothings.' There is an old housekeeping proverb
that, if you take care of the farthings and the pence, the shillings and the
pounds will take care of themselves. Without the balance-sheet one
knows that for the combustion of 1 lb. of coal, the turning into steam
of a given quantity of water at a given pressure is obtained. It is seen,,
at once, that the result is much below that which should be had, but
to account for the deficiency is the difSculty. The balance-sheet, dealing
with the most minute sources of loss — the farthings and the pence of
economic working — brings you face to face with these, and you find that
improvement must be sought in paying attention to the ' next-to-
nothings.'
Just one illustration. The balance-sheet will enable you at a glance
to answer this among many important questions. Has the fuel been
properly burnt ? — with neither too much air, nor too little.
At the Newcastle trials our knowledge as to whether we had the
right amount of air for perfect combustion was got by an analysis of
the waste gases, taken continuously throughout the whole number of
hours' run of each engine, affording, therefore, a fair average. The
analysis of any required portion of gases thus obtained was made in a
quarter of an hour's time by the aid of the admirable apparatus invented
by Mr. Stead, and, on the occasion to which I refer, manipulated by him.
In one instance an excess of air had been supplied, causing a percentage
12 REPORT— 1888.
of loss of 6'3-Ij. In the instance of another engine there was a deficiency
of air, resulting in the production of carbonic oxide, involving a loss of
4) per cent. The various percentages of loss, of which each one seems
somewhat unimportant, in the aggregate amounted to 28 per cent., and
this with one of the best boilers. This is an admirable instance of the
need of attention to apparently small things.
I have already said that we now know the steam engine is really
a heat engine. At the York Meeting of our Association I ventured to
predict that, unless some substantive improvement were made in the
steam engine (of which improvement, as yet, we have no notion), I
believed its days, for small powers, were numbered, and that those who
.attended the centenary of the British Association in 1931 would see the
present steam engines in museums, treated as things to be respected,
and of antiquarian interest to the engineers of those days, such as are
the open-topped steam cylinders of Newcomen and of Smeaton to our-
selves. I must say I i^ee no reason, after the seven years which have
elapsed since the York Meeting, to regret having made that prophecy, or
to desire to withdraw it.
The working of heat engines, without the intervention of the
vapour of water, by the combustion of the gases arising from coal, or
from coal and from water, is now not merely an established fact, but a
recognised and undoubted, commercially econonncal, means of obtaining
motive power. Such engines, developing from 1 to 40-horse-power, and
worked by the ordinary gas supplied by the gas mains, are in most
extensive use in printing works, hotels, clubs, theatres, and even in large
private houses, for the working of dynamos to supply electric light. Such
engines are also in use in factories, being sometimes driven by the gas
obtained from ' culm ' and steam, and are giving forth a horse-power for,
it is stated, as small a consumption as one pound of fuel per hour.
It is hardly necessary to remind you — but let me do it — that, although
the saving of half a pound of fuel per horse- power appears to be insigni-
ficant, when stated in that bald way, one realises that it is of the highest
importance when that half-pound turns out to be 33 per cent, of the
whole previous consumption of one of those economical engines to which
E have refei-red.
The gas engine is no new thing. As long ago as 180V, a M. de Rivaz
proposed its use for driving a carriage on ordinary roads. For anything
[ know he may not have been the first proposer. It need hardly be said
that in those days he had not illuminating gas to resort to, and he pro-
posed to employ hydrogen. A few years later, a writer in 'Nicholson's
Journal,' in an article on ' flying machines,' having given the correct
statement that all that is needed to make a successful machine of this
description is to find a sufficiently light motor, suggests that the direction in
which this may be sought is the employment of illuminating gas, to operate
by its explosion on the piston of an engine. The idea of the gas engine
ADDRESS. 1 S
was revived, and formed the subject of a patent by Barnett in the year 1838.
It is trne this gentleman did not know very much about the subject, and
that he suggested many things which, if carried out, would have resulted
■ in the production of an engine which could not have worked ; but he had
an alternative proposition which would have worked.
Again, in the year 1861, the matter was revived by Lenoir, and in the
year 1865, by Hugon, both French inventors. Their engines obtained
some considerable amount of success and notoriety, and many of them
were made and used ; but in the majority of cases they were discarded
as wasteful and uncertain. The Institution of Civil Engineers, for
example, erected a Lenoir in the year 1868, to work the ventilating fan,
but after a short time they were compelled to abandon it and to substitute
a hydraulic engine.
At the present time, as I have said, gas engines are a great commercial
success, and they have become so by the attention given to small things,
in popular estimation — to important things, in fact, with which, however.
I must not trouble you. Messrs. Crossley Brothers, who have done so
much to make the gas engine the commercial success that it is, inform
me that they are prosecuting improvements in the direction of attention
to detail, from which they are obtaining greatly improved results.
But, looking at the wonderful petroleum industry, and at the multi-
farious products which are obtained from the crude material, is it too
much to say, that there is a future for motor engines, worked by the
vapour of some of the more highly volatile of these products — true
vapoui' — not a gas, but a condensable body, capable of being worked
over and over again ? Numbers of such engines, some of as much as
4 horse-power, made by Mr. Yarrow, are now running, and are appa-
rently giving good results ; certainly excellent results as regards the
compactness and lightness of the machinery ; for boat purposes they
possess the great advantage of being I'apidly under way. I have seen
one go to work within two minutes of the striking of the match to lio-ht
the burner.
Again, as we know, the vapour of this material has been used as a
gas in gas engines, the motive power having been obtained by direct
combustion.
Having regard to these considerations, was I wrong in predicting
that the heat engine of the future will probably be one independent of
the vapour of water ? And, further, in these days of electrical advance-
ment, is it too much to hope for the direct production of electricity from
the combustion of fuel ?
As the world has become familiar with prime movers, the desire for
their employment has increased. Many a householder could find useful
occupation for a prime mover of |^ or |^ horse-power, working one oi-
two hours a day ; but the economical establishment of a steam engine is
not possible until houses of very large dimensions are reached, where
14 REPORT — 1888.
space exists for the engine, and where, having regard to the amount of
work to be done, the incidental expenses can be borne. Where this can-
not be, either the prime mover, with the advantages cf its use, must be
o-iven up as a thing to be wished for, but not to be procured, or recourse
must be had to some other contrivance— say to the laying on of power, in
some form or another, from a central source.
I have already incidentally touched upon one mode of doing this,
namely, the employment of illuminating gas, as the working agent in the
gas engine ; but there are various other modes, possessing their respective
merits and demerits — all ingenious, all involving science in their appli-
cation, and all more or less in practical use — such as the laying-on of
special high-pressure water, as is now being extensively practised in
London, in Hull, and elsewhere. Water at 700 lbs. pressure per inch is
a most convenient mode of laying on a large amount of power, through
comparatively small pipes. Like electricity, where, when a high electro-
motive force is used, a large amount of energy may be sent through a
small conductor, so with water, under high pressure, the mains may
be kept of reasonable diameters, without rendering them too small to
transmit the power required through them.
Power is also transmitted by means of compressed air, an agent which,
on the score of its ability to ventilate, and of its cleanliness, has much to
recommend it. On the other hand, it is an agent which, having regard
to the probability of the deposition of moisture in the form of ' snow,'
requires to be worked with judgment.
Ao-ain, there is an alternative mode for the conveyance of power by
the exhaustion of air — a mode which has been in practical use for over
sixty years.
We have also the curious system pursued at Schaflfhausen, where
quick-running ropes are driven by turbines, these being worked by the
current of the river Rhine ; and at New York, and in other cities of
the United States, steam is laid on under the streets, so as to enable
domestic steam engines to be worked, without the necessity of a boiler,
a stoker, or a chimney, the steam affording also means of heating the
house when needed.
Lastly, there is the system of transmitting power by electricity, to
which I have already adverted. I was glad to learn, only the other day,
that there was every hope of this power being applied to the working of
an important subterranean tramway.
These disti'ibutions from central sources need, as a rule, statutory
powers to enable the pipes or wires to be placed under the roads ; and,
following the deplorable example of the Electrical Facilities Act, it is now
the habit of the enlightened corporation and the enterprising town clerk
of most boroughs to say to capitalists who are willing to embark their
capital in the plant for the distribution of power from a central source
for their own profit, no doubt, but also, no doubt, for the good of the
ADDRESS. 15
■community — ' We will oppose you in Parliament, unless you will consent
that, at the end of twenty-one years, we may acquire compulsorily your
property, and may do so, if it turns out to be remunerative, without other
payment than that for the mere buildings and plant at that time
existing.' This is the way English enterprise is met, and then English
engineers are taunted, by Englishmen — often by the very men who have
had a share in making this ' boa-constrictor ' of a ' Facilities Act ' — that
their energy is not to be compared with that which is to be found in the
United States and other countries. Again, however, I must remember
that I am not addressing Section F.
There is one application of science, by engineers, which is of extreme
beauty and interest, and that cannot be regarded with indifference by
the agriculturists of this country. I allude to the Heat-withdrawing
Engines (I should like to say, ' Cold-Producers,' but I presume, if I did,
I should be criticised), which are now so very extensively used for the
importation of fresh meat, and for its storage when received here. It
need hardly be said, that that which will keep cool and sweet the car-
cases of sheep will equally well preserve milk, and many other perish-
able articles of food. We have in these machines daily instances that, if
you wish to make a ship's hold cold, you can do it by burning a certain
quantity of coals — a paradox, if ever there was one.
In this climate of ours, where the summer has been said to consist of
' three hot days and a thunderstorm,' there is hardly need to make a
provision for cooling our houses, although there is an undoubted need for
making a provision to heat them. Nevertheless, those of us who have
hot-water heating arrangements for use in the winter would be very glad
indeed if, without much trouble or expense, they could turn these about,
so as to utilise them for cooling their houses in summer. Mr. Loftus
Perkins, so well known for his labours in the use of very high-pressure
steam (600 to 1,000 lbs. on the inch), and also so well known for those
most useful high-pressure warming arrangements which, without disfigur-
ing our houses by the passage of large pipes, keep them in a state of
warmth and comfort throughout the winter, has lately taken up the mode
of, I will say it, producing ' cold ' by the evaporation of ammonia, and,
by improvements in detail, has succeeded in making an apparatus which,
without engine or pumps, produces ' cold ' for some hours in succession,
and requires, to put it in action, the preliminary combustion of only a
few pounds of coke or a few feet of gas.
As I have said, our climate gives us but little need to provide or
employ apparatus to cool our houses, but one can well imagine that the
Anglo-Indian will be glad to give up his punkah for some more certain,
and less draughty, mode of cooling.
I now desire to point out how, as the work of the engineer grows,
his needs increase. New material, or better material of the old kind,
has to be found to enable him to carry out these works of greater mag-
16 KEPORT 1888,
nitude. At the beginning of this centary, stone, brick, and timber were
practically the only materials employed for that which I may call stand-
ing engineerin-g work — i.e., buildings, bridges, aqueducts, and so on —
while timber, cast iron, and wrought iron were for many years the only
available materials for the framing and principal parts of moving machines
and engines, with the occasional use of lead for the pipes and of copper
for pipes and for boilers.
As regards the cast iron, little was known of the science involved (or
that ought to be involved) in its manufacture. It was judged of by
results. It was judged of largely by the eye. It was ' white,' it was
' mottled,' it was ' grey.' It was known to be ' fit for refining,' fit for
'strong castings,' or fit for castings in which great fluidity in the
molten metal was judged to be of more importance than strength in the
finished casting. With respect to wrought iron, it was judged of by its
results also. It was judged of by the place of its manufacture — but
when the works of the district were unknown, the iron, on being tested,
was classed as ' good fibrous,' although some of the very best was ' steel-
like,' or ' bad,' ' hot -short,' or ' cold-short.' A particular district would
produce one kind of iron, another district another kind of iron. The ore,
the flux, and the fuel were all known to have influence, but to what extent
was but little realised ; and if there came in a new ore, or a new flux,
it misrht well be that for months the turn-out of the works into which
these novelties had been introduced would be prejudiced. Steel again —
that luxury of the days of my youth — was judged by the eye. The
wrought bars, made into 'blister' steel by 'cementation,' were broken,
examined, and grouped accordingly. Steel was known, no doubt, to be a
compound of iron and carbon, but the importance of exactness in the per-
centage was but little understood, nor was it at all understood how the
presence of comparatively small quantities of foreign matter might necessi-
tate the variation of the proportions of carbon. The consequence was that
anomalous results every now and then arose to confound the person who had
used the steel, and falsifying the proverb ' true as steel,' steel became an
object of distrust. Is it too much to say that Bessemer's great invention
of steel made by the ' converter,' and that Siemens's invention of the
open-hearth process, reacted on pure science, and set scientific men to in-
vestigate the laws which regulate the union of metals and of metalloids ?
— and that the labours of these scientific men have improved the manufac-
ture, so that steel is now thoroughly and entirely trusted ? By its aid
engineering works are accomplished which, without that aid, would have
been simply impossible. The Forth Bridge, the big gun, the compound
armour of the ironclad with its steel face, the projectile to pierce that
steel face- -all equally depend upon the ' truth ' of steel as much as does
the barely visible hair spring of the chronometer, which enables the
longitude of the ship in which it is carried to be ascertained. Now,
what makes the difference between trustworthy and untrustworthy steel
ADDRESS. 1 7
for each particular purpose ? Something which, until our better sense
comes to our aid, we are inclined to look upon as ridiculously insignificant
—a ' next-to-nothing.' Setting extraneous ingredients aside, and con-
sidering only the union of iron and carbon, the question whether there
shall be added or deducted one-tenth of 1 per cent, (pardon my clumsy
way of using the decimal system) of carbon is a matter of great import-
ance in the resulting quality of the steel. This is a striking practical
instance of how apparently insignificant things may be of the highest
importance. The variation of this fraction of a percentage may render
your boiler steel untrustworthy, may make the difference between safety
in a gun and danger in a gun, and may render your armour-piercing pro-
jectile unable to pierce even the thinnest wronght-iron armour.
While thus brought incidentally to the subject of guns, let me derive
from it another instance of the value of small things. I have in my
hand a piece of steel ribbon. It is probable that only those who are
near to me can see it. Its dimensions are one-fourth by one-sixteenth of
an English inch, equal to an area of one sixty-fourth of a square inch.
This mode of stating the dimensions I use for the information of the
ladies. To make it intelligible to my scientific friends, I must tell them
that it is approximately "00637 of a metre, by approximately "00159 of a
metre, and that its sectional area is "00001012S3 (also approximately) of
a square metre. This insignificant (and speaking in reference to the greater
number of my audience), practically invisible piece of material — that I can
bend with my hand, and even tie into knots — is, nevertheless, not to be
despised. By it one reinforces the massive and important-looking A-tube
of a 9"2-inch gun, so that from that tube can be projected with safety a
projectile weighing 380 pounds at a velocity, when leaving the muzzle,
of between one-third and one-half of a mile in a second, and competent to
braverse nearly 12^ miles before it touches the ground. It may be said,
[' What is the use of being able to fire a projectile to a distance which
sommonly is invisible (from some obstacle or another) to the person
lirecting the gun ? ' I will suggest to you a use. Imagine a gun of
lis kind placed by some enemy who, unfortunately, had invaded us, and
lad reached Richmond. He has the range table for his gun ; he, of
jourse, is provided with our Ordnance maps, and he lays and elevates the
m at Richmond, with the object of striking, say, the Royal Exchange.
Suppose he does not succeed in his exact aim. The projectile goes 100
^ards to one side or to the other ; or it falls 250 yards short, or passes
250 yards over ; and it would be ' bad shooting ' indeed, in these days, if
nearly every projectile which was fired did not fall somewhere within an
area such as this. In this suggested parallelogram of 100,000 square
yards, or some 20 acres, there is some rather valuable property ; and the
transactions which are carried on are not unimportant. It seems to me
that business would not be conducted with that calmness and coolness
which are necessary for success, if, say every five minutes, a 380-pound
1888. c
18 REPORT— 1888.
shell fell within this area, vomiting fire, and scattering its walls in
hundreds of pieces, with terrific violence, in all directions. Do not
suppose I am saying that similar effects cannot be obtained from a gun
where wire is not employed. They can be. But my point is, that they
can also be obtained by the aid of the insignificant thing which I am
holding up at this moment — this piece of steel ribbon, which looks more
suitable for the framework of an umbrella.
I have already spoken to you, when considering steel as a mere alloy of
iron and carbon, as to the value of even a fraction of 1 per cent, of the
latter ; but we know that in actual practice steel almost always con-
tains other ingredients. One of the most prominent of these is manganese.
It had for years been used, in quantities varying from a fraction of 1
per cent, up to 2'5 per cent., with advantage as regards ductility, and
as regards its ability to withstand forging. A further increase was found
not to augment the advantage : a still further increase was foand to
diminish it : and here the manufacturer stopped, and, so far as I know,
the pure scientist stopped, on the very reasonable ground that the point
of increased benefit appeared to have been well ascertained, and that
there could be no advantage in pursuing an investigation which appeared
only to result in decadence. But this is another instance of how the
application of science reacts in the interests of pure science itself. One
of our steel manufacturers, Mr. Hadfield, determined to pursue this appa-
rently barren subject, and in doing so discovered this fact — that, while
with the addition of manganese in excess of the limit before stated, and
up to as much as 7 per cent., deterioration continued, after this latter
percentage was passed improvement again set in.
Again, the effects of the addition of even the very smallest percent-
ages of aluminium upon the steel with which it may be alloyed are very
striking and very peculiar, giving to the steel alloy thus produced a
very much greater hardness, and enabling it to take a much brighter
and more silver-like polish. Further, the one-twentieth part of 1 per
cent, of aluminium, when added to molten wrpught iron, will reduce
the fusing-point of the whole mass some 500 degrees, and will render
it extremely fluid, and thus enable wrought iron (or what are commer-
cially known as ' Mitis ' — castings of the most intricate character) to be
produced.
No one has worked more assiduously at the question of the effect of
the jDresence of minute quantities, even traces, of alloys with metals than
Professor Roberts-Austen, and he appears, by his experiments, to be
discovering a general law, governing the efiect produced by the mixture
of particular metals, so that, in future, it is to be hoped, when an alloy
is, for the first time, to be attempted, it will be possible to predict with
reasonable certainty what the result will be, instead of that result remain-
ing to be discovered by experiment.
I have just, incidentally, mentioned aluminium. May I say that we
ADDRESS. 1 9
•engineers look forward, with much interest, to all processes tending to
bring this metal, or its alloys, within possible commercial use ?
One more instance of the effect of impurities in metals. The engineer
engaged in electrical matters is compelled, in the course of his daily-
work, frequently to realise the importance of the ' next-to-nothing.' One
striking instance of this is afforded by the influence which an extremely
minute percentage of impurity has on the electrical conductivity of copper
wire : this conductivity being in some cases reduced by as much as 60
per cent., in consequence of the admixture of that which, under other
•circumstances, would be looked upon as insignificant.
Reverting to the question of big guns. According to the present
mode of manufacture, after we have rough-bored and turned the ' A '
tube (and perhaps I ought to have mentioned that by the ' A ' tube is
meant the main piece of the gun, the innermost layer, if I may so call it,
that portion which is the full length of the gun, and upon which the
remainder of the gun is built up) — after, as I have said, we have rough-
bored and turned this 'A' tube, we heat it to a temperature lying
between certain specified limits, but actually determined by the behaviour
of samples previously taken, and then suddenly immerse it perpen-
dicularly into a well some 60 feet deep, full of oil, the oil in this well
being kept in a state of change by the running into it, at the bottom, of
cold oil conveyed by a pipe proceeding from an elevated oil tank. In this
way the steel is oil-hardened, with the result of increasing its ultimate
tensile strength, and also with the result of raising its so-called elastic
limit. In performing this operation it is almost certain that injurious
internal strains will be set up : strains tending to produce self- rupture
of the material. Experiments have been carried out in England, by
Captain Andrew Noble, and by General Maitland of the Royal Gun
Factory, by General Kalakoutsky, in Russia, and also in the United
States, to gauge what is the value, as represented by dimensions, of these
strains, and we find that they have to be recorded in the most minute
fractions of an inch, and yet, if the steel be of too ' high ' a quality (as it is
technically called), or if there has been any want of uniformity in the
oil-hardening process, these strains, unless got rid of or ameliorated by
annealing, may, as I have said, result in the self -rupture of the steel.
I have spoken of the getting rid of these strains by annealing, a
process requiring to be conducted with great care, so as not to prejudice
the effects of the oil-hardening. But take the case of a hardened steel
projectile, hardened so that it will penetrate the steel face of compound
ai'mour. In that case annealing cannot be resorted to, for the extreme
hardness of the projectile must not be in the least impaired. The internal
strains in these projectiles are so very grave, that for months after they
are made there is no security that they will not spontaneously fractare. I
have here the point of an 8-inch projectile, which projectile weighs 210 lbs.,
this with others was received from the makers as long ago as March of
c 2
20 KEPORT — 1888.
this year, and remained an apparently perfect and sound projectile until
about the middle of August — some five months after delivery — and, of
course, a somewhat longer time since manufacture — and between August
6th and 8th this piece which I hold in my hand, measuring 3| inches by
31 inches, spontaneously flew oiF from the rest of the projectile, and has
done so upon a surface of separation which, whether having regard to
its beautiful regularity, or to the conclusions to be drawn from it as to
the nature of the strains existing, is of the very highest scientific interest.
Many other cases of self-rupture of similar projectiles have been recorded.
Another instance of the effect of the ' next-to-nothing ' in the harden-
ing and tempering or annealing of steel. As we know, the iron and
the carbon (leaving other matters out of consideration) are there. The
carbon is (even in tool-steel) a very small proportion of the whole. The
steel may be bent, and will retain the form given to it. You heat it and
plunge it in cold water ; you attempt to bend it and it breaks ; but if, after
the plunging in cold water, you temper it by carefully reheating it, you
may bring it to the condition fit either for the cutting-tool for metal, or
for the cutting-tool for wood, or for the watch-spring ; and these important
variations of condition which are thus obtained depend upon the ' next-to-
nothing ' in the temperature to which it is reheated, and therefore in the
nature of the resulting combination of the ingredients of which the steel
is composed.
Some admirable experiments were carried out on this subject by the
Institution of ]\Iechanical Engineers, with the assistance of one of our
Vice-Presidents, Sir Frederick Abel, and the subject has also been dealt
with by an eminent Russian writer.
There is, to my mind, another and very striking popular instance (if
I may use the phrase) of the importance of attention to detail — that is, to
the ' next-to-nothing.' Consider the bicycles and tricycles of the present
day — -machines which afford the means of healthful exercise to thousands,
and which will, probably within a vei'y short time, prove of the very
greatest possible use for military purposes. The perfection to which
these machines have been brought is almost entirely due to strict atten-
tion to detail ; in the selection of the material of which the machines are
made ; in the application of pure science (in its strictest sense) to the •
form and to the proportioning of the parts, and also in the arrangement of
these various parts in relation the one to the other. The result is that the
greatest possible strength is aff"orded with only the least possible weight,
and that friction in working has been reduced to a minimum. All of ns
who remember the hobby-horse of former years, and who contrast that
machine with the bicycle or tricycle of the present day, realise how
thoroughly satisfactory is the result of this attention to detail — this
appreciation of the * next-to-nothing.'
Let me give you another illustration of the importance of small things,
drawn from gunnery practice.
ADDRESS. 21
At first siglit one would be tempted to say that the density of the air
on the underside of a shot must, notwithstanding its motion of descent,
be so nearly the same as that of the air upon the upper side as to cause the
difference to be unworthy of consideration ; but we know that the projectiles
from rifled guns tend to travel sideways as they pass through the air, and
that the direction of their motion, whether to the right or to the left, de-
pends on the ' hand ' of the rifling. We know also, that the friction against
liquid or against gaseous bodies varies with the densities of these bodies,
and it is believed that, minute as is the difference in density to which I have
referred, it is suSicient to determine the lateral movement of the
projectile. This lateral tendency must be allowed for, in these days of
long ranges, in the sighting and laying of guns, if we desire accuracy of
aim, at those distances at which it is to be expected our naval
engagements will have to be commenced, and perhaps concluded. We
can no longer afford to treat the subject as Nelson is said to have treated
it, in one of his letters to the Secretary of the Admiralty, who had
requested that an invention for laying guns more accurately should be
tried. Nelson said he would be glad to try the invention, but that, as
his mode of fighting consisted in placing his ship close alongside that of
the enemy, he did not think the invention, even if it were successful,
would be of much use to him.
While upon the question of guns, I am tempted to remark upon that
which is by no means a small thing (for it is no less than the rotation
of the earth), which in long-distance firing may demand attention, and
that to an extent little suspected by the civilian.
Place the gun north and south, say in the latitude of London, and fire
a 12-mile round such as I have mentioned, and it will be found that,
assuming the shot were passing through a vacuum, a lateral allowance of
more than 200 feet must be made to compensate for the different velocity
of the circumference of the earth at 12 miles north or south of the place
where the gun was fired, as compared with the velocity of the circum-
ference of the earth at that place itself — the time of flight being in round
numbers one minute.
At the risk of exciting a smile, I am about to assert that engineering
has even its poetical side. I will ask you to consider with me whether
there may not be true poetry in the feelings of the engineer who
solves a problem such as this : Consider this rock, never visible
above the surface of the tide, but making its presence known by the
waves which rise around it : it has been the cause of destruction to many
a noble vessel which had completed, in safety, its thoasands of leagues
of journey, and was, within a few score miles of port ; then dashed to pieces
upon it ? Here is this rock. On it build a lighthouse. Lay your founda-
tions through the water, in the midst of the turmoil of the sea ; make
your preparations ; appear to be attaining success, and find the elements
ure against you and that the whole of your preliminary works are ruined
22 REPORT — 1888.
or destroyed in one night ; but again commence, and then go on and go on
until at last you conquer ; your works rise above ordinary tide-level ; then
upon these sure foundations, obtained it may be after years of toil, erect
a fair shaft, graceful as a palm and sturdy as an oak ; surmount it with
a light, itself the produce of the highest application of science ; direct
that light by the built-up lens, again involving the highest application
of science ; apply mechanism, so arranged that the lighthouse shall from
minute to minute reveal to the anxious mariner its exact name and its
position on the coast. When you have done all this, will you not be entitled
to say to yourself, ' It is I who have for ever rendered innocuous this rock
which has been hitherto a dread source of peril ' ? Is there no feeling, do
you think, of a poetical nature excited in the breast of the engineer who
has successfully grappled with a problem such as this ?
Another instance : the mouth of a broad river, or, more properly
speaking, the inlet of the sea, has to be crossed at such a level as not to
impede tbe passage of the largest ships. Except in one or two places the
depth is profound, so that multiple foundations for supporting a bridge
become commercially impossible, and the solution of the problem must
be found by making, high in the air, a flight of span previously deemed
unattainable. Is there no poetry here ? Again, although the results do
not strike the eye in the same manner, is there nothing of poetry in the
work, that has to be thought out and achieved, when a wide river or an ocean
channel has to be crossed by a subterranean passage ? Works of great
magnitude of this character have been performed with success, and to the
benefit of those for whose use they were intended. One of the greatest and
most noble of such works, encouraged, in years gone by, by the Govern-
ments of our own country and of France, has lately fallen into disfavour
with an unreasoning public, who have not taken the pains to ascertain
the true state of the case.
Surely it will be agreed that the promotion of ready intercourse and
communication between nations constitutes the very best and most satis-
factory guarantees for the preservation of peace ; when the peoples of two
countries come to know each other intimately, and when they, therefore,
enter into closer business relations, they are less liable to be led away by
panic or by anger, and they hesitate to go to war the one with the other.
It is in the interests of both that questions of difference which may
arise between them should be amicably settled, and having an intimate
knowledge of each other, they are less liable to misunderstand, and the
mode of determination of their diSei'ences is more readily arranged.
Remember, the means of ready intercourse and of communication, and the
means of easy travel, are all due to the application of science by the engi-
neer. Is not therefore his profession a beneficent one ?
Further, do you not think poetical feeling will be excited in the breast
of that engineer who will in the near future solve the problem (and it
certainly will be solved when a sufficiently light motor is obtained) of travel-
ADDKESS. 23
ling in the air — whether this solution be effected by enabling the self-
suspended balloon to be propelled and directed, or perhaps, better still, by
enabling not only the propulsion to be effected and the direction to be
controlled, but by enabling the suspension in the air itself to be attained
by mechanical means ?
Take other functions of the Civil Engineer — functions which, after
all, are of the most important character, for they contribute directly to
the prevention of disease, and thereby not only prolong life, but do that
which is probably more important — afford to the population a healthier
life while lived.
In one town, about which I have full means of knowing, the report
has just been made that in the year following the completion of a
comprehensive system of sewerage, the deaths from zymotic diseases
had fallen from a total of 740 per annum to a total of 372 — practi-
cally one half. Has the engineer no inward satisfaction who knows such
results as these have accrued from his work ?
Again, consider the magnitude and completeness of the water supply
of a large town, especially a town that has to depend upon the storing-up
of rain water : the prevision which takes into account, not merely the
variation of the different seasons of the year, but the variation of one
year from another ; that, having collated all the stored-up information,
determines what must be the magnitude of the reservoirs to allow for
at least three consecutive dry years, such as may happen ; and that finds
the sites where these huge reservoirs may be safely built.
All these — and many other illustrations which I could put before you
if time allowed — appear to me to afford conclusive evidence that, whether
it be in the erection of the lighthouse on the lonely rock at sea ; whether
it be in the crossing of rivers or seas, or arms of seas, by bridges or by
tunnels ; whether it be the cleansing of our towns from that which is foul ;
whether it be the supply of pure water to every dwelling, or the distribu-
tion of light or of motive power ; or whether it be in the production of
the mighty ocean steamer, or in the spanning of valleys, the piercing of
mountains, and affording the firm, secure road for the express train ; or
whether it be the encircling of the world with telegraphs — the work of
the Civil Engineer is not of the earth earthy, is not naechanical to the
exclusion of science, is not unintellectual ; but is of a most beneficent
nature, is consistent with true poetical feeling, and is worthy of the
highest order of intellect.
1
EEPORTS
ON THE
STATE OF SCIENCE.
EEPOETS
OIT THE
STATE OF SCIENCE,
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors A. Johnson
(Secretary), J. Gr. MacGregor, J. B. Cherriman, and H. T. Bovey
and Mr. C. Carpmael, for the purpose of promoting Tidal
Observations in Canada.
Last year the Committee reported that Lieut, Gordon, R.N., commander
of one of the Dominion crnisers, had been authorised to make some pre-
liminary observations and to spend some small sums of money in getting
assistance for this purpose ; and also that he had been directed to put
himself in communication with Prof. Darwin with the expectation that
next year a special grant would be made for systematic tidal observations.
It was understood that no more could be done in the interval. The Com-
miittee, therefore, have taken no action during the past year. It is
considered, however, desirable that they should be reappointed in order
to keep the matter before the Government during the next session of
Parliament. The Board of Trade of Montreal is still earnestly pressing
this as well as other questions connected with a hydrogra,phic survey on
the attention of ministers.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir E. S. Ball, Dr. G.
Johnstone Stoney, Professors Everett, Fitzgerald, Hicks,
Carey Foster, 0. J. Lodge, Poynting, Macgregor, Genese,
W. G. Adams, and J^amb, Messrs. Baynes, A. Lodge, Fleming,
W. N. Shaw, Glazebrook, Hayward, Lant Carpenter, Cul-
verwell {Secretary), and Greenhill, Dr. MuiR, and Messrs.
G. Griffith and J. Larmor, appointed for the purpose of con-
sidering the desirability of introducing a Uniform, Nomen-
clature for the Fundaviental Units of Mechanics, and of co-
operating with other bodies engaged in similar ivork.
The Committee recommend the use of the following names : —
The unit of velocity on the C.G.S. system of units, i.e., the velocity
of one centimetre per second, to be called one Kine.
28 EEPORT — 1 888.
The unit of momentam on the C.G.S. system of units, i.e., the
momentum of one gramme moving at one kine, to be called one Bole.
The unit of pressure on the C.Gr.S. system of units, i.e., the pressure
of one dyne per square centimetre, to be called one Barad.
The Committee do not recommend that any additional names be
given to English units.
They ask to be reappointed, as they think that there are some other
units upon which there is prospect of agreement as to the names to be
recommended.
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Balfour
Stewaet (Secretary), Professor W. GtEtlls Adams, Mr. W. Lant
Caepentee, Mr. C. H. Carpmael, Mr. W. H. M. Cheistie (Astrono-
mer Royal), Professor Gr. Chetstal, Captain Ceeak, Professor Gr. H.
Daewin, Mr. William Ellis, Sir J. H. Lefeot, Professor S. J.
Peeey, Professor Schustee, Professor Sir W. Thomson, and Mr.
Gr. M. Whipple, appointed for the yurpose of considering the
best m,eans of Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Observations.
Since their last report the Committee have to record the death of their
Secretary, Professor Balfour Stewart, whose loss will be deeply felt in the
scientific world, especially by those who are engaged in researches in
terrestrial magnetism and in the work of magnetic observatories. A
meeting of the Committee was held on February 2, 1888, at which Pro-
fessor W. Grylls Adams was requested to act as Secretary to the Com-
mittee, and to forward to the directors of magnetic observatories copies of
the third report of the Committee, calling special attention to the para-
graphs relating to the determination of scale coefficients.
At the second meeting of the Committee on July 11, 1888, Mr. W. L.
Carpenter handed to the Committee a paper which had been prepared by
Professor Balfour Stewart on a comparison between the wind values and
declination disturbances at the Kew Observatory. The Committee have
thought it right to recommend that this paper and the table accom-
panying it be printed as an appendix to the report.
The Committee learn that all the scientific material found among Dr.
Stewart's papers is in the possession of Professor A. Schuster. Professor
Schuster has continued his reduction of the diurnal variation of terrestrial
magnetism and has nearly completed a paper on the subject, which he
purposes to present to the Royal Society.
A paper has also been communicated to the Committee by Major
Dawson on magnetic observations taken at Fort Rae in 1882-83, which
is printed as Appendix II. to this report.
Appendix I. Eesults of a companson between the wind values and declination
disturhances at the Kew Observatory. By Balfour Stewakt, M.A.,
JjL.I)., F.B.S., and William Lant Carpenter, B.A., B.Sc.
In a note communicated to the Royal Society on February 11, 1885, we
gave the results of a preliminary comparison between the dates of cyclonic
ON COMPARING AND KEDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 2&
storms in Great Britain and those of declination disturbances at the Kew
Observatory. As we continued this investigation we came to the conclu-
sion that the best method of procedure would be to compare together
what may be termed wind-weather and declination-disturbance-weather,
in order to see if there is any apparent connexion between them ; our
hope of a positive result being strengthened by the belief that there is
accumulating evidence in favour of a connexion of some kind between
the convection currents of the earth and the oscillations of terrestrial
magnetism.
We shall, therefore, begin by defining precisely what we mean by
wind weather and by disturbance weather. We have obtained, through
the kindness of the Kew Committee, records of the total amount in miles
gone over by the wind at Kew for each day of the years 1858-73 (sixteen
years in all), and we have likewise obtained from the same source daily
aggregates of the disturbance of magnetic declination at Kew separated by
Sabine's method.
To begin with the wind values, we have first of all smoothed these
down into daily averages of three days. Let us call this Table A.
We have next obtained a Table B, where each day's value is the
average of 25 days of Table A, all being properly placed as regards
dates.
Next, taking the difference between the entries of Tables A and B, we
obtain a series representing departures from the mean — -^^Zms when in
excess, and minus when in deficiency — which may be taken to represent
tvind weather. The declination aggregate daily disturbance numbers (for
which the nnit is -jJ^ of an inch measui'ed on the curve) have been
treated in exactly the same way as the wind numbers, and the differences
finally obtained have been taken to represent disturbance weather. The
values representing wind weather have then been formed into series of
twelve terms, each so chosen that maximum wind values come too-ether at
the middle of each series. The yearly sums of these series, as well as four-
yearly sums and total sum for 16 years, are exhibited in Table I^.
The disturbance weather values have then been arranged into series of
twelve terms each, so that each entry is two days previous in date to the
corresponding entry of Table I^. The yearly, four-yearly, and total sums of
these series are given in Table I,,.
The values representing wind weather have next been formed into
series of twelve terms each, so chosen that minimum wind values come
together at the middle of each series. The yearly, four-yearly, and total
sums of these series are given in Table 11,.
Finally, the disturbance-weather values have been arranged into series
of twelve turns each, so that each entry is two days prior in date to the
corresponding entry in Table 11^, and the sums of these are entered in
Table 11^.
The general results of the comparison for the sixteen years are shown
in the accompanying table, and if averages be taken from these for the
three minimum sunspot years 1865-6-7, and for the three maximum years
on either side thereof, we get
1858-59-60
1865-60-67
1869-70-71
Wind
Declination
weather
weather
68-6
640
65-0
51-8
670
63-5
30
KEPORT— 1888.
Mag-
Mag-
Mag-
Mag- '
Wind
netic
Wind
netic
Wind
netic
Wind
netic
Velocity
Declina-
Velocity
Declina-
Velocity
Declina-
Velocity
Declina-.
tion
1862
tion
tion
tion
January
1858
81
27
84
66
1866
88
52
1870
88
78 j
February
61
52
85
44
102
79
109
01
March
95
92
90
47
56
54
53
48
AprU
104
94
51
88
72
45
46
48
May
68
69
57
38
84
35
80
72
June
37
79
68
34
49
17
39
54
July
49
55
44
56
46
36
48
25
August
49
24
53
83
60
44
47
54
September
76
61
76
4S
57
66
57
105
October
62
53
59
115
41
76
53
96
November
130
39
80
43
55
31
98
66
December
96
78
82
100
1867
80
22
65
105
January
1859
78
58
1863
92
70
88
33
1871
82
35
February
68
69
46
80
82
71
73
119
March
72
37
69
52
66
41
92
79
April
82
70
79
62
75
33
40
82
May
56
46
85
36
55
52
36
56
June
45
55
49
24
59
49
41
44
July
37
41
41
60
65
30
54
39
August
59
78
41
39
45
15
44
69
September
47
118
49
80
50
49
62
32
October
45
102
92
89
47
36
65
59
November
84
81
86
71
76
29
108
70
December
1860
78
70
1864
67
50
1868
75
28
1872
69
101
29
January
89
32
89
41
110
27
25
February
64
71
75
48
70
38
42
82
March
92
81
72
66
54
87
59
47
April
116
72
56
89
93
97
73
66
May
7%
42
49
72
71
64
54
52
Jime
59
91
35
87
38
31
50
46
July
43
87
56
66
63
60
44
67
August
55
84
42
56
58
69
61
95
September
64
57
57
91
94
102
63
55
October
60
47
99
87
53
108
54
178
November
50
41
62
85
82
52
100
45
December
49
53
79
61
89
23
53
1873
69
48
1
January
1861
88
76
1865
102
63
1869
111
64
98
February
80
85
60
108
97
55
111
53
March
68
72
97
54
64
66
90
69
April
70
48
56
85
78
124
63
62
May
53
28
55
72
72
73
52
31
-June
61
41
53
54
49
38
47
57
July
51
SO
44
67
42
56
47
47
August
33
40
49
97
48
49
36
29
September
65
33
45
63
76
89
61
32
October
69
83
45
110
76
63
77 •
45
November
63
'59
94
54
59
42
86
30
1 December
63
76
67
14
92
56
87
—
ON COMPAKING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 31
Appendix II. Magnetic Dishbrbances at Fort Bae in 1882-83.
At the International Polar Conference in Vienna, in the spring of
1884, the subject of the treatment of magnetic disturbances was much
discussed, but among the numerous schemes proposed none was univer-
sally accepted, and the matter was left undecided.
I have thought it worth while to make trial, on the observations of
declination and horizontal intensity made at Fort Rae in 1882-83, of a
method founded on that proposed by Dr. Wild, and the results obtaiaed
will not, I hope, be without interest.
From a comparison of lists of magnetically undisturbed days, supplied
by most of the circumpolar stations, Dr. Wild selected from four to six
days in each month, when the diurnal variation appeared to follow n
normal course ; and the hourly means obtained from these days are given
in the Fort Rae observations. When, however, these values are plotteii
down they do not afford a very regular curve, because, though these day s
are free from disturbance as a whole, a good many decidedly distui'bed
observations are included. The readings for hours of magnetic distur-
bances were therefore struck out, the question of disturbance beinLf
decided by reference to the original observation-book, for, as nine obser-
vations were taken at each hour, it was easy to see whether the instru-
ments were steady or not. Rather under 4 per cent, of the readings
were so struck out, and from the remainder a fairly satisfactory set of
hourly mean values was obtained for each month.
The mean of these values at any hour for any two adjacent months
was then assumed to be the normal value at that hour on the middle dav
of the two months. Thas, for example, the mean horizontal intensitv
from the selected undisturbed days being, for January, at 11 a.m., '07653 ;
for February, at the same hour, •07661 ; and for March, -07669 ; then the
normal value for that hour was taken as "07657 on January 30, and •07665
on March 2.
Having thus obtained a set of hourly values at intervals of about a
month, the values for the intermediate days were easily interpolated, an'l
in this manner a normal value of declination and horizontal intensity was
obtained for every hour of the year.
By subtracting each of these values from the corresponding observed
value the ' disturbance ' at each hour was obtained, sometimes with a + ,
sometimes with a — sign. These positive and negative disturbances weie
then entered in separate sheets, and their means are given in the appended
tables (I. — IV.) These means are obtained by dividing the sums of dis-
turbance by the number of observations ; not by the number of -)- or —
disturbances.
In order to determine whether the larger and smaller disturbances
foUow different laws the disturbances were classified according to their
magnitude. Table V. shows the number of each class occurring at each
hour.
H. P. Dawson, Maj. B.A.
April 20, 1887.
32
REPORT 1888.
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ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERTATIONS.
33
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KEPOKT
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Table III
. — Daily
Means
i
September
October
1
November
Decemeek
January
February
B. or
+
W.OT
rotal
1
E. or W.or'
+ -
rotal
E. ori
+
(V.or
rotal
E. or w.or'
+ -
1
rotal E. or
+
7 'Z
W.or
rotal
E. or
+
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rotal
1
/
1
i
/
9
10*
7
4
11
/
4
/
3
2
1
6
15
6
21
2
—
—
—
22
11
33
3
5
8
1
4
5
3
1
4»
23
7
30
3
—
_
2
6
8
5
1
6
1
4
5
4
4*
18
9
27
4
1
7
8
8
3
11
4
1
5«
9
6
15
2
6
8
9
8
17
6
11
3
14
20
11
31
3
2
5
6
6
1
4
5
5
4
9
6
11
5
16
10
5
15
5
1
6
1
3
4*
12
3
15
12
2
14
7
—
—
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1
2
3
16
2
18
1
3
4
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5
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8
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27
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6
5
11
2
2
49
12
5
17
24
3
8
11
6
7
13
5
6
11
12
6
18
3
5
8
30
14
44
25
13
1
14
10
3
13
24
3
27
4
3
7
16
3
19
8
4
12
26
5
8
13
3
3
6
13
2
15
3
2
5
12
5
17
7
3
10
27
9
1
10
5
5
10
3
4
7
3
5
8
7
5
12
26
4
30
28
4
4
18
2
20
4
4
8
4
4
8
1
5
6
19
4
23
29
6
3
9*
7
1
8
3
3*
10
6
16
2
2
4
—
—
—
30
2
4
6*
10
10
4
6
10
7
4
11
1
6
7
—
—
—
31
-
—
—
4
1
5»
11
—
—
—
7
5
12
2
5
7
—
—
—
Mean
7
2
9
7
4
15
5
20
5
5
10
5
3
8
9
4
13
St
0(
N
D
Ji
F<
ptem
rtober
oveml
eccmb
nuarj
>bruai
ber .
)er .
er .
y
•
.' 1,
I
J 2
1 4
) 5
) S
) 3
) 4
1
•2
1
1
3
1
1
t
B
3
N.B.— Days maiked (•) are those
ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS.
of Disturbance. Declination.
35
March
Apbil
May
June
July
AuGnsT
E. or
W.or
Total
E. or
W.or
Total
E. or
W.or
Total
E. or
W.or
Total
E. 01
W.or
Total
E. or
W.or
Total
+
+
~
+
~~
+
—
+
—
+
—
23
1
5
28
2
4
6
4
3
/
7
/
6
1
6
12
15
1
9
24
13
I'o
23
23
9
32
4
5
9
10
2
12
16
7
23
1
5
6
i
1
5
11
3
14
19
7
26
3
3
6
8
3
11
9
4
13
4
1
5
5
2
7
11
4
15
4
4
8
7
1
8»
5
5
10
2
1
3*
V
1
7
8
4
12
2
6
8
4
1
5»
9
6
15
8
8
16
2
6
8
3
2
5
3
6
9
14
4
18
2
4
6
15
7
22
B
9
15
1
5
6
1
1
2
5
2
7
9
7
16
6
7
13
7
8
15
7
3
10
4
2
6
8
4
12
6
8
14
6
2
8
6
1
7
4
3
7
2
2
4»
12
2
14
2
5
7
2
2*
8
1
9
2
4
6»
1
2
3»
4
6
10
6
3
9
2
6
8*
5
6*
2
4
6
3
1
4»
3
3
6»
5
3
8
8
2
10
4
3
7
4
2
6
1
2
3*
5
3
8
6
2
8
4
1
5
9
3
12
3
4
7
4
7
11*
2
3
5
10
1
11
4
2
6
12
1
13
2
2*
3
2
5
6
G
15
3
18
4
5
9
2
2
4*
3
5
8
4
4
8*
1
3
4»
16
S
24
3
2
5
2
I
3
1
5
6
8
6
14
3
13
16
10
8
18
3
1
4»
1
2
3«
3
3»
4
4
8
13
7
20
3
3
6
4
1
5*
2
2
4
4
15
19
3
4
7
10
11
21
12
10
22
17
5
22
1
3
4*
14
19
33
3
2
5
6
6
12
4
7
11
3
1
4
4
5
9»
12
2
14
6
8
14
3
8
11
2
3
5
3
1
4
11
7
18
2
1
3»
23
8
31
2
2
4
3
3»
4
1
5
11
10
21
2
1
3»
8
6
14
12
10
22
1
2
3»
4
4
8
4
6
10
1
2
3»
8
1
9
10
5
15
2
8
10*
5
3
8
1
6
7
13
11
24
5
2
7
6
2
8
11
11
22
7
2
9
2
6
8
7
6
13
3
1
4
12
1
13
4
3
7
3
1
4
6
7
12
8
4
12
8
2
10
21
3
24
11
d
16
2
2
4
32
6
38
8
1
9
7
4
11
16
7
23
4
2
6
2
2
4
11
6
17
4
2
6
6
3
9
10
1
11
2
1
3»
2
2
4
15
3
20
8
1
9
8
1
9
7
5
12
1
17
18*
5
5
10
3
5
8
8
2
10
5
7
12
15
8
23
22
12
34
1
2
3
6
5
11
—
—
—
4
4
8
—
—
—
22
15
37
4
4
4»
8
4
12
6
4
10
5
4
9
8
5
13
7
6
13
5
3
8
Jlarch
April
May
June
July
August
selected as unJisturbed by Dr. Wild.
Jlean
8
4
12
6
4
10
5
4
•.1
8
5
13
7
6
13
5
3
s
7
4
11
D 2
36
KEPOBT 1888.
Table
IV.
— Daily
Means c
fl>
isturhance.
1
September
October
KOTEMBKI!
December
Jaxcabt
Febuuaky
+
-
Total
+
-
Total
031*
+
-
Total
+
-
Total
030
+
-
Total
+
-
Total
■00O06
025
006
036
(M2
009
021
008
038
046
015
068
083
2
_
034
108
142
028
008
036
009
008
017
003
023
026*
022
159
181
3
_
006
036
042
Oil
Oil
022
014
012
026
001
022
023"
016
067
083
4
_
_
■006
106
112
Oil
002
013*
010
066
076
Oil
017
028
021
059
080
5
■00044
034
078
016
136
152
039
002
041
002
021
023
025
003
028
023
034
057
6
026
042
068
Oil
116
127
019
003
022
007
007
014*
015
048
063
009
060
069
7
039
022
061
003
012
015
015
029
044
004
013
019
016
110
126
007
003
010*
8
093
027
120
006
007
013
020
038
058
004
017
021»
015
039
054
003
015
ei3«
9
129
008
137
017
034
051
007
088
095
019
027
046
012
026
038
027
003
030
10
010
035
045
009
045
054
004
007
Oil*
005
012
017
020
002
022
004
010
014*
11
007
044
051
010
041
051
013
059
072*
021
053
074
004
004
008»
004
012
016*
12
023
055
078
003
025
028
021
140
161
008
041
049
006
009
014
002
009
Oil*
13
018
037
055
002
016
018
018
187
205
004
006
010
003
020
0239
007
005
012«
14
019
041
060
009
076
085
062
140
202
005
004
009*
003
008
Oil
010
042
052
15
008
030
038
007
098
105
016
048
064
056
010
066»
004
039
043
014
010
024
16
007
017
024*
044
059
103
034
041
075
012
057
069
003
037
OlO
001
036
037
17
007
010
017
018
034
052
020
349
369
012
009
021
O06
073
081
Oil
040
051
18
008
013
021
003
020
023
015
126
141
008
038
046
009
039
048
012
Oil
023
19
015
003
018
000
016
016*
004
365
369
007
031
038
001
029
030
004
002
006
20
027
009
036
001
007
008='
057
212
269
015
197
212
014
074
088
Oil
081
092
21
007
004
Oil
003
017
020*
004
085
089
013
085
098
003
046
049
026
017
043
22
009
009
018
025
049
074
000
012
012
008
061
069
004
032
036
029
129
158
23
006
042
048
002
092
094
001
105
106
004
050
054
002
033
035*
021
053
074
24
018
021
ose^s
007
069
076
023
041
064
004
097
101
015
014
029
019
170
189
25
019
052
071
017
054
071
033
111
144
001
039
040
013
073
086
014
077
091
26
013
061
074
012
032
044
Oil
055
066
018
016
034
028
060
088
022
034
056
27
021
032
053
017
051
068
006
038
044
019
002
021
040
040
080
051
120
171
28
003
017
020
022
068
090
014
032
04«
032
036
068
015
009
024
026
127
153
29
006
047
053»
022
063
085
003
015
018»
025
062
087
002
021
023
—
—
—
30
004
021
025»
006
035
041
014
016
030
017
031
048
010
016
026
—
—
—
31
—
-
—
012
022
034
—
—
—
019
034
053
008
020
028
—
—
—
Mean
022
028
060
012
051
063
018
073
091
013
038
051
010
033
043
016
052
068
, . _
September
October
TS'ovember
December
January
February
llarcli
022
•00028
•0005 1>
012
051
06H
018
073
091
013
038
(151
010
033
(143
016
052
068
013
045
058
K.B. — Days marked (*) are-
ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS.
Horizontal Intensity. C. G. 8. Units.
37
ILiHCH
Apkil
5LA.Y
JUXE
July
August
+
-
ToUl
+
-
Total
+
-
Total
+
-
Total
+
-
Total
+
-
Total
123
019
119
138
005
014
019
035
038
073
036
038
074
022
093
115
037
086
019
108
127
009
048
057
027
041
068
034
079
113
010
024
034
018
016
034
016
fl41
057
027
046
073
828
027
055
007
030
037
031
047
078
015
026
041
016
033
049
008
065
073
019
020
039
007
019
026*
019
022
041
004
009
013*
013
019
032
016
049
065
015
020
035
009
007
016*
055
053
108
015
045
060
023
032
055
002
027
029
010
033
043
047
088
135
020
007
027
040
071
111
013
047
060
Oil
005
016
010
004
014
034
006
040
010
036
046
026
035
061
029
050
079
005
040
045
018
021
039
021
040
061
022
024
044
010
020
030
015
■028
043
004
022
026
010
010
020*
015
049
064
019
010
029
003
010
013»
0«9
031
040
021
013
034»
012
005
017*
022
017
039
034
028
062
024
018
042*
001
024
025»
006
027
033
017
027
044*
012
012
024*
039
043
082
018
026
044
010
055
065
002
030
032
006
009
015»
Oil
026
037
004
034
038
005
018
023
008
037
045
009
031
040
033
014
047*
026
024
050
014
051
065
008
018
026
007
052
059
006
007
013*
009
009
018
008
019
027
003
071
074
050
018
063
004
018
022*
019
023
042
010
021
031 »
012
009
021«
028
084
112
017
003
020
006
Oil
017
007
019
026
018
024
042
033
006
039
0311
054
084
Oil
000
Oil*
006
009
014*
004
009
013*
045
Oil
096
031
082
113
012
010
022
01
006
016*
004
020
024
030
050
080
008
021
029
037
065
102
023
095
118
053
061
114
004
004
008*
017
108
126
Oil
051
062
024
041
065
046
025
070
012
012
024
009
013
022*
010
043
053
021
065
086
043
024
067
001
027
028
013
Oil
024
018
067
085
006
006
012*
045
133
178
010
Oil
021
002
017
019»
022
009
031
014
084
098
002
009
Oil*
032
055
087
015
047
062
008
014
022*
026
025
051
014
039
053
005
005
010»
009
023
032
040
034
074
Oil
021
032*
018
041
059
010
-010
020
020
032
052
012
042
054
017
009
026
039
042
081
Oil
060
071
001
034
035
021
061
082
016
016
032
020
034
054
014
027
041
004
014
018
023
035
060
040
037
077
012
036
048
007
075
082
030
063
093
006
013
019
019
166
185
019
047
066
035
028
063
051
102
153
008
023
031
005
006
on
016
054
070
Oil
010
021
0O7
058
06d
009
027
036
014
010
024*
Oil
014
025
025
067
092
012
024
036
006
031
037
025
016
041
021
049
070*
022
029
051
010
030
040
015
032
047
019
032
051
037
104
141
061
116
177
009
003
012
013
052
065
012
—
—
017
019
036
—
—
—
020
141
161
009
006
01 5»
013
045
058
031
043
019
031
050
023
038
061
022 044
066
017
024
041
April
May
June
July
August ....
lleau ....
•00012 -00031
019 031
023 038
022 044
017 024
•00043
050
061
0«6
041
■00016 -00041
■l«)057
selecti
Bd as 1
inftistn
rhedl
jy Dr
Wild.
38
REPORT 1888.
-§
o
I.
■^ re:
e
5ti
1
S
<11
K
^
fi
«
5^
s?
o
e
^
^
e
ai
e
S
O
M
-W
«1
1
«o
^
O
«i
nC
■<?^
g
W
^
0)
=rj
t-^
8
S
"¥1
^
ir^
w
1
rO
O
o
as
t>
"^
W
V
rJ^
^
5-
hO
^
g
CO
s
R
o
^
J.
■u
rO
s
»
K
h<a
«
•+i
O
bH
CO ffO O t* C» -rtt
CS ^ rH f 00 t-
ft m CO O t^ »«
^ a
Tf ai tH CO m <:d
t^ CD "S ■* CS O
CO CO >-< t-~ "5 PO
<0 C3 CD i-H I— I
«— • t^ CO »0 ^H OS
! 00 »a OS o i-H o
O ■«*< 00 O r-
us OS 00 I— (
CQ CD OS
o o c C o
-*3 ^ *J +J "-^
' ^ c o o o
-.->a -^ .1,) 4-
; CDr-. ,— -H
o o o o **
iH I- t. t- A
O (M t* O M
Oi O US !>• «a
«> t- 00 CQ i-H
o oeoo -*
CO U5 i^ CO CO
CO Tp CO c^ ^
O O t*i-i CO
s
00 O 00 CD CO
(T^ Tj* TI* O* rH
O O tn C» 00
CD
— OS ooot*
O C^ OO >— 1 OS
CD
CD
OS t- -^^ 1-H -^
l?4 M (71 1-4
O C^ OS CO CO
CO ■* TH
1
O lO CO ■* ■*
CO 1— ' t-H
Or- -* ,-< W
CO CO O
CO
o l-H eo i-H "^
M l-l I-<
M* CO ui
s
OS T(< t*o c^
O ■^ W 00 »H
1-1 »f3 TJ" «
CO
t^ lO t- i-H l-H
OCO Tf CO 00
t-H ■^ lO CO
CO
00 CO c<i cq o
fH t» OS t^o
00
r-t
f-H C-1 CO o o
O W 1- CO '(it
CO iQ to
s
i-< «3 '•Jt rH O
^" O rH OS CO OS
5!S rH TH '^
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OrH TjtTH t-H
CO rH
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CO
00 OS CO (N O
^IrH
'^ r-l «
15
SSS""
':s r-r (N coooco
C4
OS
C» b- lO «3 CO
-* CO CO l-H
Eq ^""^S5
2
O ■^ 00 c^ t-
rrf O i-H -^f CO »0
CO
CO
CO ■* Mi-H M
CO -^ coco f-«
O O CI t* OS
CO
1
iOf-< OS t^co
CO «S (>- CO
O rH l« O CS
M
•-I OS b- -^ CO
CO «3 coco t-H
o »-( c» io r^
1-H CO
CD
o
t^-<*< OS oos
CO CO U3 CO
O O iC CO in
oj w. 00 coco
■* -^ coc^
O C -^ OS o
Ift
00 t^CO ■* IT*
CO Tj« UO C^ I->
O Or-" i-H (M
l-H CO
-J.
rH
O T^OCO CO
CO -^ cocq r-
°=>"SS
CO
CO
00 GO CO CO >-<
WCO COCOrH
Mw« I'- -'J '-^
»0 O O O' d
o o 9 --o
:l- r O C O
O *J *^ -*3 -*3
C5 CO t-H a OO
00 <30 OS r— CO
1.^ CO « .r^ — 1
Pi-pH t-t-
-Mj .lO +
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ON STANDAKUS OF LIGHT. 39
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Gr. Forbes
(Secretary), Captain Abney, Dr. J. Hopkinson, Professor W. G.
Adams, Professor Gr. C. Foster, Lord Eayleigh, Mr. Preece,
Professor Schuster, Professor Dewar, Mr. A. Vernon Harcourt,
Ml-. H. Trueman Wood, Sir James Douglass, Professor H. B.
Dixon, and Mr. Dibdin, appointed for the purpose of reporting
on Standards of Light.
The Committee, which has now been in existence for four years, has at
length arrived at certain definite conclusions as to the value of the dif-
ferent standards of light at present available. These conclusions have
been arrived at mainly as the result of a large number of experiments
undertaken by various members of the Committee.
The experiments of the past year are added to this report in the form
of two appendices. The first contains an extensive series of experiments
which have been tabulated, showing the relative constancy of the follow-
ing proposed standards : —
1. Ordinary candles made by Messrs. Millei.
2. Ordinary candles made by Messrs. Brecknell and Turner.
3. Spei-m candles, of six to the pound, of larger diameter, made by
Messrs. Miller.
4. The Pentane Standard.
5. The Pentane Lamp.
6. The Amyl-acetate Lamp. •
The other appendix relates to some experiments carried on with
a view to making platinum heated to its melting-point a practical
standard.
The Committee wishes to state that the result of all its experi-
ments has been to confirm the conclusions arrived at by Mr. Dibdin in
his report to the Metropolitan Board of Works in 1887.
Your Committee, in making its final report, is anxious to draw atten-
tion to a number of conclusions which will now be treated in order :—
(1) The present standard candle, as defined by Act of Parliament, is
not worthy, in the present state of science, of being called a standard,
and does not meet the practical requirements of those whose duty it is to
test illuminants. The objections to the candle as a standard are so
numerous, and most of them are so well understood, that space need not
be taken up now in repeating them. It will suffice to say that the sper-
maceti employed is not a definite chemical substance and is mixed with
other materials, and the constitution of the wick is not su.fficiently well-
defined, so that so-called standard candles, conforming to the definitions
of the Act of Parliament, can be made which vary largely in illuminating
power. The Committee wishes to add the important observation, which
has been incontestably proved by the independent observations of dif-
ferent members of the Committee, that the illuminating power of a
candle in a closed photometer, or in any small, ill-ventilated room, is
considerably less than in an ordinary room,
That which forces itself upon the attention of any one who attempts
to determine the value of any source of light by comparison with standard
candles is the fluctuation fi'om minute to minute, which is due to the
varying length and form of the wick and the filling and emptying of the
40 EEPOET— 1888.
cup of the candle accordiDg to the movement of the surrounding air.
But these variations are to some extent neutralised by taking the average
of many testings. A source of error, which is at once less easily recog-
nised and more grave in its practical result, is the change in the average
value of the standard candle, which is due to the improvements made
from time to time in the manufacture of spermaceti. The manufacturer
aims at separating as perfectly as possible the solid parts of his crude
material, which constitute spermaceti, from the liquid parts which form
sperm oil. To obtain as muf^h oil and as ' dry ' a spermaceti as possible is
the object sought, and we are informed by one of the principal manufac-
turers of sperm candles that within the last ten years considerable im-
provements have been made in the process by which the sepai'ation is
effected. As a consequence of the use in the making of standard candles
of a drier sperm, it has been found necessary to provide them with
thicker wicks, in order that the required rate of consumption may be
maintained. Probably the drier sperm has a higher melting-point and
furnishes a less limpid liquid. A thicker wick means less light for a
given consumption ; and thus the result of the improvements in sperma-
ceti has been that standard candles give less light than they gave ten
years ago, and probably still less light than they gave at an earlier date,
when the average consumption of a sperm candle of six to the pound was
140 grs. per hour.
(2) Professor Violle's standard of molten platinum is, in the opinion
of the Committee, not a practical standard of light. On this point your
Committee is anxious to have it understood that it is quite prepared to
agree to the adoption of the light emitted by a square centimetre of
molten platinum as a unit of light, but not as a standard of light. Hence,
in its recommendation, it is not challenging the conclusions arrived at by
the International Congress of Electricians. The experiments detailed in
the second appendix to this report confirm the Committee iu its belief
that there is no means at present known by which molten platinum can
be used practically as a standard. In fact, a comparison of Violle's unit
with any standard could be made only with great labour and but rarely.
Violle's unit not having been universally adopted, your Committee would
not propose to change the name of the unit hitherto in use, but would
call it a standard candle, giving it that value which appears to have been
intended by the Legislature, and was used in the adjustment of the
Pentane standard.
(3) There seems unfortunately no prospect of any reliable electric
standard of light being constructed. In the report of 1885 your Com-
mittee delayed making a definite recommendation until further informa-
tion should be gained by experiment about the laws of radiation from
carbon heated by an electric current. The information gained since then
has led it to believe that but little help is to be gained from this quarter.
Some of the reasons are given in the report of 1886 ; others are the
variation in light by the blackening of the glass bulbs in which the
carbons are enclosed, and by the wasting of the carbon filaments. Also
the amount of radiation from carbon depends upon its surface and upon
the treatment to which it has been subjected.
(4) The Amyl-acetate standard is Yery constant, but its red colour is
a serious objection to its use. This conclusion has been arrived at as the
result of a very large number of experiments in the hands of the Com-
mittee. The following experiments by the Committee show this well : —
ON STANDABDS OF LIGHT. 41
The Amyl-acetate lamp was compared witli the Standard Pentane
^ame by placing the two equidistant from the screen. The flame of the
Amyl-acetate lamp was set at a height of 45 mm., and an observer
watching the two halves of the screen turned up and down the Pentane
flame until he judged the screen to be equally illuminated by the two
lights. The Amyl-acetate lamp gave a distinctly redder light than the
Pentane flame. In comparing the two lights four observers obtained
results which were appreciably different, each result being constantly
obtained in successive readings by the same observer. Two observers
made the light from the Amyl-acetate flame exactly equal to the normal
Pentane flame of 6S^ mm. ; a third observer made the Amyl-acetate flame
equal to a Pentane flame of 63 mm. ; and a fourth made it equal to a
Pentane flame of 62^ mm.
On raising the Amyl-acetate flame to 50 mm. the same differences in
the estimation of the two coloured flames were found, but the change in
height of 5 mm. in the Amyl-acetate flame was compensated by a change
in height of 2 mm. in the Pentane flame.
(5) The Pentane standard of Mr. Vernon Harcourt is reliable and
convenient, and fulfils all the conditions required in the adoption of a
standard of light. This standard attains this end by its having no wick
and consuming a material of definite chemical composition. The experi-
ments of your Committee also show that the light was not altered when
the specific gravity of the pentane was "632 or "628, instead of the specified
"value of -630.
(6) Your Committee is not of opinion that the Pentane standard is
the only one which can be made possessing the necessary qualifications,
but it is the only one which has come under its notice, and it wishes most
earnestly to urge the importance of undertaking such action as is possible
to ensure the immediate rejection by the Board of Trade of the Parlia-
Tuentary candle as a standard, and the adoption in all future work of the
Pentane standard.
(7) Your Committee wishes further to draw attention to the following :
Appendix I.
Photometric comparison of Candles, the Pentane Standard, the New Pentane
Lamp, and the Amyl-acetate Lamp.
By the courtesy of Mr. Dibdin and the Metropolitan Board of Works
the testing-room at Spring Gardens was placed at the disposal of the
■Committee for conducting experiments. The photometer employed was a
four-way one designed by Mr. Dibdin, the standard source of light in the
centre being a portion of the flame of an argand burning coal gas enriched
bj passing over pentane. This central flame was kept at a height of
about 3 inches, and only light from the middle of the flame was allowed
to fall on the photometer discs. In a preliminary series of experiments
made in January 1888 it was found that the light proceeding from the
central burner along each of the four photometer bars was equal. The
^ttings and measurements of all parts of the photometer were also care-
fully verified by the Committee.
It was decided that the actual tests should be performed by two of
the official gas-testers in the service of the Metropolitan Board. Messrs.
■G. W. "Wood and R. Grimwood were selected by Mr. Dibdin to carry out
the work, which tbey performed in a most careful and satisfactory manner.
42 KEPORT— 1 888.
Mr. Livingston kindly undertook to chronicle and keep the records of
the experiments made, and also assist in the testings, and to him the Com-
mittee is beholden for the very considerable trouble he took on its behalf.
The experiments were conducted as follows: — The central flame
being adjusted, one observer made a determination of its illuminating
power by candles in the first arm and by the Pentane lamp in the second
arm, making the I'eadings alternately. At the same time the second
observer made a determination of the illuminating power of the central
burner by the Amyl-acetate lamp in the thii'd arm and by the Pentane
standard in the fourth arm, also making the readings alternately. The-
observers changed positions after each set of observations. The candle
readings were corrected in the usual way for sperm consumed. On all
the four bars the standards were kept fixed in position and the readings
were made by moving the discs. The candles employed were those now
manufactured by Mr. Miller and by Messrs. Brecknell and Turner for gas-
testing, but tests were made also of other candles, of the same composition
as the gas-testing candles, but larger in diameter, which were made by
Mr. Miller. The Pentane lamp was of the new form manufactured by
Messrs. Woodhonse and Rawson.
It was found that the central burner was nearly but not exactly con-
stant in illuminating power from day to day, but during the hour and
a half or two hours the tests lasted each day the light did not vary
appreciably, according to the most uniform standards. In order to show
the uniformity of the standards under trial, the average of the day's tests
with each standard is taken and the individual tests compared with this-
mean. The divergencies of each standard from the mean of several tests
by the same standard are evidence of the want of uniformity of that
standard.
In the following table the corrected result of each test is given; 118
complete tests by each of the four standards were taken. By the side of
each result is a number (obtained by dividing that result by the average
of the day's tests and multiplying by 100) which expi'esses the ratio of
that result to the average of the day by the same standard, the day's
average being called 100. A glance at the table shows the uniformity or
want of uniformity of the standards. Out of the 118 complete candle
tests 86 differed by 1 per cent, from the day's average, 57 difi"ered by 2
per cent., and 19 by 5 per cent. Variations of 9 and 10 per cent,
occurred occasionally. Of the other standai'ds the Amyl-acetate lamp
showed a variation of 2 per cent, from the daj^'s average on four occasions
out of the 118 tests, and a vai'iation of 1 per cent, on 11 occasions. The
Pentane lamp twice only showed a variation of 1 per cent., the Pentane
standard once only.
In the second table the averages of each day are tabulated and the
general average of each standard is given. The Pentane standard and
the Pentane lamp gave practically the same light ; and the light was not
altered when pentane of specific gravity '632 and of specific gravity •628
was employed, instead of pentane of specific gravity -630. The Amyl-
acetate lamp was set too high, but although this was discovered soon
after the experiments were begun it was thought better to maintain the
flame at the same height than to alter it during the tests. The three
lamps tested gave uniform results. The bi'oader candles made by Mr.
Miller gave less light than those ordinarily used for gas-testing, and they
did not appear to burn more uniformly in this photometer.
ON STANDARDS OF LIGHT.
43
Table I.
Tests of Central Burner made hy four Standards in Four-ivay Photometer.
Date
lime
Candles
Pentane
Standard
Pentane Lamp
Amyl-aoetate Tiamp
Lamp A—
Lamp B—
1888
P.M.
Miller's— Per cent.
Per cent. |
Per cent.
Per cent.
April 16
5.
11-91 100-2
—
12-27
101-6
12-19 100-4
12-08 100-4
5.30
11-86 99-8
—
—
11-89
98-4
12-09 99-6
11-98 99-6
Mean 11-885 100-0
—
—
12-08
100-0
12-14 100-0
12-03 100-0
MiLLER'.s New -
Per cent. |
L-iMP B—
Per cent.
April 17
4.50
13-15 101-1
12-10
99-7
12-11
99-4
12-11
101-0
5.10
12-73 97-9
1218
99-9
12-21
100-2
12-00
100-0
5.40
13-13 101-0
12-20
100-5
12-23
100-4
11-88
99-1
Mean 13-00 100-0
12-14
100-0
12-18
100-0
11-99
100-0
Mlllbr'.s New—
L-\MP B—
April 18
5.30
12-56 98-7
12-26
100-8
12-19
100-8
11-59
100-5
5.45
12-58 98-8
12-lG
100-0
12-08
99-8
11-71
101-6
6.
13-04 102-5
12-05
99-1
12-03
99-6
11-28
97-8
Mean 12-73 100-0
12-16
100-0
12-10
100-0
11-53
100-0
Miller'.s New —
Lamp B—
April 23
5.
13-73 98-2
12-86
100-1
12-64
100-2
12-44
102-7
5.20
13-83 98-9
12-85
100-0
12-58
99-8
11-91
98-4
5.40
13-38 95-7
12-77
99-4
12-59
99-8
11-82
97-6
6.
14-50 103-7
12-86
100-1
12-65
100-3
12-15
100-3
6.20
14-47 103-5
12-89
100-3
12-61
100-0
12-24
101-1
Mean 13-98 lOO-Q
12-85
100-0
12-61
100-0 -
12-11
100-0
Mlller'.s New—
Lamp A—
April 24
4.45
12-10 91-4
12-32
99-4
12-40
99-9
11-46
97-6
5.
13-36 100-9
l-.i-35
99-8
12-42
100-0
11-87
101-1
5.20
13-28 100-3
12-48
100-9
12-38
99-8
11-87
101-1
5.40
13-43 1111-4
12-33
99-7
12-44
100-2
11-72
99-8
5.55
13-54 102-3
12-34
99-8
12-36
99-6
11-73
100-0
6.15
13-74 103-8
12-40
100-2
12-48
100-6
11-78
100-3
1 ,: > 100-0
12-37
100-0
12-41
100-0
11-74
100-0
Miller's New —
Lamp A—
April 25
5.15
13-14 98-2
12-33
99-8
12-38
99-6
11-89
100-4
5.35
12-49 93-4
12-35
100-0
12-41
99-8
11-80
99-7
6.
14-CO 109-1
12-36
100-1
12-55
100-9
11-86
100-2
6.20
14-18 106-0
12-36
100-1
12-44
100-1
11-86
100-1
6.35
13-57 101-4
12-35
100-0
12-40
99-8
11-81
99-8
6.50
12-34 92-2
12-35
100-0
12-44
100-0
11-83
99-9
Mean 13-38 100-0
12-35
1000
12-43
100-0
11-84
100-0
Miller's —
Lamj- a
April 26
5.20
13-68 102-8
12-35
100-2
1-2-35
99-7
11-87
100-2
5.40
12-79 96-2
12-34
100-0
12-45
100-5
1177
99-4
6.
13-37 100-6
12-35
100-2
12-37
99-8
11-86
100-2
6.15
13-24 99-5
12-31
99-S
l-.i-38
100-0
11-86
100-1
6.36
13-26 99-7
12-31
99-8
rj-37
99-8
11-90
100-5
6.45
13-49 101-4
12-34
100-0
12-41
100-2
11-80
997
Mean 13-30 100-0
12-33
100-0
12-39
100-0
11-84
100-0
Brec knell's —
Lamp B—
April 27
4.45
13-38 100-S
12-34
99-8
12-37
100-1
11-78
99-9
5.
13-30 100-2
1-2-35
99-9
12-37
100-0
11-77
99-8
5.15
13-57 102-2
12-36
100-0
12-36
100-0
11-83
100-3
5.50
12-87 96-9
12-38
100-2
12-35
99-9
11-81
100-2
Mean 13-28 100-0
12-36
100-0
12-36
100-0
11-79
100-0
-44
REPORT — 1888.
Table I. — continued.
Date
Time
Caudles
Pentane
Standard
Pentane Lamp
Amyl-acetate Lamp
MnxER's New—
Lamt B —
1888
P.M.
Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
Per cent.
April 30
4.50
13-14 94-1
12-37
1(10-0
12-43
99-8
11-93
100-5
5. 5
15-05 107-7
12-38
100-1
12-45
99-9
11-91
100-3
5.20
13-77 98-6
12-35
99-8
12-46
100-0
11-84
99-8
5.45
13-98 100-1
12-42
100-4
12-46
100-0
11-82
99-6
6.
13-95 99-8
12-36
99-9
12-51
100-4
11-84
99-8
Mean 13-97 100-0
12-37
100-0
12-46
100-0
11-87
1000
BRECKNELL'.'! —
Lami- C—
May i
5.
14-48 107-5
12-35
100-1
12-35
100-2
11-71
100-6
5.20
13-19 97-9
12-38
100-4
12-36
100-3
11-69
100-4
5.40
13-64 102-7
12-36
100-2
12-30
99-8
11-71
100-6
6.
13-01 101-0
12-30
99-8
12-31
99-9
11-50
98-8
6.20
12-22 90-7
12-29
99-7
12-28
99-7
11-57
99-4
Mean 13-47 100-0
12-33
100-0
12-32
100-0
11-64
100-0
Special Pentane,
Special Pentane,
Miller'.';—
Sp. G
-. -632
Sp. Gi
. -632
Lamp C—
May 2
4.30
13-78 101-0
12-28
99-8
12-38
100-1
11-89
100-5
4.50
13-86 101-6
12-28
99-8
12-38
100-1
11-83
100-0
5.10
13-67 100-2
12-28
99-8
12-37
100-0
11-72
99-1
5.30
13-29 97-4
12-38
100-6
12-31
99-8
11-87
100-3
Mean 13-65 100-0
12-30
100-0
12-37
100-0
11-83
100-0
MrLLEn's New—
Lamp C—
May 4
4.30
12-68 93-7
12-34
99-9
12-35
99-8
11-74
99-8
4.50
13-28 98-2
12-33
100-0
12-35
99-9
11-85
100-7
5.10
14-26 105-4
l'2-35
100-2
12-42
100-4
11-71
99-6
5.30
13-77 101-8
12-29
99-7
12-37
100-0
11-82
100-4
5.50
13-65 100-9
12-35
100-2
12-35
99-9
11-73
99-7
Mean 13-53 100-0
12-33
100-0
12-37
100-0
11-77
1000
Mjlleii's—
Lami- A—
May 8
5.30
12-84 99-0
12-35
100-0
12-35
100-0
11-98
100-2
5.50
12-70 97-9
12-35
1000
12-34
99-9
11-95
100-0
6.10
13-25 1U2-2
12-34
99-8
12-35
100-0
11-93
99-8
6.30
13-08 100-9
12-37
100-2
12-36
100-1
11-94
99-9
Mean 12-97 100-0
12-35
100-0
12-35
100-0
11-95
100-0
BllECKNELI.'S —
Lam I' C—
May 10
.5-10
13-06 98-2
12-34
108-1
12-35
100-0
11-90
99-3
5-.30
13-67 102-0
12-33
100-1
12-37
loo-i
12-03
100-4
6-50
13-26 99-7
12-25
99-4
1-2-34
99-9
12-08
100-8
6-10
13-69 1U2-9
12-34
100-2
lJ-37
100-2
11-95
99-8
6-30
12-92 97-1
12-35
100-2
12-35
100-0
11-95
99-8
Mean 13-30 100-0
12-32
100-0
12-35
100-0
11-98
100-0
Miller's New—
Lamp C—
May 11
4-45
12-83 93-4
12-37
99-9
12-31
99-0
12-06
100-6
5-10
14-09 102-6
12-35
99-8
12-48
100-4
11-95 .
99-7
5-30
13-99 101-9
12-44
100-5
12-42
99-9
11-97
99-8
5-50
14-03 102-2
12-.37
99-9
12-52
100-7
n-99
100-0
Mean 13-73 100-0
12-38
100-0
12-43
loo-o
11-99
100-0
MlLLER'.S—
Sp. Or
.-628
La Ml" B —
May 14
5-
12-76 94-2
12-27
100-5
12-31
89-8
11-78
99-6
5-20
13-87 102-4
1-2-27
100-5
12-36
100-2
11-76
£9-4
5-40
13-65 100-8
12-16
99-6
12-34
100-0
11-87
100-3
6-
13-90 102-6
12-14
99-4
12-34
100-0
11-91
100-6
13-55 100-0
12-21
100-0
12-34
100-0
11-83
100-0
Oi\ Sl'ANDAKWS OJ! LIGHT.
Table l.—confinved.
45'
Date
Time
Candles
Pentane
Standard
Pentane Lamp
i
Amyl-acetate Lamp
MnXER'S 7"—
Lamp B —
1888
P.M.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
May 15
5-
14-54 103-9
12-20
99-3
12-33
99-9
11-74
99-5
5-29
14-21 101-5
12-32
100-2
12-30
99-7
11-74
99-5
5-40
13-96 99-7
12-22
99-4
1-2-36
100-2
11-85
100-4
6-
1404 100-3
12-34
100-4
1-2-32
99-8
11-75
99-6
6-20
14-07 100-5
12-35
lCO-5
12-38
100-3
11-90
100-8
6-40
13-19 94-2
12-33
1O0-3
12-37
100-2
11-80
100-0
Mean 14-00 100-0
12-29
100-0
12-34
100-0
11-80
100-0
BnECKN"EI,LV —
Lamp B—
May 17
5-30
12-88 96-3
12-32
99-8
12-43
99-6
12-00
99-5
5-50
13-33 99-6
12-34
100-0
12-52
100-3
12-09
100-2
6-10
13-82 103-3
12-36
100-1
12-51
100-2
12-11
100-4
6-30
13-44 100-4
12-36
100-2
12-48
100-0
12-03
99-8
Mean 13-38 100
12-34
1000
12-48
100-0
12-06
100-0
Miller's—
Lamp A—
Mayl^
4-15
14-00 100-3
12-47
100-6
12-36
100-0
11-67
99-6
4-35
13-59 97-3
12-37
99-8
12-59
100-2
11-76
100-3
4-55
14-14 101-3
12-42
100-2
12-.57
loo-i
11-74
100-2
5-15
14-12 101-1
12-34
99-5
12-53
99-8
11-72
100-0
Mean 13-96 1000
12-40
100-0
12-56
100-0
11-72
100-0
MrLLEn'.s—
Lamp B—
Mav 25
4-50
12-94 93-4
12-34
99-8
12-43
99-6
11-70
99-6
5-10
14-47 104-5
12-36
100-0
12-52
100-3
11-80
100-4
6-30
13-90 lCO-4
12-36
100-0
12-54
100-5
11-75
100-0
5-50
14-10 101-8
12-38
lUO-2
12-42
99-0
11-74
99-9
Mean 13-85 100-0
12-36
100-0
12-43
100-0
11-75
100-0
MiLLBR'.s New 7"—
Lamp A —
May 28
4.15
14-21 103-7
12-32
99-0
12-56
100-1
11-82
99-9
4.35
14-00 102-2
12-46
100-1
12-46
99-3
11-83
100-0
5.
13-08 95-5
12-53
100-6
12-58
100-2
11-83
100-0
5.30
13-53 98-8
12-47
100-2
12-59
100-3
11-84
101-1
13-70 100-0
12-45
100-0
12-55
100-0
11-83
100-0
[Special Pentai
le, Sp. Gr. -629]
Brecknell'.s—
Lamp B—
May 29
4.45
13-29 99-4
12-46
100-1
12-60
99-8
11-79
99-6
5. 5
13-20 98-7
12-43
99-8
12-65
100-3
11-87
100-2
6.25
13-59 101-6
12-46
100-1
12-68
100-5
11-84
100-0
5.45
13-11 98-0
12-45
100-0
12-57
99-6
11-84
100-0
6.10
13-68 102-3
12-45
100-0
12-62
100-0
11-86
100-2
6.30
13-37 lUU-0
12-45
100-0
12-60
99-8
11-84
100-0
13-37 100-0
12-45
100-0
12-62
100-0
11-84
100-0
MiLLER'.S—
Lamp A—
May 30
6.50
13-92 99-8
12-50
99-7
12-56
99-7
12-03
100-4
6.10
13-82 99-1
12-53
99-9
12-63
100-3
11-96
99-8
6.30
13-85 99-3
12-52
99-8
12-58
99-9
11-99
100-1
7.
13-95 100-1
12-56
100-2
12-60
100-1
11-96
99-8
7.20
14-17 101-6
12-59
100-4
12-59
100-0
11-98
100-0
Mean 13-94 100-0
12-54
100-0
12-59
100-0
11-98
100-0
MnxER's New 6"—
Lamp B—
May 31
5.50
12-60 89-2
12-56
100-0
12-65
99-9
11-89
99-5
6.10
13-46 95-2
12-52
99-7
12-64
99-8
11-93
99-8
6,30
14-35 101-5
12-57
100-1
12-68
100-2
11-98
100-2
7.
16-30 108-2
12-58
100-2
12-65
99-9
12-01
100-5
7.20
14-99 106-0
12-56
100-0
12-68
100.2
11-96
100-1
U-14 100-0
12-56
100-0
12-66
100-0
11-95
100-0
46
REPORT 1888.
Table I. — continued.
Date
Time
Caudles
Pentaue
Standard
Pentane Lamp
Amyl-acetate Lamp
1888
June 4
June 6
P.M.
4.20
4.40
5.
5.30
5.
.5.20
5.40
6.30
6.50
MlLLEB'S—
Per cent.
13-48 100-0
13-56 lCO-5
13-09 97-1
13-81 102-4
Per cent.
12-57 99-8
12-56 99-8
12-63 100-2
12-63 100-2
Per cent.
12-67 100-2
12-63 99-S
12-64 99-9
12-67 100-2
Lamp A—
11-97
11-96
11-95
11-99
Per cent.
100-0
99-9
99-8
100-2
Mean 13-48 100-0
12-60 100-0
12-65 100-0
11-97
100-0
Miller's New 6"—
13-77 99-2
13-51 97-3
13-42 96-7
14-09 101-5
14-61 105-3
12-58 99-8
12-57 99-7
12-59 99-8
12-66 100-4
12-63 100-2
12-61 100-0
12-69 ieo-1
12-67 09-9
12-68 100-0
12-68 100-0
12-67 99-9
Lamp C—
11-93
11-97
11-95
12-00
11-96
99-7
100-1
99-9
100-3
100-0
Mean 13-88 lOO'O
12-68 100-0
11-96
100-0
Note. — The testings were taken alternately by Messrs. Wood and Grimwood.
Table II.
Date
Miller and
Bi-ecknell's
Candles
Miller's New
Candles
Pentane
Standard
Pen-
tane
Lamp
Amyl-acetate Lamp
1888
A
B
C
April 16
11-88 M
—
—
12-08
12-14
1203
—
,. 17
,
13-00
12-14
12-18
—
11-99
—
,. 18
12-73
12-16
12-10
—
11-53
—
„ 23
13-98
12-85
12-61 —
12-11
—
., 24
13-40
12-37
12-41 11-74
—
—
„ 25
13-38
12-35
12-43 i 11-85
—
—
„ 26
13-30 M
—
12-33
12-38 ! 11-84
—
—
„ 27
13-28 B
—
12-36
12-36
11-79
—
„ 30
13-97
12-37
12-46
—
11-87
—
May 1
13-47 B
—
12-33
12-32
—
—
11-64
,, 2
13-(i5 M
—
12-30 [-632]
12-37
—
—
11-83
,, 4
13-53
12-33
12-37
—
—
11-77
„ 8
12-97 M
—
12-35
12-35
11-95
—
—
„ 10
13-30 B
—
12-32
12-35
—
—
11-98
,. 11
13-73 (6")
12-38
12-43
—
—
11-99
„ 14
13-55 M
—
12-21 [-628]
12-34
-
11-83
—
„ 15
—
14-00 (7")
12-29
12-34
—
11-80
—
,, 17
13-37 B
—
12 34
12-48
—
1206
—
„ 18
13-96 M
—
12-40
12-.o6
11-72
—
—
„ 25
13-85 M
—
12-36
12-48
—
11-75
—
„ 28
13-70 (7")
12-45
12-55
11-83
—
—
„ 29
13-37 B
—
12-45 [-629]
12-62
—
11-84
—
„ 30
13-94 M
—
12-54
12 59
IMIS
—
—
„ 31
—
14-14 (6")
12-56
12-66
—
1195
—
June 4
13-48 M
—
12-60
12-65
11-97
—
—
» G
■ —
13-88 (6")
12-61
12-68
—
—
11-96
Mean of
A
B C
Miller's 13-41
13-(")2
12-39
12-43
11-89
11-88
11 86
Mean of Breck-
nell's 13-36
•
1
ON STANDARDS OF LIGHT. 47
Appendix II.
Incandescent Platinum.
The attention of the Committee was naturally directed to the pro-
posed Frencli standard suggested by M. Violle, namely, the light
emitted by a square centimetre of liquid platinum at the solidifying
point. The apparatus required for the production of such a standard is
of necessity very cumbrous and inconvenient and extremely ill-suited for
photometrical measurements. The attention of the Committee was there-
fore directed to methods of obtaining the same result in a more con-
venient manner and on a smaller scale, with the view of constructing
apparatus which could without inconvenience be introduced into an
ordinary photometer.
For this purpose the apparatus employed by Mr. Dibdin in his recent
experiments was first tried. This consists of an arrangement by means
of which a roll of platinum foil was stretched over two rollers, having an
interval of about three inches between them, across which the foU was
stretched. In front of the foil a steatite plate having a circular aperture
of a quarter of an inch was placed, and immediately behind the foil was
an oxyhydrogen burner so arranged that when a full flame was turned on
it impinged upon the foil in a dii'ection horizontal with the aperture in
the steatite plate and thus heated the platinum to fusion. Although the
mechanical part worked as satisfactorily as could be desired, the results
obtained on the photometer were so variable that no reliance could be
placed upon them. The method was then modified by placing the foil
between two plates of perforated steatite so as to inclose the portion to be
heated in a steatite cell. It was found, however, that the close contact of
the steatite conducted the heat away from the platinum so rapidly that
only an ii-regular portion in the middle of the cell was actually fused, and
the results were even more unsatisfactory than before.
It was next considered desirable to vary the method by heatino- a
thick rod of platinum to its melting-point and allowing the light from
the fused bead of metal thus obtained to pass to the photometer disc
through a small opening in a suitable mask. This method was found to
be all but impracticable, but it gave results of value as indicatino- one
cause of the uncertainty in the quantity of light emitted from molten
metallic surfaces. It was observed that small scum-like particles were
constantly floating over the surface of the molten platinum, and that
these particles gave far more light than the mass of metal itself. Con-
sequently as there existed no means of ensuring the absence of such
particles it was obvious that there could be little certainty in the light
emitted from such unevenly illuminated surfaces.
In addition to the blowpipe experiments, it appeared desirable to try
the experiment of fusing platinum by means of the electric current as it
seemed probable that by this means the platinum could be kept in any
given condition of incandescence for a longer period, and that the experi-
ment would be more under control. An apparatus for the purpose was
consequently arranged. A strip of platinum was held between two metal
•clips insulated from each other. Close in front of the platinum was
j)laced a small screen having a perforation of a quarter of an inch in
48 EEPOKT — 1888.
diameter through which the incandescent surface could be observed.
This arrangement was placed in circuit with eight or ten cells of a
secondary battery, an ammeter and an adjustable resistance being included
in the circuit. It was necessary that the resistance should be capable of
being taken out very slowly, so that the current might be gradually and
regularly increased.
The arrangement devised answered very well in practice. It consisted
of a frame across which was stretched a series of lengths of germao
silver wire, some of them being straight and others coiled so as to give
varying amounts of resistance in each length. By means of plugs any or-
all of the lengths could be put in and out at pleasure, and by this means the-
resistance could be roughly adjusted. The fine adjustment was given by
a cross-piece working along two of the straight wires and moved by a
moderately fine screw. As the cross-pieces moved along the length of
the wires it, by connecting the two, brought more or less resistance into
the circuit. The resistance of the whole arrangement amounted to about
one ohm. It was found that with this arrangement the strip of platinum
could be rapidly raised to incandescence, and could be kept close to the-
melting-point for a considerable time, a very slight increase in the-
current being then sufficient to cause fusion. The photometric tests-
made with this arrangement confirmed those which had been made when
the platinum was fused by the oxyhydrogen jet ; that is to say, the
observations showed considerable irregularity, so much indeed that it
did not seem worth while to make, as had originally been intended, a long
series of them, nor to construct apparatus more accurate than the first
experimental one.
A decided defect in the apparatus was the buckling of the platinum.
As it was tightly gripped at each end there was no room for expansion,,
and before melting there was considerable expansion and consequent
buckling. Had it seemed worth while to do so, it would not have been,
difficult to devise an apparatus by which this might have been obviated,
but the results were not sufficiently encouraging.
A few photographic tests were also made by permitting the light from
the incandescent platinum to fall through a screen with openmgs in it
upon a sensitive plate, a number of exposures from diS'erent pieces of
platinum being made on the same plate. These of course could only be
looked upon as rough tests, but they also seemed to indicate that the
amount of radiation from a given surface of platinum at the moment of
fusion is not absolutely constant under the conditions we have described,
and so far as they are worth anything they may be taken as confirming the
conclusion obtained by the other methods.
ON MEXEOBOLOGICAI. OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 49
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Crum Browx
{Secretary), Mr. Milne-Home, Dr. John Murray, Lord McLaren,
and Dr. Buchan, appointed for the purpose of co-operating ivith
the Scottish Meteorological Society in making Meteorological
Obsei^ations on Ben Nevis.
The laborious work of observing hourly by night and by day has been
carried on by Mr. Omond and his assistants during the past year with the
same enthusiasm and continuity as in previous years ; and the tive daily
observations at Fort William, in connection with the observatory, have
similarly been made with the greatest regularity by Mr. Livingston.
The state of the health of the observers, occasioned by their continuous
residence on the top of the mountain, where active exercise in the open
air is practically precluded during most of the year, rendered it abso-
lutely necessary to give them relief daring last winter. Accordingly
the services of Mr. Drysdale, B.Sc, were secured for six months, thus
affording Messrs. Omond and Rankin three months' residence each in
Edinburgh, during which they gave assistance in the office of the
Scotti.sh Meteorological Society. In this way effective help was given
in the preparation of the report, for the ' Transactions of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh,' of the Ben Nevis observations from the opening of
the observatory in November 1883 to December 1887, to which date the
report has been brought down. To thesd observations have been added
the five daily observations made at the low-level station at Fort William.
All of these observations are already printed, and as the report itself is
now nearly all in type, the volume will shortly be ready for publication.
The delaj- of publication has been occasioned by the extension of the
period to December last and by a pressure of other wox'k, which has
precluded ]\[r. Buchan from giving more than a small portion of his time
to the preparation of the I'eport.
A grant of 251. was obtained from the Government Research Fund in
May last for the purchase of the necessary apparatus for photographing
clouds and other meteorological phenomena at the observatory. Atten-
tion is meantime chieiiy directed to clouds, halos, and other optical
phenomena, and much interest is attached to the questions which have
been already raised by these lines of research that give good promise of
leading to a knowledge of the constituents of clouds, but more particu-
larly of the exact forms of the ice-crystals of which many of them are
composed.
During the year Mr. Omond has continued the observations on earth-
currents, begun by Mr. H. N. Dickson in a previous year, and has traced
an important connection between them and the general state of the
weather. Mr. Rankin has collected the eighteen cases of St. Elmo's Fire
wliich have occurred at the observatory and discussed the observations
of pressure, temperature, winds, &c., for thirty hours previous and
eighteen hours subsequent to their occurrence, together with the cyclones
and other weather phenomena which, as shown by the daily weather-
maps of the Meteorological Office, had occuri'ed in North-western Europe
at the times. The papers on these subjects will shortly appear in the
'Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society.' As regards the cases
1888. E
50
KJiPOKT 1888.
of St. Elmo's Fire it may be enough liere to say that they occur at
certain well-defined phases in the non-periodic fluctuations of atmospheric
pressure, temperature, humidity, changes of wind, and arrival from the
Atlantic of equally well-defined types of weather with their characteristic
cyclones.
In addition to these researches and the preparation of the Ben Nevis
observations for the press Messrs. Omond and Rankin have been con-
ducting, as time and opportunity permitted, the investigations referred to
in last year's report.
For the year 1887 the following were the monthly mean pressures
and temperatures, the hours of sunshine, the amounts of the rainfall, and
number of days without rain as recorded at the observatory, the mean
pressures at Fort Wilham being reduced to 32° and sea-level, those of
Ben Nevis Observatory to 32° only : —
Jan. Feb. Marchl April I May I June July Aug. I Sept. Oct. I Nov. Dec. Year
Ben NevisOb- 1 25-159
servatory
Fort William 29-753
Difference . 4-594
Ben Nevis Ob-
servatory
Fort William
DifEerence
25-494
30-128
4-634
25-390
30-433
4-643
Mean Presmres in Inches.
25-3751 25-472
29-993 30-044
4-618 4-572
25-680
30-168
4-488
25-426
29-903
4-477
25-424
29-911
4-487
25-359
29-875
4-516
25-445
30-047
4-602
26-086
29-656
4-570
25-089
29-699
4-610
Mean Temperatures.
o
24-9
2?-l
O
21-0
25-6
o
32-2
o
45-4
o
41-3
40-0
36-6
o
28-4
26-0
o
22-7
39-2
14-3
40-5
13-4
38-8
14-8
42.5
16-9
49-3
17-1
58-3
12-9
57-6
16-3
56-4
16-4
51-1
14-5
44-8
16-4
40-2
14-2
36-0
13-3
Rainfall in Inches.
Ben Nevis Ob-
servatory
Days of no
Hain
Port William
17-80
7
12-73
13-30
12
11-40
6-90
14
3-50
7-53
15
3-49
3-97
ir
1-87
7-51
18
3-23
11-54
4
7-90
8-71
9
3-03
10-99
11
4-55
12-19
8
6-22
8-99
9
5-09
17-58
4
8-18
25-366
29-934
4-568
31-2
46-2
15-0
126-01
128
71-19
Hours of Sunshine to nearest Whole Hours at Ben JVeris Observatory.
No. of Hours I 23 I 56
Possible H"urs 231 264
74
365
120
426
129
508
206
529
58
528
57
467
84
381
32
319
31 I 28 I 898
242 210 4,470
For the year the mean temperature at Fort William was a degree
below the average, the greatest defects from the means being 3°-0 in
April, 2°-9 in December, 2°7 in October, and 2°-3 in March. On the
other hand, February was l°-6 above the average temperature of the
month, and June 2°-6. At the top of the Ben the mean temperature of
June was even relatively higher that at Fort William, being 45°-4, which
is the highest monthly mean hitherto observed.
The minimum temperature on Ben Nevis for the year was 9°-0 on
March 12 at 2 a.m., which closely agrees with the minimum of previous
years. The maximum was 67"-0 on June 24, which is 7°-0 higher
than any previously recorded maximum. On seven days of this month
the temperature rose above 60°-0, and on September 20 a temperature
of 58°-8 was recorded. Indeed, an unusual occurrence of high tempera-
tures was an outstanding feature of the meteorology of Ben Nevis during
the year.
The registrations of the sunshine recorder showed 898 hours of sun-
shine during the year, the smallest number of hours, 23, occurred in
ON METKOROLOGICAL OBSEKVATIONS OxN BKN NEVIS.
51
-January, and the largest, 206, in Jane, the latter number being the largest
for any month recorded down to the end of 1887. In June of 1888,
bo-wever, there have been 250 hours' sunshine recorded, being nearly half
the possible sunshine — an amount equalled at but few places in the
British Islands last June. The hours of sunshine were 680 for 1885, 576
for 1886, and 898 for 1887, the amount of sunshine being thus greatly
in excess of the two preceding years. In 1887 the amount was thus 20
per cent, of the possible sunshine, but in June the amount was 40 per
cent. The distribution of the sunshine during the hours of the day from
6 A.M. to 6 P.M. was 29, 42, 62 ; 81, 90, 87 ; 88, 83, 76 ; 70, 51, and 46 ;
.a distribution closely agreeing with that of 1884, 1885, and 1886.
The amount of the rainfall for the year was 126'01 inches, the month
•of least rainfall, 3"97 inches, being May, and of greatest rainfall, 17'80
inches, January, the month of December, however, following close with a
rainfall of 17-58 inches. The number of days on which the precipitation
was nil, or leas than O'Ol inch, was 128, being thus 31 dry days in excess of
1886. On the other hand the number of days on which one inch of rain,
or upwards, fell were 37, or about one day in ten, being less frequent
than in previous years, when such heavy rainfalls occurred once a week
on the average. The unusually heavy rainfalls with the dates of their
occurrence were 3"57 inches on January 27, 3-48 inches on December
3, 2-97 inches on December 4, 2-85 inches on February 23, 2"52
inches on the 24, and 2*47 inches on January 19. For longer periods
the results are 7'19 inches for the four days ending January 28, 7'87
inches for the four days ending February 25, and 7"40 inches for
the three days ending February 3.
Atmospheric pressure was considerably above the average for the year,
the mean at Fort William being 29 934 inches instead of 29834 inches.
In November, December, and January it was considerably under the
monthly means, but in every other month the means were exceeded,
the greatest excess, 0-260 inch, being in June. Thus the June of 1887 is
noteworthy in the meteorology of Ben Nevis for the prevalence of an
unwonted high atmospheric pressure and for an equally unwonted high
temperature, due to an unusual predominance of anticyclones over this
part of Europe during at least the last two-thirds of the month, with the
characteristic high temperatures and extremely dry states of the atmo-
sphere which accompany them.
These warm, dry states of the atmosphere were most marked from
the 22nd to the 25th. During these four days the means from the 24
hourly observations were : —
Day of Month
Dry
Wet
Pressure, Inches
22
23
24
25
58°2
59-3
60-7
58-3
50°6
48-0
49-9
50-3
25-943
25-912
26-931
25-865
Means
59-1
49-7
25-913
Means at Fort William
66-1
60-4
30-332
Differences
7-0
10-7
4-419
E 2
52 KEPOKT — 1888.
Thus, Instead of the normal difference of 16°'0 between the top and
bottom of the monntain, it -was only 7°'0 during these four days, and,
instead of the air at the top being moister than at the bottom, it was
greatly drier. Hence the air at the top did not owe its great dryness
and high temperature to ascending enrrents from lower levels up the
sides of the mountain, heated by the strong insolation prevailing at the
time, but to descending currents from great heights, which are charac-
teristic of anticyclones, by which dryness and heat are developed much in
the same way as happens in the case of the Fohn of the lower Alps. So
markedly and so frequently did this type of weather prevail during June
that the mean temperature of the month at the observatory was only
12°-9 lower than that at Fort William, being the least monthly difference
hitherto observed during any season of the year.
It may be here suggested that this peculiarity of anticyclones plays
a highly important and beneficial part climatically in mitigating the
rigours of winter_over those portions of Asia and America which are
almost continuously within extensive anticyclones during the winter
months. For the investigation of this phase of weather and cHmate it is
evident that the Ben Nevis observations afford data of the most invalu-
able description.
To this report is appended Table I., giving the hourly deviations
from the mean atmospheric pressure for the months and the year, and
Table II. the deviation from the mean temperature calculated from the
four years' observations ending with 1887.
It was hoped that the work of discussing the Ben Nevis observations
would by this time have extended farther than it has done beyond the
determination of the hourly constants of the more prominent meteoro-
logical elements in the direction of the investigation of the relations of
the observations to the weather of North-western Europe. But it was
found that the preparation of the observations for the press, and seeing
them through it, occupied much more time than had been anticipated.
Indeed, this work occupied the whole time of Messrs. Omond and Rankin
when they were in the office of the Scottish Meteorological Society, to-
gether with nearly the whole of the time of the treasurer's clerk ; and,
besides, since the beginning of the year less time has been at Mr. Buchan's
disposal for personally carrying out the laborious work of the discussion.
In these circumstances the directors of the observatory have taken
into consideration the whole question, and are maturing a plan for a
thorough discussion of the Ben Nevis and Fort William observations
in their scientific and practical bearings, which they hope to complete in
the course of the autumn. This plan will require for the carrying of it
out a small additional staff working in conjunction with the office in
Edinburgh and the staff of the Ben Nevis Observatory for a period of at
least three years.
In connection with the practical side of the inquiry your Committee
refer with the greatest satisfaction to the publication by General Greely,
chief signal officer of the United States Army, of Daily Weather Charts
of the Atlantic, beginning with October 1886. These charts have been
partially examined in connection with the Ben Nevis observations, and it
is not possible to overestimate their importance in the large inquiry now
in contemplation by the directors as to the relations of these observations
to the weather of North-western Europe, which is truly an international
undertaking. With the United States charts will be conjoined the obser-
ON METEOBOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS.
53
nations of storms and other pheDomena made at the Scottish lighthouses,
as described in previous reports, and the bi-daily charts of the Meteoro-
logical Office. One of the points to which attention will be specially given
■will be to ascertain the earliest time at which storms, seen to be advancing
over the Atlantic towards Europe, could be signalled from the Ben Nevis
observations in combination with observations at lower levels ; and,
further, to endeavour from an investigation of the bearings of the Ben
Nevis observations on the movements and courses of anticyclones and
cyclones to ascertain the path the advancing cyclone will take, whether
to the north of, across, or to the south of the British Islands in its
easterly course.
As the British Association is aware, youi* Committee have from the
commencement insisted on the necessity of an observatory at Fort
"William, near sea-level, at which hourly observations can be recorded, in
order that the observations made at the top of Ben Nevis may be properly
utilised in their scientific and practical bearings.
With reference to this low-level observatory a copy of the Report of
the Council of the Scottish Meteorological Society, dated July 23, is sent
herewith, with a passage marked on page 2 giving a correspondence with
the Meteorological Council, who offer a grant towards the maintenance
of the low-level observatory, ' which they regard as a very important
adjunct to the existing high-level observatory,' and further to equip the
observatory with the required outfit of meteorological instruments. The
directors have applied to the Association of the Edinburgh International
Exhibition of 1886 for a grant from their surplus fund towards the
building of the observatory at Fort William, and they are in good
hopes that they will in a month or two be in a position to commence the
building.
Table I. — Showing the Hourly Variations from the Mean Atmospheric
Pressure {expressed in Thousandths of an Inch) from the four years^
observations ending with 1887.
1 A.M.
Jan.
Feb.
Marcli
April
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Year
6
5
1
- 3
- 1
1
- 1
- 2
- 1
- 1
8
7
1
1
1
- 4
- 8
- 8
- 6
- 7
- 8
- 6
- 8
2
4
— 4
3 „
- 5
- 8
-12
-11
-12
-15
-13
-11
-14
- 3
2
- 9
4 „
- 4
-12
-10
-16
-15
-14
-17
-17
-16
-17
-U
— 4
-13
5 „
- 7
-13
-12
-20
-20
-17
-21
-19
-22
-20
-15
-10
-16
6 „
- 9
-14
- 9
-17
-15
-15
-18
-17
-19
-20
-14
-12
-15
7 „
- 8
-11
- 7
-15
-11
-11
-14
-12
-13
-13
-14
-13
-12
8 „
- 2
- 7
- 2
- 9
- 7
- 7
-10
- 8
- 7
— 6
- 7
- 9
- 7
9 „
2
- 3
1
- 4
- 4
- 3
- 6
- 3
- 2
1
- 4
- 5
- 3
10 „
4
1
3
1
- 1
- 3
1
2
7
- 2
1
11 „
4
4
4
5
5
2
1
3
4
9
2
1
4
Noon
1
6
6
8
8
5
5
7
7
10
- 1
- 1
5
1 P.M.
- 6
4
9
10
7
8
9
9
8
- 3
- 6
4
2 „
-10
1
4
11
15
9
13
13
11
8
- 3
- 3
5
3 „
-10
- 2
2
10
12
7
14
11
7
5
- 1
- 3
4
4 „
- 5
- 2
- 1
7
10
8
12
8
4
5
4
5 „
- 4
- 1
- 4
2
5
6
8
4
2
2
- 1
1
6 „
2
- 1
3
3
5
6
4
2
5
3
3
3
7 ,.
3
6
2
4
3
6
5
4
5
8
8
3
5
8 „
7
10
5
9
7
7
9
8
10
11
12
10
8
9 „
10
9
6
10
8
10
10
9
9
9
14
12
9
10 „
9
8
6
7
8
11
9
9
8
8
12
12
9
11 „
12
7
5
4
6
6
5
5
6
5
11
10
7
Midnight
10
5
3
3
2
4
1
3
1
11
9
4
54
KEPORT 1888.
Table II. — Showing the Hourhj Variations from the Mean Temperature
from, the four years' observations ending with 1887.
Jan.
Feb.
March
April
May
June
.July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Year
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
1 A.M.
-0-1
-0-3
-0-5
-0-8
-1-2
-1-1
-0-9
-0-8
-0-7
-0-4
-0-2
0-0
-0-6
2 „
-0-1
-0-4
-0-6
-1-0
-1-3
-1-3
-1-1
-1-1
-0-7
-0-e
-01
-0-2
-0-7
3 V
0-0
-0-4
-0-7
-1-1
-1-4
-1-4
-1-3
-1-2
-0-9
-0-5
-0-1
-0-2
-0-7
4 „
-0-2
-0-3
-0-6
-1-3
-1-5
-1-5
-1-6
-1-4
-0-9
-0-5
0-0
-0-2
-(1-8
5 „
-0-3
-0-4
-0-8
-1-3
-1-4
-1-6
-1-6
-1-6
-1-1
-0-5
-0-1
-0-3
-0-9
6 „
-0-1
-0-4
-0-r
-1-3
-1-1
-1-4
-1-5
-1-5
-1-2
-0-5
-0-1
-0-4
-0-8
7 „
-0-1
-0-6
-0-7
-1-1
-0-9
-1-1
-1-2
-1-3
-1-1
-0-4
0-0
-0-3
-0-7
8 >,
-0-1
-0-6
-0-5
-0-8
-0-5
-fl-8
-0-8
-1-2
-0'6
-0-3
-0-1
-0-3
-0-6
!> ..
-0-1
-0-4
-0-2
-0-2
-0-2
-0-3
-0-4
-0-.5
-0-2
0-0
0-0
-0-3
-0-2
10 „
0-1
0-0
0-1
0-1
0-3
0-0
0-1
0-1
0-3
0-3
0-4
0-0
0-2
11 „
0-2
0-4
0'5
0-7
0-7
0-5
0-7
0-6
0-6
0'6
0-6
0-2
0-5
Noon
0-3
0-6
0'8
1-0
1-2
1-1
1-2
1-2
1-2
0-8
0'8
0'3
0-9
1 P.M.
0-3
0-8
0-8
1-1
1-4
1-5
1-4
1-5
1-6
0-9
0-6
0-4
11
2 „
0-2
0-8
1-0
1-3
1-6
1-8
1-7
1-9
1-7
0-8
0-6
0-4
1-2
3 „
0-3
0-7
0-9
1-3
1-6
1-9
1-7
1-9
1-6
0-8
0-3
0-3
l-l
4 „
0-1
0-5
0-7
1-3
1-6
1-8
1-7
1-8
1-3
0-5
0-1
0-1
1-0
5 „
0-0
0-2
0-3
1-2
1-1
1-7
1-4
1-6
' 0-8
0-2
-0-1
0-0
0-7
6 „
-0-1
0-0
0-2
0-9
0-9
1-3
1-0
1-1
0-3
0-0
-0-2
0-0
0-5
7 „
-0-1
-0-1
0-1
0-5
0-6
0-9
0-9
0-5
0-0
0-1
-0-2
-0-1
0-3
8 „
-0-1
-0-1
0-0
0-2
01
O'l
0-4
0-1
-0-2
0-0
-U-2
-d-l
0-0
9 .1
-0-2
0-0
-0-1
0-0
-0-
-0-3
O-l
-0-2
-0-2
-0-1
-0-2
0-0
-O'l
10 .,
-0-2
-0-1
-0-3
-0-3
-0-6
-0-5
-0-2
-0-5
-0-2
-0-1
-0-2
-0-1
-0-3
11 „
-0-2
-0-1
-0-3
-0-5
-0-9
-0-7
-0-5
-0-6
-0-4
-0-1
-0-2
-0-2
-0-4
Midnight
-0-2
-0-2
-0'4
-0-7
-1-0
-1-0
-0-7
-0-8
-0-6
-0-2
-0-2
0-0
-0-5
Second Report of the Gomrtiittee, consisting of Professors Tilden,.
McLeod, Pickering, Eamsay, and Young and Drs. A. E. Leeds
and NicoL {Secretary), appointed for the purpose of reporting:
on the Bibliography of Solution.
During the past year the following journals have been searched : —
PoggendorfE's ' Annalen ' (completed) ;
' Annales de Chimie et do Physique ' ;
' Chemical News ' ;
' Philosophical Magazine ' ;
' Philosophical Transactions ' ;
' Proceedings of the Royal Society of London ' (in part) ;
in all 350 volumes; with the result that 194 papers have been addeJ.
to the list. These papers are distributed as follows : —
A. 1 = 8; 2 = 4 12
B. 1 = 29; 2 = 1; 3 = 2 32
C. 1 = 21; 3 = 6; 4 = 17; 5=10; 6 = 13; 7 = 5; 8 = 1; 10=1 74
D. 1 = 15; 2 = 2 17
Miscellaneous 59
The number of papers obtained in all is 549.
The Committee is indebted to Mr. T. J. Baker, B.Sc., King Edward's-
School, Birmingham, for assistance in searching the ' Annales de Chimie
et de Physique.'
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRIC.A.L MEASUREMENTS.
00
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Gr. Carey Foster,
Sir William Thomson, Professor Ayrton, Professor J. Perry,
Professor W. Gr. Adams, Lord Kayleigh, Dr. 0. J. Lodge, Dr.
John Hopkinson, Dr. A. Muirhead, Mr. W. H. Preece, Mr.
Herbert Taylor, Professor Everett, Professor Schuster, Dr.
J. A. Fleming, Professor Gr. F. Fitzgerald, Mr. R. T. GtLAZe-
BROOK (Secretary), Professor Chrystal, Mr. H. Tomlinson, Pro-
fessor W. Gtarnett, Professor J. J. Thomson, Mr. W. N. Shaw,
Mr. J. T. BoTTOMLEY, and IVIr. T. GtRAY, appoi^tted for the
purpose of constructing and issuing Practical Standards for
use in Electrical Measurements.
[Plate I.]
The Committee report that the work of testing resistarce coils has
been continued at the Cavendish Laboratory, and a table of the values
found for the various coils is given.
Legal (
Ohms.
No. of Coil
Resistance in Legal Ohms
Temperature
Elliott, 193
Elliott, 201
• •
. ^ No. 178
. "^^ No. 181
■99971
100005
15°-5
14°-8
B.A. Units.
No. of Coil
Resistance in B.A. Units
Temperature
Elliott, 200 . . . :^ No. 71
Elliott, 43 . . . . ^ No. 72
100049
•99955
13°-8
140.7
In conformity with the opinion expressed by the Committee in their
last report some steps have been taken towards the construction of an
air-condenser.
A meeting was held in London and Dr. Alex. Muirhead exhibited
an air-condenser, capacity about 'OOSS mf. This condenser consist.s
of a series of concentric cylinders of brass insulated from each other by
glass rods.
Dr. Muirhead expressed his willingness to lend this condenser to
the Committee with two others of similar construction, and it was agreeil
that the Secretary should be requested to test them and to make a
determination of their absolute capacity. Some delay in sending the
instruments to Cambridge unavoidably took place, but the experiments
requisite are now in progress ; so far, of the 80Z. granted last year for the
purpose only 21. 10s. has been expended.
During the year the original resistance standards of the Association
56 REPORT— 1888,
have been compared with each other by the Secretary and Mr. T. C. Fitz-
patrick ; an account of the experiments is given in an appendix to the
report, togfether with a chart giving the values of their resistance between
10° and 20°. The general result of the comparison is that with two
exceptions the relative values of the standards between the tempera-
tures of 10° and 20° have not seriously changed since they were con-
structed in 1865 until June 1888. A change of about "0002 B.A. Unit
has been observed in the coil F since the end of June 1888.
The attention of the Committee has been directed by several practical
electricians to the desirability of a redetermination of the value of the
specific resistance of copper. It is known that copper wire is now made
having a resistance 3 or 4 per cent, less than Matthiessen's standard.
In view of the importance of copper to electricians the Committee
have undertaken to make experiments on the specific resistance of copper,
and wish to thank the various gentlemen, who have brought the matter
forward, for their offers of help.
At the last meeting of the Committee it was resolved, on the motion
of Mr. W. H. Preece, to adopt the name ' Therm ' for the Gramme-Water
Degree Centigrade Unit of Heat.
Thus one ' Therm ' is the quantity of heat required to raise one
gramme of water at its maximum density one degree Centigrade.
It was also agreed to adopt the name ' Joule ' for 10^ C.G.S. units of
work. Thus a Joule is equal to 10^ ergs. It is the work done in one
second by the power of one Watt, or again the work done when a
current of one Ampere flows for one second between two points between
which the difi'erence of potential is one Volt, and hence a power of one
Watt is one Joule per second.
Hence, also, if we take the value of the mechanical equivalent of heat
as 42 X 10^ ergs, we have
1 Therm=4-2 Joules.
In accordance with a suggestion made at the Manchester meeting the
value of the resistance of mercury in terms of the B.A. Unit has been
again determined by the Secretary and Mr. Fitzpatrick.^
They find that a column of mercury 1 metre long 1 sqr. mm. in
section has at 0° C. a resistance of -95352 B.A. Unit, and that the value of
the ohm in centimetres of mercury is 106"29.
The Committee are of opinion that they should be reappointed, with
the addition of the name of Mr. T. C. Fitzpatrick, to continue the experi-
ments already referred to ; they ask for a grant of 1001. They propose
that Professor G. Carey Foster should be the Chairman and Mr. R. T.
Glazebrook the Secretary.
Appendix.
Ow the Permanence of the Original Standards of Resistance of the British
Association and of other Standard Coils. By R. T. Glazebrook and
T. C. Fitzpatrick.
The original standards were compared together by Messrs. Matthiessen
and Hockin in 1865 and 1867, by Messrs. Chrystal and Saunder in 1876,
by Dr. Fleming in 1879-81, and by the Secretary and Mr. Fitzpatrick in
1887-88. The details of Dr. Fleming's observations have never been
' Proc. Royal Soc. vol. xlir. ; Phil. Trans. 1888.
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS.
57
published, and we have to thank him for having placed his note-book and
papers at our disposal.
The question of the pennanence of wire standards has been discussed
recently by Professor Himstedt, ' Wied. Ann.' xxxi. p. 617, and it seemed
desirable to bring together all the information attainable as to the original
coils of the Association and others used by Messrs. Matthiessen and
Hockin in 1867.
The original coils of the Association are six in number, and the tem-
.peratures at which each has a resistance of 1 B.A.U. are given by Mr.
Hockin in the Report for 1867. In addition to these six coils Messrs.
Chrystal and Saunder examined the coil No. 29, marked F by them, and
also a coil known as Flat, which are not mentioned in Mr. Hockin 's re-
port. The results of these two comparisons are given in the following
table : —
Table I. — Table giving the results of comparisons in 186? and 1876.
Material of
No. in 1867
Mark in 1876
Temperature at which
Temperature at which
Coil
Report
Report
CoU is 1 B.A.U., 1867
Coil is IB.A.U., 18761
Ptir
2
A
16°
16-1
Ptir
3
B
15-8
15-8
Au Ag
58
C
15-3
15-3
Pt
35
D
15-7
16
Pt
36
E
15-7
15-8
PtAg
29
F
not given
(19-4?)
PtAg
43
G
15-2
18-2
It will be noticed that the coil G of Pt Ag is the only one for which
the table shows any marked alteration.
Now Matthiessen gives as the percentage increase of resistance per
1° C. for Pt Ir the value '032. Our own experiments show it to be lower
than this, and the value found for G by Dr. Fleming after a most careful
series of experiments is 0278. I can find no record of the temperature
at which Hockin actually worked. If it were below 15° and the tempera-
ture at which the coil was right was found by the use of the coefficient
*032 the temperature so found would be too low.
If we assume Hockin's measurements to have been made at 0° C. and
take Fleming's value "028 for the coefficient we find the temperature at
which the coil was right to be 18°" 1.
We have next to consider the very complete series of measurements
taken by Dr. J. A. Fleming in 1879-81 ; the results of these measure-
ments were tabulated on a chart which has been kept with these coils
since that date. For the details of the experiments we have to thank
Dr. Fleming, who placed at our disposal his note-books. The principle of
his observations was as follows. If X, Y be two coils to be compared,
■one X, say, was kept at 0° C, while the temperature of Y was varied
from 0° to 20°. The difierences between the resistance of X at 0° and Y
at various temperatures were measured by Carey Foster's method in
terms of the wire of the Fleming bridge. The values of this difference
were plotted as ordinates, the temperatures being the abscissae, and thus
a curve was obtained giving the variation of resistance with temperature
' In obtaining this column it was assumed that B remained unchanged between
1867 and 1876.
58
REPORT — 1888.
for the coil Y. For the standard coil Flat this carve is accarately a
straight line. This coil was then kept at 0°, and the temperature of X
varied, and so on for all the coils.
Now, at the temperatures given in Table I., column 4, taken from
the 1867 Report the resistances of all the coils should be the same.
Fleming found that this was not quite strictly true. He defines therefore
as the Mean B.A. Unit the mean of the values of the coils at the temper-
atures at which they were originally said to be equal. This value is
shown on his diagram by a red horizontal line.
For the coils of platinum silver alloy, which is now used for standards,
Fleming's results are accurately represented by straight lines for the tem-
perature curves. This, however, is not so strictly the case for the coils
A and B of platinum iridium "alloy; thus for these two coils Fleming
took observations in the neighbourhood of 0°, 4°, 8°, 15°, and 21°,
numerous observations being made at each temperature ; the straight line
on the chart joining the means of the observations at 15° and 21° passes
considerably above the observations at 0°, 4°, and 8°. The same too is
the case, though in a less marked degree, for the platinum coils D and B.
In the chart as drawn by Fleming it has been assumed that the tempera-
ture curves are straight lines, and these have been drawn to represent all
the observations as closely as possible, but the differences are considerable.
If we draw curves instead of straight lines to represent Fleming's
experiments these curves between 10° and 20° are in all cases nearly
straight, and the differences, at the two temperatures, from Flat at 0° are
given in bridge wire divisions in Table II.
Table II.
Temperature 10°
Temperature 20°
A
-88
205
B
-97
196
C
11
165
D
-280
338
E
-263
348
F
44
100
G
40
94
Flat
56
112
We could determine from this table the temperatures at which the
various coils are equal, and hence compare Fleming's results with those
of previous observers ; it will be easier to do this after discussing our
own observations.
During the past year and a half the coils have again been examined-
by ourselves. We find that between the temperatures of about 10° and
20° Centigrade the resistances of the coils, including an eighth coil H
(No. 6 of the Report of 1867), may be represented by the formulae given,
in Table III.
In obtaining the table it has been assumed, in accordance with the
observations of Dr. Fleming, confirmed by Lord Rayleigh and ourselves,
that the resistance of one division (about 1 mm.) of our bridge wire at a
temperature of 15° is -0000498 B.A.U. The table gives in B.A. Units
the value of R,— Flat^, R^ being the resistance of the coils in order at
temperature t°, F]at„ that of Flat at 0°.
V
111,1 iiiimiiillllll = 7!----T-.
PUADTfiunwiMR THE RESISTANCE OF THE B. A. STANDARD _ - -// '^
IK 1887 AND 188a _.._:-;::--:; u _l_ ---^-
Tbi vcrUcjil .hvisions corrvspoiid to ten bridge diviaioiiB, Or iV ' + T'
■OOMON B A t' ; .nd tlie honjonlal dimions to 0',2 centi ,, i-T
urada. - ^- - -' A'- ,'''" i
tores at whichtboy ware originaUy correct. V \::. U , ^^_ .^--^Lj^ "_-
[ _ui U' U 1- " i// '<i^i-^'^'' ' i '
1] /E'i 1, .,— ^-^ iil^^ ::^i^^S =^ * -
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■■" " " ~ '^ t-'^ft' "' ^ ' ' A'' ' M' - 44-
i -<.'■' -tL ' Jt ' '^V\ ... ....... '.- ;..:..;±
y.'i- 1 // X ___::!:::;;::::. _j::_:l:„_:441l
1 - J — - yy - - - 4
:;;;;:i::;-^^!L__:Mt::^___:4.. _:::... .::4_:__:;:_:_:;;;^:^;:;::::::":.
4t-t-r -/A _^ \- .- - A 41- -■.-■■__- \\\\-- -
Uiiistratm^ the HepartorUi£(Jma/uMeefircmjstru£iififfAfj^^
.'i>merMj4 iCUA la-JfH
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS.
59
Table III.
Coil
Rj-FlatoinB.A.U.
A .
B .
C .
D .
E .
F .
G .
H .
Flat
- -00386 + -001426 (t-10)
- -00431 + -001436 (t-10)
+ -00057 + -000710 (!!-10)
- -01434 + -003078 (t-10)
- -01330 + -003023 (^-10)
+ -00227 + -000286 (t-10)
+ -00192 + -000274 (t-10)
+ -00202 + -000281 (^-10)
+ -00279 + -000279 (i^-lO)
The results of these observations are given in the chart,' Plate I.
The vertical divisions are ten bridge divisions, and the horizontal
divisions 0'''2C. In the original chart, which is retained with the stan-
dards, the vertical divisions were one bridge division, or -0000498 B.A.U.
About eleven observations on each coil are recorded in the chart, and
in but few cases is the error between observation and the corresponding
straight line greater than that which would arise from an error of one-
tenth of a degree Centigrade in the temperature of the coil.
If as above we adopt as the Mean B.A. Unit the mean of the value of
the coils at the temperature at which each was said to be originally
correct we find that this mean lies on our chart at a distance of 78'3-
divisions above the value of Flat at 0°, so that
Flat at 0°=1- 00390 B.A.U.
The value given on Fleming's chart is Flat at 0°=1 — -00410 B.A.U., and
the difference is within the errors of reading on his chart.
We have thus the data for finding the resistance of any of the coils in
Mean B.A.U. at any temperature between 10° and 20°.
It remains to compare these results and those of previous observers.
We will take Fleming's. observations first, and for this purpose have given
in Table IV. the differences in bridge wire divisions between the coils at
temperatures of 10° and 20° and Flat at 0°. For the sake of comparison
Table II. is repeated.
Table IV.
Coil
ValueofR-Flaf>atlO°
ValueofR-Flatoat20°
1880
1888
1880
1888
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Flat
-88
-97
11
-280
-263
44
40
56
-77-5
-86-5
11-5
-288
-267
45-5
38-5
40-5
56
205
196
155
338
348
100
94
112
209
202
154
330
340
103
93-5
97
112
' Note. — The smaller letters in brackets after some of the observations on the chart
give the initials of the observer.
<60
BEPORT — 1888.
A comparison of the corresponding columns shows that the differences,
except possibly in the case of A and B at the lower temperature, are
probably not greater than the error of experiment. It must be remem-
bered that A and B change by 28 bridge divisions for 1° Centigrade,
while for D and E the change is about 60 divisions per degree; the
temperature of the coils is hardly certain to 0°'l Centigrade and the
■differences are within that error. As to the platinum silver coils it would
seem possible that F ' has risen relatively to Flat by -0001 B.A.U. and
that G has fallen by '00005 ; but these differences are almost too small to
make certain of. With regard to the results for A and B at 10° it may
be remarked that Fleming's line for these coils is more curved than for
any of the others, and that his observations at 6°'9 and at 3° lie distinctly
above the line which seems to represent best the observations at 0°, 9°,
15°, and higher temperatures. The observations are not at sufficiently
close intervals of temperature to enable the curved line to be drawn with
accuracy, and it is clear when plotting them that the curve near 10° may
be wrong by as much as 5 or 6 bridge wire divisions.
We would conclude then that there is no certain evidence for a change
in the coils in the interval 1880 to 1888. A comparison with the results
of Hockin and Chrystal is not quite so easy. It is clear from the chart
that the coils are not exactly equal at the temperatures originally stated,
and any table of temperatures at which they may be said to have the value
of 1 B.A. Unit will depend on the assumption made as to possible
<;hanges in any of the coils. Chrystal in 1876 found that the coils B and
•C were equal at the temperatures at which they were originally stated
to be each 1 B.A. Unit. He supposed these coils had not altered and
founds on that assumption a table of standard temperatures which agrees
well with that of Hockin except for the coil G. According to our obser-
vations the coils now marked as B and C are no longer equal at the tem-
peratures mentioned. We find, however, that D, E, and G are practically
«qual at the temperatures given by Chrystal, and if we suppose G has not
altered we get the following table of standard temperatures : —
Table V.
Coil
Standard Temperature, 1876
Standard Temperature, 1888
A
16-1
15-7
B
15-8
16
C
153
151
D
16
16
E
15-8
15-8
F
19-4?
16-9
G
18-4
18-4
H
—
17-9
Flat
—
15-2
The change in C, as shown in this table, is not large, probably hardly
■greater than would be accounted for by experimental error, while D, E,
and G agree very closely.
The differences in the case of A, B, and F are important. To take F
first. It is a platinum silver coil, No. 29 of the original report. Its
' 'I'lie results of other experiments confirm this rise in the value of F.
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 61
temperature is, however, not given in the Report for 1867, p. 483, nor is
it marked out in coil itself. Chrystal says that it was used in some of the
experiments ' because its variation coefficient was small, but otherwise we
have not bestowed much attention on it. ' In his first table he states
that the results given for F came from a single experiment, aud he gives
as its variation coefficient per 1° Centigrade 28 divisions of his bridge, while
Flat and G, also platinum silver coils, have coefficients of 34 and 35 divi-
sions. Now the observations of Fleming and ourselves show that without
any doubt these coils Flat, F, and G- have practically the same coefficient,
viz., -00028 B.A.U. per 1° C. Taking Chrystal's bridge wire as -075 ohm-
as stated by him, his value for Flat and G comes to '00026 B.A.U., which
is in fair agreement ; while for F we find "00021, a value which is now un-
doubtedly too low. We must infer either that the value of F has changed
considerably or that there is some accidental error in the one observation
given in Chrystal's table. The change necessary to account for the tem-
perature difference recorded in Table V. would he an increase in resist-
ance of -00067 B.A.U.
Let us now examine the numbers for A and B. It will be seen at
once that they have altered appreciably, having, in fact, just changed
places. Their temperature coefficients are nearly the same, and there is
no doubt that throughout Chrystal's observations the coil he called B
was slightly higher in value than A, while throughout the obser-
vations of Fleming and ourselves the reverse has been the case. The
question naturally arises, have the coils been interchanged ? Chrystal
(Report, 1876, p. 17) states that, though they have no proper labels, they
are marked in some way or other so as to be identifiable. At the present
time they have brass labels screwed on to the ebonite of the frame bearing
the stamp B.A. 76 A and B.A. 76 B respectively. These were placed on
at the time of Chrystal's observations, and there seems just the possibility
of an accidental interchange.
The coil H, No. 6, of the original report is marked as correct at 15°'3.
It is now correct in the sense used above at 17°*9, and here again we have
apparently a large change. The resistance would appear to have gone
down by about '00070 B.A.U. in the twenty-two years which have
elapsed since it was made. This corresponds closely to the change in G
observed by Chrystal between 1867 aud 1876. Now we know that G has
not changed relatively to C, D, and E, since 1876 — unfortunately H was
not examined by Chrystal— and we are led to ask whether the change
was a real one, or due in some way to the observations. The suggestion
already made in case of G applies again. The temperature coefficient used
by Matthiessen and Hockin is certainly too high, '00032 instead of '00028.
If his observations on the platinum silver coils were made at low
temperatures, and then the value of the temperature at which the coil is
correct were found by the use of the temperature coefficient, the result
would be too low. It will be seen shortly that all the platinum silver
coils examined, not merely those already mentioned, appear to have fallen
appreciably in value relative to the others.
But we have another method of comparing the results. Chrystal has
given a table of the differences at 10° between each of the coils and Flat.
Now we have seen reason to believe that there is not much change in
C, D, B, and G. Let us find from Chrystal's table the valueof the difference
between G and the various coils at 10°, and compare these with our results.
In doing this some uncertainty is introduced from the fact that the value
«2
HKPOKT — 1888.
of the bridge wire in Chrystal's observations was only determined approxi-
mately as "075 B.A.U. In this way we get the following Table VI.
Table VI.
Value of G-X at 10° in B.A.U.
X
1876
1888
Difference
A
•00693
■00583
■00110
B
■00648
•00635
•00013
C
■00162
•00135
■00027
D
■01596
•01632
- -00036
B
•01506
01527
-•00021
F
-•00018
- •oooss
•00017
On examining these differences it would seem that A has changed
^eatly, while B has remained unaltered. This is not in accordance with
the conclusions derived from Table V., and will require further considera-
tion. With regard to the otter four coils, the differences are almost
within errors of observation and are in fair agreement with Table V.
Coil C appears to have risen relative to G by '00027 ; thus, since its tem-
perature coefficient is "00071, this would correspond to an apparent fall
in the temperature at which it is right of about 0°'3 Centigrade. Table V.
shows that there has been a fall in this temperature of 0°'2.
The temperature coefficients of D and B are about "00308, so that the
differences recorded for these coils would be accounted for by an error
of 0"! in the temperature, while the change in F relative to G is so small
as to be within the experimental errors. We are thus led to infer that,
while C may have risen slightly, the others have not changed by any but
a very small amount. This conclusion as regards F is at variance with
the one derived from Table V. In fact, while at 10° F is above G in
value ; owing to the small temperature coefficient used by Chrystal for F,
its curve of resistance crosses that of G, and at temperatures near 18°, at
whicb G is about right, F is considerably below it.
If we take Chrystal's value for F at 10° and the temperature co-
efficient '00026 instead of "00021 used by him, we find that F would be
right at about 17°"6 instead of at 19°"4, as given by Chrystal. This is
much closer to 16°'9, the value given by our observations ; if we take it
instead of the 19-4 of Table I., the results of this Table VI. and of Table V.
would point to a rise in the value of F of about "00017.
The conclusion then that would seem to follow from a comparison of
these two series of observations in 1876 and 1888 would seem to be that,
while considerable uncertainty attaches to the coils A and B, changes
in the other five coils, C, D, B, F, and G, if they have occurred at all,
are probably not so great as "0002 B.A. Unit. C and F may possibly
have risen by this amount, while D, B, and G have not varied at all.
Professor Chrystal's observations in 1876 are in accordance with those
of Messrs. Matthiessen and Hockin in 186-4! and 1867, while the results of
Dr. Fleming's work in 1880 agree, as we have seen, with our own at the
present date.
The observations recorded and discussed above were made mostly at
temperatures between 10° and 20°. A considerable number more were
made during the cold weather in January and February of the present
jear at temperatures near 0°, and we must now consider them.
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS.
63
At these low temperatures the observations are not nearly so con-
cordant as those already considered. The tei^minals of the coils are stout
rods of copper, and whenever the temperature of the room is different
from that of the bath in which the coils are placed heat is conducted to
them through the copper rods and the temperature becomes uncertain ;
besides this it is difficult to prevent the deposition of moisture on the
paraffin with which the cases are filled, and this again becomes a source
of error. Table VII. gives a series of the differences observed between
the various coils and Flat. The coils were in a north room of which the
windows were open, and the temperature in the room was on the average
about 2° C. The differences are given in bridge wire divisions.
Table VII.
Coil
Feb. 2,
Morning
Feb. 22,
Afternoon
Feb. 23
Feb. 24,
Afternoon
Feb. 25,
Morning
Feb. 25,
Afternoon
March
Mean
A
433-9
422-4
424-4
428
422-7
422-6
425-9
B
459-9
452-4
454-7
455-8
452-0
—
451-5
454-7
C
136
—
—
—
—
134-6
135-5
134-3
D
913-8
922-4
—
927-4
921-0
—
—
921-7
E
894-2
895-4
—
905-8
907-0
—
—
901-1
F
6-4
5-4
5-3
7-5
7-8
9-6
9
7-3
G
14-1
16-8
—
16-8
16-7
18-4
18
16-5
H
15-7
15-7
16
16-7
15-4
17
16
16-1
Now from Tables III. or IV. we can easily calculate what these
differences ought to be if we suppose that the temperature curves are
straight lines. In making a comparison of the results of this calculation
with the observed values given in Table VII. some allowance must be
made for the fact that the bridge wire referred to in IV. was at a mean
temperature of about 15°, while in Table VII. the temperature was about
2°. Now the temperature coefficient of the bridge wire — platinum
iridium — is about •00143 ; thus the change in resistance for 13° of tem-
perature will be '0185 of the resistance at 2°, and we shall have to reduce
each of our observed values by this fraction of itself.
We thus get the following Table VIII. of values of the difference at
0° between Flat and the various coils.
Table VIII.
Observed Yalue of Flat-X
Value of Flat-X
Coil
corrected for temperature
at 0° obtained from
Difference
of bridge
Table III.
A
417-7
364
63-7
B
446-1
375
71-1
C
131-8
131
0-8
D
904-2
906
- 1-8
E
884-0
874
-10
F
7-2
12
- 4-8
G
16-2
165
- 0-3
H
15-8
16
0-2
On examining these it is at once clear that the supposition that the
temperature curves for A and B are straight lines is false.
64
KEPOBX 1888.
The other coils, with perhaps the exception of F, would lie at 0° on the
straight line which represents the observations between 10° and 20"
■within the limits of the errors of experiments.
The numbers given in Table VIII. agree well with those found by
Fleming in 1880 with the exception of the coils A and B.
Some observations made at intermediate temperatures are in agree-
ment with the statements just made. • Thus on March 2, the tempera-
ture of the room being 12°, we found that at 4°9 C. the difference between
A and Flat at was 256 bridge wire divisions, while for B at 4°'8 the
difference was 280 bridge wire divisions.
Thus in conclusion we infer that while the observations in 1880 and
1888 are in close accord for temperatures between 10° and 20° there is a
discrepancy between them at lower temperatures for the two coils of
platinum iridium A and B. The other coils, however, do not show any
marked evidence of change. For the same two coils there is a discre-
pancy between our results and those of Chrystal in 18/G and Hockin in
1867. For the other coils the agreement between Chrystal and ourselves
is as close as can well be expected, and our results as well as those of
Chrystal agree with Hockin's for the gold silver coil C and the platinum
coils J) and E. According to both Chrystal and ourselves the platinum
silver coils have fallen in value relatively to the others by something like
•0006 B.A.U., corresponding to change in the temperature at which they
are correct of some 2° Centigrade. We have seen, however, that G, the
only one of these coils which was carefully examined by Chrystal in 1876,
has not altered since. In its case the whole fall, if it occurred at all, took
place between 1867 and 1876, and we suggest that possibly the fall has
not been a real one, but merely apparent, owing to the use of the wrong
temperature coefficient by Hockin.
Table IX.-
-Giving tl
e Values in
1888.
Coil
Original No.
See Report,
1867
Materi.al
Temperature
at which
coil is cor-
rect, 1867
Value of coil
in Mean C.A.
Units at the
temperature
given in 1867
Temperature
at which
coil is 1 B.A.
Units, 1888
Temperature
Coefficient
in B.A. Units
A
r.
c
D
E
F
G
H
Flat
2
3
58
35
36
29
43
6'
Ptir
Ptir
Au Ag
Pt
Pt
PtAg
PtAg
PtAg
PtAg
o
16
15-8
15-3
15-7
15-7
15-2
15-3
1-00075
1-00010
1-00050
■999.30
1-00000
-99940
o
15-4
15-7
14-8
15-9
15-7
15-7
17-3
16-8
140
-00143
•00144
•00071
•00308
•00302
-00028
-00028
-00028
■00028
As has been said already, the value that has been assumed as the
Mean B.A. Unit since Fleming consti-ncted his chart in 1876 is the mean
of the values of the six coils A, B, C, D, E, and G mentioned in the
Report for 1867 at the temperatures at which they were then said to be
' This coil is not mentioned in the Report of 1867.
the label.
The details given are from
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL 3IEASDREMENTS.
65
correct. In terms of this unit we find, Table IX., tlie present values at
the temperatures of 1867. We also give in the last colnmn but one the
temperatures at which these coils have the value I B.A. Unit, and in the
final column the temperature coefficients per 1° Centigi-ade also in B.A.
Units.
There remains now for consideration the result of comparisons which
we have made on various other standard coils originally issued by the
Committee, and which have most kindly been put at our disposal by their
owners for the purposes of the report.
Messrs. Elliott Bros, have three coils. One, No. 41 of the original
set, was made by Matthiessen in 1864. A second, No. 56, was first
examined by Lord Rayleigh in 1882 : these two are B. A. Units, while the
third, Elliott, No. 117, is a legal ohm, first tested by R.T.G in 1884.
These coils are all of platinum silver, with a temperature coefficient of
•00028. Table X. gives the temperatures at which they were found
correct at different dates.
Table X.
Coil and Mark on it
at present
Matthies-
sen, 1864
Hockin,
1879
Hockin,
1880
Lord
Ravlcigh,
1882
GLize-
brook,
1884
Glaze-
brook,
1885
Glaze-
brook,
1887
No. 41 ^ No. 55
No. 56 "^ No. 50
No. 117^ No. 63
152
132
14-2
14-5
141
15 5
15-4
17-8
15
6-2
147
' lG-8
1
The observations made in 1887 are separated from the others by a
double line because daring 1886 it was observed that the paraffin used
in the insulation was becoming green, and it was therefore removed and
replaced by pure ozoherit. In consequence of this some change may
easily have taken place in the coils, and the record after 1884 must be
treated as a fresh one.
In the first coil the most noticeable point is the drop of 2° between
1864 and 1879 ; but since this drop is followed by a rise of 1° in the next
twelve months one may feel uncertain as to whether it is real or due to
some error in 1879.
In the nest five years there appears to be a gradual rise in tempera-
ture corresponding to a fall in resistance ; the total amount would cor-
respond to a change in resistance of about '0004 B.A. Unit. The
removal of the paraffin has seriously affected No. 41.
The next coil also of platinum silver, is one belongiiig to Professor
Carey Foster. He writes as follows : — ' It professed to be equal to
1 B.A. Unit at I4°-2 C.
I had it direct from Matthiessen, who, I believe, adjusted it specially for
me from his standards.' On comparing it with F in May 1887 we find
that it has a resistance of "99983 Mean B.A. Unit at 16°'2. It would
therefore be right at 16"8.
This, of course, shows a considerable change, corresponding apparently
to a fall in its resistance of about -00073 B.A. Unit. It will be noticed
1888. F
66
EEPOBT — 1888.
that this fall is just abont the same as that observed in tlie platinum
silver units of this Committee- — F, G, and H. We shall refer to it again
in connection witb the next series of observations.
But by far the most important series of coils are a set belonging to
Mr. H. A. Taylor. Witli regard to tbem he writes : — ' Most of my coils
belonged to Hockin long before I knew him, and at his death they were
given to me by his father.' ' The early history of these coils is lost, unless
it can be found in Matthiessen's note-books. I am informed, however,
that the one unit coil I sent you both last year and this, !^ No. 68, was
copied by Hockin from the B.A. coils you now have at Cambi-idge at the
time when he had regular access to them. Whether from a particular
standard or from the mean of several, I do not know ; bat he considered
it to be at 15°-5 C. less than B.A. Unit by -0003. I presume the Au Ag
coils, Nos. 19 and 34, were verified by Matthiessen and Hockin, as they
have the formal B.A. stamp. With regard to the tens, one, I think,
belonged to Hockin and the other was purchased by Messrs. H. C. Forde
and Fleeming Jenkin of the Committee in the n.sual manner.'
Table XI. gives Mr. H. A. Taylor's observations on his coils on the
assumption that Hockin's standard has not changed.
Table XI. — -Assuming a Coil (Hockin's Standard) tested hy Electrical
Standards Committee ( 'M, No. 08) to he, as stated hy HocJcin, smaller
ihanl B.A. Unit hy ^ ° / ^^ {three-hmdredihs per cent.) at 15°'5 C. The
Tahle slicivs the Resistance in terms of 1 B.A. Unit of other Standards
15°'5 C. at the dates given.
1 (C. F. T.) copy called right)
at 16°-1 Centigrade )
1 (No. 19) B.A. coil issued as)
right at 15°-5 C. \
1 (No. 34) B.A. coil issued as j
riglit at 15° 8 C. f
10 (C. F. T.) copy called right 1
atl5°-6C. I
10 (No. 3) B.A. coil issued as |
right at (?) /
10 (No. 4) B.A. coU issued as 1
right at 16°-0 C. ]
'u
o
<D O
&.§
Is
^6
December 1874.
Observations
at 15°-5 C.
January 187.'i.
Observations
at 17'^-3 C.
rtAg
2-6
•99994
•99997
AnAg
6-5
—
•09069
AuAg
6-9
1-00007
1-00014
PtAg
2-6
—
10-0001
PtAg
3-1
10-0008
10-0021
PtAg
3-1
10-0009
—
03
en
30 s
■"".SO
I' rt .
OJ --I
CO
•99986
■99980
1-00023
0-9992
10-0013
9-9995
•99084
•90970
1-00023
9-9991
10-0013
99999
«
£20
• go
2^T^
»-S7
o>S,
^rs
•99985
H"^
—
•909C3
—
1-00016
1-00020
9-9991
—
10-0012
10-0011
9-9997
9-9991
Where the temperature of observation differs from i5°-5 C. the reductions to that
temperature are made by the temperature coefficients given.
The evidence of a change is very small. The observations have lasted
over 14 years. For the first coil there would seem possibly to have been
a drop of abont '0001 between 1875 and 1879. The next coil may have
risen by as much and fallen again, while the third coil would seem to
have risen by -00015. The results for the ten ohm coils are much the
same. From the six coils, some of platinum silver, some of gold silver,
we conclude that there is certain evidence no change greater that 1 in
10,000 has occurred in the last fourteen years.
The next table enables us to compare these coils with the standards at
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS.
67
Cambridge. It will be noticed at once that relatively to the Cambridge
standards the coils have all fallen.
Table XTI.
Coils
Col. I.
Col. II.
01. III.
CI. IV.
Col. V.
Col. VI.
Nominal Value
as Issued
Glazebrook's
Determination
Temperature
Coefficient
(Hockin's)
Temperature
Coefficient
(Taylor's)
Present Resist-
ance of the Coils
at the Tempera-
tures given in
Col. I.
Per
From
From
Cent.
Cent.
Hun-
dredths
cent.
perl°
Cols. II.
and III.
Cols. II.
and IV.
No, 19
1-00000 at 15 5
•99959 at 16 5
G-5
6-97
-99894
-99889
No. Si
1-00000 at 15-8
l-OOOSa at 16-7
6-9
7-4
-99968
-909G3
f -99920 at 16-6
J (1888)
-99983 at 18-25
L (1887)
31
2-8
-99892
-99895
1 H ^ G8
-99970 at 15'5
3-1 1 2-8
■99900
-99908
Assumed
10 No. 3 = ^69
10-00000 at 15-5
10-00209 at 18-1
31
9-99403
Let us take fir.st Hockin's standard "^S* 68. Using Taylor's tempera
ture coefficient we find as its present valne — the mean of the two given
in the last column — at 1.5°-5, -99901. It has therefore fallen relatively
to the Mean B. A. Unit by '00069, practically the same fall as that found for
all the other platinum silver coils examined. The coil C.F.T. (the first
coil in Table XI.) will also clearly have fallen by the same amount.
Similarly with the ten unit platinum silver coil '^_ 69 ; it has fallen from
10 to 9-9940, or by '006, nearly the same percentage ; and since, accord-
ing to Table XL, the coils have not changed relatively to each other and
to the gold silver coils by more than one-sixth of this amount since 1874,
there is some probability that the change, if it has taken place at all,
occurred between 1867 and 1874. It will be remembered that we arrived
at a similar conclusion with regard to G. The difference between the
values of ^ 68, found by myself in 1887 and 1882 as recorded in the
two last lines of Table XII., arises from the fact that in 1887 the coil was
compared with F, and in 1888 with Flat and G. In making the calcu-
lation it was assumed that the values of F, Flat, and G in terms of the
Mean B.A. Unit had remained unchanged since Fleming's time. The
results of our comparisons given in Tables IV., Y., &c., would, as has been
said, point to a slight rise in F of possibly as much as -0001, and this
would reconcile the two values for 1 H or ^ 68. As regards the gold
silver coils Nos. 19 and 34, if we take the value as issued, the one has
fallen by -00111, the other by -00037. We must remember that the tem-
perature coefficients for these coils are much greater than for the platinum
silver coils.
If, however, we compare the values as issued with those found by
Taylor in 1875 — Table XL, column five — we find that while Xo. 19 was
68 REroKT 1888.
then -99969 at 15-5, showing a fall of -00031, No. 34 was 1-00014., show-
ing a rise of -00014. Since this date No. 19 has fallen therefore by -0008,
and No. 34 by -00051, and these numbers are within the limits of error
of the fall of "00065 found for the platinum silver coils. We would infer
then that while apparently there was a serious change in these coils rela-
tively to the platinum silver standards between the date of issue and 1875,
since that date there has been no change. On referring to Mr. Taylor's
letter on p. 66 it will be noticed that the history of these coils previous
to 1875 is uncertain ; all that is known is that they have the foi'mal B.A.
stamp, and it is stated in the Fourth Report of the Committee, 1866, that
all the coils issued are correct to "0001 at the temperatures stated.
There is still another coil of some interest. This is now marked ^^ 54.
It was made in accordance with the suggestion of Chrystal in 1876, with
a thermoelectric junction attached. Fleming compared it with his
standards in 1879 and 1880. In 1884 it Avas again compared by us and
found to have the value "99658 B. A.U. at 8"3, with a temperature coefficient
of -000295. It was then sent to Professor Kohlrausch at "Wiirzburg for
comparison with some mercury units constructed by Strecker, and was
returned by him at the end of his experiments.
In 1888 it was again compared and found to be "99653 B.A.U. at 8"3,
■with a coefficient of -000290. It will be seen that the change is "00005,
which is within the temperature errors.
Thus we conclude, from this general account of the condition of the
coils at present, that with the exception of the platinum iridium coils A
and B there is no evidence of ar!y change of as much as "0001 B.A.U. since
the years 1874 or 1876, but that all the platinum silver coils and the two
gold silver coils belonging to Mr. Taylor changed apparently by about
"0007 B.A.U. between the time of their construction and the time at -which
they were examined by Chrystal and by Taylor respectively. This change
may of course be a real one ; we incline, however, to suppose that it is
apparent only, and offer the following explanation, already several times
referred to.
Hockin says in a note to his Table of Temperatures, ' British Associa-
tion Report,' 1867, which gives the temperatures for the standard coils of
the Association : ' The values given in the above table are deduced from
the german-silver coil called B ^ used in your Committee's experiments
in 1864.'
He does not seem to have compared among themselves the standards
of various materials, but to have referred each to B. Now we are ignorant
of the temperature at which the comparison was made, but we know he
used the coefficient "00032. This at present is too high by "00004. If
we suppose that Hockin made his determinations with the coils in ice,
then this error in the temperature coefficient would lead him to a valuB
for the coil at 15°, which would be too high by -0006.
Having once got a platinum silver coil supposed to be known, it would
be natural to use it as a standard rather than any of the others, because
of its low temperature coefficient, and the error made in the original
determination of G would thus be pei-petuated. This conclusion is borne
out by the observations on Messrs. Elliott's coil No. 41, Table X. Its
standard temperature fell apparently by 2° between the time of its issue
by Matthiessen in 1864 and Hockin's comparison in 1879, and then rose
' This is not the same as our B.
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 69
again between 1879 and 1882. This would be accounted for if we sup-
pose that Hockin's platinum silver standard was too low.
P.S. — November 1888. — Since the experiments detailed above were
completed a considerable change has taken place in F. It is now almost
exactly equal to Flat, that is, it has risen in value by '00048 B.A. Unit.
Further investigations as to the cause of this must be left till the next
report.
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors Tilden
and W. Chandler Roberts-Austen and Mr. T. Turner {Secre-
tary), appointed for the purpose of investigating the In-
fiaence of Silicon on the pjroperties of Steel. {Draivn up by
Mr. T. Turner.)
In the previous Report of this Committee, presented at the Manchester
meeting, an account was given of a series of experiments undertaken in
order to determine the eiFect produced by silicon on the properties of the
purest variety of iron met with commercially. For this purpose metal was
taken from the basic Bessemer vessel at the end of the blow, before any
carbon or manganese was introduced, and to this fluid metal weighed
quantities of silicon pig, containing about 10 per cent, of silicon, were
added. It was then shown that silicon rendered the metal quiet in the
mould, and that in the proportions employed the metal was tough when
cold, and welded well. The elastic limit and tensile strength were both
increased by the presence of silicon, while the elongation and contraction
of area were diminished ; the appearance of the fracture also changed
from silky to crystalline, and with over 013 per cent, of silicon in all
cases the metal was so red-short that the ingots crumbled to pieces under
the rolls.
The present Report has to do with a series of experiments very similar
to those described last year, the chief difference being that ordinary basic
ingot metal was used instead of the specially pure iron previously
employed. In these experiments, therefore, the metal has been taken
in the condition in which it would be sent into commerce, definite
quantities of silicon have been added, and the product examined both
chemically and mechanically. The method of procedure was as follows :
In a covered fireclay crucible a weighed quantity of the silicious iron was
melted, and into the red-hot crucible was run about 40 lbs. of molten
metal, which was taken from the ladle about the middle of a cast. After
allowing the contents of the crucible to stand for about a minute, the
metal, which was still thoroughly fluid, was poured in to another red-hot clay
crucible, in which the mixture was allowed to solidify. By this means a
very thorough incorporation of the materials was obtained. The experi-
ments were conducted, as before, at the works of the South StaSbrdshire
Steel and Ingot Iron Co., Bilston. Mr. F. W. Harbord kindly super-
intended the works tests of the material •, the mechanical tests were con-
ducted by Professor A. B. W. Kennedy, and in each case duplicate experi-
ments were made ; the chemical analyses have been performed by Mr.
J. P. Walton.
70
EEPOBT 1888.
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ON THE INFLUENCE OF SILICON ON THE PKOPERTIES OF STEEL. 71
A general summary of the results is given in Table A., wLicli contains
both the chemical analysis, the works tests, and the mean of the mechanical
tests of the specimens prepared as before described.
Specimen No. 1 was prepared from the metal taken from the ladle, it
being poured into a red-hot crucible, and afterwards treated in exactly
the same way as in the ten succeeding experiments. In this case, how-
ever, no silicious iron was added, and the values given are intended
merely for comparison with those which follow. The analysis of this
specimen was not made fi-om any of the samples actually tested, but is
what may be considered an average composition of such metal. The
mechanical values are the mean of four experiments with metal from two
separate charges.
The silicon pig used had the following composition : — Carbon, 1-96 j
silicon, lO'SO ; sulphur, 0U2 ; manganese, 1"90 ; phosphorus, 017.
On examining the results in detail, the following observations will
be made : —
1. Chemical Composition. — The silicon gradually increases from
specimen No. 2, through the series to No. 11. The other constituents,
though tolerably uniform, still show sufficient variation to influence the
properties of the product, and allowance nmst be made for these
differences in composition in drawing any conclusion as to the influence
exerted by silicon.
2. Works Tests. — It will be noticed that all the specimens examined
rolled well, and that, with one slight exception, all behaved satisfactorily
Tinder the hot test. This is in very marked contrast to what was observed
in the previous experiments, when silicod produced distinct red-shortness ;
the difference in the present case is doubtless due to the presence of man-
ganese in the ingot metal. The cold or bending test was also satisfactory
in all cases, with the single exception of No. 11, which contained 0504
per cent, of silicon and 0121 per cent, of phosnhorns. In this sample it
is not certain that the metal would have behaved in the same way if the
phosphorus had been as low as in the other cases. In the welding tests
the metal behaved well in every instance, showing that the presence of
silicon has no perceptible influence on the welding property. In the cold
and welding tests the i-esults are the same as was noticed in the previous
series of experiments.
Mechanical Tests. — In the original metal both the limit of elasticity
and the breaking load, which are given in tons per square inch, ai'e rather
higher than usual in this class of metal, while the extension and reduction
of area ai'e rather lower than is common. These diS'erences are, however,
not great, and may be accounted for by the comparatively small scale on
which the experiments were performed.
Limit of Elasticity. — This varies in the first six specimens (Nos. 2 to
7) over a maximum I'ange of l'G5 tons, and these small variations are of
such a kind as may be explained by differences of composition other than
those of silicon. In the specimens with more silicon, however, there is a
distinct increase in the elastic limit due to silicon.
Brealdnrj Load. — This varies in a manner which closely resembles
that observed with the limit of elasticity. In the first six specimens the
variations are irregular, the maximum range being 41 tons, and this
variation can be accounted for apart from any influence due to the silicon
present. With more silicon, however, there is a distinct increase of the
breaking load, and this is doubtless due to silicon.
72 EEPORT— 1888.
Exfevsion. — The specimens 2 to 7 have an extension which, thouo'hi
sh'ghtly lower than usual, still accords with what would be inferred from
the elastic limit and breaking load. If silicon has exerted any influence
in these specimens, it is not well marked, though the low extension may
be partly due to this cause. With more silicon the extension is distinctly
reduced.
Eedudion of Area. — This follows mucb in the same order as the exten-
sion, and is distinctly lowered with the higher proportions of silicon.
These results may be summarised as follows : —
On adding silicon in proportions not exceeding 0"5 per cent, to ingot
iron containing manganese, the metal rolls well, and does not show any
signs of red-shortness ; it welds perfectly with all proportions of silicon,
and (with the somewhat doubtful exception containing 0-5 per cent.) is
not brittle when cold. With less than about 0-15 per cent, of silicon the
limit of elasticity, the breaking load, the extension, and reduction of area,
are but little, if at all, appreciably affected by the presence of silicon, but
with more than O'lS per cent, of silicon the limit of elasticity and break-
ing load are increased, while the extension and reduction of area are
distinctly decreased by the presence of silicon. The effect exerted by
silicon in increasing the tenacity of ingot iron is not nearly so great as
that of carbon. The relative hardness is very slightly affected by the
proportions of silicon used in these experiments.
It is to be regretted that, largely on account of the outlay it would
have involved, these experiments have been conducted on a comparatively
small scale, the ingots used weighing only about 40 lbs. On this account it
has not been tbund practicable to perform tests connected with resistance
to shock, a point to which the attention of the Committee has been several
times directed, and which is, from a practical point of view, of consider-
able interest.'
Third Rejjort of the Committee, consisting of General J. T.
Walker, Sir William Thomson, Sir J. H. Lefroy, General
E. Strachey, Professors A. S. Hersceel, G. Chrystal,
C. NivEN, J. H. PoYNTiNG {Secretary), and A. Schuster^
aoid jNIr. C. V. Boys, appointed for the ptcrpose of inviting
designs for a good Difereniinl Gravity Meter in supersession
of the pjendulum, whereby satisfactory restdts may he obtained
at each station of observation in a feiu hours instead of the
many days over tvhich it is necessary to extend penduluv%
observations.
Mk. Boys has not yet been able to construct the instrument referred
to in the last report. Meanwhile no new design has been received.
The Committee ask for reappointment and a renewal of the grant of
lOZ. made last year.
' A more complete account of the above experiments is in type, and will be
published in the Journal of the Chemical Society.
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 73
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor H. E. Arm-
strong, Mr. J. T. Dunn, Professor W. R. Dunstan {Secretary),
Dr. J. H. Gladstone, Mr. A. Gr. Vernon Harcourt, Mr. Francis
Jones, Professor H. M'Leod, Professor Meldola, Mr. Pattison
MuiR, Dr. W. J. Eussell, Mr. W. A. Shenstone, Professor
Smithells, and Mr. Stallard, appointed for the pitrpose of
inquiring into and reporting on the present methods of teach-
ing Chemistry. {Draivn up by Professor Dunstan.)
The Committee decided at first to restrict their inquiries to the teaching of
cliemistry in schools. With this object, in December last they addressed
the following letter to the Head Masters of Schools and the Principals of
Training Colleges, both in Great Britain and Ireland, in which chemistry
forms a part of the curriculum. The list of these schools was compiled
from the ' Educational Tear-Book.'
Committee on Chemical Teaching.
Dear Sir, — At the meeting of the British Association held at Man-
chester in September last, Professor H. E. Armstrong, F R.S., Mr. J. T.
Dunn, Professor W. R. Dunstan, Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S., Mr. A. G.
Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S., Mr. Francis Jones, Professor M'Leod, F.R.S.,
Professor Meldola, F.R.S., Mr. Pattison Muir, Dr. W. J. Russell, F.R.S.,
Professor Smithells, Mr. W. A. Shenstone, and Mr. Stallard were appointed
as a Committee for the purpose of inquiring into, and reporting on, the
pi'esent methods of teaching chemistry.
It is felt that great difficulty exists at the present time in teaching
chemistry to elementary students, owing chiefly to the absence of agree-
ment among teachers as to the best modes of giving instruction and to
the diverse views of examiners. It is hoped that aii inquiry by this
Committee will be valuable not only to teachers of elementary chemistry,
but also to those who have the responsibility of examining in this subject.
The members of the Committee venture, therefore, to hope that you will
assist them by furnishing, at as early a date as possible, such a report on
the chemical teaching in your school as you consider will be most likely
to aid their inquiry, more particularly with regard to the following
points : —
1. The objects with which chemistry should be taught in schools.
2. The difficulties that are met with in teaching, and the best way of
obviating them ; the influence exerted by external examiners on.
the character of the teaching.
3. The methods which, in your opinion, are most likely to render
the teaching effective as a mental discipline, and as a preparation,
for subsequent instruction in the higher branches of the science
or in applied chemistry.
The Committee will also be greatly obliged for information on any
other points directly connected with the teaching of elementary chemis-
try ; any data with which you rvdy favour them will be regarded as con-
74 EEPOKT— 1888.
fidential, and nothing of a personal nature will be published without your
previous consent.
In making any commnnication to the Committee, it will be convenient
if you will kindly affix to the manuscript the paper which is enclosed.
I am, Sir,
Your obedient Servant,
Wyndham R. Dunstan,
Honorary Secretary to tlie Committee.
Five hundi-ed copies of this letter were circulated, but only eighty-six
more or less extended replies have been received ; they include the majority
of the largest public schools in Great Britain. These replies have been
the subject of careful consideration by the Committee.
The schools which have reported represent a total number of 23,350
pupils, and of these 8,418 receive instruction in chemistry; that is, 36 per
cent. It will be useful to summarise in this Report, by means of extracts
from typical replies, the chief points of general interest which have been
alluded to, particularly those that were raised by the three questions sug-
gested by the Committee in their letter.
' 1. Ihe olj'ccts tvith ivliich chemistry should he taught in schools.'
There is almost unanimous agreement as to the high educational
value of the science of chemistry. Teachers seem agreed that chemis-
try should be taught in schools with two objects : first, and mainly, on
account of the mental training and intellectual discipline it affords ; and
secondly, for the sake of its applications in the different professions and
trades which the boys may subsequently follow and also in its direct
bearing on the facts of everyday life. This view of the importance of
chemistry as a part of the school curriculum is well exemplified by the
following extracts taken from the reports made by various schools, both
large and small, and representing boys who afterwards follow a diversity
of trades and professions.
I. ' Chemistry should be taught in schools — (1) As an educational
subject or mental discipline. In studying chemistry the pupils are led
to cultivate habits of observation, because the statements made in chemistry
are based on facts actually seen ; of reflection, because the accurate state-
ment of even the simplest observed fact requires not a little reflection ;
and of reasoning, because reasoning is required before one can decide that
any one particular result in an experiment is due to some one particular
antecedent circumstance out of several. Chemistry also is especially the
science in which experiment can be most readily had recourse to by the
pupil. (2) As a valuable branch of instruction. Supposing that the
mental powers were not developed and strengthened by the study of
chemistry, it might still be desirable that pupils should not leave our
public schools wholly ignorant of the composition, properties, and uses of
the materials of everyday life.'
II. ' Science and history alone of the subjects taught in schools per-
form a twofold function. They give connection of ideas, logical power,
and education in the fullest sense, while at the same time they store the
mind with useful facts likely to make the possessor a more valuable
member of the body politic. Hence chemistry may be taught to all boys
just in the same way as ancient languages and higher mathematics, with-
out any thought of the future career of the pupil, or whether chemical
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 75
knowledge is likely to be of practical use to liim or not. In this way tlie
practical demonstration of cliemical facts becomes a great object-lesson,
while chemical theory becomes an introduction to logic. Chemistry may
be taught for other reasons : — (i) To enable boys who show no special
aptitude for any other subject to obtain a scholarship and university
education, (ii) As a special subject, likely to be useful for those who,
having passed the preliminary arts' examination, intend to adopt a
medical career.'
III. ' The objects with which chemistry should be taught in schools : —
1st. To make lads take a keener interest in natural phenomena. A few
well-chosen experiments will excite their wonder, and at the same time
create an interest in the secrets of nature. 2nd. To teach lads to see,
i.e., to develope their powers of observation. 3rd. To impress upon lads
that there is a definite law of order in Nature. Lads soon see that from
the same bodies under similar conditions certain fixed results must
follow. 4th. To make boys logical and not too hasty in generalisation
from a few isolated observations. Chemistry is peculiai'ly well fitted for
this purpose. 5th. To direct the powers of destructiveness and con-
structiveness which are always so pronounced in boys, since they soon
learn to be interested in simplifying many complex forms and in building
up others. 6th. To impress upon lads, as soon as possible, that everyday
life must necessarily be influenced beneficially by a knowledge of the
chemical properties of a very few simple bodies and the laws which
determine their mutual interaction.'
IV. ' There are, I think, two considerations to be kept in view : — fa) the
general educational value of the work which gives chemistry a claim to
be considered a necessary part of any hberal education, whatever be the
profession in view ; (y8) the necessity of teaching chemistry on such lines
that the instruction given may be a sound and valuable apprenticeship
for such boys as may be led to devote themselves specially to this subject
in the future.'
The following sentences (V.) were written by the head-master of one
of the first public schools in England.
V. ' I think that the objects with which chemistry should be taught in
schools are three : — (a) To make every boy acquainted with common
scientific facts, useful to him in every branch of life. (^) To give oppor-
tunity to boys with special aptitude for science to take up and develope the
study ; many a boy who seems dull at languages brightens over science,
(y) To enlarge the mind by the suggestion of new methods and processes
and by the illustration of the mode in which Nature works.'
VI. ' I have found that the teaching of chemistry, besides its direct
value for professional and business purposes, is of great importance as a
means of developing the minds of boys who have no aptitude for other
subjects. I have found that many boys who cannot get on at classics and
mathematics take an interest in and learn chemistry, thus being greatly
encouraged in their other work by the knowledge that there is something
that they can do.'
VII. ' Chemistry should be taught chiefly for mental discipline.
Practical chemistry is almost the only school subject in which hands and
brains are equally employed.'
VIII. ' In schools chemistry, like other subjects, is, no doubt, taught
with a double view — mental training and the imparting of valuable know-
76 EEPOET— 1888.
ledge. As to the former of tbese, the subject is not, in the opinion of the
present writer, of great value, for the methods of demonstration as they
can be exhibited in a school laboratory are not very rigorous and logical,
and at the best seem rather to afford a strong presumption than a satis-
factory assurance in favour of any particular conclusion. As to the latter
object, it may be said that it is not one about which educationists generally
are very enthusiastic. At the same time, if there is any subject more than
another the knowledge of which is desirable it is chemistry. The entire
change of mental attitude towards physical surroundings, which even a
slight knowledge of the principles of chemistry induces, is most noticeable,
and boys find it both a source of healthy wonder and, though they do not
observe it themselves, a great mental stimulus. There is, of course, one
other object with which chemistry maybe taught, namely, for the sake of
those who will find it directly useful in after-life. But as they are, after
all, only a small percentage of the whole, the argument of practical utility
is one which cannot be advanced as in itself a justification for teaching
the subject.'
IX. ' Chemistry should be taught in schools while boys are com-
paratively young, in order that those who have no taste for classics may-
find some work in which they can take a practical interest. There are
boys who, without being stupid, have no taste whatever for books, and
the chance of practical work, like chemistry, for which they can see some
use of an obvious kind, may prevent many a boy from becoming a con-
firmed idler. The study of chemistry, therefore, should be encouraged as
a distinct benefit to the character of many bo^^s. It should also be
encouraged for the public good, because any boy so interested in early
life may be led to devote his after-years to the pursuit of scientific
subjects. And again, it should be taught in schools to enable boys who
go into business now very young to have some slight knowledge of
scientific facts of an elementary kind while they still have time to learn.*
X. 'AH my experience shows that even to young children chemistry
may be made the threshold of the fairyland of science, and that by means
of it they may early acquire a profound sense of the rigorous, unyielding
nature of law and of the unity in the midst of diversity which pervades
the world around us. Again, as a mere discipline for the intellect, I
believe chemistry is destined to take the place of Latin and Greek
grammar, when a definite course of teaching has been laid down, and
teachers have themselves mastered that course as thoroughly as former
teachers had mastered their accidence and syntax. To make the pupil
aware of the existence of an unknown, unexplained, inscrutable side to
every, and even the simplest phenomenon, is to awaken desire, expectation,
pleasure — all the antecedents of healthy mental effort, and the difference
between the daily, hourly life of one who has thus become conscious of the
literally infinite, ineffable nature of things around him, and that of one
who thinks he knows all about them, is immense.'
XI. ' Too much weight may easily be attached to the objection often
urged against chemical teaching (and, indeed, against the study of other
branches of natural science), that it fails to cultivate good taste and good
style ; that the learner is brought into contact merely with material facts
and not with human thoughts, and so acquires a character and mode of
expressing himself as hard, rough, and unsympathising as the laws of
Nature with which he deals. It is certainly impossible to avoid noticing
that the abstracts of lectures and answers to examination papers shown
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 77
np by those who have been, or are being, well trained in " the humani-
ties " are composed in much better style than the productions of boys who
have had less advantages of the kind, or who, from their dulness in other
subjects, are considered to be exactly fitted for learning natural science.
But the power of refuting this objection rests with the teacher. If he
refuses to pass over bad spelling and bad grammar, if he takes the trouble
not merely to point out slovenliness of expression, but to show how it
may be corrected, and if the learner is compelled to rewrite any careless,
inaccurate work in better form, there seems no reason why an account of
the two oxides of carbon, including an intelligent comparison of their pro-
perties, may not be made as good an exercise in English composition as
an essay on points of Greek and Roman history.'
2. ' The difficulties that are met with in teaching, and the hest way of obviating
them ; the influence exerted by external examiners on the character of the
teaching.^
Much might be written about the various difficulties which are
alluded to in these reports in answer to the second question suggested by
the letter of the Committee. The chief difficulties are stated to be those
which arise from : — (i) Defective organisation and considerations of
expense ; (ii) the lower value attached to chemistry, as compared with
other subjects of the school curriculum ; (iii) the time which is devoted
to the subject ; (iv) preparation for various examinations ; (v) absence
of good text-books ; (vi) dearth of properly qualified teachers.
(i) The expenses incidental to chemical teaching and the defective
organisation, which is often the result of insufficient endowment, are the
subjects of general complaint. Sometimes no laboratory is provided ; fre-
quently the laboratory accommodation is inadequate ; and it appears that
the details of the preparations for lectures and practical work genei'ally
devolve on the teacher himself. The following statements may be quoted.
The first two are from the reports of small schools.
XII. ' We have no laboratory or other facilities for practical work,
and so our experiments have to be very simple and oar work very
elementary.'
XIII. ' The chemical teaching is quite elementary, and there is no
apparatus, so that it is only taken as a lesson with figures drawn and
explained on the black-board.'
XIV. ' Thus our difficulties are : — (a) Having too many to teach. I am
responsible for about 160 boys, and have no help. (&) The want of a
large laboratory. We have a small but very good laboratory. There is,
however, only accommodation for 12 boys, while I always have about
70 doing practical chemistry in an aggregate of 6 hours a week. Hence
each boy gets only one hour a week, (c) The want of sufficient time to
prepare for experimental work. The whole of my school time, except
three hours, is taken up in teaching, so that all preparation has to be
done either before or afterwards, the practical result being that I am
obliged to limit my experimental teaching to the two lowest and the
highest forms.'
XV. ' The chief obstacle to the effective teaching of chemistry here
is the poorness of the laboratory — a room in the basement, low pitched,
ill lighted, and worse ventilated, accommodating only 15 boys, and in
such connection with the other class-rooms as to make some of them
78 REPORT — 1888.
almost unbearable -when experiments are made -witb any foul-smelling
gas.' [This school contains 500 boys.]
XVI. ' To lecture properly, a master must have an assistant for the ex-
periments. I do not know what is the rule ; I hope I am an exception, for I
am without one. I make use of one of the promisinj^ boys to help in the
preparation preceding a lecture. This is not sufficient. A master cannot
easily conduct his experiments, keep order, and carry on a judicious
questioning and explanation at the same time.'
XVII. ' Every teacher of chemistry who has several lectures to
deliver in the course of the week ought to have the services of a fairly
intelligent assistant, who can get ready most of the experiments for him,
or he ought to have extra time allowed him to do this himself. Of
course it is possible to utilise the services of the more advanced pupils
for the purpose, but this does not effect so much saving of time as might
be thought, owing to the want of experience on the part of the boys,
Avho in many cases require so much supervision that it is shorter for the
teacher to do the work himself.'
XVIII. ' We have just abandoned the subject owing to its ruinous
expense if taught thoroughly.'
XIX. ' We have no laboratory and have to do the best we can with a
table in a class-room. Experiments are shown, but not performed by the
boys for this reason.'
XX. ' Schools are often badly equipped with a suitable lecture-
room, laboratory, and apparatus, partly from poverty and partly some-
times from inability on the part of the head- master or governing body to
appreciate the needs of the subject.'
XXI. ' Another difficulty is that in many cases the teacher has not
time to prepare adequate experimental illustration. Until recently the
chemical teaching in this school was done by the second master, who had
tfie whole of the school hours not engaged in teaching science occupied
in his own form in general subjects. A public day-school does not usually
(like a science college) possess paid demonstrators and assistants, hence,
unless the teacher has a considerable amount of time not actually occupied
in teaching, it is impossible for him to make and set up apparatus for
experiments in a proper manner, and experiments that constantly fail are
worse than none.'
(ii) The following statements deal with the difficulties that ensue from
the relatively low place which is generally afforded to chemistry in the
school curriculum, and the low value which is assigned to it in public exami-
nations as compared with the value attached to other subjects. This, it is
said, often leads to the restriction of chemical teaching to inferior boys,
some of whom may have failed in classics and other subjects. The best
boys may leave the school having received little or no instruction in
chemistry.
XXII. ' One difficulty arises from the low standard of public opinion
as regards science. This is chiefly due to the extraordinary and utterly
unaccountable view (confined, I think, to England and America) which
classical men have always had of scientific studies. In this school, owing
to the exceptional liberal-mindedness of the powers that be, this evil is
unknown, but in other schools where I have taught the jealousy between
thosa who represented different kinds of study was enormous, and clever
boys were therefore more attracted to literature than to science.'
XXIII. ' As regards the difficulties in teaching chemistry, I think per-
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 79
haps the first is non-classification. The boys are sent to chemistry lec-
tures grouped according to classics ; the result is confusion. Take the
fifth form, for example. It is sent into the laboratory for an hour's lecture.
In that form you have some of your promising boys, also some of the
weak ones, very good classics possibly, whom to teach chemistry is, you
know, hopeless. But the work must be done, so you take a medium
course, pitching your discourse to suit the average boy ; you must be very
careful to aim low or you will certainly hit nothing. In doing this your
lecture is below the promising boys, who feel a growing contempt for
you or your subject, and at the same time the lowest boys are wearied by
matter which they cannot grasp.'
XXIV. ' Two difficulties are : — (i) Want of sympathy with natural
knowledge on the part of the majority of university men who take to
school work ; (ii) strong adverse ti'aditions in many schools backed up
by the fashionable superstition that literaiy rather than scientific studies
constitute the education of a gentleman.'
XXV. ' The difficulty is that parents do not yet recognise chemistry
as a " paying " subject, consequently their boys neglect it.'
XXVI. ' A serious difficulty is caused by the fact that boys may join
a class in any term. This may not be a great evil in the case of languages
or mathematics, but where from the very nature of the subject it is neces-
sary, in order to understand and benefit by a lesson, that the preceding
lesson should be first mastered, the case is altogether different, and it is
not clear how this and the kindred difficulty of grouping in one set boys
of very unequal powers and attainments can be obviated, seeing that
schools are classified on other lines, generally according to proficiency in
classics.'
XXVIT. ' I believe that one of the great stumbling-blocks in the way
of chemical teaching in day-schools is, that boys are often sent to the
science master in classes determined by their position in classics or Eng-
lish subjects, so that there is no proper gradation in the teaching. This
obtained here until recently, but now, by simultaneous teaching by three
masters on two afternoons a week, it is possible to group the boys in the
senior school according to their proficiency in science (mainly chemistry)
alone. The result has been a considerable improvement in the quality of
the woi'k.'
XXVIII. ' The scholastic disrepute in which chemistry is held is
apt to lead a head-master to devote to it the least mentally qualified boys,
who have absolutely failed on the classical side.'
(iii) It appears that the time which is usually allotted to chemistry in
schools is altogether inadequate, and frequently this defect seems to con-
stitute one of the teacher's greatest difficulties.
XXIX. ' I suppose few grammar schools give more time to chemistry
than four hours a week, and so long as competitive examinations assess
chemistry at one-quarter the value of mathematics, and one-eighth that of
classics, more time cannot be expected. When it comes to be recognised
that the mind which is scientifically trained is most likely to produce work
valuable to the community, and at the same time is best suited to grapple
with the practical problems of everyday life, all this will be changed.'
XXX. ' This school contains 500 boys. The average number of those
who receive instruction in chemistry is 30 and the time allotted to the
subject is three hours a week.'
80 EEPORT— 1888.
XXXI. ' The difficulty is f o make all pupils take a real interest in tke
work. In tke short time which is allowed to the subject it is apt to be-
come a mere collection of facts in the boy's mind. It is a curious fact
that a double labour is expected from the teacher of science, namely, a
general development and quickening of the reasoning faculties, and the
teaching of examination-chemistry at the same time ; and all this has to
be done in two hours a week ! Parents at any rate tacitly pay a veiy
high compliment to the resources of science when they expect this. As
a matter of fact, the unfortunate science master very naturally leaves the
great work of development to the master who monopolises the remaining
26 hours of the week's work.'
XXXII. ' The time allowed to the 65 boys who learn the subject is
one period a week of 45 minutes.'
XXXIII. 'AH the pupils who are taught chemistry — 491 — devote two
hours per week to the subject, and 110 of these have in addition a weekly
lesson in laboratory practice, lasting one hour and a half.'
(iv) A consideration of these replies has fully established the im-
portant fact that the chemical instruction which is given in schools is
very largely influenced and guided by the rsquirements of the various
Examining Boards, such as those of Oxford and Cambridge and of the
Science and Art Department. Abundant testimony has been received ou
this point, and it is fi'equently declared to be a great, though apparently
an inevitable, evil. The quotations cited below are selected as represent-
ing schools of very different grades.
XXXIV. 'The influence exerted by external examiners on the cha-
racter of the teaching. This has always been to me the most subversive of
good teaching and most damaging to the character of the work. I have
had a large experience in the working of the various public examinations,
and I unhesitatingly say that they cripple the work of teachers, afl'ord no
safe index as to the quality of the work, and lead to a system of book-
work cram which militates against anything like menial discipline and
against subsequent instruction in the higher branches of the subject.'
XXXV. ' But all difficulties are nothing compared with those that
arise from the personal peculiarities of examiners. Unless with special
pupils who, having spent most of their time on chemistry, have been able
to acquire some knowledge of all its branches, a teacher is never sure that
he will be able to prove to an examiner that he has taught any chemistry
at all.'
XXXVI. ' It will be seen that the examinations for which our pupils are
prepared are those of the Cambridge Local, the College of Preceptors, and
the Science and Art Department, and the preparation for each is so varied
that it has a very bad influence.'
XXXVII. ' The influence of external examiners, in my opinion, is too
often to encourage mere cramming to meet out-of-the-way questions.'
XXXVIII. ' A class was formed from the pick of the school in con-
nection with the Science and Art Department. My salary to a certain
extent depended on the results of the May examinations. Since the
number in the class had to be limited, I naturally chose only those boys
who I thought would have the best chances of getting through. For a
great part of the year chemistry would be treated as a by-subject, it was
only for a month or so that it had its due share in the curriculum of the
school, and I must conscientiously admit that during the short period
before the examination I simply crammed the minds of my pupils with
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 81
equations, properties, graphic formulag to sucli a degi-ee as to ensure
passing, wliich they all did. I was not surprised to find that in a short
time all had been forgotten. This system is adopted at many places.'
XXXIX. ' The teaching of chemistry here is entirely regulated by the
Science and Art Department, for the simple reason that it would not
exist as a class subject without the pecuniary aid rendered by the
Department. 1 believe some really good work is being done ; but the
teacher is very much of a machine, and, however conscientious he may
be, he must primarily, under the circumstances, teach for examination, and
at times neglect what would be useful to his pupils because it would not
be useful for examination.'
XL. ' In this school chemistry is optional, and the primary object
of its existence is the advantage of those boys who are going in foi-
examinations in which it will prove useful. '
XLI. ' There is great variation in the standards and methods of
various examinations. Three things are specially to be complained of : —
(a) the bookish nature of some examination papers ; (b) estimation of
the value of answers by comparison with text- books by inferior men, not
always the authors of the papers or themselves real chemists ; (c) want,
of judgment in setting papers arising often from ignorance at first hand
of the conditions of school woi'k.'
XLII. 'With respect to examinations, I do object to men examin-
ing boys under sixteen who have never taught them, and who, therefore,
do not understand that the work of such students must differ not only in
quantity but also in quality from that of older pupils.'
XLlII. ' I believe that 90 per cent, of those who are now taught
chemistry in this country are taught with the view of passing one or
other of the examinations held on the subject. Further, I believe that
most of the difi&culties of teaching chemistry are difiiculties of teaching-
it so as to comply with the requirements of examinations. Some one
has said that in the regulations of the Science and Art Department so
much is required to be known that there is no time for anything to be
done, which is an exaggeration of what I mean. With ordinary teachers
one thing is necessary — their pupils must pass. When that is secured
they may indulge in such novelties of method and procedure as they
like, but not until then. It would avail me nothing to say that my
instructions were faulty, that I knew and followed a more excellent way. '
XLIV. ' As to the influence of examiners. In my own teaching it
has been for the last few years )iH. I have given up trying to fit the
chemical instruction to the doubtful requirements of examination ; to do
so would take the vitality out of one's teaching and contract it.'
XLV. 'With regard to the influence of external examiners on
the teaching, there is no doubt that this is very great, and that the
character of the teaching in our schools must depend in these high-
pressure examination-days on the requirements of the examiners.'
^ XLVI. ' We have subjected our boys to two examining bodies — the
Science and Art Department and the University Board. In successive
years the boys from the same teaching universally succeeded under the-
former and almost universally failed under the latter.'
XLVII. ' The examinations have been chiefly those held in connection
with the Science and Art Department, South Kensington. These
examinations have been for some years back highly satisfactory, and no-
undue prominence has been given to any one branch of chemical science
1888. G
82 REPORT— 1888.
They certainly do exert an influence on the character of the teaching,
bui it is a restraining and beneficial influence.'
XLVIII. ' The influence exerted by external examiners on the teach-
ing is decidedly beneficial lolien the examiners are experienced men.'
XLTX. ' The influence exerted by external examiners on the
character of the teaching is practically 'tiil. They send their questions
and substances, examine the results, and write their reports, and, with
rare exceptions, never make a suggestion as to how the teaching may be
improved or better results obtained.'
(v) The absence of good text-books suitable for use in schools is
frequently stated to be a source of diflioulty.
L. ' One of the chief difiiculties in class teaching is the want of a
suitable text-book, more especially when preparation is an important
factor. A text-book should without any great amplification on the part
of the teacher make itself intelligible to the boy on reading it for the
first time, and it should not be overladen with facts.'
LI. ' We want a good school text-book. Existing books entirely lack
connection in their various parts, and are generally made up of a series
of more or less isolated facts grouped loosely under various heads. They
are also too difi"use and wordy, and, therefore, very unsuited to a boy
with but a limited time to prepare his lessons.'
LII. ' An additional difiiculty is found in the absence of a satis-
factory text-book, notwithstanding the multitude already extant, and
this difficulty is not diminished by the consideration that, as a rule, the
science master is required to devote a great portion of his time to teach-
ing other subjects. According to my idea, the kind of book required is
one that recognises the close connection between the lecture work and
the jjractical work of the pupil ; in fact, a book something after the plan
of Huxley and Martin's "Biology." '
LIII. ' The greatest difliculty we meet in teaching chemistry is the
want of a suitable text-book on which all our lecturers can base their
teaching. Boys sometimes get diS'ereut definitions of the same term,
and a master does not know exactly how much boys have learnt in
another class.'
LIV. ' Text-books ai'e another difliculty. I have never found one
yet that I liked to put into the hands of boys, for I have generally found
that they are too elaborate and complete, using, sometimes, language which
the- ordinary schoolboy does not understand, and describing here and
there experiments which he certainly cannot grasp. 1 have not found a
book which I could put between the " Chemistry Primer" (which with
the " Physics Primer " is always my preliminary course) and such a
volume as Thorpe's or Roscoe's ; these contain a great deal of matter too
difiicnlt and minutely exact for class work.'
LV. ' Further, there is the eternal text-book difficulty. A book at
once clear, brief, and accurate is a desideratum.'
(vi) Some head-masters complain that they are unable to obtain
properly qualified teachers of chemistry.
LVI. ' Difficulties arise from the circumstance that there stands before
the class a chemist who is not a teacher, or a teacher who is not a chemist.'
LVII. ' The scholastic disrepute in which the subject is held is apt to
affect the teacher. It is much easier to obtain a well-qualified teacher of
classics than an equally well-qualified one of natural science.'
LVIII. ' Our two great difiiculties here are : — (1) To get men, for
ON TEACHIiNG CHEMISTRY. 83
tanything we can oSei', who are at once chemists and teachers. Mere
chemists ai'e of no nse from a pedagogic point of view, and even they
would be hard to get. I am convinced that a teacher who had a strong
grasp of the principles of the science could, and would, make it an emi-
nently valuable means of mental training. (2) The entire non-recognition
of chemistry by the two universities in the eai'lier stages of their arts
courses.'
3. ' The methods which, in your opinion, are most likely to render the teaching
effective as a mental discipline, and as a preparation for siibsequent
instruction in the higher branches of the science or in applied chemistry.^
A great deal has been written in reply to the question as to the
methods which ought to be followed in teaching elementary chemistry.
It is clear that the older plans of teaching, which are still largely used,
are felt to be partly unsatisfactory, and that by modifying them chemistry
might be made much more valuable as a mental discipline for boys. In
particular protest is made against the undue proportion of time which is
frequently assigned to qualitative analysis ; indeed, the majority of teachers
do not consider this to be the most valuable part of the subject. Others
hold that it presents many advantages, and is, on the whole, the best
adapted to school work, especially when instruction has to be given to
large classes of boys. But while most teachers strongly deprecate a rigid
adherence to the present system, and a few are able to point out the
general lines on which the teaching might be more usefully conducted, it
is evident that very few, if any, have yet put into operation a remodelled
system of instruction. In fact, it appears that teachers stand very much
in need of advice and assistance in preparing a modified scheme of teach-
ing suitable for general adoption in schools. It has several times been
suggested that this Committee might be able to render important help
in this direction.
The following quotations are typical of many of the replies which have
been made. They are written by the head-masters or science masters of
both large and small schools, and are here reproduced, not only because
they allude to some of the pi-incipal defects of the present methods, but
also on account of suggestions they contain which seem likely to be
valuable to those who are anxious to make chemical teaching more
•effective than it is at present.
LIX. ' The teaching should be experimental in all cases. The
■experiments need not be numerous, but apposite, and the utmost got out
of them, both directly and indirectly. I find, for example, that I can get
a good hour's work out of boys in the lower forms with such subjects as
the sepai'ation of sand from a solution of salt, the action of water on lime, or
the action of nitric acid on copper. I find that the same plan of limiting the
attention to one or two important points is also most effective in the upper
forms when the exigencies of examination- work admit of this kind of treat-
ment. Notes of lessons should be relied on rather than text-books. I find,
for example, that the ground covered at previous lessons is always known,
but that I get next to nothing out of a set lesson from a book. This will
be sure to follow from an experimental method of treatment. Above all,
I would suggest the entire remodelling of all school examinations and the
placing them in the hands of men who have had experience in teaching,
84 KEPOKT— 1888.
and know, therefore, what to expect of boys, rather than in those of men
fresh from the " schools," and with only the experience of university
teaching. I should also like to see the range limited and the examination
papers graded. The extent of the ground covered by the Local Examina-
tion papers of the universities is too great for such schools as this, though
Oxford has recently much curtailed them.
' I am led to hope that your Committee may see its way to step in and
produce something like uniformity and system. Would it not be possible
to draw out a scheme of teaching divided into " gi'ades," and suited to a
progressive course, as also to issue yearly sets of examination papers
adapted to these different grades ? I sincerely trust that this may be
one of the results of your inquiry, for I feel sure that examination by so
high an authority will have a most beneficial effect on science teaching,
and have a value in the hands of examiners impossible under any of the
present systems.'
LX. ' It is, in my opinion, no use crying out against the system
of examinations in this country. For years to come the nation will go
on demanding results and getting them. Can those results be made more
worth having ? I believe they can. It lies entirely within the power of
the eminent and working chemists of the country to effect great and
useful reforms almost at once. It should be acknowledged that the
present requirements are obsolete. Looking at the enormous and ever-
increasing number of important and interesting facts, has not the time
come when chemistry should be taught to beginners as biology is taught ?
Instead of reading about hundi-eds of plants and animals, a student
becomes practically acquainted with about a dozen of each at first hand.
Why should not a similar plan be followed in chemistry ? Why should
not a thorough study of chlorine include all that an elementary pupil
needs to know about the halogens ? The principal member of each group
of the non-metallic elements might be selected for special study. As to
the metals, half-a-dozen, which might be varied from year to year, if really
mastered, would be much better than the knowledge which is required of
them under the present system. Room would thus be found for a few
oi'ganic compounds. It is pure pedantry to maintain any longer the
arbitrary distinction of inorganic and organic chemistry in a first and
general course. As to analysis, I think the present comparatively com-
plete course should give place to a sound knowledge of the separation of
some half-dozen substances, and the time thus saved could be devoted to
easy exercises in quantitative analysis. There can be no doubt that quan-
titative analysis is within the reach of any student who can perform a
good qualitative analysis. What I have proposed amounts to rewriting
a syllabus for a first or general course of chemistry, on the basis of
selecting a few typical substances and making a more or less complete -
study of them, and, with regard to analysis, to restrict the substances to
be studied, but to require the elements of gravimetric and volumetric
determinations . '
LXI. ' To render the teaching of chemistry of educational value it must
be made inductive, and not chiefly and largely deductive. The guiding
motto should be, " Prove all things." Experiments should be made with
as simple apparatus as will secure the desired result. In the earlier
lessons avoid all definitions, all hypotheses of atoms and molecules, of
atomic weight and of " bonds," but early establish the constancy of com-
position of compounds and the equivalent weights of certain elements in ;•
I
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 85
-combining with or displacing one another. I should like to see some
encouragement given to the historical aspects of chemistry. I have
found that explanations of when and how the chief elements, acids
and alkalies came to be known add much to an intelligent interest in the
subject.'
LXII. ' It has always appeared desirable that a boy should approach
<!hemistry in the same way that all the founders and builders-up of the
science have done : viz., not by first reading a printed account of facts
■and then verifying them or seeing them verified, but by studying the
different forms of matter as substances hitherto unknown, the properties
of which have to be investigated for the first time and compared with
those of other substances. With this view the experiments shown are
considered as questions put to Nature, the answers to which are as little
known to the lecturer as to the learners. No predictions are made as to
the results, although boys are not unfrequently asked what, arguing from
-experiments previously shown or the properties of analogous substances
previously examined, may be expected to occur. All apparatus used is
-described ; the reasons for any special arrangement of it being explained
fully. Elaborate forms of apparatus with a profusion of drying tubes,
Woulf's bottles, fantastically bent leading-tabes, are avoided as far as
possible, their tendency being to draw off attention from the main point
of the experiment. The arithmetical side of chemistry is not very much
■enlarged upon ; it seems hardly desirable that boys should look upon
experiments as pegs on which numerical problems ai'e to be hung. Too
much time may easily be spent in elaborate calculations on the quantity
of zinc required to obtain enough hydrogen to decompose the nitrogen
monoxide produced fi-om ten grammes of ammonium nitrate. Innumer-
able examples, however, illustrative of important laws, such as those of
Gay-Lnssac and Avogadro, and of calculations actually required in
quantitative work, are frequently set, generally at the beginnino- of each
lecture, in reference to some point explained in the preceding one. No
symbols, formulae, or equations are used at first — not, in fact, until the
properties of three or four elements, and of some of their compounds,
have been studied and the laws of chemical combination deduced from
them. Then, and not till then, it is thought that a learner can appreciate
the value of Dalton's atomic theory in accoanting for the facts he has
observed, and can see the advantage of a system of chemical shorthand,
and use it with intelligence and discrimination.'
LXIII. ' The method, in my opinion, most likely to render the teaching
effective as a mental discipline is mercilessly to sweep off a large pro-
portion of the facts at present dealt with, to confine the attention of the
pupil to those that for various reasons are the most important, and to use
them always as illustrations of general laws. For this purpose, there must
be agreement among teachers and examiners. I do not think it beyond
the scope of your inquiry to suggest that, to make chemistry or any
matural science do all that it can do towards mental discipline, there must
be an attempt to use it as a means of destroying the contempt which
familiarity breeds in us all towards common things. Unless you can call
forth the interest of your pupil, his admiration, even his reverential awe
towards the mystery of Nature, you have perhaps done more harm than
good.'
LXIV. ' Eternal analyses of simple salts and mixtures such as are
required by examinations of the present day weary and worry the student,
86 REPORT— 1888.
waste his valuable time, and throw away labour which in nearly every
individual case would be most profitably spent in carefully studying andl
testing some important laws or principles of chemistry, and which would
make the student's knowledge of the subject thorough and personal.
Chemistry is essentially an experimental science. The great value of the
study of the whole subject lies in the practical work done and in the
method of building the theoretical structui-e on the practical knowledge.
It is therefore absolutely necessary to have a thoroughly good laboratory
with a lecture-T'oom attached, so that collective and individual work may
be carried on with equal facility. At the present time, in our schools and
colleges there is too much working for examinations, and the require-
ments to j^ass such examinations are as narrow as paper legislation can
make them. The student is for ever testing mixtures or performing
some exceedingly simple gravimetric analyses. He is tied down, has his
knowledge fettered instead of having it expanded, and never reaches the
more advanced and useful principles of chemical science, which he can
only dream of from the hearsay of his text-book.'
LXV. ' There is no scale of value of the different parts of chemistry ;
there is no recognised system as to which should be taught first. I have
known boys obtain scholarships simply because their teacher had been
recently a pupil of their examiner and knew the kind of questions he was
likely to set. The ordinary text-books, lectures, and practical work do
but little for even the hardest worker. We want an authorised code of
work issued by a consensus of the highest authorities.'
LXVI. ' I object strongly to boys in a laboratory being allowed to mix
different solutions in test-tubes, day after day, to find out whether pre-
cipitates are formed or not. I have a high Opinion of the advantages
derivable from the teaching of chemistry when none of the harder parts
are shirked, as a valuable mental discipline, and as giving, with drawing,
the best means of teaching an oi'dinary boy the use of his hands as well
as his head.'
LXVII. ' The result of the absence of practice in quantitative experi-
ments is to create an unnatural breach in the minds of pupils between
the actual phenomena of chemical action and the theories by which such
phenomena are to be explained. It might be found possible to treat the
subject more logically if some attempt were made to teach the facts in a
more natural order. The historical sequence by which the science has;
attained its present proportions might form the basis of a rational
arrangement of the parts of the subject. In this way, by placing the
pupils in the attitude of mind of original discoverers, the logical necessity
of theories to account for the facts would give them more real meaning
and interest. I am not acquainted with a text-book suitable for school
use in which such an order is followed.'
LXVIII. ' Boys have been lectured to as if they were students, thereby
producing a condition of things described by some writer as the perfect
paradise of a boys' school, where the masters learnt the lessons and the
boys heard them. Chemistry should be taught as everything else is-
taught — by making the boys do the work themselves — and the lesson
should be a system of question and answer.'
LXIX. 'The calculation of chemical quantities, involving atomic
weights, ought to come quite late in the course, so that the atomic theory
is kept in the background at first. The pupil should make several experi-
ments on the diffusion of gases and liquids which will lead up to the idea
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 87
of molecules. I must say that I think that " equivalents " should be used
for some time before any reference is made to atomic weights. As to
cramming a boy in the methods of writing equations, and finding how
mu.ch sulphuric acid and zinc will make so much hydrogen, I can only say
that, as the boy never attempts to carry it out in practice, and that if he
did he would find his calculations all wrong as compared with his results,
he had better leave them until late in his course, for their symbolic value
and, in many cases, real worthlessuess can only be estimated by a worker
in quantitative analysis. I think a boy's practical work should undergo
great alteration. At present he is examined in " simple salts," so of
course he is prepared for that by a system of "test-tubing " which teaches
him very little. He ought to start as far as possible with elements which
he knows, such as sulphur and iron, and he should prepare certain com-
pounds which contain them. He should then study the action of metals
on acids, and the salts formed; cases of oxidation and reduction; prepara-
tion and properties of gaseous elements and compounds.'
LXX. ' In order that chemistiy may be a useful subject for the edu-
cation of boys, it seems to me necessary that it should be taught from ex-
periments involving measurements. Other experiments may be amusing,
Wt do not appear to afford food for severe or productive thought. It
seems to be now generally admitted that boys should be led as far as pos-
sible to make inferences from chemical experiments for themselves. If
they are to be taught the principal facts of chemistry in this way, it
follows that the experiments must be of the former nature. It seems
to be an evil that so much importance is attached in many examinations
to qualitative analysis, which appears, from an educational point of view,
to be one of the least valuable parts of the subject. The result is that
teachers are compelled to spend the time given to laboratory work on
this, to the detriment of experiments of a more instructive kind.'
LXXI. ' For beginners the illustrated lecture, well supplemented by
periodical questioning, examination of note-books, &c., seems the only
feasible way of teaching large classes of, say, thirty or forty. When the
class is very small the lecture can be largely replaced by laboratory work,
in which the experiments are performed by each individual student. This
seems to me the best method ; but my experience is that it is impossible
to satisfactorily conduct large classes of young boys in the laboratory
except in such simple experiments as the action of metals on acids,
"which can be done with a few test-tubes and other very simple and
inexpensive apparatus, the breakages being too serious in an ordinary
school if it is attempted to go through the preparation of all the com-
moner gases with a large class of beginners, in laboratories as they are
usually arranged. I think more satisfactory results might be obtained
with such classes if a part of the laboratory were specially arranged for
the purpose, a bench (with only a few necessary reagents) in the form
of a semicircle being used, the students facing the teacher, who would
stand inside the semicircle. In such a class the students would all
perform the same experiment after being shown it by the teacher. With
rather more advanced students I think the separate system is better, all
students not working at the same experiment, as this obviates the
necessity of providing a large number of pieces of apparatus of the
same kind, and allows a quicker student to make more rapid progress.
I think it is very important that quantitative experiments should be
made as early as possible ; but here again my experience is that young
88 EEPOET— 1888.
beginners cannot be trusted witli balances sufficiently delicate to be of
much value. The stereotyped "test-tubing" course examination of
simple salts and mixtures is certainly a very inadequate laboratory
course taken by itself; but it has, I believe, its advantages for school
purposes in teaching care, order, and cleanliness, and it serves well for
the middle classes of the school if properly supplemented by class-
teaching, in which the chemical actions concerned in the testing are
carefully considered.'
LXXII. ' Chemistry cannot properly be taught apart from physics ;
there is a physical side to every chemical phenomenon. Lecture work
should precede laboratory work, and continue pari passu with it.
Analysis rationally (not mechanically) taught is an excellent mental
training. The two should be closely correlated ; exercises should be
given in the laboratory preparatory to or suggested by the subjects
treated in the lectures, and facts learnt in the laboratory should be
turned to account in the lectures. The teacher must not be tram-
melled by text-books : these must be his instruments, not his mastei's.
Quantitative treatment of subjects in the lectures should be introduced
as far as possible from the first, and as pupils advance they should be
trained individually in the use of the balance. Numerical exercises
based on (not as a substitute for) lecture demonstration help to give
fixity and precision to ideas. Pupils should be trained to think out in
their note-books the connection between experimental demonstration
and theory, and not have notes dictated to them to be committed to
memory. Their knowledge should be tested by frequent short examina-
tion papers.'
LXXIII. ' With regard to the practical work in the laboratory, the value
of which cannot be over-estimated as a means of bringing a boy into real
touch with his bookwork and developing in him those valuable qualities
of patience, accurate obsei'vation, and powers of deduction, so especially
necessary to the student of science, analyses of complicated mixtures
not found anywhere in the universe are no longer now considered as the
object to be aimed at. But there is still too much tendency to regard mere
analysis as the aim and object of laboratory work. Rather should a boy
be introduced to a progressive course of work which illustrates the more
important principles of chemistry, and so be enabled to test the truth of
these for himself Here especially a good text-book of practical work is
required, as a busy teacher finds it so difficult to get time to devise as
well as supervise. Such a course of work must necessarily be limited in
many schools, owing to the want of sufficient apparatus or the short houre
of work. But still something may be done in this direction, and the
mental training will not only be of infinitely more value to the special
student, but also to the ordinary boy, who will not be much the wiser for
having gone through a course of simple and complex analysis only. I
think your Committee might do much towards smoothing the path of
teachers by drawing up a memorandum addressed to the head-masters of
schools suggesting points for their consideration, and asking them to meet
the Committee's views on the subject as far as lies in their power.'
The Committee feel that these reports have put them in possession
of the actual facts connected with the teaching of chemistry in schools,
and have made it clear that something should be done in the du-ection
of promoting a more uniform and satisfactory treatment of the subject.
ON TEACHING CHEMISTKY. 89
The Committee think that some suggestions might now be made as to
the method of teaching chemistry which should be followed in schools. If
this can be done, it will certainly confer a great benefit on both teachers
and examiners, and will be likely to lead to a more emphatic recognition of
"the merits of the science as an instrument of elementary education. The
■Committee accordingly ask for reappointment.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Russell, Captain Abney,
Professor Hartley, and Dr. A. Richardson (Secretary), appointed
for the investigation of the action of Light on the Hydracids
of Halogens in presence of Oxygen. {Drawn up by Dr. A.
Richardson.)
During the past year this Committee has made numerous experiments
on the decomposition of gaseous hydrochloric acid, under the combined
inflnence of sunligrht and oxygen.
A series of bnlbs containing a mixture of moist hydrochloric acid and
varying quantities of moist oxygen were exposed to light for five months
(from December 9 to May 26) ; the amount of free and combined chlorine
was then determined (the details are given in Table I.). It will be seen
that in bulbs 1, 2 the percentage of free chlorine is only 3'6 to 3"4, rising
suddenly, however, in bulb 3 to 92" 5 per cent. : in No. 4 the amount of
chlorine liberated reaches the maximum, viz., 92'77 per cent. ; when more
oxygen is added the percentage of liberated chlorine is lowered, the effect
Ijeing probably to dilute the hydrochloric acid gas. The next series con-
sisted of bulbs similarly prepared, but exposed for sixty-nine days (from
May 31 to August 7). From the analysis given in Table IT. it will be
seen that oxidation of the acid has taken place, even in presence of a small
excess of oxygen ; in many cases the whole of the acid has been oxidised
to chlorine and water, and in some cases hypochlorous acid (or some other
oxygen acid of chlorine) has been formed ; this accounts for the percentage
amount of free chlorine coming out too high.
It appears probable that the oxidation takes place in two stages, the
first aotion of light being to oxidise part of the hydrochloric acid to hypo-
chlorous acid : this is at first decomposed into chlorine and water by the
excess of acid present, as is shown in the first series ; but when the greater
Tjart of the hydrochloric acid has been removed the hypochlorous acid
does not further suffer decomposition.
Itate at luliicli oxidation takes place. — When gaseous hydrochloric
acid and oxygen are first exposed to light the decomposition goes on with
extreme slowness ; it rapidly increases, however, with the amount of
chlorine liberated. An experiment was made on this point in which a
tube containing hydrochloric acid and oxygen was exposed to light to-
gether with a tube containing a similar mixture, which had, however, been
previously exposed to light until 92*6 per cent, of free chlorine had been
set free ; when the chlorine was estimated in the two bulbs it was found
-that the first bulb contained 0*9 per cent, free chlorine, whereas the other
tube had gained 7 per cent., making a total of 99 per cent, free chlorine.
Lifluence of free chlorine. — Experiments were made to determine what
influence free chlorine had on the decomposition of the acid. For this
yU REPORT— 1888,
purpose four bulbs were filled witli a mixture of hydrochloric acid and
oxygen ; a known quantity of chlorine was added to three of them. The
four bulbs were exposed for the same length of time and the chlorine was
then estimated, when it was found that the mixture to which no free
chlorine had been added contained 75 "9 per cent, free chlorine, whilst the
bulbs containing free chlorine in the first instance gave 100"93, 105'37,
and 1:'7"29 per cent, of free chlorine. Further experiments are being made
in this direction ; it appears, however, likely that the presence of chlorine
renders the mixture less transparent to those rays which promote the
oxidation of the acid.
Influence of bromine. — A weighed quantity of bromine was added to a
mixture of hydrochloric acid and oxygen, and exposed in bulbs, together
with those just described; when the gas was analysed it was found that
onlylO'85 percent, of chlorine had been liberated in one bulb, and 5'05 per
cent, in the other (the latter contained a larger quantity of bromine). It
does not appear likely that this retarding action of the bromine can be due
to its union with the chlorine liberated m the presence of excess of hydro-
chloric acid, and it will be interesting to observe the influence of bromine
vapour on the oxidation of hydrobromic acid.
Influence of moisture. — It has already been stated that a mixture of
dry hydrochloric acid and oxygen is unacted on in sunlight, and it was
at first supposed that the partially dry mixture was completely stable in.
the light ; at has, however, been found that a very prolonged exposure
brings about slow oxidation, the rate depending on the amount of
moisture present. The results obtained after four months' exposui'e
show that when two-thirds of the gas was dried 236 per cent, of chlorine
is set free ; when one-third only of the gas was dried 42'8 per cent, is
liberated ; in the case of both gases saturated, as nearly as possible, 88 per
cent, of chlorine is liberated.
Decomposition of chlorine water. — Experiments have been made on
the action of light on chlorine water and chlorine and aqueous vapour;
the results given on Table III. show that the amount of decomposition
increases wiiii the volume of water taken ; the ultimate strength of acid,
however, varies in each case, becoming more concentrated as the volume
of water taken diminishes. On the other hand, the volume of oxygen
set free diminishes with the water. With a dilute solution of chlorine
water the decomposition is arrested by a comparatively large volume of
oxygen acting on a weak solution of acid ; with a strong solution a small
volume of oxygen is tending to decompose a concentrated acid. These
results can be represented graphically in the form of a curve by mapping
the percentage of combined chlorine found after exposure against the
volume of water taken.
Chlorine gas and water vapotir. — A known volume of carbon dioxide
saturated with water vapour was mixed with enough chlorine to theore-
tically decompose all the water ; after exposure for thirty-three days l'3f»
per cent, of chlorine had been converted into hydrochloric acid. In a
second experiment oxygen was substituted for carbon dioxide. In this
case 3 per cent, of chlorine was found to be present as chloride.
Further experiments are being made in which a large volume of moist
gas is taken, the gas being only partially saturated, as it is possible
that condensation took place on the sides of the flask.
Some preliminary experiments have been made with chlorine water
exposed to light in coloured solutions. From these it appears that decora-
ACTION OF LIGHT ON THE HTBEACIDS OF HALOGENS.
91
position takes place in rays considerably below the bine. How far this is
due to beating effect has yet to be proved ; an apparatus is being pre-
pared to stndy with greater accuracy the influence of different parts of
the spectrum on chlorine water and on hydrochloric acid and oxygen.
The influence of oxygen on a mixture of chlorine and hydrogen has
been observed ; the gases were exposed for periods varying from three
hours to three days. At first it was found that, with increased ex-
posure, the amount of free chlorine was reduced ; but when all the hydro-
gen present had been converted into hydrochloric acid the green colour of
the chlorine gradually returned, owing to the slow decomposition of the
acid by the oxygen. Analysis gave — ■
After three hours' exposure, 41-2 per cent, free chlorine.
„ five „ „ 311 „ „
,, D'^y ,, ,,
20-3
,, oi y <• 5,
seven „
two days'
three ,,
Little has been done on the oxidation of the other halogens. We
hope, however, to be able to report on these when the Association meets
next year.
Table I. — Decomposition of Gaseous Eydrochloric Acid and Oxygen in
Sunlight after 170 days' exposure, from December 9 to May 26.
No of
Proportion of
Weight in
Weight in
Percentage
Percentage
Bulb
HCl to by
Volume
Grams ot
Free CI
Grams ot
Total CI
Free CI
Combined CI
HCl
1
4 2
■00532
■147S
3-608
96-39
2
4 3
■00335
•09656
3-460
96-54
3
4 4
•13135
•1420
92-50
7-50
4
4 5
•1349
•1562
92-77
7-23
4 fi
•07455
•0852
87-50
12-50
fi
4 7
•07100
•07668
92-59
7-41
t
4 !<
•0t>39
■1278
50-0
50-0
S
4 10
•04615
•0852
54-16
45-84
9
4 16
•0284
•03996
71-0
29-00
Table II. — After 69 days' exposure, from
May 31 to A
tigust 7.
No. of
Proportion of
Weight in
Weight in
Percentage
Percentage
Bulb
HC;i to by
Volume
Grams of
Free CI
Grams ot
Total CI
Free CI
Combined CI
HCl
1
4 1
-11147
-12192
90-60
9-40
2
4 1-5
•17182
-16898
101-68
—
3
4 2
•1775
•17267
101-67
—
4
4 2-5
•11093
•11093
100^0
5
4 3
•11537
•11537
1000
6
4 3-5
•15975
•15265
104-65
—
7
4 4
•1198
-11980
100-0
8
4 4-5
•08065
-08162
98-811
1189
9
4 8
•11658
•1170
• 99-63
•37
10
4 10
•55025
•57813
95-16
4^84
11
4 16
•09762
•10561
92-34
7 66
i)2
REPORT — 1888.
Table HI. — Tiecomposition of Chlorine Water in Sunlight after 44 days'
Exposure.
No. of
Bulb
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Proportion of Weight in (^^^^^g ,,£ \ Weight of : Per-
CI to HoO by
Volume
Grains of
Free CI
Combined
CI
Liberated
Oxygen
CI HoO
100 40
100 20
100 15
100 10
100 5
100 1
100
07 1
centage
Free CI
•09317
•1579
■2(;09
•3372
•1408
•0814
■7718
•5492
•4469
•2602
•2224
■0568
•0028
•1740
•1230
•1009
•0586
•0487
•0344
•00063
1455
26-11
500
6155
85^73
96^78
Per-
Per-
centage
centage
Combined
HClin
CI
HoO
100
•6507
85^45
1176
73-88
1445
50^0
1292
3845
3-147
14^27
4-262
322
14-18
ON THE NATURE OF SOLUTION. 93
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors Tildek
and Eamsat and Dr. Nicol (Secretary), afjxjointed for the
purpose of investigating the Nature of Solution.
The mukial solubility of salts which do not act chemicalhj on one another^
"While it has been long known that the presence of one salt greatly
inflaences the solubility of another salt dissolred in the same mass of
water, nothing is known of the laws regulating this phenomenon. Much
of our ignorance on this point is doubtless due to the difficulties attending
the determination of solubility in general, but more to the fact that
experimenters have confined themselves to the task of ascertaining the-
effect of one salt on another when both are dissolved simultaneously
to saturation.
An extended series of experiments has been made on the following;
lines : —
Solutions containing definite quantities of one salt have been prepared
and a second salt dissolved to saturation in these. Thus solutions contain-
ing 2, 4, and 6 molecules of NaCl in IOOH2O were prepared and KOI
was dissolved to saturation in these, a special apparatus being employed
by means of which complete saturation was ensured without any loss of
water by evaporation. Similar converse experiments were made with
KCl solutions in which NaCl was dissolved and in all the mutual action
of the following pairs was examined :
1. NaCl in KCl 5. KCl in KNO3
2. KCl in NaCl 6. KNO3 in KCl
3. NaCl in NaNO^ 7. NaNO^ in KNO3
4. NaN03 in NaCl 8. KNO, in NaNO,
In addition the densities of mixtures of the above salts in various
definite proportions up to near the saturation point were determined, and
also the mutual solubility to saturation of both members of each pair.
Time has not permitted us to complete the working out of the data
thus obtained, but the general results may be stated as follows : —
In the first six cases the solubility of the first salt is diminished by
the presence of the second when compared with the solubility in pure
water. But if each salt is assumed to have its proportionate share of the
•water present then the solubility of both salts is increased.
In pair 7 the solubility of NaNOj is increased by the presence of
KNOs, while in pair 8 the presence of a small quantity of NaNOg.
diminishes the solubility of KNO3, but a larger quantity increases it.
Whether or not this anomalous behaviour is due to the isodimorphism
of the two salts, as has been already suggested,' further experiments
alone will show ; but it may be here noted that the rhombic form of KNO3
is mnch more soluble than the ordinary prismatic form, as is easily
proved by allowing a drop of potassium nitrate to evaporate slowly on a
glass plate and after rhombic crystals have separated, on touching the drop
with a wire, instant crystallisation in the prismatic form results. This also
is one of the few instances, if not the only one, of supersaturation in the case
' Nicol, PJill Marj., June 1884.
94 ll£POKT— 1»88.
of a salt crystallising without water, and the dimorphism, and consequent
sapersaturation, lends support to the view that supersaturation is due to
the fact that the individual in solution differs from that which crystallises
out.
Soluhility of salts in aqueous solutions of alcohol.
That salts are less soluble in alcohol than in water has been shown
by the experiments of Schiff and Girardin, but hitherto the attempts to
trace out the connection between the solubility and the amount of alcohol
present have entirely failed.
A series of experiments on this subject has been commenced and
considerable progress has been made towards completion. The method of
experiment is as follows : Solutions of alcohol of definite strengths are pi*e-
pared by diluting absolute alcohol with weighed quantities of water. The
composition of the solutions thus obtained is checked by a comparison of
their densities with the table given by Mendeleef ; 10 to 15 cc. of these
solutions, which are of definite molecular strength (5, 10, 15, &c., mole-
cules of alcohol to lOOHgO), are placed with excess of salt in the saturation
appai'atus referred to above, and after 24 hoars, during which time the
contents of the tubes have been shaken 20,000 times, the clear solution is
poured off, evaporated to dryness, and weighed.
The salts suitable for these experiments are few in number. No
hydrated salts can be used and the anhydrous salts must be freely
soluble in water, otherwise their solubility in dilute alcohol sinks so low
that the experimental error becomes too high.
Up to the present only four salts have been examined, NaCl, KCl,
K'aNOg, and KNO3, in four solutions of alcohol up to 20 molecules, but
the densities of solutions of these salts in the alcohol solutions have also
been determined. The results have yet to be worked out.
The Committee propose to complete the experiments in these two
branches of the subject and then turn their attention to the vapour-
f)ressures of water from solutions, the special apparatus for which has
been long ready. With this view they desire to be appointed for another
year.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Eay Lankester
Mr. P. L. ScLATER, Professor INI. Foster, Mr. A. Sedgwick,
Mr. Walter Heape, Professor A. C. Haddon, Professor Moseley,
and Mr. Percy Sladen {Secretary), appointed for the purpose
of maJcing arrangements for assisting the Marine Biological
Association Laboratory at Plymouth.
Your Committee have the pleasure to report that on June 30 last the
laboratory and tanks of the Marine Biological Association at Plymouth
were formally declared open and ready for work.
Immediately afterwards Mr. Cunningham, Mr. Weldon, and Mr.
Bourne, assisted by Mr. Garstang, secretary to the Director, began to
explore methodically that part of Plymouth Sound lying within the
breakwater. The results of the exploration are not j-et ready for publi-
ON ASSISTING THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION. 95
cation, but it has proved that the fauna lying inside the breakwater is
poor in comparison with that outside.
Mr. Cunningham has continued his special investigations upon the
development of teleosteau fishes.
Mr. Weldon has continued his work on Crustacea with special regard
to the development of Homarus and Palinurus.
Mr. Bourne has devoted some time to an examination of the Hydroidea
of the distinct.
Mr. Garstang is working out the Mollusca.
Mr. Hardy, of Caius College, Cambridge, arrived at the laboratory in
July, and at once commenced an investigation upon the development of
sponges (Asconidce), which is proceeding. During the month of August
Mr. Beddard has been investigating the marine oligochaete worms of the
district, and Dr. C. A. MacMunn has been engaged in investigating the
colouring matter of vai'ions marine invertebrates. Dr. Burdon Sanderson
and Mr. Gotch are expected during September, and will continue their
investigations on the electric organs of skates and rays.
Although the buildings are practically ready, and can be used for
research, some delays and hindrances have occurred in the stocking of
the aquarium attached to the laboratory, and the want of certain fittings,
now supplied, has hindered the staff in making a complete collection of
the fauna of the district.
At present Mr. Bourne and Mr. Weldon are making a sei-ies of
observations with the surface-net, principally by night, with the view of
gaining accurate knowledge of the pelagic fauna of the Channel.
It has been found that the work of the Association has been sadly
hampered by the want of a small but seaworthy steamboat, such as the
Naples steamboat ' Johannes Mliller.' The Association does all its
present work with a small hook-and-line boat of about five tons, and it is
found that in calms, rough weather, and contrary winds much time is
wasted. It is also a great disadvantage that the trawl or dredge
has to be hauled in by hand, an operation which could be performed by
a small steam winch on a steamboat. The Council of the Biological
Association has authorised the Director to make a special appeal for
funds towards purchasing and maintaining such a steamboat, and should
the General Committee of the British Association be prepared to make a
further grant towards the Plymouth laboratory, your Committee would
venture to suggest that it should take the form of a donation to this
special fund.
Your Committee have paid to the Marine Biological Association the
sum of lOOZ., placed at their disposal for that purpose ; and the Council
of the Biological Association have tendered to your Committee their
thanks for the support given to the Biological Association by the Council
of the British Association.
Your Committee beg to point out that it would, in their opinion, be
desirable for the Council of the British Association to complete its con-
tributions to the Marine Biological Association to the total of 500Z., and
thus acquire the power of nominating a life governor of the Marine
Biological Association.
96
EEPOET — 1888.
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors Tilden:
and Armstrong {Secretary), appointed for the purpose of in-
vestigating Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives. {Drawn up by
Professor Armstrong.)
The folio-wing is an outline of the -work accomplished during the past
year in the reporter's laboratory chiefly with the invaluable co-operation
of Mr. W. P. Wynne, B.Sc.
In discussing the laws of substitution for naphthalene, attention was
directed in the tirst report to the alpha-lav: as the dominant law; and it
was pointed out that whenever departures from this law occur, as a rule,
either the conditions are such as to favour secondary changes — as in the
formation of /3-sulphonic acids at high temperatures in presence of an
excess of sulphuric acid — or a radicle such as OH or NH2 is present
which exercises a special influence. It was mentioned, however, in the
same report, that when /D-chloronaphthalene is sulphonated by means of
SO3HCI, two isomeric acids are formed which there is reason to believe
a.re represented by the formulae : —
SO3H
or
HSO.
a-acid. SO^H /3-acid.
The conditions are such that the formation of the /5-acid cannot be-
attributed to the occurrence of secondary changes such as in all pro-
bability take place when sulphuric acid is the agent ; the production of this
derivative, therefore, cannot well be reconciled with the alpha law, but
is suggestive of the existence in the naphthalene molecule of a ' plane of
symmetry ' passing through the /t3''^/3"''-carbon atoms in which an influence
is exercised. The observations on isomeric change briefly described in-
the last report prompted us, however, to determine whether the a-acid
could not readily be converted into the /3-acid by heating : the results
entirely favour the view that the latter acid is in reality the product of
isomeric change, and that its formation is in no way an exception to the
alpha-law. When the snlphonation was effected in the cold, only three
to four per cent, of the product consisted of the /3-acid ; after heating the
product at 100° for half an hour the amount rose to eleven per cent.;
heating at 150° for one hour increased the proportion of /3-acid to twenty
per cent. ; and no less than fifty-three per cent, was present after heating
at 150° for five hours.
These results have led us to study the behaviour of the chloro-
naphthalenesulphonic acids generally when heated, in order to determine
whether, and in what way, they undergo isomeric change. In preparing
the necessary material for these experiments we have converted the four
isomeric modifications of betanaphthylaminesulphonic acid by Sandmeyer's
method into the corresponding chloronaphthalenesulphonic acids, and
by distilling these with phosphorus pentacbloride have prepared the cor-
responding dichloronaphthalenes. The designation of the amido-acid, the
ON ISOMERIC NAPHTHALENE DERIVATIVES.
97
melting-point of the sulpho-cliloride of the chloro-acid, and the designation
and melting-point of the dichloronaphthalene are as follows : —
Sulphochloride Dichloronaphthalene
betanaphthylaminesulphonic acid (a) ( Badische) .
„ „ (0) (Bronner) .
„ (7)(Dahl).
„ „ (5) (Bayer and
Duisberg)
Isomeric dicMoronapMJialenes. — No less than 12 isomeric dichloro-
naphthalenes have now been described. The conventional plane symbol of
naphthalene serves to exhibit only ten, but a geometrical symbol may be
constructed in accordance with the method followed by Herrmann in the
case of benzene ('Berichte,' 1888, 1949), which foreshadows no less than
sixteen. The following is a list of the reputed dichloronaphtbalenes : —
m. p.
m. p.
129°
(ff)
63°-5
109°
(0
l.S5°
70°
('))
48°
8G°
(S)
1U°
(1)
(^) •
(3) .
(4) .
(5) .
(6) .
• V
. m.p,
. . . m.p.
0'. . . m.p
/8 . . . m.p.
m.p. = 34°
m.p. = 38°
= 48°
= 61°-5
= 65°
= 68°
(7)
m.p.
8.3°
(8) .
. K .
. m.p.= 94°
(9) .
■ y ■
. m.p. = 107°
(10) .
. s .
. m.p. = 114°
(11) .
. » .
. m.p. = 120°
(12) .
. e .
. . m.p. = 135°
a-a-dichloronapJdhalenes. Nos. 6, 7, and 9 in the list belong to this
category and represent the three possible a-a-derivatives : ft-dicMoro-
najplithalene is undoubtedly the u^:a^homonudeal modification, being
obtainable from naphthalene tetrachloride and from naphthionic acid ;
7- and ci-dichloronapMhalenes are heteronucleal compounds, and if no other
evidence -were forthcoming, the fact that the y- compound has the higher
melting-point would alone justify us in regarding it as the symmetri-
cal o^K^'derivative; since, however, it is obtainable from the nitro-
sulphonic acid isomeric with the a-a-acid known as the Scholkopf acid,
which -taking Bamberger's researches into account — is a so-called peri or
hetero-ortho derivative, there cannot be any doubt that y- is 1 : 4' and
that 4 is 1 : 1' dichloronaphthalene.
p-ly-dicMoronapJithalenes. — Of the three possible /3-/3- modifications,
c. and (- dichloronaphthaleve are the two possible hetero-compounds ; and.
from the high melting-point of the latter there can be practically no
doubt that it is the symmetrical 2 : 3' modification, the c-componnd being
therefore the 2 : 2' derivative.
a-ij-dicJdoronaphfhaJenes. — Four are possible, two hetero- and two
homonucleal. rj- and 6' (m.p. 6.3°'5) dichloronaphthahnes may be prepared
as above stated from Dahl's and the Badische modification of Z)etenaphthyla-
minesulphonic acid respectively, and also from two n-nitro-acids obtained,
by Cleve by nitrating naphthaleneZ/e/asulphonic acid ; they are therefore
undoubtedly a- ft- compounds, and are probably both heteronucleal. If these
arguments be correct, the one is 1 : 2', the other 1 : 3' dichloronaphtha-
lene,
Q-dichloronaplitlialene (m.p. 61°-5) is either the 1 : 2 or the 1 : 3 modi--
fication. u-dicMoronaplitlialene, the product of the action of alkali on
naphthalene tetrachloride, is undoubtedly a homonucleal compound. The
modification melting at 34°, prepared by Cleve from chlorobetanaphthol
and chlorobetanaphthylamine, is also homonucleal ; this latter is an alpha-
chloronaphthalene derivative (Cleve), so that the dichloronaphthalene
melting at 34° if not the 1 : 2 is the 1 : 3 variety. By exclusion, it
1888. H
98
EEroET — 1888.
would follow that a-dicUoronaplithalene is the third ;8-/S-, i.e., ft^- jS'-dichlo-
ronaphthalene.
K and t-dichloronaplithalenes have thus far been omitted from con-
sideration ; the former is probably non-existent, the method by which it
is said to have been prepared being one which is very unlikely to afford
a dichloronaphthalene. It is not improbable that the i-compound will
also be found non-existent : if on treating naphthalene with chlorine a
small quantity of an isomeric heteronucleal tetrachloride be formed, and
this lose its a-chlorine atoms, e- dichloronaphthalene would result, and it
is possible that this substance in an impure state may have been reo'arded
by mistake as a distinct substance.
ECl
HCl
HCl
HCl
HCl
Naphthalene homo-
tetrachloride.
HCl
HCl
HCl
Naphthalene hetero-
tetrachloride.
6-dichloro-
naphthalene.
Isomeric clichloroyiapJitJtalenesulpJionic acids. — With the object of further
characterising and determining the individuality of the dichloronaphtha-
lenes, the study of their sulphonic acids, to which reference was made in
the last report, has now been extended to all. The chief result of interest
is the fact that the dichloronaphthalene melting at 34^° yields certainly
two, perhaps three, isomeric sulphonic acids ; the sulphochloride of the
one acid crystalhses in minute prisms melting at 168°, that of the other
in massive prisms melting at 105°.
The dichloro-acids prepared by Widman by chlorinating naphthalene-
a- and /3-sulphochlorides have also been examined. That from the /3-sul-
pho-chloride yields when hydrolysedyS-, that from the alpha-sulphochloride
what appears to be ^-dichloronaphthalene, m.p. Gl°'5.
Addendum. — Since the meeting of the Association, Brdmann and Kirch-
hoff (' Annalen,' 247, 366) have described the results of experiments on the
synthetic production of chloronaphthalene derivatives which they contend
afford proof of the constitution of the y, rj and varieties of dichloro-
naphthalene. Their method consists in preparing chlorophenylparaconic
acids by interaction of succinic acid and chlorobenzaldehydes ; by distilling
the acids, chloronaphthols are obtained from which corresponding dichloro-
naphthalenes are prepared by distillation with phosphorus pentachloride.
The conversion of phenylparaconic acid itself into alphanaphthol is
supposed by Fittig and Erdmann to take place in the manner indicated
by the following symbols :
CO
O ^CH^
I CH-COOH =
\CH
C(OH)
CH
Phenylparaconic acid.
+ CO2 + H2O.
ON ISOMERIC NAPHTHALENE DERIVATIVES.
99
Assuming that the chloro-acids undergo a similar change, the acids
derived from ortho- and parachlorobenzaldehyde should each yield but a
single chloronaphthol, and that from the metachlor-aldehyde should alone
be capable of yielding two isomers, viz.: —
CI OH OH
1' : 1
3' : 1
Actually they obtained eventually from the metachloro-acid 7;-di-
chloronaphthalene (m.p. 48°) ; and as ^-dichloronaphthalene (m.p. 83°)
is undoubtedly the 1 : 1' derivative, they regard the ?; as the 1 : 8'
derivative. The orthochloro-acid was found to yield y-dichloronaph-
thalene, and hence they regard this as the 1 : 4' derivative — a conclusion
which harmonises with previous views. 0-dichloronaphthalene (m.p. 61°'5)
■was prepared from the parachloro-acid, and accordingly this is represented
to be the 1 : 2' derivative.
But these conclusions are entirely based on the assumption that the
naphthol-hydroxyl is derived from one of the carboxyl groups of the
succinic acid, as indicated by the symbols given above : there is,
however, no reason why it should not be derived from the COH group of
the aldehyde, and in this case the rj would be the 1 : 2' and the 6 the 1 : 3'
derivative. In any case, this objection entirely deprives Erdmann and
Kirchhoff's arguments of their force: as in the case of benzene, there
is little doubt that the constitution of naphthalene derivatives will be
determined eventually by the study of naphthalene derivatives and not
by synthetic methods of the character of those in question.
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Garson, Mr.
Pengelly, Mr. F, "W. EuDLER, Mr. Gr. W. JBloxam (Secretary),
Mr. J. Theodore Bent, and Mr. J. Stuart G-lennie, appointed
for the purpose of investigating the Prehistoric Race in the
Greek Islands.
This spring Mr. Bent commenced researches on the promontories jutting
into the Korean Sea alons: the coast of Asia Minor. On the most
southern of these, opposite the island of E.hodes, was discovered near the
ancient Loryma, vfhich was identified by Leake, a curious little harbour,
and near it the ruins of a town. After working here for two days, from
inscriptions on tombs and the sites of temples, it was identified as having
anciently been called Kasarea, or, as Ptolemy and Pliny respectively call
it, Kprjacra Xifx-qv and Portus Cressa.
Proceeding eastwards, on a promontory to the west of the Gulf of
Makri, he found the ruins of another hitherto unknown town. Here he
was able to work for many days and found much of interest, including
33 inscriptions, which informed him that this town was anciently Lydte,
H 2
100 BEPOET — 1888.
an important city of Lycia and the seat of a Roman proconsul. From these
inscriptions mncb was gathered concerning the local government, its
division into denies, the gods here worshipped, and the names of its chief
families and benefactors.
About five miles inland, buried in a forest, he further identified the
ruins of another town called LissiE, and found two inscriptions of the
date of the third century B.C., many tombi?, and sites of buildings. Over
one of the rock-cut tombs in this neighbourhood was found an inscription
which appears to be a mixture of Lycian and some other language in use
in this district, but which has not yet been deciphered.
The inhabitants of this district are all nomad and form an interesting
subject for study. The difiiculty of approaching them arising from their
suspicion of strangers was only overcome after a few days' residence
amono- them. It would appear that they are almost entirely self-governed,
ownino- allegiance to the ak-saJcal or white beard who dwells up in the
mountains, whilst they wander from one pasturage to another, dwelling
in hnts and acting as woodcutters. Each division of a tribe is called a
raela, with its chief Yuruk Agha-si. Some few become sedentai-y and till
the ground, others wander from place to place for pasturage. Mr. Bent
Lopes to return to these parts next winter and to make further investiga-
tions amongst them.
The thincs found during Mr. Bent's excavations arc now deposited in
the Briti.sh Museum.
The Committee ask for reappointment with enlarged powers, and
that the grant may be increased to 40L
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Rawson Kawsox, General
PiTT-RivEES, Dr. MuiRHEAD, Mw C. RoiJERTS, Dr. J. Beddoe,
Mr. H. H. HowoRTH, Mr. F. W. Eudler, Dr. Gr. W. Hambletox,
Mr. Horace Darwin, Mr. Gr. W. Bloxam, Dr. Garsox, and Dr.
A. M. Patersox, appointed for the pntrpose of investigating the
effects of different occupations and empdoyments on the Physical
Development of the Human Body.
The Committee met frequently during the past year. A circular has
been issued asking for the active assistance of employers of labour and
others who have access to large bodies of working men, and the Committee
has received many promises of assi.stance.
Cards for recording observations have been printed, and a paper of
instructions to ensure, as far as possible, uniformity in taking the obser-
vations has been drawn up.
It has benn resolved to confine the operations of the Committee to one
larfs centre of population at a time, and Manchester has been selected as
a starting point. A sub-committee has been formed there, and the
Committee anticipate valuable results during the ensuing winter, but no
returns have yet been received.
The Committee respectfully ask for reappointment and for a renewal
of the grant.
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 101
Sixteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors J.
Pkestwich, W. Boyd Dawkins, T. McK. Hughes, and T. Gr.
BoNNEY, Dr. H. W. Crosskey, and Messrs. C. E. De Range, H.
Gr. FoRDHAM, D. MACKINTOSH, W. Pengelly, J. Plant, and
K. H. TiDDEMAN, appointed for the puoyose of recording the
position, height above the sea, lithological characters, size, and
origin of the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland,
reporting other matters of interest connected xvith the same,
and taking measures for their preservation. {Drawn up by
Dr. Crosskey, Secretary.)
It was expected that this Committee -would be able at an early date
to summarise and conclude its reports ; but as its existence and object
are becoming more generally known, so large a number of new observa-
tions are being forwarded, that it is necessary that its work should still
be carried on.
Among the important points that are being brought to light are : (1)
the very distinct grouping of erratics in various localities, showing clearly
that they have travelled in definitely marked courses ; (2) the determi-
nation of the character of these groups by the physical geography of the
country — ridges of existing highlands and hills effectually stopping or
diverting the courses of the streams of boulders ; (3) the occasional
crossing of the groups of boulders — the meeting places of different
streams being determinable ; (4) the deposition of erratics at different
periods.
When the summary of the reports is prepared, these facts will be
found to stand out with great clearness and their bearing upon the glacial
theories will prove to be of large importance.
YOKKSHIRE.
Very remarkable facts were recorded in last year's report, respecting
the boulders in the parish of Ingleby Greenhow, Northallerton ; where
blocks from the Lake district, from the S.W. of Scotland, from the
Cheviot hills and adjoining districts, from more distant northern parts
of Scotland, are intermixed with glaciated blocks of local origin.
The Rev. John Hawell supplements the information previously given
and has examined 3G5 boulders (Professor Bonney and Mr. C. T. Clough
giving their kind assistance in the determination of some of the specimens)
with the following results : —
(1) Shan granite .......... 3 .
(2) Granite of Criffel type 1
(3) Dolerites 9
(4) Sj'enite or diorite (Scotch) 1
(5) Quartzite .......... 1
(6) Quartzose rock ......... 1
(7) Quartzose gieywacke 1
(8) Vein quartz 1
(9) Quartz-felsite (from St. John's Vale?) 2
(10) Felsite 1
<11) Porphyrites from Cheviots 67
(12) Porphyrites from Cheviots or S. Scotland ... 7
102
KEPORT 1888.
as
(14
(15
(16
(17
(18
(19
(20
(21
(22
(23
(24
(25
(26
(27
(28
(29
(30
(31
(32
(33
(34
(35
(36
(37
(38
(39
(40
(41
(42
(43
(44
Porphj^rite (from near Kelso ?) .
Porphyrite from Cheviots or near Kelso
Felsite or porphyrite (Scotch) .
Hornbleudic porphyrite .
Hornblendic felsite or porphyrite
Porphyrites from Borrowdale series
Augite-andesites from Clieviots
Old augite-andesites
Augite-andesites from Cleveland Dyke
Doubtfully from the Cleveland Dyke
Basalt of uncertain derivation .
Basalt or augitic andesite
Very compact basalt (Scotch) .
Porphyritic basalt (from Carter Fell ?)
Indurated volcanic ashes from Borrowdale
Felstones from Borrowdale series
Doubtfully felstones from Borrowdale series
Felstone ? .
Hilllellinta?
Sandstones from local Inferior Oolite
Sandstones, Oolitic and otherwise .
Coarse grits .....
Millstone grits
Fine quartz grit ....
Calciferous sandstone
Argillaceous limestone
Calcareous cherty limestones .
Limestones .....
Mudstones
Brown calcareous rock
Of uncertain character
Notes too imperfect, or specimens mislaid
series
Total
1
1
1
1
1
4
2
2
57
1
4
1
3
3
13
7
3
1
1
81
11
11
2
1
1
38
4
1
4
6
365
(1) No. 234 — In stream below Ingleby Mill Dam ; rounded; 33 X 21
xlSin. No. 306 — In Mr. H. Bainbridge's field ; Greenhow ; rounded;
15 X 13 X 10 in. No. 328 — Near Mr. H. Bainbridge's house ; in stream ;
rounded ; 22 x 18 X 16 in.
(2) In bed of stream below Ingleby Manor House ; rounded; diameter
about 18 in.
(3) The dolerites may not improbably have been derived from the
Whin Sill of Teesdale. Mr. Clough, however, says, ' The "Whin Sill
also occurs with much the same character in parts of Weardale,
Northumberland, and there are also various dykes in N. of England
of same character.' No. 243 — In Ingleby Mill Dam ; imperfectly rounded ;
19 X 16 X 14 in. No. 265 — By side of railway near Mr. (bill's farm ;
rounded; 27x22x13 in. No. 364 — On Kirby-Moorside Road, above
Bank Foot; rounded; 22x20x13 in.
(4) No. 349 — In stream below Ingleby Manor ; subangular ; 8 X 6
x6 in. 'Syenite or Diorite — Scotch' (Bonney). 'Might be from the
shoulder of "Criffel' (Clough).
(5) No. 268 — In Mr. Gill's field; well rounded; 6x5x4 in.
' Quartzite ; possibly derived from an Old Red Conglomerate ' (Bonney).
(6) No. 39 — Ingleby Vicarage Garden ; rounded ; 13 X 11 X 10 in.
(7) No. 176 — Ingleby Mill Dam ; rounded ; ? x6 x6 in. ' Quartzose
Greywacke — probably S. Scotch' (Bonney).
(8) No. 352— Stream below Ingleby Mill Dam; rounded; 20 X
16 xl3 in. ' Vein quartz — Chalcedonic ' (Bonney).
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCiS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 103
(9) No. 98— Ingleby Mill Dam; hard, sabangular ; 13x12x6 in.
No. 158 — Ingleby Mill Dam ; angular; ? x 7 x5 in. ' Felsite or porphy-
rite (Bonney). These blocks may not improbably have been derived
from the quartz-felsite of St. John's Vale, Cumberland.
(10) No. 93 — Ingleby Mill Dam; sabangular; 8x4x3 in.
(11) No. 125 — Ingleby Mill Dam ; sabangular; 17x8x? in. ' Por-
phyrite — old andesite (Cheviot?)' (Bonney). ' Possibly from the Che-
viots, but not a common type there, and should think more probably from
some of the porphyritic areas in the S. of Scotland ' (Clough). No. 138
— Ingleby Mill Dam; moderately rounded; 24 x 15 X Pin. No. 139 —
Ingleby Mill Dam ; subangular ; 21 x 18 x 10 in. The above are some of
the largest of these common blocks which so strongly characterise oar
local drift.
(18) No. 839 — On right bank of stream below Ingleby Mill Dam ;
snbangular; 16x?xl4in. ' Porphyrite — probably an old andesite '
(Bonney). ' Very like some of the upper Old Red traps of the neigh-
bourhood of Kelso. I have also noticed these rocks mixed with Cheviot
rocks in considerable quantities in Bridlington Bay boulders ' (Clough).
(14) No. 2.32— Ingleby Mill Dam; angular; 8x7x5 in. 'Might
well be from the Lower Old Red porphyritic district of the Cheviot Hills '
(Clough).
(15) No. 275 — In Mr. Gill's field, Ingleby ; subangnlar ; smoothed ;
4 X 8 x 6 in. ' Felsite or porphyrite — Scotch ' (Bonney).
(16) No. 303 — In stream below Ingleby Mill Dam; subangular;
10 X 6 X 6 in. ' Hornblendic porphyrite — S. Scotland ' (Bonney). ' Not
unlike portions of the lowest of the porphyritic flows at the head of
Coquetdale, Cheviot Hills ' (Clough).
(17) No. 319 — -In stream near Mr. H. Bainbridge's farm, Greenhow ;
rounded ; 21 X 17 X 14 in. ' Hornblendic felsite or porphyrite ' (Bonney).
' Very like some igneous masses in the Highlands near the head of Loch
Katrine, Loch Lomond, &c.' (Clough).
(18) The largest of these is No. 302. In stream below Ingleby Mill
Dam; subangular; 17x10x6 in.
(21) As the Cleveland Dyke at its nearest point, near the village of
Great Ayton, is distant only some four miles from the present position of
the boulders to which these notes refer, and as the ice-sheet must have
ploughed across it almost at right angles in the immediate direction of
our locality, we should naturally expect to find what, in point of fact, we
do find — numerous angular and subangular fragments derived from it,
intermixed with the other boulders. The ' Whinstone,' as it is locally
termed, is described in the memoir of the Geological Survey relating to
the district as ' a bluish-grey augite-andesite, consisting of a ground mass
apparently made up of angitic and felsitic mattej', with small crystals of
felspar and augite. Scattered through this are glassy crystals of triclinic
felspar of much larger size, very distinctly visible to the unaided eye,
and which give the rock a distinctive character by which it can be easily
recognised.' As other dykes of a very similar character occur in the
direction from which the ice-sheet came, it is possible that one or two
from other sources may have been put down as from this source. The
largest measures 48x35x34 in. Others measure respectively 39 in.,
33 in., 29 in., 28 in., 27 in. in their longest diameter.
(22) No. 113 — Ingleby Mill Dam ; imperfectly rounded, with smooth
faces ; 11 x 8 x 6 in.
104 REPORT— 1888.
(24) No. 274— In Mr. Gill's field ; moderately rounded ; 13 X 9 X 7 in.
'Basalt or angitic andesite— Northern ' (Bonney).
(2(3) ' Porphyritic basalt — Scotch or north of England ' (Bonney).
' Looks as if it might be from the porphyritic basalt rock of Lumsden
Law or the Carter Fell or from some other of the similar basaltic rocks of
the Border country ' (Clough).
(27) Two in Greenhow measure respectively 31x20x13 in. and
27x17 X Pin.
(28) The largest of these measures 13 x 12 x 10 in.
(29) A subangular boulder at Ingleby Mill Dam measures 18 x 13
X 7 in.
(30) No. 326 — In Mr. H. Bainbridge's field, Greenhow ; rounded ;
10 X 6 X 4 in.
(31) No. 73 — By side of road near Ingleby Church ; imperfectly
rounded; hard; green; 14x9x5 in. ^ Not igneous — a Halleflinta'
(Bonney). ' Should strongly suppose this to be one of the rocks of the
volcanic series of Borrowdale ' (Clough).
(32) The real proportion of these blocks is somewhat higher than is
represented by the number 81, since some small ones have been passed
over where more unfamiliar rocks would have been noted. The following
are the measurements of a few of the largest : 36 X 20 X 17 in. ; 33 X 18
Xl2in. ; 30x22x ? in.;29xl4x? in.; 29 X ? X 12 in. ; 24 X ? xl6in. ;
23 x 22 X 14 in. The majority of the above consist of a somewhat com-
pact sandstone, not easily worn and resisting decomposition.
(33) Some of these are probably from the Oolite ; others from the
Carboniferous. The largest measures 16 X 10 X 7 in.
(34) These are probably all from the Inferior Oolite. The largest of
them, which is at the Ingleby Mill Dam, measures 29 X ? X 8 in. ; others
measure 24 X 17 X ? in. ; 23 X ? X 19 in.
(36) No. 1.50— Ingleby Mill Dam ; 6 X 6 x4 in. ' Fine quartz grit ;
probably Carboniferous ' (Bonney).
(37) No. 145 — Ingleby Mill bam ; subangular; ? x9x4in.
(38) No. 351 — In stream below Mill Dam ; subangular ; 22 x 19 X ? in. ;
argillaceous limestone : perhaps from the Oolite.
(39) No. 166— Ingleby Mill Dam ; subangular ; 17 X ? X 10 in. No.
299 — In stream below Mill Dam ; angular ; 10 X 6 X 4 in.
(40) The majority, bat not all, of these are from the Mountain Lime-
stone. Some are greenish or yellowish ; others very light coloured ;
a few nearly black. No. 165 — Ingleby Mill Dam ; a flat slab ; finely
stratified ; 28 X ? X 5 in. No. 282 — In stream immediately below Mill
Dam, having recently fallen from left bank ; angular ; cubical ; ordinary
mountain limestone, full of fossils, including Spirifera bisulcata, Syringo-
pora geniculata, Athyris avibigua, Terebratula vesicularis, and a shell which
I take to be Spiriferina cristata, var. octoplicata ; 22 x 19 X 14 in.
(41) No. 256 — Marsh Lane; rounded and flattened; stratified;
striated on one side in various directions; 18x14x5 in. 'Mudstone'
(Bonney). No. 48 — Ingleby Vicarage Garden; discoidal ; 9x7x3 in.
'Mudstone — Scotch Silurian (?) ' (Bonney). 'Very like one of the
Coniston flagstones of the English Lake district ; probably came over the
■watershed W. of Bowes with the Shap granite boulders' (Clough).
(42) No. 350 — In stream below Ingleby Mill Dam ; angular ;
1x18x3 in.
The Committee have received the subjoined valuable reports from the
ON THE ERKATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 105
' Yorkshire Boulder Committee,' formed in connection with the ' York-
shire Naturalists' Union.' . c -o n
That Committee have had the advantage of the services ot Frotessor
Green, F.R.S., as chairman, and Mr. S. A. Adamson, F.G.S., as secretary,
and have examined and passed all the reports which are subjoined.
The Rev. B. M. Cole, M.A., Wetwang, forwards the following re-
^"^In a field, about 350 yards north of Gristhorpe station, near Filey, and
about 50 yards east of the railway, is an isolated boulder of basalt ; sub-
angular ; 4 ft. 7 in. X 2 ft. 10 in. X 1 ft. 11 in. Partially imbedded m
^^°In the North Skeugh Field, Stillington, near Easingwold, is a boulder
4 ft. 3 in. X 3 ft. X 2 ft. 7 in. ; rounded ; has not been moved ; longest axis
N.E. and S.W. No strise apparent. A very hard cherty limestone.
About 150 feet above sea-level. Rests upon Middle Lias. .
In and around the village of Muston, near Filey, are the following
boulders : —
No. 1. 3 ft. X 2 ft. X 11 ft., basalt, smoothed.
„ 2. 1 ft. 3 in. X 1 ft. 9 in. X 1 ft. 6 in., basalt, sharp edges.
„ 3. 2 ft. X 3 ft. X 1 ft. 8 in., basalt, smoothed.
4. 4 ft. 5 in. X 1 ft. 10 in. x 2 ft., basalt, triangular-shaped end.
", 6.3 ft. « 2 f t. 4 in. x 1 ft. 8 in., basalt, angular.
6. 1 ft. 8 in. X 2 ft. 6 in x 2 ft. 11 in., basalt, smoothed on one side.
" 7. 4 ft. 6 in. X 1 ft. 7 in. x 1 ft. 3 in., grit.
Round the sign- post in the centre of Muston village are two boulders :
Basalt— 2 ft. 7 in. X 2 ft. 3 in. x 8 in. (embedded in ground), and 2 ft. 9 m.
X 2 ft. (embedded in ground).
A boulder at the corner of a house close by ; basalt, 2 ft. 3 m. X 1 ft.
8 in. X 9 in.
There are at least half a dozen others from 1 ft. to 2 ft. cubes.
In a bank, surmounted by a hedge, at the Hunmanby end of the
village, are three gritstone boulders : 3 ft. 3 in. X 1 ft. 8 in. X 1 ft. 1 in. ;
2 ft. 7 in. X 1 ft. 8 in. ; 3 ft. x 1 ft. 5 in.
In the middle of a grass field, half-way between Muston and Hun-
manby, in a straight line, is an isolated boulder of basalt; rounded,
3 ft. 6in. x 3 ft. X 1 ft. liin. Embedded in the ground.
There are two groups of boulders at Bempton and Buckton (East
Riding) : — .pi
3 ft. X 2 ft. and 2 ft. cube is the ordinary shape. A few angular, a
few sub-angular, but mostly rounded. The stones referred to have all been
moved by man, built into foundations of houses, set up at corners of
streets ; also used as seats. There is no doubt whatever the boulders
have been removed from adjacent fields. By far the greater number
are whinstone. There are many blocks of various sandstones, but
four-fifths are whinstone. 250 feet above sea-level. They are abundant
in the villages of Bempton and Buckton. Speaking only of the large
ones : 5 may be seen at the well ; 10 at the pond close by ; 10 more in
the cottages towards CUff Lane ; 5 forming steps in the lane itself ; hun-
dreds in the walls of smaller size but upwards of 1 ft. cube ; 10 in Buck-
ton, upwards of 2 ft. ; 15 at lea.st in Old BridUngton at the corner of
streets, upwards of 2 ft., some smoothed ; 24 by the pond at Flambro',
removed thither from adjacent fields.
106 REPOET— 1888.
All the above mentioned are whinstone : it is the characteristic bonlder
of the Bnckton, Bempton, and Flambro' cHfFs, and seems ubiquitous.
Two boulders occur at Bempton (E. Riding) in the fields known as
' The Leys,' a few yards from the top of Bempton Cliffs, opposite Scale
Nab; the boulders are about 50 yards apart.
Boulder No. 1. — 4 ft. x 3 ft. x 1 ft. 6 in. Sub-angular. North, in-
clined to W. Whinstone. Above sea-level, 275 ft. Isolated.
Boulder No. 2. — 4ft. X 4ft. x 1ft. Gin. Sub-angular. Above sea-
level, 280 ft. Isolated.
Both rest on a thin boulder clay on chalk.
At Carr Naze, Filey Brigg, are the following erratic blocks : —
1. Rounded block on surface of third field from Filey Church, due
north, near cliff, 2 ft. 7in. x 2 ft. 5 in. x 1 ft. 5 in. Whinstone.
2. A similar but flatter block, lying at base of boulder clay, partially
exposed, on north side of Naze, just above Oolitic rocks, 2 ft. 11 in.
X 2 ft. 8 in. X 1 ft. 2 in. Direction E.N.E. Beautifully furrowed with ice-
marks. Whinstone.
3. A mass lying exposed on Oolitic rocks, about 50 ft. above sea-level,
evidently washed out of boulder clay above, 3 ft. 8 in. x 2 ft. X 1 ft. 4 in.
Smooth edges, flat surface. Mica trap.
4. Small block, on ledge, fallen as above. Quartz felsite.
5. In boulder clay on S. side of Naze. Black earthy limestone with
iron pyrites.
6. Fine mass of Lias, all Lower Lias fossils (Gryphcea, Mya, &c.), 1 ft.
X 1 ft. 5 in. X 7 in. Washed out of boulder clay on N. side of the Naze.
7. Mass of freestone lying partially exjDosed half-way up N. face of
boulder clay at Carr Naze, 3 ft. 10 in. X 2 ft. 4 in. X 1 ft. Direction N.
No markings.
Dr. Carter Mitchell, Topcliffe, Thirsk, reports a boulder of Shap
granite in the parish of Cundall, on the Leckby estate, five miles from
Boroughbridge, about a quarter of a mile above ' Elmire Ings,' as given
on the Ordnance Map. It is in the bed of the river Swale, close to the
Leckby bank. It is entirely out of the water when the river is very low ;
4 ft. 3 in. X 3 ft. X 2 ft. 9 in. Is more or less rounded. No strite or
groovings. Is about 50 ft. above sea-level. There is a long ridge of
gravel and sand about a quarter of a mile from where the boulder lies.
Mr. H. M. Platnauer, B.Sc, F.G.S. (Curator of the York Museum),
records the following erratic blocks which were obtained from the
boulder clay that was dug out when the York new station was built, and
are now placed about the grounds of the Philosophical Society of that
city :—
1. Shap granite, irregular shape, smooth, 2 ft. 9 in. x 1 ft. 10 in. X llin.
2. Shap granite, irregular parallelepiped, rough surface, 1 ft. 4 in.
X 1 ft. 4 in. X 10 in.
3. Shap granite, roughly ellipsoidal, smooth surface, 2 ft. 2 in.
X I ft. 1 in. X 1 ft. 2 in.
4. Shap granite, irregular mass, rounded but not smooth, 3 ft. 1 in.
X 2 ft. 8 in. X 1 ft. 10 in.
5. Shap granite, irregular oval, smooth, 2 ft. 9 in. x 1 ft, 10 in.
X 1 ft. 7 in.
6. Whitish limestone, flat piece, polished and striated on one side,
3 ft. X 1 ft. 3 in. X 8 in.
7. Estuarine sandstone, rounded mass, 1 ft. 4 in. X 1 ft. 1 in. X 9 in.
ON THE EEEATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 107
8. Dark-colonred Mountain limestone, polished and striated, 1 ft. Sin.
X 1 ft. 2 in. X 9 in.
9. Limestone (Oolitic, but of what horizon I cannot say), smooth,
striated on one side, 1 ft. 4 in. x 1 ft. 3 in. X 9 in.
10. Similar to No. 9, 1 ft. 3 in. X 1 ft. 2 in. X 7 in.
11. Sandstone (probably estuarine), angular, irregular, 1 ft. 5 in.
Xlft. 2 iu.xl ft. 1 in.
12. Grey arenaceous limestone (probably Jurassic), irregular,
smoothed on one side, 1 ft. 1 in. X 1 ft. 3 in. X 10 in.
13. Similar to No. 12, smooth on one side, 1ft. 8 in. X 1 ft. 4 in.
Xlft. 1 in.
14. Light coloured limestone, smooth, egg-shaped, striated, 2 ft.
XI ft. 2 in.xl ft. 6 in.
15. Lithostrotion, small, polished, and rounded mass, 1 ft. X 9 in. X 7 in.
16. Greenish-grey trap, probably a hornblende-andesite. An ir-
regular quadrate mass, trapezoidal in section at one direction ; the faces at
an obtuse angle are polished and somewhat striated, 2 ft. 6 in. x 2 ft.
X 1 ft. 4 in.
The Rev. Thomas Parkinson, Vicar of North Otterington, near
Northallerton, reports as follows : —
In the centre of the village of Thornton-le-Beans, near Northallerton,
at the left or north side of the street going eastwards, parish of North
Otterington, is a block of Shap granite. Length, 3 ft. 10 in. E. and W.
Breadth, 3' 2" N. and S. Above ground 2ft. 4 in., and probably about the
same in the ground. Rounded. Uncertain whether it has been moved
or not. Longest axis E. and W. No stride or groovings. Isolated. Rests
on clay.
In the township of Thornton-le-Moor, parish of North Otterington,
are three boulders.
1. In an open field, near a well named ' Stockeld's Well.' About 4 ft.
6 in. x 2 ft. 8 in. X 2 ft. 8 in. Somewhat wedge-shaped. Rounded. Cannot
say whether it has been moved or not. Longest axis N. and S. (nearly).
Granite, ice-worn. Isolated. Rests on clay.
2. In a lane called ' Endecon,' about 300 yards from south end of
village of Thornton-le-Moor, 3 ft. 2 in. x2 ft. x 2 ft. Was considerably
broken a few years ago. Has been moved. Coarse dolerite. Isolated.
Rests on clay.
3. On the roadside, near farmhouse called Hill Top or Thief Hole
Farm, 3 ft. 8 in. x 2 ft. 9 in. x 2 ft. 9 in., all above ground. Rounded a
little, angular in some parts. Has been moved — taken out when foundation
was dug of an adjacent building. Close grained trap or highly altered
fine ash. Isolated. Rests on clay.
In township of North Otterington, on Otterington Farm, in field near
the entrance gate from Northallerton road, and about 300 yards on the
road from North Otterington Church ; 4 ft. X by 2 ft. 11 in. Height
above ground, one side, 1 ft. 6 in. ; the other, 3 to 4 in. Somewhat
wedge-shaped. Angles all rounded. Has been moved. There are four
ruts running longitudinally on the top and in the direction of longest
axis. Granite. Rests on gravel.
Mr. Robert Mortimer, of Fimber, reports that at Yonlthorpe, between
Bishop Wilton and Stamford Bridge, is a large isolated boulder of pare
white very quartzose sandstone. Had not been moved by man until
recently, when it was carted into the farmyard of Mr. Hawkins. Is now
used as a mounting block, 3 ft. 9 in. x 2 ft. 9 in. x 2 ft. 10 in.
]08 EEPORT- 1888.
Toulthorpe is on the Keuper marl, and not far from tLe foot of the
chalk escarpment of the Wolds.
The Rev. R. A. Summerfield, Vicar of North Stainley, reports that in
the parish of North Stainley, near the hamlet of North Leys, and about
100 yards from the ' Smithy ' (so marked on the 6 in. Ordnance Map), on
the west side of the road to North Stainley, is a block of Carboniferous
grit, 3 ft. 3 in. X 2 ft. 5 in. x 1 ft. 7 in. Sub-angular. It has been moved
from the adjoining field to the place it now occupies about twenty years ago,
being a hindrance to ploughing, &c. About 170 ft. above sea-level. Con-
nected probably with a long gravel ridge which abuts on the river bank
and underlies all the parish, in which are a large quantity of scratched,
grooved, and polished blocks, varying much in size. One block, 5 ft.
X 3 ft. X 1 ft. 3 in., is a mass of large Producti.
The Rev. Arthur Watts, F.G.S., Vice-Principal of Bede College,
Durham, reports that there is a block of encrinital Carboniferous lime-
stone in the grounds of R. L. Hawthorne, Esq., Hawthorne Tower, Sea-
ham Harboui', on north side of Hawthorne Drive and west of the tower.
Was removed from an adjacent field when draining to its present
position, 5 ft. 10 in. x 3 ft. 8 in. x 1 ft. 3 in. Weight, 1 ton 18-79 cwt.
Sub-angular. It originally pointed by its long axis '20° E. of N., 42° E.
of N. true bearing. There are seven grooves across the stone, five perfect,
two imperfect. There are two sets of striae : the one set of six are nearly
obliterated by the other, numbering about seventy. The smaller group of
stri« are nearly in the line of the longest axis ; the larger group make an
angle of about G0° with the long side.
The nearest similar rock known in situ is 25 miles due west at
Frosterley.
The boulder has no popular name or legend. Is about 80 ft. above
sea-level. It was discovered in March 1879, and is not indicated on any
map. It formed part of a mass of clay, sand, gravel, and boulders that
is seen in a coast section to be in a hollow in the magnesian limestone,
about 100 yards wide and 60 ft. or more deep.
Mr. Wm. Gregson, Baldersby, Thirsk, reports upon two boulders in
the Priory Grounds, Guisborough, both resting on the Lower Lias.
Boulder No. 1 : 4 ft. X 3 ft, 6 in. x 1 f t. 3 in. Sub-angular. No groov-
ings or striations. Grey granite 300 ft. above the sea. Isolated.
Eesting on Lower Lias :
Boulder No. 2 : 3 ft. 6 in. x 3 ft. 2 in. x 1 ft. Sub-angular. No groov-
ings or striations. Grey granite. 300 ft. above the sea. Isolated. Rest-
iug on Lower Lias.
Dr. W. T. Veitch, Middlesbro', records a Shap-fell granite boulder
at Saltburn 30 feet from the top of the road leading up from the beach,
almost opposite the Zetland Hotel ; 3 ft. 8 in. high, 14 ft. in circum-
ference ; is entirely out of ground on one side ; rounded ; has no long
axis, no groovings or striations; has no popular name and is without a
legend ; about 150 feet above sea-level ; is not indicated upon any map.
It rests upon Middle Glacial drift.
Mr. C. Brownridge, F.G.S., Leeds, reports on two boulders on the
west front of Lindholme Hall, which is about four miles to the S.E. of
Hatfield. The hall is upon slightly elevated ground in the centre of
Hatfield Chase, a wide extent of bog. The deposits in the vicinity of the
hall consist of gravel and sand resting upon Triassic sandstone. The
boulders extracted from the gravel include magnesian limestone, Car-
ON THE EKRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 10[)
boniferous sandstones of various kinds, gannistei- and millstone grit,
porphyries and basalts, quartzite, vein quartz, black flints, chert, &c.
Boulder No. 1. — 1 ft. 10 in. xlft. 9 in, xl ft. 8 in. ; longest axis N.E.
to S.W. ; sub-angular ; Halleflinta, not unlike some Lake Country rocks
in character ; no groovings or striations observed.
Boulder No. 2.-2 ft. i 1 in. x 2 ft. 0| in. x 1 ft. 7 in. ; longest axis N.E.
to S.W. ; rounded ; a coarse grit, almost a conglomerate, with large
quartz pebbles ; no groovings or striations observed.
A mythical personage, half giant, half hermit, known as William of
Lindholme, is said to have lived at Lindholme and to have brought the
above stones, known traditionally as the ' Thumb Stone ' and the ' Little
Finger Stone,' to their present position.
Mr. J. W. Davis, F.G.S., Hon. Sec. Yorkshire Geological and
Polytechnic Society, furnishes the following note on the groups of
boulders at Norber, near Clapham : —
All sizes up to 16 to 20 feet in diameter ; angular ; slight striations ;
under surface rarely striated. Rock identical with that of the boulders
is found in the valley to the north at various spots, varying from a mile
to a mile and a half from the place where the boulders are most thickly
congregated. They are composed of Silurian grit and rest on mountain
limestone ; 800 to 1,250 feet above the sea ; area covered is three-fourths
of a mile square ; several hundreds in number ; all exposed on the surface.
In many instances the masses of Silurian grit have protected the lime-
stone immediately beneath, whilst the surrounding surface has been
removed, and they now stand on pedestals of limestone, 12 to 18 inches
in height.
References to the Norber Blocks.
Phillips, 'Trans. Geol. Soc.,' vol. iii. p. 13; 'Elvers, Mountains, and Sea Coast of
Yorks.,' p. 111.
Hughes, ' Proceeds. Yorks. Geol. and Polytech. Soc' (1867), vol. iv. p. 574 ; ' Quar.
Joum. Geol. Soc' (18S6), xlii. 527.
Tiddemau, ' Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc' (1872), vol. x^xviii. p. 477.
Davis, 'Proceeds. Yorks. Geol. and Polytech. Soc.,' vol. vii. p. 266.
Davis and Lees. 'West Yorkshire,' pp. 200, 201. 267.
Adamson, 'Trans. Leeds GeoL Assoc,' Part I. (1885), pp. 32-34.
Mr. W. Hodgson Gill, of Stourton, reports the following boulders: —
At Filey, Yorkshire, on the beach behind the wooden piles at the base
of cliff, near Ravine Villas. 3 ft. 3 in. x 2 ft. 2 in. x 2 ft. 2 in. ; is rounded ;
no groovings or striations ; Shap-fell granite ; it rests on boulder clay.
At Hunmanby, at the end of the road leading to the beach, 3 ft. 7 in.
X 2 ft. 3 in. X 2 ft. Sin. ; is sub-angular ; no groovings or striations ; Shap-
fell granite ; it rests on boulder clay.
At Filey, on the beach between Primrose Valley and Hunmanby
Road; 4 ft. 1 in. x2 ft. 9 in.x2 ft. 1 in.; angular; no groovings or
striations ; calcareous sandstone with nodules and pebbles ; it rests on
boulder clay.
Mr. Samuel Chadwick, Curator of the Malton Museum, sends the-
following reports : —
In the parish of Cropton, four miles from Pickering, North Ridincr,
and in a grass-field belonging to Mr. James Dixon, Loand House farm,
3 ft. 4 in X 2 ft. 5 in. x 1 ft. 10 in. out of ground. Rounded. Its longest
axis is nearly E. and W. Sandstone, approaching quartzite ; not unlike
110 EEPORT 1888.
some of tlie Toredale sandstones of the Yorkshire dales. No striations.
Rests on fine loamy soil, about 200 ft. above the sea.
On the farm occupied by jMr. Grundon (estate of J. R. Grimston,
Esq.), Neswick, S W. of Driffield. At present 4 ft. X 2 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 3 in.,
but some portion has been broken away. Sub-angular. Not moved by
man. Is long-shaped. Longest axis E. and W. Whinstone. 250 ft,
above the sea. Isolated. Boulder clay, restingf upon chalk.
Grosmont, near Whitby, on the estate of ]Messrs. Bagnall, Grosmont
Iron Works, 2 ft. 3 in. x 1 ft. 10 in. x 2 ft. Well rounded. Has been
moved. No striiB or groovings. Shap-fell granite. About 100 ft. above
the sea. Was origiually found in the bed of the river Esk, which is
300 yards E. of the railway station, and the boulder -was found about
50 yards to the N. of the first railway bridge crossing the stream. The
boulder rests upon the alum shales of the Lias, through which the river
Esk cuts its way.
In Sleights parish, near Whitby ; on the Sleights Hall estate, about
300 yards W. of Sleights railway station, and on the E. side of the river
Esk, 2 ft. xl ft. 6 in. xl ft. 6 in. out of ground. Sub-angular. Rather
long-shaped, but has been moved. No strife or groovings. Granite.
100 ft. above the sea. Was originally in a small bed of gravel, cut
through at the making of the railway. On gravel resting upon the Lias
alum shale.
In a grass field three-quarters of a mile due E. from Kirkby Under-
dale and half a mile S. of Uncleby are two boulders. One is 5 ft.
X 3 ft. 6 in. X 1 ft. 3 in. ; angular ; longest axis N. and S. The other is G ft.
3 in. X 3 ft. x2 ft. 6 in. above ground ; sub-angular ; longest axis direct
N. and S. These are both composed of ferruginous Oolitic limestone
(Inferior Oolite), resting upon the red chalk. No strise or groovings are
visible upon exposed surfaces. Are about 300 ft. above sea-level.
Speeion, near Filey. On Mr. Wilson's farm, in a field, and going
from the high road to the house, is a boulder, 2 ft. 9in. x2 ft. 9 in. x2 ft.
Nearly a square angular block. Whin.stone. About 350 ft. above sea-
level. Is isolated. Rests on boulder clay.
In a field near the mill belonging to Mr. Plews is a boulder, 3 ft. 7 in.
xl ft. 3 in. xl ft. 3 in. Oblong; rounded at each end. No strite or
groovings observed. Whinstone. About 350 ft. above sea-level. Rests
on boulder clay, with chalk underlying.
At the corner of Mr. Wilson's garden are three boulders. No. 1 — ■
1 ft. 6 in. X 1 ft. 6 in. X 1 ft. ; angular. No. 2—3 ft. X 1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. ;
rounder. No. 3 — 3 ft. x 2 ft. X 2 ft. ; sub-angular. No striae or groovings
observed. All are whinstone. About 350 ft. above sea-level. Rests on
boulder clay, with chalk underlying.
In the village road leading from the high road are twenty- three
boulders, the three largest being of the following dimensions : No. 1 —
2 ft. X 1 ft. 2 in. X 1 ft. 2 in. No. 2—1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. x 1 ft. No. 3—
1 ft. 2 in. X 1 ft. 2 in. X 1 ft. Irregularly shaped and angular. The
majority are whinstone, the remainder fine sandstone. About 350 ft.
above sea-level.
jfOTE. — In various parts of the village whinstone boulders may be
found, some rounded, others angular. The average size about 1 ft. 3 in.
X 1 ft. Many of them have been moved and are now used for support of
stacks and other purposes.
On a farm known as ' Airy Hill,' occupied by Mr. Woodcock, about
ON THE EEKATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. Ill
one mile E. of Hanmanby and two and a half miles S. of Filey,
2 ft. 4 in. X 2 ft. 2 in. X 5 in. A square angular block. Has been moved.
No groovings or strife. A bard sandstone very like Kellaway's rock,
150 ft. above sea-level. Was found on the top of a knoll which is com-
posed principally of boulder clay.
On the same farm are several boulders, in front of the house, which
have been collected from adjacent fields. Five are composed of whinstone,
varying in size from 2 ft. 10 in. x 1 ft. 10 in. x 1 ft. 4 in. to 1 ft. 6 in.
X 1 ft. 6 in. X 1 ft. There are also three of Shap granite and one of grey
granite, the largest being 2 ft. 3 in. x 2 ft. 2 in. x 11 in. They are rounded
to snb-angular. The surface in this district undulates and any sections
are through boulder clay.
On the Glenton farm, on "W. side of road leading from Reighton to
Filey, are two boulders, 1 ft. 7 in. x 1 ft. 7 in. x 1 ft. ; grey granite ;
rounded, 3 ft. X 2 ft. 10 in. x2 ft.; mountain limestone; rounded. No
stvise or groovings. Have doubtless been taken from an adjacent ridge of
gravel, which runs nearly N. and S.
On Colonel Mitford's estate, and on a farm occupied by Mr. Hornby,
a mile and a half E. of Hunmanby and three and a half miles S. of Filey,
are two boulders, 1 ft. 3h in. X 1 ft. X 9 in. ; 1 ft. 10 in. x 1 ft. 5 in. x 7 in.
Both are hard, fine-grained sandstone, and have been removed from
adjacent land. They originally rested npon the top of a bank close to
the cliO". All the above are from 150 ft. to 200 ft. above sea-level.
On the GrafStoe farm, about 100 yards E. of farmstead, two miles E. of
Hnnmanby, and three miles S. of Filey, are two boulders. No. 1 — 2 ft. 2 in.
xlffc. 11 in. xl ft. 4 in. Sab-angular. Has been moved, but formerly
rested npon boulder clay iuterniixed with gravel. No striae or groovings.
Red sandstone. No. 2 — 4 ft. 1 in. x 3 ft. 2 in. x 2 ft. Oblong and sub-
angular. Has been moved, but when found its longest axis was direct
N. and S. No striae. Grey granite. Formerly rested on same bed as
preceding boulder.
At the base of a cutting on the North-Eastern Railway, about a mile
S. of Filey Railway Station, 3 ft. 6 in. x2 ft. 11 in., and projects above
the ground about 1 ft. 6 in. Oblong and sub-angular. Has not been
moved. Longest axis N. to S. No striae or groovings. Dark blue
whinstone, 150 ft. above sea-level. Is about midway in the centre of a
ridge of boulder clay, sand, and gravel.
On the property of Mr. GuUan, Reighton, near Filey, and on the south
side of St. Helen's Road (2^ miles from Hunmanby E. and 4^ miles S.
from Filey), are two bouldei-s : 2 ft. 2 in. x 1 ft. 7 in. x 1ft. 6 in.;
1ft. 9 in. X 1 ft. 6 in. x 10 in. Both are snb-angular and are dark blue
whinstone. They were taken from a ridge of gravel and boulder clay
close by, about 150 ft. above sea-level. No striae or groovino's.
On Mr. Crow's Manor farm, about 100 yards W. of Reighton village,
are two boulders : 2 ft. 4 in. x 1 ft. 7 in. x 1 ft. 2 in. ; 1 ft. 10 m.
X 1 ft. 2 in. X 1 ft. Both are oblong and sub-angular, and are dark blue
whinstone. They were both taken from a field close by and were
exposed on the surface. No striae or groovings. Are about the same
level as preceding blocks.
At the entrance to Reighton village are four boulders : 3 ft. 5 in.
X 1 ft. 10 in. X 1 ft. ; 2 ft. 3 in. X 1 ft. 11 in. X 1 ft. 4 in. ; 3 ft. 5 in.
X I ft. 1 in. X 11 in. ; 2 ft. 3 in, X 1 ft. 4 in. X 9 in. All are oblong and
sub-angular, and are dark blue whinstone. Have no striae or groovings.
112 REPOET— 1888.
Have been in present position beyond memory, but there is little doubt
have been originally upon surface of adjoining fields and removed for
agriculture, but could not be bi'oken for repairing of roads.
At Cayton, near Scarhrd'. — On Dr. Taylor's estate and in the farm-
yard of Mr. N. Smith, on the west side of the village ; 2 ft. 8 in.
X 1 ft. 9 in. X 1 ft. 2 in. Angular. Has been moved. No striae or
groovings. Whinstone. It is now used as a mounting block ; 150 ft.
above sea-level. It rests upon drift composed of gravel, sand, and
On Mr. Hodgson's estate. It is close to Mr. Smith's blacksmith's
shop, and used for a seat ; also for a mounting stone ; 2 ft. X 1 ft. 8 in.
X 1 ft. 3 in. Sub-angular. Has been moved. No strife or groovings.
Whinstone ; 200 feet above sea-level. It rests now upon surface soil.
On Mr. Stead's estate. It now forms the foundation-stone at the
south corner of an old house inhabited by W. Fowler, shoemaker, on the
side of the village main street; 1 ft. 9 in. X 1 ft. 6 in. X 1 ft. :] in. Flat
angular block. Has been moved. No striae or groovings ; 150 ft. above
sea-level. Whinstone.
Is about 100 yards E. of the railway station ; at the N. side of the
road, close to the gate, leading into the valley field occupied by Mr. N.
Smith; 2 ft. 2 in. X 1 ft. 8 in. X 1 ft. Sub-angular. Probably has been
moved. No striae or gi'oovings. Whinstone; 150 ft. above sea-level.
Rests on surface soil.
In the foundations of an old cottage, belonging to Mr. Stephenson,
on the B. side of the street. This cottage is about 250 yards N. of the
church ; 2 ft. 7 in. X 1 ft. X 1 ft. 2 in. Rounded and oblong. Has been
moved. No striie or groovings exposed. Coarsely grained dolerite ;
150 ft. above sea-level. Rests on surface soil.
On Mrs. Wilson's estate ; in the centre of the village on the W. side
of the Scarbro' and Filey road ; 2 ft. 5 in. x 1 ft. 10 in. x 1 ft. 3 in.
Rounded. Has been moved. No strice or groovings. Dolerite. 200 ft.
above sea-level.
Note. — The possession of this boulder is at present in dispute. It ori-
ginally was in the foundation of some very old thatched cottages, and
when the new property was built some years ago a large block of
sandstone was given in exchange, and now that the sandstone is a
fixture they dispute the other being taken away.
On Dr. Layton's estate, Cayton Carr, about a mile and a half W. of
Cayton village. It was taken out of a ridge of gravel that runs through
the centre of a field, called the Six Acre Strip, in the occupation of Mr.
Smith. Its present position is close to the gate entering the field in
which it was found ; 2 ft. 4 in. x 1 ft. 7 in. X 9 in. Sub-angular. No
strife or groovings. Whinstone ; 250 ft. above sea-level.
Note. — In a heap close by are several smaller boulders taken out of
the same field, comprising grey granite, red granite, mountain limestone,
whinstone, and sandstone.
Is at the S. corner of a wall surrounding the engine-house of the
Scarbro' Waterworks Company, about one mile E. of the village of
Cayton ; 2 ft. x 1 ft. 8 in. X 1 ft. 3 in. Rounded. Long-shaped. No
striae or groovings. Mountain limestone.
IfOTE. — It was brought from the beach below to strengthen the corner
of the wall.
In a by-road leading from Cayton to Scarbro' is a large number of
ON THE EERATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLA^D, WALES, AND IRELAND. 113
boulders of vsfhicli upwards of thirty will average 1 ft. 4 in. x9 in. and
over seventy others are over a foot in diameter. The larger ones are
sub-angular ; the smaller ones rounded. All have no doubt been con-
veyed from adjacent fields. No striffi or groovings are to be seen on
exposed surfaces. They are different kinds of sandstone. They are about
150 ft. above sea-level.
On Miss Craven's estate, in the village of Cayton, about 300 yards N.
of the church, and on the main road to Scarbro', is a group of nine
boulders, four of which are whinstone, and upon an average 1 ft. 11 in.
X 1 f t. ; the other five are sandstone and average 1 ft. 8 it. x 1 ft. 2 in.
The whinstones are mostly sub-angular ; the sandstones angular.
There are no strife or groovings exposed. They are about 150 ft.
above sea-level. Some of them are entirely exposed, the rest being
partially covered with other stones and soil.
On Miss Craven's estate in the village of Cayton, and about 250 yards
N. of the church, in a by-road called North Lane, are a number of
boulders, the seven largest of which I have noted as follows : — No. I —
1 ft. 11 in. X 1 ft. 4 in. X 1 ft. ; red sandstone ; angular. No. 2 — 2 ft. 6 in.
X 1 ft. 2 in. X 1 ft. ; whinstone ; angular. No. 3 — 1 ft. 10 in. x 1 ft. 4 in.
X 1 ft. 3 in. ; whinstone; rounded. No. 4—1 ft. 5 in. x 1 ft. 3 in. x 1 ft. ;
hard, grey sandstone ; sub-angular. No. 5 — 1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. X 9 in. ;
whinstone ; rounded. No. 6 — ^1 ft. 4 in. X 9 in. X 7 in. ; mottled granite ;
sub-angular. No. 7 — 2 ft. 4 in. x 1 ft. 2 in. x 6 in. ; whinstone ; angular.
I could not observe any strias or groovings. The rising ground is prin-
cipally composed of drift, gravel, sand, and clay, whilst the hollows are
filled with deep peat bogs.
Note. — The great bulk of the boulders in this district are com-
posed of sandstone and whinstone; of these thousands have been broken
up and used to mend the roads from time unknown. There is no doubt
about the roads having received their supply of metal from this source.
Those left behind (as above) are those which could not be broken up,
or which have been taken out of the land at a recent date.
Lebherston, near 8carhro\ — On Mr. Wardell's estate, in a grass-field
at the E. end of the village, and about 100 yards W. of the Scarbro'
and Filey road, 4 ft. 3 in. x 2 ft. 5 in. x 2 ft. 7 in., but evidently one-half
of it is embedded ; sub-angular. Longest axis N.W. to S.E. ; should think
it has not been moved. There are remains of several groovings, which
are much worn, and there are also striae on the side of the block, in the
direction of the longest axis. "Whinstone. Is 200 feet above sea-level. Is
near the top of a ridge of gravel drift.
On Mr. Jackson's estate, at tbe E. end of the village, near a yard door
on the W. side of the road, 2 ft. 3 in X 1 ft. 9 in. x 2 ft. 3 in. Angular,
and is used as a stepping or mounting stone. Has been moved, but is
known to have been in its present position for more than a century. No
striae or groovings. Whinstone. 200 ft. above sea-level. No doubt has
been obtained from gravel drift in vicinity, but now rests on the surface
soil.
On Mr. H. Watson's estate. Is in a grass-field, about a quarter mile
N. of the Gristhorpe Railway Station, Hull and Scarbro' branch,
4 ft. 2^ in. X 2 ft. 5 in. X 3 ft. 6 in., and partially embedded. Sub-
angular, flat on one surface. Long-shaped ; its bearing N. and S. There
appear to be some striae, which have become very faint from exposure,
but the stone being grown over with lichen, they are difficult to determine.
1888. I
114 REPORT— 1888.
Uj)on the under side, however, is a well-defined groove about 1 ft. long.
Whinstone. The popular tradition is, that it was thrown by his Satanic
Majesty at one of his satellites for staying out too long. An old farmer
avers he found it one morning, but the previous evening it was not there.
200 ft. above sea-level. Rests on boulder clay.
On Mr. Welburn's estate, and upon a farm in the village occupied by
Mr. E,. Brown, are two boulders, 150 ft. above sea-level. Dimensions of
No. 1 boulder : 3 ft. 2 in. X 1 ft. 10 in. X 1 ft. 2 in. Sub-angular. Has
been moved. Whinstone. Dimensions of No. 2 boulder : 3 ft. 2 in. x 2 ft.
X 1 ft. 8 in. Angular. Has been moved. Whinstone. Both have
evidently been found in the land. No. 2 was dug out of the garden in
front of the house close to the street, and moved to its present position.
Lebberston village is situated on a ridge of gravel.
In Leys Lane, at the entrance to the village of Lebberston, on the
N. side of the lane and W. end of village, is a group of boulders.
No. 1—2 ft. 7 in. X 1 ft. 6 in. X 9 in., and No. 2—2 ft. 3 in. x 1 ft. 3 in.
X 10 in. : whinstone; sub-angular. No. 3 — 2 ft. 1 in. x 2 ft.l in. X 1 ft. 2 in. ;
coarsely grained dolerite ; rounded. No. 4 — 2 ft. 4 in. x 1 ft. x9 in., and
No. 5 — 2 ft. 1 in. x 1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. ; sandstone ; sub-angular. There
are no striae or groovings upon them. They are about 100 ft. above sea-
level ; are all close together and exposed on the surface.
There is a boulder in the North-Eastern Railway cutting, about one
mile N. of Filey, in the direction of Gristhorpe, 2 ft. 10 in. x 2 f t. 3 in.
X I ft. 4 in. Rounded ; pear-shaped. Has been moved ; is now at the
base of the cutting laid across a gutter or waterway. No strise or
groovings. Dark blue whinstone. 200 ft. above sea-level. Was con-
nected with a long ridge of gravel, sand, and clay, which was cut through
when making the line.
There is a boulder in the North-Eastern Railway cutting about 200
yards N. of Gristhorpe Station, and on the east bank of the cutting. It
is in the parish of Gristhorpe, near Scarbro', 2 ft. xl ft. lOin. xl ft.
Angular, almost square ; longest axis N. and S. Has not been moved.
No groovings or strias can be seen, but it is now almost covered with
soil which has fallen from above. It is a light-coloured sandstone, like
the moor grit near Scarbro' ; 200 ft. above sea-level. It is in a bank
of rough gravel, clay, and sand.
In the parish of Seamer, near Scarbro' (N. Riding), about three
miles S.S.W. of Scarbro' and about two miles S.E. of Seamer village, and
close to Seamer Junction, North-Eastern Railway, on the estate of Lord
Londesborough, is a group of boulders. No. 1 — 1 ft. X 9 in. x 6 in. ; red
granite. No. 2—2 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 10 in. x 1 ft. 4 in. ; Shap granite. No. 3—
1 ft. X 1 ft. X 9 in. ; Shap granite. No. 4 — 1ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. x 9 in. ; Shap
granite. No. 5 — 1 ft. 2 in. X 1 ft. X 8 in. ; Shap granite. No. C — 1 ft. 8 in.
X 1 ft. 6 in. X 9 in. ; Shap granite. No, 7 — 1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 2 in. X 8 in. ;
mica schist. No. 8 — 1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 6 in. ; red granite. All
are rounded. They have been moved, but were obtained from the Seamer
gravel drift. No striae or groovings are visible. About 200 ft. The
gravel drift of Seamer overlies the Coralline Oolite.
The Committee Jiave been favoured hy the Rev. A. W. Rowe, of Felstead,
with the following Report xipon boulders in N.W. Essex.
The boulders mentioned in the accompanying list are all lying within
the limits of a small district in the N.W. of Essex : a few only have been
ON THE EBKATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND, 115
specified -whicli are less tlian 12 inches in length, thoagh there are an
immense number which fall only a little short of that limit, especially
boulders of igneous rocks: but even with the omission of these the list
is not by any means an exhaustive one, as some portions of the district
have scarcely been examined. They have been found within six miles of
the village of Felstead, which will be found marked on the Ordnance
Map nearly mid-way between Braintree on the east, Dunraow on the
■west, Little Saling on the north, and Great Waltham on the south. The
general character of the district is that of a tableland, ranging from 200
to 250 feet above sea-level, intersected by small valleys cut out chiefly by
local streams. The superficial deposits are chalky boulder clay and beds
of glacial gravel : these gravel beds really underlie the chalky boulder
clay, as could be well seen in the railway cutting | mile west of
Dunmow Station before it was overgrown, but owing to the extensive
denudation of the clay the beds of gravel are frequently found at the
surface on the high ground. London clay underlies all these superficial
deposits, and in several valleys, notably that of the Chelmer, the streams
have cut their way down to it ; nearly all the larger boulders have been
found on the high ground. Some of these seem to require special
mention. Of the sandstone boulders three measure respectively
77 X 36 X 20 in. and 6-i x 63 x 14 in. and 61 X 34 x 17 in., this last having
a circumference of 158 inches, and nine others exceed 40 inches in
length, including the conglomerates : nearly all appear to be unfos-
siliferous, but in one, which in texture and general appearance may
be considered characteristic of the greater number, I found some small
fragments of Crinoid stems and some casts of portions of Aviculopecten :
in another rounded boulder of about 12 in. in diameter I found some
very well defined casts of Productus (P. semireticulatus, P. Martini,
P. orthoceras, P. hemisphericus), Streptorbynchus crenistria, Euom-
phalus pentangulatus, Bellerophon, showing that the boulder was mill-
stone grit ; and Mr. H. Keeping, who also examined the casts, tells me
that it agrees very well with the beds of buff sandstone near Oswestry.
Li two other large boulders, which 1 have described in a previous paper
CQ. J. G. S.' August 1887, p. 360) as being masses of a greyish yellow-
sandstone permeated with a thin film of calcite, giving them a peculiar
glazed appearance wherever fractured, I found fragments of Pecten
orbicularis. Mr. Whitaker informed me that a great number of boulders
of this rock are found in the boulder clay in Norfolk, and Mr. Keeping
identified it as being of the same character as that which occurs in the
Spilsby beds in Lincolnshire. Another very large boulder of a buff
coloured sandstone, fine-grained but not very compact, was dug out of
the bottom of a pond a few weeks ago : it contains Belemnites in
abundance, some of a large size. Among numerous boulders of Hert-
fordshire pudding-stone there are two which measure respectively
52x23x16 in. and 52x43 in., this latter being so completely buried
in the ground that its thickness could not be ascertained. The lime-
stone boulders are fragments of Carboniferous, Jurassic, and Cretaceous
rocks. The Carboniferous are almost without exception so exceedingly
fine that scarcely any fossil shells can be detected in them without the
aid of the microscope, the one exception being a boulder lately dug up at
Bocking Place almost entirely composed of shells of Productus giganteus.
Of the Jurassic rocks two boulders of Kimmeridge clay, taken out of
the chalky boulder clay in the cutting near Dunmow, were wonderfully
i2
116 REPORT— 1888.
striated with deep grooves of almost parallel striae on two sides, and
many of tlie boulders of clunch and hard chalk are also clearly striated,
but the direction of the strife is very irregular. Among the whitened
flints also there are some exceedingly good examples of cross-striation.
Striffi are not often to be seen on the hard sandstones and the igneous
boulders, though there are a few good examples of it ; but most of these
boulders are quite smoothed and some are highly polished. Of the
igneous rocks some are so much weathered that the outer surface comes
oflf in successive coats, like a thick-coated onion, whereas others, and
especially the larger boulders, are perfectly unweathered and have a very
dark almost black polished surface, so hard and rounded that it is often
exceedingly ditBcult to get a hand specimen. They consist mainly of
fine-grained dolerites and microcrystalline basalts, with a fair sprinkling
of quartz-porphyrites, mostly containing tourmaline, felspar-porphyrites,
and hornblende schists and gneiss. Amid the almost complete absence of
boulders, or even pebbles, of granite or syenite, one boulder which I have
lately found is remarkable : it is a large boulder of a pinkish grey syenite,
of very distinct rather coarse texture and containing abundant orthoclase,
not much quartz, not a great amount of hornblende, and a little biotite.
Dr. A. Geikie has seen a hand specimen and microscopic section of it,
and he informs me that he cannot identify it with any British rock
known to him, and that Dr. Hatch cannot find any specimen at tho
Jermyn Street Museum really like it. I have also been informed by Dr.
Crosskey that nothing like it has been found among the erratics in the
Midlands, though a considerable number of boulders of syenite have been
found there. I have sent a hand specimen to Christiania to see if it can
be identified there. In a gravel pit on the high ground near Felstead I
dug out a remarkable boulder of quartz and tourmaline, almost round and
highly polished and striped with parallel bands of black and yellow, and
among tho specimens of erratics in the Midlands which Dr. Crosskey has
collected I found one that was identical with it. Of the boulders of
dolerite it is somewhat remarkable that, although smaller boulders occur
in all directions, yet all the larger boulders which I have at present
found lie north of the old Roman road which runs through Braintreo
and Dunmow ; as many as six large boulders are lying within a com-
paratively small area, one of these being distinctly columnar in form and
one being very clearly striated. As regards the dolerites generally I
have already stated (' Q. J. G. S.' August 1887, p. 35G) that some of then>
are strikingly similar in specific gravity, in general appearance, and in
some remarkable microscopic points with some specimens of dolerites
sent me from Sweden, and that others are almost identical with the rocks
of the Whin Sill in the north of England, though these also might well
be Scandinavian boulders, as I understand that the Hunneberg rocks-
have been shown to be of the Whin Sill type. But one of the most
remarkable of the boulders which I have as yet found was exposed in
digging the foundations of a new house at Booking Place, Braintree
(Mr. S. Courtauld) : it was found at a depth of eight feet from the
surface and measures 22 x 18 x 11 in. ; it is rounded and smoothed,
roughly triangular in shape, and has two more or less flat surfaces : both
of these surfaces are very distinctly grooved with irregular strife. I sent
a hand specimen and a miscroscopic section to Professor Bonney, who
kindly examined both and wrote as follows : ' The rock is a curious one
and must have come a long distance. ... So far as I can venture to
ON THE EERATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 117
pronounce, the aspect of the slide reminds me rather of a modified
crystalline rock than a partially crystallised sedimentary rock. It is
therefore now a kind of gneiss — what I should call a pressure-gneiss —
resulting from the modification of a crystalline rock -which may have
been a quartziferous mica-diorite. The fragmental aspect I attribute to
the result of pressure which has acted on a crystalline rock, and has been
followed by a certain amount of mineral change in the constituents ; of
course an arlcose of the right constituents might give a similar appear-
ance, but though the enlargement of fragments in situ is not unknown, it
is not common and generally occurs (except in the case of quartz) in
very ancient rocks only. The boulder must have had a long journey, for
such a rock could not be found in situ nearer than the Scotch Highlands
or Scandinavia.'
BouLDEKS IN Essex, N.W.
District on the Ordnance Map, Little Saling, N. ; Great "W'altham, S. ;
Braintree, E. ; Dunmow, W. ; centre of district, Felstead ; radius, from
five to six miles.
Parish, Great Saling, 4 miles N.B.
1. In Village Street — Boulder of dolerite, 33x29x18 in.; roughly
conical in shape ; rounded and polished ; no striae visible ; olivine-dolerite.
2. In Newbister Lane — Three smaller boulders of dolerite, less than
12 in. in diameter ; one olivine dolerite, the others plagioclase-augite rock.
Parish, Little Baling, 5 miles N.N.E.
1. By the church wall — Boulder of calcareous sandstone, 61 X 34 x 17 in. ;
circumference, 158 in. ; pudding-shaped ; rather soft loose texture ; dark
grey colour ; fine-grained, with fragments of shells.
2. At farm near the church — Boulder of sandstone, 45x35x24 in.;
oblong ; slightly striated ; rather soft ; fine-grained ; buff-coloured ;
containing many Belemnites ; quite lately dug out of the bottom of a
pond; Kellaways rock (?). Boulder of dolerite, 37 x30 xl8 in.; roughly
triangular ; distinctly striated on two surfaces with parallel striae ; rest
polished ; olivine-dolerite.
3. At "Woolpits Farm — Boulder of dolei-ite, 39x38x19 in.; nearly
square ; distinctly striated and polished ; dug out of a ditch on the farm ;
plagioclase and augite ; no olivine.
Parish, Stehhing, 3 miles N.
1. At Mount Farm — Boulder of sandstone, 64 x 63 X 14 in. ; flat, sub-
angular ; fine-grained ; white colour ; lately dug up on the farm.
Boulder of sandstone, 22x20x12 in. ; sub-angular; fossiliferous. Boulder
of sandstone, 23x19x9 in.; rounded; gritty; grey colour; unfossili-
ferous. Boulder of dolerite, 30x26x17 in.; columnar dolerite; shape
well marked ; microcrystalline ; no striaa, but highly polished.
2. Stebbing Green — Boulder of dolerite, 30 X 27 X 24 in. ; conical
shape, with semicircular base ; no striae, but highly polished.
3. In fields near the Green — Five smaller boulders of dolerite under
12 in. in diameter, one being a highly vitreous olivine-basalt.
4. At Green Farm — Boulder of quartz rock, 20 x 16 x 11 in. ; rounded ;
polished ; yellow colour. Boulder of quartzite, 16 xl2 x 11 in. Boulder
of felsite, 12x10x9 in.; oblong ; dark grey ; very compact and hard.
118 EEPOET— 1888.
Boulder of dolerite, 29 x 24 x 11 in. ; oblong ; rounded ; very much
weathered.
5. At Scallops Farm — Boulder of limestone, 29x24x8 in.; sub-
angular ; Carboniferous limestone. Boulder of sandstone, 22 x 21 x 10 in. ;
sub-angular ; compact ; bright red colour. Boulder of porphyrite,
12 x 11 X Bin.; rounded; quartz-porphyrite (?).
Parish, Little Easton, 6 miles N.W.
1. Near the Park Gates — Boulder of sandstone, 42x40x21 in.;
rounded ; oblong ; fine-grained ; compact ; pinkish yellow. Boulder of
sandstone, 36 x 80 X 20 in. ; oblong ; fine-grained ; compact, greyish yellow ;
very clearly striated, and in parts highly polished. Boulder of sandstone,
27 X 24 X 20 in. ; very similar to last mentioned, but not striated. Boulder
of sandstone, 24x24x13 in.; very similar to last two. Boulder of
limestone, 28 X 24 x 10 in. ; rounded oblong ; exceedingly fossiliferous ;
Oxford clay (?). Two boulders of conglomerate (pudding-stone),
34 X 20 X 14 in. and 30 x 24 x 13 in.
Parish, Little Dunmow, 2 miles N.W.
1. At BIatche.s Farm — Boulder of sandstone, 48 X 41 x 13 in. ; oblong ;
fine-grained ; sub-angular ; traces of strife on upper surface. Small
boulder of olivine-basalt.
2. At Bourchiers Farm — Boulder of flint, 19 x 14 x 6 in. Boulder of
syenite, 22x15x0 in.; oblong, rounded ; rather coarse-grained ; greyish
yellow. Two boulders of limestone (Carboniferous), 27 x22 x6 in. and
30x22x11 in.; pinkish colour; fine-grained, much cracked. Boulder
of calcareous grit, 21 x 18 x 11 in. ; very coarse, and rather loose texture.
Two boulders of sandstone, 40 X 22 x 17in.and 36 x 30 X 19iu.; fine-gi-ained ;
compact ; whitish yellow ; rounded and polished. Boulder of dolerite,
18 X 12 X 6 in. ; oblong ; much weathered ; crust peeling off in coats. Small
boulder of olivine basalt ; rounded and very much weathered.
At Parsonage Farm — Boulder of sandstone, 48 x 42 x 19 in. ; oblong ;
rounded ; slightly striated ; micaceous. Boulder of limestone (Carboni-
ferous), 23 X 14 X 12 in. ; oblong ; smoothed ; clearly striated indirection of
longer axis. Boulder of sandstone, 18 x 15 x 5 in. ; rounded ; exceedingly
compact.
In Cap Lane — Large jDebble of grey syenite.
Road near village — Boulder of felsite ; spherulitic.
At Burnt Cottage — Two boulders of clunch (Oxford clay ?),
13x8x5 in. and 12 x 8 X 7 in. ; just dug out of chalky clay ; very clearly
striated. Several large whitened flints, al,~o striated. In gravel pit —
Boulder of quartz - tourmaline rock ; rounded and highly polished ;
curiously striped.
Parish, Barnston, 2 miles W.
At Absol Park Farm — Boulder of limestone (Carboniferous) ; oblong ;
rounded and smoothed ; finely crystalline.
Near Rectory — Small boulder of mica schist ; ve^ small boulder of
syenite.
Parish, Great Waltham, North JEnd, U mile S.S.W.
At North End Place — Boulder of sandstone, 35xl9xl8in. ; sub-
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 119
angular ; no stride ; very fine-grained ; white. Boulder of sandstone,
25x16x14 in.; sub-angular; no striae; fine-grained; yellow. Two
boulders of conglomerate (pudding-stcne), 21x18x11 in. and 16x11
X 6 in. ; one very coarse and pebbles varying in size, the other with much
smaller pebbles and all of a size.
In lane — Large boulder of felspar porphyrite ; rounded and polished,
and very hard.
Parish, Great Waltham, Ford or Fourth End, 3 miles S.
Ford End Hill — Boulder of sandstone, 19 xlOin. ; buried in ground ;
grey ; micaceous. Boulder of limestone (Carboniferous), 16 X 16 in.
Boulder of flint, 19 X 14 in. Boulder of sandstone, 16 X 11 in.; gritty, red.
At Hill Farm — Boulder of sandstone ; 30 X 19 X 11 in. ; ridge-shaped ;
sub-angular ; fine-grained ; yellow. Boulder of sandstone, 29 X 22 x 20 in. ;
oblong ; rounded ; gritty and loose ; white. Four boulders of sandstone,
respectively 28 X 24 x 16 in. ; compact ; yellow, 21 X 17 X 16 in. ; conical ;
compact; yellow, 17x16x12 in.; sub- angular ; hard; greyish yellow,
16 X 13 X 7 in. ; sub-angular ; gritty ; micaceous. Two smaller boulders
of dolerite.
At Littley Park, 2 miles S.S.E.— Boulder of sandstone, 33x25
X 22 in. ; roughly columnar ; much polished ; compact ; yellow.
At Littley Green, 2^ miles, S.S.E. — Boulder of limestone (Carboni-
ferous), 28 X 26 X 12 in. ; nearly square; striated; hard; compact;
fine-grained.
Parish, Little Leighs, 4 miles S.E,
Near Leighs Priory — Boulder of dolerite, 13 X 9 X 6 in. ; much
weathered. Smaller boulder of dolerite. Large boulder of felspar por-
phyry broken in several jjieces ; matrix bright red ; felspar very clear.
Sandstone, 26 X 16 x 7 in. ; much polished ; compact ; yellow.
Parish, Great Leighs, 6 miles S.E.
At Fulbourn's Farm — Boulder of conglomerate, buried in ground so
that surface is level with ground, 52 x 43 in. ; Herts, pudding-stone.
Boulder of sandstone, 48x20x12 in.; ridge-shaped; compact; yellow.
Parish, Braintree, 6 miles E.N.E.
At Bocking Place — Boulder of gneiss, 22 x 18 x 11 in. ; roughly tri-
angular, with two flat surfaces, deeply striated irregularly. Boulder of
limestone (Carboniferous) almost composed of large shells of Productus.
Parish, Felstead.
At Princes Halfyards Farm, IJ mile N. — Boulder of sandstone,
77 X 36 X 20 in., fixed deeply in ground, so that 36 in. does not represent
its real height ; gritty, yellowish, grey. Three boulders of dolerite,
broken up before being measured, but none exceeding 12 in. in diameter.
At Moor Farm, 1^ mile N.E. — Boulder of dolerite and boulder of
porphyrite, both broken up, not exceeding 12 in. in diameter.
At Cock Green, 2 miles S.E. — Boulder of dolerite, almost circular,
scarcely weathered, rather over 12 in. in diameter ; hypersthene-bearing
ophitic dolerite.
At French's Green, 3 miles E. — Very large boulder of compact
yellow sandstone, since removed. A large heap of several hundred
120 BEPORT— 1888.
smaller boulders lately dug up in land- ditching, chiefly flints, but con-
taining also porphyrite, olivine-basalt, dolerite, Mountain limestone,
Jurassic limestone, and ferruginous sandstone.
At Whelpstones Farm, 2^^ miles E.S.E. — Large boulder of compact
yellow sandstone split into two halves, one half being left in the ground,
the half removed to farmyard measuring 27x21x16 in. Boulder of
sandstone, 20 x 1 6 x 10 in., soft, buff-coloured.
At Pond Park, 1^ mile S.E. — Boulder of sandstone, 40x39x17 in. ;
oblong, much smoothed, glazed with calcite. Lower Cretaceous. Two
boulders of septaria with veins of calcite, 25 x 21 x 8 in. and 22 x 16 x 12 in.
Two boulders of flint, 20x13x8 in. and 20x9x11 in., whitened, not
striated. Boulder of sandstone just dug up, 32 x 22 x 11 in., subangular,
polished, whitish yellow, compact. Five boulders of sandstone, 24x12
X 11 in. compact, light yellow ; 18 X 15 X 7in., compact, deep red ; 17 X 8
X 6 in., compact, grey ; 14 X 6 x 7 in., compact, light yellow ; 13 X 11 x 6 in.,
compact, yellowish white. Boulder of conglomerate (pudding-stone),
19 X 14 X 6 in. Several smaller boulders of dolerite.
At Potash Farm, 1 mile S.S.E. — Boulder of sandstone, 40 x 33 X 16 in.,
much polished, but not striated ; compact, yellow. Boulder of sandstone
dug up in May and brought to farmyard, 31 X 30 X 15 in., oblong, yellow,
not very compact. Boulder of sandstone, 1 7 X 15 X 8 in., rather coarse and
gritty, red. Five smaller boulders, all measuring 12 in. or over. Two
boulders of quartz rock, 14 X 8 X 7 m. and 14 X 13 X 7 in.
At Causeway End, ^ mile S. — Four boulders of sandstone, all exceed-
ing 12 in. and polished. Large boulder of dolerite dug out in clay pit
from boulder clay, and found to be split into several large fragments ;
olivine dolerite, containing unusual quantity of magnetite.
In Snows Lane, 1 mile S.W. — Two boulders of olivine dolerite not
exceeding 12 in.
At Mill House, 1 mile S.W. — Boulder of sandstone, striated and
polished.
At Bury Farm, in the village — Boulder of conglomerate (pudding-
stone), 52x23 X 16 in. Boulder of contorted gneiss, 15 X 15 X 14 in., rounded
and much polished, hornblende gneiss. Seven boulders of sandstone,
35 X 20 X 11 in., compact, yellow ; 30 x 21 x 6 in., very compact, yellow ;
19 X 18xl2in.; 18 X9x8in., gritty, yellow; 17xl4x 11 in., fine, compact,
yellow ; 16 X 15 X 6 in., compact, grey ; 14 X 11 X 5 in., gritty, yellow. Two
boulders of flint, 20 x 11 X 8 in. and 18 x 13 X 3 in. Boulder of quartzite,
15 X 15 X 5 in. Boulder of quartz rock 14x 11 x 6 in., rounded and polished.
Four boulders of limestone (Carboniferous), 23 X 12 x 7 in. and 19 x9x 7in.;
20 X 17 X 5 in. and] 5 x 10 x 9 in., much smoothed and rounded, of fine texture
and grey colour. Three boulders of mica-schist, one being garnetiferous,
the garnets being decomposed. Two boulders of quartz porphyrite, one
containing schorl. One large fragment of silicified wood, coniferous (?).
Two boulders of dolerite, very much weathered.
At Chequers Inn — Boulder of limestone (Carboniferous), 26x18
X 12 in., much rounded and smoothed. Boulder of calcareous sand-
stone, 30 X 24 X 18 in.
At Vicarage — Boulder of sandstone dug up in the churchyard,
32 X 16 X 15 in., oblong, yellow, gritty.
At Sewell's Farm — Boulder of millstone grit not exceeding 12 in.,
containing abundant casts of shells, soft, buff-coloured.
At Felstead Place — Boulder of dolerite, broken up before it could be
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, "WALES, AND IRELAND. 121
measured. Boulder of sandstone, 37 x 17 x 12 in., oblong, mucli sraootlied,
compaot.
At Coal Yard — Boulder of sandstone, 34 X 20 X 15 in., oblong, rounded
and smoothed, compact, greyish yellow.
In Village Street — b'ourteen boulders of sandstone, smoothed and
rounded, 21 x IG X 6 in., fine-grained, compact, yellow ; 24 x 18 x 6 in., fine-
grained, compact, yellow; 18 xlOx 11 in., gritty, loose, very dark, almost
black; 26x10 in. (buried), 23x9 in. (buried), and 18 X 7 in. (buried),
very compact, mottled, bright)red and yellow, fine, compact ; 31 X 11 X 11 in.,
fine, compact, yellow; 17x11x11 in.; 14x13x10 in., grey brown,
gritty, glazed with calcite ; 17 X 12 x 9 in., very compact, reddish yellow ;
20x10x9 in., fine, compact, grey; 22x17x13 in., fine, grey; 17x11
xlOin. and 22x19x6 in., coarse, gritty, glazed with calcite. Two
boulders of flint, 27x10x6 in. and 23x11x5 in. Three boulders of
dolerite, 15 x 9 x 8 in. and 12x9x10 in., and one under 12 in.
Lancashire and Cheshire.
A valuable list and desci'iption of erratics which have been found
in the drainage areas of the Oldham Corporation Waterworks by Mr. W.
Watts will be found in the ' Transactions of the Manchester (Geological
Society,' Session 1887-88, p. 584 et seq.
In the ' Transactions ' of the same society (Feb. 7, 1888) Mr. Herbert
Bolton describes the boulders in the high level drift of Bacup.
Mr. Ratcliffe furnishes the following description of the erratics in
Dukinfield, Stalybridge, Millbottom, and Micklehurst. The term
' boulder clay ' is used to denote the clays, marls, sands, and gravels
containing boulders, but must not be taken as always synonymous with
the lower boulder clay or 'till.'
At Dukinfield the boulder clay rests upon the edges of the Upper,
Middle, and Lower Coal measures, from the river Tame to Line Edge,
and beyond to the base of Harrop Edge the drift consists of alternate
layers of clay, sand, and gravel ; in some cases thick layers of marl come
in between the upper sand and gravel.
The top clay is extensively used for brick-making, the sand for
building and moulding purposes. The gravel contains often large
boulders, and almost in every case yields large quantities of water.
At Dukinfield Hall there is a total depth of 20 ft. 7 in. to the rock
head, whilst to the north at Ashton Moss Colliery the section in the
sands, clays, and gravels, of which the boulders are formed, is as follows : —
ft. in.
Soil turf and sand 4
Strong marl 11
Sand and marl 16
Dark wet sand 8 2
Strong marl 11 4
Sand and gravel 2
Dry sand 8 6
„ gravel 6
„ sand . . . - 26 4
,, marl . . . 6
„ sand 11 6
Wet , 17 6
Strong marl 26 8
Marl and stones mixed .7 11
♦ 142 11
122 EEPOET— 1888.
To the east of the Ashton Moss Colliery the Lords' Field Colliery
passed through the following : —
ft. in.
Soil and clay 6
Strong marl ......... 43 6
Dry sand 24
Wet , 4
Strong brown marl 101 9
Wet gravel, 7,000 gallons of water per hour ... 7 9
To rock head 187
Returning to the Cheshire side of the river Tame the drift covers
the edges of the middle series, the dip of which is west at an angle
varying from 18° to 42°, and along the line of Chapel Hill, where it
covers the lower seams of the middle series. The following is a section at
Victoria Colliery : —
ft. in.
Soil 6
Clay 2
Marl 9 6
To rock head 12
The boulders distributed over this area, extending from the river
Tame at Dukinfield Hall to Lyne Edge, varying in size from a few
hundredweight to three tons, are found mostly resting upon the marl at
the base of the gravel beds, and consist of felsites, hornblendic granites,
andesite, and andesitic ash, some raicro-granites and Eskdale granites.
They are mostly rounded, sub-angular, and in some cases striated.
Beyond Lyne Edge to the base of Harrop Edge, where the millstone
grit appears, are strong marls, with sand and gravel beds beneath. In the
marl a few feet below the soil are boulders, smooth and well rounded, con-
sisting of andesitic ash, rhyolitic breccia, Eskdale granite, vein rock,
and crushed altered ash.
Along the base of Shaw Moor the boulder clay is upwards of
30 ft. thick, containing a variety of small boulders, pieces of gannister,
&c. One large boulder, a felsite from the Lake district, is upwards of
seven tons in weight ; another is rather smaller in size, a felsite with
epidote, also from the Lake district ; another is about thirty hundred-
weight, and is a Criffel granite from the S.W. of Scotland.
The boulder clay from the river Tame to the base of the hills, from
Millbottom to Micklehui'st, consists of boulder clay resting upon sand,
and gravel, from which a good supply of water can bo readily obtained.
The clay contains a large number of small boulders, often intermixed
with thin bands of sand and small gravel, and occasionally larger boul-
ders of the Eskdale series : andesitic ash (crushed), felsites, syenite,
vein rock, and hornblendic granite from Buttermere. These are
rounded, smooth, the softer portions showing slight striations.
The following sections show the exact positions of some of the
erratics at different points in the area described : —
ft. in.
SoU 6
Sand 5
Boulders—
Loam and sand 7 6
Gravel 2
Sand with water 6
Bock base 21
I
ON THE EERATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 123
ft. in.
Soil 6
Yellow clay 3
Sand 15
Gravel 2
BOTJLDEES —
Marl 4
Eock base . . , , 24 6
it. in.
Soil 10
Gravel and sand (with water) 9 9
BOULDEES —
Marl 4
Rock base 14 9
ft. in.
Soil and gravel ........ 12
Boulders—
Marls 8 7
Kockbase 20 7
Mr. Plant continues his reports and describes the erratic blocks at
Spinney Hills, near Leicester.
A fine group of blocks has been uncorered on the Spinney Hills, to the
east of Leicester ; they were scattered over about two acres of land, and
lying on the lower Rbgetic beds, under about 6 ft. of a stiff upper boulder
clay which covers these hills, and varies from 3 to 12 ft. deep, and is suc-
ceeded by the hard white clay and shales of the Rhsetic beds. All the
blocks except two are granite from Mount Sorrel, 6^ miles distant due N.
The following is a list : —
Length. Breadth. Depth.
No. 1 3 ft. 3 iu. X 3 ft. in. x 2 ft. (3 in.
No. 2 3 ft. in. X 2 ft. 10 in. x 2 ft. in.
No. 2 block is unique, being the first I have found that has a smooth
2MlisJied surface and slightly striated, the edges and angles clean and
sharp. The above will be removed to the Museum grounds at Leicester.
The other blocks are as follows : —
Length. Breadth. Depth.
No. 3 2 ft. in. X 2 ft. in. x 1 ft. C in.
No. 4 2 ft. in. X 1 ft. 8 in. x 1 ft. in.
No. 5 2 ft. 6 iu. X 1 ft, 6 in. X 1 ft. in.
No. 6 1 ft. 6 in. X 1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. in.
The above blocks are roughly cubical, the angles and edges are sharp
and some of the sides quite fresh, i.e., not weather-worn. Besides these,
seven other smaller blocks, rough cubes, of 1 ft. 6 in. on the face ; these
are of Mount Sorrel granite, 6^ miles distant ; two others about the same
size, but much rounded and worn, were coar.^e sandstones or miUstone-
grit, which must have come from the north some 30 miles. Two others',
one Oolite and the other Lias limestone, must have come N.E. distant 12
or 14 miles. Height above the sea about 280 ft.
Blocks at Newfound Pool, near ancient Roman Boad, ' The Fosse Way.' —
Some large blocks have been uncovered in the excavations for new
streets at the above place, which is about 1^ mile on the west side of the
12-t BEPOET— 1888.
town. All were in Upper Bonlder clay, containing more sand than
usual, which must have been derived from the beds below the Upper
Keuper sandstone, which extends for some miles on that side of Leicester,
the ' drift ' varying from G ft. to as many inches in different places. The
blocks were associated with a unique find (as far as this county is con-
cerned), viz., a huge tin-bone, U ft. 6 in. long by 1 ft. 8 in. wide, of some
species of whale. This was under about 4 ft. of drift of the Upper
Bonlder clay. Nearly all the animal tissue had been taken out of the
bone, owing to its lying so little below the surface in the sandy drift.
No other bones or teeth of the whale were found. It has been placed in
the Leicester Museum.
Description
of blocks : —
Length. Breadlh.
Depth.
No. 1
. .5 ft in. X 3 ft. in.
X 2 ft. 6 in. (snb-angular)
No. 2
. 1 ft. 8 in. X 1 ft. 6 in.
X 1 ft. 2 in. (angles very sharp)
No. 3
. 1 ft. 4 in. X 1 ft. 2 in.
X 1 ft, in.
All syenite from Groby or Markfield, distant about 4 miles. Height
above the sea 210 ft.
Report of the Committee, consistinrj of Professor Valentine B.a.ll,
Mr. H. G. FoRDHAM, Professor Haddon, Professor Hillhouse,
Mr. John Hopkinson, Dr. Macfarlane, Professor Milnes Mar-
shall, JNIr. F. T. Mott (Secretary), Dr. Traquair, and Dr. H.
Woodward, reappointed at Manchester for the purpose of pre-
paring a further Report upon the Provincial Museums of the
United Kingdom.
The Report of this Committee which was presented last year dealt
mainly with the statistics of museums throughoixt the United Kingdom.
The Committee was reappointed for the purpose of considering the ideal
to which provincial museums should endeavour to attain, and of suggest-
ing practical methods for approaching that ideal.
The provincial museums now existing may be classified roughly into
the following six groups, viz. : —
1. Museums of Science and Art on a large scale, supported by Govern-
ment, as at Edinburgh and Dublin.
2. Municipal Kate-supported Free Museums.
3. University Museums.
4. Teaching Museums attached to schools and colleges.
6. Museums belonging to local societies.
6. Proprietary Museums.
Of these typical groups the first must always be few in number, while
the third, fourth, fifth and sixth have special objects, in pursuit of which
they may properly diverge from any fixed standard.
The second type, the Municipal Rate-supported Free Museum, is
already numerous, and is becoming annually more so. Its objects
include those of all the others, and it may fairly be taken as a standard
by which others may be gauged.
We propose, therefore, to consider what is the complete ideal which,
the authorities of a free rate-supported museum should keep before
ON THE PEOVINCIAL MUSEUMS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 125
ttem ; not merely what is practicable under existing circumstances, but
wliat would be the best under ideal conditions, and therefore what are
the aims to be kept in view, and the lines upon which labour and money
should be chiefly expended.
The general objects common to all museums are : —
1. To preserve, for the purpose of comparison and study, such speci-
mens, whether of natural or artificial production, as may illustrate the
history of the earth and its inhabitants.
2. So to arrange and display these specimens as to make them most
available for such purposes.
The special objects of a free rate-supported museum in a provincial
town should be : —
1. To contribute its share to the general scientific statistics of the
country by collecting and preserving specimens of the natural and arti-
ficial productions of the district in which it is situated.
2. To procure such other specimens as may be desirable for illus-
trating the general principles of science, and the relations of the locality
to the rest of the world.
3. To receive and preserve local collections or single specimens
having any scientific value which the possessors may desire to devote to
public use.
4. So to an'ange and display the specimens collected as to afford the
greatest amount of popular instruction consistent with their safe preser-
vation and accessibility as objects of scientific study.
5. To render special assistance to local students and teachers of science.
Eespecting the general objects of all museums, we do not think that
thei'e is much difference of opinion, and on this point little need be said.
These objects, however, can be fully carried out only in such extensive
buildings and with such large resources as are rarely attainable except in
metropolitan cities. To represent the history of the entire inorganic
world, and of the development and present condition of its vegetable and
animal life, as far as these things are known to science, is an object
worthy of a great State department but impracticable in any ordinary
provincial town. Nor could even a State department hope to accomplish
this work in full detail unless it could command much more extensive
buildings and a much larger income than any nation has ever yet devoted
to such a purpose.
What a national museum can practically do is to represent the history
and present condition of the woi'ld and its inhabitants in an epitomised
form, illustrating all the salient points and filling in the details of a few
selected periods and types. It will also be the repository for important
special collections and for very rare and costly objects which have a wide
general interest.
In the series of specimens preserved in such a museum the national
territory will be represented as a matter of course in its proper place,
and in its due proportion to the whole. There may indeed be an
additional department for that section of the earth's surface, with its
geology, natural history, and archeology represented as a distinct group,
and somewhat more elaborately than in the general collection ; but to
illustrate the full details of nature in the varied aspects presented by
each parish and county, even within the limits of a single empire, would
be impracticable in a museum devoted to the history of the world.
126 REPORT— 1888.
It is here that the provincial museums should take up the work, and
should find their legitimate and most useful sphere. Every provincial
museum ought, in the first place, to be a fulhj illustrated monograph of
its own district. The details of each district can be worked up more
thoroughly and more cheaply by the local museums than by any other
agency, and if the entire history of the district and its inhabitants is
thus represented, special attention being given to any group of objects
for which the district is remarkable, this will be almost as much as any
local institution can accomplish.
But science is daily becoming more exacting in its demands. Details
which were thought ample in any provincial museum twenty years ago
would now be regarded as quite insufficient.
In the department of geology every local variety of rock, with its
fossils and its minerals, must be illustrated by specimens, by microscopic
slides, and by chemical analysis ; the stratigraphy and its relations to
the physiography, the drainage, and the water supply, must be shown by
diagrams, maps, and models, and careful records of every boring, sinking,
and cutting, systematically procured and pi'eserved.
In natural history the animal and vegetable life of the district must
be represented in the most complete manner possible. There must be
specimens of every indigenous animal from the highest vertebrate to the
amoeba, and of every plant, including the lowest cryptogams, and at least
those forms which are characteristic of the district must have their whole
life histories illustrated by specimens of male, female, young in various
stages, the skeletons and the nests or habitations of animals, and the soils
and habitats natural to the plants.
The history of man in th& district must be elaborately represented
from the earliest pre-historic relic up to the latest phase, every local
speciality of food, art, dress, customs, and language being recorded.
Thus much must be accomplished by every provincial museum if it
is to ' contribute its share to the general scientific statistics of the
country.' But if its collections are also to serve the purpose of interesting
and instructing the local population, much more will be required.
For the purposes of general science, and for the use of experts, it is
best to keep nearly all museum specimens in drawers and closed cabinets,
protected from light, air, and dust ; but for the instruction of the public
a considerable number must be displayed in such a manner that they can
be seen, studied, and compared without being handled. To do this
involves without doubt the sacrifice of many specimens which will be
destroyed in a few years by exposure to light and dust, and must be
frequently replaced ; and of much money which might be otherwise
devoted to the furtherance of scientific investigation. This sacrifice,
however, is absolutely necessary. The people who pay for the
museum will insist upon its being administered for their direct and
immediate benefit, as well as for their indirect advantage through the
cultivation of science in its higher branches. And their demand is
justifiable. It is as important to social progress that the millions should -
be educated as that the few should advance knowledge beyond its existing
limits. The ideal Free Rate-supported Museum must do its best in both
directions. While therefore a complete collection of all local specimens
of a perishable nature must be carefully preserved for reference in closed
cabinets, the imperishable ones, such as most geological and archfeological
objects, as well as duplicates of those perishable kinds which can be
ON THE PBOVINCIAL MUSEUMS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 127
readily replaced, must be displayed in glazed cases for the inspection of
the public.
The difficult question here arises : In what manner shall this display
be carried out so as to secure the maximum of instruction with the
minimum of expense, and so as to make the museum attractive and inte-
resting, yet not a place for mere idle amusement ?
The Rev. H. H. Higgins, in his pamphlet on ' Museums of Natural
History,' has pointed out that the public who visit museums may be
divided into three classes, viz. : (1) Those who are already interested in
science and come for information. (2) Those who have enough general
culture to wish for more, and who come in the hope of learning some-
thing. (3) The very ignorant, who care only to be amused. To these
classes he gives the appropriate designations of Students, Observers, and
Loungers. Of the weekly visitors to a popular museum, the students
probably do not form more than 5 per cent., the observers perhaps 75,
and the loungers 20 per cent. It is obvious that, neglecting altogether
the small proportion of loungers, a great deal may be done for the
scientific instruction of those who come prepared to take intelligent
interest in what they see.
The value of scientific instruction lies mainly (1) in the insight which
it gives into the laws and processes of nature, thus greatly enlargino- the
mental purview ; (2) in its training of the senses by the habit of accurate
observation, and of the reasoning powers by the tracing out of causes
and effects ; (3) in its revelation of facts which may be turned to man's
practical advantage.
In placing any scientific collections before the public with an educa-
tional object, all these points should be borne in mind. Accurate
observation is to be cultivated chiefly by frequent comparisons of allied
forms, and when a series of such comparisons reveals the lines of change,
and the large effects of many small changes, the intellectual faculties are
stimulated to investigate the forces which have been in operation.
Comparison, therefore, should be made easy, and the observer should
be led up to the groupings and the lines of divergence in each depart-
ment, and induced to look back into the past history and forward into
the future prospects of the earth and its various inhabitants.
For these purposes it is not enough to place in the cases rows of
specimens with their names and localities only. The natural groupings
must be very conspicuously marked, and their points of connection and
of divergence very clearly indicated. Attention must be drawn to the
special characters of families, genera, and species, to geographical distri-
bution, and to the varied aspects of nature in different localities.
The method of labelling in a public museum is of vital importance,
and should receive the fullest attention of the curator. If a label contains
too much, it will not be read ; if it contains too little, its purpose is not
effected. The titles of the large groups should be visible at some
distance ; their limits and their subdivisions should be so marked as to
be very easily grasped by the mind of the observer. If Greek or Latin
terms are used in these titles, English equivalents, wherever it is possible,
should be added. Probably it is wiser at the present time to place the
English first.
Nature draws no hard and fast line between the life of past ages and
of the present epoch. The organic world is a continuous current, and to
separate palaeontology from biology cannot represent the actual facts in
128 EEPOBT— 1888.
their natural connection. Such separation naay be convenient for students,
but for the instruction of the public selected examples of fossil organisms
should be in some manner associated with the living forms. It may not
be easy to accomplish this, and it is not necessary that it should be done
in any uniform method. Thoughtful curators who recognise the advantao'e
will do the best they can with the means at their command.
The same may be said of the much-debated question — How best to
display the forms of existing life ? Methods may vary in detail, if the
essential principles are carried out, viz., that comparison of allied forms
must be rendered easy ; that the grouping must be conspicuous ; that the
connections and divergences of groups must be indicated ; that the
labelling must be distinct and full ; that as many of the facts of nature
must be got into the allotted space as can be made clearly visible there,
and that their practical bearing upon the wants of man must be shown,
if possible.
Professor Herdman's phylogenetic system of arrangement has the
great merit of presenting the life-groups in the true order of nature, as
far as this is known. In a building suitable for such an arrangement, it
would be an excellent scheme, and its leading idea should be borne in
mind in all cases, but it could not generally be carried out in detail. Un-
doubtedly some orderly arrangement of groups should be adopted as a
foundation in every museum. To have one room devoted to birds, the
next to insects, and the next to fishes, would be wrong under all
circumstances.
In considering the best form for cases and the best arrangement of
the specimens, it must be remembered that the strength of every pro-
vincial museum ought to lie in its local collections. It is the special
business of the local museum to collect the utmost possible amount of
information respecting the locality, and as much of this should be laid
before the public as can be made clear to them without risking the
destruction of rare and perishable objects.
These local collections should form the central and most prominent
display. Local objects can be obtained in the greatest abundance and at
the least cost, and they will always have a peculiar attractiveness for the
local public, who can best be instructed by being led from familiar objects
of which they have some knowledge to those which are comparatively
strange and unfamiliar, and which, if presented without such associations,
would often be incomprehensible. Geological collections must be accom-
panied by maps, diagrams, sections, and models, so that the relation of
each rock to the general series maybe readily perceived. These maps, &c.,
may be of small size, but they are wanted in juxtaposition with the
specimens, not hanging on distant walls, although, of course, large wall
diagrams of a more general character are iiseful also. The building up
of sections with slabs of the actual rocks has been adopted in some
museums with very good effect. Such sections on a large scale erected
in the surrounding grounds may give a good idea of the stratigraphy of
the district. The relations between the rocks and the physiography, the
drainage and the water supply, is best shown by relief models in clay,
paper, or other material. In the display of minerals, their connection
with various commercial products ought to be indicated. Throughout
the whole of the geological department the results of chemical and
microscopical analysis of the various rocks and minerals must be
briefly stated.
ON THE PROVINCIAL MDSEDMS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 129
Taking the local geology as tlie fonndation, and confining to the local
rocks the details above referred to, the relation of these to the known
geology of the world requires to be very clearly represented. Specimens
of all the principal strata not occurring in the district must be exhibited,
and their absence from the district distinctly pointed out. To display a
typical series of the rocks of the world in one line, and those of the
district in a separate and parallel line, with the tablets or the labels of
contrasted colours, is perhaps the best arrangement ; but if space cannot
be spared for this, a single line with differences of colour may be adopted.
In the geological department the arrangement must be chronological
and stratigraphical. Bach fossil-bearing rock must be accompanied by
specimens of at least some of its characteristic fossils ; in the case of local
rocks these should be as numerous as space will admit.
In the natural history department a zoological arrangement will form the
basis and the local species the principal display, the chronological evolu-
tion of these species being shown by duplicate ibssils and drawings of
extinct forms, and their relations to the fauna of the world by foreign
types on a separate but pai'allel line as in the geological department.
It seems necessary that the vertebrates should be separated from the
invertebrates. The immense difference in individual size and in the num-
bers of species compels a distinctly different method of display.
In each of these two great branches of zoology the same fundamental
system must be adopted, viz., to give precedence to the local forms,
to treat these in full detail, giving the utmost amount of information
respecting them which can be satisfactorily shown within the given
space, and to indicate their relations to the fauna of the world, and their
evolution in geological periods.
The information which can be given to the public respecting the local
forms of life will relate chiefly to their organic structure and their life-
histories. The structure of invertebrates must be chiefly shown by draw-
ings or models, and of vertebrates by skeletons. The life-history can be
illustrated by specimens of the sexes, of the young in various stages, of
the nests or other habitations, of the food, and of the habitats. If these,
while remaining in their proper place in the series, can be grouped to-
gether in a pictorial manner so as to be fairly true to nature, the interest
of the public will be greatly increased, additional instruction will be con-
veyed by them, and science will not suSer. But isolated groups are of
much less value, and the tendency to set these up in a dramatic or artistic
manner merely as sensational ornaments should be rigidly repressed.
It is of the first importance that the stuffing and mounting of verte-
brates should be skilfully done. A large proportion of those at present
displayed in provincial museums are mere delusions. They do not repre-
sent nature. An unstufiTed skin is much more useful in every way than
one which is set up untruthfully.
In the archaeological and anthropological departments the same sys-
tem must be carried out, but the arrangement here must be chronological.
Starting with the earliest relics of man discovered in the district, the
series of examples of his work and habits should be continued even to the
current date, particular attention being devoted to any local peculiarities.
The changes which have taken place from age to age in his tools, his
clothing, his architecture, pottery, ornaments, coinage, weapon?, &c., as
illustrated by purely local specimens, will be of the utmost interest and
importance ; and the whole local series should be supplemented by a few
1888. K
130 REPORT— 1888.
examples of corresponding dates from various other parts of the world
placed in a parallel arrangement for easy comparison.
The developments of the agriculture, the manufactures and the com-
merce of the district, will require to be exhibited in a distinct technological
department, which, if well ari-anged, will be to a large number of visitors
the most interesting and valuable part of the museum.
The botanical department is perhaps the most difficult to deal with in
a public gallery. The herbarium in its usual form is scarcely available
for the general use of the public, while collections of seeds, woods, and
vegetable products, though of great value in themselves, give no insight
into plant life. The modelling of plant forms is now carried to great
perfection in decorative art. If typical plants of each order in the local
flora were exhibited in this way, with corresponding examples of remark-
able foreign species behind, and fossil forms in front, much interesting
instruction would be afforded, and the cost would not be excessive.
Dried specimens of the whole local flora might well be exhibited in a
cabinet of very shallow glazed drawers which the public could draw out
but not remove.
The glass jar as now used for zoological purposes might be effectively
applied to botanical specimens for the illustration of the life-history of
typical species.
Provincial museums have made their collections hitherto in a very
unsystematic manner, by donation or purchase as opportunities occurred.
In order that the scientific statistics of the country may be thoroughly
investigated and made known as quickly as possible, a much more
business-like system of collection should be adopted. The district should
be divided into sections, and a paid collector appointed for each of them,
whose whole time should be occupied for several years in obtaining speci-
mens and records in every branch of science represented in the museum.
In nearly every part of the kingdom competent men could be found to
do this work for very moderate salaries. The necessary apparatus must be
provided for them, they would generally require some amount of instruc-
tion, and during the period of their operations a sufficient staff of assistants
must be employed at the museum to deal with the specimens brought in.
To carry out the work in this systematic manner, funds on a more liberal
scale than is now usual must be provided for the first few years, but the
value of the museum would be immensely enhanced, and when the local
collections were made tolerably complete the permanent income required
for maintenance would be very much less.
Taking, as an example, a town of 100,000 inhabitants, the centre of a
district included within an average radius of ten miles, it may be roughly
estimated that the cost of erecting a building thoroughly suitable for a
museum, including the site and fittings, would not be less than 10,000Z.,
and that during the first three years an annual income of 1,500L would
be required, with a permanent income thereafter of not less than 600L
For smaller towns or smaller districts the estimate might be considerably
less, but the penny rate authorised by the Public Libraries and Museums
Act is insufficient to support both library and museum in one town on a
satisfactory scale.
Every well-appointed museum should contain, in addition to its public
galleries, an office for the curator, work rooms for the assistants, store
rooms, a students' room with table, microscope, books of reference, and
ON THE PROVINCIAL MDSECilS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 131
a few chemical re-agents ; and a keeper's residence. A residence for the
curator, that he may be always on the spot, is desirable, if not essential ;
and, unless the town contains a separate college of science, a class-room,
lecture theatre, and laboratory would be valuable additions. A library of
standard scientific works, comprising not less than 500 volumes, is ab-
solutely essential to the proper working of a museum. No curator can
undertake to name and properly label the specimens collected without
constant reference to books. All local scientific societies should be
encouraged to hold their meetings at the museum, where a suitable room
with lock-up cupboards might advantageously be provided for them,
small rents being charged, except where this would involve the ratino- of
the whole premises.
When donations are offered to a public museum the authorities should
consider that they are concerned only for the public interest, and that
they have no right to occupy space by the storage of objects which are of
no public value. It is generally undesirable to accept any donations
with restrictions as to what should be done with them. When they are
given to the museum they become public property, to be dealt with freely
for the public benefit. When presented they may be considered good
examples of their kind, but if superior ones afterwards come to hand the
authorities should have power freely to exchange or sell. Exceptions to
this rule may be made in special cases. Collections brought together by
eminent scientists often acquire a classical reputation and should not be
broken up, or single specimens, even though of little value in themselves,
may have a place in the history of science which should render them
sacred. Such objects may be accepted under any reasonable conditions.
A movement has recently been inaugurated at York for bringing the
curators of museums into closer communication and assisting in the
exchange of dujslicates. Something of the kind is much needed. A
periodical publication, in which curators could from time to time describe
portions of their duplicates, would probably be found i;seful. If it were
possible to appoint a travelling inspector, who should devote his time to
visiting the provincial museums in rotation, arranging exchanges, spread-
ing the knowledge of new inventions in museum apparatus, assisting in
the naming of doubtful specimens, taking notes of desiderata which
might be supplied by other museums, and acting as a general medium of
communication and consulting visitor, such an officer might be of very
great service. An adequate salary would have to be provided, either by
Government or by some independent society, with contributions from the
museums visited. It might be difficult to find a man of sufficient tact,
judgment, and knowledge who would undertake the post, but without
doubt there is much to be done in this direction.
The town museum should be the place to which all students and
teachers of science in the district should naturally go for assistance. To
land fide students every encouragement and facility should be given, and
loan collections should be prepared for teachers. A system of travelling
museums which circulate among the principal schools of the town has
been adopted at Liverpool with great success.
The practical value of museums as important factors in all adequate
systems of education is not yet recognised by the general public. Too
many of these institutions have hitherto been but toys and hobbies, and
require complete re-organisation. We are not aware of a single free rate-
K 2
1 32 REPORT— 1888.
supported provincial rauseurn in the kingdom which has attained to the
ideal recommended in this report.
In the first report of this Committee, published in the Manchester
volume, the following corrections and additions should now be made, viz. : —
Page 4, after No. 10. — Birmingham. Insert ' Mason College Museums — Professors
Lapworth, Bridge, and Smith. Class 1. Coll.-general, Zoo.,
Geo., Mech. Free daily.'
„ 4, No. 15.— Bootle. For ' 1885' rmd ' 1887.' I/ise7-t ' J. J. Ogle, 43 Brook
Eoad,' curator. Visitors, 600. Strihe out 'not yet opened.'
„ 6, No. 24. — Cambridge. /««'/!;' M. of Zoology. S. W. Clark, cur. Class 1.
Coll.-general, Zoo. ; Com[). Anat.'
„ 6, No. 'iL—Strnie out ' Trin. Coll.'
„ G, after No. 37, Insert ' Christchurch, Hants. Hart, owner. Coll. -local.
Ornith.'
„ 0, No. 44. — Derby. Insert ' weekly visitors, 2,000.'
„ 6, No. 45. — Devizes. For 'Cunningham' read ' Cunnington,' and insert
'deceased.'
„ 6, No. 46. — Devonport. For 'Eome' read 'Rowe.'
„ 6, No. 47.--Dorchester. After ' Moule ' insert ' M.A.'
„ 8, after No. 61, J?ww^ ' Guernsey. Guille-AUe M.'
„ 8, No. 66. — Huddersfield. For 'Mossley' rea^Z ' Mosley.'
„ 10, No. 106.— Norwich. For ' Reade ' read ' Peeve.'
„ 10, No. 110.— Oxford, Bodleian. Insert date ' 1598,' and for ' G. B. Nichol-
son ' read ' E. B. Nicholson.'
„ 10, No. 112. — ^Oxford, Ashmolean. /wArrt date '1679,' and /or 'J. H.Parker,
C.B.' read 'Arthur J. Evans, F.S.A.'
„ 10,after No. 113, Insert 'University Galleries, 1841. Joseph Fisher, keeper.
Coll.-general Arch. Art, supported by the University.'
„ 12, after No. 130, Sheffield, insert 'St. George's M. Founded by Mr. John
Kuskin for Objects illustrating the Beautiful in Nature and
Art.'
„ 12, No. 132. — Southampton. J7^spr^; under Coll. -local 'Geo.'
„ 12, No. 157. — Woolwich. Sfrihe out ' Royal Artillery Institution.' Insert
date ' 1820.' For ' Harman ' read ' Crookenden.' Under
Coll.-general add ' and Military Models.'
„ 14, No. 159.— York. Insert date ' 1823.'
„ 16, No. 211. — The Powys-Land M. has been transferred to the Corporation
of Welshpool, the town having recently adopted the Museum
Act.
„ 18, Number of Museums estimated as First Class, for ' 56 ' read
' 59.' Second Class, for ' 55 ' read ' 58.' Total, for ' 211 ' read
'217.'
,, 20, Under 'Archeology,' insert 'Roman from Cambridgeshire,
&c. Cambridge, M. of Archa3ology,' also ' from Ribchester,
Blackburn.'
After ' Alnwick ' insert ' Oxford, Ashmolean.'
After ' Cambridge ' insert ' M. of Archfeology.'
After ' Cambridge ' insert ' Fitzwilliam M.'
After ' College ' insert ' Oxford, Ashmolean and M. of Arch-
Eeology.'
For ' Fitzwilliam M.' read ' M. of Archseology.'
At end of list of Anthropology add : —
Ethnological Library . . Oxford, M. of Archseology.
Anglo-Saxon, with K. Alfred's
Jewel Oxford, Ashmolean.
The Tradescant Collection . „ „
Greek Vases . . . . „ „
Arundel Marbles . . . „ ,,
„ 22, line 29. — The annual receipts at York vary between 150Z. and 350Z.
„ 30, line 4, For ' Newcastle ' read ' Northumberland.'
Note. — The pages refer to the Report as printed separately, not as in the volume.
21,
line 18,
21,
line 20,
21,
line 21,
21,
line 31,
21,
line 34,
21,
ON THE 'MANURE GRAVELS OF WEXFORD. 133
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. E. Etheridge,
Dr. H. Woodward, and Mr. A. Bell {Secretary), appointed
for the purpose of reporting upon the ' Manure ' Gravels of
Wexford. {Draiun up by Mr. A. Bell.)
Note. — In the following I'eport it bas been endeavoured to trace the
nature, limits, and contents of, first, the so-called ' manure ' gravels, their
mode of occurrence and geological position ; secondly, that of the sea-
coast marls ; and thirdly, the relations in v^^hich these stand to the drift
deposits south of Dublin with which they have been correlated.
The fossils obtained have been transferred to the Geological Depart-
ment, British Museum.
Nature of Ground.
Before entering upon the main purpose of this report a few words
descriptive of the ground upon which the Wexford deposits rest may be
desirable.
The bed-rocks of the district consist of purple conglomerates, slates,
and sandstones of Cambrian and Cambro- Silurian age metamorphosed
by the intrusion of vast masses of quartz rock into schists and felsites
of varying hardness, and forming considerable elevations, upon whose
summits the quartz stands out in precipitous masses. These elevations
rise from the shore of the Slaney river, forming the ridge, upon part of
whose seaward face Wexford city is built, to about 300 feet, and then
descend rapidly before rising again to produce the Forth Mountain, a
ridge extending 3 to 4 miles N.E. to S.W., with a height of 690 feet. A
ridge of Palseozoic rocks also continued across the present Slaney valley to
the north before the drainage of this part of Ireland was altered by the
breaking down of a portion of it at Ferry Carrig, by Fitzstephen's Castle,
forming the gorge of the modern Slaney river.
Between the Wexford and Wicklow Railway and the sea the ground
rises into high hills and ranges, with occasional bog-lands at foot. Gneiss
and granite are present at the extreme S.E. at Carnsore Point, and black
calp limestones at Driuagh, near Wexford.
The later deposits of Wexford fall into three divisions, viz., (1) the
so-called ' manure ' gravel series ; (2) marls and clays ; (3) an illusory or
fictitious drift. The first of these occur onlij on the landward side of the
elevations and hills just referred to; the second on their seaward faces and
cover in part the previous gravels ; the third is forming wherever the
bed-rock is exposed to atmospheric influences.
(i) The 'Manure^ Gravel Series.
These consist in ascending order of fine sands passing up into a com-
minuted shell gravel covered by a debris of, for the most part, local rocks.
Of these the sands are lowest and most persistent, appearing in the banks
of the Slaney river, which has cut through them since their deposition.
In a sandpit near St. Peter's College, Wexford, various igneous rocks, as
quartz and granite, are present on the floor ; but as in the side of the pit
134 EEPOBT — 1888.
near the top a large mass of felsite, one face measuring 2 feet or more, is
in si7!6, pressing down and contorting the water-sorted gravel seams, these
are doubtless not in their original place. The granite has probably come
from the Carnsore horizon. Large transported rocks are, however, not
common in these sands. From the shore at Artraraon, on the eastern
bank of the Slaney, all the way up the ascent to Castlebridge, the road
exhibits this sand, which in a pit near Pulregan is beautifully exposed,
passing up into comminuted shell gravel.
The section at Little Clonard is a veiy instructive one, and is the
deposit referred to by earlier writers as being on the Forth Mountain.
More accurately it is upon the land face of the Wexford ridge, opposite tn
the mountain. Down the slope of this ridge it extends for a distance of
150 yards, with a vertical thickness of about 20 to 2^ feet. At the base
of the section is a sheet of concreted or cemented gravelly sand a few
inches thick. Upon this reposes a thick mass of sand with many pebble
seams containing much small limestone, the fossils being most plentiful
in these seams. Over this is a drift of stones very local in position, in
some places absent, in others 3 feet thick. The upper beds having been
much turned over during the 100 years the section has been open and the
sand removed, no accurate idea can be conveyed as to the original con-
dition of this portion of the pit ; but in a continuation of the sheet of
gravel a few perches away a pit has been opened within the last three
years that may supply the deficiency. Here, below the surface soil, is a
bed of clean sand with a brown marl 4 feet in thickness, this covering
the fine limestone gravel. The larger drift is here absent, but may be
seen farther on the road in Mr. Moody's grounds at Rathaspick. The
largest stones occur in the surface soil.
The next place where these shell gravels occur is on the side and top
of the hill near Castlebridge at Pulregan ; here the gravels are finer and
sandier, and the local covering drift is less conspicuous.
For purposes of comparison with other deposits elsewhere, which have
been considered as the equivalents of these gravels, a careful examination
was made as to the nature and condition of this covering debris, and to
this end the mean of several gi'oups of twenty specimens, each picked at
random from the face of the section, gave the following results: —
Little Pulregan
Clonard No. 1. No. 2
Quartz and quartz rock .... 6 7 10
Cambrian or Ordoviciau .... 8 9 8
Limestone ....... ^ 1 1
Chalk flint 2 1
Granitic pebble 1 1
20 20 20
The examination of a heap piled at one side in Little Clonard pit
yielded a larger proportion of quartz and Cambrian and less of limestone.
At neither place did the stones bear those marks of glaciation, striae, and
polishing that occur in the limestone drift proper. The pebbles are also
more rounded.
Professor Harkness, ' Geol. Mag.,' vol. vi. p. 543, remarks on an
exposure of these beds at Castle Ellis, about eight miles to the N.W. of
Pulregan, that the sands and gravels are covered by a boulder clay
40 feet thick, ' abounding in angulai', sub-angular, and rounded blocks,
ON THE 'MAMURE' GKAVELS OF WEXrORD. 135
cliiefly Cambrian and Silurian, many beautifully striated.' This descrip-
tion so strongly applies to wbat I have termed an illusory drift that at
present I am inclined to consider it a similar accumulation.
This is a drift, or rather a clay, resulting from the decomposition of the
metamorphosed Palaeozoic rocks wherever exposed to atmospheric in-
fluences. This is well seen between the Slaney and the Forth Mountain,
and in and about Wexford, at Killurin and Macmine Junction, and almost
everywhere at the foot of the hills along the railway line, wherever a
cutting or excavation has been opened. This clay is full of blocks in
various stages of degradation, occasionally covered and coloured by iron-
froth. The soft nature of the metamorphosed Cambrian rocks renders
their situation of less value in this point of view than if they were lime-
stones.
The fauna contained in the gravels is very interesting ; the only
hitherto available lists are those made so many years back by Captain
James and Professor Forbes, their usefulness being impaired by the un-
certainty as to whether the fossils came from the gravel or the marl. I
have therefore given in the following only those which I have obtained
directly from the gravels, adding subsequently those of the earlier lists.
A large proportion of the shells are much abraded fragments, very
few of the Pelecypoda being intact, the Gastropods suffering less damage.
The condition in which the remains occur does not altogether suggest
more than a normal amount of violence or far removal, since equally
broken fragments are to be seen in any ancient or modern sea-beach, such
as the raised beach at Thatcher Island, or on the level stretch of sands at
Paignton, both in Torbay.
Their distribution is rather capricious. Professor Forbes, op. cit.,
p. 377, speaks of the abundance of Purpura lapillns and the presence of
Littorina littorea as especially characteristic of the Wexford shelly gravels
containing Fusus contrarius. These are rare in the southern parts of the
district, where Venus verrucosa, doubtfully recognised by Professor Forbes
as a Wexford fossil, is, on the contrary, not uncommon.
Many of the pits formerly oiJeu are now closed or water-logged.
Kilbride, co. Wicklow, the locality given in the ' Fossil Catalogue ' of
the School of Mines, London, for some of Captain James' rarer fossils,
has not been worked for forty years past, I am told by Mr Gawan, who
has been resident there during that time, and directed my attention to
one or two exposures of gravel. Only the local upper gravel with sand
was visible. In the same manner as the Slaney in the south cut through
the series since their deposition, so also has the Ovoca in the north, the
ilbride gravels being on the Wicklow side of the river.
(1) Shells collected by A. Bell in the Wexford Gravels.
Buccinum undatum.
Cj'praea europea.
Dentalium entalis.
Fusus gracilis.
„ antiquus.
,, contrarius.
„ islandica jav.
„ Menapii, M.S. (n. sp.)
Fissurella grasca.
Murex erinaceus.
Nassa incrassata.
„ reticulata.
„ nitida.
,. pj-gmsa.
Natica greenlandica.
Purpura lapillus.
„ incrassata.
Pleurotoma pyramidalis.
,, rufa.
„ (var. semicostata.)
136
REPOET — 1888.
Pleurotoma (var. Ulideana.)
„ turricula.
Tropbon muricatns.
,, clathratus.
„ truncatus.
,, craticulatus.
Turritella incrassata.
„ terebra
Astarte borealis.
„ compressa.
„ elliptica.
,, (var. sulcata.)
Cardium edule
„ cchinatum.
„ rusticum.
Cyprina islandica.
Mactra .siibtruncata.
Mya areiiaria.
AncT several other forms still undetermined.
j\Iya truncata.
Mytilus edulis.
„ modiolus.
Nucula Cobboldiag ?
Ostrea edulis.
Pinna.
Pectuncnlus glycimeris.
Pecten pusio.
„ opercularis.
„ maximus.
Solen marginatus.
Tapes decussatus.
Tellina Balthica.
„ crassa.
Venus casina.
„ verrucosa.
Cliona.
Balanus.
(2) Species recorded by Captain James ' not found ly A. Bell.
Aporrhais pes pelicani.
Cyprseca ? sp.
Fusus crispns ?
Lacuna putcolus.
Littorina nidis.
„ littorea.
Mitra ( ? cornea) ?
Melampus pyramidata.
Nassa semistriata.
Patella vulgata.
I'leurotoma.
Scalaria Trevelyana.
„ greenlandica.
Trochus exasperatus.
Trichotropis borealis.
Trophon Barvicensis.
Anomia ephippium.
Leda pusio 1
„ pcrnula.
,, oblongoides ?
Mactra solida.
Nucula nucleus.
„ prosiuia?
Pholas crispata.
Saxicava arctica.
Venus exoleta.
Of these a number are either extinct or only found in seas north or
south of Britain, and such an association in the same area needs some
explanation. The species are:
North — Astarte borealis, *Leda oblongoides, L. pernula, *N"ucula
Cobboldia), *N. proxima, Scalaria greenlandica. Purpura incrassata,
Pleurotoma pyramidalis, Trophon clathratus, T. craticulatus, Meyeria
pusilla.
South — *Leda pusio, *Cypr£ea sp., Turritella incrassata, *Nassa
pemistriata, *Mitra sp., * Pleurotoma, 2 sp.
Habitat unknown. Fusus (Menapii M.S.), F. n. sp., or allied to *F.
crispus, Melam|ius pyramidata.
Those marked * are uncertain ascriptions according to Professor
Forbes, and the Mitra, Nassa, Fusus, and Ledas, like Cajjtain James*
notes, are no longer in evidence, being either lost or mislaid. Of Nncula
Cobboldice, a living Japanese species, I have a rolled fragment, which
seems to exhibit the peculiar sculpture of the shell. The Cyprsea now
(with Melampus) in the Museum of Practical Geology, London, requires
confirmation.
The Mitre, according to Forbes, was an imperfect specimen, too
' Journ. Buhlin Gcol. Soc, vol. iii. Some of these may have been obtained from
the marls and not from the gravels.
ON THE 'manure' GRAVELS OF WEXFORD. 137
mucli broken for identification of species ; it might be either M. green,
landica or M. cornea, both of which Mr. R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, in
' The Natural History of the European Seas,' p. 262, states to occur here.
This is, I venture to think, an error on his part.
Of the existence of the other species in tlie list there can be no doubt,
and the question arises, by what routes did they come, and where do
similar accumulations occur ? On the latter point Melampus pyramidata
is valuable evidence ; its last appearance as a fossil occurring in Eastern
England, in the Chillesford beds of Suffolk, in association with Leda
oblongoides, Nucula Cobboldia?, Turritella incrassata, Scalaria green-
landica, Trophon clathratns, and others in the list just given.
On the west coast of England it, in company with numerous other
shells of southern origin and Pliocene age, occurs in the St. Erth valley
in Cornwall, Turritella incrassata being a very abundant form ; and the
conclusion arrived at by the writer is that the Wexford scries cannot be-
placed earlier than at or about the close of the Pliocene stage of East
Britain, such as the Weybourn beds of Norfolk.
Professor Forbes was the first to suggest that ' there was a communi-
cation between the Mediterranean and the North Seas during this period.'
Messrs. Dolfuss and Dautzenberg have also pointed out that the Cotentin
deposit in North France is but an extension in continuation of the late
Miocene seas.
The deposit at St. Erth' is evidently a further extension in a westerly
direction, and a still further prolongation in a line northerly from St. Ertb
to the Avest of Carnsore Point would strike the valley between the Wex-
ford ridge and the Forth Mountain, and continuing round the inland face
of the hills already referred to reach the present coast-line just north
of Arklow.
Such an extension would account for the presence of these southern
species in the Wexford area. By what route the northern species arrived
will be considered in the final report.
(ii) Marls and Clays.
On the survey maps it is said, ' The low lands of this coast and the
interior up to a height of between 200 and 300 feet are covered by Pleis-
tocene deposits, consisting of marls interstratified with sand and gravel
containing arctic and other shells, chalk flint, pebbles of Antrim chalk,
jasper, coal, and magnetic iron-sand.'
This description is not very definite, as the deposits vary much in
character and are apparently of difiFerent ages. In Rosslare Bay, near
Ballygeary, the lowest bed rests directly upon the base rock, and is a
stiff black clay, originating from the black Carboniferous limestone a short
distance away, and is only occasionally relieved by a few quartz pebbles,
Cambrian rocks, or a limestone pebble or fossil. A bed of sand, more or
less intermittent, ranging from thi-ee inches to three feet in thickness,
separates this from an overlying very dai'k clay, with a few large stones
and occasional seams of gravel. Fossils are present, but are fragmentary
and difficult to find in the clay, but are better preserved in the pebble
seam.s, from one of which, situated towards the top of the cliff to the west
of the pier, the following species were obtained : —
' On the Pliocene beds of St. Erth, by P. F. Kendall (the late), K. G. Bell,
F.G.S., Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, Lend., 1886, p. 202 et seq.
138 EEPOKT— 1888.
Cj'praia europea.
Helcion pellucid um.
,, var. Isevis.
Hydrobia ulvse.
Lacuna puteolus.
Littorina neritoides.
,, obtusata.
„ littorea.
Murex erinaceus.
Nassa pygm<Ba.
,, reticulata.
Purpura lapillus.
Patella vulgata.
Trochus cinerarius.
,, zizyphinus.
Trochvis umbilicatus.
Astarte sulcata.
Cardium edule.
Lutraria elliptica.
Leda pernula.
Lucina borealis.
Mactra elliptica.
Mytilus edulis.
Nucula nucleus.
Ostrea edulis.
Pecten opercularis.
,, varius.
Tapes virginea.
Crab claw.
Balanus.
Above this layer were embedded in the face of the cliff numerous land
shells, such as Helix hispida, Helix ericetorum, &c. These may be of
no great age. Traces of upland peat occur, and the freshwater Limnea
truncatnla is not uncommon, embedded in the cliff face.
The marine shells are also present in the railway cutting, and frag-
ments may be noticed in the more finable clay or marl beds on either side
of Wexford Harbour from the water level to some distance up the sides
of the elevations already referred to. Near Wexford the clay becomes
more sandy and yellowish, due probably to an admixture of the sands of
the earlier series. Here traces of an old layer of oysters are visible.
Elsewhere, as in the cliffs south of Arklow, it puts on the look of a rain-
wash or brick earth, with few included rocks and without fossils.
The sand at Ballygeary yielded a broken Trophon Barvicensis, and
the stiff black clay a fragment each of Astarte sulcata and Pectunculus
glycimeris.
The only northern species obtained after close search were Leda pernula
and, doubtfully, Astarte borealis.
Captain James described (1839) the cliffs at Ballygeary as consisting
of dark tenacious clays, with rows of Nullipores. The only trace of this
alga found was on a limestone pebble in the lowest clay, with a serpula
attached to it.
(iii) The Coast from Delgany to Killiney.
To ascertain what relations (if any) the Wexford series of deposits had
to the so-called Lower, Middle, and Upper drifts of the Dublin area, it
became necessary to examine the coast-line with some attention, from the
rise of the cliffs at Delgany past Greystones to the sides of Bray Head,
and thence to the granite boundary at Killiney and Dalkey, espe-
cially the fine exposure at Ballybrack in Killiney Bay, where, according to
Professor Hull, the three sections are to be seen, as well as elsewhere.
However it may be elsewhere, I was unable to detect any traces of an
Upper drift ; a conclusion I have since discovered was arrived at some
years ago by Mr. G. H. Kinaham,' who, in discussing the question, states
his opinion ' that there is no deposit between Killiney Hill and the Bray
river that could possibly be called an Upper boulder clay drift,' as given
by Professor Hull in the section in his paper upon Irish drifts.^
The older drift in Killiney Bay is made up of large and small rocks,
' Geol Maff. vol. ix. p. 265 et seq. (' Middle Gravels of Ireland ').
- Ibid. vol. viii. p. 295.
ON THE 'manure' GEAVELS OF WEXFORD. 139
limestone, quartz, schists, and granites (many of the limestones being
beautifully striated), intermixed "with thick beds of sand, often tilted at
an angle of 70° to 80° to the beach, beneath which they pass, reappearino-
at intervals near the Shanganagh and Bray rivers.
Resting upon, and in places overlying it, are the beds associated with
the Middle drifts, made up of loose sands, gravel, and occasionally large
blocks of granite and quartz, the cliffs gradually declining towards the
south, where they sink to the shore a short distance north of the Shano-a-
nagh river. The upper portion of the section is composed of smaller
gravel, and is so similar to the older drift that it is impossible to separate
them, water action having mixed them together. The fossils in this
horizon are chiefly confined to the lower portion of the section and are
rather local in their distribution.
A shell-bearing gravel has been recognised for many years past as
existing high up the Three Rock and Kilmashogue Mountains at eleva-
tions of 1,000 to 1,200 feet. Beyond the facts that these mountain
gravels are largely limestone, and the shells all included in the fauna of
the lower ones, there is nothing to connect the two. On the contrary,
the shells, unlike the lower-lying species, are many of them scratched,
and none of the arctic forms are at present known ' to occur there.
The Shanganagh river flows by the base of a perpendicular cliff, about
fourteen feet high, sloping rapidly from the coast inland. The base is a
limestone drift (lower drift), passing upwards into a marly clay full of
large, rounded granites, angular limestone blocks, and quartz rocks.
Coastwise it is of limited extent, soon disappearing beneath the sandy
marls referred to in the next section as occurring north of the Bray river.
A few fragments of shell are present in the marl, which contains a few
seams of pebbly gravel. It may be worth notice that where the marl is
seen resting upon the limestone drift lai-ge blocks of granite abound, and
limestone is almost, if not altogether, wanting. One out of a large number
of granite blocks lying upon the shore I found to be 16 feet in circum-
ference.
The shell gravels at Ballybrack have yielded an interesting series of
fossils. I have, as in the case of the Wexford lists, given those collected
by myself and then those obtained by other searchers not included in my
own finds : —
Aporrhais pes pelicani.
Buccinum undatum.
Dentalium entalis.
„ Tarentinum.
Fusns antiquus.
Hydrobia ulvfe.
„ ventricosa.
Littorina littorea.
„ rudis.
„ obtusata.
Nassa reticulata.
„ pygmsa.
„ nitida.
„ granulata,
Natica Alderi.
„ catena ?
Pleurotoma costata.
Kissoa parva.
„ membranacea.
Succinea oblonga.
Turritella terebra.
Trophon trnucatus
Astarte borealis,
„ compressa.
„ sulcata.
Cardium edule.
„ echinatum.
» pygmsum.
Cyprina islandica.
Corbula nucleus.
Leda pernula.
„ buccata.
„ minuta.
Lutraria elliptica.
> See lists in ' The Elevated Shell-bearing Gravels near Dublin,' Eev. Maxwell
Close, M.A., Jourti. Roy. Geol. Soc. Dublin, 1874, vol. iv. p. 36.
140 KEPOET— 1888.
Mya truncata.
Mytilus edulis.
Mactra elliptica.
Ostrea edulis.
Pecten tigrinus.
Pectunculus glycimeris.
Psammobia ferroensis.
Pholas dactylus.
Saxicava arctica.
Scrobicularia piperita.
Tellina Balthica.
„ calcarea.
Tapes decussatus.
Venus gallina.
„ verrucosa.
(Artemis) exoleta.
Balanus.
Fish vertebra.
Found by Canon Grainger (G.), W. W. Walpole (Appendix, Dr. Gwyn
Jeffreys, ' Brit. Conch.' vol. v.) (W".), Professor Oldham (0.) : —
Cypraia europea (G.).
Pleurotoma rufa (W.).
Troclius cinerarius (G.).
Loripes divaricatus (W.).
Mya arenaria (G.)
Psammobia vespertina (W.).
Woodia digitaria (W.)
A comparison of these lists with those given as from the Wexford
gravels efi'ectually disposes of the suggestion that the fauna of the two
deposits are identical.
(iv) From Delgany to the Bray River.
In this district the cliffs rise from the shore a little S. of Greystones,
and passing northwards thicken considerably, the deposits rising to more
than 300 feet up the sides of Bray Head. The lowest beds at Delgany
are limestone drift, containing the usual quartz, granite, and Cambrian
boulders, capped by another gravel largely made up of Cambrian slates,
micaceous schists, grits, quartz, and granitic rocks. Old Red sandstones,
chalk flints, with comparatively little limestone. Yellow clay or marl,
resembling a brick earth, occurs, at first sparingly, with seams of fine
pebbles, thickening out northwards and infilling the hollows in the under-
lying beds. North of Bray Head it appears in the cliffs, dying out near
the beach at the Shangauagh river, as already mentioned. South of
Greystones, at the top of the gravel, a few fragments of Mytilns modiolus,
with adherent epidermis and a portion of Tapes virginea, were the only
fossils obtained.
Between Greystones and the Head the gravels overlie sands, to which
they are presently seen to lie unconformable, the sands and pebbly seams
beneath exposing strong current bedding, at an angle of about 20°, for a
short distance, when an irregular mass of limestone debris appears, resting
upon a thick bed of dark clay, with seams of sand and small gravel, exhi-
biting much contortion — even to the doubling of the seams upon them-
selves — the overlying debris pressing down into the hollows left by the
contortions.
Evidences of water sorting are very prevalent all through the mass in
the seams of pebbly sand which are interspersed in the drifts. Small
fragments of shells are not uncommon in the gravel, especially in the
rise above the line of railway before it enters the tunnel (Astarte sulcata
and compressa, Cardium echinatum, Tellina and Cyprina), but are seldom
determinable.
The like conditions are found north of Bray Head, where the gravel
and bedded seams are seen to pass down to the sandy marls before men-
tioned. The bivalves just referred to are present here also, with a few
pieces of Purpura and Tarritella.
ON THE 'MANDEE' GEAVELS OF WEXFORD. 141
rrom the results obtained and described in the foregoing notes it
would appear that —
1st. The "Wexford gravel series proper are the sole remains of a series
of sands and gi-avel deposited in an arm of the sea. occupying a channel
opened out from a southern direction prior to the existence in this neigh,
bourhood of the Slaney and Ovoca rivers, their fauna indicating their a^e
to be immediately pre-Glacial.
2nd. That the gravel beds in Killiney Bay ai"e of newer age,' and
the contents do not bear out the suggestion that has been made as to their
being coequal in time.
3rd, That the series of marls, clays, and brick earths of the coast had
their origin and were formed subsequently under submersion, and are the
newest deposits of all.
In a final report I propose to give a resume of the Irish fossiliferoua
drifts in general, with a view to their bearings upon the distribution of
the moUusca in other parts of Britain.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors McIntosh
(Secretary), Allman, Lankester, Bdrdon S.vnderson, Cleland,
EwART, (Stirling, and McKendrick, Dr. Cleghorn, and Dr.
Traquair, for continuing the Researches on Food-Fishes at the
St. Andrews Marine Laboratory.
Since September 1887, the period included under the present grant,
considerable additions have been made to the researches on the
development and life-histories of the food-fishes. Thus the larval
stages of the gadoids have been followed to the early post-larval
stages, so that a fairly complete history, in several instances, can now
be produced. Nevertheless it is true that in the earlier post-larval
stages of the round fishes, it is diflBcult, e.g., to distinguish between the
cod, haddock, and whiting ; at least this may be predicated of all the
post-larval forms hitherto procured in May, the period when they first
become conspicuous in the large mid-water net. It is only when the
pigment assumes its definite character, for instance, the tessellated
condition in the young cod, or when the barbel appears, and the fins
become clearly outlined, that certainty is reached. In the case of the
young cod, recognition is readily made on June 1, though the pigment
has not yet assumed the distinctive tessellated condition ; and the
differences between this species and the young green cod at an early post-
larval stage were also minutely examined this season.
Though it cannot yet be proved that a general migration of theyouno-
round fishes, e.g., cod, haddock, and whiting, takes place from deep to
shallow water, there are certain facts which bear upon such a habit.
Thus, the post-larval cod are rarely met with on the grounds frequented
by the adults, but appear in considerable numbers at a somewhat later
stage in St. Andrews Bay, and in June at the margin of the tidal rocks
at low water. As formerly mentioned, they increase in size as the season
advances. Some remain for a year off the rocky coasts, and are cauo^ht
• Whether these Killiney gravels correspond to the Middle drift of the English
and North Wales districts is not clear. I hope to trace the connection, if any, in
the final report. At present the evidence is rather against than for such being
the case. — A. B.
142 KEPOET— 1888.
(as rock-cod) by hand-lines; wliile others of the same size, but having a
less raddy hue, abound at a somewhat greater distance from shore, e.g.,
south-east of Girdleness in Aberdeenshire, and off the Bell Rock, and are
caught in numbers by both liners and trawlers. The large cod frequent
the deeper water at some distance from shore as a rule, though in pur-
suit of herrings they approach the shore more closely at certain seasons.
The post-larval stages of the haddock have hitherto escaped recogni-
tion ; though G. O. Sars speaks of distinguishing the early post-larval
haddock by their shorter and stouter form as contrasted with the young
cod.
The life-history of the whiting has especially been elucidated during
the year, and further additions made to the post- larval stages of the ling.
It is interesting that two yellowish longitudinal bands occur along the
sides of the former in the adult condition, especially in connection with
the characteristic yellowish larval pigment. The development of the
Clupeoids of the bay has also been followed, and observations made on
their growth. The larval and post-larval stages of the sand-eel, so very
abundant in the bay, have likewise been studied.
Amongst flat fishes (Pleuronectid*), the post-larval stages of the com-
mon flounder, the long rough dab and other forms, have been examined,
and their life-histories followed more or less completely. The eggs
apparently of the sole have been found late in summer near the surface of
the bay, and though the adults are few, there is no reason why they should
not be increased by artificial aid, such as the introduction of a number of
adults from Scai'borough and other convenient localities. The food of
the sole is very abundant in St. Andrews Bay, and the only difficulty
will be competition with the hardy plaice so numerous in this ground.
The post-larval stage apparently of the turbot was procured towards the
end of August, and is remarkable for its peculiar yellowish coloration.
Several unknown eggs probably belonging to the same group (Pleuronec-
tidse), and which were first met with in the trawling expeditions of 1884,
were also again observed, and further steps made to their identification.
A post-larval Lahrus maculatus, 11 mm. in length, procured by the mid-
water net in September, showed some intei-esting featui-es in coloration,
the chief being a series of white touches on a greenish ground, with
brown bands on the head. The soft rays of the dorsal fins have not yet
attained the proportionally elongated condition of the adult organ. The
pectorals are large, and their rapid vibratory movement resembles that of
Hippocampus and the Sygnathidse. A brown bar marks their basal region,
which in this and many other post-larval fishes is much larger in propor-
tion than in the adult — a condition probably connected with increased
functional activity. The ventral fins are opaque white, with a brownish
belt in front (anterior rays). The anal fin, like the dorsal, has a brown
patch in front. None of the blue, yellow, or orange, so common in the
adult, has yet appeared.
Additional observations have also been made on the spawning period
of various fishes about which little is at present known, such as the bass,
Yarrell's blenny, wrasse, &c. Remarkable cases in which mussels (Mytilus
edulis) have grown to a considerable size on the branchias of the haddock
have likewise been observed.
Besides the food-fishes, further advances have been made on the
development of the gunnel, the adults of which remain with their ova in
holes {e.g., those bored by Pholas) in rocks, and on the larval and post-
ON RESEARCHES ON FOOD-FISHES. 143
larval stages of Agonus, Motella, and other forms. The early post-larval
stage of Agonus is peculiar from its fusiform outline and yellowish colora-
tion. The former is due to the great median development of the marginal
fin dorsally and ventrally. The post-larval condition oi Liparis montagui
has likewise come under notice when about 10 mm. in length. The noto-
chord still projects superiorly from the tip of the tail, and the hypural edge
is almost vertical. The caudal region, with its fin-rays, is bluntly conical.
A marked feature is the elevation of the first region of the dorsal fin and
its wider rays, a differentiation, perhaps, indicating the relationship with
a form in which such is present in the adult. The head and cheeks have
a few black specks, and these also occur on the anterior region of the
body. The pectorals are speckled in a similar manner. The elongated
rays of these fins are not yet developed, so that this is a subsequent cha-
racter. Their margins trend evenly from the anterior part of the sucker
backward and upward. The difierence in regard to the size of the eye
of such a species as this and one of the post-larval gadoids is marked, the
large eyes of the latter being diagnostic, and probably associated with
their greater adroitness and activity in catching minute prey.
The researches on the development and life-histories of the food- and
other fishes made by the Secretary (Professor Mcintosh) and Mr. E. E.
Prince, B.A. (Cantab.), comprising upwards of 400 pages MS. and 31
quarto plates, containing many coloured figures, have recently (June 18)
been communicated to the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
A special research was carried out by Mr. E. E. Prince on the
Morphology of the Limbs of Teleosteaus, and illustrated by three quarto
plates. This work, like that already published or about to be published,
reflects great credit on its author, both for the careful nature of the
observations and the beauty and accuracy of the drawings.
Another investigation, no less able, is that of Dr. Marcus Gunn, M.A.,
M.R.C.S., one of the surgeons of Moorfields Hospital, London, on the
Embryology of the Retina of the Teleosteans. A preliminary paper on
this important subject appears in the ' Annals of Natural History ' for
this month (September).
Professor D. J. Cunningham, M.D., M.R.I. A., is also engaged on the
Development of the Teleostean Vertebral Column; while Professor
Burdon Sanderson and Mr. Gotch ' carried on during the summer an
investigation (in the living skate) of the caudal electrical organ. Many
embryo skates have since been sent to Dr. Minot of America and Professor
Ewart for microscopic purposes in connection with this research and
other investigations. Mr. Kennedy, B.Sc. of Glasgow University, also
spent a few weeks in working at the development of the haddock, and
Mr. Grabham, B.A. of Cambridge, a similar period in examining the
spinal nerves of the cod.
One of the most interesting results of the steady use of the mid- water
and other nets for some years in St. Andrews Bay and elsewhere has
been the testing of the Pelagic life at various seasons, so as to elucidate
the nature of the food of the post-larval food-fishes, and also throw light
on other questions. For the year 1888 the continuation of this work
has been specially undertaken for the Fishery Board for Scotland, and
will therefore be dealt with elsewhere. Independently, however, of the
bearings of the fauna and flora (diatoms, &c.) on the food of fishes, some
remarkable forms have come under notice, and the growth and habits of
' Vide Proc. Roy. Soc, 1888.
144 BEPOBT— 1888.
others less rare have also been periodically noted. No group is more
interesting in this respect, perhaps, than the Ctenophores, and certainly
none is more abundant. Besides the ordinary forms at all stages, a new
British species, viz , Lesueuria vitrea, M. Ed., has been procured in St.
Andrews Bay in great profusion and for an extended period. The
examples ranged from the most minute up to those 2^ inches in length,
but of all the British Ctenophores, or even Medusa, it is the most delicate.
The mere pouring of the water containing it from one vessel to another
is sufficient to rupture it irretrievably, and indeed any undue commotion
in the water has the same effect. It is well known as an inhabitant of
the Mediterranean since it was originally described by Milue Edwards,
and it has also been found on the American coast by Alex. Agassiz. An
allied form, again, was procured on the shores of Norway by M. Sars.
During this summer, also, the great abundance of the ecto-parasitic
larvae of Peachia on Thaummdias has been a conspicuous feature, and
many have been preserved for the further researches of Professor Haddon,
M.A., D.Sc, M.R.I.A., who this month (September) contributes an
interesting paper on the subject to the ' Annals of Natural History.'
In the winter, numerous examples of the common star-fish (Asterias
Tiihens), brought from the bay on the lines of the fishermen, showed many
ecto-parasitic crustaceans (Podalirius ti/picus, Kroyer). These generally
adhered by the posterior legs, with their bodies projecting at right
angles from the rays of the star-fish. In previous descriptions of this
form the habitat seems to have been overlooked, for Spence-Bate and
Westwood simply state that it was procured in the Forth, upon a shell
brought up by a haddock-line, and in the recent catalogue of the Mediter-
ranean Fauna * no allusion to coramensalism occars.
Further observations have also been made on the development and
life-history of the common mussel, which forms a valuable 'bed' in the
estuary of the Eden. These have chiefly been carried out by Mr. John
Wilson, B.Sc, who lately published an important paper with four quarto
plates on the subject in the Fifth Annual Report of the Fishery Board for
Scotland.'^
Mr. Herbert E. Durham, B.A., lately Vintner Exhibitioner at Cam-
bridge, continued the interesting researches of last year on the Amoeboid
corpuscles in the star-fish, and also on the madreporite of Gribrella
sangidnolenta.^
Besides the use of the yacht ' Dalhousie,' the services of the steam
tender ' Garland ' were placed at the disposal of the fcecretary for some
days by the courtesy of the Fishery Board for Scotland for work in the
deeper water at a distance from shore. Certain well-known fishing and
' Prodromtis Faunw Mediterranecp, pars ii. p. .390, 1885.
- Previous to a lecture on this subject in the University of St. Andrews in
November 1883, the Town Council requested the convener to give a report dealing
with the preservation and increase of the mussel-beds of the Eden. The work for
H M. Trawling Commission, however, supervened, and occupied the whole of the
following j'car. Thereafter the subject was steadily kept in view, as indicated in
the Third Annual Report of the Fishery Board (1885, p. 57). A short abstract was
also published in the Annals of Natural History for February 1885. It being appa-
rent that a thorough knowledge of the development and life-history of the species
was indispensable for advancing the subject on a sound basis, Mr. John Wilson took
up this portion of the work, his observations being published in the Fourth Annual
Eeport of the Fishery Board (1886, p. 218), and next year in the Fifth Report with
three quarto plates (1887, p. 217).
' Proc. Hoij. Soc. January, 1888.
ON RESEAECHES ON FOOD-FISHES. 145
trawling grounds were thus examined in connection with the observations
on the development and life-histories of the food-fishes.
Considering the importance of the work in relation to our knowledge
of the food- and other fishes, and the advances in Invertebrate Zoology,
the Committee beg to recommend a renewal of the grant (50Z.J for the
ensuing year.
Fourteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Drs. E. Hull and
H. W. Crosskey, Sir Douglas Galton, Professor Gr. A. Lebour,
and Messrs. James Glaisher, E. B. Marten, G. H. Morton,
W. Pengelly, James Plant, J. Prestwich, I. Egberts, T. S.
Stooke, G. J. Symons, W. Topley, Tylden - Wright, E.
Wethered, W. Whitaker, and C. E. De Kance (Secretary),
appointed for the purpose of investigating the Circulation of
Underground Waters in the Permeable Formations of England
and Wales, and the Quantity and Character of the Water
supplied to various Towns and Districts from these Forma-
tions. (Drawn up by C. E. De Eance, Reporter.)
The drought to which your Committee drew attention in their report last
year was continued up to June of the present year, and had a very marked
influence in diminishing the volume of water yielded by a large number
of spi'ings, and a very considerable diminution of the supply afforded by
the remainder, over the greater portion of the central area of England, an
area in which underground stores give the larger proportion of the daily
water-supply of the population.
Much useful information has been obtained as to the amount of dimi-
nution experienced, but it has been thought advisable to combine it with
information now being collected, showing the efiect of the recent heavy
rains in re-charging the underground stores.
Statistics of this nature collected during the past season, probably
the most exceptional season of the present century, will necessarily have
a permanent value in future calculations as to the actual yield likely
to be obtained from a given area after successive years of minimum
rainfall.
It has been thought advisable to defer publishing the information
already obtained until next year, when it can be given in a more complete-
and useful form. Tour Committee hope that the attention of the Dele-
gates of the Associated Scientific Societies may be drawn to the import-
ance of this inquiry, and that local observers will give special attention
to the date at which the springs of their neighbourhood diminished in
yield and subsequently increased ; the date at which any springs ceased'
to flow, and that on which they recommenced ; the amount of flow of
any springs either daily, weekly, or monthly ; similar records of the
heights of the water in wells and borings, whether for long or short
periods. The value of such observations would be much enhanced if
descriptions be given that will enable the locality to be identified on the
one-inch map of the Ordnance Survey and the levels referred to the
Ordnance Datum.
Tour Committee seek re-election, but do not require a grant to carry
on their investigations.
1888. L
146 KEPOKT — 1888.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. John Cordeaux (Secre-
tary), Professor A. Newton, ]\Ix. J. A. Harvie-Bro^vn, Mr.
William Eagle Clarke, Mr. R. M. Barrington, and Mr. A.
G-. More, reappointed at Manchester for the purpose of
obtaining {with the consent of the Master and Brethren of the
Trinity House and the Cominissioners of Northern and Irish
Lights) observations on the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses
and Lightvessels, and of reporting on the same}
Altogether about two hundred lighthouses and lightships on the coasts
of Great Britain and Ireland, and the outlying islands, were supplied
with printed tables for recording the movements of migratory birds. The
collected results of the observations have been again published by the
Committee in their ninth report. There has been a considerable increase
in the number of schedules sent in, and it is satisfactory to note that
the majority of the returns show increased care, and much intelligent
interest on the part of the observer.
Commencing with the east coast of Scotland, Mr, John Nichol, the
principal of the North Unst Lighthouse, reports that several pied-ravens,
presumably visitors from the Faroes, were seen in June and July near
Lerwick ; one of these had white wings, another with white head and tips
of wings, others also variously marked.
At the Pentland Skerries a cirl-bunting was obtained on November 2.
This species has only been recorded four or five times in Scotland, and
never so far north in the country.
At the same period there was at this station a large ' rush ' of field-
fares, redwings, thrushes and blackbirds, gold-crested wrens, snow-
buntings and woodcocks with a south-east wind. A hoopoe was also
seen on October 9.
Between the middle of August and up to October several pied-
flycatchers are also recorded at Pentland Skerries.
A considerable number of schedules from the chief stations on the
east coast of Scotland have been filled with the movements of the gannet,
and these, with other accounts already published, will, at some future
date, constitute materials for a thorough treatment of the wanderings of
this species, and their relations to the migration of the herring in the
northern seas.
The number of schedules sent in from thirty-four stations on the
east coast of England was eighty-four.
After January 2 depressions of a very considerable size passed by
our north-western and northern shores, with sudden changes of tem-
perature of an unusual character, and great magnitude ; showers of cold
rain, sleet and hail, from day to day, and very severe frosts at night.
There are verj' clear indications in the diary of migration that a ' great
rush' of birds, going southward along the coast, was concurrent with
these atmospheric disturbances. The birds chiefly noted being fieldfares,
blackbirds, thrushes, redwings, larks, chafl&nches, linnets, starlings, and
some crows.
• ' Report on the Migration of Birds in the Spring and Autumn of 1887.' McFar-
lane and Erskine, 19 St. James's Square, Edinburgh.
ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 147
In the latter part of February and throughout March there are
indications of the passage of crows, rooks, daws, starhngs, larks, and
others to the Continent ; also the same species moving in the reverse
direction to the south-east coast of England. Great numbers of star-
lings, thrushes, and larks were observed at the lanterns at night, show-
ing that the movement was very general and of very considerable extent.
A remarkable ' rush ' of the smaller summer visitants occurred on
the south-east coast, from Thanet to Hunstanton, at early morning of
April 29. A very strongly-pronounced movement was also observed
at Hanois L. H., Guernsey, on May 2, and on the 3rd and 4th. There
were extraordinary ' rushes ' of summer immigrants at the Eddy stone and
Nash stations, and at Helwick L. V., South Wales, on the 5th, when
wheatears, whitethroats, sedge-warblers, willow-wrens, wood-warblers,
blackcaps, reed- warblers, redstarts and pied-flycatchers, and also some
swallows, were killed, some of these in considerable numbers ; the weather
at the earlier period, April 29, being very rainy and unsettled in the
south-east, and very cold over England, with north-east winds. On the
30th, there was a thunderstorm in the south-west of France, with very
cold, unsettled, and rainy weather generally in the south of Europe.
The autumn movement of birds commenced early in July, but did not
become very distinctly pronounced before the beginning of August. One
of the most interesting features of the autumnal migration has been the
simultaneous occurrence of the pygmy curlew (Tringa suharquata) and
the little stint (T. minuta) on the coast, between the Tees and Yannouth.
The former is first recorded from Redcar on August 16, and from the
Spurn on August 23 ; the little stint on the 25th.
The woodcock is first recorded at Seaton-Carew, Durham, on September
19, and at Cromer L. H. on the 25th from 12.30 to 2.30 a.m. (S.E. 4).
Our observer, Mr. Comben, says, ' I never saw so many woodcocks at
one time before ; there seemed to be a constant stream flying round the
lantern ; none struck.' Woodcocks appear to have come in at irregular
intervals between September 30 and November 3, the great ' rush ' or
flight, on the 9th, 10th, and 11th of October. It is somewhat remarkable
that the only notice of this species on the east coast of Scotland occurs
at the Pentland Skerries and Dunnet Head L. H., Caithness, early in
November and again in December.
Throughout September there was a steady, and almost daily increasing,
migration observed at the east coast stations, and from the 29th, through-
out October, and to November 3, an almost continuous night and day
rush of immigrants, the chief of those recorded being crows, rooks, daws,
starlings, larks, chafBnches, linnets, and sparrows; much the greater
proportion of the entries in the schedules during this period consisting of
these readily distinguishable species. The weather during the period of
this great and continuous ' rush ' was up to October 25 mainly anti-
cyclonic, cold, quiet, and dry ; the prevailing winds, north and north-
easterly ; after the 25th, cyclonic, with west and south-westerly winds,
wet, rough and milder. The average temperature of the month was
much colder than the corresponding months in the two preceding years.
There is no evidence that the change of weather and of the wind after
the 25th had the slightest influence in controlling the migratory move-
ment, birds continuing to arrive in undiminished numbers.
The direction and force of the wind at the time appear to have little
eSect in controlling the great autumnal ' rushes,' for when the period of
L 2
148 BEPOET— 1888.
the year has arrived birds cross the North Sea independent of weather.
There can, however, be no doubt that the prevailing wind at the time of
crossing is an important factor in governing the direction in which
migrants travel, and the angle at which the line of flight will intersect
the coast. To changes of temperature, either sudden or more gradual,
rather than the force and direction of winds, we must probably look for
the impelling cause of these seasonal phenomena. After the 3rd and to
the 19th of November birds continued to arrive, but in greatly reduced
numbers, the throbs and pulsations of the great inrush becoming daily
more feeble and less sustained.
On the west coast of England migration, although considerable in
October, was more strongly pronounced in November, particularly from
the 7th to the 19th. On the afternoon of the 11th an anti-cyclonic period
commenced, and prevailed, with little break, until the 17th. And there
were important general movements on the 11th, 13th, and 14th, and on
the 17th and 18th at south-west stations.
The entries in the schedules show that swans and geese have been
remarkably scarce, brent geese fairly numerous — ducks of various species
have occurred in unusually large numbers in all favourable localities.
The common scoter in enormous flocks, also several velvet scoters, and
very considerable numbers of the long-tailed duck have visited the coast
between the Farn Islands and Yarmouth. A bearded reedling {Panurusr
iiarmicus) was seen at the Languard L. H. on February 16, at 7.40 a.m.,
and at Yarmouth on November 13 many are said to have come in at a
great height from the east.
Amongst the rare and more interesting wanderers to our shores we
may notice the occurrences of Temminck's stint at the Spurn and the
eared-grebe at the same place, Richard's pipit on the Lincolnshire coast,
the Alpine swift, avosets, and the pectoral sandpiper of America neai'
Yarmouth, also an osprey obtained at the Cromer Lighthouse. The
isabelline wheatear, a spring visitor from the south to south-eastern
Russia, was shot at Allonby, Cumberland, on November 11.
From the Irish coasts the schedules received from the light-keepers
in 1887 were perhaps the best and most carefully filled of any year so far.
They number about 70 besides many letters inquiring the names of par-
ticular species or remarking on special movements of birds. These have
been furnished by about 30 stations situated all round the Irish coast.
Over 150 legs and wings and specimens in the flesh have been received,
being a larger number than on any previous occasion. This is satisfac-
tory because the species can be ascertained with certainty.
Two birds have been added to the Irish list, i.e., the Lapland!
bunting and the red-breasted flycatcher. The former was found dead
at the Fastnet Rock Lighthouse, October 16 ; the latter was killed
striking the Arklow South Light-ship on October 23. Both speci-
mens were forwarded in the flesh. A magnificent old male Falco can-
dicans was shot by the light-keeper on the Great Skelly Rock, co.
Kerry, on September 28. This bird is occasionally met with on the
west coast of Ireland at light-stations, and the inquiry has shown thafc
it occurs more frequently than was formerly supposed.
Among other rarities received may be mentioned a redstart from the
Fastnet (a rare species in Ireland), killed October 6 ; a woodlark and
spotted crake from the Tearaght Rock, co. Kerry, also killed in October ;
and a hoopoe from Eagle Island, off Mayo (April 12)
ON THE MIGEATIOX OF BIRDS. 149
Of the warblers tte sedare warbler strikes the lanterns more fre-
qnently than any other, but the western and northern stations are almost
a blank, few warblers striking.
The great bulk of the summer migrants an'ive in Ireland on the south
coast and the southern portion of the east coast below Drogheda.
During the second and third weeks of November the waterrail was
forwarded from stations all round Ireland. It has not occurred in such
numbers before.
A large immigration of the siskin and brambling took place in
October and November. These birds have seldom been received from
the light-keepers until 1887.
Tbe autumn rushes of most species were on a larger scale than usual
in 1887, and both summer and winter migrants seem to prefer the south-
rast portion of Ireland when arriving. The snow-bnnting is one of the
few birds which is rarely met with during the season of immigration on
our south-east coasts.
The woodcock seldom strikes the lanterns anywhere.
So far as waders are concerned there is no clear evidence derived from
the light-stations to show that they arrive in greater numbers on our
northern stations in the autumn than on the south-east and south coasts.
This inquiry has now been continued for nine years, and an immense
"number of facts have been collected and brought together in the Annual
Reports in connection with the seasonal movement of birds on the British
coasts. The value of the materials thus acquired has been very consider-
ably increased by the wings and legs sent in from the lighthouses and
lisrhtvessels of birds killed against the lanterns. Tour Committee are
aware that if this inquiry is to lead to any practical scientific results, much
yet remains to be done ; they would, therefore, respectfully suggest that
the collection of further facts and materials should for the present be
suspended, and an attempt rather be made to utilise, digest, and classify
the mass of information already at their disposal. This your Committee
ai-e anxious and willing to undertake, and have already made ai-range-
tnents for carrying into effect, so as to show in a concise form the results
both statistically and otherwise on strictly scientific lines, and in as con-
densed and clear a method as possible.
The Committee have much pleasure in stating that one of their number,
Mr. William Eagle Clarke, of the Museum of Science and Art in Edin-
burgh, has undertaken the laborious task of thus reducing the mass of
observations collected. This will not be executed from the reports already
published, but from an examination cle novo of the schedules sent in.
When it is accomplished, the question of publishing the results will arise,
and the Committee trust that, if necessary, the aid of the British Associa-
tion may again be successfully invoked. The Committee are quite
sensible of the liberality with which the Association has for so many-
years responded to, and even more than once anticipated, their demands,
and have to express their gratitude for the generosity not only of the
Association, but of private individuals towards their investigations ; but
the Committee must point out that the crowning work has yet to be
done, and, while abstaining at this time from any application for pecuniary
help, they hope that it may be forthcoming, if required, at some future
date.
150 EEPOET— 1888.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. C. Williamson
and Mr. W. Cash, appointed for the purpose of investigating
the Flora of the Carboniferous Rocks of Lancashire and West
Yorkshire. {Drawn up by Professor W. C. Williamson.)
As I tad occasion to report to the Association at Manchester last year,
much labour has now to be expended in order to reap a very small
harvest. Our many years of persevering research have well-nigh ex-
hausted the supply of the more conspicuous facts connected with the
organisation of the Carboniferous vegetation. At the same time there is
still much respecting which more information is needed, and the work of
the past year has not been devoid of some important observations.
One of the most curious structural and physiological facts revealed
by the study of the exogenous Carboniferous Cryptogams relates to the
development of their conspicuous piths. This is especially the case
amongst the arborescent Lycopodiaceoe. I have from time to time
called attention to some curious facts bearing upon this matter. I have
shown that in tlie young twigs of some of these plants the central
vascular bundle, corresponding to what the late Professor De Bary would
designate as the ' leaf-trace ' in contradistinction to a Cauline one, is
composed of a number of scalariform vessels, as is the case with the twigs
of many of the living Lycopodiacece. But unlike these living represen-
tatives of the group, there lurked in the centre of each of these palaeozoic
bundles, an invisible germ or germs of a parenchymatous tissue which
developed as the plant grew, and ultimately expanded into a conspicuous,
persistent pith of large dimensions ; not only so, but portions of this
medullary tissue assumed the functions of a Cambium by developing
additions to the vascular ring by which it was surrounded. Botanists
Avill at once recognise the differences between this mode of development
of a medulla and what occurs amongst ordinary living Exogens.
Some of my most important results obtained during the past year
consist of new facts relating to this curious physiological and morpho-
logical feature of the Palaeozoic Flora ; explanations which I previously
advanced hypothetically now assume the appearance of unquestionable
truths. Hence I believe I am now in a position to publish what I hope
to do with little delay, viz., a fairly complete history of the anomalous
development of these palaeozoic medullary organs.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Eay Lankester,
Mr. P. L. ScLATER, Professor M. Foster, Mr. A. Sedgwick,
Professor A. M. Marshall, Professor A. C. Haddon, Professor
Moseley, and Mr. Percy Sladen {Secretary), appointed for the
purpose of arranging for the occupation of a Table at the
Zoological Station at Naples.
Your Committee have to report several notable advances in the scope of the
Zoological Station, which give promise of important results in the future.
The past year has been marked by the opening of the pliysiological
laboratory, which occupies a new and handsome building adjacent to.
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 151
and nearly as large as, the original Station. The progress of the work
has been mentioned in several previous Reports ; and the Direction is now
to be congratulated on the completion of this costly undertaking. Most
of the rooms are already occupied.'
A bacteriological laboratory, which is placed under the direction of
Dr. Frank, formerly assistant to Professor Koch, was opened on May 1.
This department, which is especially maintained by Italian coiitributions,
and is intended to promote a knowledge of marine bacteria, will in the
first instance co-operate with the local efforts to investigate the sanitary
condition of the Port of Naples and the neighbouring coast. Two or
three naturalists are now devoting themselves to these researches.
The chemical department of the physiological laboratory has been
completed under the direction of Dr. W. v. Schroeder, of Strasburg, who
Las previously carried out physiological investigations at the Station.
Several universities and states are already taking an interest in this
department — a circumstance which it is anticipated will contribute
towards the success as well as the support of the new branch.
Investigations of a practical bearing on the fishery industry, carried
out primarily at the instigation of the Italian Ministry of Agriculture
and Commerce, have been prosecuted with energy. An important memoir
on the question of the propagation of fishes and the nature of their ova has
been published in the ' Mittheilungen ' and the official 'Bulletin,' by
Dr. Raffaele, of Naples, one of the assistants in the Station. Special
arrangements have been made for these studies in the new building and
the researches are being carried on actively. Additional proof of the
urgent need of such practical investigations was furnished by an agita-
tion on the question of trawl-fishing, which was got up last year in
Naples and the neighbourhood, and resulted in numerous contradictory
demands being addressed to the Ministry upon the subject.
Several ofiicers belonging to the Italian and Russian navies have
received instruction during the past year in the methods of collecting
marine animals and plants. These gentlemen are now embarked on men-
of-war, and interesting results may be anticipated from the labours of
collectors thus thoroughly qualified.
During the past year two tables have been taken by Austria. This
circumstance is especially significant, as hitherto when applications were
made either by Austrian naturalists or by Professor Dohrn himself to the
Austrian Government, soliciting the engagement of a table in the Naplea
Station, the applications have been rejected on the ground that the
existence of a zoological station at Trieste rendered it unnecessary for
Austria to lease a table in the Naples Station. It was urged against this
argument that the Naples Station ought to be considered as a central
institution, and that whatever local institutions might be founded, the
international character of the Neapolitan establishment rendered it not
only desirable but necessary to secure a footing there. At last two tables
have been taken, in consequence of a collective requisition made by the
four Austrian universities, in which it was stated that in spite of possessing
a zoological station at Trieste the participation of Austria in the Naples
Station was still desirable ; its highly- developed organisation, the richness
of the local fauna, the excellence of the library, and the association there
of scientific workers from all countries, rendering such a participation
necessary in the interests of Austrian naturalists.
Negotiations for securing three tables for Spain are proceeding, and
152 EEPORT— 1888.
a royal decree charging the Ministry with direct propositions to Professor
Dohrn has been published.
The Puhlicatiuns of the Station. — The progress of the various works
undertaken by the Station is here summarised : —
1. Of the ' Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel ' the following
two monographs have been published since the last Report :
XV. Gr. von Koch, GorgonidcB.
XVI. H. Eisig, Capitellidce.
The plates for the following works are in the press : Falkenberg on
' Rhodomelese ' ; Spengel on ' Balanoglossus ' ; Delia Valle on ' Amphi-
poda ' ; Giesbrecht on ' Copepoda ' ; and Vosmaer on ' Porifera incal-
carea.' The text for the last-mentioned work will be in English.
2. Of the ' Mittheilungen aus der Zoologischen Station zu Neapel,'
vol. vii., parts ii., iii., and iv., with 24 plates, have been published.
3. Of the ' Zoologischer Jahresbericht ' for 1885, parts i. and iv. and
a ' Nachtrag (Vermes) ' have been published ; and the whole ' Bericht '
for 1886 (dealing no longer with systematic and faunistic papers).
Extracts from the Oeneral Report of the Zoological Station. — The oflBcers
of the Station have courteously furnished lists (1) of the naturalists
who have occupied tables since the last report, (2) of the works published
during 1887 by naturalists who have worked at the Zoological Station,
(3) of the specimens sent out by the Station during the past year. These
details show a large increase in the number of naturalists who have worked
at the Station, as compared with any previous year, and an increase also
in the total value of the specimens distributed.
The British Association Table. — Three naturalists have occupied the
British Association Table during the past year. Mr. John Gardiner, who
had occupied the table for five months during the preceding year, was
still in possession at the commencement of the past year, and had intended
to occupy the table until December, in accordance with the permission of
your Committee. Unfortunately a dangerous illness prevented the carry-
ing out of these intentions, and the climate of Naples being considered
unsuitable for Mr. Gardiner's restoration to health, he was obliged to
resign the table after occupying it a little more than two months in the
year with which the present report is concerned. Mr. Gardiner sent an
interesting report on the result of some of his work to the Committee,
which was submitted at the last meeting of the Association, and the
supplementary report on the remainder of his occupation, which Mr.
Gardiner has sent from Colorado, will be found appended.
The use of the table has been granted during the past year to Mr.
Andrew David Sloan, of Edinburgh, and subsequently to Professor E. J.
Anderson, of Queen's College, Cralway, both of whom have furnished
reports on the nature of their investigations. The reports are appended.
Your Committee have received two applications for permission to use
the British Association table during the current and coming year, which,
they approve ; and hope that the Council will enable them to sanction
the applications by renewing the grant (lOOZ.) for the ensuing year. In
the opinion of yonr Committee the report now submitted fully justifies
them in strongly recommending the renewal of the grant.
I. Beport on the Occupation of the Table, by Mr. John Gaedinee.
Soon after the date of my last report, I began to study the local
species of Sargassum. At first I merely familiarised myself with the
ON THK ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 153
histology of the plant, then later I investigated the development of the
' Fasergrubchen,' on which subject I am disposed to come to conclusions
opposed to those of Valiante in his monograph on the Cystoceirce. But
the greater part of the time was employed in investigating the develop-
ment of the reproductive organs, and of the embryos of Sargassxim. I
was able to follow the development of the antherozoids up to the time of
their discharge, which, however, I did not see. I also followed out the
development of the oosphere, but did not observe the process of fertilisa-
tion. I reared and carefully observed a large number of embryos, which
in their early stages much resembled those of Cystoceira, though many
exhibited peculiarities of cell-division and growth partly due to the con-
ditions under which they were grown. I had collected a large amount of
well-preserved material, besides drawings and notes from fresh specimens,
and it was my hope to have suflBcient for a monograph of the Mediter-
ranean species of the genus.
My health, however, which had been failing for some time, finally
compelled me to leave Naples on August 20, 1887, four months before
the end of the period granted me by the Committee. I hoped to be able
to return after a short rest, but I was disappointed. Since then I have
been unable to do any work, and for that reason I beg the Committee to
excuse the brevity of this report.
I must express my gratitude to the Committee for the great privilege
they granted me in allowing me to study at Naples, and my regret that
I have been able to do so little work. I wish also to express my thanks
to Dr. Dohrn and the staff of the Zoological Station for the great
kindness which they showed to me, as to everyone who studies there,
and for the valuable assistance they often gave me.
II. Report on the Occupation of the Table, by Mr. Andrew David Sloan.
For the past year I have been deeply interested in the subject of
electric organs. While assistant in the Natural History Department of
Edinburgh University my attention was directed to the so-called pseudo-
electric organs in the skate, and the large number of specimens obtained
for dissection by the students afforded me ample material for their study.
My interest in the investigation was greatly intensified by the confir-
matory work of Dr. Sanderson, which supported from a physiological
point of view the opinion urged by Robin after a study of its structure,
viz., that the organ in tbe rays hitherto regarded as pseudo-electric really
discharged the functions of an electric organ. I found, however, that I
should be greatly aided in coming to just conclusions regarding the organ
in the skates were I fully prepared for its study by a personal examina-
tion of the analogous organ of the Torpedo, which had to a much greater
extent received the attention of histologists, and thus I welcomed the
opportunity of effecting this purpose, which the kindness of the Committee
afforded me in placing at my disposal their table in the Zoological Station
at Naples.
Immediately on my arrival at the Station on March 16, everything
was in readiness forme, and an abundance of living torpedoes (T. ocellata)
at hand, and I at once began my study of the electric organ, being guided
by the recent researches of Ranvier, Babuchin, Boll, Krause, &c., in the
methods of treatment and observation. I was thus able to make pre-
parations which showed me the distribution and final terminations of the
154 KEPORT— 1888.
nerves, and gave me an idea of the minute structure of the electric
plates. Of Wagner's ' bouquet,' a name which well denotes the appearance
presented by the remarkable behaviour of the nerves before entering the
plates, and of the beautiful ramifications of the branches on the plate
itself, I made preparations, which, however, do no more than confirm the ob-
servations of Ranvier. The final terminations of the nerve-twigs were well
brought out by the gold and silver methods, the former giving a positive
and the latter a negative picture of the tei'minal nerve-branchings. On
the disputed point as to whether the twigs from neighbouring branches
communicate so as to form a network, my preparations throw some light.
In many places a distinct network is visible, although very commonly
the reticulation is only apparent, observation by means of a high power
and more exact focussing showing a want of continuity. It is quite
possible, however, that the want of continuity in these places is due to rup-
ture of the network during the treatment or to unequal action of the stain.
The ' Punktirung ' of Boll, corresponding to the ' Palisade ' of
Remak and the ' electric cilia ' of Ranvier and Ciaccio, and of such
doubtful significance, is well seen in my gold preparations, being repre-
sented by numerous violet-coloured points regularly disposed on the
terminal nerve-branchings. I am sorry that I have not yet had time to
make a careful examination of transverse sections of the ' electric plates,'
which would reveal the httle rods or ' Stabchen ' of which the ' Piinktchen '
are the inferior ends. I further regret this, as I might have been able
to express an opinion as to the nature of the intermediary layers of the
plate, in which Krause mentions the presence of sinuous fibres.
The organ in the rays, which must now be regarded as electric,
although functionally it is not of such importance as the corresponding
structure in other electric fishes, would appear to be represented in all
the members of the group. I have found it present in the species Raia
clavata, R. batis, R. oxyrhyncJms, R. oniraletus. Couch (=iJ. circulans.
Day), in all of which it is large and well developed, and in R. radiata, in
which it consists of a small slender cylinder. It was first noticed in
R. clavata by Stark (1844) and was later described by Robin in R. clavata,
R. ruhus, and R. batis, while Professor Ewart, iu a series of papers read
quite recently before the Royal Society, gives an account of the develop-
ment of the organ in the species R. batis, R. fullonica, R. circularis, and
R. radiata. The form which occurred most commonly at Naples was
named R. asterias in the Aquarium Catalogue, and is evidently identical
with our species R. clavata. Making use of this form, I employed my
time in going over some of the ground already traversed by Robin in
following out the nerve-supply and general relations of the organ. The
results compared with the condition observed in the torpedo, and briefly
stated, are these : — The organ is long and cylindrical in form, and taper-
ing both anteriorly and posteriorly; it occupies a position on each side
of the tail for the posterior two-thirds of its length. Its origin is in the
centre of the sacro-lumbar nauscle, which after the appearance of the
organ gradually ceases, the electrical apparatus in like gradual manner
taking its place. Indeed, embryological research shows that the electrical
organ arises from a transformation of this muscle, in which the con-
tractile substance has undergone a change. It reaches its maximum
diameter about the beginning of the first dorsal fin, and after continuing
of uniform thickness for several centimetres it gradually diminishes
towards the tip of the tail, into which it, however, extends. In the
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 155
torpedo, on the other hand, the electric organ is somewhat flat and
uniform in thickness, and occupies the entire region bounded laterally by
the head and branchial sac and the margin of the body, anteriorly by the
anterior boundary of the body and posteriorly by the cartilages of the
pectoral fins.
In both forms the organ consists of a large number of pillars or
columns, but -while in the torpedo these run vertically and occupy the
whole thickness of the organ, and are on the whole of a similar and
uniform diameter, in the rays they run lougitudinally, are of variable
thickness, and have pointed extremities ; nor do they extend the whole
length of the organ, but after a somewhat oblique course they very soon
die out. Indeed, the constituent elements of the electrical apparatus of
rays are much less regularly disposed than is the case with torpedoes.
The walls of the pillar consist of connective tissue, in which the nerves
and blood-vessels run, and in torpedoes adjoining columns maybe separated
from one another, but this I have not found possible in the rays.
The columns are found to consist of a large number of superimposed
plates, the electric plates, separated from each other by thin transverse
partitions of connective tissue, and on one side of these the nerves ramify
to a great extent and then terminate. In rays the number of plates is
much less numerous than in torpedoes, the individual plates or discs are
a great deal smaller in diameter, and of a much greater thickness ; and,"
further, the ramification of the nerves takes place on the ventral face of
the plate in torpedoes, while in rays it is on the anteriorly directed surface.
In the case of rays I have not been able to find any division of the
nerves to supply the plates corresponding to Wagner's bouquet ; they
seem rather to branch in the usual way, and distribute themselves along
the transverse ])artitions by which the columns are divided. In the
torpedo the nerves run from the partition to the ventral surface of the
electric plate, and there divide again and again very frequently in a
perfectly dichotomous manner ; this ramification takes place pretty nearly
in the same plane, so that by simply placing the plate on a slide with its
ventral face upwards one is able to make a study of the nerve-branch-
ings. In rays, on the other hand, the nerves run backward from the
partition immediately in front of the plate, and on their way undergo
many divisions, and so reach it in the form of very delicate branches,
which run perpendicularly to the surface of the disc. This can only be
seen to any advantage in longitudinal or very oblique transverse sections
of the organ. Before giving rise to the fine perpendicular twigs the
branches of adjoining nerves anastomose, and frequently at the point of
union a large nucleus is present. It is not improbable that this ana-
stomosis may correspond to the final branching and network in the plates
of the torpedo, while the fine delicate twigs may have as their homologues
the ' Stabchen ' of Boll. What becomes of the nerve-fibres after they
reach the plate I have not been able to make out ; that they give rise to
a second reticulation, and by further division become smaller and smaller
and gradually pass into the substance of the plate as is stated by Schultze,
I have not succeeded in confirming, and consider far from likely, the
structure and development of the plate showing its elements to be
muscular, and not nervous, as Schultze maintained.
The disc on which the nerves end consists anteriorly of a finely
granular groundwork in which large nuclei are embedded ; then follows
a layer of considerable thickness characterised by the presence of
156 EEPOEX— 1888.
numerous long wavy lines, which according to Schultze indicates a
lamellar structure, and this in turn is followed by a still thicker layer of
fiuely granular substance containing large oval nuclei similar to that first
described, but excavated and tunnelled to such an extent as to receive
the name of ' Schwammkorper ' from an early observer. These layers
pass quite insensibly into one another, the striated appeai-ance often
occurring on the trabeculis bounding the vacuolations, and the oval nuclei
occasionally occurring amidst the sinuous lineations of the central por-
tions. The homologue would appear to be the intermediary nucleated
layer in the plate of the torpedo in which Krause describes the presence
of transverse linear markings. As Robin has shown, the electrical
apparatus is supplied exclusively by spinal nerves, but a point of great
interest, suggested to me by Dr. Meyer, and which I hope some day to
investigate, is the question as to where the fibres originate. There is
strong reason to believe that they do not spring from the spinal column,
but have their source in the brain.
In observing the movements of the torpedo and of the skates in the
Aquarium I was struck with the difference in their modes of locomotion.
The torpedo employs the tail with its powerful muscles to discharge the
function of a propeller, while the skate makes use only of the pectoral
fins, the tail remaining quite rigid and evidently serving to some extent
•as a rudder. This fact appears to me worthy of remark, and brings into
prominence the importance of the organ in the skate, for it is inconceiv-
able that a structure involving for its accommodation the transference of
the entire function of locomotion to a difiFerent system of muscles should
not subserve some very important function.
I frequently endeavoured to obtain a ' shock ' from the skate by
grasping the tails of living specimens, but although I have repeatedly
made an attempt both with the smaller specimens I got at Naples and
with the much larger forms which I secured when recently superintend-
ing the work of the ' Garland ' for the Fishery Board for Scotland, I
never succeeded in experiencing a perceptible discharge.
But besides giving attention to the structure of the electric organs in
the torpedo and in the skate I devoted a considerable amount of time to
the search for homologous organs among their nearest allies. This
appeared to be necessary in order to throw light on the obscure problem
as to how the transformation of a muscular into an electric organ could
have been effected — a transformation which the researches of Babuchin,
and more recently of Ewart, prove beyond a doubt. It is clear that the
discovery of an imperfectly developed or of an abortive organ in any
member of a neighbouring group would aid greatly in the elucidation of
the question.
First of all I examined the organ in the skate, which M'Donnell de-
scribed and regarded as the homologue of the electric organ in the torpedo,
h.is work receiving a welcome recognition from Mr. Darwin ; but I find it
is present in a well-developed condition also in the torpedo, along with
the electric organ, and exists more or less perfectly in other Elasmo-
branchs, e.g., in SqxMtina angelus and Mustelus laevis. Indeed, it is no
other than the thymus gland, and its structure has no characters in
common with electric organs. I studied it both in a fresh condition and
by means of sections, and find it both in its intimate structure and in
the nature of its contents to present a close resemblance to the thyroid,
so that it evidently performs a similar function.
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 157
I further examined the tails of several other Elasmobranchs in
search of an organ homologous with that of the skate, but without
success. In Torpedo ocellata, T. viarmorata, Mustelus laevis, Scyllium
canicula, Notidanus cinereus, Scymnus liclda, the tails of which I carefully
studied, I was unable to discover any trace of the structure so well de-
veloped in rays. The condition of the sacro-lumbar muscle in Squatina
angelus, however, is worthy of remark. Its outer part is quite different
in appearance from that nearest the vertebrae, being divided by connec-
tive-tissue septa into a number of longitudinal columns. The resemblance
to an electric organ is, however, purely macroscopical, an examination of
the more intimate structure showing no traces of change from ordinary
muscle. The matter, nevertheless, is worthy of further attention, and it
is interesting to note that this peculiar condition of the muscle occurs in
a form which is intermediate between the round (Selachoidei) and the
flat (Batoidei) members of the Elasmobranch group.
Another question which I set myself to elucidate was in how far the
electric organ of the skates, which varies considerably in the different
species in form and size, and relation to surrounding muscles, might be
made a character in determining species, but I have not yet suflBciontly
studied my notes to justify the expression of an opinion.
In concluding my report, I take the opportunity of expressing my
deep gratitude to the Committee for their kindness iu affording me sucla
splendid facilities for prosecuting my research, and further I desire to
convey my sincerest thanks to Dr. Dohrn and all the members of the
staS" at the Zoological Station for their unfailing courtesy and the willing
help which they were always ready to render.
III. Beport on the Occupation of the Table, hy Professor R. J. Anderson.
I arrived in Naples on June 4. The table was furnished immediately
with instruments and preserving fluids. I decided to examine the
myotomes in a great number of fishes. The importance of the subject
at once appears. The muscles are less complex than in other vertebrates,
the primitive arrangement is largely maintained, and we have, to start
with, the works of Cuvier, Meckel, Miiller, and Stannius, and of Owen,
Schneider and Humphry, together with the special work of Vetter, Fiir-
bringer (whose work has some bearing on the subject), Albrecht, Goette
and others. English readers are most familiar with the myological work
of Humphry through his contributions to the English Journal of Anatomy
and his special work on ' Myology.' The whole subject is, however, so
difiBcult that we require abundance of facts to make any certain advance.
I have, therefore, measured and noted the arrangement of the metamers
in a great many fishes. I have made no reference to the embryological
conditions. The general condition of things is to be found in Miiller's
myxinoid fishes. His description is adopted by everyone, and my work
goes mainly to tease out some of the observations of that anatomist.
The fibrous partitions that separate the metamers are not planes, and
the line of outcrop is a curved line. The number of the metamers, their
thickness, and the number and character of the bendings all vary. The
distance to which the anterior metamers reach in the cranium is not
constant. I have, then, recorded —
1. The number of metamers.
2. The exact length of each segment of a number of metamers, as it
appears on the surface.
158 REPORT— 1888.
3. The breadth of the metamer at the surface (lateral part).
The amount of the overlap is given in some cases. Additional facts
of interest have also been given, as for instance : (a) the distinct
presence of a rectus ; (h) the separability of the dorsal part of the
dorso-lateral muscle mass ; and (c) the position of the limits with reference
to the metamers. The term rectus is used to indicate the median ventral
rauscles running from the anus (each side) along each side of the median
line to the pelvis, or from the pelvic to the pectoral girdle.
The actual deviation from aline on the surface formed by a transverse
plane, is in many cases very considerable. The second metamer in Sargus
anmdaris gives a measurement for the outcrop of its dorsal portion of
17 mm., and this runs beyond the tenth part of the entire animal. The
metamer (dorsal piece) is directed from before backwards and downwards.
The dorsal part of the sixth metamer reaches 24 mm. and therefore tra-
verses one-sixth of the length of the fish. The thirteenth metamer gives
28 mm. for the first or dorsal piece. The entire length of the surface
line is nearly one half the length of the animal.
Again the sixth metamer of Gohius capHo, which has a supero-inferior
diameter of 35 mm., is 67 mm. in length ; the length of the fish being
187 mm., and the number of metamers, 27. The twenty-third metamer
of the same fish gave a length of 52 mm. for a breadth of 20 mm. These
measurements take no account of the overlap. This overlap was 24 mm.
for the seventeenth metamer.
The twenty-third metamer of ilugil cejjhalus reaches 11 mm. beneath
the antecedent metamers, and projects 5 mm. beneath the succeeding. In
some metamers I have noted 36 mm. as the range, and this means that for
an antero-posterior extent of 36 mm. an individual metamer by its zigzag
windings has a situation. The seventh metamer is 92 mm. long, whilst
the semi-circumference is 46 mm. The seventeenth is 72 mm. long, with
a sem.i-circumference of 29 ram.
Trachinus Draco, one of Miiller's examples, shows 12 mm. for the
dorsal portion of the first, and 25 mm. for the twenty-fifth metamer. The
semi-diameter is 35 mm. in the first case and 18 mm. in the second.
The dorsal part of the dorso-lateral mass is not easily distinguished as
a separate mass in all fishes. In Trigla I was able to separate it. In
Umbrina it can be separated for 10 metamers.
In some fishes a distinct terminal bend is to be seen in the ventral
region as well as in the anterior part of the median line behind. In
Mustelus the bends are sharp. In various fishes, in Corvina, for example,
the dorsal curve is very distinct anteriorly. The dorsal bend is also seen
well in Belone, In Gohius the ventral and lateral. The rectus is seen in
Pagellus. Bands on each side of the anus run forwards to the pelvis. These
bands correspond to the bend inwards of the myotomes, and I am inclined
to think that there is some connection. The dorsal bend is well seen in
Uranoscopus scaber.
Without giving any undue importance to the varieties in the ap-
pearances presented by the myotomes, I may state that between the
condition in which there are three sharp angles anteriorly and two pos-
teriorly superficial markings and that condition in which we have the myo-
tome running a direct course from the median dorsal line to the median
ventral, we have a great many varieties. How far the dorsal bends have a
connection with the separation of the dorsal fin muscles, the dorsal, &c., I
am not yet prepared to ofier any opinion whatever. The bend in the lateral
OK THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES.
159
line wliicli breaks the continuity of tlie dorsal portion of the myotome into
the ventral portion in the posterior region of some fishes is another diflB-
culty. The full details of the observations I hope soon to complete.
rV. A List of Papers loliich Jiave leen published in the year 1887 hij
Naturalists who have occupied Tables at the Zoological Station.
Dr. F. Zschokke
Dr. J. Euckert
Dr. K. Semon
Dr. F. S. Monticelli
Dr. F. RafEaele
Dr. G. Jatta .
Dr. A. Ostroumoff
Prof. W. Preyer
Dr. L. Plate .
Prof. J. Steiner
Prof. C. Emery
Dr. F. XoU .
Dr. A. A. Tichomiroff
Prof. S Trinchese
Dr. E. de Daclay
Dr. S. v. Apdthy
Dr. B. Rawitz
Dr. M. de DavidofB
Studien iiber den anatomischen u. histologischen Bau der
Cestoden. ' Centralblatt fiir Bacteriologie u. Parasiten-
kunde,' Bd. i. 1887.
Helminthologische Bemerkungen. ' Mitth. Zool. Station,
Neapel,' Bd. vii. 1887.
Ueber die Anlage des mittleren Keimblatts u. die erste
Blutbildung bei Torpedo. ' Anat. Anzeiger,' 1887.
Beitriige zur Naturgeschichte der Synaptiden des Mittel-
meeres. ' Mitth. Zool. Station,' Bd. vii. 1887.
Beitrage zur Naturgeschichte der Synaptiden des Mittel-
meeres. 2. Mittheilung. 15 plates. Ibid.
Osservazioni intorno ad alcune specie di Acantocefali.
' BoUettino Soc. dei Naturalisti in Napoli,' vol. i. 1887.
Note elmintologiche. Sul nutrimento e sui parassiti deUa
Sardina (Clupea pilchardus, C. V.) del Golfo di Napoli
Ibid.
Uova e larve di Teleostei. !• nota. ' BoUettino Soc. dei
Naturalisti in Napoli,' vol. i. 1887.
Sopra il cosidetto ganglio olfattivo dei Cefalopodi. Ibid.
La vera origine del nervo olfattivo nei Cefalopodi. Ibid.
Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der cyclostomen Seebryo-
zoen. ' Mitth. Zool. Station, Neapel,' Bd. vii. 1887.
Ueber die Bewegungen der Seesterne. II. Hiilfte.
' Mitth. Zool. Station, Neapel,' Bd. vii. 1887.
Ueber einige ectoparasitische Rotatorien des Golfs von
Neapel. ' Mitth. Zool. Station, Neapel,' Bd. vii. 1887.
Sur la fonction des canaux semi-circulaires. 'Comptes
Rendus,' t. civ. 1887.
Intorno alia muscolatura liscia e striata della Nephthys
scolopendroides D. Ch. (con 13 tav.). 'Mitth. Zool.
Station, Neapel,' Bd. vii. 1887.
Ueber Membranwachsthum u. einige physiologische
Erscheinungen bei Siphoneen. ' Bot. Zeit.,' 1887, No. .SO.
Experimentelle Untersuchungen iiber das Wachsthum der
Zellmembran. 'Abh. Senckenbergische Ges., Frankfurt
a/M.' 1. Tfl., 15. Bd.
Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Hydroiden. 'Nachr.
d. Ges. Freunde d. Naturw., Moskau,' Bd. sxx.
Come le fibre muscolari in via di s\'iluppo si uniscono alle
fibre nervose. Comm. preliminare. 'Rendic. Accad.
Lincei,' vol. ii.
Nuove osservazioni sulla Rhodope Veramii (Kolliker).
Comm. prelim. 'Rendic. Accad. Napoli,' 1887.
Monographic der Familie der Tintinnodeen. ' Mitth. Zool.
Station, Neapel,' Bd. vii. 1887.
Methode zur Verfertigung langerer Schnittserien in
Celloiden. Ibid.
Die Fussdriise der Opistobranchier. ' Abh. Preuss. Akad
Wiss.,' 1887.
Ueber die ersten Entwickelungsvorgiinge bei Distaplia
inagnilarva, Della Valle, einer zusammengesetzten
Ascidie. ' Anat. Anz.,' 2. Jgg. 1887.
Ueber die freie Kernbildung in Zellen. 'Vortr. Ges
Morph. Phys. Miinchen,' 1887.
160
REPORT 1888.
V. A List of Naturalists who liave ivorTced at the Station from the end of
June 1887 to the end of June 1888.
Num-
ber on
List
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
Naturalist's Name
Dr. F. Sanfelice
Dr. Ficalbi
Dr. D. Carazzi .
Sr. Bias Ldzaro e Ibiza
Mr A. de KrasnofE
Dr. N. Kastschenko
Prof. R. Klunzinger
Dr. W. Miiller .
Prof. A. Mosso .
Dr. A. Strubell .
Prof, de Famintzin
Dr. J. Thiele .
Dr. P. Mingazzini
Dr. G. Tacchetti
Lieutenant Guarienti
Dr. P. Oppenheim
Prof. A. Weismann
Dr. Ishikawa
Dr. C. Hartlaub
Dr. W. IssaefE .
Dr. M. de DavidofE
Prof. A. Mosso .
Dr. G. Jatta
Dr. F. RafEaele .
Dr. F. Balsamo
Dr. F. S. Monticelli
Dr. T. Boveri .
Dr. J. van Rees .
Dr. H. Henking
Dr. H. Debus .
Mr. H. Bury .
Dr. O. von Eath
Dr. W. von Schroder
Stud. C. Sapper
Dr. M. P. Traustedt
Dr. E. Pergens .
Dr. G. Kalide .
Mr. A. D. Sloan
Prof. D. C. Rabl
Dr. M. Joseph .
Dr. J. Kohl
Dr. J. Vosseler .
Dr. G. Frank .
Dr. L. Plate
Prof. B. Eatschek
Dr. Cori .
Dr. J. Riickert .
Prof. G. von Koch
Dr. B. Rawitz .
Dr. F. Went .
Dr. C. Fisch .
Prof. R. J. Anderson
Prof. A. Delia Valle
State or University
■whose Table
■was made use of
Italy
Spain
Russia
»i • •
Wiirtemberg .
Prussia .
Italy
Saxony .
Russia
Prussia .
Italy
Italian Navy .
1' » •
Prussia .
Baden
Zoological Station
Hamburg
Russian Navy .
Zoological Station
Italy
Province of Naples
Bavaria .
Holland .
Prussia .
Hesse
Cambridge
Strasburg
Zoological Station
Wiirtemberg .
Zoological Station
Belgium .
Berlin Academy
British Association
Austria .
Prussia .
Wiirtemberg
Zoological Stai
Prussia
Austria
Bavaria
Hesse
Prussia
Holland
Bavaria
British Association
Italy
ion
Duration of Occupancy
Arrival
Departure
Aug.- 1,
1887
» 3,
J»
Sept.19,1887
„ 16.
J>
»> "j
,,
„ 23,
)I
Nov. 1,
,»
„ 30,
)»
Sept. 30,
,»
Sept. 5,
99
May 10,
1888
„ 15,
)»
Oct. 10,
1887
„ 30,
»
Feb. 27,
1888
Oct. 13,
»»
Oct. 16,
1887
„ 16,
>»
Apr. 11,
1888
„ 21,
>»
„ 29,
»»
Nov. 1,
)»
„ 30,
>»
» 25,
»
—
Dec. 3,
»>
May 10,
>»
), 3,
))
„ 8,
)>
» 7,
J»
„ 2,
>»
,, 28,
)>
„ 16,
»»
,, 28,
)»
„ 16,
»>
,, 29,
)J
„ 11,
)*
„ 30,
)>
June 11,
>»
,, 30,
>»
May 29,
)»
., 31,
?»
Feb. 15,
>»
Jan. ],
1888
—
» 1.
)»
—
,. 1,
»»
—
,. 1,
J>
—
» 7,
»»
Apr. 11,
J)
„ 7,
5>
„ 11,
J»
„ 7,
)»
,. 17,
f)
„ 16,
»J
Mai-. 1,
»»
„ 24,
J>
May 28,
y>
Feb. 2.
J»
Apr. 30,
})
» 14,
)>
May 12,
)»
„ 18,
J)
Apr. 24,
)i
„ 21,
J»
Mar. 10,
>»
Mar. 5,
>>
June 23,
J)
J, <^,
))
—
„ 16,
))
May 15,
)»
» 18,
J>
Apr. 8,
>}
„ 19,
»>
„ 18,
>»
„ 19,
»>
„ 12,
»»
„ 19,
J»
May 23,
)j
„ 20,
»
—
„ 27,
)J
May 10,
)»
Apr. 6,
»>
Apr. 20,
Ji
>l ^»
))
„ 20,
11
„ 14,
»)
May 10,
j>
„ 28,
jy
»>
., 28,
»>
June 27,
)»
„ 28,
>>
—
„ 28,
))
—
June 4,
it
—
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES.
161
VI. A List
q/-
1887. July
5
>»
)»
it
ft
y
12
11
1»
13
»
15
20
30
31
Aug.
3
4
5
12
16
»>
1»
22
f*
24
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
1888.
Naturalists, Sfc, to xuliom Specimens have ieen sentfr
end of Jime 1887 to the end of June 1888.
Zoolog. Institut, Kiel
Prof. A. C. Haddon, Dublin
Dr. O. Hamann, Gottingen
Museo Civico, Venice
Mr. A. Wenke, Jaromer
Laboratoire de Zoologie, Geneva
Veterinar-Institut, Dorpat
Conte Peracca, Turin
Prof. P. d'Oliveira, Coimbra
Museo Zoologico, Palermo
Stiidt. Museum, Barmen .
Dr. Krukenberg, Jena
Morphological Laboratory, Cam-
bridge .....
Prof. Ciaccio, Bologna
Dr. W. Patten, Milwaukee
Prof. Wiedersheim, Freiburg
i/B \
Prof. A. Froriep, Tubingen
Dr. Krukenberg, Jena
Mr. K. D. Darbishire, Manchester
Stud. R. Driesch, Wiesbaden .
Obergymnasium, Sarajevo
Dr. Stein, Frankfurt a/M. .
Prof. Rabl, Prague .
Morphological Laboratory, Cam-
bridge .....
Prof. A. Korotneff, Kiew .
Laboratoire d'Anatomie, Geneva
Mr. A. Kreidl, Praaue
Mr. W. Schliiter, Halle a/S.
Ecole Normale Superieure, Paris
Istituto Tecnico, Verona .
Polytechnikum, Stuttgart
LandwirthschaftlicheAkademie,
Holienheim ....
Dr. C. F. Jickeli, Hermannstadt
University College, London
Prof. A. Froriep, Tiibingen
Prof. A. Babuchin, Moscow
Mr. Putze, Hamburg.
„ Dr. P. Pelseneer, Brussels
,, University Colleije, London
27 Prof. Batelli, Pei-ugia
28 R. Museo dei " Vertcbrati,
Florence ....
5 Prof. Mosso, Turin
7 Zool. Institut, Breslau
8 Prof. Moriggia, Rome
„ Mr. E. Penard, Wiesbaden
„ Prof. Delia Valle, Bluseo Zool.,
Modena
14 Realschule, Ludwigshafen
„ Realschule, Brunswick
15 Prof. Ludwig, Zool. Inst., Bonn.
„ Prof. Mosso, Turin .
17 Zool. Institut, Gottingen
Otn
the
27
14
17
22
2(;
10
26
Lire c.
Siphonophora
. 140-60
Actinia
58-95
Bchinodermata .
43-25
Various
77-55
Various
40-
Various
28-35
Collection .
. 376-35
Elaphis
55-
Various
. 182-55
Collection .
. 589-50
Collection .
. 1250-
Chimaera
19-50
Sepia. Sipunculus
. 303-25
Torpedo
. 23-85
Cymothoa .
23-30
Petromyzon .
58-05
Embryos of Pristiun
is. 43-05
Murex .
3-90
Cephalopoda
. 28-10
Various
29-80
Various
. 111-85
Embryos of Torpedo
30-70
Embryos of Torpedo
15-60
Pelagia
. 232-50
Collection .
. 385-40
Cerianthus .
23-40
Collection .
. 453-60
Collection .
. 125-80
Mollusca
48-55
Collection .
. 1.37-45
Collection .
. 374-20
Collection .
, 133-90
Starfish
23-30
Scorpions .
14-50
Embryos of Torpedo
16-90
Electric Organs
of
Torpedo .
10-50
Various
56-60
Fissurella .
1-90
Various
35-55
Bonellia
24-70
Thymnus
72-
Pectunculus
6-40
Amphioxus .
15-75
Electric Organs
of
Torpedo .
22-30
Various
. 21-85
Collection .
. 136-
Collection .
. 124-90
Collection .
62-50
Various
. 165-45
Area Noae .
7-40
Collection .
. 349-40
M
162
REPOBT — 1888.
1S87 Nov. 17
„ 18
19
L888.
9>
20
21
23
28
f *
»)
11
)»
Dec.
3
19
12
14
15
20
22
26
30
Jan.
7
>i
16
j»
17
11
20
u
22
JJ
^>
M
26
»)
30
»>
31
>»
»)
Feb.
17
)*
»1
>>
20
)»
23
»)
25
j»
»»
»»
>»
»»
»)
>»
27
Marcl
1 3
»»
14
»»
15
>»
>»
»»
»»
»i
)»
j»
20
9t
29
April
6
Seminario, Caserta . . . Collection .
Museo Civico, A''enice . . Various
Mr. E. Marie, Paris . . . Various
Dr. Korschelt, Berlin . . Various
Dr. Kiikenthal, Jena. . . Ophelia, &c.
Mr George Brook, Edinburgh . Lepadogaster
Dr. F. Noll, Wiirzburg . . Caulerjia
Ecole de M6decine, Cairo . . Collection .
Dr. A. Kaufmann, Bern . . Cephalopoda
Mr. Misslowitz, Habercorn. . Sepia .
Labor, de Zoologie, Nancy. . MoUusca
Zool. Museum, Warsaw . . Collection .
Dr. P. de Vescovi, Rome . . Various
Prof. P. d'Oliveira, Coimbra . Various
Mr. Baraldi, Zool. Mns., Turin . Anemonia .
(Cabinet Zootomique, Univ. St.
Petersburg .... Myzostomum
Dr. C. J. Jickeli, Hcrmannstadt Antedon
Ecole de la Marine, St. Peters-
burg Collection
Prof. Vitzou, Univ. Bucarest . Collection
Mr. V. Fric, Prague . . . Various
Prof. Hubrecht, Utrecht . . Cerebratulus
Mr. E. Schulz, Glogau . . Various
Prof. P. d'Oliveira, Coimbra . Collection
Baron de S. Joseph, Paris . . Various
MM. Andre and Lientier,
Marseilles .... Collection
Mr. W. Schliiter, Halle . . Collection
Queen's College, Prof. Anderson,
Galway Collection
Mr. Shipley, Cambridge . , Worms
Mr. A. Amrhein, Vienna . . Diatoms
Prof. P. d'Oliveira, Coimbra . Collection
Museo Zoologico, Naples . . Collection
Conle Peracca, Turin . Lacerta
Prof. Ciaccio, Bologna . . Lophius
Museo Zoologico, Bologna . . Physophora, &c.
Mr. R. Damon, Weymouth . Collection
Prof Steenstrup, Copenliagcn . Cephalopodi
Dr. P. Pelseneer, Brussels . . Mollusca
Mr. Marqua, Linz . . . Amphioxus
School of Physic, Dublin . . Collection
Realgymnasium, Sprottau . . Various
Prof. Wiedersheim, Frieburg i/B Scyllium
Mr. A. Certes, Paris . . . Various
University College, London . Various
Museo Zoologico, Pisa . . Collection
Zoolog. Museum, Dorpat . . Collection
Mr T. Tempere, Paris . . Various
Prof. G. Schwalbe, Strasburg . Dogfish
Conte Peracca, Turin . . Lacerta
Prof. J. van Ankuiu, Groningen. Siphonophora
Mr. C. Weber-Sulzer, Winterthur Various
Labor, de Zoologie, Nancy . . Various
Dr. P. Pelseneer, Brussels . . Mollusca
Prof. Ciaccio, Bologna . . Salpa .
Zool. Institut, Univ. Berlin . Collection
Mr. C. Bassi .... Tavernelle
Mr. Fullartou, Univ. Glasgow . Various
Dr. H. Debus, Strasburg . . Collection
Dr. Traustedt, Herlufsholm . Collection
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES.
163
1888. April 6 Mr. E. Marie, Paris .
,, ,, Dr. van Wijhe .
„ 10 Prof. Carnoy, Louvain
,, „ Miis6e d'Histoire Isat., Paris
„ 11 Mr. F. Bernard, Paris
,, 16 Botanical Institute, Piostock
„ „ Prof. Hubreclit, Utrecht .
,, ,, Morphol. Laboratory, Cam-
bridge . . . . .
,, „ Prof. P. d'Oliveira, Coimbra
„ ,, Museo Zoologico, Naples .
Mr. P. Krause, Dresden
Collegio Pontano, Naples .
O Feusege Josef Agost, Alesuth
Zool. Zoot. Institute, Gottingen
Zool. Museum, Bern .
May 8 Museum der Khein. Naturf. Ge-
sellschaft, Mainz .
Anatom. Instit., Munich .
Lab. de Zoologie, Nancy .
Dr. B. Hofer, Konigsberg.
Mr. E. Kestleven, London
Mr. W. H. Tyas, Manchester .
Realgvmnasium, Pensa
Mr. W. Schluter, Halle .
Mr. C. Bellotti, Milan
Dr. Riickert, Munich
Gros.sherzgl. Museum, Darm-
stadt .....
University College, London
Realschule, Fih-th
R. Scuola Tecnica, Rome .
Prof. Krimmel, Reutlingen
Prof. Mosso, Turin .
Prof. S. Matsubara, Tokio.
„ „ Prof. P. d'Oliveira, Coimbra
June 4 Cabinet Zootom., Univ. St.
Petersburg ....
„ „ Ma.son College, Birmingham .
„ „ Laboratoire de Zoologie, Lau-
sanne .....
,, 9 G. B. Paravia & Co., Rome
„ 11 Dr. Miinder, Gottingen
26
27
30
8
10
14
18
23
24
25
28
12
14
16
17
20
26
30
Anatom. Inst. Munich
Mr. J. C. Rinnbock, Vienna
University College, London
Rijks Museum, Leyden
R. Jluseo dei Vertebrati, Flo-
rence . . . . .
Museum d'Hist. Nat., Lyons
Mr. H. C. Chadwick, Man-
chester . . . . .
Owens College, Manchester
Mr. H. Meller, Manchester
Dr. Ziegler, Freiburg i/B
Prof. G. Vimercati, Florence
Prof. Gilson, Louvain
Lire c.
. Various
. 120-80
. Ampliioxus .
5-75
. Various
19-35
. Siphonophora
66-10
. Siphonophora
31-50
. Sargassum .
34-
. Aplysia
45-25
Lepas, Sepia, Sec.
. 68515
Various
10-
Various
53-96
Living specimens
29-95
Collection .
33-
Collection .
46-05
Various
. 10515
Various
40-55
Collection .
1405-
Embiyos of Torpedo
51-70
Various
14-85
Various
14-75
Amphioxus .
5-
5-
289-70
Collection ,
Collection .
118-55
Scorpa;na .
10-
Young Pristiurus
36-40
Various
67-95
Amphioxus .
4-85
Collection .
100-
Collection .
300-
Coelenterata
50-05
Mur«na
11-70
Collection .
209-
Portunus
2-20
Collection .
645-10
Various
115-
Amphioxus .
2-80
Collection .
600-
Turbo rugosum, oper-
cula.
2-
Petromyzon
38-95
Alga3, Diatoms .
9-95
Sepia, Sipunculus, &c.
180-20
Annelides .
98-15
Lampris luna
99-
Siphonophora, &c.
187-15
Various
21-45
Collection .
710-25
Polyophthalmus .
2-20
Embryos of Torpedo .
33-10
Various
35-25
Coleoptera .
4-45
22,258-65
M 2
164 KKPOKT — 1888.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. J. H. Gladstone
{Secretary), Professor Armstrong, IMr. Stephen Bourne, Miss
Lypia Becker, Sir John Lubbock, Bart., Dr. H. W. Crosskey,
Sir KiCHARD Temple, BaH., Sir Henry E. Eoscoe, Mr. James
Heywood, and Professor N. Story Maskelyne, appointed for
the purpose of continuing the inquiries relating to the teaching
of Science in Elementary Schools.
When your Committee made their last report in August 1887, the
Government had just abandoned their Technical Instruction Bill for
England, but had expressed their intention of proceeding with the Scotch
BilL The latter passed the House shortly afterwards, and provides that
any School Board, after the next election, may provide and maintain
Technical Schools, or that two or more School Boards may join for that
purpose. A copy of the Act is given in Appendix 1. A circular was
issued by the Scotch Education Department in February last, calling the
attention of the School Boards to the matter, and discussing the subject
at considerable length. The defiiiition of technical education given in this
circular is set out in Appendix II. The Scotch Code of this year has been
considerably modified in consequence of this Act; besides which it has r.
provision which is very interesting in its bearing on your Committee's
previous recommendations. Instead of English being the subject whicli
must be taken as the first class subject, the article now runs : ' Not more
than three class subjects may be taken, and if any such subjects are
taken, one must be English or Elementary Science.'
No alteration has been made in the English Code this year ; and the
disabilities under which the Brighton School Board and the Beethoven
Street School (London) were sufiering at the date of last report have not
been removed.
Manual instruction has, however, been given by the London School
Board, through the assistance of the City and Guilds of London Technical
Institute, who have provided the sum of 1,OOOL for one year for the equip-
ment and maintenance of classes. A joint committee of representatives of
the School Board and Institute have selected six centres, three north and
three south of the Thames, and have appointed two special teachers and
two artisan assistants who devote all their time to the work. In this
way about 600 boys are receiving nearly three hours' instruction a week
in the scientific principles and the practical work of carpentry. The
School Board has asked for a further grant for a second year in conse-
quence of no legislation having taken place this session.
The return of the Education Department for this year shows that the
diminution in the teaching of the science subjects, noted in previous
reports, still continues. The statistics of the class subjects for five years
are given in the subjoined table, which shows an actual decrease in
Geography and Elementary Science, notwithstanding the increase in the
number of departments examined. The growing practice of taking needle-
work in girls' schools as the second class subject (and thus obtaining for
it a larger grant than would be paid for it otherwise) is gradually
excluding geography.
ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 165
Class Subjects. — Departments
1882-3
1883-4
1884-5
1885-6
1886-7
English ....
Geography
Elementary Science.
History ....
Drawing ....
Needlework
Total .
18,363
19,080
19,431
19,608
19,917
12,823
48
367
5,286
12,775
51
382
5,929
12,336
45
386
6,499
12,055
43
375
240
6,809
12,035
39
383
605
7,137
18,524
19,137
19,266
19,522
20,099
The return of scholars individually examined in the scientific specific
subjects shows again an actual falling ofi" in the total, and either an actual
or relative falling ofi" in every subject except mechanics A and chemistry,
which have both considerably increased. The figures are given in the fol-
lowing table : —
Specific Subjects.— Children
1882-3
1883-1
1884-5
1885-6
1886-7
Algebra ....
26,547
24,787
25,347
25,393
25,103
Euclid and Mensuration
1,942
2,010
1,269
1,247
995
Mechanics A . . .
2,042
3,174
3,527
4,844
6,315
B . . .
—
206
239
128
33
Animal Physiology
22,759
22,857
20,869
18,.o23
17,338
Botany ....
3,280
2,604
2,415
1,992
1,589
Principles of Agriculture
1,357
1,859
1,481
1,351
1,137
Chemistry ....
1,183
1,047
1,095
1,158
1,488
Sound, Light and Heat
630
1,253
1,231
1,334
1,158
Magnetism and Electricity .
3,643
3,244
2,864
2,951
2,250
Domestic Economy
Total.
19,582
21,458
19,437
19,556
20,716
82,965
84,499
79,774
78,477
393,289
78,122
Number of Scholars in Stan-
286,355
325,2»5
352,860
432,097
dards v., VI., and VII.
The rapid and serious decrease of attention paid to these science sub-
jects is shown by the percentage of children who have taken them, as
compared with the number of scholars that might have taken these
subjects, viz. : —
[n 1882-3 .
. 29 per cent
„ 1883-4 .
. . . 26-0 „
„ 1884-5 .
. . . 22-6 „
„ 1885-6 .
. . 19-9 „
„ 1886-7 .
. 18-1 „
and it must be remembered that children who have taken two of these
subjects count twice over.
The Special Committee of the London School Board ' on the subjects
and modes of instruction in the Board's schools,' which was referred to
on the last occasion, has presented its report. The report itself, prepared
by Mr. W. Bousfield, which is a lengthy and important document, is
strongly in favour of much greater attention being paid to science. The
166 EEPORT— 1888. ,
appendix contains valuable evidence fi'om several scientific men, amongst
others ; and statistical tables relating to the instruction now given in the
schools under the Board. From these it appears that object lessons are
given in all the infant schools, occupying on an average about one and a
half hours per week, and in 91 per cent, of the boys' and girls' schools ;
but in the case of many of these they are confined to the lower standards,
and the average time devoted to them is less than three-quarters of an
hour per week. This is in strange contrast with the ten and a quarter
hours per week, which is the average quantity given in the boys' schools,
and nine and a quarter in the girls' schools, to the literary subjects of
instruction — reading, writing, spellmg, and grammar — and to the four
hours at least per week which the gii^ls are expected to give to needle-
work. Though these object lessons are the principal means by which a
knowledge of science is given, about half of the elder boys get some
instruction in some scientific specific subjects. The principal recom-
mendations in which your Committee are interested are : —
1. That the methods of Kindergarten teaching in infants' schools be
developed for senior scholars throughout the standards in schools, sa
as to supply a graduated course of manual training in connection with
science teaching and object lessons.
2. That the teaching of all subjects be accompanied, where possible,
by experiments and ocular demonstration, and that the necessary ap-
paratus be supplied to the schools.
10. That greater attention be paid to the teaching of mechanics as a
specific subject, and that models for illustrating the instruction be placed
on the requisition list.
16. That, in order to allow time for experimental teaching and manual
work, the time now given to spelling, parsing, and grammar generally, be
reduced.
28. That application be made to the Education Department that the
new Code be revised, as follows: —
(6.) By applying to senior departments the regulation made with
regard to infants' departments in Article lOG (b.) of the new Code, viz.,
that the award of a merit grant should have ' regard to the provision
made for . . . simple lessons on objects, and on the phenomena of nature
and of common life.'
(c.) By providing that more freedom of choice may be given to
managers and teachers in the selection of class subjects, in order that the
first class subject need not necessarily be English.
(/.) By rendering it obligatory upon pupil-teachers to exhibit a
knowledge of elementary science in some form at their annual examina-
tions. (Schedule V.)
A lengthy discussion on the general principles of the Report ha»
taken place, and the first recommendation has been carried, with the
addition of the words, ' but not so as to include teaching the practice
of any trade or industry, and that the method of Kindergarten in
the senior schools be tried first in a few special schools throughout
London.'
Two Technical Instruction Bills have been brought into Parliament
again this year — the one by Sir Heni'y E. Roscoe and the other by the
Government — but each of them considerably varied from those of the pre-
ceding year. Neither of them progressed beyond the first reading ; the
former having been supplanted by the Bill of the Government, which,.
ON THE TEACHINa OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 167
however, met with little approval, and was withdrawn in July along with
several others.
The reason generally given why legislative and executive changes
have not been made during the year is that the Government is waiting
for the Report of the Royal Commission on the working of the Elementary
Education Acts of England and Wales. Since the Manchester meeting
the Royal Commission have published another volume of evidence, and
an analysis of the whole ; but they have not yet finally settled their
recommendations.
In the meantime public opinion has considerably ripened upon the
subject of scientific and practical education. This is evident by the
earnest manner in which it is now discussed by politicians and teachers,
and in the columns of the periodical press.
Appendix I.
Technical Schools (^Scotland) Act, 1887.
Be it enacted by the Queen's Most Excellent Majesty, by and with the
advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons,
in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same,
as follows :
I. This Act may be cited as the Technical Schools (Scotland) Act,
1887, and shall in so far as consistent with the tenor thereof be construed
as one with the Education (Scotland) Acts, 1872 to 1883.
II. This Act shall commence to have effect in each parish and burgh
in Scotland from and after the next ensuing triennial election of a school
board therein respectively, and shall apply to Scotland only.
III. (1.) A school board may pass a resolution that it is expedient
to provide a technical school for its district, and thereupon may, subject
to the provisions of this Act, provide such a school accordingly, and pay
the expenses of providing and maintaining the school, including the
expense, if any, of providing tools, apparatus, and drawing and other
miaterials, in so far as the same remain the property of the school board,
out of the school fund. The subjects to be taught in the school shall be
such as may from time to time be approved of by the Scotch Education
Department.
The school board shall fix the school fees to be paid for attendance at
each technical school under their management, and such fees shall be
paid to the treasurer of the board, and a separate account shall be kept
of the amount of the fees derived from such school, and it shall be lawful
for the school board, if they see fit, to pay to the teachers of a technical
school the fees derived from such school, and to divide the same among
them as the school board shall determine. Any deficiency which may
exist on the technical school account shall be payable out of the school
fund provided under the Education (Scotland) Acts, 1872 to 1883.
(2.) If the resolution is not confirmed as hereinafter mentioned, it
shall not be carried into effect, and shall not be again proposed until the
expiration of not less than twelve months.
IV. A resolution of a school board, as in the last section mentioned,
shall be of no effect unless and until —
(1.) It is confirmed at a subsequent meeting of the school board held
after the resolution has been published in the prescribed manner, and
168 BEPOKT— 1888.
after the expiration of the prescribed time, being not earlier than one
month after the first publication of such resolution ; and
(2.) It is confirmed by the Scotch Education Department by a Minute
or Order.
V. (1.) Every school provided under this Act if it claim a grant
from the Department of Science and Art shall, with respect to any sub-
ject for which such grant is claimed, be conducted in accordance with
the conditions specified in the Minutes of the Department of Science and
Art in force for the time being, and required to be fulfilled by such a
school in order to obtain a grant from that D'^partment.
(2.) Those conditions shall, amongst other things, provide that a
grant shall not be made by the Department of Science and Art in respect
of a scholar admitted to the school unless or until he has obtained such
a certificate from the Scotch Education Department as is hereinafter
mentioned.
(3.) A Minute of the Department of Science and Art not in force at
the passing of this Act shall not be deemed to be in force for the purposes
of this Act until it has lain for not less than one month during one session
on the Table of both Houses of Parliament.
VI. Every school provided under this Act shall, in respect to all
subjects other than those for which a grant is claimed from the Science
and Ai't Department, be conducted in accordance with the conditions
which may from time to time be set forth in the Scotch Education Code
annually laid before Parliament under tbe heading 'Technical Schools.'
VII. (1.) Every school board providing a technical school shall,
subject to the provisions of this Act, maintain and keep efficient the
school so provided.
(2.) For the purpose of providing any such school, a school board
shall have the same powers, but subject to the same conditions, as a
school board has for providing sufficient school accommodation for its
district.
(3.) For the purpose of maintaining any such school, a school board
shall have the same powers, but subject to the same conditions, as a
school board has in regard to the maintenance of a higher class public
school under section eighteen of the Education (Scotland) Act, 1878.
(4.) A school board may, with the consent of the Scotch Education
Department, use for the purposes of a technical school any buildings, or
part of any buildinga, vested therein for the purposes of the Education
(Scotland) Acts, 1872 to 1883, and a school board, or combination of
school boards, may, with the consent of the Scotch Education Depart-
ment, use for the purposes of the Education (Scotland) Acts, 1872 to
1883, any buildings, or part of any buildings, authorised by this Act.
(5.) A school board may, with the consent of the Scotch Education
Department, spread the payment of the expense of providing a technical
school over a number of years, not exceeding thirty-five years, unless with
the sanction of the Treasury, and in any case not exceeding fifty, and may
borrow money for that purpose ; and for the purpose of such borrowing
section forty-five of the Education (Scotland) Act, 1872, shall be held to
apply to the loan, and such provision shall be deemed to be a work for
which a school board is authorised to bori'ow, and the Public Works
Loan Commissioners are authorised to lend, within tbe meaning of the
ninth section and the First Schedule of the Public Works Loans
Act, 1875.
ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 169
(6.) Where a scliool board lias provided any sncli school, it may dis-
continue the school, or change the site thereof, if it satisfies the Scotch
Education Department that the school to be discontinued is unnecessary,
or that the change of site is expedient.
VIII. Any two or more school boards may resolve to combine together
for the purpose of providing and maintaining a technical school under this
Act common to the districts of such school boards, provided that no such
resolution shall have any effect unless and until it has been published and
confirmed in manner hereinbefore provided ; and if such resolution is
confirmed as aforesaid, the same provisions shall have effect as in the case
of a resolution to provide a technical school, and if the resolution is
carried into effect the expenses of providing or maintaining the school,
and the sum necessary to meet any deficiency on the technical school
account, shall be paid out of the school funds of the combining school
boards in terms of the said resolution.
IX. The provisions of sections thirty-eight and thirty-niue of the
Education (Scotland) Act, 1872, with respect to the transference of
schools in pursuance of those sections, shall apply to technical schools now
existing, or which may hereafter exist, in the same manner as they now
apply to the schools which may presently be transferred in pursuance of
those sections.
X. No scholar shall be admitted to a technical school unless or until
he has obtained a certificate under section seventy-three of the Education
(Scotland) Act,- 1872, as amended by section seven of the Education
(Scotland) Act, 1883, or an examination equivalent thereto.
XI. A technical school provided and maintained under this Act shall
be deemed to be a public school, but attendance thereat shall not be
reckoned as attendance for the purpose of any grant from moneys voted
by Parliament under the Education (Scotland) Acts, 1872 to 1883.
XII. In this Act—
The expression ' technical school ' means a school or department of a
school in which technical instruction is given, and school board shall
include combination of school boards.
The expression ' technical instruction ' means instruction in subjects
approved by the Scotch Education Department, and in the branches of
science and art with respect to which grants are for the time being made
by the Department of Science and Art, or in any other subject which may
for the time being be sanctioned by that Department.
The expression ' prescribed ' means prescribed by the Scotch Educa-
tion Department.
Appendix II.
' However desirable it might be, it is scarcely possible to frame a
■definition of technical education which can be satisfactory from all points
of view ; but without any such comprehensive definition it may be possible
to lay down certain outlines of the operations permissible under the Act.
Their lordships assume that such instruction may be held to cover not
only the general scientific principles which underlie the leading manufac-
tures and industries of the kingdom, but also some knowledge of the
manner in which these general principles are applied, and some acquaint-
ance with the practical conditions under which they are applied in various
industries, and in various localities. Besides this general description, they
apprehend that the ordinary interpretation of the term covers some
170 KEPOIIT — 188S.
practical training of Land and eye, some adapting of the ordinary lessons
of the school to the affairs of life, and to the acquiring of aptitude in the
special occupation in which the scholar is to be engaged.'
Postscript.
Since the foregoing report was prepared Mr. Samuel Smith's Con-
tinuation Schools Bill has been printed, and the final report of the
Royal Commission on the Working of the Elementary Education Acts,
England and Wales, has been issued.
The former provides that in the Continuation schools proposed to be
created instruction must be given in at least three of the subjects speci-
fied in the First Schedule, which includes, inter alia, elementai'y mathe-
matics, mechanical drawing, and elements of agricultural science, and
may be given in any of the subjects specified in the Second Schedule,
which includes use of tools, and art handwork generally.
The final report of the Royal Commission is a very lengthy document,
and contains a large amount of matter bearing upon the subject with
which your Committee have to deal. The following are some of the prin-
cipal recommendations affecting the teaching of science in elementary
schools : —
' (15.) That in making future appointments to the office of inspector,
it would be desirable, in regard to a lai-ger pi-oportion of them than at
present, to give special weight to the possession of an adequate knowledge
of natural science.
' (89.) That, as far as practicable, the children should be grounded in
all the four class subjects, and that when only some of them are taken
the selection should be left to the school authorities.
' (90.) That the provision of the Code, which requires that if only
one class subject is taken it must be " English," should be repealed.
' (93.) That geography, if properly taught, is a branch of elementary
science, which should not be separated from the other branches, and
might well be taught along with object lessons, in accordance with the
recommendations of the Royal Commission on Technical Instruction.
' (94.) That in Standard VII. the time allotted to geography might
advantageously be devoted to specialising some particular branch of th©
subject.
' (114.) That the following subjects of elementary instruction are to
be regarded as essential, subject to the qualifications we have already
made :—
... . . . •
Geography, especially of the British Empire.
Lessons on common objects in the lower standards, leading up to a
knowledge of elementary science in the higher standards.
'(118.) That though boys while at school should not be taught a
trade, some elementary instruction in science is only second in import-
ance to the three elementary subjects.
' (120.) That the curriculum of elementary scientific subjects might
vary according to the special requirements of each locality.
' (121.) That object lessons should be continued in the lower stand-
ards in succession to similar teaching in the infant school.
' (123.) That the curriculum in the ordinary elementary schools might
often include not only instruction in the elementary principles of science.
ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 171
but also, in certain standards, elementary mannal instruction in the use of
tools ; and in higher schools and evening schools this work might be
carried still further.
' (124.) That if technical instruction of this kind is to be given in our
schools, it should not be applicable to boys under ten yeai-s of age. The
ultimate object of such instruction, however, might be furthered by judi-
cious systematical science teaching given to the younger scholars, in which
they should be associated in preparing specimens, helping to make models
on their geography lessons, and so forth.
' (125.) That examinations in science should as far as possible be
conducted orally and not on paper, especially in the first five standards.
' (12G.) That if it should be thought that children ought to receive
some instruction in manual employment other than that which the elemen-
tary schools available for their use can give, the best way of meeting the
need would be by the establishment in connection with some higher insti-
tution of a workshop for boys of exceptional ability, or for others to whom
it was considered desirable to give this instruction.
' (127.) That arrangements might be made to substitute attendance at
such a centre on one or two afternoons in the week for attendance at the
elementary school.
' (128.) That the higher grades of elementary schools in which more
advanced science is taught, and where a certain number of children stay
beyond the seventh standard, may be regarded as continuation schools.
' (136.) That it is desirable that the management of technical instruc-
tion should be entrusted to the Education Department, and not to the
Science and Art Department.
' (142.) That the evening school system should be thoroughly revised -
that a special curriculum and special schedules of standards and subjects
should be allowed, suitable to the needs of a locality, and that the local
managers should be encouraged to submit such schedules to the Depart-
ment for approval ; that the provision embodied in the Code requiring all
scholars in evening schools to pass in the three elementary subjects as a
condition of taking of additional subjects should cease to be enforced;,
and that no superior limit of age should be imposed on the scholars.
'(1-51.) That a knowledge of the principles of agriculture, which
might be taught in higher elementary schools, where such existed in
country places, would be of great value to those children who might
hereafter be engaged in agricultural labour.
' (152.) That in certain cases the object of higher elementary schools
might be secured by attaching to an ordinary elementary school a class
or section in which higher instruction was provided for scholars who had
passed the seventh standard. That liberal grants made, as in Scotland,
to the managers of elementary schools for advanced instruction to scholars
who have passed the highest standard, would facilitate the provision of
such higher instruction in the smaller and less populous school districts.'
These recommendations were signed by fifteen out of the twenty-three
Commissioners. The remaining eight presented an entirely separate
report, as they differed from their colleagues on many other points ; but
they agree in principle with the above recommendations so far as your
Committee have quoted them. The following are some of the comments
of the minority, which will show that they are at least equally desirous
of seeing greater facilities given for instruction in science in elementary
schools.
172 BEPORT— 1888.
'We agree tL at the present special preference of English above the
other class subjects sliould be removed from the Code.
' We agree that higher elementary schools are a useful (we would
rather say a necessary) addition to our school machinery for primary
education. . . . That where such schools cannot be founded, higher
classes for children who have passed the seventh standard should be
attached to an ordinary elementary school.
' We dissent from the recommendations of onr colleagues as to the
management of technical schools when established. . . . We would
say . . . that these schools, which should be the crown and development
of elementary education, should be in touch and close sympathy through
their management with our elementary school system.
' In reference to the subject of technical and scientific instruction, we
draw an important distinction between technical instruction or instruction
which is designed with special reference to, and as a preliminary training
for, the commercial or industrial occupations of life, and manual instruc-
tion regai'ded as a training of the hand and eye so as to bring them under
the control of the brain and will, as a general preparation for the future
career in life, whatever it may be.
' Bearing in mind the age of children in elementary schools, it may be
a question whether technical instruction, as we have defined it, should be
commenced any earlier than the sixth standard. But we are of opinion
that, after the children have left the infant school, transitional methods
should be adopted, which will develop their activity and train their powers
by drawing in ail cases, and by such other means as, for instance,
modelling, or the collection and mounting of botanical specimens.
' This training would, on the one hand, be advantageous as naturally
leading up to technical instruction, and, on the other hand, far from
interfering with the more literary studies, the latter would, we believe,
benefit considerably by the variety and relief which would thus be
introduced.
* We recommend that the examination of the scientific teaching given
in our elementary schools should be mainly oral, especially up to and
including the present fifth standard. If science is to be well taught,
care should be taken that where the ordinary teachers are not qualified,
specially trained teachers should be employed.
'Higher grade schools should be encouraged which will prepare
scholars for advanced technical and commercial instruction.
' Technical teaching in the school cannot replace the practical teaching,
which is best learnt in the woi'kshop.
' In ordinary elementary schools good teaching of drawing and of
elementary science are the best, and in the lower classes the only fitting
preparation for the work of the technical school, and these subjects should
be generally taught.
' Technical instruction should cover commercial and agricultural as
•«vell as industrial instruction.'
ON THE FOSSIL PHTLLOPODA OF THE PALAEOZOIC ROCKS.
173-
Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. Etheridue,
Dr. H. Woodward, and Professor T. Eupert Jones {Secretary),
on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Palceozoic Rocks.
§ I. Monograph of the PalEeozoic Cera-
tioaarUhe.
§ II. Ceratiocaris tyranmis from Trout-
beck.
§ III. Scandinavian Phyllocarida, and
teeth of Ceratiucaru.
§ IV. M. Novak's Aristozoe solitaria,
Ceratiocaris, spp., and note on
Cryptocaris.
§ V. M. Novak's note on Ptyclwcaris (?)
Jaschei, F. A. Koemer.
§ VI. Mr. Clarke's Devonian Pkyllocarida
of New- York State.
§ VII. Bactropui in Devonshire.
§ VIII. Tremadoc Fossils.
1. Saceocaris major, Salter.
2. Linyiikwaris Saltenana
nov.
3. Lingulocarig siliquiformu
J." &: W.
4 . Ceratidcans ( 1 )
5. Hymeruicaris vermicaudar
Salter.
§ IX. Estheria from Orkney.
§ X. Devonian Phjilocarids of New-
York State, &c.
§ I. Monograph. — -' A Monograph of the British Palaeozoic Phyllopoda
(Phyllocarida, Packard), Part I., Ceratiocaridce,' based on our former
Reports to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, waF
published in January of this year by the Palseontographical Society.
The genera and species treated of are those enumerated in the table at
page 234 of the Report for 1886, excepting that Ceratiocaris attenuaia wan
found to be Salter's G. tyrannus; to this species also may be referred
pi. 2, fig. 4, pi. 4, fig. 3, pi. 5, fig. G, and pi. 6, fig. 11 of the Monograph,
the style or telson being strong and straight (not curved as in its near
ally, G. Miirchisoni). The Portuguese fossil Phyllocarid, first named and
described by D. Sharpe asDithyj-ocaris(?) longicauda (?) is also included,
with illustrations (being within reach at the Geological Society of London),
as a doubtful Ceratiocaris.
§ II. Ceratiocaris tyrannus. — Professor Sven Leonhard Tornquist, of
Lund, has sent to us for examination some fragments of the caudal ap-
pendage of a Ceratiocaris from the Upper Coldwell Beds, near Troutbeck,.
Westmoreland. The specimen consists of a style and two stylets, im-
perfect at the ends, in a sandy mudstone. One stylet lies close to the
style, and the other is indicated by a cast at an angle with its fellow.
They are all straight and the style shows a lateral row of pits (bases of
spinules). It is too straight for C. 3Iiorchisoni, and the pits are too small
for C. gigas. It may belong to C. tyrannus, like the specimen (also from
Westmoreland), referred to C. valida, perhaps wrongly, ' Monogr. Foss.
Phyll. ' p. 21, pi. 6, f. 11. The specimen shown by pi. 4, fig. 3, is also
probably C. tyrannus and not C. Murchisoni.
§ III. Ceratiocaridce from Sweden. — The Scandinavian Phyllocarida
mentioned in the last ' Report ' (Manchester meeting, 1887), pp. 60-62,
have been fully described and figured in the ' Geological Magazine ' for
March 1888, pp. 97-100, pi. 5, and for April, pp. 145-150, pi. 6 and
woodcuts. Ceratiocaris valida has been added with some probability as
occurring in Sweden. In G. Angelini the style (telson) was probably
only 7 (not 15) mm. longer than in pi. 5, fig. 1, p. 97; and the row of
little pits (bases of prickles) is on the right-hand (not left-hand) side of
the cast as figured, ibid., see also ibid., p. 150.
174 PvEPOia-— 1888.
With this revised and enlarged desci'iption of the Phyllocaridal
remains from Sweden are associated descriptions and figures of both
Scandinavian and British specimens of the masticatory organs (' teeth ')
of Ceratiocaris.
We ought to have added that Mr. T. P. Barkas has given two rough
figures of a similar tooth, belonging probably to Dithyrocaris,^ in his
'Manual of Coal-measure Paleontology,' or 'Illustrated Guide to the
Fish, Amphibian, Reptilian, and supposed Mammalian Remains of the
Northumberland Carboniferous Strata,' 8vo, and ' Atlas of Carboniferous
Fossils from the Northumberland Carboniferous Strata,' fol., 1873.
'These enlarged views of a Crustacean tooth are figs. 161 and 162 in
pi. 5, and the specimen is described as the Anthropodontoides Bailesii, at
p. 45.
§ IV. Bohemian Phylhcarida, ^"c. — M. Ottomar Novak has further
■enlarged our knowledge of the Palteozoic Phyllopodous Crustaceans
during his critical examination of the ' Barrande Collection,' of which he
has the charge in the Prague Museum.
In the Stage F-/"!, of the Hercynian Formation, he finds an un-
described telson, relatively short and stout, 39 mm. in length, swollen for
about 10 mm. from the top, afterwards neatly ridged and fluted dorsally,
:and bearing a row of small pits along each outer ridge. This he defines
as Aristozoe soUtaria, at p. 15, pi. 1, figs. 15-19, of his ' Zur Kenntniss der
Fauna der Etage F-/1 in der paliiozoischen Schichtengruppe Bohmens ' ;
' Sitzungsber. k. bohm. Gesell. Wissensch.,' Jahrgang 1886. At p. 15
M. Novak explains that Aristozoe had only one caudal spine, namely, the
telson or style. In the Table at p. 17 he mentions two new species
■of Ceratiocaris (not described, G. modesta and G. Damesi) from the same
Stage.
In our Second Report (for 1884), at p. 87, we offered the remark that
most of Barrande's species of Gryptocaris and Zonozoe were probably
opercula of some Shells, or possibly of some Corals such as Ooniopliyllum.
M. Novak finds evidence that some at least of the Cryptocarides are
referable to the Conularian Orthotheca or Hyolithes, and that Gryptocaris
3uavis, Barrande, in particular, is the operculum of Orthotheca (Hyolithes)
intermedia, Noviik. ' Sitzungsb. bohm. Ges. Wiss.' 1886, pp. 7-14, pi. 1,
ligs. 9-13.
We may add that in his ' Illustrations of the Fauna of the St.-John
Group, No. iTi.,' in the 'Transact. Roy. Soc. Canada,' Section TV., 1885,
Mr. G. F. Matthew has described and figured some fossil Pteropoda
{Hyolithes, &c.), together with their opercula (p. 48, &c., pi. 6, figs. 1, 2,
•5, 6, 7). These latter are evidently the same as Barrande's Gryptocaris.
Other probable opercula are figured and described in the same work
(pp. 61-66, pi. 6, figs. 16-21), under the generic names of Lepiditta,
Lepidilla, Hijyponicharion, and Beyrichona ; some being regarded as
Ostracods, and others doubtfully as Phyllopods.
§ V. Ptychocaris (?) JascJiei. — M. Ottomar Novak has favoured us with
the following note : —
' Bithyrocaris Jaschel, figured by Kayser in the " Abhandl.," &c., pi. 1,
fig. 13, and mentioned in the Fifth Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda of
the Palaeozoic Rocks, p. 66, shows some resemblance to my Ptychocaris
' Similar to those described and figured in tlie Geoh Mag., 1865, p. 401, pi. 11,
tig. 8; and 1873, p. 486, pi. 16, lig. 2g.
ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALiMOZOlC ROCKS. 175
■(see Fourth Report, &c., p. 233), which occurs at an equivalent horizon
— the " Hercyniau " of Beyrich and Kayser, = " Stages F, G, and H," of
Barrande.'
§ VI. Devonian Phyllocarida of Neiv- York State. — In the ' Bulletin
of the U. S. Geological Survey,' No. 16, 8vo, 1885, Mr. John M. Clarke
has given a memoir ' On the Higher Devonian Faunas of Ontario County,
New York,' in which he describes and figures the following Phyllo-
carida : —
1. Ceratiocaris simplex, J. M. C, p. 43 (7"?), pi. 2, fig. 2. Carapace-
valve nearly oval in outline, 30 mm. long and about 10 mm. wide (high).
2. G. Beecheri, J. M. C, p. 44 (78), pi. 2, fig. 1. Three abdominal
segments and three caudal spines, not well preserved. Proportionally too
large for the foregoing species. The ultimate segment is apparently
shorter than usual in this genus.
3. Echinocaris WhitfielcU, J. M. C, p. 45 (79), pi. 2, figs. 3 and 4.
Carapace- valve 27 mm. long and 16 mm. wide (high) ; with the middle
and one of the lateral caudal spines, the latter longer than the former.
4. Equisetides Wrightiana, Dawson, 1881 (Echinocaris Wrightiana,
J. & W. ' Geol. Mag.,' 1884, p. 395, pi. 13. fig. 1), is mentioned at p. 66
(100). See also our Third Report (for 1885), p. 360.
5. Spathiocaris Emersoni, J. M. C. Notes on the genus and localities
for this species are given at pp. 46 (80) and 47 (81).
In the Table at p. 69 (103) Ceratiocaris longicauda, Hall, is noted as
•occurring in the ' Genessee Shales ' and the ' Portage Beds,' in which
latter occur also Dipterocaris p>ennai.I)cedali, CI., I) . pes-cervm, CL, and B.
Procne, CI. The ' Naples Shales ' have yielded Ceratiocaris simplex, CI.,
G. Beecheri, CI., Echinocaris Whiffieldi, CL, Ech. Wrightiana (Dawson),
and Spathiocaris Emersoni, CI. See also our Second Report (for 1884),
pp. 78, 80, 81.
§ VII. Bactropus in Devonshire. — The Rev. G. F. Whidborne, F.G.S.,
has identified from the Devonian strata of Torquay a specimen oi Bactropus
longipes(?), Barrande, which M. Ottomar Novak > has shown to be really
the chief abdominal segment (or ' post-abdomen ') of Barrande's Aristozoe
regina ; whilst Ceratiocaris deiilis, Barrande, is the style (telson) of the
same bivalved Crustacean (Phyllocarid).
§ VIII. Tremadoc Fossils. — In the First Report on the Palfeozoic
Phyllopoda (1883) a tabular synopsis of the known fossil genera was
published, together with descriptive notes on some of the species, from
the Tremadoc and other old rocks, including Hymenocaris, Caryocaris,
and Lingulocaris. The well-known Hymenocaris vermicauda is therein
described from specimens obtained from many localities of the Lingula-
flag and Tremadoc-slate series of North Wales, and preserved in the
•collections of the British Museum, Geological Survey, Cambridge Uni-
versity, and Owens College. The track-marks on Lingula-flags, near
Tremadoc, ascribed by Salter to Hymenocaris, are also alluded to.
The 'Hymenocaris (Saccocaris) major' of Salter is also referred to at
pp. 219, 220. Though three specimens have been thus labelled in the
Cambridge Museum, with some doubt and possibly by Salter himself,
only one of them answers to Salter's brief generic description, and on
this the following determination is founded.
' Sitzungshcr. Ji. hdhm. Gesell. WissenscJi., Jahrgang 1885, pp. 239-243, pi. 1. See
also our Report for 1885. p. 359.
17t> KEPORT 1888.
1. Saccocaris majok, Salter. (Woodcut, Fig. 1.)
Saccocaris, Salter, 1868. ' Report Proc. Geol. Polytech. Soc. West
Eiding of Yorkshire ' ^for 1867), vol. iv. 1868, p. 588.
Mymenocaris (Saccocaris) major, Salter, 1873. ' Catal. Palseoz. Fossils,
Cambridge Museum,' p. 7. Referring to ' Halifax Trans.' 1867,' by
mistake.
The particular specimen which most neai-ly corresponds with the
original description, namely, ' a large ovate carapace, strongly emai-ginate
behind, and larger than H. vermicauda,' is a relatively large, thin, filmy,
compressed valve, 4-j-y inches long and 2 inches high,' suboblong, with
nearly parallel dorsal and ventral borders, the former straighter than the
latter, which has a slight outward (downwai'd) curve. Obliquely elliptical
in front, the acme of the curvature being above the mesial line, thus
making the antero-dorsal much shorter than the antero-ventral curve.
Apparently blunt or truncate behind, with a gentle outward curve rather
above the middle. The exact line of this posterior margin is not clearly
seen, owing to its being shredded or frayed otf, thus passing into the sub-
stance of the black schistose mudstone ; the valve having been delicately
plaited (with the stone) by lateral pressure acting at right angles to its
length, and this longitudinal plaiting being transverse to the hind border.
The front edge has not been affected nearly so much, having probably been
thicker, or even slightly rimmed. This pressure has, perhaps, somewhat
elongated the valve, and lessened its original height, besides giving it a
gentle undulation, as well as the plaiting (pleating), throughout.
The valve, slightly hollow, is probably the right-hand valve, showing
its inside. Several concentric, irregular, narrow foldings, following the
contour of the anterior and antero-ventral border, are apparently due to
the compression of the convexity of the valve.
This specimen, No. 1, at p. 220 of the First Report, and fig. 1 of the
accompanying woodcuts, is marked -j^:^, oTfy, in the Woodwardian
Museum of the Cambridge University, and was collected by Mr. D.
Homfray from the upper part of the Lower Lingula-flags at Caer-y-coed,
near Maentwrog.
This was at first (in 1867) regarded by Mr. Salter as a flat carapace,
' after the manner oi Apus' ; but afterwards (in 1873) he referred it to
the bivalved, folded, or Nebalioid forms of carapace, and placed it as an
ally of Hijinenocaris, with the name Saccocaris. In shape it differs much
from the valves of that genus, as it wants their triangular form, due to the
dorsal line forming an angle with the front edge, which slopes rapidly
downwards and backwards all along the ventral, to join the posterior
margin with a bold, oblique, postero-ventral curve. Differing also remark-
ably in size, it must be assigned to a different generic group ; and it will
be best to recall the name Salter was at first inclined to give it, namely,
Saccocaris.
2. LiNGULOCARis Saltertana, sp. nov. (Woodcuts, Figs. 6 & 7.)
The British Museum has lately acquired a fine specimen of one of the
old Cambrian Phyllocarids, from the Tremadoc-slate scries. It is a black,
' H. rermicauda rarely attained more than an inch in length along the back, 8-
or 9 tenths of an inch in height, and one and 3 or 4 tenths of an inch in the greatest
angular length from antero-dorsal to postero-ventral region
ON THE FOSSIL PHTLLOPODA OF THE PALEOZOIC EOCKS. 177
shining, and filmy valve (or compressed bivalved carapace), seen as an
impression and counterpart on a split slab of hard, grey, micaceous mud-
stone, which has been subjected to the usual lateral pressure. The valve
(3^? xlg^ inch) is acutely subovate, or sharply boat- shaped in outline,
convex below and straight above, and was acute probably at each end,
though one of them is damaged. It retains a remnant of one of the
small, subtriangular, terminal extensions of the dorsal edge, such as are
present in L. siliquiformis. See fig. 6 of the annexed woodcuts.
The surface is peculiarly marked with what seem to be modifications
of ornamental strise or linear plaits, namely, very small lenticular and
bead-like elevations, which may have resulted from raised longitudinal
strise being crossed by the delicate plaiting of lateral pressure at slightly
different angles.
We dedicate this fine species to the memory of our friend, Mr, J. W.
Salter, whose labours in elucidating these old Phyllopodous forms are
well known. It was found by Dr. R. Roberts in the Tuhwntirbwlch
quarry at Portmadoc.
Another of the old associates of SijmenorAiris in the Tremadoc series
is the 'second specimen ' mentioned at p. 220 of our First Report (1883).
Though smaller than the foregoing (2!;XiJ? inch), it is of a similar
shape, having been acute at both ends (probably, though one is broken),
elliptically curved below and nearly straight above, thus having the outline
of a sharp-ended boat (fig. 7 of the annexed woodcuts). It is not really
' emarginate ' at one end, as stated at p. 220 of the Report, that appear-
ance being due to a slight transverse crack and some inequality of the
surface near the end, which was probably acute, but has been squeezed out
of shape and frayed away by the longitudinal plaiting of the hard, com-
pressed, slaty shale or mudstone. The cross-pressure has also coarsely
plaited the valve throughout, and somewhat lengthened it.
From the upper part of the Lower Lingula-flags, at Caer-y-coed, near
Maentwrog. Collected by Mr. D. Homfray. In the Woodwai'dian
Museum, Cambridge.
A somewhat similar, but badly preserved, fossil from the Brethay
Flags of Long Sleddale (Marr Coll. in the Cambridge Museum) is
probably a hingulocaris of the same, or a closely allied, species.
3. LiNGULOCARis SILIQUIFORMIS, J. and W. (Woodcuts, Figs. 8 & 9.)
' Geol. Mag.,' 1883, p. 464.
At p. 228 of the First Report (1883) we described this Cambrian Phyllo-
carid as differing from Salter's L. lingulaecomes ' by being longer, sharper
at one end, and more nearly resembling a pea-pod in shape. One speci-
men (fig. 8 of the annexed woodcuts), rather wrinkled by crush, from the
Upper Tremadoc series at Garth Hill, Portmadoc, was presented to the
British Museum by the Rev. J. F. Blake. Another (fig. 9), also in the
British Museum, is marked '48654 from the Bala Schist at Bwlch-y-
gaseg, near Cynwyn, Corwen ; J.P., March 14, 1868.'
A fragmental specimen from the Upper Tremadoc series at Garth,
Portmadoc, is in the Museum of Practical Geology, marked f ; and
referred to L. lingulcBcomes at p. 15, ' Catal. Cambr. and Silur. Foss.
M. P. G.,' 1878.
' Besides the two specimens, ^^^ in the Woodwardian Museum (see First Report
p. 223), from Garth, there is one in the British Museum, No. 48,001, from the same
locality.
1888. M
178 llBPOKX — 1888.
4. Cebatiocaris (?), sp. Fig. 10, of the Woodcuts.
A posterior portion of a valve like that of Ceratiocaris was described at
p. 220 of the First Report (1883). It is j^^ X ^ inch in measurement ; from
Wern, near Portmadoc ; and marked y-j^ in the Woodwardian Museum,
Cambridge.
The body-pieces known as Salter's Ceratiocaris (?) lata, from Garth,
and C. (?) insperata, from Penmorfa (see our First Report, p. 221, and
Third Report, 1885, p. 351), appear to be too large for this species from
Wern.
5. Htmenocakis. (Woodcuts, Figs. 2- 5.)
In illustration of Hymenocaris vermicaucla, Salter, outline sketches
of some of the best known specimens are given in figs. 2-5 of the
accompanying woodcuts. The modified shapes of the valves, and of
the body-rings variable in number, are here indicated to illustrate the
descriptions in the First Report, pp. 218, 219 ; and to serve for comparison
with their associates Saccocaris, Lingulocaris, and Ceratiocaris (?), above
described (figs. 1, 6-10).
Explanation of the Figures (^Woodcuts'). Natural size.
Fig. 1. Saccocaris major, Salter. Caer-y-coed, near Maentwrog ; upper part of the Lower
Lingula-flags.
Fig. "2. Jfi/nienncaris vermicauda. Salter. Carapace much narrowed by transverse pressure.
Borth, Portmadoc ; Ffestiniog group.
Fig. .3. Carapace and abdomen modified by pressure. Borth.
Fig. 4. Carapace and abdomen the former somewhat shortened and widened by
pressure, but nearly of the original shape. Borth.
Fig. u. Carapace and abdomen modified by pressure. Borth.
£ 2^^ I —Fig. G. Lingnhcaris Salteriana, sp. nov. Flattened carapace; damaged at the ends.
Tuliwntirbwlch quarry, Portmadoc.
,v,^. Fig. 7. (?). Smaller individual. Carapace flattened, and somewhat narrowed
■' 3 and lengthened by transverse pressure. Caer-y-coed, near Maentwrog ; Lower
Lingula-flags.
J ISO-, _ Yiu. 8. siliguifnrviis, J. &W. Garth Hill, Tremadoc ; Upper Tremadoc series.
, , Fig. 9. Bwlch-y-gaseg, near Cynwyd, Corwen ; Bala-schist.
""* Fig. 10. Ceratiocaris (?), si[>. Hinder moiety of valve. Portmadoc; Ffestiniog group.
§ IX. Estheria. — Some specimens of Estheria memhranacea (Pacht),
in a black limestone, including the long variety (p. 16 : ' Monogr. Foss.
BstheriEe,' 1863), collected lately by Mr. Jex, in Orkney, have been placed
in the British Museum.
§ X. Devonian Phyllocarids of Neiv-York State, Sfc. — The following
genera and species are fully noticed and carefully figured in Prof. Dr. James
Hall's last volume of the ' Palaeontology of the State of New York,' just
lately published. They are of Devonian age, and with few exceptions
from the district mentioned. The title of this important volume is
'Geological Survey of the State of New York. Palaeontology: Vol. VII.
Text and plates. Containing descriptions of the Trilobites and other
Crustacea of the Oriskany, Upper Helderberg, Hamilton, Portage,
Chemung, and Catskill Groups. By James Hall, State Geologist and
Palaeontolosrist. Assisted by John M. Clarke.' 4to, Ixiv. and 236 pages,
45 plates. Albany, N.Y., 1888. Together with a ' Supplement to Vol. V.,
Part 2, of the Palaeontology of New- York State. Pteropoda, Cephalopoda,
and Annelida,' 42 pages, and plates 114 to 129.
ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF IHE PALEOZOIC ROCK-S. 179
« 2
180 REPOKX — 188».
The groupings of families, genera, &c., are as follow: —
I. Phtllocabida.
A. Ceratiocarid^.
I. Ceratiocaris, McCoy, 1849. Occurring in the Genessee and Portage
formations.
1. C. longicauda. Hall, p. 163, pi. 31, fig. 1.
2. G. Beecheri, Clarke, p. 164, pi. 31, fig. 3.
3. C. (?) simplex, Clarke, p. 165, pi. 31, fig. 2.
II. JEcldnocaris, Whitfield, 1880. Occurring in the Hamilton, Portage,
and Chemung formations.
1. E. punctata, Hall, p. 166, pi. 27, fig. 10 ; pi. 28, figs. 1-7 ; pi. 29,.
figs. 1-8. Prof. Hall prefers to keep punctata rather than armata
for the specific name (p. 170) : see our Third Report, 1885, p. 360.
The Mandibles of Phyllocarida are treated of at pp. 170, 171 ;.
pi. 30, figs. 13-19.
2. E. Whitfieldi, Clarke, p. 172, pi. 29, figs. 20, 21.
3. E. condtjlepis, n. sp., p. 173, pi. 29, figs. 14-17.
4. E. socialis, Beecher, p. 174, pi. 30, figs. 1-12.
5. E. sublcevis, Whitfield, p. 176, pi. 29, figs. 11-13.
6. E. pustulosa, Whitfield, p. 178, pi. 29, figs. 9, 10.
7. E. multinodosa, Whitfield, p. 180, pi. 29, figs. 18, 19.
The Equisetides Wrightiana, referred by Woodward and Jones to
Echinocaris (Third Report, 1885, p. 360), is provisionally placed by
Prof. Hall with Stylonurus, by reason of the character of the spinona
elevations, pp. 161, 162.
III. Eltmocakis, Beecher, 1884. Occurring in the Hamilton and
Chemung formations.
1. E. capsella, n. sp., p. 181, pi. 31, fig. 4.
2. E. siliqua, Beecher, p. 182, pi. 31, figs. 5, 6.
rV. Tropidocaris, Beecher, 1884. Occurring in the Hamilton and
Chemung formations.
1. T. hicarinata, Beecher, p. 184, pi. 31, figs. 7-12.
2. T. interrufta, Beecher, p. 185, pi. 31, fig. 13.
3. T. alternata, Beecher, p. 186, pi. 31, figs. 14, 15.
B. Pinacarid^.
I. Mesothyra, n.g. Occurring in the Marcellus, Hamilton, and,
Portage formations.
1. M. Oceani, n. sp., p. 187, pi. 32, figs. 1-6 ; pi. 33, figs. 4-7 ; pi. 34,
figs. 1-5. Separated from M. (formerly Dithyrocaris) Neptuni,
Hall, on account of some differences in the caudal appendages.
2. M. Neptuni, Hall, p. 191, pi. 32, fig. 7 ; pi. 33, fig. 1.
3. M. spumcea, n. sp., p. 193, pi. 32, figs. 8, 9 ; pi. 34, fig. 2.
4. M. {Dithyrocaris ?) Veneris, n. sp., p. 193, pi. 33, fig. 3.
[II. Dithyrocaris, Scouler, 1843.] In the Hamilton formation.
1. D. Belli, Woodward, p. 184 (Gaspe).
C. Rhinocarid^.
I. Rhinocaris, n.g. (J. M. C.) Occurring in the Hamilton formation.
Eh. columbina, n. sp., p. 195, pi. 31, figs. 16-21.
Rh. scaphoptera, n. sp., p. 197, pi. 31, figs. 22, 23.
ON THE FOSSIL PHTLLOPODA OF IHE PALEOZOIC ROCKS. 181
D. DlSCINOCARID^.
I. Spathiocaris, Clarke, 1882. In the Portage formation.
1. 8p. Emersoni, Clarke, p. 199, pi. 35, figs. 12-18.
II. DiPTEROCARis, Clarke, 1882. In the Portage and Chemung
formations.
1. D. pennce-DaidaM, Clarke, p. 200, pi. 35, fig. 24.
2. D. Procne, Clarke, p. 201, pi. 35, figs. 25-27.
3. D. pes-cervce, Clarke, p. 202, pi. 35, figs. 20, 21.
II. Phtllopoda.
A. Limnadud^;.
I. Estheria, Riippel, 1857. In the Hamilton formation.
1. E. pulex, Clarke, p. 206, pi. 35, figs. 10, 11.
II. ScHizoDiscus, n.g. (J. M. C), p. 203. In the Hamilton formation.
1. S. capsa, n. sp., p. 207, pi. 35, figs. 1-9.
■Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. S. Bourne,
Professor F. Y. Edgeworth {Secretary), Professor H. S. Fox-
well, Mr. Egbert Gtiffen, Professor Alfred Marshall, Mr. J.
B. Martin, Professor J. S. Nicholson, Mr. K. H. Inglis Pal-
grave, and Professor H. Sidgwick, appointed for the purpose
of investigating the best method of ascertaining and m.easuring
Variations in the Value of the Monetary Standard. {Drawn
up by Mr. Giffen.)
In their reports last year the Committee discussed fully the theoretical
aspects of the problem of measuring variations in the value of the
monetary standard. It was abundantly clear, from this discussion, they
think, that even if statistical data were more complete than they are
the question is a most complicated and difficult one : how to measure
variations in the value of the monetary standard would in no case be a
simple matter. They desire now to report on one or two of the
more definite issues involved as connected with problems of immediate
practical interest, of which it may be possible for the public to attempt
an approximately correct practical solution.
The main practical uses for which the measurement of variations in a
monetary standard has been desired appear to be the following : — -
1. The fixation of rents or other deferred payments extending over
long periods of time, for which it has been desired to obtain a currency
of a more stable sort than money is supposed to be. This has been a
pi-actical question of great importance from the days of Fleetwood's
' Chronicon Preciosum,' which begins, as is well known, with a remark-
able case of conscience — whether a man in order to receive a bursary or
scholarship, for which a declaration that his private income does not
exceed, say, five pounds a year, is required, is justified, the value of
money having fallen proportionately, in making the declaration upon an
income not exceeding thirty pounds a year. In recent times there is at
least one instance of a difierent standard from metal being deliberately
182 BEFOBT— 1888.
substituted on a large scale, viz., the tithe averages, these being made ta
vary with the value of grain, so that in effect the tithe is so much grain,
and not so much money. The Scotch Fiars prices have existed for more
than two centuries for similar purposes.
2. To enable comparisons to be made between the value of money
incomes in different places, which is often an object of great practical
interest, not only individuals contemplating residential changes having to
consider it, but Governments and other large spending bodies, spending
money in widely distant places, having to do the like. Apart from di-
rectly business issues of this sort, such questions are of obvious practical
interest to economic students, and through them to the general public.
3. To enable historians and other students making comparisons
between past and pi'esent to give an approximate meaning to the money
expressions which they deal with, and say roughly what a given fine,^
or payment, or amount of national revenue or expenditure in a past age
would mean in modern language. To the student of history from the
economic point of view some such method of giving a meaning to
money expressions is indispensable.
And it has been seen theoretically that the only way to accomplish
these objects is to form ' index-numbers,' that is, to substitute for money
some other measure by which the value of money or any other single com-
modity relative to an aggregate of commodities may be ascertained. If
all commodities could be included in such an index-number, and a proper
weight assigned to each, and if the same commodities existed in the same
proportion in past times and at different places as exist now at a given
place, the new measure would be perfect for the purposes required, pro-
vided that there were any possihility of ascertaining the prices themselves, and
approximately, apart from this special difficulty of obtaining prices, there
may be such a new measure which will be useful, though it is not ideally
perfect. For the purposes above stated, it is obvious something that is
very useful may be obtained without even an approach to ideal perfection.
The intervals of time and the differences of place may be so great that
useful distinctions may be drawn out, even although there is a wide
margin of error, and although it is certain that from such causes as the
introduction of new commodities and the dropping out of others, and the
continual changes in the proportions in use of all the others, absolutely
exact comparisons cannot be made.
But, apart from all such difiBculties, which were fully discussed in last
report, it may be stated broadly that hitherto both students and practical
politicians have been limited even more effectually in their means of
measuring variations in the monetary standard by the absolute deficiency
of the data. It is practically, for instance, unnecessary for tbem to
consider whether they are to use the retail prices which must be used if
an ideal index-number based on desiderata is to be employed, because
there is no complete record of retail prices even at the present time, and
certainly there are no such records of retail prices in many different
places, and going back over historical periods. Similarly there can be
no question, as regards the past or present, of such an ideal standard as
that suggested by Professor Nicholson, which depends on a valuation of
the property in a country, for no valuation approximately accurate
enough for such, a purpose could be made in any country at the present
time, much, less could it be carried backwards for any lengthened period.
For these reasons nracticallv the best must be made of wholesale
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 183
prices, for these are the only prices of which there are records — of which
it may ahnost be said there can be records, retail prices being subject to
many difficulties, including the degree of ' retailing ' which may exist,
to become the basis of records capable of solving the practical problems
stated.
In actual fact students and politicians have been still more limited.
There are prices and prices. Practically it is found that only the prices
of leading commodities, capable of being dealt with in large wholesale
markets, can be made use of, while the assumption must be made, so
numerous and varying are quaHties, that certain articles may be taken
as types. For instance, in dealing with the values of wheat it is con-
venient to take English wheat, as represented by the Gazette average, as
a type, and assume that all wheat sold in England varies in price as
English wheat does ; but the assumption may not be quite correct, while
the Gazette average itself, if we look at the question historically, only
goes back a hundred years, and previous to that the historical student
must fall back on the records of the value of wheat at a particular place,
such as Windsor. Even greater difficulties arise with regard to other
articles, while for some purposes the prices of large masses of articles,
which are obtained by such means as the division of the aggregate
quantities of the imports by aggregate values, are deficient, owing to
the changes in the qualities of the constituents of the group from year to
year or from period to period. In dealing with the question practically,
therefore, those concerned must always have an eye upon the data
and consider what is practically obtainable and what use may be made
thereof.
Looking at the subject in this way, then, the most important con-
clusion seems to be that for such practical purposes as those above
mentioned the methods already followed may be and have, in fact, been
approximately successful. With improvements they may be made more
useful, although ideal perfection is unobtainable, and even inconceivable.
What has to be considered is that the prices of leading commodities are
likely to vary on the average as all commodities vary on the average ;
that, if such commodities are selected without bias, the result, as regards
the selected articles, may be accepted as representative of the average re-
sult ; that wholesale and retail prices will vary in much the same way, and
that consequently the mean of a number of prices taken almost at random,
if there is a sufficient number to get rid of chance errors, may be de-
pended on to measure variations in the monetary standard in lien of a
standard composed of all articles whatsoever, each receiving its proper
weight. Rough approximations only are possible, but according to the
logic of statistics the defectiveness of the statistical data, though it has
to be recognised, is not an insuperable barrier to the adoption of rough
approximations which are valuable. Let us see what has been accom-
plished.
The ' Chronicon Preciosum,' dealing with the chief articles only, as to
which records of price happened to remain, and using a plan of means in
which each article was considered to be of equal importance, showed
approximately that the value of money had changed from century to
century; that, measured by the common articles of trade and consump-
tion, a sovereign did not go so far in the time of that book as it did
several centuries before — that it only commanded a sixth part of the
average of leading commodities which it had commanded several centuries
18-4 EEroKT— 1888.
previously. The whole calculation was very rough, but it conveyed a
sound historical idea which was useful and fruitful in the absence of
a better. It also may be held to justify the action Bishop Fleetwood
suggested in the case of conscience referred to.
Adam Smith, substituting wheat alone as a standard, was able to
show changes in the purchasing power of money, though, of course, it
would have been better to use more articles. Still the conclusion for
wheat alone, considering its great importance in those times, was good
enough to prove a change in the value of money.
Sir George Evelyn's index-number, submitted to the Royal Society in
1798, led to a broad conclusion not substantially different from those of
Adam Smith and Fleetwood.
In later times the researches of Professor Jevons and the index-
numbers of the Economist, Sauerbeck, and others, have demonstrated
conclusively that there has been a common movement in the prices of
leading wholesale commodities, proving a variation in the value of money,
relative to an aggregate of these leading commodities, which can, no
doubt, be made use of by historians and economic students when they
wish to give meaning to the money expi-essions of different periods.
There is, no doubt, a great lack of quantitative exactness in the past
discussions, and it may be fairly urged that more consideration should
be given to the question of how to allow for the changes in the efficiency
of the human unit — a question raised by Adam Smith's selection of
wheat on the express ground that the labour employed in producing a
quarter of wheat had remained unchanged ; but to suggest that a parti-
cular method which has produced useful ideas may be improved upon
and made to yield more exact results is not to show that it is useless.
The Gazette average prices of grain used for the tithe averages have
also proved conclusively, on a large scale, that a currency different from
money may be practically made useful in deferred payments — that the
process can be put into a working Act of Parliament.
The considerations we have to suggest as now most important
practically, in preparation for more exact and complete measurements in
the future, are the following : —
1. In the absence of retail prices — which it would be most convenient
to use in forming a standard of desiderata — use must necessarily be made
of wholesale prices only. No other prices are obtainable, and those prices
must be preferred, in the selection of typical articles, where the records
are best.
It appears, however, fi-om the best consideration of the subject, that
the differences likely to be made from the true result which would be
obtained from a more complete record of prices are not likely to be
material. On this head the Committee would refer to a paper by Mr.
Edgeworth, which has been prepared for their use, and which is appended.
The prices of articles taken without bias from a group are likely to be
fairly representative of the average course of prices of that group.
2. While an index-number assigning relative weight to diffei'ent
articles so selected is an important means of arriving at a useful result,
it cannot be said, in the present state of the data on the subject, to be an
altogether indispensable means. The articles as to which records of
prices are obtainable being themselves only a portion of the whole, nearly
as good a final result may apparently be arrived at by a selection with-
ON
YAKIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETAKY STANDARD. 185
out bias, according to no better principle tban accessibility of record,
as by a careful attention to weighting. On tbis head the Committee may
refer to the above paper of Mr. Bdgeworth, which seems conclusive on
the subject.
3. Practically the Committee would recommend the use of a weighted
index-number of some kind, as, on the whole, commanding more con-
fidence. But they feel bound to point out that the scientific evidence is
in favour of the kind of index-number used by Professor Jevons — provided
there is a large number of articles — as not insufficient for the purpose in
hand. Nothing is more remarkable in the comparisons of the recent
index-numbers than the correspondence of the curves of general course
of prices indicated. K weighted index-number, in one aspect, is almost
an unnecessary precaution to secure accuracy, though, on the whole, the
Committee recommend it.
4. The Committee have had before them a suggestion for a new index-
number, which might be used for some official and private purposes, based
on the practical considerations referred to, and making use of the best
wholesale prices, while having regard to the ultimate standard of de-»
siderata. The nature and object of this index-number is explained in
the accompanying memorandum, which has the general approval of the
Committee, though they do not consider it necessary here to go into all the
details. The object is to provide something for which it would be possible
to obtain and publish official prices, and by reference to which contracts
could be made, and it is submitted for discussion and future reference.
5. It would be most desirable to supplement any such index-number
by a good statistical account from time to time of the aggregate income
of the people and the relative numbers and aggregates of incomes of
different amounts. In some index-numbers in past times the wage of a
day-labourer is inserted as one of the articles. This may have been
correct enough for some purposes, and in the circumstances would not
prevent the index-number from indicating the general changes in the
value of money in the periods compared. But the more useful method
would seem to be to distinguish between the human unit in production
and the thing produced. Among the most important comparisons for which
such figures are used at all are the effectiveness of labour at different
times and places, and the command of the labourer or other earner over the
amounts produced ; and these comparisons can only be made when an
independent standard of the production and consumption of the labourer
is set up, with which his earnings may be compared. No argument is
needed to show that, along with index-numbers as to prices of commo-
dities, there should be an endeavour to ascertain the aggregate earnings
of a community and the distribution of the earnings so as to show on the
one side the command over commodities which different classes possess —
the real as distinguished from the nominal incomes — and on the other
side the relative effectiveness of the labour of a community at different
times or of one community compared with another.
The matters referred to them not being fully exhausted, the Committee
would recommend their reappointment, with a view especially to con-
sidering the question of an official index-number or numbers for future
use in contracts, and what are the chief points to be looked at in the
necessary enactments, both for obtaining the necessary price data and for
settling forms in which contracts may be expressed.
186
REPORT 1888.
MEMORANDUM ON AN OFFICIAL INDEX- NV3IBER.
Table for the Construction op an Index-number.
Statement showing the estimated amount of the expenditure on the undermentioned
articles in the United Kingdom and the proportion of the amount in each case to
the total expenditure on all such articles, with suggestions for an index-number
based approximately on the propoHions stated, but with modifications so as to
substitute percentages in round ^gwes ; shmuing also the description of the spe-
cific wholesale article, the price of which it is proposed to use in the calculation
of the index-number; giving also the price-list or other source from which
guotatio7is are to be obtained.
1
2
3
Estimated
expenditure
per ann. on
each article
4
5
6
7
1
■s
a>
K
Articles
consumal
or used up
Per-
centage
of each
amount in
column 3
to total
Relative
importance
proposed for
each article
in index-
number
reduced to
percentages
Description of the
specific article of
which the price is to
be quoted as typical
Price-list or other
source for price
quotations
O
Wheat . .
Barlev ' .
Oats . .
Potatoes, 1
rice, &o. J
£ 000,000
60
30
50
50
100
20
60
6-5
3-25
5-4
5-4
5\
5
5^20
5
English wheat . . .
„ barley. . .
„ oats . . .
„ potatoes . .
Gazette average
Average import price
Meat . .
Fish. . .
Cheese )
Butter f .
Milk J
11
2-2
6-5
10
Mean of live meat
per stone of Slbs.
Smithfield
Average per cwt.
landed
Cheese
Butter
Weekly market quota-
tions
Official returns (Board
of Trade)
Average import price
» fi >i
•a
03
Sugar . .
Tea . . .
Beer . .
Spirits . .
Wine . .
Tobacco .
30
20
100
40
10
10
3-3
2-2
11
4-3
1
2i^
2i
9
2i
i
n)
^-20
Refined sugar im-
ported
Tea imported . . .
Beer exported . . .
Spirits imported . .
Wine imported . .
Tobacco imported
Average import price
»t j> •»
Average export price
Average import price
)> » tt
»» >j j»
bo
1
Cotton . .
Wool . .
Sillc. . .
Leather .
20
30
20
10
2-2
3-3
2-2
11
24)
2ji
Cotton imported . .
Wool imported . . .
Raw silk imported .
Hides imported . .
Average import price
» » 5>
)» >» »»
)» i> »
-S.S
^3
Coal . .
Iron . .
Copper
Lead, zinc,
tin, &c.
100
50
25
25
11
5-4
2-7
2-7
2* 20
24 i
Coal exported . . .
Scotch pig-iron . .
Copper ore imported
Lead ore imported .
Average export price
Market price
Average import price
)» »» J)
i
%
O
i
Timber .
Petroleum
Indigo . .
Flax and
linseed
Palm oil .
C a u t -
chouc
30
5
.5
10
5
5
3-3
■6
•6
11
•6
•6
3\
1
1
3
1
1
.10
Timber imported . .
Petroleum imported .
Indigo imported . .
Flax imported . . .
Palm oil imported .
Caoutchouc imported
Average import price
5> » ))
»J »» )»
)> )» ?)
Totals .
920
100
180
*
In this table the first column indicates six leadinsr arenera which
comprehend the twenty-seven classes of articles specified in the second
' There is a large consumption of barley, exclusive of its use in the manufacture
of bepr.
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 187
column. These articles are either finished products (things ready for
consumption, like cheese and milk) or represent such things by entering
into their production, as coal (used in manufacturing) and timber, for
instance, go to the production of houses and iumiture.
The third column gives in round numbers (000,000's being omitted)
the average national expenditure on each class of article at present and
for the last few years, and presumably also for the immediate future the
proportions at least, if not the absolute amounts, of expenditure (such
proportions, as shown in Mr. Gifl'en's reports on the variation in the
prices of exports and imports, remaining pretty constant during a period
of years). In the estimated amount of consumption allowance is made
for the addition to the value made before the articles are in the form in
which they are finally consumed.
In column 4 these amounts (or proportions) are reduced to percentages
(of the total amount expended on such articles).
In column 5 the relative importance proposed to be assigned to each
article in the index-number is stated, mainly on the basis of the per-
centages in column 4, but with modifications so as to substitute even
figures for the convenience of handling.
In column 6 the specific articles are described, of which it is proposed
to obtain the prices as typical of the group really included on the corre-
sponding line in column 2. Wheat, for instance, consists of many different
kinds and qualities ; the one quality and kind it is proposed to quote as
typical of the whole is English wheat as returned officially to the Comp-
troller of the corn returns, which itself no doubt comprises many quahties.
Of iron, again, there are innumerable qualities and kinds ; it is proposed
to take Scotch pig-iron, in which there are large dealings, as typical of
the -whole. The same with other articles. In most cases large groups
are dealt with because the article selected is the average imported or
exported, which includes many qualities, but it should be distinctly
understood that in any case the most that can be done is to select specific
articles which are typical of large groups.
In column 7 the source from which the quotation of the specific
articles mentioned in column 6 is to be obtained is stated.
The above is of course only a rough suggestion for an index-number.
Even if the method is generally approved of, many questions might be
discussed as to the amounts of the annual consumption of each group of
articles specified in column 2, as to the relative importance to be assigned
practically in column 5, and as to the selection of the article in column 6
which is to be treated as typical of the group. It would be possible to
introduce two or more quotations instead of one for a particular group if
thought desirable, but this would be troublesome in working. For
practical purposes there must not be too many articles. Mr. Bdgeworth's
mathematical deductions as to the consequences of taking the price of
an article selected at random from a group, instead of the general average
course of prices for the group, appear to justify the expediency of this
procedure.
Were such a general index-number introduced, and prices calculated
upon it backwards and forwards, it would be easy to rearrange it for any
special purpose, such as to give more or less weight to one or more
oTonps according as they are assumed to enter into the consumption of a
particular class of persons whose position at different times as affected by
L the course of prices is to be specially investigated. The index-number could
188 REPORT— 1888.
also be compared with otlier index-numbers upon some other objective
basis, such as the relative importance of each article in the import and
export trade of a country ; and index-numbers for one country and place
could be compared with those for other countries or places. The index-
number now suggested is only put forward as a convenient one, illus-
trating the variations in prices in England according to what is called
the standard of desiderata, and which could be made use of — not neglecting
others — in many investigations.
It would also be an index-number on which, if people were so in-
clined, they could make contracts in a way analogous to the contracts for
the commutation of tithe ; in which the tithe is made to vary according
to the prices of corn. To make the index-number useful for this purpose
an Act would have to be passed prescribing the way in which the prices
are to be obtained and published, and defining and giving a form for the
contracts which might be made for payments, to vary according to the
variation in the aggregate index-number. This would be a practical
Tabular Standard such as Joseph Lowe, Jevons, and lately Professor
Marshall, have suggested.
All such index-numbers are liable to the observation that innumerable
articles are, and must be, in the nature of things, wholly excluded. The
Tariety of small articles is almost infinite. The assumption may also be
made, I think, that on balance the permanent tendency is for such articles
on the average, through the progress of invention, to increase in aggregate
importance in proportion to the other articles which can be got into an
index-number and, at the same time, individually to fall relatively in
price. In investigations general facts of this kind would, of course, have
to be borne in mind as qualifying deductions based upon the precise
figures which the index-numbers may give. People making contracts
based on index-numbers would also require to study what the effect
■would be likely to be on the result they wish to arrive at.
.MEMORANDUM BV THE SECRETARY, PROFESSOR F. Y. EDGE-
WORTH, ON THE ACCURACY OF THE PROPOSED CALCU-
LATION OF INDEX-NUMBERS.
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS.
Paoe
Theoretical estimate of the discrepancj^ likely to exist between the results
obtained by the Committee and those which they might obtain if the
materials were perfect 18S-198
Practical verification and summary statement of this estimate . . . 198-201
Comparison of the Committee's Index-number with other schemes . . 201-210
"Where the data are the same for the compared methods .... 201-209
The Simple Arithmetic Mean 201-204
The Weighted Arithmetic Mean 204-205
The Geometric Mean 205-206
The Median 206-209
Where the data are not the same for the compared methods . . 209-213
Appendix showing the extent and significance of the difference between the
Committee's scheme and others 213
The usefulness of our result will be enhanced by an estimate of its
accuracy. It would be desirable, if possible, to ascertain a numerical
limit which the error ' incurred by our calculation cannot possibly, or at
' The use of the term ' error ' to denote a deviation from an unknown ideal is
.somewhat infelicitous. But the advantage which the term has in being familiar to
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. IS^'
least with any reasonable probability, exceed. But it is doubtful whetber
such a limit admits of being fixed with precision. The erroneousness of
the conclusion could only be ascertained by inference from the inaccuracy
of the premises. But it is difficult to appreciate with mathematical pre-
cision the error to which our data are liable. We may, however, argue
that, if the erroneousness of the premises is approximately of a certain
amount, if the error of the data is of a certain order, then the error of the
conclusion will be of a certain other order.
Of course, it will be understood that, in attempting to evaluate
mathematically the error of our result, we mean its deviation from the
real numerical value of that quantity which we have here taken as our
qticBsitum : namely, the total national expenditure on material products at
any given time comparative with an initial epoch (abstraction being
made of any change in the total quantity of products which may have
occurred between the epochs).' The philosophical error which may be
committed by taking this sort of index-number as our ideal is the subject
of another sort of analysis.
The subject of our investigation being thus defined, we may show
that the erroneousness of the result is less than that of the data. There
are two lines of proof converging to the truth of this theory. First, we
may reason a priori by the Calculus of Probabilities that the index-number
is subject to a smaller percentage of error than the weights and price-
variations (given or referred to in columns 5 and 6 of the table).
Secondly, this deduction may be verified by actual trial. We may assign
a certain set of weights and price- variations as correct, and construct
several sets of variants diverging from the ' correct ' figures in haphazard
fashion. Then, operating with each set of variant data, we may calculate
several variant index-numbers. These, it will be found, diverge less—
that is by a smaller percentage— from the correct index-number than any
set of variant data from the corresponding correct datum.
The second part of the evidence cannot be fully appreciated without
the prior reasoning. By itself it conveys only a moiety of the truth.
Those who are content with that fraction of knowledge are advised to
skip the small type and close reasoning of the immediately following
paragraphs and to pass on to the more easily read lessons of experience.
The index-numher which is the result of our calculation ia subject to a less
error than the data which enter into it, for two reasons. First: The numerator
and denominator of the fraction which constitutes the iudex-munher form each an
aggregate of elements or parts, whereof each element is suhject to a presumably
independent error. Now, by a well-known principle of the Calculus of Probabilities,
the percentage error of such an aggregate is less than the percentage error incident
to each element (or at least to an element of average erroneousness). This prin-
ciple applies to the errors both of the weights and the observations (price-variations).
The next consideration apphes only to the former class of data. An error in any
7veight affects both the numerator and denominator in the same direction, whether
of excess or defect, and thus is to a certain extent self-corrected.
This reasoning may be exhibited more fully by the aid of symbols. Let us put
the series p-^, p^, &c. . . ■ p„ for the real price-variations. These price-variations
the student of Probabilities may, it is hoped, preponderate over the disadvantage
that it suggests to the general reader a more gross, blameworthy, and avoidable nus-
I take than is contemplated here.
I ' For a more exact definition of the queesitum, see in the First Report of the Com^
mittee the formula for the ' Principal Standard.'
190 KKPOiix — 1888.
mav be conceived as percentages obtained after the manner of Mr. Pal^rave (see
Table 26 of Memorandum in Appendix to ' Third Report of the Commission on
Depression of Trade ') by multiplying the ratio qj-j-^-^ — dJ 100. Let us denote
the opjjareMf price-variations, the erroneous observations, as ^,(1 + e,), js, (l + e„)
. p„(l + e„), where e,, e^ . . . e„ are each positive or negative errors, usually
proper "fractions. Similarly let Wj, w.,, &c., be the real weights; and iv^^ (l + «i),
.f^^ (1 + e.,^ &c., be the apparent, or erroneous, weights.
The index-number obtained from such data is
tPj {l + fi)xpi (1 + e j + W.J (1 + fo) X po (1 + eg) + &c. ^
Wl (1 + f{) + W, (1 + €2) + &c-
Alike in the numerator and denominator of this expression we may segregate
tlie correct and the errojieous portion ; and reason by the first of the principles
above mentioned that the incorrect portion is of a smaller order than the sum of
the correct terms (the number of observations being sufficiently great). Accord-
ingly it will be allowable to expand by Taylor's Theorem and neglect higher terms.
We shall thus obtain a simple expression for the error of the resultant index-
number in terms of the errors to which each class of the data is liable.
This investigation may be broken up into three steps : we may consider suc-
cessively three cases in an order of increasing complexity. First (1) we shall
suppose that the weights only are liable to error. Then (2) we shall introduce the
circumstance that the observations, the price-variations, are themselves incorrect.
Lastly (3) we shall talce account of the fact that certain categories of articles may
be altogether unrepresented.
(1) Under the first head we shall first consider the simple case when the weights
are really equal, though apparently somewhat unequal. In this preliminary case
the symbohc expression above written becomes simplified by the disappearance both
of the e's and the tda. Expanding and segregating the hetei'ogeneous elements in
the manner indicated, we may wi-ite our result thus : —
P\ +Pl + ^'^^ J 1 . i^l^l +Pl^-i + ^^- _ f I + ^2 + ^^' \
n I Pi+p.2 + &c- n /'
where the term outside the brackets is the correct index-number, and the difference
of the second and third terms within the bracket is the error of the index-number :
the relative error, as it may be called, or (if multiplied by 100) the percentage
error in symbols — , if I is the correct index-number. The result obtained may
be written
I « I ^sp nJ \ap w J
In this expression call the factors of €„ f,, &c., respectively -Ej, -E2, &c.
Then ^- the error whose magnitude we have to estimate, is - (Ejej -|- Ejej + &c.).
I ^*
To determine the probable and improbable limits of this quantity we require to
Ivnow the magnitude, or at least the average extent, both of the E's and the e's. The
former datuuT depends upon the dispersion of the observations (the price-variations)
.about their mean. For any E, e.g.,
fSp_ \ /Sp
\sp nf isp hp
n
= the deviation or error incurred by the individual price-variation as compared with
on VAKIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETART STANDARD. 191
the average of a whole set ; relative to (divided by) the average. Such a deviation
might be symbolised as —^, if we put^ for the average price-variation.
We may now proceed in two ways : (a) we may either suppose the deviations
Ej, E^, ascertained for the particular year or epoch to which the calculation in
hand may refer ; (p) or we may seek a measure for general use, and available
without the trouble of examining the dispersion of the price-variations for a parti-
cular year. In either case we are to regard the e's as errors grouped in random
fashion about a mean, which is zero. The coefficient which measures the dispersion
of these errors, the modulus for the e-fluctuation, must be supposed knowable.
Call it K.
(a) On the former understanding, we are to regard Ej, E^, &c., as known factors.
Accordingly by a well-known theorem we have for the modulus, which measures
the extent of the error,
- (El €i + £3^2 + &c.),
«\/^i
^ + E„ + &C. X K,
(/3) Otherwise we are to regard Ej, E,,, as samples, so to speak, taken from an
indefinite number — a complete series (in Dr. Venn's phrase) of E's. We must
suppose the coefficient of fluctuation, or modulus, for this series to be given by
prior experience. Let it be C. Then we may put as the most probable value for
the measure or modulus of — , the error under consideration,
1 C
But this viost prohahle measure cannot safely be used as the best measure. We
must take into accoimt that the real measure may be larger, and accordingly that,
by adopting the measure described as ' most probable,' we may be underrating the
probability of each extent of deviation (from zero) to which the quantity
- [EjEi + Ejfj, &c.] is liable. However, the error thus introduced is only of the
order —/=, that is, the —r^th part of the magnitude to be evaluated. Now that
vn vw
degree of error has been already incurred by the neglect of the higher terms in
the expansion of — . Accordingly it would be nugatory to apply correctives
to the error now under consideration.
We have now to introduce the circumstance that the weights, both real and
apparent, difi'er from unity. It is easy to see that in the new expression for _
the coefficient of any weight-error e,. is '^rPs_^ ■ which may be put in the form
Stop biv
^— E'r, where E'^ is now the proportional deviation of p^ from the weighted mean
few
of the p \ viz., -^. Accordingly the modulus of ^ becomes
Sw
In evaluating the coefficient of < there are, as before, two courses. Either (a)
we operate upon the known values of E',, E'j, &c., for the particular year or epoch
with which we are concerned ; or (/3) we may make a general estimate based upon
192 REPORT— 1888.
several years' experience, and roughly applicable to the unexamined data of any
year.
(a) In the former case there is nothing more to be said, except that it will be
legitimate in the evaluation of the modulus to put for w^, w.,, &c., their apparent
values ; which may be written w, + A2v^, w,, + Aw.,, &c. For the error thus
introduced into the modulus is of a neglectible order.
((3) The general expression in terms of the E-fluctuation is found by consider-
ing that the most probable value of the quantity under the radical sign in the last
written expression is a/Cw/ + ^v■i^ + &c.) ^ » ^^^ere — is the mean square of error
measured, not, as before, from the simple (arithmetical) mean (of many batches of
^'s), but from the weighted mean ^^ ; a difference which may easily be shown to-
be for our purpose of an order which may be neglected.
This may be proved thus :
The deviation of any p from the Weighted Mean — the relative or proportionate-
deviation — E'
Sp2U
sin ^ '*
Spw
SIV
This ratio may be thus expressed in terms of E,, the deviation of pr from the
Simple Arithmetic Mean. Put v for the difference between the weighted and
simple means. Then we have
S;,
1 "
— u i — -
n p
if we put p for the Arithmetic Mean of the ^'s.
Sp Sjojo py +p.^ + &c. p^tVy +Pi^i + &t:.
JNow v= ,j — gj„ - ,j - Wi + t<;2 + &c.
Substitute for^, its value j:> (1 + Ej) (where p is the Arithmetic Mean of the-
p's) ; and we have
[E, + E2 + &c. _ WxE, + w „E„ + &c. ~j
n v>^ + W2 + &c. J
Sw Siy
1 ' w, 2 — — w.,
= - »Ei 2L. — + - pE„ — — : + &c.
n n
Put for the relative deviation of any w from the Arithmetic Mean of all the ?f;'s
(the coefficient of - p^r in the last written expression) r)^. Then we have
v = ~ p [Ei»;, + E.,i?., + &c.].
n
The expression in brackets hovers about the value zero according to a law of error
whose modulus is — ^-^r-; where C, as before, is the modulus of the E's, and 5" is
V 2
the mean square of the »>'s. Hence - is of an order a/^ times smaller than Cx-
But from the equation connecting E' and E it appears that the sum of squares
E'l^ + E'2* + &c. which occurs in the complete expression for the modulus of
may be written
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 193
1
whence, aa SEr^ = n — , it appears that the influence of - may be neglected,
n being supposed large.
We may therefore write
Modulus of ^ = ^^"-y ^K ;
or, employing the notation which we had lately occasion to introduce :
Modulus of = —r- X » /l X ^ X ___ X K.
I Vii V -2 V2
This formula may be employed to utUise present as well as past experience. If
we treat ^ and -_ as respectively the mean square of deviation obtained from
the set of weights and price-returns entering into the index-number which we are
computing, we shall thus have an approximate formula more convenient than the
complete expression for the Modulus.
(2) We have now to introduce the circumstance that each p is liable to an
error pe. Each element of error of the form Ilf,. is now aggravated by an element
of the form Pe^- Accordingly the modulus of the total error will be Vn - -t PV-,
where k and e are the moduli for the independent partial errors respectively, n is
the coefficient of k in the expression for the modulus of -^ in case (2) aixl P" is
easily seen to be equal to "''"-^'' .
There may now be required, as before, a general formula applicable without
any examination of the prices and weights on a particidar occasion ; or without
other data than the coefficients expressing the dispersion of the prices and weights
respectively. With this view, employing the notation already explained, and
rejecting terms which may be shown to be of an inferior order, we may put for
^g^,theexpression(l+|)(l+_).
Hence for the modulus of — in the general case we have
3sVi-?Vt''^(i*t)'
(3) So far we have been estimating the errors due to the weights and prices
of the articles which enter into our index-number not being accurate. We have
now to take into account that not only are all those articles misrepresented, but also
that certam other articles may be wholly unrepresented. For it is unlikely that all
the classes of products which ought by rights to enter into an index-number can,
even constructively, put in an appearance.
We have now to superinduce the error due to such omission upon the errors
already estimated. To effect this we proceed in the same way as when compoimd-
ing the errors proper to our first and second headings. That is, we shall separately
evaluate for the third species of error its modulus squared, or Jluctuation, as the
present writer has proposed to term this important coefficient. Then we shall add
the third fluctuation to the sum of the two preceding : that is, to the square of the
formula given at the end of the second heading.
To find the fluctuation proper to the third heading, let us begin with the simple
case in which the weights are aU equal. As before, let Sp represent the sum of the
1888. ' ^ f ^
194 REPOET— 1888.
observed (comparative) prices ; let n be tbeir number ; and for '-^ put simple p.
Let S'^ be tbe sum, and w' the number, of tbe it7wbserved prices. Then the error
incurred by putting j) for tbe Mean of all tbe prices, tbe relative error —, is
\ n + n' n I ' n + 7i'
Tbe most probable value of tbis expression is zero ; while its fluctuation is
found to be, in terms and by methods alreadj' explained,
1 2nn' ^„
n {n + n'y-
Now superadd tbe circumstance that the weights are various, dispersed about
their mean according to the modulus _;^. The effect of tbis attribute is to multiply
tbe fluctuation last written by 1 + ^. The resulting expression is to be added to
the square of the formula given at the end of heading (2). The effect of this
addition is to insert a new term under the last i-adical in the formula for the
Modulus. This new term is
2nn' p2
{n + n'f-
This formula will require modification, if there is reason to believe that the
omitted articles have not the same average weight as those which are included ;
for instance, if, as is likely, the omissions are many in number, but inconsiderable
in weight.
It will be noticed that in passing from (tbe dispersion of) the observed prices
and weights to what has not been observed there is an inductive hazard greater
than is involved by solutions of cases (1) and (2) in their more exact form, and
while we suppose (as in the examples which will be adduced below) that the errors
of weight and price emanate from regular and stable sources, so as to admit of safe
prediction.
As in case (2), we may suppose the coefficients x *nd C based either on prior
experience or on the data appertaining to the particular calculation which is in
hand.
It will be observed that these coefficients do not contribute equally to the re-
sultant error represented by our formula. C, expressing the dispersion of the prices,
is more efficacious than Xj appertaining to the weights. Similarly c, the measure of
tbe error incident to the prices, affects the error of the index-number more than k,
the corresponding modulus of the weights.
It is proposed now to illustrate the formulae which have been given by working
a few examples. In these examples the statistical materials, tbe prices and
weights, are taken out of Mr. Palgrave's Memorandum, from tables 26 and 27
respectively. The unstatistical arbitrary assumptions which will be made are that
any price, and likewise any weight, is as likely as not to be out, in excess or defect,
of the true figure by 10 per cent., but very malikely to be out by 40 per cent., or,
more exactly, that the apparent values fluctuate about the real one in conformity
with a modulus which is 21 per cent.
Of tbe immense variety of cases which might be constructed by combining in
different ways the attributes which define the preceding paragraphs, it will be
sufficient here to discuss the most important case (2) of both weights and prices
subject to error — divided into two species, according as (a) we wtUise aU tbe data
special to the calculation in hand, or (j3) content oui-selves with the most summary
estimate.
Let us appty these tests to Mr. Palgrave's computation of a weighted mean for
the year 1885 {3Iemwcmdum in Appendix to Third Report on tJi» Depression
of Trade). First, according to method (a), the expression for the (proportionate)
error due to a particular element of the index-number, the weight and price of a
particular commodity, is
ON VAEIATIONS IN THE VALUE OB' THE MONETARY STANDARD. 195
Sivp L stv -1 siv
"Whence, as the Modulus of the error to which the computed index-number is
liable, we have — putting/)' for the loeighted mean of the price-returns, and remem-
bering that c and k are the Moduli of "the errors e and € respectively —
— ^ySw,\2/-PryK- + SwvVc'
Sivp
The w's are given in Mr. Palgrave's column headed ' Relative Importance,'
(table 27, year 1885). The ^'s are to be extracted from his table 26. The
weighted mean /)' is, according to him, 76. And Sirp is the sura of his column (for
the year 1885), headed ' Comparative,' &c., imtUiplied by 100 ; that is 166,900.
The rest of the expression above written is evaluated in the following table ; of
which the materials are taken from the sources named. The third column is
formed by subtracting from each of the entries for 1885 in Mr. Palgrave's table
2Q—e.g., 38 the price of cotton (comparative with 1865-9) — the weighted mean
76. The last three columns in Mr. Palgrave's table 26, relating to Cotton Wool,
Cotton Yarn, and Cotto7i Cloth, are omitted, as they do not figure in this table 27,
and, it may be added, cannot be supposed independent of the price of cotton.
The last column in our table is formed by squaring each entry in Mr. Palgrave's
•column headed ' Comparative,' &c. (table 27, year 1885), and omitting the last
digit :—
No. of
Article
Name of Article
w
w-
iPr-p')
[p'-PrY
w'(p'-pyy
w,-p,-
OO's
omitted
00,000's
omitted
00,000's
omitted
1
Cotton . . .
263
691
-38
1,444
998
1,000
2
Silk .
12
1
-23
529
4
3
Flax, &c.
49
24
-15
225
90
4
Wool .
142
202
- 7
49
10
980
5
Meat .
524
2,745
+ 26
676
1,855
28,622
6
Iron .
150
225
+ 6
36
8
1,510
7
Copper
39
15
-27
729
11
53
8
Lead .
13
2
-19
341
1
5
9
Tin. .
15
23
+ 2
4
14
10
Timber
164
269
+ 31
961
258
3,099
11
Tallow
28
8
+ 8
64
58
12
Leather
80
64
+ 34
1,156
73
774
13
Indigo
5
+ 35
1,225
4
14
Oils .
49
24
- 7
49
1
116
15
Coffee .
8
1
-14
196
3
16
Sugar .
149
223
-23
576
128
624
17
Tea .
71
50
- 7
49
2
240
18
Tobacco
29
8
+ 27
729
6
90
19
Wheat
410
1,681
-16
256
430
6,856
Sums
2,200
6,256
3,781
43,142
o 2
196
EEPORT 1888.
According to the hypotheses above made let us put c and « each
for the soug-ht Modulus we have
•21. Then.
•21
v/378,100,000 + 4,314,200,000
•21 X ^41 (nearly).
l6«,yoo
Thus the error incident to each of the data has been reduced by a half in the
result. It may be observed that the prices contribute much more largely thaa
the weights to the total error. If we reduce the error incident to each price-return
by a half, making its modulus •I, instead of •21, the total error of the result will
be reduced by nearly a half — from modulus '086 to modulus ^046. If we suppose-
the price-return to be quite correct, then the error of the result due to the weights-
alone would be nearly half as small again, namely, of modulus ^025. This is agree-
able to what was said above, that an error of the prices affecting only the nume-
rator of the index-number is not, as in the case of the weights, compensated by aa
error affecting the denominator in the same sense.
Let us see now (/3) how we should have fared if we had based our estimate on the-
grouping of the weights and prices in prior experience.
The dispersion of the price-returns, the coefficient C in the general formula,
is thus to be found — in the case of the year 1884 for example. The arithmetic
mean of the first nineteen entries in table"26 for 1884 is 81 nearly. The ' differ-
ences' and squares of differences are computed in the accompanying table. The
mean square of difference 353 divided by the square of the mean 6561 forms an
approximate, a pt-imd facie value for -^ , namely, •04.
Name of Article
Differences
Squares of Differences
Coffee .
Sugar
Tea.
Tobacco
Wheat
Meat
Cotton
Silk
Flax, ice.
Wool
Indigo
Oils
Timber
Tallow
Leather
Copper
Iron
Lead
Tin.
— +
11
4
y
8
22
44
15
22
8
26
24
28
25
11
5
20
9
121
16
81
64
484
1,936
225
484
64
676
576
784
625
121
25
400
81
Sums
148 143
6,765
Mean square of difference =
6765
ly
353.
For the year 1880, taken similarly as a random specimen, the mean (of the
nineteen prices) is found to be 93-5, and the mean square of differences 434.
Accordingly the value for -^ is •OS. Proceeding similarly for 1873, another year
taken at random, we find for — - again -05. As the mean of the three values we
may put '05.
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 197
To find the dispersion of the w's we proceed similarly. The arithmetical
•mean is for every year 2200 -^ 19, or 116 nearly. The ' differences ' are to he
■formed hy subtracting this figure from each of the entries in Mr. Palgrave's
column headed Relative Importance. The sum of the squares of the differences is
to be divided by 19 for the absolute mean square of difference as it may be
called. This result, divided by 116-, gives the mean square of error relatively to
the mean weight. The values thus extricated for the years 1873, 1880, and 1884
respectively are, in round numbers. 354,000, 35,100, 357,000 : each divided by
255,664 ( = 19 X 116'^) ; whereof the mean value is 1-38.
Substituting in the general or summary formula for the modulus of -= the values
ifor C* and x" just ascertained, and for C and k the assumed value -21, we have
-^ X V2^ X n/-05 X -044 + 1-05 X -044 = jtsr x 1"54: x -22 (nearly) = -077 ;
whereas the answer found by the more exact method was -086. This consihence
seems greater than might have been expected, considering the small number of the
■ elements entering into.the computation — only nineteen — and the scantiness of the
induction by which we determined the coefficients C and x-
If we employ the summary formula as a short method of utilismg the data
special to the index-number of 1885, we shall find that — as based upon the flue-
tuationofpricesforthisyear is -08; and^ the mean square of deviation for the
•ws is stUi 1-38. Hence, as the approximate expression for the modulus, we have
^ xl-54x-2lA/n6 = -08.
4-36
Thus we reach much the same result by the shorter as by the more tedious route.
We shall presently — in the portion of this paper addressed to the general
reader — try an experiment calculated to verify our deductive reasoning — so far as
a theorem in the Calculus of Probabilities can be verified by a single experiment.
We shall aflect each of the elements in Mr. Palgrave's index-number for 1885,
each weight and price, with a figure taken at random from a series of figures
hovering about unity in conformity with a modulus equal to -21. Such a series
-the writer happens to have ready to hand : consisting of sums of twenty digits
taken at random from mathematical tables, where the mean value is 90 and the
absolute modulus 19. The relative modulus, therefore, the modulus for the series
-when we divide each aggregate by 90, is -21. Accordingly it will be sufficient
to multiply each weight both in the numerator and the denominator with one of
the sums (of twenty digits) taken at random, and similarly affect each price enter-
'ing into the numerator, while the denominator is multiplied by 90.
To resume now, in popular language, this somewhat teclinical inquiry.
The subject under investigation is the error to which our computation of
index-numbers is liable — the error relative to, or per cent, of, the true
value which we seek. We want to know, for instance, whether it is as
Uikely as not that our calculation exceeds (or falls short of) the correct
result by 10 per cent, of that result ; whether it is very improbable that
tbe excess (or defect) should be as great as 25 per cent.
The error thus conceived is found to depend in a definite manner upon
six distinct circumstances. The erroneousness of the result is greater, the
;greater the inaccuracy of the data, viz., the weights, and the (comparative)
prices. The erroneousness of the result is also greater, the greater the
■inequality of the weights, and the greater the inequality of the price-
returns. Lastly, the result is more accurate, the greater the number of
the data, and the smaller the number of omitted articles.
These circumstances are not all equally operative. Other things being
the same, the inaccuracy of the price-returns affects the result more than
198
EEPOKI — 1888.
inaccuracy of the weights ; and the iBequality of the price-returns more
than the inequality of the weights.
The only proof of the theory which can be offered to the unmathema-
tical reader is to verify it by actual trial. We may assume a certain set
of data as perfectly correct : then affect each of them with an error such
that the modified datum is, say, as likely as not to be in excess or defect
by 10 per cent. ; is very unlikely to be out by 30 or 40 per cent. ; and
cannot, humanly speaking, be out by more than 50 per cent. A simple
method of affecting a given set of figures with an error of this degree is
to multiply each of them with a figure formed by adding together twenty
digits taken at random from mathematical tables or statistical returns ;
dividing each product by 90 (the mean about which aggregates of twenty
random digits hover). The data thus artificially aff'ected with error are
now to be used in the computation of an index-number, an erroneous
number, which is to be compared with the result assumed to be true as
having been deduced from the unfalsified data. A great number of such
trials having been made, it will appear that the erroneous index-numbers
deviate from the true one with the fi-equency and to the extent predicted
by theory.
A specimen of this verificatory process is subjoined here. The data
employed by Mr. Palgrave in his computation of an index-number for
1885 ' are assumed to be correct ; then each datum is displaced or falsi-
zn
■4J O
t/i
^
^'
(U
iS>
t£ t^ a;
Articles
l!
1— I
en "'
E
s
CO
a.
P5
s
s
ei
<
Appare
X appa
0,000's
Cotton
263
81
18903
38
82
3316
6268
Silk . -, , .
12
69
828
53
99
5247
434
Flax, &0,
49
97
4753
61
97
5917
2812
Wool
142
80
11360
69
81
6589
6349
Meat ,
524
68
35632
102
74
7548
26913
Iron .
150
81
12150
82
88
7216
8767
Copper
39
87
3393
59
87
5133
1739
Lead
13
6
858
57
85
4845
415
Tin .
15
85
1275
78
104
8112
1034
Timber .
164
71
11644
107
110
11770
13705
Tallow
28
87
2436
84
94
7896
1924
Leather, &c.
80
110
8800
110
84
9240
8131
Indigo
Oils .
5
74
370
111
110
12210
4518
49
89
4361
69
69
4761
20805
CoflEee
8
85
680
62
62
3844
2613
Sugar
149
80
11920
53
109
5777
6886
Tea .
71
96
6816
69
79
5451
! 3438
Tobacco .
29
93
2697
103
89
9167
i 2478
Wheat
410
81
33210
60
111
6660
22118
1
Suma ....
—
—
172486
1427
1714
129697
141348
—
—
—
75-1
—
75-7
81
' See above, p. 195.
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STAMDARD. 199
fied in the manner above described, and a new (erroneous) index-number
is deduced.
In this table the first column contains the names of articles in the
order adopted by Mr. Palgrave in his table 27. The second column
contains the ' weights ' assigned by him under the heading of ' Relative
Importance.' The third column consists of multipliei's formed by adding
twenty digits at raudom, and thus calculated to deflect the weights from
their respective true values to the extent of, say, 12 per cent, on an
average. The fourth column gives the new system of weights thus
affected with error. The fifth column contains (comparative) prices
taken from Mr. Palgrave's table 26. The sixth column furnishes a new
set of multipliers assigned by chance. The seventh column gives the
prices affected by error, and multiplied by 90 (the average value of
the chance-multipliers). The eighth column gives the product of the
ei'roneous weights and the erroneous prices ( x 90). The sum of this
last column, 1,413,480,000, divided by ninety times the sum of the
erroneous weights, which sum is 172,486, gives the erroneous index-
number 81 ; whereas the true index-number, on the assumption here
made that Mr. Palgrave's data are absolutely correct, is, as computed by
him, 76.^
Thus the falsified result is too great by -j^, or about 6 or 7 per cent.
That is a result quite consonant with the theory wliich assigns such a
measure of the error to be expected ^ that the result is as likely as not to
be out by 4 per cent., and that the odds are only five to one against the
error being so large as 8 or 9 per cent. It would have been nothing
miraculous if the result had been out by sixteen per cent. ; nothing more
extraordinary than, for instance, the fortuitous sequence which may be
observed in our third column of eight random aggregates falling below
the average about which they should oscillate, namely 90.^
The same table furnishes another verification, if, making abstrac-
tion of Mr. Palgrave's weights, we assume the index-number calculated
on the principle of the economist to be correct, and regard the figures in
our sixth column as erroneous weights (the true weights being all equal).
Upon this understanding we have the true result, the Simple Arith-
metic Mean of the comparative prices, 75"1 ; whereas the erroneously
Weighted Mean is 75'7, that is, it is in excess by about '8 per cent. Now
the measure of error here predicted by theory* is such that an error of
■7 per cent, is as likely as not to occur. The occurrence of "8 per cent,
is therefore eminently consonant with the theory.'''
' Third EepoH on Bepression of Trade, Appendix B. Memorandum by R. I. Pal-
grave. Tables 26 and 27.
^ Taking 8-5 as the Modulus of the resultant error. See above, p. ]97.
^ The probability of an error exceeding 1-9 times its modulus is -0072. The prob-
ability of the sequence referred to is -0078 ( = 57).
1 /sv - SE -
* By case (1) above, p. 11, the modulus is -7- x a / ' - x k. Here n is 19 ; - — '
■^''^ V n n
is found to be -08, and k is -21. Whence the modulus is about -Ol-l, or I'o per cent.
' Perhaps it may be asked here whether the example given is suited to exemplify
our estimate of the third species of error (see above, p. 193) : that due to the total
omission of certain articles. The answer is that this estimate, involving a larger
element of induction, does not profess to be so amenable to veriti cation as those
which are derived from known and steady ' sources of error,' like our aggregate.-^ of
200 REPORT— 1888.
It might be desirable to apply this sort of test on a large scale to the
computation recommended by the Committee, and to prove by specific
experience the conclusions ■which are dedncible from the Theory of Prob-
abilities concerning the accuracy of any index-number.
These conclusions cannot be stated in their most exact form until
the price- returns, as well as the weights which enter into the computa-
tion to be tested, are assigned. But even at the present stage of our
procedure, and without reference to the price-returns of a particular
year, we may approximately estimate the accuracy of index-numbers of
the kind proposed by the Committee. For the purpose of a rough esti-
mate it is enough to know the weights (which are assigned in the Second
Report of the Committee) and to utilise past experience concerning the
course of prices in this country. A certain datum,' which had better be
determined precisely from the price-returns from the particular year
to which the index-number relates, may be apjji-oximately obtained by
induction from the experience of past years.
Eliciting the required da,tum from the prices recorded by the Econo-
mist,"^ we may provisionally assert the following propositions concerning
the accuracy of index-numbers such as the Committee has proposed.
These, it will be recollected, involve twenty-seven English price-returns
and twenty-seven assigned weights.^
(1) In such an index-number, if the weights alone are supposed sub-
ject to error, then the average error of the result, its erroneousness as one
may say, is twenty times less than the error to which each weight is liable.
(2) If the price-returns alone are liable to error, the erroneousness of
the result is ahout four-a^id-a-half times less than that of each datum.
(3) In the general case, when both prices and weights are liable to error,
then, if that error be the same for both species of data, the error of the re-
sult is still about four-and-a-half times less than that same. If the error
of the weights become twice as great as that which is incident to the
prices, other things being the same, the error of the result is not materially
increased. The error of the weights would need to he five times as great as
that of the pi'ices in order to increase the error of the result by 50 per cent,
(making it only three times less than the error incident to the prices alone).
The practical conclusion from these propositions ajipears to be : Take
more care about the prices than the weights.
More detailed statements cannot be made without some assumption
as to the degree of inaccuracy to which our data are liable, the extent to
which our estimates of weights and prices deviate from the figures which
would be assigned if our knowledge and theory were perfect. In enter-
taining any suppositions as to the extent of this discrepancy, it is proper
to conceive that the lai'ger deviations, the more extensive errors, are less
frequent in the long run, or more improbable. Thus, if we suppose that
a deviation of each datum, weight or price, to the extent of 10 per cent.
digits. Moreover, such verification as the theory admits would require a larger
number of items than the table in the text contains. For in general it must be
assumed that the numbers both of the included and excluded articles are large. Now
it is impossible to carve two sets of ' large numbers ' out of nineteen.
' The coefiicient C defined above, -p. 191.
- As given in Mr. Palo-rave's table 26 (see above, p. 196).
s Namely, 5, 5, 5, 5 ; 10, 2i, 1\ ; 2\, 2|, 9, 2^, 1, 2i ; 2i, 2^, 2J, 2i ; 10, 5, 2i, 2^ ;
3, 1, 1, 3, 1, 1. Whence the value of /c-;;;.. (see above, p. 193) is found to be 'Oo.
ON VABIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 201
is as likely as not, then it may be presumed that a deviation of 20
per cent, is not likely, of 30 per cent, very nnlikely. Upon this hypothesis,
according to the general formulEe above investigated, the error, or fortuitous
deviation from the ideal, to which the Committee's index-number is liable
is as likely as not to be as large as 2 or 3 per cent., but is unlikely
to be 6 per cent., and very unlikely to be 10 per cent. Now let us
entertain the more unfavourable and almost certainly extravagant
hypothesis that each datum is as likely as not to be out by 25 per
cent., and may just possibly ei'r to the extent of cent, per cent, (an
error which, if possible in excess, is almost inconceivable in defect). Upon
this hypothesis our index-number is as likely as not to be out 5 per
cent, but is not likely to be out by 10, and very unlikely to be out by
15, per cent.
The presumption that our calculation is not likely to be far out is
confirmed by comparing the results obtainable by our method with those
obtained by other operators upon different principles. If the corapared
figures differ little from each other it is presumable that they differ little
from the true, the ideally best, figure : that which would be obtained if
"the data were perfect.
The index-numbers which challenge comparison with that proposed
by the Committee may be arranged under four categories, namely :
I. Those which are formed by taking the Simj^le Arithmetical Mean of
the given price- variation ; the principle of the Economist's index-number,
or rather what would be the principle of that operation if the prices
operated on had not been selected with some reference to the quantity of
the corresponding commodities.
II. what may be called the Weighted Arithmetical Mean, each price-
variation being affected with a factor proportioned to the quantity of the
corresponding commodity, the principle adopted by the Committee.
III. The Geometric Mean, as employed by Jevons.
IV. The Median, proposed by the present writer as appropriate to
certain purposes.' It is (in its simplest variety) formed by arranging
the given price-variation {e.g., 98, 80, 88, 87, 85) in the order of magni-
tude {e.g., 80, 85, 87, 88, 98) and taking as the Mean the middle figure
(in the above example the third figure, i.e., 87).
Under each of these headings it is desirable to supplement actual
verification with a priori reasoning based on the principles laid down in
the earlier part of the Memorandum.
We may begin with the case (A) in which the price- variations are
supposed the same for the compared index-numbers. Later on (B) we
shall take examples in which both the price-variations and the mode of
combining them are difierent.
A.
I. Let us take the prices which are to hand for 21 (out of the 27)
items of our index-number in Mr. Sauerbeck's well-known paper on the
prices of commodities.- Let us form the Simple Arithmetic Mean of these
prices for the year 1885, and compare it with the Mean obtained by
applying our system of weights to the same prices. The operation is
' See sect. ix. of Jlemorandum ' On the Methods of measuring Variations in the
Value of the Monetary Standard,' Brit. Assoc. RejJort, 1887.
'^ Journal of the Statistical Society, 1886.
202
REPORT 1888.
1885
i
1873
1
2
3
4
i 5
6
7
Price-
Weights
Price-
Weights
Articles common to
variationfe
assigned
Product
variations
assigned
Product
Sauerbeck and
for 1885
bv the
of
for 1873
bv the
of
the Committee
niven bv
Com-
columns
given bv
Com-
columns
Sauerbeck
mittee
2 and 3
Sauerbeck
mittee
6 and 7
Wheat ....
60
5
300
108
5
540
Barley ....
77
5
385
104
5
520
Oats ....
79
5
395
98
5
490
Potatoes and rice .
67
5
335
116
5
580
Meat ....
88
10
880
109
10
1090
Butter ....
89
7i
668
98
7*
735
Sugar ....
59
2*
147-5
101
n
252-5
Tea
64
H
160
102
^
255-5
Cotton ....
62
n
155
100
2i
250
Wool ....
73
n
182-5
118
2|
345
Silk ....
55
2h
137-5
95
2i
237-5
Leather ....
94
2|
235-5
117
24
2925
Coal ....
72
10
720
145
10
1450
Iron ....
60
5
300
170
5
850
Copper ....
57
2i
142-5
112
24
280
Lead ....
57
2^
142-5
117
24
292-5
Timber ....
81
3
243
111
3
333
Petroleum
55
1
55
122
1
122
Indigo ....
72
1
72
92
1
92
Flax ....
73
3
219
97
3
291
Palm oil .
77
1
77
97
1
97
Sums
1,471
81-5 \
5952
2329
81'5 \
9394-5
115
Means .
70
70-6
110-4
exhibited in the annexed table, the latter columns of which present a
similar comparison for the year 1873. The two results may thus be
summed up :
1885
1873
Simple Arithmetic Mean
70
110-5
The Committee's Weighted Arithmetic Mean .
70-6
115
The relation between these results is predictable by, and consilient
with, the conclusions of a priori reasoning. Accordingly the inference
that the deviation between the two computations is not likely to exceed a
small percentage may safely be extended to adjacent cases.
It follows, from the principles laid down in the earlier part of this Memorandum^
that the discrepancy to be expected between the two results depends on three cir-
cumstances : the number of items, the inequality of the price-Tariations, and th&
ON VARIATIONS IN THE TALDE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 203
inequality of the weights. The measure or modulus of the discrepancy is, in our
notation,
where n is 21 ; C is presumed (by a sufficient, but certainly not very copious, induc-
tion) to be from '2 to "3 ; and x is found to be about "O.^
It follows that of the observed discrepancies, '6 and 5, one is, a priori, move
likely than not to occur, and the other not unlikely. A rapidly increasing improb-
ability attaches to the higher degrees of divergence.
Of course it must be understood that this theorem in Probabilities, this state-
ment of what will occur in the long run, is based upon the supposition that the
weights are distributed impartially among the price-variations. But if through-
out the whole run the largest weight is attached to the largest, or smallest,
observation, the then fortuitous character of the phenomenon is impaired. In
fact the ' long run ' of which the theory may be expected to be true is a series of
heterogeneous index-numbers not of consecutive years. Something of this sort
is observable in the case of Mr. Palgrave's Weighted Mean compared with the cor-
responding Simple Arithmetic Mean. The enormous weights attached to the
continiialiy low-priced Cotton and the continually high-priced Meat seem to afi'ect
the Weighted Mean abnormally. To effect the comparison, we must not take the
averages given in Mr. Palgrave's table 26, but those which are obtained by
omitting from that table the three items Cotton Wool, Cotton Yarn, and Cotton
Cloth, which do not occur in the compared table 27. The annexed comparison
does not present the appearance of pure chance. The discrepancies are rather less
in magnitude than the theory I'equires. For the modidus, as deduced from Mr.
Palgrave's system of weights, proves to be about 8o per cent, of the Mean 80 or 90 :-
that is about 7, corresponding to a probable error of about 3'6. The set of dif-
ferences above registered seems to ranore a little within the limits so defined.
187C
1871
1872
1873
1874 1875
1876
1877
1878 1879
1880
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
Mr. Palgrave's Weighted
Mean for 19 articles
90
93
100
104
108
97
99
100
9S
82
89
93
87
88
80
76
The Simple Arithmetic
Mean for the same
articles
94
95
102
107-5
107
92
99
101
93
82
93-5
86
89
85-5
81
75
Excess of Arithmetic over
■Weighted Mean
+4
+ 2
+ 2
+ 3-5
-1
-5
+ 1
-2
+4-5
-7
+3
-2-5
+ 1
-1
The reason is, doubtless, that the impartial sprinkling of the prices among the
weights, presupposed by theory, is not fulfilled in fact. Had it happened that
• See above, p. 196, where the present ^nriter records the Mean Square of Deviation
for the price-variation of nineteen different articles (given bj' the Uconomist) in
different years. The Mean Square of Deviation for the figures given by Mr. Sauerbeck
seems to be much the same. Again, the writer has, with much the same result,
ascertained (by the Galton-Quetelet method) the quartiles for a few groups of
English prices, like those given bj' Jevons. For example, in the case of the thirty-
nine figures of the prices for prime articles in lS()0-62 comparative with 1845-50
(^Currency and Finance, pp. 51, 52) the quartile (half the interval between the tenth
and the thirtieth) proves to be 11, corresponding to a modulus of about 22 per cent.
If, however, we take in all the 118 articles given on the same page the quartile is 17.
The groups of thirty-nine on Jevons' page 44, so far as they have been examined, give
much the same result as the thirty-nine on pages 51, 52. Jevons himself gives 2^
as the ' probable error ' incident to the Mean of thirty-six price-variations ( Currency
and FiTiance, p. 157) — corresponding to a probable eiTor of 15, a modulus of 30
for the individual price-return. Doubtless the dispersion may be expected to be
greater the more distant the base. If precision could be expected, it would be proper
to express the coefficient as a percentage of the mean price-variations at each
epoch rather than of the initial price or basis.
2 See end of last note.
204 EEPORT— 1888.
throughout the whole run all the largest weights had been attached to the articles
whose prices were contiuuallj' low, e.g., cotton, and (for the last few years at least)
silk and Jla.r, then the discrepancies (between the weighted and simple mean)
would have been rather larger than theory predicts. Thus, for the year 1885 I make
silk exchange weights with meat, and thus bring down the index-number to 64 ; a
discrepancy from the Arithmetic Mean which, if continued — as it probably would be
— from year to year, would be a little too great. Similarly, when wheat exchanges
weight with lecither, and cotton with indigo, the index-number works out to 92 — a
discrepancy of two moduli, which is much too large for a continuance.
This sort of abnormality is less likely to occur in the case of our scheme, where
none of the weights are so large as some of Mr. Palgrave's. Still, before pressing the
theory, it is proper to examine whether the larger weights — in our case those of
meat, fish, and coal — are, from year to year, coupled with extreme price-variations. ^
Whenever law of this sort is discernible the doctrine of Chances hides its
inferior light, which is serviceable only in the night of total ignorance. The pure
theory of Probabilities must be taken cum grano when we are treating concrete
problems. The relation between the mathematical reasoning and the numerical
facts is very much the same as that which holds between the abstract theory of
Economics and the actual industrial world — a varying and undefiuable degree of
■ consilience, exaggerated by pedants, igTiored by the vulgar, and used by the wise.
II. Next let us compare our result with that obtained by using some
other system of weights, e.g., Mr. Sauerbeck's. In the annexed table, page
205, column 1 is the same as column 2 of the last table, containing Mr.
Sauerbeck's prices. Column 2 gives Mr. Sauerbeck's weights (for 1885)
reduced to percentages of the total weight assigned by him to the
twenty-one articles which ai"e common to him and the Committee.
For example, 61 is the weight actually assigned by him to wheat. This,
multiplied by 100, and divided by 559, the sum of all the weights assigned
by him to the twenty-one articles, gives 11 (nearly).
It is an interesting result of theory that the difference to be expected between
the two weighted inde.x-numbers (for the same twenty-one price-^-ariations) is
. about the same as, or only a little less than, that between one of them and the
Simple Unweighted Arithmetic Mean. This result is found by putting for — in the
formula given above'- » where e', e", express deviations for the two systems
of weights respectively.
1885 1873
The Committee's System of Weights ....
70-6
115
Mr. Sauerbeck's System of Weights ....
73
115
The comparison between the two systems is presented in the accom-
panying summary. The slightness of the difference between the com-
' The effect of large weights combined with high prices is strikingly shown in an
index-number (attributed to Dr. Paasche) which is published in Conrad's Jahr-
Jiic/i^r, vol. xxiii. p. 171. There are twenty-two items, among which Rye obtains
about thirty per cent, of the total weight, and tlie Cereals generally (between whose
prices there is a certain solidarity) about seventy per cent. It is no wonder that in
the year 1868, when the price of the Cereals was exceptionally high, the Weighted
Mean should be 118, while the Simple Arithmetic Mean of the twenty-two compara-
tive prices is only 104.
- The expression proves to be equal to '4.
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD.
205
1
2
3
4
5
Price-
Weights
Product of
Price-
Product of
variations
assigned bv
columns
variations
columns
for 1885
Sauerbeck
1 and 2
for 1873
2 and -4
60
11
660
108
1188
77
5 "5
423
104
572
79
(5
474
98
588
67
6
402
116
696
88
155
1364
109
1689-5
89
3
267
98
294
59
5-5
325
101
555-5
64
2
128
102
204
62
10
620
100
1000
73
7-5
537-5
118
885
55
1
55
95
95
94
8
752
117
936
72
13
936
145
1885
60
5
300
170
850
57
1
57
112
112
57
0-5
28-5
117
58-5
81
2
162
111
222
55
0-5
27-5
122
61
72
0-5
36
92
49
73
1
73
97
97
77
0-2
15
97
19
Sum . . .
105 ^
1 7652
—
12052
Mean . .
73
—
115
pared results might have been predicted by theory, and may be predicted
safely of adjacent cases.
III. We come next to the index- number of Jevons : the Geometric
Mean of the price-variations appertaining to a number of groups. The
definition of these groups is not wholly iiTespective of their importance to
the consumer and producer. There is evinced more or less concern that
each article of equal importance should ' count for one ' in the composi-
tion of the index-number. But Jevons does not affect precision of weight.
Pepper, for instance, forms one of the constituent thirty-nine articles.'
The analogue of this operation for our materials appears to be the
Simple Geometric Mean of the price-variations for each of the articles
specified in our scheme ; except, indeed, those to which a very small
weight, namely 1, has been assigned. Accordingly Petroleum, Indigo,.
Palm Oil, and Caoutchouc may, with propriety, be lumped into one group, for
which the mean price-variation is to be ascertained geometrically. For
the sake of comparison with Mr. Sauerbeck's result, Caoutchouc (not
' In the ' Serious Fall,' republished in Currency and, Finance, p. 44. In the
•Variation of Prices ' (i&ifZ., p. 142) Jevons seems to' have employed the practice of
weighting rather more extensively. He says, ' Several qualities of one commodity
have been joined and averaged before being thrown as one unit into larger groups'
— in the case of certain articles which are not very clearly indicated. For the period
after 1844 the [unweighted] ' average prices, as calculated from the price-lists of the
JEconomist . . . were mostly used.'
^06
REPORT 1888.
recorded by him) may be omitted from this little group. The Mean of
the group so constituted is to be placed along with the price- variations
for the remaining eighteen articles common to us and Mr. Sauerbeck, and
the Geometric Mean of all the nineteen is to be taken. It proves to be
€9, presenting the comparison herewith exhibited.'
The Committee's Weisrhted Mean of 21 articles
The slightly adjusted Geometrical Mean of the same
70-6
69
The slightness of this divergence is conformable to theory. For it has been
shown that the Weighted Mean (of twenty-one articles) is not likely to differ very
much from the Simple Arithmetic Mean of the same. And it may be shown that
the Arithmetic Mean is not likely to differ very much from the Geometric when the
number of price-observations is large, and if they are not very unequal. This pro-
position may be illustrated by the following figures, the first row of which is
obtained by taking the Arithmetic Mean of the thirty-nine price-percentages given
by Jevons in his paper on a 'Serious Fall,' &c. (^Currency and Finance, p. 44.)
The second row consists of the Geometric Means, as given by him at p. 46, for the
same figui-es. The superior magnitude of the Arithmetic Mean will be noticed.
This circumstance (which Jevons thought an advantage on the side of his pro-
cedure) could not be predicated of a Weighted Arithmetic Mean (such as our index-
number), as compared with the Geometric : —
1851
92-4
1852
185.3
1855
117-6
1857
128-8
1859
Geometric Mean for 39 articleii .
9.3-8
111-3
116
Arithmetic Mean for same .
94-6
94-6
112-4
119
134
119
IV. We come now to the Median, which has been recommended by
the present writer as the formula for the most objective sort of Mean be-
tween prices, not directed to any special purpose, such as the wants of the
consumer or the difficulties of the producer, but more impersonal and
absolute.
Below 70
Between 70 and 80
Above 80
•
72 72 73 73
77 77 79
Ten below 70
Median = 72
Four above 80
Of the twenty-one price- variations for 1855 given in column 1 of
table 1, we have to take that which is the eleventh in the order of magni-
tude. To ascertain this we need not arrange all the figures in order.
Having an inkling that the Mean is between 70 and 80, we shall find it
sufficient to note the number of returns which lie outside those limits, and
to write down in the order of magnitude only the returns which lie
between 70 and 80. Thus, running our eye down the column of figures, we
make a dot on the right for every return which is greater than 80, on
the left for every one less than 70 ; and write down in the central com-
partment the figures which lie between 70 and 80 inclusive. Whence it
' If we lump together Barlet/ and Oatt into one group, Sugar and Tea into
another, and again Copper and Lead, the Geometric Mean of the sixteen returns
thus presented is 70' 2.
ON VAEIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDAED. 207
appears that 72 is the figure eleventh in the order of magnittide : that is
the Median.
1
2
3
Price-variations
Precisions determined
by mass
Arbitrary precisions
60
67
59
64
62
55
60
57
57
55
2
2
1-5
1-5
1-5
1-5
2
1-5
1-5
1
2
1
2
2
1
1
1
2
1
2
16
15
72
72
73
73
77
77
79
3
1"5
I'O
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
12
9
88
89
94
81
3
2-5
1-5
1-5
2
1
1
2
85
6
365
30
This is the Simple or Unweighted Median. There is a variety consti-
tuted by assigning special importance to those returns which we have
reason to suppose are specially good representatives of the changes
aflPecting the value of money. If, as in the writer's Memorandum often
referred to,' we take mass of commodity as the principle of ponderation, we
shall have to proceed as follows with our twenty-one articles :
As before, make three compartments for returns below 70, for those
Ijetween 70 and 80, and for those above 80 respectively. Write down in
the first and third compartments the returns in the order in which they
occur (in any order) ; but in the central compartment in the order of
magnitude.^ In the second column of each compartment write the figures
representing the relative precision assigned to each return. If these esti-
mates of precision are based upon the quantities of commodities, it is
recommended that they should be equal to, or rather less than, the square
roots of the proportionate masses. Accordingly 2 has been put for the
square root of 6, 1"5 for the square root of 2^, and so on. Add together
' Sect. ix. of 'Memorandum' in Heport of Brit. Assoc, 1887.
^ It will probably be convenient to write these returns first in the order of their
occurrence, and then rearrange them.
208
REPOKT 1888.
the sums of all the second columns. Thus, 16 + 12 + 8'5:=3do. Find the-
central figure of the total second column : that is the figure which as
nearly as may be has 18 for the sum of figures above it and below it.
This figure proves to be the 3 at the top of the second compartment
opposite 72. Then 72 is the required Mean.
In the third column another system of precisions has been tried to
illustrate the effect of treating some price- variations as more typical of
the change in the value of money than others. Tossing up a coin, the
writer has stuck down (corresponding to each figure in the first column)
2 if heads turned up, 1 if tails. The sum of these arbitrary coefficients
of precision is 30, and accordingly the adjusted Median is the point inter-
mediate between 72 and the return next below in the order of magnitude^
wliich proves to be 67. The adjusted Median is, therefore, 69'5.
By operating similarly on the price-returns for 1873 (given above) it
is found that the Simple Median is 108, the Median adjusted by taking
account of quantities still lOS.
The deviation between the Median and the Simple (or other) Arithmetic Mean
cannot, so far as the wi-iter knows, be formulated exactly. It diminishes with the
number of observations, being of the order - .=^ A superior limit is given by the
expression n/I + ^tt x Modulus of the observation; in our case say •!, or 10 per
cent.' This limit is probably very superior, as the following trials, in addition to
those given above, suggest :
1851
1852
1853
1855
1857
1859
Arithmetic Mean for 39 articles
9i-6
94-6
112-4
119
134
119
116-5
116
Median for the same
S2
92
108
111
127
Geometric Mean for the same
92-4
93-8
111-3
117-6
128-8
The thirty-nine figures are those above referred to, given by Jevons
at p. 4?4 of his Currency and Finance. The Geometric Means have been
cited again here in order to bring out the curious fact that the Median
seems to keep closer to the Geometric than the Arithmetic. This property
(which it would be desirable to verify more fully) is agreeable to the
theory, first advanced by the present writer so far as he is aware, that
prices are apt to group themselves in an unsymmetrical fashion after the
pattern of the annexed curve, whose ordinates indicate the frequency of
each price-variation. In the year 1857, for instance, the smallest figure
was 91, the largest 247 ; while the Geometric, Median, and Arithmetic
Means were respectively 129, 127, and 134. There is some reason to
believe that the Geometric and Median — especially the latter — are more
apt to be coincident with the point at which the gi-eatest number of
returns cluster, the greatest ordinate of the curve.
If then we take as our qu^situm that figure which would he presented
hy the greatest numher of price-variations in the complete series of returns
' See the writer's paper in ' Problems in Probabilities,' Phil. Mag., Oct. 1886.
ON VARIATIONS IN TIIE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDAUD. 209
for all articles great and small, then, regarding our twentj-one, or it maj
be forty-five, articles as specimens of this series, we shall best operate on
them by taking their Median.
And, even if this reasoning is not accepted, if the asymmetry of the
price-curve should not be regarded as serious, and the central point of
the supposed symmetrical complete curve or series be taken as the
quassitum, still, even upon this hypothesis, the Median would have
. special claims.'
Another advantage — or the same otherwise viewed — on the side of the
Median is its insensibility to accidental alterations of 'weight.' You
may considerably increase or lighten the weights without causing this
Mean to be depressed or elated. In the Arithmetic Mean a large weight
happening to concur with an extreme price- variation produces a derange-
ment which with reference to the present objective'^ (as distinguished
from the 'consumption') standard may be regarded as accidental. The
Median is free from this fortuitous disturbance. The rationale of this
stability is supplied by the Calculus of Pi'obabilities,
It appears, therefore, that our index-number, though not likely to he wide of
any mark which has been proposed, is not the one which is most accurately directed
to a particular, or rather, indeed, the most general object. It is no matter for sur-
prise or complaint that we should not hit full in the centre an object which has not
been our aim ; our index-number being mainlj' a Standard of Desiderata, measuring
the variation in value of the national consumption. Our primary aim, indeed, is
more comprehensive, not this special, but a collective, or ' compromise,' scope ;
not so much to hit a particular bird, but so to shoot among the closely clustered
covey as to bring down most game. But then we are brought back to, or nearly to,
the directer aim and simpler object by a consideration which has great weight in
practical economics, the necessity of adopting a principle — as Mill says with
respect to convertible currency — ' intelligible to the most untaught capacity.'
Now every tyro in our subject makes straight for the Consumption Standard ; but
the more delicate distinctions of the Producers' Standard and the typical or quasi-
objective index-number evade popular perception.
In view of this practical exigency it may well be that the Committee's index-
number is the one best adapted to purposes in general — the principal standard as
■defined in the First Report. What is here contended is that, with respect to a
certain purpose other than the consumers' interest, the Committee's index-number
is on the one hand likely to be a very good measure, and on the other hand not
the very best possible.
B.
We have now to compare index-numbers differing as to the prices
operated on as well as the methods of operation. One important case
is where the prices of the principal articles are the same for the com-
pared index-numbers, the data differing only as to ii small part of the
total value. For example, of the total value covered by Mr. Sauerbeck's
index-number about -^^ is common to the Committee's scheme. For
Mr. Sauerbeck's weights (or ' nominal values ') of the twenty-one
articles common to both calculations make up (for the year 1885) 659,
while the sum for all the items treated by him is 617.
' The problem would then be analogous to the reduction of symmetrical observa-
tions relating to a physical quantity. On account of the ' discordance ' of the price-
observations, their very different liability to fluctuation, the writer would recommend
the use of the Median on the grounds which he has stated in the paper on ' Discordant
Observations,' Phil. Mag., April 1886.
^ See ' Memorandum,' Rej)ort of Brit. Assoc, 1887, and also Journal of the Statis-
tical Society, June 1888.
1888. P
210
REPORT 1888.
Let us see, then, -what difference is caused by operating on all
Mr. Sauerbeck's forty-five articles instead of only the twenty-one principal
items which are common to his price list and ours. He himself at
p. 595 (of the ' Jouru. Stat. Soc.,' 1886) gives us the Means of Comparison :
1885
1873
Mr. Sauerbeck's Weighted Mean for 45 articles .
71-3
115-2
The Committee's Weighted Mean for 21 of those articles
70-6
115
It is interesting to observe that the Median does not suffer any
change by being extended from twenty-one to forty-five articles. The atten-
tion of the reader is invited also to the ease of this method. In order to take
Above 80
Between 70 and 80
Below 70
Dots to
the num-
ber of 12
79
78
77 77
7G 75 75 73 73 73
72 72 71
70
Dots to
the num-
ber of 1&
in the twenty-four additional articles we have only to write down a few
more figures in the central compartment, to add a few more dots in the ex-
treme compartments, as shown in the annexed diagram. Indeed it is not
1
2
3
1 (^continved)
2 (^continued)
3 (continued)
Price-
variations
Precision
Another
System of
Precision
Price-
variations
Precision
Another
System of
Precision
60
62
63
64
59
62
65
64
60
59
57
57
62
63
63
50
55
55
60
2
3
3
2
1
2
3
3
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
2
3
2
2
1
.3
3
3
2
2
1
2
2
1
1
3
3
2
3
2
2
2
1
3
1
2
3
72
73
73
73
75
75
76
77
77
78
79
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
3
2
1
1
3
3
2
2
1
3
3
3
1
2
2
1
3
1
2
3
1
2
1
2
3
2
2
1
3
3
3
3
2
2
3
1
]
1
2
70
71
72
Sums
43
47
—
43
47
ON YARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 211
necessary to record the number of observations (by way of dots) in more
than 07ie of the extreme compartments. The Median is the hvenfy-third
figure in the order of magnitude, that is, 7'i. Proceeding similarly for the
year 1873, -we find the Median of Mr. Sauerbeck's forty-five price-
variations 109.
Now let us try the efiect of weighting. Running my eye over some
pages of statistics, I assign the digits 1, 2, 3 as they occur to the price-
variations, which are in pell-mell order up to 70 ; between 70 and 80 in
the order of magnitude ; and above 80 not represented at all. The sum
of the whole second column thus formed is 86. The central point corre-
sponding to half that sum is at the foot of the fir.st half of the second
column, corresponding to the entry 72 in the first column. Accordingly
72 is the adjusted Median. I try another system of precision-factors
arbitrarily assigned. And still the Median is 72 !
The comparisons offered by Mr. Sauerbeck's materials are summed up
in the accompanying table :
1885
1873
The 21 arti-
cles common
to the Com-
mittee and
Sauerbeck
Sauerbeck's
45 articles
The 21 arti-
cles common
to the Com-
mittee and
Sauerbeck
S.iuerbeck's
45 articles
The Simple Arithmetic Mean
70
74
110-5
111
The Committee's Weighted Mean .
70-6
—
115
—
Sauerbeck's Weighted Mean .
73
72-5
115
115-2
Jevons' adjusted Geometric Mean .
69
—
—
—
The Simple Median
72
72
108
109
The Median adjusted accordiDg to
quantity
72
—
108
—
The Median adjusted on an arbi-
trary principle
69-5
72
—
—
For estimating the extent of difference to be expected between two index-
numbers which overlap as to some of their items, the following formula is derivable
from the reasoning at p. 194. Let n be the number of items common to both
schemes, n' the number special to one, and n" to the other. Put x'' for the
fluctuation of one system of weights, and x"~ fo^ the other ; and for
S(e'-e")-
(above, p. 204) put x'- Then for the modulus of the diflPerence between the com-
pared results we have
^-^"^ V 2 w + n'V ^ 2 / n + n"V 2/
where C, as before, is the measure of the dispersion incident to returns of com-
parative prices. In practice we may put for ^ , the ratio between the summed
weights of the item special to each index-number and the sum total for all the
items. These fractions are derivable from the third and fourth columns in the last
table of the Appendix. In calcidating the fifth and sixth columns of tliat table
p2
212
REPORT — 1888.
the formula just given has been used. But it has been thought allowable to
deduce x not from the Mean square of error (as theoretically best), but from the
Mean error given in the second column of the table, putting x = </"■ x Mean error.
The calculations of x' and x" have been similarly rough.
Of course, as the number of items common to two compared index-
numbers is diminished the chances of their dissUience are increased.
The art of conjecturing can in such a case throw only a very feeble light —
offered by the third formula above — on the relation between two such
index-numbers. For instance, it could hardly have been predicted that
the Simple Arithmetic Mean for Mr. Sauerbeck's forty-five articles should
differ so little as '5 from the same Mean for twenty-one articles, as
proved to be the case for the year 1873. It is even more surprising that
if for 1885 we complete our index-number, taking account of the six
items belonging to our scheme not included by Mr. Sauerbeck, there is
a marked rise in the index-number owing to all these six returns being
above the average. The annexed little table is formed by comparing the
prices in 1885 with the average for 1866-77 as given in the Statistical
Abstract : —
Articles omitted hitherto
Price-variations
for 1885
Weight assigned
by the Committee
Product of
Columns 2 and 3
1
2
3
4
Fish' ....
104
2h
260
Beer ....
76
9
68
Spirits- ....
120
H
300
Wine ....
100
1
100
Tobacco ....
85
H
212i
Caoutchouc .
109
1
109
Sums ....
594
18-5
1665
Means ....
97
—
90
If we add the outcome of this table to that of the first table repre-
senting the other twenty-one articles, we have 1665 + 5952= 7617 ; which,
divided by 100, gives the new index-nnmber 76.
Of course in applying the doctrine of Chances to this problem we
must abstract all animus. If you pick out the large variations of price
and the large weights you will doubtless succeed, like Mr. Forsell, in
producing discrepancies — though even his success in that attempt seems
less than might have been expected.
In concluding this comparison of results the writer may say, in the
phrase of Jevons, that he has taken more than reasonable pains to secure
arithmetical accuracy. No doubt mistakes will have come. But, as the
calculations have been performed without any conscious bias, any animus
mensv.randi, it may be hoped that the errors will neutralise each other,
and that the general impression left by the work is correct.
' Fish imported. ' Spirits other than rum and brandy.
ON VAKIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETART STANDARD. 213
APPENDIX.
Statement of the Extent, and Estimate of the Significance, of the
DiFFEEENCE BETWEEN THE CoMMITTEE'S ScHEME AND OTHEES.
Table I.
Articles common to the
Committee and Mr. Sauer-
beck's Weighted Index-
number
Weights actually
assigned
Weights as Percentages
of Total Weight of the
Common Articles
Differences
between
Columns
4 and 5
The Com-
mittee
Mr. Sauer-
beck
The Com-
mittee
Mr. Sauer-
beck
1
2
3
4
5
6
Wheat ....
5
61
6
11
5
Barley ....
5
30
6
6-5
•5
Oats ....
5
32
6
6
Potatoes and rice
5
32
6
6
Meat ....
10
88
12
15-5
35
Butter ....
n
23
9
3
6
Sugar ....
2|
30
3
5-5
2-5
Tea ....
n
13
3
2
1
Cotton ....
2h
57
3
10
7
Wool ....
n
42
3
7-5
45
Silk ....
n
4
3
1
2
Leather
H
10
3
2
1
Coal ....
10
74
12
13
1
Iron ....
5
27
6
5
1
Copper.
n
7
3
1
2
Lead ....
n
3
3
•5
2-5
Timber
3
17
2
2
Petroleum .
1
3
•5
•5
Indigo ....
1
3
•5
•5
Flax . . . .
3
4-5
1
3
Palm oil . . .
Sums .
1
1-5
1
81o
564
98
98
46-5
214
EEPORT 1888.
Table II.
Weights as Percentages of Total
Articles common to the Com-
mittee and Mr. Palgrave
Weight of the Common Articles
Differences
between Columns
2 and 3
The Committee
Mr. Palgrave
1
2
o
O
4
Wheat ....
10
19
9
Meat .
20
25
5
Sugar
5
7
2
Tea .
5
3-5
1-5
Tobacco
5
1
4
Cotton
5
12
7
Wool .
5
6-5
1-5
Silk .
5
•6
4-5
Leather
5
3-5
1-5
Iron .
10
7
3
Copper
Lead .
5
5
1-5
•5
3-5
4-5
Timber
6
7'5
1-5
Indigo
i .
2
2
4
Flax .
* •
6
2
Oil' .
1 • ■
2
2
Sums
•
101
98-5
54-5
' Palm oil in the Committee's scheme ; oils in Mr. Palgrave's.
Table III.
Articles common to the
Committee and Mr. Sauer-
beck's Unweighted
Index-number
Weights actually
assigned
Weights as Percentages
of Total Weight of the
Common Articles
Differences
between
Columns
4 and 5
The Com-
mittee
Mr. Sauer-
beck
The Com-
mittee
Mr. Sauer-
beck
1
2
3
4
5
6
Wheat .
Barley .
Oats .
Potatoes and
Meat .
Butter .
Sugar .
Tea .
Cotton .
Wool .
Silk .
Leather
Coal .
Iron .
Copper
Lead .
Timber
Petroleum
Flax .
Indigo .
Palm oil
rice
5
5
5
5
10
a
n
10
5
2k
3"
1
3
1
1
3
1
1
2
6
I
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
6
6
6
6
12o
9
3
3
3
3
3
3
12-5
6
3
3
4
1
4
1
1
8-5
3
3
6
17
3
6
3
6
6
3
6
6
6
8
3
3
3
3
3
3
2-5
3
3
4-5
6
3
3
3
3
6-5
1
2
1
2
2
Sums
•
81-5
35
99
103-5
45-5
ON VARIATIONS IN
THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 215
Table IV.
Articles common to the
Committee and
Dr. Soetbeer
Weights actually
assigned
1
Wheat .
Barley .
Oats .
Potatoes and
Meat .
Fish .
Butter, milk
Sugar .
Tea .
Beer .
Spirits .
Wine •
Tobacco
Cotton .
Wool .
Silk ,
Leather, &c
Coal .
Iron ,
Copper
Lead ,
Timber
Indigo .
Flax ,
Palm oil
Sums
nee
and cheese
The Com-
mittee
5
6
5
5
10
n
2i
■^2
9i
■^2
n
2|
2i
2h
2|
10
5
n
n
3
1
3
1
98
Dr. Soetbeer
2
2
1
2
4
2
2
2
1
1
3
2
1
1
1
1
3
1
o
1
1
3
1
1
1
43
' Hops.
Weights as Percentages
of Total Weight of the
Common Articles
The Com-
mittee
Dr. Soetbeer
a
a
o
m
OS
a>
B
d
P^
Differences
between
Columns
4 and 5
98
4-5
4-5
2
4-5
9
4-5
4-5
45
2
2
7
4-5
2
2
2
2
7
2
7
2
2
7
2
2
2
94-5
•5
•5
3
•5
1
2
3
2
•5
7
4-5
3-5
•5
•5
•5
•5
45
8
2
•5
•5
4
1
1
1
53
216
REPORT — 1888.
Table V.
Articles common to
tlie Committee
and Jevons
Weights actually
assigned
Weights relative to
the Total Weight of
the Common Articles
Differ-
ences be-
tween
Columns
6 and 5
Differ-
ences be-
tween
Columns
7 and 6
The
Com-
mittee
Jevons
The
Com-
mittee
Jevons
a'
/>2
ai
i2
al
i2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Wheat .
5
I
7
3-5
2
3-5
5
Barley .
5
I
7
3-5
2
3-5
■ 5
Oats
5
I
7
3-5
2
> 3-5
' 5
Jleat .
10
5
14-5
11
9
2-5
55
Butter and clieese .
7|
3
11
3-3
6
7-5
5
Sugar .
^
3
4
3-5
5
-5
I
Tea . . .
H
4
4
3-5
7
'5
'>
J
Spirits
2J
3
4
3-5
6
■5
2
Cotton .
H
3
4
11
6
7'
2
Wool .
2J
2
4
3-5
4
•5
O
Silk
n
3
4
3-5
6
•5
2
Leather .
H
2
4
4
7
7
3
3
Iron
5
3
7
11
6
4
I
Copper .
H
I
4
3o
2
•5
2
Lead
2i
4
4
3-5
7
■5
■ 3
Timber .
3
6
4-5
7
II
2-5
65
Flax .
3
I
4-5
3-5
2
1
2-5
Indigo .
1
I
1-5
3-5
2
2
•5
Palm oil
1
I
1-5
3-5
2
2'
•5
(Wine) .
Sums
(2i)
—
4
W
—
7
-^
3
68
27
54
101
100
lOI
45-5
57-5
(70-5)
—
—
(105)
—
—
—
—
' First form of index -number based upon 39 articles (' Serious Fall ').
* Second form of index-number based upon 118 articles (iHd.)
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 217
Table VI.
Index-numbers compared with the
Committee's
u
Jevons
a
b
20
Number of articles common to the
Committee's and other index-num-
bers
21
16
21
25
19
Mean difference (per cent.) between
the weights of the common articles
according to the Committee's and
other schemes
•
47
54
45
53
45
58
Weight of the common articles per
cent, of the weight of all the arti-
cles in the Committee's scheme
815
50-5
81-5
98
68
70-5
Weight of the common articles perl
cent, of the weight of all the arti- j-
cles in other schemes j
90-5
98
78
44
70
54
Discrepancy as likely as not to occur]
between the Committee's and other ■
results j
2
25
2
2
2-5
2-5
11
Discrepancy very unlikely to occur]
between the Committee's and other ■
results j
8
11
8
8
10
Remarks upon the 'preceding Tables.
These tables present a comparison between the index-number proposed
by the Committee and some other well-known constructions of the same
kind. In the first five tables the feature of comparison consists of those
articles or items which are common to the Committee's and the compared
schemes. The tables show the different importance or ' weight ' assigned
to the same items in the Committee's and each of the other schemes. For
the purpose of exhibiting this difference it is proper to contrast, not the
actual weights employed by the Committee and each compared index-
number, but the weights relative to the total weight assigned to the
common items by the Committee's and the compared scheme respectively.
Thus, in the first table, the first column states the articles, twenty-one in
number, which are common to the Committee's index-number and to one
which has been given by Mr. Sauerbeck (' Journ. Stat. Soc' 1886, p. 595).
The second and third columns give the weights actually affixed by the
Committee and Mr. Sauerbeck respectively to the comparative prices of
those twenty-one articles. The third and fourth columns give the
weights relative to the total weight of the coincident portions of the
two systems. Thus, 61 being the weight actually assigned by
Mr. Sauerbeck to wheat, while 564 is the sura of the weights attached
by him to all the articles common to him and the Committee , /g'j, or the
same fraction multiplied by 100 (=11 neatly), is taken as tiie proper
218 REPORT— 1888.
weight according to Mr. Sauerbeck for wheat; in a curtailed index-
number covering only those articles common to him and the Committee.
By parity -g'^.j x lUO, or six nearly, is the weight for the same article
according to the Committee. In the sixth column the differences — the
absolute differences without regard to sign — between the respective
weights are given. To appreciate the importance of this difference of
weight, we must consider it in relation to the absolute (mean) weight.
mi Mean difference of weight ■ .-, n ,• , t,- t j i taa j.i
Thus ■ — IS tbe traction (or, multiplied by 100, the
Mean weight
percentage) which most, or at least very, properly measures the dis-
crepancy between the two systems. Now the Mean weight for each of
the two compared systems is ^^x . Therefore we have for the required
Sum of differences .inn • ^ Sum of differences /
measure — — Vy', or simply — — (or, ex-
pressed as a percentage, the sum of differences). Thus in the case before
us the average deviation between the compared weights is 46'5, or 47 per
cent, (nearly). This figure is useful as enabling us (taking into account
the number of common items) to predict the extent of discrepancy which
is likely to exist between the results of the two methods of treating the
common data.
The second table presents a similar comparison between the Com-
mittee's and Mr. Palgrave's index-number (' Third Heport of the Com-
mittee on Depression of Trade,' Appendix B). It has not been
thought necessary to record the actual weights. Those employed in the
computation of the ' relative ' weights according to Mr. Palgrave were the
figures of compa7-ative importance given by him for the year 1885, which
differ very little from the corresponding entries in previous years. The
coefficient of discrepancy between the two systems being much the same
as in the former comparison, we may expect much the same difference
between the results ; or rather one somewhat larger, since the number of
common items (sixteen) is here somewhat smaller (than twenty-one).
The remaining index-numbers do not equally admit of being laid
alongside that of the Committee for the purpose of comparison.
They are as it were in a different plane, adopting a different formula
(as well as different constants) from the Committee. In these
schemes, unlike the Committee's, each comparative price is not affected
with a factor or weight corresponding to its importance. Prima facie
every price- variation counts for one ; but the principle of weight is to
some extent asserted by introducing as independent items several species
belonging to one genus. Thus in Mr. Sauerbeck's umveighted index-
number, our Table 3, there figure tivo species of wheat and also one of
flour ; in effect assigning a weight of three to wheat. There is indeed
something arbitrary in such interpretation. For in comparing this sort
of index-numbers with the Committee's it is hardly possible — as in the case
of the explicitly weighted index-numbers — to suppose the prices (for the
common articles) to be the same in the two compared calculations. For
example, our price of wheat is taken from the ' Gazette ' ; theirs may be
a Mean of that price and the price of flour. Accordingly the estimate of
the difference to be expected (proportioned to the total of the last column)
is apt to be less accurate, to be under the mark, in these cases. A further
inaccuracy affects this estimate in the case of Jevons' index-number, our
Table 5, namely, that he adopted the Geometrical method of combining
price- variations. In fact, our estimates apply only to the Arithmetic com-
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 219
bination of Jevons' materials, to be supplemented by the observed fact
tbat the Arithmetic and Geometric Means of prices do not much differ.
The last table resumes the results of the first five in its first and
second rows. The first row states the number of items common to the
Committee with each of the compared schemes — a necessary datum for
the estimate of the discrepancy likely to exist between the results.
Cceteris paribus, this discrepancy is inversely proportioned to the square
root of the number of common items. The second row gives the mean
difference between the respective weights as above defined. The third
and fourth rows compare the Committee's index-number with each of
the others as to the extent of the materials not common to both. The
comparison may be thus illustrated. Let CO represent by its length the
^/t-
C O C
quantity of weight common to the Committee and the other index-number.
Let CC represent the total weight of all the articles in the Committee's
system, and 00' that of the other system. The third row gives the
ratio of CO to CC, and the fourth column the ratio of CO to 00'.
The last two rows give an estimate of the discrepancy likely or
unlikely to occur between the results of the compared computations.
This estimate involves (in addition to the data contained in the preceding
rows) a constant or coefficient deduced from the course of English prices
in past years : the inequality or dispersion of price- variations, which
keeps pretty constant from year to year. The estimates are therefore only
applicable to England. They are to be taken cum grano, with the reser-
vations stated in various parts of the Memorandum.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. S. Bourne, Professor F. Y.
Edgeworth {Secretary), Professor H. S. Foxwell, Mr. Egbert
GiFFEN, Professor Alfred Marshall, Mr. J. B. Martin, Professor
J. S. Nicholson, and Mr. E. H. Inglis Palgrave, appointed for
the purpose ofinquirinc/ and reporting as to the Statistical Data
available for determining the amount of the Precious Metals in
use as Money in the principal Countries, the chief forms in
%vhich the Money is employed, and the amount annually used
in the Arts. (Dratun up by the Secretary.)
(The bracketed numerals refer to the Remarks appended to the Report.)
Upon the first head of the proposed inquiry the Committee are unable to
report favourably. They have not found data available for determining
with any degree of precision the amount of gold in use as money in the
United Kingdom. Several ways of making an estimate have been indi-
cated by eminent statisticians. But it appears to the Committee that all
these computations, as applied to the tjnited Kingdom, fail ; owing,
not to the incorrectness of the reasoning, but the unsoundness of the
data. They remark in detail upon the three methods which appear to
deserve most consideration.
I. Newmarch's method, as developed by later statisticians (1), consists
of the two following steps : — 1. Estimate the amount of precious metal in
220 REPORT— 1888.
circulation at some initial epocli when there has occurred a general or
partial recoinage, or other event favourable to the formation of a precise
estimate. 2. Add thereto the coin issued from the mint in subsequent
years and the coin imported, and subtract the coin withdrawn from cir-
culation as light, the coin exported, and the coin used in the arts.
On this method it may suffice to remark that, as applied to the United
Kingdom, it breaks down at the first step. For the only initial datum
available is the one which Newmarch employed (2). This is based upon the
fact that the light gold in 1848 amounted to 12,000, OOOZ., and the estimate
that the light gold formed a third or a fourth part of the total circulation.
But this estimate is too rough to permit much confidence in the result,
whether 36,000,000Z. or 49,000,000/. as the circulation in 1844.
But, even if that datum were admissible, the reasoning would still be
nugatory, failing an estimate of the amount of coin used in the arts
during the last forty years, not to insist on the imperfection of statistics
relating to the export and import of coin (3).
II. The general idea of Newmarch 's method is embodied in a somewhat
different scheme, which is largely employed by M. Ottomar Haupt (4). In
this second as in the first method we start with the amount of circulation
at an initial epoch, and we proceed to add thereto and subtract there-
from. But the mode of estimating the increment and decrement is less
direct. The influx and efilux are, so to speak, now observed at a greater
distance from the reservoir whose contents it is desired to ascertain. The
addendum is now the amount of precious metal imported into (or produced
within) the country : not specie only, as before, but also bullion and, we
may add, ore (5). The subtrahend is the precious metal exported,
together with that which has been consumed in the arts.
The initial datum of this method being the same as for the first
method is open to the same objections. And the reasoning built upon
that loose foundation is rendered additionally insecure by the proved un-
soundness of the statistics which profess to record the exports and imports
of precious metal for the United Kingdom (6).
III. There remains Jevous' method (7). His well-known reasoning
turns upon two data : 1, the proportion between the number of coins
of a certain date which are now in circulation and the total number of
coins of all dates which are in circulation ; 2, the absolute number of
coins bearing the assigned date which are now in circulation, or at any
rate a number greater than, a superior limit to, the number of those
coins.
The first datum appears to admit of being determined with some
precision by the inspection of samples taken at random from the circu-
lation. But for the absolute number of the coins bearing an assigned
date it seems in general impossible to find a limit which is at once
accurate and serviceable. If we take as the limit the number of coins
issued from the mint during the assigned period, we are certainly on the
safe side. The number of coins issued is indubitably a superior limit to
the number of coins circulating. The superior limit to the total circu-
lation which is deduced from this datum may be accepted with peculiar
confidence. But this limit is too superior to be of any use for the
purpose of making an approximation. Thus Mr. J. B. Martin, operating
with the periods 1871-2 and 1876-7 respectively, has found by this
method, as superior limits to the circulation of the United Kingdom, the
figures 162,803,000/. and 182,321,000/. ! It seems to be obvious, from
ON rRECIOUS METALS IN USE AS MONET. 221
the known facts as to the paper circulation of countries which use paper
instead of gold, and which are in circumstances otherwise analogous to
those of gold-using countries — e.g., Scotland, which uses one-pound notes
where sovereigns are used in England — that the above figures as to gold
used in England must be greatly exaggerated.
But if we attempt after the manner of Jevons to make corrections for
tlie amount of coin exported, the imperfection of the statistical material
recurs upon us with aggravated force (8).
There is added, in the case of the United Kingdom, the special
difficulty that the superior limit afforded by the statistics of coinage must
be enormously in excess, consisting as it does (for recent years) of the
number of coins issued from the mints in Australia as well as the United
Kingdom.
Altogether it appears to us that none of these methods can at present
afford other than the most vague estimate of the amount of coin circulating
in the United Kingdom. With respect to other countries indeed the
objections which we insist upon may be less forcible (9).
The Committee have cast about how to remedy the defects which have
been noticed (10). The suggestion has been made to reason from the
known number of one-pound notes in Scotland to the unknown number of
sovereigns in England after this manner. As the volume of transactions
in Scotland is to the volume of transactions in England, so is the number
of one-pound notes to the number of sovereigns (11). But however good
this suggestion may be by way of criticism, and if it is carefully handled,
it would not of course be sufficieutly trustworthy by itself to yield a con-
elusion that could be relied on.
The Committee entertain the possibility of making inquiry as to the
amount of coin held by different localities or by different classes (12). Such
a monetary census would undoubtedly be very incomplete. But if the
enumeration, though not exhaustive, were sufficiently impartial and
sporadic, it seems possible by a cautious and methodical inference from
samples to attain a rough estimate (13).
The most that can be expected from the converging lines of inquiry is
that three or four very imperfect estimates should be reached by inde-
pendent methods. The Mean of such estimates — a mean weighted accord-
ing to the presumed trustworthiness of the different sources — appears to
be the best result attainable (14). That the best will be imperfect is
to be feared.
The second and third inquiries (as to the chief forms in which money
is employed and as to the amount of money annually used in the arts)
are intimately connected with the first. Accordingly we have thought
it best to postpone recommendations under these heads until we have
instituted the first investigation more perfectlv. To this end, and in
view of the extent and difficulty of the subject, we recommend that the
Committee should be re-appointed for the ensuing year.
KEMARKS.
(1) Mr. Kimbal, Director of the Mint at Washington, and his predecessors have
elahorated ' Newmarch's Method.'
(2) See ' History of Prices,' vol. vi. Appendix XXII. There is not much objection
to the met/iodhy which Newmarch obtains the estunate 49,000,000/. : namely, deter-
222
REPORT 1888.
mining the proportion of light gold by an inspection of samples taken from the circula-
tion, and multiplying the quantity of light gold withdrawn for recoinage by the ratio
which the total circulation was found to bear to the light gold. The chief doubt
is whether the inspection was made sufficiently carefully. The materials for
a more accurate estimate on the occasion of the next recoinage exist in the
statistics relative to the state of our coinage obtained by Mr. J. B. Martin (' Journal
of the Bankers' Institute,' 1882) ; supposing them, of course, to be continued up to
the date of the recoinage, whenever that may be.
(3) The returns of exported and imported coin published in the Annual State-
ment of the trade of the United Kingdom do not extend back to the year
1844. There is also the difficulty of estimating the amount of coin in the
pockets of travellers ; a difficulty which is perhaps peculiarly insuperable in the
case of the United Kingdom, owing to the currency of the sovereign on the Continent.
(4) See ' Histoire Monetaire ' and ' VVahrungs-Politik,' by Ottomar Haupt. The
distinction between methods I. and II. is well defined by Mr. Kimbal, the Director
of the Mint at Washington, in his Report for 1886 (p. 46).
(5) The import of Silver ore into the United Kingdom is not inconsiderable, as
pointed out by Mr. Giflen in the First Report of the Committee on Precious Metals.
(6) As pointed out by Dr. Soetbeer (' Materials,' Exports and Imports, Taussig's
translation, p. 532), there is a total failure of consilience between the recorded
imports of precious metal into England from France and exports from France to
England, and vice versa. Not even when an average over many years is taken
does an appearance of regularity arise {loc. cit.). And we may add that if the
difference between the efflux from and influx into England — the datum with which
we are immediately concerned — be deduced from the English and French statistics
respectively, the results are still found to be totally disparate.
The annexed table, compiled from Dr. Soetbeer's materials (loc. cit.}, shows the
net influx of gold and silver into England, as deduced from the English and French
statistics respectively (OOO's omitted).
Periods of
Years
Net Influx of Gold
Net Influx of Silver
English Statistics
French Statistics
English Statistics
French Statistics
1871-75
-766
-38,601
- 705
-48,125
1876-80
-600
-55,414
+ 666
- 8,438
1881-84
+ 616
- 2,971
+ 1,506
- 672
On the other hand the returns of the trade in precious metals between the
United Kingdom and the United States may mspire some confidence (Soetbeer,
loe. cit.).
(7) ' Journal of the Statistical Society,' 1868 ; republished in ' Currency and
Fmance.' It is as if we should take the census of a population by, 1, ascertaining the
ratio between the number of infants, say three years old, and the population of all
ages ; 2, the actual number of such infants. This absolute number divided by that
ratio gives the total population.
A brilliant application of Jevons' method to the statistics of the circulation in
France has been made by M. de Foville (' Journal de Statistique de Paris,' 1879
and 1886).
(8) It may well be that the return of exported and imported coin, or rather —
what we are concerned with — the difference between these two amounts, is very
inaccurate for any single year ; but that in a series of years the errors tend to
tompensate each other. Suppose, for example, that for any single year the estimate
of the difference in question is liable to an error of Jiffy per cent. ; then the sum of
such dirf'eiences for twenty years — the sort of datum required for our first method
— would be liable only to an error of eleven per cent. In such a case the first
ON PRECIOUS METALS IN USE AS MONET, 223
method might be fairly accurate ; while the third method, relying on the exports
and imports of a single year (or a biennial period), would be fatally inaccurate.
Moreover, there exists in the third method a difficulty from which the first is
fi-ee as to the incidence of the exports for any year on the different strata of the
circulation. This difficulty is considered by Mr. Edgeworth in_ a Me7norandum on
Jevons' method which he has prepared for the British Association.
(9) The careful computations made by Mr. Kimbal, Director of the Mint at
Washington (' Reports,' 1886 et seq.), inspire confidence. In the case of the United
States there is, Jirst, a pretty accurate initial datum for the year 1873— on the
occasion of the resumption of specie payments. Secondly, the statistics of exports
and imports are perhaps specially deserving of confidence (cf. above, Kemark 6).
Mr. Kimbal seems to regard them as satisfactory. Thirdly, some attention has been
paid to the amount of coin used annually in the arts, though hardly so much
attention even yet as to command complete confidence.
(10) It has been suggested by Mr. Edgeworth, in the Memorandum above
referred to, that Jevons' method may admit of improvement. Fu-st, the ratio on
which the reasoning turns might be determined with greater precision by a more
careful and methodical sifting of the data. This correction by itself would not
come to much in view of the extreme incorrectness of the other datum (above.
Remark 6). But it is further submitted that in some countries the coinage for a
particular year or short period may have sufiered particularly little from exporta-
tion. In fact, something of the sort appears to have occurred in France according
to the statistics given by M. de Foville in the papers above referred to.
To revert to the metaphor above employed, the monetary census is effected
according to Jevons' method : 1, by ascertaining from samples the proportion of,
say, three-year-old infants to the total population; 2, in the absence of accurate
data for the number of three-year-old infants now alive, the number of infants born
three years ago. Now suppose, as M. de Foville shows grounds for supposing, that
a particular generation escaped in an extraordinary degree the maladies to which
infancy is liable ; then it might be the best plan to operate, not on infants, as
usually taken for granted, but upon that favoured generation, already, perhaps,
adult or even superannuated, always supposing that the other datum, the ratio
determined by sampling, can be ascertained for the favoured generation with ade-
quate precision. But this appears to be doubtful, owing to the circumstance that the
generations appearing to enjoy extraordinary longevity consist each of comparatively
few individuals. Now a deserved suspicion attaches to the use of small numbers in
statistics. At any rate, it is not contended that the correction would have any
application to the United Kingdom.
(11) In comparing the use of sovereigns in England and one-pound notes in Scot-
land it would be desirable if possible to make an allowance for the difference which
may exist in the use of half-sovereigns in the two countries ; and for other differences.
(12) As a specimen of the results which may be attainable, we submit an
estimate obtained by Mr. R. H. Inglis Palgrave with respect to a particular town.
This town contains about 6,000 inhabitants. It is a railway junction, and also
stands upon a river by which seagoing vessels can reach the place. _ There is also
a considerable inland navigation connected with it. The surrounding district is
agricultural. The town may be regarded as above the average in prosperity for
the agricultural districts. In this town Mr. Palgrave estimates, as the result of
investigations set on foot by him, that there woidd be on an average, taking one
time with another, about 4,000^. in coin in the hands of the population ; that is to
say, about 15s. a head in gold and silver. This estimate does not include the
specie held by the banks. The proportion of gold to silver is about 4 : 5. Mr.
Palgrave is more certain about this proportion than about the absolute arnounts.
He thinks the latter may be exaggerated, as the country districts surrounding the
town are to a certain extent included in the supply of specie mentioned. If this
estimate were a fair average it is quite possible that, including the country popu-
lation referred to in the districts surrounding the town in question, the whole
specie in active circulation may not exceed 125., or even 10s., a head. Further
investigation on the point is highly desirable.
224 EEPOET— 1888.
(13) Laplace— Toy a calculation strikingly analogous to Jevons' method above
stated — has shown (' Thdorie Aaalytique des Probabilities,' Book II. Chapter VI.)
how the method of inference from samples may be used to ascertain the ' popula-
tion of a great empire.' There is no doubt that this method of reasoning is agree-
able to a sound theory of Probabilities, although in incompetent hands it has often
produced absurd results. We must guard against proceeding like the statistician
mentioned by M. de Foville, who, in order to determine the production of potatoes
in France, simply multiplied the production in his own commune by the number
of communes in France — with a result out by a hundred per cent.
(14) Supposing the quantity of the circulation as estimated by four differ-
ent methods of varying trustworthiness were respectively Qp Q^, Q^, and Q^ (in
ascending order of worth), then the proper Mean might be
Q, + 2Q, + 3Q, + 4Q,,
1+2+3+4
MEMORANDUM BY THE SECRETARY ON JEVONS' METHOD
OF ASCERTAINING THE NUMBER OF COINS IN CIRCULA-
TION.
Pakt I. — Exposition.
Jevons' method consists of two stages : (1) the main line of argument,
and (2) what may be called a second approximation.
(1) The first step is to ascertain the proportion in the existing circula-
tion of coins bearing each date, or, as ' Jevons puts it, the number of coins
bearing any assigned date, ' now existing in 100,000 [coins] circulating.'
This datum is obtained by examining a great number of coins taken at ran-
dom from the circulation.^ It is assumed that the proportions in which
this collection of samples comprises coins of different dates are approxi-
mately identical with the proportions which would be presented if we
could examine the whole existing circulation. We have thus :
Total number of coins in circulation : Number of coins of a certain date
in circulation : : Total number of samples : Number of samples bearing the
assigned date. Whence
™ , , , p . Total number of samples -vt
Total number of coins=— , — -. 1- : — - — xNum-
JN umber oi samples bearmg a certain date
ber of coins of that date in circulation.
Now the number of coins of any date now in circulation is less than
the number of coins of that date issued from the Mint. Whence it follows
that the total number of coins in circulation is less than
Total number of samples , tvt r. <> • <• . i . j .
,j= — :; „ , — ; i- : — = — X Number of coins of that date
Number of samples bearing a certain date
issued from the Mint.
We have thus a figure certainly greater than — a ' superior limit ' to — the
total number of coins in circulation. Or rather we have, or may have, a
' Jour. Stat. Soc, 1868, p. 440 ; Currency and Finance, p. 264.
- The principal instances of this operation known to the writer are, for England
165,510 coins (sovereigns and half-sovereigns) examined by Jevons in 1868; 251,107
by Mr. Martin in 1882 {Journal of the Institute of Bankers, 1882); by the French
Government 2,222,965 coins (of different kinds) examined in 1878, 1,791,808 in 1885
(^Bulletin de Statistique, France, 1878, 1885) ; in Belgium, 1878, 103,475 coins by the
Banque Nationale, 83,599 by the 3Iinistire des Finances {Bulletin de Statistique,
France, 1878). Of the enquete said to have been made in France in 1868 the writer
has not been able to tind any particulars.
ON PRECIOUS METALS IN USE AS MONET. 225
great many superior limits, one being afforded by each year (or at any
rate each short period ' of years) as far back as our data reach : in England
as far back as 1817, in France 1803.
It remains then to consider which of all these data it is best to employ.
Evidently the smallest superior limit will be afforded by the year (or short
• j\ i< u- u ii, Number of coins issued . . .
period) for which the r- — -. ; -, -, — is a minimum ;
Number ot coins nowm circulation
in other words, that year whose coinage has suffered least loss. Now «
priori there is a presumption that the coinage which has been longest in cir-
culation will have lost most. And this theoretical conclusion is corroborated
by observation. It is shown by Jevons that the ' proportions of coinage
surviving ' are smaller for the older coinages.^ The general truth of
the proposition is similarly confirmed by the results of the French
enquetes.
It is proper, therefore, to select a recent coinage as that which should
enter into the formula above given. ^ Accordingly Jevons (writing in
1868) takes the period 1863-4 as his basis. The number of sovereigns
coined in that period, 14,678,000L, is to be diminished ■* by 600,000
known not to have entered into circulation. The remainder, 14,000,000
(nearly), is to be multiplied by W^Wt 5 ^^i^ being the ratio of the
total number of sample sovereigns to the number of samples of sovereigns
dated 1863 or 1864. The result is 75,000,000, to which may be added
certain sums known not to have entered into circulation, but to be ' lying
in bags as received from the Mint ' in the Bank of England.
By similar reasoning ^ De Foville finds, as a superior limit to the
number of twenty-franc pieces in France, 175,000,000.
De FovUle places this reasoning in a somewhat different shape, or rather in two
different shapes. The substantial identity of the various forms may best be
contemplated by the aid of symbols. Let E be the required total number of coin.s
in the existing circulation. Put S for the total number of samples, and s^, s.^ . . .
•s,. ... for the number of samples bearing date year 1,2, 3, &c., respectively (the
years'"' being reckoned either onwards from the date of the oldest coin in circulation,
or backwards from the most recent period). Let the number of coins issued from the
Mint for the corresponding years be Cj, c, . . . c^. By the reasoning above stated
' Owing to the practice which used to prevaU of coining with dies which had
become out of date, it may not be safe to treat the yearly return as perfectly accurate.
See, on the practice alluded to, Jevons, Currency and Finance, p. 280 ; Martin, Journal
of the Institute ofBanliers, 1882, p. 311 ; De Foville, Journal de Statistique, 1886, p. II.
^ Currency and Finance, p. 281. Jevons, in the passage referred to, is calculating
what may be called the absolute ]M-oportion of each coinage surviving ; but for our
present purpose it is sufficient to know how many times the diminution, or mortality
so to speak, of one coinage is greater than that of another. For this purpose we need
not suppose, with Jevons in the passage referred to, the total number of coins in cir-
culation to be known. We are concerned here only with the projxtrtiong between the
figures in the second column of Jevons' table at p. 281 ; and for that part of Jevons'
conclusion we do not require the whole of his premisses. We can deduce immedi-
ately from the table at p. 2(14 that part of the table at p. 281 which we here require ;
namely, that the proportion surviving of coins issued in '63-64 is greater than the
corresponding proportion for the period '.59-62, and still greater than the proportions
for the earlier periods.
' This general rule and the possible exceptions are illustrated by the diagram
on p. 8. The whole matter is placed by De Fovilie in a clear light {Journal de
Statistique, 1879, p. 36 ; 188.5, p. 12).
* Currency and Finance, p. 265.
* Journal de Statistique de Paris, 1878 and 1885.
" Or short periods. See note 2 above.
1888. Q
EEPORT — 1888.
One of the forms into which De Foville throws this inequation is
(' Journal de . . Statistique/ 1886, p. 14). Another form (suggested in his
226
E< ~c,
Sr
E < ^c,.
&<■
paper dated 1879) is Cj + p.^.^ + p^c^ + &c. ; where the years (or short periods) are
reckoned hackwards from the jjresent, and where p.,, pj, &c., are fi-actions
corresponding to the greater loss whicli the coinages of earlj periods, as compared
with the most recent, have undergone.
Let Cj, e„ he the (unknown) numher of coins bearing each date in the existing
circulation. By hypothesis
Xi _ fij _ Cj _ ^>- {"W
fc> s, s..
Also
1 "2
E = Cj + e, + i&C. + Br
e„
(2)
Cr
Co Cr
Cj +Co- +&C. + Cr —
C, + Co- + &C. + r-
"^ Cr
Now each of the fractions of the form -i is reducihie to -i ; multiplying both the
E
numerator and denominator by ^ and taking account of equation (1). The
o
factors in this new shape are known quantities derivable from our data. Call them
1, p„, p3 . . . pr, respectively. Then we have
E = -1 Ci + p.,e., + &c. + PrCr I
Whence, as J^ is a proper fraction (or at any rate not greater than units), we have
E< (or at most = ) C, + p.,c.y + «S:c. + prC^.
A geometrical illustration may put the matter in a clearer light. In the
annexed diagram the line SS' represents the total number of samples, and its
segments «i, Sr,, &c., the number of samples bearing date 1, 2, 3, &c. The line
EE', divided into the proportionate segments e^ e., &c., represents the total number
of coins in circulation and the numbers thereof bearing each date. The numbers
of coins issued from the Mint each year are represented by the lines Cj c._, &c. In
general, the more recent the year, the less has the coinage of that year lost, the
smaller is the ratio - . But, as we shall have occasion to remark afterwards, there
may be an exception to this rule, as the figure shows in the case of the year 5.
Now the essence of the reasoning is that EE'<CiC/ (and than any correspond-
ing line, e.g., CoC'^). Whether is it easier to say (a) with us, EE' <C - - Cj or (/3) after
De Foville's second redaction (1885) EE'< SS' ^-\ or (y), in the spirit of his first
paper, EE'<:Ci +«„ + a<j + &c., where a.,, a^, &c., are the remaining segments of the
line * CjC'j. Any of these segments a may thus be expressed in terms of Cr and
other known quantities :
' ^, 183 &c. might be used to designate the ' remaining ' segments of Cj C\.
ON PBECIOCS METALS IN USB AS MONET.
227
_ CC' _ CO' s.
Cl Sy.
Whence
wvi/ —^ir~'=<^r z — = say c p
'EE'<c^ + p.-fi., + p^c^+ &c.
(2) Jevons attempts to improve upon the result which has been
obtained by means of a second approximation. He seeks a nearer limit
to the total number of coins by subtracting from the number of coins
issued from the Mint in the most recent period (which forms the datum of
the first approximation) a certain proportion which may be known to have
been exported.' The coinage of 1863-64 forming the basis of his calcula-
tion, he ascertains the quantity of coin exported during the short interval
of time (1865-67) between the end of that period and the date at which
te wrote, which quantity proves to be 8,664,653. He then goes on :
* There are no means of determining from the above, with accuracy, how
much of the coinage of 1863-64 has been exported ; but as exporters prefer
the newest and heaviest coin, we are probably within the truth in assum-
ing that the sovereigns of 1863-64, which form about one-fifth of the
sovereign currency, also form one-fifth of the above exports.' Accord-
ingly he subtracts from 14,578,000, the number of sovereigns issued from
the Mint in 1863-64 (which constituted the uncorrected datum of the
simpler- calculation) one-fifth of 8,664,653. He thus succeeds in obtain-
ing a considerably lower limit than by the uncorrected method.
This reasoning- admits, or should admit, of being expanded and illustrated as
follows. In the annexed figure let the height of each column up to the unbroken
Cxvrrency and Finance, p. 267.
Above, p. 225.
Q3
228
EEPOET — 1888.
line represent the numbers of coins of each date existing in the circulation at the-
end of the most recent period designated 1. At that time let exportation act for a.
short period. Its ravages falling unequally on columns 1, 2, 3, &c., the elevation of"
the hroken lines will represent the new distribution of proportions. Call the new
heights h\, h\, &c., the old heights being Aj, h„, &c. At the beginning of the short
period of exportation at least -— of the initial exportation falls upon column 1. At
the end of the period at least ^^ of the later drains are taken from that column.
Sh
Now — is greater than — Hence for the ivhole period at least —- , of the total
all
Sh
Sh'
h'
exportation falls xipon column 1 ; -—, being the proportion of coins dated 1 exist-
ing in the circulation at the end of the period of exportation-
It is thus that Jevons argues, or must be supposed to argue : that, as the couiage
of 1863-64 constituted in 1868 about one-fifth of the then existing circulation,
therefore at least a fifth of the exportation during the period 1865-67 must have
fallen upon the coinage of 1863-64.
Part II. — Oeiticism and Correction.
In criticising this method we may adopt the same order as in expound-
ing it, and separately consider the reasoning which constitutes the first
and the second approximation. (1) The fundamental position of the
argument is undoubtedly sound, provided that the proportions derived
from the inspection of sample collections are sufiBciently accurate. For
the validity of these data (in the case of one of them at least) we have
the high authority of Jevons. ' I feel certain,' he says, ' after drawing up
ON PRECIOUS METALS IN USE AS MONET. 229
many averages, that this proportion must be very near the truth.' ' Still
stronger evidence is supplied by the consilience between the results of the
French enquetes made in 1878 and 1885. The two curves which repre-
sent the proportions in which the circulation in the years 1878 and 1885
respectively comprised coins of each date earlier than 1878 correspond, not
only in their general character, but even as to their minuter traits.^
If farther accuracy is required, it would be proper to apply the
Mathematical Method of Statistics, the doctrine of Errors, to the data.
The case is as if we had observed the proportion of males in a great number,
say 100,000, births taken at random, so to speak, from the general popu-
lation. We might suppose a number of subdistricts all over the country
selected on some random principle (such as the alphabetical order of
their initial letter) and the birth-rate observed for the heterogeneous
aggregate thus formed. It is required to determine with what accuracy
we can infer, from this aggregate of samples, the proportions prevailing
in the total number of births, say 1,000,000, appertaining to the entire
population. Suppose that for the aggregate of 100,000 the observed
ratio was "51. What extent of deviation from that ratio are the returns
for the entire population likely to present ?
The proper course would be to break up the aggregate of 100,000
samples into a good number, say 50 (or 25), of smaller parcels consisting
each of about 2,000 (or 4,000) units. Let the proportion of male births in
each of these small groups be observed. Call these partial ratios r , r,
&c. . . . r^; the ratio for the entire aggregate being "51. Form the
mean-square-of-error
(•51-r,)^+(-51-r,)^-h&c.-K-51-r,,)='
50 '
and put the square-root of double the mean-square-of-error, say fi, for
the modulus, that constant upon w'hich all the higher operations of the
Calculus of Probabilities turn. The modulus for the proportion of male
births in a group of 2,000 being /x. say 016,^ the modulus for the same
ratio in an aggregate of 100,000 births should be — ^= ; or some rather
\/50
larger figure which good sense tempering theory may prescribe, say "OOS.
Then we may affirm with confidence that the ratio presented by 100,000
bii'ths will not difier I'rom that which would be presented by a much
larger number by more than 3 X "003 ; and, therefore, that the proportion
of males in 1,000,000 births does not differ from '51 (the observed pro-
portion in 100.000) by more than the calculated limit of eri'or, say •01.
These are not mere anticipations of theory, but practical rules which
liave been verified by copious experience.
For illustrations of the Theory of Errors applied to statistical reasoning see the
writer's ' Methods of Statistics,' Journal of the Statistical Society, jubilee vol. 1885,
and ' Methods of Ascertaining Rates,' ibiil. Dec. 1885. It may be observed that in
the illustration just given we are not, as in most statistical inductions, inferring
from what has been observed of one time or place, to what is true of another time
or place ; but, from the constitution of samples selected at random to the constitu-
tion of the aggregate from which they were taken. The validity of the inference
■depends upon the impartiahty of the selection.
' Currency and Finance, p. 265.
2 See De Foville, Jmirnal de Statistique, 1886, p. \2,a.ndi Bulletin de France, 1885.
^ As may be gathered from the researches of Professor Lexis.
230 KEPORT— 1888.
Another illustration may make this point clearer. Suppose that we took 700
hexameters from the '^neid,' not en bloc from one or two books, as described in the
papers referred to, but by a perfectly random process from the whole poem indis-
criminately. Suppose (as is likely enough) that these samples being examined
should yield the same modulus for the proportion of dactyls as was afforded by the
actual specimens examined by the writer : namely '3 (for lines of four feet, the
almost unvarying last two feet of the hexameter being left out of account"). In
this case we may be fairly certain that the proportion of dactyls presented by the
sample, say '4, will not ditfer from the proportion in the whole ' ^neid ' by more
.o
than 3 x , say '035. He who carefully considers the verifications adduced
V7U0
in the second of the papers referred to caimot reasonably doubt this proportion, or,
rather, will not feel more than the theoretical degree of uncertainty about it.'
But when, as in the actual statistics to which reference has been made, the
specimens have not been selected with indiscriminate impartiality, then the induc-
tive hazard in inferring from a part to the whole becomes more serious. Even
then, however, the inference may be sufficiently safe if inspection has convinced us-
of the general homogeneity of the total aggregate concerning which we wish to
draw a conclusion. The 700 Virgilian lines examined by the writer, though far
from being perfect samples, seem still to justify an inference as to the constitution
of the whole '^neid.' There being in the whole poem some 9,900 lines, it is reason-
ably certain that a superior limit to number of dactyls in the '^neid ' is given by
the followuig formula, in which account is taken of the Jifth foot and of the
unfinished lines ; whose number we shall call n.
Total number of dactyls in the '^Eneid ' is less than
.o
4(9900 — n)( '4 + 3 . — \ + number of dactj-ls in the n unfinished lines-
+ (9900 — n — number of spondaic lines).
We ought similarly to test the validity of the ratio which constitutes
the foundation of the Jevonian argument. We should break up the
aggregate of samples into some fifty parcels, observe the ratio for each
batch, and thence extricate the necessary coefBcient. Of course it would
be desirable to employ judgment in testing the worth of our result. We
might notice, for instance, whether the modulus derived from one half
our samples was much the same as that which the other half yielded.
We should observe whether the modulus for batches of 4,000 is as much
less as it ought to be than the modulus found for batches of 2,000. Such
inspections intelligently performed would suggest to what extent the-
general rule above exemplified might require some relaxation iu view of
the specially loose character of our materials.
We shall thus determine the utmost extent of error whicli we are likely
to commit in putting the observed ratio
Number of samples bearing a certain date / Sj \
Total number of samjjles \ ^ S /
. Number of coins of that date in circulation
for the (unknown) ratio m"rr"i — ■ 1^
^ ^ iotal circulation
Call this maximum of error (which may be either in excess or defect)
X. By means of this datum we can correct the superior limit (to the
circulation) obtained lately.
That superior limit, it may be recollected, was —
Total number of samples
Number of samples bearing a certain (recent) date
X coins issued
' One source of uncertainty is that the determination of the modulus from a
limited number of observations is liable to a certain error.
ON PRECIOUS METALS IN USE AS MONET. 231
g
from the Mint at that date ; * in symbols — c,. But we have now to take
S ii
account that - may be too small. It may be as much too small as S
S
may be too large. The true ratio which — represents cannot then be
larger than_Si_^. That expression, multiplied by c,, constitutes a
s
perfectly safe superior limit — comparable to the safe load or breaking load
of mechanical construction.
No doubt a similar degiee of evidence might be attained by repeated
enquetes, such as those performed by the French Government. The
marvellous consilience between most of the ratios yielded by the samples
of 1878 and 1885 goes far, as already observed, to establish the accuracy
of those ratios. It is, however, desirable, for the purpose of exact com-
putation, to have a numerical limit to the possible error of each proportion
which we utilise. And, at any rate, it is philosophical not to expend
labour in increasing our materials, when the same amount of evidence
could be crushed out of a smaller quantity of material by a properly
directed scientific process.
Moreover, if this operation be performed, we shall be able, so to speak,
to cut the argument much more finely ; to obtain a smaller, perhaps much
smaller, superior limit than would be safe for the empirical statistician.
It will be recollected that a coinage of recent date was selected as the
basis of our calculation, because, in general, recent coinages have suffered
less loss. But there is some evidence that there are exceptions to this
rule. Now, if this evidence were confirmed by rigid application of the
mathematical test, we might obtain a much more favourable basis for the
calculation than it has hitherto been safe to employ.
The matter is placed in a very clear light by the French statistics,
, . 1 , , 1 , „ , ,, ,. Number of samples
wnicn tabulate tor each year the ratio -^ ; ? — ■ -■ r (m De
JN umber ot coins issued ^
Foville's notation tj). Now the expression for the superior limit may,
after De Foville, be written
Number of coins issued
Number of samples ^ ^°*^^ °™^^'' of samples.
For our purpose, to find the smallest superior limit, the largest value
of the ratio designated by the French as y would be the best, provided
that it is accurate.
2
De Foville employs a ratio of about -txtj-t ; but there occur in the
French statistics the entries 7, 12, 17, nay 26 (each to be divided by
1000) ; and in the Belgian statistics much more startling proportions.
Supposing we were assured that :j-7^ was a genuine ratio (the coinage
of the particular year corresponding having suffered particularly little —
a quite reasonable supposition, as De Foville shows), then, the number
' See above, p. 225 and p. 227.
232 EEPORT— 1888.
of samples being 384,302, for our superior limit we should have
OQA ^00 000
' "' = 96,000,000 (pieces of 20-fraTics) nearly ; whereas De Foville
has 175,000.000.
(2) We have now to criticise the logic of the 'second approximation. '
which takes into account the exportations of coin. The reasoning which
has been described appears to be formally correct provided that the
period during which the exportation is supposed to act is suflBciently
small ; ideally diminished in the spirit of the differential calculus. But
it is a matter of delicacy extending the conclusion to cases in which the
' period ' cannot be regarded as infinitesimal. An illustration, Jevons'
own, will best exhibit the difficulty. Jevons argues that, as the coinage
of 1863-4 constitutes about one-fifth of the existing circulation, there-
fore at least a fifth of the exportation during the period 1865—7 must have
fallen upon the coinage of 1863-4. But how is it known that the main
part of the exportation of 1867 (or even 1866) did not fall upon the
coinage of 1865 ?
But it is needless to examine how much the reasoning leaks here, if
a more serious gap is caused by the omission of all reference to imported
coin. How do we know that the imports during the later portion of the
period of 1865—7 did not bring back many of the coins which the exports
at the beginning of the period had taken away ?
The following correctives are suggested. For a certain period (such
as Jevons selected, 1865-7, or shorter) observe samples of the exports and
imports (opening and examining many outward-bound treasui-e-chests)
and thereby determine the proportion both of the exports and of the
imports (for that period) which consists of coins belonging to a certain
recent period cori-esponding to Jevons' 1863^. Then we may reason
thus ; placing ourselves in imagination at Jevons' epoch 1868 (or, mutatis
mutandis, in 1888).
(1) Number of coins dated '63-4 now in circulation =:at most number
of coins issued '63-4 minus (proportion of exports '65-7, consisting of coins
'63-4) X (exports '65-7) plus (proportion of imports '65-7, consisting of
coins '63-4) x (irajDorts '65-7) minus bags in Bank of England, as men-
tioned by Jevons (and other known items).
(2) (Total number of coins (of all dates) in circulation) x proportion
of coinage '63-4 in existing circulation (found by sample) =number of
coins dated '63-4 in circulation.
(3) Total number of coins in circulation is greater than the right-hand
member of equation, or rather iw-equation (1), divided hy proportion of
coinaofe '63-4 in existing: circulation.
This reasoning takes for granted that the invisible or unregistered
exports are compensated, or at least not exceeded, by the imports
of the same species. It must be assumed also— what has been
doubted upon good authority ' — that the statistics which we have are
fairly accurate. A chink in the logical structure may be filled up ; but
rottenness of the statistical material is irreparable.
' See Soetbeer's Maferinlrn, p. 4S. It is possible that the conditions necessary
for the application of Jevons' method maj' fail for the United Kingdom, but may be
partiaEy fulfilled for some other of the ' principal countries ' which are comprehended
in our province.
ON THE NORTH-VTESTEEN TEIBES OF CANADA. 233
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. E. B. Tylor,
Dr. Gr. M. Dawson, General Sir J. H. Lefroy, Dr. Daniel
Wilson, Mr. E. Gr. Haliburton, and Mr. GtEORge W. Bloxam
{Secretary), appointed for the purpose of investigating and
publishing reports on the physical characters, languages, and
industrial and social condition of the North-Western Tribes of
the Dominion of Canada.
The Committee report that, iu addition to Mr. Wilson, of Sault Ste. Marie,
who contributes some valuable remarks upon the Sarcee Indians, they have
been enabled to secure the services of Dr. Franz Boas (now of New York,
and one of the editors of ' Science'), who has been for several years engaged
in ethnological investigations in America, particularly among the Eskimo
and in British Columbia, and who has consented to return to that province
for the purpose of continuing his researches there on behalf of the Com-
mittee, and in accordance with the instructions comprised in their
' Circular of Inquiry.' Only eight or nine weeks — in May, June, and
July last — were available for his trip, but, with the advantage of the
experience and information obtained in his previous journey, he has been
able to gather a large mass of valuable material. The results of his
inquiries will be given in his final report, to be presented nest year. For
the present occasion he has prepared some preliminary notes, with an
introductory letter (addressed to Mr. Hale), containing a brief account
of his proceedings, and some important suggestions concerning- future
inquiries and the condition of the Indians of that province. The letter is
as follows : —
' I beg to transmit the foUowiug report of my proceedings, with
preliminary notes on the results of my researches in British Columbia.
In your instructions dated May 22, 1888, you made it my particular
object, on the present trip, to obtain as complete an account as possible
of the coast tribes and their languages. As on my previous journey, in
the winter of 1886-87, I had collected a considerable amount of material
respecting the southern tribes, I turned my attention at once to the
Indians inhabiting the northern parts of the coast, including the Tlingit.
On June 1 I arrived in Vancouver, and after ascertaining certain doubt-
ful points regarding the Skqomish, who live opposite the city, I proceeded
to Victoria on June 3. Mayor J. Grant, of that city, kindly gave me
permission to take anthropometric measurements of such Indians as were
in gaol. This proved the more valuable, as the natives were very reluctant
to have any measurements taken. I sought to obtain measurements and
drawings of skulls in private collections in Victoria, and was fortunate
enough to be able to measure eighty-eight skulls from various parts of the
coast. The results of these measurements must be reserved for the final
report. I will mention only the remarkable fact that skulls of closely related
tribes show great and constant differences. Comparisons of ten skulls
each from Victoria, Sanitch, and Comox give the following results : —
Length-height
Index
7.5-0
80-8
Comox . . 176-6 77-9 77-4
Length
Length-breadth
MiU
"index
"Victoria
184-5
77-7
Sanitch
161-0
95-5
234 REPORT— 1888.
These differences are ia part due to artificial deformation. It seems,
however, that this explanation is not sufficient. These tribes belong to
the Salish stock.
' As soon as an opportunity offered to start northward, I left Victoria
and stayed the greater part of June in Port Essington, where I studied
the customs and language of the Tsimshian, and obtained notes on the
Haida. When returning to Victoria a few Heiltsuk from Bella Bella
were on board the vessel, and I obtained notes on this tribe, which sup-
plement to some extent my former observations. After my return ta
Victoria I took up the Tlingit and Haida languages, and when several
canoes from the west coast of Vancouver Island arrived, that of the
Nutka. In the beginning of July, Father .1. Nicolai, who is thoroughly con-
versant with the Nutka language, arrived there from Kayokwaht, and in
a number of conversations gave me valuable information regarding the
grammar of that language. I obtained information respecting their
legends and customs from a few natives, and on July 11 went to the main-
land. After staying two days in Lytton I proceeded to Golden and up
the Columbia river, in order to devote the rest of the available time to-
the Kootenay. On July 26 I returned east.
' The results of my reconnoissance are necessarily fragmentary, as I was
not able to devote more than a few days to each tribe. I obtained, how-
ever, sufficient material to determine the number of linguistic stocks, and
the number of important dialects of those stocks which I visited. The
vocabularies which I collected during my former and on the present trip
contain from 500 to 1,000 words, and embrace the following languages :
Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, Kwakiutl (Heiltsuk and Lekwiltok dialects),.
Nutka, Salish (Bilqula, Pentlatsh, Comox, Nanaimo, Lkungen, Sishiatl,
Skqomish, Ntlakapamuq dialects), and Kootenay. I obtained, also, gram-
matical notes on all these languages, and texts in some of them.
' I may be allowed to add a few remarks on future researches on the
ethnology of British Columbia. Only among the tribes from Bentinck
Arm to Johnson Strait the customs of the natives may be studied
uninfluenced by the whites. But here, also, their extinction is only a
question of a few years. Catholic missionaries are working successfully
among the N^utka ; the fishing and lumbering industries bring the
natives of the whole coast into closer contact with the whites. In all
other parts of the country, except on the upper Skeena, the student is,
to a great extent, compelled to collect reports from old people who have
witnessed the customs of their fathers, who heard the old myths told over
and over again. In the interior of the province even these are few, and it is
only with great difiBculty that individuals well versed in the history of olden
times can be met with. After ten years it will be impossible in this i-egion
to obtain any reliable information regarding the customs of the natives in
pre-Christian times. Even the languages are decaying since the advent
of the whites and on account of the extensive use of Chinook. Young
people neither understand the elaborate speeches of old chiefs nor the old
songs and legends when properlj^ told. Even the elaborate grammatical
rules of these languages are being forgotten. For instance, old Nutka
will never form the plural of the verb without reduplication, while young
men almost always omit it. Instead of the numerous modi, phrases are
used — in short, the languages are decaying rapidly. The study of the
anthropological features of these races is also becoming more and more
diSicult on account of their frequent intermarriages with whites ; and the
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 235'
consequent difficulty of finding full-blood Indians. The once abundant
material of old native crania and skeletons lying scattered all over the
province is becoming more and more scarce as it decays and the country
is being reclaimed.
' It is nowhere sufficient to study languages alone in order to solve
ethnological problems ; but in this province the study of a large amount
of anthropological material is an absolute necessity on account of the
diversity of languages and the great dialectic diiferences in some of them.
The Salish stock in British Columbia, for instance, is spoken in eleven dia-
lects, which are each unintelligible to the speakers of the others. It would
be of great importance to study the anthropological featui'es of this race,
the northern tribes of which are physically very much like the Kwakiutl.
' Last of all I mention the antiquities of the province. Valuable relics
are destroyed every day. They are turned up by the plough and thrown^
away : graves and mounds are levelled, shell heaps are used for manuring
purposes, cairns are removed. The destruction will be very thorough, as
those parts in which relics are found are at the same time those which are
the earliest to be reclaimed.
' For all these reasons an early study of the ethnology of the province
must be considered a necessity. In the course of a few years much might
be done to preserve the most important facts. The languages might be
reduced to writing, the interesting poems and songs that are still afloat
might be preserved, we might obtain a complete account of the mythology,
and sufficient material for anthropological researches. A few years hence it
will be impossible to obtain a great part of the information that may now
be gathered at a comparatively slight expense.
'I cannot close these remarks without adding a few words on the
present state of the Coast Indians. It is well known that they have been
greatly reduced in numbers since the advent of the whites, and that they
are still diminishing. It is also well known that, with few exceptions,
they have made no progress whatever. The reasons for these facts are
easily understood : the natives become accustomed to products of our
manufacture, and in order to purchase them become servants where they
have been masters before. At the same time their native industries
decay. This process is hastened by the influence of missionaries, who
discourage all native arts, as connected with their heathenish customs,
without being able to supply anything in their stead. Thus the psychical
life of the natives is impoverished, and this, I think, accounts principally
for their rapid degradation after their first contact with the whites. The only
way to civilise these tribes is clearly shown by Mr. W. Duncan's success at
Metlakahtla. He made the Indians of Metlakahtla a self-sustaining, in-
dependent community. Similar results are gradually being obtained in
other places, and these results show that the establishment of independent
industries on co-operative principles will educate the Indians and make
them capable of becoming useful members of the State. The easiest and
soundest way to do this is to encourage native industries and arts — fish-
ing and working in wood. At the same time the natives ought to be
educated to a more sanitary way of living. This can be attained only by
putting energetic medical men in charge of Indian districts. There can
be no doubt that an intelligent man, capable of adjusting his argument to
the mind of the Indian, would easily induce them to a thorough sani-
tation. The Indians do not individually give up their old customs, but
invariably do so in coi^ncil. By gaining their confidence, the council.
236 EEPOKT— 1888.
could be easily induced to listen to sound advice. I do not believe that
it is too late to save the Indian frora utter destruction ; and we may still
hope that the spectacle of an intelligent race becoming more and more
degraded and vanishing from the earth's surface will cease to exert its
saddening influence upon the traveller who visits the shores of British
■Columbia.'
To this letter Dr. Boas adds the following : —
Preliminary Notes ox the Indians op British Columbia.
Although the Indians of the north-west coast of America belong to a
great number of linguistic stocks, and although their physical peculiarities
suggest that they belong to various races, their customs are so much
alike that it is impossible to describe one tribe without having reference
to all the others. For this reason it is necessary in a general survey to
treat their languages and their physical and ethnographical character
separately, although from the standpoint of the psychologist it would
seem more desirable to describe each tribe by itself.
The following are the principal races inhabiting the province, including
the coast strip of Alaska: 1. the Tinne (or Tinneh), who occupy the
interior from the extreme north to Quesnelle and Chilcot in the south.
2. The Tlingit, on the coast of Alaska ; and the Haida, on Queen Char-
lotte Islands and the southern part of Prince of Wales Archipelago.
3. The Tsimshian, on Nass and Skeena Rivers and the adjoining islands.
4. The Kwakiutl, from Douglas Channel to the central part of Vancouver
Island, excepting the west coast of that island and Dean Inlet and Ben-
tinck Ai'm. 5. The Nutka, of the west coast of Vancouver Island and
Cape Flattery. 6. The Salisb, on the south-eastern part of Vancouver
Island, on the mainland as far as Quesnelle Lake and Selkirk Range, and
on Bentinck Arm. 7. The Kutonaqa, on Kootenay Lake and River, and
■ on the Upper Columbia.
[Dr. Boas here gives brief notes on the grammatical structure peculiar
to each of the six linguistic stocks which he has studied — the Tlingit
(and Haida), Tsimpshian, Kwakiutl, Nutka, Salish, and Kutonaqa. It
has seemed advisable, however, to defer the publication of these notes
until they can appear in fuller form in the final report, where they will
be accompanied by the comparative vocabularies and the ethnographical
map, and can have the benefit of the author's revision of the proofs.
In the Indian words compinsed in this report the vowels are to be
pronounced as in Italian, and the consonants, for the most part, as in
English. The letters k' and g' represent deep gutturals corresponding to
the ordinary h g. The // represents the German c/t in icli. The q denotes
the sound of the Scotch ch in locli. By tl an exploded I is indicated, and
by Z;' an exploded h^i, the u pronounced very indistinctly.]
Social Organisation.
I confine myself, in these preliminary notes, to a brief description of
the totemism of these tribes, leaving a more detailed discussion of the pre-
rogatives of the chiefs and of certain families to the final report. Among
the Tlingit and Haida we find a great number of crests, which, however.
ON THE NORTH-WESTEKN TRIBES OF CANADA. 237
are divided into two groups — the raven and the wolf among the Tlingifc,
the raven and the eagle among the Haida. The Tsimshian have four
totems, the raven (called Kanha'da), the eagle (Laqski'yek), the wolf
(Laqkyebo'), and the bear (Gyispotue'da). The Heiltsuk and their northern
neighbours have three totems; the killer (De7jo/mms orca) (Ha'nq'aiZ/tenoq),.
the raven (Ko'i/ttenoq), and the eagle (Wik'oaq/ttenoq). It is a very
remarkable fact that among the other tribes of Kawkiutl lineage no
totemism, in its strict meaning, is found. The tribes enumerated above
have the system of relationship in the female line. The child belongs
to the mother's crest, and, although the wife follows her husband to his
village, the children, when grown up, always return to their mother's
tribe. I conclude from the fact that the Kwakiutl, south of Rivers Inlet,
have the system of relationship in the male line, or, more properly
speaking, in both lines ; that the Heiltsuk adopted their system of totems
from the Tsimshian. I have not heard a single tradition to the eS'ect
that the gentes consider themselves the descendants of their totem ; the
Tlingit and Haida, as well as the Tsimshian and Heiltsuk, have certain
traditions referring to ancestors who had encounters with certain spirits
or animals who gave them their crests. It is true that the Haida and
Tlingit claim to have been created by the raven, but the legend has no
reference whatever to the totem. The Kwakiutl and Salish tribes are also
divided into gentes, but these are not distinguished by animal totems, but
derive their origin each from a man who was sent down from heaven by
the deity, and who, in some way or other, obtained his crest from a
spirit. These legends are of the same character as the corresponding
ones of the Tsimshian. The crest of the family is represented on paint-
ings on the house fronts, on the 'totem posts,' and on tattooings. The
latter are probably not used by the Tlingit, while the Haida tattoo
breast, back, arms, and legs. The Tsimshian tattoo only the wrists,
according to their crest. Tattoo marks are also used by the Nutka. The
figures on posts and houses have always a reference to the being encoun-
tered by the ancestor, but sometimes also figures of the father's crest are
used by the owner, the father having the right to permit his child to use
them. The posts do not represent a continuous story, but every figure
refers to one tradition. Each gens has also names of its own, which
among the Tsimshian must have a reference to the father's gens. Thus,
on hearing a name a Tsimshian knows at once to what gens both the
bearer and his father belong. Among the Salish and Kwakiutl the child
follows, as a rule, the father's gens, but he may also acquire his mother's
gens. By marriage he always acquires the prerogatives of his wife's
family. It is only here that such prerogatives are connected with the
gentes. They refer generally to the use of masks and certain ceremonies
of the winter dance, the most important of which is the Ha'mats'a, the
man-biter. But the accession to these privileges is not only a right of
the young man, it is also his duty to accept them. Among the Salish
tribes of the Gulf of Georgia the division into gentes is not as clearly
defined as farther north. Here a group of gentes forms a tribe, each
gens inhabiting one village. In removing the village from one place to
the other they retain the same name, which, however, is not the name of
the people, properly speaking, but that of their village. Bach gens derives
its origin from a single man who descended from heaven, and whose sons
and grandsons became the ancestors of the gens, the child always be-
longing to his father's gens. While among the northern tribes marriages
■238 EEPORT — 1888.
in the same gens, or phratry, are strictly proliibited, there exists no such
law among the Salish.
T have not found any trace of a division into gentes among the
Kutonaqa.
Mythology.
It is one of the most interesting problems of ethnology to study the
■development of a system of mythology. On the noi-th-west coast of
America this study is the more interesting, as we can show how legends
migrated from ti'ibe to tribe. The great hero of the mythology of the
northern tribes is the raven, who created daylight, mountains, trees, men.
These raven legends have spread very far south, being even known to
the Cowitchin of Vancouver Island, and probably still farther south.
The hero of the mythology of the southern tribes, on the other hand, is
the great wanderer, the son of the deity, who, on his migrations all over
the world, transformed men into animals, and animals into men. It
appears that this legend, which is known from the mouth of the Columbia
to Bella Bella, originated with the Salish tribes ; however, we do not
know how far it extends inland. Another legend belonging to these
tribes has spread far north. It refers to a visit to heaven, and the mar-
riage of a young man to the sun's daughter. Traces of this tale are
found among the Tsimshian. The myths of the Kutona'qa and of the
Okanagan refer principally to the coyote. I shall proceed to describe
■briefly the myths of the various tribes, at the same time pointing out
their connection among each other.
The Tlingit say that the world was originally swinging to and fro in
space. There was something underneath it that was to serve as a rest
for the world ; the latter approached it, but never succeeded in joining it.
All animals tried in vain to fasten the world to it. At last a female
spii'it, Harishane'ko (=the woman under us), smeared her belly with deer
tallow, lay down under the world, and when the latter approached the
underworld again the tallow fastened both together. The earth is con-
sidered square, the corners pointing north, south, east, and west. In the
north there is an enormous hole into which the water of the ocean gushes,
and from which it returns, thus causing the tides. There is another idea,
to the efEect that the world is sharp like a knife's edge, but this seems to
be said more in a moral aspect, the meaning being that the road of right
doing is narrow ; whoever does wrong falls from the road and dies. The
earth rests on Harishane'k5, and when the latter moves there is an earth-
quake. The moon is the sun's husband. There is a chief in heaven
called Tahi't, the ruler of those who fall in war. These fighting souls
produce the aurora. It is worth remarking that this belief is also found
among the Eskimo. On the same level with the earth, but outside its
borders, is the country of those who died of sickness.
The creation legend of the Tlingit is as follows: — In the beginning
there lived a great chief and his sister. The chief killed all his sister's
sons as soon as they were born. One day when the woman went to the
beach mourning the death of her children, a seagull advised her to swallow
three stones. She obeyed, and after a few days gave birth to three boys,
the oldest of whom was Yetl, the raven. He wanted to avenge the death
of his brothers, and challenged his uncle. The latter tried to drown Yetl
by making the waters rise until the whole earth was covered. He kept
himself afloat by means of his hat, which grew higher as the waters were
ON THE NOHTH-WESTEEN TRIBES OF CANADA. 239
rising. Yetl, however, flew up to the sky, and at last pi-essed down his
uncle's hat, thus drowning his enemy. The waters disappeared again,
and then Yetl obtained the sun, which was in possession of a chief, and
the fresh water, which was owned bj' the fabulous K'anii'k'. He made
trees and mountains next, and finally tried to create man. First he
shaped human figures out of stone and wood, but did not succeed. Then
he made man out of grass, and for this reason men are mortal. After
this Yetl began to wander all over the world, and in all his further ad-
ventures he is described as extremely voracious and greedy.
The mythology of the Haida is substantially the same as that of the
Tlingit. The raven is called Yetl by the Kaigani, while on Queen
■Charlotte Island his name is Qoia. His uncle's name is Nenkyilstla's.
The Tsimshian have also traditions referring to the raven, but he is
not considered the creator of men. They consider the Nass River region
as their original home, and the Nass language the oldest dialect of the
Tsimshian. The origin of men is thus accounted for : — A long tinae ago
a rock and an elder, near the mouth of Nass River, were about to give
birth to men. The children of the elder were the first to be born, there-
fore man is mortal. If the children of the rock had been born first, he
would have been immortal. From the rock, however, he received the
nails on hands and feet.
The Tsimshian worship the deity in heaven, Leqa', who lives above
the sun. The raven myths were evidently imported from some foreign
sources, and then the raven was made the descendant of this deity in
order to account for his supernatural powers. This legend, which is found
from Nass river as far south as the northern portion of Vancouver Island,
is substantially as follows : — A chief's wife, who was with child, died and
was buried. In the grave she gave birth to a boy, who grew up feeding
upon his mother's body. Eventually he was discovered and claimed by the
chief, who grew to be very fond of him. The boy used to shoot birds and to
skin them. One day he put on a bird's skin and flew up to heaven, where
he married the deity's daughter. They had a son, who, when born,
dropped from his mother's hand and fell into the ocean. He was found
by a chief, and in course of time became Tqertsem, of whom the same
adventures are told which Yetl is said to have accomplished. He appears
generally in the shape of the raven.
The flood, of which the Tsimshian also tell, is said to have been sent
by heaven as a punishment for the ill-behaviour of man. First, all people,
with the exception of a few, were destroyed by a flood, and later on by
fire. Before the flood the earth was not as it is now, but there were no
mountains and no trees. After the flood Leqa' created these too. The
earth is considered to be round, and resting on a pillar that is held by an
old woman.
The most important of the Kwakiutl legends is that of the wanderer
K a'nikila. He is the son of the deity, and descended from heaven to
earth, where he was born again of a woman. When he came to be
grown up he wandered all over the world, transforming his enemies into
animals and making friends with many a mighty chief. Another im-
portant legend is that of the mink, Tle'selakila (meaning the son of the
sun), who made a chain of arrows reaching from the sky to the earth, on
which he climbed up and visited his father, who let him cai'ry the sun in
his stead. When, however, he went too fast, and set the earth on fire,
his father cast him into the sea. While the northern tribes of this race
240 EEPOKT— 1888.
are acquainted with the raven legends, those farther south ascribe all the
adventures of the j-aven to the mink. Another class of legends of tbe
Kwakiutl is of great importance as referring to the spirits of the dances.
I will mention in this place that these remarkable dances have evidently-
originated with the Kwakiutl, although they are at present practised by
the Tsimshian and Haida, and by some of the southern tribes. The
Tsimshian practise only a few of them, the names of the dances being all
of Kwakiutl origin. According to their own statements they were
obtained by intermarriage with tbe Heiltsuk. The Haida adopted them
from the Tsimshian. In all these dances ornaments of cedar bark, dyed
red, are used, and it appears that this custom also originated among
the Kwakiutl. The most prominent figure of this winter dance is the
man-eater, called Ha'raats'a (the eater) by the Kwakiutl, Elaqo'tla by the
Bilqula, O'lala by the Haida and Tsimshian. The latter call his dance
also the Wihalai't (the great dance). The Ha'mats'a is initiated by a
spirit, referring to which numerous traditions exist. It is a peculiarity
of Kwakiutl mythology that it treats of many supernatural beings, while
farther north almost exclusively the heaven, the sun, moon, and raven
have supernatural power. Among these beings the following ave of im-
portance: — The Tsono'k'oa (probably a mythical form of the grizzly bear),
the Thunderbird, the Si'siutl (the double-headed snake), and a cuttlefish
of enormous size. The myths of the Heiltsuk are much influenced by
those of the Bilqula, their eastern neighbours.
The legends of the Nutka ti'eat also principally of the great wanderer,
and embody, so far as I am aware, no element which is not found among
the Kwakiutl.
The legends of the Salish vary to a oreat extent among the various
tribes, those of the coast tribes resembling the myths of the Kwakiutl.
The wandei'er and the sun are here the heroes of the greater part of the
myths. The legend of the wanderer does not differ from that of the
Kwakiutl, except in that he is himself the deity. Each remarkable stone or
rock is described as being a man transformed by him. He made a great
fire in order to destro}" man, and later on made the ocean rise and cover
the land. The ascent to lieaven on a chain of arrows is one of the prin-
cipal objects of their legends, the tale treating frequently of a murder of
the old sun and the origin of the new one. Besides this, the double-headed
snake is of importance, even more so than among the Kwakiutl.
The mythology of the Bilqula, whose language is closely related to that
of the dialects of the Gulf of Georgia, differs greatly from that of the
other Salish tribes, being evidently influenced by their neighbours. Their
mythology, on the other hand, has influenced that of the Heiltsuk. I do
not think that the wanderer legend is found among them. They tell of
the raven who created daylight, and of two men, Masmasala'niq and
Tula'tioiot, who descended from heaven, created man, and gave him his
arts. This legend is one of the most beautiful of those found on the coast.
Its origin is doubtful. It would benecessaiy to study the mythology of
the tribes of the interior more closely in order to arrive at a satisfactory
understanding of this myth. The Bilqula have also the legend of the
mink caiTying the sun. They call him T'otk-oa'ya.
I am not well acquainted with the myths of the tribes of the interior,
having collected only a limited number among the Ntlakapaniuq. They
also tell of the wanderer who transformed men into stones, but it is
doubtful whether he is in any way connected with the deity. Their
ON THE NOKTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 241
legends referring to the sun are numerous, one of the most important
being the visit to the sun. There are many legends referring to the raven
and to the mink, and here for the first time we find the coyote playing an
important part in the mythology.
The heroes of the myths of the Kutonaqa are the sun and the coyote.
These myths are more closely connected with those of their south-eastern
neighbours than with those of the north-west coast Indians. It is, how-
ever, of interest to notice that the legend of a chain of arrows reaching
up to the sky, and a conquest of the sky, which is so important in the
Salish tales, occurs here also. One of the most interesting legends is that
of the origin of the sun. The animals tried by turns to act as the sun,
but none succeeded. The coyote almost succeeded, but as he made it
too hot, and as he told everything he saw going on upon the earth, he
was also compelled to give up his place in the sky, and then the two sons
of the lynx became sun and moon. Later on, the coyote became the
father-in-law of the sun, and many are the tales that refer to his adven-
tures. He plays a part similar to that of the raven in the tales of the
Tlingit.
Keligton, Shamanism, Moktuary Customs.
A study of mythology and of customs shows that the Indians of this
province worshipped principally the sun or the heaven. The Tlingit
and Haida pray to the moon, and in praying blow feathers up as an
offering. They also pray to mountains, and believe that the animals
of their crest protect them, although they are not forbidden to kill them.
They believe in the transmigration of souls, the soul of the deceased being
born again in a child of the same gens. The souls of animals return in
the same way in their young. Sickness is to a great extent ascribed to
witchcraft, and it is the duty of the shaman to cure the sick and to find
out the witch. The shaman is initiated by acquiring a spirit. Cleanli-
ness is considered as being agreeable to the spirits ; therefore the novice
must bathe frequently. Great powers are ascribed to people who
abstained from sexual intercourse. The dead, except shamans, are
burned, and the ashes put up in small boxes. Shamans are buried near
the beach, one cofiBn being deposited on top of the other.
The Tsimshian have a supreme deity called Leqa'. Prayers are fre-
quently not addressed to him directly, but to spirits, the Neqno'q, who
convey them to him. Most of the prayers have conventional forms. In
praying for clear weather for instance, they say : ' Neqno'q, Neqno'q, chief,,
chief, have mercy ! Look down upon thy people under thee. Pall up •
thy foot and wipe thy face ! ' They think that the existence of man is
pleasing to the deity, and that he enjoys the smoke rising from their
fires. They pray: ' Have mercy upon us! Else there will be nobody to-
make the smoke rise up to thee. Have pity upon us ! ' The Tsimshian
believe that the dead live in a country similar to our own, and that they
are never in want. The dead are buried, but the heart is taken out and
buried apart. Chiefs are sometimes burnt, and so are shamans. If a
series of deaths occurred in a family, the mourners used to cut off" the
first joint of the fourth finger, in order to put an end to the misfortunes
of their family.
The Kwakiutl worship the sun. It is not quite clear whether they
worship K'anikila, the wanderer, besides, or whether they address their
prayers only to the sun. Their dances are closely connected with their
1888. E
242 KEPOET— 1888.
religious ideas, particularly the dance Tlok'oala (:= something unexpected
coming from above), which, in course of time, has pai'tly been adopted by
all their neighbours. There are a great number of spirits of this dance,
each of which has his own class of shamans, the duties and prerogatives
of whom vary according to the character of their genii. The Kwakiutl
bury their dead in boxes, which are placed in small houses or on trees.
Posts, carved according to the crest of the deceased, are placed in front
of the graves. Food is burnt for the dead on the beach. Their mourning
ceremonies are very complicated and rigorous.
The Coast Salish worship the sun. They pray to him and are nofc
allowed to take their morning meal until the day is well advanced. The
wanderer, called Kumsno'otl by the Comox, Qiils by the Cowitchin and
Lkungen, and Qais by the Skqomish, is also worshipped. They believe
*hat he lives in heaven and loves the good, but punishes the bad. The
art of shamanism was bestowed by him upon the first man, who brought
it down from heaven.
The Kutonaqa are also sun- worshippers, even more decidedly so tban
any of the other tribes. They pi'ay to the sun. They offer him a smoke
from their pipe before smoking themselves, and sacrifice their eldest
children in order to secure prosperity to their families. They believe
that the souls of the deceased go towards the east, and will return in
course of time with the sun. Occasionally they have great festivals,
during which they expect the return of the dead. They have also the
custom of cutting off the first joints of the fingers as a sacrifice to the
sun. They pierce their breasts and arms with sharp needles and cut off
pieces of flesh, which they offer to the sun. It is doubtful whether
they practise the sun-dance of their eastern neighbours. The dead are
buried, their heads facing the east. It is of interest that the positions of
the body after death are considered to be prophetic of future events.
The mourners cut their hair and bury it with the deceased. Warriors
are buried among trees which are peeled and painted red. Each shaman
has his own genius, generally a bird or another animal, which he acquires
by fasting in the woods or on the mountains. The shamans are able to
speak with the souls of absent or deceased persons, and are skilful
jugglers.
Report on the Sarcee Indians, hy the Eev. E. F. Wilson.
The Sarcee Indians belong to the great Athabascan or Tinneh stock,
to which the Chipewyans, Beavers, Hares, and others in the North- West
and, it is said, the Navajoes, in New Mexico, also belong. They were
formerly a powerful nation, but are now reduced to a few hundreds.
Their reserve, which consists of a fine tract of prairie land, about a
hundred square miles in extent, adjoins that of the Blackfeet, in Alberta,
a little south of the Canadian Pacific Railway line, and seventy or eighty
miles east of the Rocky Mountains. Although friendly and formerly
confederate with the Blackfeet, they bear no affinity to that people ; they
belong to a distinct stock and speak an altogether different language.
They are divided into two bands — the Blood Sarcees and the Real
Sarcees.
During my visit, which lasted seven days, I had several interviews
with their chief, ' Bull's Head,' a tall, powerful man, about sixty years of
age ; and it was from him and one or two of his leading men that I
ON THE NOETH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 243
gathered most of my information. I found, however, tliat the Sarcees
•were not so ready to converse, or to tell either about their language or
their history, as were the Blackfeet, whom I visited last summer. Tea
and tobacco seemed to be with them the chief desiderata, and except
with gifts of this kind it seemed almost impossible to gain anything from
them. And after all, even when plied with these commodities, the infor-
mation they gave was very meagre, and often far from satisfactoiy.
From what little I saw of these people I should be inclined to say that
they are of a lower order and inferior in mental capacity to the Blackfeet;
I judge this chiefly by the style in which they told their stories and
traditions, such as they were, and by their having no elaborated theories
as to certain phenomena in nature, about which many other of the Indian
tribes have always so much to say.
Chief • Bull's Head,' in reply to my questions as to their early history,
made a great show of oratory, both by voice and gesture, but much of
what he said was very childish and confused, and seemed to be scarcely
worth the trouble of putting down.
These people call the Blackfeet ' Katce,' the Crees ' Nishinna,' the
Sioux ' Kaispa,' and themselves ' Sotenna.' The Indians of tbeir own
stock, as I understand, they call ' Tinnatte.' These two last names seem
certainly to connect them with the great ' Tinneh ' or Athabascan nation.
Sarcee (or rather Sarxi) is the name by which they are called by the
Blackfeet.
Whence these People Came.
' Formerly,' said ' Bull's Head,' ' the Sarcee territory extended from
the Rocky Mountains to the Big River (either the Saskatchewan or the
Peace River). Our delight was to make corrals for the buffaloes, and to
drive them over the cut bank and let them fall. Those were glorious
days, when we could mount our swift-footed horses, and ride like the
wind after the flying herd ; but now the buffalo is gone we hang our
heads, we are poor. And then, too, we used to fight those liars, the
Crees : we engaged in many a bloody battle, and their bullets pierced our
teepees. Thirty battles have I seen. When I was a child the Sarcees
were in number like the grass ; the Blackfeet and Bloods and Peigans
were as nothing in comparison. Battles with the Crees and disease
brought in among us by the white man have reduced us to our present
pitiable state.'
Another Indian told us how the Sarcees were at one time one people
with the Chipewyans, and gave us the myth which accounts for their
separation. ' Formerly,' he said, ' we lived in the north country. We
were many thousands in number. We were travelling south. It was
winter, and we had to cross a big lake on the ice. There was an elk's
horn sticking out of the ice. A squaw went and struck the horn with an
axe. The elk raised himself from the ice and shook his head. The
people were all frightened and ran away. Those that ran toward the
north became the Chipewyans, and we who ran toward the south are the
" Sotenna " or " Sarcees." '
' The Chipewyans,' said ' Bull's Head,' 'speak our language. It is twenty
years since I saw a Chipewyan. We call them " Tcohtin." They live up
north, beyond the Big River' (probably the Peace River).
b2
244 BEPORT — 1888.
Their Traditions, Beliefs, &c.
' There was a time,' said 'Bull's Head,' 'when there were no lakes.
The lakes and rivers were occasioned by the bursting of the belly of the
buffalo. It was when the belly of the buffalo burst that the people
divided ; some went to the north and some to the south. For years and
years I have been told that the Creator made all people, and I believe it.
I have heard my mother and other old people speak of the days when
there were no guns and no horses, when our people had only arrows,
and had to hunt the buffalo on foot ; that must have been a very long
time ago.'
The Sarcees have a tradition similar to that of the Blackfeet about
men and women being first made separately, and then being brought
together through the action of the mythical being ' Napiw.'
They have also a tradition of the flood, which accords in its main
features with that of the Ojibways, Crees, and other Canadian tribes.
They say that when the world was flooded there were only one man and!
one woman left, and these two saved themselves on a raft, on which they
also collected animals and birds of all sorts. The man sent a beaver-
down to dive and it brought up a little mud from the bottom, and this
the man moulded in his hands to form a new world. At first the world
was so small that a little bird could walk round it, but it kept getting-
bigger and bigger. ' First,' said the narrator, ' our father took up his
abode on it, then there were men, then women, then animals, then birds.
Our father then created the rivers, the mountains, the trees, and all the
things as we now see them.'
When the story was finished I told the narrator that the Ojibway
tradition was very mnch the same as theirs, only that they said it was a
musli-rat that brought up the earth and not a beaver. Upon this five or
six of the men who were squatting around inside the teepee smoking-
cried, ' Yes, yes ! The man has told you lies ; it was a musk-rat, it was
a musk-rat ! '
Tt seems dubious whether the Sarcees are sun-worshippers ; but, like
the Blackfeet, they call the sun ' our father,' and the earth ' our mother.'
They also engage each summer in the ' sun-dance.' They depend also for
guidance in their actions on signs in the sky and on dreams. They think
they know when there is going to be a fight by the appearance of the
moon. One of their number, named 'Many Swans,' says he is going to
have a good crop this year, for he dreamed that a white woman came
down from above and asked to see his garden, and he showed his garden
to the woman, and it was all gi'een.
' Bull's Head ' had no theory to give as to the cause of thunder ; he
knew that Indians of other tribes said it was a big bird flapping its
wings, but his people did not say so ; they did not know what it was ;
neither had they anything to say about an eclipse.
Manner op Living.
The Sarcee Indians are at present all pagans ; they appear to have no
liking for the white people, and the white people seem to have little
liking for them, and would gladly deprive them of their Lands and drive
them away farther into the wilderness were they permitted to do so.
But the paternal Government, as represented by the Indian Department,
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 245
takes care that tliey are not imposed upon. There is an Indian Agent
stationed on their reserve, who twice a week doles out to them the
Government rations, consisting of excellent fresh beef and good flour; and
there is also a farm instructor, who has charge of the farming stock and
implements, and does what he can to induce these warriors and hunters
to farm.
They have also residing among them a missionary of the Church of
England, who visits them in their teepees, and does his best to collect
their little blanketed children to school, giving two Government biscuits
to each scholar as a reward for attendance. But the people are evidently
averse to all these things, which are being done for their good. Their
only idea of the white man seems to be that of a trespassing individual,
who has more in his possession than he knows what to do with, and may
therefore fairly be preyed upon.
The dress of these people consists, as with other wild Indians, of a
breech-clout, a pair of blanket leggings, beaded moccasins, and a blanket
thrown loosely, but gracefully, over one or both shoulders. They wear
their long black hair in plaits, hanging vertically, one plait on each side of
tlie face, and one or more at the back. Some of them knot their hair on
the top of the head ; and some, I noticed, wore a coloured handkerchief
folded and tied round the temples. This, I believe, is one distinguishing
mark of the Navajo Indians in New Mexico. Very often the leggings
and moccasins are dispensed with, and the man appears to have nothing
on except his grey, white, or coloured blanket. The women wear an
ordinary woman's dress of rough make and material, and short in the
skirt, next to the skin, leggings and moccasins, and a blanket round the
shoulders. Ornaments are worn by both sexes, but chiefly by the men.
They consist of brooches and earrings made of steel, necklaces and brace-
lets made of bright-coloured beads, bones, claws, teeth, and brass wire,
and finger- rings, also of brass wire, coiled ten or twelve times, and cover-
ing the lower joint of the finger. Every finger of each hand is sometimes
covered with these rings. Both men and women paint the upper part of
the face with ochre or vermilion. The people live in ' teepees,' conical-
shaped lodges, made of poles covered with tent cotton, in the summer,
and in low log huts, plastered over with mud, in winter. They
depend for their subsistence almost entirely on the rations supplied by
Government. They keep numbers of ponies, but seem to make little use
of them beyond riding about. They keep no cattle or animals of any
kind beyond their ponies and dogs. The latter are savage, and are said
to be descendants of the wolf and the coyote, with which animals they
still often breed. They seem to have no manufactures ; they make no
canoes, baskets, &c., but they know how to prepare the hides and skins of
the animals they kill, and they make their own clothing, saddles, bows
and arrows, and moccasins. Some of the women do very excellent bead-
work. Bridles they do not use ; a rope or thong fastened to the pony's
lower jaw takes the place of a bridle ; their whips are a short stout stick,
studded with brass nails, and provided with two leathern thongs as lashes
at one end, and a loop for the wrist at the other, Their bows are of
cherry wood, strung with a leathern thong, and their arrows of the
Saskatoon willow, winged with feathers, and pointed with scrap-iron,
filed to a sharp point. The shaft of the arrow has four shallow grooves
down its entire length.
246 KEroET— 1888.
Gambling.
The Sai'cees, like most other wild Indians, are inveterate gamblers.
They will gamble everything away — ponies, teepees, blankets, leggings,
moccasins — till they have nothing left but their breech-clout. In my
report of the Blackfeet last year I mentioned the use of a little hoop or
wheel for gambling purposes. I find that the Sarcees also use this, and
two of them showed me how they play the game. A little piece of board,
if procurable, or two or three flattened sticks, laid one on the other, are
put for a target, at a distance of eighteen or twenty feet from the starting-
point, and the two players then take their places beside each other ; one
has the little wheel in his left hand, an arrow in his right ; the other one
has only an arrow. The play is to roll the wheel and to deliver the two
arrows simultaneously, all aiming at the mark which has been set up.
If the wheel falls over on one of the arrows, it counts so many points,
according to the number of beads on the wire spoke of the wheel that
touch the arrow. Nothing is counted unless the little wheel falls on one
of the arrows. The articles for which they play are valued at so many
points each. A blanket is worth, perhaps, ten points, a pony fifty, and so on.
Another method by which these people gamble is as follows : Two
men squat side by side on the ground, with a blanket over tlieir knees,
and they have some small article, such as two or three brass beads tied
together, which they pass from one to another under the blanket ; and
the other side, which also consists of two persons, has to guess in which
hand the article is to be found — very much like our children's ' hunt the
whistle.' The Sarcees use also the English playing cards, but it is a
game of their own that they play with them. Whoever gets the most
cards is the winner.
Mateimont.
The Sarcees are polygamous, the men having two, three, or four
wives. The time of moving camp is generally looked upon as a pro-
pitious time for love-making. The camp is in the form of a ring, with
the horses picketed in the centre. Early in the morning the young men
drive the horses to a swamp or slough to water them. They are thinking,
perhaps, of some young squaw whom they wish to approach, but they
are ashamed to speak to her. Then, as soon as all is ready for the move,
the chief gives the word, and the callers summon the people to start on
the march. The chief goes first and leads the way. Now is the oppor-
tunity for the bashful young swains ; they drop behind the rest and
manage to ride alongside the young women of their choice, and to get a
few words into their ears. If the young woman approves the ofi'er, she
follows her white sister's example by referring the young man to her
parents. If the parents consent, mutual presents are exchanged, such as
horses, blankets, &c. ; the girl is dressed in her best, and her face painted,
and the young man takes her away. A husband can divorce himself
from his wife at any time if he pleases, but he has to restore the presents
that he received with her, or their equivalent. Girls are often betrothed
at ten years of age and married at fourteen. A betrothed girl may not
look in a man's face until after her marriage. A man may not meet his
mother-in-law ; if he chance to touch her accidentallj^ he must give her
a present. At a feast among the Blackfeet at which I was present an
impatient mother-in-law was standing without and sending messages to
the son-in-law within to make haste and leave before all the good things
ON THE NOKTH-WESTEKN TBIBES OF CANABA. 247
were done, so that she might come in and get her share ; but he sent
word back that he was in no hurry. Parents do not often punish their
children, but sometimes, in a fit of ill-temper, will beat them cruelly.
They are more cruel to their wives than to their children. While I was
making these notes a Sarcee woman came into the lodge with her nose
cut off; her husband had done it as a punishment for her keeping
company with another man.
Medicine.
The Sarcees are not considered to be much versed in the use of medi-
cinal roots and herbs ; they are much more ready to take the white man's
medicine than are their neighbours, the Blackfeet.
Among themselves they depend chiefly on magic and witchcraft for
recovery from sickness. There are about a dozen so-called ' medicine-
men ' in the camp, but most of them are loomen. Chief among them is
an old squaw named ' Good Lodge.' They are always highly paid for
their services, whether the patient recovers or not. A medicine-man
when called in to see a sick person will first make a stone red-hot in the
fire, then touch the stone with his finger, and with the same finger press
various parts of the patient's body, to ascertain the locality and character
of the sickness. Then he will suck the place vigorously and keep spitting
the disease (so he pretends) from his mouth. This is accompanied by
drum -beating and shaking a rattle. The Sarcees do not bleed or cup,
but they blister (often quite efficaciously) by applying the end of a piece
of burning touchwood to the affected part. They also use the vapour-
bath. To do this a little bower, about three feet high, is made of pliable
green sticks, covered over closely with blankets. Several stones are
heated red and placed in a small hole in the ground inside the bower;
and over these the patient sits in a state of nudity and keeps putting
water on the stones, which is supplied to him by an attendant from,
without. When thoroughly steamed, and almost boiled, he rushes out,
and plunges into cold water. This treatment sometimes efiects a cure,
but more often induces bad results and death. The vapour-bath, as
above described, is used very extensively by Indians of many different
tribes ; some, however, omit the plunge into cold water.
Burial Customs.
I had a good opportunity to investigate the burial customs of these
people. Riding across the prairie with a young Englishman who had
spent sev 
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