i
ssiasaerers
S.1A.S9,,
REPORT
OF THE
SIxXTInTe -MEETING
OF THE
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR THE
_ ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE
| HELD AT
LEEDS IN SEPTEMBER 1890.
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1891.
PRINTED BY
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE
LONDON
CONTENTS,
ee
Page
Osszcrs and Rules of the Association .............cssssssssssesesseeceseceeecccece Xxlv
Places and Times of Meeting and Officers from commencement ............... XXXiv
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from com-
VEE HEETELIT OAS apse RIREES 6 5c cee Rema MMe Hes MMM apace xiii
Memmrem rent Tectarea::222)5.22:.2naite lal ed Ix
Beseemmes £0, tho Operative: Classes ....cc.ce-.ccacectcoao-onesnescessceeavsouseccceee Ixili
cers of Sectional Committees present at the Leeds Meeting ............... Ixiy
EL eR re a RE RT lxvi
able showing the Attendance and Receipts at the Annual Meetings ...... Ixvili
ficers and Council, 1890-91 ........ CA crioctts OL eae MERON awe AMT eT, lxx
port of the Council to the General Committee ............ccsccseeseeesssecense lxxi
ommittees appointed by the General Committee at the Leeds Meeting in
asia 2. 2-04 yroesinee dOeresss or estSecccc ne Ixxix
Other Resolutions adopted by the General Committee ...........c00000000... Ixxxvi
ommunications ordered to be printed in eatenso in the Annual Report of
MMSE gs 90 2. 5. .cu cvs sces vevéctenneelistareeen eo ee Ixxxvi
esolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and action if
I 9. Fe ete. 8 dc), Soc cets oh. bb veeuase need SAWRS Adult dar kaa Ixxxyi
Semrpemeror Grants'of Money: ...........10.cssasesecoveesosvecsovcencnocsveccbiveseses Ixxxviii
Reman Meeting in 1G] and 1892 .......ecs-.s-s--eseserjeaccenicecenapecences as, Lex
eneral Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of Grants
Re PURDON Gs noes eae Nh, Becta: « xe
TIE RESIS Wiis xegsk a cables ewvsitilesveeewecedeeened miciaeelaetia'awicis : ciii
ddress by the President, Sir Freperick AvGustUs Ag, C.B., D.C.L.
(Oxon.), D.Sc. (Cant.), F.R.S., P.P.C.S., Hon.M.Inst.C.E. seeeecceececsee 3
Ly, CONTENTS. - Yate
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCi
Page
Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee, consisting of Mr, Francis \
Gatron (Chairman), Professor A. W. Witttamson, Sir Doveias Gatron,
Professor Boyp Dawkins, Sir Rawson Rawson, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
Joun Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Professor R. Mutpota (Secretary), Pro-
fessor T. G. Bonney, Mr. W. Waurraxer, Mr.G. J. Symons, General Prrr-
FR TVERS, and uM We cLOPTAGY sive sec sssse tors ct eae taes csjedeeiesan'eeenerageane teens . 55
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of the Hon. RatpH ABERCROMBY,
Dr A. Bucwan, Mr. J. Y. Bucnuanan, Mr. J. Witzis Bunn, Professor
Curystat, Mr. D. CunnrncHAM, Professor FrrzGeratp, Dr. H. R. Min
(Secretary), Dr. Joun Murray (Chairman), Mr. Isaac Ropgrts, Dr. H. C.
Sorsy, and the Rev. C. J. Srewarp, appointed to arrange an investigation
of the Seasonal Variations of Temperature in Lakes, Rivers, and Estuaries
in various parts of the United Kingdom in co-operation with the local
societies represented on the Association .........ssssseeeeeeeees cae sieere es BU cena Ss
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor G. Carry Foster, Sir
Wim THomson, Professor Ayrton, Professor J. Perry, Professor W.
G. Apams, Lord Rayreten, Dr. O. J. Loner, Dr. Jonn Hopxinson, Dr.
A. Murruead, Mr. W. H. Preece, Mr. Herpert TAYLOR, Professor EVERETT,
Professor ScHustER, Dr. J. A. Fremine, Professor G. F. Firzceraxp,
Mr. R. T. Grazeproox (Secretary), Professor Curystat, Mr. H. Tomiry-
son, Professor W. Garnett, Professor J. J. THomson, Mr. W. N. SHaw,
Mr. J. T. Borromiry, and Mr. T. Gray, appointed for the purpose of
constructing and issuing Practical Standards for use in Electrical Measure-
MENTB iy. Sicedecscesss/ofeeveee Wa sbsslded sasboacaces an didesesnipaesssceessicainennes.saetmeeeeerees 95
Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors FirzcERaLp (Chair-
man), ARMsTRONG and OG. J. Lopes (Secretaries), Sir WiLtLtam THomson,
Lord Rayieten, J. J. THomson, Scuuster, Poyntine, Crum Brown,
Ramsay, FRANKLAND, TiLppEN, Harriry, 8. P. Tompson, MoLeop,
Roserts-AUsTEN, Rucker, Rernotp, Carny Foster, H. B. Dixon, and
Joun M. Tomson, Captain Anney, Drs. GLapstonr, Horxryson, and
Fremine, and Messrs. Crooxrs, SHELFORD Browett, W. N. SHaw, J.
Larnor, J. T. Borromiry, R. T. GrazeBroox, J. Brown, and E. J. Love,
appointed for the purpose of considering the subject of Electrolysis in its
Physicalvand| Chemical Bearings) 0222. cade scce.cnceses ocss-cene-eeonrnsi ane 138
Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir G. G. Sroxes (Chairman),
Mr. G. J. Symons (Secretary), Professor Scuusrer, Dr. G. JOHNSTONE
Stoney. Sir H. E. Roscoz, Captain Apnuy, and Mr. Waipptr, appointed
for the purpose of considering the best methods of recording the direct
Intensity otsolar Radiation .20.2--..2..tecessscceesssecdeebecvecet alse sn sven Eee 144
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. JoHn Kerr (Chairman), Sir
WituiAmM THomson, Professor Ricker, and Mr, R. T. GrazeBRoox (Secre-
tary), appointed to co-operate with Dr, Kerr in his researches on Electro-
OptCs gtemeacas san Fen esauicis sislag awe ow'oweaiseem acee tows sati ene cae eerie Sc saa 144 |
Report of the Committee on Molecular Phenomena associated with the Mag-
netisation of Iron. (Phenomena occurring at a red heat.) Professor G. F.
FirzGpBRALp (Chairman), H, F. Newatt, F. Trouron, and Professor W. F.
DIDAGREUT (SeCLOLALY,):.coareseeqad-50a>->-605e20p oes RP Te spaces Ab
CONTENTS.
v
Page
Tenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Wiit1aM THoxson, Mr. R,
Erueriver, Professor Jonn Perry, Dr. Henry Woopwarp, Professor
Tuomas Gray, and Professor Jonn Mitnu (Secretary), appointed for the
urpose of investigating the Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of
Spates (Drawn up by the Secretary) ........vecssceccseccsseecccccveveerccessenteses
Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. Grytis ADAMS
(Chairman and Secretary), Sir Wittiam Tomson, Sir J. H,. Lerroy,
Professors G. H. Darwin, G. Curysrat, and 8S. J. Perry, Mr. C. H.
CarpMAEL, Professor ScuusterR, Professor Ricker, Commander CreEax,
the AsrronomeR Royat, Mr. Wittram Exuis, Mr. W. Lant Carpenter,
and Mr. G. M. Wurpete, appointed for the purpose of considering the best
means of Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Observations .............00..06++
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Crum Brown (Secretary),
Mr. Miznr-Homes, Dr. Joun Murray, Lord McLarnn, Dr. Bucwan,
and the Hon. RatpH ABERCROMBY, (Chairman), appointed for the purpose
of co-operating with the Scottish Meteorological Society in making Meteoro-
fogical Observations on Bem Nevis .....J.t.cccccesscsooasenscecosceacesssesscssnesres
Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors A. JoHnson (Secre-
tary), J. G. MacGrueor, J. B, Cunrrrman, and H. T, Bovey and Mr. C,
CaRPMAEL, appointed for the purpose of promoting Tidal Observations in
CIS R ocet ee a dpe UBS DE Mace A BRG? Cea Se ngs sea MORTEM aan Cnc aa RCIBC eee OCuBE oder aac
Report on the Present State of our Knowledge in Electrolysis and Electro-
Beorainityem by) Vic NG HAH VIbuAUs msc sndcoecsatratssavccesssavacetu cechonewneatcs
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. E. Roscoz, Mr. J. N. Lockyer,
Professors Dewar, Wotcorr Gress, Liverne, ScHuster, and W. N.
Hartiyy, Captain Apnry, and Dr. MarsHatn Warts (Secretary),
appointed to prepare a new series of Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of
HC PEeMEN TANG COMPOUNAS <a ccsca.asepiorsbuecsocorencteorestecesenseresceedssacs
Report of the Committee, consisting of Messrs. A. W. Rernoxp, H. G. Manan,
W. C. Roperts-Avsten, and Hrersert M‘Leop, on the Bibliography of
SEED LLOSCONV Ate race rcrk ects ston cep reoen at one acensctackecccngeeewarteesaconetatetias ste stine
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. A. TILDEN
(Chairman), Professor Ropprts-Austan, and Mr. THomas TurNER (Secre-
tary), appointed to consider the Influence of Silicon on the Properties of
Tron and Steel. (Drawn up by the Secretary) .............s.csecseserscecteeeeers 2
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Ropmrts-A USTEN
(Chairman), Sir F. Apet, Messrs. E. Ritny and J, Sprinter, Professor
Lanetsy, Mr. G. J. Snetus, Professor Truppn, and Mr. THomas TURNER
(Secretary), appointed to consider the best method of establishing an Inter-
national Standard for the Analysis of Iron and Steel. (Drawn up by the
IEE AO fais coke aces choigcShose%. «akg sencéupcersateaee Rates's nape dv diva cee t ane ene
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Russert, Captain ABNEY,
Professor Hartiey, Professor Ramsay, and Dr. RicHaRDson (Secretary),
ented for the investigation of the Action of Light on the Hydracids
of the Halogens in presence of Oxygen. (Drawn up by Dr. Ricwarp-
SIR REE Ge TA Tee sa ciccbic sas vais ven Gzadt ase Uso a Spas sn quiae age bau ccalosatenssr’ oe doteocns
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor H. E. ARMSTRONG,
Professor W. R. Dunstan (Secretary), Dr. J. H. Guapsrons, Mr. A. G.
Vernon Harcourt, Professor H. M‘Leop, Professor Mrupora, Mr. Parrr-
son Murr, Sir Henry E. Roscoz, Dr. W. J. Russert (Chairman), Mr.
W. 4. Suenstonn, Professor SarrHeLts, and Mr, SraLLaRD, appointed
for the purpose of inquiring into and reporting upon the present Methods of
Teaching Chemistry. (Drawn up by Professor Dunsran.) To which is
appended a paper by Professor ARMsTRONG on ‘Exercises in Elementary
MMP OFINPTIOML SOLANICS! "jie ch bsdis decd toscccedodecdevserceuceedeay sake begae tesaass F
160
174
183
224
261
263
265
iN
is
vl CONTENTS.
Page
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors TimpDEN and
Ramsay and Dr. Nicou (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of inves-
tigating the Properties! OL SOUPIONS:...2--.caessce t=. scnoee oe dwseint aor seeder teneaee 310
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors TrtpeN, M‘Leop,
Prcxerine, Ramsay, and Youne and Drs. A. R. Lreps and Nicoz
(Secretary), appointed for the purpose of reporting on the Bibliography of
SOLU DKON 1 | SoA. Rane ene: code seucooAAcicortobcansarreeendhe a ssoak voles sinttie ct eehde Selene eases 310
Discussion on the Theory of Solution. The present Position of the Hydrate
Theory of Solution. By Spencer Umrrevitre Picxerrne, M.A., F.R.S. 311
Provisional Report of a Committee, consisting of Professors H. M‘Lxop and -
W. Ramsay and Messrs. J. T. CunDALL and W. A. SHENSTONE (Secretary),
appointed to investigate the Influence of the Silent Discharge of Electricity
om Oxygen! and other'Gases| <.2c....cscc sncctosceve tence ssacatsce leach seneaaenetteet te 338
Report of the Committee, consisting of General Frstine (Chairman), Dr.
H. E. Armsrrone (Secretary), Captain Abney, and Professor W. N.
Harrxey, on the Absorption Spectra of Pure Compounds .................0655 589
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. H. Woopwarp, Mr, R.
Ernertper, Mr. R. Kinston, the Rev. G. F. Wuipporns, and Mr. J. E.
Marr (Secretary), appointed for considering the best methods for the
Registration of all Type Specimens of Fossils in the British Isles, and
TEpottansy On thessawla rn... 2. ccnycs cases se deaaoascoseusese setscnce sakeee hee epee eee 339
Eighteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Presrwicn, Dr.
H. W. Crossxkry, Professors W. Boyp Dawxtns, T. McKrnny Hvueues,
and T. G. Bonnry, and Messrs. C. E. Dk Rancz, W. Peneetry, J. PLant,
and R. H. Trppeman, appointed for the purpose of recording the Position,
Height above the Sea, Lithological Characters, Size, and Origin of the Erratic
Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland, reporting other matters of interest
connected with the same, and taking measures for their preservation.
(irawnup by Dr, (CRosskmy, Sectetary).tc.codéescdeeessees’ess ves ses cueeeneeneee 340
Sixteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Drs. E. Hvrn and
H. W. Crosskey, Sir Dovetas Gatron, Professor G. A. Lenour, and
Messrs. JAMES GLAISHER, EK. B, Marren, G. H. Morton, W. PENGELLY,
James Pxrant, J. Prestwicu, I. Roserts, T. S. Srooxr, G. J.
Symons, W. Torrey, Ty.pEen-Wricut, E. WretHEReD, W. WHITAKER,
and C. k. Dr Rance (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of investigating
the Circulation of Underground Waters in the Permeable Formations of
England and Wales, and the Quantity and Character of the Water supplied
to various Towns and Districts from these Formations. (Drawn up by
CSE meAN CHE CpOrter)Roiecess.sacateseeceateucdiaeieces: liv isienascet se eee 352
Final Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. J. W. Davis, Mr. W. Casu,
Dr. H. Hicks, Mr. G. W. Lamptucu, Mr. C. Retry, Dr. H. Woopwarp,
and Mr. T. Boynzon, appointed for the purpose of investigating an Ancient
Sea-beach near Bridlington Quay. (Drawn up by G. W. Lampiuen,
SECLEMALY)) Mite donenidae boast oeesein setosa nels «ce Staches weOiaebinaacaeesmes ceee sc alee eee 375
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. H. Woopwarp, Mr. G. R. Vine
(Secretary), Drs. P. M. Duncan and H. C. Sorpy, and Mr. C. E. Dm Rance,
appointed to prepare a report on the Cretaceous Polyzoa. (Drawn up by
Mr. G. R. Vive)
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. H. Bavermay, Mr. F. W. Ruprmr,
Mr. J. J. H. Teart, and Dr. H. J. Jonnsron-Lavis, appointed for the in-
vestigation of the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius and its neighbourhood,
(Drawn up by Dr. H. J. Jounston-Lavis, F.G.S., Secretary) 397
Fourth and final Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. Eraprien,
Dr. H. Woopwarp, and Mr, A. Bett (Secretary), appointed for the purpose
CONTENTS. vil
of reporting upon the ‘Manure’ Gravels of Wexford. (Drawn up by Mr.
eR RIES Mee tel den's esa ceo uc nsavesdblcqcsdsGalaatsaids ame tileddes «dene cisloeagesesosedeasas rx 410
Eighth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. ErnEripes, Dr. H.
Woopwarp, and Professor T. Rupert Jonrs (Secretary), on the Fossil
Peayempoda Of the Palaozoic Rocks i....5...seuscoessscuespuanandvaneencnesaaseaposeue 424
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor JamEs GErkIE (Chairman),
Mr. 8. A. Apamson, Professor T. G. Bonnzy, Professor W. Boyp Dawkins,
Mr. Wm. Gray, Mr. Arruur 8. Rei, and Mr. Osmunp W. Jurrs (Secre-
tary), to arrange for the collection, preservation, and systematic registration
of Photographs of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom, (Drawn up
PMU CREOLAR YY 20521 sp ca aceesdds heckisiborsbaines. donde csbuden Ediiie ake ches wate ade 429
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor FLrowER (Chairman), Pro-
fessor M. Fosrrr, Professor Ray LANKESTER, Professor Vinzs, and Mr.S. F.
Harmer (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of arranging for the occupa-
tion of a Table at the Laboratory of the Marine Biological Association at
BBL VIIOULIY Wantcne sree sie ccameswsccetatetocca sens ane Sunt oe neae snc eaeee tea ece eo naaeahiapeaes 444
_ Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor FLowpR (Chairman),
Mr. D. Morris (Secretary), Mr. CanRvuTHERS, Dr. SctaTErR, Mr, THISELTON-
Dyer, Dr. SHarp, Mr. F. Du Cane Gopman, Professor Newron, Dr.
Gunytuer, and Colonel FELDEN, appointed for the purpose of reporting
on the present state of our Inowledge of the Zoology and Botany of the
West India Islands, and taking steps to investigate ascertained deficiencies
PPaaHOP am asantd MLOLS: cue voctccedea ses actos teseidclesdoldydea tht satalase aes ddd contegyecere’s 447
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. P. L. Sctarer, Professor Ray
LanxesterR, Professor CossarR Ewart, Professor M. Foster, Mr. A.
SEepewick, Professor A. M. Marswatt, and Mr. Percy Srapen (Secre-
_ tary), appointed for the purpose of arranging for the occupation of a Table
mu ube Zoological’ Station at Naples. xc2-2.c...2....es-resesosts.acdeseressnedaosces 449
_ Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Newron, Mr. JoHn Cor-
DEAUX (Secretary), Mr. J. A. Harviz-Brown, Mr. R. M. Barrrineron,
Mr. W. Eacir Crarxe, and the Rey. E. P. Kyusiey, appointed to make a
digest of the observations on Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and Light-
vessels which have been carried on from 1879 to 1887 inclusive by the
Migrations Committee of the British Association (with the consent of the
Master and Elder Brethren of the Trinity House and the Commissioners of
Northern and Irish Lights), and to report upon the same ..............:0000+- 464
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. A. W. Wits (Chairman),
Mr. E. W. Baperr, Mr. G. Crartipen Drucs, and Professor HILLHovsE,
forthe purpose of collecting information as to the Disappearance of Native
Plants from their Local Habitats. (Drawn up by Professor HILLHOUSE,
BULEREUBNY)) Wis cad atone andeey coins. cians’ Rp ee een eee aca mae aaah duetiiecsanentes 465
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Foster, Professor
Bayiey Batrour, Mr. Tursprron-Dysr, Dr. Trmen, Professor MaARsHaLL
Warp, Mr. Carrutuers, Professor Harrog, and Professor Bowrr (Secre-
tary), appointed for the purpose of taking steps for the establishment of a
+ Botanical Station at Peradeniya, Ceylom..........:sccesccsseceessneceeceseesseseees 470
.
1 . mes
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Happon, Mr. W. E. Horie
(Secretary), and Professor W. A. HERDMAN, appointed for improving and
experimenting with a Deep-sea Tow-net, for opening and closing under
(OUTER ORs Gon Sitcnanss6c-MEciog-enidh. U8 sJce i Sent COnPEE ECE OJenEde con) sos: cOeareeaec5- 68 471
The probable Effects on Wages of a general Reduction in the Hours of Labour.
xy ErOtcssorr ib? Coe Miumros Wily. Diss stdes vevincacsed=<-gubs canada dvaee sc adeanees 472
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Grrren (Chairman), Pro-
fessor F, Y. EpeEworrH (Secretary), Mr. S.. Bourne, Professor H. 8.
viii CONTENTS.
Foxwett, Professor ALFRED MarsHatt, Mr, J. B. Martin, Professor J. S.
Nicuotson, Mr. R. H. Inexis Panerave, and Professor H. Srp@wrcx,
appointed for the purpose of investigating the best methods of ascertaining
and measuring Variations in the Value of the Monetary Standard............
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. J. H. Grapstone (Chairman),
Professor ArmstRone (Secretary), Mr. SrepHen Bourne, Miss Lypra
Becker, Sir Jomn Lussock, Bart., Dr. H. W. Crosskry, Sir Ricwarp
TemeLe, Bart., Sir Henry EH. Roscoz, Mr. James Hurwoop, and Professor
N. Srory MAsKELYNE, appointed for the purpose of continuing the inquiries
relating to the teaching of Science in Elementary Schools ...........ssseee0+8 :
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. S. Bourn, Professor F. Y.
EperwortH (Secretary), Professor H. S. Foxwext, Mr. Roperr Girren,
Professor ALFRED MarsHatt, Mr. J. B. Martin, Professor J. 8. NicHoLson,
My. R. H Ineris Paterave, and Professor H. Srpewick, appointed for the
purpose of inquiring and reporting as to the Statistical Data available for
determining the amount of the Precious Metals in use as Money in the
principal Countries, the chief Forms in which the Money is employed, and
theamount annually used im the Aurts! 1.2 ,...:0ssecveeessessssessconeeseeeeeeeeeeer
On some New Telemeters, or Range-finders. By Professors ARCHIBALD
Barr, D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., and Wittiam Srroun, B.A., D.Sc. .........200++:
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir J. N. Dovezass, Professor
_W. C. Unwin, Professor OsporneE Reynotps, and Messrs. W. Torney,
i. Leaver Wittiams, W. SuHetrorpd, G. F. Deacon, A. R. Hunz, W. H.
WHEELER, and W. ANDERSON, appointed to investigate the Action of
Waves and Currents on the Beds and Foreshores of Estuaries by means of
Working Model s Mrrwsswisnsctet ss tasn cats cst -10 dead ts'ws aes aalees osidadieee etn coteeaenere
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr.GArson (Chairman), Mr. J. THEODORE
Bent (Secretary), Messrs. H. W. Bares, Broxam, and J. Stuarr GLENNIE,
Sir Frepertc Goupsmip, and Messrs. Prny@rnLLty and RupiEr, appointed
for the purpose of investigating the Geography and the Habits, Customs,
and Physical Characters of the Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor and Northern
Persia, and to excavate on sites of ancient occupation .......,csseseseeeeneeeeees
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir WintiAm Turner, Mr. Bioxam,
Professor FiowEr, Dr. E. B. Tytor, and Mr. Ristey, appointed to
investigate the Habits, Customs, Physical Characteristics, and Religions of
the Natives-of Indiai 2. 1..3-v.536.48.c.as}nedesatn vows oda vo eleyab taod ts aoe
Report of the Committee, consisting of General Prrr-Rivers (Chairman),
Dr. Garson (Secretary), Dr. Beppox, Professor Frowrr, Mr. Francis
Gatton, and Dr. E. B. Tyor, appointed for the purpose of editing a new
Edition of ‘ Anthropological Notes and Queries’ .......cccscssececeeecseeeeseeees
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Jon Lusnocx, Dr. Joun
Evans, Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, Dr. R. Munro, Mr. W. PpNGELLY, Dr.
Tenry Hicxs, Professor Metpora, Dr. Murrmpap, and Mr. JAMEs W.
Davis, appointed for the purpose of ascertaining and recording the localities
in the British Islands in which evidences of the existence of Prehistoric
Inhabitants of the country are found. (Drawn up by Mr. Jamus W. Davis)
Report of the Committee, consisting of General Prrr-Rrvers, Dr. GaARsoN,
and Mr. Broxam, appointed for the purpose of Calculating the Anthropo-
logical Measurements taken at the Newcastle Meeting of the Association
in 1889. (Drawn up by Dr. Garson, Secretary)
TOU e rete ewan neat esse eeeaeene
Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. E. B. Tytor, Mr. G. W.
Broxam, Sir Danie, Wmoson, Dr. G. M. Dawson, General Sir H.
Lerroy, and Mr. Kk. G, Haxrsurton, appointed to investizate the physical
characters, languages, and industrial and social condition of the North-
Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada........
Page
485
489
499
547
547
548
549
553
CONTENTS. ix
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
Section AA—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
Page
Address by J. W. L. Guatser, Se.D., F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S., President of the
IE sorter teh oy cWns veld fearasscevesdassaasipaennanvnscne seep saneoapencravevav~unt 719
1. Report of the Committee on Electro-optics .........scscesscoeenserseeeeeeeeeees 127
2. Notes on High Vacua, By J. SWINBURNE ...........cecceceerscssteeeencanennens 727
8. On the Use of the Lantern in Class-room Work. By Professor ARncH.
Barr, D.Se., and Professor W. STROUD, D.Sc..........:eesseeeceeeeeeeeeerees 727
4, On Refraction and Dispersion in certain Metals. By H. E. J. G. pu Bors
Ete Pr CLINGS fay, de siaashiguseinsebensesv/dudenesansisn castles poideniedhbedss Jutsingvse oi evs 728
5. On an Illustration of Contact Electricity presented by the Multicellular
Electrometer. By Sir Wrtt1am Tomson, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S....... 728
6. On Defective Colour Vision. By Lord Raytered, Sec.R.S............02 ees 728
7. On some new Vacuum Joints and Taps. By W. A. SHENSTONE. ......... 729
8. On the General Theory of Ventilation, with some Applications. By
MEM MRS ERAS WMIVUEAte fae cclccces veldtee aces eccediceciocwes omedecbece ecceeeteceacetebale 730
9. Account of Experiments to determine the Variations in Size of Drops
with the Interval between the Fall of each. By W. Binnie, B.A.......... 731
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
1. Recent Determinations of the Absolute Resistance of Mercury. By R. T.
EGA ZMIRROOK,« MOA, EARS Gesncnstessicdarsscssaccecsvstdecvecceegtsborssndomoseess 731
2. Suggestions towards a Determination of the Ohm, By Professor J.
SSHIEACUTE ONES, IVs A sutiscaues ye culsaiocte ecodalectecslctods sinwicisls ow un sren’cOiteldeaueeieaasiice 732
8. On Alternate Currents in Parallel Conductors of Homogeneous or
Heterogeneous Substance. By Sir Witt1am Tuomson, D.C.L., LL.D.,
ee nc tee eRe en spun cimeaans cesldyacleh ans aguceneedscatmagean ius asunis hc tns 732
4, On Anti-Effective Copper in Parallel Conductors or in Coiled Conductors
for Alternate Currents. By Sir Witr1am Tuomson, D.C.L., LL.D.,
re ry eee ecient erences gas sca dace once es sexcuesbancavandecahand see womens senss 736
5. The Molecular Theory of Induced Magnetism (with exhibition of a
Model). By Professor J. A. Ewing, F.R.S. .......cccscsccscscesccevescsesencs 740
6. Some Experiments to determine Wave Velocity in certain Dielectrics.
Pa NIN ME ROULON Wavcssteces cuncsetelmestcentcetgeteciisersecdas aceubeeedmanoe-ehy 741
e
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
DEPARTMENT I.—MATHEMATICS.
1. On the Physical Character of Caustic Surfaces. By J. Larmor............ 742
i nosbucking of Plates, © By G, Hu BR YANci isis. sathiewesqescesscedsaeadénts 742
x CONTENTS.
Page
8. On the Pulsations of a Rotating Bell. By G. H. BRYAN.................. 743
4, On the History of Pfaff's Problem. By A. R. Forsyru, F.RS. ............ 743
5. On some Geometrical Theorems relating to the Powers of Circles and
Spheres. By Professor WILLIAM WOOLSEY JOHNSON...........:0cceeeeeees 743
6. Possibility of Irreversible Molecular Motions, By E. P. CuLvERWELL,
IMRAN ecw cisco. ate nabaie suck seesi ds esese soe odes eseeer ag sneeenes eae ame 744
7. On some Arithmetical Functions connected with the Elliptic Functions of
KG. (By Dr: J. W. 1. (GrAIsHER, FORS, <coc..csscescsseetasceeseeseaeeseetes 745
8. On Systems of Simultaneous Linear Differential Equations. By A. R.
MORSY TH, POR Se senecsescs tes seins cwcesee onaidteioensesiescieovee Ss Jee cee ue ae eeeete ee eee eee 745
9. Chess Problem. By Lieut.-Col. Artan CunnINGHAM, R.H. ...........008 745
10. On a Remarkable Circle through two Points of a Conic. By Professor
(GW, MEA... kenceeen cin bieeecidrce tovcesd adutioavene sobs erst est teeth ts esate 745
11. Ferrel’s Theory of the Winds. By Cuartes Cuampers, F.R.S............. 745
Department IJ.—GenERAL Puysics AND ELECTROLYSIS.
1. On a Method of Determining in Absolute Measure the Magnetic Suscepti-
bility of Diamagnetic and Feebly Magnetic Solids. By Sir Wuirtram
EO MSON, A): Oya TGs, HEY Ri Sian. up ciwcs desis oe os oes ob lentes coe 745
2. On the Tension of Water Surfaces, Clean and Contaminated, investigated
by the Method of Ripples. By Lord RAyeren, Sec.R.S. ....0.........000e 746
3. On the Adiabatic Curves for Ether, Gas, and Liquid, at High Tempera-
tures, By Professor, Wie) LUA MBAY, I, 1t.9,- ssms sacs evan ecstenaanh soe een anne eeeeeee 746
4, Report of the Committee on Hlectrolysis.........ss.s00.0s-csscstseetecsonssenese 746
5. Report on the State of our Knowledge of Electrolysis and Electro-
Chemistry. By W.N. SHAW «....cxssc..srcntnecsue:soesasnheen teas ane een
6, On the Action of Semipermeable Membranes in Electrolysis. By Pro-
Fessor, W. OSTWALD... ciente1ssces.crevs22s ona dugeedee aware sa eaieora meena 746
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
1. Report of the Committee on the Ben Nevis Observatory ..........seceeeeeees 747
2. Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations in Uanada ............e0ee8s 747
3. Report of the Committee for Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Obser-
NAMLOUS seri sna sais. cesnneceeuscersaecsssceesnti occrye yea cecued tease te eames nnn TAT
4. Report of the Committee for determining the Seasonal Variation in the
Temperatures of Lakes, Rivers, and Estuaries .........ccccesscceeedeneeeeseses 747
5. Report of the Committee on Solar Radiation ..........cs.sceeececacceeecenceeces 747
6. Report of the Committee on the Volcanic and Seismological Phenomena
ofa am dente sii seeds ca isota ties Gectisiidass wocsuceedes » +0's.9*9jstne(ioa e Saieie egeeeretS 747
7. On a Meteorological Observatory recently established on Mont Blane. By
A. Lawrence Rorcn, §.B., F.R.Met.Soc. of Boston, U.S.A....ss00002.226. 747
. The Climate of Scarborough compared with that of some other Seaside
Health Resorts. By Joun Horxryson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.... 748
- The Inland compared with the Maritime Climate of England and Wales.
By Joun, Hopxinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc, .........2:ccsseeoenneeeees 748
. A Comparison of the Climate of Halifax, Wakefield, Bradford, Leeds,
and Hull. By Joun Hopxincon, F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.......00000 749
CONTENTS. X1
Page
11. Photographs of the Invisible, in Solar Spectroscopy. By OC. Prazazt
eePrn eT CMA NT WN) re ot epee bisindic aleolinecteoiei as ee RR aaa oe neiswda'yh sa MSALE Mosh we cee ech 750
12. On Meteorological Photography. By Joun Horxtnson, F.L.S., F.G.8.,
Ne ate cnc o te phopscdp nsin Da virscphine SBapanaiaureialoiit sated he heeieles nde 751
, 13. On the Spectra of the Elements and the Constitution of the Sun. By
‘ MERTEN he MO WUAED, | acl dsiominnaiganiuaniahontias cian Sewstep ap hide taesey aa «hook 751
-4, On Regional Magnetic Disturbances in the United Kingdom. By Pro-
fessors A. W. Rutcxer, F.R.S., and T. E. Toorps, F.RB.S. ............000005 751
15. Sur les perturbations magnétiques en France. By Professor E. Mascart 751
16, Exhibition of Photographs of Clouds. By Friese GREENE............000.5 751
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
1. Optique minéralogique.—Achromatisme des Franges. By Professor E.
Mice aga caste aa ieeeMae dics Jadit ehanen ne Noannafii-tRenuaren saoe% Sem ve ack be 762
2.. Instantaneous Photographs of Water Jets. By Lord Rayzeren, Sec.
» doondodesecie pepdabOn6"t/060 HbrindB sh oudodedgnop soa s UB cd dappe encod CCS er Ea oR COA erence 752
3. Report of the Committee on Electrical Standards ..........6......cececseeeeees 752
4. On Variations in some Standard Resistance Coils. By R.T. GLazEBRoox,
PENDS che ntic 2 cloyie ox shi Unan an doidoes anauateignvacadeed <Goina saya Psuaes Pee tess 752
5. On some Standard Air Condensers. By R. T. GuazenRoox, F.R.S., and
eremret A LR BAM Noss tices antye sudan asidide sd vnnynadavsesy danddsesan thie tetstactok 752
6. On the Specific Resistance of Copper. By T. C. Frrzparrick............... 752
7. A Comparison of a Platinum Thermometer with some Mercury Thermo-
Pets Wels yeJBi elias CUR TMBLTHSY.\ ta. acsabendeannsedaasarescadactpmane dren essjeoaseenales 752
8. On the Character of Steel used for Permanent Magnets. By W. H.
Sep raten (RNP LPR SP Ea cence s Sain oh cle nle ec Oaoweoit santas adacse§ aubemen oats ste lorglaernceal 752
_ 9. The Effect of Oxidation on the Magnetic Properties of Manganese Steel.
Ret ACS HA BEDE rn: cx a. tude nota cans sas <efdatseauidatd~ Gus CdadokaAdeheede 753
10. On Testing Iron. By J. Swinsurne and W. F. BouRNE.............c000000s 753
ll. The Compensation of Alternating-Current Voltmeters. By. J.
empnage NEs E autora, ak a man BS Se etree dle sn nbdundae sv cvenidek ead ab ercns Lav Gs 753
12. Note on a Kinetic Stability of Equilibrium with Electro-magnetic
orces. By Professor,G. FH. FITZGBRALD, .FURIS.. ....0:cesescesceseassoeneee «ie 753
13. On Electrical Oscillations in Air. By J. TROWBRIDGE.............cec00eceee 754
14, On the Electrostatic Forces between Conductors and other matters in
connection with Electric Radiation. By Professor Or1ver J. Lover,
RMR ae eeictr cates cwiss tevin shinecednuetabsfseacet dete eaadacanamersented ss kien sides asetas 754
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
1. On Atom-grouping in Crystals (with exhibition of a Model), By W.
ARLEN a Bye Eo 5 cos Ree re eee MO Cee ene hh ean 754
2. On an Episode in the Life of J (Hertz’s Solution of Maxwell’s Equations).
Pye ProtemonGabs PitTzGERALD, PBS sise lich. aeeeeetil. kai 755
. Report of the Committee on Molecular Phenomena attending the Mag-
METIS A TLONNO MLE OTM st eee Oita. a Aes dsc sands, Galbdateic Me MoReee sen roe ke Bene 757
. Note on the Relation between the Diffusion of Motion and Propagation of
Disturbance in some turbulent Liquid Motions. By Professor G. F.
IWVEZGERALD EVENS hans caccehbe dence fbeis oe EEE slactdaieg sete aesbecepatetions 757
xii CONTENTS.
Page
5. A Coefficient of Abrasion as an Absolute Measure of Hardness. By
FST ROUTON sw ceepcer cis tste: -ti-cest cai. ocagsoncianwevelseewssene'ess =saee teetteeteeme « (87
G6. The Effect of Direct and Alternating Pressures on the Human Body. By
eA SVINIE ORIN Bie meta ost itataule swe -hcecuclescescGeneescatiesresetuewanvers solodeaneeecateane 758
7. On the Use of Fluor Spar in Optical Instruments. By Professor StLvaNnus
PRP TOMLBON: DISGes oc. deccan ocecociwesuciese noneedasecesas Ses enec’ tess ——————— 759
8. A new Direct-reading Photometer measuring from Unity to Infinity. By
ISREDBRIOK ak VARI Vi sea dsessaeasslescecssecseccoscen tos cases neces, eee 759
9. On a Radiometric Record of Sun-heat from different parts of the Solar
Mise, By W. Hi. WIESON «5.02.5. 000.:0de0ssese das sesieed eer eeen haepeeeaeenee 760
10, Recent Photographs of the less refrangible portions of Solar Spectrum
under different Atmospheric Conditions. By Grorer Hiees ............ 760
Section B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
Address by Professor T, E. THorps, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., Treas.C.S., Presi-
GontlOf THE SECON. ern. mnnacniiesaceas@elstnesennsieeesd feenacase ee semetteeteeReee 761.
|
. Report of the Committee on recent Inquiries into the History of
Chemistry
eee et ee ee eee eee ee eee eee eee eee eee eee CeCe eT eT ee ee eee ee ee ee eee
. Report of the Committee on the Silent Discharge of Electricity in Gases 772
. Report of the Committee on the present Methods of Teaching Chemistry 772
. On Recent Legislation as Facilitating the Teaching of Science. By Sir
Hwy Roscon, MiP, FAR S. i.cl.cisscsedsedsvssechatec seecesteleee aan 7
5. The Refraction and Dispersion of Fluorbenzene and Allied Compounds.
By J. H. Guapsrons, Ph.D., F.R.S., and GEor@E GLADSTONE........0..00:+ 772
6. A Method of Quantitative Analysis. By G@. H. Barry, D.Sc., Ph.D.,
BD SC MOAIN, 524 cones jussvanssua os calesdetehs| dncnetest o3= sien 2
7. The Behaviour of the more Stable Oxides at High Temperatures. By
G. B. Bariey, D.Sc., Ph.D., and A. A. READ .......00.:-c.:9:-ce eee 773
8. The Spectra of the Haloid Salts of Didymium. By G. H. Batrny, D.Sc.,
BBD oa: wins ain ifan’s.oae nn ncuettani'e's eadenas cuss daw) vn site de Tee Lane 773
9. On the Condition of the Air in Public Places of Amusement, with special
reference to Theatre Hygiene. By W. Hxpwortn Coxzrns, F.C.S.,
BIS MSy .-0-naspnaspenssiicssenvils>scosess sengunsssead sersasrenstenvects hae ee 773
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
1. Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives ............ceseescsveeecceeeeseeees 775
2. The Development of the Coal-tar Colour Industry since 1882. By
NASER cney 2 Oe 775
3. Behaviour of Copper Potassium Chloride and its Aqueous Solutions at
different Temperatures. By J. H. VAN T HOFF .....ccceccccccseccccececnenes 776
4. Report of the Committee on the Action of Light on the Hydracids of the
Halovens inypresenca Of OxyO6N! oi... sacedsscceencoecs Sesnteceead ohne aac 776
. Experiments on the Combustion of Gases under Pressure,
By Professor
Liveina, F.R.S.,.and Professor DnwaR, F.R.S. ...ccccccccoccccecceccocecceee 776
CONTENTS. xlil
Page
_ 6, On the Rate of Explosion of Hydrogen and Chlorine in the Dry and
Moist States. By Professor H. B, Drxon, F.R.S., and J. A. Harker... 776
7. On the Ignition of Explosive Gaseous Mixtures. By G. 8. Turpry, B.A.,
Mae Rs eae wracnae sea icisten rata seieice seme ecu sealles ides capeadsiees valawnaaeaw’ war 776
8. The Orthophote. By JAMES 'T. BROWN ........sccsccesseesseceneeeeeaseneesenens 778
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
J. Report of the Committee on an International Standard for the Analysis
PmMrONUAMG Steel. Wi a.aisse sedosegs Gok vsncisekiesdissaremevdasasducesieebe ssp ciisesuseiesesamers 778
2. Report of the Committee on the Influence of Silicon on the Properties of
"SHE inching aCOSOTOOBREROCR Ob aLEOE Bus toc a asen ede aB se nodaubrctoan’ ddoecEoonomoaccoerenre 778
3. Report of the Committee on the Properties of Solutions ............000..000 778
4, Report of the Committee on the Bibliography of Solution..................06 778
5. On recent Swedish Investigations on the Gases held in Solution by the
Sea-water of the Skagerack. By Dr. O. PHTTERSSON ..............seceeeeees 779
6. Joint Discussion with Section A on the Nature of Solution and its Con-
nection with Osmotic Pressure, opened by S. U. PickERING, F.R.S., in a
Paper on the present Position of the Hydrate Theory of Solution ......... 779
7. The Molecular Refraction of Substances in Solution. By J. H. Grap-
LONE ETH ID), ERGs cccacsclvscssetsodorctieceses Nodeneteicvaceis cueansweterserncer ccs 779
8. On an Apparatus for the Determination of Freezing-points of Solutions.
By.P. J. Hartoe, B.Sc., and J. A. HARKER .........:ccccceseceeeeecneceeeceees 779
9. The Sulphur Waters of Yorkshire. By C. H. Bornamtry, F.I.C., F.C.S. 779
10, The River Aire: a Study in River Pollution. By T. H. Easrerriexp,
B.A., F.C.S., and J. MrrcHert WiIS0N, M.D. ...........cceceseeeceeneeeeeens 780
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
1. Provisional Report of the Committee on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy 780
| 2. Report of the Committee for preparing a new Series of Wave-length
Tables of the Spectra of the Elements ...........ssseeseseeeeeees pr obee eee ces 780
8. Report of the Committee on the Absorption-Spectra of Pure Compounds 780
4. On Phosphorous Oxide. By Professor T, E. THorPs, F.RBAS, ..........0006- 780
5, Diazoamido-Compounds: a Study in Chemical Isomerism. By Professor
to
. Fast and Fugitive Dyes. By Professor J. J, HoMMEL
. Notes on the Limits of the Reactions for the Detection of Hydrogen
PVAPECAHG MIMLDOUA, BRAS: ccoucaercersecesccdestacpesaconsscuetedesdssensqarencenns 780
. The Action of Light upon the Diazo-Compounds of Primuline and Deky-
drothiotoluidine: a Method of Photographic Dyeing and Printing. By
ARTHUR G. GREEN, CHARLES F. Cross, and EpwaRp J. BEVAN ......... 781
Dioxide, and the Reactions for Uranium. By T. Farruny, F.RS.E. ... 783
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
. On Veratrin, and on the Existence of Two Isomeric B-Picolines. By Dr.
AE ee AUEDIEUEIN SR Hp Se ney ccc hain eldee hdd eee mires tate tra aeasieave ee cf town ata aaheaoss 783
. The Action of Phosphorus Trichloride on Organic Acids and on Water.
By C. H. Bormamiey, F.C.S., and G, R. THOMPSON.........04. Sebpodee eicoee 784
xiv CONTENTS.
Page
3. On the Constitution of the Alkaloid, Berberin. By Professor W.H.
PERKIN, JUN., FLRsS. oo... .essecscsssccncesoessccssevcesesecgessescecasserosenenas 785
4, The Production of Camphor from Turpentine. By J. E. Mars and R.
STROCKDADH) cc ccsvecsasscsecsececonroscanecoassaecaatevessensscaeseusteensaagsmaoacncsan 785
5. On a Double Aspirator. By T. Farrury, F.R.S.E. «1.0.0... ..eseeseeeeeeeeees 785
6. On the Vulcanisation and Decay of Indiarubber. By W. THomson,
RS By BCS ec ye don. ceeeqoce poesesneccqueac+sssspaeenngie gs ods cae) eee 785
7. On the Unburned Gases contained in the Flue-gases from Gas Stoves and
different Burners. By Wittiam THomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S..........-..--. 786
8. Contributions to the Analysis of Fats. By J. Lewxowrtscu, Ph.D.,
TAG ME OiSe fe atl. dete ms eth tees sea vwiesle chore scales Ge ss debiecntteee sae 787
9. On the Condensation of Dibenzylketone with Oxalic Ether. By Tos.
HiwAs, Ph.D), BiSee casiecsic. des ets casaanes Aevinss bviie seve leds seo ake 788
Sscrion C.—GEOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
Address by Professor A. H. Green, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., President of the
DOCHLON, «cava ccecenctseccssconccsstar ste ioases scr aeae-es eececcre 0k ee 789
1. On the Gigantic Ceratopside (or Horned Dinosaurs) vf North America.
By Professor! OC.) WARSH: 2. s.cjsccesancetosces+sscencseeadeaceaaaaet eeeeeeEe eee 793
2. The Carboniferous Strata of Leeds and its immediate suburbs. By
BENJAMIN VHOLGATH BGS ie ic. .ccc0csocoscscececsoncnesedsntene heen ee: eee tantee 795
3. Some Physical Properties of the Coals of the Leeds District. By Brnsa-
MIN ELOLGATH, BXGISs | Ge.iccsccssscvsscscdsescwecds oor nce cet tae eee REE Ree Renee EE
4. On the Boulders and Glaciated Rock-surfaces of the Yorkshire Coast.
By GoW. Taorpruant, B:GiS. 2... 0.2.0.2 cce.ncendeonscceest eee ene eee 797
5. East Yorkshire during the Glacial Period. ByG. W. Lamptueu, F.G.S. 798
6. Final Report on an Ancient Sea Beach near Bridlington ...............-.00+- 799
7. On Liassic Sections near Bridport, Dorset. By Jon Francis WALKER,
PG ECGS: cre. cksvstecsaevetescovercteaccveraeteedsnedsineteasen heh ————o 799
8. On the Sounds known as the ‘ Barisél Guns,’ occurring in the Gangetic
Delia, \ By DT. Dita! POUGwB ) 22.55) egeibiis doves deseo bene shee eee 800
9. On the so-called Ingleton Granite. By Tuomas Tarn, F.G.S. ...........- 800
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
1. The Devonian Rocks, as described in De la Beche’s Report, interpreted in
accordance with Recent Researches. By W. A. E. Ussuer, F.G.S....... 801
. On Pre-Cambrian Rocks occurring as Fragments in the Cambrian Con-
glomerates in Britain. By Henry Hicks, M.D., F.R.S., F.GS. ......... 803
. The Effects produced by Earth-movements on Pre-Cambrian and Lower
Paleozoic Rocks in some Sections in Wales and Shropshire. By Henry
FGRs (MDP eS bt Gi: Sinsd. .ssck.dscsvactedevebin ole nbe cee 804
. On the Mineral Resources of New South Wales. By ©. S. WixKrNson,
Lee en Oe ee ee ers 805
. Eighteenth Report on the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland 807
CONTENTS. xv
Page
6. On the Glacial Phenomena of the Isle of Man. By P. F. KEnpate ...... 807
7. On the Speeton Clays and their Equivalents in Lincolnshire. By G. W.
REDO AF iat sc o0doh a tabs used esas ietd caeauavivddstbesvossiesscceeGei0\ conseoe stan 803
8. On the Neural Arch of the Vertebre in the Ichthyosauria. By Professor
ee a REUH YUE CEO Mirice eesetesttettan cas sakwatbeddes acsssbinsecenaddasclgedd scbeoedee 809
9. On the Marbles and other Ornamental Rocks of the Mediterranean. By
Vee aRUIN DIE PE Gros ssl). Eu WES, faite coatieg race acme oduaaces .sledaeslsclses vsteles ateaede 809
10, The supposed Volcanic Eruption of Cape Reykjanes. By TEMPEST ANDER-
son, M.D., B.Sc., and H. J. Jounston-LAvis, M.D. ............cseeereeeeeees 810
11. On Lepidophloios and Lepidodendron. By Wm. Casu, F.G.S., F.LS.,
SEG SS 5 TIGL SUAS UG OMIA NY Mt ote Sete. du doth ob tcatindedctbedsOrenicssiocdacessseosmensas 810
12. On the Changes of the Lower Carboniferous Rocks in Yorkshire from
SE MEOUNON DLN Ey le Etat DAKGVNE ssc sevsecrenscsscooscsscadsenteeeaacecacesieenine 811
13. Human Footprints in recent Volcanic Mud in Nicaragua. By Dr. J.
BPIEAENIYr Ssctde cay. carcetecescesccetnaceescedsddnecssadesunwadrdiscandudecanesesnssn ss 812
14. On the Geology of Nicaragua. By Dr. J. CRAWFORD ......seeeeeeseeeeeeeees 812
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 8&8.
1. Preliminary Note on the Composition and Origin of Cheshire Boulders.
By J. Courrs Anrrosvs, M.A,,and Freperick H. Harcu, Ph.D.,F.G.S. 813
- 2. On some West-Yorkshire Mica-trap Dykes. By Freprrick H. Harcn,
SAMI le Sve Seta aaurrse ester ceaeo viele sielnosese's sede veWecetmentesns cveceastecerches 813
3. Note on Phillips’s Dyke, Ingleton. By Tuomas Tarts, F.G.S. ............ 814
4. Sixth Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius ...........:002000s00e0 814
5. On the Origin of the Saline Inclusions in the Crystalline Rocks of Dart-
IG) ima VAG hues lI INT MEAG HGS 6.0 cntconniarasauisabew's omiaspcup ceep lenges se 815
6. On the Strata forming the Base of the Silurian in North-East Montgomery-
Baitoe day: J, TOKHETON MORGAN, FsG.D. 02.004. eranstnssscessesdyopencssonns aan 816
7. The Geology of the Long Mountain, on the Welsh Borders. By W. W.
BRUPAIT Cy AG SBC Sie necl cas cncch ete sctetuuaacatc~ ocean tg tobantorsuec sort ida teosers 817
8. Elbolton Cave Exploration. By the Rev. Epwarp JONES ...,.......06+5 . 817
9. Physical Studies of an Ancient Estuary. By the Rev. A. Irvine, D. Se. _
le Beer Wie eos nade seels oak igs tia ARTS od. apprewk sn pddp nak <cqateyicsnenbs Wea 818
10. Sixteenth Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters ............+.. 819
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
1. Eighth Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleeozoic Rocks ......... 819
me Report on the Cretaceous PolyZ0a .......cesscsssvcsccecne-scececsecescscnsorseces 819
. Suggestions on Sites for Coal-search in the South-East of England. By
OPEV VEER Manes ECG “fuss escseshcrcucds decascecetasvacheemeemeescaeseues 819
. Notes on the Bunter and Keuper Formation in the Country around Liver-
ee ey hey Ete EON ELT 0 20 ssine cane as basin aneae Ovovdwarebomduwenacieaese 819
. Notes on the Morphology of the Cystidea. By P. Herpert Carpenter,
eae Ea RANE NY UE Beialh cn otc add Ro. caaiaeiabecd ails. dies digs egurted! 821
. On the Sources of the River Aire. By Professor Sinvanus P. THomrson,
TSE app Auoca, | cCOnUG TEC AOR, ROS.) cA CEE Cane BECBRC ReReR Er OL rant cect enter 821
xvi
CONTENTS.
Page
. Report on the Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of
Photographs of Geological Interest .........ssessscseeeeseeeeeneesneeenees leche seek 822
. On the Discovery of a Jurassic Fish-Fauna in the Hawkesbury-Wiana-
matta Beds of New South Wales. By A. Samira Woopwarp, F.G.S.... 822
9. Restorations of the Paleozoic Elasmobranch Genera Plewracanthus and
Xenacanthus. By Dr. ANTON FRITSCH .......:essesssseneeeeeeseeseaeeeseecseees 822
10. On Fossil Fish of the West Riding Coal-field. By J. W. Davis, F.G.S, 822
11. Fourth Report on the ‘Manure’ Gravels of Wexford..........-..s0se0e ie 825
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
1. Report on the Registration of Type Specimens ........4....seeeeeeeeeeeeeeesene 823
2. On Peat overlying a Lacustrine Deposit at Filey. By the Rev. E. MAULE
COTE MBAG (BIGIS., cteccceswee seep essncetseaeasentnesins tc: saee ee ae” ve £23
3. On the Origin of Gold. By Professor J. Logan Lostny, F.G.S. ......... 824
4, As to certain Alterations in the Surface-level of the Sea off the South
@oast of England. ‘By R.G. M. Browne, F.G.8, ....0.0...sscmemeeneneeane 824
5. Notes on Volcanic Explosions. By THomas Hart, F.G.S.........00c0cc0ee 825
Section D.—BIOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
Address by Professor A. Mitwes Marsuatt, M.A., M.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.,
President:of the Sections * A vc.scccsedeecceesecevesses een sons tee cuneate Rema at . 826
1, On the Ornithology of the Sandwich Islands. By Professor A. Newton,
HWE. Sat aceccevncs se wvedsicdstcuteveneesaseenoesesceelste cevepe sacs ee dees atta tate 852
2. Report of the Committee to Improve and Experiment with a Deep-Sea
PRLO WHINE cas/canccaceccoscetvaccesssacstsdesctecdeesscacesecesdsees Mttenenee Mecaeerantcene 852
3. Report of the Committee on the Naples Zoological Station ..........s0.:+++ 852
4, Third Report of the Committee on the Flora and Fauna of the West
Taig TRANS) oie. csacevedeesccaowe. .Wentdesssaveccotecssstages eet seta 852
5. Third Report of the Committee on the Disappearance of Native Plants
from: their Local Habitatie:..i,..0:.5..cecclceevesacsedacessss+s00 0400s 852
6. Fourth Report of the Committee for establishing a Botanical Station at
Paradenty sy OCVLON swececsssssvecsetessssascsscuote casacdcstnicatongee stat teeeaeeeenteae 852
7. Report of the Committee on the Migration of Birds ...............c0ecseeeeees 852
8. Report of the Committee appointed to arrange for the Occupation of
Table at the Marine Biological Laboratory, Plymouth ................ esac 853
. Report of the Committee on the Invertebrate Fauna and Cryptogamic
Flora of the Fresh Waters of the British Isles ......... ocaios 0s scene eee 853
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
. Discussion on the Teaching of Botany, opened by Professors MARSHALL
WARD) EOnrvnr,and FE. O; BOWER |. :..+0%slecaceddee series Sorceen poe 853
. On the Cretaceous Mammals of North America. By Professor 0, C, Mausu 853
CONTENTS. XVil
Page
On Androgynous Cones in Pinus Thunhergit, and some remarks on their
Moranology.. By F. ERNEST WEISS ............cccoesssseadessnssscctaccerensede 854
. On a curious Cell-content in Zucommia ulmoides (Oliv.). By F. Ernest
RRTER me cas Pane hese cele ntataies siswilessasorsc dice adesvuaepamevaeaepneseecdeaade de due 854
. On an Abnormality in Tropeolum, with Remarks on the Origin of the
enn Esy Fe LQRASOF Ace DANN | een ante «cannes chek oaseavadeidpanunnenndusas ces nah 855
. Notes on the Natural History of Hierro and Graciosa, two outlying
members of the Canary Islands. By the Rey. Canon Tristram, F.R.S. 855
. Contributions to a Knowledge of the Composition of the Human Lens,
especially in reference to the changes it undergoes with age and in
cataract. By Wuiti1am Jos Corrins, M.D., M.S., B.Sc., F.R.C.S. ...... 855
8. Indications for the Cure of Infectious Diseases. By E. H. Hanxin, B.A. 856
_ 9, Experiments with Drugs as a Question of Science. By WintrAm Smarr,
BBE apie ts ices aac cemebceh cnartac atte is cae s cecciekip ade sale Acacias JoWs-is< senuacnisine ds 859
10. On the Incubation of Snakes’ Eggs. By Dr. WALTER SIBLEY............... 860
: 11. Some of the probable causes of Variation in the Eggs of Birds. By H. B.
ETSY ISUSO IN, Vhs cccee « vs.dela va ctdh vem cals aW aeaasiscnaat efeipeh selvaesnlastlansRbadsea teach dlienc sacle 860
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
1, On the Development of the Head of the Fly of Chironomus, By Pro-
fessor io.C, MrATr AML. S4-andeAy ELAarronD OIG i ecatessoncessccensce 860
2, On the Structure of Muscular Fibre as demonstrated by ‘ Castings’ taken
Seeemanir, By J, 1s, PIAYOHART li occs cases envacasatiaaacced sueuese dade 860.
3. Notes on the Anatomy and Morphology of the Cystidea. By P. H.
MA TATEPON DIR LU EUIS acalss vv cacbas Paviecarsealaeaueweee tl ee biledesmeaeeeel ce teseh doe 860
4,On Variability in Development. By Professor A. Minnrs MarsHatt,
eee eC ir Dy OESEBA oocs Fe 59 Lin doh enh. - ddvnonichoeni usin’ clos needs masltseincmny net 861
5. On Secreting Cells. By Professor G. Grson.......... Ba dike nails ck cates 861
6. On the Regeneration of Lost Parts in Polyzoa. By Sronzy F. Harmer,
a aia cnc k te dette eae Aan clip eB g fF cn ace AE Sadan tes aides ack a dasahp- kant 862
. On the Meaning of the Ampulle in Millepora murrayi (Quelch). By
Be EMELEOKAONS MGA. A MOUSOS sson cs 2 cvneva cat necads dsiines samsde side aastedemtadeioges de 863
. On the male Gonangia of Distichopora and Allopora. By 8. J. Hickson,
Ean oe Soltek oon oars ot Supine toees otmas'ae valde «tp Ce apuin a otaaanme anpacuaehacn tks 864
- On the Tracheal Occlusor Apparatus in Insecta. By Professor A. Denny 864
10. The Life-History of the Hessian Fly, Cecidomyia Destructor (Say). By
DIK oe cn isisa ein oican Ae enone ned «se vaiann sidan Seep tMeReRCS oc 52 AYE ed oreo 864
11. Notes on the Spawning of the Anguilla. By the Rey. J. E. Fraser...... 866
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
1. On the Power of certain Bacteria to form Organic Compounds from
Inorganic Matter. By R. WARINGTON, F.RAS. ...........cccsseecceseceseeeess &66
2. Notes on Phylloglossum. By Professor F. O. BOWER ............00eceeeseeee 867
3, On the Question of the Phylogeny of Ferns, By Professor F. 0. Bowrr 867
4, On Hybrids and their Parents. By Dr. J. M. MACFARLANE «............00. 867
5. Dehiscence of Fruit of Ecballium elaterium. By Professor T. Jonnson,
BiSer EWES? x. anseecewtts ss Negi ociackere ey etey sha sit aaseuctoh apts Pe dWandedevs tae sict 867
1890. a
XVill CONTENTS.
Page
6. Observations on Brown and on Red Seaweeds. By Professor T. Jouy-
BONG MSOs EMILES: (wrtecceeceocntectuaeecteseet fiieascs teldioce wean vieeseoss faismtanheemeneae 868
7. On the Arrangements for recording Phenological Phenomena. By G. J.
DYALONG, BURG. «sc csevscctecwccsss cette vecvererscneuseseursccnesecssaesnein Heke 868
8. On the Floral Biology of Episcia maculata. By Professor F. W. Ottver 869
9. On the Origin of Thorny Plants. By Professor P. GEDDES ............-..0+. 870
10. Note on the Occurrence in Yorkshire of Arenaria gothica (Fries). By
Professor SILVANUS PE. LHOMPSON, DSC. .....2....0.00+.scs0n00csenaeeeeeenereeen 871
11. The Flora of Victoria Park, Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada. a J.
Hoyes Panton, M.A., BUC ee one 871
12. The Cytology of the Chytridian Woronina. By Professor Magers M.
TART OG MMAR MISC a (BULGS, oi ceccvcsscsitwwcase=seacioecs (0 aeheciasteemeeeeeemenems 872
13. On the Delineation of the Tussock Grass of the Falkland Islands.
By Professor Marcus M. Harroc, M.A., D.Se., F.L.S. .......:..ctenecenees 872
14. On a Case of Apogamy in Faller hamata (Vauch.), Lyngb. By
TOMA GWE TOK BLA OBIS G60 | i ede ttlesedccdsulewos hav cuniiaet Stowe eetta eee aasetitte 872
15. An overlooked Variety of Cynosurus cristatus (Crested Dog’s-tail-grass).
By WW, WHBSON DUD. 0scacscsnasno0scaorayeencee i cuvac one pctiees ernst ae ea 872
Section 1.— GEOGRAPHY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
Address by Lieutenant-Colonel Sir R. Lambert Purayrarr, K.C.M.G.,
ESRG:S.;-President of the, Section..; . /5...c.cpse.ssonssadeuducete seeee eee ae 874
. The Vertical Relief of the Globe. By H. R. Mitt, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. ...... 888
. Geographical Teaching in Russia. By H. R. Mitt, D.Sce., F.R.S.E. ...... 888
LO
5. A Railway through Southern Persia. By Major-General Sir F. J. Goip-
BMD OI: MOOS a, FAR. GES iy ah oieccthieael phe ce bes ecnee cee Eee eee 888
4. New Trade Routes into Persia, By H. F. B. LYNCH .............0ecsseeeeee 889
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
1. Notes on the Country lying between Lakes Nyassa, Rukwa, and Tangan-
yikes, By Dro Keer CR08s ooo. lc.lesetovecese sh ssecnees seonese 891
2. Journeys in Ashanti and Neighbouring Regions. By R. Austin FREE-
AVA sev ts Oita esses cts.'dcelstveuveveeteeolss'covedi chet ene ccna catete 892
@: Zambezia. By HAL MAUND. oo. cc sec tesccsccesssssenceucee codecs een anEaa 892
4, The Commercial Geography of Africa. By J. Scorr Kerrie .......00..0066 892.
5. The Political Partition of Africa, By A. Sinva Wurrs, F.R.S.E.......... 892
GyrDhe Walahant., oy Wo WILKINSON ...0seseu.cesessetenseccocceece sees 892
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
1. Joint Meeting with Section F to consider the subject of the Lands of the
Globe still available for Leg Settlement. Introduced in a Paper by
PAG T RAVENSIMEN, ER: GUS.. gecsesideces. owes cyshtuhedeacdeee th bel 893
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CONTENTS. xix
Page
3. Report of the Committee for the Exploration of Cilicia..............0..ecceeee 893
4, The Physical Geographical Features of Brazil, in relation to their Influ-
ence upon the Development, or otherwise, of the Industrial and Commer-
cial Interests of the Country. By James W. Wetts, M.Inst.C.E.,
Net ea a citi Nishi Ss buncinth'g sup mmadnnhiuley seap sacra cn eeaatetn 893
5, From Paraguay to the Pacific. By M. A. THOUAR ...........ccccccecccnueces 893
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
1. Notes on a Journey in the Eastern Carpathians. By Miss Mrnvi Murren
LUSH og GRRE CRED aroce io Se oa Rene aE COMMIS SR? fe hc ee ga ee 896
. The Present State of the Ordnance Survey and the Paramount Necessity
for a Thorough Revision. By Henry T. Croox, C.E.............c00cceceeeee 896
. Ancient Maps of Egypt, Lake Moeris, and the Mountains of the Moon.
Bere. WW HITEHOUSH |cosecccnces Gancsosecetivssccstcaccesomne ae aster 896
. Some Points in connection with Ptolemaic Geography and Ptolemaic
Maps. By Dr. ScHLICHTER ............... FC CRQO UCR BOG LSE: O odcuod dace cciccuGhAdce 897
. The actual State of the Question of the Initial Meridian for the Universal
Hour. By ©. TonDINI DE QUARENGHL ...........cccscceseessectececsseosnseeces 897
. On recent Explorations in New Guinea. By Courrs Trorrrr, F.R.G.S. 897
. Honduras (Spanish). By Witiiam Princuer, F.R.GS. ..........ccceeeee ees 897
. On a Visit to the Skaptor District of Iceland. By Dr. Temprsr AnDER-
eve MT OHMATON ANIA WIS, me .acueacodSeec «cstv ecu sieupt tacks delawcceccuescesatate 897
Section F—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
Address by Professor Atrrep Marsuart, M.A., F.S.S., President of the
ig
9
“>
3.
A,
Bee Meee rs. i iecin ai aan anesooaeaavaes cctaa daasQohe<sgiadasiecese nddoabe tiSunsaae st 898
Modern Forms of Industrial Combination. By Professor A.T. Haprzy 916
The Ulterior Aims of Co-operators. By BensaMIN JONES .............00.. 916
The Value of Labour in relation to Nconomic Theory. By James Bonar 917
Prosressive Taxation. By C.F; Bastasie, LL.D, ........0cccccccceccceces « 918
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
. The probable Effects on Wages of a general Reduction in the Hours of
Labour. By Professor J. E. C. MUNRO.........s00...000c008 eo eee 919
. The Agricultural Changes in England during the Period 1450-1650. By
PETOLGHSOL AW is Pee NBSHLEY: «lochs. cccee stowed cceuien des coke te EE av one Bie 919
. The Element of Chance in Examinations. By Professor F. Y. Eper-
REE SUMAN sc ctaae dee aad saga h hvac chee SScedsanks deaccers<aaek dacseaneivves 920
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
. The Policy of exercising a Discrimination between the Deserving and Un-
deserving in the giving of Public Poor Relief. By Jomn Kine............ 921
Exhibition of Maps illustrating the Statistics of Pauperism, By Dr.
RHODES ........... Suess saadgaceae pugeh adel embartanas SOCR Co cEeneer en dcee ivedcese O22
xx
CONTENTS.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
; ; age
1. Joint Discussion with Section E (Geography) on Lands still available for
European Settlement ..........::.cssseesseeesssseeeeeceeeeeeeteeecscesseecseecceeeeens 922
2. Some recent Changes in the Conditions governing the London Money
Market. By WY¥NNARD HOOPER......-.00:0:0ssseeeeeeeeeerestetanannneeeeeeceeoes 923
3. The pure Theory of Distribution. By Arruur Brrry, M.A sscceeheesen scene ogy
4, A Theory of the Consumption of Wealth. By Professor P. GEDDES ...... 924
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
1. The Factories and Workshops Acts—Past and Present. By G. H. L.
TER Ts EAD See en ACIS orsrec alejeioin cist save wie sis eine eye gas act c.s Mesos A nee err 927
2. Modern Changes in the Mobility of Labour. By H. Lirnwetiyy Surra 927
3. Report of the Committee on the Teaching of Science in Hlementary
HOO IS ipenceccee nena e aaa aeeisise nse piediovcesvsdielie pa nuemsltel et settthiaece ete een 928
4, Report of the Committee on the Standard of Value .........46:..-.::cseeeeees 928
5. Report of the Committee on the Statistics of the Use of the Precious
bo
Meatalate fs, conics cet cece dobeheaase cosa ce nanseaeeas snips Selhecisseceat ees ss eee ee 928
. On the Ideal Aim of the Economist. By Mrs. Vicror1a C. WoopuvuLL
IUGR ITEN, a. cade bc ca cerc wus swsctoeie ewreiblore lew esie[sie « ocisinve ovdisiin/¥.e's 6\e 0p OGTR ERE eeR Reena 928
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER. 10.
. On the Drawbacks of Modern Economic Progress. By I. Li Xk. Gonner 928
. On some Typical Economic Fallacies made by Social Reformers. By
Nips: RICH MIA techenaesses sion ess sede cle ssn dlastceiecesionese aie teeen ate Resmi 928
. The Use of Estimates of Aggregate Capital and Income as Measures of
the Economic Welfare of Nations. By Hpwrn Cannan, M.A. ............ 929
Section G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
Address by Captain Not, C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S., M.Inst.C.E., Presi-
dentro the Section ....05./itbseegs.s.cs0eccceessesse dese esac sect ene eee 930
i) Aj Hydraulic’ Steam Lifehoat. By J. Fi GREEn.........-:-:a::+- eens 947
2. On Aluminium Bronze for Artillery and Small Arms. By J. I. J.
IAG GR EG CaS ey Me Cas sinew censsiessh vceteieeeseducecce oavsecancieelstttte tee mente 948
. Some new Telemeters or Range Finders. By Professors A. Barr and
DWH TR OUD states custcistsescescs sciseaeseesoccessocenoenenceecsech Greet ean 949
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
1. Report of the Estuaries Committee ..............0.005 o's vilyes's «siete Sateen 949
2. Report of the Graphic Methods Committee...............0.0. 0 ccaeseessenee eee vee 949
3. The Process of manufacturing Netting by slitting and expanded Sheet
Metal Ap ytdeee i GOTDING ty.isersiics..cenescosemeasioeskicoonerm tte ae cee 949
Cable Tramways. By W. NEWBY COLAM .......cecsccsescocsecevsceesersuseeve . 950
CONTENTS. XXL
Page
5. On the ‘Serve’ Tube. By W. Baytey Marsuatt, M.Inst.C.E. ......... 950
6. The Simplex Brake. By W. Baytey Marswatt, M.Inst.C.E. ............ 950
7. A Rotary Machine for Composing and Distributing Printing Type. By
TGS SSO i A NIS) ae =A saeco sedce doebe nee PBeaee CDG ace: ECO Dee loot Oecear pecorerecoscce- 951
8. The Victoria and other Torpedoes. By, G. Reap MurPHY...,...........04 952
9. The Bénier Ilot-Air Engine or Motor. By E. VERNON ...............00000 953
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
1. On the Pneumatic Distribution of Power. By Professor A. Lupton ...... 954
2. On the Construction of Sluices for Rivers, &c. By F. G. M. Sronny,
Boda erin) A), cyan cote s secu cinsceisneseotocaces attdcse iach eacasdenqumcismeipeeslenteasaiatars 954
3. The Raiyan Canal. By CoP WHITEHOUSE ........0.cssccccesscssesscoveenenss 955
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
1, A new Electric Meter. The Multicellular Voltmeter. An Engine-room
Voltmeter. An Ampére Gauge. A new Form of Voltapile, useful in
Standardising Operations. By Sir Witrram Txomson, D.C.L., LL.D.,
MM ae as earn oe apace lat anes Women aa enh es onceanw eae ss Agata seen Baa 6 3g 956
2. The Lineff Electric Tramway. By GIsBERT KAPP ..............c0eeseeeesoee 956
3. Alternating versus Continuous Currents in relation to the Human Body.
By H. Newman Lawrences, M.1.E.E., and ArrHuR Harries, M.D, ... 957
4, On Electric Lighting and Fire Insurance Rules. By Witson Hartnett 958
5, Secondary Cells. By W. J. S. BARBER STARKEY.........000..csceesseeeees we. 958
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
1. On the Form of Submarine Cables for Long-distance Telephony. By
Ewe PP RRCH BR Sel siskeacuasdcccdeeatanceneecehacaeeadtocnes aibcededsen kien te doe 959
2, Column-Printing Telegraph. By F. HIGGIns............cceeeceeeceeeereeeene ees 959
Seon Heavy Lathes. By A.'GREEN WOOD -2ii.........cccscenecescccersccoeseercrss 959
4, Factors of Safety. By W. Baytrey Marsnatz, M.Inst.C.l. ............... 960
5. Measurement of Elongation in Test Samples. By J. H. Wicxsrerp...... 962
{6. On the Measurement of Strains. By A. MALLOCK............c00.:cccseceeeeees 962
7. Exhibition of a Mechanism. By Professors Barr and W. SrRovp......... 962
Srecrion H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
Address by Joun Evans, D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc., Treas.R.S., Pres.S.A., F.L.8,
ECAP Nt OMSUNOXSECULOMY sar aasescces sseiwcssnrcvecedtatasesivevsnnascemedsnesntoeds 963
1. On the Doctrine of Hereditism. By the Rev. F. O, Morris ...... hate des 969
2. Remarks on the Ethnology of British Columbia. By Horatio Hate ... 969
_ 3. Notes on the Religion of the Australian Aborigines. By J. W. Fawcerr 969
_ 4, Notes on the Aborigines of Australia. By J. W. FAWGETT...........0.006 . 970
xxli CONTENTS.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
Page
J. On the Yourouks of Asia Minor. By J. THEODORE BENT ......0.0--+046 -- 970
2, The Present Aspect of the Jade Daag By F. W. Ruprer, F.G.8.... 971
3. On the Aryan Cradleland. By J. 5S. Sruart GLENNIE ....seseeeee seers 971
4, ‘Is there a Break in Mental Evolution?’ By the Hon. Lapy Wersy... 972
5. On Reversion. By Miss Nina F. LAYARD .....2--..0ceeeeeeeeeseeeeeeeeeeeecnene 975
6. On an Unidentified People occupying le of Britain in Pre-Roman-
British Times. By Dr. PuEnt, LL.D., PISA. ..ccceseceeseeeeeeeeeneeseeeees 974
7. Report of the Notes and Queries Committee ...... Sien'a se'acies does este REEDS 974
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 8
1. Physical Development. By Dr. HAMBLETON ........-.::sseeeeeestseereees coseee OG
2, On some Archeological Remains bearing on the question of the Origin of
the Anglo-Saxons in England. By Roserr Muyro, M. 7. Opp (el 0) Bananas 976.
3. Some Neolithic Details. By H. Cormmy MArcu, M.D. .....cceeeeeeeeeeee 977
4, On Prehistoric Otter and Beaver Traps. By Roperr Munro, M.A., M.D. 978
5. Indications of Retrogression in Prehistoric Civilisation in the Thames
Valley. By H. Sropes, F.G.S. ....eeeeeeeeeeseeeeseeeeseeeeeseeeneeeeeeeseceanane 979
6. On the Dugeleby ‘ Howe.’ By the Rev. KE. Mave Corr, M.A., F.G.S. 979
7, A probable Site of Delgovitia. By T. R, MORTIMER ........ceeeeseeeeeseees 980
8. A supposed Roman Camp at Octon, By T. R. MORTIMER .........00..00008 980
9, A Suggestion as to the Boring of Stone Hammers. By W. Hornyt ...... 980
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
1. Old and Modern Phrenology. By BerNarD HOLLANDER ...........0.0000+ 980
2, Stethographic Tracings of Male and Female Respiratory Movements. By
Dr. WILBREFORCE SMITH ........ccceeecesesncsverseconsn edhe tnt ehion Steam 981
3. A new Spirometer. By W. F. Saetan BGS, | ias.0ises0ckeserepeceeaeieets 982
4, Report of the Anthropometric Laboratory Committee ..............02seeee0e 982
5, Diagrams for Reading-off Indices. By Dr. WILBERFORCE SMITE ........ . 982
6. Excavation of the Wandsdyke at Woodyates. By General Pirt-Rivers,
IB Si tone ane tact asetase steers so ssaeesvsniasessctocctel ies ieee este ede t= ee 983.
7. Notes on Human Remains discovered by General Pitt-Rivers at Wood-
yates, Wiltshire. By J. G. Garson, M.D., V.P. Anthrop. Inst. ......... 983,
8. Report of the Prehistoric Inhabitants Committee ..................ccceeeeeeeee 984
9. Report of the Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor Committee ..............cseeeeeeee 984.
10. Report of the North-Western Tribes of Canada Committee............s+e+0 984
Ti Reportiot the Imdian’@ommittee 2.25.2... ss es.snceceseegeeoeeesbsceeeee renee 984
Fe a Oy a So
PLATES L—XVIII.
illustrating the Report of the Committee appointed to investigate the Action of
Waves and Currents on the Beds and Foreshores of Estuaries by means of
Working Models. :
A PLATE XIX.
illustrating the Sixth Report of the Committee appointed to investigate the
_ physical characters, languages, and industrial and social condition of the
_ North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada.
OBJECTS AND RULES
OF
THE ASSOCIATION.
—_+——_-
OBJECTS.
Tae Association contemplates no interference with the ground occupied
by other institutions. Its objects are:—To give a stronger impulse and
a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the inter-
course of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British
Empire, with one another and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a
more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any |
disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress.
RULES.
Admission of Members and Associates.
All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled
to become Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation
to conform to its Rules.
The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical —
Societies publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled,
in like manner, to become Members of the Association.
The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees,
of Philosophical Institutions shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.
_ All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Coun-
cil or Managing Committee shall be entitled, in like manner, to become -
Members of the Association.
Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the
General Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Asso-
ciation, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the
approval of a General Meeting.
Compositions, Subscriptions, and Privileges.
Lire Memssrs shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be
published after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the
offices of the Association.
Annual Sunscrizers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of OnePound. They shall receive
——>
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXV
gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without interniissicn their
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this subscription in any par-
ticular year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and
_ all future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association
gratis : but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any
subsequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the
sum of One Pound. They are eligible to all the Offices of the Association.
Associates for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.
The Association consists of the following classes :—
1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.
.2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on
admission Ten Pounds as a composition.
3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to
the payment of One Poundannually. [May resume their Membership after
intermission of Annual Payment. }
4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the
payment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each
following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of
Annual Payment. |
6, Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.
6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.
And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’)
price, according to the following specification, viz. :—
1. Gratis.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further
sum of ‘Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845,
a further sum of Five Pounds.
New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a composition.
Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.
2. At reduced or Members’ Price, viz., two-thirds of the Publication Price.
—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a Book
Subscription.
Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Subscription.
Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for
that year only. ]
8. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing thelr sets) any
of the volumes of the Reports of the Association up to 1874,
of which more than 15 copies remain, at 2s. 6d. per volume.!
_ Application to be made at the Office of the Association.
Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can
ply be issued by direction of the Council.
Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries,
2 A few complete sets, 1831 to 1874, are on sale, at £10 the set.
XXxvi RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Meetings.
The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The
place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee two
years in advance; and the arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the
Officers of the Association.
General Committee.
The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons :—
Crass A. PrerMANENT MEMBERS.
1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association, and Presi-
dents of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of
Reports in the Transactions of the Association.
2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers have fur-
thered the advancement of those subjects which are taken into considera-
tion at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. With a view of sub-
mitting new claims under this Rule to the decision of the Council, they must
be sent to the Secretary at least one month before the Meeting of the Associa-
tion. The decision of the Council on the claims of any Member of the Associa-
tion to be placed on the list of the General Commuittee to be final.
Crass B. Temporary Memsers.!
1. Delegates nominated by the Corresponding Societies under the
conditions hereinafter explained. Claims under this Rule to be sent to the
Secretary before the opening of the Meeting.
2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not ex-
ceeding three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place of
Meeting. Claims under this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries
before the opening of the Meeting.
3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and
who are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by
the President and General Secretaries.
4, Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections.
Organising Sectional Committees.?
The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sec-
tions are nominated by the Council, and have power to act until their
names are submitted to the General Committee for election.
From the time of their nomination they constitute Organising Com-
mittees for the purpose of obtaining information upon the Memoirs and
Reports likely to be submitted to the Sections,* and of preparing Reports
1 Revised by the General Committee, 1884.
2 Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871.
3 Notice to Contributors of Memoirs.—Authors are reminded that, under an
arrangement dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which
they are to be read, are now as far as possible determined by Organising Committees
for the several Sections before the beginning of the Meeting. It has therefore become
necessary, in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the
. RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXxVii
_ thereon, and on the order in which it is desirable that they should be
read, to be presented to the Committees of the Sections at their first
meeting. The Sectional Presidents of former years are ex officio members
of the Organising Sectional Committees.!
An Organising Committee may also hold such preliminary meetings as
the President of the Committee thinks expedient, but shall, under any
circumstances, meet on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting, at
11 a.m., to nominate the first members of the Sectional Committee, if
they shall consider it expedient to do so, and to settle the terms of their
report to the General Committee, after which their functions as an
Organising Committee shall cease.”
Constitution of the Sectional Committees.?
On the first day of the Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presi-
dents, and Secretaries of each Section having been appointed by the
General Committee, these Officers, and those previous Presidents and
Vice-Presidents of the Section who may desire to attend, are to meet, at
2 p.m., in their Committee Rooms, and enlarge the Sectional Committees
by selecting individuals from among the Members (not Associates) present
at the Meeting whose assistance they may particularly desire. The Sec-
tional Committees thus constituted shall have power to add to their
number from day to day.
The List thus formed is to be entered daily in the Sectional Minute-
Book, and a copy forwarded without delay to the Printer, who is charged
with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on the next day in the Journal of
the Sectional Proceedings.
Business of the Sectional Committees.
Committee Meetings are to be held on the Wednesday at 2 P.m., on the
following Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Monday, and Tuesday, from 10 to
1] a.M., punctually, for the objects stated in the Rules of the Association,
‘and specified below.
The business is to be conducted in the following manner :—
1. The President shall call on the Secretary to read the minutes of
the previous Meeting of the Committee.
2. No paper shall be read until it has been formally accepted by the
Several Communications, that each author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir
of a length suitable for insertion in the published Transactions of the Association,
and that he should send it, together with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or
Ee ais acs enesasdient .., addressed to the General Secretaries, at the office of
the Association. ‘For Section......... > If it should be inconvenient to the Author
that his paper should be read on any particular days, he is requested to send in-
ormation thereof to the Secretaries in a separate note. Authors who send in their
MSS. three complete weeks before the Meeting, and whose papers are accepted,
ill be furnished, before the Meeting, with printed copies of their Reports and
bstracts. No Report, Paper, or Abstract can be inserted in the Annual Volume
unless it is handed either to the Recorder of the Section or to the Secretary, before
the conclusion of the Meeting.
1 Added by the General Committee, Sheffield, 1879.
? Revised by the General Committee, Swansea, 1880.
’ Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871.
* The meeting on Saturday was made optional by the General Committee at
uthport, 1883.
XXVili RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Committee of the Section, and entered on the minutes accord-
ingly. d
3. Papers which have been reported on unfavourably by the Organis-
ing Committees shall not be brought before the Sectional
Committees.!
At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of
last year’s proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis
of Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association
and printed in the last volume of the Report. He will next proceed to
read the Report of the Organising Committee.? The list of Communi-
cations to be read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general
distribution of business throughout the week shall be provisionally ap-
pointed, At the close of the Committee Meeting the Secretaries shall
forward to the Printer a List of the Papers appointed to be read. The
Printer is charged with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on Thursday
in the Journal.
On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days,
the Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers
which have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed
to be read on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early
in the day as possible to the Printer, who is charged with printing the
same before 8 A.M. next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one
of the Secretaries of each Section (generally the Recorder) should call
at the Printing Office and revise the proof each evening.
Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily
in the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of
the Committee.
Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts
ef Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the
Sectional Meetings, to the Secretary.
The Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ea officio
temporary Members of the General Committee (vide p. xxvi), and will
receive, on application to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets
entitling them to attend its Meetings.
The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may
be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are
specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association, and the com-
munications made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of
selecting definite points of research to which individual or combined
exertion may be usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the
state and progress of which Reports are wanted; to name individuals or
Committees for the execution of such Reports or researches ; and to state
whether, and to what degree, these objects may be usefully advanced by
the appropriation of the funds of the Association, by application to
Government, Philosophical Institutions, or Local Authorities.
In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science,
it is expedient that all Members of the Committee should be named, and
’ These rules were adopted by the General Committee, Plymouth, 1877.
? This and the following sentence were added by the General Committee, Edin-
burgh, 1871.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. Xxix
one of them appointed to act as Chairman, who shall have notified per.
sonally or in writing his willingness to accept the office, the Chairman to have
_ the responsibility of receiving and disbursing the grant (if any has been made)
and securing the presentation of the Report in due time; and further, it is
— expedient that one of the members should be appointed to act as Secretary, for
ensuring attention to business.
. That it is desirable that the number of Members appointed to serve on a
Committee should be as small as is consistent with its efficient working.
That a tabular list of the Committees appointed on the recommendation
of each Section should be sent each year to the Recorders of the several Sec-
tions, to enable them to fill in the statement whether the several Committees
appointed on the recommendation of their respective Sections had presented
their reports.
That on the proposal to recommend the appointment of a Committee for a
special object of science having been adopted by the Sectional Committee, the
number of Members of such Committee be then fixed, but that the Members to
serve on such Commvitice be nominated and selected by the Sectional Com-
mittee at a subsequent meeting.'
Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assist-
ance they may require.
The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are ta
be registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of
each is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Secretary for presentation
to the Committee of Recommendations. Unless this be done, the Recom-
mendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association.
N.B.—Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sections
must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they can
be referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by the
General Committee.
The Committees of the Sections shall ascertain whether a Report has.
been made by every Committee appointed at the previous Meeting to whom
a sum of money has been granted, and shall report to the Committee of
Recommendations in every case where no such Report has been received.”
Notices regarding Grants of Money.
Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money have been
entrusted by the Association for the prosecution of particular researches
in science, are required to present to each following Meeting of the
Association a Report of the progress which has been made; and the
Chairman of a Committee to whom a money grant has been made must
(previously to the next Meeting of the Association) forward to the General
Secretaries or Treasurer a statement of the sums which have been ex-
pended, and the balance which remains disposable on each grant.
Grants of money sanctioned at any one Meeting of the Association
expire a week before the opening of the ensuing Meeting; nor is the
Treasurer authorised, after that date, to allow any claims on account of
Such grants, unless they be renewed in the original or a modified form by
the General Committee.
No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices
of the British Association without special permission from the General
1 Revised by the General Committee, Bath, 1888.
? Passed by the General Committee at Sheffield, 1879.
Xxx RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Committee to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended except in
accordance with the rules of the Association.
In each Committee, the Chairman is the only person entitled
to call on the Treasurer, Professor A. W. Williamson, 17 Buckingham
Street, London, W.C., for such portion of the sums granted as may from
time to time be required.
In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contem-
plate the payment of personal expenses to the members.
Tn all cases where additional grants of money are made for the con-
tinuation of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named is
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, whatever balance may remain
unpaid on the former grant for the same object.
All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Associa-
tion are to be deposited at the Office of the Association, when not
employed in carrying on scientific inquiries for the Association.
Business of the Sections.
The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation from
10 to 11 daily. The Section Rooms and approaches thereto can be used for
no notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the Association.
At 11 precisely the Chair will be taken,! and the reading of communi-
cations, in the order previously made public, commenced. At 3 p.m. the
Sections will close.
Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications
delivered in may render such divisions desirable.
A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which
originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of
the Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author.
Duties of the Doorkeepers.
1. To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are
appointed during the whole time for which they are engaged.
2. To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the ex-
hibition of a Member’s, Associate’s, or Lady’s Ticket, or Reporter’s
Ticket, signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the
Secretary.
3. Persons unprovided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted
to any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room.
No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the
Association whose names are printed in the programme, p. 1.
Duties of the Messengers.
To remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed dur-
ing the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed on
messages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms.
1 The sectional meetings on Saturday and on Wednesday may begin at any time
which may be fixed by the Committee, not earlier than 10 or later than 11. Passed by
the General Committee at Bath, 1888.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXX1
Committee of Recommendations.
The General Committee shall. appoint at each Meeting a Committee,
which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional
Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which
they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science.
Presidents of the Association in former years are ex officio members of
the Committee of Recommendations.!
All Recommendaiions of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the
Committee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the
General Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of
- Recommendations.
All proposals for establishing new Sections, or altering the titles of
- Sections, or for any other change in the constitutional forms and funda-
mental rules of the Association, shall be referred to the Committee of
_ Recommendations fora report.”
Corresponding Societies.*
:
: 1. Any Society is eligible to be placed on the List of Corresponding
Societies of the Association which undertakes local scientific investiga-
tions, and publishes notices of the results.
2. Application may be made by any Society to be placed on the
List of Corresponding Societies. Applications must be addressed to the
Secretary on or before the lst of June preceding the Annual Meeting at
which it is intended they should be considered, and must be accompanied
by specimens of the publications of the results of the local scientific
investigations recently undertaken by the Society.
3. A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be annually nomi-
nated by the Council and appointed by the General Committee for the
purpose of considering these applications, as well as for that of keeping
themselves generally informed of the annual work of the Corresponding
Societies, and of superintending the preparation of a list of the papers
published by them. This Committee shall make an annuai report to the
General Committee, and shall suggest such additions or changes in the
List of Corresponding Societies as they may think desirable.
4. Every Corresponding Society shall return each year, on or before the
Ist of June, to the Secretary of the Association, a schedule, properly filled
“up, which will be issued by the Secretary of the Association, and which will
contain a request for such particulars with regard to the Society as may
be required for the information of the Corresponding Societies Committee.
5. There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the Association
a list, in an abbreviated form, of the papers published by the Corre-
Sponding Societies during the past twelve months which contain the
results of the local scientific work conducted by them; those papers only
being included which refer to subjects coming under the cognisance of
one or other of the various Sections of the Association.
6. A Corresponding Society shall have the right to nominate any
1 Passed by the General Committee at Newcastle, 1863.
2 Passed by the General Committee at Birmingham, 1865,
3 Passed by the General Committee, 1884.
Xxxil RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
one of its members, who is also a Member of the Association, as its dele-
gate to the Annual Meeting of the Association, who shall be for the time
a Member of the General Committee.
Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies.
7. The Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies is em-
powered to send recommendations to the Committee of Recommen-
dations for their consideration, and for report to the General Committee.
8. The Delegates of the various Corresponding Societies shall con-
stitute a Conference, of which the Chairman, Vice-Chairmen, and Secre-
taries shall be annually nominated by the Council, and appointed by the
General Committee, and of which the members of the Corresponding
Societies Committee shall be ew officio members.
9. The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by the Secretaries
to hold one or more meetings during each Annual Meeting of the Associa-
tion, and shall be empowered to invite any Member or Associate to take
part in the meetings.
10. The Secretaries of each Section shall be instructed to transmit to
the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates copies of any recommen-
dations forwarded by the Presidents of Sections to the Committee of
Recommendations bearing upon matters in which the co-operation of
Corresponding Societies is desired ; and the Secretaries of the Conference
of Delegates shall invite the authors of these recommendations to attend
the meetings of the Conference and give verbal explanations of their
objects and of the precise way in which they would desire to have them
carried into effect.
11. It will be the duty of the Delegates to make themselves familiar
with the purport of the several recommendations brought before the Confer-
ence, in order that they and others who take part in the meetings may be
able to bring those recommendations clearly and favourably before their
respective Societies. The Conference may also discuss propositions bear-
ing on the promotion of more systematic observation and plans of opera-
tion, and of greater uniformity in the mode of publishing results.
Local Committees.
Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association
to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.
Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers
those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.
Officers.
A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries,
and a Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.
Cowneil.
In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall
beemanaged by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The
Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week
of the Meeting.
od
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XxXxill
(1) The Council shall consist of !
. The Trustees.
. The past Presidents.
. The President and Vice-Presidents for the time being.
. The President and Vice-Presidents elect.
. The past and present General Treasurers, General and
Assistant General Secretaries.
. The Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the ensuing
Meeting.
7. Ordinary Members.
(2) The Ordinary Members shall be elected annually from the
General Committee.
(3) There shall be not more than twenty-five Ordinary Members, ot
whom not more than twenty shall have served on the Council,
as Ordinary Members, in the previous year.
(4) In order to carry out the foregoing rule, the following Ordinary
Members of the outgoing Council shall at each annual election
be ineligible for nomination :—I1st, those who have served on
the Council for the greatest number of consecutive years ; and,
2nd, those who, being resident in or near London, have
attended the fewest number of Meetings during the year
—observing (as nearly as possible) the proportion of three by
seniority to two by least attendance.
(5) The Council shall submit to the General Committee in their
Annual Report the names of the Members of General Com-
mittee whom they recommend for election as Members of
Council.
(6) The Election shall take place at the same time as that of the
Officers of the Association.
Dm exhtispe
Papers and Communications.
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to
reserve his right of property therein.
Accounts.
_ The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the General Committee.
1 Passed by the General Committee, Belfast, 1874.
;
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1353
Date and Place
1832.
1833.
1834.
“1935.
1836.
1837.
1838.
1839.
xlili
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.
Presidents
Secretaries
MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCKS.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS.
Oxford
Cambridge
Edinburgh
ances
Liverpool...
Newcastle
Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...
. Plymouth
. Manchester
. Cambridge
Southamp-
se eeee
. Swansea ...
. Birmingham
. Edinburgh
. Ipswich ...
. Belfast......
. Hull
Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......
Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.
Rev. H. Coddington.
Prof. Forbes. -
Prof. Forbes, Prof. Lloyd.
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
Rey. Dr. Robinson
Rey. William Whewell, F.R.S.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......
Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S....
Prof. Forbes, F.R.S.............
Rev. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S. ......
Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D.,
F.R.S.
Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R.I.A. ...
The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ...
The Very Rev. the Dean of
Ely.
Sir John F. W. Herschel,
Bart., F.R.S.
Prof. Powell,
F.R.S.
Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. ...
William Hopkins, F.R.S.......
M.A.,
Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S.,
Sec. R.S.E.
. W. Whewell,
E.RS.
~ W. Thomson,
F.R.S. L. & E.
The Very Rev. the Dean of
Ely, F.R.S.
D.D.,
M.A.,
Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof,
Wheatstone.
Prof. Forbes, W. 8. Harris, F. W.
Jerrard.
W. S. Harris, Rev. Prof. Powell,
Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine,
Prof. Stevelly.
J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof.
Stevelly.
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly,
Arch. Smith.
Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev.
W. Scoresby.
J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. H. Goodwin, Prof. Stevelly,
G. G. Stokes.
John Drew, Dr. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.
Rey. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.
.| Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes, W.
Ridout Wills.
W..J.Macquorn Rankine,Prof.Smyth,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
S. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Dixon, W. J. Macquorn Ran-
kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall.
B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt,
Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh.
xliv
REPORT—1890.
Date and Place Presidents
Seeretaries
1854, Liverpool...|Prof, G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec.
R.S.
. Glasgow . Prof. Kelland, M.A.,
FBS. L. & E.
1856, Cheltenham|Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S.
1857. Dublin...... Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.,
F.RB.S., M.R.LA.
1858. Leeds ...... Rev. W. Whewell, D.D.,
VAP SRS
1859. Aberdeen.../The Earlof Rosse, M.A., K.P.,
F.R.S.
1860. Oxford...... Rey. B. Price, M.A., F.R.S....
1861. Manchester/G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L.,
F.B.S.
1862. Cambridge |Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A.,
F.B.S.
1863. Newcastle |Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
C.E., F.R.S.
1864. Bath...:...0. Prof. Cayley, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.
1865. Birmingham |W. Spottiswoode,M.A.,F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.
1866. Nottingham |Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
1867. Dundee ...|Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.,
F.RB.S.
1868. Norwich ...|Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D.,
F.R.S.
1869. Exeter...... Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D.,
F.R.S.
1870. Liverpool...|J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
1871. Edinburgh |Prof. P. G. Tait, F.R.S.E. ...
1872. Brighton ...|W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S.
1873. Bradford ...; Prof. H. J. 8S. Smith, F.R.S.
1874, Belfast...... Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett, M.A..
M.R.LA.
1875. Bristol...... Prof. Balfour Stewart, M.A.,
; LL.D., F.R.S.
1876. Glasgow ...| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,|
D.C.L., F.R.S.
1877. Plymouth...|Prof.G.C. Foster, B.A., F.R.S.,
Pres. Physical Soc.
- 1878. Dublin......;Rev. Prof. Salmon, D.D.,
D.C.L., F.B.S.
1879. Sheffield ...)George Johnstone Stoney,
M.A., F.R.S.
J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof.
Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh.
Rey. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof.
Tyndall.
C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull.
Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A.
Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly.
Rey. S. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy,
Prof. Stevelly, H.J.S.Smith, Prof.
Tyndall.
J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H.
J.S. Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. G. C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison,
Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. R.: B. Clifton, Prof. H.J. S:
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. N. Ferrers, Prof. Fuller, F.
Jenkin, Prof. Stevelly, Rey. C. T.
Whitley.
Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G.
Buckle, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G.
S. Mathews, Prof. H. J. S. Smith,
J. M. Wilson.
Fleeming Jenkin, Prof. H.J.S.Smith,
Rev. S. N. Swann.
Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C: Foster,
Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan.
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley,
R. B. Hayward.
Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,
W. K. Clifford.
Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford,
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen
Whitworth.
Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D.
Everett, Rev. R. Harley.
Prof. W. K. Clifford, J. W. L.Glaisher,
Prof. A. S. Herschel, G. F. Rodwell.
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J.
W.L. Glaisher, Prof. A.S. Herschel.
J. W. L. Glaisher, Prof. Herschel,
Randal Nixon, J. Perry, G. F.
Rodwell.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J.W.L. Glaisher,
C. T. Hudson, G. F. Rodwell,
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. G. Forbes, J. W. L. Glaisher,
T. Muir.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
J. W. L. Glaisher, F. G. Landon.
Prof. J. Casey, G. F. Fitzgerald, J.
W. L. Glaisher, Dr. O. J. Lodge.
A. H. Allen, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr,
O, J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
- Date and Place
1880. Swansea ...
1881.
1882. Southamp-
ton.
. Southport
. Montreal ..
. Aberdeen...
. Birmingham
. Manchester
.|Prof. Sir W. Thomson,
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
Presidents
xlv
Secretaries
Prof. W. Grylls Adams, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.B.S.
Rt. Hon. Prof. Lord Rayleigh,
M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. O. Henrici, Ph.D., F.R.S.
M.A.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S4
Prof. G. Chrystal,
F.R.S.E.
Prof. G. H. Darwin, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Sir R. 8. Ball, M.A.,
LL_D., F.R.S.
M.A.,
. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
ae eeee
. Edinburgh
5. Dublin
. Bristol
. Liverpool...
. Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
3 i841. Plymouth...
842. Manchester |
1845. Cambridge
1846, Southamp-
ton.
1840. Glasgow ...|
Prof. G. F. Fitzgerald, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Capt. W. de W. Abney, C.B.,
R.E., F.R.S.
J. W. L. Glaisher,
F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S,.
Sce.D.,
W. E. Ayrton, J. W. L. Glaisher,
Dr. O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister,
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, Prof. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Rev. W. Routh.
W. M. Hicks, Prof. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Rev. G. Richard-
son.
W. M. Hicks, Prof. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Prof. R. C. Rowe.
C. Carpmael, W. M. Hicks, Prof. A.
Johnson, Prof, O. J. Lodge, Dr. D.
MacAlister.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
W. M. Hicks, Prof. W. Ingram.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
J. H. Poynting, W. N. Shaw.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
H. Lamb, W. N. Shaw.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A.
Lodge, W. N. Shaw.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
A. Lodge, W. N. Shaw, Prof. H.
Stroud.
R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. A. Lodge,
W. N. Shaw, Prof. W. Stroud.
CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, II.—CHEMISTRY,
meOxtord....... John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
. Cambridge |John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
MINERALOGY.
James F. W. Johnston.
Prof. Miller.
THOM Crecnnccscuessaedse Senses Mr. Johnston, Dr. Christison.
SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.
Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S. ......
Rev. Prof. Cumming
Michael Faraday, F.B.S.......
Rey. William Whewell,F.R.S.
Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S.
Dr. Thomas Thomson, F, R. S.
Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S. .........
John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. Apjohn, M.R.I.A.........
Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ......
Rey. Prof. Cumming
ee eeeree
Michael Faraday, D.C.L.,
Jie
Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston.
Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera-
path.
|Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr.
Reynolds.
| Prof. Miller, H. L. Pattinson, Thomas
Richardson.
.| Dr. Golding Bird, Dr. J. B. Melson.
'Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. T. Clark,
Dr. L. Playfair.
J. Prideaux, Robert Hunt, W. M.
Tweedy.
Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham.
R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.
Dr. L. Playfair, E. Solly, T. H. Barker.
R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof. Miller,
E. Solly.
Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall.
xlvi
REPORT—1890.
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
184:7.. :Oxi0rd),. 255.
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich ...
1852. Belfast......
1853. Hull .........
1854, Liverpool
1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham
1857.
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864.
1865. Birmingham
1866, Nottingham
1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich ...
1869. Exeter ......
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton...
1873. Bradford...
1874, Belfast......
1875. Bristol......
1876. Glasgow
1877. Plymouth...
1878, Dublin
1879. Sheffield ...
. | Prof.
eo iWikiegberkaner HRS. .cccess
Rev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A.,|
F.R.S.
Richard Phillips, F.R.5. ......
John Percy, M.D., F.K.S.......
Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E.
Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.5.
Thomas Andrews, M.D.,F.R.5.
Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,
F.B.S.
Prof.W. A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.5.
Dr. Lyon Playfair,C.B.,F.R.S.
Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ...
B. OC. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly.
T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams.
R. Hunt, G. Shaw.
Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson.
|'T. J. Pearsall, W. S. Ward.
‘Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof.
Ronalds.
H. S. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J.
Pearsall.
Dr. Edwards, Dr. Gladstone, Dr.
Price.
Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe.
Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.R.5.,
M RB.LA.
'Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
D.C.L.
Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S.
Prof. B. C. Brodie, ing
Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S: |
| Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.
\Dr. Alex. W. Williamson, |
E.R.S.
W. Odling, MB, F.R.S.,|
F.C.8.
Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D.,|
V.P.B.S.
H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S. |
T. Anderson,
F.R.S.E.
|Prof. E. Frankland, F.R.S.,
F.C.S.
| Dr. H. Debus, F'.R.S., F.C.S.
M.D.,
Prof. H. E. Roscoe,
F.R.S., F.C.S.
Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S.
B.A.,
Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S....
Prof. W. J. Russell, F.R.S....
Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D.,
F.R.S.E., F.C.S.
|A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.C.S.
F. A. Abel, F.R.S., F.C.S.
Prof. Maxwell Simpson, M.D.,
F.R.S., F.C.S.
Prof. Dewar, M.A., F.R.S.
J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley, Prof.
Voelcker.
Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul-
livan.
‘Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey-
nolds.
J. 8. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D.
Liveing, Dr. Odling.
A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing,
A. B. Northcote.
A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing.
H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof.
Roscoe.
Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C.
Stevenson.
A. V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing, R.
Biggs.
A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof.
Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills.
J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J.
Russell, J. White.
A, Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing,
W. J. Russell.
Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus-
sell, F. Sutton.
Prof. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J.
Russell, Dr. Atkinson.
‘Prof. A. Crum Brown. A. E. Fletcher,
Dr. W. J. Russell.
J.T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T.
E_ Thorpe.
Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr.
W. J. Russell, Dr. T. Wood.
Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe.
Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe.
Dr. ti. E. Armstrong, W. Chandler
Roberts, W. A. Tilden.
-.|W. Dittmar, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson, W. A. Tilden.
... Dy. Oxland, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson.
|W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thom-
son, Dr. C. R. Tichborne, T. Wills.
H. 8. Beli, W. Chandler Roberts, J.
M. Thomson,
ee ew
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
xlvii
Date and Place Presidents
1880. Swansea ... Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D.,
F.R.S.
mest, York......... Prof. A. W. Williamson, Ph.D.,
4 F.R.S.
1882. Southamp- |Prof. G. D. Liveing, M.A.,
ton. F.R.S.
1883. Southport | Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S...
Prof. Sir H. E. Roscoe, Ph.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. H. KE. Armstrong, Ph.D.,
F.R.S., Sec. C.S.
W. Crookes, F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
1884. Montreal ...
1885. Aberdeen...
1886, Birmingham
1887. Manchester | Dr. E. Schunck, F’.R.S., F.C.S.
1888. Bath |Prof. W. A. Tilden, D.Sc.,
F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
1889. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Sir T. Lowthian Bell, Bart.,
DICH RRBs BCS:
Prof. T. E. Thorpe, B.Sc.,
Ph.D., F.R.S., Treas, C.8.
1890. Leeds
Secretaries
P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon, Dr.
W. R. Eaton Hodgkinson, J. M.
Thomson,
P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
T. Gough. :
P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
J. L. Notter.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
T. McFarlane, Prof. W. H. Pike.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
H.Forster Morley,Dr.W.J.Simpson.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley, W. W.
J. Nicol, C. J. Woodward.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. Forster
Morley, W. Thomson.
Prof. H. B. Dixon, Dr. H. Forster
Morley, R. E. Moyle, Dr. W. W
J. Nicol.
Dr. H, Forster Morley, D. H. Nagel,
Dr. W. W. J. Nicol, H. L. Pattin-
son, jun.
C. H. Bothamley, Dr. H. Forster
Morley, D. H. Nagel, Dr. W. W.
J. Nicol.
GEOLOGICAL (anv, unt 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, III.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
|R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.
....../J0hn Taylor.
1833. Cambridge .|G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. .....,,W. Lonsdale, John Phillips.
1834. Edinburgh .| Prof. Jameson .............00.5 Prof. Phillips, T. Jameson Torrie,
Rev. J. Yates.
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
1835. Dublin...... rare Wa CTR UL eee ews» ttoces Aste <in'de's Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie.
1836. Bristol...... Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—|William Sanders, 8. Stutchbury,
Geography, R. 1. Murchison,
. F.R.S.
1837. Liverpool...| Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.—
Geography, G.B.Greenough,
F.R.S.
1838. Newcastle...)|C. Lyell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.—
x Geography, Lord Prudhoe.
1839. Birmingham
5 Geography, G.B.Greenough,
E.R.S.
.../Charles Lyell, F.R.S.—Geo-
graphy, G. B. Greenough,
E.R.S.
H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S. ...
1841. Plymouth...
T. J. Torrie.
Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.—Geo-
graphy, Captain H. M. Denham,
R.N
W.C. “Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.—
Geography, Capt. Washington.
Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—|George Lloyd, M.D., H. E. Strick-
land, Charles Darwin.
W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh
Murray, H. E. Strickland, John
Scoular, M.D.
W.J. Hamilton, Edward Moore, M.D.,
R. Hutton,
xlviii
REPORT—1890.
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
1842,
1843.
i844.
1845.
1846.
1847.
1848.
Manchester
Cambridge.
Southamp-
tor.
Oxford
Swansea...
1849.Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh?
1851.
1852.
1853.-
1854.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.
. Dublin
Ipswich ...
Belfast......
Tet eononcs
Liverpool..
. Glasgow ...
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......
Richard E. Griffith, F.R.S.,
M.R.LA.
Henry Warburton, M.P., Pres.
Geol. Soc.
Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Leonard Horner, F.R.S.—- G'eo-
graphy, G. B. Greenough,
F.R.S.
Very Rev.Dr.Buckland,F.R.S.
Sir H. T. De la Beche, C.B.,
F.R.S.
Sir Charles Lyell,
F.G.S.
Sir Roderick I. Murchison,
F.R.S.
F.RB.S.,
SECTION C (continued).
WilliamHopkins, M.A.,F.R.S.
Lieut.-Col.
F.R.S.
Prof. Sedgwick, F-.R.S.........
Prof. Edward Forbes, F.R.8.
Portlock, R.E.,
Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S....
Cheltenham | Prof. A, C. Ramsay, F.R.S....
Leeds
. Aberdeen... !
Oxford...
Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle
1865, Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
The Lord Talbot de Malahide
William Hopkins, M.A.,LL.D.,
F.RB.S.
Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D.,
E.R.S., F.G.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. Warington W. Smyth,
E.R.S., F.G.8.
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,
E.R.S., F.G.S.
Sir R. I. Murchisor, Bart.,
K.C.B.
Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D.,
E.R.S.
E. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R.
Lloyd, H. E. Strickland.
Francis M. Jennings, H. E. Strick-
land.
Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury.
Rev. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay,
Rev. W. Thorp.
Robert A. Austen, Dr, J. H. Norton,
Prof. Oldham.— Geography, Dr. C.
T. Beke.
Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C.
Ramsay, J. Ruskin.
Starling Benson, Prof.
Prof. Ramsay.
J. Beete Jukes, Prof. Oldham, Prof..
A. C. Ramsay.
A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller,
Prof. Nicol.
Oldham,
— GEOLOGY.
C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod,
Searles Wood.
James Bryce, James MacAdam,
Prof. M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol.
| Prof. Harkness, William Lawton.
| John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness,
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.
James Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof.
Nicol.
Rey. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hep-
worth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall,
T. Wright.
Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders,
Robert H. Scott.
Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, EH.) W.
Shaw.
Prof. Harkness, Rev. J. Longmuir,
H. C. Sorby.
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, Capt.
D. C. L. Woodall.
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T.
Rupert Jones, G. W. Ormerod.
Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert
Jones, H. C. Sorby.
E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C.
Sorby, Themas Sopwith.
W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C.
Sorby, W. Pengelly.
Rev. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rev. E.
Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly.
R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil-
son, G. H. Wright.
1 At a meeting of the General Committee held in 1850, it was resolved ‘ That
the subject of Geography be separated from Geology and combined with Ethnology,
to constitute a separate Section, under the title of the “Geographical and Ethno-
logical Section,”’ for Presidents and Secretaries of which see page liv.
Date and Place
1872. Brighton...
1873. Bradford ...
1874.
1875. Bristol......
1876. Glasgow ...
. Plymouth...
SeWublin'...:.'.
. Sheffield ...
. Swansea ...
: Southport
: Montreal nop
. Aberdeen...
. Birmingham
. Manchester
eee ween
. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
. Leeds
1867. Dundee .../Archibald Geikie, F.B.S.,
F.G.S.
1868. Norwich ...|/R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
1869. Exeter ...... Prof. R. Harkness, F.R.S.,
F.G,S.
1870. Liverpool... /Sir Philipde M.Grey Egerton,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S.
1871. Edinburgh | Prof. A. Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
xlix
Presidents
Secretaries
R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. J. Phillips,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof: CHnllf MAC, “ROR: S.;
F.G.S.
D.C.L.,
Dr. Thomas Wright, F.R.8.E.,
B.G.S.
Prof. John Young, M.D. ......
W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.G.S.
John Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.S.A., F.G.8.
Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
H. C. Sorby, LL.D., F.RB.S.,
F.G.S.
A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
R. Etheridge, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. W. OC. Williamson,
LL.D., F.RB.'.
W. T. Blanford, F.RS., Sec.
G.S.
Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., Sec.
G.S.
Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Henry Woodward, LL.D.,
E.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. J. Geikie, LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. A. H. Green, M.A.,
1890.
E.R.S., F.G.S.
Edward Hull, W. Pengelly, Henry
Woodward.
Rev. O. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W.
Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins,
Rev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengeliy, Rev. H. H. Winwood,
W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton.
R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, T. McKenny
Hughes, L. C. Miall.
L. C. Miall, George Scott, William
Topley, Henry Woodward.
L. C. Miall, R. H. Tiddeman, W.
Topley.
F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes,
R. H. Tiddeman.
L. C. Miall, E. B. Tawney, W. Top-
ley.
J. Armstrong, F. W. Rudler, W.
Topley:
Dr. Le Neve Foster, R. H. Tidde-
man, W. Topley.
EK. T. Hardman, Prof. J. O’Reilly,
R. H. Tiddeman.
W. Topley, G. Blake Walker.
W. Topley, W. Whitaker.
J. E. Clark, W. Keeping, W. Topley,
W. Whitaker.
T. W. Shore, W. Topley, E. West-
lake, W. Whitaker.
R. Betley, C. E. De Rance, W. Top-
ley, W. Whitaker.
F. Adams, Prof. E. W. Claypole, W.
Topley, W. Whitaker.
C. E. De Rance, J. Horne, J. J. H.
Teall, W. Topley.
W. J. Harrison, J. J. H. Teall, W.
Topley, W. W. Watts.
J. E. Marr, J. J. H. Teall, W. Top- |
ley, W. W. Watts.
Prof. G. A. Lebour, W. Topley, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.
Prof. G. A. Lebour, J. E. Marr, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.
J. EK. Bedford, Dr. F. H. Hatch, J.
E. Marr, W. W. Watts.
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
eee eee eer ey
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY.
8 Rev. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. ...!
33. Cambridge! Rev. W. L. P. Garnons, F.L.S. C. C. Babington, D. Don.
1834. Edinburgh .| Prof. Graham
Rev. Prof. J. 8. Henslow.
W. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett.
_ | At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee,
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. liii.
REPORT—1890.
| —get Mg na 4 . ware
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, :
1835. Dublin...... Pe AUN AM Mice caves scescecsee==s J. Curtis, Dr. Litton.
1836. Bristol,.....
1837, Liverpool...
1838, Newcastle
1839, Birmingham
1840, Glasgow ...
1841. Plymouth...
1842. Manchester
1843.
1844,
1845.
1846,
Cambridge
Southamp-
ton,
1847. Oxford.,.....
Rev. Prof. Henslow
W..S: Macleay...<...0.-..sce00r!
Sir, W. Jardine, Bart. .........|
Prot Owens sss essrescsscre
Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D.......
John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.
Hon. and Very Rev. W. Her-
bert, LL.D., F.L.S.
William Thompson, F.L.S....
Very Rey. the Dean of Man-|
chester.
Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S....
Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,
F.RB.S.
H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S.
J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, 8.
Rootsey.
C. C. Babington, Rev, L, Jenyns, W.
Swainson.
J. E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen,-
Dr. Richardson,
E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson.
Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat-
terson.
J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson.
Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A.
Turner.
G. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R.
Patterson.
Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King,
Dr. Lankester.
Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston.
Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H,
Wooldridge.
Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V.
Wollaston.
SECTION D (continued).— ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY,
{For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Subsec-
tions and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. liii.]
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich ...
1852. Belfast......
TR see eon
1854. Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres. L.S.
1857. Dublin......
1858. Leeds ......
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford......
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
L. W. Dillwyn, F.R.S........-.
| William Spence, F.R.S. ......
| Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L. & E.
‘Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A,, |
F.R.S. |
C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.
| Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.RB.S....|
Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E.
‘Prof. W. H. Harvey, M.D.,.
| ERS.
C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.|
Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E. |
‘Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S....
Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S.,
Profalumleye Hen. Sat evecsccs«
|Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....|
|
Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A, Hen-
frey, Dr. Lankester.
Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell.
Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan,
Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr, E.
Lankester.
| Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr.
Edwin Lankester.
Robert Harrison, Dr, E. Lankester.
Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.
William Keddie, Dr. Lankester.
Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman,
Dr. Lankester.
Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester,
Robert Patterson, Dr, W. E. Steele.
Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E.
Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester,
Dr. Ogilvy.
W.S. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P.
L. Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr.
P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H.
B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. li
|
Presidents |
|
...|H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T.
| Stainton, Dr. HE. P. Wright.
1865, Birmingham|T, Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. .., Dr. J. Anthony, Rev. C. Clarke, Rev.
| H.B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Date and Place Secretaries
1864, Bath 'Dr. John E, Gray, F.B.S.
SECTION D (continued),—BIOLOGY.!
1866. Nottingham|Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.|Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H,
1867. Dundee
1868, Norwich ...
1869, Exeter
serece
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh.
1872. Brighton ...
1873. Bradford ...
1874, Belfast
4 1875, Bristol
—Physiological Dep., Prof.
Humphry, M.D., F.R.S.—
Anthropological Dep., Alf.
R. Wallace, F.R.G.S.
—Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
George Busk, M.D., F.R.S.
B. Tristram, W. Turner, E. B.
Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright.
...| Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.|C. Spence Bate, Dr. 8. Cobbold, Dr.
M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rev.
H. B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.
Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.} Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr.
—Dep. of Physiology, W.
H. Flower, F.R.S.
M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H. T.
Stainton, Rev. Dr. H. B. Tristram,
Dr. E. P. Wright.
George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S.| Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster,
—Dep. of Bot. and Zool.,
C. Spence Bate, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Ethno., KE. B. Tylor.
HK. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tris-
tram.
Prof. G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D.,| Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans,
F.R.S., F.L.S.—Dep. of| Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H.
Anat. and Physiol., Prof. M.
Foster, M.D., F.L.8.— Dep.
of Ethno., J. Evans, F.B.S.
T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram,
C. Staniland Wake, HE. Ray Lan-
kester.
Prof. Allen Thomson, M.D.,| Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Bot. and
Zool.,Prof.WyvilleThomson,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
Prof. W. Turner, M.D.
E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake,
Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne
King.
Sir J. Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S.—| Prof. Thiselton- Dyer, H, T. Stainton,
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Dr. Burdon Sanderson,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
Col. A. Lane Fox, F.G.S8.
Prof. Allman, F.R.S.—Dep. of
Anat.and Physiol.,Prof. Ru-
therford, M.D.— Dep. of An-
thropol., Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S.
Prof. Redfern, M.D.—Dep. of’
Zool. and Bot., Dr. Hooker,
C.B.,Pres.R.S.—Dep. of An-
throp., Sir W.R. Wilde, M.D.
P. L. Sclater, F.R.S.— Dep. of
Anat.and Physiol.,Prof.Cle-
land, M.D., F.R.S.-—Dep. of
Anthropol., Prof. Rolleston,
M.D., F.B.S.
\
Prof. Lawson, F. W. Rudler, J. H.
Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, EH. Ray
Lankester, Dr. Pye-Smith.
Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson,
R. M‘Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E.
Ray Lankester, F. W. Rudler, J.
H. Lamprey. :
W. T. Thiselton- Dyer, R. O. Cunning-
ham, Dr. J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H.
Pye-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F. W.
Rudler.
E. R. Alston, Dr. McKendrick, Prof.
W. R. M‘Nab, Dr. Martyn, F. W.
Rudler, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, Dr.
W. Spencer.
‘At a meeting of the General Committee in 1865, it was resolved :—‘That the
title of Section D be changed to Biology ;’ and ‘That for the word “Subsection,”
in the rules for conducting the business of the Sections, the word “Department”
be substituted,’
ce 2
hi
REPORT— 1890.
Date and Place
Presidents Secretaries
1876. Glasgow ...
1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin ......
1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
USSiE York.....<.+-.
1882. Southamp-
ton.
1883. Southport?
1884. Montreal ?...
1885. Aberdeen...
1886. Birmingham
1887. Manchester
A. Russel Wallace, F.R.G.S.,)/E. R. Alston, Hyde Clarke, Dr.
F.L.8.—Dep. of Zool. and| Knox, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Dr.
Bot., Prof. A. Newton, M.A., Muirhead, Prof. Morrison Wat-
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anat. and| son.
Physiol., Dr. J. G. MeKen-
drick, F.R.S.E.
J.GwynJeffreys,LL.D.,F.R.S.,|H. RB. Alston, F. Brent, Dr. D. J.
F.L.8.—Dep. of Anat. and| Cunningham, Dr. C. A. Hingston,
Physiol., Prof. Macalister, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, J. B. Rowe,
M.D.—Dep. of Anthropol.,| F. W. Rudler.
Francis Galton, M.A.,F.R.S.
Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.—|Dr. R. J. Harvey, Dr. T. Hayden,
Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.| Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Prof. J. M.
Huxley, Sec. R.S.—Dep.| Purser, J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler.
of Anat. and Physiol. BR.
McDonnell, M.D., F.R.8.
Prof. St. George Mivart,| Arthur Jackson, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,| J.B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler, Prof.
E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S.} Schafer.
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-
siol., Dr. Pye-Smith.
A. C. L. Giinther, M.D.,F.R.S.|G. W. Bloxam, John Priestley,
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-| Howard Saunders, Adam Sedg-
siol., F. M. Balfour, M.A.,| wick.
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
F. W. Rudler, F.G.S.
Richard Owen, C.B., M.D.,)G. W. Bloxam, W. A. Forbes, Rev.
F.R.S.—Dep.of Anthropol.,| W. C. Hey, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
Prof. W. H. Flower, LL.D.,| W. North, John Priestley, Howard
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anat. and| Saunders, H. H. Spencer.
Physiol., Prof. J. S. Burdon
Sanderson, M.D., F.R.S.
Prof. A. Gamgee, M.D., F.R.S./|G. W. Bloxam, W. Heape, J. B.
- Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,| Nias, Howard Saunders, A. Sedg-
Prof. M. A. Lawson, M.A.,| wick, T. W. Shore, jun.
F.L.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins,
M.A., F.R.S.
Prof, E. Ray Lankester, M.A.,|G. W. Bloxam, Dr. G. J. Haslam,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,| W. Heape, W. Hurst, Prof. A. M.
W. Pengelly, F.R.S. Marshall, Howard Saunders, Dr.
G. A. Woods.
Prof. H. N. Moseley, M.A.,|Prof. W. Osler, Howard Saunders, A.
F.R.S. Sedgewick, Prof. R. R. Wright.
Prof. W. C. McIntosh, M.D.,|W. Heape, J. McGregor-Robertson,
LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E. J. Duncan Matthews, Howard
Saunders, H. Marshall Ward.
W. Carruthers, Pres. L.S.,|Prof. T. W. Bridge, W. Heape, Prof.
F.R.S., F.G.S. W. Hillhouse, W. L. Sclater, Prof.
H. Marshall Ward.
Prof. A. Newton, M.A., F.R.S.,|C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, 8. F. Har-
1OBIER StS Wiley ASR mer, W. Heape, W. L. Sclater,
Prof. H. Marshall Ward.
1 By direction of the General Committee at Southampton (1882) the Departments
of Zoology and Botany and of Anatomy and Physiology were amalgamated.
2 By authority of the General Committee, Anthropology was made a separate
Section, for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. lix.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. Viti
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1888. Bath......... W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, C.M.G.,|F. E. Beddard, S. F. Harmer, Prof.
E.RB.S., F.L.S. H. Marshall Ward; W. Gardiner,
Prof. W. D. Halliburton.
1889. Newcastle-| Prof. J. S. Burdon Sanderson,|C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, 8. F. Har-
upon-Tyne| M.A., M.D., F.R.S. mer, Prof. T. Oliver, Prof. H. Mar-
, shall Ward.
1890. Leeds ...... Prof. A. Milnes Marshall,|}S. F. Harmer, Prof. W. A. Herdman,
M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. Dr. 8. J. Hickson, Prof. F. W.
Oliver, H. Wager, Prof. H. Mar-
shall Ward.
ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.
1833. Cambridge |Dr. Haviland..................... Dr. Bond, Mr. Paget.
1834. Edinburgh |Dr. Abercrombie ...... ........ ‘Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson.
SECTION E (UNTIL 184.7).—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.
1835. Dublin ...... Drigeritchard es. ie. ese Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart.
1836. Bristol ...... Dr. Roget, FRAS. ...-.-<c--- «. Dr. Symonds.
1837. Liverpool...|Prof. W. Clark, M.D. .........|Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long,
Dr. J. R. W. Vose.
1838. Newcastle |T. E. Headlam, M.D. ......... T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose.
1839. Birmingham |John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S....| Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland.
1840. Glasgow ...|James Watson, M.D. ......... Dr. J. Brown, Prof. Couper, Prof.
Reid.
SECTION E.—PHYSIOLOGY.
1541. Plymouth...|P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S. |Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. RB. S.
Sargent.
_ 1842. Manchester | Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S.| Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
1843. Cork ......... Sir James Pitcairn, M.D. ...|Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
1844. York......... J. C. Pritchard, M.D. ......... |I. Erichsen, Dr. R. S. Sargent.
1845. Cambridge | Prof. J. Haviland, M.D. ...... Dr. R. 8. Sargent, Dr. Webster.
1846. Southamp- |Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...|C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sar-
ton. | gent.
1847. Oxford’ .,.| Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S. ......|Dr. Thomas K. Chambers, W. P.
| Ormerod.
PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
1850. Edinburgh |Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E.
1855. Glasgow ...|Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S. | Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers.
1857. Dublin...... Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. ...... Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern.
1858. Leeds ...... Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart.,|C. G. Wheelhouse.
F.B.S.
1 By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were
incorporated under the name of ‘Section D—Zoology and Botany, including Phy-
siology’ (see p.1.).’ Section E, being then vacant, was assigned in 1851 to
Geography.
liv * kEPORT—1 890.
Date and Place | Presidents Secretaries
1859. Aberdeen... |Prof. Bhatpey. 2 M.D., en R. S./ Prof. pentane Prof. Beater
1860. Oxford...... Prof.G.Rolleston,M.D.,F.L.S. | | Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith.
1861. Manchester | Dr. John Davy, F.R.S. it & E.| Dr. W. Roberts, Dr Edward Smith.
1862. Cambridge |G. E. Paget, M. D: Mivaicebescttes iG. E. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith.
1863. Newcastle | Prof. Rolleston, Dr. W. Turner.
HS64. Bab .seve. 0s |Dr. Edward Smith, iD. efi 3. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner.
F.R.S.
1865. Birming- Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D.,|Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop,
ham.!' F.R.S. ! Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner.
GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
[For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C,
p- xlvii. |
ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
1846.Southampton| Dr. Pritchard..................06. Dr. King.
1847. Oxford...... Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A. ...| Prof. Buckley.
MBAS oS WANSEAiascie|||oscoces vcanaacsaesedeisepepilses oncaradep G. Grant Francis.
TSAO MD INMIN OAM) A, scsccwercndeeassors sewer ances acl |Dr. R. G. Latham.
1850. Edinburgh Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm! Daniel Wilson.
SECTION £.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.
1851. Ipswich ...|Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S8.,|R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr.
Pres. R.G.S. Norton Shaw.
1852. Belfast...... Col, Chesney, R.A., D.C.L.,|R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton
F.R.S. Shaw.
Ustie, eel Pare Rk. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S. |R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr.
Norton Shaw.
1854. Liverpool...|Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,| Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr.
F.R.S. Thne, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1855. Glasgow ...|Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,]Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr.
F.R.S. Norton Shaw.
1856. Cheltenham|Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson,}R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H.
K.C.B. Rumsey, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1857. Dublin...... Rev. Dr. J. Henthorn Todd,|R. Cull, 8. Ferguson, Dr. R. R.
Pres. R.I.A. Madden, Dr. Norton Shaw.
W858. leeds ..:.... Sir R. I. Murchison, G.C.St.8.,|R. Cull, Francis Galton, P. O’Cal-
F.R.S. laghan, Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas
Wright.
1859. Aberdeen... Rear - Admiral Sir James|Richard Cull, Prof. Geddes, Dr. Nor-
Clerk Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S. ton Shaw.
1860. Oxford...... Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,|Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C.
E.R.S. Lempriére, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1861. Manchester | John Crawfurd, F.R.S.......... Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Nor-
‘ ; ton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode.
1862. Cambridge | Francis Galton, F-.R.S..........|J.W.Clarke, Rev. J.Glover, Dr. Hunt,
; Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.
1863. Newcastle {Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,|(C. eee Blake, Hume Greenfield,
F.R.S. - R. Markham, R. S. Watson.
1864. Bath......... Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,|H. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt.
F.R.S. R. M. Murchison, T. Wright.
' Vide note on page li.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
lv
|
Date and Place Presidents
Secretaries
1865. Basham | Major: Maeneral § Sir H. Raw- i. W. Bates: S. Evans, G. Jabet,
linson, M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S. |
1866, ae Charles Nicholson, Bart.,
LL.D.
1867. Dundee ... Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S.
1868. Norwich ...|Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N.,
|
“| ERS.
C. R. Markham, Thomas Wright.
H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, R.
H. Major, Clements R. Markham,
D. W. Nash, T. Wright.
H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, Clements
R. Markham, 8. J. Mackie, R.
| Sturrock.
'T. Baines, H. W. Bates, Clements R.
"| Markham, T. Wright.
SECTION E (continued).—GEOGRAPHY.
1869. Exeter Sir Bartle Frere,
LL.D., F.R.G.S.
aeeene
1870. Liverpool...
LL.D., D.C.L., F.B.S., F.G.S.
1871. Edinburgh Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S.
1872. Brighton .. ae Galton, F.R.S..........
1873. Bradford .. | sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B.
1874. Belfast......
| Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S.
1875. Bristol...... |Lieut. - General Strachey,
| R.E.,C.8.1.,F.B.S., F.R.G.S.,
F.L.S., F.G.S.
1876. Glasgow ... Capt. Evans, C.B., F.R.S.......
1877. Plymouth... Adm. Sir E. Ommanney, C.B.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S.
1878. Dublin ‘Prof. Sir C. Wyville Thom-
K.C.B.,
Sir R.I.Murchison, Bt.,K.C.B.,
|H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham,
| J. H. Thomas.
H.W.Bates, David Buxton, Albert J.
Mott, Clements R. Markham.
A. Buchan, A. Keith Johnston, Cle-
ments R. Markham, J. H. Thomas.
H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Rev. J. Newton, J. H. Thomas.
H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Clements R. Markham.
E.G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye, J. H.
Thomas.
|'H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, F. F.
Tuckett.
|H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, R. Oliphant
Wood.
'H. W. Bates, F. E. Fox, HE. C. Rye.
John Coles, E. C. Rye.
| son, LL.D., F.R.S. L&E . |
1879. Sheffield ...|Clements R. Markham, C.B.,
| E.R.S., Sec. R.G.S.
. Lieut. “Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy, |
| C.B.,K.C.M.G., R.A., F.B.S.,
- 1880. Swansea ..
| FRG.
BBO YOLK seeuee' ‘Sir J. D. Hooker, K.C.S.I.,
C.B., F.R.S.
1882. Southamp- Sir R. Temple, Bart., G.C.S.L,
ton. F.R.G.S.
1883. Southport Lieut.-Col. H. H. Godwin-
| Austen, F.R.S.
... Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy, C.B.,
K.C.M.G., F.R.S. V.P.R.GS.
Gen. J. T. Walker, C.B., R.E.,
ee 0) Om De Od ihe
1886. Birmingham | Maj.- -Gen. Sir. F. J. Goldsmid, |
| K.G.S.L., C.B., F.R.G.S.
Manchester iCol. Sir -C. Warren, R.E.,
re C.M.G., F.B.S., F.R.G.S.
1884. Montreal
1885. Aberdeen...
1887.
1888. Bath......... 'Col. Sir C. W. Wilson, RB.E.,
1 C. Bt R.8., H.R Gas:
1889. Newcastle- Col. Sir F. de Winton,
upon-Tyne| K.C.MG., C.B., F.R.G.S.
1890. Leeds Lieut.-Col. Sir R. Lambert
Playfair, K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S
H. W. Bates, C. E. D. Black, E. C.
Rye.
/H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye.
|
J. W. Barry, H. W. Bates,
E. G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye.
‘John Coles, E. G. Tatantere: E. Cc,
Rye.
Rev. Abbé Laflamme, J.8. O'Halloran,
/ E. G. Ravenstein, J. F. Torrance.
rie, Keltie, J. S. O'Halloran, E. G.
| Ravenstein, Rev. G. A. Smith.
F. TS: Houghton, J. S. Keltie,
KE. G. Ravenstein.
Rev. L. C. Casartelli, J. 8. Keltie,
H. J. Mackinder, E. G. Ravenstein.
\J. S. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, E. G.
| Ravenstein.
\J. S. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, R.
Sulivan, A. Silva White.
A. Barker, John Coles, J. 8S. Keltie,
A. Silva White.
lvi- REPORT— 1890.
Date and Place Presidents | Secretaries
STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—STATISTICS.
1833. Cambridge | Prof. Babbage, F.R.S. .........|J. E. Drinkwater.
1834, Edinburgh | Sir Charles Lemon, Bart....... Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean.
SECTION F.—STATISTICS.
1835. Dublin...... Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ......| W. Greg, Prof. Longfield.
1836. Bristol...... Sir Chas. Lemon, Bart., F.R.S.|Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp,
James Heywood.
1837. Liverpool...| Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon......... W. R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.
1838. Newcastle |Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. .........] W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W.R. Wood.
1839. Birmingham | Henry Hallam, F.R.S..........|. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.
1840. Glasgow ...|Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon, M.P.,!C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W.
F.R.S. Rawson. i}
1841. Plymouth...| Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S....... Rev. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R.
W. Rawson.
1842. Manchester |G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S. ...|Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr.
W. C. Tayler.
1843. Cork......... Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ...| Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
BAAS WOrks..os.ss Lieut.- Col. Sykes, F.R.S.,|J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Lay-
F.L.S. cock.
1845, Cambridge | Rt. Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam|J. Fletcher, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
1846. Southamp- |G. R. Porter, F.R.S. ............ J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W.
ton. C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott.
1847. Oxford...... Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S.| Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G.
P. Neison.
1848. Swansea ...|J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.R.S. ...|J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede.
1849. Birmingham | Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton...... Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F. G. P.
Neison.
1850. Edinburgh |Very Rev. Dr. John Lee,|Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J.
V.P.R.S.E. Stark.
1851. Ipswich ... |Sir John P. Boileau, Bart. ...|J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock.
1852. Belfast...... His Grace the Archbishop of] Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James
Dublin. MacAdam, jun.
1853. Hull......... James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S.|Edward Cheshire, W. Newmarch.
1854. Liverpool...|Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. .........|E. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H.
Duncan, W. Newmarch.
1855. Glasgow ...|/R. Monckton Milnes, M.P. ...|J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-
march, Prof. R. H. Walsh.
SECTION F (continwed).—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
1856, Cheltenham|Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P. Hee C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr.
W. N. Hancock, W. Newmarch, W.
A f |_ M. Tartt.
1857. Dublin....., His Grace the Archbishop of | Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W.
Dublin, M.R.LA. | Newmareh,
1858. Leeds ....... |Hdward BAINES) com disneree des eck T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, 8S. Brown,
Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang.
Date and Place
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford
tener
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath.........
1865. Birmingham
. Nottingham
. Norwich ....
. Liverpool...
. Edinburgh
. Brighton ...
Bradford ..
. Belfast......
Bristol......
. Glasgow ..
. Plymouth...
. Dublin
. Sheffield ...
. Swansea ...
. Southamp-
ton.
1883. Southport
884. Montreal ..
1885. Aberdeen...
1886. Birmingham
1887. Manchester
888. Bath
upon-Tyne
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES
Presidents
col. Sykes, M. P, F. R. 8.
Nassau W. Senior, M.A.
William Newmarch, F.R.S....
Edwin Chadwick, C.B. ........
-|William Tite, M.P., F.R.S....
William Farr, M.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,
M.P.
Prof. J. H. T. Rogers............
. Dundee .....!}
Samuel Brown, Pres. Instit.
Actuaries.
Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-
cote, Bart., C.B., M.P.
Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A.
Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves.........
Prof. Henry Fawcett, M.P....
.|Rt. Hon. W. EH. Forster, M.P.
Lord O’Hagan
James Heywood, M.A.,F.RB.S.,
Pres. 8.5.
.|Sir George Campbell, K.C.S.L.,
M.P.
‘Rt. Hon. the Earl Fortescue
Prof. J. K. Ingram, LL.D.,
M.R.LA.
G. Shaw Lefevre, M.P., Pres.
8.8.
G..W. Hastings, M.P...........
Rt. Hon. M. E. Grant-Duff,
M.A., F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. G. Sclater-Booth,
M.P., F.B.S.
R. H. Inglis Palgrave, F.R.S.
.\Sir Richard Temple, Bart.,
G.C.S8.L, C.LE., F.R.G.S.
Prof. H. ” Sidewick, LL.D.,
Litt.D.
J. B. Martin, M.A., F.S.S.
Robert Giffen, LL.D.,V.P.S.S.
Lord Bramwell,
LL.D., F.R.S.
F.S.8,
: Hdmond
OF THE SECTIONS. lvii
Secretaries
. | Prof. Cairns, Marannd aes A.M,
Smith, Dr. John Strang.
Macrory, W. Newmarch,
Rey. Prof. J. E. T. Rogers.
David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie,
K. Macrory, Rev. Prof. J. E. T.
Rogers
H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory.
T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory,
Frederick Purdy, James Potts.
E. Macrory, EH. T. Payne, I’. Purdy.
G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston,
K. Macrory.
R. Birkin, jun., Prof. Leone Levi, H.
Macrory.
Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J.
Warden.
Rev. W.C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi.
E. Macrory, F. Purdy, C. T. D.
Acland.
Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, E. Macrory,
J. Miles Moss.
J. G. Fitch, James Meikle.
J. G. Fitch, Barclay Phillips.
J. G. Fitch, Swire Smith.
Prof. Donnell, F. P. Fellows, Hans
MacMordie.
F. P. Fellows, T. G. P. Hallett, E.
Macrory.
A. M'‘Neel Caird, T.G. P. Hallett, Dr.
W. Neilson Hancock, Dr. W. Jack.
W. F. Collier, P. Hallett, J. T. Pim.
W. J. Hancock, C. Molloy, J. T. Pim.
Prof. Adamson, R.
Molloy.
N. A. Humphreys, C, Molloy.
C. Molloy, W. W. Morrell, J. F.
Moss.
G. Baden-Powell, Prof. H. §. Fox-
well, A. Milnes, C. Molloy.
Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. 8.
Foxwell, J. N. Keynes, C. Molloy.
Prof. H. 8. Foxwell, J. S. McLennan,
Prof. J. Watson.
Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. S.
Foxwell, C. McCombie, J. F. Moss.
F. F. Barham, Rev. W. Cunningham,
Prof. H. 8S. Foxwell, J. F. Moss.
Rev. W. Cunningham, F. Y. Edge-
worth, T. H. Elliott, C. Hughes,
Prof. J. E. C. Munro, G. H. Sar-
gant.
Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, T. H. Elliott,
Prof. H. S. Foxwell, L. L. F. R.
Price.
EK. Leader, C.
889. Newcastle- |Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, ‘aailic at Dr. Cunningham, T. H. Elliott,
F. B. Jevons, L. L. F. R. Price.
lviil
REPORT—1890.
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
1890.
1856.
1837.
1838.
1839.
1840.
1841.
1842.
1843.
1844.
1845.
1846.
1847.
1848.
1849.
1850.
1851.
1852.
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862,
1863,
1864.
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867.
Leeds
Bristol
Liverpool...
Newcastle
Birmingham
Glasgow ....
Plymouth
Manchester
Cambridge
Southamp-
ton.
Oxford jin.
Swansea ...
Birmingham
Edinburgh
Tpswich .....
Belfast......
Liverpool...
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham
Dublin
Leeds ......
Aberdeen...
Oxtordieeess
Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle
see eeneee
Dundee
steeee
Prof. A. Marshall, M.A., F.5.S.
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Rev. Dr. Robinsor
Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ......
Prof. Willis, F.R.S., and Robt.
Stephenson.
Sir John Robinson ...........+.
John Taylor, F.R.S. ......se+se.
Rev. Prof. Willis, F.R.S. ......
Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.LA....
John) Daylor, HRS, <s-c0.<c-00-
George Rennie, F.R.S..........
Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.
Rey. Prof. Walker, M.A.,F.R.S.
Rev. Prof.Walker, M.A.,F.R.S.
Robt. Stephenson, M.P., F.R.5. |
Rev. R. Robinson
William Cubitt, F.R.S..........
John Walker, C.E., LL.D.,
IDeinaSh
William Fairbairn, C.E.,
F.R.S.
John Scott Russell, F.R.S. ...
W. J. Macquorn
C.E., F.R.S.
George Rennie, F.R.S. .........
Rankine,
Rt. Hon. the Earl of Rosse,
F.R.S.
William Fairbairn, F.R.S....
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S....
Wm. Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.
J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S. .........
Sir W. G. Armstrong, LL.D.,
F.R.S.
Thomas Hawksley, V.P.Inst.
C.E., F.G.S.
Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
|W. A. Brigg, Rev. Dr. Cunningham, —
T. H. Elliott, Prof. J. E. C. Munro,
L. LES Raebice:
T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West.
Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
R. Hawthorn, C. Vignoles, T.
Webster.
W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, T.
Webster.
J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod, —
C. Vignoles.
Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster. —
J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J. |
Thomson, Charles Vignoles. *
James Thomson, Robert Mallet. :
Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
tev. W. T. Kingsley. ;
William Betts, jun., Charles Manby. —
J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier.
R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé.
|Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall.
| Dr. Lees, David Stephenson.
John Head, Charles Manby.
John F, Bateman, C. B. Hancock,
Charles Manby, James Thomson.
James Oldham, J. Thomson, W. —
Sykes Ward.
John Grantham, J. Oldham,
Thomson.
L. Hill, jun., William Ramsay, J.
Thomson,
C. Atherton, B. Jones, jun., H. M,
Jeffery.
Prof. Downing, W.T. Doyne, A. Tate, —
James Thomson, Henry Wright.
J. GC. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright.
Rk. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H.
Wright. ‘
P. Le Neve Foster, Rev. F. Harrison, —
Henry Wright. ;
P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson, |
H. Wright. 1
W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster. —
P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott,
J. F. Spencer. iB
P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt.
P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea, |
W. P. Marshall, Walter May.
P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M.
O. Tarbotton.
P. Le Neve Foster, John P,. Smith,
W. W. Urquhart.
J.
PRESIDENTS AND
SECRETARIES
Date and Place
1868. Norwich ...
1869. Exeter
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ...
weeeee
seeeee
1884. Montreal ...
885. Aberdeen...
i889. Newcastle-
upon-T'yne
1890. Leeds
W
Presidents
G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.R.G.S.
C. W. Siemens, F.R.S..........
Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., F.R.S.
Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S.
BE. J. Bramwell, ©.B.. ...+.<s0
SliWie Hl. Barlow, BUR Src. ccscss
Prof. James Thomson, LL.D.,
C.E., F.R.S.E.
W. Froude, C.E., M.A., F.R.S.
.|C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S. ......
Edward Woods, C.E.
Edward Easton, C.E. ......... |
J. Robinson, Pres, Inst. Mech.
Eng.
.|James Abernethy, V.P. Inst.
C.E., F.R.S.E.
Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
John Fowler, C.E., F.G.S.
James Brunlees, F.R.S.E.,
Pres.Inst.C.H.
Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S.,
V.P.Inst.C.E.
B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E. .........
C.E.
LL.D., F.R.S.
H. Preece,
2 F.R.S.,
M.Inst.C.E.
F.R.A.S.
sae [AS “a
OF THE SECTIONS. lix
Secretaries
P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, C,
Manby, W. Smith.
P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.
H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T,
King, J. N. Shoolbred.
H. Bauerman, Alexander Leslie,
J. P. Smith.
H. M. Brunel, P. Le Neve Foster,
J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
Crawford Barlow, H. Bauerman,
E. H. Carbutt, J. C. Hawkshaw,
J. N. Shoolbred.
A. T, Atchison, J. N.Shoolbred, John
Smyth, jun.
W. R. Browne, H. M. Brunel, J. G.
Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
W. Bottomley, jun., W. J. Millar,
J. N. Shoolbred, J. P. Smith.
| A. T. Atchison, Dr. Merrifield, J. N.
Shoolbred.
A. T. Atchison, R. G. Symes, H. T.
Wood.
A. T, Atchison, Emerson Bainbridge,
H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, J. F. Stephenson,
H. T. Wood.
Atchison, F. Churton, H. T.
Wood.
A. T. Atchison, E. Rigg, H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, W. B. Dawson, J.
Kennedy, H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, F. G. Ogilvie, E.
Rigg, J. N. Shoolbred.
1886. Birmingham|Sir J. N. Douglass, M.Inst.|C. W. Cooke, J. Kenward, W. B.
Marshall, H. Rigg.
1887. Manchester | Prof. Osborne Reynolds, M.A.,|C. F. Budenberg, W. B. Marshall,
E. Rige.
C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, E.
Rigg, P. K. Stothert.
W. Anderson, M.Inst.C.E. ...|C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, Hon,
C. A. Parsons, E. Rigg.
Capt. A. Noble, C.B., F.R.S.,|E. K. Clark, C. W. Cooke, W. B.
Marshall, E. Rigg.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE.
SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
M.P., D.C.L., F.R.G.S.
| 1884. Montreal...) E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S. .../G. W. Bloxam, W. Hurst.
1885. Aberdeen... | Francis Galton, M.A., F.R.S. |G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.
Hurst. Dr. A. Macgregor.
886. Birmingham Sir G. Campbell, K.C.S.L,|G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.
Hurst, Dr. R. Saundby.
lx
REPORT—1890.
Date and Place
1887. Manchester
1888. Bath.........
1889. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
1890. Leeds ......
Presidents Secretaries
Prof. A. H. Sayce, M.A. ......]@. W. Bioxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr..
A. M. Paterson. f
Lieut.-General Pitt-Rivers,|G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, J.
D.C.L., F.R.S. Harris Stone.
Prof. Sir W. Turner, M.B.,}G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
LL.D., F.R.S. R. Morison, Dr. R. Howden.
Dr. J. Evans, Treas.R.S.,|G. W. Bloxam, Dr. C. M. Chadwick,
F.S.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. Dr. J. G. Garson.
LIST OF EVENING LECTURES.
Date and Place
Lecturer Subject of Discourse
1842. Manchester
1843. Cork .........
1844. York .........
1845. Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
ton.
1847. Oxford......
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich
1852. Belfast......
Charles Vignoles, F.R.S...... |The Principles and Construction of
Atmospheric Railways.
Sire Tebrunel 32438 scsscees The Thames Tunnel.
el MnrchisOnterr.ss<ac.scese0 The Geology of Russia.
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.......]The Dinornis of New Zealand.
Prof. E. Forbes, F.R.S.......... The Distribution of Animal Life in
the Aigean Sea.
Dy ROBINSON)... co s-cbenesevesers The Earl of Rosse’s Telescope.
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. ......... Geology of North America.
Dr. Falconer, F.R.S........000.. The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik
Hills in India.
G.B.Airy,#.R.S.,Astron.Royal| Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......|Geology of Russia.
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...| Fossil Mammaliaof the British Isles.
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........] Valley and Delta of the Mississippi.
Wants GROVE: MLN: .ccssvearess Properties of the Explosivesubstance
discovered by Dr. Schénbein; also:
some Researches of his own on the
Decomposition of Water by Heat..
Rev. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S. |Shooting Stars. -
Prof. M. Faraday, F.R.S....... Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno-
mena.
Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.S....|The Dodo (Didus ineptus).
John Percy, M.D., F.R.S.......] Metallurgical Operations of Swansea
and its neighbourhood.
W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S....] Recent Microscopical Discoveries.
Dre Paraday, FOR-S. .22..5.606s Mr. Gassiot’s Battery.
Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.8.|Transit of different Weights with
varying Velocities on Railways. —
Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D.,|Passage of the Blood through the
F.R.S.E. minute vessels of Animals in con- —
nection with Nutrition.
Dr, Mantel WRG. csccscccacus Extinct Birds of New Zealand.
.| Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. | Distinction between Plants and Ani-
mals, and their changes of Form.
G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron. Royal} Total Solar Eclipse of July 28, 1851.
Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L.,] Recent Discoveries in the properties.
E.R.S. of Light.
Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.]Recent Discovery of Rock-salt at
Carrickfergus, and geological and
practical considerations connected —
with it.
LIST OF EVENING LECTURES. lxi
Lecturer Subject of Discourse
osnensber Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.8.,|Some peculiar Phenomena in the
F.G.S. Geology and Physical Geography
of Yorkshire.
Robert Hunt, F.R.S............. The present state of Photography.
. Liverpool... Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. | Anthropomorphous Apes.
Col. E. Sabine, V.P.R.S. ......| Progress of researches in Terrestrial
Magnetism.
. Glasgow ...|/Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. |Characters of Species.
Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson ...| Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities
and Ethnology.
Col. Sir H. Rawlinson ......... Recent Discoveries in Assyria and
Babylonia, with the results of
Cuneiform research up to the
present time.
WocR Grove; JH AReGecisccss. ose Correlation of Physical Forces.
Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.S. ...|The Atlantic Telegraph.
Rev. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L. | Recent Discoveries in Africa.
decree Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.| The Ironstones of Yorkshire.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. |The Fossil Mammalia of Australia.
. Aberdeen...|Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L....| Geology of the Northern Highlands.
Rey. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. ...| Electrical Discharges in highly
rarefied Media.
oaodon Rev. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ...| Physical Constitution of the Sun.
Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N.| Arctic Discovery.
. Cheltenham
Manchester | Prof. W. A. Miller, M.A., F.R.S.|Spectrum Analysis.
G. B. Airy, F.R.S,, Astron.|The late Eclipse of the Sun.
Royal.
Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. |The Forms and Action of Water.
Proie, Odie RiS....cosee-ces Organic Chemistry.
Prof. Williamson, F.R.S....... The Chemistry of the Galvanic Bat-
tery considered in relation to
Dynamics.
James Glaisher, F.R.S......... The Balloon Ascents made for the
British Association.
deere Prof. Roscoe, F.R.S.............|The Chemical Action of Light.
Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S. ......| Recent Travels in Africa.
865. Birmingham|J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S..........|Probabilities as to the position and
; extent of the Coal-measures be-
neath the red rocks of the Mid-
land Counties.
William Huggins, F.R.S. ...|The results of Spectrum Analysis
applied to Heavenly Bodies.
Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S.......| Insular Floras.
soos Archibald Geikie, F.R.S.......| The Geological Origin of the present
Scenery of Scotland.
Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S./The present state of Knowledge re-
garding Meteors and Meteorites.
..|J. Fergusson, F.R.S............. Archeology of the early Buddhist
Monuments.
Dr. W. Odling, F.R.S. .........| Reverse Chemical Actions.
fears Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,¥.R.S.| Vesuvius.
J. Norman Lockyer F.R.S. ..}The Physical Constitution of the
Stars and Nebule.
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.|Scientific Use of the Imagination.
Prof.W. J. Macquorn Rankine,|Stream-lines and Waves, in connec-
’ LL.D., F.R.S. tion with Naval Architecture.
(871. Edinburgh |F. A. Abel, F.RB.S....... .....0 Some recent Investigations and Ap-
plications of Explosive Agents.
E. B. Tylor, F.R.S. ... ........| The Relation of Primitive to Modern
Civilisation.
87 0. Liverpool...
lxii
REPORT—1890.
Date and Place
1872. Beehien aus
1873. Bradford ...
1874. Belfast ......
1875, Bristol ......
1876, Glasgow
1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin .....
1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
SST AY OK. 55 cesses
1882. Southamp-
ton.
1883. Southport
1884. Montreal...
1885. Aberdeen...
1886. Birmingham
1887. Manchester
1888. Bath.........
1889. Newcastle-
upon-l'yne
1890. Leeds ......
E.R.S. | in relation to Insects. ;
Prof. Huxley, F.R.S. «2.000... ‘The Hypothesis that Animals are
| Automata, and its History. a
W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.' The Colours of Polarised Light.
F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S..........| Railway Safety Appliances.
..|Prof. Tait, F.R.S.H. . Force.
Sir Wyville Thomson, F. R. s. ‘The Chaile ngcr Expedition.
W. Warington Smyth, M.A., The Physical Phenomena connect
F.B.S, | with the Mines of Cornwall ana —
Devon. #
Prof Odling, ARS: sins ccssets The new Element, Gallium. f
G. J. Romanes, F.L.S.......... Animal Intelligence. ;
Prot, Dewar, Hak. Ss) cssscesss «5s |Dissociation, or Modern Ideas of |
| Chemical Action. a
Wi. Crookes) HRS. ...iscossn. Radiant Matter. E
Prof. H. Ray Lankester, F.R.S.| Degeneration. 4
Prof.W.Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.| Primeval Man.
Francis Galton, F.R.S.......... Mental Imagery.
Prof. Huxley, Sec. B.S. ...... ‘The Rise and Progress of Paleon- —
tology 4
|A. W. Riicker, M.A., F.R.S. |Soap Bubbles. i
Lecturer | Subject of Discourse
Pre prto* 3) |
Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B., | Pasege Metamorphosis.
F.R.S.
Prof. W. K. Clifford .......0.0«. Foe Aims and Instruments of Scien-
tific Thought. a
Prof. W. C.Williamson, F'.R.S.|Coal and Coal Plants.
Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S. | Molecules. ;
Sir John Lubbock,Bart.,M.P.,,;Common Wild Flowers considere@ —
W. Spottiswoode, Pres. R.S. |The Electric Discharge, its Forms
and its Functions.
Prof, Sir Wm. Thomson, F.R.S. | Tides.
Prof. H. N. Moseley, F.R.S. | Pelagic Life.
Prot sea ballosHan Gen seeees /Recent Researches on the Distance
of the Sun.
Prof. J. G. McKendrick, Galvani and Animal Electricity.
F.R.S.E. :
Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc. ......| Dust.
Rev. W. H. Dallinger, F.R.S.|The Modern Microscope in Re- —
searches on the Least and Lowest
Forms of Life.
Prof. W. G. Adams, F.R.S. ...|The Electric Light and Atmospheric —
Absorption. }
John Murray, F.R.S.E.......... The Great Ocean Basins. zl
Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D. ...|The Sense of Hearing.
Prof. H. B, Dixon, F.R.S. ...|The Rate of Explosions in Gases.
Col, Sir FF. de Winton,| Explorations in Central Africa.
K.C.M.G. ; ;
Prof. W. BE. Ayrton, F.R.S....|The Electrical Transmission of
Power.
Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc.,) The Foundation Stones of the Earth’s:
F.R.S Crust.
Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,|The Hardening and Tempering of
E.R.S Steel.
Walter Gardiner, IMcAreS 5458 How Plants maintain themselves in
the Struggle for Existence.
K. B. Poulton, M.A., F.R.S.... | Mimicry.
Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S. | Quartz Fibres and their Applications.. :
LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES. lxiit
LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES.
Date and Place Lecturer Subject of Discourse
coaten Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D.,F.R.S.| Matter and Force.
. Norwich ...| Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. |A Piece of Chalk.
Siecka Prof. Miller, M.D., F.R.S. ...| Experimental illustrations of the
modes of detecting the Composi-
tionof the Sun and other Heavenly
Bodies by the Spectrum.
. Liverpool. ./ Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,M.P.,| Savages.
F.R.S.
. Brighton ...| W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.|Sunshine, Sea, and Sky.
. Bradford ...|C. W. Siemens, D.C.L., F.R.S.| Fuel.
. Belfast ......| Prof. Odling, F.R.S............. The Discovery of Oxygen.
. Bristol ...... Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. |A Piece of Limestone.
. Glascow ...|Commander Cameron, C.B.,|A Journey through Africa.
. Plymouth...) W. HUMrertA WA wkattinik.- Telegraphy and the Telephone.
. Sheffield ...)W. EH. Ayrton ......cccc.sceeeee Electricity as a Motive Power.
. Swansea ...|H. Seebohm, F.Z.S. ..........0. The North-East Passage.
MMOTKS cae save Prof. Osborne Reynolds,|Raindrops, Hailstones, and Snow-
F.R.S. flakes.
. Southamp- |John Evans, D.C.L.,Treas.R.S.| Unwritten History, and how to
» ton. read it.
. Southport | Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S. ...] Talking by Electricity—Telephones.
. Montreal ...| Prof. R. S. Ball, F.R.S.,........|Comets.
. Aberdeen ...|H. B. Dixon, M.A. ............ The Nature of Explosions.
. Birmingham Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,|The Colours of Metals and their
F.RB.S. Alloys.
. Manchester | Prof. G. Forbes, F.R.S. ...... Electric Lighting.
peat 2285 .3.06 Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P., |The Customs of Savage Races.
F.R.S.
. Newcastle- |B. Baker, M.Inst.C.B. .........|The Forth Bridge.
upon-Tyne
90. Leeds ...... Prof. J. Perry, D.Sc., F.R.S. |Spinning Tops.
lxiv REPORT—1890.
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE
LEEDS MEETING.
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
President.—J. W. L, Glaisher, D.Sc., F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S. .
Vice-Presidents—Professor Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S.; Professor E. Mas-
cart; Lord Rayleigh, Sec. R.S.; Professor H. A. Rowland, F.R.S.;
Professor A. W. Riicker, F.R.S.; Sir Wm. Thomson, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—R. T. Glazebrook, F.R.S.; Professor A. Lodge, M.A.; W.
N. Shaw, M.A. (Recorder); Professor W. Stroud, D.Sc.
SECTION B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
President.—Professor T. E. Thorpe, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., Treas. C.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Professor P. Phillips Bedson, D.Sc.; Sir I. Lowthian
Bell, Bart., F.R.S.; Professor H. B. Dixon, F.R.S.: Dr. J. H.
Gladstone, F.R.S.; Professor G. D. Liveing, F.R.S.; Dr. W. H.
Perkin, F.R.S. ; Sir H. E. Roscoe, F.R.S. ; Dr. E. Schunck, F.B.S. ;
Professor A. Smithells, B.Se.
Secretaries—C. H. Bothamley, F.C.S.; H. Forster Morley, D.Sc.
(Recorder) ; D. H. Nagel, M.A.; Dr. W. W. J. Nicol, M.A.
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.
President.—Professor A. H. Green, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Professor T. G. Bonney, F.R.S.; James W. Davis,
F.G.8.; Professor T M‘K. Hughes, F.R.S.; Professor O. C. Marsh;
12), LBL, Giddembn, M.A.; W. Topley, E.RS.; Dr. H. Woodward,
F.R.S.
Secretaries.—J. HE. Bedford; F. H. Hatch, Ph.D.; J. E. Marr, M.A.; W.
W. Watts, M.A. (Recorder).
SECTION D.—BIOLOGY.
President.—Professor A. Milnes Marshall, M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Professor F. O. Bower, FRSE,; Francis Darwin,
F.R.S.; Professor L. C. Miall, F.L.S.; Professor o Newton, F.R.S. ;
Professor D. H. Scott, Ph.D. ; ueraieasor Wee Williamson, E.R.S.
Secretaries.—S. F. Harmer, M.A.; Professor W. A. Herdman, D.Sc. ;
Sydney J. Hickson, Se); Professor F. W. Oliver, D.Se. ; Harold
Wager ; Professor H. Marshall Ward, F.R.S. (Recorder).
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. Ixy
SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY.
President.—Lieut.-Colonel Sir R. Lambert Playfair, K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Sir F. J. Goldsmid, K.C.S.I. ; Admiral Sir HE. Omman-
ney, C.B., F.R.S.; EH. G. Ravenstein, F.R.G.S.
Secretaries—A. Barker, M.A.; John Coles, F.R.G.S.; J. Scott Keltie,
F.R.G.S. (Recorder); A. Silva White, F.R.S.E.
SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
westdent.—Professor Alfred Marshall, M.A., F.S.S.
ice-Presidents——Charles Booth, F.S.S.; Professor F. Y. Edgeworth,
D.C.L.; Professor H. S. Foxwell, F.S.S.; J. B. Martin, F.S.S.;
Professor Sidgwick, F.S.S.
ecretaries—W. A. Brigg, M.A.; Rev. W. Cunningham, D.D.; T. H.
Elliott, F.S.S. (Recorder) ; Professor J. HE. C. Munro, LL.D.; L. L.
F. R. Price, M.A.
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
resident.—Captain Andrew Noble, C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
ice-Presidents—G. F. Deacon, M.Inst.C.H. ; Professor V. Dwelshauvers-
Dery; Arthur Greenwood; L. F. Vernon Harcourt, M.Inst.C.E.;
Sir James Kitson, Bart.; Benjamin Walker, M.Inst.C.E.
Secretaries—H. K. Clark, B.A.; C. W. Cooke; W. Bayley Marshall,
M.Inst.C.E.; Edward Rigg, M.A. (Recorder).
SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
resident.—John Evans, D.C.., LL.D., D.Sc., Treas. R.S., Pres. 8.A.,
ice-Presidents.—Professor D. J. Cunningham, M.D.; F. W. Rudler,
ecretaries—G. W. Bloxam, M.A. (Recorder); Dr. C. M. Chadwick,
M.A.; Dr. J. G, Garson.
1 Dr. Evans was unable to attend the meeting.
1890. d
Ixvi
REPORT—1890.
THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR
Dr. THE GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT
¥889-90. RECEIPTS.
S85 de
Balance of account rendered at Newcastle Meeting ...........0+ 1052 5 O
By Life Compositions .........sccssseeeseeeccnnrenseeeewersesencseeeeeeees 300 0 O
3, New Annual Members.........ccceceseceencneneeeetecseneeneeensenseeees 244 0 0
,», Subscriptions of Old Annual Members ........:sseceseneereeeeees 665 0 O
,, Associates’ Tickets at Newcastle Meeting .........-..ssse0es oeece LOZ O.) (0
,, Ladies’ Tickets at Newcastle Meeting............secsssecsceecenees 579 0 0
3, Hale OF Publications ........-.0ccsccnseseccensrscccncseenseeassionisnesien 62 9 6
», Sale of Reports, by Mr. Murray, 1889-90 .......seesseseee eee eees 112 16 O
., Rent received from Mathematical Society, for year ended
September 29, 1889 ..........ccccecsececscrerecnsecasseercseeusseaens 1215 0
», Interest on Hxchequer Bills ...........cscecscseceeeseecessceseescsees 28 0" 7
fy EDividends On} COnsOls) 52: .s.-c-asesscorecevsseceeseossietaiselseniauiean 227 18 4
, Dividends on India 3 per Cents. coc ...ss.csceveseessesescecsarsenes 105 6 O
», Sale of Hxchequer Bills (£1000) ....00......ssecseesecseencewerenese 999 0 10
», Unexpended balance of Grant for Electrolysis ...............06 14 4 0
“ re
a
vi
£5423 15 3
Investments Account : September 1890.
BALANCE SHEET, 1889-90. Ixvii
THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
(not including receipts at the Leeds Meeting). Cr.
1889-90. PAYMENTS.
ee es
To Expenses of Newcastle Meeting, including Printing and
Advertising, &C. .............0008 ede celeste Mesleceaeaementa sts aoa 249 12 6
5» jpalaries, One year (1889-90):.........scecccesesssrscesscesns 0 0
,, Rent of Office, 22 Albemarle Street, W. (1889-90)... 0 0
» Spottiswoode & Co., for Printing Account (1888-89) . 1 0
a Be 90) 3 10
is Purchase of Exchequer Bills (£1000)... scaconnooreda 5 3
GRANTS.
Ga as
Experiments with a Tow-net ...... ainbetevanern ee ae cativuaneal ftiaa, oo
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan ................ terdeievia cestetna 75 0 0
Cretaceous Polyzoa .......6.0c000 eet cha eo aiatewi ds Ee cites ke arora luv 0 O
Naples Zoological Station ............. mtd! Sonsonoradc co 100 0 OU
Calculating Mathematical Tables . Bo COO UO GROAE DONC ICED TOME 25 0 0
Zoology and Botany of West India Islands ..........-.e00 100 0 0
Graphic Methods in Mechanical Science..............0-000. I Ob
Anthropometric Committee .......... ' 560 0
Nomad ‘Tribes of Asia Minor 6.060. sceec0s-secrescedeceenss 25 0 0
Properties of Solutions.. Polaleraldaineleiets 10 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius , se 20) O00
Electro-optics ...... wataje ete a hicuattid cielatd as 50 0 0
Corresponds Hoclebies: oe cjeeinss owls spline sce celneosvaavccvaue 20 0 0
Waves and Currents in Estuaries ........ 000s eececesceees 100 0 0
PAMSILVRISIOR ETON ANG SECENs .eo/0 <cssimm aapsisia viele ce anjeisield ciate 5 LO Oth
-Electrical Standards ............. Ber eet Sejalaaaiaha/atuin im iniaiulere Trent ON ie)
Excavations at Oldbury Hill . Phagor eo imticttalatafcistaiate eringcocy, LAN
Recording Results of Water Analysis ........-ee. sees cence 410
Methods of Teaching Chemistry ....... SRO sO oae eon indict 10 uv 0
Oxidation of Hydracids in Sunlight............ Ae Rejoin 15 0 U
Circulation of Underground Waters........2...002.e0e08 5 0) 0
Fossil Phyllopoda ............ no 10 0 U
Botanical Station at Peradeniy: at cae F250
Silent Discharge of Electricity .......... sew sys a atrarpiaia 5 0 0
Pellian Equation Tables ...........2sececccesecccecs seca in 90) 0
Marine Biological Association ........cecceececceees pelsieinc OU MAVEN O
West India Islands CB) orafasejataiars olsjnie sin eiviascivleisis einisieiielnie slaiaye's 100 0 0
Waves and Currents in Estuaries (2) .............00- sntees OO 10/0
Lias Beds of Northamptonshire.......... aise aid @eete ein cies ia « -2o 70 6
Electrolysis .......0.+... Bauder SOLO CIOCAT TO DOROOGO LNT ce OO
Geological Photographs. oye iaheye OmaGuareor SSdosencosnemoscde rods Ahh
899 16 8
By Balance at Bank of England, Western Branch opi Meg mi
In hands of Assistant to General Treasurer ..........0...ceeeees 1 811
£5423 15 3
eel
ALEX. W. WILLIAMSON, General Treasurer.
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts
Date of Meeting
Where held
Presidents
Old Life
Members | Members
New Life
1831, Sept.
1832, June
1833, June
1834, Sept.
1835, Aug.
1836, Aug.
1837, Sept.
1838, Aug.
1839, Aug.
1840, Sept.
1841, July
1842, June
1843, Aug.
1844, Sept.
1845, June
1846, Sept.
1847, June
1848, Aug.
1849, Sept.
1850, July
1851, July
1852, Sept.
1853, Sept.
1854,
1855, Sept.
1856, Aug.
1857, Aug.
1858, Sept.
1859, Sept.
1860, June
1861, Sept.
1862, Oct.
1863, Aug.
1864, Sept.
1865, Sept.
1866, Aug.
1867, Sept.
1868, Aug.
1869, Aug.
1870, Sept.
1871, Aug.
1872, Aug. 14...) Brighton ..... Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. ...
1873, Sept. 17 ...| Bradford ............| Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R. 's.|
1874, Aug. 19...) Belfast .......cccseses Prot, J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.B.8.
TS7b, Aug. 25 \s52) Bristol Jo. ..ccssveess0 SirJohn Hawkshaw,C. E. »F.B.S.
1876, Sept. 6 ...) Glasgow .........66 Prof. T. Andrews, M.D. -) E.R.S.
1877, Aug, 15...) Plymouth ..,......... Prof, A. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S.
STS cA es Ue. sl MOUDUMN. <a cceacaceesss We Spottiswoode, M.A., F.R.S.
1879, Aug. 20 ...| Sheffield ............ Prof.G. J. Allman, M.D., F.R.S.
1880, Aug. 25 ...! Swansea ............ A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.RB.S....
MSSU PATIO NBL Frae| SMOUKGl stvoscccorsssee Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S.
1882, Aug. 23 ...! Southampton ...... Dr. C. W. Siemens, TIS sapasen
1883, Sept. 19...| Southport............ | Prof. A. Cayley, D.C.L., F.R.S.
1884, Aug. 27 ...) Montreal ............ | Prof. Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S. ...
1885, Sept. 9 ...| Aberdeen ............ | SirLyon Playfair, K.C.B.,F.R. S.
1886, Sept. 1 ...| Birmingham.........| | Sir J.W. Dawson, C.M.G.,F.R.S.
1887, Aug. 31 ...! Manchester ......... | Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L.,F.B.S.
USSB Sept. 5, 2) Bath, ..).sccccstecoess. | Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S.......
1889, Sept.
| 1890, Sept.
Sept. 2
FRE oe
Dene
25 ...
8
Roe.
22 ..
eo
10 ..
26 ...
en
20 ...
23...
aires
26 ...|
19 ...
ee
23 ...
9
195%
Dilieee |
Os MLDS IWLCHteansesieese.||
...| Belfast
Wes
.| Bristol
. Liverpool
.| Glasgow
...| Cambridge
.| Newcastle-on- -Tyne |
.| Bath
..| Birmingham.........
..| Nottingham .........
..| Dundee
..| Norwich
.| Exeter
..| Liverpool
.| Edinburgh
eee e eee eeseneeeee
Cambridge op
Edinburgh
Dublin
ee erweeee
se eeeeees
eee eneeeerewere
se eeveceerseeee
Liverpool
eter eeteeeee
.| Newcastle-on-Tyne
Birmingham.........
Glasgow
Plymouth ............ |
Manchester
Cork
York
Cambridge
Southampton ......
Oxford
sewteweee
eter eceeeesseeee
seer eee este erssees
a eeeeeeeesee
ee eeeeeee |
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seer eseee
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teat ever eeee
ste eeewcecceres
a eeeeeescese
Newcastle-on-Tyne |
-| Leeds RS EAUAEDD aos keciden |
| The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L.
The Rey. W. Buckland, F.R.S.
The Rev. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S.
Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L.......
The Rey. Provost Lloyd, LL.D.
The Marquis of Lansdowne ...
The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S.
The Duke of Northumberland
The Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt
The Marquis of Breadalbane...
The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.
The Lord Francis Egerton......
The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S.......
The Rev. G. Peacock, D.D. ...
Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart.
Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart.
Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart.......
The Marquis of Northampton
The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D.
| Sir David Brewster, K.H.......
G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal
Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S.
| William Hopkins, F.R.S. ......
The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S.
The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. ...
| Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D.
The Rev.Humphrey Lloyd, D.D.
Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L....
H.R.H. the Prince Consort ...
The Lord Wrottesley, M.A. ...
WilliamFairbairn,LL.D.,F.R.S.
| The Rev. Professor Willis, M.A.
Sir William G. Armstrong, C.B.
Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M. A.
Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LE D.
William R. Grove, Q. C., F.R.S.
The Duke of Buccleuch, K. C.B.
Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S.
| Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L.......
Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D.......
.| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D.
| Prof. W.H. Flower, C.B., F.R.S.
Sir F. A. Abel, C.B., F.RS 5
* Ladies were not admitted by purchased Tickets until 1843.
169
303
109
226
313
241
314
149
227
235
172
164
141
238
194
182
236
222
184
286
321
239
203
287
292
207
167
196
204
314
246
245
212
162
239
221
173
201
184
144
272
178
203
235
225
314
428
266
277
259
} Tickets of Admission to Sections only.
a
af
7
‘Members
Attended by
at Annual Meetings of the Association.
219
122
179
244
100
113
92
Old Annual| New Annual) Asso-
Members
ciates
33t
9t
407
270
495
376
447
510
244
510
367
765
1094
412
900
710
1206
636
1589
433
1704
1119
766
960
1163
720
678
1103
976
937
796
817
884
1265
446
1285
529
389
1230
516
952
826
1053
1067
1985
639
1024
680
Amount
received
Sums paid on
Account of
Ladies | Foreigners | Total Spey Ces
Eth DOG Ph attareccats || Mstatcceccses
oe, SOO S| Eh ieateared epll ah iee sat -mlaencs
A PZIGE oe waens caee £20 0 0
ao aoc Wee Kan ealesiaa LE Opas
aes SEO) | |eeecieeeress 435 0 0
506 of. POLO) le laccciass 922 12 6
1100* ae DEOO OP. ccctele 932 2 2
ANG 34 WAS Bi silae wecscncek 1595 11 O
aes 40 TSF ly, oesws peas 1546 16 4
60* ee SOL ee eae ase 1235 10 11
331* 28 LSD |S wasen dese 1449 17 8
160 Send aon | le comveceoste 1565 10 , 2
260 ays ace biliiteecanaasen 981 12 8
172 35 NCO AS alll RAS ac Sale 9
196 36 SDU a) cenecnces 685 16 O
203 53 US208 | Miccesaces 208 5 4
197 15 819 | £707 0 0 275 1-8
237 22 1071 963 0 0 159 19 6
273 44 1241 | 1085 0 0 345 18 O
141 37 710 620 0 0 So a
292 9 1108 | 1085 0 0 304 6 7
236 6 876 903 0 0 205 0 0
524 10 1802 | 1882 0 0 380 19 7
543 26 2133 | 2311 0 0 480 16 4
346 9 1115 | 1098 0 0 734 13 9
569 26 2022 | 2015 0 0 507 15. 4
509 13 1698 | 1931 0 0 618 18 2
821 22 2564 | 2782 0 0 684 11 1
463 47 1689 | 1604 0 0 766 19 6
791 15 3138 | 394400) 1111 5 10
242 25 1161 | 1089 0 0 | 1293 16 6
1004 25 3335 | 3640 0 0 | 1608 3 10
1058 13 2802 | 296500 | 1289 15 8
508 23 1997 | 222700] 1591 7 10
771 11 2303 | 2469001175013 4
vical 7 2444 | 2613 00} 1739 4 O
682 45} 2004 | 2042.00 | 1940 0 O
600 17 1856 | 1931 0 0 | 1622 0 0O
910 14 2878 | 3096 00 | 1572 0 0
754 21 2463 | 2575 00) 1472 2 6
912 43 2533 | 264900 | 1285 0 O
601 11 1983 | 21200 0/1685 0 0
630 12 1951 | 197900, 1151 16 O
672 17 2248 | 2397 0 0 960 0 O
712 25 2774 | 3023 00) 1092 4 2
283 11 1229 | 1268 00/1128 9 7
674 17 2578 | 2615 0 0 725 16 6
349 13 1404 | 1425 0 0 | 1080 11 11
147 12 915 899 0 0 ile deen ts
514 24 2557 | 2689 0 0 476 3 1
189 21 1253 | 1286 0 0/1126 1 11
841 5 2714 | 236900 | 1083 3 3
74 |26&60H.§) 1777 | 1538 0 0|1173 4 0
447 6 2203 | 225600) 1385 O O
429 il 2453 | 2532 0 0 995 0 6
493 92 3838 | 4336 00/1186 18 O
509 35 1984 | 210700) 1511 O 5
579 12 2437 | 244100) 1417 O11
334 21 1775 | 17760 0 789 16 8
Year
1831
1832
1833
1834
1835
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
1841
1842
1843
1844
1845
1846
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
1855
1856
1857
1858
1859
| 1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
§ Fellows of the American Association were admitted as Hon. Members for this Meeting.
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1890-91.
PRESIDENT.
SIR FREDERICK AUGUSTUS ABEL, K.C.B., D.C.L., D.Sc., F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS,
His Grace the DUKE or DrvonsumE, K.G., M.A., | The Right Hon.Sir Lyon Puayrarr, K.O.B., Ph.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. LL.D., M.P., F.R.S., F.C.S.
The Most Hon. the Marquis or Ripon, K.G., | The Right Hon. W. L. Jackson, M.P., F.R.S., F.S.S.
G.C.S.I., C.LE., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S, | The Right Worshipful the Mayor or LEEDs.
The Right Hon. the Earn Firzwituiam, K.G., Sir JAMEs Kitson, Bart., M-Inst.0.E., F.R.G.S.
FE.R.G.S, Sir ANDREW FAmBaIRN, M.A.
The Right Rev. the Lorp BisHor or Ripon, D.D.
PRESIDENT ELECT.
WILLIAM HUGGINS, EsqQ., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
The Right Hon. Lorp Wiypsor, Lord-Lieutenant | The Right Hon. Lorp AnERDARE, G.O.B., F.R.S.,
of Glamorganshire. F.R.G.S.
The Most Hon. the Marquis or Butr, K.T. Sir J. T D. LLEWELYN, Bart., F.Z.8.
The Right Hon. Lorp Rayueieu, M.A., D.C.L., | ARCHIBALD Grrkin, Esq., LL.D., For. Sec. RS.,
LL.D., Sec. R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. F.R.S.E., Pres. G.S., Director-General of the
The Right Hon. LorD TREDEGAR. Geological Survey of the United Kingdom.
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT CARDIFF.
R. W. ATKINSON, Esq., F.C.S., B.Sc. | Professor H. W. Luoyp TANNER, M.A,, F.R.A.S.
LOCAL TREASURERS FOR THE MEETING AT CARDIFF.
T. ForsTER Brown, Esq., M.Inst.C.E. | Henry HEywoop, Esq., F.C.S.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
AyRTON, Professor W. E., F.R.S. PREECE, W. H., Esq., F.R.S.
BAKER, Sir B., K.0.M.G., F.R.S. REINOLD, Professor A. W., F.R.S.
BLANFORD, W. T., Esq., F.R.S. ROBERTS-AUSTEN, Professor W.C., C.B., F.R.S.
CROOKES, W., Esq., F.R.S. RUCKER, Professor A. W., F.R.S.
DARWIN, Professor G. H., F.R.S. ScHAFER, Professor E. A., F.R.S.
Dova.ass, Sir J. N., F.R.S. ScHusTER, Professor A., F.R.S.
Evans, Dr. J., F.R.S. SIDGWICK, Professor H., M.A.
FITZGERALD, Professor G. F., F.R.S. THORPE, Professor T. E., F.R.S.
GEIKIE, Dr, A., F.R.S. WARD, Professor H. MARSHALL, F.R.S.
GLAZEBROOK, R. T., Esq., F.R.S. WHARTON, Captain W. J. L., R.N., F.R.S.
Jupp, Professor J. W., F.R.S. WHITAKER, W., Esq., F.R.S.
LivrinG, Professor G. D., F.R.S. WoopwarD, Dr. H., F.R.S.
Marr, J. B., Esq., F.S.S.
GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Capt. Sir DouGLAs GALTON, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 12 Chester Street, London, S.W.
A. G. Vernon Harcourt, Esq., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Cowley Grange, Oxford.
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., F.C.S., Harrow, Middlesex.
GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor A. W. WILLIAMSON, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., 17 Buckingham Street, London, W.C.
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and Secretaries for
the ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).
The Right Hon. Sir Jonn Lupsocx, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L:S.
The Right Hon. Lord RAYLEIGH, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., See. R.S., F.R.A.S.
The Right Hon. Sir Lyon Piayrair, K.C.B., M.P., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.
The Duke of Devonshire, K.G. Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. Prof. Cayley, LL.D., F.R.S.
Sir G. B. Airy, K.0.B., F.R Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson, Pres.R.S.| Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., Sec. R.S.
The Duke of Argyll, K.G., Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S. Sir Lyon Playfair, K.C.B.
G., K.T.
Sir Richard Owen, K.0.B. S. | Prof. Tyndall, D.C.L., F.R.S. Sir Wm. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S.
Lord Armstrong, 0.B., LL L
( Ar -D. Sir John Hawkshaw, BRS, Sir H. £. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir William R. Grove, F.R.S. Prof. Allman, M.D., F.R.S. Sir F. J. Bramwell, Bart., F.R.S.
Sir Joseph D. Hooker, K.0,S.1. Sir A. OC. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S. | Prof. W. H. Flower, C.B., F.R.S.
Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart., F.R.S. Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S.
GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.
F. Galton, Esq., F.R.S. George Griffith, Esq., M.A., F.0.S. | Prof. Bonney, D.Sc., F.R.S.
Dr.T. A. Hirst, F.R.S. P. L. Sclater, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S, | A. T. ‘Atabionh, Esq., M.A.
Dr. Michael Foster, Sec. R.S. |
AUDITORS.
Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S. | W.T. Thiselton-Dyer, Esq., F.R.S. | Prof. H. M‘Leod, F.R.S.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.
Report of the Council for the year 1889-90, presented to the General
Committee at Leeds, on Wednesday, September 3, 1890.
The Council have received reports during the past year from the
- General Treasurer, and his account for the year will be laid before the
General Committee this day.
Since the Meeting at Newcastle-upon-Tyne the Council have elected
the following Foreign Men of Science Corresponding Members of the
Association :—
Gobert, M. A., Brussels. Nansen, Dr. F., Christiania.
Gilson, Prof. G., Louvain. | Packard, Prof. A. 8., Providence, R.I.
The Council have nominated the Right Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam,
the Right Hon. Sir Lyon Playfair, the Right Hon. W. lL. Jackson,
_ Vice-Presidents for the Meeting at Leeds.
The Council had also resolved to nominate the late Sir Edward Baines
_ to the same office, and heard with regret of his death in the early part of
the present year.
An invitation for the year 1892 has been received from the city of
_ Edinburgh.
The Council much regret that the state of Mr. Atchison’s health has
made it necessary for him to reside abroad since November. He has,
however, been able to correct the proofs and to edit the Report. The
_ General Officers have received assistance in carrying on the business of
the Association during the past year from Professor Bonney and Mr.
_ Griffith.
The Council appointed a Committee, consisting of the President and
General Officers, the President Elect, and the past Presidents and Gene-
ral Officers, to consider the steps to be taken in connection with the
appointment of Assistant General Secretary. Mr. Griffith having at the
request of this Committee expressed his willingness to resume the office,
it was proposed by the Committee that he should be invited to do so ;
the Council concur in the proposal of the Committee, and recommend
accordingly that Mr. Griffith be appointed Assistant General Secretary.
Resolution referred to the Council for consideration and action if
desirable :-—
(A) ‘ That the two following papers be printed in eatenso in the Report of the
Association :—(1) Professor C. F. Bastable: “The Incidence and Effects of Import
and Export Duties.’ (2) Rev. Dr.Cunningham: “ The Comtist Criticism of Econo-
mic Science.”’
The Council resolved that these papers should be printed in extenso.
lxxii REPORT—1890.
(B) ‘That the Council be recommended to urge upon the Government of India—
‘(a) The desirability of procuring anthropometric measurements of a repre-
sentative series of tribes and castes in the Punjab, Bombay, Madras, the
Central Provinces, and Assam, it being understood that trained observers
are already available.
‘(b) Also that in the Enumerators’ Schedule of the Census of 1891 provision
should be made for recording not only the caste to which a man belongs,
but also the endogamous and exogamous groups within the caste of which
he is a member, it being believed that this was actually done in the last
Census of the Punjab, that it will not add to the cost of the census, and
that it will materially enhance its accuracy and scientific value.’
The Council having considered this question resolved to send the
following letter to the Secretary of State for India in Council :—
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
22 Albemarle Street, London, W.
February 1890.
To the Secretary of State for India in Council.
My Lord,—The Council of the British Association beg leave to state for your
Lordship’s information that, at the recent Meeting of the Association at Newcastle-
upon-Tyne, attention was drawn to the ethnographic and anthropometric researches
undertaken in Northern India during the last five years, under the orders of the
Government of Bengal. It is understood that an ethnographic survey, based upon
the statistics collected in the census of 1881, of the traditions, customs, religion, and
social relations of the various castes and tribes inhabiting the territories administered
by the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, has been conducted on the lines laid down in
1874 by a committee of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland.
At the same time anthropometric inquiries, on the system of measurement prescribed
by Dr. Paul Topinard, of the School of Anthropology at Paris, have been made into
the physical characteristics of nearly 6,000 persons, representing eighty-nine of the
chief castes and tribes of Bengal, the North-West Provinces, Oudh, and the Punjab.
The data collected in the course of these researches seem to the Council to possess
considerable scientific interest, and they venture to submit for your Lordship’s con-
sideration their views as to the advantage of further inquiry of the same kind in
other parts of India, and on the question in what manner and to what extent the
Government of India can properly be asked to assist in furthering such researches.
2. Without some help from the Government it is clear that no private agency can
hope to attain any considerable measure of success. The field is too large, and the
variety of custom and language too great, for isolated unofficial workers to produce
much impression. Such inquiries, moreover, in order to yield really valuable results,
must apply to a series of castes and tribes numerous enough to allow of the compara-
tive and statistical methods of investigation being applied on a tolerably large scale.
It is only by following a peculiar custom through the various forms which it assumes
in different social aggregates that a trustworthy conclusion can be arrived at con-
cerning its probable origin. The complete executive organisation which the Govern-
ment of India has at its disposal is admirably adapted, in respect of knowledge of
the people, their languages, and their modes of thought, to observe and record facts
which may prove to be of the highest scientific value, while the experience gained in
Bengal seems to show that this can be done at comparatively trifling expense.
3. Among the various kinds of information collected in the course of the inquiries
set on foot by the Bengal Government, special interest attaches to two classes of
data : first, the physical measurements already referred to, and secondly, the lists of
the exogamous and endogamous subdivisions! which are met with within the
different tribes and castes. Physical characters are held by the highest anthropo-
logical authorities to be the best, if not the only true, tests of race affinity; while
the character of the internal structure of tribes and castes has an important bearing
* By the term ‘exogamous subdivision’ is meant a group from within which its
male members cannot take their, wives; by that of ‘endogamous subdivision,’ a
group from outside of which its male members cannot take their wives.
see
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. xxiii
on those studies in the early history of the family and the growth of society which
are associated with the names of McLennan, Morgan, Maine, and Lubbock. Owing
to the influence of the caste system, which by restricting intermarriage tends to
preserve distinctions of type, India offers a peculiarly favourable field for anthropo-
metric research. The division of the people into a large number of separate social
aggregates, each maintaining its own peculiar customs, seems to lead to the trans-
mission of early usage in a comparatively unaltered form.
4. While fully recognising the value of the anthropometric inquiries already
undertaken, the Council observe that they cover only a portion of Northern India,
while provinces which promise to yield results of special interest remain at present
wholly untouched. In order to obtain data upon which final conclusions might be
based, it would be desirable to collect similar measurements for selected castes and
_ tribes in Madras, Bombay, the Central Provinces, and Assam, and at the same time
to undertake in the Punjab a larger series of observations than have hitherto been
_made. The Council understand that the services of the trained measurers who took
_ the Bengal observations might, under similar conditions, be again available; and
they are advised that the cost of employing them for the period necessary to com-
plete the work would not exceed 10,000 rupees. Mr. Risley, who conducted the
Bengal inquiries, is willing to direct and supervise the operations in India, and to
prepare the results for publication in any form that may be thought suitable. The
Council accordingly express a hope that your Lordship may be moved to commend
this proposal to the favourable consideration of the Government of India.
5. As regards the exogamous and endogamous subdivisions of tribes and castes,
the Council venture to suggest that the approaching census of India offers an admi-
table opportunity for collecting lists of these without incurring unreasonable expen-
diture. Itis understood that the enumerator’s schedule will in any case contain a
column in which the caste of every individual is entered, and it would appear that
the addition of columns showing the exogamous and endogamous groups would not
add materially to the cost of the operations. The information thus obtained would
have great scientific value, while it would further tend to enhance the accuracy of
the census itself. The Council are informed that in the last census of Bengal a
Jarge number of persons when asked for their caste-name gave instead the name of
the exogamous or endogamous group to which they belonged, and that in most cases
it was found impossible to assign these persons to any particular caste. By extend-
' ing the range of inquiry in the manner suggested, this source of error would be
eliminated.
6. In conclusion, if it should not be considered advisable to make a complete
_ religious census, the Council would suggest that in the course of the house-census
which precedes the actual enumeration it should be ascertained by what sect each of
the existing temples is used. Statistics illustrating this point would throw much
light on the development of the various forms of Brahminism, and would be a valu-
able contribution to the history of religion in the East.
We have the honour to be,
Your Lordship’s most obedient Servants,
W. H. FLOWER, President.
DOUGLAS GALTON,
ao GOs El Secu General Secretaries.
To this letter the following reply has been received :—
India Office, Whitehall, S.W.
March 31, 1890.
Sir,—I am directed by the Secretary of State for India in Council to acknowledge
the receipt of your letter of the 26th ultimo, in which, with reference to the valuable
ethnographical researches of Mr. H. H. Risley in Bengal, it is suggested that similar
_ anthropometric data should be collected in other parts of India, and that advantage
should also be taken of the approaching census to ascertain the exogamous and
endogamous groups to which the members of the different tribes and castes of the
people of India belong.
In reply, Iam to inform you that his Lordship in Council has been much inter-
ested in the proposals made by you on behalf of the British Association, which are
of great value as indicating the course ethnographical investigations should take in
; India, and a copy of your letter has been forwarded to the Government of India.
lxxiv REPORT—1890.
I am to add that Viscount Cross has read with satisfaction the testimony your
letter bears to the scientific character and importance of Mr. Risley’s work in
hebianilak Faies I am, Sir, your obedient Servant,
A. GODLEY.
Professor W. H. FLOWER, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., &c., &c., M
President, British Association for the Advancement of Science,
22 Albemarle Street, W.
India Office, Whitehall, S.W-
August 15, 1890.
Sir,—In continuation of my letter of March 31 last (R. & S. 264/90) I am directed
by the Secretary of State for India in Council to forward herewith a copy of a letter,
with its inclosure, from the Government of India on the subject of the proposals
made by you on behalf of the British Association, that the ethnographic and anthro-
pometric researches recently undertaken in Northern India should be extended to
other parts of India, and that advantage should be taken of the approaching census
of India for recording the exogamous and endogamous groups into which the
different castes and tribes are divided.
I am, Sir, your obedient Servant,
A. GODLEY.
Professor W. H. FLowe"Rr, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
President, British Association for the Advancement of Science,
22 Albemarle Street, W.
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA—HOME DEPARTMENT.
To the Right Honourable Viscount Cross, G.C.B.,
Her Majesty's Secretary of State for India.
Simla, July 15, 1890.
My Lord,—We have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your Lordship’s:
Despatch No. 31 (Statistics), dated April 3, 1890, forwarding a copy of a letter from
the President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, in which,
with reference to the ethnographic researches undertaken by Mr. H. H. Risley in
Bengal, it is suggested that similar anthropometric data should be collected in other
parts of India, and that advantage should be taken of the approaching census to:
ascertain the exogamous and endogamous groups to which the members of the
different tribes and castes of the population belong.
2. We need not assure your Lordship that any proposals upon these subjects to
which the British Association has lent the weight of its authority will receive our
very careful consideration. We observe that the Council considers that the data
collected by Mr. Risley possess considerable scientific interest, but we have our-
selves not yet been able to form an opinion as to the merits of his work, as we have
not yet received from him the volumes recording the results of his researches.
These we do not expect to receive till after Mr. Risley’s return from furlough in
England at the end of November next. We shall then consider the question whether |
his investigations cau usefully be supplemented in other parts of India.
3. We are of opinion that it would be quite impracticable for the enumerators
who will be employed in filling in the census returns to undertake the task of
collecting data as to endogamy and exogamy. The work involved in the prepara-
tion of the schedule which we have sanctioned will sufficiently tax the energy and
intelligence of the enumerators, who, it must be remembered, will for the most part
be men of little education, and any addition to it would greatly increase the risk of
inaccuracy in the statistics generally. We think, however, that it will be possible,
after the different castes and subdivisions of castes have been fully enumerated, to:
ascertain by local inquiry their relations as regards endogamy and exogamy. Such
an inquiry can be undertaken at leisure, either when the census results are being
compiled for each Province, or later, when the Local Govermnent or Administration
is able to provide some specially qualified agency for the purpose.
Your Lordship will observe from the form of schedule prescribed for the enume-
rators at the census that we have already determined to make a complete religious.
census as far as possible, but we do not think that the results of ascertaining, as pro-
q
4
4
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. Ixxv
_ posed by the British Association, what sect uses each of the existing temples would
be of much scientific value, as vast numbers of Hindoos are eclectic and worship in
_ numerous temples of different gods indifferently.
We have the honour to be, my Lord,
Your Lordship’s most obedient, humble Servants,
LANSDOWNE. A. R. SCOBLE.
F. 8. ROBERTS. C. A. ELLIOTT.
G. CHESNEY. P, P. HUTCHINS.
D. BARBOUR.
THE SCHEDULE CONTAINS APPENDIX A.
A. Standard Schedule. B. Standard Enumerator’s Abstract.
C. Standard Block List. D. Instructions to Enumerators.
(C) ‘ That the Council of the Association be requested to consider the following
Resolutions of the Committee of Section H, and, if approved, to bring them under
the notice uf H.M. Civil Service Commissioners and of the chief authorities of the
Army, Navy, and Indian Civil Service Department :—
‘(a) That the Committee concur in the opinion of H.M. Civil Service Com-
missioners (Report xxxiii. p. 15) that there is no especial difficulty in
assigning marks for physical qualifications with adequate precision.
‘(6) They urge that it is reasonable to include marks for physical qualifica-
tions among those by which the-place of a candidate is determined in
competitive examinations for posts where high physical efficiency is.
advantageous.’
The Council considered this question and resolved to address the
following letter to the Civil Service Commissioners, the Secretaries of
State for India and for War, and the Lords of the Admiralty :—
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,
22 Albemarle Street, London, W.
March 1890.
The Council of the British Association for the Advancement of Science desire to
‘submit the opinion expressed by the Anthropological Section of the Association last
year, and subsequently confirmed by a Committee appointed by the Council, of the
feasibility of assigning trustworthy marks for physical qualifications, and briefly to-
state some of the reasons for that opinion.
They feel it to be unnecessary to dwell on the desirability of including such
marks in the examinations for entrance into services where high physical powers.
are important, but would merely allude to the fact that it was fully recognised by
the War Office in 1878, at which time a Joint Committee of the War Office and of
the Civil Service Commissioners was appointed to inquire into the question ‘ whether
the present literary examinations for the army should be supplemented by physical
competition.’ Also that it was agreed to almost unanimously by the various.
speakers in the House of Lords in connection with that report, on May 21 and June
7, 1878, and on February 28, 1879. (See ‘Hansard’ for those dates, pp. 352, 1328,
1941.) The report was presented June 28, 1878.
j The recommendations of the Joint Committee referred almost wholly to marks.
‘to be assigned for athletic performance. Objections to this method of examination
were, however, pointed out by some of the witnesses; they were appreciated by the
responsible authorities, and were strongly insisted upon by them in the concluding”
debate. These objections applied principally to the costliness of the necessary pre-
_ paration, to the difficulty of conducting the tests, to the additional strain they would
impose on the already severely taxed energies of the candidates, and to the inter-
ference of physical training with due preparation for the literary examinations.
_ The consequence was that the recommendations of the Committee were not adopted
by the responsible authorities, and the subject was laid aside.
The Council of the British Association now desire to point out that, in the opinion
_ of anthropologists, athletic performance is by no means the only basis upon which
_ trustworthy marks for physical qualifications may be assigned.
This opinion is confirmed by some experiments made at Eton College, of which
Ixxvi REPORT—1890.
an account was submitted to the British Association. Thirty-two youths, most of
whom were candidates for the army, were inspected and marked by two medical
men, sitting in separate rooms. The medical men had previously received the same
general instructions, but otherwise acted independently. The marks they severally
assigned to the youths were afterwards found to agree with considerable precision.
Then, nineteen of these youths were set to write an English essay, and their per-
formances in that respect were submitted to two examiners in turn, to be marked
independently by them. ‘The marks given by these examiners agreed together only
one-half as closely as those given by the medical men. No one disputes the sub-
stantial trustworthiness of such literary examinations as these, however much they
may be thought capable of improvement. But this experiment (so far as it goes)
proves that the trustworthiness of physical examinations would be still greater.
The difficulty of formulating a system for the use of inspectors, according to
which marks should be assigned on a common and easily understood principle, is
greatly lessened by the use of anthropometric tests. Much experience testifies to
the quickness and adequate precision with which the chief elements of physical
efficiency admit of being measured. These are the breathing capacity and the
strength, both of them to be regarded with reference to the stature and to the
weight; the rapidity of muscular action; the quickness of response to a signal made
either to the eye or to the ear; the keenness of eyesight, and that of hearing, and
whether the colour-sense is normal or not.
An experiment made at Marlborough College, which has just been published,
shows how small may be the differences between the class-places determined by
these measures and those determined partly, in some cases, by the physical aspect,
but principally by proficiency in the various school games, or, in other words, by
athletic competition, Seventeen youths were measured by such apparatus as was
then available at the College, and copies of their measures were distributed among
the masters, to be marked by them on whatever principle they severally thought
best. The individual results proved to be very discordant, but their averages, which
express the result of the aggregate common sense of all the masters, ranked the boys
in closely the same order as that independently assigned to them according to their
proficiency in the various school games and to their apparent physique. It will be
observed that if the masters had previously conferred and come to a mutual under-
standing on the principle according to which the marks should be assigned, they
must necessarily have arrived at identical results, as they had definite and identical
data to work upon. There happened to be one case of failure, which was instructive.
This was due to the absence of any test at the College for rapidity of muscular
action, or of promptness of response to a signal. The consequence was that an agile
youth was rated too low.
The Council would point out that the experience gained by the measurement of
about 2,000 students at Cambridge conclusively proves that success in literary
examinations is in no manner connected with stature, weight, strength, or breathing
capacity, and but slightly with keenness of eyesight. Such differences as there
appear to be in these respects between the men who obtain high honours and those
who take an ordinary degree are small, and can be accounted for. Successful
literary men have probably great nervous energy, perseverance, and great power of
concentrating their efforts, which would cause them to utilise such physical powers
as they possessed with much effect, but they are shown to be neither superior nor
inferior in the above-mentioned particulars to those who fail.
The Council of the British Association have noted with pleasure the opinion
expressed by the Civil Service Commissioners in their Report of 1889 (xxxiii. p. 15),
to the effect that they anticipate no greater difficulty in ranking candidates accord-
ing to their physical than according to their literary qualifications. The Council there-
upon beg to express the views at which they themselves have arrived as follow :—
It seems to them that the paucity of available data makes it scarcely possible at ”
the present moment to elaborate as complete a system of assigning marks for physi-
cal qualifications as is desirable, and as, in their opinion, would be otherwise feasible.
They therefore think it very important that suitable steps should be taken to obtain
these data. For instance, if a temporary system of marks were tried, with the
avowed determination of reconsidering the subject after some experience had been
gained, the desired information would rapidly accumulate in the hands of the
inspectors; the attention of schoolmasters would be strongly aroused, and it is
probable that they would attempt a variety of experiments analogous to those
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. lxxvil
alluded to at Eton and Marlborough, but on a much larger scale. In a very few
‘years it might then become feasible to arrange a system that should be generally
acceptable.
In furtherance of these views the Council of the British Association beg to submit
he following recommendations :—
(1) That an inquiry should be held as to the best system of assigning marks for
physical qualifications, on the double basis of inspection and anthropometry, with a
view to its early establishment as a temporary and tentative system.
(2) That the marks to be given under this temporary system should be small, so
as to affect the success of those candidates only who would be ranked by the present
examinations very near to the dividing line between success and failure, and whose
intellectual performances would consequently be nearly on a par, though they would
differ widely in their physical qualifications.
(3) That determination should be expressed to reconsider the entire question
after the experience of a few years.
The following replies have been received :—
Civil Service Commission, Westminster.
March 28, 1890.
Sir,—I am directed by the Civil Service Commissioners to acknowledge the receipt
of your letter of the 25th instant transmitting a statement in regard to the feasi-
bility of assigning marks for physical qualifications in the examinations for entrance
into service where physical powers are important ; and, in reply, Iam to request that
ou will be good enough to convey to the Council of the British Association the
thanks of the Commissioners for the communication, and to state that the Commis-
sioners have the matter under consideration.
{ I have the honour to be, Sir, your obedient Servant,
The PRESIDENT, EH. HUMPHREYS.
British Association for the Advancement of Science.
India Office, Whitehall, S.W.
April 19, 1890.
" Sir,—I am directed by the Secretary of State for India in Council to acknow-
ledge the receipt of the letter signed by you and by the General Secretaries of the
itish Assoc ation for the Advancement of Science, dated the 25th ultimo, enclosing
a statement in regard to the feasibility of assigning marks for physical qualifica-
tions in the examinations for entrance into services where physical powers are
important.
a reply I am desired to state that Viscount Cross is already in communication
with the Civil Service Commissioners with reference to the question of making
physical qualifications an element in the competitions for the Civil Service of India.
I am, Sir, your obedient Servant,
JOHN EH. GorstT.
ofessor W. H. FLOWER, C.B.,
President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
22 Albemarle Street, W.
War Office, April 24, 1890.
Sir,—I am directed by the Secretary of State for War to acknowledge the receipt
of your letter of the 25th ultimo enclosing a statement in regard to the feasibility
of assigning marks for physical qualifications in the examinations for entrance into
ervices where physical powers are important.
_ ‘The subject has received the consideration of His Royal Highness the Commander-
in-Chief, and of the Secretary of State for War, who concur in the opinion that, with
regard to the army, it is not desirable to depart from the existing system, which
exacts from all candidates a certain standard of general health and physical fitness,
leaving the competitive result to be determined by educational tests.
I have the honour to be, Sir, your obedient Servant,
The PRESIDENT, RALPH THOMPSON.
British Association for the Advancement of Science.
The Council have been informed that a proposal to reappoint the
ommittee on a Uniform Nomenclature for the Fundamental Units of
Oxxvili REPORT—1890.
Mechanics was intended to have been brought before the General Com-
mittee at Newcastle, and have resolved to recommend that the Report
which has been drawn up by the members of the proposed Committee be
received and published among the Reports.!
The report of the Corresponding Societies Committee has been re-
ceived, and is now presented to the General Committee.
The Corresponding Societies Committee, consisting of Mr. Francis
Galton, Professor R. Meldola (Secretary), Professor A. W. William-
son, Sir Douglas Galton, Professor Boyd Dawkins, Sir Rawson
Rawson, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr. J. Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Mr. W.
Whitaker, Mr. G. J. Symons, General Pitt-Rivers, Mr. W. Topley, and
Professor T. G. Bonney, is hereby nominated for reappointment by the
General Committee.
The Council nominate Mr. G. J. Symons, F.R.S., Chairman, Professor
T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., Vice-Chairman, and Professor R. Meldoia, F.R.S.,
Secretary to the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies to
be held during the meeting at Leeds.
At the request of the Council of the Australasian Association for the
Advancement of Science papers relating to the meeting of this Associa-
tion, which is appointed to take place at Christchurch, New Zealand,
commencing on January 15, 1891, have been placed in the Reception
Room. Members of the British Association are invited to attend the
meeting at Christchurch, and the facilities offered by Shipping Com-
panies and by the Railway Commissioners in New Zealand are described
in detail in the papers.
The lease of the office of the Association, 22 Albemarle Street,
London, W., will expire next year, and the Council, having ascertained
that certain rooms in Burlington House were unoccupied, made an
application to the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury for
the use of these rooms. The Council are glad to report that the request
has been granted under favourable conditions. The Council believe that
a sum not exceeding 150/. will suffice for fitting and furnishing the rooms.
In accordance with the regulations the five retiring Members of the
Council will be :—
Sir B.S. Ball. Prof. H. M‘Leod.
Dr. A. Gamgee. Admiral Sir E. Ommanney.
Prof. Ray Lankester.
The Council recommend the re-election of the other ordinary Members
of Council, with the addition of the gentlemen whose names are distin-
guished by an asterisk in the following list :—
Ayrton, Prof. W. E., F.R.S. Preece, W. H., Esq., F.R.S.
Baker, Sir B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. *Reinold, Prof. A. W., F.R.S.
Blanford, W. T., Esq., F.R.S. Roberts-Austen, Prof. W. C., C.B., F.R.S.
Crookes, W., Esq., F.R.S. Riicker, Prof. A. W., F.R.S.
Darwin, Prof. G. H., F.R.S. Schafer, Prof. E. A., F.R.S.
Douglass, Sir J. N., F.R.S. Schuster, Prof. A., F.R.S.
Evans, Dr. J., F.R.8. Sidgwick, Prof. H., M.A.
Fitzgerald, Prof. G. F., F.R.S. Thorpe, Prof. T. E., F.R.S.
Geikie, Dr. A., F.R.S. *Ward, Prof. Marshall, F.2.S.
*Glazebrook, R. T., Esq., F.R.S. *Wharton, Capt. W. J. L., R.N., F.R.S.
Judd, Prof. J. W., F.B.S. *Whitaker, W., Esq., F.R.S.
Liveing, Prof. G.D., F.R.S. Woodward, Dr. H., F.R.S.
Martin, J. B., Esq., F.S.8.
* The Committee was finally unable to agree to a Report
lxxix
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE
Lerps MEETING IN SrpremBer 1890.
1. Receiving Grants of Money.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose Members of the Committee Grants
=|
£
The Volcanic and Seismological | Chairman.—Sir W. Thomson. 10
Phenomena of Japan. Secretary.—Professor J. Milne.
Professor W. G. Adams, Mr. J. T.
Rottomley, and Professor A. H.
Green.
Making Experiments for improv- | Chairman.—Professor Carey Foster. | 100
ing the Construction of Practical | Secretary.—Mr. R. T. Glazebrook.
Standards for use in Electrical | Sir William Thomson, Professors
Measurements. Ayrton, J. Perry, W. G. Adams,
and Lord Rayleigh, Drs. O. J.
Lodge, John Hopkinson, and A.
Muirhead, Messrs. W. H. Preece
and Herbert Taylor, Professors
Everett and Schuster, Dr. J. A.
Fleming, Professors G. F. Fitz-
gerald and Chrystal, Mr. H. Tom-
linson, Professors W. Garnett and
j J. J. Thomson, Messrs. W. N.
Shaw, J. T. Bottomley, and T. C.
Fitzpatrick, and Professor J.
ay! Viriamu Jones.
Codperating with the Scottish Me- | Chairman.—Lord McLaren. 50
- teorological Society in making | Secretary.—Professor Crum Brown.
Meteorological Observations on | Messrs. Milne-Home, John Murray,
Ben Nevis. and Buchan, and Hon. R. Aber-
; cromby.
j
Considering the subject of Elec- | Chairman.—Professor Fitzgerald. 5
trolysis in its Physical and | Secretaries—Professors Armstrong
Chemical Bearings. and O. J. Lodge.
Le Professors Sir William Thomson,
} Lord Rayleigh, J. J. Thomson,
Schuster, Poynting, Crum Brown,
Ramsay, Frankland, Tilden, Hart-
ley, S. P. Thompson, M‘Leod,
Roberts-Austen, Riicker, Reinold,
Carey Foster, and H. B. Dixon,
Captain Abney, Drs. Gladstone,
Hopkinson, and Fleming, and
Messrs. Crookes, Shelford Bidwell,
W. N. Shaw, J. Larmor, J. T.
Bottomley, R. T. Glazebrook, J.
Brown, E. J. Love, and John M.
Thomson.
Ixxx
REPORT—1890.
1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Commitice
The Application of Photography
to the Elucidation of Meteoro-
logical Phenomena.
To investigate the Phenomena ac-
companying the Discharge of
Electricity from Points.
To codperate with Dr. Piazzi Smyth
in his Researches on the Ultra
Violet Rays of the Solar Spec-
trum.
Seasonal Variations in the Tempe-
ratures of Lakes, Rivers, and
Estuaries in various parts of the
United Kingdom in codperation
with the Local Societies repre-
sented on the Association.
To consider the best Method of
establishing an International
Standard for the Analysis of
Iron and Steel.
Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives
¢
The Investigation of the direct
Formation of Haloid Salts from
pure Materials.
The Action of Light upon dyed
Colours.
Recording the Position, Height
above the Sea, Lithological Cha-
racters, Size, and Origin of
the Erratic Blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, reporting
other matters of interest con-
nected with the same, and tak-
ing measures for their preserva-
tion.
Chairman.—Mx. G. J. Symons.
Secretary.—Mr. Clayden.
Professor Meldola and Mr. John Hop-
kinson.
Chairman.—Professor O. J. Lodge.
Secretary.—Mr. A, P. Chattock.
Professor Carey Foster.
Chairman.—Professor Liveing.
Secretary.—Dy. Piazzi Smyth.
Professors Dewar and Schuster.
Chairman.—Mr. John Murray.
Secretary.—Dr. H. R. Mill.
Professor Chrystal, Dr. A. Buchan,
the Rev. C. J. Steward, the Hon.
R. Abercromby, Mr. J. Y. Bu-
chanan, Mr. David Cunningham,
Mr. Isaac Roberts, Professor Fitz-
gerald, Dr. Sorby, and Mr, Willis
Bund.
Chairman.—Professor Roberts-Aus-
ten.
Secretary.— Mr, Thomas Turner.
Sir F. Abel, Messrs. E. Riley and
J. Spiller, Professor Langley, Mr.
G. J. Snelus, and Professor Tilden.
Chatvman.—-Professor W. A. Tilden.
Secretary.—Professor H. HE. Arm-
strong,
Chairman.—Professor H. E. Arm-
strong.
Secretary.—Mr. W. A. Shenstone.
Professor W. R. Dunstan and Mr.
C. H. Bothamley.
Chairman.—Professor Thorpe.
Secretary.—Professor J. J. Hummel.
Dr. Perkin, Professor Russell, Captain
Abney, and Professor Stroud.
Chairman.—Professor J. Prestwich.
Secretary.—Dr. H. W. Crosskey.
Professors W. Boyd Dawkins,T. McK.
Hughes, and T. G. Bonney and
Messrs. C. E. De Rance, W. Pen-
gelly, J. Plant, and R. H. Tidde-
man.
Grants
£
5
10
50
20
10
25
25
20
10
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.
1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Ixxxi
Members of the Committee
The Description and Illustration
of the Fossil Phyllopoda of the
Paleozoic Rocks.
Carrying on the ‘Geological
Record.’
The Collection, Preservation, and
Systematic Registration of
Photographs of Geological in-
terest.
| To work the very fossiliferous
Transition Bed between the
Middle and UpperLias in North-
amptonshire, in order to obtain
a full series of Upper Liassic
Gasteropods and fix the hori-
zon of a fine collection of Liassic
Fish.
To consider the best Methods for
the Registration of all Type
Specimens of Fossils in the
British Isles, and to report on
the same.
The Volcanic Phenomenaof Vesu-
vius and its neighbourhood.
The Circulation of the Under-
_ ground Waters in the Permeable
Formations of England, and
the Quality and Quantity of
the Waters supplied to various
Towns and Districts from these
Formations.
To complete the Investigation of
the Cave at Elbolton, near Skip-
ton, in order to ascertain whether
the remains of Paleolithic Man
occur in the Lower Cave Earth.
1890.
Chairman.—Mz. R. Etheridge.
Secretary.—Vrofessor T. R. Jones.
Dr. H. Woodward.
Chairman.—Mr. W. Whitaker.
Secretaries.—Messrs. W. Topley and
C. Davies Sherborne.
Dr. G. J. Hinde, Messrs. E. T. New-
ton, R. B. Newton, F. W. Rudler,
and J.J. H. Teall, and Professor
Green.
Chairman.—Professor J. Geikie.
Secretary.—Mr. O. W. Jeffs.
Professors Bonney, Boyd Dawkins,
and V. Ball, Dr. T. Anderson, and
Messrs. A. 8. Reid, W. Gray, H. B.
Woodward, J. E. Bedford, R. Kid-
ston, W. W. Watts, J. W. Davis,
and R. H. Tiddeman.
Chairxman.—Dr. H, Woodward.
Secretary.—Mr. Beeby Thompson.
Messrs. W. D. Crick, T. G. George,
W. Hull, E. A. Walford, E. Wil-
son, and H. B. Woodward.
Chairman.—Dr. H. Woodward.
Secretary.—Mr. A. Smith Woodward.
Messrs. R. Etheridge, the Rev. G. F.
Whidborne, R. Kidston, J. E. Marr,
and C. Davies Sherborne.
Chairman.—Mr. H. Bauerman.
Secretary.—Dr. H. J. Johnston-Lavis.
Messrs. F. W. Rudler and J. J. H.
Teall.
Chairman.—Professor E. Hull.
Secretary.—Mr. C. E. De Rance.
Dr. H. W. Crosskey, Sir D. Galton,
Professors G. A. Lebour and J.
Prestwich, and Messrs. J. Glai-
sher, E. B. Marten, G. H. Morton,
J. Parker, W. Pengelly, J. Plant,
I. Roberts, C. Fox - Strangways,
T. S. Stooke, G. J. Symons,
W. Topley, Tylden-Wright, E.
Wethered, and W. Whitaker.
Chairman.—Mr. J. W. Davis.
Seeretary.—Rev. E. Jones.
Drs. J. Evans and J. G. Garson and
Messrs. W. Pengelly, R. H. Tidde-
man, and J. J. Wilkinson.
Grants
100
10
25
10
10
25
lxxxii
REPORT—1890.
1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject of Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
To arrange for the Occupation of
a Table at the Laboratory of the
Marine Biological Association
at Plymouth.
For taking steps to establish a
Botanical Station at Peradeniya,
Ceylon.
For improving and experimenting
with a Deep-sea Tow-net for
opening and closing under water.
Disappearance of Native Plants
from their Local Habitats.
To report on the present state of
our Knowledge of the Zoology
of the Sandwich Islands, and to
take steps to investigate ascer-
tained deficiencies in the Fauna.
To report on the present state of
our Knowledge of the Zoology
and Botany of the West India
Islands, and to take steps to in-
vestigate ascertained deficien-
cies in the Fauna and Flora.
The Geography and the Habits,
Customs, and Physical Charac-
ters of the Nomad Tribes of Asia
Minor and Northern Persia, and
to excavate on sites of Ancient
Occupation.
The Action of Waves and Currents
on the Beds and Foreshores of
Estuaries by means of Working
Models.
| Editing anew Edition of ‘ Anthro-
| pological Notes and Queries,’
Chairman.—Professor Flower.
Secretary.—Mr. 8. F. Harmer.
Professors M. Foster, E. Ray Lan-
kester, and §. H. Vines.
Chairman.—Professor M. Foster.
Secretary—Professor F, O. Bower.
Professor Bayley Balfour, Mr. Thisel-
ton-Dyer, Dr. Trimen, Professor
Marshall Ward, Mr. Carruthers,
Professor Hartog, and Mr. W.
Gardiner.
Chairman.—Professor A. C. Haddon.
Secretary.—Mr. W. E. Hoyle.
Professor W. A. Herdman.
Chairman.—Mr. A. W. Wills.
Secretary.—Professor W. Hillhouse.
Messrs. E. W. Badger and George
Claridge Druce.
Chairman.—Professor Flower.
Secretary.—Dr. David Sharp.
Dr. Blanford, Dr. Hickson, Pro-
fessor Newton, Mr. Salvin, and
Dr. Sclater.
Chairman.—Professor Flower.
Secretary.—Mr. D. Mortis.
Mr. Carruthers, Drs. Giinther and
Sclater, Mr. Thiselton- Dyer, Dr
Sharp, Mr. F. Du Cane Godman,
Professor Newton, and Colonel
Feilden.
Chairman.—Dr. Garson.
Secretary.—Mz. Bent.
Messrs. H. W. Bates, Bloxam, and
J. Stuart Glennie, Sir Frederic
Goldsmid, and Messrs. Pengelly
and Rudler.
Chairman.—Sir J. N. Douglass.
Secretary.—Professor Osborne Rey-
nolds. |
Professor Unwin and Messrs. W.
Topley, E. Leader Williams,
W. Shelford, G. F. Deacon, A. R.
Hunt, W. H. Wheeler, W. Ander-
son, and H. Bamford.
Chairman.— Professor Flower.
Secretary.— Dr. Garson.
Dr. Beddoe, General Pitt-Rivers, Mr.
Francis Galton,and Dr. H, B. Tylor.
Grant
50
40
100
100
30
150
COMMITTEES APPOINTED
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
For carrying on the Work of the
Anthropometric Laboratory.
The Physical Characters, Lan-
guages, and Industrial and So-
cial Condition of the North-
Western Tribes of the Dominion
of Canada.
The Habits, Customs, Physical
Characteristics, and Religions
of the Natives of India.
BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.
1. Recetving Grants of Money—continued.
Members of the Committee Grants
£
Chairman.—Professor Flower. 10
Secretary.—Dr. Garson.
Mr. Bloxam and Dr. Wilberforce
Smith.
Ixxxiii
Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee.
Secretary.—Professor R. Meldola. |
Professor A. W. Williamson, Sir
Douglas Galton, Professor Boyd
Dawkins, Sir Rawson Rawson, Dr.
J. G. Garson, Dr. John Evans, Mr.
J. Hopkinson, Mr. W. Whitaker,
Mr. G. J. Symons, General Pitt-
Rivers, Mr. W. Topley, and Pro-
fessor Bonney.
Chairman.—Dr. E. B. Tylor. 200
Secretary.—Mr. Bloxam.
Sir Daniel Wilson, Dr. G. M. Daw-
son, and Mr. R. G. Haliburton.
Chairman.—Sir William Turner. 16
Secretary.—Mr. Bloxam.
Professor Flower, Drs. Garson and
E. B. Tylor, and Mr. H. H. Risley. |
|
Chairman.—Mr. Francis Galton. 25
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
The Collection and Identification of
/
| Meteoric Dust.
‘The Rate of Increase of Underground
_ Temperature downwards in various
Localities of dry Land and under
_ Water.
2. Not receiving Grants of Money.
Members of the Committee
Chairman.—Mr. John Murray,
Seeretary.—Mr. John Murray.
Professor Schuster, Sir William Thom- /
son, the Abbé Renard, Mr. A. Buchan,
the Hon. R. Abercromby, and Dr. M. |
Grabham.
Chairman.—Professor Everett.
Secretary.—Professor Everett.
Professor Sir William Thomson, Mr. G.
J. Symons, Sir A. C. Ramsay, Dr. A.
Geikie, Mr. J. Glaisher, Mr. Pengelly,
Professor Edward Hull, Professor
Prestwich, Dr. C. Le Neve Foster, Pro-
fessor A. 8. Herschel, Professor G. A.
Lebour, Mr. A. B. Wynne, Mr, Gallo-
way, Mr. Joseph Dickinson, Mr. G. F.
Deacon, Mr. E. Wethered, Mr. A. Stra-
han, and Professor Michie Smith.
e2
lxxxiv
REPORT—1890.
2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Ob-
servations.
Considering the best Methods of Re-
cording the Direct Intensity of Solar
Radiation.
To codperate with Dr. Kerr in his
researches on Electro-optics.
For Calculating Tables of certain Ma-
thematical Functions, and, if neces-
sary, for taking steps to carry out the
Calculations, and to publish the re-
sults in an accessible form.
Carrying on the Tables connected with
the Pellian Equation from the point
where the work was left by Degen
in 1817.
The various Phenomena connected with
the recalescent Points in Iron and
other Metals.
' Reporting on the Bibliography of Solu-
tion.
To report on recent Inquiries into the
History of Chemistry.
The Continuation of the Bibliography
of Spectroscopy.
Preparing a new Series of Wave-length
Tables of the Spectra of the Elements.
Chairman.—Professor W. G. Adams.
Secretary.—Professor W. G. Adams.
Sir W. Thomson, Professors G. H. Dar-
win and G. Chrystal, Mr. C. H. Carp-
mael, Professor Schuster, Mr. G. M.
Whipple, Captain Creak, the Astro-
nomer Royal, Mr. William Ellis, Mr.
W. Lant Carpenter, and Professor
A. W. Riicker.
Chairman.—Sir G. G. Stokes.
Secretary.— Mr. G. J. Symons,
Professor Schuster, Mr. G. Johnstone
Stoney, Sir H. E. Roscoe, Captain
Abney, Mr. Whipple, and Professor
M‘Leod.
Chairman.—Dr. John Kerr.
Secretary.—Mr. R. T. Glazebrook.
Sir W. Thomson and Professor Riicker.
Chairman.—Lord Rayleigh.
Secretary.—Professor A. Lodge.
Sir William Thomson, Professor Cayley,
Professor B. Price, and Messrs. J. W. L.
Glaisher, A. G. Greenhill, and W. M.
Hicks.
Chairman.—Professor Cayley.
Secretary.—Professor A. Lodge.
Professor Sylvester and Mr. A. R. Forsyth.
Chairman.—Professor Fitzgerald.
Secretary.—Professor Barrett.
Dr. John Hopkinson, Mr. R. A. Hadfield,
Mr. Trouton, Professor Roberts-Austen,
and Mr. H. F. Newall.
Chairman.—Professor W. A. Tilden.
Secretary.—Dr. W. W. J. Nicol.
Professors M‘Leod, Pickering, Ramsay,
and Young and Dr. A. R. Leeds.
| Chairman.—Professor H. E. Armstrong.
| Secretary.—Professor John Ferguson.
Chairman.— Professor H. M‘Leod.
Sceretary.—Professor Roberts-Austen.
Professor Reinold and Mr. H. G. Madan.
Chairman.—Sir H. E. Roscoe.
Secretary.—Dr. Marshall Watts.
Mr. Lockyer, Professors Dewar, Liveing,
Schuster, W. N. Hartley, and Wolcott
Gibbs, and Captain Abney.
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.
lxxxv
2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
| The Properties of Solutions . x
| The Influence of the Silent Discharge
_ of Electricity on Oxygen and other
Gases.
The Action of Light on the Hydracids
| of the MHalogens in presence of
Oxygen.
England and Wales, and the Influence
of the Artificial Abstraction of
Shingle or other material in that
action,
To carry on Excavations at Oldbury
| Hill, near Ightham, in order to ascer-
tain the existence or otherwise of
Rock Shelters at that spot.
Considering the advisability and possi-
| bility of establishing in other parts
of the country Observations upon the
Prevalence of Earth Tremors similar
to those now being made in Durham
in connection with coal-mine explo-
sions.
| To undertake the Investigation of the
Sources of the River Aire, and also to
test the value of Uranin and other
Dyes in investigating the Courses of
Underground Streams.
The Invertebrate Fauna and Cryptoga-
mic Flora of the Fresh Waters of the
British Isles.
Chairman.—Professor W. A. Tilden.
Seerctary.—Dr. W. W. J. Nicol.
Professor Ramsay.
Chairman.—Professor H. M‘Leod.
Secretary.—Mr. W. A. Shenstone.
Professor Ramsay and Mr. J. T. Cundall.
Chairman.—Dr. Russell.
Secretary.—Dr. A. Richardson.
Captain Abney and Professors Noel
Hartley and W. Ramsay.
Chairman.—General Festing. ;
Secretary.—Dr. H. E. Armstrong.
Captain Abney.
Chairman.—My. R. B. Grantham.
Secretaries —Messrs. C. E. De Rance and
W. Topley.
Messrs. J. B. Redman, W. Whitaker, and
J. W. Woodall, Maj.-Gen. Sir A. Clarke,
Admiral Sir E. Ommanney, Sir J.N.
Douglass, Capt. Sir G. Nares, Capt.
J. Parsons, Capt. W. J. L. Wharton,
Professor J. Prestwich, and Messrs. E.
Easton, J. 8. Valentine, and L. F.
Vernon Harcourt.
Chairman.—Dr. J. Evans.
Secretary.—Mr. B. Harrison.
Professors Prestwich and H. G. Seeley.
Chairman.—Mr. G. J. Symons.
Secretary.—Mr. C. Davison.
Sir F. J. Bramwell, Mr. E. A. Cowper,
Professor G. H. Darwin, Professor
Ewing, Mr. Isaac Roberts, Mr. Thomas
Gray, Dr. John Evans, Professors Prest-
wich, Hull, Lebour, Meldola, and Judd,
Mr. M. Walton Brown, and Mr. J.
Glaisher.
Chairman.—Professor R. Meldola. _
Secretary.—Professor Silvanus P. Thomp-
son.
Mr. J. Birbeck, Mr. Walter Morrison,
M.P., Rev. Dr. Styles, and Mr. Thomas
Tate.
Chairman.—Professor Bayley Balfour.
Secretary.—Professor J. C. Ewart.
Canon A. M. Norman, Professors J.
Geikie, A. C. Haddon, T. Johnston,
W. J. Sollas, and Lapworth, Dr. H.
Scott, and Mr. F, E. Beddard.
Ixxxvi REPORT—-1 890. *
2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose | Members of the Committee
To make a Digest of the Observations on | Chairman.—Professor Newton.
the Migration of Birdsat Lighthouses | Secretary.—Mr. John Cordeaux.
and Light-vessels, which have been | Messrs. John A. Harvie-Brown, R. M.
carried on by the Migration Commit- Barrington, and W. E. Clarke and the
tee of the British Association. Rev. E. P. Knubley.
The Teaching of Science in Elementary | Chairman.—Dr. J. H. Gladstone.
Schools. Secretary.—Professor H. E. Armstrong.
Mr. 8. Bourne, Dr. Crosskey, Mr. George
Gladstone, Mr. J. Heywood, Sir J.
Lubbock, Sir Philip Magnus, Professor
N. Story Maskelyne, Sir H. E. Roscoe,
Sir R. Temple, and Professor Silvanus P,
Thompson.
Ascertaining and recording the Localities | Chais»man.—Sir John Lubbock.
in the British Islands in which evi- | Secretary—Mr. J. W. Davis.
dences of the existence of Prehistoric | Dr. J. Evans, Professor Boyd Dawkins,
Inhabitants of the country are found. Dr. R. Munro, Messrs. Pengelly and
Hicks, Professor Meldola,and Dr. Muir-
head.
Other Resolutions adopted by the General Committee.
That Mr. W. N. Shaw be requested to continue his Report on the present state of
our Knowledge in Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry.
That in the event of the President of a Section being unable to attend a meeting
of the Committee of Recommendations, the Sectional Committee shall be authorised
to appoint a Vice-President, or, failing a Vice-President, some other member of the
Committee, to attend in his place; due notice of the appointment being sent to the:
Assistant General Secretary.
That Professor H. S. Hele Shaw, who has hitherto served as Secretary of the
Committee appointed to report on the Development of Graphic Methods in Me-
chanical Science, be appointed to complete the Report and present it at next year’s.
meeting of the Association.
Communications ordered to be printed in extenso in the Annual Report
of the Association.
(1) Reports of the discussion on Electrolysis and of the discussion on Solution
prepared by Dr. Thorpe.
(2) The paper by Professor J. E. C. Munro, LL.D., entitled ‘The probable Effects
on Wages of a general Reduction in the Hours of Labour.’
_ (3) The paper by Professors Barr and Stroud on ‘New Telemeters and Range
Finders,’ with the necessary drawings.
Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and action
af desirable.
That the Council consider and report whether grants should be made from the
funds of the Association for other than specific researches by specified individuals.
RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Ixxxvii
That the Council be requested to consider the question of watching the operation
of Acts relating to Scientific and Technical Education, and to take such steps as
may seem desirable for furthering the objects of those Acts.
_ That the Council be requested to consider whether it is not desirable to make
pecial provision for the comprehensive consideration by the Association of questions
Siating to Scientific and Technical Education.
That the Council urge upon Government to take steps to hasten the completion
of the Ordnance Survey and to afford the public greater facilities for the purchase of
the Survey Maps.
That it is desirable that the question of publishing the papers more fully and
expeditiously and of adding reports of discussions be considered by the Council.
That in the arrangement of the Journal it is desirable, in the interests of clearness
and of ease of reference, to return to the old practice of printing first the papers to
be read in the various sections, then the papers read on the previous day in those
sections, and lastly, the list of sectional officers and of the committees.
That the Council be requested, if possible, to fix the date of each Meeting two
years before it is held, and to bear in mind that the middle or latter part of September
is the time most convenient to many Members of the Association.
That a General Index to the Reports of the Committees of the Association and of
all papers ordered to be printed im extenso be published, and that the Council be
authorised to expend such sums as may be necessary for the purpose.
That the hours at which the Sections and Committees meet be again considered
y the Council.
That the paper by Mr. J. F. Green, on ‘ Steam Life Boats,’ be printed in extenso
with the necessary drawings.
lxxxviii REPORT—1890.
Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Pur-
poses by the General Committee at the Leeds Meeting, in
September 1890. The Names of the Members entitled to call
on the General Treasurer for the respective Grants are prefixed.
Mathematics and Physics.
£
*Thomson, Sir W.—Seismological Phenomena of Japan...... 10
*Foster, Professor Carey.—Hlectrical Standards ............... 100
*McLaren, Lord.—Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis 50
*Fitzgerald, Professor.—Hlectrolysis ...............2:sceceeseesees 5
Symons, Mr. G. J.—Photographs of Meteorological Phenomena 5
Lodge, Professcr O. J.—Discharge of Electricity from Points 10
Liveing, Professor.—Ultra Violet Rays of Solar Spectrum ... 50
*Murray, Mr. John.—Seasonal Variations of Temperature ... 20
Chemistry.
*Roberts-Austen, Professor.—Analysis of Iron and Steel...... 10
*Tilden, Professor.—Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives ...... 25
Armstrong, Professor H. E.—Formation of Haloid Salts...... 25
Thorpe, Dr.—Action of Light upon Dyes ....................... 20
Geology.
*Prestwich, Professor.—EHrratic Blocks ..........0.ss.ecsseeeeeees 10
*Ktheridge, Mr. R.—Fossil Phyllopoda ............c00.cc0eceee eee 10
*Whitaker, Mr. W.—Geological Record .......0.......ccecneceeees 100
*Geikie, Professor J—Photographs of Geological Interest ... 10
*Woodward, Dr. H.—Lias Beds in Northamptonshire ......... 25
*Woodward, Dr. H.—Registration of Type Specimens of
Boriisabs Wossile ek isi... 5; <ssicssvrcoos Suse uve soce Ree 10
*Bauerman, Mr. H.—Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius ...... 10
*Hull, Professor E.—Underground Waters............000.ee000+- 5
*Davis, Mr. J. W.—Investigation of Elbolton Cave............ 25
Biology.
*Flower, Professor W. H.—Marine Biological Association at
PEN Me lee cig oo ses Saies a bas ska onesies 2 30
*Foster, Professor Michael.—Botanical Station at Peradeniya 50
RORETOR I PORWR sce sev c0n5Stenstseeccecovnasce hee £615
* Reappointed,
oocooo’ oceceo oococo
oo
cCeocoooooe
cooco Ssoooooooe
oooc cooco
; SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY. Ixxxix
Lay ae
Brought forward.........:cc-ssceeseeceeeeeceneeeseneeeceecen ees 615 0 0
*Haddon, Professor A. C.—Improving Deep-sea Tow-net ... 40 0 0
*Wills, Mr. A. W.—Disappearance of Native Plants ......... 5. 028
Flower, Professor W. H.—Zoology of the Sandwich Islands 100 0 0
*Flower, Professor W. H.—Zoology and Botany of the West
Meee TRIGTIOS — vos wap scciess tee nre noses des ays vse' otent coneesccnees 100 0 0
Geography.
*Garson, Dr.—Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor and Northern
ESE tent, Se eee Oe aoc oie asus easpal cas achsewsienWhe oa 30 0 0
Mechanical Science.
*Douglass, Sir J.—Action of Waves and Currents in
PPR VECS ccs ancacse tee Setrct heh fishes sdb andececarseessnermnse sence 150 0 0
Anthropology.
*Flower, Professor.—New Edition of ‘ Anthropological Notes
RRR CUICH , sciocn so PA te. 5s 0}: sucanintoninpinendine 902 eosin sas 0 0
*Flower, Professor.—Anthropometric Laboratory.........-..-++ 10,10. 0
*Tylor, Dr. E. B.—North-Western Tribes of Canada............ 200 0 0
*Turner, Sir W.—Habits of Natives of India..,...............++ TOG
*Symons, Mr. G. J.—Corresponding Societies ..............+++ 25 0 0
£1,335 6 ©
* Reappointed.
The Annual Meeting in 1891.
The Meeting at Cardiff will commence on Wednesday, August 19.
Place of Meeting in 1892.
The Annual Meeting of the Association will be held at Edinburgh.
xc
REPORT—1890.
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of
Grants for Scientific Purposes.
£3. da.
1834
Tide Discussions ...... bonvs-et 7 20101 0
1835
Tide Discussions ........e+se0++ 625105 (0
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0
£167 0, 0
1836.
Tide Discussions .........se0++. 163 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0
Thermometric Observations,
RECH Levsesenss ieee reseeneassace ane 50 se OnnO
Experiments on long-con-
MIDUCH HEAL cesses. ccveseeseses LOH koe)
Rain-Gauges .......0...0.00 tee Oo
Refraction Experiments ...... 15 0 0
fram ary NOTION ...ccces<ss.ee0e 60 0 0
Thermometers .....sc0..0.0000¢ 15 6 0
£435 0 0
1837.
Tide Discussions ...........4.6- 284 1 0
Chemical Constants ..... Soaeean 2413 6
euNaArINAGATION. 0. .60s.. coceesos 70 0 O
Observations on Waves ...... 100 12 0
Tides at Bristol ..............0.5- 150 0 0
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature............ 93 3 0
Vitrification Experiments ... 150 0 0
Heart Experiments ............ S$ 4 6
Barometric Observations ...... 30 0 0
IBALGINCLEIS sworn d<ssecccceadeesace 11 18 6
£922 12 6
183
Tide Discussions ............... 29. 0 O
British Fossil Fishes............ 100 0 0
Meteorological Observations
and Anemometer (construc-
RUE Me eaenct suSaceseccanceteess 100 0 0
Cast Iron (Strength of) ...... 60 0 0
Animal and Vegetable Sub-
stances (Preservation Ob) reen 19) 110
Railway Constants ............ 41 12 10
(BLISHON WIGS... .cscscetesccecetes 50 0 0
Growth of Plants ............... 75 0 0
MTOGATURAVETS Wiscnec detec cecses SMOG
Education Committee ......... 50 0 0
Heart Experiments ........... woe? @
Land and Sea Level........ seeeabie OT
Steam-vessels...........0..ssceees 100 0 O
Meteorological Committee ... 31 9 5
mae. 2. 2
1839.
Fossil Ichthyology ............ 110 0 0
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth, &c, ............ 63 10 0
£ 8. d.
Mechanism of Waves ......... 144 2 0
Bristol Tides ....... Rwageneanses 35 18 6.
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature........,... 2111 0
Vitrification Experiments ... 9 4 7
Cast-Iron Experiments......... 103 0 0
Railway Constants ........ scabs 20 a dvi ee
Land and Sea Level...... worse uet a Ait) les Rae
Steam-vessels’ Engines ...... 100 0 O
Stars in Histoire Céleste ...... 71816
Stars in Lacaille <......2....0 1a 0; 70
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue ... 166 16 6
Animal Secretions............. «= nO, 10" 40
Steam Engines in Cornwall... 50 0 0
Atmospheric Air ...........000s 16 1 0
Cast and Wrought Iron ...... 40 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 3 0 0
Gases on Solar Spectrum...... 22 0 0
Hourly Meteorological Ob-
servations, Inverness and
KONG USSIC, |. .tebscncrenue adenine £90 18
Fossil Reptiles ........... medeaes LS Os
Mining Statistics ............... 50 0 O
£1595 11 O
1840.
Bristol) Tidest.c te scoces-s5dsneet 100 0 O
Subterranean Temperature... 13 13 6
Heart Experiments ..........- «| USeoao
Lungs Experiments ............ 813 0
Tide Discussions. .........ss000e 50 0 O
Land and Sea Level...... sees vay OmUa neal
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 242 10 O
Stars (Lacaille) .............06¢ ss, AelDeAO
Stars (Catalogue) ....... seneonss 264 0 0
Atmospheric Air .........+060 . 1515 O
Water on Tron. (cieesssscsteaseas 10 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 7 0 O
Meteorological Observations. 52 17 6
Foreign Scientific Memoirs... 112 1 6.
Working Population ............ 100 0 O
School Statistics ............+6+ 50 0 0
Forms of Vessels .........0+0+0+ 184 7 O
Chemical and Electrical Phe-
DOMENAS sp deetacncsayecepeeees 40 0 0
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth Pa Pe ee cco «92 )/80)00)"50
Magnetical Observations Seeeee 185 13 9
£1546 16 4
1841.
Observations on Waves ...... 30 0 0
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature............ 8 8 0
Actinometers .......:.secssesces ao LOMO RO;
Earthquake Shocks .........+ = Lae oa}
NCrIG) POISODS.s-nacese ee eneeeeee « 216 500
Veins and Absorbents ...... -. 3) 0030s
MudtinsRivers <....csesseeeeore 5 0 0
ype
£ 8. a.
Marine Zoology .......++ acgauee 1512 8
Skeleton Maps ......-.sseeseeees 20 0 O
Mountain Barometers ......... 618 6
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 185 0 0
Stars (Lacaille).............00. ea EET
Stars (Nomenclature of) ..... 2 lWar 19,6
Stars (Catalogue of) ............ 40 0 0
Water on Tron .....ceeeeeeeeeeee 50 0 0
Meteorological Observations
at Inverness .........scsseeeee 20 0 0
Meteorological Observations
(reduction Of) «...-.++sese00e 25 0 0
Fossil Reptiles ........+seesseeee 50 0 0
Foreign Memoirs ..............- 62 0 6
Railway Sections ............... Jona tin O
Forms of Vessels ..........00+0+ 193 12 0
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth’ ........0ccsccseee 55 0 0
Magnetical Observations...... 6118 8
Fishes of the Old Red Sand-
ISIC iaspcscsssacscecssatosiap => 100 0 O
Midesat Weith .../o..s.2...02406 50 0 O
Anemometer at Edinburgh... 69 1 10
Tabulating Observations ...... 9 6 3
Races of Men.........cscsscseeeee 5 0 0
Radiate Animals ..,.........+.+ 20 9
£1235 10 11
—— eee
1842.
Dynamometric Instruments.. 113 11 2
Anoplura Britannie ............ 5212 0
Tides at Bristol ................. 59 8 O
Gases on Light ...............000 30 14 7
Chronometers.......00.seeeecervee 2617 6
Marine Zoology........sceeseseee 15 0
British Fossil Mammalia...... 100 0 0
Statistics of Education......... 20 0 0
Marine Steam-vessels’ En-
SVL! 6Lgaabtaastadoseoonesannerss 28 0 0
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 59 O 0
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of)... 110 0 0
Railway Sections ............+ 161 10 0O
British Belemnites ............ 50 0 0
Fossil Reptiles (publication
BEPRCPOLb)! ..cecccssccesecensees 210 0 O
Forms of Vessels ............+++ 180 0 0
Galvanic Experiments on
ECS tty (ides <oceWedsccsavacude 5 8 6
Meteorological Experiments
PELYIMOTUGH “.2..c..cccceseeuee 68 0 O
Constant Indicator and Dyna-
mometric Instruments ...... 909 0 O
orce Of Wind. .........0c.-0se0ee 10 0 0
Light on Growth of Seeds ... 8 O O
Mevatal Statistics ............<ssc0 50 0 0
Vegetative Power of Seeds..... 8 1 11
Questions on Human Race... 7 9 O
£1449 17 8
3 sal
1843.
Revision of the Nomenclature
OE URLS Se cucssesscetnadsccecsese 20 0
GENERAL STATEMENT.
xci
£8. as
Reduction of Stars, British
Association Catalogue ...... 25 0 0
Anomalous Tides, Frith of
FOr ........ccsccccscecereseses 120 0 0
Hourly Meteorological Obser-
vations at Kingussie and
TMVEINESS ...see.scecvcescscees iG 8
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth ........0.cc.00«a 55 0 O
Whewell’s Meteorological Ane-
mometer at Plymouth ...... 10.0. 0
Meteorological Observations,
Osler’s Anemometer at Ply-
MOULD ceecsaapecccoccccevssnsens 20 0 O
Reduction of Meteorological
Observations ..........seeeeee 30 0 0
Meteorological Instruments
and Gratuities ...........60+ 39 6 O
Construction of Anemometer
at InverneSsS .....0..cceseseese 5612 2
Magnetic Co-operation......... 10 § 10
Meteorological Recorder for
Kew Observatory ........+0.. 50 0 0
Action of Gases on Light...... 1816 1
Establishment at Kew Ob-
servatory, Wages, Repairs,
Furniture, and Sundries... 133 4 7
Experiments by Captive Bal-
TOOWS ese caeseesenscee \stanasae ets 81 8 0
Oxidation of the Rails of
Rail ways.osccecaceresscasecscece 20 0 0
Publication of Report on
Fossil Reptiles ..........0+0+. 40 0 O
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
way Sections ..........eseese0e 147 18 3
Registration of Earthquake
SOCKS 2. ccneannnssencansa-cese cen 30 0 0
Report on Zoological Nomen-
CIHDUTC: seaapanaaseaes Seen Sanaa. 10 0 0
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester ...... 446
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 5 3 8
Marine Testacea (Habits of). 10 0 Q
Marine Zoology .....,.ecseeeereee 10 0 0
Marine Zoology .........ss:00e+0- 214 11
Preparation of Report on Bri-
tish Fossil Mammalia ...... 100 0 0
Physiological Operations of
Medicinal Agents ...........+ 20 0 0
Vital Statistics ........0cecccsese 36 5 8
Additional Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels ...... 70; 20510
Additional Experiments on
the forms of Vessels ......... 100 0 0
Reduction of Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 0
Morin’s Instrument and Con-
stant Indicator .............++ 69 14 10
Experiments on the Soest
Of Materials:jas.002.1...0s0e8 60/909 O
£1565 10 2
xXeli REPORT—1890.
ie 8s ae Lose ds
1844, Electrical Experiments at
Meteorological Observations Kew Observatory ............ 43 17 8
at Kingussie and Inverness 12 0 0 | Maintaining the Establish-
Completing Observations at ment in Kew Observatory 14915 0
IPIyIMODME yes creevseactarere +e: 35 0 0 | For Kreil’s Barometrograph 25 0 0
Magnetic and Meteorological Gases from Iron Furnaces... 50 0 0
Co-operation ..............0008 25 8 4 | The Actinograph ............... 15 0 0
Publication of the British | Microscopic Structure of
Association Catalogue of Shells cn neeeeeeeneeeeerecneesense 20 0 0
So Aipey aa ahaa eral, ile Ea 35 0 0 Exotic Anoplura ......... 1843 10 0 0
Observations on Tides on the | Vitality of Seeds ......... 1843 2 0-7
East Coast of Scotland ... 100 0 0 | Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 7 0 0
Revision of the Nomenclature | Marine Zoology of Cornwall. 10 0 0
Blasters) t500h sre 285 0542 1842 2 9 6 _ Physiological Action of Medi-
Maintaining the Establish- | CINES Ys cscedeassessnsacsecerees 20 0 0
ment in Kew Observa- | Statistics of Sickness and
Hal Ygeeirrc csi tates sa nnne stage ne 117 17 3 _ Mortality in York............ 20 0 0
Instruments for Kew Obser- | Earthquake Shocks ...... 1843 1514 8
WiUODVeosegesascssrsposeenesssese 56 7 3 £831 9 9
Influence of Light on Plants 10 0 0
Subterraneous Temperature 1846
Mplve anid. soccecsese cercscoets 5 0 0 ?
Coloured Drawings of Rail- British Association Catalogue
way Sections ...........e.00006 1517 6 of Stars: ..<stec Sees 1844 211 15 O
Investigation of Fossil Fishes Fossil Fishes of the London
ofthe Lower Tertiary Strata 100 0 0 CUAY sce... schessecncstaseec eee 100 0 0
Registering the Shocks of | Computation of the Gaussian
Earthquakes ............ 1842 231110 | _ Constants for 1829 ......... 5 0 0
Structure of Fossil Shells ... 20 0 © | Maintaining the Establish-
Radiata and Mollusca of the ment at Kew Observatory 14616 7
Aigean and Red Seas 1842 0 | Strength of Materials ......... 60 0
Geographical Distributions of Researches in Asphyxia ...... 6 2
Marine Zoology......... 1842 10 © | Examination of Fossil Shells 10 0
Marine Zoology of Devon and Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 2 10
Marsiwatl ends hc. fee es 0 0 | Vitality of Seeds ......... 1845 7 3
Marine Zoology of Corfu...... 0 © | Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 O
Experiments on the Vitality Marine Zoology of Britain... 10 0 0
Rcd e ter crctnctsertescro ccs 0 0 | Exotic Anoplura ’......... 1844 25 0 0
Experiments on the Vitality | Expenses attending Anemo-
OLSGCASe Sree csekocsce sce 1842 7 "3: |! (i MELCUS eres. scrsattdoseieaan 11 7 6
Exotic Anoplura ............... 0 © | Anemometers’ Repairs......... 2 3 6
Strength of Materials ......... 0 © | Atmospheric Waves ...........+ 3.3 3
Completing Experiments on Captive Balloons ......... 1844 819 8
the Forms of Ships ......... 0 0 | Varieties of the Human Race
Inquiries into Asphyxia ...... 0 0 1844 7 6 3
Investigations on the Internal Statistics of Sickness and
Constitution of Metals...... 00 Mortality in York............ 12 0. 0
Constant Indicator and Mo- £685 16 0O
rin’s Instrument ..,... 1842 10 0 O
£981 12 8 1847.
1845, Computation of the Gaussian
Publication of the British As- Constants for 1829.........008 50 0 0
sociation Catalogue of Stars 351 14 6 Habits of Marine Animals -- 10 0 0
Meteorological Observations | Physiological Action of Medi-
at Inverness .....ecce000-... 30 18 11 CIDES eessessecsecssersceeceecens 20 0 0
Magnetic and Meteorological Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0
Co-operation .........660060... 1616 8 Atmospheric WAVES: .sccccneescs 61 9.43
Meteorological Instruments | Vitality of Seeds tteteeesessesee £ 7 7
at Edinburgh.................. 18 11 9 | Maintaining the Establish-
Reduction of Anemometrical ment at Kew Observatory 107 8 6
Observations at Plymouth 25 0 0 £208 5 4
———
e GENERAL STATEMENT. xClll
& 8s. da. Lo 8. We
1848. 1853.
Maintaining the Establish- Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 171 15 11 ment at Kew Observatory 165 0 0
Atmospheric Waves ...........- 3 10 9 | Experiments on the Influence
Vitality of Seeds’ ............... 915 0 of Solar Radiation ......... 15 0 0
Completion of Catalogue of Researches on the British
SAMRAT adoattis sass adce Jo cheazeu 70 0 O AMT OD Ta ccevceveacsseesstene 10 0 0
On Colouring Matters ......... 5 0 0 | Dredging on the East Coast
On Growth of Plants ......... 15 0 0 Of Scotland: .....00005.6 esses 10:0; 0
£275 1 8 | Ethnological Queries ......... 5 0.0
£205 0 O
1849. |
Electrical Observations at | 1854.
Kew Observatory ............ 50 0 © | Maintaining the Kstablish-
Maintaining the Establish- | ment at Kew Observatory
ment at dittO........c000ceee 76 2 5 Gneluding balance of
Vitality of Seeds ............... BUNGIE former grant).......++00eeeeee 330 15 4
On Growth of Plants ......... 5 0 0 | Investigations on Flax......... LES Ove
Registration of Periodical | Effects of Temperature on
Phenomena............c.ceceeeee 10 0 0 Wrought Tron..........++0.0++5 10 0 0
Bill on Account of Anemo- Registration of Periodical
metrical Observations ...... 13 9 O Phenomena se eccecccereesscseces 10 0 0
£159 19 6 | British Annelida ............... 10. 50.0
Vitality of Seeds ...........-+ au 2) 3
Conduction of Heat ............ 4 2 0
1850. -
Maintaining the Establish- £380 19 7
ment at Kew Observatory 255 18 0 1855
Peal Paonauake Waves 50 0 O | Maintaining the Establish-
Meteorological Instruments E oa Si Syne PApSyawat inser shiva
PRPORGSasla rcs vscesscacecocesesoses 25 0 0 spake pba gee rcast a aie
__~ | Physical Aspect ofthe Moon 11 8 5
£345 18 0 | Vitality of Seeds ............00 Ope seels:
Map of the World............... 15. 0 0
1851. Ethnological Queries ......... 5.0: 0
Maintaining the Establish- Dredging near Belfast......... 4 0 0
ment at Kew Observatory _ £480 16 4 4
(ineludes part of grant in ————
BCL aaiesecsisss cases ssssseeec 309 2 2 1856.
Mheory.of Heat .................. 20 1 1 Maintaining the Establish-
Periodical Phenomena of Ani- | ment at Kew Observa-
mals and Plantss......0...3 5 0 0| tory :—
Vitality of Seeds .............4. 5 6 4) 1854.....4... £75 0 01 gre 9 9
Influence of Solar Radiation 30 0 0 1855....+-... £500 0 0
Ethnological Inquiries......... 12 0 0 | Strickland’s Ornithological
Researches on Annelida ...... 10 0 0 SYNONYMS \/ 2. casvedsenedeace 100 0 O
£391 9 7 | Dredging and Dredging
| FOI ......s-ecsssenseeseecseeee 913 0
1852. | Chemical Action of Light ... 20 0 0
Maintaining the Establish- | Strength of Iron Plates ...... 10 0 0
ment at Kew Observatory Registration of Periodical
(including balance of grant PhenoMena............s-seeeeens 10 0 0
MUMTGr 1860)......:c..cceserecoeosee 233 17 § | Propagation of Salmon......... 10 0 0
Experiments on the Conduc- £734 13 9
mmo OL Heat \....cssses0ce-0ses 6 2 9 ef
Influence of Solar Radiations 20 0 0 A ees 1867.
Geological Map of Ireland ... 15 0 0 Maintaining the Establish-
Researches on the British An. ment at Kew Observatory 350 0 0
BULB aScantesattetss teteewncit 10 0 0 | Earthquake Wave Experi-
Vitality Of Secdaie eee ie 10° 6 2 ments oe eeneeccesereereseceeseses 40 0 0
pore of Boiler Plates...... 10 0 0 Dredging near Belfast......... 10 0 9
$3046 7 Dredging on the West Coast
of Scotland ...........4.. arestks 10 0 0
xciv REPORT—1890. ‘
£ 8. da. £ 8. d.
Investigations into the Mol- Chemico-mechanical Analysis
lusca of California ......... 10 0 0 of Rocks and Minerals...... 25 0 0O
Experiments on Flax ......... 5 0 0 | Researches on the Growth of
Natural History of Mada- Plantsi.;ctvcosensesasmeeneesics + 10 0 0
PASCAN acasrernesnesareeascecsases 20 0 0 | Researches on the Solubility
Researches on British Anne- of Salts ........... Soccgupcacads 30 0 0
INGLE Scbpencona de OOO UD HOP ROACEE 25 0 O | ResearchesontheConstituents
Report on Natural Products of Manures)- ...Stccccsssscane 25 0 0
imported into Liverpool... 10 0 0 | Balance of Captive Balloon
Artificial Propagation of Sal- Accounts.......... Secnenessepers 113 6
DMO e etc sancccscsdccssraenscrs 100-0 £766 19 6
Temperature of Mines......... (ir an!) ——s
Thermometers for Subterra- 1861.
nean Observations.........-.- 5 7 4 | Maintaining the Establish-
MENTO =DOAUS: Weccereceserssessseect 5°70) 0 ment of Kew Observatory.. 500 0 0
£507 15 4 | Harthquake Experiments...... 25 0 0
Dredging North and East
1858. Coasts of Scotland ..... sosseore ONEO
Maintaining the Establish- Dredging Committee :—
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0 US GO sees. £50 O 0 72 0 0
Earthquake Wave LExperi- TS 6M somes £22 0 0 i
PMLONIUS) ..scac3 ocescsctssnasesaceere 25 0 0 | Excavations at Dura Den...... 20 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast Solubility of Salts ............ 20 0 0
OM OCOMANG ca7.savanseesen cueee 10 0 O | Steam-vessel Performance ... 150 0 O
Dredging near Dublin......... 5 0 0O | Fossils of Lesmahagow ...... 15 0 0
Vitality of Seeds .............6. 5 5 0 | Explorations at Uriconium... 20 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 18 13 2 | Chemical Alloys ..........0.... 20 0 0
Report on the British Anne- Classified Index to the Trans-
lida ....... mere eecarer sooteeteree 25 0 0 ACUIONS.. .scecs aseeasee seme teee 100 0 O
Experiments on the produc- Dredging in the Mersey and
tion of Heat by Motion in DEGRA. -nssescncschescec-ceetsr tee) pee
MUMS rceecrcac cater es eceaen snes 20°0"0: ||| Dip Circle size asentectrsusereeee 30 0 0
Report on the Natural Pro- Photoheliographic Observa-
ducts imported into Scot- GIONS j.ceceanns-ctereearee ence ce 50 0 O
Ike We(6 bsresonpeeeecne seeeneceeces tee 10! 0 {| Prison. Diet. ..cccsssrenreads asses a 20m 0) O
£618 18 2 | Gauging of Water.............. <LOSTOAND
——————— | Alpine Ascents ............... «oo ee GHbA LO
1859. Constituents of Manures ...... 25 0 0
Maintaining the LEstablish- £1111 5 10
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0 aa
Dredging near Dublin......... 15 0 0 1862.
Osteology of Birds ............ 50 0 0 | Maintaining the Establish-
Trish) Temicata 12...ts.sceeces<s orO) 10 ment of Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Manure Experiments ......... 20°' 0 © | Patent'Laws! tiie. cencenece 21 6 0
British Meduside ............. -- 5 0 © | Molluscaof N.-W. of America 10 0 0
Dredging Committee ......... 5 0 0 | Natural Historyby Mercantile
Steam-vessels’ Performance... 5 0 0 Marines y ..:-Scacseeemtheeoaeeme 5, On70
Marine Fauna of South and Tidal Observations ............ 25 0 0
West of Treland............... 10 0 0 | Photoheliometer at Kew ...... 40 0 0
Photographie Chemistry ...... 10 0 0 | Photographic Pictures of the
Lanarkshire Fossils ............ 20 Oey BUM)... ..spudcseppeemeceens saeeete 150 0 O
Balloon Ascents.........000...00+ 39 11 0 | Rocks of Donegal............... 25.0 0
£684 11. | | Dredging Durham and North-
ee umberland =. pensssecte nesses 2 0 0
merase 1860. Connection of Storms ......... 20.0. 0
Maintaining the HEstablish- Dredging North-east Coast
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0 of Scotland » Jdtecc.steceseade 6 9.6
Dredging near Belfast......... 16 6 O | Ravages of Teredo ........... 310
Dredging in Dublin Bay...... 15 0 0 | Standards of Electrical Re-
Inquiry into the Performance SIStANCE: -055-5..2260- sea 50 0 0
of Steam-vessels ............ 124 0 0 | Railway Accidents ..... pect 10 0 0
Explorations in the Yellow Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Sandstone of Dura Den 20 0 0! Dredging Dublin Bay ......... 10 0 0
“it
GENERAL STATEMENT.
Dredging the Mersey ...... 5 0 0
Prison Diet ......scccocccceceees 20 0 0
Gauging of Water............... 1210 0
Steamships’ Performance...... 150 0 0
Thermo-Electric Currents ... 5 0 0
£1293 16 6
1863.
Maintaining the LEstablish-
ment of Kew Observatory... 600 0 0
Balloon Committee deficiency 70 0 0
Balloon Ascents (other ex-
PEDSES) ...ceceseesenscesvonens 25 0 0
SHTELOVOG cafpecicabcca'sicesecesetsanets 25 0 0
MUOBINWOSSIIS 0502. cecccseceecauscs 20 0 0
HRORTINES 5. . ves encesseene Poa poece 20 0 0
Granites of Donegal Raa enaee- =i 5 0 0
PRISON DICH saccceecesacarsupeess 20 0 0
Vertical Atmospheric Move-
MIIGHUS! aveccassececceusceecsesvass 13 0 0
Dredging Shetland ............ 50 0 0
Dredging North-east coast of
BQUELANG 2.02 ccvccccccbevcsdexes 25 0 0
Dredging Northumberland
GAAYDurham «..:...064.<ces002 17 3 10
Dredging Committee superin- ~
PEHEGUCCW ccs kccccaccesdneucs 10 0 O
Steamship Performance ...... 100 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Carbon under pressure ......... 10 0 0
Volcanic Temperature ......... 100 0 0
Bromide of Ammonium ...... 8 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 O
Electrical Construction and
PRISEEUDULION: 0.0025 esesspcess 40 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 17 0 0
Kew Additional Buildings for
Photoheliograph ............ 100 0 0
Thermo-Electricity ............ 15 0 0
Analysis of Rocks ............ 8 0 0
BEML OMA csicoce sc cnssesecesssss eens 10 0 0
£1608 3 10
1864.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Coal Fossils ..... 2S RL AEP a 20 0 O
_ Vertical Atmospheric Move-
BRIEMEEUS aS r eat eta eteceeu seaceus 20 0 0
* Dredging Shetland ............ 75 0 0
Dredging Northumberland... 25 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Carbon under pressure ...... 10 0 O
Standards of Electric Re-
PRRIANCO 12c2i0sdslsdteecesdseces. 100 0
Analysis of Rocks ............ 10 0
PIGLOIGS .. :/2.c0.sdodedeteneacdcoes 10 0
Mepham ’s Gift, .....cs0steecdecvss 50 O
BNitrite of Amyle ..........0c.+. 10 0
Nomenclature Committee ... 5 0
Rain-Gauges ....0sccccccscceeces 19 15
Cast-Iron Investigation ...... 20 0
Cmooceco
XCV
’ £ 3s. d.
Tidal Observations in the
ETD Cliiacnansasmasacans scenes 50 0 O
Spectral Rays....ccccoccssessseeee 45 0 0
Luminous Meteors ..........+- 20 0 0
£1289 15 8
1865.
Maintaining the UHstablish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 O
Balloon Committee ............ 100 0 0
yOu Aesesterstscectwererodcoans 13 0 0
Rain-Gauges 30 0 O
Tidal Observations in the
Jeli) proseerdnccaceccoadancnc 6 8 90
Hexylic Compounds ............ 20 0 0
Amyl Compounds ............... 20 0 0
riSDeWlotalenceessstestenecssstos et 25 0 0
American Mollusca ............ 3.9 0
Organic ACIGS) Wire. ccccestaareae 20 0 90
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 10 0 0
Horypherusieens steers srcsaccectesss 50 0 O
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 90
Malta Caves Researches ...... 350 0 O
Oyster Breeding ............02. 25 0 90
Gibraltar Caves Researches... 150 0 O
Kent’s Hole Excavations...... 100 0 0
Moon’s Surface Observations 35 0 O
Marine Wanna \isccreccssecerscss 25 0 0
Dredging Aberdeenshire ...... 25 0 0
Dredging Channel Islands ... 50 0 0
Zoological Nomenclature...... 5 0 0
Resistance of Floating Bodies
Thal \ WERE ecaccarocaanddecr oeaenceS 100 0 O
Bath Waters Analysis ......... 8 10 10
Luminous Meteors ............ 40 0 0
£1591 7 10
1866.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Lunar Committee............... 64 13 4
Balloon Committee ...... 5OF OO
Metrical Committee............ 50 0 0
British) Raimtaly se. secctede sc: - 50.7 O46
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 16 0 0
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed... 15 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 50 0 0
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 20 0 0
Chemical Constitution of
Castelvonyerstessztsacesct tees sec 50 0 O
Amyl Compounds ............... 25 0 0
| Klectrical Standards............ 100700
| Malta Caves Exploration ...... 30 0 0
Kent’s Hole Exploration ...... 200 0 0
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon
and! Comwalll=..c testes see 26/00
| Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast 25 0 0
Dredging Hebrides Caast 50 0 O
Dredging the Mersey ......... Te AUER,
Resistance of Floating Bodies
in, Waters 03.2.1) 50 0 0
Polycyanides of Organic Radi-
GHIST ccccccrcaterscttantectectctce Sle Jags {am 0,
x¢evi
£ s. d.
Rigor Mortis ....... Aewehdareerse 10 0 O
Trish Annelida .........s0e.+00+: 15.10 0
Catalogue of Crania........-.-. 50 0 0
Didine Birds of Mascarene
Tiikacls| Geaheseeseececerconecos 50 0 O
Typical Crania Researches ... 30 0 0
Palestine Exploration Fund... 100 0 0 |
£1750 13 4 |
1867. |
Maintaining the Establish- |
ment of Kew Observatory... 600 0
Meteorological Instruments,
IPAIESLING...ccesvccssscstsccsss=s 50
Lunar Committee ............00- 120
Metrical Committee ...........+ 30
Kent’s Hole Explorations 100
Palestine Explorations......... 50
Insect Fauna, Palestine ...... 30
British Rainfall.......esccsss0es 50
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 25
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed ... 25
Luminous Meteors ........+666 50
Bournemouth, &e., Leaf-Beds 30
Dredging Shetland ............ 75
Steamship Reports Condensa-
GON Meccc eo ccesteadesmnseraemsceres 100
Blectrical Standards..........+. 100
Ethyl and Methyl series ...... 25
Fossil Crustacea, «.........000.0e 25
Sound under Water ............ 24
North Greenland Fauna ...... 75
Do. Plant Beds 100
Tron and Steel Manufacture... 25
Patent Laws ........ qwamenonace’ 30
£1739
1868.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory... 600
Lunar Committee ............... 120
Metrical Committee............ 50
Zoological Record............... 100
Kent’s Hole Explorations 150
Steamship Performances ...... 100
British Rainfall....... le cuiersiceds 50
Luminous Meteors............... 50
Organic ACIAS. ......s00.s.ss0.0. 60
Fossil Crustacea........s.scseseee 25
Methyl Series........... sevevestae 25
Mexcuxy and! Bile’ .. ...c...sess 25
Organic Remains in Lime-
stone Rocks ............ Seca as
Scottish Earthquakes ......., 7 20
Fauna, Devon and Cornwall.. 30
British Fossil Corals ......... 50
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ............ 50
Greenland Explorations ...... 100
GSSUI MH VOL R IG cs encsctoacversveanes 25
Tidal Observations ............ 100
Underground Temperature ..,
Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances ...... 5
cooscoormoooo oooocecoecoeooeo
o cooooocooo ocooocececoecocoeco
o ooocoooocoocoo cooocoeceo|ce|ceco
REPORT—- 1890.
£ 8. ae
Secondary Reptiles, kc. ...... 30 0 0
British Marine Invertebrate
Fauna ...... csacsevectmmnacsecidcs LOU OF O
£1940 0 O
1869.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0O
Lunar Committee.....sscccssseees 50 0 0
Metrical Committee............0+6 25 0-0
Zoological Record ..........2.+++ 100 0 0
Committee on Gases in Deep-
welll Water Stessedeaseessnoactas) “DEO 00
British Rainfall...............006 50 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of Iron,
(eC OshySeannaccoaocanpaacjagcemaca crc Deeal Une
Kent’s Hole Explorations...... 150 0 0
Steamship Performances ...... 30 0 0
Chemical Constitution of
Cast Troms. .......ccccsnenecsoce . 80 0 0
Iron and Steel Manufacture 100 0 0
Methyl Series...............0s000s 30 0 O
Organic Remains in Lime-
Stone ROCKSs cscs nendasueterr 10 0 0
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 10 0 0
British Fossil Corals ......... 50 0 0
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ...........- 30 0 0
HOssyl HOTA seesceccetoclgrs-epaes 25 0 0
Tidal Observations ..........++ 100 0 O
Underground Temperature... 30 0 0
Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances ...... 5 0 0
Organic Acids ............0...6+ 12 0 0
Kiltorcan Fossils ...........0++. 20 0 0
Chemical Constitution and
Physiological Action Rela-
TIONS) Aecdestnanscsccsneccteemcer ib 00
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 0O
Utilisation of Sewage ......... 10 0 0
Products of Digestion ......... 10 0 O
£1622 0 O
ed
1870.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory 600 0 0
Metrical Committee............ 25 0 0
Zoological Record...........+0+ 100 0 0
Committee on Marine Fauna 20 0 O
Hars in Wishes) G.::-ut-secseceme 10 0 O
Chemical Nature of CastIron 80 0 0O
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Heat in the Blood..............+ 15 0 0
British: Raintallecssescsees adic LOOK LOR.
Thermal Conductivity of
Tron, 0; 25. cdeesereeueene ena 20 0 0
British Fossil Corals..... sacauae 50 0 O
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150 0 0
Scottish Earthquakes ......... 4 0 0
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ............ 15 0 0
Hossil Flora ....0:..ssctesceossesteee Onn O
Tidal Observations ............ 100 0 O
Underground Temperature... 50 0 O
Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils ... 20 0 0
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25
Utilisation of Sewage 50
Organic Chemical Compounds 30
Onny River Sediment 3
Mechanical Equivalent of
PUES sta sasssesocesesevasesse
eeeeeneee
50
1871.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory 600
Monthly Reports of Progress
in Chemistry ..... didedintecace 100
Metrical Committee............ 25
Zoological Record.............4 100
Thermal Equivalents of the
_ Oxides of Chlorine ......... 10
Tidal Observations ............ 100
ELA OTA Pius ce'a'n void cescccedee 25
uminous Meteors ...........- 30
British Fossil Corals ......... 25
Heat in the Blood............... 7
J Benieall es eaves ccs wenic 50
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150
Fossil Crustacea, ..sscccocsssees
Methyl Compounds ........+++
1 ossil Coral | Sections,
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ......
Moab Explorations ......
Gaussian Constants ..........+.
1872.
Maintaining the Establish-
_ ment of Kew Observatory 300
Metrical Committee............ 75
Z Bee lozical ReCord..........0e 100
sceisgocnasascae 200
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25
Organic Chemical Compounds 25
Exploration of Moab............ 100
erato-Embryological Inqui-
MEME teres nicaoscsssc20sccveesseoes 10
Kent’s Cavern Exploration.. 100
5 minous Meteors ............ 20
Heat in the Blood............... 15
fossil Crustacea .....5......006 25
Fossil ants of Malta ... 25
BEETS OD JECLS, .00..c0scneeeceses 20
Inverse Wave-Lengths... 20
British Rainfall.........ccecse.
Poisonous Substances ‘Antago-
ass ential Oils, Chemical Con-
stitution, er rere Cee SER ETE e
7 Conductivity of Me-
tals CRO H ET e eee ee
1890.
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£1572
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sia, oo oOo ooccoococead ocoeocecssS
£84.
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HAiocooo coeocecscocoooco eosco o
Solo oo co oo9occoeooes coceco$so
GENERAL STATEMENT.
£
1873,
Zoological Record..........+++0 100
Chemistry Record.............+ 200
Tidal Committee .:..:.......... 400
Sewage Committee’’..........0. 100
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25
Fossil Elephants ............... 25
Wave-Lengths’’...........-s0000 150
BribishpRaiOia lee scstesce tense 100
HSsentidl OU csssecceteascoeses« 30
Mathematical Tables ......... 100
Gaussian Constants ......... es. LO
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25
Underground Temperature... 150
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50
Fossil Flora, Ireland............ 20
Timber Denudation and Rain-
HEA, Eoccosuerrnaodace:¢o-coconsden 20
Luminous Meteors............++- 30
£1685
1874.
Zoological Record .........s..00. 100
Chemistry Record..........0.00. 100
Mathematical Tables ......... 100
Elliptic Functions............... 100
Lightning Conductors ......... 10
Thermal Conductivity of
HOCK Sy 3. ec esainae er ecsactete 10
ee Instructions,
Bich or nut SC oD SaDe naccCrACCoG 50
Kent’ s Cavern Exploration... 150
Luminous Meteors ............ 30
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15
British Rainfall...............0 100
Mssential: Oulstewcsssssseeyeensees 10
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50
Mauritius Meteorological Re-
(STEEN CL 6 Yetcooaidsancceoceaecece 100
Magnetisation of Iron ......... 20
Marine Organisms............... 30
Fossils, North-West of Scot-
TANG sea dassaeaecceancateanneceut 2
Physiological Action of Light 20
ETades: UMIONS) Caseseatenesteeeas 25
Mountain Limestone-Corals
Erratic. Blocks: sé../.:..c.ccccecs
Dredging, Durham and York-
shire Coasts
terete ween eenene
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_
aon ooooo ooo oooooocoo o ooococo
SC1r9oo Sooeooccococooocoocooooososoo
SIs e990 S99909 SSS SCOSCOSCoOSo Soo Oo Coooco
High Temperature of Bodies 30
Siemens’s Pyrometer ......... 3
Labyrinthodonts of Ooal-
MEASUTES....0esseseecseeenensees 7 15
£1151 16
aie Salsa sd
1875.
Elliptic Functions ......, see 106 0 0
Magnetisation of Iron ........, 20 0 0
British) Reintall Wesecedecrceetsce 120 0 O
Luminous Meteors ............ 3B 0 0
Chemistry Record.............0. 100 0 0
‘ f
Dipterocarpz, Report on....+.
Xevill
£ 3d.
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric ACi¢.....sssseeeees 10 0 O
Tsometric Cresols ..,.ceseeceeres 20 0 0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 150" 0
Underground Waters .......+. 10 0 0
Development of Myxinoid
TRISHES ...cscseccscscccesenseseees 20 0 0
Zoological Record.........-+.+++ 100 0 0
Instructions for Travellers... 20 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 20 0 0
Palestine Exploration .......-. 100 0 0
£960 0 O
ee
1876.
Printing MathematicalTables 159 4 2
British Rainfall.............e00« 100 0 0
OHM SLAW .scccececcedsecnsacessss 915 0
Tide Calculating Machine ... 200 0 0
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
Tsomeric Cresols ...........000 10 0 0
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-
rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-
BCCLALC. s+. cnsesecsmacesrensesnav 5 0 0
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid............++ AS COE)
BHxploration of Victoria Cave,
Detbliestacesscenenseecdenscsci ns 100 0 0
Geological Record,..........+0+ 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Thermal Conductivities of
TOTALS Cagonpecuocounosdonpdeguee 10 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Earthquakes in Scotland...... TeLOn 0
Zoological Record........+.c000 100 0 0
IOS GMO le cenced save asaaee cue oes (0)
Physiological ActionofSound 25 0 0
Zoological Station......... Acpeae 75 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15 0 0
Physical Characters of Inha-
bitants of British Isles...... 13 15 0
Measuring Speed of Ships ... 10 0 0
Effect of Propeller on turning
of Steam Vessels ............ 5 0 0
£1092 4 2
ta aaa
1877.
Liquid Carbonic Acids in
Mineralivassceeenssececcerenes 20 OO
Elliptic Functions ....... so. 200 0 0
Thermal Confluctivity of
ROCKS ccmsercessseseteeneh stress 8) LEIS ir
Zoological Record..........s00 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern ....... maebees pee LOO 0! 0
Zoological Station at Naples 75 0 0
_ Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Elasticity of Wires ........... 10000
20 0 0
‘
REPORT— 1890.
£ 8. a.
Mechanical Equivalent of
Heat. cscencngsseastuneseweressnens 35 0 0
Double Compounds of Cobalt
and Nickel .........:ecssesseeee 8 0 0
Underground Temperatures 50 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 100 0 0
Underground Waters in New
Red Sandstone ........s.+000. 10 0 0
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-
rate on Hthyl Sodaceto-
acetate .....ccascerers peeeeees 10° 0550
British Earthworks ....... iacee (20.4,0) 0
Atmospheric Elasticity in
TaWehe, “Pepoeraorcsoobeccenaccric =c 15 0 0
Development of Light from
Coal-Gas ....0sse.s-seccrsrceeees 20 0 0
Estimation of Potash and —
Phosphoric Acid.......+++++ Inet olan S60
Geological Record........ seeeeee LOO 0 O
Anthropometric Committee 34 0 0
Physiological Action of Phos-
phoric Acid, &C.,........s008+ 15 0 0
£1128 9 7
Oe ee
1878.
Exploration of Settle Caves 100 0 0
Geological Record.........se0s0 100 0 0
Investigation of Pulse Pheno-
mena by means of Syphon
RECOLGER cswesstseedusunenecsioses 10 0 0
Zoological Station at Naples 76 0 O
Investigation of Underground
AWidibetse.iv orm, cotekacmisasheses seaas 15 0 0
Transmission of Electrical
Impulses through Nerve
Structure........ssecssocecessees 30 0 0
Calculation of Factor Table
of Fourth Million............ 100 0 O
Anthropometric Committee... 66 0 0
Chemical Composition and
Structure of less known
ATKalOIdS...,..4..000 evecrsenene 25 0 0
Exploration of Kent’s Cavern 50 0 0
Zoological Record .......-+.++s0+ 100 0 0
Fermanagh CavesExploration 15 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of
ROCKscasunenctesence-eeneien ssactee (AL 626
Luminous Meteors.........s00+e+ 10 0 0
Ancient Earthworks .........44- 25 0 0
£725 16 6
ere
1879.
Table at the Zoological
Station, Naples ............ 75 0 0
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of the North of Ireland ... 20 0 0
Illustrations for a Monograph
on the Mammoth ........... 17 0 0
Record of Zoological Litera-
GUILE). Sodus. cactsscesaceenans soeee 100 0 0
Composition and Structure of
less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0 0
GENERAL STATEMENT.
£ 8. d.
Exploration of Caves in
BOrne0 — ..cccccoccscesecsccneees 50 0 O
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Record of the Progress of :
GEOIGLY. 22.2 sccccascececssseees 100 0 O
Fermanagh CavesExploration 5 0 0
Electrolysis of Metallic Solu-
tions and Solutions of
Compound Salts..........0000 25 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 50 0 0
Natural History of Socotra... 100 0 0
Calculation of Factor Tables
for 5th and 6th Millions... 150 0 0
Circulation of Underground
DWALCTS. occ caccovsesececconsrens 10 0 0
Steering of Screw Steamers... 10 0 0
Improvements in Astrono-
mical Clocks .....csesseseseeee 30 0 0
Marine Zoology of South
DGVON 1... .cscecescestscsesecaene 20 0 0
Determination of Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat ......... 1215 6
Specific Inductive Capacity
of Sprengel Vacuum......... 40 0 0
Tables of Sun-heat Co-
EAIGIENES .......cccccccrecesceens 30 0 0
Datum Level of the Ordnance
PREM ES Vltaiieacsacessceccsse-ieascs es 10 0 O
Tables of Fundamental In-
variants of Algebraic Forms 36 14 9
Atmospheric Electricity Ob-
servations in Madeira ...... le; 0) 0
Instrument for Detecting
Fire-damp in Mines ......... 22 .0 0
Instruments for Measuring
_ the Speed of Ships ......... LToie Lebas
Tidal Observations in the
English Channel ....... aerer ed 10420) 48
£1080 11 11
1880.
ew Form of High Insulation
DMD ens ca nincocosetscsesacessesae 10, 0 0
U nderground Temperature... 10 0 0
Determination of the Me-
chanical Equivalent cf
Peenpetanaas stresses tans 8 5 0
Elasticity of Wires ............ 50 0 O
uminous Meteors ............ 30 0 O
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30 0 0
Fundamental Invariants ...... 8: Ord0
Laws of Water Friction ...... 20 0 0
Specific Inductive Capacity
of Sprengel Vacuum......... 200 20
Completion of Tables of Sun-
heat Coefficients ............ 50 0 0
Instrument for Detection of
_ Fire-damp in Mines......... 10 0 0
nductive Capacity of Crystals
and Paraffines ...,........... 417 7
Report on Carboniferous
IROLYZOR Ancicccesscesegesnssetee 10 0 0
xcix
J £ 8. da.
Caves of South Ireland ...... 10, ,0,.40
Viviparous Nature of Ichthyo-
SAULUS.syeccsessssacissseenase se 10 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 50 0 0
Geological Record.........+++++ 100 0 0
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of North Ireland ............ LE)
Underground Waters of Per-
mian Formations ............ 56 0 0
Record of Zoological Litera-
HDI apg occ coonLiee ACE aoenGegr ees 100 0 0
Table at Zoological Station
BP NADICS I leveccesaresqucdeae tue 1040
Investigation of the Geology
and Zoology of Mexico...... 50). 0 0
Anthropometry ......cecsecseeeee 50 0 O
Patent LAWS ..cc.ccssssscsccssans 5 0 0
£731 7 7
Saeed
1881.
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30 0 0
Underground Temperature... 20 0 0
Electrical Standards........ ... 25 0 0
High Insulation Key............ 5 0 0
Tidal Observations ............ 10 0 0
Specific Refractions ............ Mes.)
Hossil Polyz0a .....c.0cecc0++0e. 10 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 O
Earthquakes in Japan ......... 25 0 0
Menblary WLOray catarecrenseacer 20 0 0
Scottish Zoological Station... 50 0 0
Naples Zoological Station Tor <Q) 0
Natural History of Socotra... 50 0 0
Anthropological Notes and
QUETICS "eirseseecccasees = cdeue ce O02 40
Zoological Record............+4 100 0 0
Weights and Heights of
Human Beings ..........000. 30 0 0
£476 3 1
he eee
1882.
Exploration of Central Africa 100 0 0
Fundamental Invariants of
Algebraical Forms ....,....
Standards for Electrical
Measurements ..........00005
Calibration of Mercurial Ther-
mometers
Wave-length Tables of Spec-
tra of Hlements..........0+00.
Photographing Ultra-Violet
Spark Spectra
Geological Record.......0+...+«.
Earthquake Phenomena of
Japan
Conversion of Sedimentary
Materials into Metamorphic
Rocks
Fossil Plants of Halifax
Geological Map of Europe ...
Circulation of Underground
Waters...
reer eee eee eee ee eee
eee eersereee
Peete meee een eee eeee nes
Semen eee eee eeneeseeneeeeeee
POPE Ee wee eee re ee eeenee
76
100
i be
Susoc. Koes IS
o ooo
soe Se to
o ooo
c REPORT—1890.
£384
Tertiary Flora of North of
Tnelandiemssrnrsscrecvesercensees 20 0 0
British Polyzoa ... 2. .csce.ces..se 10 0 0
Exploration of Caves of South
Of Ireland ....cccscsssseccseces 100720
Exploration of Raygill Fis-
BULC sescccresescsevercsvecscsocses 20 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 80 0 0
Albuminoid Substances of
BOLUM oc...c.cecccescecenersvene 10 0 0
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise.......0+.++.+. 50 0 0
Migration of Birds ........... 1b 0% 0
Natural History of Socotra....100 0 0
Natural HistoryofTimor-laut 100 0 0
Record of Zoological Litera-
LEER ®) cocpooudecudoepacenudsonanngsn 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee 50 0 O
£1126 1 11
1883.
Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis »,..:...sessesess 50 0 O
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
IVALIVICR sapencmdacenameselisn es nates 157.090
Earthquake Phenomena of
CEI Goatroscgogsenecdoanauomccen 50 0 0
Fossil Plants of Halifax...... 20 0 O
British Fossil Polyzoa ,,....... 10 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzo-
ZOICPHOCKS = saredece sc eccnaveses 25 0 0
Erosion of Sea-coast of Eng-
land and Wales .............6+ 1010.20
Circulation of Underground
VINE NIGER BBs Sanger raceeaocerecast LD MORRO:
Geological Record.............. 50 0 0
Exploration of Caves in South
OPelrelanGnsscr.coceedessscsaces LO 0F 0
Zoological Literature Record 100 0 0
Migration of Birds ..,......... AY 1)
Zoological Station at Naples 80 0 0
Scottish Zoological Station... 25 0 0
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise............00. 58 3 3
Exploration of Mount Kili-
THT AL On tastes esto te res es 500 0 0
Investigation of Loughton
CBT eeeerenestetcetoase seisans 10 0 0
Natural History of Timor-lant 50 0 0
Screw Gauges..........06... ive tine Oped
£1083 3 8
1884,
Meteorological Observations ;
oni Bens Nevisneer-cs: ese2 50 0 0
Collecting and Investigating
Meteoric DUStisvvtsestevessies 20-0 0
Meteorological Observatory at
Chepstow............ _Concsonces 25 0 0
Tidal Observations............... LO0'* 0
Ultra-Violet Spark Spectra... 8 4 0
Exploration of Mount Roraima 100
£1385
£ 3. a,
Earthquake Phenomena of
JAPAN: sseeveseenanhwevenes=s cape SOIT) EO
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 1 0 0
Fossil Polyz0adarecweesss.ceserscis 10 0 0
Erratic Blocks of England ... 10 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzeo-
ZOIC ROCKS ee aencsvep teehee 15 0 0
Circulation of Underground
W Site ns seniretceen nite eeenante 5 0 0
International Geological Map 20 0 0O
Bibliography of Groups of
Invertebraitae 4. senessee sessed 50 0 0
Natural History of Timor-laut 50 0 0
Naples Zoological Station 80 0 0
Exploration of Mount Kili- ~
ma-njaro, Hast Africa ...... 500 0 0
Migration of Birds........./.ds.6 20 0 0
Coagulation of Blood.........+ 100 0 0
Zoological Literature Record 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 10 0 0
£1173 4 0
1885.
Synoptic Chart of Indian
OCEAR: <a .ueeetnacheateMenenstdfene 50 O
Reduction of Tidal Observa-
HONS 5. Soeeecenen emacs daca 10 0
Calculating Tables in Theory
Of NumBetsiece-scervscnseeenees 100 O
Meteorological Observations
on’ Ben IN@vis! ictne-cesstsesesem 50 0
MeteoricDUsti ii erennceceemeees 70 0
Vapour Pressures, &c., of Salt
SOlUtiOnSesseteee swecneseenseats 25 0
Physical Constants of Solu-
TIONS cn treet cscaneentece treaties 20 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
VIS i swrenwers ocaceuss cesess serene 25 0
Raygill Rissure! tc. cess es.cesraes 1st (0)
Earthquake Phenomena of
JAPAN \ wan .ascaueee eaten eee 70 O
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzeozoic
ROCKS) (.iovendecesenen tate see 25 0
Fossil Plants of British Ter-
tiary and Secondary Beds . 50 0O
| Geological Record .............++ 50 0
Circulation of Underground
Waters. /v..vrcsmesraacneteraee 10 0
Naples Zoological Station 100 0
Zoological Literature Record, 100 0
Migration of Birds ............ 30 0
Exploration of Mount Kilima-
NATO, .sccccoeescsicvesteceaseeene 25 0
Recent Polyzod) .:....<.ccseseeer= 10 0
Marine Biological Station at
Granton.| .\sc.nvsacsspeeec ean 100 0
Biological Stations on Coasts
of United Kingdom ......... 150 0
Exploration of New Guinea... 200 0
0
0
Giessen. soo. O91 C'S PO One) OF “OO? CO Oye. O.. Of, 0
———————s rl
a ae
GENERAL STATEMENT,
£ 3. d.
1886.
Electrical Standards............ 40 0 0
Solar Radiation........... ate wehe 910 6
Tidal Observations ............ 50 0 0
Magnetic Observations......... 1010 0
Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis ......+00000 caece 200) (0 10
Physical and Chemical Bear-
ings of Electrolysis ........ ree20e,0) 710
Chemical Nomenclature ...... 5 0 O
Fossil Plants of British Ter-
tiary and Secondary Beds,.. 20 0 0
Exploration of Caves in North
Teepe as ase doddeiss tacsite date’ 25 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
SEU e ce eaeanaqsetardcasskaecagaae 30 0 0
Geological Record.............0+ 100 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzeozoic
BEPELOGBE ee ecrnancngancsqancnnsenans 15 0 0
Zoological Literature Record. 100 0 0
Marine Biological Station at
DUTAD LON Vecntccucachcssessesecece 75 0 0
Naples Zoological Station...... 50 0 0
Researches in F'ood- Fishes and
Invertebrataat St. Andrews 75 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 30 0 0
Secretion of Urine............... 10 0 0
_ Exploration of New Guinea... 150 0 0
Regulation of Wages under
MMIGINO SCALES) .c-.csceedeeacs 10 0 0
Prehistoric Race in Greek
BSIADOS!. 500 coesssoe0ccecdeeseess 20 0 0
North-Western Tribes of Ca-
01D condos SEBRIBB IDC Se ICE 50 0 0
£995 0 6
1887.
Solar Radiation .........,...00++. 1810 0
BIREGHEOLY SIS. scsc0escersesesciceeses 30 0 0
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 75 0 0
Standards of Light (1886
BEAM canas uceches27 se esego en's 20 0 0
‘Standards of Light (1887
BRPGL BID) 5004s sajececenceeneseeatoce 10 0 0
‘Harmonic ‘Analysis of Tidal
Observations ...............04. 15 0 0
Magnetic Observations......... 26 2 0
Electrical Standards .. 50 0 0
Silent Discharge of Electricit y 20 0 0
Absorption Spectra ............ 40 0 0
Nature of Solution ............ 20 0 0
Influence of Silicon on Steel 30 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
MEMES 55d yo ci 4s0acecaeeset 20 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
MEGOOETANL)...0scesceecesesee 50 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
BUBB PTANL)) ..5cccescesceevess 50 0 0
Exploration of Cae Gwyn
Cave, North Wales ......... 20 0 0
mratic Blocks ...... aererasechs 10 0 0
Fossil (BEV MOpOdS ys ccccubasisxs, 20 0 0
Coal Plants of Halifax... 25 0 0
2.
£ 8. a.
Microscopie Structure of the
Rocks of Anglesey............ 10 0 0
Exploration of the Eocene
Beds of the Isleof Wight... 20 0 0
Circulation of ‘Underground
WiAGETS.sctsceccesceasvecesdsecuse 5 0 0
‘Manure’ Gravelsof Wexford 10 0 0
Provincial Museum Reports 5 0 0
Investigation of Lymphatic
ISVRUGING mavisecheesseeseeetertces 25 0 0
Naples Biological Station ... 100 0 0O
Plymouth Biological Station 50 0 0
Granton Biological Station... 75 0 0
Zoological Record .........+06+ 100 0 0
Flora of China .........066 corre 15° 0 0
Flora and Fauna of the
CAMEFOONS vos cevesv sees -tw sees on TOeL®) 10
Migration of Birds ............ 30 0 0
Bathy-hypsographical Map of
IBTIDISHULSLES, Wavetatessvececes. 6 0
Regulation of Wages ......... 0 0
Prehistoric Race of Greek
ISAMGS. saccseswsseeddscecrssavcue 20 0 0
Racial Photographs, Egyptian 20 0 0
£1186 18 0
1888.
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 150 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 26 4
Magnetic Observations......... 15 0 0
Standards of Light ............ 79 (248
Hlectrolysis. ......s.csissesceesee 30 0 0
Uniform Nomenclature in
MICGHANIGS Meo scrcnacedcassauetice 10 0 0
Silent Discharge of EHlec-
HERG precerbeeece CRECOCORCEES Cac 9 11 10
Properties of Solutions ....., 25 0 0
Influence of Silicon on Steel 20 0 O
Methods of Teaching Chemis-
BUY CMs cansniannqccsiasionmase nee eeee 10 0 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva-
ELVES»... 22d ddasececeks skeeeeee ce 25 0 0
Action of Light on Hydracids 20 0 0
Sea Beach near Bridlington... 20 0 0
Geological Record ..........00... 50 0 0
Manure Gravels of Wexford... 10 0 0
Erosion of Sea Coasts ......... 10 0 0
Circulation of Underground
Waters: oteactdecct sucka cavsebas 5 0 0
Palzontographical Society ... 50 0 0
Pliocene Fauna of St. Erth... 50 0 O
Carboniferous Flora of Lan-
cashire and West Yorkshire 25 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
VIUSI Fed snaycancccesanavans cclesaass 20 0 0
Zoology and Botany of West
INGIGH Win csysaseaeecscsaupes tee 100 0 O
Flora of Bahamas ...... Sepnaeess 100 0 0
Development of Fishes—St.
ANIGTGWAlstaascveskcuatenernel sss 50 0 0
Marine Laboratory, Plymouth 100 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 30 0 0
Flora Of China ..ssc0 osersoree 2 0 O
‘cil REPORT— 1890,
£ 8. a. £ 8, a,
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0 | Corresponding Societies ...... 20 0 0
Lymphatic System ............ 25 0 0 | Marine Biological Association 200 0 0
Biological Station at Granton 50 0 0 | Bath ‘ Baths Committee’ for
Peradeniya Botanical Sta- - | further Researches ......... 100 0 0
{ON aee ss acaneee pila siveass eine «cs 50 0
Development of Teleostei 15 0 0 eae
Depth of Frozen Soil in Polar 1890,
REGIONS .issseseseesanaseeseenes 5 0 0 | Electrical Standards............ 1217 0
Precious Metals in Circula- Electrolysis, cc.c«c.teaveeneteenres 5 0 0
PLOW open persessescisiar's acess 20 0 0 Electro-optics sucdtdccteeoeeenee . 60 0 0
Value of Monetary Standard 10 0 O Calculating Mathematical
Effect of Occupations on Phy- Tables .idsidivsh ibe 25 0 0
sical Development obilaomlna Sisters 25 0 0 Volcanic and Seismological
North-Western ‘Tribes of Phenomena of Japan ...... 75 0 0
OaNAI a) scsssavaersevssceaediswere 100 0 O Pellian Equation Tables ...... 15 0 0
Prehistoric Race in Greek Properties of Solutions ...... 10 0 0
USIANOS cotecup sasassGacrooenscteat 20530) 10 International Standard for
£1511 0 5 the Analysis of Iron and
Steel ...cashuiieeniweronereeeeee 10 0 0
1889. Influence of the Silent Dis-
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 50 0 0 charge of Electricity on
Electrical Standards............ 75 0 0 Oxy Sen .sritien eee 5 0 0
HGCULOLY SIS: .- vn acenseresiassasese 20 0 O | Methods of teaching Chemis-
Observations on Surface Water ome et ee 10 0 0
MEMPETALULC! cyacaclenels reesei 30 0 0 | Recording Results of Water
Silent Discharge of Electricity Analysis seiaccccresdeencaie 4 10
ON) OXY LCN: fo .cckdeestecsesr sane 6 4 8 | Oxidation of Hydracids in
Methods of teaching Chemis- Gunliphrt--ntieve. Maken 15 0 0
DLY? Oricueceiersevaccssecteeweeetets 10 0 O Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
Action of Light on Hydracids 10 0 0 WAU di. SRldivewreo save eeeeeee 20 0 0
Geological Record............668 80 0 0 | Fossil Phyllopoda of the Pa-
Voleanic Phenomena of Japan 25 0 0 1220Z01C ROcKS.........0eeseeees 10 0 O
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu- Circulation of Underground
LUIS Pas: Mas lesieciielssiscinaaeracier gone 20 0 0 Waters..3¢ eee ee 5 00
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palo- Excavations at Oldbury Hill 15 0 0
OL CHRO CK. seisasicitsisoneseuiguemes 20 0 0O | Cretaceous Polyzoa. ...!sscsees 10 0 0
Higher Eocene Beds of Isle of Geological Photographs ...... 7 14 11
Wapllity 0. ertea dare Mooi sicceses 150: 0 | Tiss Beds of Northampton-
West Indian Explorations ... 100 0 0 | ghire ...ccsccssssssscsesesecaee 25 0 0
Flora of China weccevcce teteeeeee 25°00 O Botanical Station at Perade-
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0 NYA ncdenenecceeesred acu estar 25 0 0
Physiology of Lymphatic Experiments with a Tow-net 4 3 9
System ..... seteeeeeeeceeserees 25.0 0 Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Experiments with a Tow-net 5616 38 Zoology and Botany of the
Natural History of Friendly West India Islands ......... 100 0 0
TBlANG Steen cosetenescdevatescestece 100 0 O | Marine Biological Association 30 0 0
Geology and Geography of Action of Waves and Currents
Atlas Range... .......sseeeens 100 0 0 in Hstuaries srtasscoeeeeee 150 0 O
Action of Waves and Currents Graphic Methods in Mechani-
in Estuaries by means of cal Science ......sscsseseeseeee 1 elo
Working Models .........+++ 100 0 0 | Anthropometric Calculations 5 0 0
North-Western Tribes of Ca- Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor 25 0 0
NAGA ....ssssecsseesesssnaceeesess 150 0 0 Corresponding Societies ...... 20 0 0
Characteristics of Nomad “hae
‘Tribes of Asia Minor......... 30 0 0 £799 16 8
cili
General Meetings.
On Wednesday, September 3, at 8 p.m., in the Coliseum, Professor
W. H. Flower, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.S., Pres. Z.S., F.LS., F.G.S.,
resigned the office of President to Sir Frederick Abel, C.B., D.C.L.,
D.Sc., F.R.S., V.P.C.S., who took the Chair, and delivered an Address,
for which see page 1.
On Thursday, September 4, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place in the
Municipal Buildings.
On Friday, September 5, at 8.80 p.m, in the Coliseum, E. B. Poulton,
Hsq., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., delivered a discourse on ‘ Mimicry.’
_ On Monday, September 8, at 8.30 p.m., in the Coliseum, Professor
C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S., delivered a discourse on ‘Quartz Fibres and
their Applications.’ ‘
On Tuesday, September 9, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place in the
Municipal Buildings.
On Wednesday, September 10, at 2.30 p.m., in the Philosophical
all, the concluding General Meeting took place, when the Proceedings
of the General Committee and the Grants of Money for Scientific Purposes
were explained to the Members.
The Meeting was then adjourned to Cardiff. [The Meeting is appointed
to commence on Wednesday, August 19, 1891.]
a
_ PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.
ADDRESS
BY
A SIR FREDERICK AUGUSTUS ABEL,
O.B., D.C.L. (Oxon.), D.Sc. (Cant.), F.R.S., P.P.C.S., Hon.M.Inst.C.E.,
PRESIDENT.
Many who had the pleasure of listening last year, at Newcastle, to the
interesting and instructive Address of the President to whom I am a most
unworthy successor, could not fail, both by the chief subject of his dis-
course and by the circumstance of the official position which he occupies
with so much benefit to science and the public, to have their thoughts
directed to the illustrious naturalist whose philosophical Address delighted
the members of the Association and the people of Leeds thirty-two years
ago.
More than one-half the period of existence of this Association has
passed since Richard Owen presided over its meeting in this town. Alas!
what gaps have been created in the ranks of those who at that time were
prominent for activity in advancing its work: the then General Secretary,
Sir Edward Sabine; the all-popular Assistant-general Secretary, John
Phillips; the Treasurer, John Taylor, now live with us only through
their works and the enduring esteem which they inspired. But very few
of those who held other prominent positions at that meeting have survived
0 see the Association reassemble in this town. Whewell, Herschel, Hop-
kins, the elder Brodie, Murchison, William Fairbairn, all Presidents of
Sections in 1858, have long since been removed from among us; and the
then President of Section F, Edward Baines, a much-honoured and highly-
talented son of the ‘Franklin of Leeds,’ whom we had hoped to count
among those Vice-Presidents representing the city on this occasion, has
recently passed away, in his ninetieth year, after a most honourable and
useful career, during which he especially distinguished himself by his
successful exertions in the advancement of the great educational move-
ments of his time.
B2
4 ‘ “ REPoRT—1890.
The illustrious President of our last meeting here, concerning whose
health the gravest apprehensions were not long since entertained, is
happily still preserved to us; still intellectually bright at the ripe age
of eighty-six, and still, with the keen pleasure of his early life, following
the progress of those branches of scientific research which have constituted
the favourite occupations and the arena of many intellectual triumphs
of a long career of ardent and successful devotion to the advancement of
science.
To not a few of those who have flocked to Leeds to attend the annual
gathering of this Association, our present mecting-place is doubtless
known chiefly by its proud position as one of the most thriving manufac-
turing towns of the United Kingdom ; of ancient renown, especially in
connection with one of the chief industries identified with Great Britain
in years past. But this good town of Leeds, whose cloth market was
described by Daniel Defce, one hundred and sixty odd years ago, as ‘a
prodigy of its kind, and not to be equalled in the world,’ and whose pre-
sent position in connection with divers of our great industries would have
equally excited the enthusiasm of that graphic writer, is famous for other
things than its prominent association with manufactures and commerce.
Not many of our great industrial centres can boast of so goodly an
array, upon the scroll of their past history, of names of men eminent in
the Sciences, the Arts and Manufactures, in Divinity and Letters, and in
heroic achievements, such as are identified with Leeds and its immediate
vicinity: Thomas, Lord Fairfax, one of the most prominent heroes of
the Commonwealth; Smeaton, an intellectual giant among engineers ;
William Hirst and John Marshall, illustrious examples of the men who
by their genius, energy, and perseverance placed Great Britain upon the
pinnacle of industrial and commercial greatness which she so long occu-
pied unassailed; Richard Bentley, the eminent classic and divine; John
Nicholson, the Airedale poet; John Fowler and Peter Fairbairn, worthy
followers in the footsteps of Smeaton; Isaac Milner, weaver and mathe-
matician, afterwards Senior Wrangler, Smith's prizeman, Jacksonian
Professor, President of Queens’ College, Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge
University, Dean of Carlisle, and a most illustrious Fellow of the Royal
Society; Thoresby, antiquarian and topographer; Benjamin Wilson,
painter, and industrious contributor to the development of electrical
science; William Hey, the eminent surgeon, and friend and counsellor of
Priestley ; Sadler, political economist and philanthropist; the brothers
Sheepshanks—Richard, the astronomer, and John, the accomplished patron
of the arts, and munificent contributor to our national art treasures;
Edward Baines, whose conspicuous talents and energy developed a small
provincial journal into one of the most powerful public organs of the
country ; his talented sons, of whom not the least conspicuous and highly
respected was the late Sir Edward Baines. I might swell this voluminous
list by reference to illustrious members of such families as those of Denison,
a
ADDRESS. 5
of Beckett, of Lowther, but the men I have referred to fitly illustrate the
remarkable array of worthies whose careers have shed lustre upon the
town in or near which they were born. Yet that illustration would be
altogether incomplete if I failed to speak of one whose career and works
alone would suffice to place Leeds in the foremost rank of those English
towns which can claim as their own men whose course of life-and whose
achievements have secured their pre-eminence among our illustrious
countrymen. Needless to say that I refer to Joseph Priestley, born within
six miles of Leeds, whose name holds rank among the foremost of success-
_ ful workers in science ; who, by brilliant powers of experimental investi-
gation, rapidly achieved a series of discoveries which helped largely to
dispel the shroud of mystery surrounding the art of alchemy, and to lay
the foundation of true chemical science. An ardent student of the classics,
of Eastern languages, and of divinity, a zealous exponent of theological
doctrines which marred his career as divine and instructor, he early
displayed conspicuous talents for the cultivation of experimental science,
which he pursued with ardour under formidable difficulties. His acquaint-
ance with Franklin probably developed the taste for the study of electric
science which led him to labour successfully in this direction; and the
publication, in 1767, of his valuable work on ‘The History and Present
State of Electricity, with Original Experiments,’ secured for him a pro-
minent position among the working Fellows of the Royal Society. His
_ connection with Mill Hill Chapel, in 1768, appears to have given rise
accidentally to his first embracing the experimental pursuit of what
formerly was termed pneumatic chemistry, the foundation of which had
been laid by Cavendish’s memorable contribution, in 1766, to the ‘ Philo-
sophical Transactions,’ on carbonic acid and hydrogen. Priestley’s first
publication in pneumatic chemistry, on ‘impregnating Water with Fixed
Air’ (carbonic acid), attracted great attention ; it was at once translated
into French, and the College of Physicians addressed the Lords of the
Treasury thereon, pointing out the advantages which might result from
_ the employment, by men at sea, of water impregnated with carbonic acid
gas, as a protective against, or cure for, scurvy.
Six years later Priestley investigated the chemical effects produced
on the air by the burning of candles and the respiration of animals,
and, having demonstrated that it was thereby diminished in volume and
deteriorated, he showed that living plants possessed the power of
rendering air, which had been thus deteriorated, once more capable
of supporting the combustion of a candle. At about this time
Priestley received very advantageous proposals to accompany Captain
Cook upon his second expedition to the South Seas; but when
about to prepare for his departure he learned from Sir Joseph Banks
that objections against his appointment, on account of the great latitude
of his religious principles, had been successfully urged by some ecclesiastic
member of the Board of Longitude. In 1773 the Royal Society awarded
6 . REPORT—1 890.
Priestley the Copley Medal for a remarkable paper entitled ‘ Observations
on Different Kinds of Air,’ and in that year he became librarian and
literary companion to the Karl of Shelbourne (afterwards Marquis of
Lansdowne), and thereby secured special advantages in the pursuit of
his scientific researches.
With respect to his departure from Leeds, he expressed himself as
having been very happy there ‘ with a liberal, friendly, and harmonious
congregation, to whom my services (of which I was not sparing) were
very acceptable. Here I had no unreasonable prejudices to contend with,
so that I had full scope for every kind of exertion; and I can truly say
that I always considered the office of a Christian minister as the most
honourable of any upon earth, and in the studies proper to it I always
took the greatest pleasure.’ During the next five years he published as
many volumes describing the results of important experiments on air.
After investigating the properties of nitric oxide, and applying it to the
analysis of air, Priestley, in 1774, discovered and carefully studied oxy-
gen, which he obtained by the action of heat upon the red oxide of mer-
cury. He was the first to prepare and study sulphurous acid, carbonic
oxide, nitrous oxide, hydrochloric acid (marine acid air), and the fluoride
of silicon, and carried out important researches on the properties of hydro-
gen, and of other gases previously but little known. His great quickness
of perception and power of experiment led him to the achievement of
many novel and important results. But one cannot help contrasting his
somewhat random search after new discoveries with the close logical
reasoning and philosophic spirit which guided and pervaded the remark-
able researches of him whose departure from amongst us since the last
gathering of this Association is so universally deplored—of the great dis-
coverer of the universal law of the conservation of energy, James Prescott
Joule. I could not add to the judicious and graceful reference to his work
which Sir Henry Roscoe was privileged to make, in the last year of that
philosopher’s valuable life, when presiding over the recent meeting of
the Association in the town which gloried in numbering Joule among its
citizens; but I may, perhaps, be permitted to express the sanguine hope
that the desire of the scientific world to secure the establishment of an
international memorial fitly commemorative of his great life-work may be
realised in the most ample manner.
The wide scope of the admirable discourse delivered by Owen in this
town thirty-two years ago affords an interesting illustration of the delight
which men whose best energies are devoted to the cultivation of one
particular branch of science take in the results of the labours of their
fellow-workers in other departments, and in their achievements in con-
tributing to the general advancement of our knowledge of Nature’s laws
and of their operations. It is to this bond of intimate union between
all workers in pure science that we owe the instructive reviews of the
»
4
ADDRESS.
_ progress made in different departments of science, with whicu we have
_ often been presented at our annual gatherings. On the other hand, those
men, from time to time selected to fill the distinguished office of President,
; whose lives have been mainly devoted to the practical utilisation of the
results of scientific research, and to the extension in particular directions
of the consequent resources of civilisation, seize with keen pleasure the
? opportunity afforded them of directing attention to the triumphs achieved
in the application, to the purposes of daily life, of the great scientific
_ truths established by such illustrious labourers in the fields of pure science
as Newton, Dalton, Faraday, and Joule. The wide and constantly-ex-
_ tending domain of applied science presents, even to the superficial observer,
a continually varied scene; not a year passes but some great prize falls
to the lot of one or other of its explorers, and some apparently insignifi-
cant vein of treasure, struck upon but a few years back, is rapidly opened
out by cunning explorers, until it leads to a mine of vast wealth, from
which branch out in many directions new sources of power and might.
Among the branches of science in the practical applications of which
the greatest strides have been made since the Association met at Leeds
in 1858 is electricity.. That year witnessed the accomplishment of the
first great step towards the establishment of electrical communication
between Europe and America, by the laying of a telegraph-cable con-
necting Newfoundland with Valencia. Through this cable a message of
thirty-one words was shortly afterwards transmitted in.thirty -five minutes;
an achievement which, though exciting great enthusiasm at the time,
searcely afforded promise of the succession of triumphs in ocean tele-
graphy which have since surpassed the wildest dreams of the pioneers in
the realms of applied electricity.
The development of the electric telegraph constitutes a never-failing
subject of the liveliest interest. The experiments made by Stephen
Gray, in 1727, of transmitting electrical impulses through a wire 700
feet long ; by Watson, twenty years afterwards, of transmitting frictional
electricity through many thousand feet of wire, supported by a line of
poles, on Shooter’s Hill, in Kent; and by Franklin, who carried out a
similar experiment at Philadelphia,—although they were followed by many
other interesting and philosophical applications of frictional electricity to
the transmission of signals—were not productive of really practical results.
The work of Galvani and of Volta was more fruitful of an approach to
practical telegraphy in the hands of Sémmering and of Coxe, while the
researches of Oersted, of Ampere, of Sturgeon, and of Ohm, and espe-
cially the discoveries of volta-electric induction and magneto-electricity
by Faraday, paved the way for the development of the electric telegraph
as a practical reality by Cooke and Wheatstone in 1837. How remarkable
the strides have been in the resources and powers of the telegraphist since
that time is demonstrated by a few such facts as these: the first needle-
instrument of Cooke and Wheatstone transmitted messages at ihe rate of
sreendtit
8 REPORT —1890.
fotit words per minute, requiring five wires for that purpose; six messages
‘are How conveyed by one single wire, at ten times that speed, and news
is despatched at the rate of 600 words per minute. Duplex working,
which more than doubled the transmitting power of a submarine eable,
was soon eclipsed by the application of Edison’s quadruplex working,
“which has in its turn been surpassed by the multiplex system, whereby
six messages may be sent independently, in either direction, on one wire.
When last the British Association met in Leeds, submarine telegraphy
had but just started into existence; thirty years later, the accomplished
President of the Mechanical Section informed us, at our meeting at Bath,
‘that 110,000 miles of cable had been laid by British ships, and that a
fleet of nearly forty ships was occupied in varions oceans in maintain-
ing existing cables and laying new ones.
The important practical achievements by whieh most formidable
difficulties have been surmounted, step by step, in the successive attainment
of the marvellous results of our day, have exerted an influence upon the
advancement, not merely of electrical science, but also of science generally
and of its applications, fully equal to that which they have exereised upon
the development of commerce and of the intercourse between the nations.
of the earth.
Thus, the laying of the earliest submarine cables, between 1851 and
1855, led Sir W. Thomson, in conference with Sir George Stokes, to work
out the theory of signalling in such cables, by utilising the mathematical
results arrived at by Fourier in his investigation of the propagation of
heat-waves. The failure of the first Atlantic cable led to the survey of the
bottom of the Atlantic, which was the forerunner of deep-sea explorations,
culminating in the work of the ‘ Challenger’ Expedition, and opening up
new treasures of knowledge scarcely dreamt of when last the British
Association met at Leeds. To the difficulties connected with the early
attempts at submarine telegraphy, and the determination with which
Thomson drove home the lessons learned, we owe the systematic in-
vestigations into the causes of the variations in resistance of copper
~conduetors, and the consequent improvements in the metallurgy of copper,
“which led to the realisation of the high standard of purity of metal
essential for the efficient working of telegraphic systems, and also to
the extensive utilisation of electricity in the production of pure copper.
The rare combination of originality in powers of research and perspicuity
in mathematical reasoning, with inventive and constructive genius, for
which Thomson has so long been pre-eminent, has placed at the disposal
of the investigator of electric science, and of the practical electrician,
instruments of measurement and record which have been of incalculable
value, and which owe their origin to the theoretical conclusions arrived at
by him in his researches into the conditions to be fulfilled for the attain-
ment of practical success in the construction and employment of sub-
marine cables. The mirror galvanometer, the quadrant electrometer, the
.
ADDRESS. .. 9
_ syphon-recorder, and the divided-ring electrometer, are illustrations of
the valuable outcome of Thomson’s labours; the combination of the last-
~ named instrument with sliding resistance coils has rendered possible the
accurate subdivision of a potential difference into 10,000 equal parts.
The general use of condensers in connection with cable signalling, due to
Varley’s application of them for signalling through submerged cables
with induced short waves, was instrumental in establishing the fact
that all electro-static phenomena are simply the result of starting an
electric current of known short duration round a closed circuit. The
practical application of the Wheatstone Bridge led to numerous im-
portant mathematical investigations, and induced Clerk Maxwell to devise
a new mode of applying determinants to the solution of the complicated
electrical problems connected with networks of conductors. The neces-
sity for the universal recognition of an electrical unit of resistance led
to the establishment, in 1860, of the Electrical Standards Committee of
the British Association, whose long succession of important annual reports
was instrumental in most important developments of theoretical elec-
tricity, and, indeed, served to open up the whole science of electrical
measurement. Matthiessen’s important investigations of the electrical
behaviour of metals and their alloys, and the preparation and properties
of pure iron, were the outcome of the commercial demand for a practically
useful standard of electrical resistance, while Latimer Clark’s practical
standard of electro-motive force, the mercurous sulphate cell, became in-
valuable to the worker in pure electrical research. The unit of resistance
established by the British Association Committee received, in 1866, most
important scientific application at the hands of Joule, who, by measuring
the rate of development of heat ina wire of known resistance by the passage
of a known current, obtained a new value of the mechanical equivalent of
heat. This value differed by about 1:3 per cent. from the most accurate
results arrived at by his experiments on mechanical friction, a difference
which eventually proved to be exactly the error in the British Association
unit of resistance ; so that the true value of the unit of resistance, or Ohm,
was determined by Joule fifteen years before this result was achieved by
electricians. Clerk Maxwell’s remarkable electro-magnetic theory of
light was put to the test, through the aid of the British Association unit
of resistance, by Thomson, in determining the ratio of electro-magnetic
unit to the electro-static unit of quantity. Many other most interesting
illustrations might be given of the invaluable aid afforded to purely
scientific research by the practical resuits of the development of electrical
seience, and of the constant co-operation between the science student and
the practical worker. No one could, more fitly than the late Sir William
Siemens, have maintained, as he did in his admirable Address at our
meeting in Southampton in 1882 that we owe most of the rapid progress
of recent times to the man of science who partly devotes his energies to
the solution of practical problems, and to the practitioner who finds relaxa-
10 REPORT—1890.
tion in the prosecution of purely scientific inquiries. Most assuredly, both
these classes of the world’s benefactors may with equal right lay claim to
rank the name of Siemens among those whom they count most illustrious !
In that highly interesting and valuable Address, delivered little more
than a year before his sudden untimely removal from among us, the
numerous important subjects discussed by him included not a few which
he had made peculiarly his own in the wide range embraced by his
enviable power of combining scientific research with practical work.
Prominent among these were the applications of electric energy to
lighting and heating purposes, and to the transmission of power, to the
subsequent development of which his personal labours very greatly con-
tributed.
Siemens referred to the passing of the first Electric Lighting Bill, in the
year of his Presidency, as being designed to facilitate the establishment of
electric installations in towns ; but the anxiety of the Government of that
day to protect the interests of the public through local authorities led to the
assignment of such power to these over the property of lighting companies,
that the utilisation of electric lighting was actually delayed for a time by
those legislative measures. There can now be no doubt, however, that this
delay has really been in the interests of intending suppliers and of users
of the electric light, as having afforded time for the further development
of practical details, connected with generation and distribution, which
was vital to the attainment of a fair measure of initial success. The sub-
sequent important modification of legislation on the subject of electric
lighting, together with the practical realisation of comparatively
economical methods of distribution, the establishment of fairly equi-
table arrangements between the public and the lighting companies,
and the apportionment, so far as the metropolis is concerned, of distinct
areas of operation to different competing companies, have combined to
place electric lighting in this country at length upon some approach
to a really sound footing, and to give the required impetus to its exten-
sive development. Nine companies either are now, or will very shortly
be, actually at work supplying, from central stations, districts of London
comprising almost the entire western and north-western portions of
the metropolis. As regards other parts of England, there are already
twenty-seven lighting stations actually at work in different towns, besides
others in course of establishment, and many more projected. The town
of Leeds has not failed to give serious attention to the subject of utilising
the electric light, and, although no general scheme has yet been adopted,
the electricians who now visit this town will rejoice to see many of its
public buildings provided with efficient electric illumination.
While the prediction made by Siemens, eight years ago, that electric
lighting must take its place with us as a public illuminant, has thus been
already, in a measure, fulfilled, important progress is being continuously
made by the practical electrician in developing and perfecting the arrange-
ADDRESS. 1).
ments for the generation of the supply, its efficient distribution from
centres, and its delivery to the consumer in a form in which it can be
safely and conveniently dealt with and applied at an outlay which, even
‘now, does not preclude a considerable section of the public from enjoying
_the decided advantages presented by electric lighting over illumination
by coal-gas. Yet our recent progress in this direction, encouraging
though it has been, is insignificant as compared with the strides made
‘ in the application of electric lighting in the United States, as may be
gauged by the fact that, while in America the number of arc lamps
in use, in: April of this year, was 235,000, and of glow-lamps about
three millions, there are at present about one-tenth the number of the
latter, and one hundredth the number of arc lamps, in operation in
England.
In some important directions we may, however, lay claim to rank
foremost in the application of the electric light ; thus, our iarge passenger-
ships and our warships are provided with efficient electrical illumination ;
to the active operations of our Navy the electric light has become an in-
dispensable adjunct; and our system of coast defence, by artillery and
submarine mines, is equaily dependent, for its thorough efficiency, upon
he applications of electricity in connection with range-finding, with the
arrangement and explosion of mines, and with the important auxiliary
n attack and defence, the electric light, which, while so arranged, at the
operating stations, as to be protected against destruction by artillery-fire
and difficult of detection by the enemy, is available at any moment for
affording invaluable information and important assistance and protec-
ion.
Other valuable applications of the electric light, such as its use as a
ighthouse-illuminant, for the lighting of main roads in coal-mines, where
its value is being increasingly appreciated, and even for signalling pur-
poses in mid-air, through the agency of captive balloons, are continually
affording fresh demonstrations of the importance of this particular branch
of applied electric science.
At the Electrical Exhibition at Vienna in 1883, where, not long before
the lamented death of Siemens, I had the honour of serving as one of his
colleagues in the representation of British interests, the progress which
had been made in the construction of electrical measuring instruments
since the French Exhibition and the Electrical Congress, two years before,
Was very considerable. The advance in this direction has been enormous
Since that time; but although the practical outcome of Thomson’s and of
ardew’s important work has been the provision of trustworthy electrical
balances and voltmeters, while efficient instruments have also been made
by other well-known practical electricians, we have still to attain results
in all respects satisfactory in these indispensable adjuncts to the com-
“mercial supply and utilisation of electric energy.
In connection with this important subject the recent completion of the
12 REPORT-——1890.
Board of Trade standardising laboratory, established for the purposes of —
arriving at and maintaining the true values of electrical units, and of
securing accuracy and uniformity in the manufacture of instruments
supplied by the trade for electrical measurements, may be referred to
with much satisfaction as a practical illustration of official recognition
of the firm root which the domestic and industrial utilisation of electric
energy has taken in this country.
The achievements of the telephone were referred to by Siemens
in glowing terms eight years ago; yet the results then attained were
but indications of the direction in which telephonic inter-communi-
cation was destined speedily to become one of the most indispensable of
present applications of electricity to the purposes of daily life. Preece,
in speaking at Bath, two years ago, of the advances made in applied elec-
tricity, showed that the impediments to telephonic communication be-
tween great distances had been entirely overcome; and now, although
considerably behind America and France in the use of the telephone, we
are rapidly placing ourselves upon speaking terms with our friends
throughout the United Kingdom. ‘The operations of the National Tele-
phone Company well illustrate our progress in telephonic intercommuni-
cation: that company has now 22,743 exchange lines, besides nearly
5,000 private lines; its exchanges number 272 Pana its call-offices 526.
The number of instruments at present under rental in Eneland is
99,000; but, important as this figure is compared to our use of the tele-
phone a very few years ago, it sinks into insignificance by the side of the
number of instruments under rental in America, which at the beginning
of the present year had reached 222,430, being an increase of 16,675 over
the number in 1889. Only thirteen years have elapsed since the telephone
was first exhibited as a practically workable apparatus to members of
the British Association at the Plymouth Meeting, and the number of
instruments now at work throughout the world may be estimated as
considerably exceeding a million.
The successful transmission of the electric current, and the power of
control now exercised over the character which electrically-transmitted
energy is made to assume, are not alone illustrated by the efficiency of
the arrangements aiready developed for the supply of the electric light
from central stations. Siemens dwelt upon this subject at Southamp-
ton with the ardent interest of one who had made its advancement
one of the objects of his energetic labours in later years, and also with
a prophet’s prognostications of its future importance. In speaking
of the electric current as having entered the lists in competition
with compressed air, the hydraulic accumulator, and the quick-running
rope driven by water-power, Siemens pointed out that no further
loss of power was involved in the transformation of electrical into
mechanical energy than is due to friction, and to the heating of the con-
ducting wires by the resistance they oppose, and he showed that this loss,
ADDRESS. No:
_ealeulated upon data arrived at by Dr. John Hopkinson and by himself,
amounted at the outside to 88 per cent. of the total energy. Subsea
~ eareful researches by the Brothers Hopkinson have demonstrated that
the actual loss is now far less than it was computed at in 1885; as
much as 87 per cent. of the total energy transmitted being realisable
at a distance, provided there be no loss in the connecting leads used.
The Paris Electric Exhibition of 1881 already afforded interesting
illustrations of the performance of a variety of work by power electrically
transmitted, including a short line of railway constructed by the firm of
Siemens, which was a further development of the successful result already
attained in Berlin by Werner Siemens in the same direction, and was, in
its turn, surpassed by the considerably longer line worked by Messrs.
Siemens at the Vienna Exhibition two years later. Various short lines
which have since then been established by the firm of Siemens are well
known, and one of the latest public acts in the valuable life of William
Siemens was to assist at the opening of the electric tramway at Portrush,
in the installation of which he took an active part, and where the idea, so
firmly rooted in his mind from the date of his visit to the Falls of N lagara
in 1876, of utilising water-power for electrical transmission—a result first
achieved on a small scale by Lord Armstrong—was more practically
ealised than had yet been thecase. Since that time Ireland has witnessed
a further application of electricity to traction purposes, and of water-power
to the provision of the required energy, in the working of the Bessbrook
and Newry tramway, while London at length possesses an electric railway,
three miles in length, to be very shortly opened, which will connect the
City with one of the southern suburbs through a tram subway, and,
although including many sharp curves and steep gradients, will be capable
of conveying one hundred passengers at a time, at speeds varying from
thirteen to twenty-four miles per hour. During the past year a regular
service of tramcars has been successfully worked, through the agency of
secondary batteries, upon part of one of the large tramways of North
London, with results which bid fair to lead to further extensions of this
system of working in the metropolis. The application of electricity to
action purposes has, however, received far more important develop-
ment in the United States; at the commencement of this year there were
n operation in different States 200 electrical tramroads, chiefly worked
pon the Thomson-Houston and the Sprague systems, and having a col-
ective length of 1,641 miles, with 2,346 motor-cars travelling thereon.
further extensions are being rapidly made; thus, one company alone has
9 additional roads, of a collective length of 385 miles, under construc-
ion, to be worked through the agency of storage-batteries.
The idea cherished = Siemens, and enlarged upon by him in more
han one interesting address, of utilising the power of Niagara, appears
bout to be realised, at any rate in part; a large tract of land has been
ecently acquired, by a powerful American Association, about a mile dis-
14 REPORT—1890.
tant from the Fills, with a view to the erection of mills for utilising the
power, which it is also proposed to transmit to distant towns, and an
International Commission, with Sir William Thomson at its head, and
with Mascart, Turrettini, Coleman Sellers, and Unwin as members, will
carefully consider the problems involved in the execution of this grand
scheme.
The application of electric traction to water-traffic, first successfully
demonstrated in 1883, is receiving gradual development, as illustrated by
the considerable number of pleasure-boats which may now be seen on
the Upper Thames during the boating season, and in connection with
which Professor George Forbes proposed, at our meeting last year, that
stations for charging the requisite cells, through the agency of water-
power, should be established at the many weirs along the river, so as to
provide convenient electric coaling-stations for the river pleasure-fleet.
Electrically-transmitted energy was first applied to haulage work
in mines in Germany, by the firm of Siemens some years ago, and
great progress has since been achieved herein on the Continent and in
America. Comparatively little has been accomplished in this direction in
England ; but it is very interesting to note, on the present occasion, that
the first successful practical application of electricity in this country to
pumping and underground haulage-work was made in 1887 in this neigh-
bourhood, at the St. John’s Colliery at Normanton, where an extensive
installation, carried out by Mr. Immisch, so well known in connection
with electric launches, is furnishing very satisfactory results in point of
economy and efficiency. The gigantic installations existing for the same
purposes in Nevada and California afford remarkable indications of
the work to be accomplished in the future by electrically-transmitted
energy.
Among the many subjects of importance studied by Joule, with the
originality and thoroughness characteristic of his work, was the applica-
tion of voltaic electricity to the welding and fusion of metals. Thirty-
four years ago he published a most suggestive paper on the subject,
in which, after dealing with the difficulties attending the operation of
welding, and of the interference of films of oxide, formed upon the
highly heated iron surfaces, with the production of perfect welds either
under the hammer or by the methods of pressure (of which he then
predicted the application to large masses of forged iron), he refers to
the possibility of applying the calorific agency of the electric current to
the welding of metals, and describes an operation witnessed by him in
the laboratory of his fellow-labourer, Thomson, of fusing together a bundle
of iron wires by transmitting through them, when imbedded in charcoal, a
powerful voltaic current. Joule afterwards succeeded in uniting by fusion
a number of iron wires with the employment of a Daniell battery, and in
* welding together wires of brass and steel, platinnm and iron, &c. In
discussing the question of the amount of zinc consumed in a battery for
_——
ADDRESS. 15
raising a given amount of iron to the temperature of fusion, he points out
that the same object would probably be more economically attained by
the use of a magneto-electric machine, which would allow the heat to be
provided by the expenditure of mechanical force, developed in the first
instance by the expenditure of heat; and he indicates the possibility of
arranging machinery to produce electric currents which shall evolve one-
tenth of the total heat due to the combustion of the coal used, so that
5,000 grains of coal applied through that agency would suffice for the
fusion of one pound of iron. The successful practical realisation of Joule’s
predictions in regard to the application of electric currents, thus developed,
to the welding of iron and steel, and to analogous operations, through
the agency of the efficient machines devised by Professor Elihu Themson,
was demonstrated to the members of the Association by Professor Ayrton
at Bath two years ago, and was shown upon a larger scale to visitors at
the Paris Exhibition last year, and recently to highly interested audiences
in London by our late President, Sir Frederick Bramwell. The latter
demonstrated that the production of iron-welds by means of the Thomson-
machines was accomplished nearly twice as rapidly as by expert
craftsmen ; the perfection of the welds being proved by the fact that the
strength of bars broken by tensile strains at the welds themselves was
about 92 per cent. of the strength of the solid metal. At the Crewe
Works Mr. Webb is successfully applying one of these machines to a
variety of welding-work. The rapidity with which masses of metal of
various dimensions are raised by them to welding heat is quite under
control; the heat is applied without the advent of any impurities, as
from fuel, and the speed of execution of the welding operation reduces
to a minimum the time during which the heated surfaces are liable to
oxidise. With such practical advantages as these, this system of electric
welding bids fair to receive many useful applications.
Another very simple system of electric welding, especially applicable
to thin iron- and steel-sheets, hoops, &c., has been contemporaneously
elaborated in Russia by Dr. Bernados, and is already being extensively
used, The required heat at the surfaces to be welded is developed by
connecting the metal with the negative pole of the dynamo-machine, or
of a battery of accumulators, the circuit being completed by applying a
carbon electrode to the parts to be heated; the reducing power of the
carbon is said to preserve the heated metal surfaces from oxidation daring
the very brief period of their treatment. This mode of operation appears
to have been practised upon a small scale, some years ago, by Sir William
‘Siemens, to whom we also owe the first attempt to practically apply
electric energy to the smelting of metals.
In his Address in 1882 he referred to some results attained with his
small electrical furnace, and pointed out that, although electric energy
could, obviously, not compete economically with the direct combustion of
fuel for the production of ordinary degrees of heat, the electric furnace
15 rnErort—1890.
would probably receive advartageous application for the attainment of
temperatures exceeding the limits (about 1800° C.) beyond which
combustion was known to proceed very sluggishly. This prediction
appears to have been already realised through the important labours of
Messrs. Cowles, who some years ago attacked the subject of the ap-
plication of electricity to the achievement of metallurgic operations
with the characteristic vigour and fertility of resource of our Trans-
atlantic brethren. After very promising preliminary experiments,
they succeeded, in 1885, at Cleveland, Ohio, in maturing a method
of operation for the production of aluminium-bronze, ferro-alumininm,
and silicium-bronze, with results so satisfactory as to lead to the
erection of extensive works at Lockport, N.Y., where three dynamo-
machines, each supplying a current of about 3,000 Ampéres, are
worked by water-power, through the agency of 500 h.-p. turbines, eigh-
teen electric furnaces being now in operation for the production of
aluminium alloys. These achievements have led to the establishment of
similar works in North Staffordshire, where a gigantic dynamo-machine
has been erected, furnishing a current of 5,000 Ampeéres, with an E. M. F.
of 50 to 60 volts. The arrangement of electrodes in the furnaces, the
preparation of the farnace-charges (consisting of mixtures of aluminium-
ore with charcoal and with the particular granulated metal with which
the aluminium is to become alloyed at the moment of its elimination
from the ore); the appliances for securing safety in dealing with the
current from the huge dynamo-machine, and many other details connected
with this new system of metallurgic work, possess great interest. Various
valuablecopper- and aluminium-alloys are now produced by adding to
copper itself definite proportions of copper-alloy very rich in aluminium,
the product of the electric furnace. The rapid production in large
quantities of ferro-aluminium—which presents the aluminium in a form
suitable for addition in definite proportions to fluid cast iron and steel
—is another useful outcome of the practical development of the electric
furnace by Messrs. Cowles.
The electric process of producing aluminium-alloys has, however,
to compete commercially with their manufacture by adding to metals,
or alloys, pure aluminium produced by processes based upon the
method originally indicated by Oersted in 1824, successfully carried out
by Wobler three years later, and developed into a practical process by
H. St. Claire Deville in 1854—namely, by eliminating aluminium from
the double chloride of sodium and aluminium in the presence of a
fluoride, through the agency of sodium. An analogous process, indicated
in the first instance by H. Rose—namely, the corresponding action of
sodium upon the mineral cryolite, a double fluoride of aluminium and
sodium—has also been recently elaborated at Newcastle, where the first
of these methods was applied, upon a somewhat considerable scale, in
1860, by Sir Lowthian Bell, but did not then become a commercial
ADDRESS. 174
success, mainly owing to the costliness of the requisite sodium. As
the cost of this metal chiefly determines the price of the aluminium,
technical chemists have devoted their best energies to the perfection and
simplification of methods for its production, and the success which has
culminated in the admirable Castner process constitutes one of the most
interesting of recent illustrations of the progress made in technical che-
mistry, consequent upon the happy blending of chemical with mechanical
science, through the labours of the chemical engineer.
Those who, like myself, remember how, between forty and fifty years
ago, a few grains of sodium and potassium were treasured up by the
chemist, and used with parsimonious care in an occasional lecture-
experiment, cannot tire of feasting their eyes on the stores of sodinm-
ingots to be seen at Oldbury as the results of a rapidly and dexterously
executed series of chemical and mechanical operations.
The reduction which has been effected in the cost of production of
aluminium through this and other processes, and which has certainly
not yet reached its limit, can scarcely fail to lead to applications of the
valuable chemical and physical properties of this metal so widespread
as to render it as indispensable in industries and the purposes of daily
life as those well-known metals which may be termed domestic, even
although, and, indeed, for the very reason that, its association with many
of these, in small proportion only, may suffice to enhance their valuable
properties or to impart to them novel characteristics.
The Swedish metallurgist, Wittenstrém, appears to have been the first
to observe that the addition of small quantities of aluminium to fused
steel and malleable iron had the effect of rendering them more fluid,
and, by thus facilitating the escape of entangled gases, of ensuring the
production of sound castings without any prejudicial effect upon the
‘quality of the metal. The excellence of the so-called Mitis castings,
produced in this way, appears thoroughly established, and the results
of recent important experiments seem to be opening up a field for
the extensive employment of aluminium in this direction, provided its
cost becomes sufficiently reduced. The valuable scientific and practical
experiments of W. J. Keep, James Riley, R. Hadfield, Stead, and other
talented workers in this country and the United States, are rapidly
extending our knowledge in regard to the real effects of aluminium upon
steel, and their causes. Thus, it appears to be already established that
the modifications in some of the physical properties of steel resulting
from the addition of that metal, are not merely ascribable to its actual
entrance into the composition of the steel, but are due, in part, to the
distributed through the metal, and prejudicially affects its fluidity
when melted. In the latter respect, therefore, the influence exerted by
steel, appears to be quite analogous to that of phosphorus, silicium, or lead
1890. c
18 REPORT—1890,
when these are added in small proportions to copper and certain of its
alloys, the de-oxidation of which, through the agency of those substances,
results in the production of sound castings of increased strength and
uniformity. It is only when present in small proportion in the finished
steel that aluminium increases the breaking strain and elastic limit of
the product.
The influence of aluminium, when used in small proportion, upon the
properties of grey and white cast iron is also of considerable interest,
especially its effect in promoting the production of sound castings, and
of modifying the character of white iron in a similar manner to silicium,
causing the carbon to be separated in the graphitic form; with this
difference—that the carbon appears to be held in solution until the
moment of setting of the liquid metal, when it is instantaneously liberated,
with the result that the structure of the cast metal and distribution of
the graphite are perfectly uniform throughout.
The probable beneficial connection of aluminium with the industries
of iron and steel naturally directs attention to the great practical im-
portance, in the same direction, which is already possessed, and pro-
mises to be in increasing measure attained, by certain other metals
which, for long periods succeeding their discovery, have either been only
of purely scientific interest and importance, or have acquired practical
value in regard to their positions in a few directions quite unconnected
with metallurgy. Thus, great interest attaches to the influence of the
metals manganese, chromium, and tungsten upon the physical properties
of steel and iron.
The rame of Mushet is most prominently associated with the his-
tory of manganese in its relations to iron and steel. Half a century
ago David Mushet carried out very instructive experiments on the in-
fluence exerted upon the properties of steel by the presence of man-
ganese; and to Robert Mushet we owe the invaluable experiments
leading to his suggestion to use manganese in the production of steel
by the Bessemer process, which at once smoothed the path to the
maryellously rapid and extensive development of the applications of steel
produced by that classic method, and subsequently by the open-hearth or
Siemens-Martin process—a development which has recently received its
crowning illustration in the completion of one of the grandest of existing
triumphs of engineering science and constructive skill—the Forth
Bridge.
Robert Hadfield has recently contributed importantly to our knowledge
of the relations of manganese toiron. His systematic study of the subject
has revealed some very remarkable variations in the physical properties of
so-called manganese-steel, according to the proportions of manganese
which it contains. Thus, while the existence in steel of proportions:
ranging from 01 up to about 2°75 per cent. improves its strength and
malleability, it becomes brittle if that limit is exceeded, the extreme of
ADDRESS. 19
brittleness being obtained with between 4 and 5 per cent. of manganese;
if, however, the percentage is increased to not less than 7, and up to 20,
alloys of remarkable strength and toughness are obtained. Castings of
high manganese-steel, such as wheel-tyres, combine remarkable hardness
with toughness. Even if the proportion of manganese is as high as 20 per
cent. in a steel containing 2 per cent. of carbon, it can be forged ; whereas
it is very difficult to forge a steel of ordinary composition containing as
much as 275 per cent. of carbon. Another remarkable peculiarity of the
high manganese-steel is its behaviour when quenched in water. Instead
of the heated metal being hardened and rendered brittle by the sudden
cooling, like carbon-steel, its tensile strength and its toughness are in-
creased; so that water-quenching is really a toughening process, as
applied to the manganese-alloy; and an interesting feature connected
with this is that, the colder the bath into which the highly-heated
metal is plunged, the tougher is the product. The curious effect of
manganese in reducing, and even destroying, the magnetic properties
of iron was already noticed by Rinman nearly 120 years ago, and
was examined by Bottomley in 1885; one result of Hadfield’s impor-
tant labours has been to place in the hands of such eminent physicists
as Thomson, Barrett, John Hopkinson, and Reinold, materials for the
attainment of most interesting information respecting the electrical
and other physical characteristics of manganese-steel. Hopkinson, from
experiments with a sample of steel containing 12 per cent. of manganese,
estimated that not more than 9 out of the 86 per cent. of the iron com-
posing the mass was magnetic, and he considered that the manganese
entered into that which must, for magnetic purposes, be regarded as the
molecule of iron, completely changing its properties, a fact which must
have great significance in any theory regarding the nature of magneti-
sation. The great hardness of manganese-steel, and the consequent diffi-
culty of dealing with it by means of cutting-tools, constitute at present the
chief impediments to its technical applications in many directions; but
where great accuracy of dimensions is not required, and where great
st ength is an essential, it is already put to valuable uses.
The importance of manganese in connection with the metallurgy of
ron and steel is in a fair way of finding its rival in that of the metal
hromium, the employment of which, as an alloy with steel, was first
nade the subject of experiment in 1821, by Berthier. He was led by the
mportant experiments of Faraday and Stoddart, then just published, to
ndeavour to alloy chromium with steel, and obtained good results hy fusing
eel together with a rich alloy of chromium and iron, so as to introduce
bout 15 per cent. of the former into the metal. Further small experi-
ents were made the year following, by Faraday and Stoddart, in the
ame direction; but chrome-steel appears to have been first produced
bmmercially at Brooklyn, N.Y., sixteen years ago. Ten years later
its manufacture had become developed in France, and the varieties of
@2
20 REPORT—1890.
chrome-steel produced in the Loire district now receive important and
continually-extending applications, because they combine comparative
hardness and high tenacity with but little loss in ductility, and acquire
great closeness of structure when tempered.
The influence of chromium upon the character of steel differs in
several marked respects from that exercised by manganese; thus,
chrome-steels weld badly, or not at all, whereas manganese-steels weld
very readily, and work under the hammer better than ordinary carbon-
steel. Again, the remarkable influence of manganese upon the magnetic
properties of steel and iron is not shared by chromium. Chrome-steel has
for some time been a fermidable rival of the very highest qualities of
carbon-steel produced for cutting-tools, and of the valuable tungsten-
steel which we owe to Robert Mushet. The great hardness, high
tenacity, and exceeding closeness of structure possessed by suitably-
tempered steel containing not more than from 1 to 1:5 per cent. of
chromium, and from 0:8 to 1 per cent. of carbon, renders this material
invaluable for war purposes: cast projectiles, when suitably tempered,
have penetrated compound steel- and-iron plates over 9 inches in thickness,
such as are used upon armoured ships of war, without even sus-
taining any important change of form. The proper tempering of these
projectiles necessitates their being produced hollow; their cavities or
chambers are only of small capacity, but the charge of violent explosive
which they can contain, and which can be set into action without the
intervention of fuse or detonating appliance, suffices to tear these formi-
dable punching-tools into fragments as they force their way irresistibly
through the armoured side of a ship, and to violently project those frag-
ments in all directions, with fearfully destructive effects. The employ-
ment of chromium as a constituent of steel plates used for the protection
of ships of war is already being entered upon, and the influence exerted by
the presence of that metal in small quantities in steel employed in the
construction of guns is also at present a subject of investigation. At
Crewe, Mr. F. Webb has for some time past used chromium, with con-
siderable advantage, in the production of high-quality steels for railway
requirements.
The practical results attained by the introduction of copper and of
nickel as components of steel have also recently attracted much attention.
At the celebrated French Steel Works of M. Schneider, at Creuzot, the
addition of a small percentage of copper to steel used for armour-plates
and projectiles is practised, with the object of imparting hardness to
the metal without prejudice to its toughness. James Riley has found
that the presence of aluminium in very small quantities facilitates the
union of steel with a small proportion of copper, and that the latter ins
creases the strength but does not improve the working qualities of steel.
With nickel, Riley has obtained products analogous in many important
respects to manganese steel; the remarkable differences in the physical
ADDRESS. 21
properties of the manganese alloys, according to their richness in that
metal, are also shared by the nickel alloys, some of which possess
very valuable properties; thus, it has been shown by Riley that a
particular variety of nickel-steel presents to the engineer the means
of nearly doubling boiler-pressures, without increasing weight or dimen-
sions. He has, moreover, found the co-existence of manganese in small
quantity with nickel in the alloy to contribute importantly to the deve-
lopment of valuable characteristics.
The careful study of the alloys of aluminium, chromium, manganese,
_ tungsten, copper, and nickel, with iron and with steel, so far as it has
been carried, with especial reference to the influence which they respec-
_ tively exercise upon the salient physical properties of those materials,
even when present in them in only very small proportions, has demon-
_ strated the importance of a more searching or complete application of
chemical analysis, than hitherto practised, to the determination of the
composition of the varieties of steel which practical experience has shown
_to be peculiarly adapted to particular uses. It appears, indeed, not im-
probable that certain properties of these, hitherto ascribed to slight
variations in the proportion or the condition of the constituent carbon, or in
the amounts of silicium, phosphorus, and manganese which they contain,
may sometimes have been due to the presence in minute quantities of
one or other of such metals as those named, and to their influence,
either direct or indirect, in modifying or counteracting the effects of
the normal constituents of steel. The important part now played by
manganese in steel manufacture is an illustration of the comparatively
recent results of research, and of practical work based on research,
in these directions, and the effects of the presence in steel of only very
small quantities of some of the other metals named are already, as I
have pointed out, being similarly understood and utilised.
Such systematic researches as those upon which Osmond, Roberts-
_ Austen, and many other workers have been for some time past engaged,
“may make us acquainted with the laws which govern the modifica-
tions effected in the physical characteristics of metals by alloying these
with small proportions of other metals. The suggestion of Roberts-
Austen, that such modifications may have direct connection with the
periodic law of Mendeleeff, explaining the causes of specific variations
in the properties of iron and steel, has been followed up energetically
‘by Osmond, who has experimentally investigated the thermal influence
upon iron of the elements phosphorus, sulphur, arsenic, boron, silicium,
nickel, manganese, chromium, copper, and tungsten. He regards his
results as being quite confirmatory of the soundness of Roberts-Austen’s
Suggestion, as they demonstrate that foreign elements having atomic
volumes lower than iron tend to make it assume or preserve the particular
molecular form in which it has itself the lowest atomic volume, while the
_ tonverse is the case for the foreign elements of high atomic volume.
22 rnePorr—1890.
An analogous influence was found to be exerted by those two groups
of elements upon the permanent magnetisation of steel.
Captivating as such deductions are, those who have deyoted much
attention to the practical investigation of iron, steel, and other metals,
cannot but feel that much caution has to be exercised in drawing broad
conclusions from the results of such researches as these. Like the in-
vestigations recently made with the object of ascertaining the condition
in which carbon exists in steel, and the part played by it in determining
the modifications in the properties developed in that material by the
influences of temperature and of work done upon it, they are surrounded
by formidable difficulties, arising from the practical impossibility of
altogether eliminating the disturbing influences of minute quantities of
foreign elementary bodies, co-existing, in the metal operated upon, with
those whose effects we desire to study. Certain it is, however, that by
acquiring an accurate acquaintance with the composition of varieties of
iron and steel exhibiting characteristic properties; by persevering in the
all-important work of systematic practical examination of the mechanical
and physical peculiarities developed in iron and steel of known composi-
tion by their association with one or more of the rarer metals in varied
proportions, and by the further prosecution of chemical and physical
research in such directions as those which have already been fruitful of
most instructive results, such talented labourers as Chernoff, Osmond,
Roberts-Austen, Barus and Stroudal, Hadfield, Keep, James Riley, Stead,
Turner, and others, cannot fail to contribute continually to the develop-
ment of improvemeuts equalling in importance those already attained in
the production, treatment, and methods of applying cast iron, malleable
iron, and steel, or alloys equivalent to steel in their qualities.
The causes of the variations in the physical properties of steel pro-
duced by the so-called hardening, annealing, and tempering processes
were for very many years a fruitful subject of experimental inquiry, as
well as of theoretical speculation with regard to the condition in
which the carbon is distributed in steel, according to whether the metal _
is hardened or annealed, or in an intermediate, tempered state. Recent
researches have made our knowledge in the latter direction fairly pre-
cise; as yet, however, we are only on the track of definite information
respecting the nature and extent of connection between the physical
peculiarities of steel in those different conditions and the established
differences in the form and manner in which the carbon is disseminated
through it.
The careful systematic study of the modifications developed in certain
physical properties of iron and steel by gradual changes of temperature
between fusion of the metal and the normal temperature, has shown
those modifications to be governed by a constant law, and that at cer-
tain critical temperatures special phenomena present themselves. This
important subject, which was so clearly brought before the Association
ADDRESS. 23
last year in the interesting lecture of Roberts-Austen, has been,
and is still being, pursued by accomplished workers, among whom the
most prominent is I’. Osmond. The phenomenon of recalescence, or
the re-glowing of, or liberation of heat in, iron and steel at certain
stages during the cooling process, first examined into by Barrett, appears
to be the result of actual chemical combination between the metal and its
contained carbon at the particular temperature attained at the time;
while the absorption of heat, demonstrated by the arrest in rise of
temperature during its continuous application to the metal, is ascribed
to the elimination, within the mass, of carbon as an iron-carbide per-
fectly stable at low temperatures. The pursuit of a well-devised system
of experimental inquiry into this subject has led Osmond to propound
theories of the hardening and tempering of steel, which are at present
receiving the careful study of physicists and chemists, and cannot fail
to lead to further important advancement of our knowledge of the true
nature of the influence of carbon upon the properties of iron.
Another important subject connected with the treatment of masses of
steel, and with the influence exercised upon their physical characteristics
by the processes of hardening and tempering, and by submitting them to
oft-repeated concussions or vibrations, or to frequent or long-continued
strains, is the development and maintenance, or gradual disappearance,
of internal stresses in the masses—one of the many important subjects to
which attention was directed by Dr. Anderson, the Director-General of Ord-
nance Factories, in his very suggestive Address to the Mechanical Section
last year. This question is one of especial interest to the constructor
of steel guns, as the powers of endurance of these do not simply depend
upon the quality of the material composing them, but are very largely
influenced by the treatment which it receives at the hands of the gun-
maker. Indeed, the highest importance attaches to the processes which
are applied to the preliminary preparation of the individual parts used
in constructing the gun, and to the putting together of these so as
to ensure their being and remaining in the physical condition best cal-
_ culated to assist each other in securing for the structure the power of so
successfully resisting the heavy strains to which it has to be subjected, as
to suffer little alteration other than that due to the superficial action of
the highly-heated products of explosion of the charges fired in the gun.
The development of internal strains in objects of steel, especially by the
hardening and tempering processes, or by their exposure to conditions
favourable to unequal cooling of different parts of the mass, has long been
a subject of much trouble and of experimental inquiry in connection
with many applications of steel. Systematic experiments of the kind
commenced, about eighteen years ago, by the late Russian general Kala-
koutsky, are now being pursued at Woolwich, with the objects of deter-
mining the nature and causes of internal stresses in steel gun-hoops and
-tubes, and in shells, and of thereby establishing the proper course to be
24 REPoRT--~1890,
adopted for avoiding, lessening, or counteracting injurious stresses, on the
one hand, and for setting up stresses beneficial to the powers of endurance
of guns, on the other. One method of experiment pursued, with parts
of guns, is to cut narrow hoops off the forgings, after a particular treat-
ment, which are then cut right across at one place, it being observed
whether, and to what extent, the resulting gaps open or close. This im-
portant subject has also been similarly investigated by my talented old
friend and fellow-worker, the President this year of the Mechanical Seec-
tion, Captain Andrew Noble, whose name in connection with the science
and practice of artiliery is familiar to us as household words.
The Crimean War taught Nations many lessons of gravest import, to
some of which Sir Richard Owen took occasion to call attention most
impressively in the Address delivered here, before the miseries of that
war had become past history. The development of sanitary science, to
which he especially referred, and which sprang from the bitter experience
of that sad epoch, has had its parallel in the development of the science of
artillery ; but it would indeed be difficult to establish any parallelism be-
tween the benefits which even the soldier and the sailor have reaped from
the great strides made by both these sciences. The acquisition of know-
ledge of the causes of the then hopelessness of gallant struggles which
medical skill and self-sacrificing devotion made against the sufferings of
the victims of battles and of fell diseases, as deadly as the cruellest
implements of war; the application of that knowledge to the provision of
the blessings of antiseptic treatment of wonnds and to the intelligent
utilisation of disinfectants and of other valuable preventive measures,
to the supply of wholesome water, of wholesome food in campaigning, of
sensible clothing, and of wholesome air in hospitals, barracks, and ships—
these are some few of the benefits which the soldier and the sailor have
derived from the development of sanitary science, which was so powerfully
stimulated by the terrible lessons learned during the long-drawn-out siege
of Sebastopol; and it is indeed pleasant to reflect that there has been, for
years past, most wholesome competition between Nations in the enlarge-
ment of those benefits, and their dissemination among the men whose
vocation it is to slay and be slain. The periodical International Con-
gresses on Hygiene and Demography, of which we shall cordially weleome
next year’s assemblage in London, and whose members will deplore the
absence from among them of the veteran Nestor in the science and prac-
tice of hygiene, Sir Edwin Chadwick, have afforded conclusive demon-
stration of the heartiness with which Nations are now co-operating with
a view to utilise the invaluable results attained by the successful labourers
in sanitary science.
What, on the other hand, shall we say of the benefits which sailors and
soldiers, in the pursuit of their calling, derive from the ceaseless costly
competition amongst Nations for supremacy in the possession of for-
ADDRESS. 25
midable artillery, violent explosives, quick-firing arms of deadly accuracy,
and fearful engines which, unseen, can work wholesale destruction in a,
fleet? And what can we say of the benefits acquired by individual
Countries in return for their continuous, and sometimes ruinous, expendi-
ture in endeavouring to maintain themselves upon an equality with their
neighbours in man-killing power? The conditions under which engage-
ments by sea or land will in the future be fought have certainly become
greatly modified from those of thirty-five years ago, and the duration of
warfare, even between Nations in conflict who are on a fair equality of
resources, must become reduced; but, as regards the results of a trial of
_ strength between contending forces, similarly equipped, as they now will
be, with the latest of modern appliances only varying in detail, these
must, after all, depend, as of old, partly upon accident, favoured, perhaps,
by a temporary superiority in equipment, partly upon the skill and mili-
tary genius of individuals, and very much upon the characteristics of the
men who fight the battles.
What really can be said in favour of the advances made in the
appliances of war—and this is, perhaps, the view which in such a town as
Leeds we should keep before our eyes to the exclusion of the dark side of
the picture—is, that by continuous competition in the development of their
magnitude, diversity, and perfection, the resources of the manufacturer,
the chemist, the engineer, the electrician, are taxed to the uttermost,
with the very important, although incidental, results, that industries are
created or expanded and perfected, trades maintained and developed,
and new achievements accomplished in applied science, which in time
beneficially affect the advance of peaceful arts and manufactures. In
these ways the expenditure of a large proportion of a country’s resources
upon material which is destroyed in creating destruction does substantially
benefit communities, and tends to the accomplishment of such material
progress by a Country as goes far to compensate its people for the sacri-
fices which they are called upon to incur for the maintenance of their
dignity among Nations.
- From this point of view, at any rate, it may interest members of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science, and for the promotion
of its applications to the welfare and happiness of mankind, to hear some-
thing of recent advances in one of the several branches of science in its
applications to naval and military requirements with which, during a long
_ and arduous official career, now approaching its close, I have become in
Some measure identified.
Since the Meeting of the Association in this town in 1858, the progress
which has been made in the regulation of the explosive force of gun-
_ powder, so as to adapt it to the safe development of very high energy in
guns presenting great differences in regard to size and to the work which
they have to perform, has been most important. The different forms of
_ gunpowder which were applied to war-purposes in this and other countries,
26 rEePoRT—1890.
until within the last few years, presented comparatively few differences in
composition and methods of manufacture from each other, and from the
gunpowder of our ancestors. The replacement of smooth-bore guns by
rifled artillery, which followed the Crimean War, and the great increase in
the size and power of guns necessitated by the application of armour to
ships and forts, soon called, however, for the pursuit of investigations
having for their object the attainment of means for variously modifying
the action of fired gunpowder, so as to render it suitable for artillery of
different calibres whose power could not be effectively, or, in some in-
stances, safely, developed by the use of the only kind of gunpowder then
employed in English artillery of all calibres.
The means resorted to in the earlier of these investigations, and
adhered to for many years, for controlling the violence of explosion of
gunpowder, consisted exclusively in modifying the size and form, density
and hardness, of the individual masses composing a charge, with the
object of varying the rate of burning of those masses in a gun; it
being considered that, as the proportions of ingredients generally em-
ployed very nearly correspond to those required for the development
of the greatest chemical energy by the thoroughly-incorporated materials,
the attainment of the desired results should be, if possible, effected
rather by modifications of the physical and mechanical characters of gun-
powder, than by variations of the proportions and chemical characters
of its ingredients.
The varieties of powder from time to time introduced into artillery-
service, as the outcome of investigations in this direction, were of two
distinct types: the first of these consisted of further developments of the
old granulated or corned powder, being produced by breaking up more or
less highly-pressed slabs of the material into grains, pebbles, or boulders
of approximately uniform size and shape. Gunpowders of this class,
ranging in size from about 1,000 pieces to the ounce to about 6 pieces to
the pound, have performed efficient service, and certain of them are still
employed. The character of the other type is based upon the theoretical
view that uniformity in the action of a particular gunpowder, when em-
ployed under like conditions, demands not merely identity in regard to
composition, but also identity in form, size, density, and structure of the
individual masses of which a charge consists. To approach the practical
realisation of this view, equal quantities of one and the same mixture of
ingredients, presented in the form of powder of uniform fineness and
dryness, must be submitted to a particular pressure, for a fixed period,
in moulds of uniform size, the surrounding conditions and subsequent
manufacturing processes being as nearly as possible alike. Practical
experience has, however, shown that uniformity in the ballistic properties
of black powder can be even more readily secured by the thorough blend-
ing or mixing together of different products of manufacture, presenting
some variations in regard to size, density, hardness, or other features, than
i es
ADDRESS. 27
by aiming at an approach to identity in the characters of the individual
grains or masses.
When our attention was first actively directed to the modification of
the ballistic properties of powder, the subject had already been to some
extent dealt with, in the United States, by Rodman and Doremus, and the
latter had proposed the employment, in heavy guns, of charges consisting
of large pellets of prismatic form. While this prismatic powder, which
was first used in Russia, was being perfected, and extensively applied
there as well as in Germany and England, the production of powder-
masses more suitable, by the comparatively gradual nature of their ex-
plosion, for the very large charges required for the heavy artillery of the
present day, was actively pursued in Italy, and by our own Government
Committee on Explosives, the outcome of exhaustive practical investi-
gations being the very efficient Fossano powder, or poudre progressif
of the Italians, and the boulder- and large cylindrical-powders produced
at Waltham Abbey.
Researches carried out by Captain Noble and myself, some years ago,
with a series of gunpowders presenting considerable differences in com-
position, indicated that decided advantages might be secured, for heavy
guns especially, by the employment of such a powder as would furnish a
comparatively very large volume of gas, its explosion being at the same
time attended by the development of much less heat than in the case of
ordinary black powder. In the course of these researches much light
was thrown npon the causes of the wearing or erosive action of powder-
explosions upon the inner surface of the gun, an action which, especially
in the larger calibres of artillery, produces so serious a deterioration of the
arm that the velocity of projection and accuracy of shooting suffer consider-
ably, the wear being most considerable where the products of explosion,
while under the maximum pressure, can escape between the projectile and
the bore. The great velocity with which the very highly-heated gaseous
and liquid (fused solid) products of explosion sweep over the heated sur-
face of the metal, gives rise to a displacement of the particles composing
the surface of the bore, which increases in extent as the latter becomes
roughened, and thus opposes increased resistance ; at the same time, the
high temperature to which the surface is raised reduces the rigidity of
the metal, and its consequent power of resisting the force of the gaseous
torrent; and, lastly, some amount of chemical action upon the metal, by
certain of the highly-heated, non-gaseous products of explosicn, contri-
butes towards an increase in the erosive effects. Experiments made upon
a large scale by Captain Noble with powders of different composition,
and with other explosives, have afforded decisive evidence that the explo-
sive agent which furnishes the largest proportion of gaseous products,
_and the explosion of which is attended by the development of the smallest
amount of heat, exerts least erosive action.
Some eminent German gunpowder-manufacturers, who were at this
28 rerort—1890.
time actively engaged upon the production of a suitable powder for heavy
guns, directed their attention, not merely to an alteration of the propor-
tions of the ingredients, but also to a modification in the character of char-
coal employed ; the eventual result was the production of a new pris-
matic powder, composed of saltpetre in somewhat higher proportion than
in normal black powder, and of a very slightly-burned charcoal of reddish-
brown colour, quite similar to the charbon roux which Violette produced
about forty years ago for use in sporting-powder, by the action of super-
heated steam upon wood or other vegetable matter. This brown prismatic
powder (or ‘cocoa powder’) differs from black powder not merely in
colour: it burns very slowly in the open air, and in guns its action is com-
paratively gradual and long-sustained. The products of its explosion are
simple ; asthe powder contains saltpetre in large proportion relatively to
the sulphur and charcoal, these become fully oxidised, and a relatively very
large amount of water-vapour is produced, partly because of the com-
paratively high proportion of water in the finished powder, and partly
from the large amount of hydrogen in the slightly-charred wood or
straw used. The smoke from a charge of brown powder differs but little
in volume from that of black powder, but it disperses much more rapidly,
owing to the speedy absorption of the finely-divided potassium salts,
forming the smoke, by the large proportion of water-vapour through
which they are distributed.
This kind of powder has been substituted, with considerable advan-
tage, for black powder in guns of comparatively large calibre, but it soon
became desirable to attain even more gradual action in the case of the
very large charges required for guns of the heaviest calibres, such as
the 110-ton gun, from which shot of about 1,800 lb. weight are propelled
by a powder-charge of 960 lb. Brown powder has therefore been modi-
fied in composition to suit these conditions; while, on the other hand, a
powder intermediate in rapidity of action between black powder and the
brown prism powder has been found more suitable than the former for
use in guns of moderately large calibre.
The importance which machine-guns and comparatively large, quick-
firing guns have assumed in the armament of ships, has made it very
desirable to provide a powder for them which will produce comparatively
little or no smoke, as their efficient employment becomes greatly limited
when, aftera very few rounds rapidly fired, with black powder, the objects,
against which it is desired to direct the fire are more or less completely
hidden by the interposed smoke. Hence much attention has of late been
directed to the production of smokeless, or nearly smokeless, powders for
naval use. At the same time, the views of many military authorities
regarding the importance of dispensing with smoke in engagements on
land, have also created a demand for smokeless powders suitable for field-
artillery and for small-arms.
The properties of ammonium-nitrate of which the products of decom-
ADDRESS. 29
position by heat are, in addition to water-vapour, entirely gaseous, have
rendered it a tempting material to those who have striven to produce a
smokeless powder ; but its deliquescent character has been a formidable
obstacle to its application as a component of a useful explosive agent. By
incorporating charcoal and saltpetre in particular proportions with am-
monium-nitrate, I’. Gaus recently ciaimed to have produced an explosive
material free from the hygroscopic character common to other ammonium-
nitrate mixtures, and furnishing only permanently gaseous and volatile,
or smokeless, products of explosion. These anticipations were not real-
ised, but they led the talented German powder-maker, Mr. Heide-
mann, to produce an ammonium-nitrate powder possessing remarkable
ballistic properties, and producing comparatively little smoke, which
speedily disperses. It yields a very much larger volume of gas and
water-vapour than either black or brown powder, and is considerably
slower in action than the latter; the charge required to produce equal
ballistic results is less, while the chamber-pressure developed is lower,
and the pressures along the chase of the gun are higher, than with brown
powder. No great tendency is exhibited by it to absorb moisture from
an ordinarily dry, or even somewhat moist, atmosphere, but it rapidly
absorbs water when the hygroscopic condition of the air approaches
saturation, and this greatly restricts its use.
About five years ago reports began to reach us from France of the
_ attainment of remarkable results with a smokeless powder employed with
the repeating or magazine rifle then in course of adoption for military ser-
vice, and of marvellous velocities obtained by the use of this powder, in
specially constructed artillery of great length. As in the case of the explo-
sive agent called Mélinite, the fabulously-destructive effects of which were
much vaunted at about the same time, the secret of the nature of this smoke-
less powder was well preserved by the French authorities; it is now
known, however, that more than one smokeless explosive has succeeded
the original, and that the material at present in use with the Lebel
repeating rifle belongs to a class of nitro-cellulose or nitro-cotton pre-
parations, of which several have been made the subject of patents in
England, and of which varieties are also being used in Germany and
_ other countries.
A comparison between the chemical changes attending the burning
or explosion of gunpowder, and of the class of nitro-compounds repre-
sented by gun-cotton, at once explains the cause of the production of
smoke by the former, and of the smokelessness of the latter. Whilst
the products of explosion of the nitro-compounds consist exclusively of
_ gases and of water-vapour, gunpowder, being composed of a large propor-
tion of saltpetre, or other metallic nitrate, mixed with charred vege-
table matter and variable quantities of sulphur, furnishes products of
_which over 50 per cent. are not gaseous, even at high temperatures, and
which are in part deposited as a fused solid—which constitutes the
30 REPORT—1890.
fouling in a firearm—and in part distributed in an extremely fine state
of division through the gases and vapours developed by the explosion,
thus giving to these the appearance of smoke as they escape into the air.
So far as smokelessness is concerned, no material can surpass gun-
cotton (or other varieties of nitro-cellulose); but, even if the rate of
combustion of the fibrous explosive in a firearm could be controlled with
certainty and uniformity, its application as a safe propulsive agent is
attended by so many difficulties that the non-success of the numerous
early attempts to apply it to that purpose is not surprising. Those attempts,
commencing soon after the discovery of gun-cotton in 1846, and continued
many years later in Austria, consisted entirely in varying the density and
mechanical condition of employment of the gun-cotton fibre. No diffi-
culty was experienced in thus exercising complete control over the
rapidity of burning in the open air; but when the material was strongly
confined, as in the bore of a gun, such methods of regulating its explosive
force were quite unreliable, as some slight unforeseen variation in its com-
pactness or in the amount and disposition of the air-spaces in the mass,
would develop very violent action. Much more promising results were
subsequently obtained by me by reducing the fibre to a pulp, as in the
ordinary process of making paper, and converting this into highly-com-
pressed, homogeneous masses of the desired form and size. Some favour-
able results were obtained at Woolwich, in 1867-8, in field-guns, with
cartridges built up of compressed gun-cotton variously formed and
arranged, with the object of regulating the rapidity of explosion of the
charge. But although comparatively small charges often gave high
velocities of projection, without any indications of injury to the gun, the
uniform fulfilment of the conditions essential to safety proved to be beyond
absolute control, even in guns of small calibre; and military authorities
not being, in those days, alive to the advantages which might accrue from
the employment of an entirely smokeless explosive in artillery, experi-
ments in this direction were not persevered in. At the same time,~
considerable success attended the production of gun-cotton cartridges
for sporting purposes, the rapidity of its explosion being controlled
by various methods; very promising results were also attained with
the Martini-Henry rifle and a lightly-compressed pulped gun-cotton
charge, of pellet-form, the uniform action of which was secured by simple
means.
A nearly smokeless sporting-powder had, in the meantime, been pro-
duced by Colonel Schultze, of the Prussian Artillery, from finely-
divided wood, converted after purification into a mildly explosive form
of nitro-cellulose, and impregnated with a small portion of an oxidising
agent. Subsequently this powder was produced in a granular form, and
rendered considerably more uniform in character, and less hygroscopic ;
it then closely resembled the well-known E.C. sporting powder, which
consists of a nitro-cotton reduced to pulp, incorporated with the nitrates
ADDRESS. 31
of potassium and barium, and converted into grains through the agency
of a solvent and a binding material. Both these powders produce very
little smoke compared with black powder, but they do not compete with
the latter in regard to accuracy of shooting, when used in military arms.
In past years both camphor and liquid solvents have been applied to the
_ hardening of the surfaces of granulated or compressed masses of gun-cotton
and of this classofits preparations, with a view to render them non-porous.
In some smokeless powders of French, German, Belgian, and English
manufacture, acetic ether and acetone have been also used, not merely to
harden the granules or tablets of the explosive, but also to convert the
nitre-cellulose, in the first instance, into a more or less gelatinous con-
dition, so that it can readily be incorporated with other components and
rolled, or spread into sheets, or pressed into moulds, or squirted into
wires, rods, or tubes, while still in a plastic state. When the solvent
has afterwards been removed, the hardened, horn-like, or somewhat
plastic product is cut up into tablets, or into strips or pieces of suitable
dimensions, for conversion into charges or cartridges.
Another class of smokeless powder, similar in physical characteristics
to these nitro-cellulose powders, but containing nitro-glycerine as an im-
portant component, has been originated by Mr. Aifred Nobel, the well-
known inventor of dynamite, and bears resemblance in its physical charac-
teristics to another of his inventions, called blasting-gelatine, one of the
most interesting of known violent explosive agents. When one of the
lower products of nitration of cellulose is impregnated with the liquid
explosive, nitro-glycerine, it gradually loses its fibrous nature, becoming
gelatinised while assimilating the liquid; and the resulting product
almost possesses the characters of a compound. This preparation, and
certain modifications of it, have acquired high importance as blasting-
agents more powerful than dynamite, and are possessed of the valuable
‘property that their prolonged immersion in water does not separate
from them any appreciable proportion of nitro-glycerine. The nitro-
glycerine powder first produced by Mr. Nobel was almost perfectly
smokeless, and developed very high energy, accompanied by moderate
pressures at the seat of the charge; but it possessed certain practical
defects, which led to the development of several modifications of that
explosive and various improvements in manufacture. The relative
Merits of this class of smokeless powder, and of various kinds of
nitro-cellulose powder, are now under careful investigation in this and
other countries, and several more or less formidable difficulties have been
et with in their application, in small-arms especially ; these arise in part
from the comparatively great heat they develop, whick increases the
erosive effects of the products of explosion, and in part from the more
or less complete absence of solid products. The surfaces of the barrel
and of the projectile being left clean, after the firing, are in a con-
dition favourable to their close adhesion while the bullet is propelled
32 REPORT—1890.
along the bore, with the consequence that very greatly increased friction
js established. The latter difficulty has been surmounted by more than
one expedient, but always at the cost of absolute smokelessness.
Our knowledge of the results obtained in France and Germany
with the use of smokeless powders in the new rifles and in artillery
is somewhat limited; our own experiments have demonstrated that
satisfactory results are attainable with more than one variety of them,
not only in the new repeating-arm of our infantry, but also with our
machine-guns, with field-artillery, and with the quick-firing guns of
larger calibre which constitute an important feature in the armament
of our Navy. The importance of ensuring that the powder shall not
be liable to undergo chemical change detrimental to its efficiency or
safety, when stored in different localities where it may be subject to
considerable variations of temperature (a condition especially essential
jn connection with our own Naval and Military service in all parts of
the world), necessitates qualities not very easily secured in an explosive
agent consisting mainly of the comparatively sensitive nitro-compounds
to which the chemist is limited in the production of a smokeless powder.
It is possible, therefore, that the extent of use of such a material in our
ships, or in our tropical possessions, may have to be limited by the practica-
bility of fulfilling certain special conditions essential to its storage without
danger of possible deterioration. If, however, great advantages are likely
to attend the employment of a smokeless explosive, at any rate for certain
Services, it will be well worth while to adopt such special arrangements
as may be required for securing these without incurring special dangers ;
this may prove to be especially necessary in our ships of war, where
temperatures so high as to be prejudicial even to ordinary black powder
sometimes prevail in the magazines, consequent mainly upon the positions
assigned to them in the ships, but which may be guarded against by
measures not difficult of application.
The Press accounts of the wonderful performances of the first smoke-
less powder adopted by the French—which, it should be added, were
in some respects confirmed by official reports of officers who had wit-
nessed experiments at a considerable distance—engendered a belief that
a very great revolution in the conduct of campaigns must result from the
introduction of such powders. It was even reported very positively that
noiselessness was one of the important attributes of a smokeless powder, and
highly-coloured comparisons have in consequence been drawn in Service-
periodicals, and even by some military authorities, between the battles of
the past and those of the future: the terrific din caused by the firing
of the many guns and the roar of infantry-fire, in heavy engagements,
being supposed to be reduced to noise so slight that distant troops would
fail to know in what direction their comrades were engaged, and that
sentries and outposts would no longer be able to warn their comrades of
the approaching foe by the discharge of their rifles. Military journals of
ADDRESS. 33
renown, misled by such legendary accounts, chiefly emanating from France,
referred to the absence of noise and smoke in battlesas greatly enhancing
the demands for skill and courage, and as surrounding a fight with mystery.
The absence of recoil when a rifle was fired with smokeless powder was
another of the marvels reported to attend the use of these new agents
of warfare. It need scarcely be said that a closer acquaintance with
them has dispelled the credit given to such of the accounts of their sup-
posed qualities as were mythical, and a belief in which could only be
ascribable to a phenomenal combination of credulity with ignorance of the
most elementary scientific knowledge.
The extensive use which has been made in Germany of smokeless or
nearly smokeless powder in one or two special military displays has,
however, afforded interesting indications of the actual changes likely
to be wrought in the conditions under which engagements on land will be
fought in the future, provided these new explosives thoroughly establish
and maintain their positions as safe and reliable propelling agents.
Although the powder adopted in Germany is not actually smokeless,
the almost transparent film of smoke produced by independent rifle-
firing with it is not visible at a distance of about 300 yards; at shorter
distances it presents the appearance of a puff froma cigar. The most
rapid salvo-firing by a large number of men does not have the effect of
obscuring them from distant observers. When machine-guns and field-
artillery are fired with the almost absolutely smokeless powder which we
are employing, their position is not readily revealed to distant observers
by the momentary vivid flash of flame and slight cloud of dust produced.
There now appears little doubt that in future warfare belligerents on
both sides will alike be users of these new powders; the screening or
obscuring effect of smoke will therefore be practically absent during
engagements between contending forces, and while, on the one hand, the
very important protection of smoke, and its sometimes equally important
assistance in manceuvres, will thus be abolished, both combatants will,
on the other hand, secure the advantages of accuracy of shooting and of
the use of individual fire, through the medium of cover, with comparative
immunity from detection. Such results as these cannot fail to affect, more
or less radically, the principles and conditions under which battles have
hitherto been fought. With respect to the Naval Service, it is especially for
the quick-firing guns, so important for defensive purposes, that a smoke-
less powder has been anxiously looked for; by the adoption of such a
powder as has during the past year been elaborated for our artillery,
should experience establish its reliability under all Service conditions and
its power to fulfil all reasonable requirements in regard to stability, these
guns will not only be used by our ships under conditions most favour-
able to their efficiency, but their power will also be very importantly
increased.
The ready and safe attainment of very high velocities of projection
1890. D
34 rnePorT— 1890.
through the agency of these new varieties of explosive agents, employed in
guns of suitable construction, would appear at first sight to promisea very im-
portant advance in the power of artillery ; the practical difficulties attending
the utilisation of these results are, however, sufficiently formidable to place,
at any rate at present, comparatively narrow limits upon our powers of
availing ourselves of the advantages in ballistics which they may present.
The strength of the gun-carriages and the character of the arrangements
used for absorbing the force of recoil of the gun need considerable modi-
fications, not easy of application in some instances ; greater strength and
perfection of manufacture are imperative in the case of the hollow pro-
jectiles or shells to be used with charges of a propelling agent, by the
firing of which in the gun they may be submitted to comparatively
very severe concussions; the increased friction to which portions of the
explosive contents of the shell are exposed by the more violent setting
back of the mass may increase the possibility of their accidental ignition
before the shell has been projected from the gun; the increase of con-
cussion to which the fuse in the shell is exposed may give rise to a
similar risk consequent upon an increased liability to a failure of the
mechanical devices employed for preventing the igniting arrangement,
designed to come into operation only upon the impact or graze of the
projected shells, from being set into action prematurely by the shock
of the discharge; lastly, the circumstance, that the rate of burning
of the time-fuse which determines the efficiency of a projected shrapnel
shell is materially altered by an increase in the velocity of flight of the
shell, also presents a source of difficulty.
The fallibility of even the most simple forms of fuse, manufactured in
very large numbers, although it may be remote, must always engender a
feeling of insecurity, when shells are employed containing an explosive
agent of the class which, in recent years, it has been sought, by every
resource of ingenuity, combined with intimate knowledge of the pro-
perties of these explosives, to apply as substitutes for gunpowder in shells,
on account of their comparatively great destructive power.
One of the first uses, for purposes of warfare, to which it was attempted
to apply gun-cotton, was as a charge for shells. But even when this was
highly compressed, and accurately fitted the shell-chamber, with the in-
tervention only of a soft packing between the surfaces of explosive and
of metal, to guard against friction between the two upon the shock of the
discharge, no security was attainable against the ignition of the compara-
tively sensitive explosive by friction established within its mass at the
moment when the shell is first set in motion. By the premature explosion
of a shell charged with gunpowder, no important injury is inflicted upon
the gun, but a similar accidental ignition of a gun-cotton charge must
almost inevitably burst the arm. The earlier attempts to apply gun-
cotton as a bursting-charge for shells were several times attended by very
disastrous accidents of this kind; but the fact, afterwards discovered,
ADDRESS. ae
_ that wet compressed gun-cotton, even when containing sufficient water to
render it quite uninflammable, can be detonated through the agency of a
- sufficiently powerful charge of fulminate of mercury, or of a small quantity
of dry gun-cotton imbedded within it, has led to the perfectly safe appli-
- cation of gun-cotton in shells, provided the fase, through the agency of
which the initiative detonating agent in the shell comes into operation,
is secure against any liability to premature ignition when the gun is
fired. Many successful experiments have been made with shells thus
charged with wet gun-cotton, which is now recognised as a formidable
destructive agent applicable in shells with much less risk of casualty than
attends the use of many other of the violent explosive bodies which it
has become fashionable, in professional parlance, to designate as ‘high
explosives.’
Many devices and arrangements, more or less ingenious and compli-
cated, have been schemed, especially in the United States, for applying
preparations of the very sensitive liquid, nitro-glycerine, such as
dynamite and blasting-gelatine, as charges for shells. Some of these
consist in subdividing the charge by more or less elaborate methods ;
in others the shell is also lined with some soft elastic packing-mate-
rial, and paddings of similar material are applied in the head and the
base of the shell-chamber, with the object of reducing the friction and
concussion to which the explosive is exposed when the projectile is first
set in motion. Such arrangements obviously diminish the space available
for the charge in the shell, and the best of them fail to render these ex-
plosives as safe to employ as wet gun-cotton. In order to avoid exposing
‘shells loaded with such explosives to the concussion produced when pro-
pelling them by a powder-charge, compressed air has been applied as the
propelling agent, and guns of special construction and very large dimen-
sions, from which shells containing as much as 500 lb. of gun-cotton or
dynamite are projected through the agency of compressed air, have
recently been elaborated in the United States, where great expectations
are entertained of the value, for war-purposes, of these so-called pneumatic
A highly ingenious device for utilising a class of very powerful
explosives in shells, without any risk of accident to the gun, was not long
since brought forward by Mr. Griisen, the well-known armour-plate and
projectile manufacturer of Magdeburg. It consisted of a thoroughly
efficient arrangement for applying the fact, first demonstrated by Dr.
Sprengel, that mixtures of nitric acid of high specific gravity with solid
or liquid hydrocarbons, or with the nitro-compounds of these, are sus-
teptible of detonation, with development of very high energy. The two
agents, of themselves non-explosive—nitric acid and the hydro-carbon, or
‘its nitro-product—are separately confined in the shell; when it is first set
_ in motion by the firing of the gun, the fracture of the receptacle containing
the liquid nitric acid is determined by a very simple device; the two
D2
36 REPORT—1890.
substances are then free to come into contact, and their very rapid mixture
is promoted by the rotation of the shell, so that, almost by the time that it
is projected from the gun, its contents, at first quite harmless, have become
converted into a powerfully explosive mixture, ready;to come into opera-
tion through the action of the fuse. Although safety appears assured by
this system, the comparatively complicated nature of the contrivance, and
the loss of space in the shell thereby entailed, place it at a disadvantage,
especially since some other very violent explosive agents have come to
be applied with comparative safety in shells.
Between four and five years ago intelligence first reached us of
marvellously destructive effects produced by shells charged with an
explosive agent which the French Government was, elaborating. The
reported results surpassed any previously recorded in regard to violently
destructive effects and great velocity of projection of the fragments of
exploded shells, and it was asserted that the employment of this new
material, Mélinite, was unattended by the usual dangers incident to this
particular application of violent explosive agents, an assertion scarcely
consistent with accounts which soon reached us of several terrible calami-
ties due to the accidental explosion of shells loaded with Mélinite.
Although the secret of the precise nature of Mélinite has been
extremely well preserved, it transpired ere long that extensive purchases
were made in England, by or for the French authorities, of one of the
many coal-tar derivatives which for some years past has been extensively
manufactured for tinctorial purposes, but which, although not itself classed
among explosive bodies until quite lately, had long before been known
to furnish, with some metals, more or less highly explosive combinations,
some of which had been applied to the production of preparations sug-
gested as substitutes for gunpowder.
The product of destructive distillation of coal from which, by oxida-
tion, this material is now manufactured, is the important and universally-
known antiseptic and disinfectant, carbolic acid, or phenol. Originally
designated carbazotic acid, the substance now known as picric acid was
first obtained in small quantities as a chemical curiosity by the oxidation
of silk, aloes, &c., and of the well-known blue dye indigo, which thus
yielded another dye of a brilliant yellow colour. To the many who may
regard this interesting phenol-derivative as a material concerning the
stability and other properties of which we have little knowledge, it will
be interesting to learn that it has been known to chemists for more than a
century. It was first manufactured in England for tinctorial purposes by
the oxidation of a yellow resin (Xanthorrhea hastilis), known as Botany
Bay gum. Its production from carbolic acid was developed in Manchester
in 1862, and its application as a dye gradually extended, until, in 1886,
nearly 100 tons were produced in England and Wales.
Although picric acid compounds were long since experimented with as
explosive agents, it was not until a very serious accident occurred, in 1887,
ADDRESS. 37
a some works near Manchester where the dye had been for some time
manufactured, that public attention was directed in England to the power-
fully explosive nature of this substance itself, The French authorities
appear, however, to have been at that time already engaged upon its
_ application as an explosive for shells, It is now produced in very large
quantities at several works in Great Britain, and it has been extensively
exported during the last four years, evidently for other than the usual
commercial purposes. Large supplies of phenol, or carbolic acid, have, at
the same time, been purchased in England for France, and lately for
Germany, doubtless for the manufacture of picric acid, very extensive
works having been established for its production in both those countries.
It has been made the subject of experiment by our military authorities,
and its position has been well established as a thoroughly stable explosive
agent, easily manufactured, comparatively safe to deal with, and very
destructive when the conditions essential for its detonation are fulfilled.
The precise nature of Mélinite appears to be still only known to the
French authorities : it is asserted to be a mixture of picric acid with some
material imparting to it greater power; but accounts of accidents which have
occurred even quite recently in the handling of shells charged with that
material appear to show that, in point of safety or stability, it is decidedly
inferior to simple picric acid. Reliable as the latter is, in this respect, its
employment is, however, not unattended with the difficulties and risks
which have to be encountered in the use, in shells, of other especially
violent explosives. Future experience in actual warfare can alone determine
decisively the relative value of violent explosive agents, like picric acid
or wet gun-cotton, and of the comparatively slow explosive, gunpowder,
for use in shells; it is certain, however, that the latter still presents
distinct advantages in some directions, and that there is no present pro-
‘spect of its being more than very partially superseded as an explosive
for shells.
With regard to submarine mines and locomotive torpedoes, such as
those marvels of ingenuity and constructive skill, the Whitehead and
Brennan torpedoes, the important progress recently made in the prac-
tical development of explosive agents has not resulted in the provision
of a material which equals wet compressed gun-cotton in combining with
great destructive power the all-important essential of safety to those
who have to deal with these formidable weapons and to man the small
vessels destined to perform the very hazardous service of attacking ships
of war at short distances by means of locomotive torpedoes.
Although the subject of the development of explosive force for purposes
of war has of late received from workers in applied science, from seekers
of patentable inventions, and even from the public generally, a somewhat
_ predominating share of attention, considering that we congratulate our-
selves upon the enjoyment of a period of profound peace, yet the produc-
38 rEeport—1890.
tion of new explosive agents for mining and quarrying purposes, which
present or lay claim to points of superiority over the well-established
biasting-agents, has been by no means at a standstill. For many years
the main object sought to be achieved in this direction was to surpass,
in power or adaptability to particular classes of work, the well-known
preparations of nitro-glycerine and gun-cotton, which, during the past
twenty years, have been formidable competitors and, in many directions,
absolutely successful rivals of black powder. It is both interesting and
satisfactory to note, however, that this object has of late, and especially
since the publication of the results of labours of English and foreign
Commissions on the causes of mine-accidents, been prominently associated
with endeavours to solve the important problems of combining, in an
explosive agent, efficiency in point of power with comparative non-
sensitiveness to explosion by friction or percussion, and of securing
its effective operation with little or no accompaniment of projected flame.
Safety-dynamites, flameless explosives, water-cartridges, and other classes
of materials and devices connected with the getting of coal, the quarry-
ing of rock, or the blasting of minerals, have claimed the attention of
those who guide the miner’s work; in some of these directions the
practical results obtained have been beyond question important, and,
indeed, conclusive as regards the great diminution of risks to which
men need be exposed in those coal-mines where the ordinary use of
explosives, although not altogether inadmissible, may at times be attended
with danger. It is to be feared that those results are still far from
receiving the amount of application which might reasonably be hoped
for; but, at any rate, there are, among the extensive mining districts
where the employment of explosives in connection with the getting of coal
cannot be dispensed with, several of importance where the use of gun-
powder has almost entirely given place to the adoption of blasting-agents
or methods of blasting, the employment of which is either not, or only
very exceptionally, attended by the projection of flame or incandescent
matter into the air where the shot is fired.
The mining public is especially indebted to German workers for much
of the success which has been obtained in this direction, and also to the emi-
nent French authorities, Mallard and Le Chatelier, for their thorough theo-
retical and practical investigations bearing upon the prevention of acci-
dental ignition of fire-damp during blasting operations. Having arrived at
the conclusion that fire-damp- and air-mixtures are not ignited by the firing
of explosive preparations which develop by their detonation temperatures
lower than 2220° C., they found that ammonium-nitrate, although in
itself susceptible of detonation, does not develop a higher temperature than
1180° C., while the temperature of detonation of nitro-glycerine and gun-
cotton are, respectively, 3170° and 2636°. Hence the admixture of that
salt with nitro-glycerine or gun-cotton in sufficient proportion to reduce
the temperature of detonation to within safe limits should allow of the
|
‘
ADDRESS. 39
employment of those explosive agents in the presence of fire-damp mixtures
without risk of accident, and the practical verification of this conclusion
has led to the effective use of such mixtures as safe blasting-agents in coal.
Those who have been content to labour long and arduously with the
objects steadily in view of advancing our knowledge of the causes of
mine-accidents and of developing resources and measures for removing
or combating those causes, can cherish the conviction that recent legis-
lation in connection with coal-mines, based upon the results of those
labours, has been already productive of decided benefits to the miner,
even although it has fallen short of what might reasonably have been
hoped for as an outcome of the very definite results and conclusions
arrived at by the late Royal Commission on Accidents in Mines (in the
recent much-lamented death of whose universally respected chairman, my
late esteemed friend and colleague, Sir Warington Smyth, the scientific
world has sustained the loss of an ardent worker, and the miner, of an
invaluable friend).
The fearful dangers arising from the accumulation of inflammable dust
in coal-mines, and the equality of mine-dust with fire-damp in its direful
power of propagating explosions, which may sometimes even be, in the first
instance, established chiefly or entirely through its agency, have now been
long recognised as beyond dispute; andit is satisfactory to know that permis-
sion to fire shots in mine-workings which are dry and dusty has, by recent
legislation, been made conditional upon the previous laying of the dust
by effective watering. In some mining districts, moreover, the purely
voluntary practice has been extensively adopted, by mine-owners, of
periodically watering the main roads in dry and dusty mines, or of
frequently discharging water-spray into the air in such roads, which must
tend greatly to reduce the possible magnitude of the disastrous results
of a fire-damp- or dust-explosion in any part of the mine-workings.
The encouragement given to the application of the combined resources
of ingenuity, mechanical skill, and knowledge of scientific principles,
through the elaborate, but thoroughly practical, comparative trials to
which almost every variety of safety-lamp has, during the last few
years, been submitted by competent and conscientious experimenters,
has resulted in the provision of lamps to the hand of the miner which
combine the essential qualities of safety, under the most exceptionally
severe conditions, with good illuminating power, simplicity of construc-
tion, lightness, and moderate cost. Very important progress has also
been made, since the first appointment of the late Accidents in Mines
Commission, towards the provision of thoroughly serviceable and safe
portable electric lamps for use in mines. Of those which have already
been in the hands of the miners, several have fairly fulfilled his require-
ments as regards size, weight, and good illuminating power of sufficient
duration; but much still remains to be accomplished with respect to
durability, simplicity, thorough portability, and cost, before the self-
40 REPORT—1890.
contained electric lamp can be expected to compete successfully with the
greatly improved miners’ lamps which are now in use, or available.
The recent legislation in connection with mines is certainly deficient
in any sufficiently decisive measure for excluding from mine-workings
certain forms of lamps which, while fairly safe in the old days of sluggish
ventilation, are unsafe in the rapid air-currents now frequently met with
in mines; it is, however, very satisfactory to know that the strong repre-
sentations on this subject made by the late Commission, combined with
force of example and with the conclusive demonstration, by exhaustive ex-
periments, of the superiority of other lamps, have led within the last two
years to the very general abandonment of the unprotected Davy, Clanny,
and Stephenson lamps in favour, either of simple, safe modifications of
these, or of other safe and efficient lamps, and that one possible element
of danger to the miner has thus been eliminated, at any rate in many
districts. In one important respect recent improved legislation has failed
to effect a most desirable change, namely, in the substitution of safety- -
lamps for naked lights in workings where small local accumulations of
fire-damp are discovered from time to time. There appears little doubt
that one of the three fearful explosions which have occurred within the last
twelve months—the catastrophe at Llanerch Colliery, near Pontypool—
was caused by the continued employment of naked lights in a mine where
inspection constantly revealed the presence of fire-damp. This explosion,
and two other terrible disasters, at Mossfield Colliery, in Staffordshire,
and at Morfa Colliery, near Swansea, which have occurred since the last
meeting of the Association, may have seemed to weaken the belief that
the operation of the recent Mines Regulation Act, which was based upon
some of the results of seven years’ arduous labour of the late Mines
Commission, must have resulted in very substantial improvement in
the management of mines and in the conduct of work by the men.
Happily, however, there is a consensus of opinion among those most
competent to judge—i.e. the Government Mine Inspectors—that very
decided benefits have already accrued from the operation of the new Act.
Although far from embodying all that the experienced mine-owners,
miners, and scientific workers upon that Commission, as well as practical
authorities in Parliament, concurred in regarding as reasonably adaptable,
from the results of observation and experiment, to the furtherance of the
safer working of mines, this Act does include measures, precautionary
and preventive, of undeniable utility, well calculated to lessen the dangers
which surround the miner, and to add to his personal comfort underground.
We may hope, moreover, that the operation of the Act is paving the way to
more comprehensive legislation in the near future ; for it can scarcely be
doubted, by the light of recent sad experience, that there are directions in
which both masters and men still hesitate to adopt, of their own free will,
measures or regulations, methods of working or appliances and precau-
tions, which are calculated to be important additional safeguards against
-mine-accidents, and which are either left untouched, or only hesitatingly
and imperfectly dealt with in the recent enactments.
:
: My labours upon the late Mines Commission represent only one of
several subjects in connection with which it has been my good fortune to
have opportunities of rendering some slight public service in directions
| contrasting with one of the main functions of my career, by endeavouring
to apply the results of scientific research to a diminution of the risks to
- particular classes of the community, or the public at large, are
ADDRESS. 41
exposed—of being sufferers by explosions, the results of accidents or other
causes.
1 During the pursuit of bread-winning vocations, and even in ordinary
domestic life, the conditions, as well as the materials, requisite for deter-
_ mining more or less disastrous explosions are often ready to hand, and
their activity may be evoked at any moment through individual heedless-
_ness or through pure accident. Steam, or gases confined under pressure,
volatile inflammable liquids, combustible gases, or finely-divided inflam-
mable solids, are now all well recognised as capable of assuming the
character of formidable explosive agents; but with respect to the three
last-named, it is only of late that material progress has been made towards
a popular comprehension and appreciation of the conditions conducive to
danger, and of those by the fulfilment of which danger may be avoided.
Thus, the causes of explosions in coal-laden ships, together with
the occurrence of spontaneous ignition in coal-cargoes, another fruitful
source of disaster, were made the subject of careful inquiry some
years ago by a Royal Commission, upon which I had the pleasure of
working with the late Dr. Percy, whose invaluable labours for the
advancement of metallurgic science will always be gratefully remembered.
The light thrown by that inquiry upon the causes of those disasters, and
upon the conditions to be fulfilled for guarding against the accumulations
fire-damp, gradually escaping from occlusion in coal, and of heat,
developed by chemical changes occurring in coal-cargoes, has unquestion-
ably led to an important reduction of the risks to which coal-laden ships
are exposed. Subsequent official inquiries and experimental investigations,
in which I took part with the late Sir Warington Smyth and some eminent
naval officers, consequent upon the loss of H.M.S. ‘ Doterel’ through the
accidental ignition of an explosive mixture of petroleum spirit-vapour
and air (and other calamities in warships originating with the gradual
emission of fire-damp from coal), have resulted in the adoption of efficient
arrangements for ventilating all spaces occupied by, and contiguous to,
the large supplies of fuel which these vessels have to carry.
— The thorough investigation, by Rankine and others, of the causes of
explosions in flour-mills, which in years past were so frequent and disas-
trous, has secured the adoption of efficient measures for diminishing
the production, and the dissemination through channels and other spaces
42 7 rnerortT—1890.
in the mills, of explosive mixtures of flour-dust and air, and for guarding
against their accidental ignition. The numerous terrible accidents caused
by the formation and accidental ignition of explosive mixtures of inflam-
mable vapour and air in ships carrying cargoes of petroleum stored in
barrels or in tanks, have, by the investigations to which they have given
rise, led to the indication of effective precautionary measures for guard-
ing against their recurrence. Again, the many distressing accidents,
frequently fatal, which have attended the domestic use of those valuable
illuminants, petroleum and mineral oils of kindred character, have been
made the subject of exhaustive investigations, which have demonstrated
that these disasters may readily be prevented by the employment of
lamps of proper construction, and by the observance of very simple pre-
cautions by the users of them; and a recent official inquiry which I have
conducted with Mr. Boverton Redwood has furnished most gratifying
proof that very substantial progress has been made within the last few
years by lamp-manufacturers in the voluntary adoption of such principles
of construction as we had experimentally demonstrated to ke essential for
securing the safe use of mineral oils in lamps for lighting and heating
purposes, the employment of which has, within a brief period, received
enormous extension in this and other countries.
The creation and rapid development of the petroleum industry has,
indeed, furnished one of the most remarkable illustrations which can be
cited of industrial progress during the period which has elapsed since the
British Association last met in Leeds. One year after that meeting, viz.,
on August 28, 1859, the first well, drilled in the United States with the
object of obtaining petroleum, was successfully completed, and the rate
of increase in production in the Pennsylvania oil-fields during the suc-
ceeding years is shown by the following figures :— .
Tn 1859, 5,000 barrels (of forty-two American gallons) were produced.
In the following year the production increased to 500,000 barrels; while
in the next year (1861) it exceeded 2,000,000 barrels, at which figure it
remained, with slight fluctuations, until 1865, The supply then continued
to increase gradually, until, in 1870, it reached nearly 6,000,000 barrels ;
while in 1874 it amounted to nearly 11,000,000 barrels. In 1880 it
amounted to over 26,000,000 barrels, and in 1882 it reached 31,000,000.
Since then the supply furnished by the United States has fallen some-
what, and last year it amounted to 21,500,000 barrels. |The production
of crude petroleum in the Pennsylvanian fields, large as it has been,
has not, however, kept pace with the consumption, for we find that the
accumulated stocks, which on December 31, 1888, amounted to over
18,000,000 barrels, had become reduced to about 11,000,000 barrels
at the close of last year. At this rate the surplus stock above
ground will have vanished by the end of the current year. In addi-
tion to the petroleum raised in Pennsylvania, there is now a very
large production in the State of Ohio; but this has not as yet been em-
ADDRESS. 43
ployed as a source of lamp-oil ; it is, however, transported by pipe line in
great quantities to Chicago, for use as liquid fuel in industrial opera-
tions.
A few years after the development of the United States petroleum-
industry, the production of crude petroleum in Russia also began to extend
very rapidly. For more than 2,500 years Baku, on the borders of
the Caspian Sea, has been celebrated for its naphtha springs and for the
perpetual flames of the Fire Worshippers, fed by the marvellous subter-
ranean supplies of natural gas. To a limited extent neighbouring nations
appear to have availed themselves of the vast supplies of mineral oil at Baku
during the past one thousand years. By the thirteenth century the
export of the crude oil had already become somewhat extensive, but the
production of petroleum from it by distillation is of comparatively recent
date. In 1863 the supplies of petroleum from the Baku district amounted
to 5,018 tons; they increased to somewhat more than double during the
succeeding five years. In 1869 and following three years the production
reached about 27,000 tons annually, and in 1873 it was about 64,000
tons; three years later, 153,000 tons were produced, and in the follow-
ing five years there was a steady annual increase, until, in 1882, the
production amounted to 677,269 tons; in 1884 it considerably exceeded
1,000,000 tons, and last year it amounted to about 3,300,000 tons. The
consumption of crude petroleum as fuel for locomotive purposes has,
moreover, now assumed very large proportions in Russia, and many
millions of gallons are annually consumed in working the vast system of
railways on both sides of the Caspian Sea.
_ The imported refined petroleum used in this country in lamps for
lighting, heating, and cooking, was exclusively American until within the
last few years, but a very large proportion of present supplies comes
from Russia. The imports of keresene into London and the chief ports
of the United Kingdom during 1889 amounted to 1,116,205 barrels of
United States oil, and 771,227 barrels of Russian oil. During the same
period the out-turn of mineral oil for use in lamps by the Soattigl Shale
Oil Companies probably amounted to about 500,000 barrels.
Another important feature connected with the development of the
petroleum industry is the great extent to which the less volatile products
of its distillation have replaced vegetable and animal oils and fats for
lubricating purposes in this and other countries. The value of petroleum
as a liquid fuel and as a source cf gas for illuminating purposes has,
moreover, been long since recognised, and it is probable that one outcome
of the attention which is now being given to the hitherto unworked
deposits of petroleum in the Eastand West Indies, South America, and else-
where, will be a very large increase in its application to these purposes.
Tn the East Indies there are vast tracts of oil-fields in Burmah, Baluchis-
tan, Assam, and the Punjab. The native Rangoon oil dusty is one
of great antiquity, although the oil was only used in the crude condition
44 REPORT—1890.
until about thirty-five years ago, at which time Dr. Hugo Miiller, with
tke late Warren De la Rue, whose many-sided labours and generous bene-
factions have so importantly contributed to the advancement of science,
made valuable researches on the products furnished by crude oil imported
from Rangoon. The resources of the oil-fields of Upper Burmah, especi-
ally of the district of Yenangyoung (or creek of stinking water), have since
then been developed by British enterprise, and have attained to consider-
able importance since our annexation of Upper Burmah.
The great extension of the petroleum trade is gradually leading to
very important improvements in the system of transport of the material
over waterand on land. Until recently this has been carried out entirely in
barrels and tin cases ; the consequent great loss from leakage and evapora-
tion, accompanied by risk of accident, is now becoming much reduced by
the rapidly-increasing employment of tank-steamers, which transport the
oil in bulk. Tank railway-wagons have for some time past been in use in
Russia, and there is prospect of these and of tank-barges being adopted
here for the distribution of the oil; while in London, the practice is
already spreading gradually of distributing supplies to tradesmen from
tank road-wagons. Some considerable doubt as to whether the risk of
accident has not rather been altered in character than actually reduced
by the new system of transport, has not unnaturally been engendered in
the public mind by the occurrence within a comparatively short period of
several serious disasters during the discharge of cargoes from tank-vessels.
The memorable explosion which took place in October 1888, on board
the ‘ Ville de Calais,’ in Calais Harbour, with widespread destructive
effects, was followed by a similarly serious explosion in the ‘ Fergusons,’
at Rouen last December, and, more recently, by a fire of somewhat
destructive character at Sunderland, resulting from the discharge into
the river of petroleum-residues from a ship’s tanks. In all these cases
the petroleum was of a nature to allow inflammable vapour to escape
readily from the liquid, so that an explosive mixture could be rapidly
formed by its copious diffusion through the air. No similar casualty has
been brought to notice as having happened to tank-ships carrying petro-
leum oil of which the volatility is in accordance with our legal require-
ments, and this points to the prudence of restricting the application of
the tank system to the transport and distribution of such petroleum as
complies with well-established conditions of safety.
Another most remarkable feature connected with the development of
the petroleum industry is presented by the utilisation, within the last few
years, of the vast supplies of natural inflammable gas furnished by the
oil-fields.
In America this remarkable gas-supply was for a long time only
used locally, but before the close of 1885 its conveyance to a distance
by pipes, for illuminating and heating purposes, had assumed large
proportions, one of the- companies in Pittsburgh having alone laid 335
ADDRESS. 45
miles of pipes of various sizes, through which gas was supplied equivalent
in heating value to 8,650,000 tons of coal per annum. Since then the
consumption in and around Pittsburgh has probably been at least
tripled. At the close of 1886 six different companies were conveying
natural gas by pipes to Pittsburgh from 107 wells; 500 miles of pipe,
ranging in diameter from 50 inches to 3 inches, were used by these
companies, 232 miles of which were laid within Pittsburgh itself. The
Philadelphia Company, the most important of these associations, then
owned the gas.supply from 54,000 acres of land situated on all the anti-
clinals around Pittsburgh, but drew its supplies only from Tarentum
and the Murraysville field. It supplied, in 1886, 470 factories and about
5,000 dwellings within the city, besides many factories and dwellings in
Alleghany and in numerous neighbouring villages. The average gas-
pressure at the wells, when the escape is shut off, is about 500 lb. per
square inch, and in the case of new wells this pressure is very greatly ex-
ceeded. In order to minimise the danger from leakage, the gas-pressure
in the city is reduced to a maximum of 13 lb., and is regulated by valves
at a number of stations under the control of a central station. The usual
pressure in the larger lines is from 6 to 8 lb., while in the low-pressure
lines it does not exceed 4: to 5 ounces.
The effect of the change from coal gas to natural gas upon the atmo-
sphere over Pittsburgh has been most marked: formerly the sky was
constantly obscured by a canopy of dense smoke; now the air is clear,
and even white paint may with impunity be employed for the house
fronts.
The very rapid development of the employment of natural gas is not
confined to the neighbourhood of Pittsburgh; it is used for heating
purposes in the cities of Buffalo, Erie, Jamestown, Warren, Olean, Brad-
ford, Oil City, Titusville, Meadville, Youngstown, and perhaps twenty
more towns and villages in Pennsylvania and North-western New York.
_ In North-western Ohio, the cities of Toledo and Sandusky, the towns of
Findlay, Lima, Tiffin, Fostoria, and others in that section are also supplied
with natural gas ; a pipe line has moreover been recently laid to Detroit,
Mich., and it is estimated that in these localities 36,131,669,000 cubic
_ feet of the gas were consumed during last year, superseding 1,802,500 tons
of coal. To the south-west of Pittsburgh there are many smaller places
which consume natural gas ; it also occurs in considerable quantity, and
is being utilised, in Indiana (whence an account has recently reached us
of a terrific subterranean explosion of the gas); and it is at the present:
time contemplated to carry a natural gas-supply to Chicago.
The utilisation of the natural gas of the Russian oil-fields, although
of very ancient date, has hitherto not been extensive, neither does the
magnitude of the supply appear to bear comparison with that of the
Pennsylvanian district.
_ A form of gaseous fyel which has long keen known to technical
46 REPORT—1890.
chemists and metallurgists, but which has of late attracted considerable
attention, especially in connection with the recent interesting work relat-
ing to its applications pursued by Mr. Samson Fox, of Leeds, has become,
within the last four years, a competitor, in the United States, both of the
natural gas of Pennsylvania and of coal-gas. Since Felix Fontana first
produced so-called water gas in 1780, by passing vapour of water over
highly-heated fuel, many methods, differing chiefly in small details, have
been proposed for carrying out the operation, with a view to the ready
and cheap production of the resulting mixture of hydrogen and carbonic
oxide, and numerous technical applications of water-gas have been sug-
gested from time to time, with no very important results, excepting as
regards its use for lighting-purposes. Being of itself non-luminous, its
utilisation in this direction is accomplished, either by mixing it with a
highly Inminous gas, or by causing a hydrocarbon vapour to be diffused
through it ; or the non-luminous flame, produced by burning it in the air,
is made to raise to incandescence some suitably prepared solid substance,
such as magnesia, lime, a zirconium salt, or platinum, whereby bright
light is emitted. The objection to its employment as an illuminant for
use in buildings, to which great weight is attached by us, and rightly,
as sad experience has shown—viz., that, as it consists, to the extent of
about one-half its volume, of the highly poisonous gas carbonic oxide, the
atmosphere in a confined space may be rendered irrespirable by a small
accidental contamination with water-gas, by leakage or otherwise, not
detectable by any odour—appears to constitute no great impediment to
its employment in the United States, as it is now manufactured for
illuminating and heating purposes by a large proportion of their gas-
works, being in some places employed in admixture with a highly luminous
coal-gas, in others rendered luminous by the alternative methods men-
tioned. It is stated that about three-fourths of the illuminating gas now
supplied to the cities of New York, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Jersey, St.
Paul, and Minneapolis, is carburetted water-gas; in Chicago the entire
supply now consists of this gas, and Boston will also soon be supplied
exclusively with it. The use of water-gas for metallurgic work does not
appear to be contemplated in the United States, but it is especially to
such applications of the gas that much attention has been devoted here
in Leeds; and although some eminent experts are sceptical regarding the
attainment of advantages, especially from an economical point of view,
by the employment of this form of gaseous fuel, especially after practical
experience in the same direction acquired in Germany, the technical world
must feel grateful to Mr. Fox for his work in this direction, affording, as it
does, an interesting illustration of the qualities of perseverance and energy
which, when combined with sound knowledge, oftenachieve success in direc-
tions that have long appeared most unpromising; qualities which have
been characteristic of many pioneers in industrial progress in this country.
Leeds has been especially fortunate in the possession of such pioneers,
ADDRESS. 47
_ who, when competition brought about great changes in the particular trade
\ through which, for many generations, this city chiefly enjoyed prosperity
and high renown, developed its power and resources in new directions,
from which success soon flowed in continually increasing measure. The
rapid rise of Leeds to its present high position in industrial prosperity
and national importance most probably dates from the period when its
chief staple industry began to experience serious rivalry, in its own
_ peculiar achievements, on the part of other districts of the kingdom and of
other countries. From early days a flourishing Centre of one of the pro-
vinces of Great Britain most richly endowed with some of Nature’s best
_ treasures, Leeds could scarcely have failed, through the energy, acute intel-
ligence, and powerful self-reliance especially characteristic of the men of
Yorkshire, to rapidly acquire fresh renown in connection with industries
which either were new to the town and district, or had been pursued in
comparatively modest fashion, and which have combined to place the Leeds
of to-day upon a higher pinnacle of commercial prosperity, power, and
influence than her patriotic citizens of old could ever have dreamt of.
An examination into the present educational resources of Leeds places
beyond any doubt the fact that her present prosperity in commerce and
industries is in no small degree ascribable to the paramount import-
ance long since attached here to the liberal provision of facilities for the
diffusion of knowledge among the artisan and industrial classes, and
especially for the acquisition of a sound acquaintance with the principles of
the sciences and their applications to technical purposes, with particular
reference to the prominent local industries, by all grades of those who
pursue or intend to pursue them. There is, probably, no town in the
kingdom more amply provided with efficient elementary and advanced
schools for both sexes, while the special requirements of the artisan are
efficiently met by the prosperous School of Science and Technology. The
resources of the Yorkshire College provide, in addition, a combination of
thorough scientific education with really practical training in the more
mnportant local industries; indeed, during the sixteen years of its con-
finually-progressive work, this institution has acquired so widespread
reputation that students come from abroad to reap the advantages
forded by the unrivalled textile and dyeing departments of the Leeds
ollege. The keen competition now existing between these departments
nd the corresponding branches of the much younger but most vigorous
ister College at Bradford, can only conduce to the further development
ff both, and to their thorough maintenance up to the requirements of
he day.
The very important pecuniary aid afforded to these establishments,
ind to a number of other technical schools in Yorkshire, by one of
he most important of the ancient companies of the City of London, the
Clothworkers, affords an interesting illustration of the good work in the
cause of education performed by those Guilds and, especially of late years,
Pe
48 REPORT—1890.
by means of their flourishing Institute for the advancement of technical
education, which, through its two great instructional establishments in
London, and through the operation of its system of examinations through-
out the country, extending now even to the Colonies, has afforded very
important aid towards eradicating the one great blot upon our national
educational organisation. To have been first in the field in practically
developing a far-reaching scheme for the advancement of technical educa-
tion in this country must continue to be a source of pride to the City of
London and its ancient Guilds in time to come, when the operation of
efficient legislation, supported and extended by patriotic munificence and
by the hearty co-operation of associations of earnest and competent
workers in the cause, shall have placed the machinery and resources for
the technical instruction of the people upon a footing commensurate with
our position among Nations.
The remarkable Address delivered by Owen here in 1858, wherein —
the condition, at that time, of those branches of natural science
which he had made particularly his own was most comprehensively
reviewed, included some especially interesting observations on the
importance to the cultivation and progress of the natural sciences, and
to the advancement of education of the masses in this country,
of providing adequate space and resources for the proper develop-
ment of our National Museum of Natural History; and it cannot
but be a source of great satisfaction and pride to him to have lived to
witness the thoroughly successful realisation of the objects of his own
indefatigable strivings and powerful advocacy in that direction. Com-
prehensive as were the views adopted by Owen regarding the scope and
possible extension of that museum, it may, however, be doubted whether
they ever embraced so extensive a field as was presented for our contem-
plation by his successor last year, when he told us that a natural history
museum should, in its widest and truest sense, represent, so far as they can
be illustrated by musenm-specimens, all the sciences which deal with
natural phenomena, and that the difficulties of fitly illustrating them have
probably alone excluded such subjects as astronomy, physics, chemistry,
and physiology, from occupying departments in our National Museum of
Natural History.
The application, in its broadest signification, of the title, Natural
History Museum, may doubtless be considered to include, not only illustra-
tions and examples of the marvellous works of the Creator and of the
results of man’s labours in tracing their intimate history and their relations
to each other, but also illustrations of the means employed, and of the
results attained, by man in his strivings to fathom and unravel the laws
by which the domains of Nature are governed. But the reason why
representative collections, illustrative of the physical sciences, do not form
part of our National Natural History Museum, has, I venture to think,
ADDRESS. 49
scarcely been correctly ascribable to any difficulty of organising fit
illustrations of methods of investigation, of the attendant appliances,
and of the results attained by experimental research ; it appears rather,
to exist in the fact that physical science has hitherto had no share in such
a combination of circumstances as has been favourable to the good fortunes
and advancement of the natural sciences, and as is analogous to those which,
from time to time, give rise to the provision of increased accommodation
for our National Art Treasures. Our present National Science Collection,
which has, indeed, had a struggle for existence, does not owe the de-
velopment it has hitherto experienced to any such moral pressure as
has been several times exercised in the case of our art collections, by
the munificence of individuals, with the result of securing substantial
aid from national resources; its gradual increase in importance has
been due to the untiring perseverance of men of science, and of a few
prominent influential and public-spirited authorities, in keeping before
the public the lessons taught by careful inquiries, such as those en-
trusted to the Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction, into the
opportunities afforded for the cultivation of science and the development
of its applications, in other Countries, as compared with those provided
here.
The success of the efforts made in 1875 by a committee thoroughly
representative of every branch of experimental science, to bring together
in London an international loan collection of scientific apparatus, and the
widespread interest excited by that collection, led the President of the
Royal Society, in union with many distinguished representatives of science,
to lay before our Department of Kducation a proposal to establish a national
museum of pure and applied science, including the Museum of Inven-
tions, which had already existed since 1860 as a nucleus of a science-
museum, the establishment whereof had formed part of the original
scheme of the Science and Art Department. The Loan Collection of
1876 did, in fact, and in consequence of the urgent representations then
made, first put into practical shape the long-cherished desire of men of
science to see an Institution arise in England similar to the Conservatoire
des Arts et Métiers of France, and it became the starting-point of the
National Collection, representative of the several branches of experimental
science, which has been undergoing slow but steady development since
hat time, patiently awaiting the provision of a suitable home for its
contents. This collection, which illustrates not only the means whereby
the triumphs of experimental research have been and are achieved, but
also the methods by which these departments of science are taught,
ields, small as it is, to none of our national museum. treasures in interest
and importance.
_ In yet another way did that Loan Collection become illustrious: one
of the most interesting features connected with it was the organisation of
a series of important conferences and explanatory lectures, serving to
1890. id
az
50 rEerort—1890.
illustrate, and also greatly to enhance, its value, and affording the best
exemplification of the way in which such collections must exercise direct
influence upon the advancement of science and upon the diffusion
of scientific knowledge. These lectures and conferences demonstrated
the wisdom of the suggestion made by the illustrious representative
of associated Science in Leeds eighteen years previously, that public
access to museums should be combined with the delivery of lectures
emphasising and amplifying the information afforded by their contents.
The example then set of thoroughly utilising for instructional purposes,
and for the advancement of science, a collection illustrative of the
physical sciences, has since heen followed by the Science and Art
Department ; illustrative lectures connected with the existing nucleus of
a national gcience-collection have been delivered from time to time, and
the objerts in the collection are constantly utilised in the courses of
instruction at the adjoining Normal School of Science.
Although the national importance of thoroughly representative and
continuously-maintained science collections has long been manifest, not
only to all workers in science, but also to all who have cared to inquire,
even superficially, into the influence of the cultivation of science upon the
industrial and commercial prosperity of the country, the labours ofa
Royal Commission, and of successive Committees, in demonstrating the
necessity for the provision of adequate accommodation for such collections,
and for their support upon the basis of that afforded to the natural
history collections, have been very long in bearing fruit. However,
lovers of science, and those who have the prosperity of the country near
at heart, have at length cause for rejoicing at the acquisition by the
Nation of a site in all respects suitable and adequate for the accommoda-
tion of the science collections, which, as soon as appropriate buildings are
provided for their reception, will not fail, in comprehensiveness and com-
pleteness, to become worthy of a Country which has been the birthplace
of many of the most important discoveries in science, and of a People who
have led the van among all Nations in making the achievements of
science subservient to the advancement of industries and commerce.
The site selected as the permanent home of our National Science
Collections is immediately in rear of the Natural History Museum, and faces
the stately edifice, now rapidly progressing towards completion, for the
erection of which, as an Imperial memorial of the Queen’s Jubilee, funds
were provided by voluntary contributions from every portion of the Empire
and every class in the Empire’s Nations. The Imperial: Institute, the
conception of which we owe to His Royal Highness the Prince of
Wales, occupies a central position among buildings devoted to the
illustration and cultivation of pure and applied Science and of the
Arts—i.e. the Normal School of Science, the Technical College of the
City and Guilds of London, the National Schools of Art, the Science
Museum, the South Kensington Museum, and the Royal College
ADD2ESS. a1
of Music; to which list we may ere long see added a National Gallery
of representative British Art. A more fitting location could scarcely
be conccived for this pre-eminently National Institution, which has for its
main objects the comprehensive and continuously progressive illustra-
tion—of the practical applications of the vast resources presented by the
Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Kingdoms to Industries and the Arts; of
_ the extent, and the progressive opening up, of those resources in all parts
of the Empire ; of the practical achievements emanating from the results
of scientific research ; and of the utilisation of the Arts for the purposes of
daily life. With the attainment of these objects it will be the function
of the Imperial Institute to combine the continuous elaboration of
systematic measures tending to stimulate progress in trades and handi-
crafts, and to foster a spirit of emulation among the artisan and industrial
classes. Another branch of the Institute’s work, upon which it is already
engaged, is the systematic collection of data relating to the natural
history, commercial geography, and resources of every part of the Empire,
for wide dissemination together with all current information, bearing upon
the commerce and industries of the Empire and of other Countries, which
ean be comprised under the head of Commercial Intelligence. The
achievement of these objects should obviously tend to maintain intimate
intercourse, relationship, and co-operation between the great Home and
Colonial centres of Commerce, Industries, and Education, and to enhance
importantly our power of competing successfully in the great struggle, in
which Nations are continuously engaged, for supremacy in commercial
and industrial enterprise and prosperity.
To the elaboration of the practical details of a system of operation
‘calculated to secure the objects I have indicated, eminent public-spirited
men are now devoting their best energies, with the sanguine expectation
of realising the hope cherished by the Royal Founder of the Imperial
Institute, that this memorial of the completion, by our beloved Sovereign,
of fifty years of a wise and prosperous reign, is destined to be one of the
most important bulwarks of this Country, its Colonies and Dependencies,
by becoming a great centre of operations, ceaselessly active in fostering the
unity, and developing the resources, and thus maintaining and increasing
the pow:2r and prosperity, of our Empire.
B2
A
Rana > 4
re
‘
yey,
, i
REPORTS
ON THE
STATE OF SCIENCE.
avare 2
2 to
‘
-
,
a
A)
ri
REPORTS
Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee, consisting of Mr.
Francis Garon (Chairman), Professor A. W. WILLIAMSON, Sir
DouGLas GALton, Professor Boyp Dawkrns, Sir Rawson Rawson,
Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr. Jonn Evans, Mr..J. Hopkinson, Professor
Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. W.
Wuitaker, Mr. G. J. Symons, General Pirt-RivErs, and Mr. W.
R. MeELpoia (Secretary),
TOPLEY.
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
-ing:—
Rev. H. H. Winwood, M.A., F.G.S.
Mr. William Gray, M.R.LA. .
Mr. John Brown . .
Mr. Charles Pumphrey . .
Prof. B. C. A. Windle, M.D. .
Mr. Alfred E. Hudd, F.S.A. .
Mr. Peter Price . F A
Mr. W. P. J. Fawcus, C.E.
C.E.
Mr. Thomas Cushing, F.R.A.S.
Mr. J. Goodchild, F.G.S. 5
Mr. A. S. Reid, M.A., F.G.S. .
Mr. Robert Brown, R.N.
Mr. William White, F.E.S.
Mr. D. Corse Glen, F.G.8..
Prof. F. O. Bower, M.A., D.Sc.
Mr. W. F. Howard, ‘Assoc.M. Inst.
ON THE
STATE OF
SCIENCE.
_ Tue Corresponding Societies Committee of the British Association beg to
report to the General Committee that the two meetings of the Conference
of Delegates were held on Thursday, September 12, and Tuesday, Sep-
tember 17, 1889, at 3 pP.m., in the Committee Room of Section C, at
The following Delegates were nominated for the Newcastle Meet-
Bath Natural History and Antiquarian
Field Club.
Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club.
Belfast Natural History and Philosophi-
cal Society.
Birmingham Natural History and Micro-
scopical Society.
Birmingham Philosophical Society.
Bristol Museum and Library.
Cardiff Naturalists’ Society.
Chester Society of Natural Science.
Chesterfield and Midland Counties Insti-
tution of Engineers.
Croydon Microscopical and Natural His-
tory Club.
Cumberland and Westmorland Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Literature
and Science.
East Kent Natural History Society.
East of Scotland Union of Naturalists’
Societies.
Essex Field Club.
Geological Society of Glasgow.
Natural History Society of Glasgow.
56 REPORT—1890.
Mr. W. C. Crawford, M.A. . . Philosophical Society of Glasgow.
Rev. A.G. Joyce . ; 2 . Hampshire Field Club.
Dr. John Evans, Treas.R.S. . . Hertfordshire Natural History Society
ana Field Club.
His Honour Deemster Gill . . Isle of Man Natural History and Anti-
quarian Society.
Mr. S. A. Adamson, F.G.S. . . Leeds Geological Association.
Mr. G. H. Morton, F.G.S. . . Liverpool Geological Society.
Mr. I. C. Thompson, F.L.S. . . Liverpool Microscopical Socviety.
Mr. M. B. Slater, F.L.S. ‘ . Malton Field Naturalists’ and Scientific
Society.
Mr. Eli Sowerbutts - : . Manchester Geographical Society.
Mr. Mark Stirrup, F.G.S. ; . Manchester Geological Society.
Prof. G. A. Lebour, M.A., F.G.S. . North of England Institute of Mining and
Mechanical Engineers.
Dr, J. T. Arlidge, A.M... é . North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field
Club.
Mr. C. A. Markham, F.R.Met.Soc. Northamptonshire Natural History So-
ciety.
Mr. Robert Brown, R.N. 5 . Perthshire Society of Natural Science.
Mas Ee Rey Malls DsSe. e. : . Royal Scottish Geographical Society.
Mr. W. Andrews . ¢ : . Warwickshire Naturalists’ and Archeolo-
gists’ Field Club.
Rey. J. O. Bevan, M.A.. C . Woolbope Naturalists’ Field Club.
Mr. J. W. Davis, F.G.S. ; . Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic
Society.
Rev. E. P. Knubley, M.A. . . Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union.
By the sanction of the Council, the Lisbon Geographical Society was
represented by Professor Batalha-Reis.
At the first Conference the chair was taken by Mr. Francis Galton,
the Corresponding Societies Committee being also represented by Dr.
John Evans, Mr. W. Whitaker, and Mr. W. Topley.
The Chairman proposed that the Report of the Corresponding Socie-
ties Committee to the General Committee, printed copies of which had
been distributed among the Delegates, should be taken as read in order
to save time. The proposal was put to the meeting and carried. The
Chairman then invited the Delegates to make any statements respecting
the work done by Committees appointed last year, or in connection with
other subjects referred to in the Report. He suggested that the various
Sections should be taken in alphabetical order.
No statements were made respecting Sections A and B.
Section C.
Erratic Boulders, §c.—The Rey. E. P. Knubley called attention to
the fact that the Yorkshire Natvralists’ Union, working in harmony with
the British Association, were endeavouring to form a Boulder Committee.
They had done very good work for about three years, and they had this
year submitted a number of reports to the British Association Committee,
all of which had been accepted. They had also added a Yorkshire Fossil
Flora Committee, which was working on the same lines as that proposed
by the British Association. No report had been presented as yet, but a
great deal of matter had been collected, and an interim report was to be
presented in November, when the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union held their
annual meeting. They had also appointed a Coast-Erosion Committee,
Which was working in connection with the British Association, and a
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 57
Marine Zoological Committee, which had had one dredging excursion this
ear.
; Geological Photography.—Mr. Knubley next referred to the subject of
geological photography, which had been brought forward in 1888. It
was then felt that the proposal was too vague to bring in any definite
form before the different Societies, but the matter had become more
definite in the course of the year, and he thought that the time had
arrived for proposing that a Committee should be formed to arrange the
collection of photographic views illustrating the geological features of
each county of the United Kingdom.
A discussion ensued as to the mode of procedure to be adopted in
order to give practical effect to the conclusions already arrived at by those
members cf the Corresponding Societies who had been working at the
subject during the year.
Mr. O. W. Jeffs, having been called upon by the Chairman, stated
that the matter had been brought before the Delegates at Bath in 1888,
and had been discussed on that occasion. The proposal had then been
left in an informal condition, and he undertook to communicate with the
Delegates of the different geological societies of the kingdom. He had
done this in an unofficial and private circular, and now had a list of
what each had obtained, as wellasa large collection of photographs, some of
which were very interesting. He added that he had received letters from
a large number of Delegates highly approving of the scheme, and offering
suggestions. These letters would be placed at the disposal of Section C
or of anyone taking the matter up.
No formal recommendation with respect to the subject was passed at
the Conference, as the matter was to be brought before the Committee of
Section C the following day.
Barth Tremors.—Professor Lebour said he had very little to say on
this subject except that the work in his district had been suspended as
the result of the recommendation of the Earth Tremor Committee of the
British Association, which considered that the spot selected for the
instruments was too near the sea, and rocks containing great cavities, and
therefore unsuitable for the experiments. A good deal of time had been
taken up last year in having a new set of instruments made and placed
in another position. They were now ready for work, but no observations
had been taken owing to the change of position.
The Geological Record—Mr. Topley called attention to a circular
which had been distributed among the Delegates, in which it was pointed
out that the publication of this Record of geological literature coulda
not be continued unless the number of subscribers was increased, and he
urged upon those present to assist the cause of science by giving their
own and getting others to give their support. Mr. Whitaker also spake
on behalf of the Record.
No subjects coming within the province of Sections D, E, F, or G
were brought forward.
Secrion H.
Catalogues of Ancient Remains.—Mr. William Gray said that a Com-
mittee of the British Association had been appointed for this purpose,
and the Society which he represented had made a commencement m
58 REPORT— 1890.
Treland, taking the two counties Antrim and Down. They had prepared
a list and maps, plotting on the latter the sites of monuments and ancient
settlements in accordance with the regulation code of signals adopted by
the International Congress on Archeology some years ago. He had the
maps with him, but had not been able to send the communication to the
Secretary of the Committee (Mr. J. W. Davis) in time for that year’s
Report. The list as at present prepared was simply a catalogue in which
it had not been thongkt desirable to give any great amount of detail
beyond references to such authorities as could furnish further information.
The list was to be regarded simply as tentative, and he now submitted it
to the Conference in order to see whether a right start had been made,
and whether any amendments could be suggested. The one-inch Ordnance
sheets had been used as a basis, and these had been plotted in accordance
with the scheme referred to, but they had also tried to avoid a difficulty
(generally met with in catalogues of this kind), and that was the difficulty
of indicating to a stranger the exact position of any given object. They
had adopted a method which he hoped would meet with the approval of
the Conference. Instead of stating the latitude and longitude, or the
relative position from any stated town, they had adopted the simple plan
of stating the sheet on which the object occurred and its distance in
inches from north and west on that sheet. Thus if a certain place A was
said to be six miles from B, no one would get much idea of the position,
but if it was recorded that the place was on sheet 26, six inches from the
top (north) and cight inches from the west, the exact position of the
monument could be at once entered on any other copy of the map, and
then the catalogue reference would give details of any published infor-
mation concerning that monument.
Mr. Gray then exhibited one of the maps (Antrim), and explained
that, instead of making the signs in the same way as that adopted by
the International Congress, which rendered them somewhat indistinct, he
had punched out small pieces of red paper and gummed these on to the
map. In addition to this a concise tabular form had been prepared
giving much information on the subject, a list of the ancient settlements
or sites and the monuments found, their characters and relative numbers,
&c. A list of the standing stones had also been commenced, this list
containing some of the more important ones, and it was hoped to complete
it by degrees so as to comprise all. There was also a list of stone circles,
tumuli, and other sepulchral monuments, castles and stone forts of
Treland, caves, artificial and natural, &c.
Dr. John Evans said that the Delegates might like to know that the
Society of Antiquaries had undertaken an archeological survey of
England. The principle on which that survey was being carried on was
in the main that adopted by Mr. Gray, but for ordinary publication maps
could not be employed on so large a scale. They entered not only the
prehistoric, but the Roman and Saxon remains and earthworks. Each
county would be accompanied by a list which would be classified under
different heads and indexed, so as to show the discoveries which had been
made. It seemed to the Society of Antiquaries that a survey of this
sort would be of great use throughout the kingdom, and they were
appealing to the members of different archeological societies to assist in
carrying it out. Some of the Societies represented, in addition to looking
after the natural history of their districts, were also concerned with their
antiquities. A congress of Delegates had been held in the rooms of the
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 59
Society of Antiquaries, and it was hoped that this would become an
_ annual gathering. They did not intend to compete with the Correspond-
- ing Societies Meeting in this matter; they rather looked upon the
_ Societies meeting here as representing the biological side of all the
questions brought forward, whereas. the Society of Antiquaries repre-
sented the purely archeological side. The survey of Kent had been pub-
lished, others were in hand. The scale was only eight miles to the inch,
but that scale would be found of sufficient size to note all the dis-
coveries, and by means of the index he thought it would prove a most
useful addition to the archeological publications of the country.
: In conciuding the business of the first meeting the Chairman ex-
pressed their indebtedness to Professor Meldola, who had acted as
Secretary to the Corresponding Societies Committee throughout the
year, and to Professor Lebour, who had consented to act as Secretary to
the present Conference.
At the second Conference the chair was taken by Mr. Wm. Topley,
F.R.S., the Corresponding Societies Committee being also represented
by Dr. Garson. The Secretary having read the minutes of the first Con-
_ ference, the Chairman suggested that it would be convenient to follow
the usual course, and before going to miscellaneous business to take up
the suggestions and recommendations from the various Sections.
Section A.
Temperature Variation in Lakes, Rivers, and Hstuaries—Dr. Mill
stated that the report of the Committee appointed last year had been
adopted by Section A with a recommendation for its reappointment with
a grant. The object of the Committee was to accumulate as great a number
of data with regard to the temperature of the surface of lakes, rivers, and
estuaries, and the sea near the shore, as could possibly be obtained, in
order to discuss these in connection with the meteorology of the country.
It was a problem of some difficulty, and the object sought to be obtained
in bringing it before the Corresponding Societies was to spread the work
over a very wide tract of country, so as to get such diverse conditions as
it was impossible to obtain by a few isolated workers. As a result of the
circulars sent to the Corresponding Societies last year, they had obtained
twenty-four sets of observations on the rivers and some estuaries in Eng-
land, twenty-one in Scotland, eleven in Ireland, and one in the Isle of
Man. He did not think it necessary to read the names of the rivers,
but he would merely say that he would be very pleased if the Delegates
present, representing Societies which had not yet seen their way to take
up this work, should, on their return, be able to find out some members
able and willing to make these daily observations on exposed water in
their own neighbourhood. He would be very pleased if they would
communicate with him, or any other member of the Committee, and
instructions would be immediately sent for setting the observations going.
He had a report recently from the Manchester Geological Society
showing the observations made there on the reservoirs of the Oldham
- Waterworks—observations of great interest, and evidently, from the
_ record published in the Transactions of the Manchester Geological Society,
carried out with great detail and in a thoroughly satisfactory and trust-
worthy manner. The success of the research depended entirely on the
60 REPORT—1890.
extent and fulness with which the different observers carried out their
work.
Mr. John Brown said he had brought the matter before the Belfast
Natural History and Philosophical Society. Professor Everett, one of the
members, was strongly of opinion that it was not the business of the local
Societies, but should rather be given to the observers of rainfall, who
were accustomed to making observations of a similar kind, and to a
certain extent were better organised for getting the information than
their own Society.
Mr. A. S. Reid said the East Kent Natural History Society had taken
this matter up since the last meeting, and were now carrying it on, having
two observers on the river Stour. They had not yet published an actual
report in their Transactions, but simply an interim report; a fuller
report was being prepared. The Committee was doing work, and he
believed good work, and was certainly taking a great deal of interest in
the matter, and it had been the means of giving the local Societies some-
thing to do, and also of helping them to affiliate with other Societies round
them. He expressed the opinion that the indication of lines of useful
investigation of this kind had done a great deal of good in bringing
together the Societies in his district.
Dr. Mill, in answer to the remarks made, said that this work which
had been taken up by the Committee, and in which the help of the
Corresponding Societies was wanted, did not in the least degree clash
with any other organisation or the carrying on of any other work. If
all the meteorological observers were willing and able to carry on addi-
tional experiments, it would add a very great deal to the fulness and
completeness of their meteorological reports; but, in point of fact, those
observers had their hands sufficiently full as a rule in taking their daily
observations, and might not care to add to their work. Professor Fitz-
gerald, however, had taken the matter up in Ireland and had obtained
the services of a number of observers, many of whom were rain-gauge
observers—in fact, he thought almost all.
No communication with respect to Section B was brought forward.
Secrion C.
The Chairman announced that Mr. De Rance had been nominated by
the Committee of Section C to represent that Section at the Conference.
Mr. De Rance said that the Committees in which Section C was more
particularly interested, and in which the Corresponding Societies could
be—and, indeed, were—of great value were—
The Underground Waters Committee, of which he happened to be
Secretary. It was appointed some fifteen years ago in the town of Belfast
to inquire into the water of the New Red Sandstone and Permian for-
mations as concerned with the water supply of the town and district.
At subsequent meetings of the Association the scope of its inquiry had
been enlarged until at the present time it comprised the whole of the
porous or permeable formations of this country. The Committee of the
British Association which had been doing this work had done it by
means of forms of inquiry as to the nature of the sections passed through
in wells and borings for water, the effect of faults upon the water-
supply, the character and quality of the water obtained, and the varying
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 61
heights at which the water was found to stand, when the works were
first commenced and after long pumping. The questions were drawn up
with considerable care, and had been added to from time to time, and
he thought they now practically grasped the whole subject. The Secre-
‘tary of the Committee would have great pleasure in giving either a
number of these forms, or a sample copy, to any Secretary of the Corre-
sponding Societies throughout the country who might be desirous of
being supplied with the same. The Committee in their present report
(the fifteenth) laid before Section C comment on the fact that no less
than three Societies have printed valuable information on this subject on
the lines which had been adopted by the Committee of the British Asso-
ciation, and the more important of their sections and details had been
printed in this fifteenth report.
Then there was the Committee of Inquiry into the position and
character of —
Erratic Boulders. Dr. Crosskey, its indefatigable Secretary, intended
in the future to get a series of maps on which the position of the more
important boulders should be entered, and he (Mr. De Rance) believed
it was intended to take the one-inch Ordnance maps and to place upon
them the actual position of the boulders which had been recorded; as
far as possible, the character and point of origin of those boulders are also
being determined. Dr. Crosskey had presented his last report—the seven-
teenth—before Section C, and he (Mr. De Rance) believed that already
the bringing of this work before the Corresponding Societies had borne
fruit. He had received, independently of the British Association, a
circular from the Liverpool and some other area in which evidently an
endeavour had been made to form a committee to go into the subject
on the lines of the original inquiry which had been carried out with so
much success by Dr. Crosskey, who, he knew, was most anxious to give to
the Secretaries of the Societies represented by Delegates copies of the
printed forms of inquiry as to the position of boulders, their nature and
character, and to ascertain from them whether steps should be taken to
preserve them as memorials of the past.
Another Committee was the—
Coast-Erosion Commiltee, which had been taken up by his colleague,
Mr. Topley, who had drawn up all the, valuable reports on coast erosion
already published by the British Association. That Committee required
the rate of erosion of the sea on the coast of this country, and inquired
as to how far that regular erosion had been artificially increased by the
operations of man, by the cutting away of stone upon the sea-cliffs for
economic and building purposes, and by the building of sea-walls in posi-
tions and under conditions which were unadvisable, and by breakwaters
ot leading the water in the right way, which in many cases increased
the coast erosion. Already much valuable information had been put to-
ether by Mr. Topley in the reports which had been published ; but these
only covered a portion of the country, and erosion was gradually and
‘steadily going on all round the coast. The Corresponding Societies which
happened to be on the seaboard had great facilities for studying this
“question: first, in seeing the actual rate of erosion going on at the
present time, and, secondly, in regard to looking up old plans, docu-
_Ments, and deeds, which might show the position of the land in times
- gone by.
_ Geological Photography.—Mr. De Rance said that all would admit
62 rerortT—1890.
the great importance of the subject. Mr. Jeffs had already recorded a
number of photographs, and this was a suitable matter for the local
societies, for there were many local circumstances to be dealt with, and
the best mode of photographing, the best time, and so forth, could only
be dealt with by people living on the spot. Ail the Delegates would feel
that this was a subject they could represent to their Societies as one
which should be carried out.
Mr. Gray said there were erratic blocks in Ireland, particularly in the
north; he did not know whether these blocks had been recorded, but if
such a catalogue would be of any assistance to Mr. De Rance he would
be glad to undertake its preparation for Antrim, Down, and Derry.
Mr. Topley said there should certainly be a record of the boulders of
Treland, but he was afraid the present Committee only referred to the erratic
blocks of England and Wales ; it would, however, be very easy to extend it
"next year if Mr. Gray would forward the information to Dr. Crosskey,
and if that gentleman were not prepared to take charge of it another
Committee could be formed.
Mr. De Rance stated, with respect to the question of erratic blocks,
that as Dr. Crosskey was not present, and as he had had some con-
versation with that gentleman on the question of including Ireland, he
would venture to suggest that it was first of all exceedingly important
and necessary that the boulders of Ireland should be recorded in the
same manner as in England; secondly, as it was too late this year to
include the Irish with the already existing English Committee, a Com-
mittee could easily be formed by Mr. Gray himself, or by cthers in Ireland
who would undertake the inquiry. It should follow the lines, and the
questions should be put in the same way as that adopted by the English
Committee on Erratic Boulders. At the meeting at Leeds the Irish Com-
mittee could, he thought, be amalgamated with the English one; it would
then be a general Boulder Committee, and the reports might be taken to-
gether or separately, and the facts collected during the year would make
the first report.
Professor Lebour, referring to the subject of Geological Photography,
said that, as Mr. De Rance had already mentioned, Section C, since the
first Conference, had had this matter referred to them for consideration,
and he might say there was the greatest possible unanimity when it was
brought up. The subject was one which all geologists would agree was
a most useful one. Mr. Jeffs, as a member of Section C, explained the
system which he and Mr. Adamson had so far adopted ; that method was
regarded as no doubt a good one, but the whole question of detail was left
to the Committee to report upon. He might say that it had been passed
on to the Committee of Recommendations that same day. The members
of the Committee were Professor Geikie (Chairman), Professor Bonney,
Mr. A.S. Reid, Mr. S. A. Adamson, Professor Boyd Dawkins, Mr. W. Gray,
and Mr. Jeffs as Secretary. He thought they would see that the Com-
mittee was chosen with some thought as representing different parts of the
country, so that a considerable area would be covered, and the different
features of the various districts would not be overlooked. The Committee
was not only appointed to do the work of collecting, preserving, and regis-
tering in a systematic way the photographs of places of geological interest,
geological sections, and so on, but he thought in the first instance it was
chiefly for the purpose of seeing how the work could best be carried on in
the future, and one of the most important points they would have to con-
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 63
sider was where the photographs, when once obtained, were to be lodged
and preserved in safety for consultation. That was left, however, to the
Committee to report upon, but there was no reason why the Conference
should not express its views as to what would be a good place. He
thought the best thing would be to communicate to the Secretary of the
Committee any suggestions the Conference might discuss.
Mr. Topley said he would like to say a few words about the Coast-
Erosion Committee. The importance of local observation in this subject
was much impressed on him lately when he paid a visit to Selsea. He
was sure the loss of land at various places (comparing it with the large
six-inch Ordnance Survey maps made, he thought, sixteen years before)
was very large ; he did not know the coast well previously, and could not
tell the annual wear, nor whether it went on evenly. He spoke to Mr.
Clement Reid about it, and he said it was lost during the years since the
“maps were made, but the average did not represent the annual loss, as of
date the rate of erosion had been very rapid. It was impossible for any
but local observers to record such an important fact as that. Local ob-
servers were wanted to take measurements from certain known positions
—the corner of a house, a hedge, or any other fixed object—to make notes
and compare them, and by such means to accurately record what was
going on, and at the same time it would be seen whether the loss was
greater at one place or at one time than at another. It would be a most
desirable thing for local Societies to take up. The Yorkshire Naturalists
Union, as Mr. Knubley told them at the last meeting, had already done
He had hoped that the Isle of Man Society would also have taken
tup; they had applied for forms, and perhaps Deemster Gill would see
to the matter. From Kast Kent they had most valuable information from
Mr. Dowker, a member of the East Kent Natural History Society.
Section D.
Mr, Knubley said that he had been asked to represent Section D and
to bring before the Conference two matters :—
Disappearance of Native Plants——They would remember that Professor
house came last year prepared with a report and found no Committee
ting ; that Committee was, however, revived, and during the course of
year it had apparently done a considerable amount of work. In this
ort, which he held in his hand, they treat of the disappearance, or par-
disappearance, of fifty-five different kinds of plants in Scotland, their
ittention being confined entirely to Scotland for the present; they
ittribute most of the disappearances to the action of dealers and collectors ;
they would be very glad if local naturalists’ societies would take the
matter up and try to chronicle the disappearance of plants as far as they
tan. Professor Hillhouse suggests the use of the eighth edition of the
London Catalogue’ as a basis for their observations. He calls attention
larticularly to the disappearance of certain plants, and shows the way in
which they might disappear—for instance, Hypericum quadrangulum dis-
appeared, having been eaten by cattle or trodden down. In another case
eum reflecwm has disappeared from a wall owing to repairs. Various
ner ways are mentioned, and amongst these drainage seemed to have
been a great cause of the disappearance of native plants!
1 See Reports, 1889, p. 435.
64 nerorT—1890.
Investigation of the Invertebrate Fauna and Cryptogamic Flora of the
British Isles —The other matter he was commissioned to bring before the
Conference was the Committee appointed that day for the above purpose.
The Committee had Canon Norman for its chairman and Professor
Ewart as secretary ; three members for Ireland—Professor A. C. Haddon,
Professor W. R. M‘Nab, and Professor W. J. Sollas; three for England
—Professor Lapworth, Mr. F. E. Beddard, and Dr. H. Scott; and three
for Scotland—Professor Bayley Balfour, Professor J, C. Ewart, and Pro-
fessor J. Geikie. The object of that Committee is to make a systematic
investigation of the rivers and lakes, and it is hoped that the microscopists
will undertake definite scientific work ; they are exhorted, if they take up
this investigation, to take note of the physical features of the stream or
the lake which they study (of course including the geological features),
and of the temperature at different periods of the year, and, in the case of
lakes, at different depths, so that they would be working in conjunction
with the Committee Dr. Mill referred to.
Local Musewms.—Mr. John Brown said it was generally admitted ‘that
the casual visitor to local museums finds a want of interest in the latter
through not knowing what to look at. Of course a scientific person
wishing to look ata particular object goes to that department in which
he is interested. Is occurred to some of them in Belfast to give gratis a
visitors’ guide, pointing out objects of interest, so that they could see
them at once without going through the whole museum. The idea was
to make it as concise as possible, so as to draw attention to the objects of
interest by putting them in heavy type, and therefore enabling the
visitors to find out at once what was to be seen in each department. He
had with him a few copies if any Delegate desired to see them.
Mr. Topley said there was a Committee of the British Association
concerning local museums, but it had Japsed ; it might be reappointed,
and if so, it would be a very good thing to bring that matter before them
as well. It was quite right to mention it at this Conference, but he
thought there had been a Committee specially concerned with these
matters.
Life Histories of Native Plants.—Mr. Knubley, in reply to the Chair-
man, said that he was not asked to say anything about this subject, but it
seemed to him an admirable suggestion, and one which their Committee
should take up.
Mr. Topley asked if anything with respect to Professor Balfour’s
valuable paper, submitted to the Conference last year, had been done in
Section D. Mr. Knubley replied in the negative.
Mr. Gray said that he brought the matter before the Society he
represented, and he knew that a friend of his, who was very well
acquainted with the collection and cultivation of ferns, had undertaken a
series of experiments outside his ordinary work with a view of endeavour-
ing to promote Professor Balfour’s objects.
Mr. Topley suggested that it would be well to bear the subject in mind
and bring it before Section D next year.
Section E.
The Chairman said that he was not aware whether there was present
any gentleman representing Section E, but they were in the interesting
position this year of haying a representative of a foreign Society, Professor
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 65
J. Batalha-Reis, as a Vice-President of that Section. By the sanction
of the Council that gentleman represented at the Conference the Lisbon
Geographical Society. If he had anything to tell them as to the way in
which local Societies could do geographical work they would be glad to
hear him.
The Geographical Society of Lisbon.—Professor Batalha-Reis said that,
having been sent by the Geographical Society of Lisbon as a Delegate, he
should be very glad if his presence on the present occasion led to some good
scientific result. He saw the good work which local Societies were doing
in England in connection with the British Association, and that led him to
the belief that perhaps foreign Societies connected with the Association
might do something useful if they could work systematically under a plan.
He called attention to the capabilities of work of his Society and expressed
the hope that the Geographical Society of Lisbon might perhaps help the
work prosecuted by the British Association in some way. To begin with,
the limits of geography as a science were rather vague, that is to say,
geography was more or less in connection with all other sciences repre-
sented by the different Sections of the British Association. Thus the natural
features of a district, its animals, minerals, and plants were strictly
geographical, and at the same time had relationship with the biological,
geological, and other sciences. Then, as they were aware, his country
had in Africa, by the peculiar situation of their colonies, a large field where
experiments and researches could be prosecuted. At that moment they
had six expeditions working in Central Africa, and not only the leaders of
those expeditions, but, he was pretty sure, all the naturalists connected with
them, were members of the Geographical Society of Lisbon, most of them
working under the instruction of that Society. Then, too, their colonies
were in a very intimate connection with the English colonies in Africa,
so that, if they could establish a joint plan of exploration, say from the
Cape of Good Hope to the furthermost Portuguese settlement, valuable
scientific results ought to be achieved.
No communications or recommendations from Section F were brought
forward.
Section G.
Committee on Flameless Huplosives.—Professor Lebour said the North
of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers had one Com-
mittee which was mentioned last year (that on explosives) in full working
order at the present time. When mentioned last year it was only about
to be appointed ; now it had begun its work, which was not simply that of
xamining the properties of all the so-called flameless explosives; the main
object was a philanthropic one, so that an explosive which a dealer liked to
call flameless, and which was not really flameless, might not be used
unwarily by miners in positions where the use of an explosive carrying a
flame under certain circumstances might be exceedingly dangerous. Now
that they had a good deal more knowledge than formerly of such things as
coal-dust explosions, it became very important indeed to avoid as far as
could be any possibility of having a flame projected by a blown-out shot
or any other currents of that kind inan atmosphere laden with particles of
dust. It was a disputed question as to whether coal-dust itself was
_ dangerous. If coal-dust did not cause an explosion itself it certainly
C ia it. The explosion might be there before the coal-dust had any-
0. FP
66 REPORT—1890.
thing to do with it, but if the coal-dust were present it carried the ex-
plosion farther than it would otherwise have gone, and changed what
might be a harmless, or comparatively harmless, accident into sometimes
a catastrophe of a very destructive character.
Committee on Fan-ventilation—There was another Committee men-
tioned, he thought, last year—a joint Committee of three of the Mining
Institutes of England—the Midland, South Wales, and North of Eng-
land Institutes—appointed to carry out experiments on fans, especially
with a view of observing the working where circumstances were such as
to allow of two kinds of fans working in the same pit, and he had no
doubt the result would be valuable to mining men. They must not
forget that this Conference was one of the local scientific Societies, using
the word in its wide sense, and not only of geological, natural history,
and microscopic clubs, and he thought the report of this joint Committee
would be of very great value to engineers connected with mines and with
such other works as required artificial ventilation. As they had repre-
sentatives from other engineering Societies he would like to say that the
North of England Institute and the others he had mentioned as being
jointly on the Committee would be exceedingly glad to receive any hints
or any information which would tend to the carrying out in the best
possible manner the objects referred to.
Mr. Howard, referring to the combination of the Mining Institutes
which was abont to take place, said that if this federation succeeded it
might be a good hint to other local Societies to combine and have some-
thing in the way of joint publication. That was the principal thing the
Mining Institutes were aiming at at present without at all destroying their
individuality. He thought it was likely to prove successful, and whether
it succeeded or not it was worthy the consideration of other Societies,
concerned in different matters, to see whether they could not similarly
combine, as it would be of great mutual advantage and economy.
Section H.
Committee of Aid.—Dr. Garson said he had to bring forward a matter
of importance from Section H in which the local Societies could assist very
materially. The Anthropological Institute during the preceding year had
had under its consideration the fact that a large number of barrows and
other antiquarian remains were year by year destroyed, not willingly but
by injudicious exploration. They took into consideration whether there
was any possibility of having the explorations of old barrows made on
some definite plan, and for that purpose a Committee of Aid was formed,
consisting of General Pitt-Rivers, Professor Flower (the President of the
Association), Mr. Read (of the British Museum), Mr. Hilton Price, Mr.
Lewis (Treasurer of the Anthropological Institute), and himself. This
Committee was elected by the Council of the Anthropological Institute to
draw up aseries of directions for those who desire to explore barrows and
other ancient remains. Special directions might be wanted in certain
cases, and they would be extremely glad if anyone who was desirous of
exploring a barrow would communicate with the Secretary of this
Committee of Aid. The Committee was not formed for the purpose of
exploring barrows, but to give advice to those who were about to under-
take such exploration. They wished it distinctly understood that they did
not wantto interfere in any way withor to takethe credit for any work under-
. CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 67
taken. They only wished to have the work performed to the best advantage.
It was not uncommon for a certain investigator, who was interested in
pottery, to dig up one of those ancient structures and extract all the
pottery. There might be other relics of great importance—there might
be skulls or bones cf various animals, all of which were important in
fixing the date of the barrow or the habits of the people, and these things
_ were all lost. In like manner people who were searching for human
_ remains only were likely to overlook all the other things, such as works
_ of art and other objects, which yield very valuable information. What
_ they wanted made known as widely as possible was that the Committee was
anxious to have communications sent to it and to know of all the work
that was going on, and he thought they would see that that was a matter
in which local Societies could materially assist. He had no doubt that if
the explorations were carried on on a distinct system, such as that which
the Committee would be able to suggest, very valuable results would be
obtained where now a great deal of information was lost. He therefore
commended this subject very specially to their attention. In local
museums they had placed a printed card giving the address of the
Secretary at the Anthropological Institute, 5 Hanover Square, London,
where all communications regarding finds or explorations about to be
made should be sent.
Prehistoric Remains Committee.—In reply to a question put by the
Chairman, Dr. Garson said that this Committee, of which Mr. J. W.
Davis was the Secretary, had through an oversight been allowed to lapse
last year. They had, however, presented avery excellent report this year,
and had applied for reappointment. !
At the conclusion of the scientific business a discussion took place
respecting the placing of Delegates on the Sectional Committees. The
following resolution was finally put to the meeting and carried :—
‘That the relations of Delegates to the Sectional Committees as at
present existing are unsatisfactory, and that the matter be referred to the
Corresponding Societies Committee for their consideration.’
With reference to this resolution the Committee have to report that,
after giving the matter careful consideration, they have come to the
conclusion that they possess no power under the present rules of the
_ Association of attaching Delegates to the Sectional Committees.
The Committee beg to recommend that the General Committee should
sanction the retention of all the Corresponding Societies now enrolled,
and that the Leeds Naturalists’ Club and Scientific Association should be
added to the list.
1 The Committee, consisting of Sir John Lubbock (Chairman), Mr. J. W. Davis
(Secretary), Dr. J. Evans, Professor Boyd Dawkins, Dr. R. Munro, Messrs. Pengelly
and Hicks, Professor Meldela, and Dr. Muirhead, was appointed.
re =u .
1890.
REPORT
68
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69
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1890.
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92 REPORT—1890. —
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of the Hon. Rapa
ABERCROMBY, Dr. A. BucHan, Mr. J. Y. Bucwanan, Mr. J.
WIiLLis Bunp, Professor CurystaL, Mr. D. CunnincHamM, Pro-
fessor FITZGERALD, Dr. H. R. Mitt (Secretary), Dr. JOHN
Murray (Chairman), Mr. Isaac Roserts, Dr. H. C. Sorsy,
and the Rev. C. J. Stewarp, appointed to arrange an
investigation of the Seasonal Variations of Temperature in
Lakes, Rivers, and Estuaries in various parts of the United
Kingdom in co-operation with the local societies represented on
the Association.
As in previous years, the work of this Committee was carried on by cor-
respondence and by occasional informal meetings of a few of the members.
The Committee was reappointed at the Newcastle meeting of the Asso-
ciation in 1889 without a grant, and its work has been carried on at the
expense of the Secretary. Four new observing stations were instituted,
and regular observations have been carried on at thirty, at least, of the
stations existing at the date of last report.
Most of the original observers for the Committee have, for various
reasons, been obliged to cease observing, and many of them, on account of
their other duties, have only been able to keep occasional records of tem-
perature. Mr. G. Taylor, gardener to His Grace the Duke of Argyll, at
Inveraray, and Mr. J. Paterson, Almond Bank, commenced the daily
observation of temperature in rivers at the beginning of January 1888,
and are prepared to carry on the work. Thanks to the interest taken in
the subject by many of the Corresponding Societies cf the Association, a
number of very valuable records are now being obtained, with a continuity
and completeness which could not be expected from unattached observers.
The Dumfries and Galloway Natural History Society, through the Rev.
Wm. Andson, an enthusiastic meteorologist, has accumulated many data
regarding the rivers Nith and Dee and their estuaries in the Solway Firth.
Mr. Andson has discussed and summarised the earlier observations in a
very interesting paper presented to his Society. ‘he Bristol Channel,
analogous in many respects to the Solway, has received attention from
the Bristol Naturalists’ Society and the Cardiff Naturalists’ Society, each
of which employs several observers, the former having the English and
Welsh Grounds Lightship and the latter the Breaksea Lightship as
observing stations. The Hast Kent Natural History Society maintains
observations on the Stour and the Medway, and Colonel W. H. Horseley,
R.E., who takes a keen interest in the subject, has sent in a valuable sam-
mary of the results already obtained to the Committee. The Manchester
Geological Society has printed the complete series of observations made
under its auspices by Mr. W. Watts, F.G.S., on the Denshaw and Piethorn
reservoirs, near Oldham. Mr. J. Reginald Ashworth, of the Rochdale
Literary and Scientific Society, has made similar observations on the
reservoirs at Cowm, Clay Lane, and Springmill, and Mr. Eunson has
made an admirable comparison of the temperature of the Northampton
reservoir and the river Nene, under the auspices of the Northampton
Natural History Society. Mr. H. Preston, for the Grantham Scientific
Society, and Mr. F. KE. Lott, for the Burton-on-Trent Natural History
Society, are investigating the conditions of their neighbouring rivers.
The Marlborough College Natural History Society has also undertaken ~
ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 93
similar work. To all of these Societies, to their secretaries, and espe-
cially to their observers, the Committee has to record deep obligations.
The object which the Committee has in view is to investigate the
changes in the temperature of exposed water-surfaces with the seasons,
and the modifying influences of situation, rapidity of flow, and other con-
ditions. The rivers in which observations have now been made differ
widely in geographical and climatic condition, the cool, equable climate of
Caithness and the great range of temperature experienced in Kent being
extreme types. In addition to the observations detailed in the accom-
panying tables, the Committee will have access to a good deal of previously
printed but undiscussed observations, and to an immense mass of unpub-
lished observations in the keeping of the Scottish Meteorological Society.
It is also hoped that the observations of the Fishery Board for Scotland,
the Tweed River Commission, the Severn Fishery Board, and other
public bodies which have been induced by various members of this Com-
raittee to undertake observations will become available for discussion.
Impressed with a sense of the importance of this research to the science
of Meteorology, and incidentally to many practical matters, the Committee
appeals to the British Association for assistance in discussing these obser-
vations, asking to be reappointed, with a grant of 50/., for the purpose of
drawing up a complete report.
Statement of Observations Collected by the Committee.
River, &c. Observers Period of Observations
I.—In ENGLAND.
Luge . ’ . | Mr. A. Ward, Aymestrey . | Apl. 25, 1889-Sept. 27, 1889
Avon (Warwick) | Mr. G. Duke, Hill Wooton —
Severn . i . | Mr. E. Collens, Stourport . | Mar. 25, 1889-May 31, 1890
1 Taff - 5 . | Mr. Pettigrew, Cardiff . . | Feb. 17, 1889 (in progress)
1 Breaksea Lightship | Mr. Walters . . , | Mars, 1889 ,, .
2Avon . C . | Mr. 8. W. Sutcliffe, Clifton —
* English and Welsh | Messrs. Pain and Bartlett . | Feb. 6, 1889 (in progress)
Grounds Lightship
’Kennet . : . | Messrs. W. B. and H. G. | Dec. 9, 1888 (in progress)
Maurice, Marlborough
4Stour . : . | Mr. H. Dean, Canterbury . | Dec. 13,1888 ,, f
1 Medway . é . | Sergeant-Major Bolton, New | Mar. 25, 1889 ,, 43
: | Brompton
Nidd . A . | Mr. G. Paul, Knaresborough . | Mar. 16, 1889 ,, as
Dove 4 " . | Mr. H. H. Brindley, Uttoxeter | Mar. 17, 1889-Nov. 27, 1889
Sifrent, . : . | Mr. F. E. Lott, Burton . . | Jan. 7, 1889 (in progress)
® Nene and reservoir. | Mr. Eunson, Northampton . | Jan. 1,1889 ,, 4
7 Witham. A . | Mr. H. Preston, Grantham . | Apl. 2, 1889 _,, -
§Denshaw and Pie- | Mr. W. Watts, F.G.S., Old- | Jan. 1,1889 ,, 3
thorn Reservoirs ham |
' Under the care of the Cardiff Naturalists’ Society; Mr. R. W. Atkinson, Secretary.
* Under the care of the Bristol Naturalists’ Society ; Mr. A. Leipner, Secretary.
% Under the care of the Marlborough College Natural History Society.
* Under the care of the East Kent Natural History Society ; special oversight of
Col. W. H. Horseley, R.E.
5 Under the care of the Burton-on-Trent Natural History Society.
® Under the care of the Northampton Natural History Society.
7 Under the care of the Grantham Scientific Society.
* Under the care of the Manchester Geological Society; Mr. Mark Stirrup, F.G.S.,
Secretary.
94 REPORT—1 890.
STATEMENT OF OBSERVATIONS COLLECTED BY THE COMMITTEE (continued).
oF ae ,
River, &c. Observers | Period of Observations |
In ENGLAND (continued).
Cowm, Clay Lane, | Mr. J. Reginald Ashworth, | Mar. 1, 1890 (in progress)
~
and = Springmill Rochdale
Reservoirs
Sea at Dover . . | Capt. J. Gordon McDakin . | Feb, 7, 1889 ,, <
II.—In ScorLanp.
Dochart, Lochay, | Messrs. P. Macnair and J. | Jan. 4, 1888—June 9, 1888
and Loch Tay McRae
Tummel . A . | Mr. J. Kennedy, Ballinling . | Jan. 25, 1888-July 21, 1888
Tay and Braan . | My. C. Macintosh, Dunkeld . | Mar. 17,1889-June 20, 1890
Almond . 3 . | Mr. J. Paterson, Almond Bank | Jan. 4, 1888 (in progress)
Tay at Perth . . | Messrs. Dow, Wilson, and | Dec. 4, 1886—May 13, 1888
Mechie
Earn 3 Mr. J. Ellis, Bridge of Earn. | Jan. 18, 1888-June 9, 1888
Thurso at Lochmore, Messrs. J. Gunn, A. Harper, | Oct. 15, 1885—Dec. 17, 1888
Dale and Thurso J. B. Johnstone, D. Gunn,
| D. Campbell, and others
| Forss . P . | Mr. W. Smith, Forss, Caith- | Aug. 2, 1888-Dec. 11, 1888
ness
Wick . 5 : Sergeant McKay, Watten . | Jan. 16, 1888—April 16, 1888
> : Mr. Simpson, Wick : Jan. 28, 1888—April 16, 1888
Glass | Rev. C. C. McKenzie, Strath- Noy. 24, 1888—Mar. 16, 1889
glass
Dee Z , .| Mr. J. McKay, Kincardine —
O’Neill
Eden. 5 . | Mr. F. Peddie, Cupar-Fife . | Nov. 30, 1888-Jan. 12,1889 |
Aray Mr. G. Taylor, Inveraray . | Jan, 4, 1888 (in progress)
Lochrutton (Kirk- Mr. Lindsay . 2 : . | Sept. 13, 1888—Aug. 19, 1889 |
cudbright)
2 Nith - . | Rev. W. Andson, Dumfries . | Ap]. 15,1889 (in progress) |
2Nith Estuary . Mr. Lewis, Kingholm Quay . | June 25, 1889-May 31,1890 |
2 Dee(Kirkcudbright) Rev. W. Ireland Gordon, | Sept. 9, 1889 (in progress)
Tongland i
2?Dee Estuary . . | Mr. Neil McDonald, Little | Aug. 1, 1889-July 31, 1890
Ross Lighthouse
Sea at Scrabster | Mr. J. Watson Kerr é . | Feb, 22, 1888-Mar. 22, 1890
(Caithness) |
III.—In IRELAND.
Belvedere Lake . | Mr. Bayliss, Mullingar . . | Jan. 1, 1889_Dec. 31, 1889
Sea at Moville . | Mr. Lowry F i ea Jan, 14, 1889-June 22, 1890
The periods of observation given above are merely the dates of the
first and last observation ; in some cases the work was not continuous.
1 Under the care of the Rochdale Literary and Scientific Society.
2 Under the care of the Dumfries and Galloway Natural History Society.
a
a
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 95
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor G. Carey Foster,
Sir WILLIAM THomson, Professor AYRTON, Professor J. PERRY,
Professor W. G. Apams, Lord RayLeicH, Dr. O. J. Lopar, Dr.
Joun Hopkinson, Dr. A. Murrueap, Mr. W. H. Preece, Mr.
HERBERT TAYLor, Professor EVERETT, Professor ScHuUSTER, Dr.
J. A. FLeminG, Professor G. F. FirzGEraLp, Mr. R. T. Guaze-
BROOK (Secretary), Professor CurysTaL, Mr. H. TomMuinson, Pro-
fessor W. GARNETT, Professor J.J. THomson, Mr. W. N. SHaw,
Mr. J. T. Borromiey, and Mr. T. Gray, appointed for the
purpose of constructing and issuing Practical Standards for
use in Electrical Measurements.
THE work of testing resistance coils has been continued at the Cavendish
Laboratory. A table of values found for the coils is appended :—
Legal Ohms.
No. of Coil
Resistance in Legal Ohms
Nalder, 1577
Nalder, 1578
Nalder, 1579
Edison Swan, 16
Elliott, 229
Elliott, 230
Simmons .
Nalder, 1626
Nalder, 1627
Nalder, 1628
. Nalder, 1580
Reetecoaeee
ZAAwWA wm A
Se Oe OL AO" OS
A
2
«199
"99981
1-00089
100041
“99846
1:00028
1:00021
“99992
100045
1:00056
1:00058
100072
Temperature
16°-9
16°-9
16°-9
13°9 |
16°-9 |
16°°9
16°8
15°3
15°3
14°-8
15°°3
It would be of considerable advantage in the testing if all the coils
were made of a uniform size.
The original standards of the Association
measure 6? inches from the bottom of the case to the underside of the
horizontal portion of the copper connecting-rods, while the vertical portion
_of these rods is 8 inches in length. These dimensions should be adopted
in all coils sent to be tested. If this be done, the baths, &c., made to hold
the standards hold the coils equally well, and the additional convenience
in testing is very great.
The original standards of the Association have again been several
times compared among themselves.
The results of the comparisons appear to show that while the coils A,
B, C, D, E, and Flat have remained constant relative to each other; the
three platinum silver coils F, G, and H have changed.
96 REPORT—1890.
The change in F was referred to at the end of the Report in 1888, and
is now very large. The coil has increased in resistance by abont ‘0006
B.A. unit; G, on the other hand, has fallen by about ‘0002 B.A. unit,
and H by about ‘0001 unit. The evidence for these various statements is
given in an appendix to the Report by the Secretary.
It is perhaps worth remark that in each case the change either took
place during the time that the coil was immersed in ice or was found to
have happened when the coil was next measured after its removal from
the ice.
The legal ohm coils have not varied relative to Flat.
The investigations into the resistance of copper have been continued
by Mr. Fitzpatrick. The Committee desire again to thank the gentlemen
who have rendered him assistance.
Mr. Fitzpatrick has examined various specimens of copper supplied
him as wire. He has also examined copper prepared for him as pure by
Messrs. Sutton, as well as some which he prepared himself electrolytically
from carefally purified copper sulphate. These last two specimens lead
to practically the same value as that obtained by Matthiessen for the
specific resistance of copper—-viz., 1767 x10-® B.A. units at 18°; the
specific gravity of these specimens is about 8°90. Two wires supplied to
him have, however, a distinctly lower resistance : the value for one being
1731 x10-°, and for the other 1724x10~°; a difference in the one case of
2 and in the other of 2°4 per cent. The specific gravity of the first of
these wires is 8940 and of the other 8:946, and Mr. Fitzpatrick assigns
the increased conductivity to increased density rather than to greater
urity.
; Matthiessen gives his results for the resistance of copper at 0°. The
observations were, however, made mostly at a temperature of 18° or 20°,
and reduced to 0° by the use of a temperature coefficient ; so that the
value at 18° found from that at 0° by the same coefficient will probably
vepresent the result of Matthiessen’s work more accurately than the one
he gives himself. Various other points of importance are discussed in
Mr. Fitzpatrick’s appendix. He hopes to be able to give the results for
some copper prepared by chemical
means by Mr. Skinner and himself.
He has also made a number of mea-
surements on silver, but these are not
yet complete.
Dr. Muirhead and the Secretary
have both been working indepen-
dently at the construction and mea-
surement of a standard air condenser.
Two such condensers have been
made for the Committee by the Cam-
bridge Scientific Instrument Com-
pany, on a plan suggested by Dr.
Muirhead, and meutioned in the last
report. The capacity of each of these
is about ‘02 microfarad. Some slight
alterations are required to one of
FERS these, the other is completely satis-
factcry. Its capacity has been repeatedly found, and remains constant
to at least within 1 in 2,000, which is about the limit of accuracy
Fig. 1.
acseescuse==-=->
Ae
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 97
attained. Its insulation resistance is good, the loss by leakage being
about 1 in 1,000 of the total charge per 1 minute. It has been found
_ possible to compare readily with this standard various mica condensers
_ having capacities of 1, ‘5, “1, and ‘05 microfarad. The accuracy of these
_ determinations is about 1 in 2,000. A full account of the construction of
the condensers and of the method of making the various tests is given in
_ an appendix by the Secretary, while Dr. Muirhead has contributed some
- notes on his own condensers and tests.
Another appendix contains an account of a very careful and interest-
ing comparison between the standard mercury thermometers of the Asso-
ciation and a platinum resistance thermometer constructed by Mr. HE. H.
Griffiths. The resistance thermometer was graduated by means of
Regnault’s numbers for the vapour pressure of water at various tempera-
tures between 0° and 100°.
. The curve of corrections obtained in this way is exactly parallel to that
given by the Kew comparisons ; there is throughout the range a constant
difference of 0°-02 between them. This amount is within the limits of
error on the mercury thermometer.
The question of the best value to adopt for the dimensions of a
mercury column having a resistance of 1 ohm has been raised by some
members of the Committee during the year. There is no doubt that the
column of 106 centimetres adopted by the Paris Conference in 1884
is too short.
After a discussion of the results of the most recent observations, the
following resolutions were adopted by the Committee :—
1. The Committee recommend for adoption as a standard of resistance
sufficiently near to the absolute ohm for practical purposes the resistance
of a column of mercury 1063 cm, in length 1 square mm. in section at a
iemperature of 0° C.
2. That for the purpose of issuing practical standards of resistance
the number ‘9866 be adopted as the ratio of the B.A. unit to the ohm.
_ Thus the new unit may be obtained from the B.A. unit by increasing
it in the ratio unity to ‘9866; or, to put it differently, the specific resist-
ance of mercury, in B.A. units is taken as ‘9535 x 104, and the length of
a colamn of mercury which has a resistance of 1 B.A. unit as 10487 em.
Phe specific resistance of mercury in ohms is ‘9407 x 10%, while the ohm
8 1:0136 B.A. units.
_ In conclusion, the Committee wish to ask for reappointment, to enable
hem to continue the work of constructing and issuing standard instru-
nents. Of the grant of 501. made at Newcastle only 12/. 17s. has been
rawn. In order to check any further change in the values of the B.A.
mits and to render it less necessary to employ the original standards in
li the comparisons which are made, it is desirable that the Committee
uld possess three or four copies of the B.A. unit; while, to enable
aparisons to be made between the new air condensers and condensers
apacity comparable with a microfarad, a resistance box going up to
several hundred thousand ohms is required.
_ The Committee are of opinion that they should be in a position to
‘chase these resistances ; they therefore recommend that they be reap-
pointed, with a grant of 100/., that Professor Carey Foster be the Chair-
man and Mr. R. 'T’. Glazebrook the Secretary.
1899. It
98 REPORT—1890.
APPENDIX I.
On the Values of certain Standard Resistance Coils.
By R. T. Guazesroox, F.R.S.
Tue B.A. Unit STanparps.
The Standard B.A. units of the Association have during the year
been several times compared together both by the Secretary and by Mr.
Fitzpatrick. Table I. gives the results of two sets of comparisons made
in August 1890; the differences between the various coils and the
platinum silver standard Flat are given in the third column in bridge-
wire divisions. One bridge-wire division is very nearly ‘00005 B.A.
unit.
TABLE I.—Resistance of the B.A. Standards, August 1890.
pierence between each coil
an lat in bridge-wire , J Change of
Coil Tapio divisions ree resistance
calculated per 1° in
Observed From chart b.w.d.
Aug. 15, 1890 1888
A 17:2 27°8 33°0 - 52 28°6
B 17°4 30°5 30°5 0:0 28°8
C 17°6 22°2 23°0 - 08 14:2
D 17°25 61:2 63°5 — 213 61:7
BE 17°3 79'°2 795 -— 03 60°7
F 17:3 3:2 = © SAF 12°7 57
G Liz(ehs} — 22:0 - 18:0 -— 40 5:5
H 17:4 - 170 — 15:0 -— 2:0 5°6
August 19
A 18:8 67°5 69°5 — 2:0 28°6
B 17°8 60°6 62:0 seed: 28°8
Cc 19-2 316 36°0 44 14°2
D 18°8 145:7 151 5:3 61:7
E 19:0 170°6 17:3 2°4 60:7
F 18°9 2°9 = Us 12°4 ‘shat (
G 19:0 - 21°8 - 18:0 - 38 55
H 19:0 - 177 - 15:0 = 7 56
In the fourth column are given the corresponding differences
obtained from the chart made in 1888. In the next column will be found
the differences between the observed values and those given by the chart,
while the sixth column gives the change in resistance for 1° C. for the
various coils. It wiil be seen that for the first five coils the differences
between observation and the chart are such as would be readily
accounted for by a small error in the temperature, and we may say that
there is no evidence of a change in the resistance of these coils relative
to Flat. This conclusion is borne out by the results of a series of obser-
vations made in January and February by Mr. Fitzpatrick. But when
we come to the three platinum silver standards, F, G, H, the results are
at once seen to be quite different. Thus F would appear to have risen
relatively to Flat by about 12°5 bridge-wire divisions, while G and H have
fallen by 4 and 2°5 divisions respectively.
Since these are the most important standards, their temperature
coefficients being all very small, it was necessary to examine their history
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 99
with some care. A change in F had been noted ina postscript to the
Report for 1888. The general conclusions of that Report were that up
to the summer of 1888 there had been no change in the value of the coils.
It was shown that all the original platinum silver coils examined then—
those of Messrs. Elliott, H. A. Taylor, aud others, as well as those belong-
ing to the Committee—had apparently fallen in value relatively to the
mean B.A. unit by about :0007 B.A.U. since 1867, but evidence was
adduced to show that the fall was only apparent, due to an error in the
temperature coefficient used at that date. A single observation of
Chrystal in 1876 pointed to the possibility of a change in F, but that
change was not confirmed by other evidence ; while so far as the platinum
silver coils were concerned, the observations of Dr. Fleming in 1881, and
_ myself in 1888, agreed closely.
Since 1888, however, changes have shown themselves.
These are evidenced by the three following tables II., III., and IV.,
which give the differences Flat—F, Flat—G and Flat—H respectively.
Taste Il.—Value of Flat—F.
Date Temperature Value
i 10:0 105
Chart 1888 5 : ; 15-0 9:5
1 20:0 85
May 16,1888 . ; F : 14°8 9-0
PME 2s) oy é : 5 0-0 30
BUCY Sy rn g5 os 5 e ; 14°8 3°8
Pedy 13, 5 . « . 2 : 14:2 4-2
mouly 13, 5 . ; : : 14:6 33 |
ialyela, 450° : : 14:7 3°3
iv 7 ar : - = 16°7 4:2
Jan. 1890 . : : 5 10:0 -4£:0
May TE ‘ F : 14:4 ashy
Aug. as ; 3 ‘ 5 16:9 -3°2
| Aug. ‘gc 5 5 ; 16°7 -3°0
Taste IIl.—Value of Flat—G.
Temperature Value
10:0 175
15:0 18-0
20:0 18°5
14:6 16°6
10:0 16°9
45 16-7
6:0 16°6
14:4 21°5
16:0 21-4
16:0 22:2
16:0 22-2
16:0 22:2
19-0 21:8
17:0 22:3
16°5 22°6
16°5 22°5
100 ReEPORT—1890.
Tasre 1V.—Value of Flat—H.
Date Temperature Value
J) 10:0 15:5
Chart 1888 15:0 155
L 20 0 155
July 1888 a . : : 14:6 14:1
Jan. 27,1890 . : 3 3 10:0 17:6
Sven Oe sy 3 : : ; 4:5 VES
Feb, 4, ” . . . . 60 16°5
May 31, ,, : : : A 14:1 18°3
June 10, ,, 5 v ; : 16-0 1871
divas Rla eas 4 : 5 2 16-0 VET
June 1%, ,, . . 5 6 16-0 16-4
June 13, ,, : c ; 16:0 16°8
LMS SS Sten : - : , 19°0 ner
Aug. 15, ,, : : 5 4 17-4 17:0
Aug. 28, ,, ; : ; 17-0 17:8
Ae. 29), 5, : : 5 L 16:4 18:2
The first three lines in each table give the differences, at the tempera-
ture shown, taken from the chart drawn in 1888 ; the remaining lines give
the differences actually observed, with the dates and temperatures. Thus,
taking the various coils, itis clear that while up to May 1888 the difference
between I’lat and F remained the same as shown by the chart and obser-
vations up to that date, a change took place during the low-tempera-
ture observations in July 1888, while by the time the coils were again
examined in January 1890 a further change had manifested itself. This
continues up to the present date, so that now at temperature of about
15° the coil F has increased in resistance relatively to Flat by about
12-7 bridge-wire divisions. This, assuming the whole change to be in F,
will correspond to a rise of resistance of ‘00063 B.A. unit, or in other
words the temperature at which the coil is right has failen by about 2°-3.
In January 1830 the coils were again exposed to a low temperature, and
it seems probable that the changes took place when the coils were in ice.
From the values in Table III., which gives the values of Flat—G, we
see there is no evidence of change till May 1890. The observations in
July 1888 and January and February 1890 are quite in accordance with
the chart, but in May 1890 it is clear that G has fallen relatively to Flat.
The value of the difference at a temperature of 16° is 22°1 b.w.d. as
against 18°1 given by the chart. Thus G has fallen relatively to Flat by
4 b.w.d., or ‘0002 B.A. units. This change was first observed after the
coils had been exposed to a low temperature.
With regard to H the change first showed itself during the low-
temperature observations in January and February 1890, and Table IV.
indicates that the difference between Flat and H is now 17°5 divisions as
against 15°5 in 1888, or in other words, that G has fallen by ‘OOOL B.A.
unit. Also since Flat—F changed in 1888, while Flat—G and Flat—H
did not, we infer that the change at that date was in F, not in Flat;
while since Flat—H changed in January 1890 without a change in
Flat—G, it appears that the change was in H, not in Flat; and finally,
from the observations in May 1890, which show a change in Flat—G
but never in Flat—H and Flat—F, we infer a change in G. :
2 LL&L <<
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 101
As to the cause of these changes, we can say but littie. We hope to
investigate them more completely by the aid of the coils lent by Mr.
H. A. Taylor and others, and referred to in the 1888 Report; but it
seems possible that they are due to strains set up in the wire by the
great contractions and expansions produced by cooling and heating in
the paraffin in which the coils are embedded. The coil Flat is of a
different shape from the others, and little or no paraffin has been used in its
construction. The other coils, F, G, H, are embedded in paraffin in the
usual way. On cooling down to 0°, this shrinks greatly, and it is quite
conceivable that this shrinkage may have strained the coils and so caused
the change. We hope to test this by having coils made free from parafiin
and investigating with them the effects of repeated heating and cooling.
The fall of Hand G would be accounted for by a loss of insulation
causing a slight leak either from the wire to the case or across the surface
of the paraffin. The insulation resistance for F, G, H, was therefore
tested and found in each case to be several thousand megohms, while the
surface of the paraffin which had become dirty with time was scraped,
but without producing any change in the resistance. A leak, of course,
would not produce the rise found in F.
Observations of the coils at 0° have always been unsatisfactory and
attended with considerable difficulty. This is mainly due, I believe, to
the fact that the temperature of the room in which the observations have
been made has usually been above zero, and that heat is conducted into
the coils by the thick copper connecting-rods. It would seem possible,
however, that part of the difficulty (See Report of the Committee for
1888, Table VII.) may have been due to real changes in the resistance
arising from strains set up by the cooling.
Tue Lecan Onm STANDARDS.
The results of observations on the legal ohm standards of the Associa-
tion are given in the Report for 1886. Experiments made on. these
between July 1884 and January 1886 showed that while one coil, ©, 100,
had retained its value unchanged, the other, , 101, had varied. These
observations have been continued, and the results are shown in the
following tables, which give the value of each coil as found by direct
comparison with the standard B.A. units, and its value as given by the
chart in 1886.
Taste V.—Results for ¢, 100.
Tem-
Standard used in . Value on ae
pte comparison perature Walve Chart | a
Feb. 1887 F 16:3 1:00009 1-00008 “00001
Noy. 1889 G 158 “99997 99996 | ‘00001
“1 a 14°8 ‘99971 ‘99968 | -00003
3 3 16:0 “99998 1:00000 | -00002
Dec. 1889 Flat 14-4 “99962 99959 | :00003
“4 A | 14:8 -99969 99968 | -00001
os 7 Lear pal *99925 “99924 ‘00001
— == 62 | ‘99744 | 99735 | 00009
_— — | 57 | 99729. | “99720 “00009
102 REPORT—1890.
Taste VI.—Results for ¢, 101.
Sts dusedin | Tem- Value Valueon Chart!) y-~ |
Date agg eos | perature | found in 1885, 1886 Difference
Feb. 1887 F 16:3 *99970 “99930 “00040
Nov. 1889 G 15:9 “99955 "99920 “00035
> 5 15°1 *99932 “99899 ‘00033
a 5 16:0 ‘99955 "99922 00033
Dec. 1889 Flat 14-4 “99909 “99880 ‘00029
~ 15-0 *99925 “99897 -00028
3s 23 13°3 “99879 “99850 “00029
A= _ 76 "99725 ‘99695 “00030
wen = 65 | “99701 +99668 00033
These tables show three facts conclusively: (1) That up to December
1889 no appreciable change had taken place in the relative values of
G, 100—the Legal Ohm Standard—and Flat or G; (2) that between
J anuary 1886 and February 1887 ¢, 101, which had varied pre-
viously, changed by about ‘0004 ohm; and (3) that the greater part of
that change has remained permanent up to December 1889. At present
the difference between ¢, 100 and , 101 is about ‘0004; in 1886 it
was about ‘0008. The agreement between the observations in November
and December 1889—in one set of which Flat was the standard of com-
parison, while in the other G was used—show that the relative change in
G and Flat took place after this date.
APPENDIX II.
On the Air Condensers of the British Association. By R. T. GLazeBRoox
(with a Note by Dr. A. MurrueaD).
The question of issuing certificates of capacity has from time to time
been discussed by the Committee. The following paper gives an account
of some experiments that have been in progress during the past two
years with this object in view.
In the Report for 1887 the Committee express the opinion that it is
desirable to proceed with the construction of an air condenser. In con-
formity with this opinion a meeting was held in London, at which Dr. A.
Muirhead exhibited an air condenser consisting of a series of concentric
brass cylinders insulated by glass rods, which appeared to the Committee
to possess great merits; and it was decided that the Secretary should
test this and two similar condensers which Dr. Muirhead offered to lend,
before proceeding further with the construction of condensers for the
Association. The tests were carried out with satisfactory results.
The capacity of each condenser was determined repeatedly, using the
method of a vibrating commutator, due to Maxwell, already employed by
J. J. Thomson, ‘Phil. Trans.,’ 1883, and Glazebrook, ‘ Phil. Mag.,’
August 1884. The values found were :—
C, = :0030514 microfarad.
C, = 0031258 s9
C3 = 0053288 Ps;
a
)
;
:
r
i
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 103
It was found that the capacities remained constant from day to day,
and that the accuracy of a single determination was about 1 in 1,000,
although the capacity to be measured was so small.
Some mica condensers belonging to the Cavendish Laboratory were
compared with these—details of the method will be given shortly—and it
was found that when comparing a condenser of 1 microfarad with the
three air condensers combined, having thus a capacity of ‘009506 micro-
farad, so that the ratio of the two was about 100 to 1, an accuracy of
about 1 in 1,000 was attained. It was also shown that the capacity of
the mica condensers as thus found differed by nearly 2 per cent. from their
values as determined by the rapid commutator, thus proving that the
commutator method was unsuitable for a condenser showing absorption.
Thus for three mica condensers the following values were found :—
With commutator By slow method of comparison
*9690 “9868
“4934 4994
09543 09644
These results make the necessity for an air standard all the more
apparent. A report on the experiments made up to that date was laid
before the Committee at a meeting in London in April 1889. It was
then decided to adopt Dr. Muirhead’s form of condenser, and to have
two made on the same pattern for the Association. These have been
constructed by the Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company, following
Dr. Muirhead’s plan, but on an enlarged scale. Mach has a capacity of
about ‘02 microfarad, or about six times that of one of the original
condensers.
Fig. 2 shows the arrangement.
The condensers consist of twenty-four concentric tubes ; the outer tube
is about 2 feet 9 inches high and 6 inches in diameter. Each succeeding
tube diminishes in diameter by half an inch; the tubes are about 35
inch in thickness, and the air space between the inside of one tube and
the outside of the next is about °%, inch, but it was found impossible
to get all the tubes of exactly the same thickness, so that in some cases
the distance between the tubes is less than the above. These tubes are
carried by two conical brass castings ; the outside surface of each casting
forms a series of twelve steps, over which the successive tubes fit. Hach
tube is held in position by screws. The upper cone is supported by the
outside casing of the condenser, and twelve of the tubes hang vertically
from it. The lower cone is carried by three ebonite pillars, about 3 inches
in height ; the twelve tubes which are attached to it come respectively
between those which are suspended from the upper cone. Thus the
insulation depends on the ebonite pillars, assuming there is no leakage
across the air from the edges of the tubes. There is an opening in the
outer casing, closed by a door, by means of which the ebonite can be
cleaned ; the whole is dried by placing inside a small vessel of sulphuric
acid. In the centre of the upper cone there is a hole through which a
rod passes. The rod is connected with the lower cone, and forms the
electrode for the insulated cylinders. An ebonite plug, fitting tightly
round the rod, can be pushed down so as to close the hole and prevent
the ingress of dust when the condensers are not in use; when they are
being used the plug is removed.
104 REPORT—1890.
The condensers are placed in the testing room at the Cavendish
Laboratory and covered by a wood and canvas case to protect them from
dust. It is not intended that they should be movable.
After this description of the condensers we will proceed to an account
of the tests to which they have been
Fie, 2. subject. The first test was for
leakage.
One set of cylinders was put to
the earth while the other was con-
nected with a gold-leaf electroscope.
Anattempt was then made to charge
them with an electrophorus or a
small electrical machine, but this
failed entirely. The electricity
either sparked across at places
where the tubes were very close
together, or, before the potential
rose sufficiently to affect the electro-
scope, small fibres or dust particles
which adhered to the tubes formed
leaks across ; it was clear that the
condenser could not be charged to
the potential of the machine. Tests
were then applied for leakage when
the potential was lower. One set
of tubes was connected to one pole
of a battery — about thirty-six
storage cells were gencrally em-
ployed, having an E.M.F. of 75
volts—the other set being in con-
nection with an insulated key ; the
second pole of the battery was con-
nected through a galvanometer to
the key and the condenser charged.
After an interval, usually about
five minutes, contact was again
made at the key; the deflection of
the galvanometer needle—assuming
the E.M.F. of the battery not to
have changed—was a measure of
the quantity of electricity which
had leaked from the condensers in
the five minutes.
The amount of leakage was
very different in the two condensers
and depended greatly on the dry-
ness of the air and ebonite pillars.
Thus on March 11, when strong
acid had been enclosed for some
time, for condenser I. the leak per
1 minute amounted to about ‘1 per cent. of the whole charge, while
with condenser II. it was about ten times as creat.
The sulphuric acid was removed during the Easter vacation and re-
Y .
W.WARWICK SG
7
: F ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 105
placed by calcium chloride, and after this the leak in I. rose to about
1 per cent. per minute or ten times its former value, while that in II.
was from 3 to 4 per cent. of the charge. With the calcium chloride inside
the leak was never reduced to less than about ‘8 per cent. per minute.
In August, the condensers having been closed since June with calcium
chloride, there was a leak in I. of about 3 per cent. per minute, while in
the same time IT. lost about 8 per cent. of its charge.
On August 14, immediately after this test, the calcium chloride was
replaced by sulphuric acid, and the leak was quickly reduced to about
1 per cent. per minute for I. For II. no improvement showed itself at
once. The next day the leak in I. was about ‘4 per cent. per minute;
that in II. had not been greatly reduced. On August 16 the ebonite
was therefore well cleaned, and air was blown through the tubes of II.
and the whole closed for about two hours; the leak had then fallen to
about 2 per cent. per minute. By August 18 the leaks were still more
reduced, that in I. being ‘2 per cent. per minute, while that in IT. was
*6 per cent, per minute.
By the afternoon of this day, the upper parts of the condensers having
_ been open to the air of the laboratory for some six hours during other
tests, the leaks had appreciably increased, but they had fallen again the
next day when the condensers were left closed during the night.
Thus, during the observations in August, with the exception of those
on August 14, the condenser I. was losing its charge at the rate of about
soo part per one minute, while the leakage in II. was some five or six
times as great, being about +1, part of the charge per one minute.
As will be seen later, several mica condensers were compared with I.
and IT.; the leaks in them were all small, and did not exceed 51, per
minute.
We come now to the experiments for determining the capacities of
the two condensers. Of these, three independent series were made, viz.
in December 1889, May and June 1890, and August 1890.
Tke method already referred to was used. Fig. 3 gives a diagram
TG. Oo. Fig. 4.
eee method ; in fig. 4 the connections actually employed are shown.
With the notation employed ‘ Phil. Mag.,’ August 1884, we have, if ¢
be the capacity of the condenser, » the number of times it is charged per
one second,
106 REPORT—1890.
a2
de ak “1 1- Geet GHt@
ae b a
ay fey eS \ { 1. 2
j acer @ Sry: + T@terg)
In most of the experiments about to be described, we had the following
values in legal ohms :—
a=10 d= 1,000
6=18 g = 17,600;
while c, which was the adjustable arm, varied from 6,000 to 15,000.
With these values, the only correction which need be included is the
last factor in the denominator, and we may write
a
wy)
ed] Be (at+e+g) J
The resistances were taken from a legal ohm box belonging to the
laboratory ; the various coils in this box were carefully compared with
each other by Mr. Searle, and found to be consistent with each other, at
any rate to within 1 in 10,000. The coils were also compared with the
standards of the Association, and it was found that at 16° they were
greater than legal ohms in the ratio of 1:0011 to 1. The standard tem-
perature adopted in the experiments was 17°, and since the coefficient of
increase of resistance of the box is about ‘0003 per 1° C., the resistances
require to be multiplied by 1:0014, to reduce them to legal ohms. In
some cases, in the value of c, coils from a B.A. unit box, containing coils
of ten, twenty, thirty, and forty thousand, B.A. units were employed.
The values found for these coils by myself in terms of the legal ohm
box showed that they were very consistent with each other, and that the
nominal 10,000 B.A.U. was equal to 9,880 legal ohms as measured by
the legal ohm box.
In the comparisons of two condensers certain coils from a megohm
box were used; the value of each of these was also determined. They
were as follows :—
nC=
1 nob 98,731 Legal ohms of standard box.
Boe 98 65 rs ‘
3 ae 98,698 ‘i A
Fea) 5S 735 if
9 ae 98,725 iy x
10 fe 98,776 "s Me
In the experiments on Dr. Muirhead’s condensers, the vibrating com-
mutator described in Professor Thomson’s paper, ‘ Phil. Trans.,’ 1883, or
in my paper, ‘ Phil. Mag.,’ 1884, was used, and that with complete suc-
cess. In the experiments about to be described, this was replaced by a
rotating commutator which had been fitted up by Professor Thomson
and Mr. Searle for their experiments on the other value of ‘v,’ and which
possesses certain advantages over the other form. Dr. Muirhead and
Dr. Fleming have also used a somewhat similar arrangement of appa-
ratus. Fig. 5 shows the arrangement. The split ring commutator is
carried on the axle Hk, which is driven by a water motor. Two wire
springs, Q, R, are in contact with the two halves of the commutator
respectively, and as it rotates the brush p, made of very fine brass wire,
Gules. _-
| 107
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS.
is brought into communication alternately with Qand x. The disc L m
was of iron, and its mass helped to steady the motion. On one face of
_ the dise a series of circles were drawn forming a number of annuli. The
Pie. 5.
PE ——————————— eS
V1
- successive annuli were divided each into a different number of divisions
-_ —“— ~-
by radial marks. Thus in the innermost annulus there were four, on the
next five, and so on. The disc as it rotated was watched in the usual
stroboscopic manner through two slits on two pieces of thin metal
carried by the prongs of a tuning-fork, which made about 64 vibrations
per second.
When the frequencies of the disc and of the fork were in certain
simple ratios to each other, the corresponding pattern on the disc was
seen in a steady position. The driving pulley of the motor carried a
second band, which passed over an idle pulley near the observer at the
tuning-fork, and the speed of the motor, and hence of the dise, was ad-
justed partly by varying the flow of water, partly by friction on this band,
until the desired pattern was seen in the steady position. This position
was easily maintained by varying the friction on the string. The tuning-
fork drove a second fork an octave above itself in frequency. This fork
was mounted near the standard fork of the laboratory, and the beats
between the two were counted. The frequency of the standard fork was
determined by Professor Thomson and Mr. Searle for their experiments
on ‘wv,’ recently communicated to the Royal Society. They found that it
had changed slightly since it was determined by Lord Rayleigh, and give
as the result of their experiments
Frequency at temperature ¢t?=128:105 {1—(t—16)-00011}.
The driven fork was always adjusted to a slightly lower frequency than
_ that of the standard, so that there were about 20 beats to the minute
between the two. During each series of observations the beats were
' Tepeatedly counted, but they rarely varied during the series sufficiently
ba affect the result. The commutator was designed and partly constructed
by Mr. Searle, who observed at the tuning-fork throughout. A little
attention was required to secure good contact between the springs Q, Rk and
the rotating parts, and also to adjust the brush p, but with moderate care
in the adjustments the apparatus worked perfectly.
108 REPORT—1890.
The galvanometer was one constructed in the laboratory; it had a
resistance of 17,600 ohms, with a long silk fibre suspension—a quartz
. fibre would have been an improvement.
Its sensitiveness was such that 1 scale division corresponded to
83 x10-!° C.G.S. units of current; the time of swing was 7:2 seconds,
so that the sudden discharge through the galvanometer of 10—!° C.G.S.
units of electricity produced a throw of 1 division; or, in other words, the
quantity which, when discharged suddenly through, gave a throw of y
divisions was yx10-!°. This was determined by discharging through
the galvanometer a condenser of capacity ‘1 microfarad ; when charged to
1 volt, the throw observed was 100 divisions, while the steady current
due to an E.M.F. of ‘001 volt produced a deflection of 72 divisions.
_The observations were made by varying c. There was a commutator
in the battery circuit. In each position of this commutator two values
of ¢ were taken and the corresponding resting points of the spot on the
scale observed. From these the value of c, which corresponded to the
zero position of the spot, was obtained by interpolation.
These observations were made twice for each position of the commu-
tator, and the mean taken.
We will give one series as an example :—
August 27, 1890.—Temperature of standard fork, 18°°8.
55 Beats my » 20 in 65:4 seconds.
” ” ” ” ” 20 in 65:2 ”
Condenser No. 1.
Frequency, 80 approximately.
pee owol ae Zero Reading Resistance Resting Point
iG 48 5880 51
be as 5800 i)
/ Bie age :
x 49 15890 50
Temperature of coils, 17°°5. Beats, 20 in 64°8 secs. at 19°3.
It will be seen that between the third and fourth series the galvano-
meter zero has shifted slightly.
From these we get as the four values of c the following :—
5887°5
5886°6
5888°3
5887°5
Mean, 5887°5 at 17:5
Correction to 17°, 9
Value of c= 5888-4 at 17°,
while the beats are 20 in 65 seconds at 19°, or ‘307 per 1 second; at 19°
the frequency of the standard is 128-066 ; thus the frequency of the driven
fork is 128:066—-307, i.e., 127°759. Thus for the driving fork we have
the octave below this, or 63°879, while the frequency of the commutator
is 5/4 of this.
|
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 109
Hence in this series :
n=79'°849, c=5888'4,
The accuracy attained in this series is a fair specimen of the whole.
With these explanations we proceed to give the results in tabular form,
_ showing the date, the values of n and c, and the resulting value of c. The
wire by which the condenser was connected to the commutator, together
with the commutator itself, had a certain capacity which was determined
in the same way, merely disconnecting the wire from the condenser. In
_ the observations in December and June we found—
a=10 d=98730 c=28460 n=63'9,
_ whence the capacity of the wires is -0000625 microfarad, while in August,
after the apparatus had been set up afresh in a different position with new
connecting wires, the value of ¢ was 22,200 and the capacity -0000799
microfarad ; for the wires the values of ¢c could be determined to about
1 per cent.
In the table the value of c has been corrected for the capacity of the
wires.
Taste I.—Oondenser I.
Date Value of c Value ofn | a esnot
14762°5 31:95 “021025
December 31, 1889 . | 73723 63°90 “21016 | 021020
5894°3 79°875 *021019
14772°9 31:93 *021023
May 20,1890 . 73765 63°86 ‘o21017 | 021022
5896°4 79°825 *021025
June 16,1890. : : 73750 63°86 *021022 "021022
147459 31:939 *021038
August 27, 1890 | 7364:'8 63°879 ‘021027 | 021032
5888'4 79°849 ‘021030
Mean of the whole, ‘021024 microfarad.
Taste IJ].—Condenser II. *
c, in micro- Mean of
Value of ¢ Value of x eitane Savicg
( 13957°4 31:95 022238
December 31, 1889 . 6963°6 63°90 022249) "022237
(| 557541 79°875 022225
1394593 31:93 “022271
May 20, 1890 . : 6957°4 63°86 “022283 } 022273
} 5568°2 79°825 *022266
| June 16, 1890 . A . 6953°4 63:86 *022296 "022296
F 137746 31939 022523
_ | August 27, 1890 5 6878°6 63°879 022515} 022519
; 5500°4 79849 *022518
August 28, 1890 : c 6878°6 63°881 *022515 "022515
110 nePorT—1890.
Taste III.—Giving the Cupacity of two Mica Condensers for various
Frequencies of Charge.
Frequency | June 12 | sune 14 | June 16 | Mean
CONDENSER A.
21 “04885 "04886 — ‘04886
32 04883 04884 == 04884
64 04868 “04868 04864 ‘04867
80 _ ‘04859 — ‘04859
CONDENSER B.
21 an 09642 = 09642
32 — “09642 — “09642
64 — 09634 09642 ‘09638
Taking the air condensers first, the tables show that, at any rate for
frequencies between 32 and 80 per second, the time of charging has no
effect on the capacity, while the individual observations in each series are
within 1 in 2,000 of each other.
For condenser I. the observations at frequency 64 are in all the series
the least, but this is not the case with condenser II.
The capacity of condenser I. shows no change between December 1889
and June 1890. The observations in August 1890 are all rather greater
than those in the earlier series, but the increase, about 1 in 2,000, is almost
within the error of the experiments. With regard to condenser II. there is
an indication of a rise in its capacity all through. It will be remembered
that we have already shown that the insulation resistance of II. is con-
siderably less than that of I., but it is easy to see that this leak was not
sufficient to account for the change, for if k be the resistance of the leak
then our approximate formula becomes
noto=", instead of n=.
Now, the current through the condenser when leaking most was about
0002 = c, where & is the E.M.F. to which it is charged and ¢ the capacity
of the condenser.
Thus the resistance of the leak is ork ee or ‘25 x10?! C.G.S. units,
“0002 xc
since the value of c is ‘02 x10-!5. This resistance is 250,000 megohms.
Hence the correction to the capacity =1/nr='0002 x c/n, and this is
far too small to affect the result.
There is no doubt, then, that the capacity of II. altered during the
experiments by about 1 per cent., and it will be necessary to take it to
pieces and set it up again.
It will be remembered that in the early part of August the leak in II.
was very great, and it seems probable that the steps taken to discover
the cause of the leak have produced a change in capacity. The experi-
ments on II., then, serve merely to show that the capacity can be found
by the rotating commutator method to a high degree of accuracy, while
those on I. prove that an air condenser, of ‘02 microfarad capacity, has
been constructed which has retained its capacity unaltered for the eight
months between December 1889 and August 1890.
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 111
The values of ¢ are given in terms of the coils of the legal ohm box
at 17°. Hence the capacity found needs to be divided by 1:0014 to reduce
it to legal microfarads, and it then becomes ‘020995.
Moreover, since 1 legal ohm=1:01124 B.A.U., and 1 B.A.U.=:9866
x 10° cm. per sec., we have
1 legal ohm = ‘9977 x 10° cm. per 1 sec.
And the absolute electro-magnetic measure of the capacity of the con-
denser I. is
021043 x 10-"* sec.? cm.!.
: The effect of the leak in condenser II. was still further investigated
on August 28. The plates of IJ. were connected by a resistance of 30
megohms. Hence the correction to c, which is
— becomes —-000520 x 10-5, when n=64.
nN
The value of c found with the leak in was :023813 x 10-".
Hence making the correction c=:02249 microfarad, which is suffi-
ciently close to the value found without the artificial leak.
Table III. shows that with mica condensers not very much greater in
separate capacity than the air condensers a change in the frequency of
the charge from 21 to 80 produces an appreciable change in the capacity.
This, of course, is in consequence of the absorption. With large con-
densers, as we have already seen, the effect is more marked.
It remains, then, to give an account of the experiments undertaken
for the purpose of comparing mica or paraffin condensers as ordinarily
used with the air condensers, and of investigating some of the effects of
absorption.
The two well-known methods of De Sauty and Sir William Thomson
have both been employed.
The arrangements are shown in Figs. 6 and 7.
FIia. 6.
Cr
Ai
Ao
Ke Bs
_ The first of these is not really suitable for use in cases in which there
is absorption, though, with care, a fairly accurate measure of the instau
112 rePortT—1890.
taneous capacity can be found. The resistances R, Ry, can always be
arranged so that the effect of the charge rushing into the air condenser
shows itself as a shar p kick of the spot ‘of light—to the left, say—followed
Fic..7.
by a slower deflection in the other direction, due to the absorption charge
soaking into the mica or paraffin. The resistance for which this sharp
kick practically disappears is fairly definite, and from it the instantaneous
capacity can be found, while an observation of the resulting kick due to
the absorption enables us to calculate the increase of capacity which
arises from that cause. This can be done in various ways. ‘The simplest,
perhaps, is to disconnect the condensers from the circuit, and, replacing
the mica condenser by a variable condenser of small capacity, observe the
kick this produces in the galvanometer when charged with the same
battery. From this the capacity to which the absorption is equivalent
can be approximately calculated.
Thus a condenser of about ‘1 microfarad was compared with Dr.
Muirhead’s three condensers combined. Taking Cy, Rk, to refer to the air
condenser, we had
C,="009506
Ry=898650 ohms;
and with r,=89300 there was a slight tremor to the left and a movement
of three divisions to the right. On changing R, by 100 ohms the change
in the motion of the spot was marked.
This gives for the instantaneous capacity c,;='09550; the value found
by the commutator at frequency 64 was ‘09543 microfarad.
To evaluate the five divisions the air condenser was disconnected and
the mica condenser replaced by one of capacity ‘001 microfarad; the
kick observed was 4°8 divisions, while with ‘002 microfarad it was 9
divisions. Thus a kick of 5 divisions corresponds to about ‘0011 microfarad
capacity. Hence the capacity of the mica condenser, including full
effect of absorption, is ‘0966 microfarad.
The second method, about to be described, in which the bese ation
effect is included, gave ‘0965 microfarad.
Let us now consider the second method. The current from a battery
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 113
flows through B, P B, (Fig. 7), a large resistance of amount R,+R,. One
plate of each condenser is in contact with B, and B, respectively; let vj,
VY, be the potentials at these points. The other plates A,, A, are insulated
and connected together and to the galvanometer G; the other pole of the
galvanometer can be connected to p through the insulated key k,. The
galvanometer can be replaced by an electrometer. Let R, be the resistance
P B,; Ry the resistance P B,. Suppose the point pbe put to earth, the rest
of the circuit being insulated ; then if c, Cc, be the capacities, it is easy to
see that there will be no current through the galvanometer on making the
key K), if Cy R, =Co Ro.
Now, in the case of a mica or paraffin condenser the capacity is a
function of the immediate past history of the condenser, and different
values will be found for the resistances R,, Ro, according to the time the
charging has lasted. Dr. Muirhead, however, who uses the method
largely, has shown how to obtain the instantaneous capacity from the
observations. His method is described in the following extract from a
letter to myself.! In the method as described one pole of the battery is
to earth instead of the point Pp of Fig. 7.
Dr. Muirhead writes: ‘I have ‘05 microfarad nearly in air condensers,
and a series of mica condensers of ‘1, *2, 3, °331 (original 1/8), and *498.
ee
Fia. 8.
(original 5) mf. capacity, all enclosed in a double air-tight box, to keep-
the temperature as uniform as possible. The capacity of these standards.
is determined periodically by both the tuning-fork method (using a.
revolving commutator instead of the tuning-fork) and by the ballistic
galvanometer method. One can make comparisons of these condensers.
among themselves, and with other condensers by the method I adopt, to an
accuracy of 4in 10,000. The temperature coefficient of shellacked mica
condensers is about ‘018 per degree Centigrade, and of paraffined mica
“034 per cent.
‘Let s, be the capacity of the air condensers ;
» So ” = condenser to be compared with air
condensers.
* After making battery contact, supposing the charging of the cor-
_ densers to be instantaneous and the absorption nil, then we have
v 8,;=(V—v) So
’ See also Hlectrician, September 5, 1890.
1890. I
114 REPORT—1890.
where v is the potential of the junction of the two condensers. Should
there be any delay in obtaining the balance, the position of v on the
slides will vary—say to v,; then the charges on the two condensers will
be
Vv) 8) and (v—%) (Soto)
respectively, where o is the apparent increase of capacity of Ss, due to
absorption or soaking in of charge. On disconnecting the armature of s,
from the slides and putting it to earth, the potential falls from v to 0,
and immediately afterwards the potential of the junction of the two
condensers becomes, say, V2, so that
8, Vj +82 (v1) —V) =(8; +582) Ve
Hence
, (8; +82) —V So=(S) + 82) V2
or
VU; —V2
So=S}. ———
V—(%—%2)
vy and v, are known, and v, is indicated at once on an electrometer ; or
when a galvanometer is used it can be measured quickly thus :—As soon
as v, has been observed, break the galvanometer contact and move the
index of the slides down to 0; then directly after bringing the armature
of s, from the full potential of the slides to zero, close the galvanometer
circuit and observe the throw, a, which is a measure of v2, the potential
of the junction of the two condensers.’
In my own experiments, which were made after consultation with
Dr. Muirhead, I adopted a method practically the same as his; but
before describing it, it will be better to consider rather more the effects
of absorption. Let us suppose, at first, that the leakage from either
condenser is inappreciable. If there be no absorption, each condenser is
charged to its full potential practically instantaneously ; and it does not
matter when or in what order the keys, K,, Ky, are put down, the position
of P on the slide is not affected. ,
Suppose now that c, shows absorption, the capacity increases with
the time of charging. We can get the instantaneous capacity by depress-
ing, first, the key kK, and then K,, but in this case we are troubled with
the effect of the slow after charging as in the other method. Still the
resistance, for which the kick due to the initial charging is zero, is,
with the condensers I employed, fairly marked, and a value for the
instantaneous capacity can be thus fairly accurately obtained.
If, now, Ky be made for 1 second and then x, depressed, a different
position will be found for rp. With this interval of charge the apparent
‘capacity differs appreciably from its instantaneous value, and the after-
effects of the absorption can still be observed. The same is true for
intervals of 2, 3, or 4 seconds—the value obtained for the capacity in-
creases, and the after-effect is still noticeable; but with the condensers
and battery I used, if the time of charging was prolonged to 5 seconds,
the after-effect was inappreciable, and the position of Pp on the slide, and
hence the apparent value of the capacity, was hardly affected by further
increasing the time of charge. In the experiments on a cable recorded
in Dr. Muirhead’s paper already referred to, the absorption effects con-
tinue much longer. In the observations recorded below, then, unless the
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 115
contrary is stated, the key k, was held down for 5 seconds, and then, x,
being depressed, the position of p determined, for which the galvanometer
remained unaffected. The value of the capacity deduced then is the full
capacity for the potential to which the condenser is charged. It is of
course possible, though further experiments would be wanted to prove it,
that the full effect of absorption is not merely to increase by a definite
amount, independent of the potential, the apparent instantaneous capacity,
but that the increase may depend on the potential to which in each case
_ the condenser is being charged. It will of course depend on the purposes
for which the condenser is to be used whether the instantaneous capacity
or the full capacity is required, and it probably will be best, when issuing
certificates, to state both the instantaneous capacity and the maximum
increase due to absorption—mentioning at the same time the difference
of potential used in the experiments for determining this correction, and
also the time of charging in which this maximum increase is practically
attained.
The method I employed in determining the correction due to absorp-
tion was the following:—Suppose the plates, 4), A), to be at potential
zero and uncharged. Make the battery key, Ks, and after keeping it
made for some little time break it again. It there be no absorption A,
and A, will still be at zero potential and uncharged; but let there be
absorption in one of the two, A,, and let B, be the positive pole of the
battery, then, while the battery is on, negative electricity is being
absorbed by the dielectric near A,, and positive electricity is left free over
the plates, A), Ao, and the wires connecting them. When the battery is
broken the negative electricity begins to soak out, but the process takes
time. Hence, if immediately on breaking the battery key, kK, the
galvanometer key, K,, is made for an instant, there is a throw of the
galvanometer needle indicating the passage to the earth of the positive
set free by the absorption. If, after a time, the galvanometer key be
again depressed, there is an equal throw in the opposite direction, caused
by the passage of the negative electricity which has again soaked out of
the condenser. The required correction is obtained from either of these
For, let 7 be the current between B, and B, ; let c, be the instantaneous
capacity of the one condenser and oc, of the other; and let Q be the
quantity of electricity absorbed. Then the quantity of negative elec-
tricity on the plate A, is c, R, 7+, and the quantity of positive electricity
on the plate A, is C, R, 7,if we assume the potential of these plates to be
still zero.
Therefore,
C; Ry t+Q=Cy Ro t
eee ae
Co By Og Ri 2
hen, neglecting the battery resistance, if n be the E.M.F. of the battery,
; E
a
Ri +R
Se) rk Pad Gs
Sdyee Ry Cy te Ry
116 REPORT—1890.
Now, we have seen that with the galvanometer as I used if, if y is the
throw produced by the passage of a quantity Q, then Q=y x 10-19,
The battery consisted of 36 small storage cells, which, when fully
charged, had an E.M.F. of about 75 volts, so that
tp x NOP:
Also, C,='021 microfarad
a ere ce
Hence, with these numbers,
Oe. Rois Ea
Gar RY Hal hea.
or, writing it as a correction to ¢,,
__Cy Ro
10)
1 Ry
Y {7 + F2\19-18
7,(1+22)20
Examples of the method of applying this correction will be given
shortly.
It will be noticed that a leak in one of the condensers may be cor-
rected for in the same way. For, suppose the mica condenser to leak,
then a quantity Q’ of positive electricity passes through to the plate A,,
while the battery current is on, and the condition that the galvano-
meter should not be deflected is,
Co Ro i—C, Ry 1=Q!
the same equation as previously.
There will, however, be this difference: on depressing the key kK after
breaking the battery circuit, a positive charge will in both cases pass
from a to B through the galvanometer; if this charge be due to absorp-
tion, there will, when the key is again depressed after an interval, be a
current through the galvanometer in the opposite direction; while if the
first charge be due entirely to a leak, there will be no effect when the key
is the second time depressed. In practice, the leak and the absorption
may exist together either in the same or different condensers. In the
second case the leak will tend to produce opposite effects to those caused
by the absorption; the quantity Q’, however, increases nearly in the
ratio of the time of charging, while Q increases for the first few seconds,
but soon reaches a maximum and then remains constant.
These considerations are illustrated by some experiments in which the
condensers I. and II. were compared with various mica condensers. The
battery key was in each case made for 30 seconds; it was then broken,
and the galvanometer key was made for an instant. The resulting throw
was the sum of those due to (1) the leak in the mica condenser, (y), say ;
(2) the absorption in that condenser, (a), say; and (3) the leak in the
air condenser, which produces an effect in the opposite directiom
(—y'), say.
After about 30 seconds more the key was again depressed; the
resulting throw is due to the absorbed electricity which has again leaked
out, and will give us —a.
The following table gives the results; each observation entered is the
mean of three or four.
ae
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. £7
Condenser
compared with —_ 1 Il.
Standard
05 A+a—Al 2°3 —73
—a -3 —2°6
i) A+a—Al 2°2 -9
ae —3 —3
‘1 , A+a—Al 2'2 -—7
—a, —2°2 —3°5
5 A+a—Al 33 —4
—a —3:3 —25
pt A+a—A! 4 —3:2
—a -5 —57
If we take the comparisons with condenser I. first, it appears that
throughout A—A! is small. For the ‘05 and ‘1 microfarad it may be
about —°‘5 division, while a is about 3 divisions: for the ‘5 microfarad,
a is rather larger, being about 3°3, and A—A! is zero, while for the
1 microfarad a the absorption effect is distinctly larger, being 5 divisions,
and A—A! is about —1. All this is, of course, quite consistent with the
fact that condenser I. and the mica condensers insulate well while there
is absorption by the mica.
When, however, we come to the condenser II. the results are quite
different. While the absorption effects are comparable, as of course they
ought to be, with those obtained in the comparison with I., the leakage
_ effects are very large.
The values of A\—A! in order are as follows: —9, —12, —10°5, —6°5,
—8. Now, we know that the mica condenser shows very little leak effect ;
the above leaks are therefore almost entirely in the air condenser II. If
we suppose the total leak to be proportional to the time, then for the 5
second charges used in the experiments the corresponding values of y in
the corrections to be introduced for leakage will be one-sixth of the above,
and thus we get the following results :—
| Correction for the Correction for the
Condensers | Value of y | Leak to Capacity | Condensers | Value of y | Leak to Capacity
in Microfarads in Microfarads
16 | ‘00007 5 iL “0003
2 | ‘00016 | 16 1 ‘0007
It is clear that the corrections are in all cases small, being not much
over 1 in 1,000, but they serve to illustrate the method. The above cor-
With a view to testing the method in a case in which a leak only
existed without absorption, a number of comparisons of I. and II.
were made.
In these experiments the resistance with I. was 296,240. The
resistances with II., and the deflections due to the leak obtained by
breaking the battery and then making the galvanometer, are given below,
together with the ratio of the two capacities corrected for the leak.
118 rerPortT—1 890.
Interval between 0
Battery and ; = Sak um Ry ; = C2
Galvanometer Resistance Scale = Correction =
Gontavts Divisions 2 Cy
0 seconds 275,980 0 1/0734 0 10734
a 275,180 2b 1:0765 —‘0082 1:0733
30 . 271 380 14:5 1:0916 — 0184 1:07382
60 a5 267,180 22°5 1/1088 —'0286 1:0802
5 + 91,370 5 4:3223 ‘0168 4:3391
30 an 92,670 22 4:2617 ‘0743 4-3360
60 ss 94,170 42 41938 “1415 4°3353
The last three lines of the table give the results of a series of com-
parisons between II., which had a leak, and a condenser of ‘1 microfarad,
which showed absorption. ‘lhe resistance with II. was 394,930 ohms.
In the first four lines the corrections are negative, for the capacity of
the leaky condenser is being found in terms of the standard. In the next
three lines they are positive, for the ratio of the mica condenser to the
leaky standard II. is being found.
A comparison of the fourth and sixth columns shows the results of
the correction. In the fourth line it is clear that the correction is not
large enough. This probably arises from the difficulty of making contact
with the galvanometer circuit sufficiently soon after the battery is broken
to insure that the whole of the charge accumulated by the leak should
pass throngh the galvanometer.
The leak correction was also tested with similar results by putting an
artificial leak in I.
We will now give some specimens of the observations made to com-
pare I. with a mica condenser in order to show the accuracy attained.
Condenser I. compared with ‘1 microfarad ; resistance with L., 493,560
ohms; resistance with ‘1 microfarad, 105,800 + a variable resistance
given below.
In the table in which the effect of the galvanometer is shown by the
letters R, L,in the last column, R means there was a deflection to the
right, L to the left.
Interval between Galvano- Variable Resistance to be
meter and Battery Contact added above Effect on Galvanometer
{ 700 R
5 seconds 400 Ti
( 500 , very small R
400 L
a ong {700 R
600 L
( 1200 L
0 » 1300 Tremor L, then swing to R
\ 1400 R
Thus in this case the effect of an alteration of 100 in the resistance,
a.€. y>oo Of the whole, is very marked, and we may take the following
values for R: —
5 seconds interval . : . . 105,800 + 500
2 q : : . 105,800 + 650
ire ee ee he Oo OS a aera
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 119
Other series of observations showed that the resistance for 10 seconds’
interval was the same as for 5 seconds’; if the interval was prolonged to
30 seconds a very small increase in capacity was noticeable. Thus the
effect of absorption is to increase the capacity of the *1 microfarad by
about 8 in 1,000, or 008 of the whole; of this ‘0065 shows itself in the
first 2 seconds of charging and ‘0015 afterwards, the increase after 5
seconds, if any, being extremely small.
When comparing I. with -5 microfarad the resistances used were
592,290 and 24,900 respectively. In this case an alteration in the latter
resistance of 10 ohms, or s;55, was easily seen. The following are the
results :— ;
Interval | Resistance | Interval / Resistance
10 seconds 24,900 2 seconds 24,930
5 o 24,900 0 - 25,060
These again show that the absorption effect disappears after 5 seconds,
and that the effect of absorption in 2 seconds is about -0052, and in
5 seconds about “0064 of the whole capacity.
When comparing with 1 microfarad, the resistances were 592,290 and
12,580, the last number being accurate to about 5 ohms, or about the
same proportion as before.
The results of the various observations are given in the following
table; the observations made with II. have been corrected for the leak, as
already explained.
Table giving the Capacities of certain Mica Condensers as compared with
the Aix Condensers.
Value found by
Date Value from I. Value from II. Commutator
at frequency 64
August 19 . : “04934 “04938 “04867
by sie yi . “04934 “04936
June 17 . : “09772 “09780 “09638
August 14 . : 09751
eerlo; : “09773 09786
a : 09773 “09781
| August 18(M). “5005 “5008
me ISGA) “5007 “5009
mw ol. : 5006 “5010
August 18 . ‘ 9910 “9912
te ees : “9913 “9912
_ It will be noticed that, for either condenser I. or II., the results are in
very close accordance; with the exception of one observation, on August
‘14, the differences are barely as great as 1 in 5,000, and the method is
clearly capable of giving the value of a mica condenser, in terms of the
air condenser, to this accuracy.
The reason for the low result on August 14 is to be found in the fact
_ that on that day the leak was considerable, being, as we have seen, over
Bs 1 per cent. per minute. Full observations for the correction were not
,
120 REPORT—1890.
taken ; it would, however, amount to about ‘0002, judged by the correc-
tion required to observations on II., when leaking at a similar rate.
The results from II. are equally consistent among themselves, but all
slightly greater than those from I. This would indicate that the correc-
tion applied for the leak in II. is rather too large.
The capacities given in the table are those found with a 5 seconds’
interval, by which time, as we have seen, the absorption on the mica
condensers used is practically complete. We have already discussed the
method of determining the instantaneous capacity, and a table of the
corresponding values could easily be given.
For our present purpose it is hardly necessary to do this, and indeed
for many purposes for which condensers are employed a knowledge of
the full capacity is more useful than one of the instantaneous one. In
the last column the values of the capacities found by the commutator
method are given; the differences in both cases amount to about 1°3 per
cent. of the capacity.
During the forthcoming year condenser IJ. will be again set up and
tested, and the permanent arrangements for rapidly comparing condensers
and for issuing certificates will, I hope, be completed.
APPENDIX IIT.
On the Specific Resistance of Copper. By T. C. Frrzparricx.
All the values given in tables for the specific resistance of the metals
are directly or indirectly obtained from the values given by Matthiessen
in his series of papers published in the ‘Transactions of the Royal
Society’ for the years 1860-1864, and in the Reports of the British AssG=~» :
ciation for the same years. "
In the ‘ Transactions’! for the year 1860 is a paper by Matthiessen
on the conductivity of pure copper, and on the effects of impurities on it;
no alloy of copper having as high a conductivity as the pure metal. His
results are expressed in terms of the conductivity of a hard-drawn silver
ey es at ses Sati ig: following values for samples of copper
carefully prepared by himself :—
3 ee 2 ate Giving a mean value of
(3) 93-02 af 18°°4,| 93°08 at 18°-9 as the
(4) 92-76 ” 199.3 conductivity of pure
5 jo. # o.k copper.
(eo) 92:99) 55 (lv?
Numbers are given showing the effect on the conductivity of small
quantities of oxide, and he states that he found it necessary to pass
hydrogen through the molten metal for some time for entire reduction.
In the ‘Transactions’ for 1862 Dr. Matthiessen has a paper on the
influence of temperature on the conductivity of metals. He again
expresses his results in terms of a hard-drawn silver wire. On page 8
of that paper will be found the results of his experiments on copper:
the lowest temperature at which measurements were made was 12° or
1 Phil. Trans. 1860, p. 85.
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 121
16°; he there shows how the results for pure copper measured at 18°
may be reduced to 0° C.; but no measurement was actually made at 0°
_ for any of the metals experimented with.
He expresses the influence of temperature on a hard-drawn copper
wire, the mean result of a number of determinations, by the equation
A=100—-38701¢ + 00090092?
where 100 is the conductivity of copper at 0° C., so that a hard-drawn
silver and copper wire have the same conductivity at 0° C.
The values obtained by comparison with a hard-drawn silver wire are
then largely the source of the tables of specific resistances; but at the
end of his appendix to the Report of the Electrical Standards Committee
for 1864, Matthiessen gives values for hard-drawn silver and copper
_ wires in terms of the new B.A. unit, expressed as the resistance of a wire
_ one metre long, weighing one gramme.
These values are :—
Copper. ‘ ‘ F : . °1469
Silver F ‘ ; A ‘ ; 1682
The same table of values is given in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ for
1865, where also is givena table of specific resistances for wires one metre
long and one millimetre diameter, expressed in terms of the B.A. unit,
and calculated from the value of the known conducting power of gold-
silver alloy in terms of hard-drawn silver, and also in terms of the B.A.
unit.
The values thus obtained do not agree at all well with the results
calculated for the resistances of the gramme metre by the specific gravi-
ties of the elements furnished by tables.
Thus :—
Calculated Observed
Silver. hs 02048 ; . ‘02108
Copper . : "02090 d . 02104
Matthiessen states that he omitted to determine the specific gravity
of the copper used in his experiments; he probably would not have
obtained any very accurate results, as the weight of copper he used
varied from 1:5 to 4 grammes.
The accuracy of Matthiessen’s results seems to depend, therefore, on
the accuracy of his determination of the resistance in terms of the B.A.
unit of a hard-drawn silver wire; in considering, therefore, the question
of the preparation of samples of copper of higher conductivities than
Matthiessen obtained, it may be suggested that the cause of the difference
18 not explained by tbe fact that Matthiessen did not prepare pure copper,
but by an error in the value of the standard with which the comparison
aS made,
I have, therefore, made a series of experiments on the resistance of
@ silver wires; and, as a general result, have obtained a value iden-
tical with that of Matthiessen ; the difference is not due, therefore, to an
error in the standard employed, as far as my experiments go.
___ Matthiessen does not give anywhere the details of his measurements
of the specific resistances of the metals in terms of the B.A. unit; in the
B.A. Report he simply mentions that an approximate table is subjoined,
not even stating the fact that the values are for a temperature of 0° C.
o conclude, therefore, that these values are caleulated out from the former,
122 REPORT—1890.
of which an account is given in the same B.A. Report, and which were
performed at a temperature of 20° C.
I have, therefore, on this account, as well as for other reasons stated
later, made my measurements at the temperature of the air, and believe
that as his values were reduced by a temperature coefficient to values at
0° C., I shall, by using the same temperature coefficient, obtain results
directly comparable with my own measurements.
For the measurement of the resistance of the specimens of wire a
Wheatstone’s bridge arrangement was employed. Two of the arms of the
bridge were formed by a 10 and 1 standard B.A. unit, namely, 66 and G;
these were so nearly 10 to 1, that they were taken to be in that ratio.
The third arm was 4 of a B.A. unit, and in the fourth arm
was the wire to be measured; this was stretched on a flat board, and
soldered at the ends to copper plates, to which connecting wires were
also soldered; the length of wire used was generally a little less than
two metres, and the wires were, approximately, No. 18 B.W.G. The
board had scales screwed to it at the two ends. The board and wire were
placed in a long bath made of zinc, and filled with paraffin. Wires which
were left in the bath for some days, and, in more than one case, several
weeks, were not found to have been acted on by the oil.
One end of the wire, Py, Q2, was connected by a binding screw, through
an adjustable resistance, 7 ($ metre of copper wire), to the mercury cup,
@;, in which was one of the legs of the 4 coil, and also to a revers-
ing key in the battery circuit. The 4and the 10 ohm coils were con-
nected up together through an adjustable resistance, P, M,; one leg of
each of the coils 10 and 1 was in the same mercury cup, L; and the
other end of the 1 B.A. unit was connected with the other end of the
wire, Py Qo.
A single Leclanché cell was connected with the reversing key, and
the fourth point of this key was connected with the mercury cup L, into
which the legs of 10 and 1 dipped. In this circuit there was also a
touch key. The galvanometer circuit was always made, and thus there
was no thermo-electric effect in the galvanometer circuit. To each of
the mercury cups Q;, P}, Mj, M2 were connected two thick wires with sepa-
rate binding screws: one of these wires was welded to the copper plate
at the bottom of the mercury cup. Each of these latter wires was con-
nected with two way-keys; those in P, and Q, to the key k,; those in mM,
to the key k, ; those in My to the key Ky.
The base points of the keys kK, and ky were connected with a delicate
reflecting galvanometer, that employed for the comparison of the stan-
dards on the Fleming bridge. The base of the key k, was connected
with the third point on the key xk, and the third point, on the key x),
was connected to the base point of a fourth key, k., the two other points
on this key being connected with riders, with which contact could be made
with two points on the wire P, Q,; the riders had straight edges, and
thus their position on the scales could be easily determined. In perform-
ing an experiment, the keys K, and kK, were so connected that the mer-
cury cups, and so the ends of the coils 10 and 1, were in circuit with the
galvanometer. The resistance, P, M,, was then varied till, on making
the battery circuit, no deflection resulted. The ends of the 10 and 1
were then at the same potential, and as the other ends of these coils were
connected with the same pole of the battery, there was the same fall of |
potential on the two lines.
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 123
The keys Kk, and Ky were then reversed, and by the keys k, and k,
one end of the 4 coil and one point on the wire P, Q, were connected
through the galvanometer, and afterwards the two other ends. The
riders were adjusted till there was no deflection of the galvanometer.
The length of wire between the two riders had then a resistance of +);
that of the } B.A. unit coil.
Fie. 10.
By means of the series of keys it was easy to repeat the observations,
and to connect either end of the 4 coil with the wire. The resistance
P, M, did not often change during the experiments, as the room was at
a constant temperature; any change in it only caused a shifting of the
position of the riders. In each experiment, after all the adjustments,
the bath was well stirred, and everything left for half an hour. It was
generally found that the riders did not require any readjustment. The
battery was reversed, and all the coils moved. The latter never caused
any effect ; sometimes the reversal of the battery caused a shifting of the
two riders a millimetre or two in the same direction. Another reading
was taken three or four hours after.
The coils, $, 10, and 1, were in water baths, and their temperature
remained the same for hours together. The temperature of the paraffin
bath was not so constant; it was kept well stirred, and a thermometer
divided to 0°-2 C. never showed any difference in the temperature at the
different ends of the bath when the readings were taken. The thermo-
_ meter employed was Kew-corrected; and the corrections given were
verified by recent comparison with a platinum thermometer by Mr.
Griffiths.
Since the two standard coils employed were accurately in the ratio of
10 to 1, the accuracy of the resistance measurement depended entirely
on the value of the 4 B.A. unit. This was first made as nearly as possible
3 but it was found that for the size of the wires measured (18
.W.G.) this was too high a resistance ; it had therefore to be reduced.
For the determination of its value there was cut ont in a-block of paraffin
q24 REPORT—1890,
wax a large central mercury cup, and outside this a circular channel ;
thick copper plates were cut to fit them, and both plates were well
amalgamated. By means of this cup arrangement the three B.A. units
(H., G., and Flat) were connected in multiple arc, and by means of
stout copper rods the multiple-arc arrangement was connected with the
mercury cups on the Fleming’s bridge, and so compared with the 3
B.A. unit. The following observations were taken :—
July 12, 1889: 1(18°-4) + 986-6(b.w.d.)=M.A. + 24-6(b.w.d.)
July 22, 1889: 3(17°4) +986 (b.w.d.)=M.A. +241 (b.w.d.)
August 26, 1890: 1(16°-8) +986-1(b.w.d.) =M.A. + 23-9(b.w.d.)
The value of a bridge wire division (b.w.d.) is ‘0000498 B.A. unit at
15°, and the wire has a temperature coefficient of -00143.
It is evident from these series of values that the + has not changed
in resistance during the period of the experiments.
This comparison, however, introduced a possible error, as the tem-
perature of the bridge wire at the time of experiment was not accurately
known, and this is important when nearly the whole of the bridge wire
is employed. To eliminate this possible error the + was compared
with four B.A. units in multiple arc. In this case a large number of
bridge wire divisions had to be subtracted from the value of the 3, and
the whole number of bridge wire divisions entering into the calculation
for the values of the 3 was largely reduced. The four coils in multiple
arc were (IF, G, H, and Flat) :—
Aug. 25, 1890: 3,16°8+4157 (b.w.d.)=M.A.+852:05 (b.w.d.).
Aug. 26, 1890: 2, 16°8+157-5 (b.w.d.)=M.A. +851°9 (b.w.d.).
All the four coils were at the same temperature (16°°8). Their values
are taken from the * B.A. Report,’ 1888 :—
Flat. ; é ; : . 1:000448
F : : ; : : . 1:000028
G 5 ; : : : ow ae
is : : : : - + auoeoe
They give for the two multiple-arc arrangements the values ‘33330
and °24998. The connecting-rods have a resistance of ‘00042, and the
value of the 4 at 16°8 is -28537 B.A. unit. Its temperature co-
efficient is ‘0001 per 1° C.
To measure the lengths of the wires two microscopes with scales and
verniers reading to ‘] of a millimetre were set up and firmly clamped in
position; the distance between them was determined by means of a
beam compass and the aid of a third microscope: the distance between
this and the other two being directly read off on the beam compass for
set positions of the verniers. The wires were cut with a fine fret-saw
at the points corresponding to the position of the riders in the resistance
measurements. Before weighing the wires were carefully cleaned with
methylated spirit. The balance employed was the one used by Mr. Glaze-
brook for our determination of the specific resistance of mercury; the
weights were balanced against one another, and in all cases double
weighings were taken.
The specific gravity of most of the wires was determined ; for this pur-
pose distilled water was boiled and cooled rapidly, the coil of wire
immersed, and the beaker and its contents placed under the receiver of
\
1 ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 125
we ae At
SP RS
<r
an air-pump, which was connected with a water-pump; this was left
running for two or three hours till all air-bubbles had disappeared ; the
weight of the wire in water was determined, and a second reading taken
some hours later. As the weight of wire used was from 16 to 20 grammes,
fairly accurate values for the specific gravity of the several wires were ob-
tained, and thus the value for each wire in terms of the B.A. unit for the
resistance to conduction between the opposite faces of a cube of the material
was found.
Resistance of Various Specimens of Wire.
Resistance of a wire
such that 1 metre Specific resistance per
4 weighs 1 gramme Specific ee. at 18° C. in
Wire Date at 18° C. in B.A. units | gravity B.A. units x 10-9
Hard-drawn| Annealed Hard-drawn, Annealed
I. | July 22, 1889 — 1549 8°86 _— 1743
Noy. 6, 1889 — 1550 8°87 — 1745
II. | July 22, 1889 — 1545 8°88 — 1741
Dec. 2, 1889 = 1546 8°89 —_ 1742
Ill. | Dec. 3, 1889 —_ 1713 8°87 — 1922
IV. | July 10, 1889 1578 — 8°89 1776 ss
Aug. 1, 1889 1578 — 8°89 1776 —
IV.’ | Nov. 1, 1889 — 1511 8°885 — 1724
V. | July 31, 1889 1573 — 8°89 1770 ue
Oct. 30, 1889 1572 — 8:89 1770 =
V.' | July 20, 1889 — 1526 8:89 — 1712
Aug. 2, 1889 — 1526 8°89 = 1713
Aug. 8, 1889 — 1527 8°89 _— 1716
VI. | Aug. 10, 1889 1546 — 8°94 1730 =
Oct. 18, 1889 1549 -- 8-94 1732 —
July 10,1890] 1549 bs 8-94 1731 ie
July 14, 1890 1548 — not obsrvd. xb pide
VI’ | Aug. 8, 1889 _ 1508 8°94 _ 1688
Oct. 11, 1889 _ 1509 8:94 —_ 1688
VII. | Nov. 4, 1889 1543 — 8946 1724 —
July 15, 1890 1543 = =a “5 =
VIII. Oct. 23, 1889 1700 _— 8°95 1903 -
Oct. 28, 1889 1702 — —- — as
IX. Aug. 5, 1890 1572 — 8:90 1766 —
Aug. 18, 1890 1572 —_ 8-90 1766 —_—
X. Aug. 5, 1890 1573 —_ 8-91 1767 —_—
Aug. 26, 1890 1569 _ 8°92 1751 _
XI. | Aug. 27,1890] 1569 = 8-93 1750 MA
As calcu-
| Matthiessen’s value re- Hsin
duced to 18°, using 1571 _— not given| 17666 Plat cged e
his own coefficient Tht: vis
itz-
patrick
re en,
The first object of these experiments was to test directly in com-
parison with the B.A. standards samples of copper wire of high con-
126 REPORT—1890.
ductivities, with the view of comparing them with Matthiessen’s
standard. Application was therefore made to several firms for high-
conductivity copper wires. My thanks are due to those who sent
samples.
A table of results for all the specimens tested is given, and it shows
the variation in resistance of high-conductivity wires.
TV. and IV!’ are the same copper, but IV. is hard drawn, IV.’ is
annealed ; they were measured just as they were sent from the manu-
facturers; the same is true of V. and V.’, VI. and VL.’
Tt will be noticed that VI. and VI.’, which are of considerably less
resistance than the other wires, are of higher specific gravity: the firm
that sent them thus wrote of them: ‘It is only occasionally we come
across copper as high as this or high enough to be called the highest (in
conductivity) we can produce. ‘This copper has been produced electro-
lytically by our ordinary process.’ How this copper was treated after
electro-deposition I do not know. T am inclined to think from my own
experience that this difference in density is due rather to the condition of
the copper than to its relative purity. Matthiessen found that very
small quantities of impurities reduced the conductivity 20 or 30 per cent.,
and a sufficient amount of impurities to cause this decrease in density
from 8°94 to 8°90 must make a larger increase in the resistance of the
copper.
Phe temperature coefficient is stated to be different for various
specimens of metal, according to their purity. Matthiessen himself seems
to have been of this opinion; but the mere difference in density of the
metal might be expected to affect the alteration of conductivity with the
same change in temperature. I have not been able to find any experi-
ments bearing on this question. It is quite easy to obtain samples of
wire of different density by varying the process of drawing, and the
temperature coefficients of such wires might be found to be different.
Comparing V. and V.’ with VI. and VI.’ it is seen that with this in-
crease of density there is a distinct diminution in the effect of annealing.
Iv. — IV.’ oosir |
V.— V2! = ‘00577
VI. — VI.’ = -004
T thought it might be possible that VI.’ was not completely annealed,
so, for a direct comparison, two specimens of VI., which had been
measured hard drawn on July 10 and 14, 1890, were annealed; for this
purpose a flat copper vessel was made of about 2 cm. height and 18 in
diameter, with a closely fitting lid; the wire was packed in this between
sheet asbestos, which had been previously heated ; the vessel was filled up
with lampblack, and heated over a big bunsen burner and gradually
cooled; the process generally took about twenty-four hours ; the wire
was found not to be oxidised after the process was over.
Wire Hard-drawn Annealed Difference
I. 1549 1510 00389
II. 1548 1509 ‘0039
The difference Matthiessen obtained was ‘0038.
The above method of annealing was found very effective. Silver
wires, which on annealing decrease 10 per cent. in resistance, gave the
same value after a second annealing as they did on the first occasion.
A
' ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 127
' Wire VII. was a wire sent me by Mr. H. A. Taylor, and had to be
_ drawn down before it could be measured ; another piece of the same wire
drawn down on a different occasion gave the same value; this wire has
the lowest resistance of any I have obtained; it has, too, the highest
_ specific gravity. Mr. Taylor says of it ‘that it has a higher tempera-
ture coefficient than that given by Matthiessen.’
VIIL. was a sample of wire obtained from Germany, and said to be
electrolytically prepared; its high resistance is, I think, due to the
presence of oxide, as I fused some of it in hydrogen, and when measured
_ partially annealed it gave the value 1566 at 18° for the wire, 1 metre
_ weighing 1 gramme.
F IX., X., and XI. are wires of my own preparation. Pure copper was
5 prepared electrolytically by Messrs. Sutton, of Norwich, and supplied
me in thin sheet, and this was fused in a porcelain tube 18 centimetres
in length and 1 centimetre in diameter; the tube was fitted up in a
small furnace made of sheet iron, and lined with ganister; this was
heated rapidly in a blast flame led in at the bottom. Some difficulty was
_ experienced in obtaining the copper in a solid cylinder. In the early
experiments hydrogen was passed into the tube while the copper was
being fused, and was made to bubble through the molten copper; on
breaking the tube the copper was found to be full of small holes; the
copper had absorbed the hydrogen at the high temperature and given it
off again on cooling; on another occasion the copper was fused down in
hydrogen, and the tube was connected with a water-pump and exhausted
and the copper allowed to cool in a vacuum; this gave a more continuous
cylinder. It was found best to fuse the copper under borax, after pre-
vious reduction ; a good cylinder of the metal was thus obtained.
I was unfortunately not able to draw down the copper for myself;
this was very kindly done for me by Messrs. Smith, of Halifax, and
Messrs. Johnson & Matthey. The porcelain tubes had been prepared
of such a size that the cylinder of copper could be drawn without
further heating; the copper, therefore, was not fused after it left my
hands.
Two sheets of the electrolytically prepared copper were fused on
different days, and one cylinder was sent to Messrs. Smith to be drawn,
and the other to Messrs. Johnson & Matthey.
Wires IX. were drawn by Messrs. Smith, wires X. by Messrs, Johnson
& Matthey.
Wire XI. was drawn by Messrs. Johnson & Matthey from a sample of
copper which I prepared by electrolysis from a pure solution of copper
‘sulphate ; the copper was deposited on a plate of copper, which had had
its surface rubbed over with graphite; by this means the deposited copper
was easily stripped off the plate; the other plate was of platinum. After
@ time the solution was changed ; the deposition was very slow, as it was
thought that there would be less likelihood of copper sulphate getting in
between the layers of copper. The deposit was boiled with dilute sul-
phuric acid and then in water, and was afterwards fused as above
described.
Wires IX. were measured as received; this accounts for the close
agreement between the two determinations, Wires X. and XI. I had to
draw down further to measure them on my bridge.
Wires X. (2) and XI. were drawn down with great care and not so
much as X. (1).
128 REPORT—1890.
Below is a table of the measurements made for the determination of
their specific resistances :—
Length of
Weight wire for | Length cut Resis
Wire Value of Temp. of determina- and Hees
1/3 5 ° 5 & P
wire tion of re- | weighed metre
sistance.
TX. (1) "28547 i Ufo) 20°388 192-1 192°5 1574 TSS:3
ay C2) “28541 17 Oc 20°153 192°4 190°45 1569 ar (5
X. (1) *28550 18°2 19°708 189°3 188°8 1577 18°-6
52) *28536 16°°8 20°252 192°39 192-34 1561 aha
XI. *28535 16%7 20°262 192-11 192°51 1563 LOD
These values reduced to a common temperature of 18° are :—
1X, '() : : "1572
IX. (2) 3 , 1572 Mean value
Rha : : 1573 1571
X. (2) ; ‘ 1569 B.A. unit.
XI. : s 1569
Thus ‘1571 B.A. unit is the resistance at 18° of a metre of hard-
drawn copper wire weighing 1 gramme.
Matthiessen in the B.A. Report ' gives as the resistance of a gramme
metre at 0° :1469 B.A. unit.
T have calculated from this the value at 18°, using the temperature
coefficient that he gives in his paper on the influence of temperature on
the conducting power of metals. I have taken no account of the terms
in ¢? as they practically cancel one another.
R. 18° = R° (1 + *0038701¢).
Ros = alba
This is the value that I have obtained as the mean of my own
observations.
All my observations were taken at the temperature of the room, and
in the table above the values for the different wires are given at the
observed temperature, and then all reduced to a common temperature of
18° C. Most observations of this character are taken at the temperature
of 0° C., but on the whole it seemed more satisfactory to work at the
temperature of the room. In the comparison of the B.A. units I have
found that with a difference of temperature between coils which are
connected by thick pieces of copper there is always conduction of heat,
and it is impossible to tell accurately what is the real temperature of the
coils.
My observations were made in the B.A. room at the Cavendish
Laboratory, which has a north aspect, and often the temperature did
not alter more than a few tenths of a degree, whilst the temperature of
the coil baths often remained perfectly steady for several consecutive days.
T cannot find any observations of Matthiessen’s at 0° C.; certainly his
observations on copper were made at 18°, and, consequently, if the value
given by him at 0° C. has been obtained by the use of a temperature co-
efficient, my value might be expected to agree with his at 18°, the tem-
B.A. Teport, 1864, or Phil. Mag. 1865.
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 129
perature of his observation, supposing the samples of copper of the same
character.
Matthiessen’s results are given in terms of a gramme per metre, and
for wires of metre length and 1 mm. in diameter.
In a paper in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine,’ Matthiessen gives the
value for hard-drawn copper in these terms as
02104 B.A.
From his value for the gramme metre, using the specific gravity 8°95
given by tables, the same quantity was calculated, but gave the result
0209 ; in a note added he states that had he used the specific gravity 8°91
his results would have been more nearly alike; but a specific gravity 8:90,
I find, would give an identical value.
This would show, then, that Matthiessen’s own table, calculated for
values obtained by comparison with hard-drawn silver, is accurate. I
have tested silver wires, but have not had time to draw up the results in
tabular form ; and I obtained an almost identical value for hard-drawn
silver wire, as supplied me from Messrs. Johnson & Matthey, as is given
by Matthiessen for the resistance of a gramme per metre.
It will be observed that wires IX. have the specific gravity 8°90, and
give a value in terms of B.A. units for a cubic centimetre of the material
identical with Matthiessen’s value; this value is not given directly by
Matthiessen, but is calculated from his results by Fleeming Jenkin, and
given in his table in his book ‘ Electricity and Magnetism’: it is 1-652
microhms. I have calculated it from Matthiessen’s value, given in the
‘ Philosophical Magazine,’ and get the number 1653. Using the same
temperature coefficient as before, the resistance at 18° C. of a cubic
centimetre of hard-drawn copper is 17666 x 10-° B.A. units.
On comparing the values for wires [X., X., and XI. in these terms,
the results do not agree so well together as when expressed in terms of
the gramme metre ; there is a corresponding difference in the values of
the specific gravities ; these latter have been very carefully determined,
and the experiments repeated with the results given.
Wires, therefore, of the same resistance expressed for grammes per
metre, may give a very different result, when expressed as per cubic
centimetre : attention has been drawn to this fact in the discussion on
the Elmore copper in the ‘ Electrician.’! M. Roux, of Paris, in a letter
gives the following table for high-conductivity wire from a paper of
M. Hospitalier in ‘L’Electricien,’ 1887; this paper I have unfortu-
nately not been able to see.
Density . : : ‘ 8:897 9°32 9°6
Conductivity, equal volume 102-4 106°7 110°8
Conductivity, equal weight 101-7 101°2 101°6
What is 100 in the conductivity units is not expressed. M. Roux
thinks that the former, i.e., for equal volume, is the more rational method
of expressing the result.
Matthiessen expressed all his results in terms of equal weight, justify-
ing it by the greater accuracy obtainable when working with small weights
of wires. Smallerrors in the value of the specific gravity are easily
made, and cause a similar error in the result for equal volumes of
1 Hlectrician, Decemker 7, 1888.
1890. ° K
130 REPORT— 1890.
different wires; unless working with long lengths of thick wire the
weight of the wire is small. The weight of the water displaced cannot
be determined within ‘5 to 1 milligramme, and that only with care: this
error in ‘5 of a gramme means only an accuracy of 1 in 500. The values
given in my table are probably correct to 1 in 1,500 or 1 in 2,000, as the
weight of water displaced was in all cases over 2 grammes. Results,
therefore, for resistances of wires of equal weight are the most trust-
worthy, and, I think, also the most satisfactory if used to express the
resistance of a material and not of any given wire.
Wires X. (1) and X. (2) are of the same copper, but drawn down
separately: X. (1) was beginning to fray, and another specimen of the
same copper drawn down still further had on this account to be re-
jected; this has affected the resistance value expressed in both ways.
hus :—
> MES) BE j «3. oe : ee A 8
2 (ES : . 1569 : ct leone
but much more so when expressed for equal volumes. In both the
copper is of the same quality.
It will be noticed that with increase of specific gravity there is a
decrease of resistance, even when the results are expressed for wires of
equal weight. The resistance diminishes, therefore, more rapidly than
the density increases. Wires of the same quality may, in consequence
of a difference in drawing, have a different density, and so the resuits
expressed in terms of equal volume will differ considerably, while those
for equal weight are the same, or approximately so.
The values obtained for IX., X., and XI. are so nearly identical that
it is not unfair to conclude that they are samples of pure copper; their
value is identical with that obtained by Matthiessen at, I believe, the
same temperature. The greater difference obtained at 0° C. between
Matthiessen’s value and samples of copper tested now at that tempera-
ture is probably due to the fact that Matthiessen’s value was not
determined at 0°, but reduced in value for that temperature from observa-
tions, as stated above, at about 20° C.
The higher conductivity or less resistance for the two samples given
in the table is due, not to increased purity in the preparation of the
copper, but to the difference in the process of preparation, whereby .a
sample of greater density is obtained than results from the working up
of small quantities of copper in the laboratory.
A sample of copper has been prepared by chemical means with the
help of my friend Mr. Skinner, but has not yet been measured.
APPENDIX IV,
A Comparison of a Platinum Thermometer with some Merewry Thermometers
at Low Temperatures. By EH. H. Grirrirus, M.A., Sidney College,
Cambridge.
The following communication describes the mode of constructing
an air-tight platinum thermometer for use at low temperatures. The
thermometer was graduated by means of the freezing and boiling points
|
7 of water, and as regards intermediate points Regnault’s determinations
of the temperature and pressure of aqueous vapour were adopted. The
precautions observed in the construction of the apparatus, and in the
method of observation, are described. The thermometer was tested by
_ comparison with a number of thermometers standardised at Kew. The
: curves, showing the result of these determinations, are in remarkably
. close agreement, and when the observations were sufficiently numerous
:
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 131
it appeared possible to calibrate the bore as accurately as by the usual
more laborious process. The further advantage of this method is that
thermometers can be compared under the conditions in which they are
to be used.
_ Ina communication to the Royal Society read on June 19, 1890,
{ described a method of constructing and graduating platinum ther-
mometers, and gave a table of boiling and freezing points for various
substances lying between 100° and 500°, determined by means of these
instruments.
Subsequent observations indicate that a slight change appears to be
taking place in the readings of these thermometers. I attribute this (1)
to alterations in the glass, (2) to presence of moisture in the tube—the
asbestos roll on which the spiral was wound being highly hygroscopic. I
therefore decided to construct a thermometer in which there should be
mo contact between the glass and the platinum, and which should be
thoroughly dry and hermetically sealed.
I was unable to discover any suitable non-conductor capable of resist-
ing high temperatures ; but in anthracene (melting-point 213°) I found a
substance suitable in every respect for use at low temperatures. I sub-
jected a sample to severe tests, and, up to a temperature of about 130°,
found it to be a better insulator than paraffin.
_ The leads to the coil were constructed of silver, the inner one a rod
and the outer a tube. The resistance of these leads was about ‘001 ohm,
and therefore any change in the external resistance, caused by change of
temperature, might be disregarded. The silver leads approached to within
about 1 inch of the spiral, and were connected to it by moderately thick
platinum wires ; thus a flow of heat from the spiral to the silver was
diminished. The wire forming the coil was about 56 inches in length,
and had a diameter of -005 inch. The spiral was about 2 inches long,
having a resistance of about 13:5 ohms at 0° C., and the external diameter
at the covering tube was about ‘3 inch. The ends of the asbestos roll
were made of greater diameter than the portion on which the spiral was
vound, and thus there was no glass contact. The tube and contents were
veated up to a temperature of several hundred degrees, and dried air
“passed through for some hours. It was then exhausted and the open
end placed under the surface of melted anthracene, which was allowed to
rise until nearly in contact with the coil. When cool, the whole of the
thermometer from the spiral to the upper end (about 13 inches) was a
Solid mass, while the spiral and asbestos roll were perfectly dry and in an
almost vacuous space. I have taken nearly 600 observations with tbis
thermometer and cannot detect any signs of change. When the lower
‘part was undergoing rapid chan ges in temperature, thermo-electric effects
Showed themselves, but by reversing the battery and galvanometer
‘connectiong.during each reading these effects were eliminated. A low-
resistance galvanometer was used, and the current which passed through
ithe thermometer when determining its resistance did not exceed one
132 REPORT —1890.
hundredth of an ampére. To illustrate the closeness of the agreement
in the results obtained at different times I give the following determi-
nations of the resistance at a temperature of 100° determined in the
usual manner by means of a hypsometer with manometer attached.
Full corrections were made in the barometric reading, and the results
reduced to lat. 45°.
| Resistance (after corr. for
Date : Temperature temp. of coils)
July 26 : : : | 100°C. 18-2029
Fa 27 : ? a 100°C. 18-2034
August 12 ; : : 100°C. 18-2025
ayers} s : f 100°C. 18-2031
Mean ; : ‘ : F s ‘ : E - 18-2030
The expression for the platinum temperature by this thermometer was
R—13°5219 o>
TT 6elion CF 100, again Rear 3462,
almost exactly agreeing with the coefficient of the wire in Mr. Callendar’s
air thermometer (‘ Phil. Trans.’ A. 1887).
Mr. G. M. Clark, B.A. (Sidney Coll., Cambridge), now joined me in
the investigation, and as we proposed to use this thermometer for the
calibration and graduation of mercury thermometers between 0° and 100°,
we decided to obtain intermediate temperatures by means of Regnault’s
numbers connecting the temperature and pressure of aqueous vapour.
For this purpose we constructed a large iron tank with two plate-glass
sides, holding about 16 gallons of water, and through two holes bored in
the bottom inserted two barometer tubes, the upper 16 inches of each
being within the tank. One of these was used as a standard barometer,
and was prepared with great care, the distilled mercury with which it
was filled having been boiled in the tube for more than six hours. The
internal diameter of the tube was 14 mm., and the absence of any menis-
eus was very marked. If the level of the surface of the water in the
tank was below the top of the barometer, and the water warmed, the
sublimation of mercury in the vacuous space was observable. The second
barometer was made from the same length of tubing as the first, and
communicated at its upper extremity with a small flask (A), in which was
placed the platinum thermometer.
Distilled water was boiled in vacuo for some hours, to expel all traces
of air. The flask and barometer tube were then exhausted by means of
an air-pump, and the lower end of the tube placed in a flask (B) contain-
ing the previously boiled water, which rushed up, filling the tube and
flask (A). :
The water remaining in B was then boiled until this flask and a
bent tube passing from it into a basin of mercury, 30 inches beneath,
were completely filled with steam, and, on cooling, the height of mercury
in the tube enabled us to determine that the pressure on its surface.was
that of aqueous vapour only. The water in the upper flask was then
boiled for many hours, and only allowed to cool occasionally to permit of
the water in the lower flask being boiled away. To prevent access of air
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 133
the steam was driven off through the mercury. When the water in flask
A was reduced to about a tablespoonful, the boiling was stopped, and
_ the level of the mercury was raised until it flowed back first into flask
B and thence into the barometer tube, as flask A cooled.
The open end of the barometer tube was then sealed, the flask B
replaced by a small cup of dry mercury, and the end of the tube opened
below the surface. The water remaining on the top of
the column was driven back into the flask by pouring Fic. 11.
hot water over the tube.
During our experiments, water occasionally collected
on the mercury, but by means of a concave mirror it
was driven back into the flesk; the mirror was of course
removed some time before an observation was taken.
The tank, filled with water, was maintained at any
required temperature by means of a gas regulator. The
lower parts of the barometer tubes were screened by
sheets of asbestos, and the two cups were connected by
a small siphon. The glass sides of the tank were covered
with white paper to prevent radiation; openings were
left for observations, during which the water in the
tank was kept in a continual state of agitation by the
oscillation of a large paddle driven by a water motor.
The paddle, fixed in one corner of the lid, swept across
the tank, driving the water before it, and lifting it at
the same time. We have tried several forms of stirrers,
and we believe this to be a more effective form than a
screw or a plunger.
The difference in the height of the mercury in the
two barometer tubes was ascertained by the katheto-
meter G. 35, in the Cavendish Laboratory, and by
means of it readings could be taken to ‘50mm. Care
was taken to bring both levels horizontal before each
observation.
As the coefficient of expansion of the kathetometer scale was unknown
and the temperature of the room usually about 20°C., we decided to
compare it with the standard scale R, whose coefficient of expansion and
scale errors had been determined by the Standards Department of the
Board of Trade.'
Twenty-one comparisons were made (greatest divergence from the
mean ‘10 mm.), and the result was as follows :—300°35 mm. on katheto-
meter scale at 20°=300°35489 of Board of Trade Standard (S.S.) at 0°.
Thus no scale correction was necessary.
The difference (D) of the mercury columns was corrected for tempera-
ture, pressure of mercury vapour and latitude, and the resulting length
_ denoted by Dy: the temperature corresponding to Dy was deduced from
the very full table given in Part 3 of Carnelley’s ‘ Melting and Boiling
Point Tables.’
The extremities of the curve (at 0° and 100°) having been determined,
it was only necessary to get points between 30° and 80°.
Ninety observations were taken, and although occasional divergences
presented themselves, the mean path gives a curve which ws believe to be
— oe,
* Standard metre, verified June 1882, designated R in Mr. Chaney’s report.
134 REPORT— 1890.
within less than ‘02° of the true path at all points. It agrees closely
with the curve obtained by Mr. Callendar from the parabola
ons t
xb ino) = r00 |
by measuring one-tenth of the ordinate along the abscissa.’
The following equation, however, represents its path more accurately.
y=018795t— 00019914? + 000000111523. The curve itself is shown
in Chart A, fig. 12.
fees
}
|
2A SSN Be ce ea Te St NRO Ng
16 . 20 24 28 a2 | 36 40.44. 48 52. 56. 60 68 72. 76 80. 84.88. 92° "96° 100
We proceeded to test our conclusions by comparison with thermo-
meters standardised at Kew; for this purpose a rotating annular ring,
through the centre of which the platinum thermometer passed, was
inserted in the lid of the tank, in such a manner that the mercury ther-
mometers, fixed in holes bored near its circumference, could successively
be brought into the field of view of the kathetometer without any re-
adjustment of the telescope; the thermometers were then read by one
observer, whilst the platinum resistances were taken by the other. The
freezing-points were not, however, determined by this method, but by
direct immersion in powdered ice, adopting the precautions recommended
by Guillaume in his ‘ Thermométrie de Précision.’
The following curves were then drawn, which indicate the result of
the comparison of our platinum thermometer with those standardised at
Kew.
Curve Thermometer, Kew No. | Standardised
B 75148 October 1888.
C 4 75149 October 1888.
D | 43762 May 1885.
E | 8394 December 1880, January 1882, April 1888.
‘ It must be remembered that Callendar’s difference curve gives the connection
between platinum and air thermometer temperatures, whilst Regnault used a mercury
thermometer (M.A.S. XXI.), and thus curve A gives the relation between platinum
and mercury thermometer temperature.
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 135
All these thermometers were made by Hicks; the first three were
kindly placed at our disposal by Mr. R. T. Glazebrook ; the last is one of
those referred to by Mr. W. N. Shaw in a communication to the B.A.
26
723: 24: -25
22
22 23 24. 25
+ ea
5 Fz
a
ey
18
16° I7
15
+
~ KEW, 75148.
KEW. 75149.
APRIL 1888
x
KEW.8394, JAN* 1882
DEC 1880
KEW.43762.
Ore
02+
136 REPORT—1890.
during the Bath Meeting, the successive curves of which, then exhibited
by him, he has kindly allowed us to copy.
In these diagrams the abscissa represent the temperature—in the
strong curves, that obtained by us, and in the faint, that obtained at
Kew: the ordinates in each case being the divergence of the
actual readings from these results. Where crosses occur at almost
identical temperatures they indicate observations separated by a consider-
able interval of time ; in no case did less than 20 minutes elapse, whilst in
some several days.
Three only of our observations are unrecorded on these charts, and
in each case, owing to imperfect light, interruptions, &c., these experi-
ments were regarded as doubtful before their results were deduced.
The gradual rise of the zero point is clearly indicated; apparent
discrepancies are probably due to the fact that the Kew determinations
are less frequent than ours, and as a consequence many of the smaller
deviations have escaped notice.
The results show :—
1. That thermometers whose range does not include 0° and 100° may
have certain fixed points determined by this method.
2. That an actual calibration of a mercury thermometer can also be
readily accomplished.
3. That the platinum thermometer, properly constructed, may serve
as a standard by which to trace the changes which may take place in
mercury thermometers.
4, That since the readings of the platinum thermometer are indepen-
dent of the extent of the stem-immersion, it can be conveniently employed
for the graduation of thermometers partially immersed, as in ordinary
use.
We have since calibrated about twenty thermometers by this method,
and we believe the results to be satisfactory in all cases.
APPENDIX V.
On the Absolute Resistance of Mercury. By R. T. Guazesroox, F.R.S.
The following table gives the results of experiments made since 1882
on the absolute resistance of mercury. The first eight lines relate to
experiments in which the resistance of a wire has been found absolutely
“ “éhd then expressed in terms of the resistance of mercury by direct obser-
vation. In the next four lines the results of comparisons between certain
_coils of wire and the resistance of mercury are given. It will be noticed
that the value found by Lord Rayleigh for the resistance of 100 cm. of
mercury in B.A. units is considerably in excess of the results of other,
experimenters. If in obtaining from his value of the B.A. unit expres
in ohms the value of the ohm in mercury we use ‘9535 instead of 9541,
Lord Rayleigh’s values 106:24 and 106-21 become 106°30 and 10627, and
the mean result 106°28 is hereby raised to 106°30.
The observers whose results are given in the last seven lines, with the
exception of Lorenz, did not themselves directly compare the results of
their absolute determinations with the resistance of mercury, but with
coils usually of german silver, the value of which in mercury units was
certified either by Siemens or Strecker.
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= 16-90 a: LLOS86- : f * — poyzoUl ZUa1O'T 6881 ; i eae rast Z
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138 REPORT—1890.
The value given by Salvioni in his paper (‘ Rendiconti della R. Ac-
cademia dei Lincei,’ vol. v. fasc. 7) is ‘95404. Owing to a mistake in cal-
culation, in consequence of which a correction was applied with the
wrong sign, the value sent to him from Cambridge for his B.A. standard
was in error by ‘0005. When this is corrected his value becomes °95354,
thus agreeing very closely with the others. Salvioni’s value in line 11 is.
obtained through a coil of Strecker’s.
Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors FITZGERALD:
(Chairman), ArmstronG and O. J. LopcEe (Secretaries), Sir
WiLLi4M THomson, Lord Ray.ricu, J. J. THoMson, SCHUSTER,
PoyntinG, CruM Brown, Ramsay, FRANKLAND, TILDEN, HARTLEY,
S. P. Taompson, McLeop, Roperts-Austren, Ricker, REINOLD,.
Carey Foster, H. B. Dixon, and Joun M. Tuomson, Captain
ABNEY, Drs. GLADSTONE, HopKINSON, and FLEMING, and Messrs.
CROOKES, SHELFORD BIDWELL, W. N. SHaw, J. Larmor, J. T.
Bottom ey, R. T, GLAZEBROOK, J. Brown, and E. J. Love, ap-
pointed for the purpose of considering the subject of Electrolysis
in its Physical and Chemical Bearings.
Durine the past year the following communications bearing on the
subject of electrolysis have been published by members of the Com-
mittee :—
Mr. W. N. Shaw: ‘ On the Relation between Viscosity and Conduc-
tivity of Electrolytes.’ (‘ Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc.’ November 1889.)
In this communication Mr. Shaw criticises the observations and con-
clusions of Wiedemann concerning the intimate connection between
electric resistance and ordinary viscosity in liquids, and of the independ-
ence between ionic migration and electric endosmose. He quotes an
observation of Kohlrausch, showing that when fused silver iodide solidi-
fies there is no discontinuous change of conductivity at the melting-point.
He further examines how far the precise ionic velocity, calculated by
Kohlrausch and verified by Lodge, can be reconciled with the view of
electro-decomposition by help of complex molecular aggregates, as
opposed to the simple view of free or dissociated atoms; and concludes.
that the molecular-aggregate theory may turn out capable of explaining
all the known facts.
Mr. A. P. Chattock has kindly translated for the Committee an
abstract by Dr. J. Gubkin, from Professor Warburg’s laboratory (Wiede-
mann’s Annalen, 32, page 114), ‘On the Electrolytic Separation of Metal
at the free surface of a Salt in solution.’ The translation is printed
below.
Electrolytic Separation of Metal at the free Surface of a Salt in Solution.
By Dr. J. Gupxin.
1. When a current of electricity passes from the solution of a salt into a vapour
or a gas, electrolytic separation of the metal must occur at the surface of the liquid.
At the suggestion of Herr Warburg I have made one or two experiments to determine
how the separation of metal takes place in such a case.
ee
eee
ON ELECTROLYSIS IN ITS PHYSICAL ‘AND CHEMICAL BEARINGS. 139
2. It is best to render the space above the liquid free of air. For this purpose the
apparatus shown in Fig. 1 was used. It consisted of a glass vessel in which two
_ platinum wires, B and C, were sealed, B being plated electrolytically with the metal
to be separated from the solution. The latter was introduced to the level p’ n’ and
boiled for about ten minutes, until its surface had sunk 4 or 5 mm. below the point
of the wire Cc. While the vapour was still escaping the vessel was closed at F with
shellac ; and, after cooling, the neck was melted off at A. The apparatus then
appeared sufficiently free from air.
In order to reduce the vapour-pressure, the lower part of the vessel was placed in
ice, the upper part being freed by warming from any liquid that still clung to it.
A battery of 1,000 Planté accumulators was then connected, the positive pole
with B, the negative with c; upon which there appeared at c the well-known nega-
tive glow.
3. When the vessel contained nitrate of silver the following was observed: Soon
after putting on the current a small round disc of bright silver was formed just
underneath c. As the disc increased in diameter it darkened at the centre, and there
was formed upon it a series of light and dark concentric rings, which were sometimes
- coloured—some of these showing radial markings, which gave them the appearance
of divided circles. The disc did not sink, provided the apparatus was kept from
shaking. é
4, With a solution of zinc sulphate there was no separation of metal to be seen ;
but on looking at the surface D B from below, white Hocculent masses of zinc oxide
were visible slowly sinking through the liquid. The zinc on separation by the current
_ was thus immediately oxidised.
5. For experiments with asolution of platinum chloride the apparatus in Fig. 2
was used. In this the chlorine was collected over B.
Fie. 1. Fie, 2. FIG. 3.
+
One-third natural size. One-third natural size. One-third natural size.
A short time after closing the circuit there was visible just opposite c a small
lump of dead black platinum. On stopping the current this floated to the side of
he vessel, but returned to its original position just opposite c when the current was
in started, thus preventing the formation of a fresh lump. Very probably this
enomenon was due to electric forces.
__ 6. These experiments may also be carried out in air by means of an induction
coil. The liquid is contained in a funnel, as in Fig. 3, and the discharge at ‘ break’
furnishes the necessary current, the spark gaps between the solution and the cathode
being arranged to prevent a discharge at ‘make’ from taking place. In this manner
experiments with silver, zinc, and copper solutions were carried out, with results.
substantially the same as those described above, except that here the space flowed
through by the current, and consequently the diameter of the silver disc was
140 REPORT—1890.
-smaller then before. The concentric rings were, however, clearly visible. (« Phys.
Inst. der Univ. Freiburg, i. B.’)
In connection with this deposition of metal obtained on the upper
surface of a liquid, Professor Ostwald’s discovery of the deposition of
copper at the boundary of a semi-permeable partition may also be called
attention to. (See below.)
Mr. J. Brown has communicated a paper, which appeared in the
“Phil. Mag.’ for July 1890, ‘On the Electrification of the Effluvia from
Chemical or from Voltaic Reactions,’ wherein he discusses and extends
the observations of Mr. Enright on the electrification detected above a
vessel in which chemical ebullition is occurring. He considers that the
electrification is not due to friction or any contact effects, but that it has
a voltaic or electrolytic significance. If so, the observations of Mr.
Enright (‘Phil. Mag.’ January 1890, page 56) have more importance
than a criticism by Lodge (‘ Phil. Mag.’ March 1890, page 292) was dis-
posed to concede to them. It is to be hoped that Mr. Enright will pursue
the subject, and obtain definite evidence as to how the spray-matter
receives its charge.
Mr. Brown’s summary of conclusions is as follows :-—
When gas is evolved in a chemical or voltaic reaction, the efluvium (7.e. this gas
or something carried up with it) is usually, as shown by Mr. Enright, electrically
charged. So far as these present experiments show, no electrification is produced by
simple effervescence unaccompanied by chemical changes.
The sign of the electrification is influenced by the kind of chemical or voltaic
action taking place, and is apparently not due to any contact effect.
When the effluvium is that given off from zine dissolving in HCl (taken as a typical
experiment), and consists of hydrogen accompanied by foggy matter, it is not decided
whether the charge is given originally to the gas or the fog particles, though the
balance of evidence inclines perhaps towards the latter view. The fog in question is
formed apparently at, or nearly at, the same place as the gas; and the nature of its
charge (if any) is therefore possibly influenced by the voltaic condition there
resent.
> The gas, or effluvium, from the decomposition of a liquid by a current from the
poles of a separate battery immersed in it (voltameter) appears also to be elec-
trified.
Concerning the verification of Ohm’s law in electrolytes which has
been carried out by members of the Committee, or rather concerning the
wider question of the validity of the Maxwell-Chrystal method in general,
the Committee have been favoured with a letter from Professor Chrystal,
which is reproduced with a sufficient introduction here.
Verification of Ohm’s Law.
In one of the circulars issued to the Electrolysis Committee of the British Asso-
ciation, viz. that dated June 24, 1886, Professor Fitzgerald suggested an objection to
the complete validity of the theory of the experimental method of verifying Ohm’s ~
Jaw with twelve-figure accuracy, devised by Clerk Maxwell and carried out by Mr.
Chrystal ; doing so in the following words :—
‘There is an objection to this method that I have not seen noticed. Maxwell
-assumes that you can expand in powers of = Now, if the law were the positive
value of ()’ where » differs very slightly from unity, the method would fail, for
the current would vanish both in the numerator and in the denominator of Maxwell’s
-expansion,’
ON ELECTROLYSIS IN ITS PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL BEARINGS. 141
Maxwell’s theory is given in the Glasgow volume of the British Association for
1876.
Recently Dr. Fison seems to have promulgated the same objection, and conse-
quently Professor Fitzgerald wrote to Professor Chrystal about it. In reply he
received a very interesting letter, which he has passed on to me, and from which I
extract the portion referring to this subject.
OLIVER J. LODGE,
Letter from Professor Chrystal to Professor Fitzgerald.
. . . The problem which I set myself in the Ohm’s law experiment was to sbow
that when a Wheatstone’s bridge is balanced for any electromotive force in the
battery circuit, it is balanced for every, or, to put it safely, for widely varying,
electromotive force.
The theoretical part of the paper, for which Maxwell was responsible, I do not
remember ever having examined from a scep-
tical or logical point of view. Fig. 4.
It now appears to me that we ought to reason
as follows :—
In order to find the necessary condition
upon the resistance-function E/C, let us make
matters as simple as possible by considering a
bridge in which two arms, R, R, are of equal
resistance, of the same metal, and alike in every
respect. Let the two other resistances § and T
be made of two different metals, say of Cu and
Fe. Let the length and section of S be / and ;
and the length and section of T be /’ and @’.
The specific resistance must in each case be a
function of the current intensity (current per
unit of section). Temperature is supposed kept
constant, of course. Let the whole current
flowing through § and T when there is a balance be i, the specific resistances of
S and T will be > (é/w) and ¥ (i/w’) respectively.
The condition for balance will therefore be
CHEN @ Cpeay = CE peshy wy C4] aahy Oe. AES ae ay;
and this equation must, by the result of the experiment, hold for all values of ‘i?
Let us suppose that we alter the length of the iron wire S to Z’’, then there will
be a corresponding section, w’’, for which there will again be a balance ; so that we
must have
(Uw!) @ (éfo") = (Uo) W(ifo’) . o¥G2)3
and this again must hold for all values of 7.
Combining (1) and (2), we get ;
PAY TP VEE (1 UAT CHES Ne ae me 8
From this equation we can readily determine the form of the function ¢.
If we put p=0"/w, A=1!'w/lo!’, x =i/w'', we get
o(Mar)=A > (#);
whence, putting # = mu x, we get
p (Mev) =r p (mar) =A*G (a);
p (Hw) = AY (@);
and, in general,
P (nv) = A"d (@).
Hence, putting «=1, we get
$ (u") = Ang (1).
Now u is unrestricted, therefore we may put
z=", n=log z/log uw.
142 REPORT— 1890.
Whence, finally, ; '
9 (2) =a 108 “N08 # 9 (1)
S log A/log u $ (1).
The general form for ¢ (z) is therefore
p (@)=Az?, ;
where A and B are constants, the physical meanings of which are obvious from what
recedes.
: We see from equation (1) that the like holds for the specific resistance of every
metal which has the property indicated by the experiment.
Moreover, as you have pointed out, such a law of specific resistance is sufficient
to secure the result of the experiment.
We conclude, therefore, that what the experiment really proves is that the spe-
cific resistance of metals varies as a power of the current intensity, which power is
the same for all metals. This is a good deal, but not quite so much as is concluded
in the paper in which the experiment was originally described. The deviation spoken
of in the paper must therefore be regarded as deviations not from absolutely constant
resistance, but from the resistance calculated according to the above simple law.
To establish that the constant B is zero will not be quite so simple a matter.
Many ways might be suggested, and will, doubtless, occur to you. Tbe most direct
and satisfactory would be to get the resistance for different current-intensities, in
Joule’s way, by measuring the heat evolved.
Should the above sophistry be right, it is curious that you and Dr. Fison should
each have suggested not a way, but the only possible way, in which the resistance may
vary with the current, and Wheatstone’s bridge still remain the ideal instrument that
electricians have always considered it to be. F
G. CHRYSTAL.
An important contribution to the theory of vacuum-tube discharges
by Professor J. J. Thomson appears in the ‘ Phil. Mag.’ for August this
year. After showing experimentally that the velocity of electric trans-
mission through electrolytes and through vacuum tubes is at least roughly
the same as it is along wires, viz. the speed of light, he proceeds to
consider how this is reconcilable with the doctrine of convection by mov-
ing molecules, without supposing the molecules themselves to be affected
with any such extravagant velocity. He conjectures that the gas conducts
by a series of Grotthus chains, of a length depending on the time of recom-
bination of molecules ; that each chain propels its own current like a series
of boys on stepping-stones; and that the junctions of the chains constitute
the well-known striz.
The Committee are glad to record the appearance in English of
Professor Ostwald’s work, ‘Outlines of General Chemistry,’ wherein is
given an account of. the work and views of Professor van ’t Hoff on solu-
tion, and the theory of electrolysis held by Dr. Arrhenius is developed
into a large number of consequences. They likewise cordially welcome
Professors van ’t Hoff and Ostwald to England, and regret that Dr.
Arrhenius has been unable to be present also.
In preparation for a discussion on the extreme dissociation theory of
solution supported by these recent investigations, as opposed to the more
customary view held by chemists, and having reference also to Dr. Arm-
strong’s views of residual affinity, Professor Fitzgerald has written the
following article :—
Hlectrolytic Theories. By Professor FirzGeRap.
Electrolysis has been explained on two different theories by Grotthus and Clausius.
As generally received they differ. Grotthus’ theory, as generally given, assumes that
the molecules in an electrolyte are both polarised and moved by the electric forces
ON ELECTROLYSIS IN ITS PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL BEARINGS. 143
_ within the liquid. This seems so far untenable that it would appear that double the
electric force would double both the polarisation and the motion of the molecules,
and so should produce four times the electrolysis. The objection, however, assumes
_ that we know the causes resisting the motion, and with proper, and not very impro-
bable assumptions as to the resistance to motion depending on it and on the polarisa-
tion, a linear relation between current and electromotive force, i.e. obedience to
Ohm’s law, seems possible. A modification of Grotthus’ hypothesis in the direction
of Clausius’ is, however, possible. Suppose that when polarised the molecules drew
one another apart at a rate proportional to the polarisation. This at once makes the
relation between electric force and the decomposition a linear one, and so satisfied
_ Ohm's law in the case of small currents. It also so far agrees with Clausius’ hypothesis
that it explains electrolysis and double decomposition as properties of the same kind.
_ The molecules in a liquid will occasionally be arranged by accident in the proper
_ polarised condition in a closed circuit for drawing one another apart; and if the
circuit includes molecules of different kinds, there will result double decomposition.
There seem to be very serious difficulties in supposing that uncombined atoms are
for any finite time free in the liquid; and the supposition that it is a particular
arrangement that is required before exchanges take place, and that with this arrange-
ment exchanges take place of their own accord, seems to explain electrolysis and
_ double decomposition without supposing free atoms to exist within the liquid. I
_ have not assumed Professor Armstrong’s suggestion that the proper arrangement for
double decomposition is a double molecule; but it seems a likely hypothesis, and one
_ that should be investigated from the chemical rather than the physical side.
There are some other phenomena that have been explained upon the supposition
that free atoms are gadding about in a liqnid. Such are the lowering of the boiling
and freezing points by solutions of salts, and their effect on osmotic pressure. If
dissociated atoms are going about in a liquidas in a gas, it seems impossible but that
they must diffuse at different rates; and that thisis not observed seems conclusive
against the hypothesis, no matter what else the hypothesis may explain. Consider
solution simply. Why does chloride of sodium dissolve in water? There must be
some strong affinity between the two of a chemical or semi-chemical nature to break
up the cohesion of the crystal; and it seems reasonable to assume that this same
affinity keeps the molecules of NaCl moving about among the water molecules, so
that they diffuse about. Now if the forces drawing them about be independent of
the nature of the molecule, most of the phenomena explained by gaseous laws
are explained. Pressure of a gas depends, at any temperature, on the number of
molecules, and not on their kind. This is Avogadro’s law, by which molecular weights
are calculated ; and if the forces drawing a molecule about in a liquid are independent
of the kind of molecule, the very same law of pressure would hold, the pressure for-
ward of molecules of different kinds would depend on their number only, and in the
same way as Avogadro’s law would enable molecular weights to be calculated. In
his connection it is well to state that some bodies may be much better able to pro-
duce pressure than others, because of their being more easily polarised, i.e. turned
into an effective direction. A molecule which could be easily turned into an effective
direction would be about twice as effective as a molecule which went aboyt in a
higgledy-piggledy way ; and one would consequently expect electrolytes to produce
more, nearly double, the osmotic pressure that other bodies did. As to the changes
f boiling and freezing points, they seem explicable by exactly the same hypothesis.
he reduction of vapour pressure by molecular affinity of dissolved salt would depend
nly on the number of molecules of salt if all salts have the same molecular affinity
_ tor water ; and the same would apply to the change in freezing point. Hence ail
these phenomena are explained without assuming free atoms, and they are all
xplained by what can hardly avoid being a vera causa, namely, whatever affinities
are that cause solution, which latter is an unexplained phenomenon on the
sociation hypothesis. That it is reasonable to think that the forces keeping the
molecules of salt moving about in the water are independent of the nature of the
Salt appears from various considerations. In the first place, these forces are in all
probability due to the residual affinities of the non-metallic elements. These same
‘orces are probably the cause of crystallisation. These are old suggestions. That
these residual affinities should be nearly the same for different combinations does not
Seem at all unlikely. If a rather shaky argument in favour of its likelihood on
mechanical grounds is desired, the following may deserve attention.
Suppose a molecule of NaCl, for instance, at rest, or nearly so, in a crystal.
Subject it to this affinity. Its velocity, after it has gone a distance, s, will be given
144 REPORT—1890.
by some such relation asf s= 4m v*. Now, for the sake of temperature equilibrium,
with molecules of somewhat similar structure, + m v? must be the same in all. It
seems likely that, at least approximately, the kinetic energy of motion is proportional
to the total energy, and that this is the same for each molecular group; if so, the
kinetic energy must be approximately the same for different groups. Now, with very
dilute solutions s must be nearly the same for different molecules, and if so we get
that for temperature equilibrium f must be independent of the nature of the mole-
cule. How this equalisation of f for different kinds of molecules comes about may
be as follows. Molecules in a liquid move about among one another, but are well
within the sphere of another’s attraction, as is evidenced by superficial tension and
by the tension to which a liquid can be subject. A very small change in the distance
apart of the molecules means, however, a very great change in the forces between
them, as otherwise they would be extensible and compressible like gases. It seems
likely, then, that when a salt dissolves in a liquid it requires for temperature equili--
brium that the distances of the molecules should change by the very small amount
required in order that f may become the same for all substances. This very minute
change in distance would not visibly affect s.
The Committee request Mr. Shaw to continue his report on Electro-
lysis, with the co-operation of Mr. Fitzpatrick ; and they ask for reappoint-
ment, with a grant of 5/. to cover printing and postage expenses.
Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir G. G. SToKEs
(Chairman), Mr. G. J. Symons (Secretary), Professor ScHUSTER,
Dr. G. Jonnstong Stoney, Sir H. E. Roscor, Captain ABNEY,
and Mr. Wuterie, appointed for the purpose of considering the
best methods of recording the direct Intensity of Solar Radia-
tion.
Ow1ne to the death of Professor Balfour Stewart and the numerous ayo-
cations of Professor Schuster, the instrament constructed by this Com-
mittee has not yet been tried. The Committee have now traced all parts
of the apparatus and of the correspondence relating to it, and they are
glad to state that Professor McLeod has agreed to join the Committee
and to conduct a series of experiments with the apparatus.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Joun KERR (Chairman),
Sir WILLIAM THomson, Professor Ricker, and Mr. R. T. Guaze-
BROOK (Secretary), appointed to co-operate with Dr. KERR in his
researches on Electro-optics.
Som progress in the experiments for the conduction of which the
Committee were appointed has been made by Dr. Kerr, but the Com-
mittee regret to have to report that they are still only in the preliminary
stage. The first trials were made last winter at some length, but were
without effect. The difficulty arose from some unexpected and serious
defects in the new plate cell, which are now being remedied.
The Committee hope that the apparatus may be in working order
shortly, and look forward to being able to make a full report next year.
They ask for reappointment.
ON MOLECULAR PHENOMENA IN MAGNETISED IRON. 145
Report of the Committee on Molecular Phenomena associated
with the Magnetisation of Iron. (Phenomena occurring at a red
heat.) Professor G. F. FirzGEraLp (Chairman), H. F. NEwatt,
F, Trovuton, and Professor W. F. Barrert (Secretary).
in the interim report presented last year it was stated that this Com-
mittee, which was appointed some time ago to enquire into the various
molecular changes connected with the magnetisation of iron, proposed to
confine itself, as we believe was the original intention on the appointment
‘of the Committee, to those remarkable physical phenomena which are
found to occur in iron and steel, abont the temperature of a red heat
when iron ceases to be a magnetic metal.
The suddenness with which iron loses its magnetic susceptibility at a
red heat has often been noticed by different observers. Professor Row-
land! was the first to point out that for small magnetising forces, the
susceptibility of iron increases as the temperature rises, reaches a maxi-
_ mum ata red heat, and then falls suddenly to zero, but that the suscepti-
_ ‘bility diminishes as the temperature rises when large magnetising forces
are used. Bauer” subsequently established the same fact. Later, one of
us (H. F. Newall?) has experimented with small spheres of iron and
steel enclosed between closely fitting hemispherical caps of brass, so that
the iron sphere was held by and heated in the brass, and thus allowed to
‘heat and cool slowly, the susceptibility being tested by means of a mirror
magnetometer. It was found that during cooling from a white heat the
reappearance of magnetic susceptibility was much more leisurely in steel
than in soft iron, the rate of return to the magnetic state corresponding
with the rate of recalescence ; where recalescence was absent the suscep-
tibility suddenly returned; where the reglow was pronounced the return
to the magnetic state was slow. This is to be expected, for the rise of
temperature during recalescence is more than sufficient to carry the iron
out of the magnetic condition it had just entered upon by cooling; hence
there will be a sudden oseillation at this critical temperature. Ledeboer 4
was, we believe, the first to assign the exact temperature of the loss of
‘susceptibility. By means of a thermo-electric couple formed of wires of
platinum and an alloy of platinum with10 per cent. of rhodium, he found
the susceptibility of iron to disappear at a temperature ranging from 750°
‘to 770°C. Hopkinson® more recently, in his well-known paper, has
investigated the effect of different magnetising forces on the loss of per-
“meability of iron and steel with increasing temperature, more especially
near the critical temperature. Measuring the resistance of copper wire
(exposed to the same temperature) from its known temperature coefficient,
Hopkinson estimated the temperature, and found that with very low
_ Magnetising forces, less than 1 C.G.S. unit, the permeability of iron gradu-
_ ally rose up to a temperature of 785° C., when it almost suddenly dropped
_ down to unity; in like manner mild steel at first rose and then suddenly
fell at a temperature of 735° C.: hard steel behaved similarly, falling off
‘ata temperature of 680° C.
' Phil. Mag., Nov. 1874. ? Wied. Ann., xi. (1880).
* Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., vol. vi., Part 4 (1888).
160 ee Electrique, t. xxvii., No. 2. . 5 Phil. Trans., May 1889.
L
146 REPORT—1 890.
Professor J. A. Ewing has shown recently,! in his beautiful experi-
mental model representing molecular magnets, how a state of magnetic
instability may occur in the magnetic metals as a certain critical tempera-
ture is approached, the chief facts of permeability and retentiveness, and
what Ewing terms hysteresis, being explicable by supposing that a mag-
netised bar is made up, as in Weber’s hypothesis, of molecular magnets,
but ‘constrained by no other forces than those due to their own mutual
attractions and repulsions;’ increase of permeability due to rise of tem-
perature, for magnetising forces far short of saturation, being caused by
the expansion and separation of molecular centres creating a reduction of
stability. And as regards the sudden loss of susceptibility at the critical
temperature, Ewing conjectures that the violence of the oscillation of
the molecular magnets at this temperature may cause a state of rotation
to be developed, wherein, of course, all magnetic polarity would disappear.
Professor Ewing’s suggestive paper shows us that we may well expect
other remarkable phenomena,—and abrupt changes in the physical proper-
ties of the magnetic metals are found to take place,—at this critical
temperature. ‘I'he Committee have been engaged in investigating some
of these.
I. We will first take the sudden anomalous expansion observed when
steel and some specimens of iron wire cool from a white heat first noticed
by Gore in 1870, and the corresponding anomalous contraction on heating
first noticed by one of us in 1873.2, The observation of these effects is
extremely easy. It is only necessary rigidly to fix one end of an iron or
steel wire and attach the other end to a multiplying lever, or observe
through a reading microscope a mark on the free end, when on heating
the wire either by a gas flame or an electric current the following
phenomena are observed. The wire steadily expands as the temperature
rises till a low red heat is reached, when a halt occurs, then a sudden
momentary retraction of the wire takes place, after which expansion
continues to the fusing point. On cooling, the wire regularly contracts
till a temperature a little lower than that at the jerk on heating is reached,
when a sudden momentary elongation of the wire occurs, and then con-
traction ensues till it is cold. If the wire be vertical or horizontal,
with or without tension, the effect is equally present. To perceive the
jerk on cooling, it is, however, absolutely essential that the temperature
of the wire should be raised above that at which the jerk on heating
occurs, otherwise no anomalous effect is observed. In the experiments
made by one of us in 1875 but not hitherto published, Barrett found that
in some specimens of steel wire two anomalous contractions on heating
and expansions on cooling were noticed, the feebler one taking place at a
lower temperature. Further, that in some specimens of iron 20 anomalous
expansion or contraction was noticeable, whilst more generally in other
svecimens the effect on cooling only was noticed, and that usually this
effect could be wiped out by a few successive heatings and coolings. But
in steel the jerk in cooling was always present and was not wiped out,
though at first slightly reduced, by repeated incandescence and cooling.
Further, judging by the amount of the expansion of the wire, the effect
on heating took place, as stated above, at a slightly higher temperature
than the jerk on cooling.
A series of unpublished experiments were long since made by the
1 Phil. Mag., Sept. 1890. ? Barrett, Phil. Mag., Jan. 1874.
ON MOLECULAR PHENOMENA IN MAGNETISED IRON. 147
Secretary on the effect (a) of the diameter of the wire, and ()) of the
tension on the wire, the effects observed being represented by a curve
where expansion is plotted against the time in seconds taken in heating
and cooling. A smooth curve is, of course, formed for the non-magnetic
metals. A slight break is found in the up side of the curve for fine iron
wire, and a sharp break on the down side, whereas for steel-wire a sharp
break on the up side, and a much more marked break on the down side,
was always observed. Up to Nos. 14 or 15 B.W.G. steel-wire, ¢.e. up to
a diameter of about +%, of an inch, there is, at the critical temperature,
decided retraction on heating, but at this diameter a halt, with just per-
ceptible retraction, occurs, and as the diameter increases the halt becomes
_ more and wore prolonged, until when No. 3 wire is reached (a rod of
_ d-inch diameter) at the critical temperature a halt of six seconds takes
place in the expansion of the wire during heating, and a halt of twelve
seconds in the contraction of the wire during cooling: the wire in all
eases being wnenclosed, and therefore freely cooling in the open air. Even
: with the thickest wire of a quarter of an inch diameter a slight expansion
~ accompanies the prolonged halt in the contraction during cooling when
the critical temperature is reached. Several observations, giving con-
cordant results, were made with each wire.
Next, as regards the effect of tension on the wire. As might be
expected, tension has the effect of diminishing the anomalous retraction
on heating and increasing the anomalous expansion on cooling. In fact,
with a soft iron wire 20 centims. long (No. 19 B.W.G.) under a tension of
500 grams no halt is observed on heating, and at the fourth heating only
a halt and no expansion on cooling; at the eighth heating the halt
vanished, but a double tension, viz, 1,000 grams, caused an elongation
amounting to yj55 of the whole Jength of the wire to reappear. In a
No. 23 hard steel wire, up to a tension of 500 grams, an anomalous retrac-
tion on heating and expansion on cooling is exhibited, but additional
tension destroys the retraction on heating and increases the expansion on
cooling. After, however, thirty re-heatings of this wire the jerk on
heating had disappeared, even under the reduced tension of 300 grams,
nor did sudden quenching in cold water restore it, but it reappeared in a
feeble way under a tension of 59 grams; after the fiftieth re-heating all
that could be observed was a momentary halt on heating, but the expan-
‘sion on cooling was as marked as ever. So that even in steel the
anomalous contraction on heating appears to wear out in thin wires, but
not the anomalous expansion on cooling. In thicker wires of hard steel,
Nos. 12, 10, 8, 7, 6, and 2, B.W.G., under tensions varying from 50 to
_ 8,000 grams, continued heating and cvoling appeared to make but little
difference.' Here, however, the tension in grams per sq. centimetre was
“hot so great as in the thin wire. We shall discuss later the cause of this
curious wiping out of the jerk by annealing or repeated heating and
cooling, and are continuing the investigation with samples of steel of
known composition.
The exact amount of the retraction on heating and expansion on
cooling was measured by means of a microscope with micrometer eye-
_' It was noticed that when a flat strip of steel of the same volume as one of the
thicker wires was tried, the jerk on heating vanished on repeated heating, only a
momentary halt remaining, the jerk on cooling being as strong as ever; but further
experiments are being made to determine how far the composition of the steel, or
the effect of wire-drawing, was influential in these cases.
Lu 2
148 REPORT—1890.
piece. A sample of iron-wire was taken, which was found to behave very
like soft steelin the greater permanence of the effects it exhibited, and
except that it could not be hardened or tempered might have been mistaken
for steel; the wire was suspended vertically and heated by an electric
current, a weight of 50 grams being hung from the free end. The wire
was No. 20 B.W.G. (0°9 mm. diam.) and 29 centims. long. On heating it
expanded from 290 mm. to 293°5 mm., or 1:2 per cent. of its length; then
it retracted to 293-3 mm., a retraction of 0:07 per cent., s),, of its
original length; then expanded again till white hot, when its length was
Fig. 1.—Anomalous contraction of Iron Wire upon cooling from a bright red heat.
Wire 0:9 mm. diam.
290 mm. 500mm. . : : 5 - 5 j . Length of wire.
rr
Extension 60 grams. 90 grams, 590 grams. . Load on wire.
in tenths Ae
of mm, Expt. 1. Expt. 2. Expt. 3.
Qo ~ *,
EEE
Ht TTT f
AEA al {ie
"ot aim 4 HH Sei
Hew i: ete
“HEA ESET
HEHIGIBE HEE Elgeds eee
greater sel iged Stieeeert cae
Beene eee Eeeceiey
“LVEUPS ERSIEIS PULSE
fEIEHIATE CEE
Tee sIER THE
EEE HEE HEHEHE Hea
FEE FIT HT REE EE
PTT TTT ee i i
60 ptt | fb ofade 4 Ht
HEE EEE HAH
nde EEEEEEEEEEEEEEE CHEE
Pooh PEE |
SeSESUOUNACEREERUIEE (|
+) DEQ SESS Se see Bees 5).
294mm. On breaking contact and allowing the wire to cool freely, it
contracted till its length was 295 mm. or 1-034 per cent. of its length;
then it expanded to 293'4 mm., an expansion of 0°14 per cent., 7}; of its
length, after which it contracted till it was cold, when a permanent
elongation of 0°3 mm. remained. These amounts were diminished on the
second heating, but the permanent elongation, even under the small load
of 50 grams, was the same each time, namely, 0°3 mm., or a little over
c ————e
Sl os < st lal eee
ON MOLECULAR PHENOMENA IN MAGNETISED IRON. 149
sooo Of its length. Earlier experiments were made with the wire hori-
zontal, the tension being applied by means of a pulley; the same results
were obtained, but the vertical method is obviously the best. A length
of 50 centims. of the same wire gave similar results, the amount of the
anomalous retraction and expansion being proportional to the length of
the wire. When the load was increased to 590 grams with the same wire,
the retraction on heating vanished, and the sudden elongation on cooling
had increased to no less than 5}, of the original Jength of the wire, or
0°32 per cent.: the permanent elongation being 3:5 mm. at each heating,
or upwards of +4, of the length of the wire. The diagram, Fig. 1,
shows the actual change in the dimensions of the wire. It will be
observed that a load of 90 grams will cause the jerk on heating to vanish
with this wire, and that the jerk on cooling grows less as the experiment
is repeated ; at each experiment the microscope was adjusted to zero so
that the total permanent elongation is the sum of that in each experi-
ment,
II. The permanent stretching of the wire under these loads occurs
only when the critical temperature is reached. At this temperature an
abrupt and remarkable softening or plasticity of the iron or steel occurs
which renders it extraordinarily ductile. A comparative experiment was
made with copper wire heated to the same temperature. The copper
wire used was 50 centims. long and rather thinner, 0°76 mm. diameter.
When heated it would only bear a load of 510 grams without rupture ;
on heating to redness no jerk or stoppage of the expansion, and on cooling
no stop in the contraction was noticed, the permanent elongation being
08 mm. or ;}; of the length of the wire. With the iron wire, which
was considerably stouter (0°9 mm. diameter), of the same length and
under the same load of 510 grams, the permanent stretching was 1‘8 mm.,
or about 54, of its length, so that the iron appears to be far more ductile
and plastic than copper when both are at a red heat.
Mr. H. Tomlinson! has, in fact, already published some interesting
‘experiments on the enormous loss of rigidity which occurs in iron at
the critical temperature. A torsionally vibrating iron wire has a
logarithmic decrement at about 1,000° C., ten times greater than that of
a tin wire at the temperature of the air, though tin has the highest
internal friction of any metal yet examined at ordinary temperatures.
Mr. Tomlinson finds two temperatures, one about 550° C. and the other
about 1,000° C., when there is a sudden rise in the internal friction of
iron. In a series of interesting papers communicated to the Physical
Society, Mr. Tomlinson bas added much to our knowledge of the physical
changes which occur in iron at the critical temperature. Mr. Tomlinson
_ places near 1,000° C. the remarkable alterations he has observed in an
_ iron wire under stress or strain. At this temperature ‘when stretched
by a slight weight it suddenly unstretches, when under a slight bending
stress it suddenly unbends, when under a slight twisting stress it suddenly
“untwists, whilst on the contrary, if it has been previously bent or twisted
permanently and then released from stress, it suddenly bends more or
twists more as the case may be.’? Opposite changes occur in cooling.
One of us* has suggested that the probable explanation of the effects
observed by Mr. Tomlinson is due to the difference in the rate of heating
and cooling between the interior and exterior of the wire. Such is
» Phil. Mag., Feb. 1888. 2 Phil. Mag., Sept. 1887.
* Newall: Phil, Mag., Nov. 1887.
150 REPORT—1890,
doubtless the case even in thin wires, and this being so the strains in
the wire will no longer be balanced if the inner and outer portion of the
wire be at different temperatures. For when the wire is twisted or bent
permanently, it has been submitted to a greater twisting or bending than
that which it retains; a strain has been given which is larger than that
which remains when the stress is removed. Now when the wire is raised .
to the critical temperature, the existence of this original strain reveals
itself, owing to the greater plasticity of the molecules of the iron which
have reached the higher temperature, and hence the additional twisting
or bending which Mr. Tomlinson has observed. By keeping the wire at
the critical temperature for some time, it is rendered free from strains
and the effect disappears.
It is probable that the anomalous contraction and expansion in iron
which we have been studying is an effect due to the Jongitudinal strains
in the wire produced by wire-drawing, and which are destroyed by fre-
quent heating; the non-existence or rapid subsidence of the effect in
some specimens of very soft iron follows from this explanation, together
with the more pronounced and enduring effects noticed in steel. Never-
theless, some other cause appears to exist in hard steel where the effect
appears to be more or less permanent. We hope to throw more light on
this point next year, as our experiments are being continued.!
During the momentary elongation of the wire at the critical tempera-
ture in cooling, a singular creaking sound is also to be observed. The
sound resembles that produced by bending tin; in thick wires it more
resembles a strip of tin struck on the edge by a piece of wood; it is a
succession of short sounds or ticking, lasting during the anomalous
change. This crepitation is evidently similar to that noticed by M. Le
Chatelier at a lower temperature. It reminds one of the crepitation
heard on magnetisation first noticed by Page in 1837.
III. We now come to the reglow or Recalescence of iron and steel at
the critical temperature first noticed by Barrett (‘ Phil. Mag.,’ 1873), and
which Mons. Osmond has made the starting-point of his admirable
investigations.
What is observed by the eye is as follows: The wire heated either by
a current or gas flame gradually becomes luminous, then as a certain
temperature is reached the glowing of the wire ceases to increase, and
1 In a paper published in the Comptes Rendus for July 8, 1889, M. André Le
Chatelier has shown that in the heating of iron three most remarkable phases in its
mechanical properties are to be observed. In this respect it behaves differently from
all other metals he has examined. From 15° to 80° C. the breaking strain, slowly
applied, decreases with an increase of temperature like other metals. But from
100° to 240° C. the breaking strain is sensibly constant, and the elongation at rupture
is much diminished. From 240° C. to 300° C. the breaking strain suddenly increases
and the elongation also increases. From this point onwards the breaking strain
decreases, but at 300° C. iron possesses its maximum strength to a steady strain,
though it is then weakest as regards a sudden shock. It may here be worth noting
that the temperature of 285° to 300° C. (as Mr. Tomlinson has recently observed)
has a special significance in connection with the so-called Villari critical point, that
is, the value of the magnetising force for which the permeability is not altered by
alteration of stress on the experimental wire. This point varies both with the value
of the load and the temperature of the wire. M. Le Chatelier, so far as we are
aware, has not carried his investigation above 500° C., where still more interesting
results may be expected, M. Le Chatelier finds that the elongation of iron under
stress at about 150° C. is accompanied by a crackling sound, the lengthening not
taking place continuously but in a series of jerks, a fact which he observed in up-
wards of 200 experiments and in all the alloys of iron.
ee —— ose
ON MOLECULAR PHENOMENA IN MAGNETISED IRON. 151
even in some specimens a sudden darkening occurs. At this moment
the anomalous contraction takes place. Heating now continues regularly
till the wire reaches the melting-point. On cooling the luminosity de-
creases until the moment when the anomalous expansion takes place, then
a sudden flash runs through the wire, first beginning at the cooler parts
and suffusing the whole with a bright glow. This phenomenon of
Recalescence is most beautifully observed by heating to whiteness with a
blow-pipe flame the centre of a thin steel plate; a concentric ring of
darkening will be seen to spread outward and in like manner a beautiful
incandescent circle runs inward during cooling.! It is needless to refer
to our experiments made long since, which showed that recalescence was
not a mere surface effect but a rise of temperature throughout the wire,
and that it occurred equally when the steel was enclosed in tubes con-
taining pure nitrogen as well as in other gases. In some specimens of
iron recalescence could not be seen, but it was present in all specimens
of steel and was found whenever the jerk occurred in cooling. Numerous
diagrams were also made of the duration of the after-glow in steel wires
of various thicknesses.
It was noticed by one-of us? soon after the discovery of recalescence
that a faint second glow could be seen; the first and far stronger after-
glow being exactly coincident with the sudden elongation of the steel
wire during cooling. Thusin a No. 17 B.W.G. soft steel wire, cooling
from a white heat unprotected in the air, five seconds elapsed before the
first after-glow was seen and thirteen seconds before the second glow ; no
jerk or anomalous expansion being noticed with the second glow, but an
expansion of 0°2 mm. in a wire 20 centims. long being noticed at the first
glow. The same result was found with different tensions. In thicker rods
of soft steel, three glows were noticed, but it is difficult to discriminate
the subjective and misleading effects produced by expectant attention in
the faint glows, thermometric methods alone being reliable. This has
since been accomplished by Osmond, who was the first to determine the
exact temperatures of recalescence in iron and steel. Continuing the
early experiments, an attempt was made in 1875 by Barrett to measure
the temperature of recalescence by observing the amount of expansion
that occurred in the steel raised from the temperature of the air to the
critical point. Assuming that the known rate of increase of the coefficient
of expansion in steel with rise of temperature continued regularly, it was
found that 830° C. was approximately the temperature of the critical
point. The uncertainty of the data on which this estimate was founded
and the difficulty of measuring these high temperatures then with any
‘approach to accuracy, prevented the publication of a result which turns
mt now to be not very wide of the mark. M. Le Chatelier has lately
‘ound the coefficient of expansion for iron at 1,000° C. to be 0:0000145 for
1°C.; but measurements exactly at the critical point appear to be wanting.
We now come to M. Osmond’s valuable investigations, which com-
_menced in 1886. By means of a pyrometer similar to that used by
? Newall: Camb. Phil. Soc., January 1888.
? Barrett, unpublished laboratory notes, 1875.
§ «Transformations du Fer et du Carbone dans les Fers, les Aciers et les Fontes
Blanches,’ par F. Osmond, Afémoires de UArtillerie de la Marine. A summary of
M. Osmond’s work is given in his paper read before the Iron and Steel Institute of
Great Britain in the early part of the present year. M. Osmond has kindly lent us
nM nens he has employed, and we hope to repeat some of his determinations
shortly.
:
'
152 3 REPORT—1890.
M. Ledeboer, devised by M. H. Le Chatelier, and consisting of a thermo-
electric couple of platinum and platinum rhodium alloy, associated
with a dead beat galvanometer, Osmond has made a careful study of the
recalescence in iron and steel.
Osmond finds three critical points to exist in mild steel when, during
cooling, the temperature remains stationary for a sensible interval of
time. These three points he designates a,, a, and a3; a, being that
at the lowest temperature about 660° C., a, about 730° C., and a3 about
850° C. In hard steel a, only is present, but is much more pronounced,
and occurs somewhat higher, about 700° C. In electrolytic iren, which,
however, contained 0:08 per cent. of carbon, a, and a3 only are present,
occurring at about 720° C. and 860° C. respectively. The temperature
of these critical points he finds, just as we found with the anomalous ex-
pansion and contraction, to be higher during the heating than during the
cooling of the same specimen. Osmond, however, has not noticed any
sudden rise of temperature at recalescence, only a longer or shorter halt
in the cocling. But this difference probably arises from his mode of ex-
perimenting; one of us has pointed out the necessity of precaution in this
respect.! We have recently repeated our experiments, using a thermo-
couple similar to that employed by Osmond, and find that there is not
the least difficulty in observing and measuring the sudden large increase
of temperature that occurs during recalescence. It is only necessary to
use somewhat fine wires for the thermo-couple, to bind them to the steel
wire under experiment, and wrap the part round with asbestos to prevent
too rapid cooling in the air.
The temperature of the critical point Osmond finds, as occurred with
the jerk on heating or cooling, to be higher on the up side of the curve
(that is, during heating) than on the down side of the curve. Like our-
selves, he finds the critical point higher in iron than in steel, and that on
re-heating the same sample the point of recalescence is lowered somewhat.
Experiments we have recently made show that after the first two or three
heatings stable conditions appear to be reached; recalescence then occurs
at the same temperature and to the same amount on subsequent heatings
and coolings. This is assuming the metal to be raised to the same tem-
perature before cooling each time; if the temperature before cooling be
not so great Osmond finds that the critical point is raised. Our experi-
ments point rather the other way, but they need repeating. When the
cooling of iron or steel is slow recalescence begins at a somewhat higher
temperature, and lasts longer than when the cooling is very rapid.
Osmond finds that when the cooling is very rapid, by quenching the
white-hot metal in water, recalescence is entirely absent. The steel is
thus hardened, and Osmond concludes that the latent heat of the change
which takes place in the metal at recalescence is still in the steel, and he
terms it the latent heat of hardening.
IV. The difference in the temperature at which recalescence occurs on
the up and down side of the curve of heating, has led two of our Com-
mittee independently to suggest the explanation of the remarkable thermo-
electric current which is produced in iron and steel by a moving source of
heat.? If an iron or steel wire be heated to redness at any one point of
1 Newall, Phil Mag., June 1888.
2 Trouton, Proc. Royal Dublin Soc., 1887. Newall, Phil. Mag., June 1888. Mx.
Trouton has found a similar but entirely transient E.M.F., caused by a moving flame
ir
o>
ON MOLECULAR PHENOMENA IN MAGNETISED IRON. 153
its length, and the source of heat, such as a Bunsen flame, be moved
along, an electric current is set up in the direction in which the flame
travels. By means of clockwork the flame can be caused to move con-
tinuously, and hence a continuous circuit is thereby obtained. There
are, however, no signs of E.M.F. in the circuit until the recalescent
point is passed; then reglow takes place behind the moving flame and the
cooling effect in front. This thermal difference is, we believe, the cause
of the resultant E.M.F., for it ceases when the flame ceases to move,
and is absent in those metals where recalescence does not occur.
VY. The thermo-electric position of iron undergoes a sudden change at
the critical temperature. This was first noticed by one of us in 1875;
twisting a platinum wire round the iron or steel wire under experiment,
and connecting the free end of the platinum and one end of the steel wire
to a galvanometer, a thermo-electric current was of course observed on
heating the wire, but directly the jerk occurred in heating a sudden move-
ment of the galvanometer needle simultaneously occurred, and similarly
in cooling the thermo-current changed along with the anomalous expan-
sion, and a moment after the iron regained its magnetic susceptibility.
Hot iron is thermo-electrically negative to cold iron, but at the critical
point a large increase in the H.M.F. is suddenly developed. Mr. H.
Tomlinson ! has shown that iron at a bright red heat in contact with iron
at the temperature of the air develops an H.M.F. of about one-twentieth
of a volt, or upwards of twice that between a bismuth and antimony
couple with a temperature difference of 100° C. between their junctions.
Cumming was the first to notice long ago that the thermo-electric
properties of iron changed at a red heat, but to Professor Tait’s classical
papers on thermo-electricity we owe the first exact investigation of the
changes that heat produces in the thermo-electric properties of iron. In
his Rede lecture, delivered on May 23, 1873, Professor Tait remarks that
when various pairs of metals were tried up to a red heat the thermo-
electric diagram representing the relation of E.M.F. and temperature.
always exhibited an anomaly when iron was one of the metals; at some
temperature near a low red heat a change occurred, the ‘ Thomson effect’
being negative in iron at ordinary temperatures, became positive at a red
heat, and remained so until a much higher temperature was reached,
when another change of sign appeared to be indicated. ‘ Iron,’ Professor
Tait remarks, ‘ becomes as it were a different metal on being raised above
a red heat ; this may have some connection with the ferricam and fer-
rosum of the chemists, with the change of magnetic properties and of
electric resistance at high temperatures.’ ?
VI. The electric resistance of iron at this temperature also changes ;
Smith, Knott, Macfarlane, and more recently Hopkinson’ and Le
Chatelier,® have published investigations on this point. Hopkinson finds
a change in the temperature coefficient of the iron wire he used at 855° C.,
and of hard steel wire at a somewhat lower temperature. These tempera-
to occur in other unannealed wires. This is an effect due to annealing by the
flame, and disappears immediately, whereas the effect in steel is persistent.
Proc. Phys. Society, vol. ix. p. 105 (Nov. 1887). See also on this point a paper by
one of us (Newall, Camb. Phil. Soc., Jan. 1888.)
? Nature, June 12, 1873. Trans. R.S.E., Dec. 1873.
* Proc. Royal Society of Edin., Feb. 1875.
* Phil. Trans. Roy. Society of London, May 1889.
* Comptes Rendus, Feb. 10, 1890.
154 REPORT—1890,
tures he found practically coincident with the sudden loss of magnetic
susceptibility of the metals. Le Chatelier finds mild and hard steel show
two changes of curvature in their electric resistance, one at 850° C. and
the other at 710° C., whereas manganese steel, in which we find re-
calescence to be absent,! shows no such change, the curve of increased
resistance with temperature being perfectly regular. Le Chatelier also
finds that pure nickel undergoes a sudden change in its electric resist-
ance, the temperature coefficient altering at 340° C., which corresponds
to the temperature of other changes in its physical properties.
Fia. 2,—Electric Resistance in ohms of Wires of the Metals named. 1 metre long
and 1 mm. diam. heated from 0° to 1,000° C., in pure dry hydrogen (Le Chatelier).
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VII. Some recent experiments made by Dr. E. Ball? appear to indicate
that there is a still higher critical point than those observed by Osmond
and ourselves. Dr. H. Ball has measured the tensile strength and
roughly the magnetic state of iron and steel suddenly cooled down from
different high temperatures. He finds that there are three critical points
when a change in the tensile strength and magnetic character of ironand
steel occur with sudden quenching ; two of these points agree with
Osmond’s a, and a3, but the third point is higher than either of these ; he
estimates it approximately as 1,300° C. More exact means of measuring
the temperature and magnetic susceptibility are, however, necessary.
VIII. This higher temperature is near that at which M. Pionchon?
has found a change in the specific heat of iron. Pionchon’s results show
that the specific heat of iron changes suddenly between 660° and 720° C.,
1 Barrett, Proc. R. Soc., Dublin, Dec. 1886.
2 Proc. Iron and Steel Institute of Great Britain, 1890.
3 Pionchon, Comptes Rendus, June 1886.
a a i a ak
ON MOLECULAR PHENOMENA IN MAGNETISED IRON. 155
and again between 1,000° and 1,050° C., considerable absorption of heat
taking place at these temperatures. The lower of these temperatures
corresponds with the recalescent point and loss of magnetic susceptibility
in steel. Mr. H. Tomlinson, as already noticed, has also observed two
critical points in iron, one about 550° C. and the otber at 1,000° C.,! when
a sudden change occurs in the viscosity of this metal. No doubt these
are the same points as those observed by Pionchon, for the variable com-
position of the iron also, and errors in determination of these high tempe-
ratures are probably sufficient to account for the differences observed.
The amount of heat given out during recalescence we have estimated
from the observed expansion of the metal that occurs during recalescence.
Taking Pionchon’s determination of the specific heat of iron at a red
heat, the heat liberated in the recalescence of a specimen of iron would
thus appear to be somewhat over 100 times as much as would raise
the same mass of iron 1° C. Dr. Hopkinson,? from the length of the
break in the time curve of cooling, has estimated that the heat liberated
in the recalescence of hard steel is equal to 173 times that liberated
when the same material falls 1° C. The amount of recalescence in hard
steel, as already stated, is considerably greater than that in iron.
IX. Here it may be mentioned that the hardening of steel by sudden
quenching in water cannot be produced unless the metal be raised to the
temperature of recalescence.? Brinnell’s researches have shown that the
carbon in steel is in two different conditions above and below the reca-
lescence, and by sudden quenching the so-called ‘hardening carbon’ is
preserved in the condition in which it exists at a high temperature. At
a high temperature it appears to be simply free carbon mixed with or
dissolved in the iron; at the temperature of the air the researches of
Miiller, Abel, and Osmond and Werth, have shown that in ordinary steel
carbon is combined with the iron in the form of a compound, having the
definite composition Fe,C.
X. We must now consider the general cause of these phenomena.
The secretary of this Committee long since suggested it was probably to
be found in the carbon present in the iron, as recalescence was most
marked in those specimens of iron and steel which contained larger per-
centages of carbon, and this cause Osmond has now, we think, satisfac-
torily established.
Recalescence in steel Osmond attributes to the chemical combination
of the iron with the carbon present in a free state, and which has been
liberated by heat. Thus the point of recalescence is that at which iron
_ ¢arbide, Fe,C, forms; a body which is stable at ordinary temperatures
but decomposed, with absorption of heat (producing the chilling effect
observed on heating) at a red heat. Now the heat of combination we
find to be about 3,000 calories per gram of carbon present in the iron, as
deduced from Hopkinson’s estimate of the amount of heat liberated
during recalescence ; further experiments on this part of the subject are
necessary, and we hope to make them shortly.
Recalescence in iron Osmond attributes to an allotropic change
which he believes iron to undergo at a temperature of about 750° C.
Below this temperature iron exists in one molecular state, which Osmond
) Phil. Mag., February 1888.
? Phil. Trans., May 1889.
’ J. H. Brinnell, Jernkontoret’s Annalen, 1885, and Stahl und Eisen, Nov. 1885.
Independently observed by one of us, Newall, Camb. Phil. Soc., Jan. 1888.
156 RePORT—1890.
designates a iron; between 750° and 850° the change is in process, and
above 850° C. he asserts that iron enters the other molecular state, which
he designates 8 iron. It is, then, to the latent heat of allotropy that
Osmond attributes the recalescence observed in iron, heat being absorbed
to produce this change at the critical point during heating, and liberated
during cooling at a somewhat lower temperature. Iron, according to
this hypothesis, is a polymorphous element like sulphur, phosphorus,
&c. Sudden cooling from a white heat, when the change into f iron
has occurred, should tend to preserve the iron in this allotropic state ;
but this is not the case, except to a small extent, and hence Osmond
maintains that it is the presence of carbon in the iron which keeps the
iron in the £ condition when suddenly cooled. Hardened steel would
thus owe its properties principally to the presence of f iron, which is
hard and brittle at ordinary temperature: ‘both the iron and the carbon
in hardened steel preserving more or less completely in the cold the con-
dition which they possessed at a high temperature.’
We think, however, that the evidence adduced by Osmond on behalf
of his theory of recalescence in iron is as yet insufficient. No doubt iron
does exist in an allotropic modification at a high temperature, but the
electrolytic iron with which Osmond experimented contained 0:08 per
cent. of carbon, very nearly as much as some of the pure steels with
which we have experimented, which contained 0:1 per cent. of carbon.
It is to the influence of this small amount of carbon present in Osmond’s
electrolytic iron that we are inclined to attribute the feeble recalescence
which he observed in his specimen. The effect, (a) of this residual
carbon, and (b) of the mechanical treatment the specimen has received,
such as hammering and wire-drawing, have yet to be investigated, and
this we hope to undertake during the next year. If it be possible to
keep iron in the B condition when cold, it should not only be hard and
brittle but non-magnetic, and this has not yet been proved. We have
made some experiments on this point by suddenly quenching at a white
heat fine iron wires in cold mercury, and here will merely state that
their magnetic susceptibility was not destroyed. Manganese steel, it is
true, is practically non-magnetic, and this Osmond attributes to the part
played by manganese in fixing the iron in 'the 8 condition, and Hopkin-
son has shown that whatever slight magnetic susceptibility is found in
manganese steel could be accounted for by a few little bits of pure iron
distributed through the mass.!
We believe that the difference in the temperature position of recalescence
(and also of the jerk) on the up and on the down side of the curve of heat-
ing or cooling is analogous to what is found in the heating of water. In
a clean vessel water may be raised above the boiling-point; suddenly at
some one point steam is formed, and the whole rapidly passes into steam,
the change of state being accompanied by a full of temperature and large
absorption of heat. Similarly steam in cooling down may be lowered
below the normal point of condensation, when from some cause, such as
the presence of solid particles, condensation begins and rapidly proceeds,
accompanied by a rise of temperature.? The retardation of this change
Mr. Tomlinson ’ considers to be due to the great internal friction which
exists in iron at a red heat; in consequence of this the change takes place
1 Phil. Trans., April 1885. 2 Newall, Camb. Phil. Soc., Jan. 1888.
8 Phil. Mag., Feb. 1888.
j
NE ————S ——<—<—<<_- -——S —
ON MOLECULAR PHENOMENA IN MAGNETISED IRON. 157
at a lower temperature than it otherwise would, until at last a sort of
explosive action occurs, and the change rapidly runs throughout the
whole mass, analogous to what takes place in supersaturated solutions.
This is what we may expect to occur in the magnetic metals which
exhibit the phenomena of hysteresis when under stress.! The recent
paper of Professor Ewing’s on the Molecular Theory of Induced Magne-
tism,” to which we have already referred, throws remarkable light on the
various phenomena we have been studying. By means of his beautiful
experimental model, Professor Ewing has shown that the intermolecular
magnetic forces alone are sufficient to account for the known facts of
magnetisation, and that magnetic hysteresis is not due to anything in the
nature of frictional resistance to the rotation of the molecular magnets,
but simply to the molecular instability which results from these inter-
molecular magnetic actions. And, further, that the same cause explains
why there is ‘in magnetic metals hysteresis in physical quality generally
with respect to stress, apart from the existence of magnetisation.’ We
shall probably have occasion in our next report to deal more fully with
Ewing’s explanation, and here can only congratulate the author on the
value and beauty of his suggestive experiments.
Connected with this part of the inquiry, we may refer to the inter-
esting results Hopkinson has obtained with an alloy of iron and nickel.
This alloy Hopkinson finds to have two stable conditions, one being
magnetic and the other non-magnetic ; a high temperature destroys the
magnetic state, which can only be resumed by lowering the temperature
considerably below the freezing-point; the remarkable fact, now expli-
cable by Ewing’s experiments, being that this iron-nickel alloy may be
either magnetic or non-magnetic at the ordinary temperature, its previous
history determining the state in which it remains.?
Here we must leave the subject at present; we are well aware that
many matters of interest have necessarily been omitted, and that we have
inadequately dealt with those that have come under consideration. So
many issues of importance, both to the chemist and metallurgist, as well
as the physicist, have been opened up by this inquiry that we trust the
Committee, which will be enlarged, may next year present a fuller report.
APPENDIX.
A proof of the foregoing report having been forwarded by us to Mons.
Osmond he has sent us the accompanying notes, which we have thought
desirable to add to the report :—
, Page 145,—II ne parait pas possible que la récalescence fasse remonter
la
température au-dessus de a; , c’est-d-dire au-dessus du point
_ Yéciproque pendant le chauffage; car, aussitét qu’on atteint ce point
_ réciproque, il se produit une absorption de chaleur qui doit limiter la
» In a paper by one of us (Newall), we pointed out some time ago that the pheno-
_ mena observed in recalescence ‘ were really signs of something of the nature of what
Professor Ewing calls hysteresis.’
2 Phil Maq., Sept. 1890.
’ The electric resistance of this alloy at different temperatures is shown in the
top curve of Fig. 2. When heated in a dry atmosphere of hydrogen the resistance
regularly increases; when heated in an undried atmosphere a singular difference is
observed during cooling as shown in the ‘ modified’ curve.
158 REPORT—1890.
récalescence. Autrement, on aurait une sorte de mouvement perpétuel.
Si le retour 4 l'état magnétique est plus lent dans l’acier que dans le fer,
c’est parceque la transformation moléculaire du fer ne se produit qu’an
fur et 4 mesure de la combinaison du carbone, au moins dans un acier
tres dur.
P. 145.—Dans les expériences de Ledeboer, le couple était placé a
Vextérieur du barreau et séparé de celui-ci par une lame de mica. Comme
le refroidissement était rapide, je pense que le chiffre trouvé par Ledeboer
(750°-770°) pour le fer est un peu bas. Hopkinson, Le Chatelier et moi
sommes bien d’accord pour 850° environ. D’ailleurs, la vitesse du re-
froidissement peut faire varier la position du point critique de plus de
100°, comme je |’ai trouvé dans des expériences inédites.
P. 146 (en bas).—la disparition de certains effets aprés un petit
nombre de réchauffages me parait un phénomeére curieux et qui demande
a étre étudié complétement. I] s’agit peut-étre de la destruction de
Vaction d’un écrouissage antérieur ?
P. 147.—J’ ai fait des expériences pour déterminer le réle de la ten-
sion dans la position des points critiques. Dans ma pensée, il est hors
de doute que la traction ou la compression doivent déplacer les points
critiques, comme cela a été prouvé expérimentalement pour l’iodure
d’argent par Mallard et H. Le Chatelier. Cependant, Jes résultats de mes
expériences sont restés donteux et je ne les ai pas publiés; mais, comme
jopérais par traction et qu’une tige de fer au rouge ne peut supporter
qu’une charge extrémement faible, il n’est pas étonnant que leffet dia
la tension soit resté dans la limite des erreurs d’expérience. J’ai intention
de reprendre ces expériences si je puis le faire dans de meilleures condi.
tions.
P. 149.—Les températures de 1,000° et de 550° données par Mr. Tom-
linson ne sont guére d’accord avec l'ensemble des autres observations,
Il y aurait lieu de reprendre ces expériences de fagon 4 pouvoir rattacher
les phénoménes observés par Tomlinson a d’autres phénoménes dont la
position soit bien connue. Vers 1,000°, ou a une température supérieure,
il se produit un maximum d’accélération dans la transformation du grain
et il peut en résulter un changement correspondant dans la rigidité. A
mon avis, ces phénoménes se rattachent au point de fusion de la fonte
blanche, une fusion locale pouvant alors se produire aux points les plus
carburés. Mais, avant de discuter, il faudrait d’abord étre stir que les
températures données par Tomlinson sont bien exactes. Celle de 550°
surtout ne répond 4 rien de connu, 4 moins qu'il ne s’agisse d’acier au
tungsténe.
P. 150.—Les effets de contraction et de dilatation anormales observés
sont dus en partie 4 l’élévation de température pendant le refroidissement
et au phénoméne inverse pendant le chauffage. Ces effets sont done per-
manents pour l’acier, quelque soit la nombre des chauffages successifs,
pourvu que la perte de carbone ne soit pas trop forte. Dans le fer
doux, au contraire, cette canse de contraction ou de dilatation est moindre,
puisque la récalescence proprement dite est faible on nulle. On comprend
alors que l'effet disparaisse par les chauffages répétés, s’il est di en partie
4 l’écrouissage antérieur. (Confer Norris.) Le fer écroui est moins dense
que le fer recuit; il est done naturel que, au point critique pendant le
chauffage, le fil se raccourcisse la premiére fois qu’on le chanffe et que
ce phénoméne ne se reproduise plus ultérieurement. Dans l’acier, il y a
plusieurs phénoménes superposés.
ON MOLECULAR PHENOMENA IN MAGNETISED IRON. 159
P, 152.—J’ai observé trés souvent l’élévation de température qui cor-
respond A la récalescence. Je ne nie pas d’ailleurs l’influence de la
rosseur des fils; mais, en dehors de cela, puisque j’opérais toujours avec
Es mémes fils, il y a tantot élévation de température, tantdt simple station
pour le méme métal au gré de causes encore obscures, Je ne crois pas
wil y ait lieu d’attacher beaucoup d’importance a cette différence.
. P. 152.—Dans certaines de mes expériences, l’influence de la tempéra-
_ ture initiale du refroidissement a pu se confondre avec celle des refroidisse-
ments successifs; il y aurait lieu de faire séparément la part des deux
influences. Je suis d’accord avec la commission pour dire que, aprés deux
ou trois chauffages, généralement dés le second chaffauge, la position des
points critiques tend a devenir sensiblement fixe. II est possible que j’aie
attribué a tort a la température initiale du refroidissement l’abaissement
qui était di aux réchauffages successifs ; cependant, Hopkinson signale
le méme fait. C’est 4 vérifier.
P. 152, IV.—L’explication est en effet trés satisfaisante et méme
certaine. H. Le Chatelier a fait une pile sur le méme principe en em-
ployant l’acier-nickel pour lequel l’écart est beaucoup plus grand entre
les points réciproques pendant le chauffage et le refroidissement.
P. 154, VII.—Voir mes observations 4 propos de la communication
de Ball, ‘Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute,’ année 1890, p. 102.
Pp. 154, 155, VIII.—L’absorption de chaleur signalée par Pionchon
entre 1,000° et 1,050° n’existe pas dans cette région, mais bien, selon moi,
a 860°, température qui peut s’élever jusqn’a 900° environ selon la vitesse
du chauffage et la composition du métal ; la méthode de Pionchon présente
de grandes difficultés d’application qui n’existent pas dans la méthode du
refroidissement ; s'il y avait une évolution de chaleur notable entre 1,000°
et 1,050°, mes courbes le montreraient indubitablement. Il convient
toutefois d’observer que l’absorption pendant le chauffage parait étre
beaucoup plus progressive que le dégagement inverse pendant le refroi-
dissement : il résulte de 14 que les limites du phénoméne manquent de
netteté.
P. 155, VIII.—Je crois que Hopkinson a estimé trop haut la quan-
tité de chaleur dégagée en a,, parcequ’il était trop prés du point mort
entre le chauffage et le refroidissement, c’est-i-dire dans une période ot
le refroidissement n’avait pas encore pris son allure régulicre.
_ PP. 155, X.—Je suis trés heureux de voir mes conclusions sur ce point
acceptées par la commission. On peut se faire une idée de la quantité de
chaleur dégagée par la combinaison de 1 gr. de carbone avec le fer en par-
tant de mes experiences calorimétriques. (‘Théorie cellulaire,’ p. 36 et
Suiv.) Ces expériences conduiraient a un chiffre trés notablement supé-
rieur 4 3,000 Unités, et qui pourrait atteindre 8,000 Unités au maximum,
chiffre analogue 4 celui de la combinaison du carbone avec l’oxygéne, Je
ne puis d’ailleurs donner un chiffre exact, ne possédant qu’une seule
équation pour déterminer plusieurs inconnues.
P. 156.—Je compte publier prochainement quelques observations
“nouvelles 4 l’appui de ma théorie et discuter 4 ce point de vue l’objection
de Howe, qui me parait, en réalité, étre plutdt favorable que contraire &
Mes idées. Si le fer doux trempé reste magnétique, c’est qu’il est théo-
‘Tiquement et pratiquement impossible de maintenir la totalité du fer 4
Pétat 8 pendant le refroidissement brusque. Mais il serait facile de con-
Stater, sur le fer le plus doux, que la trempe diminue le magnétisme total
4 saturation et augmente la force coercitive. O’est 14 tout ce que l’on
160 REPORT— 1890.
peut obtenir, mais ce sera suffisant. Si rapide que soit le refroidissement,
le fer reste dans la région ot la transformation moléculaire est possible
pendant un temps qui n’est jamais nul.
P. 156 (en bas).—Ces considérations et celles de Mr. Tomlinson sont
analogues a celles que j’ai rapidement indiquées de mon coté et me parais-
sent justes.
Tenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir WILLIAM THOMSON,
Mr. R. ErHeripGe, Professor JoHN Perry, Dr. HENRY Woop-
warD, Professor THoMas GRAY, and Professor JOHN MILNE
(Secretary), appointed for the purpose of investigating the
Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of Japan. (Drawn up
by the Secretary.)
In consequence of the Secretary’s absence from Japan during the greater
portion of the past year, the opportunities for original investigation have
aot been so great as in previous years.
Tue Gray-Mitne SEIsMOGRAPH.
The first of the Gray-Milne seismographs constructed in 1883, partly
at the expense of the British Association, still continues to be used as the
standard instrument. The earthquakes which it has recorded since
March 4 of last year are given in the following list.
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at the Meteorological Observatory, Tokio, between
March 18, 1889, and April 27, 1890, by the Gray-Milne Seismograph.
ne aia Double
No. Month | Date Time Duration Direction Period 1 Amplitude
seconds 3
in mm.
1889.
H. M. 8. M. S.
905 III. 18 6 41 12 AM. —_ N.-S _ _
906 : 21 6 9 23 P.M. —_ = -- —
907 ay 26 2 41 48 P.M. — —_ — a
908 - 28 1 20 40 a.m. 130 | ES.E-W.N.W. 0°6 41
vertical motion 05 O06
909 ” ” 10 22 55 AM. 1 15 S.E.-N.W. 05 O05
vertical) motion O04 OL
910 7 ¥9 9 18 23 A.M. 0 20 E.-W. 0-2 0:2
911 4 31 6 42 15 AM. 4 0 8.S.E.-N.W. 25 3°83
vertical motion 06 2
912 oe Pa 813 3 AM. ~- _— very slight
913 Rs 5 59 42 P.M. 2 0 S.W.-N.E. 07 12
vertical motion very slight
914 TY. 3 4 27 21P.M. 1 30 S.E.-N.W. O7 15
vertical motion 03 02
915 s a 440 51 P.M. — - very|slight
916 a 6 7 40 13 A.M. 0 50 S.W.-N.E. 05 0:3
vertical motion very|slight
917 “A 8 048 OPM. —_ = very|slight
918 fy 14 6 22 54 A.M. = — very|slight
919 a 17 9 41 43 P.M. _ — very|slight
920 ae 18 2 7 42 P.M. oa E.S.E.-W.N.W. 1:0 08
vertical motion O7 0-2
921 rf Pr 2 64 11 PM. _ —_ very|slight
922 + * 339 8 P.M. _— 5.E.-N.W. 09 03
923 5 * 401P™M. _- _ very'slight
Month | Date
Time
0 18 46 A.M.
2 29 19 A.M.
8 0 27 P.M.
5 60 39 pM.
10 53 55 P.M.
4 50 33 P.M.
3 743 A.M.
1 56 28 A.M.
11 41 41 P.M.
5 34 A.M,
24 7 PM.
42 1L a.m.
39 15 A.M.
34 25 A.M.
35 A.M.
39 37 A.M.
46 32 P.M.
23 30 P.M.
22 56 P.M.
26 22 A.M.
10 27 22 a.m.
15 21 A.M.
51 30 P.M.
26 41 P.M,
10 2 4.M.
ry
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ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN.
16i
ys Double
pone Amplitude
in mm,
|
very slight
very slight
0
0:
very|slight
very |slight
slijght
slijght
slijght
very|slight
5 0-4
06
06
10d
very |slight
slilght
slijght
very |slight
2:0 06
very slight
very slight
very|slight
very|slight
slilgbt
very/|slight
very |slight
slight
22
uo
oo
slight
slilght
slight
slijght
very slight
very|slight
very|slight
slilght
slijght
0°5 13
0°3 0-4
very|slight
1 L7
slilght
slight
slight
slight
slight
very slight
sli ght
very|slight
very slight
very slight
very slight
slight
oon
rao
oo
we
very slight —
very slight
9 12
slight
very slight
sli ght
sli ght
slight
very slight
0-9 0-2
06 0-2
sli ght
|
sli ght
very slight
M
162 REPORT—1890.
| owe Double
No. Month | Date Time | Duration Direction nea an Ainplitude
conds et
in mm.
991 XII. 26 8 14 11 P.M. — — very slight
992 5 28 10 17 68 P.M. 15 E.-W. 0°3 05
993 45 29 11 10 19 A.M. — — sli ght
994 hi 31 1 5 13 PM. 520 | ES.E.-W.N.W. 2°8
vertical motion | sli ght
1890.
995 16 7 7 47 37 A.M. 0 40 S-N. slight
996 a Xo 3 43 25 P.M. 5 0 S.E.-N.W. 3:0 "
997 PA 12 4 15 33 a.m. _ -- very slight
998 9 29 1128 3 P.M. 0 57 E.-W. 07 0"
999 FA 30 8 35 31 A.M. — oo very slight
1,000 LO 13 9 48 16 P.M. 0 30 E.-W. 02 02
1,001 ay 18 5 31 10 A.M. — — sli ght
1,002 a 5 950 6 A.M. = = sli ght
1,003 3 21 2 44 13 a.m. 0 40 E.-W. slight
1,004 a 24 047 2am. 0 30 S.E.-N.W, 08 0-2
1,005 III. if 4 21 42 a.m. 0 20 E.-W. 0-4 0:2
1,006 a 11 11 7 2am. 0 30 =e sli! eht
1,007 * *) 7 53 49 P.M. 1 0 | ES.E-W.N.W. 0-2 04
1,008 = 18 316 4 P.M. 0 20 — — slight
1,009 33 26 6 57 55 A.M. = = — slight
1,010 a 28 2 22 37 P.M. — — — silight
1,011 IV. 5 020 0 PM. —_ — — slight
1.012 + 11 3 8. 2am. Oa) E.-W. 0-3 0-4
1,013 ie 16 9 34 47 P.M. a0 S.E.-N.W. 2-9 22-4
vertical motion 06 0'2
1,014 re) ay 1140 3 PM. — — sli ght
1,015 es 17 4 56 45 A.M. 8 0 8.E.-N.W. 3°8 78
vertical) motion sli ght
1,016 7” is Hibl Beas = = sli!ght
1,017 5 5 6 42 36 aM. 6 30 §.E.-N.W. a4 3°3
1,018 5 5 3 31 38 PM. _— - sli ght
1,019 5, 3 10 25 15 P.M. 3 36 $.E.-N.W. 2°5 12
1,020 Ff 18 5 38 37 Pm. — — slight
1,021 5 = 7 15 57 pM. —_ —_— sli ght
1,022 95 % ll 3} 0 pM. = — slight
1,023 ee 19 9 45 52 AM. os = slight
1,024 on “4 1 7 37 PM. -- _— slight
1,025 F 27 8 36 48 P.M. = = sli ght
In the preceding list the most remarkable earthquakes which I had
the opportunity of observing were the series commencing on April 16, 1890,
at 9h. 34m. 47s. p.m. This disturbance was felt along the eastern coast
of Japan from lat. 38°N to the bay of Owari in the south—a distance of
about 300 miles. It extended inland across the backbone of the country
as far as Nagano. The land area shaken was 4,743 square ri (1 sq.
ri = 5°9 sq. miles). The origin appears to have been to the west of
Miyakijima, where about 70 shocks were felt and buildings damaged,
about 100 miles 8.S.W. from Tokio in the Pacific Ocean. The period of
the large waves was nearly 3 seconds and the duration 7 minutes. After
sensible motion had ceased, which lasted from 2 to 3 minutes, I was
standing watching one of my seismographs, which every few seconds gave
fitful movements, some of which were large enough to swing the pointers
off the recording surface. These movements were far too slow to sup-
pose them to be in any way connected with the inertia of the heavy
masses constituting the bobs of the horizontal pendulums. In my opinion
the movements were not due to sudden horizontal impulses, but to gentle
and irregular tiltings of the instrument. It was in fact as if we were on
a huge raft, beneath which waves of a very long period were passing.
No movement could be felt.
The earthquake at 4h. 56m, 45s. a.m. next morning lasted eight minutes,
ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 163
and had a period of nearly 4 seconds. It shook 3,533 square ri, but only
extended to lat. 37°N.
The one at 6h. 42m. 36s. A.m., which lasted 64 minutes, and had a
period of 3°4: seconds, extended to lat. 36°N., and shook 2,236 square ri.
All these disturbances extended southwards to Owari.
The Kumamoto Earthquake.
During my absence in Europe, on July 28, 1889, at 11h. 40m. p.m.,
the whoie of Kiushiu, a portion of Shikoku, and the main island were
disturbed by an earthquake of unusual severity. The land area shaken
was 6,520 square ri, the most violent motion being on the western flanks
of the volcano Mount Aso, which has a well-formed ring crater 7 to 12
miles in diameter, with a smoking cone in the centre.
Altogether some 114 shocks were felt, and subterranean roarings were
heard 87 times. These disturbances oceurred between July 28 and
August 13. The damage may be summed up as follows :—
Hovses ruined . ; . 200 _ Persons injured - 74
Houses shattered 4 <a 200 Bridges destroyed , =f)
Persons killed . : SP aeAY, Bridges broken . 21
At Oita, some 60 miles north of the district of greatest disturbance, a
eismograph gave the following records :—
Duration C : : . ° . m » 70 secs.
Direction : ‘ f : ‘ ; A é . S&.S.W.-N.N.E.
Maximum horizontal motion 2 : ~ - 12:4mm.
Period . ° 4 ; 4 . 27 secs.
he movement was gentle.
EARTHQUAKES IN 1887.
In my fourth report to the British Association, I gave an account of
87 earthquakes which had occurred in North Japan between October
881, and October 1883. In consequence of this work, the expenses of
hich were partly defrayed by this Association, Mr. Arai Ikunosake,
irector of the Meteorological Department, established some 600 post-
rd stations throughout the empire with a view of making similar but
ore extended observations. The results of these observations for 1886
ere given in my eighth report, and the following is an epitome of the
sults obtained for 1887. For purposes of comparison these latter have
en combined with the results for 1885 and 1886.
FREQUENCY OF EARTHQUAKES.
4
_ During the years 1885, 1886, and 1887, the numbers of earthquakes
recorded in Japan were 482, 472, and 483, the numbers representing the
ily average of shocks per day being 1°32, 1:29, and 1:32. The greatest
number of shakings in 1887 occurred near 'l'okio, where 80 distinct
P ocks were recorded, and some 30 or 40 miles to the north of Tokio, in
hilachi, where 50 disturbances were noted.
Distarmurion or Seismic Enerey.
Speaking generally, the areas which are most frequently shaken are
the same in successive years, the eastern side of the country being very
u 2
164 REPORT— 1890.
much more disturbed than the western side. If we take a map of Japan,
and commence at the north-eastern end of Yezo, and proceed southwards
along the Pacific Coast, the districts most disturbed are, with but three
exceptions, the extremities of all the peninsulas jutting out into the ocean
-—a fact which, when we remember that many of these peninsulas repre-
sent earth-foldings which may be continued, or are being continued,
beneath the ocean, is of considerable significance. The exceptions
referred to are the earthquakes of the alluvial plain round, and to the
north of Tokio—where at least 80 shocks were recorded—the earthquakes
on the alluvial plain at the head of the Bay of Owari, and the earth-
quakes round the flat shores of the Bay of Tosa, on the south side of
Shikoku.
During 1887 the Shinano earthquakes, which in 1886 were 19 in
number, decreased to 5, whilst the Echigo disturbances decreased from
31 to 10. These localities are inland, and are respectively at distances of
60 miles N.E. of Tokio and 100 miles north of Tokio.
As in previous years, in Central Japan, where there are many earth-
quakes and many volcanoes, the earthquakes, or at least the majority of
them, did not come from the volcanoes. In the Kii peninsula, where
there are no volcanoes, there have been many earthquakes ; but there are
also districts, as for example the southern extremity of Kiushiu, where
there have been a fair number of earthquakes, where it is possible that
such disturbances may be directly connected with the proximity of vol-
canoes. On the whole, however, there is no reason to consider that the
majority of earthquakes are in any way connected with voleanoes. The
approximate origin of shocks which have been recorded in 1886 and
1887 is given in the following table, from which we see, at least for 1887,
that the greater number of earthquakes, especially those of any extent,
have chiefly originated along the coast or beneath the sea.
Table of distribution of earthquake origins relative to sea and land.
— Total | Large |Moderate| Small
Earthquakes which occurred a) 1886 228 15 50 163
neath the sea or along the coast. 1887 302 36 76 190
Earthquakes which occurred in- 1886 244 11 70 163
land c P . : { 1887 181 14 34 133
1886 472 26 120 326
fotat mie {] 1887 | 483 50 | 110 | 398
More (+)
Tess) peOE UBT Wea +11 +24 —10 -—3
AREAS SHAKEN BY HARTHQUAKES.
Probably the best method we have at our command for measuring —
the seismic activity of any region, rather than considering it proportional
to the number of disturbances which occur, is to measure it by the area
of land which has been shaken. As has been pointed out in the Report
for 1888, this method of measuring intensity is only approximate, but
still it is very much better than methods used by previous investigators.
The unit is one square ri or 5°95 square miles.
165
ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND YOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN,
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166 REPORT—1890.
Table of the Earthquakes for each month of the years 1885, 1886, 1887. Arranged
according to the area of shaken districts. (1 sq. ri=5'95 sq. miles.)
!
Square Ri Year |Jan.|Feb.|Mar| Apl.|May|J nal dJly.)Aug Sep.| Oct. Nov Dec.| Total |Avrge
meee | 1 [ae | eae ee eee
Above 7,000 . .« t ae =| = |= a (|| = = ‘cm —
== | || = = — = “08
1885 | —| —| —| —| —J—} — | = | — | —| | — |=] Sd —
6,000 t0 7,000. . | sone NS) SS eS eS S| —
1887 | — SN | bet ee | i SS
Taso) | —— | ee a a 2 16
5,000 to 6,000 . oe 1886 | —} —|—|—]—]—] 1}/—}—}]—|]—-]— 1 *08
1887 1} 1r1y—J—}—}—J—-y}y—}— J} —- 1 - 2 16
{ ASE — |e — ee en en
4,000 to 5,000. . 1ss6 |} —|—}—] 1}/—};—]—J]—}]—]—J]—-}]— a “08
(eSB ye y) — a 4 3
1885 |—|—| 1}/—] 1] 1} 1}—] 1] 1}—|— 6 oy)
3,000 to 4,000. . { 1ss6 | —|—}—]—] 1}/—] 1] 1)/—]—]—|]— 3 "25
1887 | — | —} — J — fe es es ad acd cd ad ed —_—
( 1885 1 2|/=—|— 1 2 1/—]| 3 Les] 2 13 11
2,000 to 3,000. \ 1886 |} —|—]—] 1] 2)}— oe 1) 1);/—|;—|]— 5 “4
1887 | See [fe ee a 1};—;—} 1] 1 7 6
1x85 |—] 1}/—] 1]—j 1]/—] 1})/—| 4]/—] 1 9 8
1,000 to 2,000. . 1 AS8G" fe aL | Le et eed 9 8
1887 2/ 4)—j]-2] 1] 1/2) 2) 3)—)]°4].2 23 19
Total e - | 1885-86} 1 5 1| 4 6 5} 4] 3 8 ih 1 4 49 41
Average . - |1885-86] — | 2|/—j} 2| 3] 2] 2) 1] 4] 3)—j 2 21 17
Total : % 1887 TS Bal) a eden FS ale ee eS 37 31
No. in 1887 above(+
or below (—) the — (|47 |+3 | — |4+1 |-1 |-1 |+2 |+2 | — |—3 |4+5 |41] +16 | +14
average for 1885-86
( 1885 2 1 1|/—|—j] 2 1 1 2;—|—]| 2 12 ae
750 to 1,000 , » >; | 1886 —|1 2 if 2 1/—j} 2)}— 1j—] 2 12 T°
LUT SESE as | tg a Pe Va rd) Ls chs | a ae | 9| 8
1885 5 4 1 1}— 1)—| 2 1 2);—|— 17 14
500to 750. . 1886 1 1};—| 2;—)]—j— 1 2 2 | = \e4 13 ri
1887. jj —|) 2 1|/—| 6 1 1] — 1 ae 3| 2 18 15
1885 2 1/—j] 2| 4] 1 2 1|— 6 1 4 24 2°
300 to 500 . . 1886 2 2 2 i 3] 4 1 L|—| 24-1 iL 20 5 G4
1887 2 4 4] 2 1 3 |. 2 1 3 iS 2 25 pray
1885 | — po! 2 L 1 4|—|4 a 2 9 2 27 2°2
200t0 300, ° 1886 2)/—] 4) 1] 4) 2] 2] 2] 1};—|]—] 2 20 17
1887 Om Ve Ja Reet (el >| al Pe Sl Va 28 le Be 21 17
‘ { 1885 3 6 5 6116) 7 4/ 2/ 4|;—| 6 5 63 52
100%0 200, . 1886 BS 2) 8 a A 5 te ae 8S ee ae 39 32
UW aes || o3 | a fhe [ea ) ai) ve Iasi oat sre ices |e | ere
Total - | 1885-86 | 22 | 20 | 19 | 18 | 34 | 26 | 11 | 21 | 15 | 18 | 17 | 26} 247 |. 20°5
Average . . | 1885-86} 11 | 10 9 9} 17) 13°) 5 | 10 7 9 8 | 13 121 | 101
Total . | 1887 8) 10). 7 | 6} 14) 9 fests] 34: 15105) 2G 26 eae 97 a
No.in 1887 above(+)
or below (—) the — |-3 | — |-2 |-3 |—3 |—4 |+2 |—6 |4+3 |—3 |—2 |-—3 | —24 | —2
average for 1885-86
1885 | 19 | 27 | 27 | 26 | 28 | 27 | 23 | 19 | 33 | 24 | 32 | 24 309 | 25°7
Below 100 7 a 1886 28 | 31 | 39 | 27 | 41 | 18 | 30 | 33 | 30 | 25 | 19 | 28 | 349 | 2971
1887 26 | 43 | 23 | 20 | 44 | 28 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 14 | 24 | 43 349 | 29°1
—— a — |—_ | —__ |
Total . .|1885-86| 47 | 58 | 66 | 53 | 69 | 45 | 53 | 52 | 63 | 49 | 51 | 52} 658 | 54:8
Average . . | 1885-86) 23 | 29 | 33 | 26 | 34 | 22 | 26 | 26 | 31 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 325 } 27-1
No.in 1887 above(+)
or below (—) the! — |+3 |+14\—10/—6 |+10/+6 |+1 |+2 |—2 |—10 —1 |417] +24 | +2
average for 1885-86
Total No. . a | 1885-86 | 70 | 83 | 86 | 75 /109 | 76 | 68 | 76 | 86 | 74 | 69 | 82 954 | 79°5
Average No. . | 1885-86] 35 | 41 | 43 | 37 | 54 | 38 | 34 | 38 | 43 | 87 | 84 | 41 | 475 | 39°6
TotalNo. . - | 1887 | 41 | 58 | 30 | 29 | 60 | 38} 38 | 35 | 43 | 20 | 385 | 56] 483 | 402
No.in 1887 above (+)
or below (—) the | — /4+6 \+17/—13)—-8 |+6 | — !+4 |-3 | — |-17,41/+15) +8] 107
average for 1885-86 )
ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 167
From the above tables we learn that in 1885, 1886, and 1887, land
areas were shaken which were respectively 5°4, 3°8, and 5°5 times the
area of the whole empire.
Distribution of Earthquakes in Time.
The following table gives the number of earthquakes for 1885, 1886,
1887, arranged according to months :—
— Jan.| Feb. Mar.! Apr. May| June| July|Aug.| Sep. | Oct. | Nov.) Dec.| Total | Aver.
1885 32 |44 |37 |37 |51 |46 |32 |30 |45 |41 |47 | 40 |482 | 40-2
1886 38 |39 |49 |38 |58 |30 |36 |46 |41 |33 |22 |42 |472 | 39:3
1887 41 |58 |30 /29 |60 |38 |38 |35 |43 |20 |35 |56 | 483 | 40-2
Average
1885, 1886, |
1887
1885, 1886 35 |41 |43 |37 |54 |38 134 |38 |43 |37 |34 |41 |475 |39°6
37°0| 47-0) 38-7/ 34-7) 56-3) 38-0] 35:3] 37-0) 43-0] 31-3) 34-7) 46-0| 479-0) 39-92
No. of Earth-
quakes in
1887 above
(+) or be-}| +.6/+17/—13] —8| +6) — | +4] —3]) — |—17] 411415 +8 |} +07
low (—) the
average for
1885, 1886
The number of earthquakes for 1885, 1886, 1887, arranged according
to the four seasons, is as follows :—
Spring | Summer | Autumn | Winter | Total | Average
1885 125 108 133 116 482 1205
1886 145 112 96 119 472 118-
119 111 98 155 483 120-7
| Average 1885, 1886, 1887 | 129-7 110°3 109 130 479 119-75
» 1885, 1886 135 110 114 il 476 11:9
"No. Earthquakes in 1887
above (+) or below =
| (—) the average for ag +1 16 +38 +7 +17
1885, 1886
_ The next table gives the number of earthquakes in 1885, 1886, 1887
?
rranged according to two seasons, warm and cold :—
1885
1886 249 223 472 236
1887 243 240 483 241°5
Average 1885, 1886, 1887 2443 2347 479 239°5
r» 1885, 1886 245 232 47 238°5
——
ee atakes in shea
above (+) or below
(—) the average a ae +8 +f Ge
1885, 1886
168 REPORT—1890.
The distribution of earthquakes of 1885, 1886, 1887, arranged
according to the hours of the day at which they occurred, is as follows :—
py uleeed | 1S | Se ees | | ee ae
eee} E bs jdt Neon |e
ee fee | ea pe | aS Pee eS ee
A.M.
12-1 Sg i21 41 61 8\ ei Siedeeelew [4 ceyl penleeee
1-2 7/10! 3| 2] 2| 71.6] 1| 6] 6! 2! 6! 58
2-3 Siliae) el etew dere db eal kesedetaeleeas|-45| eens
Baht Bhs Bol Bel tB (odd-|- fd. BelebgedesBial) eked oB-| 0 eal eges
Moe ech, Sling (ih 3 cd2de-4elh Sales aiedel hak soe
5-6 | 4] 4/ 8| 2/16) 2] 6] 5) 3] 7] 4] 1] 62 |\ eo,
ey -|-4). 5) 6) 31 6} 21-6) a:)104 41-31 en ey
mg | 44-2.) £1 6|.-7'| 8 (184) oad at lle | 6 | ae
S46 bis) 6 6 |6| 8 | 51 6) Stee | edo tsdeees
Bedell SB Bo), Bale Bk Gal) 10, | eal aka eenl . codie alnes
Tot | 10) alos) e| 118 cel ae) eit NY ademas
giao ale ag} | 17 | Specie ees lobe Patt aie
P.M.
12-1 ais} @| 21) at wos | golsse ile |) tees
129 10 abe | 08 27 | ad el alee lee toe ae
ae | ido! ol 7 | i 1 8 | 7 |b eee ey eee
Be 8) i | OT eel ie) a all ce ral eee teal dee
45.) “Sth g | Bt 9} 64 cat ol. By uleereh eet? 5 tee
B86 | 4] 9/5) 2) 4| 7] 4|—| 4] 3] 1] 1] 48 lao
627. eg hoa eel eae 1. 6) ae leds iota! Teen
7-8 ry (eae lee) nee) eee Deri on Bere ors D2 Re gel 2 =
8_9 Hell 6G he 2B) | 71 BAGS alc dual i LL ada
o10.) 21 6] 6) 21 51 51 81 GaSe Bil, 6 lod wes
WATT IO fart go) 126.) cela eel ee eae ee
W=1% | -6,) 0 | 4./31=6) 26 |. 21401) aol 6 Bl kota
cars! 111] 141] 116] 104] 169] 114 106| 111 | 129| 94 | 104] 138] 1,437
SEVERE HARTHQUAKES.
The most severe earthquakes which occurred in 1887 were as follows :
July 22 in Echigo; January 15 near Tokio and Yokohama; September
5 in Slumosa; and February 2 in Owari.
The earthquake of January 15, which destroyed a number of houses
and opened fissures in the ground, was briefly described in the Report
for 1887. The diagram of the motion of this earthquake, together with
diagrams of other large disturbances taken at the Imperial Meteorological
Observatory in Tokio, are forwarded for inspection.
The earthquake of July 22 was at least as severe as that of January
15, cracking walls and opening many fissures in the ground.
EARTHQUARES IN CONNECTION wiTH Macnetic anp ELectric PHENOMENA,
1. Magnetic Phenomena.
Amongst seismological records we find many accounts where magnets
and magnetometers have been affected at or about the time of earth-
quakes. On November 14, 1799, after the earthquake of Cumana, Hum-
boldt observed a diminution in dip of 48 minutes, and also a change in
declination. In 1822 Arago and Biot simultaneously observed move-
ments in magnetometers at Paris at the time of slight shocks in Switzer-
eS ee
bi —_
ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 169
land and Sonth France. Professor M. S. di Rossi gives several interesting
examples where magnets have dropped armatures or iron filings, or there
have been sudden changes in magnetic elements at the time of earth-
quakes. Amongst the observers of these phenomena we find Sarti,
Count Malvasia, Palmieri, Secchi, Bertelli, Mascart, Lamont, and others.
In Tokio I have often observed disturbances due to mechanical shaking,
and one of the first seismoscopes I constructed about fourteen years ago
consisted of a small magnetic needle held in a position of unstable
equilibrium by the attraction of a piece of iron. On being shaken the
needle flew to the iron, where it remained as evidence of a disturbance
in every probability mechanical. The observations, however, of the
greatest interest are those where the instruments which have been
disturbed have been situated well outside any area of perceptible shaking,
as, for instance, when magnetographs at Perpignan, Paris, Lyons, Kew,
and other observatories were simultaneously disturbed at the time of the
Riviera Earthquake on February 26, 1887 (see ‘ Nature,’ March 3, 1887).
The magnetic disturbance following the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883
progressed westwards aud northwards at rates of from 761 to 939 miles
per hour, which is apparently a rate very quick even for a dust cloud to
travel.
At the Magnetical Observatory in Tokio, where magnetic elements
have been recorded photographically for the last few years there do
not appear to have been any disturbances at or about the time of earth-
quakes excepting those which may be accounted for as being due to
mechanically produced movements.
The irregularities which exist are most noticeable in the lines indi-
cating changes in deelination. They are occasionally visible in the
record for horizontal force, but hardly ever in the record for dip.
All the records respecting magnetic disturbances at or about the time
ef earthquakes which I have been able to collect are being published in
vol. xy. of the * Trans. Seis. Soc. of Japan.’
2. Electric Phenomena.
At or about the time of earthquakes, electrical phenomena appear to
be more frequent and more pronounced than magnetic phenomena, and
the records of such phenomena are found in the description of many
large earthquakes. The earthquakes in Catania 1693, at Lisbon 1755,
in New England 1727, at Manchester 1777, in Ohio 1812, were all
accompanied by electrical phenomena. Humboldt observed that during
the earthquake of Cumana the electroscope quickly showed the presence
of electricity in the atmosphere.
Telegraphic land lines and submarine cables have often been disturbed
by earth-currents at the time of earthquakes. In my second report to
this Association, in 1881, I gave an account of earth-currents produced
by the shaking of the ground at the time of an explosion of dynamite,
and suggested that their origin might be due to the shaking, creating
differences in contact between the earth and an earth plate resulting
in varying degrees of chemical action.
In Italy Professor Demenico Ragona observed that at the time of an
_ earthquake there was a current passing through a galvanometer to a
lightning rod-like conductor in the atmosphere. This observation led
me to examine the photographic records of atmospheric electricity taken
170 REPORT—1890.
at the Meteorological Observatory in Tokio. In the instrument which is
there used, which is Mascart’s, the needle of the electrometer, which has
a bifilar suspension, is kept at the potential of the atmosphere by connec-
tion with a water dropper, while the quadrants of the electrometer are
kept at a constant potential by connection with 50 water Daniells.
Through the kindness of the director of the observatory I was enabled to
examine records extending over a period of twelve months. These
records have been compared not only with the records of earthquakes
observed in Tokio, of which there were 99, but also with the records of
earthquakes felt in other parts of the empire, of which there were between
four and five hundred. The results of these comparisons are as follows :
1. In electrical disturbances which apparently accompany certain
earthquakes the air almost invariably becomes electro-nega-
tive. The change in potential is sudden, sometimes rising as
much as 30 volts. It often takes several hours before the
electrometer needle returns to its original position.
2. At the time of earthquakes which have not reached Tokio,
electrical disturbances have not been recorded.
3. When Tokio has been at the 8.W. extremity of a disturbance
shaking an elliptically formed area, the centre of which dis-
turbance may have been 15 or 20 miles N.E. from Tokio,
there have been three cases of electrical disturbance, and
twelve cases without such disturbances.
4, When the centre of a disturbance has been 50 or 60 miles N.W.
of Tokio, there have been two cases of electrical disturbance,
and eleven cases without such disturbances.
. When an earthquake has shaken a narrow band extending
from Tokio 30 miles northwards, there have been three cases
of electrical disturbance, and no case of no disturbance.
6. When the centre of a disturbance has been 20 to 30 miles E. of
Tokio, there has been one case of electrical disturbance, and
six cases with no disturbances.
7. When the centre of a disturbance has been from 20 to 100 miles
west of Tokio, there have been three instances of electrical dis-
turbance, and three instances when there was no disturbance.
8. If there is a feeble disturbance only felt in Tokio, such disturb-
ances have been 13 times accompanied by electrical disturb-
ances, and 31 times without.
9. If there is a strong disturbance with Tokio near the centre, and
shaking an area 60 or more miles in diameter, there have been
ten cases of strong electrical disturbance, and only one case where
there was no disturbance. Those earthquakes which are the
most pronounced in relation to electrical phenomena have not
always been accompanied by vertical motion, and they have
occurred at different hours.
Cr
CoMPARISON OF ToKIO AND YOKOHAMA HARTHQUAKES.
In Yokohama, which is situated about 18 miles 8.S.W. from Tokio,
it has always been supposed that earthquakes are more frequent and
more severe than in Tokio. The only lists of Yokohama earthquakes
which I have been able to obtain extend from January 22, 1878, to
December 31,1881, and from March 8, 1885, to December 31, 1889.
a
ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 171
These lists have been compiled without the assistance of instruments,
and therefore are not so complete as they might have been had the
records been founded on indications given by seismographs. The latter
list was made by my friend Mr. J. HK. Pereira,of Yokohama. Altogether
I find for Yokohama notes relating to 285 shocks, and of these 189 were
felt in Tokio, or, in other words, 33 per cent. of the Yokohama disturb-
ances do not reach Tokio. Similarly there may be disturbances peculiar
to Tokio which do not reach Yokohama.
VeLocity oF HARTHQUAKE PROPAGATION.
In the seventh report to this Association (1885), as the result of a
long series of experiments upon disturbances produced by the explosion
of dynamite, and by other means, it was stated that velocity of transit
decreases as a disturbance radiates, that it increases with the intensity of
the initial disturbances, and that in soft ground the author had recorded
velocities of from 200 to 630 feet per second, &c. In the same report
there is a brief account of the simultaneous observation of earthquakes
at several stations in electrical connection. As one pendulum sent time
to all these stations, which were 800 or 900 feet apart, on the assumption
that at a given station, which we will call A, a particular wave, which
we will call a, could be again reeognised at stations B, C, &c., we had
here the best possible means of determining velocity.
As a matter of fact, out of 50 sets of diagrams representing 50 diffe-
rent earthquakes, it was only in five instances that the same wave could
be identified at several different stations. The result of these identifica-
tions led to the calculations of velocities of 5,860, 4,270, 5,984, 2,850,
and 1,644 feet per second.
These determinations, however, cannot be accepted without reserve,
because I find that waves may spread out as they pass from station to
station, their period may alter, a given wave at one station may split up
into two waves by the time it reaches the next station, &c.
Thus on December 16, 1884, I found at station A two waves a and b
separated by an interval of 1:139 seconds, whilst at station B what
appear to be the same two waves are 1:277 seconds apart. Hence a
velocity calculated from the transit of a would be different from the
velocity of the same earthquake calculated from 6. This sort of obser-
vation is not uncommon: thus on March 20, 1885, I found at A a wave
@ 1:99 seconds, and a wave b 4°11 seconds, from the commencement of
the time ticks. At J these same waves are respectively 3:03 and 5:26
seconds from the first time tick. From this we must conclude that in
travelling from A to J the wave a took 1:04 seconds, whilst the wave b
took 1:15 seconds. ~
These observations led to the conclusion that satisfactory results
could only be expected by timing the arrival of disturbances at points on
an area of considerable extent, and with this end in view, at the request
of the Seismological Society, I entered into communication with the
telegraph department of this country to obtain their assistance in observ-
ing the velocity of earthquake transit.
Such assistance they have given for two years, and Mr. W. B. Mason
of Tokio is now publishing a list of the observations which have been
made. The stations selected are from 20 to 200 miles apart, and the
clocks from which the observations are made by personal observation are
172 REPORT—1890.
corrected every day by a time signal sent from Tokio. Although the
hearty thanks of the Society are due tu the Telegraph Bureau for the
manner in which they have rendered assistance, I regret to report that
although the observations have thrown some light on the distribution of
seismic energy in North Japan, records which are of value in determining
the velocity of earthquake transmission have not yet been obtained.
One or two of the observations, which have extended over a period of
two years, suggest that at least sometimes a given earthquake may be
felt simultaneously over an area of considerable extent. This was the
case with the disturbance of August 2, 1889, which was noted at several
places about 100 miles apart at exactly the same time.
At present we have reliable observations on the propagation of earth-
waves varying between 200 and 6,000 meters per second, whilst at other
times it appears as if a large area received an impulse in all its parts at
the same moment.
Siath Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. GryLLs
Apams (Chairman and Secretary), Sir Witt1am Tuomson, Sir
J. H. Lerroy, Professors G. H. Darwin, G. Curystan, and S. J.
Perry, Mr. C. H. Carpmazt, Professor Scuuster, Professor RiickEr,
Commander Cruak, the Astronomer Roya, Mr. Witu1am ELLs,
Mr, W. Lanr Carpenter, and Mr. G. M. Warprir, appointed
for the purpose of considering the best means of Comparing
and Reducing Magnetic Observations.
Aw attempt has been made during the year to organise and bring into
form the recommendation of this Committee, made in their report of last
year, that it would be desirable to publish annually the curves of the
three magnetic elements for different Magnetic Observatories for certain
selected days.
This matter has been under the consideration of the Kew Committee
of the Royal Society, and a Sub-Committee of that body has been appointed
to take charge of it, the Sub-Committee consisting of Professor W. Grylls
Adams, Professor Riicker, Commander Creak, with Mr. Whipple as their
Secretary (all of whom are members of this Committee).
It seemed of some importance to decide how many days in each month
would be required in order to give accurately the mean diurnal range
without requiring the elaborate measurements and methods in use at
Greenwich, which would be impracticable in observatories where only a
small staff is employed. :
With this object it was proposed by Professor Riicker to employ the
method proposed by Dr. Wild! to reduce the mean diurnal range of
declination at Kew for two or three years previous to 1888, taking only
five quiet days in each month. The years selected were 1883, 1886, and
~ 1887, the first being chosen as being a year of maximum sun-spots. The
calculations were undertaken by Messrs. Robson and Smith (two of Pro-
fessor Riicker’s advanced students at the Normal School of Science), and
their results, brought before the Physical Society,? show a remarkably
close agreement with the corresponding Greenwich results. The greatest
discrepancy between any curve in which these differences are plotted
1 See Brit. Assoc. Report, 1885, p. 78. * Phil. Mag., August 1890, p. 140.
jetta,
———o
ee eee
ON MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 173
down and the mean curve deduced from all the six years which have been
investigated is 04. They conclude that ‘it would seem possible, know-
ing one set of values for any particular year—Greenwich or Kew—to
determine the other set, correct to within four-tenths of a minute.’ This
close agreement strongly supports the views of Dr. Wild, and at the same
time makes it possible to deal practically with the observations from
many different observatories, and to obtain trustworthy results. These
results completely confirmed those of Mr. Whipple, who made a com-
parison of the methods of Wild and Sabine with that in use at Greenwich
for the years 1870-72 (see ‘ British Association Report’ 1886, p. 71), as
to the nature of the difference between the diurnal variations at Green-
wich and Kew as given by the two methods of reduction. The Astrono-
mer Royal has not only undertaken to select the five quiet days of each
month and communicate them to the other observatories as soon as pos-
sible after the end of each year, but he has also offered to reduce the
Greenwich results by Wild’s method as well as by that now in use at
Greenwich.
The following list of quiet days has been prepared by the Astronomer
Royal from the Greenwich records as suitable for discussion in the year
1889 :—
January . : - F ‘ - 3 35, .Osl by 24,08 te
February . : : . : . : 4, 10, 13, 22, 25.
March 5 . 2 : r : : 3, 10, 19, 21, 24.
April . F . : - : : 5, 11, 16, 17, 19.
May . 3, 9, 16, 21, 25.
June . 5, 8, 12, 24, 27.
July . 4, 9, 15, 22, 26.
August 3, 5, 14, 24, 30.
September = : c : : 4, 7; 15, 20; 29.
October . : ‘ ; : : . 4, 11, 16, 23, 27.
November . F 5 . “ : ‘. 5, 18, 15, 19, 21.
December . < é ‘ : ‘ 4,10, 18, 19, 25.
The Committee of the Falmouth Observatory and the Rev. W. Sid-
greayes of Stonyhurst have expressed their willingness to accept the
same series of days for discussion, and M. Mascart of Paris and M. Mou-
reaux of Parc St. Maur will also select and use for discussion the same
typical days. Dr. Wild has published in the Bulletin of the Imperial
Academy of Science of St. Petersburg a paper on the normal variation
and the disturbances of the declination, in which he recommends the
adoption of his method, and shows that during the last fifteen years there
have been on an average seventy-two days per annum suitable for dis-
cussion as undisturbed days. Dr. F. Schmidt of Gotha has discussed the
daily variation of terrestrial magnetic force for Vienna for every month of
the years 1879-88, and has represented them as numbers of a periodic series.
In consequence of the expression of their opinion in their reports of
last year, ‘ that the establishment of a Magnetic Observatory at the Cape
of Good Hope would materially contribute to our knowledge of terrestrial
magnetism,’ this Committee has received a letter from Mr. David Gill,
the Director of the Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope, offering every
facility in his power to forward the objects of the Committee. Mr. Gill
reports that there is ample room for the establishment of the necessary
buildings, and that he is prepared with hearty good-will to undertake the
direction, administration, and control of the work, but that an additional
observer will be required to carry out the magnetic work under his direction.
174 REPORT—1890.
The Committee greatly regret that they have to record the deaths of
Sir J. H. Lefroy and of Professor 8. J. Perry, who have done very valu-
able work for this Committee, and who have greatly advanced our
knowledge of the subject of terrestrial magnetism.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Crum Brown
(Secretary), Mr. Mitnu-Home, Dr. Jonn Murray, Lord McLaren,
Dr. Bucuan, and the Hon. RatpH ABERCROMBY (Chairman), ap-
pointed for the purpose of co-operating with the Scottish
Meteorological Society in making Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis.
Dorine the past year the hourly observations, by night as well as by
day, at the Ben Nevis Observatory, have been made by Mr. Omond and
the assistants without interruption ; and the five daily observations at the
sea-level station at Fort William have been also made by Mr. Livingstone
with the greatest regularity.
Again the state of the health of the observers, owing to the cireum-
stance that active exercise in the open air is practically precluded during
most of the year, rendered it necessary to give them relief during the
winter and spring months. This relief the directors of the observatory
were the better able to give through the courtesy of the following gentle-
men, who gave their services as observers for periods varying from four
to six weeks:—Mr. Alexander Drysdale, M.A., B.Sc., Mr. Charles E.
Gray, Mr. James McDonald, M.A., Mr. R. C. Mossman, and Mr. Robert
Turnbull, B.Sc. During the time Messrs. Omond and Rankin were in
Edinburgh they gave much valuable help in the discussion of the Ben
Nevis observations, and otherwise assisted in the work of the office of the
Scottish Meteorological Society.
Mr. Omond has completed an important investigation of the tempera-
ture of Ben Nevis. From the six years’ observations he has calculated
the mean temperature of each day of the year for the observatory at the
top and for the low-level station at the foot of the mountain, and made a
comparison of the two series of temperatures. The paper is in type, and
will appear in the forthcoming ‘ Journal of the Scottish Meteorological
Society.’ He has also re-examined the estimations of wind force and their
equivalents in miles per hour from all the observations now available for
the purpose, and the results are ready for publication in the same journal.
Mr. Rankin has carried on, as the time at his disposal from his
regular duties at the observatory permits, the work of photographing
clouds and other meteorological phenomena.
In the autumn of last year a grant of 501. was obtained from the
Government Research Fund for carrying on an investigation into the
numbers of dust particles in the atmosphere, by means of two sets of
apparatus invented by Mr. Aitken, one being permanently fixed in the
tower of the observatory, the other being a portable form of the instru-
ment. Mr. Aitken superintended the construction of both instruments,
and the placing of them with the necessary precautions at the top of the
mountain. Reference will be made further on to the remarkable results
obtained by the observations Mr. Rankin has already made.
Messrs. Omond and Rankin are still engaged with the laborious
J
ossible Hours) 231
ON METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 175
inquiry into the directions of the winds observed at the top, with the
winds observed at low-level stations at the same hours, and their relations
to the weather of North-Western Europe. The comparative frequency
with which the winds at the observatory blow, not with, but against, the
isobarics of low-level stations, and indicate a force widely different from
the barometric gradients of the weather maps of the Meteorological
Office, are striking elements in the meteorology of Ben Nevis.
The ‘ Report for the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh ’
on the Ben Nevis and Fort William observations is in type, and will
appear shortly. An early copy of the volume is submitted with this
report to the British Association.
For the year 1889 the following were the monthly mean pressures and
temperatures, hours of sunshine, amounts of rainfall, and number of fair
days at the observatory; the mean pressures at Fort William being
reduced to 32° and sea-level, those at the Observatory to 32° only :—
TaBceE I.
— | Jan. | Feb. |March| April May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. / Year
Mean Pressure in Inches.
Ben Nevis Ob- }25-390} 25-202) 25-280) 25-153) 25*301| 25-545) 25-406] 25:267) 25465] 25°134) 25-463) 25-339) 25°329
servatory
Fort William | 30-014) 29-857) 29-909] 29°745| 29-785) 30°050] 29-903) 29:746| 29°994) 29-668] 30-066] 29°953 29°891
Difference 4°624| 4°655| 4:629| 4-592| 4-484| 4-505| 4-497| 4°479| 4°529| 4:534| 4-603/ 4-G14| 4-569
Mean Temperatures.
° °o ° fe} ° ° ° ° ° ° °o ° °
Ben NevisOb-| 27°5 | 214} 244 | 25°9 | 38:1 | 43:1 | 40:8 | 38:7 | 37-7] 30:3] 30:3] 268 32°1
servatory
Fort William | 41°0 | 37-4 | 41:2 | 443 | 55°9 | 57°83 | 57:6] 55:9 | 53:4 | 46:0] 4461] 41-0! 48:0
Difference 135 | 16°0 | 168 | 184 | 178 | 14:7 | 168 | 17:2 | 15:7] 15°7| 143] 143] 15:9
Extremes of Temperature.
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
Max. Temp. 29°2 | 86-3 | 40:7] 43:7 | 50:7] 60:0 | 61:8 | 481] 54:4] 383] 441] 38-0] 618
Min. Temp. 169 64 | 11°2 | 15°2 | 27-7 | 28:0 | 29°71 | 30°1 | 21-1 | 21:8 | 12:5 | 13-2 64
Difference 22°3 | 29°9 | 29:5} 28:5 | 23:01 32°0! 32:7 | 180] 333) 16:5] 316] 24:8] 5594
Rainfall in Inches.
Ben Nevis Ob-| 17°69) 14°86] 12-11] 3°89) 4°34) 1:94] 4:09] 18:32) 7:28! 662) 11-48 18°04 |120°66
servatory
“4 of no} 6 2 6 9 10 15 9 2 10 8 3 5 85
ain
Port William | 10°31| 877| 6:25| 3:12] 2-73] 0-84] 1:35] 7:58] 3:88] 4-72] 4:91 10:90 | 65°36
Hours of Sunshine at Ben Nevis Observatory.
No. of Hours { 23 27 27 52 74 | 213 97 9 46 44 11 11 | 634
264 | 363 | 426| 508] 529/] 528] 467] 381] 3:9] 242] ¥10 | 4,470
At Fort William the mean temperature was 0°8 under the average,
the greatest defect from the means being 1°8 in February, and the
greatest excess 5°-6 in May—indeed, the outstanding feature of the
‘meteorology of the year being the all but unprecedentedly high tempera-
ture of May, a temperature, as regards Scotland, only once exceeded
Since 1764, or during the past 126 years. At the top of the Ben the
excess above the mean was greater, amounting to 7°-7, as happens during
all unusnally high summer temperatures when anticyclones prevail.
The minimum temperature on Ben Nevis was 6°-4, which occurred at
7 A.M. of February 10. This is absolutely the lowest temperature which
has been recorded since the opening of the observatory in December
176 REPORT—1890.
1883. The maximum was 61°°8 on July 4. Thus the extreme range
of temperature for the year was 55°'4.
The registrations of the sunshine-recorder showed 634 hours of sun-
shine as against 970 hours of the previous year, the latter year thus
showing a half more hours. The largest number, 213, was recorded in
June, and the lowest, 9, in August, being the lowest that has occurred
hitherto in any summer month. As the highest possible hours for the
whole is 4,47, sunshine prevailed on the top of the Ben during only one
hour in seven in 1889.
The amount of the rainfall during the year was 120°66 inches, being
about ten inches less than the average, the least rainfall being 1:94 inch
in June, and the greatest 18°04 inches in December, and 17°69 inches in
January. The number of days on which the precipitation was either nal
or less than 0°01 inch, was 85, or 15 days fewer than the average;
the least being 2 in February and August, and the greatest 15 in June.
On the other hand, the number of days on which 1 inch of rain or
more fell was 37, or nearly one day in 10, being a little less frequent
than in previous years. The highest fall for any day was 2:93 inches on
August 28; and from March 23 to 25 there fell 5°83 inches. No rain
fell from June 16 to 27; on the other hand, from 3 p.m. of December 7
to 1 a.m. of the 11th, there was only one hour without rain.
Atmospheric pressure at Fort William was 29-891 inches, or 0-063
inch above the average pressure. In November it was 0°255 inch above
the mean, and in October 0°183 inch below it. June was not only the
month of greatest pressure, but it was also the month of highest mean
temperature, being about 5 per cent. in excess of its average. This
conjunction of high temperature with high pressure during the summer
months is a noteworthy feature in the meteorology of the Ben, these
occurring during the times when anticyclonic weather prevails over this
part of Europe. It will also be observed that during the time the tem-
perature difference between the high and low level stations was only
14°°7, or about two degrees less than the average of June. In June
1887, when the anticyclonic systems were more pronounced than in
1889, the difference fell as low as 12°°9. At these times the air is
markedly dry as well as warm, pointing for the explanation to the
descending currents of the anticyclones, and not to ascending currents
from the superheated lower grounds. It may be remarked here that the
observations of the wind on the top of the mountain show conclusively
that the outflowing winds from cyclonic to anticyclonic regions set in
sooner and at greatly lower levels than had previously been supposed.
Observations have now been made on Ben Nevis for upwards of six
years, or since the observatory was opened in the end of 1883, and, if
the observations by Mr. Wragge be added, for nine years during the
warmer months from June to October; and during the same time
observations have been made near sea-level at Fort William.
As these form a unique double series of observations in meteorology,
and as they furnish the observational data necessary in all investigations in
atmospheric physics into which height in the atmosphere enters, it is
thought to be useful to embody in this Report, in Table IT., the more
prominent of the results derived from the observations of the two
stations. The times from which the data have been deduced are six
years from January to May, nine years from June to October, and seven
—
a
aS SS
ON METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS.
years for November and December.
the two stations.
reduced to sea-level, those for Ben Nevis only to 32°.
TABLE II.—Means from 1881 to 1889.
177
The times are strictly the same for
The barometric observations at Fort William are
— | Jan. | Feb. |March| April} May | June | July | Aug. Sept. | Oct. | Novy. | Dec. | Year
Mean Pressures in Inches.
Ben Nevis Ob- | 25°193/ 25-244 25-246) 25-259 25-322/ 25-460) 25-356! 25°363] 25-384 25299) 25-213] 25-201) 25-295
servatory |
Fort William | 29-823) 29-876] 29-873] 29°850) 29-866] 29-970) 29°841 oe a) 29°887| 29°840| 29-797| 29:804| 29-856
Difference .| 4:30] 4-632] 4:627| 4°591| 4:544| 4:510| 4-485, 4°487| 4-502] 4:541| 4°584| 4-603] 4-561
Mean Temperatures.
5 ° 9° ° o ie} ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
Ben NevisOb-| 25:1 | 22°8 | 23:0 | 26:3 | 32:1 | 38:6 | 40°3 | 39-7] 37:5 | 31°8| 27-8 | 249 | 30:8
servatory
Fort William | 39:0 | 381 | 39°6 | 44°8 | 48:8 | 55:1] 56:7 | 56-1 | 52:7 | 47-2 | 42:0 | 391 | 46:7
Difference 139 |] 153 | 166 | 185 | 17-7) 165] 16-4] 16-4} 15:2] 15-4] 142] 142 | 15:9
Highest Mean Temperatures.
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
Ben NevisOb-| 28°8 | 27:3 | 24°6 | 27-4 | 38-1 | 45-6 | 42°3 | 42:3 | 40:0] 35:0 | 30-4] 282) —
servatory
Fort William | 41°5 | 41°1 | 42-1 | 46:3 | 55-8 | 58:9 | 58:5 | 59:0 | 55:2 | 50:1] 448] 43:0] —
Difference .| 12-7 | 13°8:] 17:5 | 189] 17-7] 13:3 | 16-2 | 16-7 | 15:2] 151 | 144} 148 | 15:5
Lowest Mean Temperatures.
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
BenNevisOb-| 20°0 | 20:8 | 2u:4 | 25°4 | 268 | 35°6 | 38:6 | 37-1 | 34:8 | 28°5 | 26-2 | 202] —
servatory
Fort William | 35°8 | 35:0 | 37-1 | 43:2 | 45-7 | 53:3 | 54:9 | 53-2] 51:1 | 42-4] 40-2] 34:5 | —
Difference .| 15:8] 142] 16:7] 178] 189 17:7) 163 | 161} 163] 13:9] 14:0] 14:3! 16-0
Mean Rainfall in Inches.
Ben Nevis Ob-| 14°36| 11°35] 884; 5°55) 7-16) 6°75{ 9:76{ 11°34] 10°76| 12:06{ 14-09] 18-00 (130-02
servatory
Fort William | 9:27] 8:09] 4:98} 4:02] 3:81} 3°20} 5°51] 5-46] 5:41] 6:80] 8-37] 9.82) 74:74
Difference .| 5:09} 3:26] 3°86] 1:53) 3:35] 3:55| 4:25] 5°88] 5°35] 5:26] 5:72] 8-18] 55-28
Greatest Monthly Rainfall.
Ben Nevis Ob-| 17°80 | 16-94] 12°82] 9°53] 12°87) 12°31] 15-19) 18:32/ 20°87) 20°24{ 20°60; 25:29; —
servatory
Fort William | 12°73} 12:45) 6:25] 4-98) 639] 6-25] 10°88] 7:58| 11-71] 13:77] 13°55| 13-86] —
Difference 5:07] 4:49] 6°57] 2°55) 648] 6:06] 4:31] 10:74) 9:16) 6:47] 7:05) 11-43] 6-70
Least Monthly Rainfall.
BenNevisOb-/ 7°53; 2°84{ 5°90; 3°89) 39:7; 1:94/ 4:09! 7:56{ 609/ 6:41; 899/ 10:98; —
servatory
Fort William | 5°63] 1:06] 3°49] 3°12) 186 | 0°84] 1°35! 3:02] 1:97] 4°04) 4:91] 7-09} —
Difference 1:96} 0:22) 2-41] 0-77) 211) 1:10) 2-741 4:54] 4:12] 2:37) 4:08] 3:89] 2-49
Fair Days at Ben Nevis Observatory.
Fair Days 8 Tail LO arias |e ION.) 19 5 8 { 9 6 jz 6 { 100
Maximum | sale No To) T8118. SO Te elete el 1s | 10. I “ae
eet rer s org elon} af o faa tos) ow | ae
Sunshine in Howrs at Ben Nevis Observatory.
Sunshine in} 33 44 47 76 89 | 149 £0 58 | 68 33 23 19 719
Hours | |
Maximum 70 | 73 | 74 | 120 | 129 | 250 | 362 | 116 | 191 | 44 | 51 | 28 | 970
Minimum *.| 15 18 27 52 31 55 47 9 25 Le lad 11 576
Possible Hours| 231 | 264 | 365 | 426 | 508 | 529 | 528 | 467 | 381 | 319 | 242 | 210 | 4470
The horizontal distance between the two stations being only about
four miles, the monthly variation in the difference of the atmospheric
1890.
N
178 REPORT—1890.
pressures at the two stations is virtually a temperature effect. As the
temperature falls to the annual minimum in winter, the air contracts,
and a portion of it consequently falls below the level of the barometer at
the top, thus reducing the readings there, and increasing the differences
between the two barometers. The difference then reaches 4°632 inches,
the maximum for the year. On the other hand, as temperature rises, a
portion of the atmosphere is raised above the level of the higher baro-
meter, thus increasing the pressure there, and lessening the difference to
4485 inches in July, the minimum of the year. The difference between
the maximum and minimum is thus 0°147 inch. For these months the
mean temperatures of the stratum of air between the top and bottom of
the mountain are respectively 30°°5 and 48°°5. Hence the vertical dis-
placement of the mass of the atmosphere for a temperature difference of
18°:0 is represented by a barometric difference of 0:147 inch. The sea-
level pressures in these months are, however, respectively 29°876 inches
in February, and 29°841 inches in July. If, then, we assume the sea-
level pressure of July to be the same as that of February, viz. 29-876
inches, the difference between the top and bottom pressures would be not
4485, but 4°490 inches. From this it follows that the vertical displace-
ment for a temperature difference of 18°:0, and at the same sea-level
pressure, is 0142 inch.
Sosgesetsssssaiasssssazesis
EEE HEH He
Srdiecnetiietirentisedi
ri ty cae, PtH oni aauaae
amass sas
Annual curve of the differences of barometric readings for high and low level stations
(Ben Nevis and Fort William).
In order to determine the curve of the table of the barometric differ-
ences, it is convenient that these should be reckoned from the mean point,
or say 4560. When so treated, the differences are :—
May —-016 November + *024
June —*050 December + °043
July —:075 January + ‘070
August —:073 February + ‘072
September — ‘057 March + 067
October —-019 April + *031
These quantities being laid down as vertical ordinates, with Time as
the horizontal ordinate, it was evident to the eye that the curve was a
projection of the curve of sines. The difference between the extreme
and mean values in 455 parts of an inch is 75. Hence, if a be the time
expressed in arc, and 68 the differences in the preceding table, we have
als ss= sin a.
ON METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 179
The above diagram represents the curve of this equation, and the points
numbered from 1 to 12 are the twelve tabular places, beginning with
May and ending with April. The curve evidently satisfies the observations.
The relative mean readings of the thermometer are approximately
represented by
4 T=sin a;
but the deviations from the true curve are greater than in the first case.
Comparing the two expressions, the barometric differences are seen to be
proportional to the increments of the mean temperature of the two
stations. Accordingly, when the places of the table of barometric
differences are laid down as co-ordinates to the places of the temperature
able, the points are found to lie in approximately straight lines. One
would have expected a less simple relation between the quantities in the
wo tables.
In consideration of the successful arrangements which have been
made to minimise the effects of solar and terrestrial radiation at both
the high and the low level observatories, and their close proximity to
each other, the above result may be regarded as the most important
datum hitherto contributed by meteorology for the discussion of inquiries
dealing with the relations of height to pressure and temperature in the
free atmosphere. The same consideration gives also a peculiar value to
the table of corrections, empirically determined from the observations,
for the reduction to sea-level of the barometrical observations at the top,
calculated for every tenth of an inch of the sea-level pressure, and every
bwo degrees of mean temperature of stratum of air, 4,407 feet thick
between the two observatories.
The mean annual differences of temperature of the top and bottom of
® mountain, calculated from (1) the mean monthly temperatures, (2)
@ highest mean monthly temperatures, and (3) the lowest mean
honthly temperatures, are respectively 15°°9, 15°-5, and 16°-0. The
maller difference obtained from the highest monthly temperatures was
‘entirely caused by the unusually high temperatures at the top of the
mountain during the anticyclonic weather that prevailed in the Junes of
$87 and 1889, in which from the prevailing strong sunshine the whole
nountain was in a sense superheated.
During these years the mean annual rainfall at the top is 130-02
inches, and at Fort William 74°74 inches. At the top the maximum
monthly mean is 18-00 inches in December, and the minimum 5°35 inches
a April ; whilst at Fort William there are 9-82 inches in December and
#20 inches in June. The monthly differences are very striking, being
y 153 inch in April, but 8-18 inches in December. As holds gene-
ally in the north-west of Scotland, the rainfall shows a steady droop
the minimum in June, but on the top of the Ben the minimum is
eached in April, and by midsummer has risen considerably above it,
me, in all probability, to a more copious precipitation from the ascending
currents of the warmer months of the year.
_ The mean monthly differences for the year between the rainfall at the
top and bottom of the mountain, calculated (1) from the mean month]
rainfall, (2) the greatest monthly fall, and (3) the least monthly fall, are
respectively 4:61, 6:96, and 2:49 inches. The first of these means is
approximately the mean of the other two, giving thus the curions result
that in exceptionally wet months the difference between the rain-gauges
nN 2
180 REPORT—1 890.
rises Just as much above the normal difference as it falls below the same
difference in exceptionally dry months.
At the observatory at the top the annual number of fair days, or days
when the rainfall is less than the hundredth of an inch, on the mean of
the six years 1884-89, is 100, the monthly mean rising to the maximum —
of 12 days in April and June, and falling to the minimum of 5 days in
July. For any separate month the greatest number of dry days was 20
in August 1885, whereas in July 1886 no dry day occurred at all.
The sunshine record extends from March 1884 to the end of 1889.
The results show an annual mean of 719 hours’ sunshine against a possible
4,470 hours. Thus, during these six years, the hours of sunshine shown
by the Campbell-Stokes sunshine-recorder have been nearly one-sixth of
the number possible. The mean monthly maximum is 149 in June, and
minimum 19 in December. In December the number has been persis- |
tently low, even the highest being only 28 hours in 1887. On the other |
hand, in June the number has exceeded 200 in each of the last three |
years, rising to 250 hours in 1888; whereas the highest number for any
of the other eleven months was only 162 hours in July 1885. As will be |
seen from Table II. the differences between the maximum and the mini. |
mum numbers of the months are very great. For each of the five years |
of complete observations the number of hours were 680, 576, 898, 970, |
and 634—ihus also showing enormous differences among the separate |
ears.
: As regards diurnal phenomena, the hourly variation for each month |
has been calculated for temperature, pressure, humidity, cloud, rainfall, |
wind-velocity, and sunshine. Results of great value have been arrived ©
at, for which, however, we must, in this brief report, refer to the volume —
herewith submitted to the Association. '
In addition to the usual routine work of a first-order meteorological |
observatory, other observations have been carried on, mostly of a novel |
character, tor which the observatory affords exceptional facilities. 1
The rapid formation of snow crystals, in certain states of weather, |
from fog, on the observatory and every object exposed to these drifting |
fogs, has been carefully observed and investigated by Mr. Omond, With
these rapid accretions, the cups of Robinson’s anemometer are no longer
hemispheres, but irregular hollow bodies, bristling all over with pointed
crystals, and the arms increased to many times their original thickness,
and thus the whole instrument soon becomes a mass of immovable snow,
and further observation is rendered impossible. The thermometer box,
with its louvre boards, similarly becomes serrated with rows of teeth,
which quickly coalesce into a solid, and the instruments are no longer in |
contact with the free atmosphere. In these circumstances a fresh box
is put out. It is thus that at observatories such as Ben Nevis, owing to
these accretions of ice on the thermometers, the continuous or hourly
registrations of the temperature of the air must be for ever impossible. |
In truth, such observations must always be eye observations, where the
observer personally sees that, previously to the recording of each observas —
tion, the thermometer is in contact with the free atmosphere, and is not
sheltered from it by a coating of ice. The importance of thermometri¢
observations is emphasised by the circumstance that without them the
barometric observations are of comparatively small value. Ben Nevis is
the only observatory that has hitherto coped, and that successfully, with
this all-important department of the work of a high-level observatory
|
te ON METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 181
and one cannot sufficiently admire the heroic endurance with which the
observers have made the hourly observations by night and by day, during
‘summer and during winter.
_ he direction of the winds indicates a well-marked diurnal variation.
‘From 3 to 8 a.m. northerly winds of about 24 miles an hour, and from
“11 a.m. to 2 p.m. southerly winds of about 3 miles an hour prevail.
" From three years’ observations, ending May 1887, it appears that the
“mean temperatures of the different winds are, §., 32°6; S.W., 82°5;
OW., 31°4; N.W. and S.E., 30°25; E., 27°8; N., 27°°6, and N.H., 26°°5.
‘The warmest point in the windrose oscillates from S.W. in winter, passing
through S. to 8.H. in summer. The annual temperature range of easterly
winds is 20°°7, but westerly only 15°'6.
Observations of the rainband were begun im June 1885. The ob-
served higher values are accompanied, or soon followed, by a heavy rain-
fall, which tends to become less heavy in the next twelve hours. The
lower values, on the other hand, though they may be neither accompanied
nor followed in the next three hours by any rain, are followed by a con-
siderable rainfall before the twelve hours are run. With the same rain-
band value precipitation is less with a higher and greater with a lower
temperature. Ifthe temperature immediately falls the rainfall is greatly
increased, but if it rises it is less than it would have been if the tempera-
ture remained constant. The highest values, with accompanying very
heavy rains, are part and parcel of the cyclones which come to us from
the Atlantic laden with moisture and warmth. The rainband is not
affected during heavy rains, the result of moisture-laden air ascending
from lower levels ; and during the states of the air attending the rapid
deposition of snow crystals no rain falls, though at the time the rainband
values are high.
As respects forecasting the weather, the most important observations
are those showing a decreasing rainband from hour to hour. A compari-
son of these observations with the daily weather-charts and subsequent
observations show that the decreasing rainband indicates that the moist
air aloft is slipping away or sinking below the level of the summit, and
that the air taking its place is comparatively dry. Now this state of
things appears to be the earliest indication we at present have that an
anticyclone is beginning to form and settle over this part of Europe.
St. Elmo’s Fire is not an infrequent occurrence on Ben Nevis. The
Observed cases have occurred during the night and during the winter
months from September to February. A careful discussion of the cases
shows that the weather which precedes, accompanies, and follows has
Sm peculiar characteristics not only on Ben Nevis but also over the
West of Europe generally-—indeed, so well marked is the type of weather
and so notorious is it for its stormy character, that it is familiarly known
at the observatory as ‘ St. Elmo’s weather.’ It is farther observed that in
almost every case another cyclone, with its spell of bad weather, follows
the particular cyclone in which St. Elmo’s Fire is observed.
The winter thunderstorms occur under the identical weather condi-
tions under which St. Elmo’s Fire occurs. They invariably occur on the
south-east side of the ecyclone’s centre, with the easterly passage of which
they appear to be intimately connected. The thunderstorms and cases of
sheet-lightning of Ben Nevis are essentially autumn and winter occurrences,
70 per cent. of the whole having occurred from September to February.
They are rare in summer, only eight having occurred from May to August,
182 REPORT—1890.
having an annual period just the reverse of what obtains in the eastern
districts of Scotland. During the summer they are twice as frequent
at Fort William as at the observatory, thus suggesting that a consider-
able number must be below the summit, or in the aerial stratum between
the high and low level observatories. All the summer thunderstorms
have occurred when the sun was above the horizon; but of the thirty-
seven cases in autumn and winter thirty-two took place when the sun
was below the horizon. These results are of great value in their relation
to the distribution of thunderstorms and other electrical displays over the
land and the water surfaces of the globe.
An elaborate series of hygrometric observations have been made at
the observatory with the view of inquiring how far Glaisher’s factors can
be safely used. For the conduct of such an inquiry, the low-temperature
humidities and remarkably dry states of the air which form so prominent
a feature in the climatology of Ben Nevis, the observatory offers unique
facilities. The observations were made with the ordinary dry and wet
bulb hygrometer and Professor Chrystal’s direct hygrometer, with the
result that a specially constructed set of tables is required for the extremely
low humidities of Ben Nevis, these being considerabiy lower than Mr.
Glaisher had had an opportunity of observing.
Professor C. Michie Smith has shown that on the edge of a dissolvirg
mist the potential is lower than the normal, but higher on the edge of a
condensing mist. Now, almost always when the top of Ben Nevis be-
comes clear for a short time, a strong current comes up the telegraph cable,
while as soon as the summit is again enveloped the current is reversed. The
connection between the moisture of the atmosphere and the earth currents
is still further shown by the rainfall. During a fall of rain or snow the
current nearly always passes down the cable; and in the case of a sudden
shower the current has sometimes driven the mirror of the galvanometer
violently off the scale. A cessation of the rain or snow generally has an
exactly opposite effect. Ifit be assumed that the summit of Ben Nevis —
takes the potential of the masses of vapour covering it, and if we consider
the earth-plate at the base as the earth, or zero of potential, it is obvious
that these results confirm the theory advanced by Professor Michie Smith,
a conclusive proof of which would be of the greatest importance in inves-
tigations connected with thunderstorms.
Observations on the numbers of dust particles with the apparatus in-
vented by Mr. Aitken have recently been undertaken at the observatory.
Already noteworthy results have been obtained. On March 31, at 4.30 P.m.,
the summit was clear, and the number of particles per cubic centimétre
was 2,785; but shortly thereafter a thickness was observed approaching
from south-west, which by 6 p.m. reached the observatory, and the num-
ber of particles rose to 12,862, being the maximum yet observed. On
June 15 many observations were made during the day, when the number
of particles fell from 937 at midnight to 50 at 10.30 and 11.42 a.m. Still
more remarkable were the observations of July 20-21. Tull 10 p.m, of
the 20th the wind at the top of the mountain was about the direction as
at sea-level, viz., south-west to west-south-west; but at that hour it went
suddenly round to north, increasing at the same time to 40 miles an hour,
and temperature rose from 41°°0 to 47°-0, and soon after to 49°°2. At the
low-level observatory temperature remained exceptionally constant at
55°°0 from 9 p.m. till 4 A.M. of the 21st. At the high-level observatory |
ten observations made between 2 and 3 A.M. gave the extraordinary low
ON METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 183
mean of only two dust particles to the cubic centimetre. During this
time the high-saturated, high-temperatured north wind was blowing out
of the cyclone which lay to northward, whilst the sea-level winds were
south-west, or were blowing in upon the same cyclone. The observations
already point to a daily maximum during the time of the afternoon mini-
mum barometer, and a minimum number during the morning minimum
barometer, or during the times of the great diurnal ascending and descend-
ing currents of the atmosphere. It is evident that in these observations
we have indications of intimate relations subsisting between the numbers
of dust particles and the cyclones and anticyclones over North-Western
Europe at the time. Itis also made clear that the dust particles vary
enormously during the presence of mist or fog without being accompanied
with any difference in the apparent density of the fog.
It is unnecessary to dwell at length on the prime importance of these
observations and investigations conducted at the Ben Nevis observatories
in their relations to cyclones and anticyclones on which our weather
depends, and the bearing of the whole matter on the framing of weather
forecasts. To this subject it is arranged that Dr. Buchan’s time will be
wholly given during next year. In carrying ont this intricate and labo-
rious investigation, the Meteorological Council send Mr. Omond three
copies of their ‘ Daily and Weekly Weather Maps,’ on which are to be
entered certain of the meteorological data from the high and low level
observatories, and comparisons of those data, together with occasional
remarks that may from time to time be made as bearing more or less
closely on forecasting weather. One of thege sets will be sent to the
Scottish Meteorological Society, and another to the Meteorological Coun-
cil, while the third will be retained by Mr. Omond at Fort William.
' The low-level observatory has been equipped by the Meteorological
Council with a complete set of self-recording instruments, and the regu-
lar observing work began on July 14. The directors are thus now in the
best possible position for extending the scientific and practical inquiries
they have taken in hand by the unique facilities offered by these two
well-equipped observatories.
Sith Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors A.
Jounson (Secretary), J. G. MacGrecor, J. B. CuERRIMAN, and
H. T. Bovey and Mr. C. CarpMakEL, appointed for the purpose
of promoting Tidal Observations in Canada.
Your Committee is happy to be able to report that the Canadian Govern-
ment has at length undertaken to establish stations for systematic tidal
observations, and that the calculations for the tide-tables will be made
according to the method recommended by the Association. It is under-
stood that the construction of the tables will be entrusted to Mr. Roberts,
of the Nautical Almanac Office. That the efforts of the Committee were
not successful earlier is possibly due to the fact that there have been three
Ministers of Marine in succession since the Committee was appvinted, and
that the Committee had, in each case, to begin de novo to present the
facts to the Minister in office in order to convince him persoually of the
need of the observations for the purposes of practical navigation. The
184 REPORY— 1890.
character of the British Association as scientific was, to a certain extent,
a positive obstacle to the efforts of the Committee, instead of an aid. Not-
withstanding the courtesy with which deputations from your Committee
were invariably received by the Minister or the Cabinet on the occasions
of an interview, it was obvious that there was always lurking in the
background a suspicion that the Committee might, not unnaturally, take
an exaggerated view of the practical value of the observations in their
appreciation of the scientific interest of their results, and this notwith-
standing the fact that there is not at the present moment a single official
tide-table, giving the rise and fall of tide, for any of the ports of the
Dominion, and that ocean steamers run aground in places where they
ought not if sufficient information were supplied them. Nor is information
as to the tidal currents obtainable, though the want of it is the cause of
numerous wrecks and great consequent loss of life and property, as shown
by the annual wreck lists for years past.
The Committee has been earnest in pressing both of these needs of
navigation on the attention of the Government, and has been most effec-
tively supported in its efforts by a committee of the Royal Society of
Canada, of which Dr. Sandford Fleming, C.M.G., President of the Society,
was chairman. Sir William Dawson, C.M.G., former President of the
British Association, has on every occasion this year, as heretofore, given
his valuable assistance and taken part in the efforts of your Committee.
A petition to Parliament from nearly 400 masters and officers of ships
asking for survey of the tidal currents (involving, of course, observations
at fixed stations on the rise and fall) was circulated during the last
session, and a petition to the same effect was presented also by the ‘ Ship-
ping Interest’ of Montreal. This latter body obtained an interview with
the Cabinet to discuss the question, at which were present, besides their
own deputation headed by their chairman (Mr. Andrew Allan, of the Allan
Line), the Chairman of the Board of Trade of Montreal (Mr. Cleghorn),
and members of both committees, including those members above named.
Subsequent to the interview the Minister of Marine (the Hon. C.
H. Tupper) continued the inquiries which he had been making of the
Committee. These were so thorough and searching that the Committee
has the satisfaction of feeling that any extra labour thereby caused them
is well repaid by the fulness of the proofs of the great practical value of
the observations of both kinds presented to the Minister ; proofs to which
the Minister himself added by his independent inquiries from others,
including the Hydrographer of the Admiralty and the Superintendent of
the Coast and Geodetic Survey of the United States.
The only matter of regret is that the grant for the present year is not
sufficient to establish at the moment more than three or four stations.
An anticipatory grant for next year to establish others was, it is under-
stood, not presented to Parliament in consequence of the absence of the
Minister at Washington in connection with the negotiations going on
with the United States ; but it will, no doubt, be made next session.
Observations of such importance to the commercial interests of Canada,
having been once begun by the Government, must necessarily be con-
tinued to be of any service.
The Committee considers that it has thus brought to a successful
conclusion the work for which it was appointed, and therefore begs to be
discharged.
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 185
«
z
_ Report on the Present State of our Knowledge in Electrolysis and
, Electro-chemistry. By W.N. SuHaw, M.A.
Tue scientific aim of the theory of electrolysis has been stated by F.
-Kohlrausch to consist in the reference of electro-chemical phenomena to
'mechanical processes and mechanical or electro-mechanical laws. It is
_ the purpose of this report to enable its readers to form for themselves,
by a comprehensive survey of work done in furtherance of that aim, an
opinion as to the real steps that have been taken towards its achievement,
the causes which have stood in the way of its more complete fulfilment,
and, if possible, to get some idea as to probable directions of future pro-
gress. It is hardly necessary to say that the aim in question has not
et been fully attained. Multitudes of experiments have been described
in scientific publications; some generalisations and laws have been esta-
blished, and various forms of electro-mechanical theory of electrolysis are
at present under discussion; but they are not yet fully developed, nor,
indeed, have rival theories been stated in such clear forms as to lead to
the suggestion of crucial experiments.
A very concise yet complete summary of the facts and theories relating
_ to electrolysis and electro-chemistry up to the end of 1882 has been com-
_ piled by Professor G. Wiedemann, and is the more valuable as its author
is himself so successful a worker in that field. The summary is contained.
in Wiedemann’s ‘ Electricitiit,’ mainly in the second volume. The whole
_ of the account of electrolysis and allied subjects occupies few, if any,
less than a thousand of Wiedemann’s ample pages. No student of elec-
_ trolysis can fail to owe a debt of gratitude to the author of this large
collection of facts and theories. Since its publication, however, the atten-
_ tion of many scientific men has been directed towards electro-chemistry.
_ Von Helmholtz in his Faraday Lecture (April 5, 1881) ! pointed out the
importance of the subject; and the Electrolysis Committee of the British
Association, appointed jointly by Sections A and B, after the discussion of
the subject at Aberdeen in 1885 opened by Dr. O. J. Lodge, has, under
his able direction, maintained the interest init. A great deal of work
has been done, especially towards comparing the numerical values of
electrolytic conductivity of a compound with those of its other physical
properties ; moreover, Svante Arrhenius, in a memoir presented to the
Academy of Sciences of Sweden in 1883, has based the numerical caleu-
lation of a number of chemical actions upon the numbers expressing the
electrolytic conductivity of the interacting substances. The application
by Von Helmholtz of the second law of thermodynamics to chemical and
ectro-chemical processes in 1877 and 1882 has led to extensive researches
in the thermodynamics of electrolysis. The years since the close of 1882
haye accordingly witnessed a very remarkable activity in the development
of electrolytic subjects. Apart from memoirs on special sections in
current scientific literature, a general survey of the field by Lodge in
1885, forming the opening address in the discussion at Aberdeen, is
printed in the British Association report of that year, in which, perhaps,
the foreshortening of the subject, natural to the point of view of a leader
' Jour. Chem. Soc. 39, p. 277.
186 REPORT—1890.
of discussion, is somewhat conspicuous. There is, moreover, a short but
very interesting sketch of the subject in 1887 by one of the founders of
its new development, published in the‘ Hlectrotechnische Zeitschrift,’ June
1887, under the title of ‘Die gegenwirtigen Anschauungen tiber die
Electrolyse von Loésungen,’ by F. Kohlrausch, and a brief statement ot
the problems in the subject was given by G. Wiedemann at the meeting
of the British Association at Manchester in 1887 (‘ Report,’ p. 347).
The order of arrangement of this report will be :—
(1.) A general statement of the actions, physical and chemical, pro-
duced by the passage of electricity through a typical electrolytic cell.
This is introduced for the purpose of securing definiteness in the con-
ceptions and language, and to set forth the phenomena which any theory
of electrolysis must primarily be able to explain. It will also serve asa
guide to the classification of the experimental data available for testing
or illustrating electrolytic theories.
(1I.) A statement of those generalisations and laws which are accepted
by all workers in the subject. References will be given to the original
sources of the evidence upon which these laws are based, but a detailed
historical account of the establishment of the laws will not be attempted,
although some of them may only have been accepted after prolonged
discussion.
(III.) A short statement of the hypotheses and of the partial or
general theories of electrolysis which have been proposed and are still
under discussion, and the experiments relating to them, including especially
the following questions :—
(a) What is an electrolyte ?
(b) What are the ions in any given electrolytic decomposition, 3
including the cases of mixed electrolytes ?
(c) The Williamson-Clausius theory of dissociation.
(d) Hlectro-chemical thermodynamics, including thermo-electric
effects.
(e) The theory of electric endosmose.
(f) The theory of the migration of icns and of specific ionic —
velocities.
(g) The numerical relations of electrical conductivity with other
physical and chemical properties of the electrolytic sub-
stances.
(IV.) A discussion of the experimental methods and the apparatus
used in the determination of numerical values used in the previous
section.
(V.) Anaccount of electro-chemical phenomena which are not generally
included in the term ‘ electrolytic,’ but which may be used to elucidate
the electrolytic theories. In this section will be included certain pheno- —
mena connected with the passage of electricity through solids and gases,
and the conductivity of flame.
(VI.) Electrolytic or electro-chemical phenomena which are not re-
garded as having a direct bearing upon electrolytic theories, viz. secondary
actions, electro-capillary phenomena, irreciprocal conduction, electro-
striction, aud transition resistance.
{
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 187
Part I.
General Electrolytic Phenomena.
Tn order to analyse the actions taking place in electrolysis, we may
imagine the electrolyte in the cell divided into three portions by two
parallel partitions of porous non-conducting substance; the two end
portions, the anode and the cathode vessels, contain the positive and
negative electrodes respectively ; the middle portion, while it allows the
transmission of electricity through it, may be imagined protected from
any change of composition which, in the absence of partitions, might be
effected by diffusion, or mechanical transfusion, or convection currents of
liquid. How far such an ideal partition is realisable in practice will
appear later. The electrodes may be any electrical conductors, solid or
fluid, alike or different. For a typical specimen we cannot regard an elec-
trolytic liquid otherwise than as a mixture of solutions of chemical com-
pounds, though the amount of all but one of the constituents of the
mixture may be so small as to be regarded merely as impurities, which it
would not even be possible to detect by ordinary chemical means. The
remarkable sensitiveness of electrolytic properties to change, in conse-
quence of the admixture of very minute portions of impurity, renders this
necessary.
Thus Von Helmholtz has already said in his Faraday Lecture that he
has detected the polarisation corresponding to the decomposition of a
quantity of water of the order 1x10-" gramme. And Gore! has
shown that the effect of chlorine upon the E.M.F. of a Pt-Mg voltaic
couple in distilled water is such that the presence of one part of chlorine
in seventeen thousand million parts of water could be detected thereby.
The neglect of considerations of this kind finds very remarkable illustra-
tion in the history of electrolysis. It is now generally known that the
experiments upon very pure water, especially those of Kohlrausch,? have
so far changed the views upon the matter that, whereas at one time water
was regarded as the conducting part of a solution, pure water is now looked
upon as probably not conducting at all. Kohlrausch obtained water the
ratio of whose conductivity to that of mercury was 0°71 x10 -" at 215° C.,
and its sensitiveness for small quantities of impurity approximated to that
_ of the sense of smell, since when exposed in a room containing tobacco-
smoke its conductivity doubled in three hours. The simplification that
would be introduced by regarding the typical electrolytic cell as contain-
ing a perfectly pure chemical compound liquid cannot therefore be
realised in practice, and any part of a theory which depends for its sup-
port on such an assumption must, for the present at any rate, be held in
suspense.
When an electromotive force is made to act between the electrodes of
such a cell as that described above, so that a current is shown in a gal.
vanometer included in the circuit, the following actions take place :—
(a.) A part of the electrolyte is decomposed, the products of the de-
composition are deposited at the electrodes, and these either (i.) are visibly
set free, (ii.) unite with the electrodes, or (ii1.) unite chemically with the
solution in the anode or cathode vessel as the case may be, and in the
' Proc. Roy. Soc. Tune 14, 1888, vol. 44, p. 301
* Pogg. Ann. Ergz. B. 8, 1876, p. 1; Wied. Elec.
188 REPORT—1890.
last two cases give rise to ‘secondary’ chemical products. These second-
ary actions are quite independent of the direct effect of electrolysis.
If we consider this chemical action more in detail, we may regard the
electrolytic liquid as composed of a number of molecules, and the action
will then be the separation of a number of these molecules each into two
constituent parts or ions: these ions are deposited at the electrodes only.
Considering a single molecule, the one part is deposited at the cathode, and
is called the cation ; the other part (or the corresponding part of a similar
molecule) at the anode, and is called the anion. The terminology of the
subject was introduced by Faraday (‘ Exp. Res.’ Ser. VII. 1834). What
is precisely to be understood by the ‘ molecule’ which is decomposed is
not yet clear. ven if we suppose the electrolyte a solution of a salt so
pure that the decomposition of impurity could not in any case be
detected, we cannot now say that all the molecules decomposed are
similar. To take a definite instance, in a solution of sodium chloride the
molecule decomposed may be the simple chemical molecule NaCl, or it
may be a molecular aggregate of sodium chloride [n(Na(l) ], or an aggre-
gate of salt and water [n(NaCl), m(H,O)], or some molecules of one
kind and some of another may be decomposed. The primary results of
the separation of the molecules, each into two parts, are the true ions,
and are deposited at the electrodes. But, however complicated may be
the molecules of the electrolyte which are regarded as individually
decomposed, in cases in which there is visible deposit on the electrodes,
or direct combination with the electrodes, the deposit or combination
could have been produced by the decomposition of the simple molecules
[NaCl] of salt in the solution.
(b.) The volume of the liquid in the cathode vessel increases ; that in
anode vessel diminishes. This phenomenon, which is known as electric
endosmose, is attributed to the action of the porous diaphragms, and is
regarded as independent of the more strictly electrolytic phenomena.
(c.) The percentage composition of the solution in the anode and cathode
vessels is altered, generally unequally in the two, while that in the inter-
mediate vessel remains unaltered. This phenomenon is usually attributed
to the migration of the ions with unequal velocities through the solution,
and is equivalent, if the ions be the result of decomposition of simple
molecules, to a transfer of those molecules, which in the end are left in
combination, through the body of the solution, in one direction or the
other.
(d.) There is a rise in temperature of the liquid owing to the develop-
ment of heat by the current, just as there would be in the case of a
metallic conductor.
(e.) The deposit of ions upon the electrodes causes an electromotive
force opposed in direction to the decomposing electromotive force applied.
This E.M.F. of polarisation is in some cases sufficiently great to balance
the latter and prevent the further flow of current.
The current may also be considerably reduced by the resistance of
a layer of non-conducting material produced by the action of the ions
on the electrodes.
(f.) Thermo-electric effects are produced at the junctions of the
different substances in the circuit, including the junctions of metal and
liquid.
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 189
Part II.
Laws and Principles generally Accepted.
(a.) The electro-magnetic action of the current passing through an electro-
hyte is the sume as if the electrolyte were replaced by a metallic conductor of
the same size and shape, and of such resistance that it could be substituted for
the electrolyte without altering the current in the rest of the cirewit—This
merely expresses the idea that the flow of electricity may be regarded as
analogous to that of an incompressible fluid, even when an electrolyte
forms part of the circuit, being either the fluid conductor of a battery cell
or of a voltameter cell. The references quoted by Wiedemann (vol. i.
p. 321) for this statement are: Wiedemann, ‘ Galvanismus,’ I. Aufl. 1861,
p- 97; Schiller and Colley, Pogg. ‘ Ann.’ 155, 1875, p. 467 ; Cooke, ‘ Chem.
News,’ 40, 1879, p. 22; ‘ Beibl.’ 3, p. 632; R. Kohlrausch, ‘Pogg. Ann.’
97, 1856, p. 401.
The current may for some purposes be regarded as the flowing of
positive electricity like an incompressible fluid round the circuit in the
direction from anode to cathode, the quantity which crosses any section
in unit of time measuring the current. For the body of the electrolyte,
however, the language of the two-fluid hypothesis is considered by Von
Helmholtz as more convenient, and it is usual to regard the current in
the electrolyte as made up of the independent flow of equal quantities of
positive and negative electricities in opposite directions. It will appear
later that it is possible to form an estimate of the absolute rates at which
the positive and negative quantities respectively flow, and that the ab-
solute rates may be unequal; in that case the measures of the current at any
section due to the flow in the two directions respectively will not be equal.
But minute considerations of the disposal of the positive and negative
electricity may lead to confusion (see Wiedemann, 2, § 1043); and
evidently if we regard the current.as a convective discharge, by redistri-
bution of parts, along a single line of molecules with oppositely electrified
sides, the current at any given section between two molecules will be
due entirely either to the motion of positive electricity in one direction
or of negative in the other, according to the position of the section; and
in that case the quantities of positive and negative electricity actually
engaged will be double of those required, if one is allowed to suppose that
-they pass each other instead of meeting each other.
Itis not clear that we are justified in regarding the positive and negative
electricities each as separate incompressible fluids continuous throughout
the whole circuit, as suggested by Lodge (‘B.A. Rep.’ 1885); but this
point may be more completely discussed in considering the theory of
unequal migration of ions (Part III. § e).
(b.) There are electrolytes in which conduciion of electricity from the elec-
trode to the electrolyte, and again from the electrolyte to the electrode, is entirely
‘convective,’ in the sense that no electricity can pass into an electrolyte or
out of it again without causing a deposit of a certain number of con-
stituent ions where the current enters, and of an equal number of the
remainders of the decomposed molecules (opposite ions) where it leaves the
electrolyte, the weight of electrolyte decomposed being proportional to
the quantity of electricity transmitted. This is included in Faraday’s
law, and is equivalent to saying that in certain electrolytes there is no
190 REPORT—1890.
conduction without chemical decomposition ; and it may be expressed by
the formula
NV Kes
where W is the weight of electrolyte decomposed by the passage of the
quantity E of electricity, and K a constant depending on the nature of
the electrolyte.
I have worded the statement of this proposition in a carefully
guarded manner ; it certainly holds for a very large number of electro-
lytes, possibly for all. The proposition has been gradually evolved as the
result of a large number of observations. Faraday (Exp. Res. ser. 8,
§ 970, 984, 1834) allowed a slight amount of conduction without chemical
decomposition ; and since that time the question has been much dis-
cussed, and the causes of the apparent metallic conduction traced. An
account of the discussion is given in Wiedemann, vol. 2, p. 488, which is
summed up as follows: ‘According to all these experiments we must
now accept that if once the conduction of currents through electrolytes
is associated with their simultaneous decomposition, then, besides this
electrolytic conduction, which follows strictly the electrolytic [ Faraday’s |
law, no second metallic conduction of apart of the electricity takes place
therein.’ Von Helmholtz in Part III. of his ‘ Thermodynamics of Chemical
Processes’ (Phys. Soc. Translation, p. 79) says: ‘If the two electrodes
of a voltameter be charged and maintained at different potentials, electric
forces corresponding to the slope of potential act within the fluid, driving
+ E to the cathode, — Eto theanode. This movement of electricity never
takes place, so far as we know, without a simultaneous motion of the ions
of the electrolyte to which the + E and — E set in motion are attached’ ;
and in the next page, ‘I have myself succeeded in following out the pro-
portionality between the electromotive force and the amount of condensed
charge . . . . down to electromotive forces of 0:0001 Daniell.’
Von Helmholtz also expressed the same view in the Faraday Lecture, in
which he announced that with an air-free cell therein described he had
detected the polarisation produced during a few seconds by a current
which would only decompose a milligramme of water in a century; and
he went on to say: ‘ But even if the appearance of galvanic polarisation
should not be acknowledged by opponents as a sufficient indication of
previous decomposition, it is not difficult at present to reduce the indica-
tions of a good galvanometer to absolute measures and to calculate the
amount of decomposition which ought to be expected according to
Faraday’s law, and to verify that in all the cases in which no products of
electrolysis can be discovered their amount is too small for chemical
analysis.’
Bouty (quoted by Lodge, ‘ B.A. Report,’ 1886, p. 348), referring in par-
ticular to acidulated water, asserts, ‘A liquid has only a single way of
conducting electricity, whatever may be going on at the electrodes.
The expressions ‘‘ metallic conductivity” and “ electrolytic conductivity ”
ought to disappear from science.’
Experiments on the decomposition produced in acidulated water by
the induction of electrostatic charges are described by Wiedemann (2, §
544) and by Ostwald and Nernst (‘ Electrician,’ 23, p. 300, 1889), who
observed a bubble of hydrogen which would correspond to the decom-
position of 4 x 107!° gramme of water. Eouvet (‘C. R.’ 87, p. 1068)
has found that the quantity of electricity necessary for decomposing a
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 191
given quantity of water is independent of the pressure up to 200 atmo-
‘spheres.
Thus it may fairly be allowed that acidulated water is one of the
_ electrolytes for which this proposition is true.
' Itis also regarded as true for solutions of salts of silver, for which,
according to Lord Rayleigh and Mrs. Sidgwick (‘ Phil. Trans.’ 1884 (2),
_p. 411), every gramme of silver deposited upon an electrode corresponds
to the passage of 84°82 C.G.S. electro-magnetic units of electricity ; ac-
cording to ¥. and W. Kohlrausch (Wied. ‘ Ann.’ 27, 1886, p. 1), 84°53
such units. The proposition is probably equally true for all salt solu-
tions, but the inference that it is true for all electrolytes is net yet
‘substantiated, though evidence continues to accumulate in its favour,
Thus Faraday (‘ Exp. Res.’ 414, 691, 692, 1540) considered that fused
Hegl,, PbF,, and HgCl,, conducted without any chemical decomposition,
but Beetz (Pogg. ‘ Ann.’ 92, 185-4, p. 461) has shown that PbF, conducts
‘in a normal electrolytic way ; and J. W. Clark (‘ Phil. Mag.’ 20, 1885, p.
37) showed that there was chemical decomposition in the conduction by
the other two fused salts.
But Gladstone and Hibbert (‘B.A. Report,’ 1888, p. 347), in com-
municating to the Electrolysis Committee the results of experiments on
alloys and solid sulphides, still make use of phrases such as ‘ the conduction
was accompanied by considerable electrolysis’; ‘the conduction was
_ almost entirely non-electrolytic’ ; which would seem to imply that the
practice of distinguishing between metallic and other conduction in the
same substance is not yet entirely abandoned.
[See an extract of a paper by Barus! (‘ Electrician,’ Dec. 21, 1888, p.
199) on supposed transition from metallic conduction to electrolytic con-
_ duction in gases, on passing through the critical point of the metal; also
Lodge, ‘ B.A. Report,’ 1885, p. 767. ]
If it be allowed that the conduction of electricity into and out of an
lectrolyte is convective in the sense already explained, there will be no
' difficulty in accepting the next stage in the development of the idea, namely,
that the conduction from point to point of the liquid is similarly convec-
_ tive ; and, in fact, we arrive at the general statement that the redistribution
_of electrification, which constitutes an electric current through, or statical
charge upon the surface of, an electrolyte, is accompanied by, and indeed
consists in, the redistribution of ions carrying electric charges.
__ We may here also briefly consider the second part of Faraday’s law,
namely, that the same quantity of electricity produces in different electro-
lytes the separation of chemically equivalent amounts of ions. There is
no dorbt about the truth of the statement; it has been experimentally
tested for some cases where it has a definite meaning, and has been shown
to be true for fused and dissolved electrolytes, within the limits of error
of determination of chemical equivalents or atomic weights,” and is, indeed,
recognised as in some cases an accurate method of finding the ratio of
chemical equivalents.? But there is attaching to it whatever uncertainty
attaches to the meaning of the term ‘chemical equivalent.’ Everyone would
" American Journal of Science, Dec. 1888. 4
* Faraday, Harp. Res. 3, § 377; 7, § 783 (1833). Matteucci (Ann. de Chim. 58,
1835, p. 75). Becquerel (Ann. de Chim. 66, 1837, p. 91). Soret (Ann. de Chim. [3]
a p. 257). Renault, Ann. de Chim. [4] 11, p. 1387. Gray, Phil. Mag. 22,1836,
p. 389.
te ae
_” For silver and copper, Shaw, B.A. Rep. 1886, p. 318. For zinc, Gladstone and
Hibbert Jowrn. Chem. Soc. July 4, 1889, p. 443.
192 REPORT—1890.
admit that if there are two electrolytic cells in series containing electrolytes
AB, A’B’, Aand A’ being cations, B and B’ anions, the amounts of
A and A’ or of Band B’ deposited by the same quantity of electricity
are chemically equivalent ; but for a given electrolyte, the specification of
the ions into which it will be decomposed by the current is not always
known, or even ascertainable; moreover, there are cases in which the
elements have more than one chemical equivalent, so that it is not prae-
ticable to state this part of Faraday’s law in more definite terms than
those given above. The recent work on the subject, will be considered
in the answer to the question ‘ What are the ions ?’ in Part III. § b.
But there is no question of doubt when the electrolytes are fused or
dissolved compounds of monad elements only, and there are many other
cases of dyad and triad compounds in which the chemical equivalence of
the ions is well recognised, and in all these cases Faraday’s law in its
complete form may be applied with confidence; and the final result is that
with every monad atomic ion there is associated in electrolysis a certain
definite quantity of electricity, positive or negative’; with every dyad
atomic ion twice that amount, with every triad three times, and so on.
And in all true electrolytes, the distribution of electricity is the distribution
of these ions carrying their specific charges.
(c.) The conduction of electric currents through electrolytes follows Ohm’s
law.—It must be remembered that for metallic conductors it has been
shown by Chrystal and Saunder that if the relation between electromotive
force e and current i be represented by
e=ir(1—hi?)
then h is less than 107!*, showing that for these Ohm’s law is true
with extreme accuracy. There are certain physical laws which, although
originally discovered empirically, express as numerical relations necessary
consequences of the nature of the physical quantities referred to in the
laws. Thus Snell’s law of refraction (expressing, as is now known, the
ratio of velocities of transmission in two media) is not a law in which
one expects further experimental investigation to detect a deviation from —
accuracy. Faraday’s law is another illustrative example. The inverse
square laws, which perhaps merely express the property of transmission
in straight lines, are also laws which seem to be strictly true, and not
empirical approximations. There isa difference in character between
these and such as the gaseous laws, in which more refined apparatus and
methods detect divergences from the apparent simplicity. Now Ohm’s
law for metals, being the most accurately verified of all laws, would seem to
belong to the former class, and to be a necessary consequence of the nature
of conduction itself. J. Hopkinson? suggests that the law asserts the
principle of the superposition of the effects of electromotive forces in bodies
in which the conduction is not complicated by residual charge, and it may
therefore be regarded as a special case of the more general principle of
superposition.? He divides the continuous effect of electromotive force on
glass into four successive stages, and thinks that the same might hold if
we could experiment fast enough for an electrolyte, the principle of super-
position probably applying to all the continuously connected successive
events.
1 For the calculation of the amount of electricity on a monad atom see Lodge,
B.A. Rep. 1885; Budde, Wied. Ann. 25, p. 562, 1885.
2 Phil. Trans. 167, 1877, p. 614. 3 B.A. Rep. 1886, p. 309.
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 193
would be of great interest, for it would probably indicate an important
change in the nature of the conduction. From what has been said about
Faraday’s law we have concluded that the conduction in an electrolyte is
of the same nature for different electromotive forces, and therefore no
_ deviation from Ohm’s law is likely to be detected. Butif the nature of
_ the ions changed with increase of current we should expect the fact might
be indicated by a deviation from Ohm’s law; and, conversely, if it be pos-
sible to increase the current to such a limit that Ohm’s law no longer
holds, some change in the nature of the conduction should be looked for.
Besides gases there are some bodies which do not follow Ohm’s law. I
am under the impression that a lead-pencil mark on ground glass does not.
According to Braun,! psilomelane, iron pyrites, and copper pyrites do not,
. and, according to Quincke,? some of the liquids of high resistance—ether,
% OS,, turpentine oil, rock oil, and benzene—are disobedient for electromotive
g forces of, say, 30,000 volts and upwards. When the divergence shows itself
_ there are indications of electrolytic decomposition. Quincke also refers to
__ observations on departure from Ohm’s law in thin layers of gutta-percha,
_ sulphur, paraffin, and shellac for small electromotive forces by Schulze-
Berge,’ and to anomalous conduction observed by himself.
f The direct verification of Ohm’slaw for copper sulphate has been pushed
by Fitzgerald and Trouton® to the extent of determining, by Chrystal’s
_ method, that, for this salt, h (in the formula p. 192) is less than 3 x 10~°.
- The maximum current employed was 10 ampéres per square centimetre.
The previous verifications are by Beetz® for zinc vitriol solution, by
F. Kohlrausch’ for dilute H,SO,, for E.M.F.s from 54, to $ Grove cell
for zine vitriol solution, by Reinold® and Riicker for thin liquid films,
and by HE. Cohn® for H,SO, and CuSO, solution (in reply to a paper by
_ Overbeck !°), using currents with periods of alternation between 100 and
25000 per second.
Some additional evidence in favour of the application of Ohm’s law
_ to conduction in electrolytes is derived from the very numerous measure-
_ ments of the resistance of electrolytes. Jam not aware that any of the
_ many observers in this or other departments have suggested a variation
of resistance with current, as an explanation of differences in the numerical
_ yalues obtained for the specific resistance of the same solution, with the
exception of Kopp '! in some experiments on Joule’s law.
The one point that remains to be settled is whether any experimental
_ evidence can be found for the deduction from Maxwell’s ‘Theory of
Light’ that electrolytes, being transparent, should behave as dielectrics
for rapidly alternating electromotive forces. There are two ways of
approaching the question: (1) to find the length of the light-wave for
which electrolytes are opaque; (2) to find the rapidity of electrical
vibration for which the electrolytes cease to conduct. Nothing seems to
have been done in No. (1); as to No. (2) Prof. J. J. Thomson !” has found
' Poge. Ann. 153, 1874, p. 556; Wied. Ann. 1, 1877, p. 95; 19, 1883, p. 340.
* Wied. Ann. 28, 1886, p. 542.
* Verhandl. der Phys. Ges. zu Berlin, 14, 1, 1886, p. 90.
* Wied. Ann. 10, 1880, p. 551.
§ B.A. Rep. 1888, p. 341; 1886, p. 312; 1887, p. 345.
® Pogg. Ann. 125, 1865, p. 126; 117, 1867, prlot
d The detection of any deviation from Ohm’s law in an electrolyte
4 Thid. 138, 1869, pp. 280, 370. 8 Proc. Roy. Soc. 31, 1881, p. 524.
4 Wied. Ann. 21, 1884, p. 646. 10 Wied. Ann. 6, 1879, p, 210.
_ " Beibl. 10, 1886, p. 714. % Proc. Roy. Soc. 45, p. 288.
1890, 0)
194 REPORT—1890.
that electrolytes still conduct when the rapidity of alternation is two
hundred millions per second.
If there should be evidence to show that there is no rapidity of alter-
nation for which electrolytes behave as diclectrics and no waves so long
that electrolytes are opaque, we might take up Lodge’s ! third suggestion,
that the number of molecules actually taking part in the conduction is
too small to affect the properties of the substance in bulk, but this would
have important bearings on the theory of conduction.
(d.) The only immediate effect of the passage of the current upon the body
of a homogeneous electrolyte is to alter its temperature, and the alteration
of temperature takes place in accordance with Joule’s law.
There are two statements involved in this proposition. First, the
chemical effects take place entirely at the electrodes: although the
electricity is conveyed convectively through the electrolyte there is no
change in the physical or chemical properties of the fluid in the inter-
mediate vessel of the cell described in Part I. The electrolyte between
the anode and cathode vessel produces the electro-magnetic effect corre-
sponding to the current, but it gives no other evidence that a current is
passing ; it is the same fluid in the same condition as if no current were
passing. This amounts to asserting a negative,and by it I do not intend
to deny the possibility of some evidence of changed condition being
ultimately discovered. Reinold and Riicker found no evidence of change
of state in their films. Lord Rayleigh ? has looked for an effect upon the
power of transmitting light, but the result of his experiments is to show
that in dilute sulphuric acid a current of one ampére per square centi-
metre does not alter the velocity of light by one part in thirteen millions,
or fifteen metres per second. Ihave thought it possible that there might.
be a change in the absorption spectrum of the liquid during the passage
of the current; but the spectrum is a complicated phenomenon, and no
difference is visible in the cases I have tried. It is much to be desired
that the change, if any, in the condition of the conducting fluid should
be speedily brought to light, as the question has an important bearing on
the dissociation theory. Secondly, Joule’s law applies equally to electro- °
lytes and metallic conductors. With the acceptance of Ohm’s law, this
does not seem really to imply more than is included in the first statement
above. For if there is no change in the condition of the electrolyte, the
only expenditure of energy upon it is that required to maintain the
current, and the resistance is the amount of work required to maintain
unit current; so Joule’s law follows if the resistance is constant. If there
were any chemical cling, as Lodge calls it, of the atoms in the molecules,
the law could not be true; so if it be trne we must give up the idea of
polarisation in the interior of an electrolyte, and the idea of a finite
electric force being required to separate a molecule into ions. A number
of direct experimental verifications of Joule’s law for electrolytes have
been attempted by Joule,? by E. Becquerel,t by Jahn * for CuSO,+200
H,0 and CuSO,+150H,0 (current between ‘106 and ‘162 ampére) and
for ZnSO,+200H,0 and ZnSO,+300H,O (current strength between
°037 and ‘05 ampére), and by Kopp® for ZnSO,. In no case has any
deviation from the law been detected.
1 B.A. Rep. 1885, p. 768. 2 Thid. 1888, p. 341.
% Phil. Mag. 19, 1841, p. 274,
* Ann. de Chim. [3] 9, 1843, p. 54; see Wied. Hlec. 2, § 482-486.
5 Wied. Ann. 25, 1885, p. 49 5 Beibl. 10, 1886, p. 714.
i
SS ee aa er ee
>
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 195
The only apparent evidence against the application of Joule’s law to
electrolytes is the ‘innere Polarisation’ observed by Du Bois-Reymond.! *
This phenomenon is, however, only exhibited in heterogeneous conductors,
such as filter-paper and other porous bodies when moistened with a
bad conductor like water. It is not shown when H,SO,, KI, or KHO is
used, unless the porous body isa good conductor, as charcoal or cylinders
of stiff glue containing brass filings. It may be explained by the division
of the current between the fluid and the matrix, in the same way as the
decomposition of AgNO; in a crack in a glass partition, observed by
Grotthuss.?
For the theory of the relation between E.M.F. and difference of con-
centration of an electrolyte, see Von Helmholtz, ‘Wissensch. Abh.’ vol. 1,
. 840.
It is clear from what has been said abcve that the conduction of
electricity through the electrolyte may be considered quite separately
from the actions taking place at the electrodes. We are accordingly led
to notice two main and almost independent divisions of the subject. The
first of these relates to the transformations of energy incidental to, and
represented by, the separation of ions, the secondary actions, the thermo-
electric effects, the electromotive forces of polarisation at the electrodes.
This part may becalled the thermodynamics of electrolysis, while the second
deals with the conduction of the current through the liquid, the mecha-
nism of conduction or of resistance, and its relation to other physical
properties. In this no transformation of energy takes place but the
frictional generation of heat. The secondary actions may in time affect
the nature of the electrolyte, and the other effects at the electrode alter
the magnitude of the current; but primarily the two parts of the subject
are independent.
Parr ITI.
§ a.— What is an Electrolyte ?
_ The complete answer to this question would imply the complete solu-
tion of the problem of electrolysis, just as in the theory of light the
complete solution is the answer to the question, What is common light ?
_ Putting the question more definitely—What must be the physical
state and chemical constitution of a substance in order that the conduc-
tion of electricity through it may be attended with the decomposition of
the substance into ions appearing only at the electrodes?
In order to show that a particular substance is an electrolyte, the
chemical decomposition produced by the current must be demonstrated
either by the separation and exhibition of the products, or by the E.M.F.
of polarisation. On account of tke sensitiveness of electrical instruments,
the latter is the more delicate method; but the analogy between an
electrolyte of high resistance and a leaky condenser is so close that the
distinction between a dielectric and an electrolyte may sometimes be
difficult to draw. ,
The liquids whose conduction is undoubtedly electrolytic vary very
greatly in conductivity. To give an idea of the extent of the variation, I
have compiled a rongh table of conductivities of a number of liquids,
conductors and non-conductors (the numbers taken mainly from Wiede-
mann’s ‘ Electricitit’).
* Wied. Elec. 2, p. 780. 2 Wied. Zlec, 2, p. 783.
02
196 nEPORT—1890.
TasLe I.—Conductivities of Liquids referred to that of Mercury x 10-8 at
, OP;
[Numbers marked with an asterisk are not to be regarded as final numerical
results; they are introduced to indicate the order of magnitude of the quantities.]
Conductivity re-
Tempera-
Liquid ferred to Mercury | ture co- Observer Remarks
at 0° x 10-8 efficient
PbCl, (fused) 25,000-* — F. Braun
AgCl ia 24,000: — W. Kohlrausch | at 600°C.
NaNO, ,, 11,500°* —_— F. Braun
HNO, in water 7,330" “014 solution of maxi-
mum conduc-
tivity at 18°C.
HCl is 7,174: 0155 a
Beso) eu 6,914: 0162 =
KOH RS 5,095- 0225 ”
KI ee 4,100: 0140 From Wiede- | sp. gr. 1:70
INTEL Clin 0, 3,980: 0155 mann sen O78
AgNO, ,, 2,100: ‘0211 au es
NaCl sae 2,016: 0234 a, EZOL
KEEC OF 5; aloo: “0199 a Melb
CuSO, ,, 440: 0241 » 1208
CAMO s 55 94: “0192 solution of maxi-
mum conduc-
tivity at 18°C.
ZnCl, fused 86-* — ¥F. Braun
CaCl, in alcohol | 83° 0102 Fitzpatrick
C,H,0, in water 15:2 0174 From Wiede- | solution of maxi-
mann mum conduc-
tivity at 18° C.
HegCl, 5 391 0249 Grotrian 5 per cent. solu-
tion
HgBr, ;, ‘24 032 £ -422 per cent. so-
lution
Alcohol ‘018 018 Pfeiffer
*008* Kohlrausch
Ether (oak ut { ic
Water at 2°5 F. ‘0071 ”
5, at 14°C, “0065 035 Pfeiffer
Benzene 002* — W. i. p. 565
SnCl, ? -0000001* —
The electrolyte of highest conductivity is fused lead chloride, and by
taking solutions more and more dilute, we obtain without any breach of
continuity electrolytes of less and less conductivity down to that of pure
water or pure alcohol, and the resistance of these is of the same order as
that of benzene, and even for these and other nearly insulating liquids,
as ether and oil of turpentine, evidence of polarisation has been shown.!
It is clear, therefore, that the question of what constitutes an electro-
lyte must be considered quite apart from the specific resistance of the
substances.
_ As to the physical properties of electrolytes, the majority of them are
liquids, but there are certainly solids in which conduction is attended
with decomposition. I may refer to a diagram by W. Kohlrausch (Wied.
‘Ann.’ vol. 17, p. 642), showing his observations on the salts of silver,
1 Picker quoted by Von Helmholtz, Faraday Lecture, Jour. Chem. Soc. 39, p. 291.
o
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 197
in which the continuity of the numerical value of the conductivity of
AgI and the mixture AgCl+AglI through their fusing points is very
striking. The point of transition of AgI! from the amorphous to the
crystalline state is also interesting, and is marked on the diagram. The
conduction of these bodies below the fusing point is attended with
chemical decomposition, but whether it is wholly or only partially of
that nature is not demonstrated. The diagram also shows the results of
Hittorf’s observations on Ag,S, which is decomposed by the current
when solid; this body fuses at a red heat. Solid Cu,S was likewise shown
by Hittorf? to conduct electrolytically.
Plumbic chloride, bromide, iodide * also conduct, and glass‘ even at
low temperature. Warburg and Tegetmeier® have shown that sodium
penetrates quartz electrolytically.
But all solid compound bodies do not. conduct electrolytically ; those
in the following table conduct metallically :—
Taste II.—Compound Bodies which conduct like Metals.
Substance Observer
Cuprous selenide, Cu,Se Hittorf
Cupric sulphide, CuS 7
Stannic sulphide, SnS, PS
Argentic selenide, Ag,Se a
Lead peroxide, PbO,
Manganese dioxide, MnO, {
Argentic oxide, Ag,O
Magnetite S. P. Thompson
Hematite FP
There is also an increasing body of experimental evidence of electro-
lytic action on the passage of electricity through gases, particularly in
the neighbourhood of electric discharge. These phenomena will be con-
sidered in Part V.
There are, however, no liquids, other than pure metals and alloys,
which conduct electricity with the same facility as fused or dissolved
electrolytes without electrolytic conduction. Faraday ° considered that
fused Hel,, HgCl,, and PbF, were liquids which were capable only of
metallic conduction, but fused PbF’, has been shown to conduct electro-
lytically by Beetz,’ and electrolytic action has been proved to exist also in
the other two cases by J. W. Clark,® but it is not yet clear whether the
conduction in these cases is entirely electrolytic. If it should prove to
_ be so, conduction in liquids may prove to be, as J. J. Thomson ° suggests,
of identical nature in metals and electrolytes.
While, therefore, it would be unwise to say that whatever conduction
there may be through liquids of very high resistance is not electrolytic,
the difference in the condition and constitution of substances from which
1 See also a paper by Lehmann, Wied. Ann. 38, p. 396.
? Hittorf, Poge. Ann. 84, p. 5, 1851.
® Helmholtz, Faraday Lecture. Gross, Monatsber. der Berl. Acad. 1877, p. 500.
* Wiedemann, Jee. i. p. 558.
® Nachr. v. d. K. Ges. d. Wiss. Gottingen, May 30, 1888.
® Eup. Res. vol. 1, pp. 691, 692, 1340, and 1341.
* Pogg. Ann. vol. 92, p. 452, 1854. 8 Phil. Mag. July 1885, p. 37.
® Application of Dynamics to Physics, p. 297.
198 REPORT—1890.
arise the phenomena that one conducts freely with chemical decomposi-
tion while another is nearly a perfect insulator, still remains to be classified
and, if possible, explained. The following is a list of some liquids which
are practically insulators of electricity ':—
TABLE IIT.
Stannic chloride, SnCl, 5 5 :
Fused zinc iodide, ZnI, . : . (Faraday)
Pure water (probably) . . - (Kohlrausch)
Fused anhydrous chromic peroxide, CrO, . (Hittorf, Wied.‘ Ann.’ 4, p.374,1878)
Sulphurous anhydride, SO, : ' c
Sulphuric anhydride, SO, . :
Carbonic anhydride, CO, . A
Boracic anhydride, BO,
Arsenic anhydride, AsO,
Faraday
Confirmed by Hittorf (1.c.)
Nitrogen peroxide, N.O, . 5 : n =
20smic peroxide, OsO, ; e : . =
?Vanadic anhydride . 3 : . Hittorf lc.
Bromic iodide, BrI . a " F A Rs
Metallo-organic compounds A ; . Bleekrode, Wied. ‘Ann.’ vol. 3, p.178,
Table 5.
C.N, ®
Cs, .
C,Cl, : .
CCl, . Bleekrode, l.c., Tables 6 and 7
CCl, .
Hydrocarbons : i 2 4 ;
Haloid compounds of the alcohol radicles .
fe : ; - c ; 5 : : Gore
fathis es > ‘ : * ) Bleekrode, 1.c., Table 1
awe to By yee a Ug ec teeaicy lsc.
EeClea. : A ; : 2 —
AnhydrousHF . ; ‘ A ‘ . Moissan, ‘Beibl.’x., p. 715.
SCI". c f é “ 4 : —
SbCl, . : : 5 c , - Fi =o
SnI, . ¢ 2 5 : . ° . =
Sb,0, fused. ‘ c : : =
Antimony oxychloride 7 : 5 é =
On the other hand the following are electrolytic conductors :—
Fused MoO, : : . : : . Hittorf (1.c.)
Liquid NH, ; E : : . Bleekrode (Wied. ‘Ann.’ 3,p.161,1878)
(probably impure, Hittorf, l.c.)
3” HCN . . . . ”
Fused urea. 5 c . Dewar
Sulphides of alcohol radicles, chlorides,
bromides, iodides of the organic acid
radicles and their chlorine and bromine
substitution derivatives . 5 : . Bartoli, ‘ Beibl.’ 11, p. 160
The effect of physical state upon the insulators does not seem to affect
their conductivity. SnCl, does not conduct at its boiling-point at ordinary
pressure. According to Bartoli, benzene insulates up to the critical
temperature ; methyl alcohol conducts better and better up to the same
and from thenceforward the gas insulates.
A cursory survey of Table I. will show that the temperature co-
' See also Bartoli (Betb/. vol. 11, p. 159) on the conductivity of solutions of the
alcohols in benzene, &c.
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 199
efficients of all the electrolytes are of the same sign and of the same order
of magnitude. Probably all electrolytes have temperature coefficients of
the same sign, and this may have to be explained, but it does not help
towards classification, for some alloys! have a positive coefficient. More-
over, according to Arrhenius, the sign of the temperature coefficient may
be reversed at higher temperatures for a number of electrolytes of low
conductivity (see p. 228).
According to Kohlrausch,? electrolytes must be mixtures. This is
supported by the observations upon the effect of mixing two non-con-
ductors as H,O and HCl, which together form good conductors. And,
perhaps, we should be justified in regarding whatever conducting power
there may be in any pure sample of a single liquid as being due to the
presence of impurity. The conductivity of mixtures of water and alcohol
have been carefully investigated by Pfeiffer,’ and from his curve it
is clear that certain percentages of mixture have higher conductivity
than either water or alcohol.
If this is to be regarded as a satisfactory definition of an electrolyte,
the converse proposition, that a liquid will conduct if it be a mixture,
should also hold. That is to say, in order to make one of the liquids
‘given in Table III. conduct, all that is necessary is to mix it with some
‘other substance. Mr. W. Coldridge* has examined from this point of
view the effect of mixing various substances with SnCl,, and has found
that whereas the absorption of a small quantity of dry HCl gas produces
a liquid which has very slight conducting power and shows galvanic
polarisation, platinum chloride or chloroform can be mixed with the
tin chloride without producing any conducting power. Moreover, the
tin chloride absorbs considerable quantity of dry H.S gas, which gives a
yellow liquid insulating apparently as completely as the tin chloride
itself, and at the same time no precipitation of SnS, occurs; but the
addition of a minute quantity of water or alcohol to the mixture deter-
mines at once the precipitation of the tin sulphide and at the same time
the conduction through the liquid. There seems to be a wide field for
useful experiments in this direction, with the primary object of determining
what is the nature of the special kind of mixture which causes con-
- ductivity and what are the ions when such a conducting mixture is pro-
duced. The fact that mixture alone is not sufficient to account for
electrolytic action may be to some extent inferred from the fact that no
evidence of decomposition can be observed in the conduction of electricity
through alloys.*
Hittorf,® in his valuable survey of the history of electrolysis, maintains
the proposition ‘Electrolytes are salts’; but, p. 401, he says, ‘As from
chemical phenomena no sharp distinction can be drawn betwecn salts
and non-salts, so it is with the distinction between electrolytes and insu-
Jators.’ Hittorf’s definition of a salt’ is a compound which by double
affinity exchanges its constituents with those of another recognised
electrolyte, the ions of the respective compounds being those constituent
parts which take part in the double exchange. Upon this definition
Professor G. Wiedemann remarked at the B.A. Meeting, 1887 (‘ Report,’
1 Yon Aubel, Proc. Phil. Soc, vol. 9, p. 133.
2 Gegenwartige Anschawug, pp. 10 and 17; Pogg. Ann. 159, p. 271, 1876.
3 Wied. Ann. 25, p. 232, 1885. 4 Phil. Mag. vol. 29, p. 385, 1890.
5 See B.A. Report, 1887, p. 341. 6 Wied. Ann. 4, p. 374, 1878.
7 Pogg. Ann. 106, p. 561, § 65.
200 REPORT—1890.
p. 347), ‘ This is not generally true. First, we have certain bodies which
seem not to be decomposed by the current, though they exchange their
elements with those of other compounds which are electrolytes. Take,
for instance, anhydrous hydrochloric acid. It does not conduct. Never-
theless, as Dr. Gore has shown, if you put it upon carbonate of lime the
carbonic acid is chased away and chloride of calcium is formed. And,
to give another example, the chloride of propyle is a non-conductor;
nevertheless, when you treat it with bromide or iodide of silver the
chloride gets changed into bromide or iodide. With just reason you
may object that this is no proof, for perhaps the chloride of propyle is
only a very bad conductor, therefore the current does not pass in a sensible
way and we cannot observe the decomposition. In this respect we may
refer to the researches of Mr. Bleekrode in Holland, and Mr. Bartoli in
ltaly.
Bat, on the other side, we find well-known electrolytes exchanging
their ions with elements of other compounds which, without. any doubt,
are not their ions. So, for instance, chlor-acetic acid (CH,CICOOH) or
the ethylic ether of this acid, and iodide of potassium exchange between
each other the chlorine and iodine, though assuredly the ions of chlor-
acetic acid are not Cl and CH,COOH, but CH,CICOO and H.’ (See
also Wiedemann, ‘Elec.’ vol. 2, p. 926, and Lodge, ‘B.A. Report,’ 1885.)
If we adopt the dissociation hypothesis we may say that an electrolyte
is a substance part of which is in a state of dissociation, each dissociated
molecule being resolved into two parts, which form the ions in electrolysis.
It remains to be considered whether there is any means of finding out
(otherwise than by conductivity) whether there is any such dissociation.
The processes of chemical reaction are, however, brought by the
dissociation theory into close connection with electrolytic action, so that
Hittorf’s classification can only be distinguished from the definition based
on dissociation by the consideration that the Jatter goes a step further
and explains and accounts for Hittorf’s empirical generalisation. The
case of chlor-acetic acid and others similar are considered by Ostwald, and
cause him to extend the dissociation hypothesis in order to include them
(see below, p. 220).
There remains, therefore, the definition forming the fundamental
hypothesis of the dissociation theory, viz., that an electrolyte is a substance
which contains some compound in a state of partial or complete dissocia-
tion. It is upon this hypothesis that a great deal of recent work in
electrolysis has been based, and nearly all the observed phenomena of
electrolysis have been deduced from it. What the precise nature of the
dissociation is may not be clear. The provisional hypothesis regards the
dissociation of a compound in an aqueous solution as the resolution of
the molecules of the compound into atoms or their chemical representa-
tives which form the ions in electrolysis. Large strides have been made
towards the formation of a mechanical theory of the electrolysis of solu-
tions on this basis, some account of which will be given below. What
is still wanting for the completion of the theory, besides the explanation
of small numerical differences between calculated and observed results
and the development of its extension to include the exceptional cases
mentioned above, is the investigation of the mode in which the solvent
acts in producing the necessary dissociation without itself being appre-
ciably resolved. That may no doubt be forthcoming when the actions of
different solvents have been observed ; in the meantime it is interesting
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 201
to note that the definition of the electrolytic property by the dissociation
of the electrolyte seems applicable not only to liquids but also to solids !
and gases.”
§ b.— What are the ions in any Electrolytic Decomposition ?
In Part II., Section b, we have seen that the process of conduction
through an electrolyte consists in the motion of ions in opposite directions,
each carrying a definite charge of electricity. It is a matter of great
interest to identify the ions in any particular case, and in the years fol-
lowing Faraday’s researches in electrolysis attempts to identify ions by
the methods of chemical analysis were very numerous, and the interest
in them was increased by the fact that the results arrived at were entirely
opposed to the Berzelius theory of salts. This department of the subject
is most conspicuously represented by a series of well-known papers by
Hittorf, Pogg. ‘ Ann.’ €9 p. 177, 98 p. 1, 193 p. 1, 106 p. 337, and
p. 513 (1853-59).
The ions are deposited at the electrodes, where they are either set free
or take part in secondary actions, and the first step towards the identifica-
tion of the ions is to determine the primary chemical result of electrolysis
from the final results which are due to secondary actions. Thus when a
solution of KHO is electrolysed the obvious products set free are H and
O, but the analysis of the liquid shows that both these products are
secondary, and are due to the action of the primary products, K and HO
respectively, upon water.
In order to determine the primary results of electrolysis from the
secondary products, the division of the cell ideally represented in Part I.
has been adopted, but the simple divisions there mentioned as used by
Daniell and Miller do not serve the purpose of ideal separation; the
arrangements necessary for this purpose are described in Wiedemann’s
*Electricitit,’ 2, § 549. Hittorf’s arrangements are described in the
same volume, § 550, and an apparatus used recently by Loeb and Nernst
3 figured and described in p. 950 of vol. 2 of the ‘ Zeitschrift fiir phys.
hem.’
It might be supposed that the results of the analysis of the liquid
contained in the anode and cathode vessel respectively would give the
amount and nature of the decomposed compound, and the amount and
nature of each of the products, and hence that the ions would be statistically
determinate ; that is, without giving any information as to whether all the
ions were of the same kind or not, a result would be obtained which
would strictly represent the average process. According to the general
view, however, chemical analysis fails to give this conclusive evidence,
the original electrolytic process being complicated by electric endosmose,
and the unequal dilution in solutions, mentioned in Part I. (6) (c), as
the following example will show :—
In the electrolysis of a solution of copper sulphate containing
3793 grammes of copper in 100 c.c. of solution, while one gramme
equivalent (4 Cu) of copper is being deposited in the cathode, the total
gain of copper in the cathode vessel, taking account both of the
deposited and the still dissolved metal, is *75 of an equivalent, and
» Van ’t Hoff, ‘Ueber feste Lésungen und Moleculargewichtsbestimmung an
festen Kérpern,’ Zeitschr. fiir ph. Chem. 6, p. 322, 1890.
2 J. J. Thomson, Phil. Mag. 358, 1890.
202 REPORT—1890.
the volume of the liquid in the cathode vessel increases by 11°09 x37 c.c.,!
so that the amount of water transferred is 11:09 x 37 x ‘9/18 gramme mole-
cules. If we trust to the results of the chemical analysis solely to
identify the ions we must assume that the molecule decomposed is of a
complex nature, so that the decomposition takes place according to the
following scheme :—
Cum(CuSO,)n(H,0); SO, m! (CuS0,) n! (H,0).
If now we assume that of the molecules decomposed equal numbers are
taken from the anode and cathode vessels, we can arrange the gains and
losses as follows :—
Cathode vessel (1 gramme equivalent of copper deposited).
Loss. + gramme molecule decomposed.
1.6.5 +2 (l4+m+m’')Cu
and + (n+n’)H,O.
can 2 gramme molecule of the cation.
0, y Cam (CuSO,) » (Hs O)
t. eo, 3 + (m+1)Cu
4 n H,O.
Hence the net gain of Cu is—
4 A+m—-m')Cu='75x3Cu. . . 2 @
whence
m— ne! ="5
and the net gain of water
ingle \H,0=5— B7EEO.)) Jar ya beellltieel
n—n' =2'2 x37.
Hven on this supposition, therefore, the chemical analysis would not
completely determine the average composition of the molecules decom-
posed ; only the differences (1—m/’) and (n—w’) are determinable. We
can, however, assign a formula to the simplest molecule that would give
the observed result by assuming that the lesser of the two m, m’ and of
a, v respectively are zero; thus in the case above, assuming that m/=0
and n’=0, we get m='5 and n=81°4.
The average molecule in this case would be approximately ?
Cu, 1(CuS0,), He 0/80,
or getting rid of fractions
Cu,(CuS0,)163H,O/(SO,4)o.
This indicates the extent to which the inferences from chemical analysis
could be pushed. It is evident on reference to the table given in Wiede-
mann, 2, p. 592, that the average molecule would be different for different
degrees of dilution which would alter the numbers on the right-hand side
of ‘equations (1) and (2). It appears from the table referred to, that if
1 Wied. Hilec. 2, p. 592.
2 In a paper in the Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. (Nov. 1889) the complex molecule is
erroneously calculated in consequence of my having misunderstood Wiedemann’s
data,
%
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 203
the alteration due to the increase of volumes in the cathode vessel be
separately allowed for, the decomposed molecules for different strengths of
solution would come out very nearly the same, and hence a great simplifi-
cation would result. This view, to some extent on the ground of the
probable identity of ions in solutions of different strengths, is in fact
adopted, and the change of volumes regarded as a separate phenomenon
due to the diaphragm and called electric endosmose. Separating this we
get for the decomposed molecule
Cu,(CuSO,)/(SO4)2;
in other words, the complex molecule decomposed consists of an aggre-
gate of CuSO, molecules of which the electrolysis separates a portion only
of the constituent atoms.
But further, the nature of the decomposed molecule would still be
somewhat different for different degrees of dilution, for the dilution of the
liquid round the cathode only becomes constant when the degree of dilu-
tion passes a certain limit. However, this also can be explained on the
assumption of the simplest possible molecular decomposition, that of
CuSO, into Cu and SOQ,, by attributing the alteration with the concentra-
tion of solution to the migration of molecules of salt through the solution
produced by the motion of the ions with unequal velocities. A separate
section is devoted to this theory, so that it will suffice here to point out
that its introduction reduces the electrolysis to the simplest possible form,
namely, the resolution of a single molecule (CuSO,) into atoms or their
equivalents, viz., Cuand SO,. As this is the hypothesis upon which the
dissociation theory is based, but little objection arises on that score, but it
should be borne in mind that although this resolution into atoms or
atomic equivalents is the simplest possible, and has not met any facts that
it is definitely incompetent to explain, yet it is only one of many more com-
plex arrangements that might be suggested, and it is not yet clear by any
crucial experiment whether simplicity or complexity is the rule observed
by nature in the process of electrolysis. The following paragraph suggests
one reason in favour of complexity.
The phenomena that are exhibited in a battery cell, consisting of
electrodes of different nature in a liquid or in two liquids, are paralleled
by corresponding phenomena exhibited with two similar electrodes in
solutions of different strengths. The electromotive force of polarisation
in the first case is represented in the second by an electromotive force
resisting or promoting the alteration of strength of solution; and the
heat of chemical action at the electrodes, part of which goes to produce
the electromotive force, is represented by the heating effect of dilution of
the solution.! There seems, on the ground here mentioned, reason for
thinking that, in solutions which are not infinitely dilute at any rate, the
migration of the ions may be a part of the primary electrolytic process,
and indicate a corresponding complexity of the ions.
It may further be remarked that Bouty classifies salts into normal and
abnormal ones. Those of the former class tend to closer equality of
molecular conductivity in extreme dilution, and they are characterised by
having a migration constant equal to ‘5 for each ion, that is to say, they
produce no alteration of concentration in the two vessels, or the decom-
posed molecule as directly determined by chemical analysis is a simple
1 See papers by Moser, Wied. Ann. 3, p. 216, 1878.
204 REPORT—1890.
one, or at least the same number of molecules of the salt are attached to
the anion and cation respectively.
There is a certain amount of evidence for the existence of molecular
aggregates in electrolytic solutions. Dr. E. Wiedemann (‘B.A. Report,’
1887, p. 346) has examined the conductivity of copper-chloride solution
at different temperatures from this point of view. The solution is
specially interesting, because it changes colour with temperature, and the
colour change is probably due to a change in the state of hydration. The
conductivity increases nearly at a constant rate up to 60°, and beyond this
point the rate rapidly diminishes, and therefore indicates that the con-
ductivity of salts varies with their degree of hydration.
Helmholtz (Faraday Lecture, p. 289) says that it is possible that the
majority of molecules in SO,H, may be divided into SO, and H,, some of
them on the other hand into SO,H and H. This would account for an
alteration in the apparent velocity of hydrogen at different concentra-
tions, for in the latter case some of the hydrogen would be carried
backwards.
Bouty,! also discussing the conduction of H,SO,, says, ‘One does not
see how to explain a variation of this kind except by a change in the
nature of the electrolyte (i.e. of the dissolved hydrate).’ By making the
hypothesis which Bourgoin made, that the hydrate really decomposed by
the current was S,0,6H,O, Bouty considers that the anomaly of electro-
lysis, as expressed by Hittorf’s values of », and also that of conductivity, is
explained. Hydrochloric acid is in much the same condition as sul-
phuric acid ; it conducts as if its molecules contained three equivalents
of basic hydrogen. Other remarks of a similar bearing might also be
quoted.”
The electrolysis of strong solutions of CdI, in alcohol has been ac-
cepted on all sides as involving the decomposition of complex molecules.
Moreover, Arrhenius, in a letter to Lodge (May 17, 1886), ‘ British
Association Report,’ 1886, p. 311, suggests the formation of double mole-
cules and treble molecules in concentrated solutions.
Crompton 3 has sought to prove the relation between hydrates existing
in sulphuric acid and the conductivity of solutions by plotting the second
differentials of the conductivity-concentration curves, and obtaining the
result as a series of straight lines. The line of argument is that taken by
Mendeleef in discussing the hydrates of alcohol and sulphuric acid by
plotting the first differential of the density-concentration curves, but it
is pushed a stage further. The method, however, is a somewhat uncertain
one, and has been called in question. See Pickering ‘ Zeitschr. fiir phys.
Chem.’ vol. vi. p. 10, also ‘Chem. Soc. Journ.’ 1890, p. 64. It is liable
to represent in a foreshortened way small irregularities of the original
curves, which may, indeed, have a corresponding experimental basis ;
they may also depend merely upon errors of plotting of the original
curve.
Whatever evidence there may be for the existence of aggregates in
comparatively strong solutions affecting the conductivity, it must be re-
membered that it is not clear that the electricity is carried by the aggre-
gates. Itis possible that the solution may contain a number of dissociated
1 Ann. de Chim. [6] 3, p. 481, 1884.
? See for instance Bouty, C.R. 104, p. 1789, 1887; and especially for the electro-
lysis of cadmium salts, see Werschoven, Zeitschr. f. ph. Chem. vol. 5, p. 481.
3 Jour. Chem. Soc. 53, p. 116, 1888.
j ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CUEMISTRY. 205
»
_ molecules as well as molecular aggregates, and that while the colour of the
solution and a number of other properties depend upon the latter, the
electricity may be conveyed by the former alone. It might even be sug-
gested that if the temperature coefficient of absorption of a coloured
solution were determined, it would be found to be closely related to the
temperature coefficient of conductivity, and when allowance was made
for the change of viscosity it might furnish the temperature coefficient
of dissociation.
An interesting point in connection with the determination of the
ions is the question whether the ious are all of one kind in an electrolytic
_ solution; in other words, whether the water conducts, or all the current
_ is carried by the molecules of the dissolved salt. If an electrolyte be a
_ mixture, as of HCl and H,O, do both compounds take a share in the
conduction, or one only? Lodge (‘ Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1885) argued
strongly in favour of a division of the conductivity between salt and
solvent, and founded a theory of migration on that hypothesis; but the
experimental evidence seems to have left the subject in the following
state.! It is possible to obtain water with a very high degree of insulat-
ing power, but, when it is pushed to the extreme limit, it is impossible
to tell whether the conduction is due to water molecules or undetected
impurity. Indilute solutions the increase of conductivity which is con-
ferred upon the water by the addition of a small quantity of salt is due to
the added salt alone, and the conductivity of a dilute solution containing
the added salt may be deduced from the observed conductivity of the
solution by subtracting the conductivity of the water of which the solu-
tion was made; in other words, conductivity by water molecules forms
no part of the added conductivity due to the salt.2 Thus water is
regarded as a body of a special kind, which dissociates other salts and
makes them conduct, but itself carries the current to no appreciable
extent.
The resulting chemical products are certainly different for different
values of the current density. Ifa dilute solution of copper sulphate be
subjected to electrolysis under the effect of a very high electromotive
force, bubbles of hydrogen speedily make their appearance at the cathode,
and it has been supposed that there is a limiting value of the current
density beyond which the current ceases to traverse the salt solely, and
an appreciable amount passes through the water. C. L. Weber, ‘ Zeitschr.
fiir phys. Chem.’ vol. 4, p. 182, 1889, has employed this phenomenon to
determine the absolute velocity of the ions. Itmay, however, be explained
by the continued impoverishment of the solution in the neighbourhood
of the cathode ; and, in fact, if the electrolysis be continued for some
time between platinum electrodes, the whole of the copper may be
abstracted from the solution.
Ihave tried myself to ascertain whether the water took part in the
conduction, by interposing a very dilute solution of copper sulphate
between two much stronger ones, so that, if the water conducted, a layer
of copper hydrate would be formed at the junction between the strong
! The discussion has been somewhat lengthy. Finally Kohlrausch has admitted
that an experiment of Faraday’s may possibly be explained satisfactorily by attri-
buting a minute conductivity to the solvent. See Wied. Hlec. 2, § 583; Kohlrausch,
aie 26, p. 161; Arrhenius, Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1886, p. 311; Hermann, Beidl.
xi. p. 831.
* F. Kohlrausch, Wied. Ann. 26, p. 190.
206 REPORT— 1890.
anode solution and the dilute solution. But I found that with the electro-
motive force at my disposal (50 volts) I was unable to determine any
such layer of hydrate. The experiments were, however, not conclusive,
for the hydrate is to a certain extent soluble in copper sulphate; over-
looking this defect, the dilution seemed so to diminish the current as to
make it weak enough for the sulphate molecules to carry it.
The rough agreement of Weber’s results with the values of ionic
velocities deduced by other methods is inconclusive, for the impoverish-
ment of the solution would be itself dependent upon the ionic velocities,
and hence the results deduced from the limit of current density would
depend on the velocities—directly, upon the one hypothesis, and indirectly,
upon the other.
Summing up the results of this section, so far as regards a fused
electrolyte or the solution of a single salt, we may say that the ions have
hitherto been determined from the results of the chemical analysis of the
liquid in the anode and cathode vessel, with the tacit understanding that
the electrolysis shall be regarded as that due to the resolution of single
molecules into ions which are atoms, or their chemical representative
radicles, unless the observations are such as to make such a view entirely
untenable, even when the dilution is referred to unequal motion of the
ions and not to complex molecular decomposition. Thus every chemical
determination of the ions should imply a determination of the constant of
migration; and when the dilution at one electrode is so rapid that to
apply the hypothesis of unequal ionic motion successfully would require
us to assume the velocity of one ion to be negative, that is, that the ion
would have to be moved against the electrical forces acting upon it,' then
the decomposed molecule may be regarded as compound; one ion is
assumed to have associated with it one or more molecules, as may be
necessary, of undecomposed salt. Thus a critical consideration of the
ions in electrolysis leads us to the question of the migration of ions.
There are, however, cases in which the ions corresponding to the simple
molecular decomposition can be comparatively easily inferred. The
results of a number of determinations of ions are given in the table on
the next page (Table IV.).
A confirmation of the results obtained may be derived from the
electrolysis of solutions in series, in which case the anion of one solution
combines with the cation of the adjacent one. The results exhibited in
the table show the amounts of the respective ions corresponding to the
deposition of one equivalent of hydrogen in a voltameter, so that they
may be also regarded as showing the application of the second part of
Faraday’s law.
One warning must be given about such determinations. In order to
determine both the ions, both the anode and cathode vessel must be
separately analysed. The analysis of one alone is not sufficient. For a
salt such as Na,;PO, may be decomposed by solution into NaH,PO, and
Na,HPO,, and the electrolysis be different from what it would be if the
deposition of Na were established, and the second ion inferred from the
composition of the original salt. I do not think that all the results
quoted in the table have been subjected to minute criticism from the
1 The force upon an atom or group of atoms carrying a charge +e would be
av
“da
the direction towards the cathode.
dV
» when Te. is the slope of potential per unit of length from anode to cathode, in
ON
ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 207
Taste [V.—lIonsas deduced from the Results of Chemical Analysis, referred,
if possible, to the Resolution of a simple Molecule into Atoms or their
Chemical Iepresentatives.
Electrolyte
KHO
SiO,
As, Ss
Cu,C
Al,Cl, ReCl
MoO,
K,Cr,0,
H,SO,
Hel,
HNa,PO,
Na,PtCl,
K,CdI,
2
KHO
Morphin
H,C,0,
Sn(Cl,
AgCl
FeCl,
Cu,Cl,
SbCl,
SbCl,
Cu,0
CuO
Cu,8,0,
CuN,0,
2PbNO wH, O
4PbNO,,3PbH, O
Solvent
In NH, solutn.
In water
In HCl
Fused
In NH, solutn.
”
In water
Anion
HO
s
Cl
AICI, + Cl
MoO,
CrO,+30
3(80,)
3(C,0,) (not
isich? £-F1aIa) 4
Cation
Authority
3(Hg,I,) ?
Na?
H+C,,H,,NO,
H
Janeczek, ‘ Wied.’
$ 580
§ 581
581
Buff, ‘Wied.’ § 582
Buff and Hittorf,
‘Wied.’ § 582
‘Wied.’§ 608; Gee
& Holden, ‘ Proc.
Phys. Soc.’ May
26, 1888
Clark, ‘ Phil. Mag.’
July 1885, p. 37
Daniell & Miller,
Hittorf, ‘ Wied.’
p. 532
” ”
2? See Ostwald,
‘Zeitschr. fiir
phys. Chem.’
Daniell and Miller
Hittorf, Wied.
‘Ann,’vol.4,p.374,
Berthelot, ‘Wied.’
p. 540
‘Wied.’ p. 542
‘ Wied.’ p. 925
” ”
Becquerel, Wied.
Elec.’ § 601
208 rEerortT—1890.
point of view here indicated. The table is, in fact, merely a summary ot
results as quoted by Wiedemann (‘ Elec.’ vol. 2), and represents the ions
as indicated by the older experiments in electrolysis. The subject has
not been specifically dealt with recently, but the modern work bearing
on it will be brought under review in the section on the migration of
ions.
It must further be remembered ! that in the case of acids (where one
of the ions is hydrogen) it is not possible by quantitative analysis to draw
a distinction between the resultant effect of the motion of the positive ion
and the deposition on the electrode. The whole result of the electrolysis,
as far as the cathode vessel is concerned, is to develop a certain amount
of hydrogen, and possibly increase or diminish the amount of free acid.
Hence the distinction between primary and secondary development of the
hydrogen fails.
Some light might be thrown on the problem of the identification of
the ions by the consideration of the heat-equivalents of the chemical
action at the electrodes which should, if thoroughly understood, furnish
evidence of distinction between the primary results of electrolysis and the
secondary effects at the electrodes. I have already alluded to one case,
namely, that of the representation of the heat-equivalent of the dilu-
tion of a solution as an electromotive force, being possibly evidence of
the complexity of the ions; but taking the evidence that I have been able
to consult and arrange, it does not appear that the thermodynamic theory
of electromotive force is sufficiently far advanced for it to be used with
confidence as a means of determining the ions in electrolysis.
We pass on now to the consideration of the ions in mixed solutions. In
this case the substances set free at the electrodes are more liable to be
due to secondary actions than in the case of a solution of a single salt, so
that for some time it was supposed that the ions depended on the current
density. An accouut of the earlier observations on this subject is given
in Wiedemann, ‘Elec.’ 2, p. 593, from which it appears that at all current
densities the current is divided between the two dissolved salts, but the
ions due to one of them react upon the solution, and thus is explained the
actual appearance of only one set of ions.
Of recent work we may refer to 8. P. Thompson’s paper on the Hlec-
tro-Deposition of Alloys (‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’ 1887, p. 387), and to a paper
by Arrhenius on Isohydric Solutions (Wied. ‘ Ann.’ vol. 30, p. 51, 1887,
and ‘ British Association Rep.’ 1886, p. 315).
By this latter paper we may infer (from the fact that the conductivities
of certain mixtures are the sum of what would be the conductivity of
each if the other were removed) that the presence of the one salt in solu-
tion does not affect the partial conductivity of another salt in the same
solvent, provided that the concentrations are of certain values, and hence
that the two salts are resolved into ions independently. Salt solutions
which are of such concentration that, when mixed, the conductivities may
be regarded as the algebraic sum of the conductivities of each salt
separately, are called by Arrhenius isohydric solutions. And the general
law is established that solutions which are isohydric with the same solu-
tion are isohydric with each other, and thus a table of isohydric solutions
formed. Bender, in two papers, Wied. ‘ Ann.’ 22, p. 179, 1884, and
Wied. ‘ Ann.’ 31, p. 872, 1887, publishes the results of a number of
1 Hittorf, Wied. Ann. 4, p. 410, 1878.
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 209
observations on mixed solutions, but the results are not arranged in the
same form as those of Arrhenius, and the isohydric law is at any rate not
apparent. (See also Ewing and Macgregor for resistances of mixtures of
ZnSO, and CuSO, solutions, ‘Trans. R.S.E.’ 27, p. 51, 1873, and Bonty,
*C.R.’ 104, p. 1699, 1887, ‘ Beibl.’ 11, p. €50.) Bouchotte, Paalzow, and
Klein are also referred to by Arrhenius.
§ c.—The Williamson-Olausius Hypothesis.
We have seen in Part II. } (p. 189) that the transfer of electricity
_ through an electrolyte is convective. If we consider, on the well-known
hypothesis of Grotthuss, a chain of molecules of the electrolyte connecting
the anode and cathode, the separation of an ion of each kind at the two
electrodes respectively is associated with the simultaneous interchange
of partners throughout the whole length of the chain. This assumption
is sufficiently natural, for if the molecule at one end of the chain, at the
anode suppose, be the one decomposed by the current, the anion remains
at the anode, but the other part of the molecule, the cation, has to appear
at the cathode, so far as we know, simultaneously. Now, on the assump-
tion mentioned above, the time required for the transfer will’ be the same
for long chains as for short ones (since every pair of ions into which the
molecules are resolved will be under the action of equal separating
forces), and is merely the time required for the separated ions to pass
over the distance intervening between a single pair of molecules, and may
well therefore be too small for measurement.
| The interchange of ions between molecules has indeed long been an
accepted notion in electrolysis, and requires no defence. And from the
fact that the smallest electromotive force produces a current through an
_ electrolyte, and that the physical properties of the liquid are, so. far as we-
know, identical in every respect, when conducting the current and when.
not, if also seems natural to suppose that the interchange of ions between:
the molecules of an electrolyte is constantly going on whether a current.
is flowing or not, but that the direction of the interchange is fortuitous.
The idea of the dissociation and reformation of molecules constituting a.
dynamical equilibrium of a chemical compound was originally suggested
by Williamson! to account for etherification, and the explanation of
electrolytic action by the same idea is due to Clausius,? who suggested
that the effect of electromotive force was to determine the direction of
the average motion of the respective ions, and not itself to produce the
dissociation and recombination.
It would follow that the work required to produce electrolytic decom-
position is wholly spent in setting free the ions at the electrodes.
Whatever representation may be made of the state of the molecules:
of an electrolyte when no current is passing, it must be so arranged as to
take account of the fact that when a current passes the dissociation and
recombination are attended with the development of a quantity of heat in
accordance with Joule’s law ; whereas when no current passes no heat is
developed ; and the mere irregularity of direction of motion would not
dispose of the heat production because that is independent of the direction
of current and depends merely on the magnitude. Professor Fitzgerald
1 Liebig’s Annalen d. Chem. u. Pharm. vol. 1, p. 37, 1851.
2 Pogg. Ann. 101, p. 338, 1857. ;
1890. P
210 REPORT—1890.
has remarked that the motion under an E.M.F. is constrained, whereas the
motion without E.M.F. is free ; and the difference of the two cases with
respect to the energy required is thus explained.
Many of the observed phenomena of electrolysis are most easily
explained on the assumption of a permanent dissociation of at least a
portion of the electrolyte into component parts which become ‘ions’ (i.e.
move with the positive and negative electricity respectively) when an
electromotive force acts upon the electrolyte. If we may picture to our-
selves the whole number of molecules taking part in dissociation and
frictionless recombination, being combined molecuies for a certain fraction
of every instant and dissociated ‘ions’! for the remainder, the average re-
sult for the whole electrolyte will be the same as if the same fraction of
the whole number of molecules were permanently combined, the remainder
being permanently dissociated. There does not seem to be any experi-
mental method of distinguishing between these two alternatives, and in
default of experimental evidence for the one or other we may provision-
ally adopt whichever we please. But it.may be well to accentuate here
what Arrhenius (‘Zeitschr. f. phys. Chemie,’ i. p. 638) has already men-
tioned, namely, that the term ‘ dissociation,’ as here used, is liable to be
misunderstood and confounded with the same term as applied, for instance,
to the resolution of an armmonium salt into two separate bodies at a high
temperature. As referring to electrolysis, dissociation means the separa-
tion of a molecule into atoms or their equivalents, and would only corre-
spond to ordinary dissociation if atoms of the same kind were collected
and set free from the liquid. Thus one need not expect a solution of KCl,
even though all the salt were dissociated into K and Cl atoms, to smell
of chlorine until one has done the work necessary to accumulate the
electrified chlorine atoms and produce molecular chlorine; in other
words, until the solution has been electrolysed. Free chlorine and dis-
sociated chlorine ions are not by any means to be regarded as identical
in physical state. In the electrolytic sense the conception of dissociation
is new to science, and the numerical results obtained from its use are the
more startling, as those compounds which we have been accustomed to
regard as most capable of resisting dissociation in the ordinary sense are
precisely those which are electrolytically most completely dissociated.”
Quite recently the dissociation theory has been put in such a form as
renders it possible to express numerically the fraction of the whole
number of molecules which are dissociated in the formation of an electro-
lyte by solution of a salt in water. The first development of the theory
is mainly due to Arrhenius. In Part II. of a memoir? presented to the
Academy of Sciences of Sweden, June 6, 1883, on the ‘ Chemical Theory
of Electrolytes,’ he explains the action of a very large number of chemical
changes in solutions on the assumption of a coefficient of activity for
each acid or base, representing the ratio of the number of active or dis-
sociated molecules to the whole number of molecules of salt in the
solution, the action of the solvent being assumed to be merely to dissociate
the salt to a greater or less extent. This ratio is taken to be identical
* Mr. J. Brown takes exception to the use of the word in this sense. It avoids
circumlocution, however, and stands for ‘ those parts of a molecule which would
become ions if an E.M.F. acted.’ A new name might be found for them if necessary.
* See Armstrong, Electrician, Aug. 26, 1887, and on the other side Ostwald,
Zeitschr. fiir phys. Chem. ii. p. 270 (1888).
* See B.A. Report, 1886, p. 357.
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 211
with, or numerically expressed by, the ratio of the molecular conductivity
of the solution to the molecular conductivity of an infinitely dilute solution
of the same compound, in which all molecules are probably dissociated.
The explanation of chemical phenomena thus given is sufficiently well
established to indicate some relation, at any rate, between conductivity
and chemical activity, but a more direct comparison may be made between
conductivity and dissociation as measured indirectly on the basis of
Van ’t Hoft’s theory of the effects of osmotic pressure.! On Van’t Hoff’s
theory the osmotic pressure of a salt in solution at a given temperature
depends upon the number of molecules contained in a given volume
irrespective of the weight of the individual molecules; so that if the
osmotic pressure be regarded as corresponding to gaseous pressure,
Avogadro’s law holds for salts in solution as well as gases. Van’t Hoff
verified this law for a number of bodies, leaving, however, a number of
exceptions, and Arrhenius has shown that the exceptions may in general
be quite satisfactorily explained by supposing that the effective number
of the molecules is increased by the dissociation of some into ions, and
the fraction of the whole number that must be supposed dissociated in
order to account for the exceptional osmotic pressure is, within very small
limits of difference, the same as the dissociation ratio—that is, the frac-
tion of the whole number required to be dissociated in order to account
for the conductivity on the dissociation hypothesis; or, to express the
fraction free from hypothesis, it is the fraction represented by the ratio of
the molecular conductivity of a given salt-solution to the limiting value of
the molecular conductivity of the salt when the dilution is indefinitely
great. Let a represent this ‘ dissociation ratio,’ or coefficient of activity,
as it is termed by Arrhenius, which can be determined from measure-
ments of conductivity at different degrees of dilution.? Let m be the
number of inactive, or undissociated, molecules in unit volume of solution,
an the number of active molecules, each of which we may suppose dis-
sociated into & ions (e.g., for KCl, s=2; for BaCl,, or K,SO,, k=3, and
so on); then, assuming that each separate ion is as effective as regards
osmotic pressure as each combined molecule, the osmotic pressure will be
the same as if the whole number of molecules were m+n; the ratio 7 of
this number to the whole number of original molecules is (m+n) /(m+n),
whereas a=n/(m+n). Whence i=1+(k—L)a. On the other hand, the
osmotic pressure, and consequently the number of effective molecules in
unit volume, can be determined on Van’t Hoff’s theory by observing the
depressions of the freezing-point of water, as Raoult has done in many
cases, produced by the solution of one gramme-molecule of salt in a litre.
Thus the normal ® depression of the freezing-point for one gramme-mole-
eule of salt when there is no dissociation is 1°85° C., so that if ¢ be an
observed depression of the freezing-point for a gramme-molecule of
' Van ’t Hoff, Zeitschr. fiir ph. Ch. i. p. 481, 1887. ‘Trans.’ by Ramsay, in Phil.
Mag. ser. 5, 26, p. 81,1888. Arrhenius, Zeitschr. fiir ph. Ch. i. p. 631, 1887. B.A.
Rep. 1887.
? The molecular conductivity for infinite dilution may be arrived at by plotting a
curve with the number of gramme-molecules per litre of solutions of different con-
centration as abscisse and the molecular conductivities (i.e. conductivity + number
of gramme-molecules per litre) as ordinates, and continuing the curve until it meets
the line of no concentration. (See Kohlrausch, Wied. Ann. vol. 26.)
* For an account of the application of the depression of the freezing-point to the
examination of the molecular constitution of dilute solutions, see also Planck,
Leitschr. fiir phys. Chem. i. p. 577 (1887) ; Wied. Ann. vol. 32, p. 499.
P2
212 REPORT—1890.
electrolyte, ¢/1°85 is the ratio of the number of molecules in unit volume
of electrolyte to what would be the number in unit volume if there were
no dissociation. Hence <=¢/1°'85.
These molecular depressions of the freezing-point have been deter-
mined by Raoult by observing the effect of the dissolution of one gramme
of the salt in one litre of water. Hence, if the conductivity of the solu-
tion of the same strength be known, we have two independent methods of
determining 7, one of which comes from conductivity measurements and
the other from thermal measurements, based on the assumption of dis-
sociation. The results are given in a table (‘ Zeitschr.’ vol. 1, p. 634).
The numbers in the column based on conductivities are calculated from
Ostwald for acids and bases, from Kohlrausch for most salts, but some
also from Long, Grotrian, Klein, and Ostwald. For the better conduct-
ing salts the figures may be 10 or 15 per cent. in error, interpolation and
extrapolation having to be used. For worse conducting salts the possible
error is smaller, and for acids and bases at the most 5 percent. ‘Of
the accuracy of Raoult’s numbers I am not sure; an error of 5 or 10 per
cent. seems likely.’! The conductivity was measured at 18° C., or 25° C.,
and the lowering of the freezing-point at about 0° C. Considering all
this, the numbers seem fairly accordant with certain exceptions,’ of
1 Arrhenius, ‘B.A. Electrolysis Committee Sixth Circular,’ Zeitschr. 1, p. 636.
‘2 In a subsequent communication to Zeitschr. f. ph. Chem. ii. p. 491, Arrhenius:
returns to the consideration of the comparison of the numbers and determines the
freezing-point depressions, and so redetermines the values of 7. The results are
contained in the following table :—
TABLE V.—Table of Comparisons of observed and calculated Values of Freezing-
point Depression in Aqueous Solutions.
(From Arrhenius, ‘ Zeitschr. fiir ph. Chem.’ vol. 2.)
32 138 |e |A 53. Alld
ga) (ga be Meee) se |eperl eae lean
Substance Dissolved gs 250/28 Sy (Sou E02 33 | Be lipins
fo lege |2s [gei2 i (BeVio* jeg
Pe je2 (88 IS&, |. less as
3 & oe) amy = hee S =
A.—NON-CONDUCTORS
0:319 | 0-100 | 0:184| 1:84 | 0:97 -,
1. Methylalcohol. 0638 |0:200 | 0°356| 1:78 | 0-94 3
CH,OH 151 | 0-485 | 0-886] 1:82 | 696 5
3°00 |0:97 | 1:831] 1:89 | 1:00 2
0°575 |0:125 | 0-229] 1-83 | 0:97 fo)
2, Ethylalcohol 1:44 |0:313'| 0-591] 1-89 | 1-00 ‘=
C,H,OH 285 |0°62 | 1:185| 1:91 | 1-01 =
570 |1:24 | 2-456] 1:98 | 1:05 =
0°61 | 0-102 | 0:196| 1:93 | 1:02 =
3. Propylalcohol 153 | 0-255 | 0-479| 1:88 | 1:00 |\, iS.
C,H,OH 3°83 | 0°638 | 1:202| 1:89 | 1-00 e
6:37 |1:06 | 2:065| 1:95 | 1-03 5
0°61 | 0-102 | 0:193| 1-90 | 1-00 g
4, Isopropylalcohol 152 | 0-253 | 0-476; 1:88 | 1:00 a
C,H,OH 3:79 | 0631 | 1:212| 1:92 | 1-01 =
6:32 | 1-053 | 2:095| 1:99 | 1-05 be
0:91 | 0123 | 0-249] 2:02 | 1:07 §
5. Isobutylalcohol 2-28 | 0-308 | 0°591| 1:92 | 1:02 s
0,H,OH 5°71 | 0-771 | 1-484] 1:92 | 1-02 i)
9°52 |1:29 | 2:60 | 2:02 | 1:07 5 L
=
i eel
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 213
which two are from older observations by Riidorff. The behaviour of
one of the exceptions—H,SiF,—is explicable by its partial dissocia-
TABLE OF COMPARISONS—continued.
a) , ne i re a) "|
| we 3s oe ja~ |g lee Bal
Sa = oe HE S| Po |B) 0.27 r iS)
; Substance Dissolved 2S ZE> B Sirs 230 5° = ot = | ¥
| Go les [as [ee'l6 8 \egh| * |e 8
pa [ae |€f lg™ | [see os
| Ga © x 5 3
oy ye
| NON-CONDUCTORS— cont.
| 987 |0-118 | 0-22 | 1:87 | 0:99
6. Ethylether 1:74 |0-235 | 0-42 | 1-79 | 0-95
(CH,),0 287 |0-388 | 0-73 | 1-88 | 1-00
5-74 |0-776 | 1:61 | 1:95 | 1-03
0-952 |0-101 | 0-183| 1-81 | 0-96
2-029 | 0-216 | 0-392| 1:82 | 0-96
7. Phenol C,H;0OH 4) 3.397 10:36 | 0-639| 1-78 |-0-94
5244 | 0-558 | 0:967| 1-75 | 0:93
a 1-016 |0-109 | 0-210] 1:92 | 1-02
8, Aniline C.HSNH; {| 954° |0.273 | o-499| 1-83 | -97
. qi * 19 . :
erence |.) Too lores |osial tes | tos
B(OH), (I. 1-706 |0-274 | 0-532/ 1-93 | 1-02
0:702 | 0-119 | 0-233| 1-96 | 1-04
10. Acetamide }| 1-756 |0-297 | 0-568] 1-91 | 1-01
CH,CONH. 439 |0-744 | 1-423| 1-91 | 1-01
3 Z
7°32 | 1-240 | 2-492| 1-95 | 1-03
| 0622 | 0-104 | 0-209] 2:02 | 1-07
}) 1555 |0-259 | 0-493] 1:90 | 1-01
11. CO(NH;), 3887 |0-648 | 1-219] 1:88 | 0-99
| 6°478 |1:080 | 2°018} 1:87 | 0-99
1:759 |0:106 | 0°218| 2:05 | 1:08
1
2, Chloral hydrate |) 4°397 | 0:266 | 0°525|] 1-98 | 1-05
€,Cl,H(OH), /10°99 | 0°664 | 1°355} 2-04 | 1:08 | \1
18°32 |1:107 | 2°378| 2:15 | 1:13
214 |0:0716) 0:137; 1:91 | 1:01
13. Bromal hydrate || 5°34 |0:179 | 0°335| 1:87 | 0-99
C,Br,H(OH), 13°36 |0-447 | 0829) 1:86 | 0-98
22°26 | 0-745 | 1:377| 1:85 | 0-98
1346 | 0-146 | 0:287| 1:96 | 1-04
234 | 0-254 | 0-492] 1:93 | 1-02
4°80 |0:522 | 1:061| 2:03 | 1:07
7603 |0:826 | 1:725| 2:09 | 1-11
11:16 | 1-213 | 2°612| 2:15 | 1:14
2°93 | 0-161 | 0°333| 2-07 | 1-09
7°33 | 0-403 | 0°835| 2:07 | 1:10
12-21 | 0-671 | 1-420| 2-12 | 1-12
1-211 | 0:0673| 0:132| 1-96 | 1-04
3-028 | 0-168 | 0°340| 2:02 | 1-07
7°57 | 0-421 | 0°845| 2:01 | 1-06
12°62 |0-701 | 1-460! 2-08 | 1:10
: 1523 | 00445) 0:091| 2:04 | 1:08
14. Glycerine
C,H,(OH),
Identical with column headed ‘i Observed.’
15. Mannite C,H,,0,
16. Dextrose C,H,.0,
3°246 | 0:0947) 0°200| 2°11 111
5°629 | 0:165 | 0°337| 2:05 | 1:08
10°797 | 0-316 | 0-670) 2:12 | 1:12
16°88 |0-494 | 1:113) 2:25 | 1:19
27°65 |0°809 | 2:057| 2°54 | 1:34
3456 |1:010 | 2:74 | 2°71 | 1:43
17. Cane ine
C,,H,.0
214 REPORT— 1890.
tion into SiO, and 6HF.! The results are somewhat startling. That,
when dissolved in a hundred times its weight of water, KHO should be
TABLE OF COMPARISONS—continucd.
a) ; i ; | | 2 sf aeet
Se a4 Bisel ees cies ie jai Zea Sea [ihe
Substance Dissolved 25 22 Za aes s |s| sau = z 2
Be |e oles teenie | | Sateeee ees
£2 |#2 |32 [gh (2 SB] |e 3
SF aie | Be 33
B.—ELECTROLYTES. |
18. Lithium hydrate 0-304 |0:127 | 0-474| 3:74 | 1-98 | 1-90] 1-04 | -90
LiOH 0-760 | 0-317 | 1:131| 3:57 | 1:89 | 1°86 | 1-02 | -86
0:81 |0-135 | 0-268| 1-98 | 1:05) 1-01 |} 1-04 | -O1
19. Acetic acid 2-02 | 0-337 | 0-655| 1:96 | 1-04 1-01 | 1-03 | -01
CH,COOH 5-05 10-842 | 1:61 | 1-91 | 1-01 | 1-00 | 1-01 | -00
8-42 |1-403 | 2-68 | 1-91 | 1-01 | 1-00] 1-01 | 00
elas (| 123 0140 | 0-276] 1-97 | 1-04 | 1:01 | 1-08 | -01
20. Bu ee aie 3:07 | 0:349 | 0°660| 1:89 | 1:00 | 1:01 | 0-99 | -01
C,H, (| 7-67 |0-872 | 1:589| 1:82 | 0-96 | 1:00] 0-96 | -00
91. Phosphorie acta {| 0758 |C-O77 [0-201 | 2-64 |): a-SB)| 1:89) 1:06) --14
ere || 1480 |0-146 | 0°350) 240 | 127 | 125 | 1-01 | -08
abO, 3-125 | 0-319 | 0:734| 2:30 | 1-22) 1:20] 1-01 | -07
0-747 |0-091 | 0-259| 2:85 | 1-51 | 1:34 | 1-12 | -16
; ( 1:31 |0-159 | 0-410| 2:58 | 1:36 | 1-25 | 1-09 | -12
22. Sulphurous acid }| 9.98 | 9-979 | 0-690| 2-47 | 1:31 | 1-22] 1-07 | -11
H,SO, | 3-89 |0-466 | 1-16 | 249 | 1:32 | — | oe |=
673 |0:890 | 2-00 |'9-48 | 1-30 | —-“h aol 2S
(| 2-009 ]0-114 | 0:35 | 305 | 161 | 1-70 | 0-95 | -70
23.Todic acid HIO, ;| 4007 |0-228 | 069 | 3:02 | 1:60 | 161 | 0:99 | “GL
5-01 | 0-285 | 0-85 | 2:97 | 1-57] 1:58 | 0-99 | 58
94. Phosphorous acid {| 0°12 |0-074 | 0-227) 8-07 | 1-62 | 1:59 | 1-02 | '-20
ag ge eS 1-018 |0-124 | 0:342| 2-76 | 1-46 | 1:51 | 0-97 | +17
(OH); (| 9-036 | 0-248 | 0-654| 2-64 | 1-36 | 1-43 | 0-95 | +14
einai’ | 0-867 | 0-0688| 0-211| 3-07 | 1-62 | 155 | 1-05 | -27
OxA le aoe bio {| 1851, 018i) O7e| 286 ")'151 | tar ilps rag
C Jet 2H20 (| 3.106 | 0-247 | 0°650| 2°64 | 1-40] 138] 1-01 | +19
0-273 |0-0467| 0:117| 3-07 | 2-00) 1:88 | 1-07 | -88
oa a er 0-682 |0-117 | 0-424] 3-64 | 1:93) 1-84] 1-05 | -84
. aan 1136 | 0-194 | 0-687| 3-54 | 1:87 | 1:82 | 1-03 | -82
a 1-393 | 0-324 | 1-135| 3-51 | 1-86 | 1-79 | 1-04 | -79
3-155 |0:539 | 1-894| 3:50 | 1:85 | 1-74 1-06 | -74
(| 0-429 [0-099 | 0363) 3:67 | 194 | 180 | 108 80
27. Lithium chloride || 0-698 | 0-165 | 0-606| 3-67 | 1-94 | 1-78 | 1-09 | -78
LiCl | 1-167 |0-275 | 1-019] 3-71 | 1-95 | 1-75 | 1-12 | -75
1-945 | 0-458 | 1-729] 3:78 | 2:00 | 1-70 | 1-18] -70
, 0-952 | 0-056 | 0-214] 3:82 | 2-02 | 1-86 | 1-09 | -86 ;
28. Silver nitrate || 9.381 [0-140 | 0-501 | 3:58 | 1:90] 1:81 | 1-05] -81 | |
gNO, (| 5-932 |0-341 | 1-143] 3-35 | 1-77 | 1-73 | 1-02 | -73 |
0633 | 0-0364| 0-184| 5-06 | 2-68 | 2-45 | 1-09 | -72
29; Poeenterenpeaa| 1583 | 0-091 | 0-405] 445 | 2°35 | 2°33 | 1:01 | °66
K,S0, | 3-957 |0:297 | 0-95 | 418 | 2-21 | 2:18 | 1-01 | +59
7-914 |0-455 | 1-755| 3:86 | 2-04 | 2-06] 0:99 | -53
0-903 | 0-0280| 0-141| 5-03 | 2:66 | 2-47] 1-07 | -73 ;
30. Sodium sulphate || 2-258 |0-0701) 0:326| 4:65 | 2-46 | 2:33 | 1-06 | -66 E
Na,80, +1010 | 3-763 | 0-117 | 0:515| 4-41 | 2:33 | 2-29] 1-02 | -63
6-21 |0-195 | 0:817| 4-19 | 2-21 | 217] 1-02 | -58
1 For suggestions in explanation of some of the exceptions, see Zeitschr. fiir ph.
Chem. i. p. 639.
:
dissociated to the extent of 90 per cent., BaH,O, 94 per cent., HCl 90 per
cent., KCl 86 per cent., while the dissociation of MgSO, reaches only 40
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 215
TABLE OF COMPARISONS—continued.
3°915 | 0159 | 0°366} 2°30
2 S 1 @ ~ 1 g n 2 7 ly
As js= |88 |ko |g Ex s Btls
| | es BASE | TE i ot
Substance Dissolved 28 | Some My l ses | gala ae Ge Sah iz Coa
Pa (ES |e eee ae ry eae Fae
ge leq |ze [g= |= [aaa 23
2 |e? [f= | eP 3%
ELECTROLYTES—cont.
0:530 |0-0476| 0-248| 517 | 2-74 | 9:32 | 1:09 | °76
31. Calcium chloride { 1-224 |0-119 | 0-594| 4:95 | 262 | 2-49 | 1-09 | ‘71
CaCl, 1| 9-206 10-199 | 0-993| 5-01 | 2°66 | 9-34 | 113 | “67
(| 3-677 |0-331 | 1:706| 5:16 | 2°73 | 9-94 | 1:22 | -62
0-664 | 0-043 | 0-231} 5°37 | 2°84 | 9-54 | 1:12] °77
32. Strontium chloride || 1-686 | 0-107 | 0:523| 489 | 2°59 | 9-45 | 106 | ‘72
SrCl, 3-372 |0-214 | 1053, 4:92 | 2:60 | 9-32) 1:12 | -66
562 |0-356 | 1:791| 5-03 | 2:66 | y-22 | 1-20 | -61
; ’ 1:055 |0-0643) 0°304| 472 | 2:50 | 9:35 | 1:06 | -67
33. Panne (| 1-739 |0-1073| 0-496 | 462 | 2-45 | 2-03 | 110 | -61
a(NO;), (| 9-931 10-179 | 0-819| 4°58 | 2-42 | 9-08 | 1:16] -54
0-49 |0-0532| 0223] 513 | 2:71 | 9-43 | 1:12 | -71
34, Magnesium chlo- { 1:224 |0:133 | 0:-667| 5°02 | 2°66 | 2-38 | 1:12) -69
ride MgCl, || 3:06 | 0-322 | 1:716| 5:33 | 2:82 | 919] 1-29 | -59
(| 510 10537 | 306 | 5-70 | 3-:02| 909] 1-44 | <4
| 0-641 | 0-0377| 0:193| 5:12 | 2:71 | 2°53 | 1:07 | -76
35. Cupric chloride 1:603 |0-094 | 0:-455| 4:83 | 2:56 | 9-41 | 1-06 | -70
CuCl,+2H,0 || 4-008 |0-235 | 1:127| 4:79 | 2:53 | 2-19 | 1:16 | -59
(| 668 |0:393 | 1:917| 4:86 | 2°57 | 2-04 | 1:26 | *52
1:991 |0-0544| 0°161| 2:96 | 1:57 | 1-53 | 1:02 | -26
36. Cadmium iodide || 4:978 | 0-136 | 0°320| 2°35 | 1:24 | 1:39 |.0:90 | “19
Cal, 12-517 | 0-342 | 0:715| 2°09 | 1-11 | 1:31,| 0-84 | -15
25:03 | 0-684 | 1:523| 2:19 | 116 | 1:25 | 0-91 | -12
et chesiam {> \sul- ( 1-566 | 0-0638) 0-164) 2:59 | 137) 1-44 | 0-95 | -44
phate 1:22 | 1:38 | 0°88 38
MeSO, +7H.O 9:787 |0°398 | 0°802| 2°02 1:07.} 1:28 | 0°83 28
Bape 2 2 16°311 | 0663 | 1:303) 1:97 1:04 | 1:24 | 0°85 24
( 1-976 | 0:0689|} 0°169 | 2°45 1:30 | 1:39 | 0:93 39
38. Zinc sulphate }| 4:941 | 0-172 | 0:357| 2°13 | 1:13 | 1:35 | 0°83 | 35
Zn8O,+7H,0 12°35 |0-430 | 0°799| 1°86 0°98 | 1:25 | 0:78 | :25
20°59 |0°718 | 1-296) 1°81 0:96 | 1:22°| 0°78 | °22
0:979 | 0:0393)| 0-099 | 2°52 1:33 | 1:41 | 0°95 | :41
2:80 |0:112 | 0:244)| 2:17 115 | 1:34 | 0°85 | :34
pm her aaipbata : 6°326 | 0-254 | 0-493| 1:94 | 1:03 | 1-27 | 0-81 | -27
c e 13:04 |0:523 | 0:926] 1:77 0:94 | 1:22} O77 | *22
24:25 |0°973 | 1:687| 1:73 | 0°92 | 1:18 | 0°78 | *18
1:067 | 0:0417| 0-108 | 2°59 37 39s 0'99" 1" "so
2°667 | 0°104 | 0-237) 2:28 L210) 13) O92 |} “3L
40. Cadmium sulphate }| 5-006 | 0-196 | 0-420) 2°15 | 114 | 1:27 | 0-90 | 27
CdSO, + 8/3H,O }| 12°52 | 0-489 | 0:938 | 1:92 1:02 | 1:21 | 0-84 | -21
[ 20°86 |0°815 | 1°535| 1°88 0:99 | 1:19 | 0°84 | -19
| B4:77 | 1°36 2°68 | 1:97 1-04 | 1:13 | 0°92 | °13
For the discussion of those cases in which the ratio #/i’ differs from unity, see
Zeitschr. fiir ph. Chem. ii. p. 497, 1888. The measurements for LiCl, KCl, NH,Cl, CaCl,
SrCl,, MgCl,, CuCl,, MgSO,, Ca(NO,),, FeCy,K, have been repeated, and the results
confirmed by Van’t Hoff and Reicher (Zeitschr. fiir ph. Chem. iii. p. 198). MgSO, and
the chlorides remain intractable, possibly in the former case on account of the for-
216 REPORT—1890.
per cent., and that of acetic acid only 1 per cent., HgCl, only 8 per cent.,
is not what one would expect @ priori ; but the general agreement of the
results is so close that it can hardly be explained away. The theory is
further supported in Arrhenius’s original paper by the consideration of a
number of properties which are additive in dilute solutions; that is to say,
the numerical values of these properties can be regarded as the sums of
the values corresponding to separate parts, namely, the solvent, and the
component ions into which the molecules of the salt are separated. A
well-known example is that of electric conductivity,! which, for a very
dilute solution, can be numerically regarded as made up of numbers
corresponding respectively to the solvent and the several ions.
The other properties of dilute solutions which Arrhenius mentions in
this connection are the heats of neutralisation,” specific gravity and spe-
cific volume,’ specific refractive power,’ depression of the freezing-point *
and other properties connected with it, diminution of vapour pressure,
osmotic pressure, and isotonic coefficient.” These additive properties
have of themselves suggested the more or less complete dissociation of
salts.© Perhaps the most striking corroboration of Arrhenius’s theory is
that the cases in which the additive law is not satisfactorily made out,
are precisely the cases in which the dissociation ratios deduced from the
resistance measurements are considerably less than unity, even in dilute
solutions.
Against this formidable array of reasons in favour of the dissociation
hypothesis, Armstrong’ has urged a number of considerations, among
which are the following: There are difficulties from the chemist’s point
of view, which dispose him to reject the idea that electrolysis is primarily
an affair of atoms ; ‘ peculiarities and relationships which are patent to the
chemist,’ but which ‘it is impossible at present to quantify.’ Moreover,
it seems to be difficult to accept the idea that an electrolyte can be decom-
posed by an infinitesimal electromotive force unless further proof is forth-
coming ;*® and, again, there are anomalies that the dissociation theory
does not explain, as, for instance, the conductivity of fused silver iodide in
face of the non-conductivity of water and of pure hydrochloric acid, the dis-
sociation of hydrochloric acid by water without a corresponding dissocia-
tion of the water, and the more complete dissociation of what have always
been regarded as the more stable compounds. The parallelism of diffu-
mation of double molecules, even in dilute solutions, and in the case of CaCl, on
account of the formation of CaCl (Van ’t Hoff and Reicher).
at
Those cases in which the ratio 7s considerably less than 1 in strong solution
can be explained by ascertaining the formation of double molecules in the stronger
solutions,
1 Kohlrausch, Wied. Ann. 6, ps 167 (1879); 26, pp. 215, 216 (1885); Ostwald,
Aeitsehr. fiir ph. Chem. 1, pp. 74 and 97 (1887).
2 Ostwald, Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Chemie, p. 1250; Arrhenius, /.c. p. 643.
3 Valson, C.R. 73, p. 441 (1871); Ostwald, Lehrbuch, i. p. 384.
4 Raoult, Ann. d. Ch. et d. Phys. [6] 4,p. 401 (1885).
5 De Vries, Pringsheim’s Jahrbiicher fiir wiss. Bot. 14, p. 519 (1883).
® Valson, C.R. 73, p. 441 (1871); 74, p. 103 (1872), 75, p. 1330 (1872); Raoult,
Ann. de Chim. [6] 4, 401, 426.
7 Proc. Roy. Soc. 1886, p. 268 ; Electrician, Aug. 26, 1887.
8 See a paper by Ostwald and Nernst, Zitschr. fiir ph. Chem. 3, p. 120, 1889, ‘On
Free Ions,’ in which it is shown, on the assumption that the energy developed by the
discharge of a conductor ina liquid is proportional to the square of the loss of elec-
tricity, that no work is done by the electromotive force in separating the molecules
into ions.
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 217
sive power and conductivity is said to be almost conclusive evidence against
the theory. Armstrong suggests instead a theory of electrolysis based
upon the formation and decomposition of molecular aggregates under the
influence of residual affinity, and he has in his favour, so far as it goes,
the evidence given on p. 204 for the existence of definite hydrates in
solution. But, av he himself says, his objections to the dissociation theory
cannot be regarded as definite experimental reasons which make the
theory untenable, but rather as suggesting knotty points which those in
favour of the theory have to deal with. Arrhenius has replied to the
objections,' and has to a certain extent met that based on the constants of
diffusion ; the others can only be definitely decided upon by the sub-
sequent development of the theory.
Some considerable advance has already been made. Ostwald
(‘Zeitschr. f. phys. Chem.’ vol. 2, p. 270) explains that the theory ac-
counts satisfactorily for the following six relations, which were previously
‘accepted as empirical generalisations of the results of observation :—
1. The molecular conductivity of all electrolytes increases with in-
creasing dilution, and approaches asymptotically a maximum value.
2. These maximum values on the one hand for acids, secondly for
bases, and thirdly for salts (referred to equivalent quantities) are of the
same order of magnitude, but not strictly equal.
3. The maximum values can be represented as the sum of two magni-
tudes, of which the one depends only on the positive, the other only on the
negative ion (Kohlrausch’s law).
4, For electrolytes of higher concentrations as well as for weak acids
and bases the previous statement does not hold ; an approximation thereto
is apparent when one compares groups of salts whose ions are of equal
valency.
5. Electrolytes of low conductivity, such as weak acids and bases,
have their molecular conductivity very rapidly increased with increasing
dilution. With monobasic acids and normal bases the conductivity
increases in proportion to the square root of the volume of solvent.
6. The increase of molecular conductivity takes place with all mono-
basic acids and monovalent bases, according to the same law. If one com-
pares such electrolytes, for dilutions at which these conductivities are
equal fractions of the maximum, the degrees of dilution (or volumes
corresponding to one gramme-molecule) are in constant ratio.
In order to prove these statements from the dissociation theory,
Ostwald pushes the analogy between the state of the molecules in a solu-
tion and the state of gaseous molecules a step further. Adopting, from
the theory of dissociation of gases (Ostwald’s ‘ Lehrbuch,’ 2, p. 723),
the formula R log ? = pt const., where p is the pressure of the undisso-
Pipe
ciated part, p, and p, the partial pressures of the dissociated constituents,
and assuming the temperature to be constant and the two sets of ions to be
equally numerous, he obtains an equation p/p,?=c, which, on the assump-
tion of identity or strict analogy of molecular constitution in solutions, ap-
plies to the dissociation of a salt in a solvent. Transforming this equation
in terms of molecular conductivities, on the assumption that these depend
' Electrician, Sept. 7, 1888.
* The theory is also criticised by E. Wiedemann, Zitschr. fiir ph. Chem. vol. 2,
p. 241, 1888. .
218 REPORT—1890.
on the number of molecules dissociated, and that the dissociation is com-
plete in infinite dilution, we get (p. 277)
Poa Mon— Hn)
Peo” bbe
where p» is the limiting maximum of molecular conductivity, », the
molecular conductivity at volume v per gramme-molecule, and c’ is con-
stant at constant temperature.
From this formula the above six statements may be immediately
deduced. It also furnishes a new basis of comparison; for writing
m for p/p we get the following new relation between molecular con-
ductivities at different dilutions :
m
G—m)o_
2
ke
Ostwald gives a number of values of the constant i for acetic acid,
angelica acid, a-chlorisocrotonic acid, o-oxysalicylic acid, and the num-
bers agree quite satisfactorily ; according to Ostwald, more nearly than
the corresponding numbers for the formula as applied to gaseous disso+
ciation.!
We give one table referring to butyric acid :
C’ (corrected for high
v KB k pressures and changes
| of viscosity )
2 1:726 071152 0:1538
4 2°648 0:1359 | 071554
8 3870 0°1475 | 0:1549
16 5:554 0:1509 0:1557
32 7874 0°1530 | 071551
64 11:16 0°1545 0:1560
128 15°67 0:1541 0:1550
256 22°67 0:1560 0:1560
512 30°73 0°1558 | 0:1558
1,024 42°40 0°1535 0°1535
The column headed & should give the same values throughout ; the
earlier values are evidently too small, but the differences are accounted
for on the hypotheses (1) that at high concentrations the osmotic pressure
is very high, viz. 24 atmospheres in a normal solution (1 gm.-molecule in
1 litre) ; at these high pressures the gaseous laws do not hold, and a cor-
rection term must be introduced, as in the case of gases by Van der
Waals, which alters the formula to the form ese =C(v—b). (2) The
—im
conductivity depends not only on the dissociation but also on the fluidity
of the solution; hence, in order to compare the conductivities for the
purpose of this formula, which takes account of the dissociation alone,
the observed conductivity must be reduced to a theoretical conductivity
1 In three papers in vol. iii. of the Zeitschr. fiir ph. Chem. pp. 170, 241, 369,
Ostwald has determined the value of the constant % in the above formula for a large
number of organic acids. The values tabulated are those of K=1002%7(p. 174). An
index of the acids thus investigated is given J.c., p. 418. The physical meaning of
the constant is that at concentration 2% half of the acid is dissociated.
di, ange. xe we ee eee
.
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 219
in a liquid of normal fluidity by multiplying by the coefficient of viscosity
referred to pure water. The numbers as corrected in the way thus in-
dicated are given in the fourth column headed C’ (wv being taken at
‘1 litre). The improvement of the agreement throughout the range of
numbers is sufficiently apparent.
The application of Ostwald’s formula is confirmed by observations of
Van ’t Hoff and Reicher.!
Arrhenius has further applied the dissociation hypothesis to account
for the observed results obtained for the conductivity of mixtures, and
has also recast his theory of chemistry to comply with the more recent
development of the dissociation theory without interfering with its
appositeness to the explanation of chemical observations, and he has
deduced the effect of neutral salts upon the reaction velocities of weak
bases and acids in saponification, and compared the results with observa-
tion, and found a satisfactory agreement.
De Vries, in a paper on osmotic experiments with living membranes,”
has compared the values of isotonic coefficients * as calculated from the
molecular conductivities and observed with membranes, and found a
satisfactory agreement.*
In an interesting paper ° on the effect of the dissociation theory upon
the general ideas of chemistry, Ostwald explains the thermal effects of
reactions in dilute solutions. If, for instance, solutions of KHO and
HCl are mixed, a quantity of heat, 187K,° is produced, and this heat has
hitherto been regarded as the heat of formation of KC]. But on the
dissociation theory the KCl remains dissociated in the solution to the
extent, at any rate, of 90 per cent. At the same time an equivalent of
water is formed by the union of the H of the HCl and the HO of the
KHO;; the heat set free by this may be taken to be 135K, and it consti-
tutes nearly the whole amount of the heat developed. On this view, for
all those reactions in which an easily dissociated salt is formed, together
with a molecule of water, the heat of formation will be that of the mole-
cule of water merely, and will not depend on the other reacting bodies.
This is amply borne out by the data supplied by Thomsen for the heat of
neutralisation of a number of acids by soda solution. When two mole-
cules of water are formed (with dibasic acids) the heat of neutralisation
is doubled. The differences are accounted for by the incompleteness of
the dissociation of the acid and bases, so that the heat of neutralisation
of an equivalent of acid may in general be represented by a formula
The theory is also extended to the explanation of the thermo-neutrality
of solutions—that is, to the absence of heating effect when neutral salts
are mixed, and the exceptional cases—e.g. the chloride of mercury—are
those cases in which the dissociation of the salts is not nearly complete.
It is interesting to note how far the dissociation is supposed to be
earried. For Arrhenius’s table, an electrolytic molecule may be resolved
1 ZLeitschr. fiir ph. Chem. 2, p. 777, 1888. 2 Ibid. p. 415, 1888.
8 Solutions which have equal osmotic pressure are called isotonic, and the corre-
sponding concentrations isotonic caqncentrations. The reciprocal of the isotonic
concentration in molecular quantities is called the ‘isotonic coefficient,’ which is
therefore the number of litres per gramme-molecule required to give a certain
Osmotic pressure. :
* L.c. p. 430. 5 Zeitschr. fiir ph. Chem. 3, p. 588, 1889.
® K represents 100 gramme Centigrade thermal units.
220 REPORT—1890.
into a number of ions, thus into two in the case of KCl, into three in the
eases BaC], and K,SO,; the dissociation detaches but preserves intact
a multivalent complex ion from a number of monovalent ones, and also
separates the monovalent ones one from another. Ostwald, in his for-
mula, refers only to binary compounds, each molecule of which is resolved
into two ions; but in considering the applicaticn of the dissociation hypo-
thesis to chemistry in the paper already referred to,! he touches upon an
interesting point. He lays down the principle that chemical reactions
consist in the exchange of ions, and therefore take place exclusively
between ions. Thus a number of chlorine compounds give no reaction
with silver because the chlorine does not appear as anion. This prin-
ciple enables one to distinguish between salts of composite acids (as, for
instance, Na,PtCl, and K,Fe(CN),, which show such reactions as are
compatible with splitting up into ions Na and PtCl, and K and Fe(CN),
respectively) and true double salts, as the alums, which in solution are
resolved, and do not exist as double salts.
These hypotheses can be verified by the depression of the freezing-
point in the solutions, for the number of the ions is different in the two
cases. Thus the double salt 3K,C,0,+Cr,(C,0,), would form fourteen
ions, whereas if it were really 2K3,CrC,O,,. only eight ions would be
formed from the same molecule.
But perhaps the most interesting, as being the least evident sugges-
tion, is that which, based on reactions similar to the slow precipitation of
silver chloride with separation of glycolic acid from monochlor-acetate
solution, is thus expressed (p. 598) : ‘ In order to express this consideration
in general terms we must say that an electrolyte may ultimately split up
in different directions. Usually one definite direction is far away the most
prominent, and the corresponding reactions are completed in immeasur-
ably short time ; to the other directions correspond processes which pro-
ceed slowly. Since the organic compounds in particular, in so far as
they are not salts, belong entirely to the class of non-electrolytes in the
ordinary sense, and are therefore not split into ions to an appreciable
extent, we obtain on these grounds an explanation of the slowness of the
march of the processes so characteristic of this department. It is very
probable that tho effect of the accelerators, of the hydrogen-chloride in
the formation of ethers, the ferric chloride in chlorination, the acetic
ether in the action of sodium, and so on, consists in nothing else than the
formation of composite electrolytes.’
In the July number of the ‘Zeitschrift fiir physikalische Chemie,’
1889 (p. 96), Arrhenius has given some interesting developments of the
dissociation theory. He first of all gives the molecular conductivities of
a number of salts at 18° C. and 52° C. and the temperature coefficients
deduced therefrom, for a number of solutions of different concentration,
having in view the effects which may be due to the alteration of the dis-
sociation ratio with temperature. Then taking, as Ostwald had done
(p. 217), the equation of gaseous dissociation Pup? KT and also the
equation
alee
d. log, B.A w
dt Ree
Zeitschr. 3, p. 596.
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 221
deduced from the dynamical theory of heat as applicable to the osmotic
phenomena of solutions, where T is the absolute temperature, P is the
partial pressure of the combined molecules, p,p. the partial pressures of
the dissociated ions, A the dynamical equivalent of heat, W the heat of
formation of the molecules from the ions, he obtains the equation
oe @ lopig hy lek W
rr aL ae
Whence, substituting values of A and R in meter-gramme units
i (4244./0°981 and 845°05 respectively), we get
W=1-945 x 2:35 T? Togo k + 1-945 T,
:
Ny
_ where W is expressed in gramme-calories ; & can be determined from the
conductivity measurements, and hence d log k/dt approximately deter-
_ mined which is denoted by 8, and hence the value of W determined for
_ the mean temperatures 35° C. (between 18° and 52°) and21°°5 (between
18° and 25°). The results are as follows :—
PS Ae eM
ie At 35° At 21°5°
Name | W;;—W. i
Wss Wars iat
CH,COOH +220 +600 —380
C,H,COOH : : ; +50 +390 —340
'.|C,H,COOH. : 4 — 320 +150 —470
Mepe.H(COOH),. . .| +1040 +1690 —650
| CHCI,COOH hate: — 2240 —2390 +150
ate —1820 —1530 —290
HOPOH, . — 3630 —3180 —450
HF (at 33°) —2960 a aia
B.—Strongly dissociated Bodies at 35° (from Observations in decinormal
Solutions).
Name W335 Name Wss
KBr +180 NaCH,COO . +210
KI —300 NaC.H,COO . +690
KCl +250 Na0Q,H,COO. +1140
KNO, +470 NaHC,H,(COO), . +1110
NaCl +140 NaCHCl,CoO —190
LiCl +210 NaOPOH, . +410
BaCl, +300 NaH,P0, +220
} imgci, —40 HCl. — 460
| 4caso, ’ —940 HNO, —740
| NaF +530 HBr. f+ —990
NaOH . — 670
The table shows that heat is sometimes developed and sometimes
absorbed by the separation of a molecule into ions.
The values thus obtained are next applied to calculate the heat of
neutralisation of the salts investigated. Taking Ostwald’s suggestion
of the process taking place in neutralisation and setting d,, da, d3 for
222 REPORT—1890.
the dissociation ratio of the components in the original solutions and
the products (exclusive of the water) in the mixture respectively, W,,
W,., W3;, the heats of dissociation, the amounts of heat necessary to com-
plete the dissociation of each part would be W,(1—d,), W.(1—d,), and
W,(1—d,) respectively. Hence, there being no work done, the heat
developed in mixing would be
N= —(1—d,)W, -(1—d,)W, +2+ (1—d,)W,,
where « is the heat of formation of the water, deduced from the change
of heat of neutralisation of HCl with temperature as 12950 cal,!
In this way the following heats of neutralisation of acids were deter-
mined and compared with the known values observed experimentally :—
Heat of Neutralisation (with NaOH) at 21°5
Name
Calculated Observed Difference
HCl. é , ; a 13700 13740 +40
HBr. : : . 5 13700 13750 —10
HNO, : a c : 13810 13680 —130
CH,COOH : 5 : 13070 13400 +330
C,H,COOH 5 5 : 13400 13480 +80
C,H,COOH , : . 13750 13800 +50
C,H,(COOH), . : 3 12240 12400 +160
CHCI,COOH . : : 14980 14830 —150
H,PO0, } : . 5 14910 14830 —80
HOPOH, . : ‘ ‘ 15460 15160 — 300
HF . : : 3 9 16120 16270 +150
The table shows, among other things, that the explanation of the fact
that some weak acids, as HF, HOPOH,, H;PO,, have higher heat of
neutralisation than the strong acids, is to be found in the development
of heat in dissociation shown by the table of p. 221.
Another deducticn from the principles mentioned above is that the
conductivity of an electrolyte may have a negative temperature co-
efficient, if the temperature be sufficiently raised. The resistance of an
electrolyte depends upon (1) the friction of the moving ions, (2) their
number or the dissociation ratio, and both of these vary with the tem-
perature. According to Ostwald’s dissociation formula, if 3 be the dis-
sociation ratio, =
(i—8 a
and
dlog.k_1 ,A W
wwOrTt BPs
Assuming, for the sake of simplicity, that the right-hand side does not
vary with the temperature, and further, supposing that the electrolyte
is only slightly dissociated, so that 6 is small compared with unity, and
w being constant, we get
2d Ns °— const. = —2b dt.
Whence
GaAge,
1 12H,+0,=2H,0 + 27040 cal.; or H,H,H,H + 0,0, = 2H,0 + 27040 cal.
a
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 223
_ The friction of the ions may be taken to be the same for most acids,
since the motion is due mainly to the hydrogen, so that this may be put
equal to a constant multiplied by (1+<af), where a is the temperature
coefficient of the fluidity.'
Whence 2.
R,=A,c(1 +af).
This function assumes a maximum value when
(1+at)b=a or ateseted,
boa
There are obviously many rough-and-ready approximations in the
course of this proof, but the remarkable fact remains that this behaviour
of electrolytes of low conductivity was actually verified in the case of
hypophosphorie acid and phosphoric acid, which gave maxima of con-
ductivity at 54° and 74° respectively. A rough calculation of the tem-
peratures at which the conductivity would reach its maximum value for
other electrolytes gives the following results :—
Temperature of
Name ae a B Maximum
<P Conductivity
CHC1COOH . F 0:2 00162 0:0083 81°
EE ce 5 E 02 0:0162 0:0117 56°
C,H,COOH : 3 0-2 0:0162 0:0042 195°
HNO, : oat 05 0:0157 00014 668°
NaOH 05 00213 0:0011 882°
4CuSO, 0-5 0:0256 0:0058 Tea KS
ete 0-5 0:0231 0:0024 Boe
NaCl. 0-5 0:0253 0:0012 808°
It will be seen from the foregoing sketch that the various numerical
relations between widely different properties of solutions and the agree-
ment of calculated with observed results are so striking that the further
development of the theory will be looked for with great interest. The
part which the solvent plays is still unexplained, though it is becoming
more and more clearly defined.
§ d.—Hlectro-Chemical Thermodynamics ;
§ e.—EHlectric Endosmose ;
§ £—The Theory of Migration and Ionic Velocities; and
§ g—Numerical Relations
are reserved for the present.
' According to Arrhenius, it is the temperature coefficient of molecular conductivity
in infinite dilution.
* A formula identical with this was suggested to me by a consideration of the
numerical results for temperature variation of fluidity and conductivity of certain
electrolytes. (Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. vol. 7, p. 21, 1889.)
224
REPORT—1890.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. E. Roscor, Mr. J. N.
Lockyer, Professors Dewar, WoLcoTt Gipps, LIVEING, SCHUSTER,
and W.N. Hart.ey, Captain ABNEY, and Dr. MARSHALL WATTS
(Secretary), appointed to prepare a new series of Wave-length
Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds.
Tue ‘ Table of Corrections’ given herewith has been obtained by a careful
comparison of Professor Rowland’s photographic map of the solar
spectrum with the maps of
already given in these Reports are based.
ngstrom and Cornu, upon which the tables
Table of Corrections to be applied to reduce Angstrim’s and Cornu’s
Numbers to the Standard of Rowland’s Map.
Wave-length
Above 6930
From 6930 to 6880
6880 to 6820
6820 to 6800
6800 to 6765
6765 to 6720
6720 to 6660
6660 to 6230
6230 to 6180
6180 to 6155
6155 to 6135
6135 to 6130
6130 to 6110
6110 to 6080
6080 to 6060
6060 to 6000
6000 to 5970
5970 to 5810
5810 to 5780
5780 to 5610
5610 to 5540
5540 to 5485
5485 to 5435
5435 to 5350
5350 to 5335
5335 to 5325
5325 to 5300
5300 to 5175
5175 to 5150
5150 to 4990
4990 to 4970
Correction Wave-length Correction
+17 From 4970 to 4935 +10
+16 » 4935 to 4865 +0°9
+15 » 4865 to 4740 +10
+14 » 4740 to 4650 +0°9
+13 | » 4650 to 4470 +0°8
+12 | » 4470 to 4380 +0°7
+11 » 4380 to 4170 +0°6
+1:0 3 4170 to 4130 +07
+0°9 » 4130 to 4100 +0°8
+1:0 » 4100 to 4060 +07
+11 », 4060 to 4040 +0°6
+1:0 » 4040 to 3850 +07
+0°9 », 3850 to 3730 +0°6
+1:0 » 3730 to 3720 +05
+1:1 » 3720 to 3660 +04
+1°0 », 3660 to 3640 +0°8
+0°9 » 3640 to 3620 +06
+1:0 » 3620 to 3530 +0°5
+0°9 » 3530 to 3480 +0°6
+1:0 » 3480 to 3470 +0°8
+1:1 » 8470 to 3440 +07
+1-0 » 3440 to 3420 +11
+0°9 » 3420 to 3360 +17
+1:0 » 3360 to 3330 +25
+09 » 3330 to 3290 +22
+1:0 » 8290 to 3280 + 2:0
+0°9 », 3280 to 3240 +1°9
+1:0 » 3240 to 3220 +1:8
+0°9 » 3220 to 3190 +0°8
+08 » 9190 to 3160 +0-4
+6°9
yur Oh
'
:
|
The spectra of cobalt and nickel now given are upon Angstrém’s scale,
but the absorption spectrum of iodine rests upon the numbers of the Pots-
dam catalogue of 300 solar lines, the numbers of which agree very closely
indeed with those of Rowland, as is seen in the following comparison :—
Potsdam Catalogue Rowland’s Map
C (Hydrogen) 6563'14 6563-042
D,(Sodium) 5896-25 5896°156
D,(Sodium) 589023. 5890°188
E, (Iron) B2I00De feo 5270°497
E,(Iron) oO is aee.. BORSGD 5269720
b,(Magnesium) . - : - 5183:93 5183°798
bin hohe Setter atne 16169:38 5169°159
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
Coxatt.!
225
A number printed in italics signifies that the wave-length was directly measured by
means of a grating. The numbers given under ‘Oscillation Frequency’ are
im vacuo.
* Double. + With cobalt chloride in oxyhydrogen flame.
Intensity and
Wavelength | Carseter
Spark | Arc
39973 |e
+3994°7 10
3991-4
3990°2
39871
+3978-7
39741
3968'S
3957-7
3955°7
(3952'4
39449
+3940°9
+3935'5
39162
+3909-0
3905-2
38943
13893'4
3884 0
38810
3876+
[eS a or ee ll ol oo oll ol [oe)
PPE OOM Hee WOrMwwoo
_
—
Oo
SS en eee
T3873°2
8872-4
3860°5
+38'44:8
$8841°4
3830°3
§3815°7
§38715°4
3807°3
3777-0
3774:0
3769-7
87539
487458
S735°2
37328
37318
2729'S
3711-6
13703-5
27077
8692'S
3692-4
8690°2
36825
36508
86676
1890.
CE
—_ ee
So Wo
—
DHOOM RD OOH WORE HOHE HE EEE EE DORDOHOH
H= 09
www
_
Or- & =O Cow oD
™4
Oscillation
Frequency
25009
25026
25046
25054
25073
25126
25155
25189
25259
25272
25293
25341
25367
25402
25527
25574
25599
26671
25677
25739
25759
25791
25810
25816
25895
26001
26024
26099
26200
26204
26258
26468
26489
26520
26631
26689
26764
26782
26789
26803
26935
26993
27007
27072
27075
27091
27147
27160
27303
~ Also a nickel line.
§ Also an iron line.
Intensity and
Wave-length Character | Oscillation
LE ee | a
Spark | Arc
36561 1 3 27343
36540 1 27359
3645'S 1 27398
3642'7 3 3 27444
3641°4 1 1 27456
36389 1 3 | 27472
3636°4 1 1 | 27494
36342 4 1 27508
3632°2 1 i 27523
$3627°3 6 10 27560
3614-8 1 1 27655
3611'3 1 1 27682
§3605'0 6 8 27731
3601°6 6 10 27757
$3594°4 6 10 27812
35867 10 8 27872
§3584°7 6 8 | 27888
3577°4 1 3 27945
135749 27964
135745 10 | 10 | 97967
+3568°9 10 10 | 28011
$3564°5 6 10 28046
3562°3 1 28063
$3560°5 8 6 28077
35524 1 1 28141 -
35504 4 6 28159
3548-0 1 1 28176
35447 1 1 28202
35428 4 3 28217
$3532'8 4 6 28297
$3529°3 6 10 28325
F3528°4 1 4 28333
35263 4 6 28349
+3522:9 6 6 28377
§3520°9 6 8 28393
8519'S 3 6 28404
8517-7 6 8 28419
+3572-0 4 6 28465
t3509°7 eng 28483
+3509°3 4f 28487
t3505.9 10 8 28517
3503°4 1 98535
3502:0 3 28546
+3501°6 10 10 28549
3501-0 4 | 28554
3496°0 3 6 28595
434954 6 10 28602
3490°6 3 4 28639
t3488°S 10 10 28654
? Liveing and Dewar, Phil. Trans. clxxix. 231 (1888).
Q
226
REPORT—1890.
CoBALT—continued.
Intensity and
Wave-length Character
Spark | Arc
3484°7
434827
3478-0
3476°0
+3473°4
+1§34635:2
$3462°2
3460°6
34546
t$3452:9
84489
+3448'6
tt3445°7
$3443°0
3442'3
3438-2
$3436'8
$3432-9
$3432'4
3431°3
$3430°9
$3423'2
$3416'5
3415'2
34142 8
34120
$3417°7
$3408°6
3406:1
$13404°5
33948
3394-2
33876
3387°1
3384°7
t3380:0
3378°0
3376°6
3370°4
33666
3362°3
$3360°S
33539
3352'3
33489
3347°7
3346-4
3342'2
3340'8
3340°2
3339'3
3333°6
3329:0
3326'°4
33248
$3327-7
=
)
_
Oo
*
He 09 OS OO HOR AWOPRWODORK DS
*
ras
Sa
POW WH OWE HWW WH ROM HARE NH RARRARDWOHADOD
RewWwrOW Ww www on
Oscillation
Frequency
28688
28704
28743
28760
28781
28849
28874
28882
28938
28953
28986
28989
29013
29036
29047
29076
29088
29121
29126
29135
29138
29204
29261
29272
29281
29300
29302
29329
29350
29364
29448
29453
29511
29515
29536
29577
29594
29607
29661
296956
29733
29746
29807
29821
29852
29862
29874
29911
29924
29929
29937
29989
30930
30053
30068
30096
Wave-length
3319°0
33136
$3377-7
3309'1
3308-2
3306°5
3303-2
32942
3286-6
3284-2
3282-9
3278°5
3277-2
3276-0
3271-3
3264-4
3262-7
3261-7
3260-4
3253-7
3249-6
§3246°7
§3243°4
3236°7
3235-2
32324
3226-5
3218-7
3210:1
3188-0
3181-7
31766
3174'8
3169-5
3164:3
3161:3
3159-2
3158-2
31542
3152:3
3148-9
3146°6
3139°5
3136'S
3130°4
3126-7
3121-4
3113-0
3109°5
3109-0
3103°3
3101'8
3097°6
3089-0
3086°3
3082'1
Intensity and
Character
Spark} Arc
mee OOO
AOR PH WH HEH WOR RARRWHOAAWH RE WH PWW HOR OW WR Oe Pie Ce ll el eo cel ll ll el el eo)
Om oO CD et = 0 CO et OO OD CO) Ht OD OD WD tt 0 0 0 WH WR Oe eS Pee Oo oo
Oscillation
Frequency
30120
30169
30187
30211
30219
30234
30264
30347
30417
30439
30452
30492
30504
30516
30560
30624
30640
30649
30664
30725
30764
30791
30822
30886
30900
30927
30984
31059
31142
31358
31420
31470
31488
31641
31593
31622
31644
31654
31694
31713
31747
31770
31842
31869
31935
31972
32030
32113
32149
32154
32213
32228
32273
32363
32392
32436
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
| Wave-length
3078°9
3073-4
30720
3071°8
3064°0
3063'0
3061-4
3059°6
3050°6
3048°6
3043°6
3042°2
3034-0
3033°8
3017-0
3015°2
3013-2
3010°3
3008°5
29541
29425
2930-0
2929:0
2927°2
2918°1
2906'5
2899°3
2897-5
2890-0
2886-0
2883°1
28813
2879-9
2870'4
$2865-1
2862-2
- 2849°8
. §2847-9
2845-2
2836-7
28343
2824-5
2823'2
2822-7
2821°1
2819-4
2818'3
2815'8
2815-2
28103
Intensity and
Character
*
HOH HEE RED OH AORHORE © HH
Co
*
* *
we ORR Hwee
*
ORR REE
=
Lat ord Nerwore WWOWAaQaDraw rR oe
=
Spark | Arc
em ©
lor) Re for]
wow
a me CO
CoBALT—continued.
Oscillation
Frequency
32470
32528
32542
32545
32627
32638
32655
32674
32771
32792
32846
32861
32950
32952
33136
33155
33177
33209
33229
33332
33882
33445
33474
33510
33646
33841
33974
34119
34131
34152
34258
34395
34480
34502
34691
34639
34674
34696
34713
34827
34892
34927
35079
35102
35136
36241
35271
35393
35409
35416
35436
35457
35471
35502
35510
35572
Wave-length
$2806°7
§2803°3
2801°7
27984
2796°6
2796'3
2795°8
2793'4
§2789'1
2786°9
27857
2785°2
27785
2775°7
{27748
2768°6
27665
2766-0
2763-9
2761'0
27571
2744-7
2738°6
27343
2732-6
2730°7
27288
2727-5
2720°6
27153
27145
2713°9
§ 27086
2707°4
$2706'9
§2706°2
2701'9
2696'4
2696-0
2695°9
2695'3
26944
26925
2689°2
£26840
2681°5
2679°8
2679-0
2677°4
2675-4
{2670-1
2669°7
2662°7
2653-3
26484
2646-1
Character
Spark | Arc
4
1 2
*3
1 1
1
1
1
6
1
*3
*3
*3
1 1
8
*3 1
4 1
3
3 4
3 4
1 3
1 1
3 3
1
*3
1
1 1
x %& * Rk *
0 OS te OC
*
*
WROARMWRHAWRrWrR Ow
_
oo FY ye
Intensity and
-
eo
227
Oscillation
Frequency
35618
35661
35681
35723
35746
35750
35756
35787
35842
35871
35886
35892
35979
36015
36027
36108
36135
36141
36169
36207
36258
36422
36503
36560
36583
36609
36635
36653
36746 ©
36817
36828
36836
36908
36925 .
36932
36941
37000
37075
37081
37082
37091
37107
37129
37175
37247
37281
37305
37316
37338
37366
37441
37446
37545
37677
37747
37780
a2
9:
8
Wave-length
2644-4
2642'7
2634-5
2631:9
2628-4
2627°3
2626'6
2621°7
2619'3
2618'5
2613'8
2613-0
2605:3
2605°2
2603'9
2600°3
§2598'8
2592'9
$2586-8
2584:8
2582°6
2581-7
$2579°8
2574°4
2573'1
2571:9
2569°3
2567°0
2565-0
2563°6
2561:7
2559°6
2558°9
2556°9
25563
25531
$2552°7
2552-2
§2550°1
§ 2549-7
2548-9
2546°3
2545:7
2544-6
2544-2
2543'9
2549'5
2540°2
2537-0
2536-1
25355
2533'4
2531-7
2529°6
2528-4
25245
Intensity and
*
Character
Spark] Are
1 1
¥] 1
3
6 1
*1@2)
1 6
ay 1
*1 4
+ 1
4 8
6 1
4
1 2
4 4
3 3
1 3
1 1
1 1
8 1
1 3
3
6 ut
10 3
6 3
1 4
1 4
6
1 6
1
10 1
1 0
6 1
8 1
4 4
6
1 4
mH 4
4
4
1
See
DWORKMDWWHWHOHHWeHOR
_
ano Pee CO a ew L ilaaed
REPORT—1890.
CoBALT—continued.
Oscillation
Frequency
37804
37829
37946
37984
38034
38050
38060
38131
38166
38178
38247
38258
38371
38373
38392
38445
39467
38555
38646
38676
38709
38722
38751
38832
38851
38870
38909
38944
38974
38995
39024
39056
38067
39098
39107
38156
39162
39170
39202
39208
39220
39260
39270
39286
39293
39297
39334
39355
39404
39418
39427
39460
39487
39519
39543
39599
Wave-length
25242
2522°5
2520°7
2519'3
2517°3
2516°9
2511°7
25114
$2570°5
2509°4
2507°5
25058
25041
2501-7
2500:2
2498°2
2497°4
2496°3
249571
2494°4
2490°4
2489'S
2486°9
2486°7
§2485°9
24848
2484-4
2484°1
2483-2
2478°6
24778
§2477°4
2476°9
2476°2
24760
2474°9
2473°5
2472°5
2469°7
2469-0
24665
2463°7
2460°8
2460°3
2459°0
2455°7
2453°6
2453°3
2452-7
2452:0
2449' 4
2448°7
§2447°3
2445°6
2443'3
2442°0
Intensity and
Character
Spark} Arc
1 10
4
3 10
10
3 8
4
1 1
1
10 10
1
4 4
10 10
i 6
XS 1
3 6
4
6 6
1 8
1 4
1 3
1 6
6 6
1
1
6
6
1
1
1 4
3
4
4
1
1 6
1
=I
Eat
1 8
1 6
I 1
8
10 4
1
1 6
6
1 8
1
1 3
1
1 1
8
4
8 3
6 1
6 3
8
39604
39681
39659
39681
39712
34719
39801
39806
39820
39837
39868
39895
39922
39960
-39984
40016
40034
40046
40066
40077
40141
40151
40198
40201
40214
40232
40238
40243
40258
40332
40345
40357
40360
40371
40375
40393
40415
40432
40478
40489
40530
40576
40624
40632
40654
40708
40743
40748
40758
40770
40813
40825
40848
40876
40915
40937
¢ op oat oul
Oscillation: |
Frequency |
be
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 229
CoBALT—continued.
Intensity and
Intensity and
Character
Character
Oscillation r Oscillation
Wave-length Frequency a gd ae mene Oa Frequency
Spark} Are Spark} Arc
3 4 40950 § 23748 4 i 42095
qi 4 40960 2372°6 3 3 42134
*] 40975 2371°8 3 t 42148
3 6 40995 2371'S 6 4 42153
*] 41005 2370°1 3 4 42178
6 8 41029 2366-6 1 3 42219
1 41034 23633 10 6 42299
1 3 41041 2361°2 1 1 42339
3 8 41061 2360°8 1 1 42346
10 10 41105 2360°3 4 42355
1 41139 2360°2 3 1 42357
SI 3 41145 2360:0 4 1 42360
24278 6 41176 2357°7 4 4 42402
| 24257 3 1 41212 2353-0 10 6 42486
24245 4 *10 41232 23524 1 6 42502
24232 6 1 41254 23515 1 3 42513
2422-1 1 4 41273 §$2350-6 3 3 42530
2421°6 1 1 41281 2348:1 1 42575
2420'3 10 1 41303 2347-4 3 42588
| 2418-4 6 4 41341 2347°0 6 3 42595
2417'2 6 6 41356 2346°7 1 3 42600
2416°5 6 3 41368 $2346-2 4 1 42609
24457 4 41382 2345-2 3 3 42628
2415°5 6 41386 23443 £ 42644
24148 3 8 41397 §2344°0 6 42649
2414-1 3 8 41409 $2340'8 8 42708
2413'7 6 4 41416 2338°8 3 4 42744
$2472:2 1 6 41442 2338°4 1 4 42751
24114°2 8 10 41494 2337°6 8 4 42766
2408'3 6 4 41509 $2336-6 3 1 42784
2407-8 6 41518 2335'9 6 4 42797
2407°1 6 *10 41530 2333-7 1 1 42838
2406°9 1 41533 $2330°0 6 3 42905
2405-1 4 1 41561 2328-7 1 1 42929
2404:0 4 1 41583 2327°3 3 42955
2403'S 6 4 41587 {2326-7 6 4 42977
2403°3 1 ] 41596 23259 6 3 42981
2402-4 1 1 41611 2324-0 6 4 43016
$2401-6 i} 8 41625 $2321:0 1 3 43085
2401°3 1 41630 2319°6 1 4 43098
2397'S 4 3 41691 2318°2 1 43105
2396'9 10 3 41707 [23168 6 3 43150
2395-1 4 4 41738 $2315°5 1 4 43174
2393-4 4 1 41768 23145 8 3 43193
$2392-1 4 4 41787 $2373-5 8 6 43211
2391-5 1 4 41801 23131 4 43219
2389-1 6 4 41843 231271 3 3 43238
2388-4 10 1 41855 $2319°1 10 6 43256
2388'3 3 4 41857 2310°4 1 1 43269
23861 6 1 41895 2307°4 *10 8 43326
23859 8 4 41899 23064 1 43344
238 2:9 8 4 41952 123056 1 43359
$2361-7 3 41973 2303°8 1 43393
2381-3 8 4 41980 2300°8 3 4 43450
2380°3 1 1 41997 2800°3 3 3 43459
93784 10 8 42036 2299-3 4 1
43478
230 REPORT—1890.
CoBALT—continued,
Intensity and Intensity and
Waye-length Character | Oscillation Wave-length Character | Oscillation
——, >| Frequency Frequency
Spark | Arc Spark | Are
2298'3 1 1 43497 22720 1 44000
22969 3 3 43524 2270°5 1 44030
2295°5 38 4 43550 $2266-2 8 44113
2293°0 6 8 43598 2259-7 8 44240
229175 6 4 43626 2256°4 8 44305
2290°9 1 1 43638 2253°2 1 44367
2289°9 1 1 43657 22448 6 44533
2287°8 1 3 43697 223474 1 44741
2285°7 *8 8 43737 22315 1 44799
2283-1 3 43787 2229°5 1 44839
2281-9 1 43810 2219°6 1 45039
2281°5 4 43817 22159 1 45114
2280°1 3 43844 2214°1 1 45151
2278°1 1 43883 2205°7 1 45323
22759 1 43925 2298:2 1 45477
2275°1 1 43941 2293-1 1 45583
2274-2 1 1 43958 2291°9 1 45608
$2273°3 3 43975 2290°2 1 45643
NIcKEL.!
* Double. t Also in oxyhydrogen flame. t Also a cobalt line. § Also an fron line,
Intensity and Intensity and
Wave-length Character Sy ales Wave-length Character | Oscillation
——_j7-— | Frequency ——_ + Bréquency.
Spark} Are Spark} Are
3857'S 8 8 25913 36241 1 3 27585
88489 3 25973 t3618°S 10 10 27625
3837'S 3 26050 $3612°7 6 6 27676
3831°7 1 26090 3609'S 8 8 27694
+3806°6 8 6 26263 86086 1 1 277038
$3783'0 6 4 26426 8601°4 3 27758
37750 6 6 26482 $3597°0 10 10 27792
37689 8 26525 3587°2 ots 3 27868
37364 8 8 26758 35767 8 27955
3724-2 1 26843 §t3577°2 8 8 27993
§3721°6 6 26862 3565°7 10 6 28036
3710°9 1 26940 3561'7: 1 28072
3697-2 1 27039 35528 1 28138
3694-6 1 27058 3550'S 1 28154
3687°6 1 27110 8547'°5 6 6 28180
38673°4 3 4 27215 3529°9 1 1 28321
3671-5 1 27229 $3529°2 1 3 28326
3669°7 1 8 27242 852774 3 1 28343
3666°9 1 27263 3526°0 3 28352
3663°4 3 27289 $3523°9 10 10 28369
3659°3 3 27319 35194 6 6 28407
3657°5 1 27333 3518-0 1 28416
3655°2 1 27350 $3514°4 10 10 28445
3653°0 6 ' 27366 §3513°3 8 28454
3634°9 4 27503 i3509°7 10 10 28483
1 Liveing and Dewar, Phil. Trans. clxxix. 231 (1888).
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 231
NICKEL—continued,
satay and cae eeey and
r aracter | Oscillation aracter | Oscillation
Wavelength) js Frequency Ee a requency
Spark | Are Spark | Arc
35073 1 1 28503 3250°4 4 3 30760
35059 1 3 28514 3247-8 1 1 30781
3501°8 3 4 28548 32426 6 6 30830
3500°0 8 8 28562 32342 6 6 30910
$8492'3 10 10 28625 §3232'6 8 10 30925
384852 3 3 28684 3226°3 1 1 30986
34834 8 8 28707 32246 4 4 31002
3471-9 8 8 28793 3227-4 3 3 31036
3470°8 *3 1 28803 3217°4 3 31071
3468°9 3 4 28818 32166 1 1 31079
34668 3 3 28836 32160 1 31081
134657 6 8 28850 §3213°7 3 31107
$3461°7 10 10 28883 32123 1 31121
34579 10 10 28911 3201°5 1 31226
$3457°7 *3 8 28913 §3796°6 6 6 31273
34535 4 4 28948 31949 1 4 31290
$3452°9 3 4 28953 3183'S 1 6 31399
t73452'3 10 4 28958 §3182'6 1 1 31411
34457 10 10 29013 31812 1 31425
3441-6 1 29048 3179'2 *6 6 31445
$3436°7 8 8 29089 3158°9 *3 3 31656
$3433°0 10 10 29121 3145'5 3 4 31781
134234 10 8 29205 31340 1 1 31898
3420°6 1 1 29224 §3733°6 10 10 31902
3413'S 10 8 29284 8113-7 3 4 32106
34134 4 10 29288 §3705°0 3 6 32196
34129 8 8 29292 3101°4 8 8 32233
3409°0 1 3 29325 8101-4 6 6 32236
3406°6 6 6 29346 3098"6 4 32262
$3404°5 3 1 28364 3096°6 4 32283
3402'S 1 29379 3086°6 8 32389
3400°5 1 3 29399 38080°3 6 6 32455
3392°4 8 8 29469 30642 6 6 32625
3390°4 8 8 29486 §3057°2 8 32700
$3380°0 10 10 29577 80539 8 6 32735
33740 4 4 29630 3050°4 8 8 32773
3373'6 1 4 29633 §3044°5 4 4 32836
3373'3 6 6 29636 3037°5 8 8 32912
33713 6 4 29653 3031°4 4 4 32978
§3368'9 8 6 29674 8018'S 6 33116
$3367°2 1 8 29689 8017°5 10 10 33196
8365'S 4 4 29704 30032 8 8 33288
3365'1 4 4 29708 8002°4 8 8 33300
3361°0 3 6 29744 §29941 6 6 33389
$8360°9 6 8 29745 2992'2 6 8 33410
3358'4 1 3 29770 2988'0 1 33457
3349'S 3 29844 2987°7 *3 33460
$3327°6 6 4 30097 29836 4 6 33506
3319°7 6 6 30114 §2987°2 6 6 33533
3315°7 6 6 30156 2968°7 *3 33674
8312°4 1 30180 2957°'8 1 33799
$3317°8 3 1 30186 29545 *3 33836
3290°4 1 30385 2947°14 4 33921
8282'2 3 4 30458 2943'5 8 10 33963
3274°4 1 30531 §2938°7 1 1 34018
§3270°6 1 1 30566 §2936'3 *8 34046
232 REPORT—1890.
NICKEL—continued.
Raienatty. and ' hemes and
Jharacter | Oscillation aracter | Oscillation
Wave-length ieteacsey Wave-length Frequency
Spark | Are Spark | Are
29343 1 34069 2557°5 1 39088
§2928°4 *6 34138 25547 4 39131
2918'8 *1 34250 $2552°6 *] 4 39163
2913'2 8 8 34316 25491 1 1 39217
2906'9 3 6 34390 2545'4 6 6 39274
2900°6 1 34465 §2543'2 3 39308
2898°8 1 34486 2539°5 1 6 39365
2889'1 1 34602 2524-1 1 39605
2882°2 “ail 34685 2520:0 1 1 39670
2880°9 All 34700 $2510°6 10 8 39818
$2865°1 6 34892 2509°6 1 39834
2863'3 8 34914 $2505-9 6 39893
2823°9 1 35401 2496°9 1 1 40037
2820°8 6 10 35440 24836 *6 6 40251
2807°8 1 35604 2476°6 1 1 40365
2806:0 “ih 35626 § 24728 8 6 40427
28050 8 6 35639 §2471'8 1 8 40443
427747 *4 36028 2455°4 4 1 40713
2760°4 1 36215 2453°7 1 8 40741
27587 4 36237 2448-1 3 40835
2708'3 4 4 36913 §2441°5 1 10 40945
§2701°2 3 1 37010 2437°5 *10 6 41012
2700°4 a 1 37021 §2433°9 1 6 41073
2690°2 1 37161 §2433-2 4 41085
$2684-0 8 37247 2431°2 1 41118
2678'8 6 37319 2426°8 1 41193
2674:4 1 37380 2423°4 1 6 41251
2672'1 1 37412 2420°8 1 8 41295
§2670-0 3 37442 2419-0 1 6 41326
2664:9 1 37513 2416'0 *10 8 41377
2659'5 3 3 37590 2412°8 3 6 41432
2655°6 6 1 37645 2412-7 1 6 41444
2648°6 1 1 37744 24048 1 1 41570
26468 6 6 37770 2401-7 1 6 41623
2643-4 1 37819 §2400°4 1 41648
2641-0 1 37853 2397°2 1 : 41741
§2639°5 6 37874 || = § 2394-7 1 6 41745
2636°8 1 37913 23943 8 8 41752
2632°4 1 37971 || §2394°0 8 8 41757
2628-4 1 38034 2392°6 4 6 41701
2626°3 1 38065 || 2392-0 1 1 41792
§ 26749 6 38231 2388-7 1 1 41850
2609°6 6 38308 §2388'5 4 1 41853
§2606°7 1 38351 2387°5 6 4 41871
§2606°7 1 38360 2386°3 1 6 41892
2600'S 1 38438 +§2381'8 8 3 41971
§2593°1 3 38552 | 2378°6 1 1 42027
$2586°7 1 1 38647 |, 2375°6 1 6 42080
25844 3 38682 || 23750 8 4 42091
2583°5 4 38695 2370°9 1 1 42164
$2579:9 1 1 38749 2369°5 4 42189
2575°7 4 4 38812 | 2368°9 3 1 42199
2571°7 1 1 38873 2367°0 4 3 42233
2568'2 1 1 38926 §$2366°7 4 1 42249
25657 *4 38964 2358'5 1 6 42337
2559'S 4 3 39053 2355°9 6 6 42434
Pa =
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 233
Wave-length
$2350-5
§ 2349-8
2347°6
$2346-2
2345-0
§2344°7
2343°5
2343°0
$2340°7
2337-1
$2336°6
2336°2
23341
$2330°1
2329°6
$2326-0
2325-5
$2324-0
2323:3
23223
2321-6
$2321:0
2319'3
23180
$2316°8
$2315°6 ¥1.
$2373'6
2313-4
23125
2311'8
$2311-2
2310°6
2308'1
[2305-7
23048
2303'3
2302'5
2302-0
2307°5
2299'8
2299°2
2298'0
2297°1 \
*
*
*
COMM RH HY DORR HHO RD ARRAHODADH AWE PARP WOR DDR RP HE RE RE ROR HF ODMH OR HOR Ree
%
*
*
2296'7
2296:2
22953
2292-7
2290-7
2289°6
2287°4
2286°8
2284:8
2283-7
2280°6
2279-2
2278'4
*
a
Intensity and
Character
Spark} Arc
for} He et
i
me oD oO
mo a AAAI Omowc maw
a) i
_
KH Oe
ac
NICKEL—continued.
Oscillation
Frequency
42531
42544
42584
42609
42631
42637
42658
42668
42709
42775
42784
42792
42830
42904
42913
42979
42989
43016
43029
43048
43061
43072
43103
43128
43150
43172
43210
43213
43230
43243
43264
43266
43312
43358
43374
43403
43418
43427
43437
43469
43480
43503
43520
43527
43537
43554
43603
43641
43662
43704
43716
43754
43775
43835
43862
43877
Waye-length
2277°8
2277-0
22763
§ 2275-7
$§2275-0
+29741
{2973-2
2272°3
2971-1
2270°3
2269°9
2269°4
$2266-1
§2264-8
§ 22644
§2263'1
2262°6
2261-1
§2260°3
2259-4
2258-9
2257-6
2255°7
22547
2253-9
2253'S
2252°6
2251-4
$2251+1
§2250°5
2250°2
2249-2
§2248-8
2247-4
2246°6
2245'9
2244-4
§2242'2
2241-2
2239°8
2238°2
2237°6
2235°5
2233°5
2231-2
$§2229°6
§2997-2
2226-7
2225°8
§2295°3
22243
2223'8
2222'3
2921°7
2221°3
2220°6
Character
Spark | Arc
6 4
6 1
3
3 4
4 3
6 6
1 1
1
1 6
1
*10 10
1 6
1 3
3
8 10
4
1 1
il 4
1
1 6
3
4 6
6 3
6 6
1
*10 8
1
1 4
1 1
1 1
1
1
1 4
1
3
*]
*] 8
1 3
1
*]
*]
*]
1
3
1
*4 6
1 8
1
6 6
1
6 8
6
6 8
1
1 3
3
Intensity and
Oscillation
Frequency
43888
43904
43917
43929
43942
43960
43977
43995
44018
44033
44041
44057
44115
44140
44154
44173
44183
44213
44228
44246
44256
44281
44318
44338
44354
44362
44379
44403
44409
44421
44427
44446
44454
44482
44498
44512
44541
44585
44605
44633
44665
44677
44719
44759
44805
44837
44885
44895
44914
44924
44944
44954
44984
44996
45004
45019
234 REPORT—1890.
NICKEL—continued.
caeey and panne
. haracter | Oscillation aracter | Oscillation
Wave-length Hrequenéy Wave-length Frequency
Spark | Arc Spark | Arc
2219'S 6 1 45035 2197-2 *] 6 45498
2219-0 1 45051 2193'2 1 45581
2217°4 3 3 45084 2190-6 1 4 45635
22160 6 3 45112 2190°0 ] 4 45647
[2215'S 8 10 45116 2188'2 3 1 45685
2212'5 4 3 45183 2185:0 6 1 45752
§2211-4 1 3 45206 2184-2 6 6 45769
§2210°5 4 4 45224 2182'8 1 6 45798
2209'S *8 6 45239 21799 £ 45859
2206-4 8 8 45314 2179-4 1 45869
2205°2 *6 6 45333 2176°7 3 45926
2203°0 =I 45378 21760 3 45941
2200'S 8 4 45424 2174-4 4 6 45975
2198-4 3 4 45473 21738 4 6 45988
2198°0 Al 45481
IopivE (Assorption).!
* Double. T Triple. © Coincident with a solar line.
Wave- Intensity and| Oscillation Wave- Intensity and} Oscillation
length Character Frequency length Character Frequency
6316751 4 15826°8 6301°16F ) 3 158653
6314°66 2 15831°4 630051 f 15866°9
6314°26 2 158324 6300°22 3 13867°7
6313-90 2 15833°3 6300-00 3 15868°2
6313°53 3 15834:2 6299°58* 5© 15869°3
6313°18 3 15835'1 6298°94* 5© 158709
6312-76 3 15836:2 6298°29 6 15872°5
6312°23* 3 15837°5 6297:76* 5 15873°9
6311°59* 3 15839:1 6297°15* 3 158754
6311°11 3 15840°3 6296-82 3 15876°2
6310°74 4 158412 6296-31 5© 15877°5
6310°36 3 158422 629591 3 15878°5
6310-08 4 15842'9 629531 5 158800
6309°38 4 158446 629475 6 15881'5
6308°67T 4 15846-4 6294°25 6 15882°7
6308-05 4 15848-0 6293°72* 4 158841
6307°73 2 15848°8 6293°29 3© 15885:1
6307°38 3 15849'7 || 6292°91* 4 158861
6307-00 3 15850°6 6292°45* 5 15887°3
6306°64 3s 15851°5 6291-94 6 15888°6
6306°13* 3 15852°8 6291°46 6 15889°8
630569 3 15853:9 6290°98* 4 15891:0
6305°38 3 15854°7 6290°62 3© 158919
6304:83 3 15856:1 6290°23* 3 15892°9
6304-21 4 15857°6 6289-83 6 15893°9
6303°57 3 15859-2 6289-34 4 158951
6302°34 3© 15862°3 6288:90* 4 15896°2
6301-50 2 158644 6288:63 2 158969
’ Hasselberg, Mémoires de V Académie des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg, vii® série,
vol. xxxvi. (1888).
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 235
IODINE (ABSORPTION)—continued.
Wave- Intensity and| Oscillation Wave- Intensity and | Oscillation
length Character Frequency length Character Frequency
6288°21* 4 15898°0 6263°94 3 15959°6
6287°82 3 158990 6263°58 2 15960°5
6287°36 4 15900°1 '6263°23 3 15961°4
6286°83* 4 15901°4 6262°91 2 15962°2
6286°37 3 15902°6 6262°59 4 15963:0
6285°98 4 15903°6 6261°95 3 15964°6
6285°61 3 15904°6 6261°42* 5 15966°0
6285°40 3 15905°1 6260°73* 4 15967°8
6285°08 4 159059 6260°37 3 15968°7
6284°68 4 15906°9 6260°10 5 15969°4
628419 4 159082 6259°42 3 15971°1
6283-86 3 15909-0 6258°80 4 159727
6283°45 3 159100 6258°22 4 159742
6282°98 4s 15911°2 6257°68 4 15975°5
6282°59 3 15912°2 6257-08 3 15977°1
628228 30 15913-0 6256°42 4 15978°8
6281°90* 4 159140 6255°86 4 15980°2
628114 5 15915°9 6255°35 4 15981°5
6280°41 ye ‘o) 159177 6254-74* 5 15983-1
6280°01 3 15918°7 6254°26 4 159843
6279°75 5 15919°4 6253°89 3 15985:2
6279°46 5O 1592071 6253°61 3 15986:0
6279 13 3 15921:0 6253:07 6 15987°3
6278'79 5 15921°'8 6252°96* 6 15987°6
627825 2 15923°2 6252°59 4 15988-6
6277°88 5© 15924°1 6252°12 5 15989°8
6277°36 5 © 15925°5 6251°85 3 15990°5
6277-00 5 15926°4 6251°58 3 15991°1
627636 4 15928:0 6251°33 2 15991°8
6275°56* 4 15930:0 6251-06 4 15992°5
6275°11* 2 159312 6250°62 3 15993°6
6274:73 3 15932°1 6250°12* 5 15994'9
6274°35 2 15933'1 6249°63 3 15996°1
627401 5 15934:0 6249°15 5 159974
6273°67 2 159348 6248°66 3 15998°6
6273°24 4 159359 6248-19 5 15999°8
6272°85 3 15936°9 6247-60 2 16001°3
6272°42 4 15938°0 6247-27 3 16002:2
6246°94 3 16003-0
6246°41 3 16004°4
erie 6246:05 4 16005'3
| 6272°42 4 15938:0 6245°59 4 16006°5
6271°75 4 15939°7 6245-21 3). batt 16007°4
6271:06* 3 15941°5 6244-78 ap ~ 16008°5
| 6270°22 2 15943°6 6244-48 3) bans 16009°3
6269°81 2 15944°6 6243-96 ay oa 16010°7
| 6269-54 4 15945°3 6243-62 4 16011°5
6269-07 2 15946°5 6243-24 4 160125
6268'78 4 15947:3 6242-89 2 16013°4
6268-38 2 159483 624257 4 16014:2
6268-06 4 15949°1 6242-23 3 16015°1
6267-64 2 15950°2 6241-88 4 16016:0
6267-30 4 15951:0 6241°55 3 160168
6266-69* 3 15952°6 624112 5 16017'9
6266-04 4 159542 6240:89 4© 16018°5
6265-28 5 15956:2 6240:60 4 16019:3
6264-60 3 15957'9 6240:26 3 16020°1
| 6264:30 2 15958'7 6239°89 3 16021°1
236 REPORT—1890.
IODINE (ABSORPTION)—continued.
$$$
Wave- Intensity and| Oscillation Wave- Intensity and} Oscillation
length Character Frequency length Character Frequency
6239-41 3 16022°3 6219°36 2 160740
6239:09 2 16023°1 6219°15 2 16074°5
6238-56 3 16024°5 621881 3 160754
623824 3 16025°3 6218°50 4 160762
6237-72* 6 16026°7 6218-21 4 16077-1
6237°28* 2 16027°8 | 6217-86 3 160779
6236°95 4s 16028°6 | 6217-58 3 16078°6
6236°56 2 16029°6 6217°12* 5 16079°8
6236-21 4 16030°5 6216°83 2 16080-5
6235°88 4 16031°4 6216°57 4 16081-2
6235°46 4 16032°5 6216°23 2 16082°1
6235-03 4 16033°6 6215°93* 5 16082°9
6234:77 3 16034-2 621527 4 16084°6
6234-43 4 16035°1 6214:92 4 16085:5
6234-23 4 16035°6 6214-64 16086-2
6233:93 4 16036-4 6214°26* 3 16087°2
6213°83 4 16088:3
6213-40 £ 16089-4
Group 6234/-6191 6212°95* 5 16090°6
| 6212-41 6 16092-0
623393 4 160364 6212711 2 16092°7
6233-69 2 16037-0 6211°87 5 16093°4
6233°38 2 16037°8 6211°29* 5 160949
623258 3 16039°9 6210°86* 4 16095°9
623214 3 160410 6210°53 2 16096°8
6231-79 3 16041°9 6210°18* 6 160977
6231°41 2 160429 6209-64 4 16099-1
6230°81 2 16044-4 6209°40 2 16099°8
6230-51 4 160452 6209°17 5s 16100-4
6230°20 4 16046:0 6208°81 37 16101-3
6229-68 6 16047°3 6208°55 3 4 band 16102°0
6229°31 2 16048°3 6208-06 it 161032
6228°95 4 16049°2 6207°56 4 16104°5
6228°55 2 16050°2 6207°13* 5 16105°6
6228-24 5 16051-0 6206°69 4 16106°8
6227°95 16051°8 6206'16+ 5 16108:2
6227:43* 3 16053°1 6205°66 4 16109°5
6226°85 3 16054°6 6205°24 5 16110°5
6226°51 2 16055°5 6204:79* 3 Band 16111°7
6226°21* 2 16056°3 6204:28* iy 16113:0
6225:76 3 16057-4 6203°88 4 16114°1
6225:28 2 16058°7 6203°48* 4 161151
622498 3 16059°5 6203-08 3 16116-2
6224°58* 2 16060°5 6202°88 3 161167
6224-31 3 16061:2 6202°59 4 16117-4
6223°94 3 16062°1 620221 3) bank 16118-4
6223°64 4 16062°9 6201:74 3s 161196
622317) 4 16064°1 620144 4 161204
6222-93 J 16064°7 6201-03 4 161215
6222°73 2 16065°3 6200:28* 4 16123°4
6222-41* 4 16066°1 6199°89 3 161244
6222-04 2 160670 6199-48 £ 16125°5
6221-71 4 16067:9 6199°13 2 161264
622110 4 16069°5 6198°86 4 161271
6220°89 16070°0 6198°52 2 16128-0
6220°54 ea 16070°9 619819 4 16128-9
6220:27 3 160716 6197-86 3 16129°7
6219°97 3 16072°4 6197-57 4 16130°5
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 237
IODINE (ABSORPTION)—continued.
Waye-
length
6197°28
6196°62
6196°32
6196-05
6195°79
6195°53
6195°28
6195-04
6194°75
6194°57
6194°26*
6193°84
6193-46
6192-48
6192°18
6191°87
619146
6191-21
6190°97*
Intensity and
Character
AN RPOWO PEE ER ENO WWD &
Group 6191|-6149
619097
619060
6190-21
6189'79
6189-46
618897
6188-64
6188-25
6187°86
6187-47
6187-09
618668
6186°32
6185-98
6185°62
6185°23
6184'88
6184°50
6184-13
6183:79
. 6183-45
6183-05
6182-70
6182°33
6181°96
6181-60
6181-22
6180°89
6180°59
6180°23
6179°92
6179°52
6179-24
6178-86
6178°57
6178-21
uu
lll El Eo OR CE Coe Se wo ood]
band
S—
om
rs)
i=]
ou
©
Oscillation |
Frequency
16131:2
16133°0
16133:7
161344
161351 |
16135:8 |
161364
16137°1
16137°8
16138°3
161391
16140°2
161412
16143°7
16144°5
16145°3
16146-4
16147-0
16147°7
1€147°‘7
16148°6
16149°7
16150°8
16151°6
16152°9
16153°7
16154°8
16155°8
16156°8
16157'8
16158°9
16159°8
16160°7
16161:7
16162°7
16163°7
16164°6
16165°6
16166°4
16167°3
16168°4
16169°3
16170°3
161712
16172°2
161732
16174:0
16174°8
16175°7
16176°6
16177°6
161783
16179°3
16180'1
161810
Wave-
length
617794
6177°60
6176°93
6176°62
617631
6175°98
6175°65
6175°37
617502
617467
617440
6174-09
6173-60*
6173 00*
6172°58
6172°34
6172-00
6171-74
6171°39
617117
6170°60
6170°17*
6168-93
6168°66
6168°36
6167°94*
6167-44*
616703
6166°45
6166:03*
6165°63*
6165°31
6164:92*
6164°45*
6163°61
6162-92
6162°13
6161-59f
6160°79
6160°41
6160711
6159-78
6159-42
6159:20
6158-92
615858
6158:32
615805
6157°71
6157:16*
6156°77
6156-44
615612
6155°85
6155-47
615516
6154°80
615453
Intensity and} Oscillation
Character
2)
WDOWED DEWITT WWD WN WWW PW PEE WNWE PR WWWWNDNDN EP PWWOTRNNWWRNwWd
Frequency
16181°7
16182°6
16184°4
161852
16186°0
16186-9
16187°7
16188°5
16189°4
16190°3
16191°0
16191°8
16193°1
16194°7
16195°8
16196°4
16197°3
16198-0
16198°9
16199°5
16201°0
16202°1
16205°4
1620671
162069
16208:0
16209°3
162104
16211°9
16213°0
16214:0
16214°9
162159
16217:1
16219°4
16221:2
16223°3
16224°7
16226'8
16227°8
16228°6
16229°4
16230°4
16231:0
16231:7
16232°6
16233°3
162340
16234:9
16236°3
162374
16238°2
16239°1
16239'8
16240°8
16241°6
16242°6
16243°3
238
Wave-
length
615433
6154-06
6153°76
6153°49
6153-08*
6152-57
6152°18
615144
6151°01*
6150°58
6150:20*
6149°83
6149°48
6149-08
REPORT—1890.
IODINE (ABSORPTION)—continued.
Intensity and| Oscillation
Character
He O> H= He Or OT Ge OD OF Or CO OD
Group 6149/-6111
6149-08
6148-75
6148°10*
6147°61*
6147°19
6146-94
6146-70
6146°46
6146-20
6145-96
6145°65
6145-24
6144-92*
6144-49
6144°15
6143-80
6143-46
6142-77
6142°34
6141-62
6141:30
6140:96
6140°64
6140:27
6139:93
6139:55
6139:08
6138-77
6137°53
6136°57
6136-21
6135°86)
6135°62 f
613529
6134-98
6134-64
613435
6134-00
6133-70
6133°33
eww hwww BP WWWWWWDWWWHWWW RRND WWW wWwb bd wht wwe wR
Frequency
16243°8
16244°5
16245°3
162460
16247°1
16248°4
16249°5
16251°5
16252°6
16253°7
16254°7
16255°7
16256-6
16257:T
16257°7
16258°6
16260°3
16261°6
16262°7
16263°4
162640
16264°6
16265°3
16265°9
16266°8
16267°9
16268°7
16269°8
16270°7
16271°7
16272°6
16274°4
16275'3
16277°4
16278°3
16279°2
16280:0
16281:0
162819
16282°9
162842
16285:0
16288°3
16290°8
16291°8
16292°7
16293°3
162942
16295:0
16296:0
16296°7
16297°7
16298°5
16299°4
Wave-
length
6133-09
6132:79
6132-48
6132-20
6131°89
6131°63
6131:35
6131-05
6130°75
6130-45
6130:10
6129°85
6129-60
6129-34
6129-07
6128-77
6128°52
6128-21
6127-98
6127°65
6127°46
6127-17
6126°95
6126-63
6126°17*
6125-74*
6125-26*
6124-81*
6124-354)
6123-794 f
6123-42
6123-14
6122-89
6122-27
6122-00
6121-76
6121°51*
6121:07*
6120°73
6120°30
6119-90
6119°51*
6119-30
611902
6118°63
6118:24*
6118-00
6117°63
6117°34
6117-00
6116-75
6116°50
6116-02*
6115°56
6115°29*
6114:93
6114:40
6114-00
Intensity and | Oscillation
Character
mow RO wo HR bb Rb tb ebb bo & wh wb wb
ow oo
ann
band
Ce COW R ER NWWWW PRON RE POT
Frequency
16300°1
16300°9
16301°7
16302°4
16303°3
16304-0
163047
16305°5
16306°3
163071
16308-0
163087
16309°4
16310-0
16310°8
16311°6
16312:2
16313:0
16313°7
16314°5
16315-0
16315°8
16316°4
16317:3
163185
16319°6
16320°9
163221
16323°3
16324:8
16325°8
16326°6
16327-2
16328°9
16329°6
16330°2
16330°9
16332°1
16333°0
16334°1
16335°2
16336-2
16336°8
16337°5
16338°6
16339°6
16340°3
16341°3
16342°0
16342°9
16343°6
16344:3
16345:6
163465
16347°5
16348°5
16349°9
16351°0
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 239
IODINE (ABSORPTION) —continued.
Wave- Intensity and| Oscillation Wave- Intensity and| Oscillation
length Character Frequency length Character Frequency
6113°61 + 163520 6093713 4 16407:0
6113°31 | 4 16352°8 6092°97 16407°4
611281 / 163541 6092-70 2 16408°1
6112-41 3 163552 6092°39 4 16409:0
6112-04 5 16356°2 6092-03 4 16409°9
6111°67 3 16357°2 609179 2 16410°6
6111-25* 6 16358°3 6091°52 3 164113
6091°16 3 16412°3
6090°80 2 16413°2
Group 6111|-6069 6090°48 2© 164141
6111-25* 6 163583 6090:13 3 164150
6110°85 2 16359°4 6089°61 3 16416°4
6110°49 + 16360°4 6089°36 2 16417°1
6110°13 2 16361°3 6089°14 2 16417°7
6109-70* 5 16362°5 6088'89 2 164184
6109-30 2 16363°6 6088-61 5 16419°1
6108°87 6 163647 6088:35 5 16419°8
6108-20* 3 16366°5 6087°95* 3 16420°9
6107°80 2 16367°6 6087-44* 5 16422°3
6107°45 3 16368°5 6086°91* 3 16423-7
6107:08 2 16369°5 6086-48* 5 164249
6106-71 4 16370°5 6085°93* 3 16426°4
6106°35 3n 16371°5 6085-52 5© 16427°5
6106-00 3 16372°4 6085-00 4 16428°9
6105°60 3 16373°5 6084°51 5 16430:2
6105-20 3 16374°5 6084-06 3 164314
6104:92 3 16375°3 6083°85 3 164320
6104°56 5 16376°3 6083°55* 5 16432°8
6104°25 5 16377°1 6083'16 3 16433°8
6103°86 4 163781 6082-64 4 16435°2
6102°78 4 163810 608239 4 164359
6102712 4 16382°8 6081-70 4 16437°8
6101°76 3 16383°8 6081°33* 5 hand 16438°8
6101-44 4s 163846 6080-92 3y an 164399
6101°17 2 16385'3 6080°46 4 16441:2
6101-00 2 16385°8 6080-03 4 16442°3
6100°72 2 163866 6079°67 4 16443°3
6100°43 31 and 16387°3 6079°35 30 16444°2
6100°10 5 m 163882 6078°87* 5 16445°5
6099°43 3 163900 6078°51 3 16446:4
609902 3 16391°1 607814 3 16447°4
6098-74 3 16391-9 6077°75 4 band 16448°5
6098°44 2 16392°7 6077°39 16449°5
6098-08 3 16393°6 6077:10 4 16450°3
6097°81 2 163944 6076°69 4 164514
6097-48 4 16395°3 6076-40 4 16452°2
6096°86 4© 163969 6076:12 3 16452°9
6096°52 2 16397'8 6075°79 4 16453°8
6096-24 4 16398°6 6075-49 4 16454°6
6096-00 4 16399°2 607518 4 16455:2
6095-62 3 16400°3 6074°80 3 16456°5
6095°35 3 16401:0 6074:22* 5 16458°1
6095-00 4 16401-9 607371 4 16459°4
6094-74 2 16402°6 6073-34 4 164604
6094-43 3 16403°5 6073-01 3 164613
6094-14 3 164042 6072°66* 3 16462°3
6093-81 3 16405:1 6072:27 5 16463°3
6093-52 3 £64059 6071.60 ¢ t 5 16464°9
240 REPORT—1890.
IoDINE (ABSORPTION)—continued.
Wave- Intensity and} Oscillation Wave- Intensity and | Oscillation
length Character Frequency length Character Frequency
6071:46 3 16465:5 6052'11 4 16518°2
6071:08 3 16466°6 6051°52 6 16519°8
6070:71 6 > band 16467°6 6050-98 4 16521°2
6070°43 3 16468°3 6050°48 5 16522°6
6069-95 4 16469°6 6050°29 2 16523°1
6069°67 3 16470°4 6050:00 2 16523-9
6069°31 6 16471°4 6049°30* 4: 16525°8
6048°93 4 16526'8
Group 6069/6031 6048-75 4 16527°3
6069-31 5 16471°4 6048-42 3 16528°2
6068-95 3 164723 6048-23 3 16528°8
6068-60* 3 16473°3 6047°82* 6 16529°9
6068-19 2 164744 6047°33* 4 16531:2
606780 3 16475°5 6046°87* 6 16532°5
6067°49 2 16476°3 6046°39* 4 16533°8
6067-11* 3 16477'3 6045°94* 6 16535:0
6066:71 3 164784 6045-45* 4 16536°4
6066:31* 4 16479°5 6045:00* 5 16537°6
6065-61 5 16481°4 6044:53* 4 16538°9
6065°28 2 1648274 6044°13* 5 16540:0
6064:92* 3 164833 6043°66* 4 16541°3
6064:56 3 164843 6043°25* 5 16542°4
6064:20* 3 16485'2 6042°81 6 16543°6
6063°87 2 164861 6042°43 4© 16544°6
6063°49 6 16487°2 6042-00 3 16545'8
6063°16 2 16488°1 6041°61 4 165469
6062:77* 3 164891 6041:17 3 16548°1
6062-46 4s 16490°0 6040-79 4 16549°1
6062-11 4s 16490°9 6040°40 3 16550°2
6061-44 4 16492°7 6040-07 4 16551'1
6061-11 2 16493'6 6039-74 4 16552-0
6060°75 4 164946 6039°39 3 16553°0
6060745 2 16495°4 6039°02 5 16554°0
6060°11 4 16496°4 6038°63 4 16555°1
6059°80 2 16497°2 6038°33 5 16555°9
6059-42 5 164982 603802 5 16556'7
6059°15 2 16499:0 6037'73 3 16557°5
6058°81 3 16499°9 6037°39 5 165584
6058°50 3 16500°7 6036'98 3 16559°6
6058°17 4 16501°6 6036°79 3 16560°1
6057-83 2 16502°6 6036°48 5 16560°9
6057°48 5 165035 6036719 3 16561°7
6057°23 4 16504°2 6035:82* 6 16562°8
6056°85 4 16505°2 6035°36* 3 165640
6056°57 2 16506'0 6034:83* 6 16565°5
6056:29 5© 16506'8 6034°45 3 16566°5
6055-95 2 16507°7 6034:13 5 16567-4
6055'62 4 16508°6 6033°89 3 16568°1
6055°38 3 16509°2 6033°61 3 16568°8
6055-05 3 165101 6033°40 6 anid 16569°4
6054:77 2 16510°9 6033-05 4) 16570°4
605441 5 16511°9 603287 2 16570°9
6054:21 2 16512°4 6032-57 5 16571°7
605389 4 16513°3 6032°34 Z 16572°3
6053-61 3 16514:1 6031°92) 6 bana 16573°5
6053-28 5 16515-0 6031°58 f ae 165744
6052-71 1 4 16516°5 6031°33 2 16575°1
1651771 6030°99 6 16576°0
6052-50 J
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 241
IODINE (ABSORPTION)—continued.
Wave- Intensity and} Oscillation Wave- Intensity and | Oscillation
length Character Frequency length Character Frequency
6008°55 ? 16637°9
Group 6031'-5992 600794 4 } band 16639°6
6030°99 6 16576:0 6007°52 4© 16640°8
6030°60 2 16577°1 6007-04 5 16642°1
6030:20* 3 16578'2 6006-58 4 16643°4
6029-47 4 16580°2 6006714 5 166446
6028-68 4 165824 6005°74 4 16645°7
6028-00 4 16584:2 6005:28 5 16647°0
6027°64 2 16585:2 6004:°86 4 16648°2
6027°31 45 165861 6004-42 5 16649°4
6026°54 t 16588°3 6004:03 4 16650°5
6025°85 3 16590:2 6003-62 5 16651°6
6025-67 2 16590°6 6003-26 40 16652°5
6025-46 2 16591-2 6002-81* 4 16653°8
6025-16 3 16592:0 6002-44. £ 16654°9
6024-38* 6© 16594°2 6002-06 5 16655°9
6023-78 4 16595°9 6001°61 16657°2
6023-44 2 16596°8 6001:28 2 16658°1
6023-11 3 16597-7 > 6000:96 4 16659:0
6022°85 2 16598-4 6000°57 3 16660°1
6022-44 4 16599°5 6000°25 4 16660°9
6021-80 3 16601°3 5999-93 3 16661'8
6021-56 8 16602-0 5999-61 3 16662°7
6021-12 4s 16603:2 5999-31 f 16663°6
6020°85 2 16603°9 5998-97 3 16664'5
6020°38* 6© 166052 5998°63 4 16665-4
6019°86 4 16606°7 599838 4 16666°1
6019-62 3 16607°3 5997-77 4 16667'8
6019°28 4 16608°5 5997-47 2 16668°7
6019-00 2 16609-0 5997-23 2 16669°3
6018-62 4 16610°1 5997-00 4 1669-9
6018-37 8 16610°8 5996-74 3 16670°7
6018-04 4 16611°7 5996°52 2 16671°3
6017-77 4 16612°4 5996-12* 5 1€:672°4
6017-34 4br 16613°6 5995°77 2 16673°4
6016°59 ay » 16615-7 5995-40 5 16674-4
6016-28 3 band 16616°5 5995-00 3 16675°5
6015-99 3 f 16617°3 5994-65 | 16676°5
6015-70 2 16618" soranys | © 16677'1
6015-45 4 166188 5993°89 6n 16678°6
6015°05 3 16619-9 5993-03 6 16681-0
6014°83 16620°5 5992-60 2 16682-2
6014:47 4 16621'5 5992-30 + 16683-0
6014-20 16622°3
6014-04 2 166227 3
6013-48 2 166243 Group 5992|-5955
6013-09 0 16625°3 5992-30 4 16683°0 -
6012:56 4 16626'8 5992-00 2 16683-9
6012:00* 2 16628°4 5991-67 4 16684°8
6011:59 3s 16629°5 5990:98 4 16686°7
6011-34 2 16630-2 5990°58 2 16687°8
6010-93 2 16631:3 5990-21 4 16688-9
6010°69 3 16632:0 5989-87 2 16689°8 ‘
6010-50 2 16632°5 5989°50 5 16690°8
6010:28 2 16633°1 5988-80 5 16692°8
6009°88 4 166343 5988°12 4 16694-7
6009-40* 3 16635°6 5987-76 2 16695°7
6008°85* 6 16637:1 5987-42 40 16696°6
1890. BR
242 REPORT—1890.
IODINE (ABSORPTION)-—continued.
Wave- Intensity and} Oscillation || Wave- Intensity and| Oscillation
length Character Frequency length Character Frequency
5986:73 5 166976 || 5961-14 4 16770°2
598601 4 167006 || 5960-92 2 16770°9
5985°70 2 167014 =|} +5960-63 4 16771:7
5985°34* 5 16702°4 || 5960°33 4 16772°5
5984-71* 4 16704:2 5959-90 + 16773°7
5984-07 4© 16706°0 5959-56 4 167747
5983-71 2 16707:0 5959-40 2 167751
5983-38 4 167079 5959°17 3 16775'8
5982-74* 5 16709°7 5958°80 5 16776°8
5982:08* 4 16711°5 5958°37 55 16778:0
5981-65 | 4 16712°7 5958°00 4 167791
5981-40 J 16713°4 5957-63 2 167801
5981-13 2 167142 || 5957-26 4 16781:2
5980°81 + 16715, |\| 5056:55* 5 167832
5980°24 4 16716:7, || - 5956211 2 167844
5979-64* 4 16718°3 || 5955-78 5s 16785°3
5979°29 2 16719°3 5955°42 4 16786°3
5979°00 4 1672071 5954:98 4 16787°6
5978-73 2 16720°9
5978-41 + 21°8
5977-87 5 16388 Groen pau oel7
5977-24 5 167251 5954:98 4 167876
5976°75* 5 16726°5 5954:32* 4 16789°4
5976-11 5 16728-2 595352 30 167917
5975-60 6 16729°7 5952-79 3 16793°8
5975-05 5 16731°2 5952°40 2 167949
597453 5 16732°7 5952-09 4 16795°7
5974-00 5 16734°2 5951°41 4 16797°7
5973-49 4 16735°6 5950°73 4 16799°6
5973:00* 4 16737°0 5950-07 5 16801°4
597246 5 16738°5 5949-36 5 16802°4
5971°95 4 16739°9 5948°83 6 16804°8
5971°45 5 16741°3 5948-62 16805°5
597097 4 16742°6 5948-14 5 16806°9
597049 5 16744:0 5947-94 168074
6970-00 4 16745°4 5947°35 4 168091
5969-58 5 167465 5946°75 4 16810°8
5969°11 4 16747:9 5946:08 5 16812°7
5968°71 5 16749°0 5945°42 4 16814°6
5968°22 4 16750°4 5945-14 2 16815°4
5967-83 5 16751°5 5944°79 4 168164
5967°37 4 16752°7 594418 5 1681871
5966-97 5 16753°9 5943°87 2 168190
596652 4 16755'1 5943-57 4 16819°8
596616 5© 167561 5943-29 2 16820°6
5965:71 4 16757°4 5942-92 5 16821°6
5965-35 5 167584 5942-32 4 16823°3
5964-96 4 16759°5 5942-04 2 16824°1
5964-54 + 16760°7 5941°75 4 16825:0
596417 2 16761°7 5941°21* 5 16826°5
5963-78 4 16762°8 5940-60 4 16828°2
5963°49 3 16763°6 5940°36 2 16828°9
5963-17 3 16764°5 5940°05 4 16829°8
5962782 4 16765°5 5939-44 5 16831°5
5962°47 3 16766°5 5938°89 4 168331
5962°10 5 16767°6 5938°36 5 16834°6
596188 5 16768°2 5937°84 3 16836'1
5961:58 3 16769°0 5937°61 3 16836°7
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 243
IODINE (ABSORPTION)—continued.
Wave- Intensity and | Oscillation Wave- _| Intensity and| Oscillation |
length Character | Frequency length | Character Frequency |
5937-29 4 16837°6 5OI717' |S | 16894-9
5936°79 3 16839°0 591687: | 2 16895:7
5936759 3 16839°6 591650 | 3 16896'8
5936-23 3 16840°6 591613 | 2 16897'8
5935°72 4 16842°1. || 5915:78 | 38 16898'8
5935°30 3 16843:3 5915°42 3 16899:9
5934:82* 4 16844-6 5915-05 3 16900:9
593455 2 16845°4 5914-60 3 16902°2
5934°30 2 168461 || 5914:30 3 16903:0
5934-07 2 16846°8 5914-04 2 16903°8
5933°90 4 16847°2 5913-71 2 16904°%
5933°35 2 16848°8 5913°30 4 16905°9
5933-00 5 16849°8 5913-11 2 16906°5
5932-53 4 16851:0 || 5912°60) 4 16907°9
5932-11 5 16852°3 5912°31 f 16908°7
5931-45 4 16853°6 5911-95 3 16909°8
5931-24 5 168548 || 5911-70 3 16910°5
5930°80 4 168560 || 5911-48 4 169111
5930°40* 5 16857°2 || 6911-22 2 16911°9
5929-95 4© 16858°5 5910°57 ) 5 16913-7
5929°56 5 16859°6 5910°32 ¥ 16914°4
5929-12 3 16860°8 || 5909°89 4 16915°7
5928-72 4 168620 || 5909°62 2 16916-4
5928°35 3 16863-0 5909°31 5 16917'3
5927-96* 4 168641 || 5908-65 4 16919-2
5927°63 2 16865°1 5908°33 2 16920-1
5927°25 4 168661 || 5908-03 4 16921:0
5927-00 4 16866°8 | 5907*42 5) 16922:7
5926-67 3 16867°8 || 5906-87 4 16924:3
5926-27 4 16868-9 5906:22* 5 16926-2
5925-98 3 16869:7 5905°62 5 16927°9
5925-68 4 16870°6 5905°05 4 16929°6
5925°35 4 16871°5 5904:50* 5 169311
5925-03 3 1687274 5904-02 3 16932°5
5924:59* 6 16873°7 5903°97 3 16932°7
5923-98 5 16875-4 5903-45 3 169341
5923°67 5 16876°3 5903-24 3 16934-7
5923-40 3 16877°1 5902°96 4 16935°5
5923-08 43 16878-0 5902:71 4 16936:3
5922-86 4s 168786 5902-44 3 16937:0
592253 nada 16879°6 5902°17 3 16937-8
5922-04 a 16881-0 590184 4 16938°8
5921-77. 7 band 16881:7 5901°56 3 169396 |
5OQL-24 f ae 168832 5901°31 3 16940°3— |
5921-00 7 band 16883-9 5900°91* 5 16941-4
5920°58 16885:1 5900-42 5 16942:8
5920-34 3 16885'8 5899°95 5 169442 |
5920-00 6 16886'8 5899-41 5 16945°7
5919°75 6 16887°5 5898-98 5 16947-0
5919-36 H 168886 5898-46 5 16948:5
5919-11 1 16889°3 5898-00 5 16949°8
5918-64 5 16890°7 5897°50 5 169512
5918-31 5 16891°6 5897-05* 5 16952°5
5917-92 5 16892:7 5896-71 2 16953°5
5917-55 5 16893:8 5896:02 2 oe
5895°76 2 16956:2
Beret (5881 5895°50 4 16957-0
5917-65 5 16893'8 589507 4 16958:2
Rr 2
244
Wave-
length
5894°65
589422
5893°83
5893°43
5893'07
5892°77
5892-40
5892°08
5891°72
5891°35
589097
5890°15
&889°86
588954
5889-23
5888°84*
5888°48
5888'13
5887°83
5887°57
5887:28
5886°95
5886°75
5886°45
588613
5885°86
5885-60
5885735
5885-00
5884-74
588410
5883°83
5883-43
5882-77
5882:23
5881°91
5881-71
588142
588117
REPORT—1890.
IODINE (ABSORPTION)—continued,
Intensity and
Character
WRWWWWRRWR OW wR RP
a
or Mor es ool oe
AnWwnrrwoarngn
Group 5881|-5846
5881:17
588053
5880-02
5879'73*
587909
5878:75
5878-54
587818
5877-68
587748
5876°91
5876'69
5876°50
5876°18*
587584
5875°54
PNOWNWUKWPRWWN Db wb ae
Oscillation
Frequency
16959°4
16960°6
16961°8
169629
16964:0
16964'8
16965°9
16966'8
16967°8
16968°9
16970°0
169724
16973°2
16974:1
169750
16976°1
169772
169782
16979'0
16979°8
16980°6
16981°6
16982'2
169830
16984:0
1698£:7
16985°5
16986°2
16987'2
16988°0
16989°8
16990°6
16991-7
16993°6
16995°2
16996°1
16996°7
16997°5
16998°3
16998°3
17000°1
17001°6
17002°4
17004°3
17005°3
170059
170069
17008°4
17008-9
17010°6
17011°2
17011'8
17012:7
17013:7
170145
Wave-
length
5875-24
587486
5874:47
5874:22
5873°61
5873-28
587294
5872°39
5872-02
5871-74
5871:35
5871:16
5870°57
5870°14
5869°88
5869°58
5869-23
586895
5868°67
5868'38
5868°05
5867-77
5867°49
5867:23
5866°91*
5866°42
5865°93
586536
5865°04
586481
5864°32
5864-00
5863-70
5863-44
5863°22
5862°69
5862°26
586176
5861°33
5860'87
5860°54
5860°27
5859°85
5859°40
5859-00
5858°60
5858-28
5858-08
5857°63
5857°30
5856°91
5856°49*
585604
585569
5855:29*
5854-90
5854'55
685411
Intensity and | Oscillation
Character
StH bo Ot bo HH OL bo OT DO DO
n
band
NNN EOWA WW ERO REP P DN WDE RW ROA N WD RDO dw wpe
OC C2 He RE He OD OV-Or
Frequency
17015°4
17016°5
17017'6
17018°3
17020:1
170211
170221
17023°7
170247
17025'6
17026°7
17027°2
17029:°0
17030°2
17031:0
17031°8
17032°9
17033:7
17034°5
17035°3
17036°3
17037'1
17037°9
17038°7
17039°6
17041°0
17042°4
170441
170450
17045°7
1704771
17048°1
17048°9
17049°T
17050°3
17051°9
17053:1
17054°6
17055°8
170572
17058°1
17058:9
17060°1
17061°4
17062°6
17063°8
17064°7
17065°3
17066-6
17067°6
17068°7
17069°9
17071:2
17072-2
17073°4
170745
17075°6
- 17076°8
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 245
IODINE (ABSORPTION)—continued.
Wave- Intensity and | Oscillation Wave- Intensity and | Oscillation
length Character Frequency length Character Frequency
5853'78 3 170778 583479 2 171334
6853°53 4 17078°5 583449 4 171343
5853'13 4 17079°7 5834°24 4 17135:0
5852°92 3 17080°3 583387 4 171363
5852°17 3 17082°5 5833°32* 5 171377
6851°83 4 17083°5 5832-82* 5 17139°2
5851°56 5 17084°3 5832-28 4 17140°8
5851°30 17085:0 5831°59* 4 17142°8
5851-00 5 170859 5831-11 4s 171442
5850'76 5 17086°6 5830°56 4s 17145:8
5850°51 17087°3 5830:07 5 17147:3
5850°22 6 170882 5829°52* 5 17148°9
5849-93 17089-0 582897 Ws 17150°5
5849-71 2 17089°7 5828°44 5s 17152°1
5849°37 3 17090°7 5827-93* 5 17153°6
5849:00 2 17091°8 5827°51 4 171548
5848°57 7O 17093°0 5827-05 4 17156°2
5848-27 2 170939 5826-70 3 17157:2
5847°98 Bbend 17094°7 5826°51 3 17157-7
5847°50 170961 582613 5 17158-9
5847°08 6 17097°4 5825°90 2 17159°5
5846°54 6 17098:9 582567 4 17160:2
5846°22 6 17099°9 5825-20 5 17161°6
5845°66* t 171015 582468 ay band 17163°1
5824:25 5 171644
5823°83 4 17165°6
ere =6,-5811 5823-40" | 6 17166-9
5845°66* 4 17101°5 5823-00 ay pared 17168'1
584490 5 17103°7 5822°63 4 17169°2
5844-52 2 171049 5822:23 3 17170°1
584414 4 17106°0 5821:83 4 17171°5
5843°79 2 17107:0 5821:46 3 17172°6
5843°50 5s 17107°8 5821:07 4 17173°8
5842°74t 4 1711071 5820°81 3 171745
5842°17 4 171117 5820°31 4 171760
5841°94 4 17112°4 5819-98 4 17177:0
5841-62 3 171134 5819-62 4 171781
5841°35 4s 171141 5819°28 4 171791
5841-00 3 171152 5818-95 3 17180°0
5840°65 4 17116°2 581854 4 17181:2
5840°40 2 171169 5818-33 2 17181-9
5840:06 5 17117:9 5817°91 4 17183:1
5839°83 4 171186 5817°69 4 17183°7
5839-48 5 17119°6 5817:40 4 17184:0
5839-24 t 17120°3 5817-05 4 17185°6
5838-86 4 17121°4 5816°78 3 17186°4
5838-66 5 17122:0 5816°47 3 171874
583824 5 17123°3 5816:23 3 17188°1
5838-00 4 171240 5816:02 3 17188°7
5837°52 + 17125°4 5815°76 3 171895
5837:23 2 17126°2 5815:40 6 17190°5
5836°89 4 17127-2 5815:03 4 17191°6
5836-62 2 17128°0 5814°70* 4 17192°6
5836-29 3 17129°0 5814:24* 4 17193°9
5836-04 3 17129°7 5813°90 5 17194°9
5835-66* 4 17130°7 5813°32 5 17196°7
5835°35 2 17131'8 5813-00 3 17197°6
6835-04 43 17132°7 || = -5812°66 6 17198°6
Wave-
length
5812°36
5811-91
5811-65
Group 5811
5811°65
5811°33
5811-03
5810-77
5810°30
5809-63
5809:24
580889
5808°51
5808-26
5807:92
5807°66
5807°32
5807:05
5806°69
5806°50
5806:24
5805°86
5805'63
5805:27
5805:05
580478
5804:53 |
5804:31 f
5803°98 |.
5803°77 J
5803°42
580312
5802°72
5802°45
5802-08
5801°88
5801:47*
5801:02
5800°77
5800°38
580011
5799°83
5799°63
5799:22
5798°69
579845
579814)
5797°93 f
5797-49*
5796°97*
5796-42
5796-04
5795°72
5795:37
5794:87*
5794:41*
REPORT—1890,
IoDINE (ABSORPTION)—continued.
Intensity and
Character
EES
—5778
WOEH PORE PRD PRA Wha
\ band
Hm HOO 0D 02 CO OL or QD OOP WWE www
Oscillation
Frequency
17199°5
17200'8
172016
17201°6
17202°5
17203°5
172042
“17205°6
17207°6
17208°7
17209°8
17210°9
17211°6
172126
17213°4
172144
172152
17216°3
17216°9
172176
17218°8
17219°4
17220°5
17221:2
17222:0
17222°7
17223°3
17224°3
17225°0
17226:0
17226°9
17228°1
172289
17230:0
17230°6
17231'8
172331
17233'9
17235:0
17235°8
172367
172373
17238°5
172401
17240°8
172417
17242°3
17243°6
172452
17246'8
17247°9
17248°9
17249°9
172514
17252°8
Wave-
length
5793°96*
579347
5793°00
5792:52*
5792:02*
5791°58
5790°65
5790°33
5789°85
5789:41
5789°00
5788°62*
5787-78
5787°44
5787-17
5786°78
5786°44
5786-03
5785°71.
578536
578506
5784°75
5784°46
5784°24
5783°85
5783°42
5783°00
5782°43
5781°93*
5781°45*
5781:02*
5780°65
5780°42*
5780:09
5779°79
5779°47
577918
5778°87
5778-62
5778°28
Intensity and
Character
Oscillation
Frequency
band
ee —
AAANINNOROW EE PWR WWWWOR ROR RR ED WR RRR RH OL
Group 5778|-5746
5778°28
5777-93
5777°61*
5777-21
5776°89*
5776754
577619
577585
5775°42
577515
5774°85
5774:49
577417
5773°80
5773:52
NWONANNRwWWNHAND ENR
17284°3
172856
17286°8
17288°5
17290-0
172915
17292°7
17293°8
17294°5
17295°5
17296°4
172974
17298°3
17299-2
17299°9
17300°9
17300°9
17302°0
17302-9
173041
17305:1
17306°2
17307°2
17308:2
17309°5
17310°3
173112
17312°3
17313°3
173144
17315°2
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 247
IoDINE (ABSORPTION)—continued.
Wave- Intensity and | Oscillation Wave- Intensity and | Oscillation
length Character Frequency | length Character | Frequency
577314 3 17316°3 | 5753°75 5 173747
5772°84 2 17317°2 | 5753°36 3} band 173759
5772°52 oF 17318°2 | 6752°72 3 17377°8
5772°26 4 17319°0 | 5752°51 2 173784
577193 4 17320-0 | 5752°21 4© 173794
5771°63 3 17320°9 | 5751°87 4 17380°4
5771-24 3 17322°0 | 6751°49 3 17381°5
5771°02 + 17322°7 | 6576111 3 173827
5770°67 4 17323°8 5750°68 5 17384:0
5770°34 2 173247 5750°33 4 17385:0
5770°04 2 17325°6 5749°97* 4 17386°1
5769°75 4s intl 17326°5 5749°61 3 173872
5769°18 4 f 17328°2 5749°20 3 17388'5
5768°85 3 17329°2 5748°86 4 17389°5
5768°59 3 17330:0 5748°53 4© 17390°5
5768°25 4s 173310 | 574813 4© 17391-7
5767-90 2 173321 5747-75 5 17392'8
5767°63 2 17332°9 5747:°42 5 173938
5767-38 4 17333°6 5747-14 2 173947
5767°12 4 17334-4 5746°83 5 17395°6
5766°81 2 17335°3 5746°52 2 17396°6
5766°48 | 4 17336°3 | 6746-21 6 17397°5
5766°30 J 17336°9 5745°92 6 17398°4
5765°96 4 173379
5765°74 2 17538°6
576547 2 17339-4 Group 5746-5715
5765°19 k 17340:2 5745'92 6 17398°4
5764°85 3 17341°3 5745°65 2 17399°2
5764-63 4 17341°9 5745°39 2 17400°0
5764°35 2 17342°8 5745°04 3 174010
5764-08 3 17343°6 5744°66 4 17402-2
5763°68 4 17344:8 574441 3 17402°9
5763°07 4s 17346°6 5744°02* 3 L7404-1
5762-80 3 17347-4 5743°69 3 17405'1
5762°53 3© 17348°2 5743°36 4 174061
5762°33 2 17348°8 5743°00 4 17407°2
5762-00 3 17349°8 5742-64 3 17408°3
5761°69 5 17350°8 5742°28 5 17409-4
5761-18* 5 17352°3 5742-10 o) 174100
5760°72* 5 17353°7 5741-75 3 174110
5760°26* f 17355°1 5741-41 2 174120
5759°88 4 17356°2 5741-07 5 17413-1
5759-66 2 17356°9 5740°79 5 17413°9
5759-41 3 17357°6 5740°43 2% band 174150
5759-18 3 17358°3 6740°14 3 17415:9
5758-90 4 17359°2 5739°78 4 17417:0
5758°57 3 17360°2 5739°55 2 174177
5758°28 3 17361:0 5739°18 3 17418'8
5757°96* 3 17362°0 5738°94 2 17419°5
5757°55* 4 17363°2 5738°64 3 17420°5
5757°29 2 173640 5738°30 3 17421°5
5756°94 3s© 173651 5738°00 2 174224
5756°53 3n 17366°3 5737-71 3 174233
5755:98* 4 17368:0 5737°33 4 17424-4
5755°51 3 17369°4 5737-09 4 17425-2
5755-09 5 lend 173707 5736°76 3 17426°2
5754°47 5 an 17372°5 5736745 2 17427-1
6754:13 4 17373°6 5736°26 4 174277
248 REPORT—1890.
IODINE (ABSORPTION )—continued.
Wavye- Intensity and | Oscillation Wave- Intensity and | Oscillation
length Character Frequency length Character Frequency |.
5735°88 2 17428°8
5735°64 3 17429°6 Group 5715/5684
5735°43 3 17430°2 5714°92 6 17492°8
5735°05 4 17431°3 5714°42 3 174943)
573478 4 17432°2 571411 4 17495:2
5734°50 2 17433-0 5713°73 3 17496°4
5734°24 2 17433°8 5713°45 3 17497°3
5734:00 2 17434°5 5713°17 3 17498°1
5733°71 2 17435°4 5712°89 3 17499°0
5733°42 3 17436°3 5712°24 6 17501°0
5733°21 3 17436°9 5711°84 2 17502°2
5732°95 3 174387-7 571109 4 17504°5
5732°64 2 17438°7 5710°75 3 17505°5
5732°27 3 17439°8 5710°29* 5 17506'9
5731°95 5s © 17440°8 5709°25 4 1751071
5731°66 5s 17441°6 5708°38* 6 17512°8
5731:40 2 17442°4 5707°92 3 175142
5731:13 4 17443°3 5707°33t 5 17516°0
5730°75* 4 17444°4 5706°52 4 17518°5:
5730:27* 4 17445°9 570617 3 17519°6
5729°92 2 17447°0 5705°85 3 17520°6
"5729°67 3 17447°8 5705°52 3 17521°6
5729°46 2 17448°4 5705°24 2 17522°4
5729-24 2 174490 570487 5 17523°6
5728-84* 3 17450°3 5704°57 2 17524°5
5728-44* 5 17451°5 5704°238 2 17525°5
5727:90* 5 17453°1 5703°89 5s 17526°6
5727-46 3 17454°5 5703°60 2 17527°5
5727:24 ay 174561 5703°27 4 17528°5
5726-97 3 174560 5702°79 5 17530°0
5726-70 3 17456°8 6702°57 3 17530°6
5726:25* 5 17458°2 5702°26 4 17531°6
5725:°81* 3 17459°5 5702°04 3 4 band 17532°3
5725:29* 5 1746171 570119 4 J 17534'9
5724-64 5 17463°1 5700°61* 5 17536°7
5724-30 2 Band 174641 5700°16 2 17538'0
5724-10 2 174647 5699-60 5 17539°8
5723°75 5 17465°8 5699°19 2 17541:0
5723-17* 4 17467°4 5698°97 2 17541°7
5722-77 4 17468°8 5698°70 6© 17542°5
5722°37 3} ea 17470°0 5698:28* 2 17543°8
6721°91 5 17471°4 5697°84 6s 17545°2
5721:47 3 17472°7 5697°33* 2 17546°7
5721:09* 4 17473°9 5696°92* 4 17548°0
5720:60* 6 17475°4 5696743 4 17549°5
5719-96 5 174773 5696:07* 5 17550°6
5719°40 5 17479°1 569561 4 17552°0
5718°98 17480°3 5695°26* 5 17553'1
5718°55 5 174817 5694°82 3 175545
571818 5@) 17482°8 569457 3 17555°3
5717°76 6n 174841 5694°29 3 17556°1
5717°46 4n 17485:0 5694-00 4© Uiond 17557:0
5717:04 5 17486°3 5693°59 4 4 175583
5716°67 3 17487°4 5693°05t 6 17560-0
5716°31* 5 17488°5 5692°53 3 17561°6
5715°85 4 17489°9 5692°21 5 17562°6
5715°45* 6 1749171 5691°50 & 17564°7
5714:92* 6 17492°8 6691-14 2 17565°9
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 249
IODINE (ABSORPTION)—continued.
Wave- Intensity and| Oscillation Wave- Intensity and| Oscillation
length Character Frequency length Character Frequency
5690°81 5s © 17566°9 5665°02 5 176469
5690°51 3 17567'8 566474 3 17647°7
5690-09* 5 17569°1 5664°38 5 17648'8
5689°67 3 17570°4 5663°94 3 17650:2
5689°20* 5 17571°8 5663°61 3 176512
5688°88 2 17572°8 5663°38 5 17651°9
5688°09 3 17575°3 5662°58 3 17654°4
5687-85 3 175760 566222 3s 17655°6
5687°58 3 175768 5661°89 4s 17656°6
5687°12* 5 175783 566154 3 176577
5686°41* 4 17580°5 566116 5 17658°8
5686-02 4 175817 5660°91 17659°6
5685°63 5 17582°9 5660-66 2 17660-4
5685:09t 6 17584°5 5660°38 4 176613
568454 6s 175862 566004 3 176623
5659-76 4 17663-2
= 5659°46 2 17664:2
eens 5658-98 6O 17665:7
568454 6 175862 5658°17* 5 17668-2
568425 3 17587'1. 565782 2 17669°3
5683°76 4 175887 | 5657-48 4 17670°3
5683:08* 6 17590°8 5656-71 ‘4 17672°8
5682-35 +t 17593:0 565642 3 176737
5681-80 4 175947 5656°10 5 176747
5681°18* 3 17596°6 5655°05 4 17678-0
5680°52 5 17598°7 5654°71 4 17679-0
5680°10 3 176000
5679°78 4 17601-0
5679°39 oe 17602:2 Group 5655|-5626
5679-16 17602°9 5654-71 4 176790
5678°59 6n 17604:7 565414 4 17680°8
5678°02 5 17606°4 5653°77 2 17682:0
5677-62 3 17607°7 5653°43 5 176830
5677°30 3 176087 §653'15 2 17683°9
5676°82* 6 17610°2 5652°74 5 17685°2
5676-22 3 176120 565215 5 17687:0
5675-77* 5 176134 5651:79 2 17688-1
5675-04* 4 176157 5651°41* 4 17689°3
5674:58 3 17617°1 5650°86 4© 17691-1
5674-00 4 176189 5650°35* 5 17692°7
5673°57 3 176202 5649°94 2 17693°9
5673-23 3s 17621°3 5649°61* 6s 17695:0
5672:96 3s 17622:1 5649°02 5 17696°8
5672-42 5s 17623°8 5648744 5 17698°6
5671-95 3 176253 5648715 3 17699°5
5671-43 5s 17626'9 5647°68* 7 17701:0
5670-44 4 17630:0 5647:21 3s 17702°5
5669-87 4 17631°7 5646°72 6 177040
5669°45* 5 17633:0 5646°43 2 17704°9
5669-00 4s 5 176344 5646°14 6 17705'8
5668-47 4n 17636:1 5645-82 3 \ band 17706°9
566811 4s 17637:2 5645-50 4 177079
5667:61 4 17638°8 5645°01 5 17709°4
5667-22 4 17640:0 5644-77 2 17710:1
5666:63* 5 17641°'8 5644-49 3 17711-0
5666-34 3 17642°7 | 5644-14 3 177121
5665-90 5 17644°1 5643°83 3 177131
5665-50 3 17645°3 | 6643-63 2 17713°7
250
REPORT—1890.
IODINE (ABSORPTION)—continued,
Wave- Intensity and | Oscillation Wave-
length Character Frequency length
5643'41 4 17714°4 5622°56
564290 5s 177160 5622°23
5642°40 5s 177176 5621°94
5642°15 2 17718°4 562168
5641°91 4 17719'1 5621°36
5641°33 2 17720°9 5621:00
5640°90 6 17722°3 5620°59
5640748 4 17723°6 5620°33
5640-00 6 17725'1 5619°84
5639°53 2 17726°6 5619°59
5639°15 6 177278 5619°32*
5638°64 er anid 17729°4 5618°76*
5638°23 6 17730°7 5618°38
5637°79 2 177321 561817
5637°36* 6© 17733°4 5617-81
5636'87 4 17735°0 5617°54
5636°51 4 1773671 5617°36
563619 3) 177371 5617-06
5635°97 4 *, band 17737°8 5616750
5635°71 4f 17738°6 5616-20
5635°35 3 17739°7 5615:05*
5634-94 3 17741-0 5614°53
5634°66 4 177419 5614-04
563429 a} band 17743°1 5613-77
5633°62 4 17745°2 561350
5633°26 2 17746°3 5613°23
5632°95 5 17747°3 5613-03
5632°63 4 17748°3 6612-79
5632°24 | 5 17749°5 6612°58
5632°00 f 17750°3 6612-11
5631°70* 5 17751°2 5611-91
5631°39 5 177522 5611-64
5631-11 5 177531 5611:28
5630°63* 5 177546 5610°81
5630°34 2 17755'5 5610-41
5630-04 4 177565 561019
5629°82 2 17757-2 5609-93
5629: 64 4 177577 5609°57
5629°31 5 17758'8 5609-07*
5628-90 6 17760°1 5608°74
5628°35t 17761°'8 5608°36
5627-97 6 17763°0 569794
5627-59 2 17764°2 5607-67
5627-19 6 17765°'5 5607°35*
5626°50* 6 17767°6 5606:82
5606756
5606-21
Group 5626/-5599 5605-75*
5626°50 6 17767°6 5605-50
5626:00 4 17769°2 560520
5625°67 2 17770°3 5604-93
5625°30 4 177714 560465
5624°95 3 17772°5 5604:31
5624-18 5 17775°0 5604-00
5623:84 2 177760 560379
5623:50 5 7777-1 5603-47
5623:15 3 17778°2 5602°98
5622°85 3 17779-2 5602:73
Intensity and
Character
PON TPE RPE EPWTREROAROAWOP EP EW OOW PROP PREP ROTNAGTND A NWN N WRw wR bd
1)
Oscillation
Frequency
1778071
177811
17782°1
177829
17783°9
17785°0
17786°3
17787°2
17788°7
17789°5
17790°4
17792°1
17793°3
177940
177951
17796:0
17796°6
177975
17799°3
17800°2
17803°9
17805°5
178071
17807-9
17808-8
17809-7
178103
17811°1
17811-7
17813°2
17813°8
17814°7
17815°8
17817°3
17818°6
17819°3
17820:1
178213
17822°9
17823-9
17825°1
178264
17827°3
17828°3
17830°0
17830°8
17832:0
17833°4
17834:2
17835:2
17836:0
17836°9
17838°0
17839°0
17839°6
178407
17842:2
178430
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 251
JoDINE (ABSORPTION)—continued.
Wave-
length
5602°44
5602"24
560206
5601°81
5601°30
5600-95
5600-73 F
5600°37*
5599-97
5599°61*
5599°14
Group 5599
559914
559837
5597-94
5597°61*
5597-14
5596°79
5596-40
5596°05
5595°71
5595°34
5594-98
5594:32
5594:00
5593°70
5593-40
5593712
559282
5592-29
5592-00
5591°75
559151
5591-23
5591°04
5590°82
5590°56
5590-03
5589°57
5589°26
5588°98
5588:49
5688719
5587-91
5587°56
Group 5587
5587°56
5586°55
5586-31
5586-02
558564
5585-35
5585°10
6584-74
5584-45
Intensity and
Character
Oo oO Wh OF
—5587
UH He 9 OD HR He OT RS BO OTHE BD STO OTH He HR RD OT RO HE RO OT CO HE HR OT OTD
-5560
He bo Cp bo OT > He OO OF
Oscillation || Wave-
Frequency length
a
178439 || 6584-18
178446 || 5583-84
17845-2 558359
17846-0 5583°36
17847°6 558316
17848°7 5582-91
17849°4 5582°64
17850°5 5582°06
178518 || 5581°81
178530 558142
17854:5 5581-07
5580:90
5580-60
17854:5 5580°30
- 5579-64
1756-9
Kee 5579-21
17858:3 579"
te 557859
17859°3 ;
1858" 557829
17860'8 eee
178620 BT 7-63
17863°2 BB77: 42
17864:3
17865°4 pute t
5576-79
173866-6 a
17867-7 576:
5576-03
17369:9 sabe
17870-9 a
17871°8 5575'58
17872'8 DETD'Sb
178737 5575°04
178746 5574-60
1787673 boiett
178773 5573°64
17878:0 bones
178788 borae1
17879:7 Goraes
17880°3 567187
17881-0 at
17881°9 5571-01
17883°5 5670°61
17885-0 peel
178860 5569°82*
17886:9 556946
17888°5 5569°06
17889:4 5568°74
17890-4 5568-32
16891:5 5567-97
5567-66
5567-27
5566-93
17891°5 5566°57
17894-7 5566-29
17895°5 5565-69
17896-4 5565°38
17897°6 5565°10
17898-6 5564-81
17899°4 5564-52
17900'5 5564-29
17801°4 5503 75
Intensity and
Character
DO CIrOTP PP Orty by Whew
n
NAN PAO ORHO EATER ATR EPP RATHRARTND EN RDN H G Crown
Oscillation
Frequency
17902°3
17903-4
179042
17904:9
17905°6
17906°4
17907°2
17909°1
17909°9
17911:2
17912°3
17912°8
17913°8
17914°8
17916°9
17918°3
17920-2
17921-2
17922:1
17923'3
17924-0
17925°0
17926'0
179276
17928°5
17929°2
17929°9
17930°7
17931°7
179331
17934-6
17936°2
17936°9
17939°1
17940°5
17941°9
17943°2
179446
17945°9
17947:2
179485
17949°6
17950:9
17951:9
17953°3
17954°4
17955:4
17956°7
17957°8
17958°9
17959°8
17961:8
17962°8
17963°7
179646
17965°5
17966°3
17968-0
252 REPORT—1890.
IODINE (ABSORPTION)—continued,
Wave- Intensity and | Oscillation Wave- Intensity and} Oscillation
length Character Frequency length Character Frequency
5563°50 4 17968°8 5544°33 4 18031:0
5563°30 3 17969°5 554392 5 18032°3
5563-06 1 5O 17970°3 5543-14 5 18034'8
5562°85 f 17970'9 5542°72 3 18036:2
5562°61 2 17971°7 5542°37 6 180374
5562°33* 5s 17972°6 5542-00 2 18038°6
5561-92 3 179739 5541°61 2 18039°8
5561°58 4 17975:0 5541-29 4 180409
5561°20 2 17976°3 5540°91 6 18042°1
5560°96 4 17977:0 5540°54 3 18043°3
5560°70 2 17977°9 5540°22 4s 18044'3
5560-44 6 17978°7 5539-90 3 180454
5560°25 6 17979°3 5539°57 5 18046°5
5559°95 5 17980°3 5539:27 4 18047°4
5559°57 4 17981°6 5538°96 5 18048°4
5538°65 4 18049°5
5538°39 3 18050°3
Groep 2060) 6b38 5538-07 4s 18051:3
5559°57 4 17981°5 5537°79 3 18052'3
5559-03 5 17983°3 5537°55 3 180530
555861 3 17984°6 5537-26 3 180540
5558°34 5 179855 553701 3 18054°8
5557°77 4 17987°4 553680 5 18055°5
5557°17* 6 17989°3 5536°59 5 18056°2
555687 2 17990°3 5536°34 2 18057:0
§556°54 4 17991°3 5536:09 5 18057°8
5556:04* 5 17992:9 5535°69 2 18059°1
555572 2 17994:0 5535°41 50 18060:0
555505 2 17996:2 5535°15 18060:9
5554°82 4 17996°9 5534:79* 4 18062:0
5554'57 4 17997°7 553433 2 18063°5
5554°22 4© 17998'8 553393 4 18064°9
5553'89 3 17999°9 5533°68 2 18065°7
5553°61 6 18000°8 5533°37 6 18066°7
555307 4 18002°6 5533-20 4 18067:2
555260 5 180041 5532°85 z 180684
555228 2 18005:2
5651:98 5 18006°1 :
aeetiea : ie0070 || Gxoup 6533-5507
555145 4 18007:9 5532°85 4 18068°4
5551°22 2 18008°6 553240 4 18069°8
5550°91 5 18009°6 6532-10 3 18070°8
5550°36 5 18011°4 5531°75 4) Fendi 18072:0
5550711 2 18012-2 5531°10 ey vii 18074:1
5549°83 4 18013°1 5530°56 5 18075'9
5549-40 6 18014°5 5530°22 4 18077:0
5548-98 2 H hand 18015:9 5529°88 5 180781
5548-36 5 18017:9 5529-39 5 18079°7
5547:92 5 18019:3 5529-23 2 18080°2
5547°68 2 180201 552837 2 18083°0
5547-41 28 Pond 18021:0 5528-14 4 18083'8
5546'96 6 18022°4 5527°58* 6 18085°6
554650 5 18023:9 5526:97* 5 18087'6
5546°07 4 18025°3 5526°64 2 180887
5545-57 6 18026'9 5526°38* 6 18089°5
5545°35 2 180277 5525-98 4 18090'8
5545711 3 18028°4 6525°38 5 18092°8
5544-76 5 18029°6 552518 18093'5
— ——
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 253
IODINE (ABSORPTION)—continued.
Wave- Intensity and| Oscillation || | Wave- Intensity and| Oscillation
length Character Frequency length Character Frequency
5524°86 3 18094°5 ee
552457 2 180954 || Group 5607/5482
5524-28 5 18096°4 550684 4 18153'7
5524-02 2 18097-2 5506-49 4 181549
5523°75 5 18098°1 5606°28 5 181556
5523-49 2 18099°0 5605'70 5 18157°5
5523°22 5 18099:9 5505:19 6 18159°2
552296 2 18100°7 550495 6 18160°0
§522°25 ar hand 18103-0 5504'51 = 181614
5521-79* 6 18104°6 5504°26 3 4 band 18162°2
§521°34 6 181060 5503°86 5f 18163°6
5521-08 2 18106°9 5503-42 5 18165°0
5520°81 3 18107°8 5503-00 2% band 18166°4
5520°33* 6 18109°3 5502°72* 4 18167°3
5519°86 4 18110°9 5502°43 2 18168°3
5519-46 5 18112°2 5502°13* 3 18169°3
5519-00 4 18113°7 5501-66 3 18170°8
5518-62 5 18114°9 5501-44 3 18171°5
5518-37 2 18115°8 5501°22 3 18172°3
5518-14 is band 18116°5 5501°06 3 18172°8
5517-73 4 18117:9 5500°78 3 181737
5517-30* 4 18119°3 5500°43* 6 181749
5516-93 4 18120°5 5499-94* 4 1817675
6516-55 5n 18121°8 5499-68 2 18177°3
5516715 4 18123°1 5499-40* 3 181783
5515°81* 5 181242 5499-14 2 18179-1
5515-44 4 18125°4 5498°80 4 18180°3
5515-03 4 18126°8 549832 7 18181°8
5514°35* 4 18129-0 5497°81* 7 18183°5
5514-01 3 18130°1 5497-51 6 181845
5513°67 3 18131°2 5497-15t 181857
5513°35 4 18132°3 5496°88 2 18186°6
5513-08 3 18133°2 5496-67 3 18187°3
5512-76 4© 18134°2 5496°36 6 18188°3
5512-45 30 181352 5495°88 4 18189°9
5512712 3 18136:3 5495°60 2 18190°8
5511-86 2 18137-2 5495°34* 4 18191°7
5511-61 5)\ hand 18138-0 5495-05F 18192°7
5511°30 Sif 18139-0 5494:76T 18193°6
5511-01 4 18140:0 5494-52 4 181944
5510°77 4 181408 5494-33 4 18195:0
5510°52 4 181416 5494:00* 5 18196°1
5510-29 5 181424 5493°58* 5 18197°5
5510°11 5O 18143:0 5493-24 3 18198°7
6509-91 2 18143°6 5493-05 3 18199°3
5509-67 3 18144-4 5492-75 4 18200°3
6509-44 3 18145:2 5492-42 2 18201°4
5509-17 3 181461 5492-25 2 18201°'9
550895 5 18146°8 549193 4 18203-0
5508-69 5 18147°6 5491-75 3 band 18203°6
5508°51 2 18148-2 5491-52 3 18204:4
5508-26 4 18149-0 5491-09 5 18205:8
5508-03 4 18149-8 5490:78 3 Pant 18206°8
5507°84 3 18150°4 5490°37* ar 18208:2
550763 3 18151°1 5490:00 3 18209°4
_ 6507-37 3 181520 5489-67 6 18210°5
. 5506-84 4 18153°7 5489-29 3 18211°7
5488-95* 6 182129
954 REPORT —1890.
IODINE (ABSORPTION )—continued.
Wave- Intensity and | Oscillation | Wave- Intensity and | Oscillation
length Character Frequency || length Character Frequency
548855 3 182142 | 5469°15* 4 18278°8
5488'14t 4 182156 | 5468°78* 5 182801
5487°62 4 18217°3 | 5468-38* 6 18281-4
5487°32 2 1821873 | 5467:°95* 2 182828
5487-01 4 18219°3 | 5467°50* 4 182843
5486°74 3 18220°2 | 5467-12 2 18285°6
5486-46 3 182211 | 5466-76 7 18286°8
5486-20 3 18222-0 | 5466-41 2 18288:0
5485:93 ot Hand 18222-9 | 546596 4 18289°5
5485°27 5 18225°1 | 5465:72 4 18290°3
5484-93 3 182262 | 5465°32* 5 18291°6
5484-70 3 18227:0 5464-82 2 18293°3
5484-48 3 18227°7, 5464-51 5 182943
5484-22 3 18228°6 5464°24 2 18295:2
5483-95 4 18229°5 5463-90 5 18296-4
5483°27 4 18231-7 | 6462-90 5 18299°7
5483-00 6 band 18232°6 | 5462-°58 5 18300°8
5482-11* 18235°6 | 5462:25 4 18301°9
5481°65 5© 18237:2 5461-98 4 18302°8
5461-71 3 183037
5461-50 5 18304°4
Group 5482)-5457 5461°18 3 18305°5
5481-65 5 18237°2 5460°76 4 18306°9
5481°38 2 18238°1 5460°44 3 18308:0
5481:05* 3 182392 5460712) 5 18309-0
5480°77 3 1824071 5459-81 f 18310°1
5480:29* 5 18241-7 5459°54 3 18311-0
5479°88 4 18243:0 5459-22 4 18312-1
5479°53 4 18244-2 5458°85 5 18313°3
5479719 4 182453 5458°56 5 18314°3
5478-95 4 18246°1 | 5458-25 3 18315°3
547859 2 18247°3 | 5457-90 6 18316°5
5478°39 2 182480. || 5457-08 18319-2
5478:09 4 18249:0 |
7 2 182500
ae - A Sane Group 5457/5434
5476°30 4 18255-0 | 6457-13 5 18319°1
5476-03 4 18255°9 545679 2 18320°2
547556 4 182574 5456°44 3 18321°4
5475-21 4 18258°6 5456°15 2 18322°4
5475-01 3 18259°3 5455-47 2 183246
5474:°67 4 18260-4 545516 4 18325°7
547447 3 18261:1 5454-90 4 183266
5473°93 5 18262 9 5454°50* 3 18327°9
5473°55* i) 18264:1 _ 5454-09 3 18329°3
6473°12 18265°6 | 5453°78 3 18330°3
Bey poo 182671 || 5453-48 2 183313
5472743 3 18267°9 || 5453714 3 18332°5
5472°24 3 18268°5 5452°90 2 18333°3
5471-85 4s 18269°8 5452°66 3 18334°1
5471-52" 4 18270°9 5452-29 3 18235°3
5471:07* 5 18272°4 545203 2 18336°2
5470°75 4 18273°5 5451-79 2 183370
5470°48 3 18274°4 | 645151 5 183380
5470-15 3 182755 5451:21 5 18339°0
5469°96 2 182761 6450°78 3 18340°4
5469°77 2 18276°7 545046 3 18341°5
5469-45 3 18277°8 5450712 3 18342°6
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 255
IODINE (ABSORPTION)—continued.
Wave- Intensity and| Oscillation
length Character Frequency
5449°55* 5 18344°5
5449-04* 5 18346°3
5448-74 2 18347°3
6448-45 2 183483
5448-20 2 18349°1
5447°94 2 18350:0
5447-76 2 18350°6
5447-46 5 18351°6
5446°26 3 18355°6
5445°89 3 18356°9
5445°61 3 18357°8
5445°28* 5 183590
5444°83* £ 18360°5
5444-43 3 18361°8
5444-09 4 18363°0
5443-72 3 183642
5443-30 4 : 18365°6
5441-87 a Giines| 183706
544154 3 x 18371°6
Bani } 5 } dines 18375'1
5440-07 2 18376°5
5439°67* 5 18377°9
5439°39 5 18378'8
5439-08 4 18379°9
5438°72 5 18381:1
5438-43 6 18382°1
5438:08 3 18383'3
5437-79 3 18384°2
5437743 4 18385°5
5437-01 3 18386°9
5436°52* 5 18388°5
5436°05 5 18390°1
5435°72 5 18391-2
5435-43 4 18392:2
5435°21 4 18393°0
5434-42 5 18395°6
5434-03* 6 18397:0
543358 5 18398°5
Group 5434!-5411
5433°58 5 18398°5
5432-94 3 18400°6
5432°68 2 18401°5
5432°37 3 18402°6
5432-09 2 > band 18403°5
5431-82 3 184044
5431°46 + 3 18405°7
5431-20 2 184065
5430°71* 6 18408:2
5430°37 2 18409°4
5429°51 2 184123
5429-24 2 18413:2
5428-91 5 18414°3
5428:25* 4 18416°5
5427-79* 3 184181
5427-24 4 18420:0
5426°79* 4 184215
Wave- Intensity and| Oscillation
length Character Frequency
5426-40 3 18422°8
542613 2 18423°7
5425°76* 6 18425-0
5425°46 2 18426-0
5424-84 5© 18428-1
5424°30 5 18429:9
5423°95* 4 18431°1
5423°33* 5 18433°2
5423-05 1 4 184342
5422°26 f 18436°9
5422-02 4 18437°7
5421°64 4 18439-0
5421-19* 5 18440°5
5420°90 4 18441°5
5420°31 4 18443°5
5419°78+ 6 18445°3
5418°85 6 184485
5418-44 4 18449-9
541811 4 18451:0
5417-75 4 18452-2
5417-45 4 18453:2
5416°99* 6 18454°8
5416°57 2 18456°2
5416°16* 5 18457°6
541511 2 184612
5414-66 2 18462°7
541428 6 18464-0
5413-71 2 18466°0
5413-40 5 18467:0
5412-91 3 18468:7
5412°31* 6 18470°8
5411-°66* 7 184730
5410-75 6 band 18476'1
Group 5411|-5389
5410°75 6 18476:1
541040 2 18477°3
5409°79 18479°4
5409°47 3 184805
5409°16* 4 18481°5
5408°67* 2 18483-2
5408-19* 5 18484-9
5407°63* 4 18486:8
5407-12* 4 18488:5
5406°56* 4 18490°4
5405-91 3 184927
5405°38 2 184945
5404:96* 6 18495-9
5404:04* 6 18499°1
5403°47* 4 18501:0
5403-02* 4 18502°5
5402°51* 4 18504:3
5401-97* 5 18506°1
5401-53* 3 18507°7
5401:09* 5 18509:2
540057 3 18510:9
5400°21* 4 18512:2
5399-74 4 18513°8
256 REPORT—1890.
IODINE (ABSORPTION )—continued.
Wave- Intensity and | Oscillation Wave- Intensity and| Oscillation
length Character Frequency length Character Frequency
5399°39 2 18515-0 5372°17 2 18608°8
5399°06* 5s 1851671 5371:47 2 18611°2
5398°21 4 18519°0 5371:03* 4 18612°8
5397°85 2 18520°3 5370°46* 5 18614:7
5396°75 £ 18524:0 £369-74* 6 18617:2
5396°35 5 18525°4 5369-20 6 18619°1
5396°09 5 18526°3 5368°86 3 18620°2
5395°67 4 18527°7 536851 6 18621°5
5395°44* 5 18528°5 5368-01 7 18623°2
5394:60* 4 18531-4 5367°42 6 18625°3
539412 4 18533°1
3h 18533°8
eat g pband e338 || Group 6367|-5347
5392°70 5 18537°9 5367°42 5 18625'3
5392°09* 5 18540°0 5366°94 4 18626°9
5391°35* 5 18542°6 5366'43 4 18628'7
5390°85 6 18544°3 5365°76 5© 18631°0
5390°21F 7s) 18546°5 5364°76* 6 18634°5
5389°57 4% 18548°7 536415 + 18636°6
5389:01* 8 J 18550°6 5363°67 4 18638°3
536261 £ 18642°0
re E 5362:09 3 18643°8
Se 5361-64" | 5 18645°3
5389°01* 8 18550°6 5361:05 5 18647°4
5388°43 4 18552°6 5360°64 4 18648°8
5387°84* 4 18554°7 5360719 5 18650°4
5387:21* 4 18556'8 5359°70 3 186521
5386°66 5 18558°7 5359°45 3 18653-0
5386-00* 4 18561:0 5359722 3 18653°8
5385°50 4 18562°7 5358°81 6 18655°2
5385'00 5 18564°4 5358°36 3 18656°7
5384°36* 3 18566°6 5357°91 6 18658°3
5383°83 5 18568°5 5357°50 2 18659°7
5383°38 5 18570°0 5357°09* 4 18661°2
5382-92 4 18571°6 5356°63 6 18662°8
5382°43* 4 18573°3 5356'26 2 18664'1
5381:90 6 185751 5355°89 6 18665°3
5381°37 3 18577:0 5355'563 2 18666°6
5380°93 6 18578°5 5355'14 5 18668°0
5380°35 4 18580°5 5354°81 2 18669°1
5379-94 5 18581'9 5354-42 5 18670°5
5379°53 5 18583°3 5354-11 £ 18671°6
5378:99 3 18585°2 5353'28* 6 186744
5378°58* 5 18586°6 535281 3 186761
5378°05* 6 18588-4 5352-46 a 18677°3
5377°32 6 18591:0 5352°23 4 186781
5376°98 5 18592°1 5351:90 4 18679°3
5376°55 5 18593°6 5351°64 4 18680°2
5376:13 5 18595°1 5351°37 4 186811
5375°85 5 18596'1 5351°10 4 18682°1
5375°20 6 18598°3 5350°87 2 18682°8
53874:75 2 18599-9 5350°56* 6 18683°9
5374°38 6 186011 5349°87 6© 18686°3
5373°73 4 18603°4 5349°28 4 18688-4
5373°38 ‘t 18604°6 5348°70* 5s 18690°4
537311 £ 18605°5 5348°42 2 18691°4
5372°78 2 18606°7 5348-06 6 18692°7
5372°43 4 18607°9 5347°35* 7 18695°1
iit
ON WAVE-LENGTI TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 257
IODINE (ABSORPTION)—continued.
Wave- _s Intensity and} Oscillation Wave- Intensity and | Oscillation
length | Character Frequency length Character | Frequency
5325-26 5 18772°7
Group 6347 -5327 5324-74 3 187745
5347°35* 7 186951 532413 3 18776°7
5346:79 3 18697°1 5323'70 4 18778-2
5346-24" 6 18699-0 5323-16 4 18780°1
5345°65* 4 187013 5322-64 3 18781°9
5345°17 4 18702'8 5322°17* 5 18783°6
5344-71 5 18704-4 5321°68 4) 18785°3
BBL4-04 5 18706-7 5321-41 4 band | 18786:3
5343°56 4 18708-4 6321-15 4f 18787°2
5343-12* 6 18709-9 5320°72 5 18788°7
B342°45* 5 18712:3 5320-29 3 18790-2
534201 4 18713°8 531984 4 187918
534143 6 18715-9 5319°38* 5 18793'5
5340°93* 4 18717°6 5318-94 3 18795-0
534054 2 18719-0 5318-55* 5 18796"4
5340°14* 6 18720-4 5318-16 2 18797°8
5339°62 3 18722:2 5317-74" 4 18799°3
5339°37 3 18723°1 5317-37 3 18800°6
5339°11 3 18724:0 _ 531655 4 18803°5
5338-67 4 18725°6 5316-18 2 18804:8
5338-24 4 187271 5315-79 4 188061
5337-84 4 18728°5 5315-44 2 18807-4
5337-45 3 187298 || 5315:13 4 18808°5
5337-09* 5 187311 5314-78 2 18809°7
5336-56* 5\ pana | 18733-0 5314-49* 5 18810°7
5336-24 3s 187341 5314-17 2 18811-9
5335-81 4 18735-6 5313°87* 5 18812°9
5335-45 3 18736-9 5313-55 2 188141
5335°10 4 187381 5313-28 . 18815-0
5334-76 3 18739°3 5313-02 18815-9
5334-42 4 18740°5 5312-55* 4 18817°6
5334-07 2 18741-7 5312'19 2 18818-9
5333'73 6 18742-9 BBLL85 3 18820°1
5333°39 3 187441 5311-65 2 188208
5333'10 6 18745°1 5311°32* 4 18822-0
5332°73 2 18746-4 5310°89 \ 4 18823-4
5332-41 3 18747°5 531067 f tl 4 188243
5332°15 2 18748°5 5310°40 2 18825°3
5331°76 4 \ band | 18749°8 5310-08 4 18826-4
5331-41 0 ieee 187511 5309-75 2 18827°5
5330:97 68 -18752°6 5309-43 3 18828°7
5330°84 2 18753'1 5309-23 2 18829-4
-6330°53 5U pana | 187542 5308-93 5 18830-4
5330-18 4 \ 18755-4 5308-36 5 18832°5
20 3 18756°7
29:32* 8758
5327-96 aa 187633 Group,6808)—s294
6327-76 2 18763°9 5308°36 5 18832:5
5327-47 5 18764:9 5307°88 3 188342
5307-28 4 188363
5306°76* 4 18838°1
) Group 5327/-5308 5206-21 4 18810°1
5327-47 5 18764:9 5305°73 41 bana | 18841'8
5326-94 5 18766'8 5305°14* 3} on 18843°9
5326-39 4 18768-7 5304-62* 4 18845°8
5326-06 3 18769-9 530418 4 18847°3
5325-76 4 18770°9 5303°68* 5 188491
1890, s
258
REPORT—1890.
IODINE (ABSORPTION)—continued.
Wave- Intensity and | Oscillation Wave- Intensity and | Oscillation
length Character Frequency length Character Frequency
5303718 4 18850:9 5281°53* 4 18928:1
5302°26 4 18854:2 528113 3 18929°6
5301-78 3 18855°9 5280°72 1 18931-0
530141 4 18857-2 5280°32 4 18932°5
5300:96* 4) badd 18858°8 5279°97 3 18933°7
5300750 Beats 18860°4 5279°63 3 18934:9
5300714 3 18861°7 5279-29 3 1893672
5299-75 3 } band 18863-1 527896 3 18937°3
5299°31* 3 18864°6 5278-60 3 18938°6
5298-96 3 | band 188659 5278°30 3 18939°7
5298°62 4© 188671 5277-96 3 18940°9
5298°18 3 18868°7 5277-63 3 18942°1
5297°80* 4© 188700 5277-32 3 189432
5297-49 2 1887171 527697 ell band 18944°5
5297-14 4© 188724 5276°78 Ny aa 18945°2
5296°82 3) pana 18873°5 5275°60* 5 18949°4
5296°47 3s 188748 527516 4© 18951:0
5296°10 4 18876°1 5274:77 2 18952°4
5295°83 2 18877:0 527434 4 18953:9
5295751 3 18878°2 5273°98 3 18955:2
5295:23 3 18879°2 527315 4 18958:2*
5294:92 3 18880°3 5272°75* 5 18959°6
5294°67 3 18881:2
5294 36 18882°3 ~
5294-18 5 18889-9 Group 5273/5255
5293'93 2 18883°8 5272°75* 5 18959°6
5293°56 5 18885"1 5272°30 2 18961°3
5293-07 5 18886°9 5272:05 2 18962°2
5292'76 2 18888:0 5271°64* 4 18963°6
5292°60 2 18888'6 5271°28 3 18964:9
5292-41 4 18889:2 5271-00 2 18965°9
5292-21 18889°9 5270715 2 18969-0
5291-90 4 18891°1 5269-44 2 18971°6
5291:70 2 18891°8 526898 at band 18973°2
5291-35 3 188930 5268-60 5 18974°6
5291-12 4 18893°8 5268°22* 2 189760
5290°72 6 18895°3 5267°62* 3 18978-1
526727 3 a 18979°4
5266°38* 3 ban 18982°6
ll 5265°49 3O 18985°8
5290°72 6 18895°3 5265-09 30 18987°3
5289°63 + 18899°1 5264-50* 4 18989-4
5289-06 5 189012 5263°61 5© 18992-6
5288°53* 3 18903°1 5263°17 4 189942
5287-97 4 18905°1 5262°83 3 189954
5287°45* 4 18906°9 5262°13 4 189979
5286°86* 3 18909°1 5261°85 3 18998°9
5286-43 4 18910°6 5261°55 3 19000-0
5285°92 4 18912°4 5261-20 3 19001°3
5285°15 3 . band 18915:2 5260-93 3 19002°3
5284-94 2f 18915:9 5260°61 3 19003*4
528452 4 189174 5260°29 3 19004-6
5284-03 ao bana] 18919:2 5259°85* 4 19006-2
528360 4 18920°7 5259°37* 4 19007°9
5283713 4 18922°4 5259-02 2 19009-2
5282°70 4 18923:9 5258°61 4 19010-6
5282°18* 5 18925°8 525822 4 190121
5281°89 2 18926°8 5257°91 2 190132
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 259
IODINE (ABSORPTION)—continued.
Wave- Intensity and | Oscillation | | Wave- Intensity and | Oscillation
length Character Frequency || length Character | Frequency
5257:°40* 4 19015:0 || 5238-94 2 19082-0
5257-07 4 19016'2 || 5238-70 2 | 19082-9
5256-68 4 190176 = || 5238°35* 3 | 19084-1
5256°27 4 19019-1 5237°93 2 1) 19085374 ||
5255°89 3 19020: =|| 5237°64 3 nana | | 2eeBet |
5255°71 2 19021-1 5237-15 sy OT || S088
5255°32 4© 19022°5 | 5236790 2 19089°4
|| 5236-51 4 19090°9
3 5236°1¢ : 9092-
Group 5255)-5240 | eee ; rane
5255°32 4 190225 || 5235:23* 2 | 19095-5
5254°80* 3 19024-4 5234°82 3© | 19097-0
5254°38 3 19025°9 5234-44 2 190984
5253°59 3 19028°8 5234-15 3 19099°5
5253°24* 4 19030°1 5233-74 3 19101:0
5252°85 3 1903815 || 5233-16 4 19103°1
5252-58 2 | 19032°5 5232-74 3 19104°6
5252°11* 4% band 19034:2 5232-48 2 19105°6
5251-72 3f 19035°6 || 5232°16 3 19106°8
5251:42 2 19036°7 5231°85 2 191079
525101 5© 19038°2 5231-49 2 19109-2
5250°29* 2s 19040°8 || 5231-12 2 191106
5249°88 2 19042°2 || 5230-80 2 19111°7
5249°60 2 19043°3. || = 5280°51 2 19112°8
5249-30 a band 190443 5229-65 4 19115°9
5248-92 4 19045°7 5229°32 2 19117-1
5248-63 2 19046°8 5229-00 3 191183
5248-26 3 19048-1 5228-71 8 19119-4
5247-90 3©O 19049-4 5228-44 3 19120°3
5247:57 2 19050°6 5228-716 2 191214
5247-27 3© 19051:7 5227°86 2 19122°5
5246°91 2 19053°0 5227-52 4 19123°7
5246-66 2 19053-9 5227-18 5 19125-0
5246°35 3 190551 5226°34* 5 19128-0
5245-97 3 19056-4 5225°84 3 191299
5245°58 2 19057°9 5225-38* 4 19131°5
5245-29 2 19058°9 5225:07 2 191327
5245-03 4 19059°8 5224°69 ~ 2 191341
524471 4 19061:0 5224-42 2 19135-0
524438 2 19062-2 5224:10* 5 19136°2
5244-00 4© 19063°6
5243° 9064:
paat1 | 3 1y0668 || Group 5224-5209
524251 3 19069-0 5224-10* ral 19136-2
5242-23 2 19070-0 5223°54 4 \ band 19138°3
5241-76* 3 19071°7 5223-09* 2f 19139-9
5241°32 2 19073°3 5222-65 4 19141°5
5241-09 3 19074-2 5222-10 4 19143°5
_ 5240-78 3 19075°3 5221-70 3 19145-0
5240°46 3 190765 5221-41 2 1914671
5240:02+ 5 19078°1 5221°13* 4 191471
5220:48* 3 19149°5
5220-00 5 19151:2
eee *0)-224 5219°67 3 19152°5
, 5240-02 5 190781 5219°32 4 191537
| 5239-81 3 19078°8 5218-92 4 19155:2
_ 5239-46 2 19080°1 521851 3 19156°7
5239'15 3 190812 5218-22 3 19157°8
s 2
260
REPORT —1890.
IODINE (ABSORPTION)—continued.
Wayve- Intensity and | Oscillation Wave- Intensity and
length Character Frequency length Character
5217°80* 4 19159°3 5195-74 4© J
5217°24 4 19161°4 5195:22 4©
521692 | band 19162°6 :
5216°50 4 19164°1 z
521583 6 19166:6 ee
5215:10 2 t band 19169°2 5195:22 4
5214:77 t 19170°4 5194:73* 4
5214-48 2 19171°5 5194:28 2
5213:95* 4 19173°5 5194-00 4
5213-48 2 19175:2 5193-67* 3
5213:22* 3 191761 5193°25* 5
5212-85 2 19177°5 5192°68 5
5212°50 3 ) 19178°8 5192°30 4
5212°23 3 4 band 19179°'8 5191°35 5
5211:95 3 J 19180°8 5190°94 38
5211-64 3 191820 5190-54
5211:41 3 19182'8 5190°10 4 band
5211-08" | 3 191840 5189-75 |
5210°55* 2 19186-0 5189°35 5
5210-03 4 191879 5188-64 4
5209°80 3 19188°7 5188-18 5
5209 46* 6 19190°0 5187-84 3
5187-44 5
5187-24 3
Group 5209-5195 518688 3
5186°56 4
5209°46* 6 19190°0 5186-24 4
5208°38 4 19194-0 5185-94 2
5208°01* t 19195°3 5185769 3
5207-57 4 19196°9 5185-40 2
5206°93 19199:5 5185:06* 4
5206°58 4 19200°6 5184°52 3
52035°97 3 192028 5183°38 5
5205°64 3 192041 5182-91 5
5205:22* + 19205°6 5182°42 3
520435 3 19208°8 5181-96* 6
520392 4 19210-4
203°5 2 211°9
3903.21 4 192130 ere
5202°36 4 19216:2 5181:96 6
5202-00 2 19217°5 5181-70 2
5201-61 t 192189 5181-44 3
5201-30 4 192201 5180-91* +
5201-00 2 19221°2 5180°37* 3
5200-71 5 19222°3 5179-96 4
5200°51 3 19223:0 5179-41* 5
5200-02 4 19224°8 5179-00 3
5199-46 4 19226°9 517861 5
5199-17 2 19228-0 5178-24 2
5198-94 4 19228°8 5178-00 3
5198:42 5 19230'8 517772 3
5198'16 2 19231°7 5177°32 3
5197-80* 4© 19233°1 5176-90 +
5197:29* 3 19234-9 5176-52 3
5196792 3 192363 5176:07 £
519663 4 chband} 19237-4 5175-75 3
5196°31 3© 19238°6 5175:37 4
5196-09 3 19239-4 5175-00 4
Oscillation
Frequency
19240°7
19242°6
19242°6
19244°4
19246:1
19247-1
19248°3
19249°9
19252:0
19253°4
192569
19258°5
19259°9
19261°6
19262°9
19264°4
19267-0
19268°7
19270°0
19271°5
19272°2
192735
192747
19275°9
192770
19278:0
19279-0
19280°3
19282°3
19286°5
19288:3
19290°1
19291°8
19291°8
19292:8
19293°8
19255:7
19297°8
19299°3
19301°3
193029
19304:3
19305:7
19306°6
19307°6
19309°1
19310°7
1931271
19313'8
19315°0
193164
19317°8
ON WAYVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 261
IODINE (ABSORPTION)—continued.
Wave- Intensity and| Oscillation Wavye- Intensity and} Oscillation
length Character Frequency length Character Frequency
517466 3 19319-0 5159°36 5© 19376°3
5174°38 3. 193201 5159°10 5 19377°3
5174:10 5 19321°1 5158-74 3 19378°7
5173°63 4 19322°9 5158-43 3 19379°8
517249 3 19327'1 5158-10 3 193811
517216 3 193284 5157:72 £ 19382°5
5171°43* 4 193311 5157-42 2 19383°6
5171:13 2 19332°2 5156-98 5 19385:3
5170°80 4 19333°5 5156°61 3 19386°7
5170°32* 2 19335-2 5156°16* 5 19388-4
5169-95 2 19336°6
5169-62 3 19337°9 :
5168-65" | 5 19341°5 Gee sing
5156°16* 5 19388-4
5155°66 3 19390°2
Group 5168/5156 5155"16* 4 193921
5168°65* 5 193415 515473 3 19393°7
5168°27 3 19342°9 515436 5 193951
5167-17* 3 19347:0 5153°83 4 19397:1
5166°85 3 193482 5153-53 4 19398°3
5166-43 3 19349°8 5153-01 4 19400:2
5166-21 2 19350°6 5152-62 4 S-band 194017
5165°87* 3 19351'9 5151:79 5 19404°8
5165°51 2 193533 5151:48 2 19406:0
5165°15 + 193546 515115 4© 19407:2
5164-91 2 19355°5 5150-80 2 19408°5
5164-63 4s 193566 5150-45 5 19409°9
5164:26 2s 19358:0 5150-05 4 19411°4
5163-90 4s 19359°3 5149°76 4 194125
5163°58 2 19360°5 5149-41 3 19413°8
516322 2 19361°9 5149°13 2 19414°8
5162-90 2 19363°1 5148-82 3 194160
516243 5 19364°8 5148-26 4 19418*1
5162714 4 19365°9 5148-00 3 19419°1
5161°81 2 193671 5147-74 2 19420°1
5161°45 6 19368°5 5147-47 3 19421°1
516116 2 19369°6 514716 3 19422°3
5160°82 3 19370-9 5146°74 5 19423 8
5160-47 4 193722 5146:10 3 19426°3
5160-26 4 193730 5145°59 4 19428:2
5160-00 4 19373:9 5145:25 4 19429°5
5159-71 4 193750 5144-71* 5 194315
Report of the Commvittee, consisting of Messrs. A. W. REINOLD,
H. G. Manan, W. C. Roserts-AusTen, and HERBERT M‘LEop,
on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy.
Tur Committee have collected a considerable number of titles of spectro-
scopic papers during the year, and hope to present a report at the next
annual meeting.
262 REPORT—1890.
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. A.
TILDEN (Chairman), Professor RoBERTS-AUSTEN, and Mr. Tuomas
TuRNER (Secretary), appointed to consider the Influence of
Silicon on the Properties of Iron and Steel. (Drawn wp by
the Secretary.)
At the last meeting of the Association, held at Newcastle-on-Tyne, this
Committee presented a report drawn up by Mr. R. A. Hadfield, who, at
the invitation of the Committee, was kind enough to make a series of
tests with steel melted in crucibles to which definite amounts of silicon
were added. The report, though somewhat lengthy, and containing
much valuable information, was in reality only a tolerably complete
abstract of Mr. Hadfield’s work, which has since been published in full
in the ‘Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute,’ 1889, Part II. The
results have been discussed by a number of gentlemen who have had
special experience in the manufacture of iron and steel, and Mr. Hadfield’s
statements have met with general acceptance.!
The three reports presented by the Committee have therefore included
the influence of silicon on ingot iron produced in the Bessemer converter
both with and without the presence of manganese, and also the effect
produced by silicon in crucible steel. Though there are naturally a
number of closely allied subjects which invite investigation, the Com-
mittee has now accomplished the chief objects it had in view when it
was appointed, and therefore does not ask for reappointment.
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor ROBERTS-
AusTEN (Chairman), Sir F. ABet, Messrs. E. RiteEy and J.
SPILLER, Professor LANGLEY, Mr. G. J. SNELUS, Professor TILDEN,
and Mr. THomas Turner (Secretary), appointed to consider the
best method of establishing an International Standard for
the Analysis of Iron and Steel. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)
In the first Report of the Committee, presented at Newcastle-on-Tyne,
the objects of the Committee were defined, and the methods which it was
proposed to adopt were indicated. It was arranged that five samples of
steel, in the form of fine turnings or drillings, should be prepared under
the superintendence of Professor Langley, and that these samples should
contain as nearly as possible 1:3, 0°8, 0°4, 0°15, and 0°07 per cent. of
carbon respectively. It was further arranged that the samples so pre-
pared should be divided among the respective committees in the United
Kingdom, America, France, Germany, and Sweden, and in each country
analyses should be performed by not more than seven chemists of repute,
and that from the results so obtained the actual composition of the
samples should be ultimately deduced.
When the last Report was presented four of these samples had been
prepared, and had been despatched in air-tight leaden cases to the respec-
tive committees in the five countries above mentioned ; but at the time
the Report was presented the cases consigned to the British Association
Committee had not arrived. These were very shortly afterwards received
' See Jour. Iron and Steel Inst. 1889, II, 222-255
ON STANDARDS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF IRON AND STEEL, 263
in good condition, and were opened by the Secretary, and under his
direction were hermetically sealed in small glass tubes, each containing
about 20 to 30 grammes, as arranged by the Committee.
It was anticipated that the fifth sample would have been prepared
shortly after the last Report was presented, but this sample has not yet
been received, and its production has apparently been delayed by the
fact that the American Committee has entered upon an investigation of
the relative accuracy of different processes of analysis, which, though of
great interest and importance, was not included in the suggestions which
were originally adopted. The result was that delay took place before the
analysts in the United Kingdom were supplied with their samples, as it
was intended to forward the five standards together. The four samples
were, however, distributed as arranged after a few months’ delay, and in
most cases the analyses have been completed, and the results have been
returned to the Secretary of the Committee. The fifth standard will be
sealed in glass tubes in the same way as the others immediately it is re-
ceived, and the analysts will be at once supplied with their sample tubes
for examination.
In the meantime the Committee cannot discuss the results which
have been received, but it is probable a third and final report will be
presenied to the Association at its next meeting.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. RussELL, Captain ABNEY,
Professor HartTLEy, Professor Ramsay, and Dr. RICHARDSON
(Secretary), appointed for the investigation of the Action of
Light on the Hydracids of the Halogens in presence of Oxygen.
(Drawn wp by Dr. RicHaRDson.)
Tur Committee have to report that further experiments have been made
on the decomposition of chlorine water by light. It is found that the
presence of 10 per cent. of hydrochloric acid prevents all decomposition,
even after long exposure to sunshine. The behaviour of aqueous solu-
tions of pure bromine and iodine, under the influence of sunlight, has
been investigated. The free and combined halogen in solution was
estimated after an exposure to light extending over fourteen months.
The analytical results are embodied in the following tables.
Bromine water.—In a dilute solution (containing 0°16 per cent. Br)
as much as 57 per cent. of the total bromine is converted into hydrogen
bromide ; in a saturated solution the minimum amount of decomposition
occurs, again increasing with further additions of bromine.
Table showing the Decomposition of Water by Bromine in Sunlight after
Fourteen Months’ Huposure.
Weight of bro- | Weight of bro- | Per cent. free | Per cent. com- | Bromine as HBr in
mine taken mine in solution bromine bined bromine 100 parts H,O
160 3°78 95°24 4:76 0-18
5-0 37 95:59 4-41 0-16
3:8 3°36 | 98°13 1:87 0:067
_— 0°26 72°31 27°69 0-072
— 0°156 42-70 57°30 0:095
264 REPORT-—1890.
Todine water.—Two series of experiments were made with solutions
of iodine; in the first carbon dioxide occupied the space above the liquid.
The mean result of six experiments shows that 8:3 per cent. of the total
iodine in the solution had been converted into hydrogen iodide. In the
second series the carbon dioxide was replaced by air; the mean of four
experiments shows that 14-2 per cent. of the total iodine was present as
hydrogen iodide.
Table showing the Decomposition of Water by Iodine in Sunlight, eaposed
Fourteen Months.
che Se Free iodine eae ae Total iodine | Per cent. free | Per cent. com-
z ee | in grms. germs. in solution iodine bined iodine
SERIES 1.—CO, ABOVE THE LIQUID
5:0 grms. 032 0031 035) 90°80 9-2
3-4 3 “039 “0027 “042 93°63 6°37
16 A 038 “0049 043 89°55 11-45
OP =; 034 0033 037 91:14 8°86
0-4 oy ‘032 “0038 “036 89°35 10:65
OulGe 030 0014 O31 96°34 3°66
SERIES 2.—AIR ABOVE THE LIQUID.
3:0 grms. 057 0:0129 “070 83°63 18°39
ISO tas 042 0:0060 048 87:28 12:72
1:8 , “032 0:0046 037 87°66 12°34
003 =, "025 0:0039 029 86:96 13°04
Further experiments have been made on the oxidation of gaseous
hydrogen bromide in sunlight. The presence of free bromine exercises
a retarding influence on the decomposition. This was shown to be the
case where a mixture of hydrogen bromide, bromine, and oxygen were
exposed to light. After a given period 1 per cent. of bromine was set
free from the hydrogen bromide, whilst in a second experiment, in which
no free bromine had been added, 10 per cent. of bromine was liberated.
(The exposure to light was the same in both cases.) It has already been
stated that the decomposition of hydrogen chloride is retarded by the
presence of free bromine. With regard to the oxidation of aqueous
solutions of hydrobromic acid by light, it is observed that in a 7 per cent.
solution bromine is set free, whilst in a more dilute solution no oxidation
occurs.
Rise in temperature facilitates the oxidation of gaseous hydrogen
bromide, and it was found that when a mixture of the moist bromide
with moist oxygen was exposed to light at a temperature between
75° and 85° much bromine was set free, as was shown by the deep red colour
of the gas; whilst in a corresponding experiment conducted at the ordi-
nary temperature (15°-25°) only a faint yellow colour was observed.
With hydrogen chloride, on the other hand, decomposition appears to
be retarded by rise in temperature; thus moist hydrogen chloride and
oxygen gave 10 per cent. free chlorine when heated to 75°-85°, and 29
per cent. free chlorine when exposed at the ordinary temperature. Fresh
and fuller experiments are being made on this part of the subject with a
view to further verifying these results.
ee
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 265
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor H. E. ARM-
STRONG, Professor W. R. Dunstan (Secretary), Dr. J. H. Guap-
sTOoNE, Mr. A. G. VERNON Harcourt, Professor H. M‘LeEop,
Professor MELDoLA, Mr. Pattison Muir, Sir Henry E. Roscor,
Dr. W. J. RussELL (Chairman), Mr. W. A. SHENSTONE, Professor
SMITHELLS, and Mr. STALLARD, appointed for the purpose of
inquiring into and reporting wpon the present Methods of
Teaching Chemistry. (Drawn up by Professor Dunstan.) To
which is appended a paper by Professor ARMSTRONG on ‘ Eaer-
cises in Elementary Experimental Science.’
Iy their second report, which was presented at the Newcastle-on-Tyne
meeting, the Committee gave an account in some detail of the general
lines which in their opinion an elementary course of instruction in
physical science might most profitably follow. During the past year the
Committee have been principally engaged in collecting and comparing
the regulations with respect to Chemistry which are issued by the more
important of the examining bodies in the kingdom, in order: o dis-
cover how far their requirements are in harmony with such a course of
instruction as that suggested by the Committee. Since the information
which has been collected is of general interest, the greater part of it is
here printed. It consists of a brief outline of the noteworthy features
in the regulations of the various Examination Boards, and, wherever it
appeared necessary, of recent examination papers. The examinations about
which information is now given are as follows :—
Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Board.
University of Cambridge Local Examinations.
University of Edinburgh Local Examinations.
University of Glasgow Local Examinations.
University of London Matriculation.
University of Durham Certificate for Proficiency in General
Education.
Victoria University Preliminary Examination.
Coliege of Preceptors—Professional Preliminary Examination.
Science and Art Department Examination in Chemistry.
Intermediate Education Board for Ireland.
Civil Service of India.
India Forest Service.
Royal Military Academy, Woolwich.
Cadetships, Royal Military College, Sandhurst,
Engineer Students, H.M. Dockyards.
With respect to the regulations which relate to these examinations,
the Committee consider it desirable to direct especial attention to the
following points.
It is of great importance that natural science should be sufficiently
represented on the board which issues the regulations and is responsible for
the proper conduct of the examination. It is remarkable that although
Chemistry is an important subject in the Oxford and Cambridge Schools
Examination, no representative of this science is appointed by either Uni-
versity to act on the Examination Board, whilst Oxford does not appoint
a representative of any one branch of natural science.
266 REPORT—1890.
The Committee note with satisfaction that in these examinations, most
of which are held to test proficiency in general education, Chemistry
is generally included in addition to one or more branches of Experi-
mental Physics, and that in many cases the examination is in part a
practical one. An important exception to this statement is found in the
case of the University of Durham, which, although it grants a certificate
of proficiency in General Education, does not include among the subjects
of this examination either Chemistry or any branch of Experimental
Science. Science is represented only by Elementary Mechanics, and even
this is an optional and not a compulsory subject.
As regards the status occupied by Chemistry and Experimental Physics
in public examinations, the position of these subjects is still frequently lower
than that of the other principal subjects of examination, and much yet re-
mains to be done to secure the adequate recognition of the educational value
of natural science. Attention may here be drawn to the position assigned
to physical science by the ‘Intermediate Education Board for Ireland,’
upon whom devolves the examination of most of the Irish public schools.
According to the regulations at present enforced by this board, Natural
Philosophy and Chemistry appear as optional subjects, each having a
relative value represented by 500 marks, the value of Greek and Latin
being assessed at 1,200 marks each. It is to be hoped that the Commis-
sioners may before long see their way to introduce elementary physical
science aS a compulsory subject of these examinations, and to increase
the marks assigned to it beyond the present number of 500, which is
less than one-half of that awarded to Greek or Latin (1,200).
Another very anomalous case is that of one of the Civil Service Ex-
aminations, viz., the Examination for Engineer Students in H.M. Dock-
yards. In this examination ‘ very elementary Physics and Chemistry’ are
included as a single subject, to which is allotted 100 marks ont of a total
nurober of 1,950! In the profession for which this is an entrance exami-
nation, applicable to boys who are about to leave a public school, not only
is the possession of a scientific habit of mind of the highest moment, but
a considerable knowledge of Physics and Chemistry is indispensable.
The Committee are strongly of opinion that some attempt should be
made to remedy a conspicuous deficiency in nearly all existing examina-
tional regulations. It is virtually impossible to ascertain in the course of
a single short examination, especially when the number of candidates is
large, whether sufficient time has been devoted to the study of the elements
of physical science to make it of permanent advantage to the student ;
neither is it possible to determine whether the character of the instruction
has been in every respect satisfactory. Periodical inspection of the teach-
ing by properly qualified inspectors, such as is now practised to some
extent by more than one Government department, would seem to consti-
tute the best method of dealing with this defect, the reports of the inspec-
tors as well as the students’ own record of work testified to by the teacher,
being taken into account in awarding prizes, certificates, and grants, in
addition to the results of an examination.
With respect to the schedules and examination papers, typical specimens
of which are here printed, it will be seen that for the most part they do not
aim at an educational training of the kind suggested in the Committee’s
last report. Although nearly all the examinations included are intended
to maintain a high standard in general education, yet, as a rule, the
schedule of work proposed and the questions set in the papers are more
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 267
suitable for those who wish to make a special and detailed study of
Chemistry as a science. Insufficient attention is paid to problems,
like those suggested in the Committee’s last report, designed to develop
the powers of accurate observation and correct inference; few of the
questions asked are adapted to test the mental power of students, which
should have been strengthened and trained by the experimental study of
Physics and Chemistry. The great majority of the questions asked in-
volve an enumeration of the properties and modes of preparation of dif-
ferent chemical substances; but this by itself is a wholly unsatisfactory
method of ascertaining whether a student has derived benefit from ex-
perimental work. The mere writing out by the student of methods of
preparation of individual substances is no proof that he has learned Che-
mistry. The Committee are of opinion that it is not advisable to ask young
students to give purely formal definitions of chemical terms. A glance at
the examination questions appended will show that definitions of such
terms as atomic weight, molecular weight, water of crystaliisation, acid, base,
salt, are often demanded. Such questions encourage many students to
learn by rote certain forms of words without attempting to grasp the
facts and generalisations which those words summarise. Moreover, as
many, if not most, of the terms used in Chemistry cannot be defined, the
demand for definitions of these terms by examiners leads to a pernicious
and unscientific way both of teaching and learning, by which an apparent
accuracy in the use of phrases is substituted for a real acquaintance with
facts and principles. Again, too much attention is often devoted to eal-
culations which, while they furnish useful exercises, do not necessitate
any special scientific knowledge. Another noteworthy feature of these
examination schedules and papers is the very general exclusion of any
reference to organic substances. There appears to be no reason, even in
elementary examinations, why the questions should be exclusively confined
to inorganic materials. Moreover elementary Organic Chemistry can be
made the basis of excellent training in scientific method, especially if
the teaching does not follow the formal order or the aim at completeness
which are usual in text-books, most of which are written for those who
are studying Chemistry as a special subject, and not chiefly for the sake
of the educational benefit which may be derived from it. In general
elementary teaching at any rate it is unnecessary even to make the con-
ventional distinction between Inorganic and Organic Chemistry.
The foregoing remarks apply not only to school examinations, but
also to the various Civil Service examinations, where it is of the highest
importance that candidates should have received a sound scientific train-
ing. Most of those selected will afterwards fill positions in which the
Scientific method of dealing with the various problems which will con-
stantly be presented for solution cannot fail to be of the highest value.
It may perhaps be thought that a great deal of what has been said in
criticism of the present examinational demands in physical science might
more properly have been urged against the teaching. But since the
first report of this Committee was issued, in which attention was drawn
to the defective character of much of the elementary teaching, it has been
repeatedly represented by teachers in schools of every grade that the
character of their instruction is necessarily governed by the requirements
of examiners, and that if modifications were made by examining boards
in the present regulations it would be possible at once to make the corre-
sponding changes in the methods of teaching.
268 REPORT—1890.
The obvious conclusion is that the necessary reforms can only be
brought about by the active co-operation of examiners and teachers.
OXFORD AND CAMBRIDGE SCHOOLS EXAMINATION
BOARD.
Members of the Board.—The Vice-Chancellor of the University of Oxford (Chair-
man); the Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge.
Oxford.—The Principal of Jesus; the Rector of Exeter; the President of Mag-
dalen; the Principal of St. Edmund Hall; J. E. T. Rogers, M.A., Worcester ; W. Esson,
M.A., Merton; Alfred Robinson, M.A., Vew; J. R. King, M.A., Oriel; T. W. Jackson,
M.A., Worcester; A. Sidgwick, M.A., Corpus Christi; T. H. Grose, M.A., Queen’s;
EH. Armstrong, M.A., Queen’s.
Cambridge.—The Master of Trinity; H. Jackson, Litt. D., Trinity; J. 8. Reid,
Litt. D., Caius; A. T. Chapman, M.A., Hmmanuel; A. Austen Leigh, M.A., King’s;
B. E. Hammond, M.A., Zrinity; E. 8. Shuckburgh, M.A., Hmmanuel; J. B. Lock,
M.A., Caius; R. T. Glazebrook, M.A., Trinity ; E. W. Hobson, M.A., Christ’s; J. H.
Gray, M.A., Queens’; W. Welsh, M.A., Jesus.
Secretaries.—E. J. Gross, M.A., Caius College, Cambridge; P. E. Matheson, M.A.,
Nen College, Oxford.
REGULATIONS.
Part J.—ExamMInation or ScHoots.
A School Examination, held under the authority of the Board, ’shall be of
one or more of the following kinds :— ;
(a) Such an Examination in the general work of the school, extending either
to the whole school or to portions of the school to be selected with the approval
of the Board, as will enable the Examiners to report generally upon the School
work.
(6) Such an Examination in any main subject of instruction, extending either
to the whole school or to portions of the school to be selected with the approval
of the Board, as will enable the Examiners to report on the standard reached in
that subject.
(¢c) Such an Examination of the highest division of the school as will enable
the Examiners to report upon the general work of that division, and, if required,
to place the boys in order of merit, and to award exhibitions, scholarships, and
prizes.
Applications to the Board for the appointment of Examiners shall specify the
kind or kinds of Examination desired by the authorities of the school.
Parr I].—Hieuer Cerriricates.
The papers shall be set
(1) At every school the authorities of which desire that these papers
shall form part of a School Examination, provided that such School
Examination be held at the time specified in Regulation 1, and be
conducted by Examiners appointed by the Board;
(2) At Oxford, Cambridge, or such other centres as the Board may appoint.
The Certificates shall be awarded by the Board upon the reports of the
Examiners for Certificates. When the papers set for Certificates form part of a
School Examination they shall be reported on—
(1) By the School Examiners for the purposes of the School Examination ;
(2) iat Examiners for Certificates for the purpose of awarding Certi-
cates.
The Examination for Certificates shall include the following subjects :—
Group I.
(1) Latin. (3) French.
(2) Greek, (4) German.
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 269
Group II.
(1) Mathematics (elementary). | (2) Mathematics (additional).
Group ITI.
(1) Scripture Knowledge. (3) History.
(2) English.
Group IV.
(1) Natural Philosophy (Mechanical Division).
(2) Natural Philosophy (Physical Division).
(3) Natural Philosophy (Chemical Division).
(4) Botany.
(5) Physical Geography and Elementary Geology.
(6) Biology.
Every candidate shall be required to satisfy the Examiners in at least four
subjects. These subjects shall be taken from not less than three different groups,
except in the following cases :—
(a) Candidates who satisfy the Examiners in one subject taken from Group II
or Group IV. Such candidates may offer three subjects taken from Group I.
(6) Candidates who have already obtained a Certificate. Such candidates may
offer four subjects taken from not less than two different groups.
No candidate shall be allowed to offer more than six subjects, Elementary and
Additional Mathematics being reckoned for the purposes of this clause as one
subject.
iartificatés shall also be awarded to candidates from schools who satisfy the
Examiners in two subjects taken from Group I, in one subject taken from
Group II or LV, and in such portions of two or more of the subjects included in
Group III as may be accepted by the Board as fully equivalent in amount and
difficulty to any one of the three subjects included in the group.
The Examination in the Physical Division of Natural Philosophy shall
include—
(a) Elementary Electricity and Magnetism: viz., phenomena of electric excite-
ment; opposite electrical states ; conductors and insulators; electromotive force
and potential ; phenomena of current (or discharge) in conductors and in air; laws
of static induction, and the accumulation of electricity; simple phenomena of
magnetism and of magnetic induction and terrestrial magnetism; electromagnets ;
influence of the electric current on a magnetic needle; sine and tangent galvano-
meters; laws of resistance ; Ohm’s law ; laws of divided currents; laws of electro-
lysis ; the application of the foregoing principles and laws to simple problems and
to instruments, including the electric instruments in common use.
(6) The experimental laws of Heat in relation to expansion, liquefaction, and
vaporisation ; the more important properties of vapours and gases; specific heat ;
latent heat; the transmission of heat; the absorption and reflection of radiant heat ;
the production of heat; the mechanical equivalent of heat; thermometry and
calorimetry.
(c) Elementary Optics: viz., the phenomena and laws of the transmission, re-
flection, and refraction of light ; the formation of images; the action of prisms and
simple lenses ; vision ; the principles and optical construction of telescopes, micro-
Scopes, and other simple instruments.
(d) The elementary parts of Inorganic Chemistry, including the simple com-
binations of the principal elements, and the laws of chemical combination; atmo-
spheric air and the phenomena of combustion.
Candidates who offer the Physical Division of Natural Philosophy shall be
required to satisfy the Examiners in (a) and at least two of the three (4), (c), (d).
The knowledge expected from the Candidates shall be such as may be acquired
from an experimental treatment of the subjects.
: ‘ie Examination in the Chemical Division of Natural Philosophy shall
include—
270 REPORT—1890.
(a) The fundamental principles of Elementary Inorganic Chemistry, including
the characteristics of chemical change ; elements and compounds; laws of chemical -
combination ; combining and equivalent weights; the chemical properties of the
more important elements and their commoner compounds.
(>) Practical analysis; experiments to illustrate the generally applicable
methods of preparation and the characteristic reactions of the more important
elements and their commoner compounds, with the distinctive properties of acids,
bases, and simple salts.
(c) Elementary Electricity and Magnetism: viz., phenomena of electric excite-
ment; opposite electrical states; conductors and insulators; electromotive force
and potential; phenomena of current (or discharge) in conductors and in air; laws
of static induction, and the accumulation of electricity ; simple phenomena of
magnetism and of magnetic induction and terrestrial magnetism ; electromagnets ;
influence of the electric current on a magnetic needle; sine and tangent galyano-
meters ; laws of resistance ; Ohm’s law ; laws of divided currents; laws of electro-
lysis; the application of the foregoing principles and laws to simple problems and
to instruments, including the electric instruments in common use.
(d) The experimental laws of Heat in relation to expansion, liquefaction, and
vaporisation ; the more important properties of vapours and gases; specific heat ;
latent heat; the transmission of heat; the absorption and reflection of radiant
heat ; the generation of heat; the mechanical equivalent of heat; thermometry
and calorimetry.
(e) Elementary Organic Chemistry; the determination of the empirical formule
of organic compounds, from the data of analysis; the general properties of the
simpler organic compounds.
Candidates who offer the Chemical Division of Natural Philosophy shall be
required to satisfy the Examiners in (a) and in (0) and in at least one of the three
(c), (d), (e)
he knowledge expected from Candidates shall be such as may be acquired from
an experimental treatment of the subjects.
EXAMINATION FOR LOWER CERTIFICATES.
[N.B. This examination is adapted for candidates of sixteen years of age.]
5. The Examination shall include the following subjects :—
Group I.
(1) Latin. (8) French.
(2) Greek. (4) German.
Group II.
(1) Arithmetic. (2) Additional Mathematics.
Group III.
(1) Scripture Knowledge. (8) English History.
(2) English. (4) Geography.
Group IV.
(1) Mechanics and Physics. (2) Physics and Chemistry.
(3) Chemistry and Mechanics.
Candidates may also offer in addition Geometrical Drawing.
6. In order to obtain a Lower Certificate a candidate shall be required to
satisfy the Examiners in five subjects taken from not less than three Groups, of
which Groups Iand II must be two. Candidates shall be required to answer the
questions so as to satisfy the Examiners that they have an adequate knowledge of —
English Grammar and Orthography, and shall also be required to write a good and
legible hand.
ae ee
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 271
The Examination in Chemistry shall include—
The principles in Chemistry, illustrated by the properties of hydrogen, chlorine,
bromine, iodine, oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon, potassium, sodium,
zine, iron, copper, silver, mercury, lead, chlorides, oxides, sulphides, ammonia,
marsh gas, nitrates, sulphates, carbonates, and phosphates, together with electrolysis,
and the thermal effects attending chemical action.
The Examination in Physics shall include—
(a) Heat. The experimental laws of heat in relation to expansion, vaporisation,
and liquefaction; specific heat ; latent heat; radiant heat ; thermometry; calori-
metry ; the production of heat.
Optics. The phenomena, and laws of the transmission, reflection, and refraction
of light ; the formation of images ; the action of simple lenses ; vision.
(b) Electricity and Magnetism. The elementary principles of electrostatics,
conductors, and insulators; the electrophorus; the electric current and simple form
of cells; simple phenomena of magnetism ; the effect of a current on a magnetic
needle ; Ohm’s law.
No candidate shall offer both (a) and (0).
There is no ‘ Practical Chemistry’ in this Examination.
EXAMINATION FOR COMMERCIAL CERTIFICATES.
[N.B.—This examination is adapted for candidates of about sixteen years of aye.
The examination will be open to all persons, whether under instruction at a School
of the highest grade or not. In the latter case the Certificates gained will be
granted on the authority of the Oxford Delegacy alone. ]
The Examination shall include the following subjects :—
Group I.
(1) Latin. (8) German, (5) Italian,
(2) French. (4) Spanish.
Group II.
(1) Arithmetic. (2) Algebra.
Group ITI,
(1) English. (3) English History.
(2) Geography. (4) Political Economy.
Group IV.
(1) Drawing. (4) Mechanics—including Hydrostatics
(2) Inorganic Chemistry. and Pneumatics.
(3) Organic Chemistry. (5) Electricity and Magnetism.
(6) Sound, Light, and Heat.
_ 6, In order to obtain a Commercial Certificate a candidate shall be required to
satisfy the Examiners in—
4 mt least one of the four languages:—French, German, Italian, and
anish.
r (6) Arithmetic and Algebra.
(c) English and Geography.
(d) One of the following subjects :—Latin, English History, Political Economy,
or one of the subjects in Group IV.
Great weight will be attached to good handwriting and spelling and to an
orderly style.
A candidate who produces a Certificate showing that he has obtained a First
Class in the Elementary Stage, or a First or Second Class in the Advanced Stage,
of the Examination held by the Science and Art Department, South Kensington, in
any of the subjects in Group IV, will be considered to have satisfied the Examiners
272 REPORT—1890.
without passing the Board’s Examination in such subject or subjects, and the fact
will be endorsed on the Certificates granted by the Board.
18. The Examination in Inorganic Chemistry shall include—
(a) Characteristics of chemical change. Elements and compounds. Laws of
chemical combination. Combining and equivalent weights. Chemicai symbols
and notation. Classification of elements into groups in accordance with their
chemical similarities. Division of compounds into acids, alkalis, salts, basic and
acidic oxides, &c.,and the relations between the properties and the compositions of
these different classes of compounds. Outlines of the chemical applications of the
molecular and atomic theory.
The student will be expected to illustrate the foregoing subjects by making
use of the chemical properties of the following elements and their commoner com-
pounds:—hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, chlorine, bromine, nitrogen, phosphorus,
sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, mercury, iron, and chromium.
(6) In practical Inorganic Chemistiy, the student will be expected to perform
simple experiments, illustrative of the generally applicable methods of preparation
and the characteristic properties of aczds, bases, salts, acidic and basic ovides. The
experiments will involve an acquaintance with easy qualitative analysis, and will
be restricted to compounds of the elements enumerated in the foregoing part of this
schedule.
Candidates who offer Inorganic Chemistry will be required to satisfy the
Examiners in (a) and (0).
19. The Examination in Organic Chemistry shall include—
(a) The determination of the empirical formulz of organic compounds from the
data of analyses.
The general properties of the following classes of compounds, and the chief
reactions by which the relations between the different classes are established, illus-
trated in each case by one or two of the best studied members of the class :—paraf-
fins, olefines, ethylic alcohols, ethers, ethereal salts, mono-, di-, and tri-basic acids,
aldehydes, ketones, amines, amides.
(b) In practical Organic Chemistry, the student will be required to prepare one
or more compounds chosen from the foregoing classes.
Candidates who offer Organic Chemistry will be required to satisfy the Exami-
ners in (a) and (0).
HicHER CERTIFICATES.
The Higher Certificates give exemption, under certain conditions, from the
following Examinations :—
I. The first Examinations in the University course at Oxford and Cambridge
—Responstons and the Previous EXAMINATION.
A. The Certificate exempts from Rusponstons when it shows that the candi-
date has satisfied the Examiners in Greek, Latin, and Elementary Mathematics.
Candidates who pass with distinction in Latin or Greek, or who pass (with or
without distinction) in French or German, are exempted from the Examination in
an Additional Subject at Responsions, which must be taken by candidates intend-
ing to enter for the Final Honour Schools in Mathematics, Physical Science, or
Law, if they wish to be excused from the Classical Subjects hitherto required in
the First Public Examination (Pass).
B. (1) From the first part of the Previous Examination when it states that
the candidate has satisfied the Examiners in Scripture Knowledge (showing a
satisfactory acquaintance with the Greek Text), Greek and Latin; (2) from the
second part when the candidate has passed in Scripture Knowledge, Elementary
and Additional Mathematics; (3) and from the Examination of the Additional
Subjects when the Candidate has passed in Trigonometry, Statics, Dynamics, or
French or German. Exemptions obtained by Certificates which were granted before
October 1, 1886, still hold good. For these exemptions the Candidates must be
members of a school at the time of the Examination.
II, At Oxford—the Matriculation Examination of the following Colleges and
Halls: University, Balliol, Merton, Exeter, Oriel, Queen’s, New College, Lincoln,
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 273
Brasenose, Corpus, Christ Church, Trinity, St. John’s, Jesus, Wadham, Pembroke,
Worcester, Keble, and Hertford Colleges; St. Mary and St. Edmund Halls; and
of the Delegates of Non-Collegiate Students.
Candidates who have passed in one Examination in two of the languages,
Latin, Greek, French, or German, and in Mathematics, are exempted from the First
Examination for Women.
The Certificates also under certain conditions qualify for entrance at Lady
Margaret Hall and Somerville Hall.
At Cambridge—The Entrance Examinations of all Colleges where such Exa-
minations are held.
The Certificates also give exemption from the Entrance Examinations at Girton
College for Women ; and, under certain conditions, qualify for entrance at Newn-
ham College.
Candidates wishing to be exempted from the Matriculation or Entrance Exa-
mination of any College or Hall, or of the Oxford Delegates of Non-Collegiate
Students, should apply to the authorities of the College or Hall, or to the Dele-
gates, for information respecting the conditions under which such exemption is
ranted.
: III. Holders of Certificates are exempted from the Preliminary Examinations
of the Incorporated Law Society.
IV. Such portions of the Examination of the Royal Institute of British Archi-
tects as appear from the Certificate to have been included in the Examination
passed by the candidate.
Y. Such portions of the Examination of the Surveyors’ Institution as appear
from the Certificate to have been included in the Examination passed by the
candidate. :
VI. The Certificates are also accepted by the General Council of Medical
Education as evidence that the candidate has passed a Preliminary Examination.
The subjects in which the candidate satisfies the Examiners must include
Latin, Elementary Mathematics, Natural Philosophy (Mechanical Division), and
one of the following: Greek, French, German, Botany, Chemistry.
VII. Candidates for first appointments in the Army, and for admission to the
Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, who have obtained Certificates are ex-
empted, at the discretion of the Civil Service Commissioners, from the non-competi-
tive portions of the Examinations prescribed in the Regulations of April 1873, so
far as the Certificate shows that the candidate has satisfied the Examiners in the
subjects included in these portions of the Examinations.
Lower CERTIFICATES.
The Lower Certificates give exemption, under certain conditions, from the
following Examinations :—
1. The Preliminary Examination of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great
aon, provided that the candidate obtains a First Class in Latin, Arithmetic, and
nglish.
©. The Preliminary Examination for admission to the Royal Military College,
provided that the Certificate shows that its Holder obtained a First Class in each
of the following subjects, viz. Arithmetic, Additional Mathematics, English
~_ Geography, and in either French or German; and passed in Geometrical
wing.
3. The Certificate is also accepted by the General Council of Medical Educa-.
tion as evidence that the candidate has passed a Preliminary Examination. The
Certificate must show that the candidate has satisfied the Examiners in English,
Latin, Arithmetic, Additional Mathematics, and in Physics; and also in one of thn
following optional subjects: Greek, French, German, Chemistry.
1890. iz
274 REPORT—1890.
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. CHEMICAL DIVISION.
HIGHER CERTIFICATES.
You are expected to satisfy the Examiners in at least onB of the three sections,
E]
r) ’
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM,
1. Describe a gold-leaf electroscope. How would you use it to demonstrate
the existence of opposite electrifications ?
2, A strong bar magnet is fixed in a vertical position with its north pole
uppermost, and a small magnetic compass is held near it at different heights, but
always at the same horizontal distance from the bar: describe the effects
observed with reference to (a) the time of swing, (4) the direction of pointing of
the compass. What information do these observations give as to the magnetic
field about the bar P
8. Describe the construction and action of a Daniell’s cell, and state what
the advantage of such a cell is in maintaining a current in a circuit of small
resistance.
4, A current from three cells is passed through electrolytic cells in succession,
one containing copper sulphate solution, another sodium sulphate solution,
another acidulated water: state what occurs in each electrolytic cell, and what
relation there is between the amounts of action in the different cells. What
would be the effect of doubling the current through each cell ?
5. Describe a form of tangent galvanometer, and explain the principles involved
in its use. How would you, by means of it, determine the resistance of a given
conductor, if you were provided with a battery and wires of known resistance ?
Heat.
6. A Centigrade thermometer gives a reading 51° when set in a certain hot
bath: what reading should a correct Fahrenheit thermometer give when set
alongside of it? What are meant by the fixed points on a thermometer? How
are they determined ?
7. What do you understand by the latent heat of fusion of ice? How would
you show that its value is 80 when the Centigrade scale is used? What is its
value when the Fahrenheit scale is used ?
8. State the difference between radiation and conduction. Explain fully the
formation of dew.
9. Describe a method of determining the coefficient of linear expansion of a
given metal, and state carefully how, from the observations taken, the coefficient
is deduced.
Organic CHEMISTRY.
1. A compound of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen is analysed, and the results
are stated in percentages of the three elements: what further data are required
before an empirical formula can be assigned to the compound? When the neces-
sary data are given, how would you proceed to determine the formula? What
information is conveyed by the empirical formula of a compound ?
2. Why is it important to determine the vapour densities of compounds ?
3. Glycerin is a trihydric alcohol. Whatis meant by this statement ?
4. By what reactions can each of the following compounds be prepared from 2
paraffin: (i.) a monohydrie alcohol, (ii.) an ether, (iii.) an aldehyde, (iv.) a
monobasic acid? Illustrate your answer by describing the preparation of (a)
C.H,.0H, (6) (C,H;).0, (¢) CH,.CHO, (¢@) CH,;.COOH, from ethane (C,H,).
5. Point out some of the chief differences between the fatty (or paraffinoid)
compounds and the aromatic (or benzenoid) compounds.
6. Show by reactions that the alcohols are analogous in their chemical pro-
perties to the metallic hydroxides, and that the ethers are analogous to the
metallic oxides,
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 275
7. The following formule are given tv acetic acid : (a) C,H,0,, (L) CH,.COOH :
indicate some of the advantages of the second formula as compared with the
first.
InorGanic CHEMISTRY,
1, Explain briefly the meaning of the following chemical symbols and
equations :
0; 0,; 2KC1O, =2KC1+30,; 2H, +0, =2H,0.
2. Describe, as fully as you can, one instance of a chemical change, and one of
a physical change; and point out the chief differences between them.
5. With 1 part by weight of hydrogen there combine 16 parts by weight of
sulphur; with 8 parts by weight of oxygen there combine, in one case 8 parts by
weight of sulphur, and in another case 5°33 parts by weight of sulphur. State in
general terms how you would determine whether 5°33, 8, 16, or a common mul-
tiple of these numbers, would be the best combining weight to use for sulphur.
4, What do you understand by the chemical properties of an element? Illus-
trate your answer by describing what you regard as the chief chemical pro-
perties of any one of the following elements: chlorine, sulphur, magnesium, iron,
chromium.
5. The compounds KOH and NaOH are called alkalis: why are these com-
pounds classed together under a common name, and what is the chemical meaning
of the term alkali ?
6. You are given an aqueous solution of two salts, one of which is muck
more soluble than the other: how would you proceed to effect a partial separation
of the salts ?
7. Sugar is composed of the three elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen:
how can this statement be proved? Why are the substances carbon, hydroger.,
and oxygen called elements ?
Practica Work.
Write out a clear and full description of all your experiments ; state very carefully
and fully the reasoning on each result obtained.
[Not more than Two questions to be attempted. ]}
[ Time allowed, 3 hours. |
1. Determine, as far as you can by qualitative experiments, whether the sub-
stance A is a mixture of two salts or a double salt.
2. To B add a solution of bleaching-powder, and heat to boiling; to C add
dilute sulphuric acid; from the results observed identify B and C as far as
you can.
5. The substance D is either an acid, a base, or a salt: find which it is.
LOWER CERTIFICATES.
CHEMISTRY.
I,
1. Explain why water is regarded as a compound, and air as a mixture.
_ 2. How may hydrogen be liberated from water? If you wished to obtain 44:8
litres of hydrogen by dissolving iron or zinc in acid, what weight of each should
_beused? [Fe = 56, Zn = 65, 11-2 litres of hydrogen weigh one gramme. |
3. How is hydrochloric acid obtained ? For what reasons is it called an acid ?
How are metallic salts formed from it? Give examples.
4. Describe briefly and explain what changes take place in the following
reactions : (a) potassium nitrate with strong sulphuric acid ; (4) diluted nitric acid
with copper; (c) strong nitric acid with phosphorus; (d@) ammonium nitrate if
exposed to heat.
_5. What oxides are formed when sulphur and phosphorus burn, and what
acids are formed by the union of the oxides with water ?
rT 2
276 REPORT—1890.
6. Explain the meaning of the term allotropy. How can plastic sulphur be
obtained, and how is it shown to be identical with common sulphur ?
7. What methods are commonly used to obtain solutions of (a) chlorine,
(6) hydrogen sulphide, (c) ammonium sulphide? For what purposes are these
solutions used ?
8, Given metallic copper and lead, how would you obtain their several oxides?
Describe each shortly.
Il.
1. Explain briefly the terms atom, atomic weight, acid, base, salt, alkali,
precipitate, sublimate, distillate.
2. When copper oxide is heated in hydrogen some water is formed: draw and
describe the apparatus by which the composition of water by weight is determined
from this fact.
3. What is combustion? Give some account of the chemical changes which
go on when a candle burns, or charcoal, sulphur, phosphorus, or magnesium burns
in air. Mention some examples of combustion in other gases.
4. When sulphuric acid is heated with salt, or with a mixture of salt and
peroxide of manganese, gases are obtained. Give equations for the actions, and
point out some important differences in the two gases.
5. Mention several methods for obtaining gaseous sulphur dioxide from sulphuric
acid, and explain how the dioxide can be converted into sulphuric acid. What
are the chief properties of the gas?
6. What compounds does hydrogen form with (a) bromine, (4) nitrogen,
(c) sulphur, (d) phosphorus? Give a brief account of each, and explain how
they are obtained.
7. Give an account of the chemical actions, if any, which take place when
iron, copper, mercury, or lead is heated in air, heated in nitric acid, heated in
hydrochloric acid.
8. Explain how caustic soda is made from common salt.
COMMERCIAL CERTIFICATES.
InorRGANIC CHEMISTRY.
I
1. Why is the red solid produced by heating clear phosphorus at 240° in a flask
full of carbonic-acid gas considered to be an element and not a compound ?
2. Arrange the elements hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine, sulphur, bromine, nitrogen,
sodium, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, mercury, iron, and
chromium in groups, in accordance with their chemical similarities. Give reasons
for your classification.
3. Why do many chemists prefer to represent the combination of hydrogen
with chlorine by the equation H,+Cl,=2HCl rather than by the simpler expres-
sion H+Cl=HCl?
4, How would you show by experiment that each of the following bodies
contains hydrogen ?—
(a) Water. | (6) Hydrochlorie acid. | (c) Ammonia.
5. What do people mean when they speak of water being hard or soft? How
would you distinguish a sample of hard water from one of soft water? Explain
the difference between permanent and temporary hardness in water.
6. What is the smallest quantity of mercury that would be required in order to
deprive 20 litres of air (measured under standard conditions) of all its oxygen ?
He = 200.
L 7 whet weight of sulphur would’ be required to produce enough sulphurous
acid to reduce 10 grams of chromium trioxide (chromic acid CrO,) to chromium
sesquioxide (Or,0,)? [S=32; Cr=52.]
8. Describe the method by which Cavendish determined the composition of
water.
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 277
Es
Practical Examination.
Perform the following continuous series of experiments, and describe accurately
what you observe to happen at each successive step of the work. a. Dissolve a
portion of the substance -X in diluted hydrochloric acid and pass the liberated gas
in excess into a slightly acidified solution of ferric chloride (perchloride of iron).
b. Boil until free from smell, and then filter the above solution. Add to separate
portions of the filtered liquid, carbonate of ammonia and yellow prussiate of potash
respectively. c. Add carbonate of ammonia and yellow prussiate of potash respec-
tively to separate portions of the original solution of ferric chloride. d. Dissolve
another portion of the substance X in diluted nitric acid. e. Filter the solutions
you have made of the substance X in hydrochloric acid and in nitric acid respec-
tively, and test each filtered liquid with the following reagents :—
1. Sulphuretted hydrogen, before and after (imperfect) neutralisation of the liquid.
II. Chloride of barium. 7
III. Excess of potash, and subsequent ebullition of the mixture.
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE.
LOCAL EXAMINATIONS.
Junior Examination.
Certificates are granted to those students who, having already passed a pre-
liminary examination in reading, writing, English grammar, and arithmetic, have
also passed in not less than two of the following subjects: Religious Knowledge ;
English, Latin, or Greek; French or German; Mathematics, Natural Philosophy ;
(two of the following departments: Chemistry and Practical Chemistry, Statics,
Dynamics, &c., Heat ;) Zoology or Botany. No detailed schedules are issued.
Senior Examination.
The Examination deals with a more advanced knowledge of the same subjects
as are included in the Junior Examination. No detailed schedules are issued. The
following statement is made with reference to Chemistry :—‘(a) The general
rinciple of chemical science and the facts which illustrate them. (6) Practical
hemical Analysis. Credit will be given for well-chosen experiments, good
observations, precisely recorded and well-drawn inferences from them. A fair
knowledge of Inorganic Chemistry will entitle a student to pass in these divisions.
‘The questions will relate to such compounds and reactions as are typical or
characteristic.
‘The following elements and their compounds are to be omitted :—beryllium,
cesium, cerium, didymium, erbium, gallium, indium, iridium, lanthanum, molyb-
denum, niobium, osmium, palladium, rhodium, rubidium, ruthenium, samarium,
Scandium, tantalum, terbium, thallium, thorium, titanium, tungsten, uranium,
vanadium, ytterbium, yttrium, zirconium.
‘For the Junior Students, no knowledge of carbon-compounds will be expected,
beyond the oxides of carbon, the carbonates, marsh gas, and olefiant gas.
‘For the Senior Students, the knowledge of Organic Chemistry expected will
be limited to cyanogen and the principal cyanides, paraffins, monatomic alcohols
and ethers of the ethylic type, fatty acids of the acetic type.’
EXAMINATION FOR COMMERCIAL CERTIFICATES.
The subjects of examination will be as follows:—
ia
(1) Lerrer-writine, (2) PRECIS-WRITING.
(3) Taking notes in sHoRTHAND of passages read to the student, and extending
the notes to produce a verbatim report.
To pass in Section I. a student must satisfy the Examiners in J. (]) and I, (2).
278 REPORT—189C.
Il.
(1) ARITHMETIC, with special reference to commercial problems.
(2) AteEBRA: (a) Elementary, including fractions, simple equations of two
unknown quantities, and easy quadratic equations with one unknown quantity ;
(6) more advanced, including the Binomial Theorem with positive integral
indices, logarithms, and the application of algebra to the calculation of Interest and
Annuities.
To pass in Section II. a student must satisfy the Examiners in II. (1).
III.
(1) Groerapuy, Physical and Commercial. <A special knowledge of sea and
land routes, of centres of industry, and of products will be required.
(2) EnerisHh History, from the commencement of the reign of Elizabeth to
the present time. ‘The questions will bear chiefly on the development of industry
and commerce.
To pass in Section III. a student must satisfy the Examiners in III. (1).
IV.
Moppern LanevacEs: (1) French, (2) German, (3) Spanish, (4) Italian.
No books will be set. In each language students will be required (a) to write a
commercial letter, (6) to translate from the lancuage into English, and from English
into the language. Opportunities will be afforded at certain centres for students
to give evidence of ability to converse in the language.
To pass in Section IV. a student must satisfy the Examiners in (@) and (0) in
at least one language. A student cannot take both Spanish and Italian.
Vv.
Latin. No books will be set. The paper will consist of (a) passages for
translation into English, (/) questions on grammar, (c) a passage for translation
from English into Latin. ‘
VI.
The Elements of Porrrrcatn Economy, with special reference to the principles
of Value, Money, Credit, Banking, Foreign Trade, and the Foreign Exchanges.
—— ..
VII.
EneLisH Literature. Shakespeare, Zempest. ‘The questions will turn chiefly f
upon the matter and style of the book, and the construction of sentences. |
VIII.
ELEMEN?ARY Puystcan Science: (1) Inorganic Chemistry, theoretical and —
practical. (2) Organic Chemistry, theoretical and practical. (8) Mechanics, —
including Hydrostatics and Pneumatics. (4) Sound, Light, Heat. (5) Electricity —
and Magnetism. ;
A student cannot take more than one of the five subjects. 4
Ix.
GEOMETRICAL and MrecuantcaAL Drawrneé: In order to obtain a Certificate a
student must pass in Sections I., IJ., IJI.,1V. No student can take more than
two of the Sections V., VI., VII., VIII., IX.
Students who have obtained a First Class in the Elementary stage of the Exa-_
mination held by the Science and Art Department, South Kensington, in any —
of the subjects of Section VIII. may have the fact entered upon their Certificate
without further examination. : |
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 279
SCHEDULE FoR Section VIII.
VIII. (1) Inorganic Chemistry, theoretical and practical.
(a) Theoretical. Characteristics of chemical change; elements and compounds ;
laws of chemical combination; combining and equivalent weights; chemical
symbols and notation; classification of elements into groups in accordance with
their chemical similarities ; division of compounds into acids, alkalis, salts, basic
and acidic oxides, &c., and the relations between the properties and the composi-
tions of these different classes of compounds; outlines of the chemical applications
of the molecular and atomic theory. Students must be prepared to use in illustra-
tion of these subjects the chemical properties of the following elements and their
commoner compounds :—hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, sulphur, chlorine, bromine,
iodine, nitrogen, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, mercury,
iron, chromium, aluminium.
(2) Practical. Students must be prepared to perform simple experiments
illustrative of the ordinary methods of preparation and the characteristic properties
of acids, bases, salts, acidic and basic oxides. The experiments will require an
acquaintance with easy qualitative analysis, and will be restricted to compounds of
the elements enumerated in (a).
To pass in this subject, students must satisfy the Examiners in (a) and (0).
VII. (2) Organic Chemistry, theoretical and practical.
(a) Theoretical. The determination of the empirical formule of organic com~
pounds from the data of analyses. The general properties of the following classes
of compounds, and the chief reactions by which the relations between the different
classes are established, illustrated in each case by one or two of the best studied
members of the class :—paraffins, olefines, ethylic alcohols, ethers, ethereal salts,
monobasic, dibasic, and tribasic acids, aldehydes, ketones, amines, amides.
(6) Practical. Students will be required to prepare one or more compounds
chosen from the foregoing classes. °
To pass in this subject, students must satisfy the Examiners in (a) and (6).
CAMBRIDGE LOCAL EXAMINATIONS.
Number of Candidates in Chemistry from 1884-1888.'
| Boys
| GIRis
|
ta | Theory of Practical |) Theory of Practical
| Chemistry Chemistry | Chemistry Chemistry
Seniors— :
ee Aas | 66 27 | 23 12
1885. ‘ : fal 81 49 25 4
1886. f ; Ba 80 44 | 22 ll
E887: . fe : * 114 69 | 32 8
1888 ; , mal 100 48 ! 18 7
441 237, ||. .120 42
Juniors—
1884. ; : : 618 298 | 40 11
1885 . 3 c 681 378 35 6
1886. : : : 715 364 l 30 15
SST =< : : ; 776 407 \ 29 20
ete 829 454 ! 30 18
3619 1901 - || 164 70
’ For these statistics the Committee are indebted to the Secretary of the Board.
280 REPORT—1890.
HIGHER.
1884 . . .. 5 1887 d A mee |
1885 5 . : 9 1888 A ‘ . 19
1886 5 as
JUNIOR STUDENTS.
CHEMISTRY.
Candidates must not attempt more than six questions.
1. Define the terms atomic weight and molecular weight.
Find the molecular weight of an element, 1 gram of which, in the state of
vapour, fills the same space that ‘016 gram of hydrogen fills at the same tempera-
ture and pressure.
2. Show by what tests, or general characters, you would identify each of the
following gases: nitrogen monoxide; sulphur dioxide ; ammonia; chlorine.
3. Explain what is usually understood by valency or quanti-valence.
Given two elements whose chemical symbols are A and B, and whose valencies
are if and y respectively, what would be the most probable formula for a compound
of them P
4. Describe a method of preparing nitric oxide, and give a sketch of the
apparatus you would employ.
Why is the formula of this compound written NO and not N,O, ?
5. What conclusions would you draw with regard to the chemical characters
of the substances a, b, c, and d respectively, from the following experiments :—
a, when acted upon by hydrochloric acid, gives a metallic chloride and water only ; -
6, when acted upon by hydrochloric acid, gives a metallic chloride, water, and
chlorine; ¢ liberates iodine from potassium iodide; d@ converts ferric salts into
ferrous salts ?
6. Describe briefly how metallic lead is obtained from its ores. Show how each
of the oxides of lead may be prepared.
7. Explain, in general terms, what takes place when an electric current is passed
through a solution of a metallic salt.
8. How is hydrochloric acid prepared ?
What weight of hydrochloric acid gas would be necessary in order to com-
pletely decompose one gram of silver nitrate ¢
[H=1, N=14, 0=16, Ag=108, Cl=35°5.]
PRactIcaAL CHEMISTRY.
_ (N.B.—Credit will be given for good observations even if the conclusions be
incorrect, but no credit will be given for experiments not actually made, or for con-
clusions without the observations on which they are based. |
1. Determine the metal and acid-radicle in the salt A. Does it contain
anything besides a metal and an acid-radicle ?
2. B is the oxide of a metal. Find the metal, and examine the oxide with a view
of ascertaining whether it is a basic ovide, peroxtde, or acid-forming oxide,
3. Examine C in the dry way only.
SENIOR STUDENTS.
CHEMISTRY.
1, Nitrogen unites with oxygen to form five oxides: state the chemical laws
which these oxides illustrate.
2. Give the characteristics of each of the following classes of oxides :—basic
oxides, acid-forming oxides (anhydrides), and peroxides ; illustrate your answer by
reference to the oxides of the following elements: S, Ba, Cr, H.
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 281
83. How can the composition of water (1) by weight, (2) by volume, be
determined ?
4, One of the chief chemical laws states that there is no loss or gain of mass in
any chemical reaction. Describe two experiments to prove the truth of this law.
5. Give the preparation and properties of nitric oxide.
Show how the formula of this gas may be deduced from the following data :
15°6 ce. of the gas passed over heated Cu gives 7°8 cc. of nitrogen; the weight of
nitric oxide which fills a certain globe is 3°75 grams, the weight of an equal volume
of hydrogen being 0:25 gram.
6. How may the composition of air be determined ?
Would the composition of air be represented either by the formula N,O or
N,+0O? Give reasons for your answer.
7. How is mercury extracted from its ores? Show how (a) the oxides, (4) the
nitrates may be obtained from the metal.
8. What is a paraffin? Give the preparation of any paraffin, and state the
action of reagents upon it.
PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY.
[N.B.—Credit will be given for good observations even if the conclusions be
incorrect, but no credit will be given for experiments not actually made, or for con-
clusions without the observations on which they are based. |
1, Find the acid-radicle and the metal in D.
2. E is a mixture: find its composition.
3. F is a metallic salt: prepare a few small pieces of the metal (about the size
of a pin’s head). Find in which of the common acids the metal is soluble, and
which are its chief insoluble compounds. Enclose one of the pieces of metal you
obtain in the glass tube, together with a slip of paper with your index number.
EXAMINATION FOR COMMERCIAL CERTIFICATES.
InoRGANIC CHEMISTRY.
Atomic WEIGHTs.—H=1, O=16, N=14, S=32, K=39.
1. Explain the meaning of the term ‘diffusion,’ and describe some experiments
by which the phenomena of diffusion in gases can be examined.
One litre of a certain gas diffuses through an opening in the same time as
3°74 litres of hydrogen. Calculate the weight of a litre of this gas from the fact
that a litre of hydrogen weighs ‘0896 gram.
2. State exactly what you understand by the statements that the equivalent of
nitrogen is 43 and that of sodium is 28. Describe experiments by which you would
propose to verify these statements.
3. A current of electricity is passed for some time through a solution of potas-
sium sulphate in water, entering and leaving the liquid through platinum plates ;
the current is then interrupted and the liquid well stirred; describe important
chemical and physical changes that take place during this experiment.
4, Describe methods of obtaining hydroxides or oxides of the metals from
sodium chloride, calcium carbonate, ferrous sulphate respectively.
5. Express by an equation the reaction that takes place between a basic oxide
and an acid.
One litre of ammonia gas measured at 10° C. and 740 mm. is passed into a
solution of sulphuric acid in water and absorbed by the liquid. Assuming that
the liquid at the beginning of the experimerit contains4 grams of sulphuric acid,
calculate the weight of caustic potash needed to exactly neutralise it after the
absorption of the ammonia.
_&. Compare and contrast the behaviour of hydrochloric, nitric, and sulphuric
eae, both concentrated and dilute, as shown in their action on the common
metals,
7. What are the reactions which take place when (a) ammonia, (6) ammonium
282 REPORT—1890.
sulphide is added to an aqueous solution of either of the following substances:
AgNO,, HgCl,, FeCl, ?
8. What are the most striking points of chemical behaviour in which chlorine
and bromine resemble each other and differ from sodium ?
PracticaAL CHEMISTRY (INORGANIC).
[A full account must be given of all experiments from which any conclusion ts
drawn, and the chemical changes noticed must as far as possible be explained. |
1. Examine the substance P to ascertain what class of compounds it belongs to,
and if possible identify it.
2. Make a qualitative analysis of the double salt Q.
UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH.
LOCAL EXAMINATIONS.
Similar regulations to those of the Oxford and Cambridge Board. The following
is the schedule for Chemistry in the Senior Examination :—
DEPARTMENT D,
1. Chemistry—tThe relations to one another of acids, bases, salts, and
metals—oxidation and reduction. The physical characters, methods of prepara-
tion, and chemical characters of the following non-metallic elements and their chief
compounds :—oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine,
bromine, iodine, silicon. The oxides and salts of the following metals :—potas-
sium, sodium, barium, calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, manganese, chromium,
aluminium, cobalt, nickel, copper, mercury, lead, silver, gold, platinum, tin, arsenic,
antimony, bismuth.
The following text-books are referred to as indicating the amount and kind
of knowledge expected :—Roscoe’s ‘ Lessons in Elementary Chemistry,’ Lessons
i—xxvi.; Williamson’s ‘Chemistry for Students,’ Chaps. ixxxiii.; Wilson’s ‘ Inor-
ganic Chemistry’ (Chambers’s Educational Course) ; Brown’s ‘ Chemistry’ (Cham-
bers’s Elementary Science Manuals).
D. 1.—CuHeEmIstry.
(Time—One hour.)
1. Give one method for the preparation of each of the following substances :—
a, Hydrobromic acid.
6. Phosphuretted hydrogen.
c. Potassium permanganate.
2. Describe the action of nitric acid on
a. Calcium carbonate.
6. Copper.
e. Tin. ;
3. What substances are formed when excess of chlorine is passed into a cool
dilute solution of caustic potash ? .
UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW.
LOCAL EXAMINATIONS.
These Examinations are similar in scope and character to those of Oxford and
Cambridge and Edinburgh.
For the Junior Certificate the following requirements are mentioned i
Chemistry. but no detailed schedule is published :—- i.
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 283
Chemistry.—Laws of combination, water, atmospheric air, combustion, acids,
bases, and salts. .
For the Senior Certificate. | Chemistry.—General principles of Chemistry,
including calculations with combining weights. Chemistry of the more important
metals, including testing (Roscoe’s ‘ Elementary Chemistry,’ Williamson’s ‘ Che-
mistry for Students,’ W. Wilson’s ‘ Inorganic Chemistry’).
For the Higher Certificate. No schedule in Chemistry, but the following books
are suggested :—Roscoe, ‘ Lessons in Elementary Chemistry’; Fownes, ‘ Manual
of Chemistry’; Armstrong, ‘ Organic Chemistry’; Bloxam, ‘ Chemistry Inorganic
and Organic’; Roscoe and Schorlemmer, ‘Treatise on Chemistry’; Miller, ‘ Ele-
ments of Chemistry.’
LOCAL EXAMINATIONS.
Junior Certificate.
D. 1.—CueEmistry.
1. How can it be demonstrated that water is a compound substance? What
is the difference between hard and soft water, and how is it ascertained ? Which
is the softest natural water ?
2. Of the following oxides, which are soluble and which insoluble in water:
CuO, K,0, SO,, Pb,O,, CaO, SO,, HgO, Fe,O,, BaO, P,O., N,O,, Si0,.
How could the insoluble oxides be got into solution ?
3. Define ‘ water of crystallisation ’ and ‘ water of hydration,’ giving examples.
: 4, What is combustion? How can it be shown that oxygen will burn with a
ame ?
5. In chemical nomenclature the terminations -ous, -ic, -gen, -ide, -ate, -ite
frequently occur. Give examples of each, and explain their meaning and use.
Senior Certificate.
H. 1.—Cuepmistry.
___ 1. Three yellow solids contain iodide, phosphate, and arsenite of silver respec-
tively. How could you liberate the acids in each, and identify them ?
2, Why is the combining weight of oxygen taken as 16 rather than as 8 ?
3. What would be the volume in litres of 1 gramme of nitrogen measured at
100° C. and 200 mm. pressure ?
4, Write the formule of ferrous iodide, chromic fluoride, platinic chloride, baric
hypophosphite, chloric acid, metaphosphoric acid.
5. What is the difference between the specific gravity and the density of a
body ?
UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.
MATRICULATION.
CHEMISTRY, —
The following elements and their compounds as enumerated below, their chief
‘physical and chemical characters, their preparation, and their characteristic tests :
oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, chlorine, bromine, iodine, fluorine, sulphur,
phosphorus, silicon.
Combining proportions by weight and by volume. General nature of acids, bases,
and salts. Symbols and nomenclature.
The atmosphere : its constitution ; effects of animal and vegetable life upon its
composition.
- Combustion. Structure and properties of flame. Nature and composition of
ordinary fuel.
Water. Chemical peculiarities of natural waters, such as rain-water, river-
water, spring-water, sea-water.
284 REPORT—1890.
Carbon monoxide. Carbon dioxide. Oxides and acids of nitrogen, ammonia,
olefiant gas, marsh gas, sulphur dioxide, sulphuric acid, sulphuretted hydrogen,
Hydrochloric acid. Phosphoric anhydride and common phosphoric acid.
UNIVERSITY OF DURHAM.
This University grants a ‘ Certificate of Proficiency in General Education,’ but
Chemistry does not form one of the subjects of the examination. Science is repre-
sented by elementary mechanics, which is, however, only an optional subject.
VICTORIA UNIVERSITY.
DEGREES IN ARTS, SCIENCE, AND Law.
Elementary Chemistry is an optional subject (taken more often than not) in the
Preliminary Examination, which may be passed directly from School or after one
year’s study in a College of the University.
The syllabus is as follows :—
General properties of matter.
Chemical combination and decomposition.
Preparation, classification, and chemical behaviour of the chief elements
and their compounds, especially of the non-metals.
The outlines of Chemical Theory.
PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION.
(FacuLties or Arts, ScrencE, AND Law.)
CHEMISTRY.
1, What is the relationship between the density of a gas and its molecular
weight ? How is it proved that nitric oxide has the formula NO and not N,O,?
2, An oxide of iron was found by analysis to have the following composition :
liggitte = : - BRL LeEFE
Oxygen « - . 22:3
100:0
Find 56) simplest formula, and explain fully each step taken in the calculation.
(Fe = 56.
3. Coal consists chiefly of carbon associated with smaller quantities of hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur. Explain what becomes of each of the constituents
(1) when coal is burned on a fire, (2) when it is distilled in retorts.
4, What is meant by the terms oxidation and reduction ?
How do chlorine and nitric acid act as oxidising agents ?
5. Fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine are said to form ‘ a chemical family’:
point to the facts on which this statement is based.
6. What are the products obtained when carbon is heated with each of the
following substances: (a) sulphur, (4) oxide of iron, (c) metallic iron, (d) arsenious
oxide, (e) potassium nitrate, (f) sulphuric acid, (g) sodium carbonate.
7. What gases and solid substances are to be found dissolved in drinking-
water, and how do they get into the water ?
8, Mention some of the properties by which ozone can be distinguished from
oxygen. How is it possible to explain these differences ?
9. What are the sources, composition, and properties of some of the principal
compounds of silicon ?
Pee +o
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 285
COLLEGE OF PRECEPTORS,
Incorporated by Royal Charter.
Besides examining elementary schools this college undertakes to examine can-
didates for the various professions, and its certificates are accepted as evidence of a
sound general education, amongst other bodies, by the Incorporated Law Society,
the Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons, and the Pharmaceutical Society. The
rincipal Examination is known as the ‘ Professional Preliminary Examination.’
Seeetstry in this Examination, as well as in the Pupils’ Examination, is only an
optional subject, and no practical work is set. No schedule of any kind is issued ;
previous examination papers serve to guide both examiners and examinees,
PROFESSIONAL PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION.
CHEMISTRY.
1. What is common salt? How is it decomposed by sulphuric acid? Show
by symbols what are the products of its decomposition.
2. To prepare cupric oxide, metallic copper is burnt; and to obtain water by
synthesis, cupric oxide is heated in hydrogen. From 100 grams of copper how
much cupric oxide can be obtained ; and how much water from the cupric oxide ?
(H=1, O=16, Cu =63°3.)
3. Define the terms ovidation, reduction, burning, chemical combination, de-
composition, electrolysis, synthesis, analysis, and give examples, by equations or
otherwise.
4. From what compound is phosphorus obtained ? Show by equations how it
is prepared, and how it combines with chlorine and oxygen.
5. A gram of carbon is completely consumed ; what isthe product? How much
does the product weigh, and what is approximately its volume at the normal
pressure and temperature? (H=1; 1 litre of H weighs ‘0896 gr. at 0° and 760
mm.;O0=16; andC=12.). ~
6. How is sulphuretted hydrogen prepared ? What is it used for? Is it
combustible? if so, what are the products of its combustion? Is it respirable,
soluble, coloured or colourless, lighter or heavier than air ?
7. When horn, quills, or feathers are heated in a test-tube, a pungent gas, which
turns red litmus blue, is evolved: how may it be prepared pure? What is its
composition? What action has it upon hydrochloric and sulphuric acids? What
is its chief source ?
Purits’ EXAMINATION.
CHEMISTRY.
J.
1. State precisely what you have seen take place when potassium and sodium
abe been thrown into water, and give the equation expressing the chemical
change.
2. How can iron be made to decompose water? Give the equation for this
decomposition.
8. When sulphur burns in oxygen it does not increase the volume of the gas.
What has become of the sulphur, and why is the volume unaltered ?
4, There are 280 million tons of coal burnt in the world annually. What
becomes of it ?
5. Describe in words, and by equations if possible, two ways of making
ammonia gas. Is the gas heavier or lighter than air? Is it incombustible or
combustible? What action has it on blue and red litmus ?
6. Complete the following equations :—
H,S+Cl,=
CaH,0, + Cl, =
286 REPORT—1890.
or Ca0.H,0+Cl, =
CH,+20,=
CO, + C=
Ca,P,0, + 2H,SO, =
7. When iron pyrites is carefully burnt, the reaction is as follows :-——
2F eS, + 70 = Fe,0, + 280,.
Fe=56, O=16, S=82.
Calculate the quantity of air required to burn a ton (2240 lbs.) of pyrites, reckon-
ing the oxygen in the air to be 23 per cent. by weight. f
CHEMISTRY,
Il.
[N.B.—WNot more than EIGHT questions to be attempted. ]
1. Define clearly the following terms :—Symbol, acid, equivalence, compound
radical, chemical equation, halogen.
2. Give the chemical name, and also the formule, of the following substances :—-
kitchen salt, sal-ammoniac, plaster of Paris, white lead, calomel, oil of vitriol.
8. Describe two processes for obtaining chlorine, Describe its properties and
uses.
4, What do you understand by allotropism? Describe the allotropic forms
of the non-metallic elements.
5. What is the composition of ordinary atmospheric air? Describe experi-
ments by which the presence of each of its constituents may be demonstrated.
6. What are the ordinary impurities of spring water, and how may they be
detected ?
7. What do you understand by ard and soft water? How could you ascertain
the degree of hardness ?
8. Explain, in words, the reactions expressed in the following equations :—
‘ (a) K,CO, + H,SO, = CO, + H,0 + K,S0, ;
(6) H,NCl+ NaNO, = NaCl +2H,0 +N, ;
(c) KNO, + H,SO, = HKSO, + HNO,.
9. Name the chief elements which enter into the composition of (a) water, (b)
air, (c) flint, (d) clay, (¢) coal, (7) limestone.
10. What do you understand by combustion? Describe an experiment by
which air might be burnt.
11. A sample of coal contains 84 per cent. available carbon and 6 per cent.
available hydrogen: what weight of atmospheric air will be required to burn
1 ewt. of the coal ?
12. In the course of an analysis, ‘4865 gram of silver chloride was obtained
from 1 gram of an alloy which had been dissolved in nitric acid: what percentage
of silver did the alloy contain ?
SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT.
Inorganic CHEMISTRY.
First Stage or Elementary Examination.
INSTRUCTIONS.
You are permitted to attempt only eight questions.
Whenever possible, you are to express the reactions in equations.
You are to give such numerical details as will show the mode of calculation.
K=391. Cl=35:5. O=16.
1. Classify the following substances as elements and compounds: chalk,
graphite, water, sulphur, iron, ammonia, oil of vitriol, chlorine, diamond, pr
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 287
2. How would you distinguish hydrochloric acid from nitric acid? Give the
formulze of the two acids, and describe the preparation of a salt of each acid.
(13.)
3, Express in the form of equations the action of
(1) Heat upon mercuric oxide.
(2) Sulphuric acid upon common salt.
(3) Hydrochloric acid upon marble.
(4) Nitric acid upon copper.
(5) Steam upon red-hot iron. (13.)
4, By what experiments can you prove that the air contains ¢ of its volume
of nitrogen ? (9.)
5. How could you convert sulphur dioxide into sulphuric acid, and sulphuric
acid into sulphur dioxide ? (18.)
6. 100 cb.c. of air are passed over red-hot charcoal. Ilow would yon ascertain
if the air was altered in volume, or had experienced any alteration in properties ?
(18.)
7. How many litres of oxygen gas, measured at 10° C. and 755 mm., can he
obtained from 1 kilogram of potassium chlorate ?
(1 litre of oxygen at 0° and 760 mm. = 1°43 gram.) (15.)
8. What is meant by the term allotropy? Describe the various aliotropic
modifications of sulphur, oxygen, and carbon. (10.)
9. How would you prepare nitrous and nitric oxides? Give equations for the
reactions, and state how you would recognise these bodies. (11.)
10. Explain what is implied by the following terminations: -ows, -ic, tte, -ate,
and ¢de-, and give examples of their use. (10.)
11. How are the two oxides of carbon prepared, and by what tests may they
be recognised ? (12.)
12. Why is the flame of a taper extinguished in nitrogen gas, and why does it
continue to burn in air? (9.)
Alternative First Stage or Elementary Luamination.
INSTRUCTIONS.
You are permitted to attempt only eight questions.
1. A glass of water is exposed to the air. In time the water disappears into
the air. How do you account for this? ow could you prove that there is
moisture in air? (13.)
2. Air is passed over red-hot iron. What change does this cause in the air
and in the iron ? 9
5. How could you show that the gas obtained by dissolving marble in hydro-
chloriec acid is also contained in the breath ? (10.)
__ 4, Two samples of water are given to you. One is a hard water, and the
other is distilled water. Describe two methods of distinguishing between them.
13.
5. What is vinegar? Tlow isit prepared? Vinegar is poured upon a te
soda: what happens ? (9.)
6. Ammonia is classed as an alkali. Why? Name some of the sources from
which it can be obtained, and give its composition. (15.)
7. A piece of lead, a piece of copper, and some mercury are separately heated
in a crucible over a lamp. Describe what occurs in each case. (11,)
8. From what substances can starch be obtained? Of what is it composed,
and how does it behave when boiled with water ? (13.)
9. Name some commonly occurring compounds of sodium. How can you
show that chlorine is a constituent of common salt ? (10.)
10. What substances are contained in flour? How can they be separated, and
what essential difference is there in their composition ? (12.)
11. What is meant by saying that a solution is saturated? How would you
prove that no loss of weight occurs when a substance is dissolved in water ? (8.)
12. What are the distinguishing characters of cast iron, wrought iron, and
steel? What is iron-rust ? (13.)
288 REPORT—1 890.
Second Stage or Advanced Examination.
INSTRUCTIONS.
Read the General Instructions at the head of the Elementary paper.
You are only permitted to attempt eight questions.
Whenever possible, you are to express the reactions in equations.
You are to give such numerical details as will show the mode of calculation.
Mg=24. Ca=40. K=389:1. S=32. O=16. H=1. Na=28. Cl=35.
1. By what leading characters are the metals distinguished from the non-
metals ? (10.)
2, Explain what is meant by the atomic value or valency of an element, and
arrange the following bodies according to their valency: iron, copper, platinum,
phosphorus, lead, silicon, calcium, sodium, chlorine, zinc, bismuth, tin, sulphur,
arsenic, and carbon. (12.)
3. How many tons of oil of vitriol containing 70 per cent. H,SO, are needed
to convert 100 tons of salt into salt-cake ? (12.)
4. Calculate the vapour density of ammonium chloride. By experiment it is
found to be 13°345. How do you explain the difference between the calculated
and observed results? Can you give any experimental evidence in support of
your explanation? Do you know of any other similar cases ? 15.
5. How can youestimate accurately the amount of carbonic acid in atmospheric
air? What causes tend (1) to augment and (2) to diminish its proportion in air?
11.
6. How could you distinguish a chlorate from a perchlorate; a phosphite from
a, phosphate; a sulphite from a sulphate; an arsenite from an arsenate? —(12.)
7. How. is hydrofluoric acid prepared? Explain its action upon quartz, glass,
zinc, and sodium carbonate. (12.
8. Calculate the formula of a body which has the following percentage
composition :—
Magnesium : Y : ° . 998
Calcium . ; : : ; . 13:28
Potassium - : ¢ : . 12:99
Sulphuric acid (SO,) . : : . 63:77
Water. : : c ; 5°98
100-00 (15.)
), Describe the method by which metallic lead_is obtained from galena.
What compounds of lead and oxygen are known? How are they prepared from
metallic lead ? ;
10. What is aqua regia? What compounds are formed by its action upon
gold and platinum ? (11.)
Honours Examination.
INSTRUCTIONS.
Read the General Instructions at the head of the Elementary paper.
You are only permitted to attempt six questions.
Whenever possible, you are to express the reactions in equations.
You are to give such numerical details as will show the mode of calculation.
H=1. 0=15:96. K=39-03. Br=79:76. Ag=107-66.
1. Illustrate the value of isomorphism as a means of chemical classifi-
cation. (13.)
2. An unknown quantity of potassium bromoaurate, AuBr,KBr, on being
heated, left 9:92451 grams of a mixture of metallic gold and potassium bromide.
The mass, on being treated with water, left 6°18997 grams of gold. The solution
of KBr required 3:28540 grams of silver for total precipitation by Stas’s method,
and afforded 5:89143 grams of silver bromide. These data affurd three inde-
pendent values for the atomic weight of gold, which you are required to
calculate.
7
}
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY.
289
3. What is the evidence that the molecules of most of the elements consist
of two atoms? Name the bodies whose molecules seem to consist of only one
15.)
atom.
4, The following
Total solids
Nitrogen, as nitrates and nitrites
Ammonia . a :
Albuminoid ammonia
Chlorine
is an analysis of a sample of
Temporary hardness 0:1.
Total hardness 2:5.
Describe how such determinations are made, and give your opinion and the
reasons on which it is based as to the suitability of this water for drinking
purposes.
| 5. Phosphoryl chloride has been variously written
Cl
water :-—
4-4 erains per gallon.
002 :
005 os
“800
-) ”
Permanent hardness 2:4.
16.)
OCl
O=P<€Cl and PCl
Which is the more probable formula, and why ?
Cl
Cl
(17.)
6. Give some account of the modern views of nitrification, and describe the
nature of the experiments on which they are sounded.
17.)
(
7. What grounds had Mendelejeff for predicting the existence of the elements
gallium, scandium, and germanium ?
8. Describe the methods of determining by volumetric analysis the follow-
ing substances:—Phosphoric acid, peroxide of hydrogen,
(18.)
1890,
nitric acid, and sal-
ammoniac. (16.)
INTERMEDIATE EDUCATION BOARD FOR IRELAND.
The following shall be the subjects of Examination, viz. :—
Junior Grade.
Boys. GIRLs.
Marks Marks
(1) The ancient language, lite- (1) The ancient language, lite-
rature, and history of rature, and history of
Greece. ; < . 1200 Greece . 3 , . 1200
(2) The ancient language, lite- (2) The ancient language, lite-
rature, and history of rature, and history of
Rome. : : . 1200 Rome . : ; . 1200
(3) The English language and (8) The English language and
literature, and the history literature, and the history
of Great Britain and Ire- of Great Britain and Ire-
land , ; ‘ 1200 land : ; 1200
(4) The French language . 700 | (4) The French language . 700
(5) The German language. 700 | (5) The German language. 700
(6) The Italian language . - 6500 | (6) The Italian language . . 500
(7) The Celtic language and (7) The Celtic language and
literature : ; . 600 literature. 600
(8) Arithmetic . . 500 (8) Arithmetic . 500
103 Bookkeeping - 200 | (9) Bookkeeping 200
(10) Euclid : . 600 | (10) Euclid 500
13 Algebra. ; . 500 | (11) Algebra. : 500
(12) Natural Philosophy - 500 | (12) Natural Philosophy 500
(13) Chemistry . : . 500 | (13) Chemistry . : 500
(14) Drawing. - 600 | (14) Botany : . 800
(15) Drawing. : - 600
| (16) Theory of Musie . . 500
(17) Domestic Economy - 3800
U
290
REPORT—1890.
Middle Grade.
Boys.
(1) The ancient language, lite-
rature, «and history of
Greece . c : :
(2) The ancient language, lite-
rature, and history of
Rome . ¢ : :
(3) The English language and
literature, and the history
of Great Britain ‘and Ire-
land - : : .
(4) The French language .
(5) The German language.
(6) The Italian language .
(7) The Celtic language and
literature . . ;
(8) Arithmetic .
(9) Euclid ,
(10) Algebra. :
(11) Natural Philosophy
(12) Chemistry . c
(18) Drawing . c
(14) Theory of Music.
Boys.
(1) The ancient language, lite-
rature, and history of
Greece . . : :
(2) The ancient language, lite-
rature, and history of
Rome. 2 : :
(8) The English language and
literature, and the history
of Great Britain and Ire-
land : : . :
(4) The French language . :
(5) The German language . :
(6) The Italian language .
(7) The Celtic language and
literature . : 5 :
(8) Algebra and Arithmetic .
(9) Euclid S : , t
(10) Plane Trigonometry
(11) Elementary Mechanics
(12) Natural Philosophy
(18) Chemistry . - .
(14) Drawing. . é .
(15) Theory of Music . : ;
12. In the case of boys, no student shall obtain credit for the examination —
generally, nor shall his name be published in the Schedule of Results, unless he
pass in at least four subjects, to each of which not less than 500 marks are-
Marks
1200
1200
1200
700
700
500
600
500
600
600
500
500
500
300
GIRLs.
Marks
(1) The ancient language, lite-
rature, and history of
Greece. : : :
(2) The ancient language, lite-
rature, and history of
Rome. - : - 1200
(3) The English language and
literature, and the history
of Great Britain and Ire-
1200
land ; : . 1200
(4) The French language . 700
(5) The German language. 700
(6) The Italian language . . 500
(7) The Celtic language and
literature c . 600
(8) Arithmetic . 500
Senior Grade.
Marks
1200
1200
1200
700
700
500
600
700
500
500
500
500
500
500
300
(9) Euclid : : : . 600
(10) Algebra. : : . 600
(11) Natural Philosophy . . 600
(12) Chemistry . . - . 500
(13) Botany 400
(14) Drawing. : 500
(15) Theory of Music . 500.
(16) Domestic Economy 400
GIRLs,
Marks
(1) The ancient language, lite-
rature, and history of
Greece . : : . 1200
(2) The ancient language, lite-
rature, and history of
Rome . . : . 1200
(8) The English language and
literature, and the history
of Great Britain and Ive-
land : . ‘ . 1200
(4) The French language . 700
(5) The German language. 700
(6) The Italian language . . 600
(7) The Celtic language and
literature : ; . 600
(8) Algebra and Arithmetic 700
(9) Euclid : ; 500
(10) Plane Trigonometry . . 500
(11) Natural Philosophy . . 600
(12) Chemistry . : : . 600
(18) Botany 200
(14) Drawing. : : . 600
(15) Theory of Music . . . 500 |
(16) Domestic Economy . . 500
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 291
assigned, in which must be included one subject from each of the following groups,
viz. :-—
(A.)—(1) Greek; (2) Latin; (8) French; (4) German; (5) Italian;
6) Celtic
(B.)—(1) Euclid ; (2) Arithmetic; (3) Algebra; (4) Plane Trigonometry ;
(5) Elementary Mechanics ; (6) Algebra and Arithmetic (Senior Grade).
In the case of girls, in all grades, it will be necessary and sufficient to pass in
one subject from group (A), in English, and in any two other subjects of the
Programme,
Junior Grade.
CHEMISTRY.
(Atomic weights, H=1, 0=16, N=14, Hg =200.)
1. Nitric acid is added to:—(a) solution of indigo; (4) solution of litmus;
(c) metallic copper ; (@) solution of caustic potash. Describe the result in each
case, and explain cases (c) and (d) by equations.
2. What evidence have we that air is a mature of gases and not a chemical
compound ?
8. Given sodium carbonate and hydrochloric acid, how would you prepare a
quantity of common salt ?
4, Calculate the weight of oxygen obtainable by heating 432 crams of red oxide
of mercury.
5. Howis solution of ammonia obtained ?
6. What are the chief properties of the substance which is represented by the
formula NO ?
7. What is meant by each of the following terms:—Analysis, synthesis,
element, atomicity ?
8. Describe an experiment illustrating the law of definite proportions.
9. Find the formula of the substance whose percentage composition is—
Hydrogen : 5:0
Nitrogen : 35:0
Oxygen : 60:0
10. Explain the action of plants in purifying atmospheric air.
Middle Grade.
CHEMISTRY.
(Atomic weights :—H =1, 0=16, N=14, K=39, S=82.)
1. Strong sulphuric acid is heated with (a) metallic copper; (4) common salt ;
(c) nitre. Explain the changes that occur in each case.
2. How would you ascertain the presence of free zodine in a solution ?
3. Carbon dioxide is led (a) into lime-water ; (0) into solution of caustic potash ;
(c) over red-hot charcoal. What is the result in each case ?
4, How would you distinguish marsh-gas from hydrogen ?
5. Crystals of a well-known salt are dissolved in water, and to the solution is
added a solution of silver nitrate: the mixture remains clear. A fresh quantity of
the crystals is strongly heated, the residue dissolved in water, and silver nitrate
solution added; a white curdy precipitate forms, soluble in ammonia, What was
the salt ?
6. How is amorphous phosphorus obtained ?
7, Name the three varieties of the element carbon, and compare their properties.
8. How could you demonstrate that ammonia gas contains nitrogen ?
9. Calculate the weight of nitre that must be used in order to afford 10 grams
of nitric acid.
10. How may it be shown, experimentally, that ozone is produced during the
electrolysis of water ?
u2
292 REPORT—-1890.
Senior Grade.
CHEMISTRY.
1. What is the principle of Pattinson’s process for the extraction of silver from
argentiferous lead P
2. How would you distinguish Ferrous from ferric chloride ?
3. What is ‘sugar of lead,’ and how is it obtained P
4, Point out any exceptions to the rule that the molecules of elementary gases
oe two atoms. ‘
Give the formule of the following substances:—Limestone, white lead,
nee yellow, red lead, alum, magnetic ‘oxide of iron, horn silver, washing-soda,
butter of antimony, gypsum.
6. How is solution of caustic potash obtained ?
7. What are the chief characters of metallic sodium ?
8. What is meant by the term basicity of an acid P Give examples of mono-,
di-, tri-, and tetra- basic acids.
9. How is liquid sulphur dioxide obtained ?
10, What volume of air is necessary in order to burn completely one litre of
carbon monoxide gas ?
CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSION.!
CIVIL SERVICE OF INDIA.
4, The examination will take place only in the following branches of know-
ledge :—
Marks
English Composition. . 300
(c) History of England—including a 1 period selected by the candidate 300
(c) English Literature—including books selected ry the candidate . 300
Greek 5 " - c : 600
Latin . : , ‘ . ‘ ; : 5 j é ; 800
French : . . ; ‘ ; A F : 6 ‘ 500
German . ; ‘ A F 5 , . ‘ . 5 500
Italian ‘ : ; ; ' J - 400
(d) Mathematics (pure and mixed) . 1,000
Natural Science: that is, the elements of any two of the following
Sciences, viz. :—
Chemistry, 500; Electricity and Magnetism, 800; Experi-
mental Laws of Heat and Light, 300; Mechanical
Philosophy, with outlines of ees 300.
Logic 5 : 300
Elements of Political Economy . . 3 : : : - . 300
(e) Sanskrit. ; : ; ; : : : : ; 500
(e) Arabic : : : ; : : E : : A : 500
Candidates are at liberty to name any or all of these branches of knowledge.
No subjects are obligatory.
Owing to the changes recently made in the limits of age of candidates for the
India Civil Service, it is probable that extensive alterations will shortly be made
in these regulations.
CHEMISTRY.
1. Describe how to prepare hydrogen in quantity ; how to remove from it traces
of sulphuretted and arseniuretted hydrogen; and how to detect any admixture of
nitrogen with it.
2. Explain how the proportion of the elements in carbon monoxide has been
1 The Committee are indebted to Mr. W. A. Shenstone for special information
respecting these examinations.
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 293
determined. What are the grounds for regarding the atomic weizht of carbon to
be 12 rather than 6 ?
3. With what different elements, and under what circumstances, will nitrogen
unite directly? Show how ammonia may easily be obtained from each of the
compounds so formed,
4, Describe the allotropic forms of phosphorus, and the circumstances under
which they are formed. Show in whiat respects phosphorus resembles arsenic.
5. Illustrate, by at least three examples involving different reactions, the oxi-
dising action of nitric acid, explaining the chemistry of each case.
6. Give an account of the chemical characters of iodine, hydriodic acid, and
potassium iodide. How do you account for the reducing action of hydriodic acid 2
7. 2632 grams of a salt, containing only potassium, chlorine, and oxygen, gave
when heated 851-2 cc. of oxygen gas; and the residual potassium chloride treated
with silver nitrate gave 2°72G6 grams of silver chloride: calculate a formula for the
salt.
8. Give an account of the chemical characters of lime. Compare them with
those of the oxides of lead and magnesium.
9. Explain how malleable iron is made from cast iron.
10. Show that the chemical properties of the elements are connected with their
atomic weights according to a definite law. :
PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY.
[N.B.—In answering these questions be particular to state every experiment made
én the order in which it was made, and to specify the reagents used in making it,
and the effects which you observe to follow. }
1. Make a qualitative analysis of the substance A.}
2. Examine with the blowpipe the substance B.1
3. Find the acid in C.!
4. Determine, by means of the standard solution of silver nitrate, the pro-
portion of sodium chloride in the solution D.1
INDIA FOREST SERVICE.
The subjects of examination during recent years, and the marks assigned
thereto, are detailed in the following table :—
Maximum. Minimum.
Arithmetic in allits branches. : : : 300 100
Compound Addition . 2 ; 2 c c 50s -
Orthography . . - A . . . 800 150
Handwriting . - - : . c : 200 100
Intelligence : : ; ‘ C ; ; 100 —
English Composition . : : : . : 200 67
Algebra, up to and including Binomial Theorem . 300 75
Geometry, including Ist, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 6th
Books of Euclid . A : : : é 300 75
Plane Trigonometry . é : : S : 300 75
Elements of Mechanics. Caria: cs Sainte 330 75
Elements of Physics . . : 2 : : 3800 75
Inorganic Chemistry . are : - ¢ 400 80
_ Mechanical Drawing of Geometrical Figures. 400 80
Translation from French . : . ~, 200 67
French, oral. : - 5 - 4 : 100 33
Elements of Botany . : tens - 400 80
* These substances were as follows :—
A. Litharge, B. Chrome-iron stone,
_C. Sodium silicate, D. 5-005 grms. in four litres.
294 REPORT—1890.
The above subjects are compulsory ; but, in addition thereto, the annexed marks
may be obtained in the following optional subjects : —
Translation into French : . : 5 5 100
Freehand Drawing ; 5 é : 300
Elements of Geology and Miner alogy é : : 300
From those competitors who attain the minimum amount of marks, and satisfy
the requisite conditions in other respects, the Secretary of State will select those
whom he may deem best adapted to the Service.
The candidates so selected will undergo a course of two years’ special training
at Cooper’s Hill College, commencing with the annual session, which begins in
September.
Under the new scheme which wil] come into force next year, the subjects of
examination will be divided into three classes, namely :—
I. Obligatory subjects, in which a candidate must obtain one-third of full marks
in order to qualify :—
Marks
Lower Mathematics (as defined in peared) : : - 2,000
English Composition . a c “ : . 1,000
German (400 for colloquial) . - : . sia aieke - 2,000
II. Optional subjects, of which a candidate may offer two, but not more than
two :—
Marks
Higher Mathematics (as defined in egae e) 5 = - 2,000
French (400 for See 3 : > ee Hh
Latin . p ' 5 5 P ; Fe 3 is
Greek . F 5 : a
English History (as defined i in prospectus) . “ - Bley
Botany 43 A = . 0 oy
Chemistry a3 55 . > ; : 4
Physics -
Physical Geology and Geography (as defined i in prospectus) i
III. Additional subjects, either or both of which a candidate may offer :—
Marks
Freehand Drawing C . . . . ° ° . 7M S00
Geometrical . . . . . . . . - . 300
ELEMENTS OF CHEMISTRY. '
1. Give an account of the composition and properties of the substance produced ,
by burning sulphur in air. ’
2, What are the relative densities of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water vapour,
at the same temperature and pressure? Explain by reference to general laws why
in a mixture of such gases and vapour the most dense does not sink to the bottom.
3. Describe the chief characters of nitrogen, and show how to obtain pure
nitrogen. How can you prove that ammonia contains nitrogen ?
4. Describe and explain the preparation of nitric acid. Explain the action of
strong, and of dilute, nitric acid on zine.
5. What sort of substances can be removed from water by (1) filtration,
(2) distillation? Given a sample of water, how could you test whether it had —
been distilled? How is water affected by having carbonic acid in it ? '
6. Explain how sodium silicate is made, and how a solution of silicic acid can
be obtained from it.
7. What do you understand by neutral and acid salts respectively? Give
examples of each kind. If a solution of sulphuric acid will dissolve 20 grams of |
calcium carbonate and no more, calculate the amount of sulphuric acid in the —
solution. (0:S:C: Ca=16: 32:12:40.) ;
8. State the chemical composition of alum, blue vitriol, epsom salt, potassium
permanganate, and corrosive sublimate; and mention uses to which they are
applied.
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 295
9. In what substances and states of combination is phosphorus chiefly met with
in nature? How is red amorphous phosphorus made? Point out the differences
between that and ordinary phosphorus, and show why they are not chemical
differences.
10. Show in what respects iodine resembles chlorine, magnesium resembles
zinc, and manganese resembles iron.
11. Explain the chemical effects of exposing to the weather iron, lead, zinc,
and copper respectively. How is iron galvanised? Mention other methods of
protecting iron, and explain them.
PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY.
1, Examine the substances A! and B! when heated
(1) alone in a glass tube,
(2) with sulphuric acid.
Describe the effects observed, and draw such inferences from them as you can.
2. Analyse the substance C.! State exactly what you do to it, and what is the
result of each test applied. In stating your conclusions point out on which of the
reactions you rely for proof.
3. Test the substance D' for a phosphate. State what you do to it, what
results follow, and what conclusion you draw.
ROYAL MILITARY ACADEMY, WOOLWICH.
Candidates for admission by competition will be required to pass—
1. A ‘ Preliminary ’ Examination.
2. A ‘Further’ Examination.
Further Examination,
The subjects of the Further Examination, and the maximum number of marks
obtainable for each subject will be as follows, until the close of the present year.
Afterwards the values of the subjects in Classes I. and II. will be assessed at 2,000
marks each (3,000 for Mathematics), Subjects 3 and 4 in Class I. will become
alternative, whilst two subjects will be permitted from Class II.
Class I.
(1) Mathematics:—
Part I. Obligatory. Algebra; Euclid; Plane Trigonometry ;
Mensuration ; Statics; Dynamics. : - - 3,000
N.B.—A_ thorough knowledge of each of the above branches of mathematics
will be required.
Part II. Optional. Further questions and problems on
the subjects of the Preliminary Examination ; Statics ;
Dynamics; the Elements of Analytical Geometry ; Conic
Sections . é ; ; : ; 2 , é 3,000
(2) Latin ; ; ‘ . ‘ a - : 5 ; 3,000
(8) French (600 for Colloquial) . : : : b j 3,000
(4) German (600 for Colloquial) . : : : 5 ; 3,000
Class II.
(1) Greek ; : ; . ; 5 : : A 2,000
(2) English History :—
One general paper.
One paper limited to a fixed period of which notice will be
given : , . ‘ : . 2,000
* These substances were as follows :—A, potassium iodide with mercuric iodide ;
B, oxalic acid; C, ferrous ammonium sulphate; D, carbonate with fluoride of calcium,
296 REPORT—1890.
(8) Experimental Sciences '—viz. (a) the elements of inorganic
chemistry; (0) electricity, magnetism, heat and light . 2,000
(4) Physical geography and geology, chiefly economic . : 2,000
Class ITT.
(1) English composition tested by the power of writing an essay or
letter . c : 5 : ; C ‘ : 3 £00
(2) Drawing, freehand . ; : 5 ; . . 3 500
(8) Drawing, geometrical. : . 2 ; ; ; 5 500
Of these subjects (in addition to the Obligatory Mathematics) candidates will
not be allowed to take up more than four, exclusive of those in Class III., nor will
they be allowed to take up more than one from Class II.; but they may, in addi-
tion, take up all the subjects in Class III. There will be a practical Examination
on subjects 3 (a) and (4), and 4 of Class II.
InorGANIC CHEMISTRY.
1. Describe an experiment to show that sulphuretted hydrogen gas contains
an amount of hydrogen which, if free, would have a volume equal to its own.
Under what conditions will sulphur and hydrogen unite to form sulphuretted
hydrogen ?
2. Give a short description of the manufacture of sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol).
What is the composition of the so-called ‘ chamber crystals’?
3. 20 litres of air are led through baryta water and yield a precipitate of 0-5
gram of baric carbonate. What is the percentage by volume of carbon dioxide
present in the sample of air?
[Barium =137. Carbon=12. 11:16 litres of hydrogen weigh 1 gram.]
4, What is the effect of heat upon the following compounds respectively :-—
(a) Mercuric nitrate; (6) Ammonic nitrate; (c) Potassic nitrate ?
Give equations for the decompositions which take place.
5. Describe the preparation of silicon fluoride, and give an equation to explain
the chemical change which occurs in your process.
What action takes place when this gas comes in contact with water ?
6. How does the ordinary yellow phosphorus differ from amorphous phosphorus?
How may they be converted, the one into the other ? :
7. From what source is iodine generally obtained? Describe its preparation.
How would you distinguish between a piece of iodine and a piece of graphite ?
8. How much ‘ pyrolusite’ (manganese dioxide) must be decomposed by heat
to yield sufficient oxygen to convert 160 grams of sulphur into sulphur dioxide ?
[Manganese =55. Sulphur =32.]
9. What is the action of zinc and hydrochloric acid on an aqueous solution of
sulphur dioxide P
10. Explain the phenomenon known as the ‘spheroidal state of water.’ How
is the boiling-point of a liquid affected by variations in the atmospheric pressure ?
PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY.
[N.B.—In writing out the results you obtain you are expected to state every
experiment in the order in which it was performed, and to underline the results which
you rely upon to prove the conclusions you arrive at.
*,* If you use symbols in writing out your results, marks will be deducted for
any errors which occur in them. |
1. Find the two metals present in the alloy A.?
2. Analyse the simple salts B* and C.?
3. Find the acid which is in combination with sodium in the compound D.?
1 Subjects (a) and (0) are alternative; a candidate will not be allowed to take
up both.
2 These substances were as follows :—A, alloy of zinc and tin; B, lead nitrate ;
€, strontium carbonate ; D, sodic hyposulphite.
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 297
CADETSHIPS, ROYAL MILITARY COLLEGE, SANDILURST.
Further Examination.
The subjects of the Further Examination, and the maximum number of
marks obtainable for each subject, are at present as follows, but it is understood
that the marks assigned to the various subjects in this examination will shortly be
modified, so as to raise the value of the subjects in Class II.
Class I, Marks.
(1) Mathematics—viz. algebra, up to and including the Binomial
Theorem ; the theory and use of jogarithms; Euclid, Books
TI. to LV. and VI.; plane trigonometry, up to and including
solution of triangles, and mensuration . - : . 9,000
(2) Latin . : : : : C : : ; : . 8,000
(5) French (600 for colloquial) . : - : c c . 938,000
(4) German (600 for colloquial) . - : : : “ . 38,000
Class II.
(1) Greek . : ; : - : : - : c . 2,000
(2) Higher mathematics, including analytical geometry; conic
sections; differential calculus; statics and dynamics . 2,000
(8) English history :—
One general paper.
One paper limited to a fixed period of which notice
will be given : : : : ‘ : :
(4) Iixperimental sciences—viz. (a) the elements of inorganic
chemistry ; (4) electricity, magnetism, heat, andlight . 2,000
2,000
(5) Physical geography and geology, chiefly economic - . 2,000
Class III.
(1) English composition, tested by the power of writing an essay
or letter . . 2 : : “ cl : : . 600
(2) Drawing, freehand Z ¢ : . : . . . 600
(8) “ geometrical . : 5 c : ; : - 600
Of these subjects candidates will not be allowed to take up more than four, exclu-
sive of those in Class III., nor will they be allowed to take up more than one from
Class II., but they may, in addition, take up all the subjects in Class III. There
will be a practical examination in subjects 4 (a) and (6) and 5.
Tyoreanic CHEMISTRY.
1. Describe an experiment to show that sulphuretted hydrogen gas contains an
amount of hydrogen which, if free, would have a volume equal to its own.
Under what conditions will sulphur and hydrogen unite to form sulphuretted
hydrogen ?
2. Give a short description of the manufacture of sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol).
What is the composition of the so-called ‘ chamber crystals’?
8. 20 litres of air are led through baryta water and yield a precipitate of 0:5
gram of baric carbonate. What is the percentage by volume of carbon dioxide
present in the sample of air?
[Barium =137. Carbon=12. 11:16 litres of hydrogen weigh 1 gram.]
4. What is the effect of heat upon the following compounds respectively :—
a. Mercuric nitrate; 6. Ammonic nitrate; ¢. Potassic nitrate ?
Give equations for the decompositions which take place.
5. Describe the preparation of silicon fluoride, and give an equation to explain
the chemical change which occurs in your process.
What action takes place when this gas comes in contact with water ?
298 REPORT—1890.
6. How does the ordinary yellow phosphorus differ from amorphous phosphorus ?
How may they be conv erted, the one into the other ?
7, From what source is iodine generally obtained? Describe its preparation.
How would you distinguish between a piece of iodine and a piece of graphite ?
8. How much ‘ pyrolusite ’ (manganese dioxide) must be decomposed by heat
to yield sufficient oxygen to convert 160 grams of sulphur into sulphur dioxide ?
[Manganese =55, Sulphur = 382.]
9. What is the action of zinc and hydrochloric acid on an aqueous solution of
sulphur dioxide ?
10. Explain the phenomenon known as the ‘spheroidal state of water.’ How
is the boiling-point of a liquid attected by variations in the atmospheric pressure ?
PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY.
[N.B.—In writing out the results you obtain you are expected to state every
experiment in the order in which tt was performed, and to underline the results
which you rely upon to prove the conclusions you arrive at.
*,” If you use symbols in writing out your results, marks will be deducted for
any errors which occur in them. ]
1, Find the two metals present in the alloy A.!
2, Analyse the simple salts B! and C.!
3, Find the acid which is in combination with sodium in the compound D.!
OPEN COMPETITION OF CANDIDATES FOR ENTRY AS ENGINEER
STUDENTS IN HER MAJESTY’S DOCKYARDS.
The following will be the subjects of the Competitive Examination, and the
maximum number of marks for each subject :—
Arithmetic . : 4 : 0 : . 5 . . . 800
English—
Handwriting . . 40
Accuracy and Intelligence i in W riting from Dictation yell
Composition . : : C 5 ¢ . : - 100
Grammar . , : . - : : é . 150
350
French or German or Italian—
Translation into English . : C . 5 : ° . 150
Latin—
Translation into English 0 . 150
*Very elementary Physics and Chemistry : : : pe AOD)
Geography (including Physical Geography) . 0 j 4 . 200
Algebra (up to and including quadratic equations) 300
Euclid’s Elements (Books I. to LV. and Book VI. . and the definitions
of Book V.) 4 300
Freehand Drawing - , : ; ; 5 ; : 5 we Allo)
Total.ii lo lactintoteht pecans
1 These substances were as follows :—A, alloy of zinc and tin; B, lead nitrate;
C, strontium carbonate ; D, sodic hyposulphite.
? The Examination in Physics and Chemistry will be easy questions in—
Chemistry—Oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, the nature of combustion,
Physics—Mechanics, hydrostatics, pneumatics, electricity, and magnetism.
ate Gt Locus
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 299
CHEMISTRY.
Ten questions may be attempted in Chemistry and Physics, of which not more
than four may be selected from Chemistry, and not more than three from each branch
of Physics.
UNG
1. What are the meanings of the terms atom and molecule ?
2. How is hydrogen obtained in a pure state, and what are its properties ?
8. For what reasons is the chemical formula for nitric dioxide given as NO,
while that of nitrous oxide is N,O?
4, Give an account of the method of preparing nitric acid, and explain your
answer by a chemical formula.
5. What are the principal constituents of coal gas, and how may their
respective formule be used to compare their densities ?
6. State the effect of heating each of the following substances, and give the
formule for the reactions :—
i, Potassium Chlorate (IKCIO,).
ii. Potassium Nitrate (IKKNO,).
ili. Calcium Carbonate (CaCQ,).
iv. Potassium Nitrite (KNO,).
APPENDIX.
Exercises illustrative of an Elementary Course of Instruction in
Experimental Science. By Professor ARMSTRONG.
The scheme put forward in the report presented last year by the Com-
mittee sufficed to indicate the kind of instruction likely to inculcate habits
of observing correctly, of reasoning from observation, and of setting new
questions and obtaining answers thereto by experiment and observation:
habits which it is now generally admitted are of great consequence in
the struggle for existence, and which cannot be acquired except through
training in the methods of experimental science. Nevertheless, it has
been felt that detailed directions how to proceed were necessary for the
use of the less experienced teachers, and that even those who fully sym-
pathise with the proposals already made would welcome the more com-
plete display of the system. I have therefore obtained the permission of
the Committee to append the following suggestions to their report, in
amplification of certain parts of the scheme already published.
It is obviously impossible to sketch more than a small portion of a
complete programme of instruction; the portion now offered is that
appropriate to the earliest stage in which quantitative studies can be
engaged in: its study can be commenced by children of fair intelligence
when 9 or 10 years old. It is an essential feature of the scheme that it
has reference to common things, the object being to lead children to
engage in the rational study of the objects which are daily brought under
_ their notice.
Time to be devoted to Experimental Studies and Mode of Teaching.—
Frequently during the past year the question has been put to me, ‘ How
much time is to be devoted to such science teaching ?’ and complaint
has been made of the difficulty of dealing with large classes of children,
of keeping them employed, and of providing the requisite space and
appliances.
300 REPORT—1890.
The question as to time will ever continue to be put until the
fundamental fallacy which hitherto has retarded the progress of experi-
mental teaching in schools is discarded, viz. that sufficient training in a
scientific subject can be imparted in the course of a term or two. This
undoubtedly is the view entertained in the majority of schools—girls’
schools in particular. It is well known, for example, that of the many
hundred students who each year present themselves at the London
University Matriculation examination, the vast majority have had but a
few months’ coaching in chemistry, mechanics, or physics, although they
‘have had lessons in arithmetic and like subjects during the whole period
of their school career. It was long a superstition — that to pass in
chemistry all that was necessary was to have read some one of the small
text-books, and a very large proportion of matriculants have doubtless
had only such preparation. The fact is that our schools hitherto have
been all but entirely in the hands of those who have had a purely classical
or mathematical training, and who have gained their knowledge by
reading. Teachers thus trained cannot realise that the useful effect of
science teaching is only attained when the instruction is carried out on
entirely different lines; they cannot realise that accurate experimenting 1s
the essential feature in the system; that knowledge gained by mere reading
is and can be of little use, as in acquiring it the mental faculties which it
is desired to exercise never become trained. It must be recognised by
all who have charge of schools that, in order to secure the due develop-
ment of those faculties which science teaching alone can affect, the
instruction must be imparted from the very beginning and during the entire
period of the school career.
If this be done, many of the difficulties hitherto encountered may
disappear. Probably it will be found advantageous, at least in the
earlier stages, rather than disadvantageous, to devote but a short time
during any one lesson to actual experimental work. There is no doubt
that far too much is usually attempted ; that too many facts are brought
under the student’s notice in the course of the lesson, the result being a
blurred mental picture destitute of sharp outlines. After considerable
experience I am satisfied that it is difficult to proceed too gradually—it
may almost be said too slowly.
The following two sets of instructions are given by way of illustra-
tion ; it is not pretended that they are complete, nor is it suggested that
the exercises should be worked through exactly in the order in which
they are stated, or completed by all pupils ; the teacher must determine
which are suitable for the particular set under instruction.
Studies of Water and Common Liquids.
1. Make every effort to elicit from the pupils by question and answer
all that they have noticed with regard to water. Induce them to take ad-
vantage of any opportunities the neighbourhood affords of observing water
and its effects. Let them ascertain the area covered by the school-house
roof and the amount of water which falls on it when it rains; institute
systematic observations of rainfall and embody the data in arithmetical
exercises. Call attention to the different yearly rainfall of different parts
of the country, and point out the influence of hills and mountains ; let
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. , 301
outline maps be coloured, so as to indicate the different rainfall of
different districts.
2. Call attention to the geographical distribution of water, &. ; also
to the work which it does in nature (cf. ‘Geikie’s Physical Geography,’
‘Huxley’s Physiography,’ c&c.), illustrating this part of the subject,
especially at an inland school, by lantern photographic slides of ships,
sea-coasts, Niagara Falls, &c. &e.
3. Call attention to the disappearance of water, i.e. the drying up of
rain, the drying of clothes, &c., and lead the pupils to notice that this
takes place most quickly in hot weather and in warm places; then let
them pour water into a clock glass placed either over a saucepan in
which water is boiled by a gas-burner (or petroleum or spirit lamp, if
gas be not available), or in a small gas cooking-stove ; they will see that
the water evaporates, leaving a certain amount of residue. [At this stage
experiment on the extent to which water evaporates out of doors and
indoors under different conditions and at different times of the year by
exposing water in weighed glass (crystallising) dishes about 4 inches in
diameter, and weighing at intervals. Also call attention to the fact
that in certain states of the weather things become damp, and that
moisture is sometimes deposited on the windows in cold weather; then
let the condensation be noted of a liquid indistinguisbable from water,
which occurs, for instance, when a closed flask filled with water and ice
is exposed in a room. Let some seaweed enclosed in a muslin bag be
hung up out of doors where it cannot be wetted by rain, and have it
weighed daily. At the same time have the temperature, direction of the
wind, and character of the weather noted. Later on have the dry and
wet bulb thermometer read daily. Have the changes in weight of the
seaweed and the dry and wet bulb thermometer readings represented by
curves. lead the pupils to contrast and discuss the results.] The ex-
periment should then be repeated with a known quantity of water and a
weighed glass dish, so as to determine the amount of residue; the
character of the residue should he noticed. Discuss the origin of the.
water, and point out whence the residual matter may have come. Next,
if a well water was taken, let a local river or pond water be examined in
a similar way, then rain water, and, if possible, sea water.
4, Let an ordinary 2-oz. narrow-mouth stoppered bottle, having
a nick filed down the stopper, be filled with each of the waters and
weighed, and let the operation be repeated several times with each water,
so that the eaperimental error may be ascertained ; it will be found that
the different waters, sea-water excepted, have practically the same
density. At this stage arithmetical exercises relating to the weight of
known bulks, and vice versd, of water, the quantities of dissolved solids
present in given bulks of various waters, &ce. &c. may advantageously
be set; these should be solved practically by actual measurement in as
many cases as possible.
5. Next ask, ‘But what becomes of the water when driven off by
heat ?’ If ithave not been noticed that water collects (condenses) on some
object near at hand, let a cold object be held over boiling water, then let
water be boiled in a glass flask connected with a glass condenser.
Afterwards have water distilled in larger quantity from a tin (2-gallon)
can. The density of the distilled water should then be determined and
its behaviour on evaporation. Data would thus be accumulated render-
ing it possible to explain the drying up of water under ordinary con-
302 REPORT—1890.
ditions, the origin of rain, the differences between waters from various
sources, and the method of separating water from the associated foreign
matters will have been brought home to the minds cf the pupils.
6. As the water is heated to boiling in the flask, if attention be paid
to all that occurs, it will probably be noticed that bubbles separate from
the water, rising up through it and escaping at the surface ; frequently
the bubbles adhere for a time to the flask. Let the experiment be
repeated in such a way that the something which escapes from the water
can be collected and measured; for example, a 2-gallon tin can having
been filled with water, insert into the neck a rubber cork through which
a bent delivery tube is passed, place the can over a burner, introduce the
upturned end of the delivery tube into a basin of water, and insert a
small jar over it. Heat to boiling. An air-like substance will gradually
be driven off, but it will be noticed that after the water has been boiling
for some time it ceases to give off gas; let the amount of gas collected
be measured, and have the experiment repeated several times. As
the gas does not continue to come off on boiling the water, it would
seem that it is not a part of the water—there is so little of it, but merely
something dissolved in the water; it is like air, and the water had been
in contact with air—may it not be air? Let the boiled water be poured
out into a galvanised iron pan, and after it has been exposed to the air
for several hours let it be again boiled. The water which previously
no longer gave off gas will now yield probably as much as before. It
will thus be discovered that water dissolves air as well as the solid
matters with which it comes in contact, and the presence of air in water
will be recognised. This knowledge will be of value later on when the
existence of animals and plants under water comes to be considered.
7. Attention having thus been directed to the solvent action of water, let
special experiments be made on its solvent action, using salt, sugar, suet,
washing soda, alum, tea and coffee, field or garden soil, clay, chalk or
limestone, gypsum, &c.; known quantities of the filtered solutions should
be evaporated to dryness, and the residues dried (conveniently in a small
gas cooking-oven) and weighed. Opportunity will be afforded to call
attention to the separation of some of the substances from solution in
definite shapes, i.e. crystals; show these under the microscope as
well as home-made cardboard models of some of them. Let larger crys-
tals of alum be grown, and call attention to sugar crystals. Natural
crystals of calcite, gypsum, pyrites, quartz, fluorspar, &c. would be
appropriately shown at this stage. The question may then be put, Does
the water which passes through the body dissolve anything ? By evapo-
rating urine and determining the amount of dried residue it would be
found that a good deal of matter passes away from the body ia solution.
8. Having directed attention to the different behaviour of different
waters with soap, let determinations be made of the amount of alcoholic
soap solution required to produce a lather in distilled and other waters.
Directions for performing the soap test are easily obtained from a book
on water analysis, and the operation is one of extreme simplicity.
9. Other liquids should now be compared with water, such as methy-
lated spirit, turpentine, petroleum, salad oil, vinegar, and perhaps the
common acids—muriatic, nitric, and sulphuric—also. The noticeable
differences between these and water—appearance, odour, taste in dilute
solution—having been registered, their relative densities should be deter-
mined ; also their behaviour towards water and towards each other, their
SS eee eee
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 303
behaviour when heated on the water-bath in comparison with that of water,
their behaviour when burnt, their behaviour when boiled together with
water in a flask attached to a condenser, and their solvent action in com-
parison with that of water should be ascertained.
10. Having given an account of the origin, &c. of the various liquids
examined, and having alluded to the presence of alcohol in beer and wine,
demonstrate the separation of alconol from beer by distillation; then
describe the production of alcohol by fermentation and carry out the
experiment, first with sugar and yeast, then with malt; explain that yeast
is an organism, and show it under the microscope and lantern photographs
of it. Make several mixtures of alcohol and water and let the relative
density of each be determined ; then exhibit a table of relative density of
spirit solutions of various strengths. Let a measured amount of beer be
distilled, have the distillate made up with distilled water to the bulk of
the beer taken and let its density be determined; reference being then
made to the table of relative densities, the strength of the alcoholic dis-
tillate could be ascertained, and thus the amount of alcohol in beer would
be determined.
11. The behaviour of water when heated may now be further studied;
attention having been called to the thermometer as an instrument which
enables us to judge how hot or cold it is, water should be heated and the
gradual rise of the mercury column noted and the steady position which
it assumes when the water boils. In the same way boiling water should
be allowed to cool and the fall of the mercury column noted; further
cooling should then be effected by means of ice, so that opportunity might
be given for the stationary position to be observed which the column
eventually takes up and maintains so long as unmelted ice is present.
Having specially directed attention to these ‘fixed points,’ describe the
construction of the thermometer. Next let a quantity of water be dis-
tilled from a flask or can having a thermometer in its neck, and Jet the
steady position of the mercury throughout the distillation be observed.
Also let water be frozen by means of a mixture of ice and salt; the
‘temperature’ of the freezing mixture having been ascertained, the
thermometer bulb should be inserted into the water which is being frozen
(in a test tube), so that the ice may form around its bulb: the temperature
should be noted during freezing and also during the subsequent melting
of the ice. Do this out of contact with the refrigerating mixture,
12. Let the relative density of ice be determined, i.e. after showing that
althongh ‘lighter’ than water ice is ‘heavier’ than turps, let a cylinder
partly filled with turpentine be counterpoised, and after the temperature
has been lowered by immersing the cylinder in ice water, note the position
of the turps, then introduce a few pieces of dried ice, note the rise of the
turpentine—thereby determining the volume of the ice—and subsequently
weigh in order to ascertain the weight of ice introduced. Have the result
thus obtained checked by subsequent observation of the bulk of water which
results when the ice melts. The expansion of water on freezing having
thus been observed, the bursting of pipes in winter may be explained ; and
attention may also be directed to the destructive effects on rocks produced
by the freezing of water ; the extent to which ice floats may be discussed,
and arithmetical problems may be set which will lead the pupils to realise
the extent to which the volume changes when water changes its state.
13. Let the relative density of water and the other liquids be deter-
mined at 6° C. and at a higher temperature—that at 0° by weighing and
304 REPORT—1890.
that at the higher temperature by observing the expansion of the liquids
in bulbs with graduated stems of known capacity; let curves be con-
structed showing the relation between temperature and volume.
14. Let spirit, turpentine, petroleum, and vinegar be distilled; the
temperature during distillation being observed, the gradual rise especially
in the case of spirits and petroleum will be noted. Fractionally distil
several times some quantity of spirit and of petroleum; let the relative
density of each separate fraction be determined, and let the water
separated from the spirit be characterised by freezing it and determining
the melting-point of the ice and the boiling-point of the liquid which
results when the ice melts.
15. Having directed attention to the fact that heat is ‘used up’ in
melting ice and boiling water, let determinations be made of the amounts,
following ‘ Worthington’s Practical Physics,’ for example.
Studies of Chalk: and other Common Solids.
1. Call attention to the use made of lime in building and its produc-
tion from chalk or limestone; slake a lump of lime; exhibit specimens
and pictures of chalk cliffs or quarries and limekilns—if not to be seen in
the district. Point out on a geological map those parts of the country
in which chalk occurs, and those where limestone is met with. Explain
how chalk is supposed to have been formed and show pictures of the
forms which are present in it, and, if possible, microscopic slides. Explain
that whitening, which is purchasable everywhere, is but levigated chalk,
describe its preparation, and let chalk and sand be separated by leevigation.
2. Let the conversion of chalk into lime be studied quantitatively.
For this purpose three to five grams of dried whitening should be weighed
out in a small platinum dish and heated to full redness in the covered dish
during an hour over a Fletcher Argand Bunsen burner: the dish is then
removed from the burner, and after about ten minutes, when cold, is
weighed ; it is then again heated, say for half an hour, &c.; usually
there is no further loss. Several experiments should be made in this
way, so that it may be noted that practically the same percentage of loss
is incurred and the same amount of lime obtained in each case; and
similar experiments should be made with chalks from different localities
(Note A).
3. At the conclusion of each experiment, the residue should be care-
fully moistened with distilled water and the effect noticed; usually the
lime slakes, becoming hot—some limes, however, slake very slowly, and
the heating is imperceptible. The excess of water should then be driven
off by heating in a water-oven until the weight no longer diminishes.
4, In comparing the solvent action of the various liquids previously
studied, it will probably have been noticed that chalk is dissolved by
acids—for example, vinegar or muriatic acid—with effervescence; such
an acid may therefore be used, if necessary, in cleaning out the dish at
the conclusion of the experiment if any of the solid adhere to it. Then,
having made it clear that the effervescence is due to the escape of an
air-like substance or gas, which is conveniently termed chalk-gas, let the
amount of gas which is given off when the chalk is dissolved in acid be
determined. For this purpose, the simple apparatus shown in fig. 1
may conveniently be used. From 1°5 to 2 grams of the chalk is weighed
out on a small square of tissue paper, which is then folded up at the sides
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 305
and dropped into the bottle a, from which the tube B has been removed ;
a little water is then added (about 5 cubic centims.) and the chalk is
shaken out of the paper; about 5 cubic centims. of nitric acid is now
poured into the tube B, which is then carefully replaced in the bottle a.
Fi4. 1.
5
Cem
(= g
/
“if
aad
—
The cork having been inserted, connection is established by means of the
flexible tube c with the bottle p. The side tube having been so adjusted
that the end ¢ is on a level with the water in the bottle p, the measuring
cylinder H is so placed that any water which runs from e may be col-
lected in it, and the bottle a is then carefully tilted so that the acid may
gradually run out of the tube B into A; gas is at once given off and
expels water from p. As the water sinks in D the side tube £ is lowered so
that its orifice remains about on a level with the water inp. The water
is then measured. Several experiments should be made and the results
should be compared by calculating the volume of gas which would have
been obtained, supposing, say, 100 grams of the chalk had been dissolved.
5. In this way it is ascertained that chalk-stuff is characterised by
@) yielding between 56 and 57 percent. of lime, which increases by about
3 per cent. when slaked; and (2) by yielding about 22,000 cubic
centims. of chalk-gas per 100 grams when dissolved in acid.
6. Comparing lime with chalk, it is found that if the chalk be
thoroughly burnt no gas is evolved on dissolving the recently slaked
lime in acid; this result serves at least to suggest that the gas which
18 given off when chalk is dissolved in acid is perhaps expelled during
the conversion of chalk into lime. The loss in weight which occurs is
therefore determined, and when it is ascertained that it is very nearly
the sg as when chalk is burnt, no room is left for doubt that the same
; x
306 REPORT—1890.
substance is dispelled by heating and by dissolving the chalk in acid.
The experiment is very easily carried out in a small bottle or conical
flask provided with a tube to contain acid, and closed by a cork through
which pass a narrow tube bent at a right angle and a small drying tube
full of cotton wool. The chalk is weighed out on thin paper and dropped
into the flask, a little water is poured on to it, and the acid tube is then
introduced, after which the cork is inserted. The bent tube is closed by
a smali stopper. On tilting the flask acid escapes and attacks the chalk;
the spray is prevented from escaping by the cotton wool. When the
action is at an end air is sucked in through the narrow bent tube to dis-
place the chalk-gas, and finally the loss in weight is determined. Such
an apparatus gives admirable results.
7. Marble may then be examined in a similar way ; as it is found to
behave both on heating and when dissolved in acid much as chalk does,
it may be presumed to consist of chalk-stuff. Next, limestones should be
taken ; the result obtained with them may be lower owing to their con-
taining clay, &c.; but this is to a large extent rendered evident by insolu-
ble matter left on treating with acid. Let the percentage of chalk-stuff
in the limestones be calculated from the results which they afford, assum-
ing the results obtained with chalk to be practically those afforded by
pure chalk-stuff. Lastly, direct attention to the occurrence of crystals
(calcite) in limestone rocks, to stalactites, &c.; show specimens, and have
them examined: the results will show that they also consist of chalk-
stuff.
8. Having pointed out that chalk consists of shells, &c., of’ sea-animals,
coral and shells of various kinds—oyster, cockle, limpet—should be given
for examination ; all these will be found to give results from which it
may be inferred that for the most part they consist of chalk-stuff. Egg-
shell and lobster or crab-shell in like manner will be found to yield lime
when burnt, and to behave much as chalk does towards acid, but the
presence of a certain amount of ‘animal’ matter will be evidenced by the
blackening on heating and the insolubility of a certain proportion in acid.
9. Ordinary bone, gypsum, clay, and rocks other than chalk or lime-
stone rocks are next given for study, in order that it may be discovered
that the behaviour of chalk-stuff is peculiar and characteristic, and that
there are many varieties of natural solids. Rough estimates of the
amount of chalk in soil may be made by determining the amount of chalk-
gas evolved on treating the soil with acid.
10. In a hard-water district the residue from the water will probably
look more or less like chalk ; its behaviour when heated with acid and
when strongly heated should therefore be determined, and local boiler or
kettle scale should then be studied as chalk was previously.
11. In this manner a large number of data will be accumulated which
render it possible to discuss the origin of chalk; to explain the presence
of chalk-stuff in water and its withdrawal from water by animals, dc.
The study of chalk in the manner indicated would make it possible
for the student (1) to comprehend the principle of the method followed
by chemists in characterising substances whereby they are led to discover
distinct forms or species; (2) to realise not only that there are com-
pounds, but also that such substances have a fixed composition; and (3)
the entire difference in properties between a compound and its constitu-
ents would have been brought out most clearly by comparison of chalk-
See rete oo
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 307
_ stuff with its constituents—lime and chalk-gas. The chalk studies, in
fact, should serve to incite the student’s curiosity, and should lead to
further inquiries being undertaken as to the composition of other sub-
stances and the characters of their constituents, and as to the nature of
other changes ; and with regard to the method of undertaking inquiries
into the composition of other substances, the important results obtained in
the case of chalk by studying the changes which it undergoes would
serve to illustrate the importance of studying change as a means of
determining composition.
It cannot be denied that only well-informed, thoughtful teachers could
give useful instruction in accordance with the foregoing schemes ; but this
is scarcely an objection. The amount of special training required to carry
out the experimental portion would not, however, be great ; and there is
no reason why such instruction should not be given in schools where there
is no special science teacher engaged—although the services of such a
teacher would undoubtedly be necessary if instruction in accordance with
the more complete scheme embodied in the report presented last year by
the Committee were carried out in its entirety.
The suggestion that probably it will be found advantageous at least
in the earlier stages, rather than disadvantageous, to devote but a short
time during any one lesson to actual experimental work (cf. page. 300)
would be realised in practice if the experimental science lesson were
associated with the measurement or practical arithmetic and drawing
lessons ; and it is difficult to imagine that this is not possible. Suppose
a set of twenty-four pupils to be at the disposal of a teacher during an
entire morning or afternoon in a room of sufficient size, properly appointed,
and that they are set to work to carry out the experiments with chalk,
described on page 304. Several—say six—might be told off to weigh out
in platinum dishes the necessary quantities of whitening, and having then
placed the dishes on Fletcher burners or in a muffle, they would return
to their places ; at the end of an hour they would remove the dishes, and
after leaving them during ten minutes to cool would weigh them. To
determine whether any change took place on further heating, they would
reheat the dishes during say half an hour, at the expiration of which time
they would, as soon as the dishes were cool, weigh them again. As soon
as the first set of six had weighed out the chalk, a second set of six
might be set to work in a precisely similar way if the necessary apparatus
were available, or if not at some other exercise involving the use of the
balance.
The nature of the experiments which each set were engaged in per-
forming should be made known to the whole class, and all the data should
be written up on a blackboard. Each pupil should write out an account
of the experiments and of the results; opportunity would thus be given
to compare the results of the six or twelve separate experiments. At the
next lesson the two remaining sets of the class would carry out the same
experiments. Hach pupil would thus have the advantage of performing
one or other of the experiments, and of knowing what results had been
obtained by a number of fellow-students. If necessary, two pupils might
be set to perform one experiment, care being taken that they took equal
parts in it; and thus the whole class of twenty-four might complete the
experiment or experiments in a lesson.
Those of the class who at any time were not actually engaged in
x2
308 REPORT—1890.
carrying out the experiment might be occupied in other ways, e.g., in
measuring distances, in drawing tigures of stated dimensions, &c., in de-
termining areas, in determining relative densities, in working out arith-
metical problems, or in writing out notes and answers to questions. It
would not be difficult as the class progressed to devise an infinite number
of problems and exercises, the data for which were derived from experi-
ments performed by the class.
If only one such lesson were given per week, a single teacher and an
assistant might deal with 240 pupils, or with half that number if each
class had two lessons per week—a much better course ; and, working on
a similar plan, much useful work might be done even in the course of two
hours.
With regard to the appointments for such work, the school-room
should be provided with simple working benches in addition to the
ordinary desks and forms. A narrow table might be placed preferably
across one end of the room on a raised platform, at which the teacher
could sit and on which the balances could be placed; the teacher would
then be able to supervise the weighing, and secure that due care were
taken of the balances. A narrow bench (of deal, into which parafin had
been ‘ironed,’ so as to waterproof it) might be fixed against and along the
wall at either side of the room. This should be fitted with simple cup-
boards and drawers for apparatus, and with gas taps if possible; and at
a suitable distance from the wall and above the table there should be a
bar, carried by brackets affixed to the wall, from which various apparatus,
small scales, &c., could be suspended. A simple draught arrangement
should and might easily be fitted at each working place, so that no
unpleasant or noxious fumes need escape into the room. At the other
end of the room it would be desirable to have a demonstration table, and
behind this, against the wall, a draft closet at one end of a bench which
has a capacious sink at the other end. It would be well also to have a
sink within the closet, which could be made use of, for instance, in washing
out a sulphuretted hydrogen apparatus. A muffle furnace at the side of
the ordinary stove would be a most valuable adjunct.
The cost of carrying out experiments such as have been suggested
remains to be considered.
The chief item is unduubtedly the balance. Useful work may be done
at a very early stage of the measurement lessons with scales costing five or
six shillings, as suggested by Professor Worthington, but their use for
quantitative chemical work such as is comprehended in the foregoing
scheme is entirely to be deprecated. The acquisition of the habit of
weighing carefully and exactly is in itself a discipline of the utmost value,
to which every boy and girl should be subjected. It is all important,
therefore, that a fairly good balance should be used, and that the utmost
care in its use should be enjoined. When not in use the balance should
be covered over with a cardboard box. Becker’s No. 51 (fig. 2) and No. 67
balances, to be had from Townson & Mercer, the English agents, are to
be strongly recommended, the former being probably the more suitable as
the pans are carried by ‘ bowed’ wires, giving more room for manipula-
tion, when, as in determining relative densities by the hydrostatic method,
a bridge to carry a glassful of water is placed across the scale-pan. No. 51
costs 11. 17s. 6d.; No. 67, 21. 1s. A suitable set of weights (No. 31), from
500 grams downwards to centigrams, costs 18s. 4d. ven if six balances
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY. 309
were provided—and such a number would suffice for a large class—the
cost would be but 181.
A convenient size of platinum dish to use is one about ? inch deep and
2 inches wide, weighing, with a light cover, about 20 grams. Ata normal
FIG. 2:
price of platinum such a dish would cost about 25s , so that a considerable
number might be provided for an outlay of 10/. Such dishes not only last
a long time when properly used, but are of value when damaged (Note A).
A water oven for drying would cost about 1l.; one of Fletcher’s small
air ovens for drying costs 17s. 6d.
Fletcher's Argand Bunsen burners, with tripod, are to be recom-
mended as superior to the ordinary burners for school work. The smaller
size costs 2s.; the larger 3s. Suitable black rubber tubing for use with
these burners, # inch in diameter, costs about 9d. per foot. A pair of
iron crucible tongs costs 1s.
The apparatus for measuring the gas evolved on dissolving chalk in
acid would cost about 7s., including a 500 cubic centim. measuring
cylinder.
Glass basins about 3 inches in diameter cost 4d. each ; clock glasses,
6 inches in diameter, 5s. per dozen.
50 ce. burettes cost 3s. 6d. each.
It is unnecessary to refer to the cost of the few remaining articles
required for the suggested experiments, as they are well known. An ex-
penditure of 50/7. would certainly cover the cost of apparatus required by
a class of, say, twenty-four, and which would suffice for the use of several
such classes.
Note A.—The unfortunate rise in the price of platinum, which makes
the purchase of any number of platinum vessels for school use out of the
question, has led me to make a number of experiments in the hope of
substituting silver; but, as was to be expected, this has proved to be
impossible. I find, however, that porcelain may be used, provided that
the heating be effected in a muffle furnace. Small thin hemispherical
porcelain capsules may be obtained from the dealers, about the size of the
platinum dishes specified, which are more suitable than porcelain crucibles
for the experiment. Such dishes may also be used in studying the effect
of heat on organic substances, the char being burnt in the muffle furnace.
310 REPORT—1890.
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors TILDEN
and Ramsay, and Dr. Nicot (Secretary), appointed for the
purpose of investigating the Properties of Solutions.
Tue Committee during the past year have continued the experiments on
the Mutual Solubility of salts in water, and report as follows :—
The salts examined fall into two classes when arranged in pairs.
1. The solubility of one of the salts is affected to precisely the same
extent by the addition of each successive portion of the other salts; as is
the case with
NaCl in solutions of KCl,
NaCl 4 » NaNO,,
KCl 2 3 KNO;,
NaNO, ” ” KNOs.
Here, therefore, the salts share the water between them.
2. The solubility of one of the salts is not proportional to the amount
of the other salt present, but is a steadily decreasing quantity in the
case of
KCI in solutions of NaCl,
KNO, ” ” KCl,
NaNO, . 55 », NaCl,
and a steadily increasing quantity in the case of KNO; in solutions of
NaNO.
The Committee find that further experiments on the molecular volumes
of the solutions are required before the work can be considered complete,
and will at once proceed with these. They have also decided to examine
the atomic volumes of carbon, hydrogen, and oxyger in organic sub-
stances when dissolved in various solvents. They therefore desire
to be reappointed.
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors TILDEN,
M‘LEop, PIckERING, Ramsay, and YounG, and Drs. A. R. LEEDS
and Nico (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of reporting
on the Bibliography of Solution.
Tue Committee report that considerable advance has been made with
the work, which is now approaching completion. During the past year
over 300 volumes have been examined, including the ‘Chemical News,’
the ‘Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry,’ the ‘Journal of the
Chemical Society,’ Liebig’s ‘Annalen,’ and the ‘Chemical Gazette.’
These contained 255 papers, bringing the total number of papers to 930.
The Committee have to thank Miss E. J. Lloyd and Mr. A. J. Cooper
for their valuable assistance in carrying on the work. The Committee
desire to be reappointed.
ON THE THEORY OF SOLUTION. 311
DISCUSSION ON THE THEORY OF SOLUTION.
[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed among the Reports. ]
The present Position of the Hydrate Theory of Solution.
By SPENCER UMFREVILLE PICKERING, V.A., F.R.S.
- Ir is but four years since this Section devoted a day to the discussion of
the nature of solution;' since then, however, the general aspect of the
question and the position of the: advocates of the two rival theories have
undergone such a complete change, that in renewing the discussion we
shall run but little risk of going over the same ground which we then
trod. At Birmingham, Dr. Tilden opened the discussion by passing in
review all the well-known and long-known facts which might by any
possibility throw some light on the nature of solution, and those
who followed him in the discussion each gave the interpretation
of these facts which harmonised best with his own views, and, as the facts
themselves were susceptible of several different interpretations, the not
surprising restlt followed that each disputant departed holding precisely
the same opinions which he had brought with him. Since then, however,
each party has obtained, or thinks that he has obtained, positive evidence
in favour of his own views ; evidence which, if upheld, must be accepted as
conclusive, or which must be overthrown before his opponents can claim
the victory. The supporters of the hydrate theory claim that the curved
figures representing the properties of solutions of various strengths show
sudden changes of curvature at certain points, which are the same whai-
ever be the property examined, which correspond to the composition of
definite hydrates, and which, therefore, can only be explained by the
presence of these hydrates in the solutions; while the supporters of the
physical theory, now identified with the supporters of the osmotic
pressure theory, claim to have shown that, with weak solutions at
any rate, the dissolved substance obeys all the laws which are applicable
to gases, and that, therefore, its molecules must be uninfluenced by, and
uncombined with, those of the solvent.
Tn another respect also I may notice that our position to-day differs
considerably from what it was four years ago; for instead of having to
argue the matter out amongst ourselves, as we did then, we are now
favoured with the presence of some of those whose work in this very
subject has made their names familiar household words with every
physicist and chemist throughout the scientific world.
I propose in the first place to give a brief summary of the evidence
which has lately been adduced in favour of the hydrate theory, and in the
second place to inquire whether the conclusions drawn from this evidence
are invalidated by the important facts elucidated by Raoult, van ’t Hoff,
Arrhenius, and Ostwald.
Tn one respect the supporters of the hydrate theory start now under a
distinct advantage, namely, that their most active opponents do not
altogether deny the existence of hydrates in solution, although it is only
in the case of strong solutions that they will admit their presence ; in such
solutions, indeed, it is difficult to see how their presence could possibly
be denied. The ouly means which we have of proving that a liquid is a
definite compound is by ascertaining whether its composition remains
unaltered by its passage through the gaseous or solid condition—by
1 Report, 1886, p. 444.
one REPORT—1 890,
fractionating it by means of distillation or crystallisation. With liquids
of comparatively small stability, such as hydrates, crystallisation is the
only method available; the results of crystallisation have led us to con-
clude that the liquid represented by H,SO, is a definite compound, and
precisely similar results must force us to accept the definiteness of the
liquids H,SO,.SO3, H,SO,.H,O, and H,SO,.4H,O: in the case of each of
them the liquid freezes as a whole, and without change of composition ;
the temperature remains constant throughout the solidification, and any
excess of either water or sulphuric anhydride which may have been added
may be separated from the pure compound, which alone crystallises from
the mixture. Thus, in the instance taken, between the anhydride on the
one hand and water on the other, we have four definite compounds, alt
existing in the liquid condition.
It does not follow, however, that every hydrate which exists in
solution can necessarily be obtained in the solid condition; probably no
solution, even when it possesses the exact composition of some existing
hydrate, consists of that hydrate only, but of a mixture of it with the
products of its dissociation (though the amount of these may be very
small), and whether the hydrate or one of these dissociation products
crystallises out on cooling must depend on the relative ease with which
the bodies in question assume the solid condition ; when the hydrate does.
not crystallise easily we can hope to obtain evidence of its presence by
indirect means only.
Mendeléeff’s conclusions respecting the densities of solutions of
sulphuric acid and alcohol,! mistaken though I believe they were, led to
the discovery of the means whereby such evidence might be obtained.
He stated that on plotting out the rate of change of the densities with
the percentage composition of the solution (the first differential coefficient)
he got a series of straight lines, forming figures with well-marked breaks
at points corresponding to definite molecular proportions ; but on plotting
out the experimental points which he said formed these figures, it is im-
possible to see any justification for this statement ; in the case of sulphuric
acid the points and Mendeléeff’s drawing of them have been given side by
side in the ‘Trans. Chem. Soc.’ 1890, p. 81, and in the case of alcohol
they will be found in the ‘ Zeit. f. phys. Chem.’ VI. i. 10. Crompton
then showed,” from an examination of Kohlrausch’s valnes for the electric
conductivity of sulphuric acid solutions, that a second differentiation might
in some cases be necessary before rectilineal figures with breaks in them
were obtained. In my own work on various properties of solutions of tbe
acid I have made free use of this process of differentiation, but I have
combined it with, and now nearly entirely rely on, an examination of
the original curves with the help of a bent ruler.
In the ‘ Phil. Mag.’ 1890, vol.i. p. 430, will be found rough sketches of
the figures representing the densities, contraction on formation, electric
conductivity, expansion by heat, heat of dissolution, and heat capacity of
the solutions, and in the ‘Trans. Chem. Soc.’ 1890, p. 338, that representing:
the freezing points. In some cases, such as the freezing points of solu-
tions near 58 and 100 per cent. strength, a mere inspection of the figure
enables us to locate the position of abrupt changes of curvature ; in general,
however, the recognition of such changes is more difficult. On attempting
to draw any of these figures with the help of a bent ruler it was found
* Zeit. f. phys. Chem. i. p. 275; Chem. Soc. Trans. 1887, p. 778
2 Chem. Soc. Trans. 1888, p. 116.
ON THE THEORY OF SOLUTION. 313:
that the whole figure could only be drawn in several sections, and it was
also found that each section thus drawn consisted of a single curve of a
parabolic nature, although a ruler, when bent by the pressure exerted by
the two hands, by no means necessarily forms a parabola; and, more-
over—and this is the most important part of the evidence—it was found
that these figures, though differing so greatly in their general appearance,
all split up into the same number of sections, indicating the ex-
istence of changes of curvature at the same points; and, further still,
these points corresporded to solutions of definite moijecular composition
in all cases where the ratio of the acid to the water was sufficiently large:
to render any such comparison possible; the average difference between
the composition indicated by the changes of curvature and that of definite
hydrates was only 0°57H,O. With weaker solutions it is, of course,
impossible to assert that the changes occur at definite molecular propor-
tions, owing to the smallness of the change in percertage composition
which would be caused by an additional molecule of water to each
H,SO,; but the changes with these weak solutions are of precisely the
same character as those with strong solutions, and, unless some strong
evidence to the contrary be forthcoming, we must attribute them to the
same cause.
To discuss fully the value of the evidence thus obtained would take
me more hours than I can now afford minutes; but I think that I may
say that these results stand at present unquestioned and uncoutroverted,
and that unless they can be controverted we must accept the presence of
hydrates in solution as having been proved. {[ may also add that my
results with sulphuric acid solutions have been strengthened by obtaining
analogous results with solutions of several other substances: that one of
the hydrates indicated by them has been proved to exist by isolating it
in the crystalline condition : and lastly, that a law governing the freezing:
points of solutions has been formulated, according to which we can calculate
within experimental error the freezing point of any solution, whatever its
strength may be, provided we acknowledge the existence of every hydrate
which my work has indicated ; whereas, if we deny the existence of these,
the freezing points calculated according to this or any other law show
such divergences from the found values that all semblance of agreement
disappears. I am indeed labouring under no small disadvantage in at-
tempting to support the hydrate theory when the greater part of the
evidence existing in favour of it is as yet unpublished.
Before proceeding to the second~part of my subject I wish to draw
attention to the great complexity of some of the hydrates which my
work has indicated, as well as to the fact that the indications of sudden
changes are nowhere more marked than they are with these very weak
solutions. The changes, which are observed in the heat of dissolution
curve from 5 per cent. downwards,! afford a good illustration of this
latter fact; or, again, the freezing points of weak solutions may be
instanced * where the rate of fall from 0 to -07 per cent. is a quarter
as great again as it is from ‘07 to 1:0 per cent. The complexity
of the hydrates indicated is so great that in the extreme cases they
must be represented as containing several thousand H,O molecules, and
the suggestion of such complexity will no doubt prejudice many against.
my conclusions in general—though on what grounds I know not, for we
' Chem. Soc. Trans. 1890, p. 107. 2 Toid. p. 343.
314 REPORT—1890.
are entirely in ignorance at present as to the possible complexity of liquid
molecules. It is interesting to note that a similar complexity of mole-
cular grouping must be admitted if we accept Raoult’s original statement
that one molecule of any substance dissolved in 100 molecules of a solvent
lowers the freezing point of this latter by about 0°°63; for, if this be so,
we must assign to the molecules of the various substances entered
in the second column of Table I. the magnitude there indicated when
they are dissolved in the solvent named in the first column, for it requires
that proportion of these bodies to lower the freezing point of 100 mole-
cules of the solvent by 0°:63; and, amongst these few instances which I
have collected from my own determinations, we find molecular aggregates
containing as many as 200 of the fundamental molecules, and even this
number, I may mention, probably understates the complexity to a very
considerable extent ; for the depression in this and some of the other cases
had to be estimated from that observed with solutions containing as
much as 10 gram molecular proportions to 100 of the solvent, and
the molecular depression increased rapidly with the strength of the
solution: 1000H,O would probably be a low estimate of the complexity
of the molecules of water when dissolved in a large excess of the hex-
hydrate of calcium chloride, a complexity comparable with that of the
hydrates, which my other work has indicated, and that too in the case
of that very substance which these hydrates contain—water.
Taste I.—Molecular Weights of Substances in various Solvents.
Dissolved substance producin
Solvent 0°65 depres .
100(H,80,.H,0) 32H,0
3 63H,SO,
100(H,S0,.4H,0) 8H,O
sy 15H.SO,
100([CaN 0, ],.4H,0) 90H,O
* 42Ca(NO,),
100(CaCl,.6H,O) 210H,O
” 63CaCl,
Now as to the question of how far the theory of osmotic pressure, and
the results on which it is based, are antagonistic to the hydrate theory :
and let me first define clearly the position which I take in this matter.
I do not for one moment call in question any of Raoult’s classical work,
which is now so familiar to us, nor do I question that these results reveal
the existence of a depression of the freezing point which is approximately
and generally constant; and I consequently admit that we can generally
obtain an approximately correct value for the molecular weight of the
substance by observing the depression which it causes ; nor, again, do I
wish to question the correctness of the mathematical relationship which
van ’t Hoff and Arrhenius have shown to exist between osmotic pressure,
the lowering of the freezing point, and other properties, provided we
accept the fundamental assumptions on which these calculations are
based—the truly gaseous nature of dissolved matter, and the dissociation
of salts into their ions. But what I do question is that the facts of the —
1 Other instances of high molecular weights are mentioned by Brown and Morris ¥
(Chem. Soc. Trans. 1888), and Gladstone and Hibbert (Pil. Mag. 1889, vol. ii. p. 38).
* Determined from the freezing points of very weak solutions.
ON THE THEORY OF SOLUTION. 315
case warrant such assumptions, or that the constancy and regularity of
the results are so rigorous as to justify the conclusion that the solvent
has no action on the dissolved substance, and that there are no irregu-
larities such as would be caused by the presence of hydrates.
According to the osmotic pressure theory, the dissolved matter, so
long, at any rate, as it is not present in greater quantity than it would be
in the same volume of its gas, if it were gasified under normal conditions,
is really in the gaseous condition, and obeys all those laws which apply to
gases. According to the hydrate theory this will be but partially true.
That the dissolved substance is in a condition comparable with that of a
gas in so far as the separation of its own particles from each other is
concerned, must be admitted—indeed, I arrived independently at this
same conclusion from a study of thermo-chemical data—but inasmuch as
there is present the solvent, which we believe is not an inactive medium,
its molecules cannot have the same freedom as if they were truly gaseous,
and will therefore obey the laws of gases imperfectly only.
It will be well to confine our attention to but one of those properties
connected with osmotic pressure, and to select for that purpose the one
which has been most fully investigated—the lowering of the freezing
point of a solvent: and the tests which may be applied to ascertain
whether in producing this lowering the dissolved substance behaves as a
perfect gas or not, may be grouped under three principal headings :—
1. Is the molecular depression (i.e. that produced as calculated for
one molecule dissolved in 100 molecules) constant, independent of the
nature of the solvent ? 3
2. Is it independent of the strength of the solution, so long as this
strength does not exceed the limits (‘ gas’ strength) above mentioned ?
(Boyle’s law.)
3. Is it independent of the nature of the dissolved substance ?
(Avogadro’s law.)
In the ‘ Phil. Mag.’ 1890, vol. i. p. 495, will be found instances of the
variation in the molecular depression which may be noticed by altering
the solvent (see also Table I. above). With water in six different
solvents it varied between 1°-072 and 0°:003; with sulphuric acid in foar
different solvents, between 2°15 and 0°°01; with calcium chloride in
two different solvents, from 2°°773 to 0°01; and with calcium nitrate
in two solvents, from 2°°5 to 0°°015; while many instances may be
collected from Raoult’s data showing that the same substance which acts
normally in one solvent may act abnormally (give only half the usual
depression) in another. Such variations are so great—from 100 to
35,600 per cent.—that there can be no doubt but that the solvent is
not that inert medium which the supporters of the physical theory would
have it to be, but that it has a very great influence on the results
obtained. It must be noted, however, that this objection, though applying
to Raoult’s original views, does not, or, at any rate, may not, apply to
van ’t Hoff’s theory, for, according to this theory, the nature of the solvent
has an influence in determining the lowering of the freezing point, W, in
2
’ 0 : d
van ’t Hoff’s equation, dt=—yy_» representing the heat of fusion of the
solvent. But the lowering is according to this equation independent of
the nature or the amount of the dissolved substance, so that the two
following objections will apply to van ’t Hoff’s theory as well as to
Raoult’s statement.
316 REPORT—1890.
Secondly, as to the influence of the strength of the solution. It is
remarkable that although the osmotic pressure theory depends on the
behaviour of solutions below a certain strength, no attempt whatever has
been made by its supporters to obtain any data respecting such solutions.
The data on which their views were founded referred to solutions
considerably stronger than the requisite ‘gas strength,’ and though, no
doubt, it was convenient to work with data which afforded a ready excuse
for any awkward irregularities which might be met with, such data must
lack the conclusiveness which is so eminently desirable. The few data
which I have accumulated as to solutions of an ‘ideal’ strength can
leave no doubt that, even in their case, the depression is not a constant
independent of the strength.
A solution of sulphuric acid containing ‘(0O8H,SO,, 100H,O would be
of a strength comparable with the gas from the acid if it could be
Fic. 1.—Deviation from regularity of the freezing points of very weak solutions.
06 08
Molecules dissolved in 100H,0.
gasified at normal pressure and temperature, and the molecular depres-
sion should be constant for all solutions below this strength: it should
be represented by a horizontal line such as AB in fig. 1, whereas the
observed deviations from constancy are very great, being represented by
the lines marked H,SO,; and, moreover, these deviations are by no
means regular, and cannot therefore be attributed to imperfect gasifica-
tion ; they possess none of the characteristics of the deviations of gases
from Boyle’s law. The determinations on which these results are based
are very numerous; there are about sixty experimental points on the
portion here shown, and the mean error of each point as determined in
two different ways was only 0°-0005, a quantity represented by one-tenth
of one of the divisions of the paper; the deviations from regularity
amount to thirteen times this quantity, and to as much as 16 per cent. of
the total depression measured.
The other lines in fig. 1. represent the deviations from regularity in —
3
z
ON THE THEORY OF SOLUTION. SUT
the case of calcium chloride, calcium nitrate, and alcohol respectively,
and these, though they are smaller than in the case of sulphuric acid, are
far too great to be attributed to experimental error; and the fact that they
occur sometimes in one direction, sometimes in the other, precludes the
possibility of attributing them to any constant source of error in the
instruments used or in the method adopted.
Remembering that these are the only data which we have at present
respecting very weak solutions, we must conclude that the hypothesis
that such solutions exhibit perfect regularity is wholly untenable.
It is important to observe that when we pass on to stronger solutions,
where the actual magnitude of the deviations becomes so great that they
would be revealed by the roughest experiments—deviations of even 70°—
and where, I believe, even the supporters of the osmotic pressure theory
would not hesitate to attribute them to the disturbing influence of
hydrates; these deviations occur in precisely the same irregular manner
as they do in the case of weak solutions, and must evidently be attributed
Fig. 2.—Freezing points of sulphuric acid and alcohol solutions.
Mols. (CglTg0)2 to 100H,0.
6 8 ;
Mols. H.S0, to 100H,0.
to the same cause. The results with alcohol given in fig. 2 illustrate these
irregularities in a very striking manner. It must also be pointed out that,
apart from the irregularity of these deviations, their very direction shows
that they cannot be attributed to the dissolved particles being brought
within the sphere of each other’s attraction, as in the case of the deviation
of gases from Boyle’s law, for the result of this would be that their attrac-
tion on the particles of the solvent would be diminished and the freezing
point of this latter would consequently be lowered to an abnormally small
extent, whereas precisely the reverse is the case in nearly every instance
at present investigated: the freezing points of strong solutions are ab-
normally low. Various instances of this will be found in the ‘Phil.
Mag.’ 1890, vol. i. p. 500, that of sulphuric acid, which is illustrated here in
fig. 2, being by no means the most prominent; while the case of alcohol,
now for the first time displayed (fig. 2), is the only exception which
has, so far, been met with, and that is an exception only in the case of
excessively strong solutions.
318 REPORT—1890.
From the instances above mentioned some answer may be obtained to
the third question, whether the molecular depression is independent of
the nature of the dissolved substance. The values obtained with these
four substances, taking solutions of a strength corresponding to that of
their gases, are :—
Calcium chloride . a A 5 5 A 5 i - 2° 850
Calcium nitrate . : A : = ; 4 c oe OTE
Sulphuric acid . ‘ : - : ; 3 o) 2 vol
Alcohol - ‘ ; 5 F ¢ : ‘ ‘ . 2180
a variation of 30 per cent., which must give an emphatic denial to the
idea of absolute constancy; and if we take instances from other sub-
stances, where the data available refer to solutions of somewhat greater
strength, we find that the very substances on which the idea of constancy
was originally founded show variations reaching 60 per cent. (‘ Phil.
Mag.’ 1890, vol. i. p. 492), while in other cases, which I have quoted else-
where (loc. cit. p. 493),’ the variation attains the still larger dimensions
of 260 per cent.
To every one, therefore, of the three test questions as to constancy and
regularity, the experimental results give an unhesitating negative.
In the instances quoted above the depression actually found for alcohol
has been doubled in order to simplify the comparison of it with the
other substances. Alcohol belongs to that class of bodies which give just
half the value in water that the majority do, and of which there are some
instances in the case of every solvent yet examined. The explanations
which the supporters of the chemical and physical theories give of these
half values differ so radically from each other that it is hopeless to attempt
to arrive at any agreement as to the nature of solution till this difference
is settled. The chemists say that these half values are in all cases the
abnormal ones, just as Raoult did originally, and explain them by repre-
senting the molecules of the dissolved substances which give them to
consist of two fundamental molecules. The physicists give exactly the
same explanation in the case of every solvent except water, but in this
case they say that the smaller values are the normal ones, and the larger
the abnormal, the double magnitude of these being caused by the disso-
ciation of the dissolved molecule into its two ions, whereby two mole-
cules or acting units are formed from every one originally added.
If Raoult’s views as to the consistency of the molecular depression
can be maintained, the data themselves are conclusive against making
this exception in the case of water ; for, since the substances which give
the lower values are supposed to act normally, it is evident that, if the
values given are in any way abnormal, this abnormality must be due to
the solvent. Now the values certainly are abnormal ; they are about
1°-03, whereas the normal value for one molecule dissolved in 100 mole-
cules of other solvents is 0°63, and the excess can, therefore, only be
explained by assuming that the molecules of water are more complex than
those of other solvents in the proportion of 1:03 to 0:63, or 1} to 1; in
other words, the water molecules must be 1}H,O. This view cannot be —
reconciled with the atomic theory.
Indeed the theory of dissociation into ions is altogether unintelligible
to the majority of chemists. It seems to be quite irreconcilable with our
1 The depression produced by H,O in 100H,SO, is 1°-07 instead of 0°-07 as there
given.
ON THE THEORY OF SOLUTION. 319
ideas of the relative stability of various bodies, and with the principle of
the conservation of energy. Of course we know that each ion when dis-
sociated is not supposed to be permanently dissociated, but to be continu-
ally combining with its neighbours and separating again from them as in
every other case of dissociation; but at any particular moment a very
large proportion of them is supposed to be free; a proportion which, accord-
ing to the very results under discussion, must be very nearly, if not quite,
100 per cent. of the whole ; and we have to settle whether it is probable
or possible that a decomposition such as this could have been effected by
introducing the compound into water. And how can we regard it pro-
bable that compounds of sucn stability and compounds formed with such
a development of heat as sulphuric or hydrochloric acid should be thus
entirely dissociated by water; still less that these, and all the most stable
compounds which we know, should be thus demolished, while all the less
stable ones—such as hydrocyanic, sulphurous, boric acids, &c.—remain
intact? How can we admit that the more stable a body is, the more prone
it is to be dissociated ?
And if such a dissociation has occurred it must have been without any
absorption of heat, and, consequently, energy must actually have been
created. Take one of the simplest instances, that of hydrochloric acid.
If anything at all is certain about atoms, it is that the atoms in an
elementary molecule are united very firmly together, and that therefore
in separating them a very large absorption of heat would occur. To
separate 2HCl into 2H and 2Cl would absorb far more than the 44,000 eal.
which we know are absorbed in separating 2HCl into H, and Cl,. Yet
the supporters of the dissociation theory would have us believe that this
separation has actually taken place, not only without any absorption of
heat, but actually with a development of 34,630 cal.; that is, that
44,000 + 34,630 + cal. have been created, and that, too, through the inter-
vention of the water, which has ew hypothesi no action whatever.
This difficulty is realised by the supporters of the physical theory, but
the way in which they meet it does not appear to me in any way to
overcome it. ‘T'o explain the non-absorption of heat in the dissociation
of the salt they suppose that charges of electricity combine with the
liberated atoms, and in doing so evolve an amount of heat exactly equi-
valent to that absorbed in the separation of the atoms from each other ;
and a later development of this theory is, [ believe, that the atoms,
thongh separated, are still held together by means of these charges, so
that the net result is the supplanting of the chemical bond by an electric
bond of precisely the same value. It appears to me that nothing sub-
stantial is gained by such a substitution, and that its occurrence is not
merely hypothetical, but impossible. Whence come these electric
charges, and by what agency are they brought into play? On what
grounds can it be maintained that a charge can combine with matter so
as to evolve heat, and that the heat so liberated is exactly equivalent to
that absorbed in the decomposition of the compound? And, if this
equivalence exists, how can we account for the force which develops the one
overcoming the equal force which develops the other? Or how, again,
can we account for the heat developed in the act of dissolving? If, on
the other hand, the heat of the combination of these charges is supposed
to be equal to that of the combination of the atoms plus the heat of dis-
solution, we are met by the objection that the latter is often negative, and
that therefore the heat of combination of the charges must often be less
320 REPORT—1890.
than that of the combination of the atoms and molecules, so that the
lesser force must be regarded as overcoming the greater.!
That free ions exist in solution is supposed to have been proved by a
recent observation of Ostwald’s to the effect that these ions may be
separated and brought into different parts of the liquid by the proximity
of a charged body. The separation of the ions is, of course, recognised
by the subsequent liberation of oxygen. hydrogen, acid, alkali, &c., and it
is certain that, on allowing these to mix and combine, heat will be deve-
loped and the salt solution re-formed; and thus, by replacing and
removing the charged body, it would evidently be possible to produce an
unlimited amount of heat. Now, if the charged body has lost none of its
charge, and if no mechanical energy has been expended, this heat must
have been produced out of nothing, and the whole groundwork of phy-
sical science is false; whereas, if energy in some form has been expended
ou the solution, the experiment proves nothing, for there is nothing to
show that this energy has not been utilised in bringing about that very
dissociation the previous existence of which was in question.
I have already shown that the experimental data prove the absence
of that constancy and regularity which ought to exist according to the
physical theory, and to place the hydrate theory on unassailable grounds
it is only necessary to show that the deviations from constancy and regu-
larity are of a magnitude such as might reasonably be assigned to devia-
tions due to the presence of hydrates. That variations of 260 and 36,000
per cent. in the value of the depression—such as are observed by altering
the dissolved substance or the solvent respectively—are amply sufficient to
satisfy the most exalted views of the influence of chemical attraction,
requires, I think, no demonstration, and we may therefore content our-
selves with examining the deviations observed when the proportions of
the solvent are altered—such deviations as are illustrated in fig, 1.
It cannot be maintained that the energy of the chemical combination
of, say, water with sulphuric acid, is the only reason why the tempera-
ture of the mixture of these two must be cooled below 0° before any of
the latter will crystallise out; some lowering of the freezing point will
be caused by the mere interposition of the foreign molecules of sulphuric
acid between those of the water, and on certain grounds, which I have
explained elsewhere,? I estimate this mechanical lowering, as I term it, at
0°56 for each dissolved molecule to 100 of the solvent (a molecule of
solvent water being 3H,0O), a value which, it may be noted, is not far
removed from Raoult’s experimental value of 0°-63. There is also another
source of lowering depending mainly on the heat capacities of the sub-
stances concerned, which I term for convenience the physical lowering ;
but its value, in the case of weak solutions, is very small, and I need,
therefore, say no more about it here. Both these lowering causes would
exist whether there were hydrates present or not; but if these were
present we should get a further depression due ‘to their existence.
Any given hydrate would have to be decomposed into the next lower one
before it could give up any water for crystallisation, and a certain
amount of resistance would thus be offered to this crystallisation, to over-
1 On the view that hydrates exist in solution, there is no difficulty, as I have
shown elsewhere, in explaining the absorption of heat during dissolution, without
violating the principle of the conservation of energy.
2 Proe. Chem. Soc. 1889, p. 149.
Fee
———— eS
ON THE THEORY OF SOLUTION. 321
come which the solution would have to be further cooled. The necessary
cooling may be estimated in the following way: Supposing the solution
to be a mixture and to be cooled below its normal freezing point; then,
on solidification, the temperature would rise to this point; but if this
solidification involved a chemical decomposition which absorbed « cal.
the rise of temperature would be thereby. reduced, the reduction thus
caused amounting to e — the heat capacity of the solution. As the heat
absorbed in the decomposition of the various hydrates of sulphuric acid
is known, we can calculate the lowering produced by their presence.
Taste I].—Freezing Points of Solutions of Sulphuric Acid.
L Calculated VL Next hydrate
raSO.. Il. Ill. IV. v. me vi. | vim.
Mech. Phys. Chem. Total Cale. | Found
Per cent.|Per cent.
068 0:0209 0 0110 0:0347 } 00354 0:37 0°36
362 Or1114 0004 0248 01508? 0°1582 1:43 1:06
1:06 0°3276 0014 0589 0:4314! 0-4272 3°54 4:02
4:02 1:285 ‘071 ‘O77 1582! 1:59 8-40 8:59
8:59 2°879 +388 “189. | 38151 3°80 18:17 | 1849
18-49 6:96 3°23 1:59 11°78 11°83 29-7 29°5
29°53 12°85 18°82 3°50 | 34:17 34:00 37°5 37°7
In Cols, IT., IIT., and IV., Table II., Ihave given the depression due to
the three above-mentioned causes in the case of certain solutions, Col. V.
containing their sum ; and it will be seen what a small proportion of this
total lowering can be attributed to purely chemical causes. With most
_ solutions it does not exceed 10 per cent. of the total, and with weak
solutions, such as are generally used in freezing-point determinations—
say 5 per cent.—it amounts to considerably less than 0°:1; this, too, in
the case of sulphuric acid, where the heat of formation of the higher
hydrates is greater than with any other known substance.
The reason, therefore, why the deviations from constancy are so
small as to have escaped detection hitherto, and the reason why solutions
behave almost as if their chemical nature was’ non-existent, becomes.
apparent ; but this near approach to constancy and regularity, instead of
proving the correctness of the physical theory and giving a death-blow
to the chemical theory, is really one of the strongest arguments which
can be adduced in favour of the latter. If the hydrate theory is right,
the influence of hydrates must often be nearly inappreciable.
But it is not only a general concordance between the found and
Calculated magnitude of the irregularities which the hydrate theory’is
capable of affording, but a concordance so exact that the precise value of
the deviation at any point may be calculated. In Col. VI. of Table II.
are given the observed freezing points of the solutions, and these show
an average difference of but 0°:004 for the three weaker solutions, and
0°06 for the four stronger solutions, from those calculated (Col. V.).
The last two columns exhibit this concordance in a different manner ;
‘ The actual total has been increased by 10-4 per cent. of its value to give the
figures quoted in these five cases, for reasons which will be given elsewhere. Some
of the numbers in this table may be subject to slight corrections, as they have been
quoted 90 the absence of the original calculations.
ve
322 REPORT-—-1890.
from the observed freezing point we can calculate the composition of the
hydrates which must exist in the solution (Col. VII.), and these are
found to agree so fully with those indicated by the examination of the
curved figures representing various properties of the solution (Col. VIII.)
that the maximum difference between the two is only 0-48 in the per-
centage of acid present.
When we can by simple calculations, based on one series of deter-
minations, prove that the hydrates in solution must be the same as those
which totally independent experiments have led us to suppose, we have,
I think, arrived at proof as nearly absolute as it is possible to conceive ;
and, if I have succeeded in showing that this proof may be accepted with-
out in any way rejecting the facts on which the advocates of the osmotic
pressure theory rely—approximate constancy, approximate regularity,
and approximate similarity between dissolved and gaseous matter—I
shall feel that I have done far better work than the mere establishment
of the hydrate theory, by pointing out a possible modus vivendi for both
theories almost in their entirety, and by helping to break down that wall
of separation between physicists and chemists which is fast crumbling
into dust.
Dr. GLADSTONE made a communication on ‘The Molecular Refraction
of Substances in Solution,’ in which he reconsidered the five reasons
given in 1865 and 1869 for believing that ‘ the specific refractive energy of
a solution is the mean of the specific refractive energies of the solvent
and the substance dissolved.’ In describing the present state of our
knowledge, he brought forward some facts which have a bearing on the
views under discussion.
In the first place, although it may be accepted as a rule that a solid
when dissolved retains its former refractive power, it is a rule not without
exceptions. Thus the experiments, both of the speaker and of Dr. Bedson,
on rock salt agree in giving 14°6 as the molecular refraction of chloride
of sodium for the solar line A or R; in which R represents the value Se
multiplied by the molecular weight. But the molecular refraction for the
same ray as calculated from aqueous solution is 15:3, showing that the
water has perceptibly increased the refractive power. And this is not an
isolated instance, for the observations of Topsoe and Christiansen on crys-
tals of potassic bromide and iodide show a molecular refraction for the
line D, or k,, of 24°85 and 36:29 respectively, while the solntions indicate
25°7 and 36°9 respectively. In fact, the chlorides, bromides, and iodides
in general, when dissolved in water, are known to exhibit a higher
refraction and dispersion than would be calculated by adding together tlre
generally received values for the metal and the halogen, and this increase
is uniform for each series of salts.
It is also known that there is a slight change in the molecular reftac-
tion of certain liquid substances, such as acetic acid, when they are mixed
with water.
In the second place the molecular refraction of a substance in solution
is not varied by varying the amount of the solvent. In the case of water,
however, there are some marked exceptions. With the hydracids the —
values increase with the dilution up to acertain extent, when they become
stationary. Nitric and sulphuric acids are also exceptional. It is evident
»
PY
’
ON THE THEORY OF SOLUTION. g20
that the difference here noted does not depend upon whether these binary
compounds are electrolytes or not.
In the third place there is a great deal of evidence that the molecular
refraction of a substance is the same whether it be deduced from its solu-
tion in alcohol, ether, benzene, bisulphide of carbon, or any other solvent
that does not act chemically upon it. The same rule applies in some
instances to solution in water; thus the molecular refraction of ammonia
in alcohol, or in different quantities of water, was found to be about 8-96.
The value for gaseous ammonia, as deduced from Dulong’s observations,
is 8°60.
A notable exception is hydrochloric acid. Very early in the history
of refraction equivalents it was recognised that this acid in aqueous
solution gave a value much larger than the gas itself, or than what would
be obtained by adding together the values for chlorine and hydrogen in
combination, as deduced from other sources. Dr. Perkin found a similar
great increase of magnetic rotation in an aqueous solution of hydrochloric
acid, but on dissolving the gas in isoamyloxide and examining the solution
he found it rotated the plane of polarisation to very little more than the
theoretical amount. The speaker therefore determined the refraction of
this solution, and found the hydrochloric acid in it to have practically the
theoretical value.
HCl, theoretical value = : F “ : « 12 or 11:3
HCl, in water . : F “ A . - . about 14-4
HCI, in isoamyloxide . - . . . - . 11:36
It would not be safe to use this increase of refraction of hydrochloric
acid in aqueous solution as an evidence either of dissociation or of the
formation of a hydrate. For the sum of the molecular refractions of free
hydrogen and free chlorine, as determined by Dulong or Mascart, would
be only 10°3, rather less than the theoretical, instead of more, as might be
expected on the dissociation hypothesis,! while, on the other hand, the
addition value of H,O in recognised hydrates (such as crystallised alums)
seems to be the same as that of pure water, namely, 5°93.
The general inference drawn by the speaker from the accumulated
evidence was that the old conclusion is substantially correct; that mole-
cular refraction and dispersion may be safely deduced from substances in
solution where the solvent is chemically inactive, but that in the case of
water there is some profound change effected upon the constitution of
hydracids, haloid salts, and probably some other compounds by the act of
solution. What this change may be cannot at present be inferred from
optical analysis.
Dr. James WALKER read the following translation of a communication
from Dr. ARRHENIUS :—
‘In the “Journ. Chem. Soc.” for 1890, p. 355, Mr. Pickering writes :—
“Tt is indeed surprising that van ’t Hoff, Arrhenius, and others should
not have recognised that every known deviation from the so-called normal
depression, when induced by increase of strength of the solution, is in
exactly the opposite direction to that which it should be if the law of
‘ These numbers would have been brought more closely together if the calculation
had been made by means of Lorenz’s formula “ ae x instead of the simpler oat
+
With liquids and solids it is practically unimportant which formula is employed.
x 2
324 REPORT—1890.
osmotic pressure were really correct.’’ That the depression of the freez-
ing-point per gram-molecule should decrease with increasing concentra-
tion is no deduction (as Mr. Pickering seems to imagine) from the law of
osmotic pressure; and the corresponding statement for the analogous case
of highly compressed gases has been proved to be false by the researches
of Regnault, Natterer, and others. . . . Besides, it is not correct that
“‘ every known deviation ” is in the opposite direction to that expected by
Mr. Pickering. From Beckmann’s excellent determinations (‘“‘ Zeitsch. f.
physik. Chem.” ii. 715) it appears that in the great majority of cases the
molecular depression does diminish with increasing concentration when
benzene and acetic acid are the solvents. Mr. Pickering can find nume-
rous other examples in Hykman’s observations, and I shall show below
that it is even the case with the sulphuric acid solutions which were the
subject of his own investigation. . .
‘Mr. Pickering, in comparing his “theoretical” with the observed
values for the depression of the freezing-point in dilute solutions of sul-
phuric acid, remarks that “‘ the molecular depression, even in this extreme
region,‘ instead of being constant, as it should be according to the theory
of osmotic pressure, varies between 2°95 and 2°-1.”” Mr. Pickering has
overlooked the fact that sulphuric acid is an electrolyte, and that the
deviations may be accounted for by the theory of electrolytic dissociation.
For the purpose of comparison with the experimental results, I have cal-
culated the values of the depression’ for’ dilute solutions, such as Mr.
Pickering investigated. In the calculation I have taken. the freezing-
point of an aqueous solution of a non-electrolyte containing one gram-
molecule per litre to be —1°-90C., in accordance with van ’t Hoff’s theory.
I have further made the molecular conductivity of }H,SO, at infinite
dilution (00) equal to 356/107 Siemens’ units (Kohlrausch, ‘ Wied.
Ann.” xxvi. 196). From Kohlrausch’s numbers we then find the degree
of dissociation—
a for 1 SO ky cial (05:03 ‘01 ‘006 -002 normal solutions
tobe ‘511 ‘5383 °585 ‘658 ‘707 -802 844 -910
By interpolation we get « for other concentrations (‘“ Zeitsch. f. physik.
Chem.”’ v. 5). From the percentage composition and the specific gravity
(Pickering) I have calculated the number of gram-equivalents per litre
solution. The subjoined table corresponds to that on p. 363 of the ‘Journ.
Chem, Soc.”
‘Under obs., are the (corrected) observed numbers obtained with
thermometer 65,108 ; under obs., are the numbers for the same concen-
trations interpolated from the series made with thermometer 65,561. This
comparison affords an indication of the experimental accuracy.
‘Tt is at once evident from the table that the observed numbers agree
within the limits of experimental error (obs., —obs..) with the theoretical
values so long as the concentration is less than 1 per cent. The agree-
ment, in fact, is so extremely good as to lead one to put more faith in the
calculated than in the observed values. In stronger solutions (1 to 4 per
cent.) the depressions found are less than the theoretical depressions, in
direct contradiction to Mr. Pickering’s statement that the opposite is
always the case. On this last circumstance, however, we need not lay too
much weight, for the theory has not yet been sufficiently advanced in this
direction, and the deviations besides only amount here to 3°6 per cent. at
! Mr, P.’s italics.
ON THE THEORY OF SOLUTION. 325
most. Instead, then, of these experiments of Mr. Pickering finally dis-
proving “all existing physical [sic!] theories of solution,” and in especial
“the theory of osmotic pressure,” they afford the most striking proof of
the applicability of van ’t Hoff’s theory and the hypothesis of electrolytic
dissociation to dilute solutions, with which alone these theories have
hitherto been concerned.’
; es
Freezing-point ea eat T0090
H,SO, percent} Sp. gr. Gr.-equiv. | i=1+2a j BN i
Obs., Obs., | Cale. |Obs.,-calc.|Obs.,-cale.
° °
3'993 1:0278 *8376 2:036 —1'61 _ —162 —10 —_
3°967 1°0274 "8324 2°036 1°58 -- 161 —30 —_
3°492 10243 ‘7300 2°042 1:37 _ 142 —50 —_—
3°008 1:0210 6267 2°051 119 _ 1:22 —30 —
2806 1:0193 5835 2-058 1:10 _ 114 —40 _
2°496 10174 “5182 2-064 “981 _— 1016 —35 —_
1°996 1:0140 *4130 2°082 ‘788 —_ 817 —29 —
1:785 10126 +3688 2-088 705 699 “731 —26 —32
17596 10112 *3293 2-094 633 627 “655 —22 —28
1°398 10100 "2882 2-102 558 “550 575 -17 —25
1-212 1:0087 "2496 2-112 “484 480 501 -17 —21
1:024 1:0073 +2058 2°126 “417 412 “416 +1 —4
+8188 1:0059 1681 2-136 “334 “332 “333 +1 -1
7138 10051 “1464 27146 297 294 298 -1 —4
“6145 1:0044 “1260 2°156 “255 "254 258 -3 —4
“5146 10037 1054 2°168 "219 “217 217 +2 0
“4061 1:0029 08312 2-210 178 ‘177 175 +3 +2
"3562 10025 07288 2236 160 "155 155 +5 0
3063 1:v022 "06264 2°272 138 137 135 +3 +2
*2594 10019 “05281 2°304 115 ‘116 116 —1 0
“2056 10015 "04203 2°352 095 “093 “094 +1 -1
1539 1°0011 03144 2-406 “067 072 072 —5 0
1401 1-0010 02861 2-422 +062 067 066 —4 +1
1012 1:0007 02067 2-476 052 049 049 +3 0
‘0771 10005 *01574 2544 038 035 038 0 -3
“0519 1:0003 “01060 2-594 026 “028 026 0 +2
“0264 1:0001 00539 2°702 016 014 “014 +2 0
Sum. +7 -—10
Dr. WaLKER drew attention to the fact that in almost all the combina-
tions of solvent and dissolved substance tabulated electrolytic dissociation
played a great part, entirely neglected by Mr. Pickering. The compari-
son of observed with ‘ theoretical’ values was thus open to the same ob-
jection as Dr. Arrhenius urged in the case of dilute solutions of sulphuric
acid, and so the great discrepancies found in the tables were from this
cause alone rendered illusory.
Professor Ramsay suggested that it might well be the case that
complex molecular aggregates were capable of existence alongside of
dissociated molecules where ions are present. In the case of solutions of
sulphuric acid, for example, it is by no means inconceivable that aggre-
gates of several molecules of sulphuric acid (H,SO,),, or of compounds
of acid and water, such as H,SO,.2H,O, &c., might exist along with
the ions of dissociated sulphuric acid, 2H and SO,, or more probably
‘Hand HSO,. The abnormal results in the freezing-points of solutions
of sulphuric acid observed by Mr. Pickering might well be due to some
such cause.
Dr, ArmstronG, after remarking that thus far the physical aspects of
the main problem under discussion—the constitution of solutions which
conducted electrolytically—had alone been dwelt on, said that it would
326 REPORT—1890.
be impossible, in the time at disposal, to consider more than one of the
conclusions arrived at by the advocates of the dissociation hypothesis,
which did not appear to be in accordance with the chemist’s experience.
It had hitherto been customary to regard the neutralisation of an acid by
an alkali as a case of interchange or double decomposition, as represented,
for example, by an equation such as
KOH+HCI=KCl1+ HOH.
But now that it was argued that hydrogen chloride, potassium hydroxide,
and potassium chloride underwent almost complete dissociation when
dissolved in water to form a dilute solution, it became necessary to
suppose that in such cases the only new compound formed in solution
was water, and the main action which occurred on mixing solutions of
potassium hydroxide and hydrogen chloride was consequently represented
by the equation
H+C1+K+0OH=K+C1+H,0.
Such a conclusion, although undoubtedly a necessary and logical one
from the dissociationist’s point of view, involved the admission that
hydregen chloride and water were compounds of a totally different order ;
that these two hydrides were so different that while that of chlorine
underwent practically complete dissociation that of oxygen remained
practically unchanged. Chemists, however, were in the habit of teaching
that chlorine and oxygen were comparable elements, and the facts of
chemistry appeared to afford the strongest evidence that hydrogen
chloride and oxide were in all ways comparable compounds. Moreover
the behaviour of the two compounds at high temperatures afforded no
grounds for any such belief in the instability of the one and the stability
of the other.
Referring to the series of numerical agreements between theory and
practice relied on by the dissociationists, the speaker said that in his
opinion these afforded no necessary proof of the correctness of the theory.
The correlation of chemical activity and electrical resistance which had
been established by Arrhenius, Ostwald, and others was undoubtedly of
the highest importance, but the successful use which they had made of
the data at their disposal appeared to him to depend on the fact that by
observations of electrical resistance they were enabled to classify electro-
lytes in the order of their activity, whether physical or chemical; and
that, having done this, they were in a position to apply the correction
required to discount the superior activity of such compounds in compari-
son with dielectrics, i.e. compounds producing the so-called normal effect
in depressing the freezing-point, for example.
Professor FirzgEraLp said :—It is important to distinguish between
what is implied and what not by experiments: e.g. osmotic pressure,
change of freezing and boiling points are in no way independent; we can
deduce one from the other by applying known principles. There seems
to be a very important connection, which cannot be deduced from known
principles, between conductivity, the variation of osmotic pressure from
its value calculated from molecular weights, and the chemical activity of
a substance in certain relations. The quality upon which these proper-
ties depend is, I think, certainly the same quality in each case, and its
existence and importance have been brought to light by the labours of
ON THE THEORY OF SOLUTION. on7
our renowned visitors and their collaborateurs, and the discovery is one
of the most valuable contributions to chemical physics that has been
made of recent years. The visitors call this quality the ‘ratio of disso-
ciation.’ Professor Armstrong would rather call it ‘ measure of affinity.’
I would be inclined to point out that the term ‘dissociation’ is not
happily chosen, and that ‘affinity’ really explains very little, and that it
would be better to call it by a new name whose full meaning will require
further investigation, and would call it ‘ measure of ionisation.’
In the first place as to the term ‘ dissociation.’ In all other cases of
dissociation, e.g. in an electric arc, the elements are so far free from one
another that they diffuse independently of one another. The term ‘ dis-
sociation’ is no doubt vague, but it is time we had a more definite notion
of it. I would certainly confine the use of the term to such cases that
there was no link connecting the elements that would prevent their
diffusing independently of one another. As long as there is any link
connecting the elements of molecules together which essentially prevented
one of them getting away without the others following, I would not agree
to say that the elements were dissociated. Hence I object to the term
dissociation as applied to the ions in an electrolyte. All agree that one
cannot escape or diffuse without the other following; it may be due to
electrical forces between them, it may be for other causes; but in either
case I would refuse to call them dissociated. The possibility of indepen-
dent diffusion I look upon as a test of dissociation. I would therefore
appeal to both sides to adopt some neutral term such as ‘ionisation’ to
express the state of ions in electrolytes. Now as to the proofs that the
ions are absolutely independently mobile in the liquid, and the assumption
from this that they are free like the molecules of a gas, being kept apart
by the molecules of the solvent. This seems a very misleading way to
speak of the condition. In the first place itis acknowledged that different
solvents have different powers of ionising a given substance, thereby
conclusively proving that the function of the solvent cannot be properly
described as merely giving the ions space to resolve themselves. And
those who speak so acknowledge that it is only an analogy, or a facon de
parler. But it seems a very misleading analogy, which leaves out the
really active part that the solvent plays, and attributes to it a purely
passive part. The argument of van ’t Hoff that the osmotic pressure in
very dilute solutions depends only on the kinetic pressure, and not on the
forces between the molecules, seems to cut against the conclusion that
these forces must necessarily be small; it seems to show that, whatever
forces there are between the ions, they will produce the right amount of
osmotic pressure if only they are so far independent that each ion can
carry cr its bombardment independently of the other. As this only
requires the space within which they are bombarding about to be small
compared with the space rate of variation of the force between the ele-
ments, and as this is quite consistent with there being plenty of connec-
tion between the elements, it follows that the laws of osmotic pressure so
explained do not in the least militate against there being bonds between
the elements. The whole argument is, however, I think, fallacious, in
that it assumes a particular theory as to the action between the semi-
permeable membrane and the liquid. It would follow from this theory
that one molecule of a salt could never produce osmotic pressure in its
own neighbourhood by any forces of attraction between it and the sol-
vent. Now if we apply this on a large scale to the case of an ocean
328 REPORT—1890.
1,000 miles deep surrounding the world with a membrane in it, say, 100
miles deep, through which the water could go, but the world could not
because the holes were only, say, about a square mile in area, we see at
once that, if this membrane were made of a material lighter than water,
i.e. less attracted by the world than water, it would tend to burst out
with a great force, i.e. it would float out from the world because the
pressure in the water near the earth was much greater than at a distance
from it. This shows where van ’t Hoff’s argument fails. He has
neglected the difference of pressure in the solvent near and far from the
salt, or at least has assumed that this difference of pressure could not act
upon his semipermeable membrane because the membrane is permeable
to the solvent. It is, however, quite evident that the water can press
very hard even on a membrane permeable to it, as is explained by the
example I have just mentioned. Considering the complex nature of the
problem, I think it is quite too soon to assume that the state of affairs
assumed by van ’t Hoff is at all like reality. I would much rather look
for an explanation in the direction I have pointed out in this year’s report
of the Committee on Electrolysis. The argument there tends to show
that the distances between molecules would arrange themselves so that
the forces due to different kinds of molecules would be independent of
their kind and depend on their numbers, and this would lead to the laws
of osmotic pressure. It seems to me much more likely that a state of
affairs such as I have supposed existing near the earth is the one existing
in a liquid.
As regards the argument for the independent mobility of the ions
founded on the laws of electrolysis, I think that just as in the case of
osmotic pressure this does require a certain kind of independent mobility,
but just as in that case I do not see that the required amount of indepen-
dence cannot be attained without supposing a complete independence.
There seems no doubt that conductivity and double decomposition are
essentially connected with the same quality in the solution, and this
property I have proposed to call ‘ionisation.’ Now, Williamson’s hypo-
thesis as to the nature of double decomposition and Clausius’ as to the
nature of electrolytic conduction only require that the ions shall be so
far free as that they shall be frequently exchanging partners; neither
hypothesis requires that they shall be during a finite time without
partners, which I consider to be an essential condition of any right use
of the term dissociated ions. If during the time the ions are paired they
can move independently within the little chinks they have to move in
between the molecules of the solyent—and be it observed that this is the
same conditicn as for the extra osmotic pressure, 7.e. if their chinks are
small compared with the variation of force between the ions——then there
seems quite sufficient independence for any theory of electrolysis, if,
whenever two molecules were within the same chink, there were, as there
would be, sufficient independence for an exchange of partners. Thus
these two phenomena would be explicable upon the same hypothesis, and
that withont assuming that ionisation was a true dissociation. I have
already explained that even those who insist most strongly upon the
dissociation hypothesis yet guard themselves from its being supposed
that this dissociation is an actually complete independence of the ions
from one another. On all these grounds then I would appeal against
the use of the word dissociation in this connection. Professor Ostwald
says that there will result two theories leading to the same result. I
ON THE THEORY OF SOLUTION. 329
dissent from this. The two theories are essentially the same. There
have been unnecessary assumptions no doubt made as to how far an
absolute independence of motion of the ions is required by the experi-
ments, and I combat this unnecessarily absolute independence, but in all
essential respects my theory is the same as the other. This unnecessarily
absolute independence has been introduced in order to make what is
acknowledged to be an ‘analogy’ appear as if it were more than an
analogy, to give verisimilitude to what is at the same time said to be
merely a facon de parler, to make what is known to be complicated appear
unreally simple.
It may be worth while following Professor Armstrong’s suggestions
that the way in which the double decomposition is facilitated by a sol-
vent is by the two salts entering into combination with the solvent and
forming a large molecule. Then by a process of tautomerism! by which
the elements within a molecule exchange places the double decomposition
is effected. A similar but regulated rearrangement under electric forces
would account for electrolysis. That solution is a true chemical combina-
tion seems undoubted. There is change of nature—e.g., solid salt and ice
change into liquid—redistribution of energy, change of volume, every
change significant of chemical action; and that solution can be saturated
shows that there is combination in definite proportions, even though
some doubt may exist as to the existence of cryohydrates. In speaking
of solvents as merely giving molecules space wherein to resolve them-
selves into ions, it seems as if the part of Hamlet were left ont. The
action of the solvent is to cause ionisation, some solvents do it and some
do not, and it is rather hard on these strangely active solvents not to
recognise this activity, one of the most wonderful and effective of all
chemical actions known to us.
As regards the energy required for dissociation, or, as I would prefer
to call it, ionisation, I agree with Professor Ostwald that any required
supply can be obtained by assuming either an affinity of the element for
electricity (a form of words I object to for reasons to be presently stated)
or by supposing the ionic state to be an allotropic form of the atom with
a different internal energy in it from that in the atom when in combina-
tion. The reason I object to the term affinity of the atom for electricity
is that all we know’of electricity seems to show that if any body attracts
positive electricity it repels negative, and in that case the atom and its
electrical charge combined would not be acted on by electrical forces as
is required in order to explain electrolysis. I do not like the idea of an
_allotropic form of the atom, and think the facts of solution, &c., can all be
explained by chemical combination between the salt and its solvent, as
I have described, without this assumption. A good deal of weight has
been laid on the explanation of the equality of heats of neutralisation of
ionised bodies by supposing them to be dissociated. The explanation
only pushes the difficulty one step further back. How does it happen
that the heats of ionisation or dissociation during solution are many of
them so nearly balanced by the allotropism of the ionic state? We are
only explaining the obscure by the more obscure in thus reasoning. It
is perfectly plain that double exchanging can never be continually taking
place between molecules unless the heats of combination are the same,
and consequently anything that explains one will explain the other. I
_ ' Professor J. Emerson Reynolds informs me that such redistributions are recog-
nised as occurring in complex molecules.
330 REPORT—1890.
would rather look for an explanation of both in the direction I have
already pointed towards as to the dependence of the forces between
molecules upon their distance apart and on the way these and their
internal energy are all bound together by the conditions of temperature
equilibrium. The question is evidently in the highest degree compli-
cated, and for a complete discussion must introduce the theory as to the
nature of temperature equilibrium, and in the meanwhile it is misleading
to pretend that a matter is simple which is in reality most obscure by
speaking of acknowledged analogies as if they really explained anything.
It may be of interest to remark in connection with the question of the
chinks within which molecules move that a very rough estimate can be
made as to their size by considering the crude hypothesis that each ion
is moved by the electric force near it acting on its ionic charge, and by
calculating how long it would be in getting up its ionic velocity. Assum-
ing that the ion moves like a body in a viscous liquid, the time it takes
to get up its velocity must be a very small part of the time during which
a current acts on it, and for which it obeys Ohm’s law, because, for this
to hold, the velocity must be independent of the time during which the
current is acting. By some rough estimates as to the quantities involved
it appears that the time during which an atom is acquiring its ionic
velocity is somewhere about 10°!° of a second, and that the space it
would acquire it in is about 10° of a centimetre. This seems as if the
intermolecular bombardment distances were probably very small, and it
shows that we can hardly expect Ohm’s law to fail for electrolytes due.
to this cause until the rate of alternation of our current is comparable |
with that of light. Of course the actual jostling of an atom through the
molecules can hardly be fairly represented by such a crude hypothesis as
that it is like a body moving in a viscous fluid ; yet such a calculation as
the above may be of use in showing the sort of quantities we may have
to deal with.
Professor Ontver Lopce said he had not been closely attending to
these subjects during the past year or two, and accordingly only made
a very few remarks, mainly with reference to the views he formerly
expressed.
He had always endeavoured to moderate between the extreme disso-
ciation views on the one hand, and those which require the molecule to
be electrolytically torn asunder on the other. One reconciling fact is the
chemically proved fact of double decomposition whenever two substances
are mixed; this seemed to him to establish clearly that molecules are
accustomed to interchange their atoms. Now, during the moment of
interchange there is an instant of freedom, an instant of potential dissocia-
tion, and it is upon this that he had looked as the opportunity demanded
by electric force to cause a slight diversion, sufficient in the long run to
result in opposite atomic processions.
But, as Fitzgerald has somewhere pointed out, an infinitesimal moment
of time is not sufficient to permit any finite effect, unless the forces acting
are enormous, which in the middle of the liquid they certainly are not.
This is therefore a difficulty, for if the atoms are solitary for any reason-
able time, that amounts at once to actual dissociation, as postulated by
Clausius. One may have to fali back, therefore, on the outlying atom
stragglers from gross complex molecules as giving the necessary pseudo-
freedom or potential dissociation which is all that Ohm’s law and electro-
ON THE THEORY OF SOLUTION. Jol
lytic facts demand, if one is to avoid admitting that extreme state of
dissociation which physically seems to be so satisfactory and chemically
so abhorrent.
But on this head it seems that no logical argument definitely asserting
this latter view has been adduced. The fact that solutions do, in many
respects, as shown by their osmotic pressure for instance, obey gaseous
laws, is of high interest; but to argue from it that therefore their atoms
must be in the same state of independent freedom as the atoms of a gas,
is to commit the fallacy called by logicians ‘the illicit process of the
major.’
Moreover it is not quite apparent why (in Mr. Pickering’s paper, for
instance) the antithesis of the hydrate theory is supposed to be the dis-
sociation theory. Free molecules in solution, rather than free atoms, would
seem to be the opposite to the formation of definite chemical hydrates.
Lastly he hoped he might be permitted one word on the subject of an
old communication by Professor Ostwald relating a hypothetical experi-
ment on statically electrifying an electrolyte, which he controverted some
year or two ago, and which has been referred to by Mr. Pickering as if it
were equivalent to a perpetual-motion device. He wished to dissociate
himself entirely from Mr. Pickering’s position on this point, and to ex-
plain, what he had not yet had a good opportunity for explaining, that
his published hostile remarks were made at first with the idea that the
experiment was related as an experiment, and subsequently with the view
that it is not very safe to use hypothetical experiments as controversial
weapons. The view held by Professor Ostwald, that an electrolyte
charged positively is so charged by reason of its hydrogen atoms looking
outwards, while if charged negatively its oxygen atoms look outwards, is
an extremely probable and instructive mode of regarding the matter. But
an experiment establishing the truth of this view would have no necessary
bearing on the dissociation controversy; in other words, the experiment
suggested by Professor Ostwald, even if it could be performed, would not
be a crucial one. The accepted laws of electrolysis already enable one to
say what will happen when the minute current of a displaced electrostatic
charge is passed through a liquid, with as much clearness as one can say
what happens when a battery is applied to it. There is really no difference
between the two cases, except the presence or absence of electrodes; for,
as Professor Fitzgerald has said, the facing-out atoms exist in each case,
only in one they face the electrodes, and in the other they face the air.
Professor OstwaLp read the following communication ‘On the Elec-
trical Behaviour of Semipermeable Membranes’ :—
If we fill two glass beakers with copper sulphate solution, put in them
two copper wires connected with a couple of Leclanché cells and a galva-
noscope, and close the circuit by a siphon filled with any electrolyte, which
is prevented from mixing with the copper sulphate by covering the ends
of the siphon with parchment paper, no phenomenon of special interest
is to be noticed. We have an electrolytic circuit without polarisation, as
used by Paalzow for the determination of the specific conductivities of
liquids. By varying the liquid in the siphon only the total resistance of
the circuit varies, and polarisation does not generally occur. If we fill
the siphon with potassium ferrocyanide, nothing novel seems to go on at
the first glance. But if we remember that on the contact of copper salts
with ferrocyanides a semipermeable membrane of copper ferrocyanide is
332 rEPORT—1890.
formed, through which, according to the observations of Traube, no copper
salt can diffuse, we are led to a somewhat strange question. The fact that
no copper salt can pass through the membrane is evidence that the copper
ions existing in the salt solution are likewise unable to pass. But as the
electricity in electrolytes travels only with the ponderable ions, we are
met by the alternative either that the refusal of the copper (and ferro-
cyanide) ions to pass through the membrane will cause the current wholly
to stop, or that the electricity will deposit the copper ions on the mem-
brane and itself alone pass through. The semipermeable membrane must
in the first case act as an insulator; in the second case it must act as
a metallic diaphragm. Both these cases are so unexpected that the
described experiment at once acquires a special interest.
By performing the experiment we find that the second alternative
holds good. The current becomes rapidly weaker, and after ten minutes
we can easily observe a very marked polarisation current in inverse direc-
tion to the primary current. After some hours of current the parchment
paper containing the semipermeable membrane on the positive side is
coated with a layer of metallic copper, and this is evidence that the copper
zons are filtered off by the semipermeable nembrane.
From this experiment it follows that the semipermeable membrane
really acts as a sieve, not only as regards compounds, but also for ions,
allowing some of them to pass and retaining others; for we know, for
example, that potassium chloride can pass the membrane of copper prus-
siate, and therefore the ions K and Cl do so, while barium chloride and
potassium ferrocyanide are retained. In the two last-mentioned cases one
of the ions has the power of passing, but is retained by the other. At the
first moment the Cl ions of the barium chloride will of course go through
the membrane, while the barium ions stay behind. But by this separation
@ separation of positive and negative electricity also takes place, and
thereby forces will arise tending to draw the Cl ions back. Finally a
double layer of electricity is formed, causing a potential difference on both
sides of the membrane, whose value depends only upon the molecular
concentration of the electrolyte, and in no way upon its nature.
If the formation of the double layer is prevented, free diffusion of the
passing ion takes place. By adding to the barium chloride some salt
whose metal can pass through the membrane—for instance, some salt of
potassium—the Cl ions at once will traverse the membrane, but the same
number cof K ions must go along with them. In this case, however, it
may be assumed that the added potassium salt undergoes a double decom-
position with the barium chloride, forming potassium chloride, which is
able to diffuse through the membrane. But we can also cause the Cl ions
to pass by putting some diffusible negative ions on the outside of the —
membrane—for instance, copper nitrate. Then we soon find chlorine —
outside and a nitrate inside the membrane. In this case it is impossible —
to assume a double decomposition, because both the salts are separated by
the membrane, which prevents the diffusion of the barium chloride, as
well as of the copper nitrate; and the explanation, by taking into account
free migrating ions, seems to be the only sufficient one.
$
The above-mentioned double layers and potential differences, occurring — 1
at semipermeable membranes, when one of the ions of the electrolyte is
retained, are probably the source of the potential differences and currents
we meet with in living matter, because the cells of organisms are all coated
with such semipermeable membranes. It is perhaps not too rash to hope
ON THE THEORY OF SOLUTION. 333
that the ancient mystery of electrical fishes will find its solution on these
lines.
Referring to the discussion Professor OstWALD said :—Professor Fitz-
gerald has asked why the ions, when they are free, do not separate by
diffusion. The answer is that they do. If we have a solution of HCl,
for example, consisting to a great extent of H and Cl ions, in contact
with pure water, the H ions, moving much faster than the Cl ions, take
the lead in wandering into the water. But a separation of electricity
hereby takes place, and every ion being charged with a great amount of
either positive or negative electricity, the electrostatic forces resulting
from the initial separation soon prevent further separation. Therefore
water must take a positive potential against a solution of hydrogen
chloride, and in general water must show against every electrolytic
solution the potential of the faster ion.
These considerations, which lead to the whole theory of the potential
differences between electrolytes, were first developed by W. Nernst
(‘Zeitsch. f. phys. Chem.’ ii. 613, and iv. 129), who has confirmed them by
various experiments ; and further by M. Planck (Wied. ‘ Ann.’ xl. 561).
As far as Iam aware, no theory of fluid-cells (Fliissigkeitsketten) had
hitherto existed, and the possibility of developing one consistent with
experiment from the principles first stated by Arrhenius is strong evidence
in favour of his views.
Secondly, Professor Fitzgerald seeks for the source of energy required
for the separation of, e.g., Cl and H by dissolving HCl in water. This
question is in accordance with the widely-spread assumption that a great
expenditure of work must be done to effect this separation. As a great
amount of heat is developed by forming HCl from its elements it seems
evident that the same amount of energy must be restored to the elements
in separating them. This is quite true if common hydrogen and chlorine
were formed, but the ions H and Cl, existing in the aqueous solution of
hydrogen chloride, are by no means identical with the so-called free
elements. To use a word to which chemists are accustomed, the ions H
and Cl are allotropic forms of these elements, similar to yellow and red
phosphorus, and contain very different amounts of energy from those
which they contain in their common state of hydrogen and chlorine gases.
Therefore it is impossible to say anything @ priori about the evolution or
absorption of energy connected with the change from HCl gas to positively
charged H ions and negatively charged Cl ions; we must interrogate
facts ; and these teach us that the ions generally contain much less energy
than the elements in the common state, and therefore a great amount of
energy is not called for in the transformation of, e.g., HCl into the free
ions H and Cl.
The elements in the state of ions being charged with great amounts
of electricity, the very different tendency of the elements to assume the
state of ions can be conveniently called their different affinity for elec-
tricity. This expression is of course only a fagon de parler, but it gives
a good description of the behaviour of the elements. The action, for
example, of zinc on cupric sulphate solution, containing the ions Cu and
SO,, depends on the greater tendency of the zinc to form ions; therefore
the zine tears the positive electricity necessary for its existence as an ion
from the copper ions, and deposits the latter as unelectrical, i.e. common
metallic copper. The SO, ions, being no closer connected with the zinc
334 REPORT—1890.
than with the copper, act only as, owing to their negative charges, they
render possible the existence of an equal number of positive ions, no
matter of what nature.
If Tam right Professor Fitzgerald is now ready to acknowledge the
views of Arrhenius as possible ones, but he assumes that the facts ex-
plained by these views can also be explained by some other views, of
which he has given some specimens. It is, of course, impossible to deny
this. But as the theory of Arrhenius has done its work up to the present,
and the new theory has yet its way to make, the former seems to have
certain claims to be preferred. As the theory of Arrhenius has shown
itself to be consistent with a very great number of facts, in the most
various branches of physics and chemistry, the new theory must of
necessity lead in all these cases to the same result as that of Arrhenius.
Then the scientific world will have the wonderful spectacle of two
theories, starting from different points of view, but leading everywhere
to the same result. Science will then possess a twofold means of further
investigation of some of its most difficult problems; a state of matters
that cannot be too urgently wished for by all who have devoted their
powers to such investigations.
In reply to Mr. Pickering’s remark that the induction experiment
upon electrolytic solutions described by me is opposed to the first prin-
ciples of science, especially to the first law of thermodynamics, I wish
only to remind him that by carrying out the common lecture experiment
with two metallic balls and a charged body, we can get from the balls a
spark, and therefore also an amount of energy. As no one hitherto has
found in this experiment a contradiction to the law of the conservation
of energy, I can leave the defence of my experiment to all teachers who
annually perform this experiment in their lectures.
Professor Lodge has asked if the experiment in question has been
earried out, and in what manner. The description of a series of such
experiments has been given in the ‘ Zeitschr. f. phys. Chem.’ iii. 1889,
p. 120. The easiest way to demonstrate the liberation of ions in elec-
trolytes by induction is to fill a glass jar covered on the outside with
tinfoil with dilute sulphuric acid, to connect the outside with a source of
positive electricity, and to insert in the sulphuric acid an earth-connected
capillary electrode, z.e. a short Lippmann electrometer. The very minute
bubbles of hydrogea developed by electrostatical actions can then easily
be observed in the capillary tube on the boundary of the mercury and
the sulphuric acid by help of a microscope.
Professor Armstrong has declared that the dissociation theory of
electrolytes is unacceptable to chemists. As far as I am aware, there
exists nowhere a real contradiction between chemical facts and the dis-
sociation theory, but this theory only runs against all the time-honoured
feelings of chemists. As feelings, although very powerful things, are at
least variable with time and custom, it is to be expected that they will
change sooner or later. The time is not very long past when the
assumption that, in the vapour of ammonium chloride, hydrochloric acid
and ammonia, which have ‘so great an affinity for each other,’ should
exist separate from one another, ran in quite the same manner against
the feelings of chemists. Now we are accustomed to this conception,
and in the same manner chemists will speak in a year or two as quietly
of the free ions as they now speak of the uncombined mixture of hydro-
chloric acid and ammonia in the gaseous state.
ee
——— ee ee ee ee ee
or a FS ee ee a ee
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ON THE THEORY OF SOLUTION. 335
But it should not be forgotten that a great many purely chemical
facts—in the first place the great generality and regularity of the
chemical reactions of electrolytes as used in analytical chemistry, in
opposition to the variability and irregularity of the behaviour of non-
electrolytes, especially of organic bodies—have found their first explana-
tion in the theory of electrolytic dissociation. The objection against this
theory, that if the ions of saits exist ina free state this would not be
any ground for the law of constant proportion between acid ions and
metals, is easily refuted. For, according to Faraday’s law, all chemically
equivalent amounts of positive and negative ions are charged with equal
amounts of electricity ; in an electrically neutral solution, as all ordinary
solutions are, there cannot but exist an exact equivalent number of
positive and negative ions. We see, therefore, the law of Faraday con-
nected in the closest manner with Richter’s law of chemical equivalents ;
if the one holds good, the other must also hold good, and vice versé.
Professor Armstrong has asked why water does not split into ions,
while hydrogen chloride, a body similar to water, does. But has Pro-
fessor Armstrong forgotten that liquid hydrogen chloride, like pure
water, is an insulator for the electric current, as was found long ago by
Gore, an observation afterwards confirmed by Bleekrode? It has been
stated by F, Koblrausch that at ordinary temperatures no pure liquid is
a good electrolyte. The theory of Arrhenius is still in this point the only
one which explains this strange fact; pure liquids do not conduct,
because their molecules have no space to resolve themselves into ions.
It is therefore not improbable that water would conduct electrolytic-
ally if we could find a suitable solvent for it. An investigation in this
direction would be of very great interest, but not without grave
difficulties.
To a certain, but very small extent, water too contains ions, namely,
Hand OH. This is shown by the hydrolytic action of water on the salts
of weak acids and bases, the amount of H or OH ions dissociated from
these acids or bases being in such cases comparable with the amount of
the same ions in water. Then the latter acts as a very weak acid or base,
and the action follows the common law of masses, as J. Walker has shown
(‘ Zeitsch. f. phys. Chem.’ iv. 319).
Professor vAN ’T Horr stated his conviction that we were forced on
theoretical grounds, thermodynamic as well as kinetic, to admit in dilute
solutions a law corresponding to that of Avogadro, differing from this only
in its bearing upon ‘osmotic’ instead of ‘ ordinary’ pressure. He insisted
on the necessity of dissociation in the case of KCl as a consequence which,
on this line of argument, it was impossible to escape from. On the other
hand, an ordinary separation into free atoms was in evident contradiction
to all we knew about them, as in the vapour of iodine and mercury. These
objections become invalid when we admit a splitting up into ions, which
by their enormous electrical charge ought to be widely different from what
we might expect in ordinary atoms, and hence it is that Arrhenius’s ‘elec.
trolytic dissociation hypothesis’ was at once most favourably received by
the adherents of the ‘osmotic pressure theory.’ Since then both have
become closely allied by the fact that the dissociated fraction, according
to the last, agreed with that admitted by the first on wholly different
rounds.
a In reply to the objections raised by Professor Fitzgerald, it may be
336 REPORT—1890.
observed, with respect to the theoretical foundation of the osmotic pres-
sure law, that the action on a semipermeable diaphragm is due, partly to
the shock of the dissolved molecules, partly to the difference of forces
acting upon them, from the solvent on one side, and from the solution on
the other. Now, the result of the shock is directly proportional to the
concentration, whereas that of the attraction is proportional to the square:
thus in very dilute solutions the second action vanishes when compared
with the first, and the shock is alone the origin of pressure as it is
in gases. However, he insisted on these views as more intended to popu-
larise than to prove the laws in question. If we want to do the last on
kinetic grounds, we must take everything into account—movement of the
molecules of the two substances mixed, action on themselves and on each
other. Now, this has been just recently done by van der Waals, and
the result is a very complicated formula, simplified, however, for dilute
solutions into this statement, ‘that the dissolved molecules act on a semi-
permeable membrane with strictly the same force as they would do on an
ordinary membrane in the gaseous state.’ So from a kinetic point of view
the law of Avogadro and the ‘ osmotic pressure’ law stand on the same
basis.
Mr. Pickering commits a fundamental error in supposing that the
osmotic pressure theory arrives at 0°63 as the number with which we
had to multiply the solvent’s molecular weight in order to get the so-
called ‘ constant of depression.’ Such conclusion was never drawn from
oes fhat was dedeendeeliiie
the theory in question ; it was the formula
value 0°63 was an empirical one, introduced by Raoult. This difference
has urged Professor Hykman to a very extensive experimental research,
the conclusion of which was so evident that in the July number of the
‘Annales de Chimie et de Physique’ Raoult openly accepts the value
0:02T?
wo
gélation produit par une molécule dissoute dans 100 molécules dissolvantes
2
est, d’aprés M. van’t Hoff, donné par l’expression a = 0°02 ee
quelle T est la température absolue de congélation et L sa chaleur latente
moléculaire de fusion.’ In addition, on p. 361, he says: ‘ L’accord entre
Vexpérience et la théorie est donc, sur tous les points, aussi complet
qu’on peut le désirer en pareille matiére.’ No one now defends the value
0:63, anda good deal of the objection which Mr, Pickering directs against
it has no bearing on the osmotic pressure theory itself.
On p. 359 Raoult states: ‘L’abaissement a du point de con-
1, dans la-
Mr. W. N. Suaw remarked that the meaning of the term solvent used
by physicists when referring to water, alcohol, and the like, is somewhat
widely extended when it is understood to include 100(H,SO,.H,0), and
the other equally complex solvents of Table I. of Mr. Pickering’s paper.
An ordinary solvent could not fairly be regarded as being ‘ inert’ and
‘having no action whatever’ when it was claimed that the solvent caused
the dissociation of a large portion of the dissolved salt. The action is in
fact most remarkable, and is the important point now requiring investiga-
tion and explanation. This action has been clearly illustrated by Mr. W.
Coldridge (‘ Phil. Mag.’ May 1890, p. 383), who has endeavoured at Cam-
bridge to ascertain the circumstances under which stannic chloride can
ON THE THEORY OF SOLUTION. 337
be brought into the dissociated or electrolytic condition. The compound
is interesting, since water and alcohol produce well-known and remark-
able actions’ upon it; moreover it is comparatively easily prepared in the
pure state. It appears from the paper referred to that stannic chloride
ean be mixed with chloroform without receiving any conducting power.
It will also absorb a considerable quantity of dry H,S gas without chemical
action, and again without becoming electrolytic ; whereas the addition of
a drop of water or alcohol to the non-electrolytic mixture immediately
gives rise to chemical action with a deposit of tin sulphide, the liquid
becoming at the same time electrolytic.
The action of water or alcohol seems to be clearly different in this case
in some fundamental manner from that of H,S or chloroform.
Mr. Shaw also drew attention to the diagram (fig. 1) in Mr. Picker-
ing’s paper, from which, if he understood it correctly, it appears that for
very weak solutions the ‘ molecular depressions’ produced by certain salts
are the same for solutions containing ‘08 molecule per 100H,0 as they
are for infinitely dilute solutions.
Mr. Pickerinc remarked that there were very strong positive argu-
ments in favour of the hydrate theory, and that his opponents had in no
way controverted them. Even if they succeeded in refuting all the
objections which he had raised against the physical theory, this theory
could not be established till it was shown that other theories were either
untenable or less satisfactory.
The freezing-points of sulphuric acid solution calculated by Arrhenius
certainly showed a very striking agreement with the observed values; but,
before attributing much weight to this agreement, it would be necessary
to examine carefully the details of the calculations, for there are consider-
_ able sources of doubt and difficulty in applying the values for the conduc-
tivity of weak sulphuric acid solutions ; but even if no exceptions could
be taken to the calculations, it must be remembered that the agreement
exhibited extended only up to 1 per cent. solutions, or 0°-4 depression,
whereas, according to the values quoted above, his theory offered an
equally good agreement up to 30 per cent., or 34° depression, and, accord-
ing to values given elsewhere, a similar agreement extended, with certain
exceptions, up to 94 per cent. It must also be remembered that according
to the chemical as well as the physical theory there must be a mathemati-
eal connection between the freezing-points, conductivities, and all other
properties of solutions. The freezing-point curve shows irregularities,
and so also does the conductivity curve; the chemical theory explains
these irregularities, whereas according to the physical theory they should
not exist.
Professor van ’t Hoff pointed out that according to his theory the
freezing-points were influenced by the nature of the solvent; but this
does not remove the objection that the nature and amount of the dissolved
substance (even when this is a non-electrolyte) are found to influence the
results. Professor van ’t Hoff had misunderstood what had been said
about Raoult’s constant: he (Mr. Pickering) was well aware that this
constant and that deduced in the osmotic pressure theory were quile
different.
Professor Ostwald stated that his experiment of bringing a charged
body up toa solution, dividing the latter, and removing the charged bodv,
ig. ad analogous to a similar operation performed on a metallic
: Z
7 l
3
338 REPORT—1890.
conductor instead of a solution. This is undoubtedly the case, but in both
instances there is an expenditure of mechanical energy, for more work
must be done to remove the charged body from the separated and now
charged solution or conductor than was required to bring it up to it;
energy has been expended, and as a result we get a current and a certain
amount of chemical decomposition: how can this prove that the substance
was decomposed to start with? All that it could prove seemed to be that
a current developed by electrostatic induction produced the same results
both qualitatively and quantitatively as an ordinary galvanic current—a
fact which has been established long ago.
Considerable stress has been laid on the constancy of the heat of neu-
tralisation as an argument in favour of the physical theory, but it must be
remembered that this constancy has received an equally simple explanation
on the hydrate theory.
At the conclusion of the discussion Dr. Gladstone remarked upon the
satisfactory circumstance that by means of the meeting of the British
Association scientific men had been brought tegether from the Continent
and various parts of England who held diametrically opposite opinions
upon the subjects discussed, but that there had ensued a rapprochement
and mutual understanding which could not fail to render the views of
both sides more accurate representations of fact.
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Provisional Report of a Committee, consisting of Professors H.
M‘LeEop, F.R.S., W. Ramsay, F.R.S., and Messrs. J. T. CUNDALL
and W. A. SHENSTONE (Secretary), appointed to investigate the
Influence of the Silent Discharge of Electricity on Oxygen and.
other Gases.
Ir was found, as previously reported, about two years ago, that the work
of the Committee necessitated the production of silent discharge of
electricity of a more constant character than that which has hitherto
been sufficient for experiments on the electrification of gases. The
attaining of this object was at first very seriously delayed by circum-
stances beyond the control of the Committee. The work was, however,
resumed during the latter part of the year 1888-9, and has been con-
tinued since the Newcastle Meeting. Satisfactory progress has been
made, and apparatus has now been constructed which promises to give
satisfactory results. It will therefore be possible now to continue the —
work of the Committee from the stage to which it was carried by
Messrs. Shenstone and Cundall in the experiments which have already
been reported to the Association.
The sum of 5/. granted for the use of the Committee at the last meet-
ing has been expended, chiefly in the construction of electrical apparatus.
As the expenditure of the Committee is likely to be small during the
coming year, 1t is requested that the Committee be reappointed without a
grant.
ON THE ABSORPTION SPECTRA OF PURE COMPOUNDS. 339
Report of the. Committee, consisting of General FEsTING (Chair-
man), Dr. H. E. Armstrone (Secretary), Captain ABNEY, and
Professor W. N. Hart.ey, on the Absorption Spectra of Pure
Compounds.
Tue spectra of a number of substances have been determined during
the year, but as the object of the Committee is to draw definite con-
clusions as to the relation between structure and properties throughout
series of related compounds, and the material at disposal is not yet
sufficient for this purpose, they desire that they may be reappointed in
order that the investigation may be continued.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr..H. Woopwarp, Mr. R.
ETHERIDGE, Mr. R. Kipston, the Rev. G. F. WHIpporNeE, and
Mr. J. E. Marr (Secretary), appointed for considering the best
methods for the’ Registration of all Type Specimens of Fossils
im the British Isles, and reporting on the same.
Tue Committee have considered the best methods of obtaining records of
the type specimens of British Fossils, and they would recommend that a
circular letter and record-sheet similar to the annexed forms be sent to
curators of museums and owners of private collections :—
Sir,—A Committee having been appointed by the General Committee
of the Association for ‘considering the best methods for the registration
of all type specimens of fossils in the British Isles,’ the Secretary of the
Committee would be greatly obliged if you would kindly fill in the ac-
companying form with particulars concerning any type specimens of
British Fossils which are preserved in the collection under your charge.!
The forms should be returned as soon as possible to , who will
be glad to give further information, if required.
(Form of Record Sheet.)
Name under| Where origin-| Name under Exact strati-| In what | Nature (whether
* . hich now | Locality or 7 - entire, or if not,
which first | ally describea| rc graphical | collection date ¢
. generally localities Ee A what portion pre-
deseribed | and figured mecnd ad horizon deposited served, &c.)
The Committee would suggest that they be reappointed.
_) Should these returns be printed by the British Association, you would be sup-
plied with copies for the use of your museum.
Z2
340 REPORT—1890.
Eighteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor PREst-
wicu, Dr. H. W. Crosskey, Professors W. Boyp Dawkins, T.
McKenny Huaues, and T. G. Bonney, and Messrs. C. E.
De Rance, W. PENGELLY, J. PLant, and R. H. TIDDEMAN,
appointed for the purpose of recording the Position, Height
above the Sea, Lithological Characters, Size, and Origin of
the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland, reporting
other matters of interest connected with the same, and taking
measures for their preservation. (Drawn wp by Dr. CROSSKEY,
Secretary. )
Dorine the past year an important step has been taken towards the com-
pletion of the researches of the Committee in one district and the giving
a scientific arrangement to the vast number of facts that have been
collected.
Mr. Frederick W. Martin, F.G.8. (of Birmingham), who has made
several valuable contributions to the reports of the Committee, has com-
pleted the main portion of his personal survey of the boulders of the
Midland district, and has collected together in their proper order the
whole of the facts he has ascertained, and described with precision and
accuracy the general results of his observations. Mr. Martin has, more-
over, finished a map showing the distribution of the Midland boulders,
which both corrects many errors into which previous observers have
fallen and places the whole series of facts before the eye in a systematic
form. The Birmingham Philosophical Society has materially aided the
work of this Committee by including in its ‘Proceedings’ for the current
year Mr. Martin’s notes and map. Were the same scientific method of
treatment applied to the study of the erratics of each district in England
and Wales results of equal value would, without doubt, be obtained.
The Committee would strongly urge upon all local scientific societies
to undertake this work. Not only is it of the largest value to all students
on glacial geology, but the destruction of erratics is going on so rapidly
that each year’s delay reduces the number of ascertainable facts.
Without entering into the theoretical questions which are beyond its
province, the Committee thinks it well to point out a few of the general
results of the survey of the Midlands, in order that other observers may
examine how far they differ from or agree with the phenomena presented
in their respective districts.
So far as the Midlands are concerned, the facts with respect to the
erratics appear to establish the following points :—
1. The boulders have been deposited at distinct periods. At least two
of these periods can be well ascertained. In some cases the collection of
erratics which have been supposed to show the ‘ intercrossing’ of their
streams are really the remains of distinct periods of action ; not that there
has been no intercrossing, but that all the supposed cases of it are not
accurately described by that term.
2. There are deposits of boulders in the Midland area which are
entirely distinct from each other, boulders from special districts being -
grouped together.
3. There are deposits of boulders in which those from different and
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 341
distant sources are to some extent intermixed; and this intermixture of
streams or boulders has to be studied in connection with the physical
geography of the country during the Glacial epoch.
4. Local hills have formed no effective barrier to some part of the dis-
tribution of boulders. In the Midlands, e.g., they are abundant at a level
of 618 feet, and not unfrequently lie on the edges of the precipitous side
of a hill.
5. Some streams of boulder, however, have travelled under conditions
imposed by the hills and valleys as they now exist.
6. There are glaciated boulders of local origin intermixed with those
not of local origin; but it would seem that where the northern erratics
are numerous very few of these are intermixed.
7. There is also a distinct distribution of boulders from local hills (as,
e.g., from Rowley Regis).
8. There are boulders at almost every level, and, it may be added,
beds of boulders are sometimes separated from each other in section by
clays and sands, occasional boulders occurring in the separating clays.
9. A very considerable proportion of the largest boulders are upon the
surface, or just beneath the surface ; how far clays and sands may have
been washed away from them, however, is a question.
10. There are notable differences in the shapes of the boulders. Many
are angular and subangular; many have their edges much rounded off;
others are rough and broken as though just torn from the parent rock.
In some collections of boulders there are signs of considerable rolling and
wearing as by water; in others signs of ice action are fresh and unworn.
WARWICKSHIRE.
Mr. W. Jerome Harrison, F.G.S., forwards a note on three boulders
in South Warwickshire. In North Warwickshire the watershed
which divides the rivers running to the HE. and W. coasts of England
respectively forms the boundary line on the coast to the remarkable
collection of Welsh and Lake District and Scotch rocks described in
previous reports as occurring in the Midlands. Of boulder clays equiva-
lent to those found in the district around Birmingham, Mr. Harrison has
found no trace in S. Warwickshire. The surface deposits there are mainly
a light quartzose gravel, the stones small, with occasional flints. Hrratics
of any size are rare.
The two Sherbourn Boulders.—Two and a half miles S. of the town of
Warwick lies the village of Sherbourn, close to the right bank of the Avon.
At the point where the village street joins the high road is a block of
Millstone Grit. It measures 2 ft. 5 in. x 1 ft. 10 in. x1 ft. The second Sher-
bourn boulder lies further up the village street, nearly opposite the
school-house. This is a granite block, the felspar of a reddish colour.
Its dimensions are 8 ft. 2 in. x2 ft. Gin. x1 ft. Yin.
The Exhall Boulder:—The village of Exhall is 9 miles S.W. of Sher-
bourn, and 5 miles due W. of Stratford-on-Avon. The boulder lies by
the roadside at the east end of the village. It is a quartzose block, with
green specks, possibly vein-quartz. It rests on the trias near the junction
with the Rhewtic beds. The surface beds of this district appear to be
thin gravel, composed of small quartzose pebbles (in which are found
car ep ennai and worm-tracks), but with many angular pieces of
chert flint.
342 REPORT—1890.
LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE.
Mr. Bernard Hobson, B.Sc., F.G.S. (Assistant Lecturer in Geology,
Owens College), forwards an account of two boulders dug up in making
a new sewer in Granville Road, Fallowfield, near Manchester. The
nearest bench-mark is 115-7 ft., and as the ground is very flat in the
neighbourhood, that will be about the height of Granville Road. Both
boulders were about 14 ft. below the surface, and in the boulder clay.
Boulder A, well rounded; no striw; size, 2 ft. 2 in. x 1 ft. 6 in. x
1ft.5in. Itisa Buttermere syenite. Specific gravity 2°61.
Boulder B, subangular; flattish ; size, 2 ft. 10 in. x 1 ft. Qin. x
lft. lin. It is striated transversely in the direction of the 1 ft. 9in.
measurement. It is an andesite, and agrees pretty closely with the very
large boulder found in 1888 opposite No. 266 Oxford Road, Manchester,
and which is mounted on a pedestal in the Owens College quadrangle.
Specific gravity 2°8.
Specimens of both boulders have been deposited in Owens College
Museum. The Committee would strongly urge that this example should
be generally followed, and that a specimen of any boulder found in any
locality should be placed in the nearest museum, with a careful note of
the exact spot from which it was taken.
The subjoined notes of erratics have been received from Mr. Percy
F. Kendall, F.G.S. :—
Erratic blocks—(1) On the cutting of the Manchester Ship Canal
about a quarter of a mile west of the Trafford Road Bridge, Old Trafford,
Manchester. Size 6x45x3 (+) feet; in shape subangular. The
eastern end is well rounded, and the western angular (not subangular).
Its longest axis is almost precisely H. and W. (true, not magnetic); the
north side is well scratched in the direction of long axis. It is a Coal
Measure sandstone containing fragmentary plant-remains. The sand-
stone is bluish-grey within, but weathers externally, and to a depth of
about 3 to 2 inches, to a tea-green colour and is then very soft.
This boulder rests upon boulder clay, and is surrounded by old silts
and gravels of the river Irwell. The Irwell is distant about 150 yards.
Two smaller stones weighing about one hundredweight each lay alongside
the one here described. They are of identical composition, and it is an
important fact that about six months ago (June or July 1889) several
large boulders of the same sandstone were met with in the boulder clay
at a distance of 50 to 100 yards away. In the river-gravels at the same
place many stones, large and small, of the same sandstone are to be ob-
served. In the course of a careful examination of the whole line of the
canal, I have not observed this sandstone elsewhere.
(2) Just north of Windgather Rocks, Taxal, Cheshire. Approximate
weight, 2 tons; rounded; has been moved; not scratched, or scratches
not preserved. It is an Eskdale granite (sheared or cleaved variety).
It is 1,150 feet (by aneroid) above the sea. The Photographic Section
of the Stockport Society of Naturalists has a good photograph. It is
not connected with any long ridges of gravel or sand. It rests upon the
Millstone Grit.
(3) A little to the north of the Windgather Rocks, Taxal, built into
a wall beside a stile about 200 yards from farmhouse. Approximate
weight, 2 tons; rounded; has been moved; no striz visible. It is a
a a
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 343
Buttermere granophyre. It is 1,150 feet above the sea; isolated; is
exposed on the surface ; and rests on the Millstone Grit.
(4) A little to north of Windgather Rocks, Taxal. The stone was
on the road leading from the farmhouse. The observations were made
just after the stone had been broken up. Approximate weight, 2 tons ;
rounded (?); had been moved. It is one of the well-known Borrodale
andesitic lavas, such as abound in the boulder clay in Lancashire and
Cheshire. It is 1,150 feet above the sea, and rests on the Millstone
Grit.
The three boulders described as occurring at the Windgather Rocks
are all exposed on the surface. There are no beds of gravel, sand or clay
visible in the neighbourhood, but a good many foreign stones of small
dimensions are lying about. Amongst them I saw the granite of Loch
Doon.
Mr. Kendall reports a striking observation he has made with respect
to the distribution of boulders derived from local rocks in Lancashire and
Cheshire. He has made a careful examination of these boulders as likely
to afford valuable indications of the agency by which their transport was
effected. There are (he states) in this district two rocks which are very
easily identified, and whose outcrops are well known, viz. the Ardwick
limestone and the fossiliferons Permian limestones. Mr. Kendall has
searched carefully for these two rocks, and briefly states the result as
follows: boulders in this district never occur either to the N. or W. of the
parent rock.
A very striking example of this occurs, Mr. Kendall writes, in the
railway cutting between Wilmslow Road, Fallowfield, and Slade Lane,
Burnage. At the base of the glacial beds exposed, fragments of the
Permian marl and sandstones were abundant; and of the Ardwick lime-
stone massive blocks had been torn off and embedded in the boulder clay
at all angles, and some of them have received ice scratches, but the
movement which dislodged them was, broadly speaking, from W. to E.,
and in no single instance could a fragment be found to the westward of
its natural outcrop. Mr. Kendall adds that this is no isolated observation
at a single exposure, but that it is, he believes, the law of boulder trans-
port for S. Lancashire and Cheshire.
Should more extended observations coufirm this very remarkable
generalisation, light will be thrown upon some of the most difficult
problems in glacial geology.
Mr. Kendall draws attention to another very important: point con-
nected with the distribution of erratics. After very diligent search he
has not been able to find a single Manx or Irish rock in Lancashire. The
flints are usually referred to the Irish chalk; but he contends that their
proximate derivation may have been from some other source—as, for
example, from some bed of gravel which may have been deposited in the
Trish Sea in pre-Glacial times. \
Without pronouncing any opinion on the theoretical questions in-
volved, the Committee would strongly urge upon all who are engaged in
these researches the importance of carefully recording the facts connected
with the distribution of boulders, whether derived from bed rocks or from
distant mountains, and also of paying attention to the boulders which are
absent as well as to those which are present in any district.
Observations similar to those made by Mr. Kendall, if extended over
England, will yield results of the greatest possible value.
344 REPORI—1890.
Boulders from Rawtenstall.—By the kindness of Mr. Charles Bucknill,
Mr. J. W. Gray and Mr. P. F. Kendall are enabled to record the
following boulders from the immediate neighbourhood of Rawtenstall.
The determinations were made from specimens submitted by Mr.
Bucknill.
Borrowdale ash, 2; Borrowdale lava, 7; Borrowdale amygdaloidal
andesite, 2; volcanic rocks, source undetermined, 2 ; Buttermere ‘syenite’
(granophyre), 2; granites, source undetermined, 5; Criffel granite, 1;
Loch Doon granite, 2; Eskdale granite, 10; Rig o’ Burnfoot granite, 1 ;
granite with much muscovite, source undetermined, 1; vein quartz (like
that from the Borrowdale series), 5; vein quartz with ochreous sand-
stone, 1; mountain limestone chert, 1; mountain limestone, 3; red sand-
stone, 2; hematite (fresh), 1; total 48.
Mr. J. Horsfall (a member of the Rochdale Literary and Scientific
Society) describes a boulder in Wardle Parish, Buckley Pasture, Roch-
dale, just behind the college at Clough Bottom, a little to the N.W.
Size, 10 ft. x 5 ft. x 4 ft. 6in.; angular; longest axis E.to W. Itis
composed of a sandstone different from the adjoining rock, but a similar
rock occurs on Rushy Hill about half a mile W. It is about 600 ft.
above the sea; is isolated, and rests on shale.
A group of erratics is reported by the same observer as occurring
in Spotland Parish, Nick-o’-the-Bank Farm, about 200 yards below the
culvert in the brook at the lower end of Ferndale Wood. It has been
exposed by the stream, which has cut a passage through it. The largest
boulder is 35 ft. x 2 ft. x 1 ft. 6 in.; others vary in size from this down
to a foot in diameter, and there are hundreds of smaller dimensions.
They are much rounded, except.the largest, which is subangular. There
are distinct striations on one of the boulders, which is partly imbedded
in the soil by the side of the brook. The striations, seven or eight in
number, run along the whole Jength of the boulder (which is 2 ft. long),
and are in the direction of its longest axis.
This group consists of andesites, &c., from the Lake district, with a few
specimens of Criffel granite; with angular and rounded sandstones and
shales intermixed. It extends cver an area of 80 or 100 yards, and is
about 800 ft. above the sea-level.
The following group occurs in Cheshire at the localities indicated.
A. Greave Fold, Werneth Low, near Romiley. B. Summit of
Werneth Low, Cheshire. The figures denote the number of boulders
found.
Eskdale granite, A 1, B 1; Buttermere ‘syenite,’ A 1; Borrowdale
andesite, A 1, B 6; Borrowdale agglomerate, A 3; Borrowdale rhyolite,
B 1; Borrowdale porphyrite, A 1; Silurian grit, A 4, B 1; Coal Measure
sandstone, A 2; quartzite, B 1; quartzite pebble from Bunter, B 1.
Close to the highest point on Werneth Low, 821 ft. above Ordnance
datum, is a deposit of boulder clay with scratched stones.
DERBYSHIRE.
The Committee are obliged to Mr. J. W. Gray, F.G.S., and Mr. P. F.
Kendall, F.G.S., for the following important ‘ Notes on some Erratics at
High Levels in Derbyshire.’
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 345
The writers desire to place on record some observations they have
made in the course of an examination of the hill conntry on the western
side of the Pennine axis, with a view to the demarcation of the limits of
the drift containing erratics of the types prevalent in South Lancashire
and Cheshire.
The country to which the following remarks must be taken to apply
is that great ridge which culminates in the sharp escarpment called the
Windgather Rocks. The ridge runs nearly N. and S., and the valley on
the western side (the Kettleshulme Valley) is broad and comparatively
unobstructed to the N., where it opens out towards the lower ground
about Disley; but the eastern valley becomes much involved to the
northward amongst a succession of hills, such as Chinley Churn and
Eccles Pike. The ridge before referred to is excavated by a very deep
longitudinal T-shaped valley which dies out north and south, but has a
deep gorge-like outlet on the EH. opening into the Goyt Valley on that
side.
Commencing our search at Taxal on the east, we found small erratics
at about 600 ft., and traced them intermittently upward in a southerly
direction to the farmhouse called ‘Overton,’ where there was a block of
Buttermere ‘syenite’ weighing about 2 cwt. built into one of the barns ;
thence we traced them in increasing numbers right up to the summit of
the spur which separates the subsidiary longitudinal valley from the
main valley. Over the spur we lost the trace, and in our descent and
re-ascent up to the Windgather Rocks the clue was not taken up. At
the Windgather Rocks themselves we looked carefully for traces of ice-
scratches, but nothing of the kind was to be seen. It may be well to
remark that the extreme edge of the hill consists of bare millstone grit
dipping E. ata high angle, and making a precipitous escarpment upon the
west about 20 to 30 ft. in height. A portion of the length of this is
a natural face, but some quarrying has been done. The first trace of
erratics is met with in the position described on the forms recording the
boulders, viz.: about 200 yards from tke farmhouse on the ridge N. of
the Windgather Rocks. This point is north of the head of the valley
which cleaves the hill.
Amongst the erratics noted blue and green andesitic rocks of the
Borrowdale type greatly predominate, but the majority of the larger
stones are ot Buttermere ‘syenite.’ Besides there is Eskdale granite,
a south Scottish granite, purple quartzite such as is found in the Bunter,
and, finally, a white quartzite of saccharoid texture much resembling
that of the Wrekin, but lacking the rhyolitic particles which are so
common in that rock.!_ We would draw attention to the fact that in the
ascent of the hill from the E. the erratics increase in number with the
altitude.
YORKSHIRE.
Valuable contributions have been received for several years pastfrom the
Committee formed in Yorkshire for the express purpose of exploring and
recording the remarkable and numerous erratic boulders of that county.
Mr. 8. Chadwick, F.G.S., Malton, has been now appointed secretary,
and has forwarded the following reports.
1 This quartzite is the first erratic to be observed in descending the Kettleshulme
Valley from Jenkin Chapel.
346 REPORT—1890.
The Committee cannot but express its deep regret at the death of the
former secretary of the Yorkshire Committee, Mr. S. A. Adamson, and
record its recognition of the great value of his services.
Southburn, Parish of Kirkburn.—In the township of Southburn,
parish Kirkburn, on the estate owned and occupied by Mr. J. Walker, about
a mile §.H. of Southburn Church, are a large number of boulders, some of
which measure
1ft.1llin.x 1ft. 4in.and 9 in. above ground.
i ft. bin. x Orin 55) eve. les, ~
1 ft... 3 in. x OF ap orine a, ss
Titi oul. OLintt gs tar GuLen 35 3
Tl MShaig es NKOMeuols ay “shana, ee ee
11 in. x SBOE yin Micheal RRR 5
ins Srillsaeeyeen (OCLs Fie
10 in. x Sanh Os) eel O sine see» Br
They have all been moved to their present position. There are no stria-
tions visible. There were specimens of whinstone, mountain limestone,
red granite, &c., &c., in the yard, among heaps of stones; most of them
are from the North. The greater proportion are whinstone; they are
about 100 ft. above sea-level. The boulders have been collected from the
adjoining land and used for paving the yards.
Southburn.—l. In the township of Southburn, parish of Kirkburn, on
the estate of A. Brown, Esq., about a mile 8.H. of Southburn Church. In
a‘stackyard occupied by A. Foster, Esq., isa boulder. Itis 32 in. x 22x19
lying close to the roadside. It is subangular. There is a distincé stria on
one side of the stone more across than lengthways. ‘Colour nearly black,
with rough granules like diorite or coarse whinstone. It was found im-
bedded in the foundation of some old thatched cottages, and is about 100 ft.
above sea-level.’ There is no photograph of it. It rests upon chalky
avel.
rh 2. In the township of Southburn, parish of Kirkburn, on the estate
owned by A. Brown, Hsq., farm occupied by A. Foster, Esq. At the
north end of the farmhouse is a boulder 2 ft. 8 in. long, 1 ft. 5 in. broad,
and 1 ft. 3 in. out of the ground. Its shape is rounded but oblong, and it
has been so placed to protect other property adjoining it. On the inner
side are fine grooves or markings, varying from 9 in. long, } in. broad,
$in. in depth, all running in the direction of the longer axis. It is com-
posed of whinstone; the nearest rock of this kind would be Goathland,
30 miles away. It was found in the foundation of an old house pulled
down about twenty years ago, and is 100 ft. above sea-level. It is not a
boundary stone ; there is no photograph of it; the boulder is at the end
of Mr. Foster’s farm, and rests upon a bed of gravel.
Lowthorpe-—1. In the parish of Lowthorpe, estate of W. H. St. Quin-
tin, Hsq., + mile N.W. of Lowthorpe Station, N.H.R., and 40 yards east
of Lowthorpe Road. 2 ft. 2 in.x1 ft. 8 in. x1ft. 3 in., subangular, has
been moved to present position ; no ice markings ; composed of whinstone ;
about 50 ft. above sea-level; nearest locality for whinstone is about 40.
miles N.W.; resting upon boulder clay. An old lady living in a cottage
close by remembers the stone to have been in its present position over
sixty years.
2. In the parish of Lowthorpe, estate of W. H. St. Quintin, Esq., on
the Lowthorpe roadside leading to railway station about 4 mile N.W.
Within a radius of 40 yards are a group of boulders, measuring—
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 347
1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 6 in. x 11 in. ; Red sandstone.
1 ft. 6in. x1 ft. 5 in.x1 ft. 3 in.; Mountain limestone.
2 ft xlft.5in.x1 ft. 4 in.; Estuarine sandstone.
1 ft. oo it: x 9 in.; Whinstone.
1 ft. 2 in. x 1 ft. x 10 in. ; Whinstone.
Several of these have been taken out of the adjoining fields during the last
ten years, and are now resting on boulder clay at about 60 ft. above sea-
level. In no case do they show any traces of ice scratches, &c.
Scarborough.—In the parish of Newby, on the north side of Scarborough
estate, belonging to the Burial Board, and now used as a cemetery, about
4 mile west of the coast and 100 yards east of the Scarborough Whitby
Railway. It is 4 ft. 10 in. x3 ft. 2 in. x2 ft. 9 in., subangular, has been
moved; there are no ice marks; composed of hard, compact sandstone
resting on boulder drift about 50 ft. above sea-level.
Scalby (North Riding).—In the parish of Scalby (near Scarborough),
estate, Dr. Rook’s, about 15 mile west of the coast and 4 mile east of
the village of Stainton Dale, at the bottom of Stainton Dale beck,
1 ft. 8 in. x1 ft. 2 in. x1 ft., dolerite ; another one is 1 ft. llin. x1 ft. 4in.
x9 in., whinstone. Both are subangular; nearest locality about 10 miles ;
N.W. of Whin Dyke, Robinhood’s Bay ; resting on boulder drift about
100 ft. above sea-level.
Underneath the boulder drift is composed of estuarine conglomerite.
Ruston Parva (Hast Riding).—In the parish of Ruston Parva, about 25
miles west of Lowthorpe Station, N.E. Railway, East Riding of Yorkshire,
there is a large block of diorite forming a protection for the angle of the
road leading from Driffield to Kilham at the west side of the village of Rus-
ton Parva. The land is in the occupation of Mr. Jefferson, but owned by
W. H. St. Quintin, Esq., of Scampstor Hall, near Malton. It is appa-
rently a very large boulder, as it stands in an upright position 28 in. out
of the ground, whilst its greatest length across the exposed surface is
28 in. by 25 in. thick.
It is quite angular, almost indicating from its surface that an attempt
has been made to reduce its size.
So far as can be ascertained, the boulder has been in its present posi-
_ tion for upwards of 100 years; for, although it must have been placed in
its present position, no one’s memory carries so far back.
There are no ruts, grooving, or striation to be seen upon its surface ;
it shows no indication of having been ground in any way.
The stone is dark diorite, and there is no rock of this nature within
50 miles. Its position is about 100 ft. above the level of the sea, resting
- on boulder clay.
Speeton.—In the parish of Speeton, near Filey, on the farm occupied
by Mr. J. Jordan’s trustees; estate of Lord Londesborough. The locality
is commonly known as Speeton Gap. At the bottom of the gap, just
where the footpath crosses the beck, and about 250 yards N.W. of the
beach, are five large boulders.
No. 1 is 3 ft. 10 in. x2 ft. 3 in.x1 ft. 8 in. above ground. Rounded
to subangular; has not been moved; longest axis H. and W.; shows
ovings in direction of longest axis, some being from 11 to 9 in. long,
Fin. deep, and 4 to } in. wide; close-grained sandstone.
No. 2.—3 ft. x1 ft. 9 in. x1 ft. 7 in. Rounded; has not been moved ;
longest axis, N.E. and S.W.; dolerite.
No. 3.—2 ft. 9 in. x2 ft.x 1 ft. 8in. Rounded to subangular; has not
348 REPORT—1890.
been moved ; longest axis N.E. and 8.W.; shows groovings and strie in
direction of longest axis, some being nearly a foot long; Shap Fell
granite.
No. 4,.—2 ft. 1 in. x1 ft. 10 in. x1 ft. 8in. Rounded; whinstone.
No. 5.—8 ft. 8 in. x2 ft 6in. x1 ft. 3in. Flat angular block of fine
grained sandstone.
These are all about 50 ft. above sea-level, and rest upon the Red
Chalk or lower beds of the Lower Chalk.
Nore.—All these boulders are scattered over a distance of about 50
yards up the creek in a westerly direction.
In Speeton Gap, and following the course of the beck for about 150
yards westwardly from the footbridge, are the following boulders :—
1 ft. 8 in. x 1 ft. x9in. Rounded. Whinstone.
1 ft. 2 in. x 1 ft. x 9 in. 33 Mountain limestone, contain-
ing Productus giganteus.
1 ft.6in.x1 ft. lin.x6in. Subangular. Fine sandstone.
1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. x7in. Rounded. Dolerite.
1 ft. x 6 in. x6in. Roundedtosubangular. Whinstone.
1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. x1 ft. Rounded. Fine sandstone.
1 ft. Ont. x6in. Subangular. Whinstone.
1 ft.4in.x1ft.2in.x7in. Angular. Fine sandstone.
1 ft. Saif hel, x 10 in. Subangular. Dolerite.
I ft. x 6 in. x4in. Rounded. Mountain limestone, contain-
ing coral.
3 ft. 5 in. x 1 ft. 6 in.x 10 in. Angular. Coarse, gritty sandstone.
1 ft. 4 in. x 1 ft. x8in. Angular to subangular. Whinstone.
Besides the above there were about 50 sandstones, 15 whinstones, 6
mountain limestones, and 5 ironstones, averaging 1 ft.x8 in. The whole
were much worn, and show no definite markings or strie. Others, still
smaller, may be seen, of red and grey granite, mica schist, red fine-
grained sandstone (Permian?), lias showing gryphea incurva, limestone,
slate, various sandstones, and nodular ironstone from the estuarine
series.
- They are about 60 ft. above sea-level.
Most of these boulders rest upon clay overlying the Red Chalk, and
some directly upon the chalk itself. The slopes of the gap are covered _
with the remnant of boulder clay, which has thus far escaped denudation.
In former years the slopes of this ravine were dotted all over with large
boulders, but these have been removed for road repairs, and it is only on
account of the somewhat inaccessible character of the gorge at this point
that these are allowed to remain.
Staintondale Cliffs (Coast).—About # mile S.E. of Peak Hall, near
Robin Hood’s Bay, on the first ledge of the cliffs known as Staintondale
Cliffs, is a boulder.
It is 3 ft. 5 in. x3 ft. x2 ft. Rounded and much weathered ; longest
axis N.W. and 8.E.; no groovings or striations; Shap Fell granite; is
about 250 feet above sea-level.
Lockington.—At Lockington, near Beverley, on Lord Hotham’s estate,
and on the farm of Mr. George Langdale, is a boulder. It protects an
artesian well, about 4 mile E. of the railway station.
It is at present 2 ft. 7 in. x1 ft. 10 in. x1 ft. 9 in., but has evidently
been reduced in size ; a coarse-grained grit, like Millstone Grit; is about
a
100 ft. above sea-level; originally rested on boulder clay, which covers
the surrounding district.
om
ON TH ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 349
Filey.—On the estate of Mr. Martin, and extending abont 60 yards
from the shore up the ravine, or at the bottom of what is known as
Bentley’s Beck, are the following boulders :—
2 ft. 6 1p. x 1 ff..3' in. 1 ft. Rounded. Whinstone.
2 ft. x1 ft. 9in.x1ft.6in. Subangular. Sandstone.
2 ft. x Like) in., Rounded, Whinstone.
1 ft. Gin. x1 ft. 4 in. x 1 ft. Pe Mountain limestone.
1 ft. 9 in. x 1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 2 in. Sandstone.
2 ft. 7in.x1ft.4in.x1ft.3in. Subangular. Whinstone.
Tt. in. x 1 £6) in. x 1 ft. Rounded. Sandstone.
1 ft. 8 in. x1 ft. x9 in. Subangular. Whinstone.
1 ft. x10 in. x 10 in. "i Sandstone.
No striz visible; about 30 ft. above sea-level; all are more or less
imbedded in the clay, save those which have rolled down from their
former positions.
At the mouth of the ravine were observed the following boulders :—
2 ft. 3in.x2 ft. 2in.x1ft.9in. Subangular. Whinstone.
1 ft. 8 in.x1 ft. 5 in.x1ft.1in. Rounded.
2 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. lin. x 1 ft. 4 in.
”
” ”
1 ft. 9 in. x1 ft. 8 in. x1 ft. 6 in. 3 Coarse grit.
1 ft. 9 in. x 1 ft. 2 in. x 1 ft. 1 in. Fe Whinstone.
1 ft. 4in.x1 ft. 2 in. x1 ft. 1 in. 9 Dolerite.
1ft.1lin. x1 ft. 6 in. x1 ft. 4in. ae Whinstone.
3 ft. 4 in. x 2 ft. x1 ft.7in. Angular. Hard red sandstone.
2ft.10in. x 2 ft. 6in.x1 ft.4in. Subangular. Whinstone.
2ft.7in.x1ft llin.x1ft.8in. Rounded. Very coarse grit.
2 ft. x 1ft.llin.x1ft.3in. Subangular. Hard sandstone.
2 ft. 7 in. x 2 £t. x1ft.2in. Rounded. Dolerite.
Pitts Join. x b ft..oum x 1 ft. 1 in: i Estuarine sandstone.
3 ft. x 1ft.10in. x 1 ft. 4 in. AA Whinstone.
2ft.6in.x2ft 3 in. x1ft.10in. - Mountain limestone, full of
corals, &c.
In addition there were measured 7 whinstones and 2 sandstones,
averaging 1 ft. 6 in. x1 ft. 4 in., and 10 whinstones and 4 sandstones,
averaging I ft. 2 in. x 1 ft. 10 in., principally subangular.
The whole of these boulders have been removed to their present
positions from the coast in the immediate vicinity, and will be used as
backing for the new wooden breakwater in construction by Mr. Martin
at the south part of Filey. The boulder clay here is of great thickness,
and the small stream has cut its way through it, forming this ravine.
The absence of granite boulders is accounted for, after inquiry, by their
selection for the ornamentation of gardens.
Seamer (near Scarborough).—Seamer gravel-pit, in the parish of
Seamer, near Scarborough, on the estate of Lord Londesborough, is situ-
ated about 3 miles to the south or south-west of Scarborough, and about
2 miles east of Seamer village, adjoining Seamer station, N.E. Rail-
way. This pit is about 20 acres in extent, with an average depth of
12 ft.; during the time of excavation the following boulders were found:
The largest at present in the pit is 4 ft. 8 in. x2 ft. 8 in. x1 ft. thick;
angular, but noice markings. here are 10 boulders averaging 3 ft. x 2 ft.,
4 of which are 3 ft 2 inx 2 ft. 1 in. x1 ft. 8 in.; rounded whinstone; no
striation ; and 4 averaging 3 ft. 4 in. x3 ft. 1 in. x2 ft.; composed of
different kinds of sandstone; angular. One 3 ft. 10 in. x2 ft. 7 in. x2 ft.;
angular; fucoid sandstone; estuarine; is crumbling away from exposure ;
and one 3 ft. 4in x3 ft.x1 ft. 3 in.; rounded; mountain limestone ; no
striation on surface. There are 40 more, principally composed of sard-
3050 REPORT—1890.
stone, averaging 2 ft. x1 ft. x1ft.; 8 of these are more or less angular
blocks of whinstone; no striation. A short distance away are 31 igs
averaging 2 ft. 2 in. x1 ft. 6 in.x1 ft.; ; part of these are rounded ;
some instances showing faint traces of striation. Scattered and in rhe
are 64 composed of grits to fine-grain compact sandstone, 56 of which
average | ft. 2in. x1 ft. 1 in. x 113 in., and 8 are rounded whinstone ; no
striation. Two others are iron grey ‘granite, averaging | ft. 6 in. x 1 ft.
7 in. X1 ft. ; rounded; no strie.
Norr.—The drift rests upon the Coralline Oolite, which appears to
have been denuded away, leaving several harder lamps projecting into
the drift. These were met with, and had to be removed to make room
for the temporary railway. The whole extent of this drift bed i is about
60 acres. Generally speaking, the main of the boulders were found on
or towards the north face of the drift, which also contained the roughest
gravel. To the south-east the gravel gradually gets smaller, more
decayed, and rotten.
On the estate of Lord Londesborongh, in the parish of Seamer, about
4 miles 8.W. of Scarborough, there is a boulder at the bottom of an old
quar ry in Limekiln Field on Eastfield Farm, occupied by Mrs. Hldines.
It is 3 ft. 1 in. x2 ft. 9 in.x2 ft. 1 in.; angular; there are wide
hollow groovings in the direction of its longest axis; "dark blue whin-
stone; about 200 ft. above sea-level.
This quarry was formerly worked for Oolite Limestone. It is capped
by about 4 ft. of boulder clay, a good section of which is exposed. This
boulder has doubtless rolled from the top to its present position.
Near Eastfield House, about 4 mile due east of Seamer railway
station, is a boulder.
It is 2 ft. 8 in. x2 ft. 2 in. x1 ft. 7 in.; rounded; has been moved ; a
light brown sandstone, resembling the moor grit ; about 150 ft. above
sea-level ; was found ina ridge of gravel running north-westerly,
On Eastfield Farm, about 2 miles 8. of Scarborough and about 4 mile
E. of Seamer railway station, are the following boulders :—
2 ft. x1ft.9in.x1ft.4in. Subangular. Whinstone.
2 ft. lin.x1ft.5in.x1ft.lin. Angular. 35
2ft.2in.x1ft.9in.x1ft.1in. Rounded. Sandstone.
Sip eoines let. x1 ft. 3 a
2ft.1llin. x1ft.10in.x1ft.2in. Subangular. Whinstone.
No striz visible; they have been removed from the adjoining fields ;
about 150 ft. above sea-level.
Norr.—There are many other boulders scattered over the farm, com-
posed of whinstone and sandstone, in the proportion of 3 to 2; the sand-
stone resembles the moor grit.
Kilnsea (H. Riding).—Mr. John Cordeaux, M.B.O.U., Great Cotes,
Uleeby, Lincolnshire, records an erratic. On the beach about 500 yards
south of Kilnsea Beacon, Kilnsea, near Patrington, was a boulder, but
now removed to the lawn of Dr. Hewetson’s garden, Hasington.
It is 3 ft. 2in. x 2 ft. 4in.; subangular; long-shaped ; longest axis
N.W. and §.E.; there are deep striz or groovings in direction of longest
axis; Shap Fell granite ; it rested upon blue clay, had been probably ex-
posed only a few days, and was in sitw when discovered by himsele and
Dr. Hewetson on November 10, 1889. na
Note.—This boulder has the value of being the only one found
hitherto so far south on the Yorkshire Coast near Spurn Point.
ee
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 351
Basington (East Riding) —Mr. John W. Stather, Hull (Hon. Sec.
Hull Geological Society), describes the following group of erratics:—
On the half-mile of beach opposite Easington, about six miles from Spurn
Point, and at the southern end of Dimlington ‘high land’ (boulder clay
cliffs) are many boulders, twelve of the largest being measured, viz. :—
Ao 4 ft, 2 in. «2 ft. x1 ft. 6 in. Ga socth: x3 ft. 2 This
pee ib. o in. x ob. x2 ft. 6 in. es ont. x3 ft, 6 in. x 2 ft:
Cc. Ie 4p thine oth. x 2 ft. 6 in.
Des 2th. 3 in. x2 i. i IB oe Ki. ¢ 4:fts 3ini x4 ft: x 2 ft. 6 in.
ie ott. 3 in. x 2th, 6 in, x 1 ft. Gin: L. 4ft.6in.x3 ft. x 2 ft. 6 in.
ee 3 ft; Ginx a fb. om. x 2°fb. M. 1 ft. 6in. x1 ft. x 4 in.
Are all subangular; the longest axis of A, B, and H are N.W. and §8.E.,
those of G and L being E. and W.; K and F are striated, and D more
decidedly so; they are below high-water mark, and rest upon the base-
ment clay, in which they are partly imbedded ; others have probably
fallen from the purple clay which here forms the upper part of the cliff.
Laithkirk (North Riding).—Rev. W. R. Bell, Vicar of Laithkirk,
states that at Laithkirk, near Mickleton, there is a large boulder. It was
found on the north bank of the Lune, immediately below the church, and
is now set up in the Laithkirk Vicarage gardens. It is 2 ft. 8in. x
1 ft. Jin. x 2 ft. 6im.; it is roughly cuneiform in shape ; subangular ;
has been moved ; Shap Fell granite; its original site was 700 feet above
sea-level; no striz visible.
Wath (North Riding)—Dr. T. Carter Mitchell, Topcliffe, Thirsk,
reports that on the Coldstone Farm, Middelton Quernhow Estate, and
parish of Wath, is a boulder. It is on the side of the road from
Middleton Vicarage to Ainderby Quernhow, and about halfway between.
It is 2ft. lin. x 1 ft. 5in. x 1 ft. 3in.; subangular; has been
moved : there are no ice markings, but it is curiously grooved by weather-
ing ; is about 200 ft. above sea-level ; it is isolated; rests on drift, over-
lying Triassic deposits.
Mulgrave Park, near Whitby.—Dr. R. Taylor Manson, Darlington,
records a boulder in Mulgrave Park, 4 miles N.W. of Whitby ; nearest
station is Sandsend, on the Saltburn and Whitby line. It is on the north
bank of a stream running east between the Old Castle of Mulgrave and
a spot known as the ‘Hermitage.’ It is 3ft. in diameter; rounded; no
striz or groovings; Shap Fell granite ; about 100 feet above sea-level ;
it is isolated in the rivulet to which it has probably rolled down from the
clay above; the stream is cut through lias shale.
Balby, near Doncaster.—In the Balby brickyards, near Doncaster, the
following group of boulders are recorded by Mr. E. Moor :—
Largest boulder, 2 ft. x 14 ft. x 1 ft. ; striations numerous on the
top, but faint, and in direction of short axis.
Smallest boulder, 2 in. x 14 in. x 1 in.; fossiliferous limestone; girth
16 in.; length 10 in.; striations numerous, but faint, about 1 in. long in
direction of long axis ; granite block, angular; girth 12 in. x 8 in. long.
The boulders are rounded and subangular.
The group extends over about 5 acres; small ones very numerous.
These boulders are surrounded by a thick deposit of clay, which has been
excavated to the depth of 50 ft., and are met with at various depths in
the clay.
Winestead.—Wm. Barugh, Winestead, Hull, describes two erratics.
About half a mile N. of the railway station, near site of former hall,
352 REPORT—1890.
about fifty yards from highway, is a boulder, 4 ft. 2 in. x 3 ft. 6 in. x
14 ft. It is subangular; it has been moved; there is a groove 4 in.
deep and length of the stone. The boulder is striated at the top in dires-
tion of longer axis; it is whinstone; probably 20 ft. above the level of
the sea; it is isolated, resting on boulder clay.
In the paddock at Winestead, belonging to the Park Farm, is a
boulder 2 ft. 8 in. x 2 ft. 2in. x 1 ft. Itis much rounded ; it has been
moved; it is mountain limestone; about 20 ft. above sea-level ; isolated ;
it rests on the surface of the ground.
Sixteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Drs. E. HULL and
H. W. Crosskey, Sir DouGLas GALTON, Professor G. A. LEBOUR,
and Messrs. JAMES GLAISHER, E. B. Marten, G. H. Morton,
W. PENGELLY, JAMES PLANT, J. Prestwicu, I. Roperts, T. S.
STookE, G. J. Symons, W. TopLtey, TYLDEN-WRIGHT, E.
WETHERED, W. WHITAKER, and C. E. DE Rance (Secretary),
appointed for the purpose of investigating the Circulation of
Underground Waters in the Permeable Fornvations of England
and Wales, and the Quantity and Character of the Water
supplied to various Towns and Districts from these Forma-
tions. (Drawn up by C. E. DE Rance, Reporter.)
Your Reporter regrets to record the death of Mr. R. W. Mylne, C.E.,
F.R.S., an original member of your Committee, being appointed in 1874
at Belfast, where he assisted in drawing up the schedule of questions
circulated by your Committee. Pressure of professional engagements
prevented him taking charge of a district, but he was always ready to
give the results of his life-long experience to elucidate a point or assist
the work of your Committee. In 1839, more than half a century ago, he
contributed to the Institution of Civil Engineers the first paper published
in their Proceedings upon Artesian Wells. He was probably the first
civil engineer who applied geological investigation to the elucidation of
practical problems in engineering. He early saw the great importance
of accurate levels being taken of the junction of permeable and imperme-
able strata, and of the points at which it was proposed to sink wells.
At his own cost he contoured the whole of the metropolitan area years
before the appearance of the Ordnance Survey contoured maps, and
published his Geological Map of the same area, while the Government
Geological Survey were still engaged in the west of England.
In his sections of the London Strata, published in 1850, he was the
pioneer of the work now being done by your Committee in collecting well
sections; and as regards the Metropolitan area, he laid the basis of our
present knowledge of the nature of the water-bearing strata and their
levels, in which latter information subsequent workers have often been
exceedingly sparing.
As hydraulic consulting engineer to the War Office, his geological
knowledge enabled him in 1866 to confidently recommend the construction
of the Horse-shoe Fort Well, the first of the Spit Head wells, which were
the first wells sunk in the sea to obtain fresh water. In the necessary
examination of the Isle of Wight preceding his Report, your Reporter
acted as his assistant.
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 353
In 1866, complying with instructions of ‘the Royal Commission on
Water Supply,’ of which the Duke of Richmond was chairman, he worked
out the relation of flood-waters absorbed by the ‘swallow holes’ in the
basin of the river Colne, and their reappearance as the New River Springs
in the basin of the Lea.
In 1880, acting for the united opposition of the London Water Com-
panies against the Government proposal to buy up the water companies,
he worked up all that was known as to underground water in the metro-
politan area. This evidence, unfortunately for our present knowledge, was
never reached, but its general purport went to show that no large supply
of underground water can be met with in a moderate radius of London
without diminishing the minimum, or dry-weather, flow of the streams.
More than half a century has elapsed since the publication of Mr.
Mylne’s first paper. Since then artesian and ordinary wells have been
sunk in all directions, and previously to that date, doubtless, numerous
others had been constructed in various parts of the country, some of them
dating back to the Middle Ages. Your Committee would wish to speci-
ally urge the Associated Provincial Societies to discover and preserve
any early records of the sinking of wells that may be found in county,
municipal, borough, or family documents, in county histories, and in the
more recent papers of business firms using considerable quantities of
water. Amongst the latter it is highly probable that numerous records
of the daily or weekly variation in height of the water in their wells have
been preserved.
Continuous daily records of the height of the water of existing wells
are much wanted, with the height of the surface above the Ordnance
Survey datum. The height above datum of many of the wells, in refer-
ence to which information has already been published in the preceding
fifteen Reports, would much add to the value of the existing record ;
such additional information could easily be got by many of the provincial
societies.
The record of water-level in the well at Odsey Grange, commenced
by Mr. H. George Fordham, F.G-.S.,in November 29, 1878, unfortunately
terminated on October 1, 1888, through his having to live abroad. Two
other series of observations exist in the same area, viz. at Therfield Rectory,
where a monthly record was commenced by the Rey. J. G. Hale on
January 1, 1883, and is now continuing, and at Barley, where monthly
observations were made by the late Mr. John Pearce, from January 1,
1864, to October 1, 1886.
West East
WELL Odsey Grange, 2} | Therfield Rectory, | Barley
miles | 44 miles
Surface level 265 ft. 506 ft. 305 ft.
Depth of well 104 ft. 276 ft. 165 ft.
Well + or —O.D. | 161 ft. (+0.D.) 230 (+0.D.) 140 (+ 0.D.)
Nearest spring E. of Ashwell, 13 | Litlington(Camb.),) Melbourn (Camb.),
mile off 4 miles off 4 miles off
Height of springs | 150 ft. 150 ft. - 150 ft.
_ The springs rise on the outcrop of the horizon of the Totternhoe
limestone, and feed the western branch of the Cam (or Rhee). Barley
and Odsey are in the Cam Valley, Therfield on the ridge between it and
the ni to the south draining into the Thames; the surface flow is in
, AA
354 REPORT—1890.
that direction, but the underground flow to the N.N.W. finding the Cam
springs; these rise but a few feet after the wettest season, but the varia-
tion of the water-level in the wells to the south is considerable, the
maximum difference between the highest and the lowest level being 443 feet
at Odsey, 78 feet at Barley, and 643 at Therfield; the greatest difference
in any one year (April to March) being respectively 394 feet (1882-83),
52 feet (1865-66), and 34 feet (1884-85). Mr. Fordham lias selected for his
daily record at Odsey the levels on the first of the month, starting April 1,
the date about which the autumn and winter rains produce the maximum
elevation. He also gives the mean monthly level per year and per series
of years. The rainfall returns terminate three months before the well-
level, viz. on December 31.
The rainfall year ending three months before the water-level year,
affords a convenient method of comparison, the effect of the percolation
of rain being exceedingly slow. The highest level to which the water
rose was attained twice (50 feet), on March 22, 1881, and February 27,
1883 ; the lowest level reached, 5} feet, was on December 16, 1884, giving
a seasonal variation of 445 ; the gr eatest seasonal variation in one twelve
months was 1882-83, when it amounted to 40 feet (50—10 feet) ; the
rise was distributed over exactly four months, viz. from October 27 to
February 27. In 1879 and 1883 the final winter rise was very rapid,
amounting to 10 to 13 inches in 24 hours in February, or a maximum of
about half an inch per hour. The summer fall is generally long and
gradual; in June 1886 an abnormal rise of 8 feet, commencing on May
25, was due to the exceptional rain of the preceding May, which
amounted to 4°71 inches. An abnormal summer rainfall of 20°37 inches,
from April to September 1879, caused the water to rise all the summer,
culminating in August, and, with a dry autumn, reached its normal
autumn level in October. The conditions in these cases must have been
unusual ; the ordinary summer rain, however heavy, percolates but little ;
much doubtless depends on the amount of moisture held in the air at the
time. Comparison of the three wells shows close parallelism in the
curves of movement, but they are later in the deeper wells in Therfield
and Barley than at Odsey.!
LANCASHIRE.
In previous reports, sections were described in the Keuper marls of the
Fleetwood district, on the east side of the River Wyre, containing 340 feet
of solid rock salt. The Garstang sandstone to the east has been referred
to as of Permian age, and referable to the Hawcote sandstone of the
Furness district. These are said to have been recently bored through at
Walney Island by the North of England Rock Boring Company, of which
Mr. Vivian is director, and extensive deposits of rock salt found. It is of
interest to observe that at the southern horn of Morecambe Bay thick
salt beds of Keuper Triassic age occur, while similar beds occur on the
opposite shore of Permian age, and contemporaneous with those of the
¢@ ‘eee
east coast between the mouths of the Tees and Tyne. In this relation 7
the following boring is of great interest, penetrating Permian sandstone
a few hundred yards east of the salt marls of Presall, and probably
separated from them by a fault.
1 Further details and plates wiil be found in the Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc,
vol, vi. parts i. and ii., July and September 1890.
4
a
;
;
y
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 355
Boring at Presall End pumping station of the Fleetwood Salt Oo.
Communicated by Mr. W-nrHERED, senior.
No. 17 Boring.
Ft. in. Ft. in
9 O Soil 1 foot 6 in., loamy sand 5 ft. 6 in., sand and
gravel 2ft.0in. . : : : : , ae Oke O
44 9 Boulder clay 31 ft. 0 in., running sand, 4 ft. 9 in. sweet
112 2 Strong red sandstone, hard girdles (water) , = 6%) aD
119 5 Soft light sandstone (water) : : E : on aS
129 11 Strong red sandstone (water) . : : : aL10"46
130 5 Very hard girdles : ; : : : : of BOTS
149 11 Soft yellow sandstone (water) . ; ; - clon
183 11 Strong yellow sandstone, hard partings (water) . ones Op
249 3 Hard red sandstone, soft partings, 2’ of red marl . 65 4
Mild red sandstone (water) ; : : . yet Sle t
Very soft partings ‘ : 5 é F F = 2 OZ AO
355 3 Hard red sandstone, soft partinys (water) . 4 . 52 0
Soft red sandstone, hard girdles (water) . : oe SESEHO
Strong sandstone, hard girdles (water) . 5 aoe
Very hard white sandstone (water) . ; : ora ore, eee
418 8 Hard red sandstone, hard girdle, white shale parting. 28 10
Hard red sandstone, white girdles C 26eC0
Hard red sandstone, hard white girdle, partings
(water) . : : het ; ‘ - 46 0
Strong red dark metal ‘ : ; : eo sn
499 6 Very hard white sandstone . A ; : : At wet:
Strong red sandstone, hard white girdl : : ODES
Strong red metal. : 2 A : ieee ek:
544 2 Strong red sandstone . - : : : - oy) Maes 4:
Section of well sunk at Fleetwood in 1860 by the Royal Engineers.
Ft. in. Ft. in.
41 10 Gravel and sand 3 : Z , i 3 . 4110
59 2 Rough gravel . E - : : : : #, Lee
Boulder clay . . : 3 F 5 ‘ ry (ene!
Gravel bored . ‘ 2 0
88 5 Boulder clay (marl) é : A é Beall
440 9 Mottled marl . : 4 5 : é : . 352 4
463 10 Fine blue marl F F : ‘ : é a? ee E
478 6 Mottled marl . : ; F ; ; F - 4 8
480 7 Marl 3 4 di Pi f ‘ ; sie teal:
492 0 f Soft gritty matter . - ; 4 5 , a peut Ee
501 3 Gritty matter . Gf 2 = F 5 ; Se ate
523 9 eecied gritty matter : : ; ; : oa 220 b
534 10 Red and blue marl é f : : ; eee
550 0 Fine blue marl z A : . : E EB
559 O Marl é ; < ‘ : ‘ . - ih! a
Tn Lancashire and Cheshire the borings collected by your reporter
have thrown much light upon the age of the intermediate beds lying
beneath the Triassic Pebble Beds and the Coal-measure, which have been
penetrated in numerous borings in these districts already described.
Careful comparison of the very numerous borings that have now been
collected point to the correctness of the late Mr. Binney’s views as to the
absence of the Lower Mottled Sandstone in South Lancashire, the Pebble
Beds on the eastern end of the Mersey Valley resting on the Permian
fossilific marls with limestone lying on fine soft sandstone, with occa-
sional hard coarse beds, and occasionally another thick marl-bed. Exten-
sive denudation of the Permian beds took. place, not only before the
AA2
356 REPORT -1890.
deposition of the Bunter Pebble Beds, but during the deposition of the
Permians themselves, lines of erosion occurring at more than one horizon,
represented by bands of exceedingly coarse sand and conglomerate ;
westward the denudation has been extreme, and such of the Permian
strata as have been preserved are probably present through being thrown
down by contemporaneous faulting. The section at Gateacre in Child-
wall Vale was given in the last report. The boring was made for the
Liverpool Corporation Waterworks; it is situated 500 yards from the
- Bellevale boring, and 1,100 yards from the Netherlee boring of the
Widnes Waterworks, both of which are in soft millet-seed-grained red
sandstone ; but at Gateacre the beds, though occurring between these
two wells, both of which yield exceedingly large supplies of water, were
not water-bearing, and belong to the Pebble Beds, which rest directly on
the Coal-measure at a depth of 435 feet, the latter being bored into a
further 54 feet.
The Halewood boring of the Cheshire Lines Railway, given in the
last report, in which 276 feet of marls occurred, specimens of which were
examined microscopically by the late Mr. John A. Phillips, F.R.S., and
found to contain a substance resulting from the decomposition of felspars,
must now be referred to the Permian marls. This view is supported by
the following section at Hale, three miles south of Halewood, and like it
carried out by Messrs. Timmins of Runcorn.
Feet. Feet.
Turf and soil ‘ ‘ : , ; : aye:
68 Soft red sandstone . % : ‘ F i . 64
168 Fine bright red sandstone . 5 ‘ ; i . 100
235 Red marl : f 2 (67
Mr. A. Timmins, C.H., F.G. s. , very as oom out that the great
thickness of the Permian. marl at Halewood may be deceptive, and due
to the great faults to which it owes its preservation. !
Through the courtesy of Mr. D. M. F. Gaskin, M.1.C.E., Engineer to
the St. Helens Corporation, I have had an opportunity of examining the
cores brought up from their two last borings, described in the last Report.
The section of the Kirby well there printed is taken from the beds passed
through in the ‘Permanent Well,’ to a depth of 147 feet; the details
following give the strata passed through in the adjacent boring from the
bottom of the ‘ Pilot Shaft,’ in which an error occurs of 50 feet; ‘3524
red sandstone with pebbles 52 feet,’ should read, ‘2024 red sandstone with
pebbles 102 feet.’
The Kirby Waterworks consist of two wells, 150 feet in depth,
connected by an adit, at from 135 to 144 feet from the surface, or 9 feet
in height by 6 feet in width. The wells are 31 feet apart, the Pilot well
being 31 feet to the N.N.W. of the Permanent well. From the bottom
of the Pilot well a boring was carried 360 feet and 6 inches, or 510 feet
6 inches from the surface, The first 80 feet had a diameter of 24 inches,
the remainder being 18 inches. The following is the section of the Pilot
well and boring :—
Ft. in. Ft. in.
1 6 Topsoil. ; 5 : ; - . gs
5 0 Clay : f : ; : : ‘ : of MEO
7 O Red sand : : ; ; : eee 0.)
13 3 Red sandstone 6 3
* Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc. 1888-9.
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. a0
Ft. in, Ft. in.
13. 6 Grey sandstone. 5 : : 3 : eon ts
14 9 Sandy marl . ; : : J : tes
16 0 Red sandstone : : : : : : a PLS
27 0 Red sandstone with pebbles . : : 3 Jy le eo
32 0 Grey and red sand, small pebbles . 5 , a GeO
32 4 Sandstone. : : 5 : . 7 a OL 4:
55 2 Red sandstone with pebbles . : : : : 2210
95 2 Red sandstone : : 2 . : ; . 40 0
120 2 Red sandstone with few pebbles . : “ a 25 10
123 2 Red sandstone with white patches : : ean 0
130 2 Red sandstone with few pebbles . My
137° 2 Red sandstone : : d : OT A
145 2 Red sandstone, few pebbles . : : , Cee Sco
148 2 Variegated sandstone : : 3.0
160 0 Red sandstone with pebbles . : : : 2 tET.O
175 0 Red sandstone - ; 2 : P 3 = FLO O
184 0 Close-grained red sandstone . : : : Ripe Can)
254 0 Red sandstone with pebbles . : ; 2 7 Os AG)
254 6 Variegated sandstone . : . : : Slee
261 6 Red sandstone . : 2 : : : ea M0)
262 0 Variegated sandstone . . : : : 5) Ole
300 0 Red sandstone with pebbles . 5 é : rao
300 3 White sandstone . : ‘ : : ; boa "OVS
402 3 Red sand with pebbles . : ve pe A . 102 0
402 6 Red marl : 2 : ; - ; , mee Al 5)
442 6 Red sand, pebbles, and white sand 2 7 ae 10)
510 6 Red sandstone with pyrites . . : é sose. O
Tn this boring the first 4424 feet is referable to the Triassic Pebble
Beds, the last 68 feet belongs to the beds occurring between the Pebble
Beds and the Coal-measure at Winwich, Parkside, and Collins Green,
containing iron pyrites, and underlying marls of Permian age. The
wells were commenced in June 1886, and the boring was completed in
September 1887. The surface level is 100 feet above Ordnance datum,
the normal level of the water is 91 feet above the same datum, andis reduced
by pumping to 57 feet, and is kept at that level, having a column of
107 feet of water in the well; the yield is two million gallons per day,
but if the water be pumped down to 9 feet below Ordnance datum, the
yield is not less than four million gallons. Water came into the well
freely from 28 feet from the surface, the water apparently coming in
from the south-east. The wells and tunnels yielded nearly a million
gallons daily before the boring was commenced in May 1887. The
supply of the well and boring may be considered to be wholly from the
Bunter Pebble Beds.
The Kuowsley pumping station consists of three wells, connected by
adits and bore-holes from two of them. The most southern is called the
Permanent well; it is 104 feet in diameter, and 173 feet in depth ; from
141 feet to 164 feet is a chamber or adit, 23 feet by 6 feet, and 30 feet in
length, ranging N.N.H. to the Pilot well. The surface level of the Pilot
well is a foot below the Permanent well; it is 171 feet in depth and
10} feet in diameter ; from the bottom extends a boring 250 feet in depth ;
821 feet from the surface ; an accident happening at this depth, another
well and boring was carried out, known as the Six-feet well. The latter
is the diameter named, and 161 feet in depth ; a boring was carried from
the bottom, a depth of 526 feet, or 687 feet from the surface. The latter
well and boring were entirely carried out in the year 1884. The details
of the section are given in the fifteenth Report. The details of the first
358 REPORT—1890.
two shafts agree, but do not correspond with the section disclosed in the
Six-feet shaft, and point to a fault between it and the Pilot well. The two
wells are connected by an adit at a depth of 155 to 161 feet; the level
was 6 feet by 5 feet, and 30 feet in length, ranging N.N.W. from the
Pilot shaft; no information is given as to whether the fault was noticed
in driving the heading. The yield of these wells is about one and a half
millions daily, the chief supply being derived from a sound bed one foot
in thickness, and the soft beds below it, occurring at 478 feet from the
surface ; this water supply may be considered as wholly coming from the
Permian or Collyhurst sandstones. The surface ievel of the ground is
140 feet above the Ordnance datum, its first rest level was 78-feet above
Ordnance datum, its present rest level is 72 feet.
The following are the details of the section in Pilot shaft :—
Ft. in. Et. in.
1 6 Black loam 156
2 9 Grey sand ies)
5 3 Brown marl 2 6
Yellow shale . 0 6
Red shale Le NG
8 0 Yellow shale . 0 9
20 0 Red sandstone 12000
21 0 Yellow sandstone Leith
50 0 Red sandstone 29° 0
110 O Red sandstone : : : 60 O
140 0 Close-grained red sandstone . . . . 30 0
163 0 Red sandstone with thin bands of yellow and
grey sandstone 23 0
164 0 Yellow sandstone , : 120
171 O Red sandstone (bottom of well) 0
174 0 Red sandstone, thin band of grey . 3 70
179 O Close-grained red sandstone 5 0
179 6 Red marl. 0 6
187 6 Red sandstone 8 0
196 6 Yellow sandstone 9) 20
197 0 Red marl : : : 0 6
261 0 Close-grained red sandstone . 64 O
264 6 Red marl 3 ‘ F 3 6
273 0 Close-grained red sandstone . 9 6
277 0 Red sand with thin yellow and grey 4 0
296 0 Grey sandstone : : 3 : ema
297 0 Red marl ; : : : ‘ : eid WPA)
306 0 Grey sandstone : 3 , : of SOONG
321 0 Redsandstone, grey bands . ; ; rae are 8 10)
323 0 Clay and marl with small pebbles. . . 2 O ;
326 O Red sand. : E : ‘ A ; + fom
337 O Red marl : ; : : : : <p LOO
346 0 Red sandstone “ P ; : : -) Semen
363 0 Grey sandstone with veins of red ; LOR
383 0 Red sandstone. 3 E ; ; : + UO
421 0 Grey sandstone : ; ; ° - +88. 0
The dip of the rocks is said to be 1 in 9, which would have
carried the above beds to about 3 feet lower level in the six-feet well ;
instead of that being the case there is considerable variation, but chiefly
in the lower portion. The upper 199 feet are doubtfully referable to the
Bunter Pebble beds; the lower portion is certainly Permian, and the
water obtained like that afforded by the Winwick borings of the War-
rington Waterworks derived from that formation.
The following table of analyses of Permian marls and sandstone,
Sa
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 359
made by Mr. A. Timmins, Assoc.Inst.C.E., F.G.S., is of much interest
in relation to the question of the age of these beds :—
5 % re
aire eh es 2 © 8
— | Depths | 33 baa | ae ae Total
a ge nade Nag a a SE
rpm hia Whee
Feet
Halewood, C.L.R. Co. . 287 93°07 131 3°66 2°24 99:28
» % ; 303 TT 67 3°21 18°66 “00 99°54
a7 ” S 373 75°04 768 16°68 ‘OT 99°47
Prescot, L.& N.W.R.. 54 83°59 3°46 9°90 “91 97°86
Bootle, Liverpool . . | 1,290 76°69 8°78 10°63 1-44 97°51
Knowsley, W.W. . : 170 95°78 1:60 1-53 00 98-91
Winwick : : e 228 63°70 4:12 19:32 | 11:97 99°11
Parkside, L. & N.W.R. . 220 82°55 2:98 14°04 2-96 99°86
Baswich, Stafford . : 164 80°15 4:21 14°50 00 98°88
ay os : - 295 84:94 4:18 8°88 1°63 99:63
”» Fr 5 5 425 39°18 3°96 55°56 24 98°94
Shrewsbury Grammar ; ; os ! ‘
Naas b — | 8940 | 1-28 9°52 00 | 100-20
De ene eee eee ee ——— — ————————————————
Messrs. J. J. M. Worrall’s Dye Works, Ordsall, Salford (88 feet above
Ordnance datum).
Information from Messrs. Mather and Platt. Well about 1860,
carried to a depth of 399 feet. No details known.
Ft. in. Bt. Oi.
399 0 Details unknown . : : . . | ooo
700 0 Red sandstone : : ‘ ; : + Sule O
701 0 Grey sandstone ‘ . : . : rodent at 0)
744 0 Red sandstone : c : é : . 43 0
745 0 Grey sandstone ? ; ; ‘ : a ok 0
761° 0 Red sandstone (base of trias) . , : =k WO)
910 0 Red marl 5 : : : : ‘ + 149.0
1,230 0 Red sandstone F 5 : : ’ . 320 0
1,236 6 Hard grey rock (coal measure) 6 6
Red marl : (+)
Abstract :—
Ft. in. Ft. in.
761 O New red sandstone . : : é F . 761 O
910 0 Permian marls A : . : : . 149 O
1,236 6 Permian sandstones 5 ‘ = . . 326 6
Red marls : : : . ‘ : i tacts ED
Water-level is 80 feet below the surface.
Boring at Messrs. Groves § Whitnall’s, Regent Road Brewery, Salford.
Information from Messrs. Mather and Platt. Surface 80 feet above
Ordnance datum.
From Surface Thickness
Ft. in. Wty apis
390 O Pebble beds of the new red . . F . 890 0
548 0 Permian marls x : ; . J . 158 0
662 © Permian sandstones, coarse grained : LE
666 © Permian sandstones, very fine grained . . 4 0
360 REPORT—1890.
When boring in the mar] water stood in the bore-hole 40 feet from the
surface, or at the same level as the water standing in the old well, at the
other end of the works, executed in 1872 by Mr. Chapman, which was
carried to the base of the Pebble beds, but stopped on reaching the
Permian marls. When the latter were penetrated by Messrs. Mather
and Platt the water rose 5 feet in twenty-four hours, and when 666 feet
was reached it stood at 26 feet from the surface.
Messrs. Fryers § Co.’s Sugar Works, near Oxford Road.
Surface-level 120.
Ft. i
n. Ft. in.
70 0 Well with heading and large chambers . > ORO
114 0 Pebble beds . ; . 44 0
351 0 Red and varied marls, thin limestones : . 237 0
396 0 Coarse gravel and pebbles : : , ~ £050)
420 © Compact red and white sandstone . : £250
546 0 Redand purple marl with bands of limestone. 126 0
Messrs. Deakin’s Brewery, Ardwick, Manchester.
Information from Messrs. Chapman, Broughton. *Surface-level about
+150 feet Ordnance datum.
Ft. in. Ft. in.
Well sandstone 350
60 6 (Soft red sandstone 25 6)
61 6 } Fine red clay 1 0O| 131 ft. 6 in
127 6 | Soft, fine, and loamy red sandstone 66 Hy
131 6 \Very coarse red gritty sand . 4 0
167 O Red clay 3D 6
168 O Loamy red sandstone : To
183 0 Red clay and conglomerate . as) 0;
199 0 Very loamy red sandstone 16 0
204 0 Red clay 5 0
207 O Red sandstone 3 0 Permian
227 6 Red clay 20. 6. /- , mars;
231 6 Red clay 4 0| 167 ft. Gin.
257 6 Red and white clay mixed ‘ 26 0
258 6 Conglomerate, with thin band of ironstone ‘ I 0)
281 6 Red clay - > 23 0
284 6 Conglomerate with pebbles c 3 0
299 0 Soft red clay 14 6
362 6 Very fine loamy red sandstone 63 O
364 0 Coarse gritty red sandstone . 2 0! Collyhurst
378 6 Fine bright soft red sandstone 14 6} sandstone,
383 6 Very coarse red sandstone 5 0 184 ft.
483 0 Soft and fine red sandstone . es AOD sare
489 2 Hard red clay with hematite bands in ‘limestone 6 2\ Coal mea-
489 9 Red and white clay 0 TJ sure, 6{t.9 in
Abstract of above :—
Ri “in
Bunter sandstone . 5 3 ‘ 5 F ae Mls Bh AG}
Permian marls F : : 5 : , 5 Bee
Permian sandstone ‘ ; F : : 2 184) 10
Coal measure A - 5 ; : k he 4S)
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 361
Messrs. Holts’ Brewery, Cheetham, Manchester.
Surface-level 170 feet above Ordnance datum. Well 90 feet in depth ;
made some years ago.
Ft, in. Ft. in.
60 0 WELL, details not known . 2 3 ; eh Tatty 10)
90 0 WELL fsandstone . : : : : oe watt 0)
143 0 Boring sandstone . : ; ; : = bo 0 P. beds,
157 O Sandstone with aie : : ‘ : - 14-50 258 ft
163 0 Redmarl . : ; : : : : 6 0 j
240 0 Sandstone hard . 3 - : 5 - BPEL |
258 0 Sandstone softer . ‘ : : é : sy Asy O)
368 0 Redmarl . ‘ : : , : : 5 LOG)
370 6 Grey apemetaic : ; ; ; ; : 2 0 :
399 0 Redmarl. Pe ee oer
408 0 Red marl with grey bands . : : : : 9 0 161 ft
408 6 Hard greyrock . - : - ; a, : 0 6 r
419 0 Redmarl . : : ‘ : : ; o LO eG
526 0 Redsandstone . : ‘ é 4 ; ee LOT 10)
526 0
Abstract :-—
Ft. in
Sandstone, pebbly or hard . : F ‘ . 258 0
Marls, some sandy bands. : ; : = at6i- 0
Sandstone . : - 2 : . : SLO a
526 0
At 368 feet the water stood at 80 ft. 8 in. from the surface, at 419 feet
it stood at 78 ft. 6 in.
Abstract of Mr. Wood's boring at Medlock Vale, Hast of Manchester.
Ft. in. Rt. ad.
26 6 Glacial drift . 26 0
49 6 Triassic sandstone . 23 0
295 0 Permian marl, with limestone and gypsum : 245 6
718 10 Permian sandstone 4 : : 5 . 423 10
862 5 Coal measures : ; : - 5 . « £4 hel
The details of the following twelve well-borings are given by Mr.
Arthur Timmins, Assoc. Inst.C.E., F.G.S., of Messrs. Timmins & Sons,
Bridgewater Foundry, Runcorn.
Section of Boring for L. and N.W. Railway, Heaton Chapel.
Progressive Thickness of
Strata Depths Strata
Ft. in Ft. in
Bonlder clay . c % F Baa oe : 10", 0 10) 20
Permian sandstone. . ; : ; . Koo O 65 O
Permian marl. : : : ; ‘ ; 8 0 10 0
Permian sandstone . 4 : ; 3 : 315 0 230 O
Water 60 feet down.
362 REPORT—1890. ;
Section of Boring for L. and N.W. Mii Co., Heaton Norris.
Strata Progressive Thickness of
bea Depths | Strata
Ht. in: in.
Top drift : : A A ‘ 5 : 1S 30 0
Red rock - . j j ; : i 144 O 135 0
Red marl = i : é : dj 156 0O 0
Red rock : = : a 2 : 5 181 0O 0
Section of Boring at Messrs. Melland § Coward’s, Heaton Mersey.
ae Progressive Thickness of
Depths Strata
Ft. in Ft. in
Made ground . : ¢ ; . c 13 (O 13. 0
Pebble-bed sandstone é : 5 ‘ y 110 O oO
Red marl 5 i 5 Z : : 3 M3) 50. SeO
Brown rock . 5 0 , , : : 1 0 2 O
Red marl ‘ : A ' : > F 130 O nse s{0)
Soft rock : : 4 5 ‘ A F 139 0 Se 30)
Red marl ; S 5 : ‘ - : 144 O ‘syee lt)
Dark red rock a : 5 . 3 § 57 70 TS 0
Permian marl. 3 : é 4 , 189 O 32 «(OO
Limestone . é é 5 ; ; : 190 0O i <0
Red marl : ; . : ‘ i z 215 —0 25 #0
Vein of limestone . . 5 ; 6 215 6 0 6
Red marl x . i j 5 253 «#2~O Bye ay)
Fine gravel (conglomerate) 3 : ; : 255 80 2 0
Red marl 5 ‘ é . ; ‘ 278 O 23 #40
Red sandstone ‘ F : : 5 : 400 0 122 0O
Red marl 3 3 : : : ; 402 0 2° 0
Red sandstone * 3 Z 5 ; 5 606 6 204 «6
{
Water overflows at surface at the rate of 2,160 gallons per hour.
CHESHIRE.
Section of Boring for L. and N. W. Railway, Edgeley.
(Ordnance datum, 180+.)
5 Progressive Thickness of
Strata Depths Strata
Ete {ink Ete © an.
Drift clay 26 ft., sand and sees onrock . 75 «600 75 =O
Upper Bunter sandstone : : LOLS a0 26 O
Pebble beds, with oe : A ; ; 230 0 129 0
Red marl < é : ; : 232 0 Ze 0
Coarse pebbly rock : : : : 287 66 55 «6
Fine dark rock . 5 5 = 2 : 324 66 au =O
Marl bed . : : : j c ; 326 «66 2 O
Red rock : : é : c : 6 333 (O 6 6
Marl bed : ; : : : ; 5 335 0 Ze O
Hard pebbly rock . : “ : : 4 407 0 72 #0
Marl bed : ; 408 O 150
Hard coarse pebbly rock bed at 480 ft. . : 489 0 Sl a0)
Marly rock . : : 491 0 ae 10
Good red rock < eZ i - : : 525 0 34 «0
Water levels itself at 32 feet down.
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 363
Section of Boring for Messrs. Battersby § Co., Hemshaw Lane, Stockport.
Progressive Thickness of
Strata Depths Strata
Ft. in. Ft. in.
Sand 5 , ; - - : af - 0 ar, 0
Clay : - : : ; - ; . 77 #0 40 O
Gravel . ; : ; ; : é F 7 30 TOV 0
0
Rock i P A ; ‘ H ; : 106 O 19
From information by Messrs. Battersby & Co.
Section of Boring for Mr. Frederic Robinson, Unicorn Brewery, Stockport.
(Ordnance datum, 140+.)
ea ressive Thickness of
Strata ogress Strata
Bt; in. Ft. in.
Permian marl (fossils) . ; - 5 : 51 O 51 O
Fine gravel (conglomerate) : ; : . 52 «6 fF '6
Red sand - . - : : é 56 «60 3 6
Red marl - ; 3 : : : : i 10 21 10
Sandy marl . : : : : 84 O a 0
Red sandstone ane S. G. : - é 5 : 152 0 68770
Red marl : c ‘ : “ : 153 «(0 0
Red sandstone ; ‘ : : é 159 0 6.70
Red marl ; 5 “ < : : 2 200 O 41 0
Sandy marl . 5 - A , : fs 214 +O 14 0
Red sandstone ‘ ; : P 5 ; 260 O 46 O
Water level, 26 feet from top.
Section of Boring at Messrs. J. Cheetham § Sons’, Club House Brewery,
Stockport.
Progressive Thickness of
Strata Depths Strata
Bt. “an. Bt.) “in.
Well(mo data) . : : ‘ : : — 65 0
Red marl - ; A F : 4 3 210 O 145 O
Conglomerate = : 5 : 3 . 211 6 1S 6
Sandy marl . : ‘ : : : : 216 O 4 6
Red sandstone 5 ‘ 2 j - : 241 O 25 O
0 Bt. 0
Red marl , . F 2 : 3 : 246
Water level 42 feet from top.
Stratigraphical Section of Boring for Messrs. Micholls, Lucas § Co.,
Kingston Mil, Stockport.
Puariauive Thickness of
Strata Depths Strata
BE. . ein, Ft. n
Gravel and stones . é 3 FE : : 11 0 Far G
Soft red sandstone. . ‘ . : ¢ 88 0 Ti? 0
Red marl A 2 F ‘ . : 118 O aur 0
Soft red sandstone . , ‘ . ‘ . 162 0 $22.0
364 REPORT—1890.
Section of Boring for Mr. Joseph Worrall, Windsor Castle Brewery,
Stockport.
(Ordnance datum, 238.)
Progressive Thickness of
Strata Depths Strata
Rin e Lin. Ets. = an,
Brown clay . - : ; ; : : 10; 0 70 O
Sand and gravel . 0 : : ; . 90 0 20 O
Permian marl. : : ; = B ‘ 122 0 32. O
Limestone. . 3 ‘ ; : ‘ 123. 0 1 O
Permian marl. , : . ; F ‘ 125 0 Zhe 0)
Limestone : 4 : F ; F : 127 O 2 AO)
Permian marl . F A ; : : , 148 #O Pil 0)
Permian sandstone é : ; : F 198 O 50 6(—O
Sandy marl . : : : : C é 205 0 7-0
Permian marl F ‘ : 3 : : 233 «(OO 28 +O
Fine-grained sandstone . : : é 253 =O 20 O
Coarse-grained sandstone. : : 272 «60 19 O
Water level, 73 feet from top.
Section of Boring at the Gas Works, Bollington.
: Progressive Thickness of
Strata Depths Strata
Ht. in. Ht. vin;
Boulder clay . ; : : : 0 ; 51 6 Sees)
Gravel . 3 q 5 5 ; 4 : 56 (OO 4 6
Fine brown clay . : 5 ‘ : ; 100 O 44 0
; (Pebble beds. : ‘ ; : i 322 0 222 0
a {Rea ro ie pe ial I 330 0 6-0
A \Pebble bed sandstone. , ; Z 400 O 70 O
Red marl : : : : 5 436 0O 360
Pe. {Hine bright red sandstone ‘ 2 a i[hr ee DOA FO 68 0
Red marl . : 3 : : ; : 505 8640 ie)
Water stood at 136 feet below.
Section of Boring at Messrs. Syddall Bros’. Print Works, Chadkirk.
(Ordnance datum, 200+.)
Q Progressive Thickness of
Birata Depths Strata
Ft. in Ft.— in.
Gravel . : : 3 : : : ; LOMO 10% 0
Dark grey shale, or soapstone : F : 380 =O 370 =6—O
Millstone grit = : 3 : : g 465 O 8 O
Black shale. o 5 3 : a 5 512 0 47 0
Millstone grit c 0 : : : : 550 =O 38 (0
Dark grit 5 2 - . - | : 577 =O 27 0
Black shale . . C : : ; : 602 0 25 0
Water overflows at least 20 feet above surface.
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 365
Section of Boring for Messrs. Richardson § Goodall, Altrincham.
(Ordnance datum, 125+.)
Progressive Thickness of
Strata Depth Strata
Ht.” ans Ft. n.
Well (no data) : . : : : - 2 0 aes 10
Fine brown sand . 4 : H : = 46 O 25 O
Sandy clay . : c : : ; : 49 0 a 60
Fine brown sand . 3 : : 5 ‘ 54 O bo 0
Stony brown clay . : é : : - tome ZO
Plastic clay . . é f - : . 86 OO LININO
Gravel . * x 3 : : . 4 102 ~O 16) 0
Vein of rock . 3 : : 3 ; : 103. «OOO ie 30
Red marl F . : F ; . UBT (, an 0
Red marl, with veins of sand . : : 161 O 25 0
Fine red rock , : . ‘ ; : 166 O iy Wel,
Red and grey marl ; ; ‘ : : 182 0 16 0
Red sandstone ‘ ; ; : 3 - 1925" 10 10 O
Red marl E * Z 5 ’ : 200 6 6" 76
Red sandstone - : : ‘ : 205 O 4 6
Vein of redsand . : : - P 5 206 O Tek O
Dark red rock é , : : : : 214 0 si 0
Red and grey marl - : : 7 : 222 «6 8 6
Fine red sandstone 5 5 : A : 235 40 12 6
Marly red sandstone. : F é : 237 «#20 2 0O
' Fine red sandstone . 4 3 ‘ y 250 O ts 0
Red and grey marl : ‘ : 2 : 257 0 Lier iO
Red sandstone 3 A ; : ; : 262 O 5 0
Close dark red sandstone . : ; : 274 0 12 O
Grey marl. ; : é : : . 274 «6 0 6
Close dark red sandstone : j ; ; Zhi Oo 2 6
Grey marl . 3 ; : : ; : 279 0 2 O
Grey sandstone . é : j 5 : 286 O 7 #O
Grey marl . : F : F : ; 287 0 Ly 10
Grey sandstone. ; : : : : 303 0 16 0
Grey marl . ; ; : : : : 304 «(0 ie <0
Grey sandstone . : - A ; : 307 =O 31) 0
Trial Boring for Frodsham Gas and Water Oo., in field 206 in 25-inch map
of Frodsham, Sheet xxiv. 16, made by Messrs. Timmins of Runcorn,
diameter 33 ins. Oommunicated by Mr. Hunry Bancrort, C.E., Man-
chester.
Ft. in. Ft. in.
6 O Marsh clay é 6 0
8 0 Marsh silt : : : 2 0
10 0 Red marl (?boulder clay) 4 0
85 0 Fine red sandstone 75 0
93 0 Marl s 8 0
99 0 Loamy sandstone 6 0
122 0 Fine red sandstone . 23 0
129 0 Loamy red sandstone CAO
140 0 Fine red sandstone . LL =
The yield of water at 122 feet was 1,200 gallons per hour, at 150 feet
1,600 gallons.
366 REPORT—1890.
NorrinGHAMSHIRE.
Information collected by Mr. Tatsor Avetine, F.G.S., in 1878.
Boring at Chilwell, Trent Valley.
Ft. in. Ft. in.
13 8 Alluvium gravel and sand ‘ . : Se 23}
180 8 Red marl and white sandstone : : . LO% 10
430 8 Pebble beds . ‘ . ; § : . 250 0
463 8 Soft sandstone 4 i A i . i Moa
1,340 5 Coal-measures. a : : : . Be sii ve,
Boring further down the Trent Valley, a little S.H. of Highfield House.
Ft. in, Ft. in.
22 0 Alluvium : a ‘ ‘ : soeze! 10
256 0 Bunter sandstone . 4 F ‘ ; . 234 0
303 54 Coal-measures . . : : : : . 47° 5s
First coal 5 Z - , . Bae
The boring was carried to the Deep Hard Coal at 610 feet from the
surface.
Borings in the Trent Valley, near Long Eaton, made by Mr. Geo. Hopson,
C.H., F.G.S., Loughborough.
Bore-hole No.1. Sawley, 98 feet above O.D.
Ft. in. Ft. in.
4 0 (Surface soil ef, bg Pe
6 0 |Sand Face
13 0 + Coarse gravel . Pehl)
19 0 |Sand Oe
25 0 ‘Very coarse oravel . ae (0)
31 0 Soft red Keuper marl, with bands o vey
‘skerry’ 5 2 at RKO te
35 0 Soft red marl, with eypsum ; 4 0
137 0 Red marl, with skerry and gypsum : 102 0
140 O Grey sandstone (skerry), marl partings . 3.0
142 O Red marl, thin sandstone bands 2. @
143 4 Very hard sandstone, ‘ skerry’ De ee
144 4 Soft marly sandstone : ae 0
155 2 Very hard sandstone, traces of eypsum . 10 10
164 2 Red marl, with skerry band 9 °0
Boring No. 3. Weston (Porter’s 2nd field) 120 feet above Ordnance datum,
6 feet above the Trent.
Ft. in. Ft. in.
14 0 Gravelandsand . 6 ‘ : 2 « 24770
22 0 Red marl r 7 E 5 - 5 0
33 0 Sandstone : : : 3 : « al ao
34 0 Blue flakes (= mal) : : 3 : +, LO
36 0 Red marl ‘ E ‘ 5 =) HO
39 0 Sandstone % - 5 é ; é - #3 40
53 0 Coarser sandstone . . ‘ 3 > ne xO
74 9 Finer sandstone : : : = ; see
77 9 Sandy marl . : : ‘ ; : ee 10
87 9 Sandstone bs ‘ F ; SILOM
152 6 Red marls and skerry beds : ‘ J - 64° 9
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 367
West of Castle Donington. No. 10 Boring, at Stanton, in the Millstone
Grit series, 136 feet above O. D.
Ft. in. Ft. in.
5 0 Surface soil (sandy) ; 5 0
10 O Hard whinstone nodules. 5 0
14 6 Red rough sandstone 4 6
17 6 Dark red sandstone oO
25 6 Yellow sandstone 8 0
59 6 Dark yellow sandstone 34 0
68 6 Dark soft shale s 9° 0
71 6 Shale with sandy bands . 3.0
112 0 Shale 3 f i 40 6
113 7 Very hard yellow sandstone i 4
117 3 Softer sandstone cis
118 1 Extra hard sandstone 0 10
120 4 Rather softer sandstone . ae es
YORKSHIRE. °
Information from Mr. Gro. Hopson, C.H., F.G.S. Snaith Waterworks
boring, completed June 1890.
Ft. Ft.
930 New red sandstone, base probably Permian . - 930
950 Magnesian limestone : - b : : = 20;
Boring on Lackenby Foreshore, Hast of Middlesbrough. Messrs. T. CO.
Hutchinson § Co. Made by Messrs. Marnzr & Pratt, of Salford Iron
Works.
Boring commenced at high-water mark in July 1889, carried out
with the ‘ American rig’ or chopping process.
Ft. in. Ft. in.
13 0 Clayand gravel . é : 13 0
24 8 Hard red clay, little gypsum . 1 8
87 O Red marl, thin rock : 3 : , at Ok ce
246 8 Red marl and blue bands : , P - 159 8
255 0 Hardband . . : 6 ; ; 7 OF Pe
343 0 Blue and red marl . é A é 5 - 88 O
373 0 Dark red marl and blue stone “ ¢ - 30 0
380 0 Hardblue stone . : 5 s A ie
597 O Red marl. : 4 ; : : r 2217-0
1,195 0 Red sandstone A f 5 : . 598 O
1,272 0 Red marl : ‘ : : : é S dietO
1,643 0 Red marl and sandstone bed . F = 23a 10
1,663 0 Hard white rock, anhydrite . 4 P » 20°70
1,672 0 Honeycomb rock, anhydrite . ¢ : ro 0
1,685 0 Salt and marl mixed, anhydrite . ; a pls i)
1,804 0 Clear salt-rock . : F sf : 2 9”
1.806 0 Whiterock . 2 . r , 2 es 10
In abstract this section gives :—
Ft. in
Upper gypsum marls ; 2 : : - 597 0
Red sandstone - : P : - . 598 O
Lower gypsum marls. : ! : - 448 0
Anhydrite beds : - F - - - 42 0
Rock salt , : ; ; 3 : SE19). 10
Anhydrite . d ; 5 720
The red sandstone does not appear to have been interbedded with the
usual marl bands, but this may be due to the method of boring ; in all
368 REPORT—1890.
cases a piece should be cut out of the boring-chisel, to bring large pieces
of the rock for examination.
WARWICKSHIRE.
The Coventry Corporation Waterworks consist of a series of bore-
holes, discharging into a tank at Spon End, by natural artesian pressure.
From the tank water is pumped to a service-reservoir above the city.
No water is pumped from the ground, and the water therefore maintains
its purity.
The site of the No. 1 bore-hole, and subsequent operations, have been
the care of Mr. Hawksley, C.E., up to the last bore-hole, which was
jointly recommended by Mr. Hawksley and your reporter.
No. 1 was completed in November 1855, and was carried from the
bottom of the storage tank, at a point S. 17° W. from the centre, near the
edge. For the section I am indebted to Mr. Purnell, C.E., the city engineer.
The bottom of the tank is 21 feet 9 inches below the surface of the
ground, when No. 2 bore-hole, or rather the well above it, commences,
the upper crust of which is taken as the surface in Nos. 1 and 2 bore-hole
sections. The tank is 16 feet in depth, and generally contains 13 feet of
water.
No. 1 Bore-hole.
Ft. in. Ft. in.
21 9 To bottom of tank 5 : 5 ; ; 2521989
81 0 Red sandstone ° : : ; 4 = uDObad
136 0 Very compact red marl . you a ; . - 55 0
143 0 Red sandstone ; ;: ‘ : : i 2. eh
176 O Red marl 5 A ’ 3 5 : ; + por ap
177 O White sandstone . A - : : 2 :., sy 0)
190 0 Red sandstone : : < ‘ 5 : 7 roe
195 0 Red marl P . F : 5 ; 5 of. nD)
No. 2 boring, completed in September 1860, carried from bottom of
well, 24 feet 9 inches deep, about 20 feet outside the limit of the tank, in
S. 30° E. direction, but the water flows into it by natural pressure.
Section of No. 2.
Ft. in. Ft. in.
24 9 Details unknown . F ‘ - 2 » 2859
32 9 Red marl : : . A 4 , zi ¢. Si SeeO
34 9 Sandstone . é : ‘ . 5 ‘ 1 FZ)
40 9 Red marl : Z - ‘ : - S GTO
62 0 Sandstone 6 ‘ 3 : F A : , Dis
71 9 Red marl ; - : : 4 2 ; ¢. SO
84 9 Sandstone ; : : 2 : z : : 230
86 9 Red marl : < : A $ > ; PORE
100 0 Very hard sandstone : : : A » 1338
114 0 Red marl ; : ‘ - 4 : ; » LAO
115 0 Very hard ‘cank rock’ . : ; : : iaied
119 O Red marl : - ; c f F ‘ « “450
124 0 Sandstone 50
125 O Red marl LG
127 O Sandstone 2 0
128 9 Red marl £29
130 0 Sandstone Ws 3)
131 0 Red marl )
138 0 Sandstone if 20)
170 O Red marl 6 C A Z 32°. 0
190 0 Very hard sandstone, pebbles 20 0
i
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 369
Ft.) pin. Ft. in.
191 O Red marl : ther AU)
200 0 Very hard sandstone 9 0
203 0 Red marl 3 0
210 0 Red sandstone . ¥ 70
233 0 Yellow sandstone (water) 23. 0
234 0 Red marl , ee)
236 0 Sandstone 2 0
237 O Red marl : : : PO)
245 0 Sandstone, water pebbles 8 0
250 O Red marl 5 A é 5 O
278 0 Very hard sandstone (water) . 28 0
282 0 Red marl : é ; : AO
300 0 Sandstone c 2 : 18 0
No..5. Boring details by Mr. Councillor AnpRuws, Coventry.
Bored in 1874.
Surface level, 16 feet above bottom of the tank, sunk within the tank,
near the margin, at a point N. 30° W. from the centre.
Ft. in. Ft. in.
65 0 Marls 3 ‘ 5 é ; : =. 865" 70
72 0 Sandstone . Bel 7%, AO
79 O Marls ; : {+0
100 0 Sandstone . 2k 70
108 0 Marls 8 0
134 0 Sandstone 26 0
140 0 Maris ‘: 6 0
160 0 Sandstone é 20 0
173 O Maris 13 0
176 O Sandstone 4 : : : B 2 1 40
180 0 Marls . . : A . : ne a BO
185 0 Sandstone 1 Oo
188 0 Marls 3.0
191 O Sandstone 3.0
193 0 Marls 2 0
200 0 Sandstone 7 0
230 0 Marls 30 0
251 0 Sandstone 21 0
253 0 Marls ‘ : F P é 5 a),
263 0 Sandstone 3 ; ; - 3 ee LOw 0
266 0 Marls ‘ y F 3 i 130
273 0 Sandstone * A ‘ f 4 ieee oO
295 0 Yellow sandstone . 4 ‘ ; 5 22) 2 Op
296 0 Marls B : P : > A eel ab
306 0 Sandstone ‘ 2 5 x eee ne
308 6 Maris a 3 5 F : con er be
336 0 Sandstone : ‘ F AL Ay" pee y omit
350 0 Marls : : ; “ . lt (oO
368 0 Sandstone 4 : ei oe eer o
378 O Marls A 5 S i : seg
426 0 White sandstone, possibly Coal-measures 48 0
Borings, 75 feet in depth, all carried from points within the tank,
hear its margin, due east from the centre, and N. 37° W.
Before No. 5 was bored the total supply was 600,000 gallons per day ;
the new work brought it up to 760,000 gallons a day.
The new well is 199 feet to the N.N.W. of the tank, and is 50 feet in
depth ; the water, rising in it by artesian pressure, is delivered into an
iron pipe of 2 feet external diameter (18 inches interior), placed in
mS Meg at a depth of 22 feet from the surface, the latter being 267:30 feet
F BB
370 REPORT—1890.
above datum. At the bottom of the well a 30-inch iron pipe, 12 feet long,
is placed in the centre, 6 feet being above the bottom of the well, and
6 feet below it; in this is placed the 24-inch lining tube, which rises to
10 feet above the bottom of the well. The top of the 24-inch lining tube
is 227 feet above datum, the sole of the delivery pipes, which are sunk
about 20 feet below the surface of the ground, being 245 feet, the sole of
the pipe at the outlet end in the tank being the same. The top of the
tank wall is 261°50 feet. The tank is circular, and 100 feet in diameter.
Section of Strata at Spon End Waterworks new boring.
The contractors, Messrs. Timmins, of Runcorn, are responsible for the
measurement of the beds. The description of the strata is by Mr. Coan-
cillor W. Andrews, of Coventry.
All the beds are red unless otherwise stated. Mottled means red and
white.
Well:—
Feet. Feet.
1 Soil 4 - 3 c 2 : 1
9 Mottled marl 3 : - : ° 8
92 Hard mottled shale os
17 ~=Mottled marl . 73
18 Hard white sandstone with miza sparkles 1
20 Hard red marl 2
21; Hard brown sandstone with cry stalline lustre 1;
26 Softer red marl 43
Hard mottled sandstone Os
28 is Sy) nee 13
29 » sandstone i:
30 Hard red sandy marl 1
4 Hard white or mottled sandstone 13
34° Hard red marl 25
354 Hard grey sandstone 13
37 Hard white “A 14
41 Very hard red marl 4
48 Coarse hard red sandstone 6
50 Soft red sandstone, bottom of well, dip south
1 in 18 : z ; 2
Bore-hole :—
72 Hard pebbly conglomerate 2
tik) eASOELET) Gy
80 Hard puff-coloured. sandstone
81 Soft mottled sandstone
83 Hard pebbly conglomerate
86 Red marl
91 Red sandstone
112 Hard red marl
125 Pale red sandstone
131 Mottled marl .
135 Red sandstone, with water <
137 Grey sandstone, full of black specks, Water .
164 Red marl ; : : , - : 5
168 Red sandstone : 5 - 5 ‘
182 Hard conglomerate
198 Red sandstone, with water
199 Red marl ‘
202 Soft red sandstone
211 Red marl
219 Dark red sandstone
em bo
bo
DPECWH ARE NQNROWR OWN woLb
a
AR ce wm. nbn ns,
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS.
Feet
239
246
247
248}
250
251
254
262
266
268
272
274
280
290
293
304
306
310
321
332
334
336
42
00
402
405
417
418
4183
4934
426
432
434
454
457
460
472
486
565
575
Coarse red sandstone grit , . .
Hard conglomerate - : :
Yellow sandstone ; : : .
Red and yellow marls .
Hard conglomerate
Red marl
Red sandstone ¢ ,
Hard conglomerate : -
Red sandstone
Hard red marl
Red sandstone 3 z
Red marl ; .
Very hard red sandstone
Red sandy marl
Red marl
Red sandstone
Hard red marl
Red sandstone
Reddish-yellow sandstone, water.
Red sandy marl, with white ar
Hard red marl ;
Hard red conglomerate :
Hard brown and white mottled sandstone
Red marl with ‘ fish Gir
Mottled marl
White sandstone .
Red ee
Hard grey sandstone
Mottled marl
Reddish-grey sandstone
White sandstone
Red marl
Hard red sandy marl
Hard conglomerate
Hard coarse white grit.
Hard red sandy marl
Greyish-red sandstone
Red sandstone.
Red marl with ‘ fish eye: es’
Red sandstone fy
Feet
20
teleno[e
| coal
a
AWN RE PHEW OAON RW ROWH MR Ry
— or
WWOM AN OO KH be te WO
bie
bie
371
The saline water was tapped in the lowest bed of sandstone, under
the 79 feet of marl.
Size of bore-hole 24-inch, 21-inch, and 18-inch.
Test Yields of Water from Boring at the Coventry Water Works.
Galls. per
Hour.
1886, June 26 ey
July 13 2,497! Yield of well before boring commenced ;
sy ae 5,600 8,400 gallons last test.
Aug. 14 7,472
Oct. 15 10,323 Bore-hole 115 feet deep.
1887, Mar.
6 14,880 Bore-hole 216 feet deep.
» 30 15,000 Bore-hole 264 feet deep.
Nov. 20 7,200 (Natural flow into the filter beds.) Bore hole,
1888, Jan.
400 feet deep.
2 17,320
» 21 20,000 (5223 feet deep.) At level of bottom of
100 feet tank.
» 15,376 Rising from 6 feet to § feet in tank.
372 REPORT—1890.
Above tests were taken at different levels, so are not very suitable for
comparison. The last 175 feet of the boring appears to have added
nothing to the supply.
The boring was carried to a depth of 575 feet, and yielded water of
good quality, but in the last 10 feet, under the 79 feet of marl, an alkaline
water was met with, which, when first tapped, was found by Mr. A.
Timmins, A.I.C.E., F.G.S., to contain—
Grains.
Total solids per gallon : : : 5 : 2 e . 561:05
Sulphuric anhydride . 5 2 : : 2 5 : «| 299°91
Lime . : : 5 ; 5 . . é : . . 37:80
Magnesium 3 : 2 5 0 > 3 - : . 12:09
Combined chlorine. . 5 : - 2 : : . 66:10
The following analysis gives further details of the alkaline water after
it had been flowing a short time :—
Results of the Analysis of a sample of Water received from Coventry at the
laboratory of the London Hospital Medical College, Whitechapel, London,
on March 16, 1888, and contained in a Winchester quart bottle, duly
sealed and secured. By Dr. Mrymorr Tivy.
(The results are stated in grains per imperial gallon of 70,000 grains, the organic
carbon and nitrogen being stated in parts per 100,000.)
Nitrogen Oxygen
Total in required to O ie \-Oneame Li
Solid | Ammonia | Nitrates +} =Nitric Acid] Oxidise the ea UAE me.
Matter and Organic arbon | Nitrogen| (CaQ)
Nitrites Matter
—— ee
Grains Grains Grains Grains Part per 100,000 Grains
557°80 0:070 | 0:083N in 0°373 NHO, 0 0041 | 0-036 43°98
Sulphur} Hardness
Magnesia BAPE ~___ { Common as
(MgO) 7 ae CRlonee { Salt Before After |
a Boiling Boiling :
Grains Grains Grains 5 4
13:49 260°0 82°368 = 134:99 106°3 25°4 Silica, 1:04
POssIBLE COMPOSITION.
Carbonates of lime and magnesia . : : : : fe ecO
Sulphates of lime and magresia . : : : 7 pote Oe, 7
Alkaline sulphates - : : 4 5 : . 800:0 :
Silica . : ; : 3 : t : : ; : : 1:0 '
Organic matter . : : 2 ; : 5 : , 3 0:0 j
Nitrate of magnesia . 5 é 5 4 : , : 0-5
Chloride of sodium. : : : : - : 5 Be ey a) i
Doo. 4
Actually found ; : : 7 1657-8 i]
Through the kindness of Mr. F. G. Meacham, M.E., of the Hamp-—
stead Colliery, Great Barr, near Birmingham, the specimens preserve
from their sinking-pit have been examined by your reporter. Of th
section passed through, 150 feet of white sandstone overlie Permian re
sandstone marls and conglomerate like those of Spon End, which ter
373
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS.
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374
REPORT—1890.
minate at 627 feet from the surface and overlie purple coal-measure with
spirorbis limestone, to a depth of 1,470 feet, when a conglomerate occurs.
At 1,668 feet occurs the first seam of coal, and the Staffordshire thick coal
‘ Fish eyed ’ spots commence at 597 feet
from the surface, and continue to 729 feet, after which they are much
A salt spring occurred at 1,000 feet,
at 1, 850 feet (615 to 625 yards).
smaller, and continue to 1,020 feet.
and good water in the sandstone above.
by Dr. Knipe, of Handsworth.
The saline spring was analysed
Grains per
Gallon.
Water tapped by the L. N. W. Railway at Northampton at a
depth of 650 feet contained chloride of sodium, carbonate
of soda, and sulphates of magnesia and lime .
Water tapped by Northampton Water Company at Kettering
Road yielded 200,000 gallons per day of saline water,
from crystalline conglomerates and sandstone,
lying
between the lias, and carboniferous dolomitic limestone
with fossils
At Gayton, 2 miles NW. Gf Blisworth Station, a borir ing 994 feet
deep proved saline waters below the lias .
At Dallam Lane Forge, Warrington, a boring in the pebble
beds gave saline water, increasing in salts with the
depth
1200-00
1500-00
4500-00 |
Well Section at the Atherstone Water Works, Birchley Heath. Supplied by
Mr. Batpwin Latuamu, M.Inst.C.E.
Mouth of well about 484 feet above Ordnance datum.
Ft.
Red marl . 5 ; c c pe KG)
Soft red sandstone . - 2
Hard red sandstone . 16
Marl interstratified with hard bands of red sandstone ili
Hard red and grey sandstone 10
Red sandstone . 5 é 5 . 10
Very hard red rock . 7 6 6
Hard grey and red rock . c : 7
Total 75
Samples of Rock at different depths.
At 38 ft. absorbing capacity was 10:1; specific gravity, 2°66
” 55 ” ” ” 10°6 ” ” 2°66
” 58 2? ” ” 8°86 ” 3” 2°68
” 65 ” ” ” 8:02 ” ” 2°69
Hast Warwickshire Water Works.
Supplied by Mr. Joun Ansriz, MInst.0.E.
Character of Strata
Section of Well at Sheers:
Strong brown clay .
Light ; blue rock
Marl, with balls of red rock
Strong marl.
Redrock . c
Dark grey rock .
Red marl. n c
Thick- Total
ness Depth
Bt insal!) Gta gne
. 67 ~=6—O 67 O
Smeets] 70 8
Die AOS Lote 86
Iie (6 7) LS2h 20
is 6 -—-
2 0 —
4 0 —
Remarks
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. Sra
Character of Strata iad } Depth Remarks
Ft. in. | Ft. in.
Strong marl,mingledwithredrock| 3 0 —
Hard red rock - ; An a —
Strong marl, with ballsofredrock| 2 9 =
Hard red sandstone (a little} 1 9 —
water)
Marl . 0 6 —-
Redrock . : : - mee LOne02) 4
Marl, mingled with light rock .| 35 8 | 238 0
Light rock . : : . lel 6 leaao) <6
Sandstone rock . ES emia [A done
Peldon (with water) 4 0| 252 3 ale i aN abel
. ell sunk to this dept
Sandstone rock 8 9] 261 0 { yielded 35,000 galls. daily.
Fine light rock, very strong 6 ~6 | 267 6
Red rocky marl 6° O73 6
Light soft marl . : : ries!) Gale2io: 0
Red marl, with balls of whiterock | 29 6 | 305 6
Well sunk to this depth and
Light red rock, very hard 24 6 330 0 | ie cate ea yi oak
: 150,000 galls. daily.
Marl . : . c 6 0} 336 0} Floor of well.
Hard red rock : -| 2 0} 338 0
Marl . - : ; : .| 30 0] 368 O
Hard light rock (with water) 6 0 | 374 (0
White rock, very strong 9 0O| 388 0
Strong marl. a TAS) PF S8a ee
Red rock : 2 0} 386 9
Strong rocky marl 4 9] 391 6
Marl e . 2 6) 394 0
If pumping is stopped for 48 hours the water rises about 100 feet in the
well; above that the rise is very slow. Ordnance level of top of well,
4740 feet.
Final Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. J. W. Davis, Mr.
W. Casu, Dr. H. Hicks, Mr. G. W. Lampiuau, Mr. C. REID,
Dr. H. Woopwarp, and Mr. T. Boynton, appointed for the
purpose of investigating an Ancient Sea-beach near Bridlington
Quay. (Drawn up by G. W. LampLuau, Secretary.)
Trp abundant material obtained during the excavation of the Sewerby
Cliff-beds two years ago has, at the cost of much time and trouble, been
thoroughly dealt with. All the bones have undergone a hardening pro-
cess by immersion in weak glue, and the most promising specimens have
been pieced together, being thus, in most cases, rendered determinable.
The results, however, have been somewhat disappointing, as the bones
have proved to belong in nearly every case to the species whose presence
was already known.
Nevertheless, several doubtful-points have been cleared up and a good
foundation laid for further investigation.
376 REPORT—1890.
The following list embodies the emendations, and represents the sum
of our present knowledge of the fauna. The Committee desires to express
its great obligation to Mr. E. T. Newton for his kindness in undertaking
the examination of the specimens.
Fossils from the Sewerby Old | Rain-| Blown R i
Cliff-beds Beach| wash} Sand SUT
Elephas antiquus, Fale. .| * — * | Several molars from the old beach
and three from the blown sand;
also some broken limb-bones, &c.,
in the old beach.
Rhinoceros leptorhinus,| * — 2 Several molars, portions of a lower
Cuy. jaw and other bones.
Hippopotamus amphibius,| * — — | One molar and a badly-preserved
Linn. tusk.
Cervus (2 megaceros, Hart) | — | — — | Fide ‘Geol. Survey Mem.,’ Holder-
ness, p. 49
Bison, sp. ; 3 Sie rs * Many bones and a few teeth: some
of the bones may possibly belong
to Bos primigenius.
Hyena crocuta, var.| * — * | An ulna; also indicated by gnawing
spelea? Goldf. on many of the bones.
Arvicola amphibius, Linn, | — * — | Lower front molar and two incisors.
Birds : : : All ees = — | Three or four limb-bones.
Gadus morrhua, Linn. .| * —_— — | Vertebrze and bones of the head.
LAND MOLLUSCA.
Helix hispida, Linn. .| — * —
Helix pulchella, Mill. .| — * — ; F cae 3 2
Pupa marginata, Drap. || — i re ee ees still living in this
Zua subcylindrica, Linn. | — * — vety:
(Z. lubrica, Mill.)
MARINE MOLLUSCA.
Purpura lapillus, L. * — _ All species which abound in the
Littorina littorea, L. = = — recent beach, except Ostrea,
Ostrea edulis, L. = — — which is not now found living
Mytilus edulis, L. ae — — in Bridlington Bay. Pholas
Pholas - cular — — and Saxicava are indicated by
Saxicava . - - 5 |e -— their empty borings.
The stratigraphical relation of the deposits was fully discussed in our
previous report, and on this point no further information has been gained
excepting that the identification of the boulder-clay overlapping the Cliff-
beds as the Basement Clay has been confirmed by the discovery of a
characteristic transported fragment of fossiliferous clay and sand (‘ Brid-
lington Crag’) in the boulder-clay overlying the chalk in the cliff at
South Sea Landing, two miles east of the Buried Cliff.
The fauna, as above recorded, still unfortunately remains without any
distinctive species to show whether the beds may date back to the com-
mencement of the glacial period, or whether, as has been suggested, they
are really interglacial. The opinion of the writer, as expressed in a
1 Rep. Brit. Assoc. Bath, 1888, p. 328.
* See description of this section in Geol. Mag. Dec. III. vol. vii. p. 61 (Feb.
1890).
8 Geol. Survey Mem. ‘ Holderness,’ p. 48.
ON AN ANCIENT SEA-BEACH NEAR BRIDLINGTON QUAY. BY |
recent paper,’ is that the Basement Clay was the first boulder-clay to be
formed in the district, and that as the Sewerby Cliff-beds are distinctly
older than this clay, they must have pre-dated any actual glaciation of
the east coast. A systematic investigation is now being made into the
details of the glacial beds of the whole of Flamborough Head which it
is hoped may yield further evidence on this question.
The erratic pebbles which were obtained from the Old Beach have
been examined and counted, with the result shown in the following
table :-—
Pebbles in the Old Beach.
Per Cent.
Carbonaceous Shale; origin uncertain . ; about 10
Sandstones; in most cases not determinable, but many are not
Secondary rocks : 5 c 2 : : . . 25
Quartzites 5 : ; . 5 - : “ : 2220
Palzeozoic conglomerates : ; : : ; - : : Tee
Vein-quartz pebbles . . ° ; 7 2 . : ie
Basaltic rocks . ; s c : Be it
Porphyritic felsites and other i igneous rocks 5 : . . ey fills:
Granites . : ‘ A : : : . : . - fz
Oolitic limestones . § é ; : ; F ot lat
Black and yellow flint (not local) ; 4 P . : 3 eee
100
Most of these pebbles were well rounded; but a few-were subangular,
as if they had not been long exposed to the pounding of the beach. If
the above table be compared with the lists of boulders from the boulder-
clays compiled by the writer at various places on the Yorkshire coast?
some important differences will be observed.
Perhaps the most striking of these differences is that in this table
there are no pebbles from the Carboniferous Limestone, a rock which
abounds everywhere in the overlying glacial series. The quartzites and
igneous rocks, vaguely classed as ‘ porphyritic felsites,’ are also in much
higher proportion here than in the boulder-clays. Taken as a whole, it
may be said that these pebbles have travelled further than a similar
collection taken at random from the Kast Yorkshire glacial-beds.
We do not propose to proceed further with this investigation at
present, as the difficulties of the excavation are such, owing to the great
depth of the loose sand, that it would be necessary to undertake much
costly and unprofitable labour to render the work free from danger.
Meanwhile the steady encroachment of the sea is slowly preparing
another slice of the deposits for easy exploration in the future.
We are greatly indebted to the Lord of the Manor for his courteous
— to carry out the excavation, and desire to record our thanks
to him
The collection of fossils has been deposited in the Museum of Practical
Geology, 28 Jermyn Street, London.
1 Proc. Yorksh. Geol. and Pol. Soc. vol. xi. pt. ii. (1889), p. 275.
* See papers in Proc. Yorksh. Geol. and Pol. Soc. vol. ix. pt. iii. p. 339; vol. xi.
pt. ii. p. 231; and also abstract elsewhere in this vol., Proceedings of Section C.
378 REPORT—1890.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. H. WoopwarpD, Mr. G.
R. Vine (Secretary), Drs. P. M. Duncan, H. C. Sorsy, and
Mr. C. E. DERancE, appointed to prepare a report on the COre-
taceous Polyzoa. (Drawn wp by Myr. G. R. VINE.)
Tue Polyzoa of the Cretaceous epoch have been partially dealt with in
two of my previous reports;! owing to recent researches I am com-
pelled to return to the subject. In this supplementary report, how-
ever, I shall confine my attention to the study of the stratigraphical
distribution of British Cretaceous Polyzoa only, and that chiefly of species
found in the lower beds of the Upper Cretaceous series, and in the
Neocomian rocks below.
Recently these lower beds of the Upper Cretaceous series have
occupied a good deal of special attention from the members of the
Geological Survey and others. The various zones of the Chalk have
been carefully studied in several localities, and comparative lists of fossils
published; but, as I find no mention of Polyzoan remains in any of
these lists, it may not be deemed ont of place if I endeavour to supply
this deficiency in the present report.
In the second (or Paleontological) part of Phillips’s ‘Manual of
Geology,’ Mr. Etheridge ? has given an elaborate analysis of the distri-
bution of Cretaceous fossils in our British rocks. In the division of that
list devoted to the Polyzoa, the author enumerates, under 59 generic
names, altogether about 114 species as having been either catalogued
or described from the whole of the Cretaceous series. It will be con-
venient, therefore, to take Mr. Htheridge’s list as the basis of this report, ~
in order to draw the attention of the working paleontologist to the
value of Polyzoa in dealing with, or characterising differences im, the
various British Cretaceous beds. The evidence as regards the zones, I
admit, is not complete ; and for the simple reason that only a very few
students, as yet, have entrusted me, for examination, with fossils from
special zones on which polyzoan incrustations are found. All the
evidence, however, that I am now able to offer, is the result of the careful
study of over twelve hundred fossils derived from different horizons of
the Chalk, both Upper and Lower,? and from British Neocomian, or
so-called Neocomian, beds below.
The 114 Cretaceous species of Polyzoa are distributed as follow :—
_— Genera Species
Upper Chalk . - . 6 ; : : 3 38 61
Lower Chalk . 5 ' - ' : b 4 6 6
Chalk Marl . : ‘ : 1 1
Cenomanian, or Upper Greensand 5 4 : 15 23
Albian, or Gault . 5 , ‘ 3 4
Neocomian, or Lower Greensand . : 4 é 21 34
As nearly the whole of the generic names which are adopted by Mr.
1 Fourth (Brit. Assoc.) Report on Fossil Polyzoa. 1883. Fifth Report on Fossil
Polyzoa. 1884,
2 New edition, 1885, pp. 589 and 590.
3 The evidence from the Middle beds is incomplete.
ON CRETACEOUS POLYZOA. 379
Etheridge were proposed by M. d’Orbigny for his elaborate classifica-
tion of the Cretaceous Bryozoa of France,! it may be well to preface the
following analysis with the latest arrangement of the Cyclostomata. In
1887 Dr. Pergens, of Belgium, spent several months in the study of
the d’Orbigny collection of Bryozoa, now preserved in the Natural
History Museum of Paris. Since d’Orbigny completed his work some of
the examples have become useless as types ; that is to say, some of the
labelled examples do not correspond with the description and figures of
his text and atlas. The names of the doubtful species, however, are
preserved by Dr. Pergens in a separate list ; whilst others are rede-
scribed and re-illustrated ; and in afew cases new names are given to
examples which were only partially described by the author. Only the
first part of the revision, the Cyclostomata, is published as yet ;? but the
following synopsis of the family and generic arrangement adopted by
Dr. Pergens will enable the student to appreciate, more fully than he
otherwise would, the value of d’Orbigny’s labours on the Polyzoa,
especially so when it is stated that of the Cyclostomata alone Dr.
Pergens catalogues, as good species, about 253; besides which there
are at least 75 doubtful forms also catalogued.
CYCLOSTOMATA (pars), Busk.
Division (A.), SoLenoporina, Marsson.
I. Family Cristipz.—Genus: Unicrisia, d’Orb.
Il. Family Drastororips.—Genera: Stomatopora, Bronn. Diastopora,
Lamx. Cellulipora, d’Orb. Discosparsa, d’Orb. Ditawia,
Hagenow.
II. Family Ipmonr1pm.—Genera: Reptotubigera, d’Orb. Semiclausa,
d’Orb. Reptoclausa, d’Orb. Idmonea, Lamx. Filisparsa,
@VOrb. Filicavea,d’Orb. Filicrisina, d’Orb. Hornera, Lamx.
Spiroclausa, d’Orb. Reticulipora, d’Orb. Retecava, d’Orb.
Bicrisina, d’Orb.
IV. Family Evtatopsori2.—Genera : Entalophora, Lamx. Spiropora,
Lamx. LPeripora, d’Orb. Bidiastopora, d’Orb. Sulcocava,
@Orb. Mesenteripora, Blainy. Heteropora, Blainy.
V. Family Fasciceripz.—Genera: Filifascigera, Reptofuscigera, Semi-
tubigera, Multifascigera, Semifascipora, Discofascigera, Fasciculi-
pora, Osculipora, Cyrtopora, Frondipora, Fascipora, Plethopora.
—All d’Orbigny.
VI. Family Licuenoporrpm.—Genera: Conotubigera, d’Orb. Apsendesia,
Lamx. Multicavea, d’Orb. Lichenopora, Defr. Multicrisina,
d’Orb. Stellocavea, d’Orb.
VII. Family Cyristpm.—Genera: Discocytis, d’Orb. Truncatula,
Hag. Swpercytis, d’Orb. Semicytis, d’Orb. Oytis, d’Orb.
Unicytis, d’Orb.
VIII. Family Crrrororina.—Genera : Reptomulticava, a’Orb. Cerio-
pora, Goldf. Echinocava, d’Orb. Clavicava, d’Orb.
: Paléont. Frang. tome v. ; Terr. Crét. 1850-52.
* «Revision des Bryoz. du Crétacé, figurés par d'Orbigny :’ Dr. Ed. Pergens, Bull.
Soc. Belge, Géol. &c. tome ii. pp. 305-400. 1889.
380 REPORT— 1890.
Division (B.), Crtna.
IX. Family Crmz.—Genera : Semicea, d’Orb. Discocea, Perg.
Filicea, d’Orb. Cea, d’Orb.
Division (C.), Mexiczrririma.
X. Family Meicertitinz.—Genera: Semielea,d’Orb. Clausimultelea,
d’Orb. Melicertites, Rom. Hlea, d’Orb. (Retelea ?, d’Orb.)
At first sight this arrangement of genera may appear to be somewhat
artificial ; but the family grouping seems to me based on well-marked struc-
tural, rather than upon mere superficial characters. In the Cyclostomata
generally there is less to build systematic arrangement upon than in the
Cheilostomata ; and what little there is has been well investigated by Mr.
A. W. Waters, as indicated in his Australian papers. There are, how-
ever, two new divisions (the Crina and MeLicertirrina) introduced into
Dr. Pergens’ classification, under which some very anomalous and hitherto
very troublesome species are placed. Of the ‘Cermna’ group, as Dr.
Pergens remarks, only one living representative exists—Cinctopora elegans,
Hutton, var. areolata.! At present, however, I know of no living
representative of the MELICERTITIDA.
Before leaving this part of my subject, it may be well to give a list of
Cretaceous Polyzoa referred to by Mr. A. W. Waters in his Australian
papers; because, if Mr. Waters is correct in his identifications, these
Australian fossils must be regarded as the remnants of a once wide-spread
Cretaceous fauna, some few members of which may still be living. There
is, I must admit, a great difficulty in the way of accepting the views of
Mr. Waters on this head. The Australian species indicated by him
closely resemble, I am well aware, those figured by d’Orbigny in
his ‘ Paléontologie Frangaise,’ but in all identifications of this kind
there are, or may be, minute points of difference, which ought not to be
overlooked, and which should influence the paleontologist in his decisions.
In a letter to me Mr. Jesson remarks: ‘The identity of the Australian
and Cretaceous forms seems to me to go against the usefulness of Polyzoa
in determining zones and the age of different deposits.’ Possibly others
may think so too, if the citation be allowed to pass unnoticed ; and, there-
fore, the identifications are given on the authority of Mr. Waters.
CHEILOSTOMATA.
Vincularia argus,? dOrb. Pal. Fr. p. 253, pl. 689, figs. 1-4.—Mem-
brampora argus,? Waters.
Escharina confluens,? Reuss. Verst., Bohm. Kreid. Membranipora con-
fluens, Reuss, in Geinitz’s Elbthalgeb. ; and Novak. Membranipora
pedunculata, Hincks, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), vol. vi. p. 377.
—M. confluens,? Waters (p. 262).
Flustrellaria dentata,? d’Orb. Pal. Fr. p. 525, pl. 725, figs. 17-21.
Membranipora annulus, Manzoni, Bryoz. Foss. Ital.; and Bryoz.
Castrocaro.—WM. dentata,? Waters (p. 263).
' See remarks on this species by Mr. Waters, ‘Bryozoa from New Zealand,’
Q. J. Geol. Soc. vol. xliii. p. 341.
2 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxvii. (1881), p. 324.
3 Tid. vol. xxxviii. pp. 257-276
ON CRETACEOUS POLYZOA. 381
Cellepora hippocrepis,' Goldf. Petr. p. 26, pl. ix. fig. 3. Membrani-
pora bidens, Busk ; and Reuss. Membranipora Rossellii, Manzoni.
—Micropora hippocrepis,! Waters (p. 264).
Cellepora marginopora,! Reuss, Foss. Polyp. Wien. Tert., p. 88, pl.
x. fig. 23. Reptescharellina prolifera, Gabb and Horn (Cret.
N. Amer.).—Schizoporella marginopora,! Waters {p. 274). 2
Of the Cyclostomatous? group we have the following :—
Tubigera disticha, d’Orb. Pal. Fr. p. 723, pl. 746, figs. 2-6. Idinonea
disticha, Hag. Bryoz. Maastr. p. 30, pl. ii. fig. 8—Idmonea
bifrons, Waters (p. 685).
Ceriopora verticillata, Goldf. Petr. Germ. p. 36, pl. 11, fig. 1.
Sptropora antiqua, d’Orb. Pal. Fr. p. 710, pl. 615, figs. 10-18,
and pl. 745, figs. 15-19. S. neocomiensis, d’Orb. p. 708, pl. 784,
figs. 1-2. S$. Calamus, Gabb and Horn (N. American Cre-
taceous).—Lntalophora verticillata, Waters (p. 685).
Entalophora raripora, d’Orb. Pal. Franc., Terr. Crét. p. 787, pl. 621,
figs. 1-3.—Entulophora raripora, Waters (p. 686).
(See also Mr. Waters’s long list of synonyms.)
Entalophora neocomiensis, d’Orb. Pal. Fr. p. 782, p. 616, figs. 15-18.—
LEintalophora neocomiensis, Waters (p. 686).
(See also list of synonyms given by Mr. Waters.)
Apseudesia clypeata, Lamx. Haime, Bryoz. Form. Jur. p. 202, pl. 7, fig. 7.
—Discotubigera clypeata, Waters (p. 690).
Pavotubigera flabellata, d’Orb. Pal. Fr. p. 767, pl. 752, figs. 4-8.—
Pavotubigera flabellata, Waters (p. 691).
Supercytis digitata, d’Orb. Pal. Fr. p. 1061, pl. 798, figs. 6-9.—Super-
cytis ? digitata, Waters (p. 692).
Domopora cochloidea, d’Orb. Pal. Fr. p. 990, pl. 781, figs. 5-7.—
Lichenopora cochloidea, Waters (p. 695).
Tecticavea boletiformis, d’Orb. (non Rss.), Pal. Fr. p. 991, pl. 781, figs.
8-12.—Lichenopora boletiformis, Waters (p. 695).
Bimulticavea variabilis, d’Orb. Pal. Fr. p. 983, pl. 779, figs. 9-13,—
Lichenopora variabilis, Waters (p. 696).
Since my former reports on Fossil Polyzoa I have had placed in my
hands, for study and description, some fine collections of Polyzoa from
several Cretaceous horizons. Lists of Polyzoa, however, are rarely given
by authors when tabulating the ordinary fauna.of the different zones of
the Chalk ; and I am obliged to fall back on the general lists furnished by
Professor Morris and Mr. Etheridge, when dealing with species outside
my own special work.
In the first edition of his admirable ‘ Catalogue of British Fossils
in 1845, Professor Morris dealt with Cretaceous and all other Polyzoa in
accordance with the classificatory notions of that time; but in the 1854
edition he followed, to some extent, the leading of d’Orbigny. Little, in
the way of lists, has been added to our knowledge of really new
? Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxviii. pp. 257-276.
? Ibid. vol. xl. pp. 674-696.
382 REPORT—1890.
Cretaceous Polyzoa since Professor Morris compiled his Catalogue. In
the ‘ Catalogue of Cretaceous Fossils in the Museum of Practical
Geology (1878)’ we have some good lists, and characteristic fossils
are preserved in the Museum from the following formations : Neocomian,
or Lower Greensand ; Blackdown beds; Upper Greensand; Lower and
Upper Chalk; and there are still many undescribed Cretaceous Polyzoa
in the cases and drawers of the Museum. In the Natural History
branch of the British Museum, South Kensington, the Cretaceous
Polyzoa are not fully arranged. There is a fine series here, but [ am
not able to give fuil particulars.
We owe to Professor J. Beete Jukes, as shown in ‘ The Student’s
Manual of Geology,’ 1857, pp. 367, 368, and 495, indications of the
stratigraphical distribution of the Cretaceous Polyzoa, epitomised from
Pictet and d’Orbigny. It is useless in the present state of knowledge
to reproduce these references, but it is well to direct attention to this
early work of Jukes on the Palzeontology of the Polyzoa.
I. Neocomran Potyzoa (Lower Greensand).
In the ‘Catalogue of British Fossils’ a certain number of Polyzoa
are characterised as Lower Greensand species by Professor Morris.
Most of the species so placed are derived from the Faringdon beds of
Berkshire. Mr. Jukes, however, did not use these Polyzoa, catalogued
by Morris, as true Lower Greensand species, and he remarks (p. 502):
‘There are... . some still unsolved difficulties with respect to these
[so-called Neocomian beds], inasmuch as in some Greensand deposits at
‘Blackdown, in Devonshire, fossils of the Lower Greensand, Gault, and
Upper Greensand seem to be curiously intermixed in such a way as to
make the age of the deposit very doubtful. There are also some sand
and gravels near Faringdon in Wiltshire [Berkshire], where Lower
Greensand fossils are also mingled with others belonging to Upper
Cretaceous rocks. Mr. Sharp believed these Faringdon gravel-beds to
be of more recent date than the Chalk itself, though still belonging to the
Cretaceous period. .. As the fossils from these and from some other
localities are often quoted as Greensand fossils, they are calculated to
confuse our classification.’
Professor Prestwich, in his ‘ Geology,’ vol. ii., 1888, p. 271, refers the
‘Faringdon Beds’ to the Upper Neocomian, with the following Polyzoa :
Actinopora papyracea, Alecto Calypso, Pustulopora pseudospiralis, Cerio-
pora (5 spp.), Diastopora (2 spp.), Hntalophora (2 spp.), and Reptomul-
ticava (2 spp.). Also in H. B. Woodward’s ‘ Geology of England and
Wales,’ 2nd edition (1887), pp. 375, 376, the ‘ Faringdon Beds’ hold their
own as ‘ Lower Greensand.’
In the ‘Catalogue of Cretaceous Fossils in the Museum of Practical
Gceology,’! most of the Lower Greensand Polyzoa have been derived
from Faringdon, with but few exceptions, the chief of which are the
following :—?
1. Ceriopora polymorpha, Goldfuss, Upware.
2. Echinocava Raulini, Michelin, Upware.
3. Entalophora ramosissima, d’Orb., Lockswell.
4, Radiopora bulbosa, d’Orb., Brickhill.
5. Siphodictyum gracile, Lonsdale, Atherfield.
1 Ed, 1878, pp. 6-7. ? I have omitted unnamed forms,
ON CRETACEOUS POLYZOA. 383
With the exception of No. 4, not one of these species is cited by Morris
in his Catalogue; and I shall have to deal with the forms independently.
The horizons of these fossils as given by foreign authors are thefollowing :—
1 Ceriopora polymorpha, Goldfuss.—EHssen Greensand.
; { Ceriopora polymorpha, Mich.=Reptomulticava Arduennensis,
d’Orb.—Gault,
2. Echinopora Raulini, Mich. (d’Orb.).—Gault.
3. Entalophora ramosissima, d’Orb.—Cenomanian.
4. Radiopora bulbosa, d’Orb.—Cenomanian.
5. Siphodictyum gracile, Lonsd. (local).—Neocomian.
If we now take the lists of Lower Greensand Polyzoa given by
Professor Morris and Mr. Etheridge in the catalogues already referred to,
we shall find that the Faringdon species may be conveniently redistributed
(if the identifications of these authors be correct) into the several
Cretaceous horizons which will be found mentioned further on. It will
then be seen that very little reliance can be placed on the Faringdon
Polyzoa as typical Lower Greensand species, and I think Professor Jukes
was justified in rejecting the evidence as being stratigraphically incorrect.
List of Faringdon Polyzoa.}
1. Actinopora papyracea, d’Orb. Terr. Crét. pl. 643, figs. 12-14.
2. Ceriocava irregularis, d’Orb. Ib. pl. 788, figs. 15-16.
3. Ceriopora mamillosa, Rom. Kreidegeb. pl. 5, fig. 25.
4, _ ramulosa, Mich. (Ceriocava, d’Orb.), Terr. Crét. pl. 788,
figs. 11-12.
5. Diastopora? clavula, Morris (? Domopora clavula, d’Orb. pl. 647).
6. 3 gracilis P, d’Orb. = Flustra tubulosa, Woodward, Geol.
Norf. pl. 4, fig. 5.
7 % ramulosa, Mich, Icon. pl. 52, fig. 3.
8 a tuberosa, d’Orb. Terr. Crét. pl. 629, figs. 1-3.
9. Domopora tuberculata, d’Orb. Ib. pl. 648, figs. 1-4.
10. Entalophora cenomana, d’Orb. Ib. pl. 618, figs. 11-15.
al. s costata, d’Orb. Ib. pl. 621, figs. 19-22.
12. Meudonensis, d’Orb. Ib. pl. 623, fig. 9.
aS. ‘4 ramosissima, d’Orb. Ib. pl. 618, figs. 1-5.
14. Sarthacensis, d’Orb. Ib. pl. 619, figs. 6-9.
15, { Heteropora tenera, Hag. Maestricht Bryozoa, pl. 5, fig. 14.
: =Multicrescis Michelini, d’Orb. Terr.
Crét. pl. 799, figs. 14-15.
16. Multicrescis mamillata, d’Orb. Ib. pl. 800, figs. 1-2.
a7. . variabilis, d’Orb. Ib. pl. 800, figs. 3-7.
18. Proboscina marginata, d’Orb. Ib. pl. 759, fig. 4.
19. FP subelegans, d’Orb. Ib. pl. 759, fig. 8.
20. Pustulopora pseudospiralis, Mich. (Peripora, d’Orb.), Ib. pl. 616,
figs. 6-8.
21. Radiopora pustulosa, d’Orb. Ib. pl. 649, figs. 1-3.
22. Reptocea cenomana, d’Orb. Ib. pl. 788, figs. 1-3.
23. Reptomulticava collis, d’Orb. Ib. pl. 792, fig. 1.
‘ [have not classified or rearranged the species ; but have given them as arranged
pe 7 Catalogue of British Fossils, and in the Catalogue of the Museum of Practical
ecology.
384 RErORT—1890.
24. Reptomulticava mamilla, d’Orb. Ib. pl. 793, figs. 5-4.
25, micropora, d’Orb. Ib. pl. 791, “ties. 10-12.
26. Reptotubigera elevata, d’Orb. Ib. pl. 760, figs. 1- 8,
27. marginata, d’Orb. Ib. pl. 750, figs. 19-21.
28. Zonopora undata, d’Orb. Ib. pl. 771, fig. 14.
The following additional Faringdon species are given from the
‘Catalogue of Cretaceous Fossils in the Museum of Practical Geology.’
I have only regarded named species :—
29. Actinopora elegans, Mich. (Lopholepis, Hag.), see d’Orb. Terr.
Crét. p. 687.
30. Alecto reticulata, d’Orb. Ib. p. 841.
31. Proboscina ramosa, d’Orb. Ib. p. 851.
32. - ramosa ?, Michelin (Diastopora ramosa?, Mich., see
d’Orb. p. 851).
33. " cornucopiz, d’Orb. Terr. Crét. p. 655.
34, Diastopora congesta, Reuss = Iveptomultisparsa congesta, d’Orb.
Ib. p. 878.
35. 5 papyracea, d’Orb. = Berenicea papyracea, d’Orb. Ib.
p. 868.
36. Discocavea neocomiensis, d’Orb. Ib. p. 959.
37. Ceriopora avellana, Mich. Ib. p. 1034.
38. A cavernosa, Hag. Ib. p. 1034.
39. " polymorpha, Goldf. ib. p. 1054.
40, Heteropora clavula, Mich. Ib. p. 1070.
41. Radioporia heteropora, d’Orb. Ib. p. 1035.
42. Semimulticrescis ramosa, d’Orb. Ib. p. 1078.
It will be evident from the above list that the Faringdon material is
very rich as regards Polyzoa ; but how far the forms may be regarded as
a true Lower Greensand fauna may now be tested.
In his ‘ Prodromus of Paleontology,’ and also in the appendix to the
‘Cretaceous Bryozoa,’ d’Orbigny has indicated by numbers (1 to 27),}
the particular stages or horizons in the geological series of rocks in which
Polyzoa had been found previously to his labours on the group. These
studies form some of the most interesting considerations in his great
work, for to a certain extent the Polyzoa, when carefully investigated,
offer to the paleontologist many suggestions as to the probable age of the
strata which come under his consideration. Every geological age has its
peculiar group of Polyzoan forms, which may be utilised for the purpose of
paleontology ; but in this direction our labours at present are far behind
those of some at least of the Continental and American workers. I shall
therefore apply d’Orbigny’s method in my endeavour to unravel the
Polyzoan life-histories of the less-known Cretaceous faunas.
Jurassic.—Stage 10. Basocian, d@’Orb. (Jurassic). See Paléont.
Frang. vol. v.; Terr. Crét. p. 894.
14.2 Entalophora Sarthacensis, d’Orb. (Clausa Sarthacensis, d’Orb.),
Ib. p. 894.
1 See Paléontologie Frangaise, tome v. p. 1082. 1850-52.
2 The numbers in this column correspond with the numbers in the previous list ;
so the student will be able to detect the differences between the old and the new
names. The arrangement of the Cretaceous Polyzoa is in accordance with Dr.
Pergens’ revision of d’Orbigny’s ‘ Bryozoaires.’
ON CRETACEOUS POLYZOA. 385
Cretacrous.—Stage 17. Nezocomray, d’Orb., Terr. Crét. p. 1089,
18.
Proboscina marginata, d’Orb. (Stomatopora marginata, Pergens),
Ib. p. 849.
. Diastopora gracilis, Edw. (d’Orb.), Ib. p. 864.
. Heteropora clavula, d’Orb. Ib. p. 1070.
. Lichenopora heteropora, d’Orb. Ib. p. 993.
3. Reptomulticava collis, d’Orb. Ib. p. 1036.
. Reptomulticava micropora, d’Orb. (Radiopora heteropora,
Pergens), d’Orb. Ib. p. 1035.
. Discocavea neocomiensis, d’Orb. (doubtful sp., Pergens), Ib.
p. 759
Stage 18. Apriay, d’Orb. (Upper Neocomian, d’Orb.),
Terr. Crét. p. 1089.
No record in British lists.
16.
30.
34.
Stage 19. Axsray, d’Orb. (Gault).
Multicrescis mamillata, d’Orb. (species doubtful, Pergens),
Terr. Crét. p. 1076.
Stage 20. Crnomantan, d’Orb.
Stomatopora granulata, Hdw. Perg. Rev. des Bryoz. p. 829;
ply xi. fig. 2,
(=Stomatopora reticulata, d’Orb. Terr. Crét. p. 841, pl.
630, fig. 1-4.)
. Proboscina subelegans, d’Orb. (ve-drawn and re-described by
Pergens), Ib. p. 853.
. Stomatopora Sarthacensis, Perg. (Proboscina ramosu in part,
d’Orb.), Ib. p. 851.
. Entalophora ramosissima, d’Orb. (same as No. 10, Pergens), Ib.
p. 785.
. Entalophora cenomana, d’Orb. (Laterotubigera cenomana, @’Orb.),
b. p. 715.
. Peripora pseudospiralis, Mich., d’Orb. Ib. p. 703.
. Heteropora variabilis, d’Orb. Ib. p. 1077.
. Ceriopora avellana, Mich., d’Orb. Ib. p. 1034.
. Semicea cenomana, d’Orb. (Reptocea cenomana, d’Orb.), Ib.
p- 1009.
tage 21. Turoytay, d’Orb.
. Ceriopora irregularis, d’Orb. Terr. Crét. p. 1018.
Stage 22. Sernonray, d’Orb.
. Proboscina cornucopix, d’Orb. Terr. Crét. p. 855.
7. Reptotubigera marginata, d’Orb. Ib. p 758,
(2), elevata, d’Orb. tC The example in the Paris
Museum is a Proboscina,’ Pergens), Ib. p. 755.
Diastopora congesta, d’Orb. (Reptomultisparsa congesta, d’Orb.),
Ib, p. 878.
1890. Col.
386 REPORT—1890.
24, Reptomulticava mamilla, d’Orb. Ib. p. 1041.
28. Heteropora’ undata, d’Orb. (Zonopera undata, d’Orb.), Ib.
p. 932.
1. Apsendesia papyracea, d’Orb. (Unitubigera papyracea, d’Orb.),
Ib. p. 761.
3. Ceriopora mamillosa, Rom. (Ieptonodicava mamillosa, d’Orb.), Ib.
p. 1015.
12. Melicertites Meudonensis, d’Orb. (Entalophora, Morris), Ib.
p- 622.
Stage 23. Danray, d’Orb.
15. Heteropora tenera, Hagenow, d’Orb. Terr. Crét. p. 1070.
29. Actinopora elegans ? (Lopholepis sp., Hag.).
38. Ceriopora cavernosa, Hag., d’Orb. Terr. Crét. p. 1034,
By the above rearrangement it will be seen that the stratigraphical
position of the Faringdon Polyzoa, if the species be identical with those
of d’Orbigny’s, will be as follows :—
Jurassic Formarion, Stage 10—Bajocian, 1 species
Cretaceous Formation, ,, 17—Neocomian, 7 species.
8 » 18—Aptian, no record.
~ » 19—Albian (Gault), 1 species
3 », 20—Cenomanian, 9 species.
Fs » 21—Turonian, 1 species.
3 », 22—Senonian, 9 species.
7 », 2d8—Danian, 3 species.
D’Orbigny divides the ‘ Bryozoaires’ into two groups—CrLLULINES
(Cheilostomata, Busk), and Crenrrirucinis (Cyclostomata, Busk) ; and he
brings out the remarkable fact that, while the Polyzoa of the Cyclo-
stomatous type, which begin in the Silurian epoch, are more or less persis-
tent throughout all the geological changes of the earth, those of the
Cheilostomatous type had their origin (very faintly developed, however)
in the Neocomian strata ; for d’Orbigny records only three species—one
in each—in his first three stages of the Cretaceous epoch. This opinion,
however, has to be modified in the light of recent investigations in this
country and in America; but even now Cheilostomatous Polyzoa are very
rare in rocks below. the Cretaceous. In the absence, therefore, of Cheilo-
stomatous Polyzoa in the Faringdon material, and the preponderance of
Cyclostomatous forms, [ am inclined to infer that the Faringdon Polyzoa
fauna, in spite of its mixed and anomalous character in the so-called
‘ Neocomian Sands,’ were derived from the disintegration of rocks before,
rather than after, the epoch of the Upper Chalk; and in all probability
the identifications in the Catalogue of Senonian and Danian species, given
above, well merit reconsideration by some competent authority.
As regards the Polyzoa of Neocomian rocks of Louth in Lincolnshire,
it may be advantageous to science if I draw attention to certain species
which came into my possession some time since. In 1886 I received from
Mr. Wallis Kew, of Louth, three small fragments of a polyzoon from the
Neocomian clay at Donnington-on-Bain, near Louth. This species I
described in ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural History,’ January 1887,
pp. 17-19, as Entalophora gracilis, Goldf., var. When I began to gather
together material for my papers on Cretaceous Polyzoa, I did my best to
ON CRETACEOUS POLYZOA. 387
work up the history of the material sent tome. In April 1889 I wrote
to Mr. Edwin Hall, of Louth, the real discoverer of the polyzoon. He
wrote to me immediately and sent me his three remaining fragments.
He also forwarded to me a list of Neocomian Foraminifera collected by
him at Louth. In his letter, he said that most of the Polyzoan material
gathered by him was sent to the Geological Museum, Jermyn Street.
After this I wrote to Mr. E. T. Newton, who, in reply to my letter,
enclosed answers from Mr. Rhodes respecting Mr. Hall’s material; and
subsequently another letter followed on the same subject from Mr. A. J.
Jukes-Browne, but none of them could find this Neocomian material. ~
II. Poryzoalor tHe GavLt.
Neither in the ‘ Catalogue of British Fossils,’ by Professor Morris,
nor in the ‘ Catalogue of Cretaceous Fossils in the Museum of Practical
Geology,’ is there any mention of Polyzoa from the horizon of the Gault.
In Mr. Etheridge’s list, however, already quoted,! four (?) species of
Polyzoa from this horizon are recorded. Excepting one species, I have
been unable to trace where the others are alluded to or described ; and, as
I wanted to make this report as complete as possible, I went to London
in June last for the purpose of finding out all I could abont these Gault
species. I was informed, both by Mr. R. B. Newton and Mr. Etheridge,
of the Museum of Natural History, Cromwell Road, that there were no
Gault forms in that museum. Since my visit Mr. Etheridge has kindly in-
formed me that the following are three of those mentioned in the new
edition of Phillips’s ‘Manual ’—
Berenicea (Diastopora) Clementina, d’Orb. Pal. Fr. vol. v. p. 865,
pl. 636, fig. 1-2.
Berenicea (Aulopora) polystoma, Rém. 1839, Ool. pl. 17, fig. 6; aud
Kreid. p. 19.
=Diastopora gracilis, d’Orb. 1850 (Berenicea polystoma,
d’Orb. 1852), p. 863.
Ceriocava ramulosa (Ceriopora), d’Orb. [1852], Pal. Fr. vol. v. p.
1017, pl. 788, fig. 11-12. ;
(Cheetetes ramulosus, Mich., 1845, Icon. Zooph. p. 202,
pl. 51, fig. 5.)
Unfortunately these British specimens cannot be traced.
Through the kindness of Mr. Jesson I have been able to examine a
small collection of fossils from Barnwell, Cambridge. The shells are
rather brittle and require careful handling; but the Polyzoan remains
stand out very well on the rough coatings of the shells; and the shells
themselves have a matrix of blue clay to support them. Of the locality
of the fossils, Messrs. W. H. Penning and A. J. Jukes-Browne write as
follows: ‘ At Cambridge Station and along the East Road the Gault is
shown to be 120 to 130 feet thick in wells, but at Barnwell it is said to
be 140 to 150 feet. Any one who stands on the surface of the Gault at
Barnwell will have little doubt about its being higher than the coprolite
bed at Coldham Common, and will see that its slope south-eastward is
much greater than can be accounted for by dip alone. Coldham Common,
? Phillips, Manual of Geology, vol. ii. 1885, pp. 89-590,
cc2
388 REPORT—1890.
in fact, owes its formation to the existence of a hollow in the surface of
the Gault, which is here only between 110 and 120 feet thick.”!
The Polyzoa of the Gault, however, require working out, and in this
report I am unable to give even a provisional list.
PoLYZOA FROM THE CAMBRIDGE GREENSAND.
For the classification of the Chalk rocks in the neighbourhood of Cam-
bridge, a very useful ‘Table of Chalk Zones’ is arranged by Messrs.
Penning and Jukes-Browne in the paper already quoted from (page 21).
As a preface to the introduction to this ‘Table’ the authors remark:
‘With regard to the larger divisions under which the succession of
zones may be grouped, we have felt it desirable to revive the general
classification proposed by Mr. 8S. Woodward, in 1833, for the Chalk of
Norfolk. The Melbourn rock and the Chalk rock form such marked
breaks in the series that it naturally falls into three main divisions—
lower, middle, and upper. We may point out that these exactly corre-
spond with those termed by d’Orbigny ‘“ Cénomanien,” ‘‘Turonien,” and
“‘ Sénonien,” as they are defined by Dr. Barrois ’? (pp. 20-21).
The only portion of the table that I shall quote is the section
bracketed as Lower Chalk, for the purpose of showing the position of the
Cambridge Greensand in the neighbourhood of Cambridge.
cit Bedfordshire and Bucks. Cambridgeshire pipe eee us
curved bedding; 60ft. | globosus; 80 ft. Zone of Holaster
Totternhoe stone; 10—| Totternhoe Stone; 15 ft. subglobosus ;
! Blocky Chalk, with) Zone of Holaster swb-
15 ft. 150 ft. in three
Cenomanian.
pe Totternhoe Marl; 80ft.| Zone of Rhynchonella divisions.
= z Martini; 50-60 ft.
Ss || CAMBRIDGE GREEN- |? Chloritic Marl.
SAND.
I have already written two papers on the Polyzoa of the Cambridge
Greensand,’ one in 1885, and the other in 1889. The material that I
used for the purpose of those papers was derived from different
places, and supplied to me by Mr. Jesson. One lot of material contained
a large number of fragments of Polyzoa and other organisms, which were
picked out from washings of the débris of the phosphate beds from
the Coldham Lane pits. Nearly all the Polyzoan fragments from the
phosphate beds were free, that is to say, they were unattached to any
particular fossil. The other series of Polyzoa described by me from the
Cambridge Greensand were in many respects similar to the first, but
were attached to several large fossils, which were, I believe, peculiar to
the Cambridge Greensand; and whatever doubt may be thrown out
respecting the true horizon of the first set of forms, the same will not
apply to the second set, and it was this last set only that I ventured
1 Mem. Geol. Survey, Map 51 8.W.: ‘Geology of the Neighbourhood of Cam-
bridge,’ p. 15.
2 Recherches sur le Terr. Crét. supérieur de V Angleterre et de V Irlande, 1876.
3 <Polyzoa of the Cambridge Greensand,’ Proc. Yorksh. Geol. and Polytech. Soc.
vol. ix.; ‘Further Notes,’ &c. vol. xi. pt. ii.
ON CRETACEOUS POLYZOA. 389
to characterise as ‘True Cambridge Greensand Polyzoa.’! In sepa-
rating the two sets of Polyzoan remains I do not wish to enforce any
classification of my own for the Cambridge beds; but only to make
myself clearly understood as to my manner of procedure, and then leave
the matter to paleontologists for acceptance or discussion, I will
begin with the derived examples of Polyzoa first; and, as I know next
to nothing about the phosphate or coprolite pits of Cambridge, it may be
well to refer the student to several sections of these beds as given in the
Memoir already quoted from, and which will be found on pages 35 to 38.
Of ‘Coldham Common’ I have already quoted a passage from the
same Memoir.
III. Potyzoa or tHe CamBripck GREENSAND, OR PHOSPHATE Bens.
Unattached forms (A).
CycLostomata, Busk.
1. Proboscina angustata, d’Orb. (Stomatopora gracilis (?), Vine,
Cambr. Green., 1888). a 4
: : Jambr.Greensand Papers,
. Diastopora foecunda, Vine gts eae Pike Yorke.
es es (congana ehace) Geol. Polytech. Soc.)
Clementina, d’Orb. Ib.
i megalopora, Vine, Ib.
. Entalophora proboscidea, Edw. (var. raripora, d’Orb.), Ib.
a var. elegans, Vine, Ib.
* Jessoni, Vine, Ib.
= neocomiensis, d’Orb. Ib.
lineata, Beissel, Ib.
», var. striatopora, Vine (Entalophora striato-
pora, Vine, 1885).
gigantopora, Vine, Cambr. Greensand Papers, 1885
.
at
~~
.
wt
.
HY
SOON Dore sore
rl
bo
and 1889.
. Filisparsa ornata, Reuss, Ib.
. Idmonea dorsata (?), Hag. Ib.
. Truncatula repens (?), Hag. Ib.
. Osculipora plebeia, Novak, Ib.
. Domopora polytaxis (?), Hag. Ib.
. Lichenopora radiata, Aud. Ib.
19, Umbrellina (Lichenopora) paucipora, Vine, Ib.
bet et et et
CONT Od Ot > 09D
Cuerrzostomata, Busk.
20. Membranipora Dumerili, var. Cantabrigiensis, Vine, Cambridge
Greensand Papers, 1885 and 1889.
21. fA cretacea, d’Orb. Ib. 1889.
22. + re var. Francqana, d’Orb. Ib.
1 This was not, owing to a misprint, quite so clearly stated in the second of my
two papers already referred to. The ambiguity was pointed out to me by Mr. Jukes-
Browne. The passage referred to is at page 252: ‘The second group of Polyzoa are
derived probably from erosion or denudation of rocks of the ages of the Cambridge
Greensand and Lower Chalk.’ A portion of the passage had been erased in my
original MS. after the word ‘derived.’ This erasure and the present note will, I hope,
make matters clear.
390 REPORT-—1890.
23. Microporella antiqua, Vine, Ib. 1885.
24. Lunulites cretacea (?), Ib.
In the material already alluded to there were many fragments of
Polyzoa, but those of the species numbered 1, 14, and 23, in the above
list, were unique ; some of the others were abundant, and some few were
rather rare. The most characteristic of the whole were: Entalophora
lineata, var. striatopora, Vine ; Osculipora plebeia, Novak ; and Diastopora
fecunda, Vine. D. megalopora, Vine, was rare; Membranipora Dumerili,
var. Cantabrigiensis, Vine, fairly abundant.
Associated with these free forms of Polyzoa were an immense number
of Foraminifera, Entomostraca,' Brachiopoda, and other organisms. The
Foraminifera and Entomostraca were catalogued in the second paper on
the Cambridge Greensand Polyzoa.
IV. Ponyzoa ATTACHED TO CaMBRIDGE GREENSAND Fossius (B).
(The fossils are Radiolites Mortoni, Mant.; Ostrea cunabula, Seeley; Pharetrospongia
Strahani, Sollas.)
: a, linearis, d’Orb., var. Mortoni, Vine.
Se a)
3. Proboscina dilatata,d’ Orb.,var.Cantabrigiensis, Vine. Ut e fen
4 * ramosa, d’Orb. gs
5 ches gigantopora, Vine. Adherent to Pharetrospongia
Strahant. ;
6. Diastopora foecunda, Vine. On Ostrea, Radiolites, and Pharetro-
spongia Strahani.
is af Hagenowi, Reuss. On Radiolites.
8. = megalopora, Vine. On Ostrea cunabula.
9. Lichenopora radiata, Aud. On Pharetrospongia Strahani.
0. Membranipora Dumerili, var. Cantabrigiensis, Vine. (Fine
colony.) On Iadiolites Mortoni.
ibis 5 cretacea, d’Orb. On Ostrea cunabula and Radiolites
Mortoni.
12. x is var. Francqana, d’Orb. On Radiolites
Morton.
13. Lunulites cretacea (so called). Abundant on the outer shell of
Radiolites Mortoni.
The counterpart of this peculiar fauna only came into my possession
on June 15, 1890, consequently I have not been able to allude to the
species before. During a visit to Professor T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S., on
the above date, he placed in my hand a small tube containing a number
of fragments which had been picked out from the Chalk detritus, or Chalk-
marl, of Charing, Kent, which is briefly referred to in the text, more par-
ticularly in a note (by ‘ W. H.’) on page 2 of his ‘ Monograph of the
Entomostraca of the Cretaceous Formation of England.’* The note
referred to states: ‘The village of Charing stands on a bank of Chalk
detritus, composed of fragments of white and grey chalk, which gradually
1 See ‘ Further Notes on the Polyzoa of]the7Lower Greensand,’ &c., Proc. Yorks.
Geol. Polyt. Soc. vol. xi. pt. ii. pp. 272-274. S—.
2 Paleontographical Society, 1849. The note is by the late William Harris, Esq.,
¥.G.8., of Charing, Kent.
ON CRETACEOUS POLYZOA. 391
decrease in size from blocks of one or two feet in diameter, lying at the
top, to very minute fragments, succeeded by still finer particles forming a
clay bed; which in general reposes on the chlorite marl (Glauconite),
This bank extends from the southern escarpment of the adjacent hills,
which form part of the northern boundary of the Weald of Kent, in a
gradual descent southwards for more than half a mile, where a hollow is
formed occupying an area of about fifteen acres, and surrounded by Chalk
detritus, except at one point, where a rivulet carries off the streams from
the Chalk hills. In this hollow’ beneath the vegetable soil, and also under
the banks of detritus, lies the clay-bed above mentioned, varying from one
to twelve feet in depth, of a greyish colour and tough consistence, and
containing nodules of undecomposed white and grey chalk and of ochreous
and argillaceous substances. This bed, abounds with many varieties of
Amorphozoa, Zoophyta, Annelida, Polythalamia, Entomostraca, &ec.
. . . From its general and palxontological characters, this bed would
seem to have been formed from the washings of the neighbouring Chalk
hills at the time they received their present undulated contour.’ Pro-
fessor Jones regards the ‘detritus’ as consisting mainly of Chalk marl.
In their ‘Supplementary Monograph on Cretéceous Entomostraca,’
1890, Professor T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S., and Dr. George Jennings
Hinde, F.G.S., further remark on the same bed at page vi, and on the
Same page they refer to the ‘Greensand of Cambridge,’ thus: ‘This
bed of glauconitic marl, formerly supposed to be on the horizon of the
Upper Greensand, is now known to represent the so-called chloritic or
glauconitic marl, and to be really the base of the Chalk marl, which rests
here on an eroded surface of Gault.’ The Polyzoa of the ‘ Charing
detritus ’ are so remarkably like those of the Cambridge Greensand that
one naturally supposes a common origin for the two faunas. Some of the
species which are common at Cambridge are rather rare at Charing ; but
the most characteristic Polyzoa of the two deposits are Entalophora
lineata, var. striatopora, Vine, and Umbrellina paucipora, Vine. These
are rather common in both deposits.
V. Potyzoa or THE Cuatx Derrrrus, Carine, Kenr.
In his ‘Catalogue of British Fossils,’ Mr. Morris enumerated six
species of Polyzoa from this deposit on the authority of Mr. W. Harris.
I give these first :—
1. Cricopora annulata, Reuss, Bohm. Kreid. pl. 14, fig. 2-3.
2. Escharina dispersa, Reuss, Ib. pl. 15, fig. 26. —
3. Hornera carinata, Reuss, Ib. pl. 14, fig. 6.
4, Pustulopora echinata, Reuss, Ib. pl. 14, fig. 4.
dD. » madreporacea, Goldf., Blainy. ‘ Manuel,’ p- 70, fig. 5.
Reuss, Bohm. Kreid. pl. 14, fig. 5.
G6. Vincularia Bronnii, Reuss, Bohm. Kreid. pl.'15, fig. 30.
The following temporary list of species, derived from the Jones-Harris
material already alluded to, is given on my own authority. The list is
neither classified nor complete :—
392 REPORT—1890.
Genera and Species = eee Found also in the
1. Entalophora lineata, Beissel, | Very common . | CAMBRIDGE GREENSAND
var. striatopora, Vine
2. Entalophora proboscidea, Ed- | Many examples “3 Ps
wards
8. Entalophora proboscidea, var. | Notcommon , te .
elegans, Vine
4, Entalophora proboscidea, var. | Rare. . 5 45
delicatula, Vine
5. Filisparsa ornata, Reuss a 5 y» (ware)
6. Laterotubigera, sp. : x 2 a a
7. Umbrellina paucipora, Vine || Common . A #
8. * variety | Rare. 5 a3 om
4); Melicertites, sp. 45
10. Ceriopora, sp. rec ‘
11. Osculipora plebeia, "Novak Very rare. CAMBRIDGE GREENSAND
(common)
12. Vincularia Bronnii, Reuss (or 53 Wiad ve
variety )
13. Vincularia, sp. ‘ 5 ‘ oF A
By comparing these lists of the two faunas, it will be seen how closely
they agree on the whole; but in the material I received from Professor
Rupert Jones we have no ’ Diastoporee nor Membranipore.
VI. Upper GREENSAND PoLyzoa.
The Upper Greensand Polyzoa, of which there are a good number of
examples in the Museum of Practical Geology, differ very materially from
the Lower Greensand forms. Professor Beete-Jukes, Manual Geol.,
p. 506, says: ‘ This set of beds often resembles the Lower Greensand in
lithological character, but the same caution is to be used in taking its
designation for a name only and not fora description. Tt has been
surmised that the Upper Greensand may be in part a shore deposit, and
therefore contemporaneous with, rather than preceding, the lowest beds
of the Chalk; but, wherever the two are together, we always find the
Upper Greensand underneath the Chalk-marl. Some of the Polyzoa are
rather characteristic of the deposit, while other forms are similar to those
found in the Faringdon beds. One particular form, Ceriopora polymorpha,
Goldfuss, is very characteristic, but the form designated by Jukes
Cricopora gracilis, though also characteristic, has rather a wide range.
The Upper Greensand Polyzoa in the Jermyn Street Museum have been
gathered from several localities, but chiefly from Warminster and Devizes.
I give the whole of the species catalogued by Professor Morris and others,
hoping to be able to re-examine them carefully at some future time.!
1. Diastopora Sowerbii, Lonsdale.
2. s tubulus, d’Orb.
3. Bidiastopora lamellosa, d’Orb.
4. Laterotubigera cenomana, d’Orb.
5. Spiropora cenomana, d’Orb.
1 Since this was written I learn by letter ‘that the considerable collection of
Upper Greensand Polyzoa in the Woodwardian Museum was formed by Prof. Seeley.’
This collection I have not seen.
nie 4
ON CRETACEOUS POLYZOA. 393
6. Cricopora gracilis, Goldf.
7. Entalophora ramosissima, d’Orb.
8. Py Francqana, d’Orb, (Clausa id. d’Orb.)
9. 5 micropora, d’Orb. (Clausa d’Orb.)
10. Retepora (Idmonea) clathrata, Goldf.
11. Heteropora cryptopora (Multicrescis).
12. Petalopora pulchella, Lonsd. (Cavea regularis, d’Orb.).
13. Radiopora pustulosa, d’Orb.
14. Domopora tuberculata, d’Orb.
15. Ceriopora polymorpha, Goldf.
16. Truncatula pinnata, Rom.
17. Eschara Cybele, d’Orb.
VII. Potyzoa or THE BLackpown AND Hatpon Beps.
The Rey. W. Downes, in a paper on ‘The Zones of the Blackdown
Beds,’! mentioned four species of Polyzoa preserved in the Bristol
Museum.
1. Heteropora dichotoma, Blainy.
F 3 ceryptopora, Goldf,
3. Ceriopora gracilis, Goldf.
4, Radiopora bulbosa, d’Orb.
The species 1 to 3, with others not yet catalogued, are found also in the
Haldon beds of Devon. The Radiopora bulbosa may be picked up in large
masses as water-worn pebbles on the Devonshire coast ; and I have a very
fine example thus derived, which was given to me some years ago by Mr.
Downes, but the Haldon species still await investigation.
VIII. Potyzoa or THE Rep CHaLk or HUNSTANTON.
It is not my intention, here or elsewhere, to enter upon any lengthy
discussion as to the origin or the exact geological horizon of the Red
Chalk. It will, however, be an advantage if I preface my Red Chalk list
of Polyzoa with a few remarks on this very peculiar deposit. The
Rey. T. Wiltshire, writing in 1859 on the Red Chalk of England,? says:
‘This stratum... nowhere forms a mass of any great thickness or
extent ; perhaps if thirty feet be taken as its maximum of thickness, four
feet as its minimum, and one hundred miles as its utmost extent in length,
the truth will be arrived at. It may be said, also, to be peculiar to
England, for the Scaglia, or Red Chalk, of the Italians has little in com-
mon with that of our country. The two differ widely in appearance, in
situation, and in fossils’ (p. 261). A good sketch map showing the
extent of the Red Chalk as it is traced in the Hast of England (from
Hunstanton to Filey), and a fine view of Hunstanton Cliff, embellish
' Mr. Wiltshire’s paper. Only three species of Polyzoa are mentioned by
Mr. Wiltshire.
1. Idmonea dilatata, d’Orb. Terr. Crét., tab. 632; Speeton.
2. Diastopora ramosa, Dixon, Geol. Sussex, p. 295 ; Hunstanton.
3. Ceriopora spongites, Goldf. Petrifac. p. 25, t. 10, fig. 14; Speeton.
* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Feb. 1882, pp. 75-94.
? The Geologist, 1859, pp. 261-278.
394 REPORT—1890.
In 1864 Prof. Seeley published a list of Red Chalk fossils,! in which
were included seven species of Polyzoa. These, together with other new
Red Chalk fossils, were described in 1866,? and in my present list (p. 895)
three additional species which may be regarded as new are given—partly
upon the authority of Prof. Seeley.
In a second paper by the Rev. T. Wiltshire ® the author adds to his
former list three more species of Hunstanton Polyzoa; and a very full list
of Red Chalk fossils, including five species of Polyzoa, is given as an
appendix to Mr. Whitaker’s Presidential address to the Norwich Geo-
logical Society.* Besides these, I am not aware of any other papers in
which Red Chalk Polyzoa are mentioned. I am very sorry that these
papers were overlooked by me when I wrote the monograph referred to
on p. 395 of the present report.
No disrespect is intended towards those authors who have written on
the Red Chalk (and a long list of papers are before me) ; but, as Messrs.
W. H. Hill and A. J. Jukes-Browne have summarised much of the
previous literature on the subject, I will, for brevity, only quote remarks
from their two latest papers. The reason will be at once apparent, when
I say that at the present time these authors regard the Hunstanton Lime-
stone as being the equivalent of the Gault: and, if so, the Polyzoa which
are adherent to the Red Chalk fossils belong to the Gault epoch also.
All the true British Gault species known to me, with which I can com-
pare these faunas, have been tabulated in the present Report. D’Orbigny,
in his elaborate analysis of the Cretaceous Polyzoa, catalogues only six-
teen species in his ‘ Albien’ stage, three of which we meet with in the
British fauna :—
1. Multelea gracilis, d’Orb. (Cricopora gracilis, Michelin), Terr. Crét.
p- 645.
2. Multicrescis mamillata, d’Orb. Ib. p. 1076.
3. be Michelini, d’Orb. (Heteropora cryptopora, Mich.), Ib.
p- 1075.
Novak,” in his long list of the Bohemian Polyzoan fauna, does not
mention Gault species; and Marsson® mentions only one Gault form,
Sparsicavea irregularis, d’Orb., and this species ranges into Turonian and
Senonian strata.
In their paper ‘On the Lower Beds of the Upper Cretaceous Series in
Suffolk and Norfolk,’ Messrs. Hill and Jukes-Browne7 remark (p. 592):
‘We are now in a position to indicate the bearing of our work on the
debated question of the exact age of the Red Chalk. In the absence
of anything like ordinary Gault, Upper Greensand, or Chalk-marl at
Hunstanton, the remarkable stratum which there lies at the base of the
Chalk has been referred by different observers to each of the formations
which appeared to be missing,—to the Gault by most of the early writers
and by Mr. Wiltshire, to the Upper Greensand by Professor Seeley (on
the strength of its fossils being similar to those of the Cambridge Green-
sand), and lastly to the Chalk-marl by Mr. Whitaker. Everyone, how-
ever, has discussed the question from a local point of view, founding their
1 Ann. Mag. Nat, Hist. vol. xiv. pp. 276, 278.
2 Tbid. vol. xvii. p. 181. 3 Quart. Jowrn. Geol. Soc. vol. xxv. p. 187.
* Proc. Nornich Geol. Soc. vol. i. part vii. 1883.
5 Bryoz. Bohm. Kreidef. & Die Bryoz. Weiss. Schreibhreide Insel Riigen. 1887. —
7 Quart. Journ. Geol, Soc. vol. xliii. p. 544.
ee
i
arguments mainly upon a consideration of the rock and its fossils as seen
at Hunstanton.’ Further on (p. 593), the authors state certain premises,
the last of which is as follows: The fossils of the Red Rock at Hunstan-
ton ‘are chiefly Gault species, and are such as would constitute a deep-
sea fauna contemporaneous with that of the shallower and muddier water
in which the Gault of the South of England was formed. ... From
these premises we come to the inevitable conclusion that the Red Rock of
Hunstanton must be the equivalent of the Ganlt, and not of its upper
division only; but that it is a condensed representative of both Lower
and Upper Gault, formed outside of the limits of the area reached by
_ mud-bearing currents.’
Having given these statements on the authority of Messrs. Hill and
_ Browne, I will now leave the whole consideration of the question as to the
horizon of the Red Chalk Polyzoa to others who may be better able to
decide ; but, instead of giving a consecutive list of the species as already
described by me from the Hunstanton Red Rock,! I will break the list
into two parts, showing, first, the species peculiar to the formation ; and,
secondly, the species whose identities approach nearest to the species
already described and illustrated by d’Orbigny ard others. This desire
on my part to keep down the introduction of too many ‘new species’
into my list, and so loading our nomenclature, has its disadvantageous
side, for even those forms which I have placed under d’Orbigny’s names
may merit separate illustration, as well as the notes on their peculiarities
already given in the paper referred to.
ON CRETACEOUS POLYZOA. 395
I. Species new, and, so far as yet known, peculiar to this Horizon.
1. Proboscina irregularis, Vine. This species varies much on different
fossils.
uberrima, Vine.
(gracilis, Reuss), var. Reussii, Vine.
a3 subelegans (approaches nearest to P. subelegans,
d’Orb., Pergens).
Hunstantonensis, Vine. Abundant and peculiar.
-f var. ampliata, Vine.
% Jessoni, Vine.
gigantopora, Vine.
3 dilatata, var. Cantabrigiensis, Vine. (Only a cast found
on a Red Chalk fossil.)
10. Diastopora Hunstantonensis, Vine. Most abundant, on various
ee em OO BD
fossils.
a1. rf as variety. The ‘cells’ differ slightly
from those of the type.
12. H foecunda, Vine. Not common.
13. * Jessoni, Vine. Very fine.
14,, + (Berenicea) contracta, Seeley.
15 ¥ (Cellulipora) sulcata, Seeley.
16. Reptomulticava favus, Seeley.
17. Membranipora Gaultina, var., Vine.
» Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. August 1890, pp. 454-486, one quarto plate xix.
396 REPORT—1890.
II. Species which, though somewhat peculiar, approach the nearest to the
following.
1. Stomatopora gracilis (?), Edwards. Unlike the S. gracilis, Edw., of
the Upper Chalk.
2 Ks divaricata, Romer.
3. 35 granulata, Edw.
4, As “5 var. incrassata, d’Orb.
D. a ramea, Blainy.
6 ie longiscata, d’Orb.
7 is linearis, d’Orb.
8. Proboscina angustata, d’Orb.
$3 5 rugosa (P), d’Orb.
10. 55 Bohemica, Novak (near).
11. ‘5 Toucasiana (?), d’Orb,
12. ” ramosa (?), d’Orb.
13. Diastopora radians (?), Novak.
14. 45 papillosa (?), Reuss.
15. Unitubigera papyracea, d’Orb.
16. Ceriopora micropora,! Goldf.
17. Reptomulticava simplex, d’Orb.
18. _ collis, d’Orb.
19. Zonopora variabilis, d’Orb. :
20. - irregularis, d’Orb.
21. Multicrescis variabilis, d’Orb.
22, Unicavea collis, d’Orb. (Actinopora collis, d’Orb.).
23. Membranipora (?) simplex, d’Orb. (Hippothoa simplex, d’Orb.).
24. 5 fragilis (?), d’Orb.
25. 5 elliptica (?), d’Orb.
26. 35 obliqua, d’Orb.
Oe et ee ee
Besides the above, I have a few examples of Red Chalk Polyzoa which
are still undescribed on account of their fragmentary condition, and laid
aside in the hope of better material turning up.
There is still very. much to be done in describing the Polyzoa of the
Cretaceous beds, and it seems to be useless as yet to prepare lists of
species found in the Upper Chalk of Great Britain. I have already in my
possession a quantity of material to describe from the Chalk overlying the
Red Chalk of Hunstanton, and from the Upper White Chalk of Chatham
and elsewhere. I may be allowed to say in conclusion, that I am prepar-
ing a Monograph of the Cretaceous Polyzoa, and that any assistance given
to me, either by the loan of examples, or by lists of species in local
museums, will be thankfully received and fully acknowledged.
* In these lists I have left out the ELxtalophora (2) sp. and Heteropora (2) sp. of
my paper.
ON THE YOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF VESUVIUS. 397
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. H. Baverman, Mr. F.
W. Ruprer, Mr. J. J. H. Teatt, and Dr. H. J. Jounston-Lavis,
appointed for the investigation of the Volcanic Phenomena of
Vesuvius and its neighbourhood. (Drawn up by Dr. H. J.
Jounston-Lavis, F.G.S., Secretary.)
State of Vesuvius.—The eruptive vent to the N.N.W. of the crater of
May 1889 soon moved slightly eastwards, where, with slight variations, it
remained. During September the activity rarely rose to the 2nd degree,
and presented no phenomena of importance. In October much the same
state was maintained as far as could be seen from Naples. The weather
in the early part of the month was exceedingly cloudy, and although the
Geologists’ Association’s excursion to the crater was one of the first
objects on the programme for their trip to the volcanic regions of
Southern Italy, it was not till the 12th that a suitable day was forth-
coming. Neither was that at first very favourable for the purpose, there
being much cloud and wind. Fortunately, at the moment of our arrival
at the crater the clouds cleared off, and the party were able to examine
the volcano to perfection. I have visited the crater over sixty times, and
only on one other occasion was the eruptive mouth more susceptible of a
close approach and examination. By making the circuit of the crater
plain on the 8. side (fig. 1) the vent was approached from the E. until
the party reached a spot about 10 or 12 m. from the vents, to do which
they had to traverse the small mound and the remnants of another low
crater ring covered up between October and the date when fig. 1 repre-
sented the mountain summit. The crater rim f of the eruptive cone, as
shown in the figure, was then very much lower, and enclosed a shallow
basin-shaped crater, so that when standing at m we were not more than
5 m. above the double vent, which was about 10 to 12 m. distant. The
two vents were situated on a line N. and §.; the largest about 3 m., the
smaller about 14 m. in diameter. Both were ejecting blasts of dry vapour,
with fragments of pasty lava, which were fortunately very small, and
carried to the W. by the wind. These vents strongly reminded one of
two enormous Bessemer converters being rather roughly worked. So
easy was the approach that I was able to go and return several times to
conduct sections of our party to the inner crater edge, and amongst
these were various ladies and a veteran geologist of fourscore years.
Some 50 or 60 m. down the eastern slope of the great cone lava
was oozing forth in a small stream, with about a sectional area of
half a square metre, and at the rate of one metre in 20 seconds, which
would give an outflow of about 2,160 cub. m. in 24 hours, or, subtracting
something for viscous drag and retardation along the sides and bottom,
let us call it 2,000 cub. m. The daily outflow rarely amounts to a smaller
quantity than this, so that if we calculate this as the daily average from
May 5 to December 25, the respective dates when the outflow commenced
and finished—in all 234 days—we have the considerable quantity of
468,000 cub. m., or nearly half a million cubic metres of lava represented
by a cube whose sides are 78 m., or a steep side cone over 100 m. high.
The major part guttered over and remained attached to the slopes of the
cone. ‘The point of issue was about one quarter way down the great
398 REPORT—1890.
cone, and in this outflow the lava dribbles only a few yards; great
bosses and buttresses are built up so as to constitute very important
additions, both in bulk and strength, to the cone. During this month of
October a little progress was made in raising and enlarging the eruptive
crater ring into a low cone; but during the following month of Novem-
ber the activity arose frequently to the 2nd degree, and consequently
Fig. 1.—Sketch Plan of the Summit of the Great Cone of Vesuvius on April 11, 1890
HI HAAN WY ee 2
TET ee
ro
Limit of the 1872 crater where overflowed by lava, a, and where still visible, a’;
6, remnant of cone of 1885-6 ; ¢, part of crater edge of May 1886; d, crater
of May 1889 ; e, part of cone of eruption up to end of April 1889; f, cone of
eruption from May 1889 to April 1890; 9, fissure of May 1889; h, yellow
patches of decomposing lava, scoriw, and dust, marking situation of old hot-
air passages and fumaroles ; %, fissure emitting HCl vapours; j, guides’
shelter; #, numerous fissures on S.E. edge of great cone; J, other fissures on
N.E. edge of great cone.
the growth went on more rapidly. This increased activity was rather an
indication of the increasing obstruction to the lateral outflow, so that
lava had risen in the chimney. The obstruction, and probably other
circumstances, culminated on December 2, when the activity rose from
the 3rd to the 4th deg. and lava stopped flowing ; but after a few hours
the fluid rock again forced its way out, and activity dropped to the Ist
degree. Towards the middle of the month the activity again rose to the
2nd degree, and remained so, when visible, until the 23rd. On that
day the smoke issued in a puffy and intermittent manner; in the evening
there was cloud-cap, but the next day the activity rose to the 3rd degree,
coincident with a marked diminution in the outflow, which during the
next days entirely stopped.
ON THE VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF VESUVIUS. 399
Tn the early part of January the activity was rarely above the 1st de-
gree ; the crater edge was tumbling in, so that on the 9th it was observable
that slight truncation of the eruptive cone was visible. The low lava
level, and consequently the 1st degree of activity as well as the crumbling
in of the inner slopes of eruptive cone, I am inclined to attribute to
an extension of the S.H. dyke, as the fissures marked i; in fig. 1,
lying above it, were increased in size and number about this time.
For the next four weeks the volcano was very quiet, showing usually
abont the Ist degree of activity. On February 9 the new small crater
cavity of a month before was yet little altered, the walls still crumbling
in and the eruptive vent situated under the eastern edge in the direction
of the rift in the side of the great cone from which the last lava had
issued, ‘Till the end of the month little could be seen from Naples.
During March more reflection at the crater was visible from Naples,
which indicated the repair of the eruptive cone, and the rise of lava
level within the chimney. Unfortunately during February, March, and
April several attacks of illness and the resulting weakness prevented me
from making observations with that regularity that I should have wished.
During May a further marked increase of activity was visible, so that
the eruptive cone grew rapidly in height. On the 11th, when I visited
the crater, the eruptive cone had already considerably surpassed the
height of the crater edge of May 1889. The general arrangement of the
eruptive apparatus and summit of the great cone can be seen from the
semi-diagrammatic plan, fig. 1.
As the cone of eruption rose in height, so also did the level of the
Java, so that cakes of lava were ejected very abundantly. The activity
therefore often equalled the 2nd to 3rd degree.
The month of June showed little or no variation in the state of the
mountain. During this month I quitted Naples on a trip to Iceland, and
my friend and pupil Mr. L. Sambon kindly undertook to continue the
observations on Vesuvius, and therefore for the following information I
am gratefully indebted to him, knowing as I do his precise method of
observation.
The quiet state of the voleano continued through July till August 5,
the activity rarely rising above the lst degree, but on that and the 6th
and 7th of the month the 8rd and 4th degrees prevailed. On August
7, at noon, following small local earthquakes and boati, the summit of
the mountain was split open along the 8.H. fissures in the crater-plain,
which now was prolonged right through the side of the eruptive cone.
Lava issued from this new rift at the foot of the cone of eruption; the
first gush, however, soon stopped and cooled, but later in the same day
the lava burst out afresh about 50 m. lower down (and therefore on the
slopes of the great cone) and continued to flow. On the 9th a distinct
reflection was visible on Vesuvius from the flowing lava. My friend
visited the scene of the outburst on July 12, and found the cone of
eruption with its edges undermined so as to be overhanging, due no
doubt to the sousing about of the lava at a lower level in the chimney.
The ejections were, as usually the case after a lateral outburst, what is
commonly called ashy, that is, no longer composed of soft hot lava
cakes, but the broken-up sides of the chimney and eruptive cone projectes:
as dust, sand, lapilli, and breccia by the escaping vapour which whiffed
out continually.
The cone of eruption lost little in height, though the undermining
400 REPORT— 1890.
would no doubt result in a collapse of part of it. The lava flowed nearly
down to the foot of the great cone.
On the evening of July 12 the lava was still flowing, though hardly
any activity was visible at the top of the cone, though sufficient to show
that the fluid lava column had not sunk far from the summit. On the
13th the outflow diminished as the activity at the summit rose fully to
the 1st degree, and so remained till August 9.
Drainage-works in Naples——Although frequent visits have been paid
to the numerous new tunnels beneath the streets of the town, so far little
of interest from a geological point of view has been brought to light.
Funicular Railway of Monte Santo——The continuation of the railway
below the bottom opening of the tunnel unfortunately has been only in
surface soil, so that the complete relations of the pumice and dust-beds
beneath the pipernoid tuff cannot be fixed in a downward direction.
An opening near the entrance to the tunnel shows the following beds
beneath the bottom of the white pumice underlying the grey pipernoid
tuff. These are as follows, from above downwards :—Old vegetable soil,
with a felspathic sand band a short distance beneath its surface. It
passes down into compact buff dust with white pumice. Next comes
another compacted dust-bed, passing down into white pumice, in all
about 0°50m. This is followed by about 1:20 m. of beds, or rather bands,
of varicoloured pumice, with intervening dust-beds. The lowest visible
member is about 1m. of small white pumice. These beds are probably
the oldest volcanic products of the Phlegrean Fields exposed at the
surface, with the exception of the Rione Amedeo tuffs.
Province of Naples.—Continuing my investigations of the chronological
stratigraphy of the volcanic products of the Neapolitan area, it is with
much pleasure that a considerable amount of valuable additions of facts
bearing on this point has come under my observation. Professor A.
Scacchi, continuing his mineralogical investigations on the meta-
morphosed blocks of limestone enclosed in the pipernoid tuff, has
described those of Puccianello near Caserta. He also touches upon their
geological relations, referring them to a local eruption at that spot. As
this is a report, and elsewhere I have combated those opinions, I shall
limit these remarks to my own observations and the conclusions I am led
to by them.
At the conjunction of two or three shallow but steeply inclined gorges
in the limestone are the remains of an old deposit of pipernoid tuff attain-
ing considerable thickness in consequence of being a talus formed from
the slopes above when stripped of their subaerial covering of volcanic
dust soon after its ejection. This mass of tuff has been very extensively
quarried, and the highest pit exhibits the relations of the quarried tuff to
the limestone. From the accompanying details and sketch section these
relations can be easily understood.
The identity of the beds underlying the pipernoid tuff of Puccianello
and that of the Monte Santo Funicular Railway tunnel cannot for one
moment be doubted, and fully confirms my former conclusion drawn
from much more imperfect sections elsewhere.
Near the bottom of the pipernoid tuff of Puccianello is a layer of old
limestone fragments, &c., now metamorphosed to fluorides and silicates.
The band of these runs near and parallel to the under surface of the
tuff, and the layer of fragments is more common at the lower end of the
band, indicating that they were carried down the slopes above, being
~—_—
ON THE VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF YVESUVIUS. 401
nothing more than the loose surface fragments of the limestone slopes
above. Their occurrence near the bottom of the tuff is just what we
should expect to find under those conditions. The limestone surface
é, Vegetable soil, Vesuvian dust and lapilli, &c., variable ; g, pipernoid tuff with
a band of fluoriferised limestone fragments near the bottom, which is in-
clined, and the larger inclusions are nearer the lower part of the slope, 15 to
30m. ; f, pumiceous sand redder and more argillaceous at the top, 0°30 m. ;
é, black carbonaceous earth with a few fragments of white pumice. This
bed thins out to nothing at the lower end of section, 0:40 m.; d, ochreous
earth with white pumice, 0°65 m.; c, white pumice, browner and dustier at
the top, 0°85 m.; 4, yellowish or reddish brown earth variable from 0°50 to
2:00 m. ; a, limestone rounded and rilled, and with gaping clefts, as if ex-
posed to action of acids. The surtace gives a fluorine reaction, and is spongy
to some depth.
beneath the section is also of great interest. It is furrowed and rounded
as if a stream of acid water had flowed over it, and much resembles a
white marble sink of a laboratory etched out and furrowed by the acid
liquids flowing over it. A similar condition can often be seen on the
Neapolitan water-sellers’ marble counters in Naples from the action of the
waste lemon-juice. The old cracks of the limestone are open and gaping,
whilst the surface is rotten and porous from 1 to 5cm. more in depth,
and the thin crust affords a marked fluorine reaction. All these cha-
racters point to the fact that this limestone has been exposed to chemical
corrosion not of a usual kind, and that one of the corrodents was a com-
a9 fluorine. But, as may be seen by the section, this fluoriferous
; DD
402 REPORT—1890.
pipernoid tuff is not in contact with the limestone, and could not have
acted upon it directly, and therefore the probability is that this chemical
erosion was brought into action by rainwater percolating through the
tuffs having dissolved out the acids, probably of fluorine, chlorine, and
sulphur, from the ejectamenta that formed the pipernoid tuff.
The fragments of scoriz and porphyritic vitreous trachyte that enter
into the composition of the pipernoid tuff are comparatively very large,
and would seem to indicate the prevalence of a strong wind.
Marine terrace of Castellamare.—A proper examination of this is
prevented to a large extent by talus, vegetation, and buildings; but I
had the good fortune lately to find a small spot in a private garden near
‘Sommazzarello’ where there is an entrance to an old tunnel quarry in
the pipernoid tuff which forms the basis of the cliff. This marine terrace
is, on account of its height and age, so far as can be made out, contem-
poraneous with that at Pozzuoli, known as the Starza, and which over-
looks the Serapeum, and, like it, has been built under, against, and over
by the Romans, at that time forming part of the town of Stabie. At
the section in question the base of the cliff is composed of a bank of
pipernoid tuff, the bottom of which is not visible in the hole 2 m. deep,
which also forms another 4 m. at the cliff bottom. Superposed upon
this are traces of the musewm breccia, as indicated by the included rock
fragments ; but the main mass is a red pisolitic earth, some of the pisolites
attaining the size of an egg. The appearance of a few well-rounded
pebbles indicates water erosion, but whether fluviatile or marine I could
find no certain indication. Associated with the fragments of the nwusewm
breccia are many pieces of limestone, which of course are to be expected
in this locality. The main mass of the cliff above is made up of a series
of beds of limestone pebbles interstratified with bands of tuff and
tufaceous earth. These tuffs will, I think, by a more careful examina-
tion, prove to be chiefly of Vesuvian origin. At the top of the cliff there
is a marked stratum of plinian pumice (Phase VII., Period 1), which
of course buried Stabiz. This section shows us that the grey tuff was
ejected before all the other visible components of this cliff, and at a time,
or possibly previous to the time (if there were several oscillations of
level), when the sea-surface stood above the level of the platform of this
terrace, and at no great distance eroded the foot of Monte Barbaro.
This, therefore, is another link in the chronological chain of the Naples
volcanic region.
Erratics on Capri.icMy attention has been devoted to the examina-
tion of the remnants of volcanic rocks which in places mantle the
Cretaceous and Jurassic limestones of the island of Capri. These tuffs
are, no doubt, often a resorted mixture of the ejectamenta from different
sources, and of different dates, which from time to time have reached the
island, though much of the fine-grained sanidinic variety is undoubtedly
to be referred to much decomposed remnants of pipernoid tuff, such as is.
often met with on the mainland. The principal part of the island, how-
ever, is covered by a mantle of ochreous argillaceous earth, often a metre
or more in thickness, and containing nearer its bottom a poorly defined
band of about 0°10m. thick, composed of rock fragments identical with
those of the museum breccia associated with the essential components of
those ejectamenta, viz., the peculiar porphyritic obsidian and wood-like
pumice. These fragments were of considerable size, and out of some
pocketfuls collected during half an hour from a spot called Lima five of
ON THE VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF YESUYIUS. 403
the largest were found to weigh 720 grammes, the heaviest one being
above 200 grammes, or say 74 ounces, which is enormous, considering
the distance of Capri from the neighbourhood of Pianura. Associated
with these rock fragments I found ancient archaic pottery and stone
implements, but could find nothing very definite as to their position relative
to these superficial deposits.
Tuff-quarries of Fajano.—After waiting three years, the tuff cutting
has again reached a section that I had admired during that time and
wished to examine more minutely, for it is the most perfect of the
Vesuvian deposits which overlie the pipernoid tuff in the neighbourhood.
The following are the details of this valuable section from below
upwards :—
Grey tuff, quarried down for at least . : 4 : - 20°00 m.
PHASES IIE, IV., AND V.
Gritty brown bed, with very few and small fragments of rolled
pumice. In some spots it is finely BCE TY and
passes up into the next . . 020m.
Brown soil with indistinct plant markings and a 1 few frag-
ments of pumice F . : : : . 125m.
Pumiceous bed with a few lava lapilli ‘ 5 : . . 035m.
PHASE VI., PERIOD 1.
Regularly stratified vesicular compacted dust bed . . 9:10 to 0°20 m.
Very markedly stratified deposit of greyish black compact
lapilli passing up into next 5 . 035m.
Fine and coarse stratified vesicular compacted dust passing
upintonext . - 5 . : : 5 : - 0°35 m,
PuAse VI., PERIOD 2.
Yellow pumiceous sand with fragments of rolled pumice at
bottom . c : 4 * “ 2 3 ; » 180m.
PHASE VI., PERIOD 3.
Fine white pumice in very regular bed with little accessory
material . é : - 025m
The same, but with aTeu accessory material : : 0:18 m
Fine lapilli of accessory materials of last : : 10: 20 to 0°35 m
? Yellow pumiceous soil . 210m
PHASE VI., PERIOD 3, ? AND PHASE VII.
White pumice . : : : - - : : é . 050m.
Vegetable soil . : : : : 4 : =
Ina neighbouring quarry Phase VI., Period 4, is well represented, but
the section has been for some years inaccessible, and I have not been able
to examine the relationship of the upper to the lower portions. In many
points of the above detailed section blocks of limestone are included
which have no doubt rolled down from the mountain above, just as they
did during the deposition of the subjacent pipernoid tuffs. They are
subangular and porous on the surface in consequence of the action of
percolating waters.
The great main-sewer works.—Returning again to the neighbourhocd
immediately to the W. of Naples, we meet with the sections exposed in
cutting the new main sewer, which will carry the cloacal waters across
the Phlegrean Fields to the Gulf of Gaeta: That portion which runs
nearly parallel to the old and new grotto tunnels to the W. of Naples, so
Depe2
404 REPORT—1890.
far as cut, still remains in the upper yellow Neapolitan tuff, and one point
is 20 m. lower than the floor of the new tunnel, and close to the elevator
shaft, which has proved the upper yellow tuff to be 60 m. thick above the
causeway, and therefore giving an aggregate thickness for this deposit
of at least over 80m. This deposit, if due toa single eruption, as its
homogeneity would seem to indicate, is certainly a very remarkable fact.
Where this tunnel crosses the plain from Fuorigrotta to Bagnoli
-great uniformity of materials has been met with, well-stratified beds of
varying thickness of yellow argillaceous dust, including more or less
white pumice, as well as brownish violet pozzolana and lapilli, with frag-
ments of dark buff or brown pumice like that of the hills to the 8.W. of
the Solfatara predominating. Occasionally a band or two bands of dark
brown scoriaceous trachyte lapilli are met with. These beds are nearly
horizontal except where they approach the slopes of Posilippo. Most of
these strata seem to be either subaerial deposits, or laid down in very
shallow water. Fragments of lignitised wood are occasionally met with,
and one overseer told me he had met with the impression of a fern leaf,
but that it had crumbled to pieces.
As the tunnel approaches the outer toe of the slopes that encircle the
Lago d’Agnano, at a spot more than a kilometre from the celebrated
Grotto del Cane, a very serious escape of carbonic acid commenced to
take place in the workings, which soon caused operations to be suspended,
and such was the output of irrespirable gas that only with very powerful
ventilators could the work be carried on. The length of the tunnel
along which this escape takes place is very considerable, but cannot be
determined until more advance is made; but, altogether, the area over
which the exudation of carbonic acid gas is going on must be a very wide
one, and must represent the diurnal escape into the atmosphere of an
enormous quantity.!
The working shaft near the road to Agnano presents a section some-
what different from the others in the Bagnoli plain, since here the toe of
the outer slopes of the Agnano crater is cut through. The following
was the section obtained from above downwards :—
Greenish buff, pozzolana, and rolled pumice, the whole stratified hori-
zontally but with false bedded details . : : : : : . 540
Light brown pozzolana, black and vegetable soil at top . : 5 . 3°80
Chocolate tuffs like Bagnoli and Solfatara down to : : : - 300
The work, on account of the above-mentioned difficulties, has not yet
been more than commenced near Bagnoli and Pozzuoli, where many
technical difficulties present themselves, and geological facts of the greatest
importance are likely to be brought to light. The ‘Societa degli
Ingegneri Costruttore,’ before facing these difficulties, requested me to
study the region thoroughly and report thereon ; and as those studies are
of no uncommon interest, the substance is included in this report.
The main sewer will be a tunnel which perforates the mountains
from the thermal region of Bagnoli under the slopes of the Solfatara
Monte Olibano, and thence to Pozzuoli, a region where the very embers
of the Forge of Vulcan have to be traversed.
"In 1886 an attempt was made to excavate a well by the roadside where the
road from Agnano joins that from Fuorigrotta to Bagnoli, and here much ‘Mofetta’
was also encountered, indicating that the area of escape extends at least another
half-kilometre eastwards.
ON THE VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF VESUVIUS. 405
The difficulties to be encountered may be classified as follows :—
1. Lithological characters of the rocks to be traversed.
2. Temperature of the rocks.
3. Exhalation of irritant and deleterious vapours and gases.
4, Thermo-mineral waters.
5. Depression of the Jand-level in relation to that of the sea.
Fic. 3.—Section across M. Olibano and the Solfatara near Pozzuoli,
Scale of 1 : 17,000.
(North) } (South)
& =
= S$ i)
q a fe 8
g 8 2 os
S io) s =<! 8 fi 1S
EB s & = A a
x =) +2) <3 a
S : a ui = A
S “% x
ight 3
a, Canals of trachyte; a’, trachyte streams; 6, scorie and other fragmentary
ejecta filling the old craters; c, strata of incoherent submarine pozzolana ;
d, fumaroles ; e, argillaceous tuffs with fragments of lignite, which in part
fill the crater of the Solfatara.
N.B.—The Bocca Grande is not really in the line of section, but slightly to the east.
1. Geological structure of the region.—Just beyond the locality known
as La Pietra, towards Pozzuoli, and near the mouth of the Cumana Rail-
way tunnel, we meet with a compact yellow tuff much resembling that
of Naples, Posilippo, and Pozzuoli. This tuff, rising very abruptly from
the sea-level, constitutes the promontory now traversed by a short rail-
way tunnel. Of this tuff is constituted the base of that cliff as well as
some other masses. The same tuff reappears at the entry to Pozzuoli,
and of which also is composed the almost peninsular hill on which
the old town stands. These fragmentary materials erupted, and since
indurated by decomposition, and some of their constituents altered, as
usually occurs, have subsequently been subjected to so much marine
erosion as to reduce them to submarine reefs and islands at a time when
the sea was at a higher level, reaching to and eroding the foot of Monte
Barbaro, reducing it to its present state of ruin. The waves, in fact,
undermined the foot of Monte Barbaro both in front and at its two sides,
actually breaching the Campiglione crater on the east. At that epoch
the shore-line reached the Montagua Spaccata, the foot of Camaldoli, and
covered the plain from Fuorigrotta to Bagnoli. It was this sea that de-
posited those tuffs and pozzolanas which, abounding in shells and other
skeletons of marine animals, now constitute in section the Starza of
Pozzuoli, a terrace which extends from Monte Nuovo to the Cava Regia,
interrupted by the already-mentioned tuff promontory of Pozzuoli. Other
traces of this same sea-bottom, arranged as a terrace, rise behind the
Lucrine Lake, near the Stufe di Nerone and behind the Bathing Esta-
blishment of Patamia. The terrace at Stabia, mentioned in another part
of this report, is referable to the same age. It is the shore-line of this
sea around the ancient tuff islands and reefs that may be studied to per-
fection at La Pietra.
406 REPORT—1 890.
On the irregularly eroded surface of the yellow tuff we find deposits
of a great number of large boulders and pebbles of the same tuff, torn
by the action of the sea from the shore-line of reefs. These pebble beds
are in fact the shore-line equivalents of the Pozzolana sand and rounded
lapilli of the Starza, which, where now seen in section, were deposited
farther from the shore.
Subsequent to the erosion of these ancient tuff reefs, and the deposi-
tion around them of conglomerates, gravels, and finer materials, a vent
opened at the site of Monte Olibano, and probably ata point now traversed
by the strada 8. Gennaro. From this mouth issued several trachyte lava
streams, one of which, on account of its great viscidity, stopped a short
distance from its point of issue, piling itself up and accumulating in the
place where we now see it cut into chiefly by man’s hand, and forming
great irregular cliffs in the different stone quarries on the Pozzuoli road.
Before this lava flowed out, a great quantity of the fused rock was
ejected by the violence of the explosions in a fragmentary state as scori
and pieces of scoriaceous trachyte, which falling formed very irregular
strata often several metres thick. The contact of these pieces of hot rock
with the subjacent pozzolana and tuff has produced in most places the
usual characteristic red coloration which indicates that the land had
then risen very considerably, for had the hot scoriz fallen into the water
they would have been cooled before they reached the bottom, and could
not then have produced the characteristic coloration.
At the lowest point where scoriz are in contact with older deposits,
and close to the Pozzuoli road, the reddening is absent, and therefore we
must conclude that although elevation had gone on it had not yet attained
that level.
Probably there were several eruptions from Monte Olibano, though it
is difficult to determine how many, for between the bands of trachytic
scoriz beds of re-sorted tuff occur which probably required a certain time
to be deposited.
Some traces of the crater formed during the principal explosions are
to be seen to the right of the upper road going to 8. Gennaro and Pozznoli
and facing the entrance to the Fondo Sarno. To the left we see the
trachyte in the form of a gigantic mamelon over the side of the vent, and
from which is prolonged the short, dumpy lava stream that probably
flowed over the lower edge of the crater towards the sea.
The mass of trachyte which in part constitutes the inner south de-
clivity of the actual crater of the Solfatara is a trachyte lava which
flowed to the N. or N.W. at a date corresponding to the first eruptions
of the voleano of Monte Olibano, and the masses and altered breccias, &c.,
which now form the steep boundaries of the solfatara crater and posterior
to the trachyte are due to later eruptions of Monte Olibano and the actual
Solfatara. It was also from here that issued those streams seen in the
cliff behind the Bath establishment of Subveni Homini, which are, there-
fore, probably more ancient than the trachyte of the Cava Regia,
Mura, &c.
The mass of trachyte of the Solfatara crater wall might also be a dyke,
but it seems impossible for it to have so nearly reached the surface without
overflowing. The actual crater of the Solfatara was produced by an explo-
sion at a posterior epoch, the material from which accumulated in great
deposits upon all the anterior formation, and considerably changed the
preceding configuration of the surface.
ON THE VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF VESUVIUS. 407
Practical results.—The sewer, on quitting the chocolate-coloured poz-
zolana and lapilli of Bagnoli near the Stabil’ Patamia, will pass through
the boulder and pebble deposit of unimportant thickness, after which the
compact yellow tuff will be traversed for some considerable distance.
Thence it will again pass into the boulder and pebble formation and
gradually from coarser to finer pozzolana and sand of different kinds.
For the above-mentioned geological regions it is impossible to deter-
mine with precision the internal limits of these various formations, even
at a small distance from the road.
Even at the surface, the cliff section from La Pietra to Pozzuoli is
one of the most intricate of the Campi Flegrzi, itself a most complicated
region.
~The canal by which the main mass of trachyte of Monte Olibano issued
is probably situated beneath the highest eminence of the lava, that is, at
Cariati (see fig. 3). If such is the case, and if the column of cooled
lava is not of very great dimensions, the tunnel as projected would pass
a little to the south; but if my calculations be erroneous or if there be
any marked irregularities, it may be requisite to perforate the compact
trachyte for some indeterminable distance.
I do not believe that the sewer will meet with the scoriw beds which
were found near the road in the Cumana Railway tunnel, after passing
farther into the hill where, from the direction of the dip, these strata
would be found at a higher level. But even here an exception might
occur in the case that the inner declivity of the old filled-up crater of
Monte Olibano extended far seawards. At any rate, it is to be hoped that
this scoriz deposit will not be met with, because, with its structure full of
interstices between irregular-shaped fragments, the exit of hot and
poisonous vapour would occur with great ease.
2. Temperature of the ground to be traversed——An atmosphere, the
temperature of which exceeds the normal blood heat of man, is a condi-
tion of the greatest importance in the employment of human labour.
This normal temperature of the body can only be maintained by the
evaporation of the perspiration, and the evaporation is in inverse proportion
to the amount of aqueous saturation of the atmosphere. Man is capable
of enduring for a relatively long time, in a dry atmosphere, a tempera-
ture equal to that of boiling water; butif the air be saturated with
moisture, the individual would be immediately subject to grave injury.
It is therefore necessary not only to examine the temperature but also
that of the relative saturation.
Studying the ground from this point of view, the first fact that pre-
sents itself is that at the Bocca Grande of the Solfatara, a very abundant
escape of gas composed chiefly of water-vapour takes place, and presents
at the point of its exit a temperature of 156° C. (December 12, 1889)
which were it pure water-vapour would correspond to a pressure of 54
atmospheres. We cannot determine at what rate the temperature and
pressure of the vapour diminish as we recede from this point of maximum
at the Bocca Grande, nor do we know in what proportion the temperature
of the ground diminishes as we recede from the centre in a horizontal
plain. If we assume empirically a diminution of pressure of gas and
temperature of the ground proportional to the distance between two
points at: which the temperature is known, we may get an idea of that of
the tunnel where it approaches nearest to the Solfatara.
In the Cumana Railway tunnel, under Monte Olibano, the working
408 REPORT— 1890.
temperature was 60° C. The distance of this tunnel from the Boeca
Grande is 860 m. which equals a diminution of 0°11186° per metre; and
as the sewer will pass at 740m. from the same point of maximum
temperature, we consequently should find in it a temperature of 73:40°.
In one of my excursions I found a fumarole, about a hundred metres
to the S.E. of Cariati, from which was issuing a current of vapour with
slight blowing, sufficiently to be sensible at half a metre distant from the
opening. With an outside temperature of 15° C. I found the tempera-
ture of the issuing vapour 30° C. at the mouth of the fumarole. This.
fumarole occurs at a much greater height than the level of the sewer, and
slightly to the north.
Practical results ——All these facts would indicate that the sewer will
have to traverse very hot rocks with abundant humidity, because the
bottom level is a very short distance above the drainage level, as
indicated by the neighbouring wells to be water at a very high tempera-
ture. As the conditions require that the tunnel shall in this neighbour-
hood be of considerable length without laterai openings, some doubt
must be raised in our minds whether, should there be an abundant
escape of vapour under pressure, artificial ventilation could render the
continuance of the work practicable.
3. Exhalation of poisonous or deleterious gases or vapours.—We have
seen that by the compacter rocks, and by the interstices of the friable
rocks, as the gravelly pozzolana and the trachytic scorie, we might
encounter exhalations of very high temperature. But these same exhala-
tions might contain not only aqueous vapour, but also other substances.
At the Solfatara the vapour, according to Breislak and many other
investigators, contains, besides the aqueous components, much sulphurous
acid, ? sulphuretted hydrogen, arsenic sulphides, arseniuretted hydrogen,
carbonic acid, and traces of ammonia.
We find these compounds most abundant at the Bocca Grande, and
in proportion to the distance therefrom the exhalations gradually lose
most of the other compound, the aqueous vapour only remaining.
In studying the region where these exhalations decompose the rocks,
we find that it is limited principally to a line directed from N.W. to
S.E.; which line, if prolonged 8.H. of the crater of the Solfatara and the
outer walls on the same side, would pass by Monte Dolce, where a fissure
exists in the yellow tuff. At one time it was possible to penetrate into
the cleft for some 10 to 15m. from the Pozzuoli road, and with more
limited dimensions even into the mountain. From this cleft there
constantly issued hot vapours, and all the surface of the tuff walls
was covered by crystals of gypsum, which would seem to indicate that if
not at present, at least a short time ago, the vapours contained compounds.
of sulphur, which becoming oxidised into sulphuric acid had attacked
the alkaline and earthy constituents and formed fresh compounds, of
which the gypsum has remained in consequence of its feeble solubility.
This cleft has lately been filled up and built over in making the tunnel
of the Cumana Railway.
Practical results —Besides the high temperature the exhalations into
the workings might not only consist of simple steam, but may contain
different gases or vapours of an irritant or irrespirable nature, which
could be got rid of only by powerful ventilation.
Besides this difficulty we know that in the vicinity of the Solfatara
these exhalations rapidly decompose every mineral substance, and there-
ON THE VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF VESUVIUS. 409
fore the walling of the sewer would suffer from the action of the sulphuric
acid which would be formed by the oxidation of the sulphur exhalations.
This acid, attacking the rocks, would tend to convert the cuniculus into
an alum cave. This effect would, however, be to a certain extent miti-
gated in the lower part by the continuous flow of sewage relatively cold.
In proof of this numerous old Roman walls are entirely broken up by
such action in sites much farther removed from such an active fumarolic
focus.
4. Thermo-mineral waters.—The wells that one encounters in this region
are mostly situated very near the sea, and offer few facts from which
deductions of much value can be drawn. Their water possesses nearly
always a temperature exceeding 50° C., and on account of the porosity of
the soil they are capable of affording a constant supply when heavily
pumped. In the crater of the Solfatara we have a well of thermo-
mineral water, the level of the water in which is much above the sea-
level. But this, however, probably depends on its being closed in a
crater basin rendered impermeable by the deposits of clay due to the
decomposition of the trachytic rocks at Pozzuoli. It is known that the
subterranean drainage level rises rather rapidly as we recede from
the shore, so that at the Montagna Spaccata it attains 13m. This
occurs in formations in part identical and in part resembling those which
the sewer must traverse in the region discussed in this paper.
Practical results—It is not probable that the drainage level of the
ground will be as high as that of the sewer. Nevertheless it will not be
found much beneath the bottom of the tunnel, and where open-structured
rocks are traversed the humidity of the atmosphere will be much
augmented.
d. Change of level_—The sewer must traverse the most classical region
renowned for the clear and unmistakable evidence of the oscillation of
level of many metres during the historic period; a phenomenon still in
progress.
It is not necessary to record here the studies of so many scientists
who have demonstrated that the coast of Pozzuoli and other parts of the
gulfs of Naples and Gaeta are sinking at a rate of 7 to 14mm. every
year. In the last dozen years that I have studied this region, I have
been able to collect such numerous and important facts as to remove
any doubt that the change of level is nearer to 13 to 14mm. than a
minimum of 7 mm.
Many new facts in confirmation of this form of bradyseismic move-
ments observed by me in the last years will be found in the reports
of this Committee from 1884 to 1889. Unfortunately no accurate
observations to determine the rate of this present lowering have been
made, which would have been ‘of great use in many engineering and
building questions. Also, it is not only necessary to know whether there
he lowering of the ground and at what rate, but also the main interest
in the present case would be to know if the progress is uniform each
season or each year, and above all if it is uniform for all the Naples region.
Individually, I am inclined to think that change of level has been in
great part the cause of the abandonment of Pestum and other analogously
situated localities, as well as of the augmentation of malaria during the
Middle Ages in the neighbourhood of Ostia and the Roman marshes near
the sea, and also of the diminution of the navigability of the Tiber.
The province and the city of Naples should establish several instru-
410 REPORT— 1890.
ments around the coast, one of which should be attached to one of the
columns of the Serapeum, to register the level of the water.
Practical results —If the lowering of the land-level progresses with a
uniform rate along the whole length of the sewer this great work can
serve for many years, in fact until the bottom of the sewer is considerably
beneath the sea-level. But if the sinking is not uniform along its whole
course, but greater at one point than another, it might soon become useless
on account of the diminished and variable fall at different parts of it.
Conclusion.'—In short, we find that the maximum difficulty in the
execution of this work is undoubtedly the high temperature of the rocks
to be traversed for such a distance without ventilation shafts. Besides
these the other obstacles to the work are of no small moment. At any
rate this will be a most daring attempt of human skill and enterprise in
penetrating into the very bowels of an active volcano.
Fourth and final Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R.
ETHERIDGE, Dr. H. Woopwarp, and Mr. A. BELL (Secretary),
appointed for the purpose of reporting wpon the * Manure’
Gravels of Wexford. (Drawn wp by Mr. A. BELL.)
Wexford and Ballybrack.
The transference of the collections of the Irish Geological Survey to
the new Museum of Science and Art, Dublin, has brought to light the
greater part of the species recorded by Capt. James (‘ Journ. Dub. Geol,
Soe.’ vol. iii.) from the Wexford deposits, A few are yet wanting, and
others are preserved in the Museum of Practical Geology, London.
After careful examination I am still of the same opinion—that some
were obtained from the marls and not from the gravels. Eliminating
these, the following added to my previous list (No. 1) give a fairly com-
plete catalogue of the fauna of the Wexford gravels :—
Aporrhais pes pelecani ? Trichotropis borealis ?
Fusus rostratus (F. crispus of Trophon Barvicensis.
previous writers). 53 latericeus.
» gracilis. Anomia ephippium.
:» islandicus. Artemis exoleta.
» propinquus. Corbula nucleus.
Se Saini: Cytherea Chione.
Lacuna divaricata, Leda pernula.
3 puteolus. » pusio?
Melampus pyramidalis. Lutraria elliptica.
Mitra — (cornea ?). Mactra solida.
Natica affinis. Nucula nucleus.
a catena. » proxima?
Nassa reticosa. Pecten tigrinus.
» (semistriata ?) >> varius.
Pleurotoma exarata. Pectunculus pilosus.
harpularia. Pholas crispata.
3 nobilis. Saxicava rugosa.
2 leevis (n. sp.). Tapes virgineus.
Scalaria Trevelyana. Venus fasciata.
a greenlandica, Yoldia hyperborea ?
} Engineering suggestions have been excluded here, but may be found in the
translation published in the Bol. del R. Com. Geol. It. 1890, Nos. 1, 2.
ON THE MANURE GRAVELS OF WEXFORD. 411
A few of the species mentioned by Capt. James, such as Leda pusio,
Nucula proxima, Nassa semistriata, and the Mitra, I have not seen. ‘The
Leda oblongoides is merely the hinge fragment of a small Yoldia, pro-
bably Y. hyperborea. The most interesting find is the crag shell, Nassa
reticosa, confirming my suggestion that the Wexford gravels are an
extension of the pliocene deposit at St. Erth, Cornwall.
The combined lists give about ninety species as found in the gravels,
twenty-nine no longer being represented in British waters, seventeen of
them occurring in the Scandinavian Seas, seven Mediterranean, and five
extinct.
From Ballybrack I have to add to my previous list Murex erinaceus,
a pecten new to the northern fauna, Pecten glaber, and portions of the
common lobster (Homarus vulgaris).
Ballybrack to Skerries.
The lower boulder clay or limestone drift is essentially non-fossili-
ferous, and thus differs materially from the more recent so-called lower
boulder clays of North Wales, Cheshire, and Lancashire. Present in
Ballybrack Bay, it has its strongest development, so far as regards the
coastline, between Howth and the extreme point of Skerries, consider-
able masses still existing in the outlying Lambay and Shennick Islands.
The shelly gravels on Howth and the Wicklow mountains do not offer
much for comment, all the species except two still inhabiting the adjacent
seas. The mountain gravels yield few species, and these are all much
broken.
Astarte compressa. Ostrea edulis.
x elliptica. Pecten.
a“ sulcata. Pholas crispata.
Cardium echinatum. Venus casina.
* edule. » Sstriatula.
Cyprina islandica. (Artemis) lincta.
Lutraria elliptica. Tellina?
Mactra stultorum. ; Trophon muricatus.
Mya truncata, Turritella terebra.
The Howth shells vary a little in the greater number of gastropods,
and are probably of more recent origin, co-equal to the marls in Rosslare
Bay, Wexford, and the gravelly sands and marls on either side of Bray
Head (vide Second Report). Combining the list of Dr. Scouler, Canon
Grainger, and other workers, the Howth fauna comprises :
Buccinum undatum. Cardium echinatum.
Fusus antiquus. 3 edule.
» gracilis. Cyprina islandica.
(? islandicus). Leda pernula.
Littorina littorea. Mactra elliptica.
“ obtusata. Mya truncata.
Patella vulgata. Ostrea edulis.
Pleurotoma turricula. Pecten opercularis.
Turritella terebra. oy | Vallis
Astarte borealis. Pholas crispata.
es sulcata. Tellina balthica.
Balbriggan Bay.
This locality offers some interesting sections; resting upon and in
hollows of the bed rocks there occur fragmentary patches of clayey soil
412 REPORT—1890.
mixed with seams of fine gravel, larger rocks, and exposures of limestone
drift. Whether all these drifts here and those of Down and Antrim are
of the same age as that at Skerries Point and Killiney Bay is question-
able ; their components are nearly alike, but it may be noticed that in the
limestone drift proper the rocks are mostly angular, and much glaciated.
Inthe north of Ireland especially these rocks are very much rolled, and
have lost most of the striz and other indications of ice action, and from
this it may be inferred that one is the product of land ice, and the other
of water. This inference is strengthened by the presence of broken
shells of Cyprina, in the midst of the rocks in Balbriggan Bay, the true
limestone drifts being absolutely unfossiliferous, as mentioned already.
Amongst the grayels small patches of shelly matter are not uncommon
at the lower part of the cliffs, much comminuted, and hardly identifi-
able. The fauna is peculiar, yielding the boreal forms.
Astarte borealis. Cardium echinatum.
Leda abyssicola. Isocardia cor.
» arebica, Leda minuta.
» pernula. Lutraria elliptica.
Saxicava norvegica. Nucula nucleus.
Tellina calcarea. Tellina balthica.
Columbella rosacea. Dentalium entalis.
Littorina littorea.
RECENT BRITISH. - obtusata.
Astarte compressa. Turritella terebra.
a sulcata.
Unlike the boreal species found in the clays about Belfast and
Carrickfergus, the pelecypoda are all in single valves, and evidently not
in their original habitat.
The clay is best seen on the shore about a mile and a half north of
Skerries. The richest part, from whence Canon Grainger got many of
the rarest species in the above list, is now covered up by masonry.
Beyond the lighthouse the foreshore slates, schists, and other Ordo-
vician rocks are capped more or less by the usual clay, with striated
boulders and local débris. Traces of a raised beach are visible in the
banks near the town, and in a low cliff at the bend a littie farther on.
Other portions of this raised beach are present at the other side of the
bay, by Lowther Lodge. The fauna is strictly local, and in the same
condition as the more recent shells found upon the shore.
Where the cliff is at its lowest, marking an old line of drainage, it is
covered by apparently the remnants of an old sand dane, full of landshells
of few species, and an abundance of littoral shells. Certain changes have
occurred in the distribution of these, the periwinkles of the shore differing
in proportion to those in the sands. Thus, of twenty examples, picked
at random off the rocks and seaweed, seventeen were Littorina rudis, two
L. littorea, and one L. obtusata. In the sands, on the contrary, the last
two species abound, and L. rudis is almost, if not quite, absent.
Raised Beach Fossils in Balbriggan Bay.
Aporrhais pes pelecani, Littorina littorea.
Buccinum undatum. a obtusata.
Cyprzea europzea. a4 rudis.
Dentalium entalis. Murex erinaceus.
Fusus antiquus. Nassa pygmea.
Helcion pellucidum. », reticulata.
ON THE MANURE GRAVELS OF WEXFORD. 413
Patella vulgata
(var) athletica.
Purpura lapillus.
Rissoa parva.
Trochus cinerarius.
“ umbilicatus.
; zizyphinus.
‘Turritella terebra.
Astarte sulcata.
Cardium echinatum.
- edule.
Corbula nucleus.
Cyprina islandica.
Lutraria elliptica.
Pecten maximus.
Tapes decussata.
Tellina balthica.
Venus striatula.
Bulimus acutus.
Helix concinna.
» ericetorum.
» hispida.
3, rufescens.
» virgata.
Pupa sp.
Balanus porcatus.
Mytilus edulis.
Beyond the sands, where the ground rises, a band of consolidated
gravel, with a few shells, chiefly patella, occurs on the face of the cliff,
the northern point of the bay ; the clay, with striated boulders and local
débris, resting upon metamorphosed schists.
Boulder Clays of the North-East.
Under this name are comprised a series of gravels, fine clays, and
elays replete with rocks and boulders exhibiting signs of glacial action.
The majority of these, unlike those in the limestone drifts further south,
are much rolled and water-worn. In a section now obscured by talus,
on the coast road from Larne to Glenarm, near Ballyrudder, the lowest
beds consist of current bedded shelly gravels, yielding a fauna containing
a percentage of nearly 35 per cent. of exotic forms, a larger percentage
than occurs in any other Ivish post-tertiary deposit. Mr. Stewart records
(‘Proc, Belfast Nat. Field Club,’ Appendix, 1879-80) the following species.
The exotic forms are distinguished by the mark *; those on Canon
Grainger’s authority t:—
Buccinum undatum.
“: greenlandicum.
Chiton marmoreus.
Lacuna divaricata.
+Littorina littoralis.
ap Ap) obtusata.
t as rudis.
Nassa incrassata,
*Natica aftinis.
», Montacuti.
*Pleurotoma decussata.
* AF exarata.
* e pyramidalis.
A turricula.
Puncturella Noachina,
+Purpura lapillus.
+Trochus cinerarius.
*Trophon clathratus.
3 truncatus.
*Turritella erosa.
2
Turritella terebra.
*Rhynchonella, psittacea.
Anomia ephippium.
Astarte compressa.
» elliptica.
}Cyprina islandica.
Leda minuta.
ft > pernula.
» Pygmea.
Lucina borealis.
Mactra subtruncata.
t 5 elliptica.
Modiolaria marmorata.
Mya truncata.
Mytilus edulis.
*Pholas parva.
Saxicava arctica.
Tellina balthica.
esse CALCaTes:
These gravels are succeeded by sands and clean clays, or with seams
of fine gravel, passing upwards into a clay containing much chalk, and
lastly into a very stiff, unfossiliferous, unstratified clay, full of rocks and
glaciated stones.
414 REPORT—1890.
The fine clay is well seen, not only here but in numerous places in
this area. It is, however, nowhere rich in fossils; with few exceptions
single examples are the rule. Some of the bivalves, more especially the
Ledas, are in pairs,‘and preserve their epidermis ; and from the condition
of these, and such other species as I have seen or obtained from Bally-
rudder, Woodburn Glen, and about Belfast, I believe the shells to be in
their original place, and not removed from elsewhere, and that neither
the gravels, fine clay, nor the unstratified clay above, come under the term
boulder clay, in the sense of the Scottish till, but to be the production, in
its earlier stages, of ordinary marine action, and in its later of water-borne
bergs and ice floes.
About fifty species have been recorded, chiefly obtained by Messrs.
Bryce and Hyndman, and Stewart, and from an examination of their col-
lections in the Belfast Museum, and the fact that the percentage of exotic
species is only about 11 per cent., I am of opinion that the association of
the clay at Ballyrudder with the underneath gravels is simply incidental,
the two deposits having only a stratigraphical relation to each other.
Fossils of the Boulder Clays.
Aporrhais pes pelecani. Astarte triangularis.
Buccinum undatum. Cardium echinatum.
Cyprzea europea. * edule.
Emarginula fissura. a4 nodosum,
Fusus antiquus. Leda minuta.
» contrarius. » pernula.
» gracilis. * ., pygmea.
Lacuna pallidula. Lucina borealis.
Littorina littorea. Mactra elliptica.
Murex erinaceus. » subtruncata.
Nassa pygmea. » truncata.
, reticulata. Mya truncata.
*Natica affinis. Mytilus edulis.
Purpura lapillus. Nucula nucleus.
Trochus tumidus. Ostrea edulis.
*Trophon clathratus. Pecten maximus.
Zs 5 Gunneri. Pectunculus glycimeris.
ty latericeus. Pholas crispata.
“ truncatus. Saxicava rugosa.
Turritella terebra. Scrobicularia piperata.
Anomia ephippium. Tapes aureus.
Arca lactea. » decussatus.
5, pectunculoides. Tellina balthica.
*Astarte borealis. + calearea:
» compressa. Venus gallina.
5 elliptica. >» ovata.
sulcata.
9
The ‘Turbot Bank,’ Co. Antrim.
This interesting deposit consists of a great submarine bank of sand
and gravel extending at a depth of 25-30 fathoms from opposite Island
Magee southwards across the entrance of Belfast Bay, the water outside
deepening rapidly till, at Larne, bottom is touched at 112 fathoms, and
opposite Belfast Lough, between it and Galloway, at 149 fathoms. It is
still a matter of uncertainty as to whether the organic remains obtained
by Messrs. Hyndman, Warren, and others, in the course of the dredging
ON THE MANURE GRAVELS OF WEXFORD. 415
operations conducted by them and described in the ‘Rep. Brit. Ass.
Adv. Se. 1857-59,’ should be regarded as recent or fossil. Of nearly 200
species of shells recorded, a very few were found living, and of the
remainder it is hard to discriminate between those which are certainly
only found living in boreal waters at the present day, and those asso-
ciated with them here, their condition and general appearance being so
much alike. Furthermore, at least 35 of the species are only known
in the N. E. Irish seas from this one locality, and 85 (excluding
those to be presently quoted) have no representatives in any of the
estuarine clays or other fossiliferous deposits of the mainland.
Writing to me some twenty-five years back, when sending a parcel of
his dredgings, Mr. Waller expressed the opinion that many of the shells
were fossil, and not recent; and having had since then, through the
kindness of Mr. Stewart, the opportunity of working out a quantity of
Mr. Hyndman’s material, and inspecting his collection in the Belfast
Museum, I have had anusual facilities for examination of the débris,
and have arrived at the same conclusion.
Polyzoa are plentiful, both free and adnate, a circumstance uneyualled
elsewhere in Ireland in any post-tertiary deposit, and are now under
examination. Fish, Crustacea, and Corals are rare, but Balani, Annelids,
and Echinoderms fairly plentiful. Amongst the latter occur Echino-
cyamus pusillus, Echinus esculentus, EH. miliaris, H. Flemingii, and
another species, Amphidetus cordatus, &c. A list will be published when
the species are fully determined.
In addition to the boreal species given in the following list there are
others, such as Loripes lacteus, E. rosea, Trochus striatus, Rissoa stria-
tula, and-Adeorbis subcarinata, of a southern origin, not known elsewhere
in the north-east seas. The latter was not unfrequent in the Portrush
beds, and the presence of Trochus Duminyi and other forms, more or
less southern in origin, in Bundoran Bay may indicate an extension
northwards of southern influences, of which the Bundoran fauna is a
reminiscence.
The undermentioned boreal species are certainly fossil, whatever
may be the case in respect to the other mollusca.
Acirsa borealis. Molleria costulata.
Buccinum cyaneum. Natica affinis.
Cerithium metula. » greenlandica.
Cerithiopsis costulata. » islandica.
a pulchella. Pleurotoma Trevelyana.
Columbella Holbdllii (rosacea). Puncturella Noachina.
Margarita cinerea. Trophon clathratus.
a5 greenlandicus.
In addition to the species already recorded from the bank in the
Reports of the Belfast Dredging Committee 1857-69 I find Anomia
patelliformis, Mytilus phaseolinus, Thracia distorta, two or three Chitons,
Buccinum undatum, also Fusus islandicus and Terebratulina caput-ser-
pentis, and the dorsal valve of an allied species which does not seem to have
been described, and a Trochus near to T’. Montacuti which may be foreign.
I also find a small West Indian shell, Planaxis lineata, not uncom-
mon elsewhere on the Irish coast, a Tellina, Sportella carnaria, also
W. Indian, and an exotic Cylichna. The occurrence of so many exotic
shells as are recorded from the western side of the Irish Sea is a matter
deserving further investigation. The co-existence of northern and
416 REP ORT—185S0.
southern forms in the same waters is amply proved by the taking in the
same haul, in 348 fathoms off the south of Ireland, such extreme forms
as Fusus islandicus and Cassidaria tyrrhena, both fine and living. Their
occurrence therefore together in an old deposit does not imply that either
the northern or southern species must have been transported thither.
The Hstuarine Deposits
of the north-east of Ireland occupy a considerable area, inland, of the
margins of the loughs and estuaries indenting the coast. Few deposits
are so rich in species, or so well preserved. Neither in Scotland nor Eng-
land is there any one that can be compared with them in this respect.
The building of the various docks at Belfast has enabled Canon
Grainger, Mr. 8. A. Steward, and Mr. R. Lloyd Preger to collect
largely, and, in doing so, to examine the nature and stratification of the
various members of the group. In hardly two sections are the features
alike. In Spencer basin Mr. Stewart found a thickness of 20 feet of
clay, the upper portion being crowded with littoral shells, the middle
with Thracia and species pertaining to a fauna living in from five to ten
fathoms, and at the base, or lower portion, a zone of scrobicularia. Mr.
Preger! in the Alexandra Dock found sand, blue clay, peat, sand,
re-assorted boulder clay, and boulder clay with striated rocks. At
Magheramorne, on the left bank of Larne Lough, the clay is above the
surface, and may have been brought up by the pressure and thrust of
the adjacent railway embankment. Here the zones of life are less marked,
and the several species are more grouped than seems the case elsewhere.
The fauna in different localities varies much—thus at Belfast, Thracia con-
vexa, Cardium echinatum, Lucinopsis undata abound. At Magheramorne
these are rare, or absent, and Modiola modiolus, Lima hians, and Tapes
virginea are in quantity, and these are very scarce at Belfast. Polyzoans
are rare; I know only one obtained on a pecten, at Magheramorne, by
myself. The microzoa have been taken in hand by Mr. Joseph Wright,
F.G.S., Belfast, who is still at work upon them. In thickness the clays
are very inconstant, depending apparently more upon the breadth of the
estuary than upon their proximity to the water line. Thus in the Spencer
basin they have, been found 20 feet thick, and at the Curran Larne only
3 feet, the one estuary being much narrower than the other.
Considering the richness of the fauna, it is singular that some of the
molluscs reached an enormous size, and the paucity of the gastropodous
mollusca is striking. Of the hundreds of bivalves that have passed through
my hands I do not remember one that had been perforated. It may be from
this cause that the bivalves grew so large. From Magheramorne I have
taken oysters 5 inches across, Tapes virgineus 3 inches, and others in
proportion. The Pholades (P. crispata) are the largest known, run-
ning up to 5 inches by 25. These are found only in the Belfast exca-
vations. Assiduously as the beds have been searched, femains other
than molluscs and microzoa are rare, most of them being single speci-
mens, except Echinus miliaris, which is not uncommon at Belfast.
The shells in the lists of the mollusca of the estuarine clays of the
north-east of Ireland have been obtained chiefly from the estuaries of
Belfast and Larne, at Magheramorne. Strangford Lough, Limavady, and
1 Proc, Belfast Nat. Field Club, 1888,
ON THE MANURE GRAVELS OF WEXFORD. 417
some other similar deposits have still to be examined. So far as yet
known, although microzoa are plentiful, shells and other organisms are
scarce in comparison with the number of localities. Species marked f+
occur mostly in unequal proportions, both at Magheramorne and Belfast ;
those marked * at Magheramorne only, the remainder only at Belfast.
The Magheramorne list, and all those in italics, are on my own responsi-
bility, and I have been able to verify most of the remainder through the
courtesy of Mr. Stewart.
Mollusca of the Estuarine Clays of N.E. Ireland.
Aclis supranitida.
Aporrhais pes pelecani.
+Buccinum undatum.
tCecum glabrum.
Capulus hungaricus.
tCerithium reticulatum.
+Cyclostrema nitens.
* % Fe var. Alderi.
+Cypreea europea.
Eulima bilineata.
Fissurella greca.
Fusus antiquus.
» gracilis.
Helcion pellucidum.
*Homalogyra atomus.
* ae rota.
+Hydrobia ulve.
fLacuna crassior.
» divaricata.
+ 4, pallidula.
Lay SB puteolus.
fLittorina littorea.
fe neritoides.
fi 5s obtusata.
ters i var. zestuarii.
een rudis.
op » var. tenebrosa.
+Murex erinaceus.
qNassa nitida.
» pygmea.
» reticulata.
Natica Alderi.
» catena.
» greenlandiea.
t+Odostomia acuta.
=a a eulimoides.
a interstincta.
* ¥ minima.
ii Be pallida.
* 3 plicata.
~ oe rissoides.
(Chemnitzia) indistincta.
rf lactea.
fPatella vulgata.
Pleurotoma brachystoma.
» costata.
t # rufa.
- septangularis.
+ turricula.
(Defrancia) gracilis.
1890.
+Purpura lapillus,
*Rissoa albella.
* ., calathus.
* ,, cimicoides.
* ,, costulata.
» inconspicua.
ir oe membranacea.
* 4, punctura.
* parva,
* ., reticulata.
Ear) Sarsii.
t ” striata.
*
» var. arctica.
os violacea.
vitrea.
Scalaria Turtonis.
*Skenea planorbis.
Tectura virginea.
+Trochus cinerarius,
tot ess magus.
Pe umbilicatus.
+Turritella terebra.
+Acera bullata.
Actzeon tornatilis.
+Amphisphyra hyalinus.
Cylichna cylindracea.
Pe nitidula.
Melampus bidentatus.
Philine aperta.
» scabra.
Scaphander lignarius.
*Utriculus mammillatus.
tT a obtusus.
LAND SHELLS.
Helix nemoralis.
(Zonites) crystallinus.
* nitidulus.
fAnomia ephippium.
i a var. aculeata.
O55 patelliformis.
re a var. striata.
Arca tetragona.
Axinus flexuosus.
+Cardium echinatum.
t » edule.
418
¢Cardium exiguum.
t s» nodosum.
Z norvegicum.
Ceratisolen legumen.
+Corbula nucleus.
*Crenella marmorata,
¢Cyamium minutum.
Cyprina islandica.
Gastrochzena dubia.
*Kellia suborbicularis.
Leda minuta.
REPORT—1 890.
*Pectunculus glycimeris.
Pholas candida.
yy crispata.
» dactylus.
Psammobia ferroensis.
, vespertina.
*Saxicava rugosa.
‘ 7 var. arctica.
Scrobicularia piperata.
tSolecurtus antiquatus.
Solen ensis.
{Lima hians. » pellucida.
+Lucina borealis. +t » vagina.
fLucinopsis undata. *Sphenia Binghami.
Lutraria elliptica, +Syndosmya alba.
oblonga. a tenuis.
Mactra elliptica. {Tapes aureus.
» solida. Te, var. ovata.
+ » subtruncata. + », decussatus.
+ ,, truncata. » pullastra.
Modiolaria marmorata. + ,, vVirgineus.
+Montacuta bidentata. {Tellina balthica.
a ferruginosa. » fabula.
Mya arenaria. of squalida.
» truncata. 5 tenuis.
+Mytilus adriaticus. Teredo norvegica.
hie oes edulis. Thracia convexa.
+ 5, modiolus. 3 papyracea.
+Nucula nucleus. ” ” var. villosiuscula,
» sulcata. », pubescens.
tOstrea edulis. *Venus casina.
+Panopeea plicata. +t , fasciata.
tPecten opercularis. +t , gallina.
+ 4, maximus. Ze OVvatas
»» pusio. (Artemis) exoleta.
+ 4, varius. lincta.
Raised Beaches. County Antrim and Down.
Resting upon the estuarine clays thick masses of gravel yielding
shells, and in places flint flakes and other rudely fashioned implements,
occur in many localities, more especially about Carrickfergus and the
Curran, Larne. Midway between they may be seen overlying the chalk,
and other rocks by the railway station.! Here I obtained a number of
species—the bivalves in pairs and in situ, similar to those seen in a section
lately opened at the Curran, under the auspices of the Belfast Nat.
Field Club to determine the greatest depth at which flint implements
occurred. This was found to be 19 feet from the surface immediately
above the estuarine clay, and givesa valuable datum line as to the earliest
known presence of man in Ireland. The suggestion that these gravels are
the equivalents of the 25-foot raised beaches of Scotland is not borne out
by the fauna, and I have come to the conclusion that they are much more
recent.
The various raised beaches of North-Hast Ireland have a very equal
fauna, the following list being compiled from the writings of Canon
Grainger, the Proceedings of the Belfast Field Club, and my own
findings. .
! Magheramorne.
ON THE MANURE GRAVELS OF WEXFORD. ‘419
Aporrhais pes pelecani,
Buccinum undatum.
Cerithium reticulatum,
Fusus antiquus.
Helcion pellucidum.
Artemis exoleta.
Cardium edule.
Corbula nucleus.
Cyprina islandica.
Kellia suborbicularis.
Hydrobia ulve. Lucina borealis.
Littorina littorea, Mactra subtruncata.
ar rudis. Modiola modiolus.
3 obtusata. Mya truncata.
Nassa incrassata. Ostrea edulis.
» pygmea. Pecten maximus.
» reticulata. » opercularis.
Patella vulgata. », Varius.
Pleurotoma rufa. Saxicava rugosa.
Purpura lapillus. Tapes aureus.
Rissoa membranacea. », decussatus.
Trochus cinerarius, » pullastra.
» Magus. Tellina balthica.
», 2izyphinus. 3 >, tenuis.
Turritella terebra. Venus gallina.
Anomia ephippium.
If these gravels are of the same age as the one in Balbriggan Bay, the
conditions under which they were accumulated were very different, as in
them most of the shells are perfect and in situ; while at Balbriggan they
are all broken and have drifted into their present position.
Waterford Haven.
Brief reference may be made to the estuarine flats in Tramore Bay,
County Waterford, which fall within the human epoch, and abound in the
shells of the common cockle. These flats hdve an elevation of 8 to 10
feet above high water, the shell bands ranging from 2 to 12 inches in
thickness. In one of these Major Austen’ saw a human skeleton evi-
dently contemporaneous, as the shells were lying both above and below
it. From the notes kindly sent me by Mr. E. Garnett, of Newtown, these
beds must have been still more elevated, as they underlie at one extremity
a thick bed of dark turf-like mould, containing many stumps and roots,
mostly of birch and oak trees. The late Professor EK. T. Hardman told
me that he had seen other shells besides the cockle, such as Aporrhais,
Littorina, Turritella, &c., but had not time to examine the bed thoroughly.
They must be rare, as Mr. Garnett writes that he could only find the one
Species,
; A deposit of the same age as the above may be that known as Clay Castle,
Youghal, an eminence facing the sea, built up of a gravelly sandy clay,
with shells of the ordinary type such as the ordinary whelk, limpet,
mussel, and cockle, with a few others.
Portrush, Co. Antrim.
The deposit here consists—or rather did so, since the building of a
road round the small bay in which it occurred has blotted it out of sight—
of a bed of sand formed in and about the hollows of the rocks some ten
feet above high-water. Originally discovered by the late Mr. James
Smith, of Jordanhill, its fossils were referred to in a list given in Port-
1 Proc, Geol. Soc., Lond. vol. ii. p. 300.
EE 2
420
lock’s ‘ Geology of Londonderry,’ &.
REPORT— 1890.
From material kindly forwarded
to me by Messrs. Gray and R. G. Symes, F.G.S., I have been able to
verify nearly all the species mentioned, and to add others.
The most
abundant forms are Patella, Helcion, Purpura, and Rissoa, and the whole
series suggests their habitat to have been some rocks close by, covered
with laminaria.
Few things except shells are present, crab-claws, two
or three echinoderms, a coral (Caryophyllia clavus), and three polyzoans
exhausting the list.
The synonomy of Portlock’s list is in part obsolete,
and the present one is brought up to date, Portlock’s names, where
different, being given in brackets.
Trish Seas.
Adeorbis subcarinata.
Aporrhais pes pelecani.
Barleeia rubra (Turbo unifasciata).
Buccinum undatum (fide Canon
Grainger).
Cerithiopsis tubercularis.
Cerithium reticulatum.
(Triforis) adversum (Murex a.).
perversum.
Chiton fascicularis.
»» marmoreus.
Cyprzea europea.
Emarginula fissura.
Eulima polita.
Fissurella greeca.
Helcion pellucidum.
9 (var. leevis).
Hydrobia ulvee,
Lacuna divaricata (Turbo canalis).
» pallidula.
5» puteolus.
Littorina littorea.
», neritoides.
» obtusata.
» rudis.
» »» (var.) jugosa.
», retusus.
Murex erinaceus.
Nassa incrassata (Buccinum ma-
cula).
» nitida.
» pygmea (Buccinum mini-
mum).
» reticulata.
Natica Alderi.
» catena (N. glaucina).
» Montagui.
Odostoma acuta.
oH excavata.
nf) plicata.
a spiralis.
3; turrita,
a unidentata.
(Chemnitzia) lactea.
Patella vulgata.
» var. cerulea.
Phasianella pullus (Turbo p.).
Pleurotoma costata.
Pa rufa.
+ septangularis(Fusus s.)
All the species are still present in the
Pleurotoma striolata.
(Defrancia) linearis (Fusus 1.).
Bs purpurea.
reticulata.
Puncturella Noachina,
Purpura lapillus.
Rissoa albella.
» cancellata (Cingula cimex).
» Cingillus (as Turbo c. and
R. fallax, n. sp.).
» costata.
» costulata.
» inconspicua.
» parva (Cingula alba).
on s (var.) interrupta.-
>» punctura.
» reticulata.
» semistriata.
» Striata (Pyramis s. andZP.
discors),
Zetlandica,
Scalaria clathratula.
35 Trevelyana.
Tectura virginea (Patella v.).
Trochus cinerarius.
os magus.
+, tumidus.
<n umbilicatus.
> zizyphinus.
Turritella terebra.
Trophon muricatus.
Utriculus truncatulus.
Terebratula cranium? (fide Port-
lock).
Anomia ephippium (also A. squa-
mula and A. undulata).
FA striata.
Arca lactea.
», tetragona (A. papillosa).
Astarte sulcata (Crassina scotica).
» triangularis (Mactra trian-
gulata).
Cardium edule.
a exiguum.
a fasciatum.
Aa nodosum.
=< =
a
ON THE MANURE GRAVELS OF WEXFORD. 421
Cardium norvegicum (C. elonga- Saxicava arctica.
tum). Syndosmya tenuis (Tellimya t.).
Circe minima. Tapes pullastra.
Cyprina islandica. Venus casina.
Lasea rubra (Anatina ovalis). p fasciata.
Lima hians. Ay ovata.
Lucina borealis. A gallina.
Mactra elliptica. cS verrucosa.
», subtruncata. Venerupis irus.
» truncata.
psa Bingham, Land Shells.
Mytilus edulis (var. incurvata).
Montacuta ferruginosa. Carychium minimum.
Nucula nucleus (N. margaritacea). Clausilia biplicata.
oF tenuis. A rugosa.
Ostrea edulis. Helix fulva (H. trochilus).
Pandora inzequivalvis. » pulchella(H. paludosa).
Pecten opercularis. (Zonites) crystallinus.
“6 pusio (P. distortus). Pupa pygmeza.
a varius. >» Venetzii.
Pectunculus glycimeris. Zua lubrica.
The few polyzoa are Cellaria fistulosa, Cellepora pumicosa, and
Lepralia ventricosa. Caryophyllia clava is a rare coral only found at
Portrush.
The foregoing references embrace all the horizons and most if not all
of the fossiliferous post-tertiary deposits of the eastern side of Ireland, and
_ the lists of fossils are as complete as I have been able to make them.
Passing them in review, and omitting species still living in the Irish
Seas, a not inconsiderable list of 47 species calls for some notice as to the
means whereby this fauna or rather the remains of several came into this
area and on this side of the Irish Sea since not more than 10 or 12 occur
on the English side. Looking over the appended synopsis of these exotic
shells, 29 are found in the Wexford gravels, including 5 species whose
habitat is unknown. All are probably extinct, and 7 species now live only
in the Mediterranean Seas. With these are associated 17 of boreal or Arctic
origin. In the next stage at Ballybrack the southern fauna falls to 5 and
the northern to 5. This may be due however to the very limited area of
ground remaining for research. At Ballyrudder, in the gravels, all are
northern as they are in the glacial N.H. clays, which latter are probably
the equivalents of the Clydian deposits, Bute, and similar deposits in
West Scotland, the fauna being almost the same, so far as 6 out of the
7 Irish species are concerned. From the presence of Leda arctica and
abyssicola in the Balbriggan bed, it might be placed on the same level as
the underlying and older glacial clays of Scotland yielding the most arctic
of Scottisn faunas; but this is as yet uncertain, as the condition and
preservation of the respective faunas and the nature of the matrix they are
contained in are entirely different.
Of the Turbot Bank nothing definite can be said. Similar banks are re-
ported on the Dalkey and Killiney side of Dublin Bay; fauna all dead, but
not containing any of the boreal species of the Turbot Bank, only such as are
found in the Bay at the present time. One species, Columbella Holbdllii,
not uncommon on the Turbot Bank, links it with Balbriggan on the one
hand, and again to the Scottish beds at Lochaber. The estuarine and later
deposits offer nothing for discussion, exotic species not finding place in
them, the faunas only indicating considerable earth movements, and
ecsequent incoming, outgoing, and shifting of species.
422 REPORT—1890.
There should be some way of accounting for the disparity of these
exotic faunas ondifferent sides of a not over wide sea, and the sug-
gestion I would offer is this. Noticing that the unknown or extinct
element is so palpable in Wexford, and that the quasi-Mediterranean or
southern influence passes by way of Ballybrack into the Isle of Man, it
is evident that if a fauna of similar facies can be found to the south, it is
there that we should look for the origin of such faunas as occur in the
south-east of Ireland and elsewhere as above referred to. Such a fauna
as I have already pointed out occurs at St. Erth in Cornwall, but of a
much earlier date. This will account for their extinct and southern
forms, but not for the large number of northern species, species to be
noted, all of Norwegian and Scandinavian types, and not high Arctic,
none of which are present at St. Hrth. If any hydrographical map of
the area of the Irish Sea is consulted, it will be seen that the greatest de-
pression exists in a line not more than a mile broad, running nearer
the Irish coast than the English, the 30-fathom line passing outside the
Isle of Man from the Mull of Galloway to St. David’s Head, South Wales.
Continuing northwards there are two routes available, one opening vid
the Sound of Jura, and the line of the Caledonian Canal into the Northern
Sea at the Moray Firth, the other by way of the Clyde to the Firth of
Forth. Both routes were probably available. The neighbourhood about
Fortwilliam, at the entrance of the Canal, is fossiliferous, and when
worked as carefully as other Scottish beds have been, should show good
results. On the other hand, from the west to the east of Scotland by
the Clyde-Forth route and north to Banff, the early glacial clays are
replete with species of the same northern or boreal type as occur in ire-
land, and in one or other of these directions must the fauna have travelled
before the line of depression was fully developed, otherwise it is difficult
to imagine either the northern fauna passing southwards or the extinct
forms northwards into the Isle of Man within the 30-fathom limit, crossing
a depression varying from 93 fathoms off Dublin to 194 off Belfast
Lough.
Taking Ballybrack as the next in order, the fauna exhibits southern
influences in its Woodia, Pecten, and Mediterranean forms, and is in the
opinion of the writer equal in time to the Selsey bed in Sussex, equally
southern in its origin and unmodified by northern influences by its posi-
tion being barred by land from northern or western waters.
The final deepening and opening of the channel round the south of
Ireland culminated in the final separation of Ireland from the mainland,
and permitted the introduction of West Indian species of Bulla and Oliva
jaspidea vid ? the Severn straits, into the Worcester gravels. Going north
in the same direction into Cheshire and Lancashire southern influences
are still felt in the lower levels, but there is no evidence whatever of the
existence in N.-W. Wales, Cheshire, or Lancashire of any marine deposits
corresponding to the glacial clays of N.-E. Ireland, or the Scottish clays
of Bute, and the shelly gravels at elevations of 800 feet and upwards
probably correspond to those at 800 feet to 1,200 feet in the Dublin and
Wicklow mountains. If these conclusions are correct the present Irish
Sea must have been represented by a comparatively narrow belt of water,
and Wales formed a large island separated on its eastern side from
England by the line of the Severn Sea, anterior to the deep submersion
necessary to carry the shells to such heights, the re-elevation of the land
leaving the Irish Sea in its present area. ;
ON THE MANURE GRAVELS OF WEXFORD.
Exotic Mollusca—LHatinct.
HABITAT UNKNOWN
Fusus Menapii . d
Melampus pyramidalis
Nassa granulata .
» reticosa .
Pleurotoma levis «
Nucula Cobboldie :
SoutH EUROPEAN
Cyprea 5 :
Fusus rostratus . 5
Mitra (? sp.) ‘ °
Nassa semistriata é
Turritella incrassata .
Leda pusio ? 5
Pecten glaber .
Woodia digitaria
Pectunculus pilosus
BoREAL
Acirsa borealis . .
Buccinum cyaneum .
Re greenlandicum
Cerithiopsis costulata .
Columbella Holbollii .
Fusus islandicus .
» Sabinii 2
Margarita cinerea :
Meyeria pusilla . .
Molleria costulata .
» greenlandica .
Naticaatiinis . 5
Pleurotoma decussata
aS exarata .
- harpularia
x nobilis
> pyramidalis
Purpura incrassata
Scalaria greenlandica .
Trophon clathratus .
oe mere, O 4F) tet Oe eee ees: Ss
Fale. (oe eee
5, loa) et Bee 8
fe a (var. Gunneri)
» craticulatus .
» Jlatericeus .
Turritella erosa . Z
Astarte borealis .
Leda abyssicola .
» arctica »
», buccata -
» pernula . °
Nucula proxima? :
Tellina calcarea . :
Yoldia hyperborea .
Rhynchonella psittacea
Number of species
oer ee @
4 et eee
cs}
ae:
~|\2| 8
M | & |} ss
ell es
a] Ss
Elala
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
x | *
*
*
*
*
*
x | *
*
x | *
*
*
29 | 8
Balbriggan
| Glacial, N.E.
Treland
| Ballyrudder
*
| Turbot bank
*
South European and Boreal.
7
| Estuarine clay
423
| Raised beaches
| Portrush
424 REPORT—1890.
In presenting this, the final report, on the Wexford gravels, &c., I
have to acknowledge with pleasure the generous help rendered me b
many friends, more especially to Mr. S. A. Stewart, of Belfast, for
specimens, material, and kindly help in many ways, as well as to the
geological members of the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club generally. To
Messrs. Gray and Symes I owe my greatest knowledge of the Portrush
deposit, and to Professor V. Ball, Dublin, and E. F. Newton, Esq., F.G.S.
(Mus. Prac. Geol. London), facilities in examining Captain James’s
original collection of Wexford fossils. Amongst those no longer with us,
I owe much to Messrs. Edward Waller, W. Hellier Baily, W. W. Walpole,
and Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys for specimens and information.
In conclusion, I may venture to say that I have seen and examined all
the localities referred to, and verified a large number of the species
quoted, even if I have not collected them myself. The virtual extinction
of many fossiliferous deposits, as at Ballybrack, Balbriggan, and Portrush,
by walling up or road making, is to be deplored. Other localities in the
north, I am glad to say, are being worked by R. Lloyd Preger, B.A., and
the results will appear in due conrse in the reports of the Belfast Field
Club, in which much valuable information concerning the deposits of
N.-E. Ireland may be studied with great advantage.
Eighth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. ETHERIDGE,
Dr. H. WoopwarD, and Professor T, Rupert Jones (Secretary),
on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks.
§ 1. Saezocaris. § 2. Aristozoe. § 3. Estheric.
§ 1. Saccocaris minor, J. § W.—On a large piece of the ‘Upper Shale
(=Daearfawr Shale), west of the Crag known as Craig yr hyddod,
Arenig,’ North Wales, kindly submitted by Professor T. McKenny
Hughes, F.R.S., for examination, are numerous, and at first sight
somewhat obscure, impressions of a Bivalved Phyllocarid ; together with
some body-segments of the same. The rock is ‘the top bed of shale
tangled among the porphyries of the Mountain Arenig. It is there-
fore the highest fossiliferous zone of the Arenig of Arenig.’ The
slab, measuring 18 by 10 inches and half-an-inch thick, consists of a
hard, dark-coloured, fine-grained flagstone (dark-blue within and
weathering dull rusty grey), not argillaceous nor calcareous, made up of
minute, fragmentary, crystalline particles. One edge is straight and
ragged, and the opposite edge is rounded, as if it had been a part of a
large fissile concretion. The slab separates horizontally into two parts,
and the counterpart surfaces are covered with the fossil impressions,
which are mainly convex on one of the faces, and concave on the other.
One larger convex cast (fig. 1) lies almost alone on the rusty weathered
back of the piece that bears the concave impressions. These carapaces
and abdominal segments are merely dark films, more or less flattened,
and squeezed across their length. Some, however, among the numerous
individuals, are less distorted by pressure, especially one (fig. 1), which
is isolated on a different (outer and broadly rippled) surface of the stone.
The crowded fossils lie mostly oblique to the long axis of the stone,
ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALZOZOIC ROCKS. 425
near to each other, often close together, more or less parallel, and generally
with the same end in one direction. On the plate at page 2, some of
the best preserved specimens have been selected and outlined just as the
individuals lie on the stone; sometimes as figs. 1 and 2; 9, 10,11; and
7, 15, 16, 17, in groups.
These carapace-valves are more or less oval-oblong in outline, but
often imperfect, and in nearly all cases modified in shape by lateral
pressure.
The largest individual (fig. 1), 40 mm. long and 22 mm. high (broad),
having probably its original shape or nearly so, has its upper aud lower
edges slightly convex and nearly parallel; the upper (dorsal) edge is
somewhat more fully curved than the other, especially in the antero-
dorsal region. The front end (to the left-hand in the figure) was pro-
bably rounded, but is broken; the hinder extremity is obliquely truncate,
but bears some indication of an ogee curvature, such as is seen in many
Ceratiocaride and other Phyllocarids. Three abdominal segments (one
imperfect) are still attached to this end of the carapace; the first two
are about 5 mm. long and the third about 7mm. They appear to have
been originally as deep as the carapace, and each segment at its hollow
eurve below its convexity and lateral articulation was marked with
vertical strie.
The surface of fig. 1 bears five delicate, longitudinal, gently-curved,
sub-parallel lines. These lines are partly raised and partly hollow, as if,
having a consistency different from that of the rest of the valve, they
have been differently affected by the pressure to which the matrix had
been subjected.
Fragments of probably a specimen similar to fig. 1 lie close to it, as,
shown by fig. 2.
There is a remarkable similarity in outline between fig. 1 here de-
scribed and the fig. 1 at p. 179 (in our Sixth Report, 1888), ‘Report Brit.
Assoc.,’ 1889, which we determined at pp. 175 and 176 of that Report to
be the Saccocaris major of Saiter. Although the relative size differs very
much (11050 mm. and 37x22 mm.), and the proportions are also
somewhat different (110 x50 : 101 x66), we are inclined to refer the
two specimens (both of which are from the Cambrian rocks) to the same
genus. Probably, if it were not for the broken anterior border in the
new form, and the broken posterior margin of Saccocaris major, they
might have presented a still stronger likeness.
We provisionally regard this form as a new species, and call it
SaccocaRis minor, fig. 1, p. 427, and define it as follows :—
Carapace valve sub-oblong, arched above, nearly straight below,
elliptically rounded in front, with the acme of curvature probably coinci-
dent with the mesial line of the valve; truncate behind, with a slightly
projecting and blunt angle at its upper fourth. Surface marked with five
longitudinal, slightly-curved, sub-parallel lines, somewhat like the nervures
in an insect’s wing; one or more of the lines seem to branch backwards.
Abdominal segments present (see fig. 2, p. 427), and are of considerable
interest as connecting this old form with Hymenocaris (see figs.°3, 4, and
5 at p. 179, ‘Report Brit. Assoc.,’ 1889), and with Ceratiocaris and other
allies. Some of the caudal spines are obscurely preserved on the slab.
Owing to the pressure that has so greatly affected the other speci-
mens on the two counterpart faces of the split slab, there is considerable
variation in the outlines of the individuals, nor do they quite match fig. 1.
426 REPORT—1890.
Fig. 8 measures 27x15 mm.; fig. 4, 27 x10 mm.; fig. 7,28x11 mm.;
fig. 9,23x7 mm.; fig. 11,25x8 mm. Nevertheless some features of
fiz. 1 are traceable in the majority. Looking at the selected outlines
drawn from the slab, we see the rounded front end in figs. 3, 4, 5, 9, 11,
15, 17, and partially in figs. 7,10, and 14, Figs. 3 and 15 retain some of
the proportionate height of fig. 1; but others seem to have become nar-
rower by cross-pressure, but this may have been an original specific
feature (although very doubtful). Some trace of the hinder ogee out-
line is visible in figs. 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, and 15 (sometimes neater than in
fig. 1); also in figs. 14 and 17, which are apparently reversed valves with
the dorsal edge downwards. The superficial longitudinal lines are evident
in all the valves; and 4, 5, 7, and 15 show the backward branching,
but in fig. 17 the branching veins seem to have a forward direction.
Unequal pressure may have modified these appearances. We regard
these smaller valves as being most probably immature forms, rather than
showing either sexual or specific differences. Abdominal segments are
attached to the valves in figs. 3, 4, 7, and 14; and are separate in figs. 6,
8, 12,13, and 16. In shape, size, and ornament, these differ too much
for us to pretend to decide whether they are really all of one kind or not,
the modes and degrees of preservation probably making more distinctions
than originally existed.
Bearing in mind the gregarious habits of modern Entomostraca, it
seems most probable that we have here another illustration of the crowd-
ing together of numbers of individuals of one species which lived in the
same shallow lagoon, a portion of which may have been dried up (as in
a modern shore-pool), leaving its inhabitants to perish in the sun and
to be covered up with a fresh layer of mud by the next tide. Sucha
local accumulation of animal matter may have caused a segregation of
special mineral matter in the matrix and given rise to the local concre-
tion.
§ 2. Devonian Aristozoe in France-—Mons. D. P. Gihlert, of Laval, has
lately discovered an Aristozoe in the black compact Devonian limestone of
Saint Malo, near Angers, Department Maine-et-Loire, and has given an
account of this interesting fossil, with good figures, in the ‘ Bulletin Soc.
Géol. France,’ ser. 3, vol. xvii. No. 9, December 1889, pp. 768-771, pl. 19,
figs. 2, 2a, 2b. By careful comparison with M. Barrande’s figures, he
finds that his new fossil corresponds very closely with the Silurian
Aristozoe memoranda, Barrande, ‘ Syst. Silur. Bohéme,’ vol. i., Supplem.
p. 480, pl. 34, figs. 48-51, pl. 27, fig. 6, and pl. 32, figs. 16,17; and
therefore he publishes it as ‘ Aristozoe aff. memoranda, Barr.,’ and points
out that this is an additional occurrence of a Silurian species, or its
scarcely separable representative, in the Devonian system. Hchinocaris
and other allies of the phyllopodous Aristozoe are known in the
Devonian strata of North America. In Devonshire we have analogous
fossils in Tropidocaris (?), Hchinocaris, and Bactropus (a caudal segment
of Aristozoe). See our Seventh Report read at the Newcastle-on-Tyne
Meeting, 1889.
M. Gihlert’s specimen differs slightly from A. memoranda, especially in
the cephalic extremity forming a narrower projection than in any of
Barrande’s figures of that species and in the antero-ventral region being
less boldly curved outwards, thus making the ventral outline more nearly
subtriangular than in A. memoranda. Novak’s figure of A. regina, Barr.,
in the ‘Sitzungsb. béhm, Gesell. Wissensch.,’ 1885, pl. 1, fig. 1, also
ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALZOZOIC ROCKS. 427
Phyllocarida from the Arenig.
428 REPORT— 1890.
closely approaches it in form, but surpasses it greatly in size, and differs
somewhat in the curvature of the antero-ventral and posterior margins.
§ 3. Scotch Carboniferous Estherie.—In our Seventh Report, 1889,
reference was made to some fossil Phyllopoda from the Glasgow Coal-
field (p. 66). In a memoir on these fossils, communicated by one of us to
the Geological Society of Glasgow (‘Transact.’ vol. ix. part i. 1890), the
following determinations have been arrived at :—
(1.) Bstheria Youngii, sp. nov. (pl. 5, fig. 1), from a shale of the Car-
boniferous Limestone (Upper Limestone series) at the Arden Quarry,
near Thornliebank, four miles 8.W. of Glasgow. In the University Museum,
‘Glasgow.
(2.) Hstheria tessellata, sp. nov. (pl. 5, figs. 2-4:), in Cannel-coal, pro-
bably from Ayrshire. In the British Museum.
(3.) Estheria tegulata, sp. nov. (pl. 5, figs. 5, 6), in Cannel-coal, pro-
bably from Airdrie, Lanarkshire. In the University Museum, Glasgow.
(4.) The specimens from Thornliebank and Dalry, formerly referred to
Estheria, under the name of H. punctatella, Jones (‘ Transact. Geol. Soc.
Glasgow,’ vol. ii. 1865, p. 71, pl. 1, figs. 5, 5a), are now determined to
belong to Posidonomya.
§ 4, Another paleozoic (Devonian) Hstheria was noticed by Professor
H. Rogers in his ‘Geology of Pennsylvania,’ vol. vii. part 2 (1858),
p. 827, fig. 664, from the ‘ Cadent older or lower Black Slate,’ equivalent
to the ‘ Marcellus Slate of New York.’ This Hstheria, though unnamed,
should have been catalogued, with EH. pulex, Clarke, in our Sixth Report,
‘Brit. Assoe. Reports,’ 1889, p. 181.
EXPLANATION OF THE FIGURES 1—17.
.
(All the Outlines are of the Natural Size.)
Fig. 1. Saccocaris minor, T.R.J. and H.W. Left valve and three abdominal
segments.
Fig. 2. Remains of a similar form lying close by.
Fig. 3. Left valve, broad (or widened ?) in front and narrowed behind, but retain-
ing a trace of the ogee curve; also some signs of abdominal segments.
Fig. 4. Left valve and some abdominal segments.
Fig. 5. Left valve, showing the posterior ogee curve.
Fig. 6. Four abdominal segments, striated lengthwise.
Fig. 7. Left valve, damaged or infolded at the antero-dorsal region ; with some
abdominal segments. This forms part of a group with figs. 15, 16, and 17.
Fig. 8. An obscure set of abdominal segments.
Figs. 9, 10, and 11. A group of three left valves; fig. 9 has some abdominal seg-
ments attached; and both figs. 9 and 11 show the ogee posterior curve.
Figs. 12 and 13. Two specimens of obscure segments, too small apparently for
any of the carapaces here outlined, and therefore indicating either younger forms
or different species.
Fig. 14. An imperfect valve, apparently with its dorsal edge downwards, but its
abdominal segments in right position.
Fig. 15. An oblong valve or carapace, with an obscure adjunct; followed by an
imperfect set of six segments (fig. 16); and associated with another but modified
valve, fig. 17 : fig. 7 also occurs in the same group as placed on the plate.
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 429
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor JAMES GEIKIE
(Chairman), Mr. S. A. ADAMSON, Professor T. G. Bonney, Pro-
fessor W. Boyp Dawkins, Mr. Wm. Gray, Mr. ArtuuR S. REID,
and Mr. Osmunp W. Jerrs (Secretary), to arrange for the col-
lection, preservation, and systematic registration of Photographs
of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom. (Drawn up by
the Secretary.)
Your Committee have much pleasure in presenting the annexed List of
Geological Photographs obtained as the result of their first year’s opera-
tions. :
In the Report of the Corresponding Societies’ Committee presented
to the Newcastle meeting (1889), lengthened reference was made to a
proposal by the Committee of Section C. for the systematic collection
and registration of geological photographs, following upon a suggestion
contained in a paper read before the section at Bath by Mr. Jeffs. The
subject was discussed several times by the delegates, many of whom
contributed examples of such geological photographs as had been taken
before any scheme to secure uniformity of action was mooted. Important
suggestions were also offered as to the arrangements to be made to carry
out the objects stated, but the details were ultimately left in the hands
of the present Committee, the appointment of which was sanctioned at
the Newcastle meeting.
In commencing operations, your Committee issued a circular inviting
the co-operation of geological societies, field-clubs, photographers, and all
others interested in supplying them with the following information, viz. :—
(1) Lists and details of photographs taken illustrating localities and
sections.
(2) Names of local societies, or persons, who may be willing to
further the objects of the Committee in their own district.
(3) Particulars of new localities, sections, boulders, or other features
which it may be desirable to have photographed.
It was added that:
‘The Committee will also be glad to receive a copy of the print from
each negative, which will be exhibited at the succeeding meetings of the
Association and afterwards preserved for reference. It is thus hoped to
form, eventually, a National Collection of photographic views, illustrating
the geology of our country and deposited in a centre where the collection
will be available for purposes of study and comparison.’
In order to secure uniformity of action and as a guide to those willing
to assist, a Circular of Instructions was issued, embodying those points
which were thought to be most desirable in effecting the objects of the
Committee. The details given were drawn up after very careful con-
sideration and consultation with practical photographers, and were so
framed as to be applicable to most of the conditions to be met with in
photographing the different classes of objects having geological interest
worthy of permanent record. ;
The following is a copy of this circular, which is given here for con.
venience of reference.
430 -REvORT—1890.
[CrrcuLAR No.
{Reduced Copy of Form A,]
Form A. No. of Photo.*
BRITISH ASSOCIATION COMMITTEE ON GEOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS.
Photographed under the direction of
County of
Society,
Name and position of
Locality or Section.
Special features shown.
Height Compass Direction, |‘Inshade’ or ‘ direct light.’
Details of Section,
am. p.m.
Length Time:
Sketch, or other particulars, if necessary, may be given here :—
Name of Photographer Registered No.
Address Date photographed
* This Number should also be placed on the back of the Photograph.
Instructions for the Collection of Geological Photographs.
Photographs are desired illustrative of characteristic rock-sections, especially
those of a typical character or temporary nature; railway cuttings; important
boulders ; localities affected by denudation or where physiographical changes are in
operation ; raised beaches ; old sea-clifis; coast scenery and coast erosion; charac-
teristic river-valleys, escarpments, and other landscape features; glacial phenomena
such as roches moutonnées, moraines, drums, and kames, and natural views of geological
interest.
I.—The views should be taken under skilled geological direction, and in every case
the most typical views should be secured in preference to general views. It
may be convenient for Societies to form a small committee for the purpose of
noting suitable sections desirable to be photographed, and arranging such
work as may be possible in each district. To this end it is anticipated that
the services of many amateur photographers may be usefully brought into
requisition.
Il—Size of photograph recommended : 8} by 6} inches (‘whole plate’). (In view
of the difficulty of carrying a heavy camera and plates it is not desired to
exclude smaller views when these are well defined and clear. The size, there-
fore, is optional.)
The views should be printed by a permanent process whenever practicable.
IIJ.—It is necessary, in order to preserve its scientific value, that each photograph
should be accompanied by the following details, which may be given on forms
supplied as per copy, and attached loosely to the photograph (not fastened on
the back) :—
(a) Name and position of section or locality.
(b) Special feature shown, with illustrative diagrams, when necessary.
(Details may be given, if more convenient, on a separate tracing
attached to the photograph.)
(c) Height and length of section, and compass direction.
ON PHOTOGRAPHS ‘OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 431
(d) Name of photographer, and society under whose direction the view is
taken.
(e) Date when photographed.
(f) Indication of direction of light and shade; 7.e., state whether taken in
‘direct light’ or ‘in shade.’
IV.—Each photograph sent in for registration should bear a local number, and the
accompanying form should be numbered in accordance therewith.
V.—Lists of photographs, copies of photographic prints and information relative
thereto should be sent under cover to the Secretary to the Committee, at the
earliest possible date, as the work of registration will be heavy.
The offers of help received in response to this circular were very
numerous. The number of photographs sent in up to September reached
a total of 275, a result which, taking into consideration the difficulties
incident to a first year’s working, the Committee feel is an encourage-
ment to persevere in their efforts, if permitted to do so, until an ade-
quately complete series of photographs is obtained. It will be seen from
the list appended that a large majority of the English counties, besides
those of Scotland and Ireland, are as yet almost entirely unrepresented,
and that in the case of counties from which photographs have been received,
the views taken have been confined to limited areas. Prior to the insti-
tution of this Committee, there has been little effort made to arrange
for the systematic photographing of local geological sections, although
much has been accomplished in an irregular manner by individual workers.
It has been difficult to obtain all the particulars desired of these earlier
photographs, but it is believed that the more important of them, at any
rate, are included in the list attached to this report. Acknowledgment is
due to those Societies (among which may be mentioned the Belfast
Naturalists’ Field Club, Chester Society of Natural Science, Croydon
Microscopical and Natural History Society, Essex Field Club, Leicester
Literary and Philosophical Society, Liverpool Geological Society, and the
Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society) for the care they had taken
to preserve photographic records of important and interesting sections.
While a fairly large number of photographs has been obtained in
response to the circular issued by the Committee, but little has been
accomplished in the way of establishing county photographic surveys for
geological purposes. It was hoped that the suggestion in Circular No. 2
as to the formation of special local committees in different centres (the
only satisfactory means of doing the work thoroughly) would have been
more widely adopted. The only counties which have so far undertaken
such systematic work are Kent and Yorkshire. In the latter county that
valuable aid to scientific progress, the ‘ Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union,’ has
already aided the work of the British Association by the establishment of
local committees charged with special objects of research. As soon as
possible a geological photographic section was formed, of which Mr. James
W. Davis was appointed chairman and Mr. James E. Bedford secretary.
This section has sent over a hundred copies of photographic prints, with
descriptions, the work of its members in the county of York besides other
localities further afield. This Committee are much indebted to the
officers of the Yorkshire Geological Photographic Section for their valu-
able assistance.
There are not wanting indications also of the ripening of the scheme
in other directions at an early date.
Mr. J. Hopkinson, of St. Albans, read a paper before the Hertford-
432 REPORT—1890.
shire Natural History Society on ‘Scientific Investigations in Hertford-
shire in connection with the British Association,’ in which he pointed out
several geological features in the county worthy of being photographed,
and urged the formation of a local collection of geological views, to be
commenced during the summer of 1890.
An important proposal was brought before the Photographie Society
of Birmingham by Mr. W. Jerome Harrison, who advocated a photo-
graphic survey of the county of Warwick, to include pictorial, architec-
tural, besides antiquarian and scientific, subjects; and alluded specially
to the work of this Committee.
Interest in the work of the Committee has been manifested abroad as
well asin this country. Letters have been received from several foreign
professors of geology asking for information and details of the scheme,
and offering, in some cases, an exchange of photographs. Professor H.
Reyer, cf Vienna, Dr. A. Leppla, of Berlin, and Dr. G. Dewalque, of
Liége, have each specially interested themselves in the objects of this
Committee. Professor J. F. Kemp, of Cornell University, Ithaca, New
York State, U.S.A., has also taken steps to bring the subject before the
Geological Society of America, with the view to the inauguration of a
similar scheme in America.
The Committee regard it as highly important that as many photo-
graphs of sections, &c., should be taken as possible. Of these a carefal
selection of the most typical views should be made to be sent in for
registration. During the first year all views sent in have been registered,
but in future it will be necessary to make a selection of those most suit-
able, otherwise there will be an accumulation of photographs illustrating
the same section or natural feature.
It has been found quite impracticable to restrict photographers to any
special size of print; it is therefore merely recommended that the plate
should be as large as possible, the ‘whole plate’ size (83 by 63 inches)
being the most suitable.
Your Committee have not yet had an opportunity of fully discussing
the question of the ultimate disposition of the photographs, and it has
been thought advisable to defer a recommendation of this nature until a
more complete series of photographs has been obtained.
Meantime a suggestion has been made by Mr. Willem S. Logeman,
principal of Newton School, Rock Ferry, that a volume of selected
photographs, illustrating typical geological features, should be published,
which would form a useful book of reference for educational purposes.
At present the collection of photographs is not of sufficient proportions to *
warrant the reproduction of a really complete scries of views from
nature, such as it would be of advantage to students and others to
possess; but the Committee .are bearing in mind the suggestion for
possible use in the future, should they see their way to recommend its
adoption.
It is with great regret that the Committee have to record the decease
of Mr. S. A. Adamson, who was a most active member, and to whose
exertions and influence ihe progress of the work in Yorkshire is largely
due.
The Committee desire to express their obligations to Mr. A. Norman
Tate, editor of Research, for the loan of a block for the purpose of illus-
trating their Circular of Instructions.
The work of the Committee having been, so far, of a preliminary §
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 433
nature, they would respectfully solicit their reappointment, in order to
arrange for the further completion of the objects for which they were
appointed, with a renewal of the grant of ten pounds.
FIRST LIST OF GEOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS.
(TO SEPTEMBER 1890.)
Norr.—This list contains the subjects of all geological photographs
knowr to have been issued. Copies of those only to which the registered
No. is attached have been received by the Secretary of the Committee.
Copies of any photographs desired can, in most cases, be obtained
either from the photographer direct (whose address is usually given) or
from the officers of the local society under whose auspices the views were
taken. é
The Committee in no case has assumed the copyright of photographs
registered, which is presumed to be held by the photographer.
The price at which the photographs may be obtained depends upon
the size of print and local circumstances, over which the Committee has
no control.
CHESHIRE.
Liverpool Geological Society—per W. Huwirt, Secretary. (Photographed by
HK. Newatu, 14 Elin Grove, Tranmere.) Size 84 x 6} inches.
Regd. No.
a, 3, 4,5 Storeton Quarry, 1887 . Various sections
2 9 4 1887 . ‘Footprint bed’?
6 Wallasey, 1887 . : . Quarry in Lower Keuper
7,8 a Breck Road . Section showing ‘current bedding’
9 Prenton Lane, Birkenhead, *Junction of Keuper and Bunter
1887
10 Bidston Hill,1887 . ° . Fissile Keuper sandstone
211 Hilbre Island (mouth of Bunter
River Dee)
12,13 _s,, » (Middle Island) Conglomerate bed
214 Thurstaston Hill, 1887 . ‘Thor’s Stone,’ an outlier of the Bunter
15 West Kirby,1887 . . Fault at Calday Grange
” 33 + - . Junction of Keuper and Bunter
Flaybrick Hill, 1887 . - Ditto
” » 1885. . Fault in Keuper
7 oP a's ‘ Roche moutonnée
Poulton Quarry, Wirral, Jointing in Keuper
1885 (2)
16
Per J. Lomas, 23 Avondale Roa, Liverpool.
Dawpool, Wirral, 1888 (4). Boulder clay cliffs on bank of River Dee
showing interbedded sands, &c,
Hilbre Island (2) . . Coast erosion
Wallasey (2). , . Sand dunes, showing stratification
» Breck Road. *Contortions ’ in Trias
Ince . . - : . Peat beds
», (Ship CanalSections) Fault in Trias
Photographed by E. Timmins, Runcorn.
32 Runcorn (lane to Higher Frodsham beds of Keuper
Runcorn)
1890. FF
434 REPORT—1890.
CorNWALL.
Photographed by Percy F. Kenvat1, 31 Parkfield Street, Manchester.
Lands End : 5 . Columnar jointing
St. Erth . ; . . Pliocene clays
oF 3 z F F . Contorted strata
A eS . ; ; . Pliocene sand resting on elvan
Per Rev. H. H. Winwoon, 11 Cavendish Crescent, Bath.
36 Mitford Tunnel. ‘ . Mitford sands
37 ‘I'ucking Mill . . . William Smith’s House
33 5 $5 é Fi . Tablet to the memory of William Smith
(‘Father of English Geology ’)
DEVONSHIRE.
Photographed by J. J. Coun, Maryland, Sutton, Surrey.
57 Lulworth (Stare Cove) . Showing contorted strata
Per W. Pancetty, Lamorna, Torquay. (Photographed by Witu1aM WincER,
44 Union Street, Torquay.)
58 Torquay . ‘ . Entrance to Kent’s Cavern
59 5 - q ; : » Brixham Cave
Is~te or Man.
Photographed by Ep. Newaut (Liverpool Geological Society).
31 Scarlett Point
30 Port St. Mary . . Glaciated limestone surface
(And some others not designated.)
Per Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union (Geol. Photo. Section). (Photographed
by S. A. Warpurton, 9 Banstead Terrace, Leeds.) Size 8 x 5
inches.
75 Douglas Head, 1885 . . Contorted slate
Photographed by J. E. Beprorp, 9 Cardigan Road, Leeds.
Size 8x5 inches.
76 Scarlett Stack, 1888 . . Basaltic boss
77 poe ; fr » (with dyke)
73 Scarlett Point os . Upheaved limestone
79 - as ie . Weathered volcanic ash
Kent.
Per Artur S. Rein, Trinity College, Glenalmond, N.B.
(Photographed by Professor E. W. Reip, University College, Dundee.)
224 Elham Valley Railway, Large pipe in Chalk
1889 (1)
225-226 2 9 » (2) Junction of Thanet Beds and Chalk
227 35 9 » (1) Thanet Beds
ON PILOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 435
Per East Kent Natural History Society, Geological Photo Sub-Committee.
(Photographed by C. W, Auten, 19 St. Dunstan’s Street, Canterbury.)
228-229 Elham Valley Railway, Junction of Thanet Beds and Chalk
1889 (4)
he 28 is 4 a Large pipe in Chalk
23a 5, ce » (1) Drift on Chalk
233) §;, a » (1) Thanet Beds
LANCASHIRE.
Photographed by BW. Newaut (Lriverpool Geological Society).
17,18 Woolton, Liverpool . . Two views of the ‘Calderstones’ (stcne
circle)
Photographed by E. Warp, 249 Ozford Street, Manchester.
Series of views of the ‘Oxford Road Boulder,’ now in the Quadrangle cl
Owens College, Manzhester
35 rn nm Manchester Ship Canal
Photographed by Goprrey Brnetey (Leeds Geological Association), for the
Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union (Geol. Photo. Section). Size 4 x 22
inches.
91, 92 Lindale, near Grange, 1889 Old sea cliffs in Carboniferous limestone
(2)
93-97 Hampsfell a (5) . Escarpment in limestone showing weathering
98-105 if - (8) . Weathered Carboniferous limestone
106-108 a 5 (8) . Limestone boulders lying on Carboniferous
limestone
109-117 a Fs (9) . Erratic boulders (various) lying on Carboni-
ferous limestone
L@ICESTERSHIRE.
Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society—per James Puanr, West
Lerrace, Leicester. (Photographed by Joun Burton & Sons, Leicester.)
Size 12 x10 inches.
29 Croft Hill, July 1881 - Syenite, Trias, and Boulder clay
Lr ” May 1882 ° ” ” ” ”
Barrow-on-Soar, June 1881 Arches in Lias limestone
Mount Sorrel, July 1875 . Hornblendic granite
3 yr pepe. Loin 3
Humberstone, May 1881 . The ‘Holystone’ erratic
Broombriggs, Charnwood Charnwood slate
Forest, July 1875
”
Benscliff, Charnwood rs 3
Forest, July, 1875
‘Hanging Stone,’ Charn- Pa 5
wood Forest, August
1881
Woodhouse Eaves, Charn- es Bs
wood Forest, June 1881
Saffron Lane, Leicester, Boulder clay, &c.
June 1882
Breakback Hill, Charn- Keuper, lying upon Charnwood slate
wood Forest, June 1881
Ring Pit Quarry, Charn- Concentric rings in slate
wood Forest, June 1881
FF2
436 REPOoRT—1890.
.
Swithland, Charnwood Slate
Forest, June 1881
Stoney Stanton, June 1881 Southerly extension of Charnwood rocks
28 Aylestone, 1881. ‘ . Erratic block of Mount Sorrel granite
MoNTGOMERYSHIRE.
Caradoc Field Club. (Photographed by W. W. Warts, Sidney College,
Cambridge.)
88-89 Corndon Hill (S.E.), 1885 Dolerite, resting on shales, Base of Corndon
(124) laccolite
90 * » (W.side) . Middle Arenig shales resting conformably on
dolerite
NorTHUMBERLAND.
Per W. W. Watts. (Photographed by G. Hineury, Cullercoats,
Newcasile-on-Tyne.)
197 Caves on Coast . . Jointing and bedding in Coal measures
198 Near St. Mary’s Island . Curved faults in Coal measures
199 Tynemouth 2 . Magnesian limestone
200-201 Marsden Bay . . . Breccia gashes in Magnesian limestone
202 ‘The Stack’ 4 : A on os
203 ‘Lot’s Wife’. : . Sea stack
204 Marsden Rock o
205 Marsden Bay . é . Concretions in Magnesian limestone
NorrincHam.
Photographed by Joun Burton & Sons, Leicester.
Nottingham, June 1882 . Church Cemetery; caverns in Pebble Beds
a . », (2) Castle Hill, Bunter
Himlack (or Hemlock Showing denudation
Stone)
Per Jamus Suipman, Manning Grove, Nottingham.
Nottingham Castle . . Pebble beds
Kimberley : Permian, resting on tilted Coal measures
Hemlock Stone, Notting-
ham
Nottingham. . °. Faulted Keuper
Blidworth : A . Outliers of Keuper (supposed ‘Druidical’
remains)
Beeston . é 0 . Interglacial sand and river gravel
Norto WALES.
Chester Society of Natural Science—per Guorce Frater, The Bank,
Wrexham. (Photographed by Aurrep O, WALKER, Nant-y-Glyn, Colwyn
Bay.) Size 6 x & inches.
42 Cefn Beuno Caves, Vale of
Clwyd
43,45, . :
46, 47 Cefn-y-bedd, Wrexham
44 Holywell, Bagillt 7 . Lower Coal measures
48 Colwyn Bay, Pen-y-Bont Drift with alternate beds of clay and sand
Farm, 1889
————
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 437
Leeds Geological Association—per J. HE. Buprorp. (Photographed by Gop-
FREY Biyetey, 15 Cardigan Road, Leeds, for the Yorkshire Naturalists’
Union, Geol. Photo. Section.) Size various.
118 Llandudno, Great Orme’s Erratic boulder
Head
119-121 pe “A » + Weathered blocks of Carboniferous lime-
stone
122 Pe os ‘3 Escarpment of Carboniferous limestone
423 oy on » + Section in limestone quarry
124-128 * ce » + Cliffs showing stratification
129-131 $3 on », + Fissure in limestone
132-137 Pe “9 ‘p Views of cliff sections
SHROPSHIRE.
Caradoc Field Club. (Photographed by W. W. Watts, Sidney College,
Cambridge.) Size 4x3} inches.
80 Minsterley (roadto Bishop’s
Castle), 1887 (1)
81 »» (near Fox Inn) (3)
82 Pontesbury (Nills
1887 (6)
83 ” ” (7) .
84 Minsterley (Tasgar Quarry)
8
Hill),
85 Whittery Bridge (9) .
86 Wotherton (Barytes Mine),
1885 (10)
87 Todleth Hill (&. Side),
1885 (11)
Much Wenlock .
Section at Hope Dingle showing uncon-
formable junction of Silurian on Ordovi-
cian
Basin produced by folding of beds of Middle
Arenig ash
Stiperstones Quartzite
” ”
Upper Arenig ash
‘Whittery’ ash (Bala, or Lower Caradoc
age)
Fault in ¢ Whittery ’ ash
Crags overlooking Hurdley, columnar intru-
sive andesite
Wenlock limestone
Wrekin,from Benthall Edge
Broseley (Corbett’s Dingle) Bedding and jointing in Carboniferous
sandstone
SoMERSET.
Per Professor C. Luoyp-Morean. (Photographed by H. B. Jurp,
Clifton College, Bristol.)
SERIES OF GEOLOGICAL SECTIONS ON THE AVON GORGE.
207 Clifton Dolomitic conglomerate
208 7 Massive Oolitic limestone
209 _ =O«, Massive Dolomitic conglomerate resting on
Old Red sandstone
210~—O#; Fault. Millstone grit and Upper Limestone
shales
211,213 . Bryozoa bed in Lower Limestone shales
YORKSHIRE.
Per Anruour 8. Rem, Trinity College, Glenalmond, N.B. (Photographed
by Professor E. W. Reip, University College, Dundee.)
33, £0 Draughton, near Skipton .
41 Bolton Abbey Station
Contorted Carboniferous limestone
Faulted synclinal in limestone
438
REPORT—1890.
Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society—per James W. Davis,
Chevinedge, Halifax. Size 11 x8 inches.
19 Raygill Quarries, with fis-
sures, 1875
Plumpton Rocks, 1879
Scarboro’ Castle, 188
3
Wadsley, near Sheffield,
1876
Flamboro’ Head, 1882
3 Thorwick Bay .
Clayton, near Halifax,1886
Hilderthorpe, 1887
Draughton, 1871
Moughton Fell, 1877 ;
Gordale Scar, 1878
Raygill Fissure, 1880.
Norber, 1881
Bempton Cliffs, 1885 .
Nodular concretions in calcareous grit.
Fossil trees in Lower Coal measures
Erosion of chalk
Chalk surmounted by drift
Roots of stigmaria
Current-bedded sands
Contorted limestone
Junction of Silurian with Carbeniferous lime-
stone
(During exploration)
Erratic blocks
Contorted chalk
Per Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union (Geol. Photo Section). (Photographs
taken for the Leeds Geological Association, by F. W. Branson, 14
Commercial Street, Leeds.) Size 7x5 inches; enlarged series, 14x10
inches.
i38s
Longley’s Brick Works,
Leeds
2139 Grosvenor’s Yard
1490
i41
142
SON. |
Boyle’s Quarry .
” ”
Dolly Lane, Brick Yard
143 Benson Street, Brick Yard . ‘ Better bed’ coal, &c.
[Notr.—These were photographed in 1885, and were temporary sections, but
extremely valuable as showing the succession in the Lower Coal measures from above
the ‘ Beeston’ bed to those immediately above the Elland flagstone.—S, A. ADAM-
Coal measures above ‘ Beeston’ bed
. ‘Beeston’ bed (8 to 9 feet) and Coal mea-
sures
. General Section, ‘Crow coal’ and Coal
measures above and below
Fe 35 (detailed)
. ‘Black red’ coal
Photographed by J. HE. Benrorn, Cardigan Road, Leeds (for Leeds
Geological Association). Size 6 x4 inches.
2144 Armley, near Leeds, 1882 .
145
i246
147
148
149
150
151
152
Photographed by A. E. Nicuoits, Borough Engineer’s Office, Leeds ( for
Leeds Geological Association). Size 6 x4 inches.
153-5
Draughton, near Skipton,
1885
Bridlington, 1886.
Filey, 1886.
The Brigg, Filey
Castleford, 1890
1885 .
Elland flagstones; ruptured shales and flag-
stones
Contorted limestone (anticlinal and syn-
clinal)
Slickenside at side of an anticlinal
Cross-bedding in gravel
Freshwater gravel on boulder clay
Lake deposit lying on boulder clay
-) Drift lying upon Oolitic limestone, showing
156 Haddockstones, 1889, be-
tween Markington and
Ripon
.) atmospheric denudation
Oolitic beds at the Brigg
Three views of fossil tree stem i situ in
Coal measures
Isolated blocks of Plumpton grit
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 439
157,158 Sections on new railway,
1889, Ilkley to Skipton .
159-164 Garforth and S. Milford,
1889
165 Knaresborough Castle, 1888
166 1888
167 Dudley Hill, " Bradford,
1890
168,169 Brough, near Hull, 1889 .
Vertical and contorted Carboniferous lime-
stone
Six views of quarries in Magnesian lime-
stone, showing methods of quarrying and
varieties in bedding
Base of Magnesian limestone, with underly-
ing ‘3rd’ grit
Plumpton rocks
Lower Carboniferous sandstone
Post-tertiary gravels, resting on Oolitic out-
lier at base of the chalk wolds
Photographed by Goprruy Brnexey (for Leeds Geological Association),
15 Cardigan Road, Headingley, Leeds. Size various.
170,171 Burnsal, near Skipton, 1890
172 Saltburn, 1888 . é A
173 re) as = .
174 ” ”
175 Fp 5 Hunt Cliff,
1888 :
176 Whitby Scar, 1888 2
177 Staithes (Penny Nab), 1888
178 33 (Colborn Nab) ,1888
179 Hayburn Wyke, near Scar-
borough, 1887
187 ”
180 Thornton Force, Ingleton,
1890
181-184 Norber, near Clapham,
1889
185 Ewe Nab, Carnelian Bay,
1887
186 Scarborough Cliffs, near
the Spa
188 Headingley, Leeds, 1888 .
189,190 Adel Moor, Leeds, 1890
191 Bolton Abbey . -
2192 Bolton Woods, 1888 . :
193 Flamborough, 1887
194 5 Ps ‘ ;
195 5 Thornwick Bay
196
” ” “LG
Photographed by the Rev.
214 Cutting at Enthorpe, on
Driffield and Market
Weighton Railway
215 Craike Hill P :
216 Weedly . .
Ridge of limestone crossing valley of the
Wharfe
View of drift hills
Valley cut in drift
Sandhills and drift
Middle Lias and ironstone band
Lias and Oolite
Middle Lias
Sea Chiff and waterfall
Lower shale and sandstone, Oolite
Base of Carboniferous limestone, resting un-
conformably on Silurian
Erratic blocks of Silurian grit resting on
Carboniferous limestone
Cliff in Lower Coal measures
Large weathered blocks of Millstone grit
(in sitw)
Yoredale shales
Valley of the Strid through Millstone grit
Arch 1n chalk eliff
Chalk cliff
Caves in chalk
Showing marine erosion of chalk beneath
and atmospheric action denuding drift
above
W. 4H. Fox, Thivendale, York.
Horizontal layers of flint in Middle Chalk
False bedded sands and gravel
Band of Black Chalk
Photographed by Miss McCattum, Clarence House, Filey.
219-221 Filey Brigg
Marine erosion
440
REPORT—1890.
Photographed by G. Fowier Jones, Quarrybank, Malton.
222 Settrington Bridge
223 Gravel Pit, Malton
Fault in Coralline oolite
Highly inclined beds of Oolitic gravel
ScorLanD.
Per Auex. Ross, Marldon Chambers, Inverness. (Photographed by D.
Wuyre, Inverness.) Size 8} x 64 inches.
54-56 Island of St. Kilda (look-
ing N.W.), 1885
Three views showing weathering and form
of gabbros and volcanic rocks
Photographed by R. McF. Mutr, 85 Underwood, Paisley.
33-35 Partick, near Glasgow
49 Gleniffer Braes, Renfrew-
shire, 1885
Three views of fossil trees in Coal measures
at Whiteinch
Nethercraig’s lime quarry, showing master-
joints
Per Ep. Warp, 249 Oxford Street, Manchester. (Photographed by Percy
F. Kenpas.)
ISLAND OF MULL.—Series of 17 quarter-plate views.
’
’
”
Salen Shore
Port, Bean.
Gribun
Carsaig
Staffa
Arches, Mull
Dykes
Intrusive basalt
Columnar dyke
Pr with tachylite
Cave above tide mark
Spheroidal weathering of basalt
Faulted dyke
Cliffs and talus
Marine denudation
Cclumnar basalt
Curved basaltic columns
Photographed by W. Norriz, 28 Cross Street, Fraserburgh, under the
direction of Professor HEppLE and L. A. Harvin-Brown. Size 5x 8 inches.
[Local numbers in brackets. ]
60 Island of Rum, 1889 [3]
61 Bird’s
1887 [7]
62 Holborn Head (E. side) [8] Flagstone
63 Ross of Mull [9] °
6%
66
68 Gribun, Mull [19]
35 [20)
[2
”
”
[12]
67 Ross
through Nun’s Cave)
”
”
Island, Caithness,
Nun’s Cave [11]
65 Holborn Head
© Devil’s Bridge’
of
”
Mull
a
[22]
72 Shiant Island [37]
Cooking
73 Whitenhead Stack [54]
7%
”
”
[65].
Stack of Mharagast
View of Holborn Head
Basaltic colonnade (the last of the twin
columns)
Basaltic arch
Rift in rocks
Caithness flagstone
Clustered basalt
Basaltic pavement
Trap dyxe in basalt
Rent in trap dyke
Basaltic north cliff
Contorted gneiss
North end of great fault through Scotland
ny Oe
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST.
Photographed by G. W. Witson & Co., Aberdeen.
44]
Selected list by Pro-
fessor JAMES GEIKIE.
[NotE.—Thbe numbers in brackets are those of the photographers, and are inserted
for convenience of reference |
Large size,
West side of Handa, Suth-
erland [2025]
Assynt Lodge, Sutherland
[2031]
Lochnagar [2551] :
The Door Holm, Tangwick,
Shetland [2070]
Granite quarries, Aber-
deen [4048]
Buchan Coast, near Stains
[4036]
Granite quarries, near Bul-
lers-of-Buchan [4038]
Cior Mhor frem top of Goat
Fell [5742]
‘Cyclopean Walls,’
[5739]
Arran
Ben Nuish from top of Goat
Fell [5743]
Carse of Gowrie from Kin-
noul Hill [6601]
Loch Maddy, North Uist
[6174]
Spindle Rock, St. Andrews
[6269]
The Old Man of Hoy [128]
The Pot, Bullers-of-Buchan
[204]
Dunbay Rock,
Coast [205]
Dunotter Castle [494]
Buchan
Gordie Stack and Drongs,
Shetland [582]
The Old Man, Storr, Skye
[873]
The Quiraing, Skye [893-
97]
The Kilt Rock, Skye [898]
The Old Man of Wick [936]
The Stack of Brough, Wick
[939]
Clamshell Cave,
[762]
West side of Staffa [765] .
Boat Cave, Staffa [766]
Colonnade, Staffa [767]
Causeway of bending
pillars, Staffa [768 ]
Island of Staffa [2454]
Staffa
114x745 inches.
Sea coast section of horizontal Torridon
sandstone
Archean gneiss in foreground, overlooked
by escarpments of Torridon sandstones
(so-called Cambrian)
Corrie with tarn, in granite
Sea-stack or islet: Old Red sandstone lava-
form rocks and agglomerates, showing
denudation since period of glaciation
Granite
Granite: showing structural features and
their influence in marine erosion
Granite: structural features
General view of granite mountains, sharp
crests, corries, torrent-courses, and screes
Granite mountains; knife- edged ridges of
granite; weathering and “débris ;_ trap
dykes cutting granite
Corries, torrent-courses, &c., in granite
Old fluviatile and estuarine flat
Characteristic landscape (Archean rocks)
Radiating columnar basalt, tuff, &c.
Weathering of Upper Old Red sandstone ;
sea coast; influence of joints
Sea action on granite; influence of joints
Sea action
Sea cliff—vertical Lower Old Red conglo-
merate
Weathering of bedded basalt rocks
Weathering of bedded basalt
Columnar basalt resting on Mesozoic strata
Caithness flags (Old Red) ; ; sea coast action ;
influence of joints in formation of caves
and stacks
” ” ” ”» ”
Curved columnar basalt
Columnar and amorphous basalt
” ” ” ”»
and tuff
Amorphous’ ‘basalt “above curved ‘columnar
basalt
General view
REPORT— 1890.
Colonnade and Boat Cave
from the sea [24774]
Fingal’s Cave . - .
Parallel Roads in Glenroy
[1234]
North
[1450]
Muchalls, sea cave [17347]
Suilven, Assynt, Sutherland
[1968]
The Maddys, Loch Maddy
[6090]
Looking up Loch Eport
[6174]
The Grind of the Naver,
North Maven [2051]
Galton, Orkney
Scuir-na-Gillean, Skye[859]
General view
Three views, showing
columnar basalt
amorphous and
Old Red flagstone ; influence of joints
Granite
Torridon sandstone outlier; Archzean rocks
Characteristic landscape of Archzean gneiss ;
roches moutonnées (weathered)
Archean gneiss
Structural features of bedded, lava-form
rocks (Old Red) and their influence on
marine erosion
General view of gabbro mountains ; moraine
in foreground
Smaller size, 8 x5 inches.
The Brig o’ Trams, Wick
[1567]
The Drongs, Shetland [580]
The Quiraing, Skye [384] .
The Lion Rock, Cumbrae
[1290]
Samson’s Ribs, Edinburgh
[872]
East side of Staffa [1464]
Spindle Rock, St. Andrews
[929]
Fiddle Bow Rock, Cullen
[6058 ]
The Gloop, Duncansby
Head [1586]
Ben Stack, Sutherland
[2739]
Stacks of Duncansby
[1585]
Noss Head, near Wick
[1576]
Cliffs on Handa, Suther-
land [2735]
Windy Edge Pass, Dollar
[2154]
Inchnadamph, outflow of
underground river [2684]
Kurka Stack, Balta, Shet-
land [2680]
Holm of Noss [568] . .
Stack Sheog, Handa [2738]
The Pot, Bullers-of-Buchan
[973]
Action of sea on Old Red sandstone
Sea stacks
Weathering
Basalt dyke
Columnar basalt
Curved basalt
Radiating columnar basalt in tuff
Marine erosion in crystalline schists
Old Red sandstone
Archean gneiss
Marine erosion
Caithness flags
Torridon sandstones
Stream following joint in igneous rock of Old
Red sandstone age
Bared thrust-plane in limestone
Islet of gabbro
Marine action along joints in Old Red sand-
stone
Marine erosion in Torridon sandstones
Marine action in granite. The ‘Pot’ is a
‘tunnel,’ the roof of which has fallen in
The Giant’s Leg, Bressay [665]
The Needle-Ee Rock, Wick
[2613]
Linn of Dee, Braemar
[8657 |
Staffa: Colonnade and
Fingal’s Cave [4575]
Marine erosion in Old Red sandstone
River action ; cutting in crystalline schists
Columnar basalt
ee
ees |
245-246
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST.
Valley of the Thousand
Hills, Glen Torridon[591]
Inchnadamph and Ben
More [2685]
Doune of Invernoghty,
Strathdon [6890]
The Herdsman
Staffa [1460]
Linn of Gnoich, Braemar
[10143]
‘Gulgh* at the Linn . :
Island,
443
General view of moraines
Limestone beds piled up by thrusting from
eae and relics of old river terrace
Bird’s-eye view of columnar basalt
River cutting through schists along lines of
joints
Pot holes in bed of river
IRELAND.
Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society—per W. Swanston, King
Street, Belfast.
52 Whitehead, Belfast, 1889 .
53 Whitewell, Belfast, 1889
plate.)
234 The Grand Causeway, Co.
Antrim
The Wishing Chair, Co.
Antrim
The Fan, Co. Antrim.
The Honeycomb, Co, An-
trim
Amphitheatre, Co. Antrim
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
The Giant’s Gateway
Middle Causeway
Pleaskin Head .
Dunseverick : :
Needle Rock, Portearn 6
Greyman’s Path . F
Van Head, from the sea
Rocking Stone, Island Magee
Cloughmore, Co. Down .
Great Cave, North Coast,
Co. Antrim
Garron Point, North Coast,
Co. Antrim
Slieve Bingian, Co. Down .
The Quarry, Carlingford,
Co. Louth
253 Knockmore,Co. Fermanagh
242
243
244
247
248
249
250
251i
252
Columnar basalt resting on eroded surface of
chalk
Amyedaloidal basalt resting on indurated
chalk
Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club—per Wu. Gray, 8 Mount Charles, Belfast.
(Photographed by R. Weicu, 49 Lonsdale Street, Belfast.
Size full
Columnar basalt
” ”
Columnar basalt and interstratified beds of
bole, &e.
Columnar basalt
Horizontal and vertical columns
Columnar, tabular and decomposed beds of
basalt
Detached boss of basalt’
Marine denudation
Atmospheric denudation
Columnar basalt
‘Transported block of trap rock
Transported block of granite
Marine denudation of chalk
Landslip
Atmospheric denudation of granite
Carboniferous limestone, with
basalt
Mouth of ossiferous cave
intrusive
Photographed by W. Strtrox, Belfast.
254 North Coast, Co. Antrim
255 Kenbane,
256 Cave on North
Antrim
9 bd
Coast, Co.
257-258 Garron Point, Co. Antrim .
259 North Coast, es ’
Denudation of chalk
Headland of chalk
Chalk
Chalk and basalt
Cliffs of chalk and basalt
444 REPORT—1890.
260 Ballantry, Co. Antrim . Marine denudation
261 Elephant Rock, ,, : ” ”»
262-263 Chalk Cliffs, +) : 7 as
Photographed by Wm. Gray, 8 Mount Charles, Belfast.
264-265 Larne Gravels . 5 . Raised beach with worked flints
266 Fan Head . : . Transported block of trap
267 Strongford Lough, Co. a 5
Down
268 Fan Head . : ; . Columnar trap
269 North Coast, Co. Antrim . Denudation of chalk
271 Ballywillin, a . Curved columns of basalt
272 Doniaghey, “a . Outcrop of New Red sandstone
273 Cushendun, a . Cave in Old Ked conglomerate
Photographed by HE. Tare, Belfast.
275 Whitehead, Co. Antrim . Boulder clay, columnar trap and chalk
Photographed by G. W. Witson & Co., Aberdeen (a selected series of
photographs revised by Professor JAMES GEIKIE).
[Norre.—The numbers in brackets are those of, Messrs. Wilson & Co,, and are
given for convenience of reference. ]
Giant’s Causeway [219] . Columnar basalt
= 35 [225] . Ladies’ wishing chair; nearer view of
columns
a 5 [226] . The Keystone, showing tops of columns
5 x {227] . The Fan (similar to No. 226)
rr i [229] . The Organ (radiating columnar basalt)
5 5 [230] . Pleaskin Head (columnar and amorphous
basalt)
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor FLowrr (Chair-
man), Professor M. Fostmr, Professor Ray LANKEsTER, Professor
Vines, and Mr. S. F. Harmer (Secretary), appointed for the
purpose of arranging for the occupation of a Table at the
Laboratory of the Marine Biological Association at Plymouth.
Tue grant of 301. which was made to this Committee was recom-
mended by the Committee of Section D on the assumption that this sum
would be large enough to enable the use of a table at the Plymouth
Laboratory to be acquired for a complete year. The Committee, on their
appointment, at once entered into negotiations with the Council of the
Marine Biological Association, in order to arrange the terms of payment
to be made for the use of a table. By the payment of 500/., made by
successive instalments in accordance with recommendations adopted at
the meetings in 1884, 1886, 1887, and 1888, the British Association had
become a ‘ Governor’ of the Marine Biological Association; and it had
thereby acquired the permanent right of appointing one person in each
year to occupy a table at the Laboratory at Plymouth for one month free
of charge.
Under these circumstances, the Council of the Marine Biological
Association agreed to allow the Committee to obtain a table at Plymouth
ON THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION AT PLYMOUTH. 445
for one year on payment of 30I., instead of the normal subscription of
401.
The Committee felt, however, that it would be advisable to defer
making any final arrangement with the Council of the Marine Biological
Association until applications to occupy the table had actually been
received. It was recognised that applications for nomination to the use
of the table would probably be received principally during the summer
months, when persens who could be expected to make a good use of the
nomination would be most likely to be able to spare time to work at
Plymouth, and the results have justified this anticipation.
Three applications were actually received, and in each case the appli-
cant desired to work at Plymouth during July and August. The Com-
mittee decided in consequence to give up the original intention of taking
one table for the whole year, and to make use of the grant entrusted to
them in hiring tables for those months in the year for which applications
from suitable persons were actually sent in, thereby allowing them to
nominate two or more persons to work simultaneously at Plymouth.
This arrangement was finally made, with the consent of the Council of
the Marine Biological Association, it being understood that the British
Association had the right to the use of a table for one month in the year
free of charge. By this arrangement, the grant of 30]. was sufficient to
enable the Committee to acquire the use of a table for seven months, for
one of which no payment was to be made, while the remaining period was
to be paid for at the rate of 5/. per month.
The nominations which have actually been made are as follows :—
Mr. M. F. Woodward, Demonstrator in Zoology at the Science and
Art Department, South Kensington, for two months (end of July to end
of September).
Mr. W. G-. Ridewood, B.Sc., for two.months (July-August).
Mr, E. A. Minchin, B.A., of Keble College, Oxford, for three months
(July-September).
The researches undertaken by these gentiemen are at present in pro-
gress, and it is obviously as yet impossible to give any final report on the
results arrived at. The following preliminary statements have, however,
been received. It must be pointed out that the report was written,
in each case, shortly after the commencement of the occupation of the
table.
I. Report on the Occupation of the Table. By Mr. M. F. Woopwarp.
The line of research to which I intend devoting my attention is that
of Molluscan anatomy, especially that of the Lamellibranchiata. Several
attempts have been made lately to re-classify the Lamellibranchs, as it is
very doubtful if the older classification by muscular impressions can be
adhered to in the light of recent investigations. The most recent classi-
fications are by means of the gills; one by Fischer based on the number
of gill lamellz, and another by Pelseneer taking the form of the gill as a
basis. Unfortunately, these two classifications differ from one another in
important respects.
T hope, by making use of the facilities offered by my nomination, to
work out the general anatomy of a number of forms; and, by carefully
comparing these with one another, to ascertain if possible which, if either,
of these classifications appears the most natural. I haye, moreover, no
446 REPORT—1890.
doubt that many points of interest, both in the anatomy and in the
histology of the Lamellibranchiata, will also be observed.
II. Report on the Occupation of the Table. By Mr. W. G. Ripewoop.
On the Air-bladder of Clupeoid Fishes.
The air-bladder of the herring communicates by a ductus pnewmaticus
with a backward prolongation of the stomach; it also communicates
directly with the exterior, in the region of the anus, by a smali papilla,
which opens just within the aperture of the short urinogenital chamber
or sinus,
The anterior end of the air-bladder is continued, after two bifur-
cations, into four sacs, each of which lies within its own tightly-fitting
bony capsule. The anterior pair of sacs are in intimate contact with a
pair of cecal processes of the membranous vestibule of the ear, while
the posterior pair are situated within the loop of the horizontal semi-
circular canal.
Although Weber! gave an excellent account of this anterior termi-
nation of the air-bladder in 1820, it would appear that of the whole of
the clupeoid fishes only the common herring (C. harengus) has been
minutely studied with reference to this arrangement, and the object of
the projected investigation is to determine how far these complicated
relations obtain in the closely allied species and genera.
In view of the great complexity of these relations it would be reason-
able to expect a certain amount of variation in the allied forms, while, if
the investigation be attended with the opposite result, it will tend to
show that the system of classification of these fishes now adopted by
ichthyologists is a true and a natural one.
III. Report on the Occupation of the Table. By Mr. E. A. Mincuin.
T am investigating the structure and life-histories of the various
species of Gregarinids parasitic on marine animals, especially those
inhabiting Holothuria. I have already obtained and studied three species
which I believe to be as yet undescribed, and which are parasitic on
Nebalia, Gammarus locusta, and Phallusia mammillata respectively. I
have also found several stages of the Gregarine inhabiting the body-
cavity of Holothuria, described very inadequately by Schneider in 1858
in the ‘ Archiv f. Anat. u. Physiol.,’ and have obtained some good results
by studying this form by means of sections. I have also, incidentally,
made a number of observations on the corpuscles in the body-cavities of
Holothuria and Echinus.
I hope to be able to work out the minute structure of the Gregarine
nucleus and its behaviour during conjugation and encystment, using
sections and other methods for the purposes of this investigation.
The experience gained by the Committee during the past year has
convinced them that the grant made by the Association has been of
material service in assis ing well-qualified persons who were anxious to
work at the Laboratory at Plymouth. The investigations which are now
1 De Aure et Auditu Hominis et Animalium.
ON THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION AT PLYMOUTII. 447
in progress are of course unfinished, but the Committee are of opinion
that the results are sufficiently encouraging to justify them in asking the
Association to renew the grant for another year.
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor FLowmr
(Chairman), Mr. D. Morris (Secretary), Mr. Carrorurs, Dr.
Scuater, Mr. Tuiserron-Dyzr, Dr. Saarp, Mr. F. Du Cane Gop-
MAN, Professor Newton, Dr. Ginruer, and Colonel Frmpen,
appointed for the purpose of reporting on the present state of
our knowledge of the Zoology and Botany of the West India
Islands, and taking steps to investigate ascertained deficiencies
in the Fauna and Flora.
Tis Committee was appointed in 1887, and reappointed in 1888 and
- 1889.
During the past year chief attention has been directed to the explora-
tion of the island of St. Vincent, and two collectors have been maintained
in that island at the expense of Mr. F. Du Cane Godman, who has kindly
assisted the Committee in this manner in order that the funds at its
disposal may be chiefly applied to the remuneration of contributors, to
whom would be referred the large collections in zoology already amount-
ing in insecta alone to about 3,000 species. The plants have been
determined at the Herbarium of the Royal Gardens, Kew, and are nearly
completed to date. A separate report on the collections in zoology and
botany is given below.
It is proposed by the Committee to accept the services of Mr. R. V.
Sherring, F.L.S., to make collections in botany in the island of Grenada
during the coming winter. Mr. Sherring is well acquainted with the
West Indies, and has already made collections there and added several
new species of ferns to the flora of Jamaica.
Zoology.
Since the last report of the Committee three collections have been
received from Mr. H. H. Smith, the collector sent by Mr. Godman to the
island of St. Vincent. These collections include a complete set of the
birds already known to inhabit the island, and a few additional species ;
a small number of reptiles and crustaceans ; a large series of spiders ; and
a great many insecta; these last amounting, it is thought, to about 3,000
species.
4 In 1889 Colonel Feilden paid a visit to the island of Dominica for the
purpose of ascertaining whether the Diablotin (@strelata hesitata) has
become extinct there, as has been reported by Ober. The account of his
expedition that Colonel Feilden has published leaves little doubt that this
is the case.
Although Mr. Smith has now been occupied about a year and a half
in the exploration of the island of St. Vincent, Mr. Godman has decided,
with the concurrence of the Committee, that he shall still continue there,
as itis not yet clear that the more inaccessible portions of the island
have been sufficiently examined.
448 REPORT-—1890.
Mr. Godman has agreed to give a first set of the zoological specimens
obtained by his collector to the National Collection contained in the
British Museum, and the Committee is at present endeavouring to find
competent zoologists to work out the extensive series of insects and
spiders that has been obtained.
Commander Markham, R.N., contributed some specimens in zoology
collected by him in the Leeward and Windward Islands of the West
Indies, and Captain Hellard, R.E., local secretary to the Committee at
St. Lucia, has recently forwarded four boxes of Lepidoptera collected by
him in that island.
Botany.
A small collection of plants, numbering 143 specimens, was received
from Mr. J. J. Walsh, R.N. This collection included plants from
Dominica, St. Martin’s, St. Eustatius, St. Kitts, St. Lucia, and Grenada.
Most of the plants consisted of common West Indian species, presumably
such as would be met with in the more accessible spots in the various
places visited.
The remainder of the plants collected by Mr. Ramage at St. Lucia
have been determined. Of 84 species sent 62 have been fully determined.
The others include several that are apparently new. They are wholly
woody or forest plants, and comprise Sleanea sp., Picramniasp., Zanthoxrylum
sp., Bursera sp., Miconia sp., Cybianthus sp., Lucwma sp., Siparuna sp.,
Helosis sp., Gymnanthes sp., and Cyclanthus sp. In one or two cases
the material is hardly sufficient for satisfactory determination. Two
of the above undetermined species have also been collected in Dominica
and one in Martinique by earlier collectors.
Three collections have been received from St. Vincent through Mr.
Godman, viz., in September 1889, and March and August 1890. The
first collection has been determined at Kew by Mr. Rolfe as far as the
end of the Polypetale. Of the 252 numbers (to this point) 47 were
duplicates ; thus 205 species were represented. All but about 9 of these
were fully determined, the great bulk consisting of widely diffused West
Indian plants; 128, or more than half, appear to have been recorded
from the island before.
The undetermined specimens are Trattinickia sp., Stigmaphyllon sp.,
Trichilia sp., Meliosma sp., Lysiloma sp., Moquilea sp., a species of Hugenia
cbtained by Hahn in Martinique, and two species probably of Pithecolobiwm,
of which the material was somewhat inadequate. Several of these appear
to be new, the first-named being specially interesting, because the genus
was hitherto only known from Guiana and Brazil. In addition to this
may be mentioned that several species of somewhat restricted distribu-
tion in the West Indies, more especially from Martinique and St. Lucia,
have also been found in St. Vincent.
The second collection from St. Vincent consisted for the most part of
ferns. Mr. J. G. Baker has fully worked out these. They include 133
species and well-marked varieties, three of which are new. The specimens
are in excellent state of preservation, and it is probable that we have
amongst them nearly all the fern flora of the island, both of the mountains
and the lowlands.
As our knowledge of the fern flora of St. Vincent may be now re-
garded as practically exhaustive, it seems probable that some species
hitherto attributed to the island, on the authority of specimens collected
ON THE ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY OF THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 449
by the Rev. Lansdowne Guilding, really belong to other islands. This
error has arisen from want of precision in exactly localising the specimens,
a practice the importance of which was hardly recognised at the time they
were collected.
The collections received in August last contain three additional species
of ferns, making the total number collected by Messrs. Smith 136. The
added species are Dicksonia cicutaria, Sw., Davallia aculeata, Sw.,
Cheilanthes radiata, R. Br. In addition there are 389 numbers of
flowering plants, and 3 palms. These will be determined later.
The Committee would again draw particular attention to the botanical
and zoological bibliography of the Lesser Antilles prepared under its
direction, and published as an appendix to the Report for 1888. This
bibliography has been widely distributed in the West Indies and in
Kurope, and has proved of considerable service in carrying out the objects
for which the Committee was appointed.
The Committee recommend their reappointment, and that a grant of
1001. be placed at their disposal.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. P. L. Scuatsr, Professor
Ray Lanxester, Professor Cossar Ewart, Professor M. Foster,
Mr. A. SepewicK, Professor A. M. MarsHatt, and Mr. Percy
Suaven (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of arranging
for the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at
Naples.
Prosperity and advancement have been the keynotes of every Report
which your Committee have presented upon the Zoological Station at
Naples. The account given this year by Dr. Dohrn is of the most satis-
factory character. The annual subvention of 1,500/. granted to the
Station by the German Parliament for the past ten years has now been
increased to 2,000/.—a circumstance directly due to the personal interest
of the German Emperor. The Directorate is by this means enabled to
extend the sphere of action of the Institution in more than one direction,
and this without increasing the amount of the annual contribution paid by
governments, universities, or learned societies, for the use of a Table.
The Zoological Station is thus in the advantageous position of now being
able to offer even greater facilities than formerly to those who avail them-
selves of the privilege.
It was stated in the last Report that the Physiological Laboratory was
in part completed. Several physiologists have been at work during the
past year. Dr. Loeb, of Strasburg, has conducted a series of investiga-
tions on heliotropism; Professor Exner, of Vienna, has completed his
experiments on the visual phenomena in crustaceans; Dr. Herter is
engaged on the chemical analysis of the muscles of the dog-fish and other
species of fishes ; Professor Hinthoren is going to work on the functions
of the fish-bladder; and it is expected that before long other physiologists
of well-known reputation will be attracted to Naples to begin investiga-
tions on a still larger scale in this almost virgin field of research. It is
intended to complete the equipment of the physiological laboratory step
by step, in accordance with the requirements of workers, and thus leave
BSESE to be desired in the internal arrangements of the department.
. GG
450 REPORT— 1890.
The Morphological Department has not been neglected, and in nearly
every possible way the wants of students have been satisfied. Those who
worked in the Zoological Station a few years ago would be astonished to
see how much greater comfort and how many more facilities are now
afforded to microscopists and embryologists than formerly. Nearly every
room and table, and especially those in the so-called ‘large’ laboratory,
have benefited greatly from the increased financial means now at the
disposal of the Director. It was sometimes felt to be a drawback by
those who worked in the large laboratory that they did not obtain the
complete seclusion, nor the advantages of the greater number of tables,
drawers, and pigeon-holes, enjoyed by those who were fortunate in
having a separate room. This inequality has been removed; each
worker in the large laboratory is now almost completely separated from
the others, and the table surface, as well as the number of drawers and
pigeon-holes, placed at the disposal of each worker has been more than
doubled. The supply of sea and fresh water has been greatly increased,
and gas and other conveniences for work have been provided in such a
way as to make each student entirely independent; in fact, a general
feeling has been expressed that the Zoological Station is one of the most
comfortable of laboratories to work in.
In addition to improving the internal arrangements of the Station, the
Direction has extended its command over a wider sea area than formerly,
and has also provided more efficient means of obtaining the material
requisite for study. In several cases considerable sums of money have
been spent in sending out small expeditions to procure a greater number
of embryos than could otherwise be obtained when these were needed,
in certain stages of development, for the purpose of solving some special
problem.
The extraordinary demand for Selachian embryos, and the fact that
almost every species has to be studied separately, to enable the morpho-
logist to deal successfully with the question of the phylogeny of vertebrate
organisation, render it necessary to find a way of overcoming the diffi-
culty of obtaining dog-fishes and skates at all seasons of the year. It has
accordingly been resolved to combine this task with another great under-
taking, which has hitherto been deliberately omitted from the programme
of the Zoological Station, viz., the investigation of the greater depths of
the Mediterranean.
Much has been done in this direction by English and French expedi-
tions, and their work will not improbably be continued by the Prince of
Monaco, to whose munificence and investigations science is already
indebted for important contributions on the fauna of the Mediterranean.
The Zoological Station has refrained hitherto from participating in this
field of action, but the time seems now to have arrived for launching out
in this new undertaking. Encouraged by the generous co-operation of
the Italian naval authorities, and with the support of Admiral Magnaghi,
the hydrographer of the navy, a series of investigations will shortly be
carried out, from which important results will no doubt be obtained. It
is proposed to commence in the spring of next year with the investigation
of the greater depths near Capri, where the bottom of the Mediterranean
slopes rapidly down to a depth of a thousand metres or more, and where
the conditions of the sea-bottom promise to yield interesting faunistic
results. It is hardly necessary to remark that the Zoological Station is
especially adapted for conducting such a research, with its large number
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 451
of specialists, its highly developed art of preserving specimens, and its
situation so near to the field of operations.
The foregoing particulars will fully show the present high state of
efficiency of the Zoological Station, as well as the advances now in pro-
gress and in prospect. Dr. Dohrn is to be congratulated on the well-
being of the institution which he had the large-mindcdness to found and
has so ably conducted hitherto.
The Publications of the Station.—The progress of the various works
undertaken by the Station is here summarised :—
1. Of the ‘Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel’ the following
monograph has been published since the last Report :—
P. Mayer: ‘ Nachtrag zu den Capitelliden.’
Monographs by Dr. Falkenberg on ‘ Rhodomelew’ and by Dr. Della
Valle on ‘Gammarini’ are in the press (about 50 plates and one-third
of the text of the last named being printed).
2. Of the ‘Mittheilungen aus der Zoologischen Station zu Neapel,’
parts ii. and iii. of vol. ix., with 8 plates, have been published.
3. Of the ‘ Zoologischer Jahresbericht ’ the whole ‘ Bericht’ for 1888
has been published.
4. Of the ‘ Guide to the Aquarium,’ a third Italian edition (‘Guida
dell’ Acquario’) has been published, combining the former atlas and guide.
Extracts from the General Report of the Zoological Station.—The officers
of the Station have courteously furnished lists (1) of the naturalists who
have occupied tables since the last report, (2) of the works published
during 1889 by naturalists who have worked at the Zoological Station,
(3) of the specimens sent out by the Station during the past year. These
details are appended.
The British Association Table—The use of the British Association
Table was granted to Mr. Gerard W. Butler, who proceeded to Naples at
the beginning of the year, and was stillin occupation at the time when this
report was sent in. Mr. Butler has furnished an account of his work
up to date, from which it will be seen that interesting results may be
anticipated when he has been able to work up the large mass of material
which he was fortunate in obtaining.
Two applications for permission to use the British Association Table
during the current and coming year have been received. The Com-
mittee hope the Association will enable them to sanction these and other
applications by the renewal of the grant (100/.) for the ensuing year.
The foregoing details and the undoubted advantage of leasing a table at
the Zoological Station fully, justify, in the opinion of your Committee,
their strongly recommending the renewal of the grant.
I. Report on the Occupation of the Table, by Mr. Grrarp W. Burien.
L arrived at the Zoological Station on January 22, and having already
enjoyed a stay of six months here, and having the offer of a week or two
more to finish off my work, would heartily thank the Committee of the
British Association for placing the table at my disposal for so long
atime. I feel that, apart from any results which I may in the future ke
ahle to produce as the definite outcome of my work here, I have obtained
a large amount of information, that will be most useful to me as a founda-
tion for future studies, which I either could not have obtained at all, or
not nearly so well, had I remained in England. The following report
GG 2
Veo) REPORT—1890.
will, I think, confirm this. It will be seen, for instance, that I have been
placed in most favourable conditions for studying the development of
Elasmobranch fishes, and of Lacerta, and for obtaining a general idea of
the fauna (pelagic and other) of a sea such as the Mediterranean. And
supposing for the moment that it be possible to draw a definite line
between the confirmation of views that exist and the substitution for
these of others more or less different, it is obvious that, in weighing the
value of a zoological station such as this, the benefit which younger
students in particular derive from the former process should not be left.
out of consideration.
I came here with the intention of studying one or both of the follow-
ing subjects: (1) the development of the air-bladder of fishes, with
special regard to the question of its homologue, if any, in other types;
(2) the anatomy and development of the Chelonia.
Turning first to the latter of these subjects, I have been able to
dissect three specimens of the turtle (Thalassochelys corticata) from the
neighbouring sea, which died in the aquarium. Being interested in the
question of the subdivision of the body cavity, I was glad to be able to
make out the true relations of the peritoneum and the different viscera
more clearly than I had previously done from the examination of Emys and
Testudo. For instance, the lesser or omental sac of the peritoneum has
its relations to the rest of the peritoneal cavity rendered clear by the
fact that the two communicate by a well-marked foramen of Winslow,
which appears not to exist in Hmys and Testudo, where, consequently,
the dextro-dorsal lobe of the liver seems to lie in a closed sac. The rela-
tions of the spleen were also clear in this type. It is in the usual position,
and its proximity to the rectum in some Chelonia has no morphological
significance. In Thalassochelys, again, the lungs, as in Testudo, project
but little into the peritoneal cavity.
As to the embryology of the Chelonia, both Hmys and Testudo breed
in the neighbourhood of Naples, but it appears to be impossible to find
eggs laid by these animals in their natural haunts. I have accordingly
procured some thirty or more specimens of Testudo for the chance of their
depositing the eggs in a small enclosure here at the Zoclogical Station.
It is mainly for this chance that I am now waiting at Naples. The
question to which I specially desire an answer is, Are the lungs of
Testudo, and other Chelonia like it, at one time surrounded by a pleural
cavity which, as in birds, becomes afterwards obliterated ; or, as seems
to me more probable, are they always practically outside and dorsal to
the body-cavity P
My work, however, on reptiles has not been confined to the Chelonia.
I have been glad since the beginning of the summer to seize the splendid
opportunity that Naples affords, and preserve a pretty complete series of
embryos of Lacerta, and also to obtain a certain number of stages of
Tropidonotus and other snakes. With this material I hope to be able to
clear up certain points in the anatomy of these animals, especially concern-
ing the subdivision of the body cavity and the relations of the ‘ fat-
bodies’ to it.
I may here state that, examining at Naples better specimens of Tropi-
donotus natri« than I have before obtained, I find that in this snake (and
apparently the conditions are exactly the same in Elaphis, and perhaps
this is true of many or even all snakes) there is apparently the same
transverse division of the body cavity behind the liver, by a post-hepatic
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 453
septum, that occurs in birds, crocodiles, and the Teiidee among lizards (ef.
‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ Nov. 19, 1889). In Tropidonotus the main abdominal
cavity (which, if my description be correct, may contain nothing but the
reproductive glands and their ducts, the intestine lying outside it) cannot
be traced farther forward than the region where the gall-bladder, spleen,
and pancreas are grouped together. ‘This is in the adult at a point some
inches behind the posterior extremity of the liver, and corresponds
approximately to the point where the reproductive viscera above referred
to terminate anteriorly. Between the gall-bladder and the hinder end of
the liver I see no trace of the body-cavity. Hach lateral half of the liver
lies in aseparate closed sac, apparently corresponding to the ventral liver-
sacs of birds. As to whether the body cavity has, in the region of the
liver, any dorsal representative, Iam not prepared to speak. In Tropido-
notws the somewhat sharp transition fromthe fleshy anterior part of the
lung to the thin-walled sac that forms its posterior part, judging from the
relation of the lung to the liver and to that part of the body cavity which
surrounds it, seems to me to correspond to the transition from the lung
proper to the air sacs of birds.
The questions bearing on the structure of snakes that I would make out
by the development are: What are the relations of the lung to the body-
cavity? How does the constriction of the latter behind the liver come
about?
The preceding remarks may serve to remind the reader that the
worker at the Zoological Station at Naples need not confine himself to the
study of marine organisms.
To turn now to the latter, and first to the question of the air-bladder.
This is of course a wide subject, but the question that mainly interests
me is this: Regarding the air-bladder of fishes simply as a diverticulum
of the alimentary canal, what, if any, homologue has it in either the
Hlasmobranchs or in the higher animals ?_ Even those who are satisfied
with what is, I believe, the accepted view of the majority, that the ventral
lung of the higher vertebrata and Dipnoi and the ventral air-bladder of
Polypterus must in some way correspond to the dorsal air-bladder of the
other Ganoids and Teleosteans, will admit that the developmental history
of the air-bladder in the various types is at present vague, and that the
origin, early history, and relation to each other of the various diverticula
of the alimentary canal, considered as such, apart from their ultimate
structure and function, are morphological questions of almost primary
importance.
As I understand the word it is impossible, by any straining ‘of its
meaning, to say that a ventral outgrowth of the alimentary canal in one
animal is homologous with a dorsal outgrowth in another, unless it can be
shown either (1) that one is a later modification of the other, which now
arises straight away by an abbreviation of development, or (2) that both
are but different modifications of one and the same thing, such, for
instance, as a pair of lateral outgrowths like the embryonic gill-pouchings.
My work at Naples, as wellas general considerations, lead me to doubt
whether any weight is to be attached to the ever-quoted lateral (Albrecht
says it is only a little to one side of the mid-dorsal line) opening of the
pneumatic duct in Hrythrinus. I find, for instance, in some of the Syn-
gnathide that I have examined, where the embryo seems so stretched
over a large mass of yolk as to make it easier for the alimentary canal to
send out lateral rather than either dorsal or ventral outgrowths, that as a
454 REPORT—1590.
matter of fact the pneumatic and bile ducts do grow out, one a little to
one side of the embryo and the other to the other, a fact which
unfortunately renders it impossible to obtain satisfactory median longi-
tudinal sections. Yet in this case inspection convinces us that the devia-
tion has no morphological significance. We may, in fact, perhaps best
consider the alimentary canal as slightly twisted in this region, and if this
twist became permanent we should have the pneumatic duct opening
laterally (supposing it to persist).
For the purpose of studying the question of the air-bladder I have
preserved all stages possible of fish of which I could obtain the eggs in
sufficient quantities. Of pelagic eggs floating freely and separately I
obtained eggs of Labrax lupus (spawned in the aquarium) at the end -of
January, and of Coris Giofredi (by artificial fertilisation) at the end of
May. Obviously suitable for obtaining a series of stages are those eggs
which float about connected together by a transparent (albuminous ?) egg
case, such as those of Scorpena and Fierasfer, obtained in June and July,
the latter being apparently rather plentiful. Suitable alsoare those which
are attached by fibrous web-like tissue to seaweeds, as those of Cristiceps, of
which I obtained a few in April.
Of eggs that are attached side by side to rocks I have obtained those
of Blennius in July, and a practically unlimited supply of the eggs of
certain species of Gobius, such as G. paganellus, and another with eggs
resembling those of G. niger. CG. capito was also plentiful, and there was
a fourth of which I had a few. Finally a rich and obviously convenient
source of material has been the Syngnathide. In the spring months,
February to May, there was a plentiful supply of Syngnathus (various
species), Siphonostoma, and Nerophis, and in the summer months of June
and July these were replaced by Hippocampus, also very numerous.
I have already cut a large number of sections from this material for
various purposes, but as yet only part of the above types have been so
treated. It is not, therefore, surprising that I have no conclusion at
present to state as regards the air-bladder, especially as what I have as
yet seen of the development of the alimentary canal of Teleosteans and
Elasmobranchs, together with what I have read, has strongly suggested to
me a line of enquiry which is new, the value of which, therefore, requires
to be tested by the study of other types. When I have received eggs in the
earliest stage I have, of course, been glad to be able to follow the develop-
ment throughout, and have, in some cases, preserved a series of stages
from the beginning. I became rather interested in the early stages of
segmentation. Most of the eggs of Syngnathus that I received of this age
were either dead or died soon after removal from the pouch, but I was
able to watch the early segmentation processes in Coris Giofredi and
repeatedly in Gobius paganellus and another species of Gobius (perhaps
G. niger, perhaps G. jozo) which I will call Gobius b., in accordance with
the label in my series. This last species specially interested me. There
is here a very small proportion of yolk for a Teleostean egg, less
apparently than in G. paganellus.
In the case of this Gobius b. the first four segmentations (7.e., the
stages until the egg is divided more or less completely into sixteen)
exactly correspond to the first four segmentations in the frog as usually
described. Thus the first two segmentation planes are vertical, the third
enero and the fourth vertical and bisecting the angle between the
rst two.
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 455
This is the only Teleostean, so far as I am aware, in which the true
nature of the third segmentation process can appear. It is masked, for
instance, even in G, paganellus, though this latter species is very instruc-
tive in the light of Gobius b. as affording a passage from the regular or
amphibian type of segmentation visible in this last to the types that
obtain in other Teleosteans. If we observe a number of eggs of Gobius
paganellus that have undergone their third segmentation we can find
some that resemble these of Gobius b. but for the fact that the four
protoplasmic swellings on the surface of the yolk that represent the four
lower cells have been, as it were, forced apart, two to one side and two to
the other of the square of four cells that form the upper half of the egg ;
and, on the other hand, other eggs will show us the eight divisions
arranged in the two rows of four, which seems the most common form
with Teleosteans of this stage.
Much ingenuity has been expended in explaining the third segmen-
tation process in individual species of Teleosteans. However, a comparison
of what I have been able to see for myself and what I have read makes
me think that these early segmentation processes in Teleosteans can be
best and most consistently explained as due to a masking of the simple
regular geometrical plan of, for instance, Amphioxus and the frog by the
presence of a greater or less amount of food yolk, and that all attempts to
explain the plane of the third segmentation more definitely than by say-
ing that it is trying to be horizontal, and to separate four less yolky cells
from the other yolk-laden and imperfectly divided part of the egg, will be
unsatisfactory, as wanting generality and only explaining what occurs in
particular cases.
After I had studied the segmentation in these species of Gobius I dis-
covered Rauber’s paper (‘Neue Grundlegungen zur Kenntniss der Zelle,’
Morph. Jahrb. 1883), part of which happens to be devoted to a compari-
son of the early segmentation stages in ana and a species of Gobius. As,
however, Rauber was not fortunate enough to examine the species of the
latter that fell to my lot, he has, as I think, missed the real and simple solu-
tion that they might have indicated, viz. that here, as in so many other
cases in comparative embryology, it is the different amount of yolk in the
eggs which causes processes that are really essentially the same to appear
so very different.
I have been able during the last month to examine the complicated
structure of the floating egg-case of Mierasfer acus, briefly described at
p. 68 of the monograph on this genus in the Naples ‘Fauna und Flora.’
Shortly, this consists of an aggregate of hexagonal tubes, like elongated
bee cells, open at both ends and grouped symmetrically side by side, so
as to form an oval hollowed out at one side, on which and on the opposite
side the tubes open. Tach of these prismatic cells has a number of eggs
attached to its internal walls by short stalks. To make out the whole
structure it is best both to examine in the natural state and to coagulate
the egg-case with alcohol. Corrosive sublimate causes the whole case
to disappear, and Perenyi’s fluid is not good. The egg-case seems also to
disappear shortly before hatching. I hope to be able to examine the egg-
case of Scorpenw more carefully. This is considerably larger than that
of Fierasfer, and appears to consist of a single large sac to the inner wall
of which the eggs are attached, but Ihave not yet been able to verify this
from a hardened preparation. It would apparently be interesting to make
a comparative study of the various modes in which Teleostean eggs are
456 REPORT—1890.
attached either to fixed foreign bodies, or to the male parents, or to each
other by a more or less complicated transparent enveloping mass, and to
see whether the attaching tissues in the different types are really different,
or merely different modifications of an essentially similar secretion.
Passing now from the Teleosteans, it is unnecessary to state how
gladly I seized the opportunity here afforded me of studying the develop-
ment of the Elasmobranchs. I might say of Pristiwrus melanostomus, for
though I have obtained a few embryos of Torpedo marmoratus (mostly
fairly advanced, with long external gill filaments) I have not yet examined
these by sections, so that my work has been practically confined to the
former type, of whose eggs I have received during my stay here a large
number, notwithstanding the great demand there has been for this
material from numerous other quarters; for this most graceful little dog-
fish has, by reason of the diagrammatic simplicity of its development, the
mournful satisfaction of being one of the biologists’ classic animals.
The laid eggs, it appears, are never found, but the early stages
can be obtained from the air-ducts throughout the year, and, as is
known, these develop well if removed and placed in a tank where the
sea water is slowly and constantly changed. It should be noted, how-
ever, that while from January to the end of April I had practically no
mortality among my eggs, as the warmer weather came on the death rate
became considerable, and the conservator, Sig. Lobianco, informs me that
his more extensive experience confirms this. Again, the development of
this fish is slow, Pristiwrus, according to the above-mentioned authority,
being about seven months old when hatched, so that, as none but the
youngsters can be obtained by the fisherman, it requires time to rear the
older ones.
I have been fortunate enough to obtain a continuity of stages from
A to O of Balfour, or from the first appearance of the segmentation cavity
in the blastoderm to the time when the embryo is about an inch and a half
in length, with long external gill filaments. From this material I ent and
mounted, as soon as possible, a set of complete series of sections to guide
me in my work. I have already found them very interesting and instruc-
tive, and have reason to expect that they will be of great use in the
future.
Something may be said as to the methods I employed. The eggs of
Pristiurus are, of course, only semitransparent, but by a proper adjustment
of the light one can follow through the shell, using both reflected and
transmitted light, all the changes in the blastoderm and embryo, such as
the extension of the former over the yolk, and the origin and subsequent
behaviour of the segmentation cavity, and the slow growth of the young
fish. For examination of the living egg by reflected light, 7.e., viewing
the blastoderm and embryo as opaque objects, sunlight, or even diffused
daylight, may do; but for inspection as transparencies by transmitted
light I could find nothing better than a simple candle flame held behind
the egg, daylight, if present, being more or less screened off as necessary.
s soon, then, as I received eggs of Pristiwrus I sketched each blasto-
derm, and embryo if it had developed, as above described, and placed each
egg by itself in a shallow glass vessel with a distinguishing number, this
again being placed in one of the tanks of circulating water. The sketch-
ing process was afterwards repeated, in the earlier stages daily and later
at longer intervals. Perhaps Pristiurus is the only vertebrate (the shell of
Scyllium would be too opaque) whose embryonic development can be
ae
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 457
followed in the same individual so easily and satisfactorily. The slowness
of development ensures us not missing anything we want, without the in-
convenience of prolonged or all-night sittings. I thus followed one animal
for over two months, when he succumbed, probably to the hot weather.
This period began a week before the embryo made its appearance on
the blastoderm, and at the end all the gills were represented (stages A to
K of Balfour).
This plan is not merely interesting, it is usefalin two ways. It enables
one to know with some precision when to open an egg for any particular
stage ; and secondly, we thus learn some things that we cannot any other
way. Balfour, forinstance, more than once refers to the segmentation cavity
as first appearing towards the non-embryonic end of the blastoderm, and
to a preliminary thickening occurring towards the embryonic end.! Now
this is certainly the view one would be led to adopt, without some system-
atic observation of the same blastoderm by transmitted light at daily
intervals. There is a swelling towards the opposite end of the blastoderm
to that at which the segmentation cavity arises, but this does not come to
anything, and the segmentation cavity, so to speak, travels as it increases
in size from the end at which it first appeared towards the other. At
least although the behaviour of the segmentation cavity varies, sometimes
spreading from one end over the whole blastoderm, the above is what
often occurs, and this change of position is the explanation of Balfour’s
statement, the main point being that, whatever variation there may be,
the embryo always appears at the end of the blastoderm at which the first
trace of the segmentation cavity had previously been observed.
I would again use a reference to Balfour to give weight to my next
remark as to the method of preserving blastoderms prior to or just about
the time of the first appearance of the embryo. Balfour says,” ‘The
shape of the blastoderm in hardened specimens is not to be relied upon,
owing to the traction which the blastoderm undergoes during the process
of removing the yolk from the egg shell.’ Now the method recommended
is this: Do not remove the yolk from the egg shell, but carefully holding
the egg with its broadest section horizontal, and having made sure that
the blastoderm is turned to the uppermost side of the yolk, cut away the
overlying side of the shell, and then, using the fingers, not forceps, place
the egg carefully in Kleinenberg’s picro-sulphuric acid and follow Bal-
four’s instructions for the chick. Leave the egg for four or five hours in
Kleinenberg, then with all care replace this by alcohol of 30 per cent. to
wash, and this again by 50 per cent. for one hour, and only after the egg
has been in this for the whole or part of the time attempt to cut round
the blastoderm. We are thus enabled to remove the blastoderm
preserved flat and undistorted and in its natural relations to the
underlying yolk, a greater or less thickness of which can be removed
with it, according as the alcohol has acted a longer or shorter
time. It must have been the non-adoption of some such method as this,
coupled with the fact that the microtomes of that time did not, I believe,
give facilities for making complete series of sections which are so desir-
able, that prevented Balfour from ascertaining the very interesting fact
(a fact for which he was obviously on the look-out), first hinted at by
Riickert * in Torpedo, and described for Pristiwrus a few months ago by
1 Hlasm. Fishes, pp. 26, 33, 34, 44, 46, 54. 2 Op: ott. MD. T1.
’*Ueber die Anlage des mittleren Keimblattes und die erste Blutbildung bei
Torpedo,’ Anat. Anz. 1887.
458 REPORT—1890.
Rabl, that in these typical vertebrates the mesoderm, as in Amphiowus and
various lower animals, arises by what must be considered paired pouchings
of the hypoblast (1) of the archenteron, (2) of the lip of the blastopore.
I was much interested in being able to independently confirm this fact for
Pristiwrus before I knew of the above-mentioned papers.
In Pristiwrus the segmental duct as described by the later writers on
Elasmobranchs, and as is the case in so many of the higher vertebrates,
appears to arise almost if not entirely from the epiblast.
Being at Naples, where Amphiozus is so plentiful, I naturally desired if
possible to see something of its development ; but, though I had a large
supply of the animals, I was unsuccessful, probably because, having other
work on hand, I did not devote sufficient care to them, for another student
was more fortunate. However, by mixing a quantity of their ova and
spermatozoa, when naturally fertilised eggs seemed unattainable, I made
a very small percentage of eggs go through the earlier stages of segmenta-
tion. One or two of these eggs were interesting in that, from whatever
cause, the process went on abnormally, segmentation being partial, as in a
Teleostean.
Turning, lastly, to the invertebrata, I had little time to examine, and
have little space to describe, the wonders of the ‘ Auftrieb,’ or product
of surface-skimming, supplied to me daily, with its swarms of copepods
and other crustacea, especially the larve, with its salpe and medusa,
pteropods, ctenophores, appendicularie and larve of worms, echinoderms,
and other animals, and above all the beautiful compound hydrozoa.
I was very glad to be able to see alive and at close quarters many animals
that I had either never seen before or only as preserved specimens, and
the occasional trips in the ‘ Johannes Miiller’ afforded opportunities for
seeing these in their natural home, as well as for getting an idea of the
life at the bottom.
It may be worth while to mention a point of which I have seen no
description with regard to a species of Lima that occurs here. This has
the power of progressing by jumps like a Pecfen. Three specimens, how-
ever, that I have kept for some time, partly in a round glass beaker and
partly in a large tank about two feet square, in both cases with circulat-
ing water, have each made for themselves what I can only describe as a
house or tent, by closing in with a fairly dense network of byssus-like
material some corner of the tank or a portion of the bottom of the
beaker. Within this house the animal itself is free to move. In more
than one case I have made the animal repeat this process, but have not
been able to catch it in the act of spinning. Does the Lima do this to
protect itself against foes or from being moved by currents of water, or
is the byssus net to catch food, or are all these ends attained ?
Lastly, it is hardly necessary for me to express an opinion on the
structure and function of the Zoological Station, but it certainly is a
great boon to have adjoining the room in which one’s work-table is
situated another room which, while of moderate size, contains practically
every work, periodical or other, that the biologist can require, and where
the smallest pamphlet is clearly catalogued as soon as received. In fact,
after all that has previously been said by more competent judges as to the
admirable intelligence and precision with which the Station is worked
throughout every department, I have only to thank the staff and all the
workers therein for the ready kindness and civility that I have met with
during my pleasant stay at Naples.
ne. re
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES.
459
IL. A List of Naturalists who have worked at the Zoological Station from
the end of June 1889 to the end of June 1890.
Num-
ber on
List
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
Naturalist’s Name
State or University
whose Table
was made use of
Duration of Occupancy
Arrival
Departure
Prof. A. Della Valle .
Mr. Arthur Willey
Prof. C. Emery .
Dr. A. Pasquale.
Dr. d’Abundo
Prof. F. Steiner. ‘
Dr. F. 8. Monticelli .
Sr. José Gogorza
Teniente Borja
Goyeneche
Stud. A. Tosi
Dr. H. Rex B
Prof. C. Grobben
Dr. G. W. Miiller
Mr. W. W. Norman
Mr. T. Groom
Dr. J. Loeb
Dr. K. Endriss .
Dr. H. Trautzsch
Dr. G. Magini
Dr. B. Friedlander
Dr. P. Davignon
Prof. A. Kowalewski .
Dr. E. Weber
Dr. Képpen
Teniente J. Anglada
y Rava
Prof. O. Niisslin ‘
Dr. EK. Vanhdéften :
Dr. R. Schneider
Dr. G. Jatta
Dr. F. Raffaele .
Dr. P. Mingazzini
Dr. 8. Pansini
Dr. G. Cano ,
Dr. P. P. C. Hoek
Mr. G. W. Butler
Prof. H. Ambronn
Mr. H. B. Ward
Dr. F. Schiitt .
Prof. H. Ludwig
Prof. F. Zschokke
de
Prof. 8. Exner . :
Prof. O. Biitschli
Prof. C. Rabl
Prof. J. van Rees
Prof. Knoll
Dr. J. Vosseler .
Dr. J. Riickert .
Dr. B. Lvoft :
Prof. 8. Apathy.
Prof. G. von Koch
Dr. P. Cerfontaine
Dr. M. Mendthal
Dr. A. Coggi .
Italy
British Association .
Italy
” : . .
Baden :
Italy = .
Spam . :
”
Italy : >
Austria
”
Prussia
Hamburg
Jambridge
Strasburg
Wiirtemberg
Saxony
Italy
Prussia
Russia
” .
Switzerland
Russia
Spain
Baden
Prussia
Italy
Holland :
British Association .
Saxony
Baden
Hamburg
Prussia
Switzerland
Austria .
Baden
Austria .
Holland .
Austria
Wiirtemberg
Bavaria
Russia
Hungary.
Hesse 3 3 i
Belgium . ; :
Prussia . e :
Italy
July 1,1889
” 14, ”
” 19, ”
” 19, ”
ENO 2s, is,
” 7, ”
” 1, ”
” 16, »”
»” 17, »
” If ”
Sept. 6, ,,
” 9, ”
” 25, ”
Oct, “55 3;
” 9, ”
ee Osis,
” 13, ”
” 13, ”
” 13, ”
” 14, ”
” 28, ”
INOVeai ig ess
” es
” 1, ”
” 24, ”
” 26, ”
Dee.- 1, 55
” 30, ”
Jan. 1, 1890
” 1; ”
” 1, ”
” 1, ”
” 1, »
AI 05, 55
” 6, ”
” 12, ”
” 18, ”
” 28, ”
May 24, ,,
” 28, ”
June 9, ,,
” 11, ?
” 13, ”
Nov. 4, 1889
Nov. 22, ,,
Sept.29,
June 29, 1890
Mar. 21, ,,
May 30, ,,
Mar. 20, ,,
Feb. 15,
Oct. 19, 1889
Nov. 25, ,,
Apr. 10, 1890
May 13, ,,
Mars 175) bys
Wepe ia. 35
Apr. 2 22, Le
June, 4,
Apr. 7, “6
Mar. 21, ,,
Junel0, ,,
LM OU te} cr
” 23, ”
” 19, ”
” 10, ”
” 23, ”
” 21, ”
12, ”
Junel0, CF
May 10, ,,
Juneld, ,,
May 21, ,,
=
June27, 5
460
REPORT—1890.
III. A List of Papers which have been published in the year 1889 by
the Naturalists who have occupied Tables at the Zovlogical Station.
Prof. V. Graber
Dr. F. Sanfelice
”
”
Dr. F. Raffaele
”
Dr. F. A. F. C. Went
” ”
Prof, de Giaxa
Dr. R. Semon
Dr. J. Thiele . F
Dr. P. Mingazzini .
” ”
Dr. G. Jatta
” . .
Dr. M. v. Davidoff .
Prof. A. Della Valle
” ”
Dr. G. C. J. Vosmaer
Prof.S. Apathy .
” CO
” e
Dr. G. W. Miiller .
Dr. A. Ostroumoff ,
.
Ueber die Empfindlichkeit einiger Meerthiere gegen
Riechstoffe. ‘ Biol. Centralblatt,’ 8. Bd. 1889.
Ricerche batteriologiche delle Acque del Mare.
Soc. Nat. in Napoli,’ anno 3, 1889.
Dell’ uso dell’ Iodo nella Colorazione dei Tessuti con la
Ematossilina. did.
Intorno all’ Appendice digitiforme dei Selaci.
Dell uso della Ematossilina, etc. bid.
Metamorfosi del Lepidopus caudatus. bid.
Note intorno alle specie mediterranee del genere Scopelus.
‘Mitth. Zool. Station, Neapel,’ Bd. 9, 1889.
Die Vacuolen in den Fortpflanzungszellen der Algen.
‘Botanische Zeitung,’ 47. Jge. 1889.
Les modes de Reproduction du Codium tormentosum.
‘ Kruidk. Archief.’ ser. 2, v. 1889.
Ueber das Verhalten einiger pathogener Mikroorga-
nismen im Meerwasser. ‘ Zeitschr. fiir Hygiene,’ Bd. 6,
1889.
Ueber den Zweck der Ausscheidung von freier Schwefel-
siure bei Meeresschnecken. ‘ Biol. Centralblatt,’ 9. Bd.
1889.
Die abdominalen Sinnesorgane der Lamellibranchier.
‘ Zeitschr. fiir wiss. Zoologie,’ Bd. 48, 1889.
Ricerche sul canale digerente delle larve dei Lamelli-
corni fitofagi. ‘Mitth. Zool. Station, Neapel,’ Bd. 9,
1889.
Ricerche sul canale digerente dei Lamellicorni fitofagi.
Insetti perfetti. JZbid. Prelim. communication in ‘ Boll.
Soc. Nat. in Napoli,’ vol. iii. 1889.
Ricerche sulla struttura dell’ ipodermide nella Periplaneta
orientalis. ‘ Atti Accad. Lincei, Rend.’ (4), vol. 5, 1889.
Contributo alla conoscenza della fibra muscolare striata.
‘Anat. Anzeiger,’ 4. Jeg. 1889.
‘Boll.
Ibid.
Elenco dei Cefalopodi della ‘ Vettor Pisani.’ ‘Boll. Soc.
Nat. Napoli,’ anno 3, 1889.
La innervazione delle braccia dei Cefalopodi. bid.
Untersuch. zur Entwicklungs-Geschichte der Distaplia
magnilarva, Della Valle, einer zusammengesetzten
Ascidie. ‘ Mitth. Zool. Station, Neapel,’ Bd. 9, 1889.
Sopra le Glandole glutinifere e sopra gli occhi degli
Ampeliscidi del Golfo di Napoli. ‘Atti Soc. Natural.
Modena’ (3), vol. iii. 1888.
Deposizione, fecondazione e seementazione delle uova del
Gammarus pulex. Ibid. 1889.
Intorno agli organi di escrezione di alcuni Gammarini.
‘Boll. Soc. Nat. Napoli,’ anno 3, 1889.
Verslag van de werkzaamheden, etc., aan de Nederlandsche
werktafel in het Zoologisch Station te Napels verricht,
November 1888—Januari 1889.
Nachtriige zur Celloidintechnik.
skopie,’ 1888.
Untersuchungen iiber Entwicklungsgeschichte der Hiru-
dineen, 1889. (Hungarian.)
Nach welchen Richtungen hin soll die Nervenlehre
reformirt werden? ‘ Biol. Centralbl.’ Bd. 9, 1889.
Die Spermatogenese der Ostracoden. ‘Zool. Jahrb.
Morphol. Abth.’ Bd. 3, 1889.
Ueber die Froriep’schen Ganglien bei Selachiern.
Anz.’ 1889.
‘Zeitschr. wiss. Mikro-
‘Zool.
—
Dr. A. Ostroumoff .
Dr. C. de Bruyne
Dr. E. Pergens
Dr. B. Friedlinder:..
Dr. L. Savastano
Prof. C. Rabl .
Prof. H. Virchow
Dr. O. Lubarsch
Dr. G. Cano
Dr. C. Hartlaub
Dr. J. M. Janse
Prof. G. v. Koch
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES.
préliminaire.
t. 18, 1889.
Deux nouveaux types de Bryozoaires cténostomes.
Ueber den Blastoporus
Hidechsen und Selachiern.
De quelques organismes inférieurs nouveaux.
‘Bull. Acad. Roy. Sc., etc., de Belgique,’
461
und den Schwanzdarm bei
Ibid.
Comm.
* Ann.
de la Soc. Roy. Malac. de Belgique,’ t. 23, 1889.
Neapel,’ Bd. 9, 1889.
- . Il Bacillo della Tuberculosi dell’ Olivo.
Untersuchungen an Seebryozoen.
Ueber die markhaltigen Nervenfasern und Neurochorde
der Crustaceen und Anneliden.
‘Zool. Anz.’ 1889.
‘Mitth. Zool. Station,
‘Rendic. della R.
Accademia dei Lincei,’ vol. v. 1889.
Theorie des Mesoderms.
1889.
‘Morphol. Jahrbuch,’ Bd. 15,
Ueber die Augengefiisse der Selachier, etc. ‘ Verh. Physiol.
Ges. Berlin,’ Jgg. 1889-90, No. 1.
Ueber die Spritzlochkieme der Selachier.
Ibid.
Ueber die bakterienvernichtenden Wigenschaften des
Blutes und ibre Beziehungen zur Immunitit. ‘Centralbl.
fiir Bakteriologie und Parasitenkunde,’ Bd. 6, 1889.
Viaggio della R. Corvetta ‘Vettor Pissani’ attorno al
globo.
Crostacei, Brachiuri ed Anomuri.
‘Boll. Soc.
Nat. Napoli,’ anno 3, 1889.
Ueber die Claparéde’sche ‘ Eleutheria.’
‘Zool. Anz,’ 1889.
Die Bewegungen des Protoplasma von Caulerpa prolifera.
‘ Pringsheim’s Jahrb. fiir wiss. Botanik,’ Bd. 21, 1889.
Die Antipathiden des Golfes von Neapel.
‘ Mitth. Zool.
Station, Neapel,’ Bd. 9, 1889.
IV. A Lisi of Naturalists, S:c., to whom Specimens have been sent from the
end of June 1889 to the end of June 1890,
1889. July
»”
7
Mr. W. Schliiter, Halle a/S.
K. Industrie, etc., Schule, Miil-
hausen i/E.
Prof. G. Vimercati, Florence
Prof. A. Vayssiére, Marseilles .
Mme. Vimont, Paris . 4
Anatom. Inst., Freiburg i/B.
André et Lieutieur, Marseilles
Gymnasium, Worms . F
Public Museum, Milwaukee .,
Mr. G. Schlatter, Catania .
Zoolog. Institute, Halle a/S.
Mr. W. Schliiter, Halle a/S.
Morphological Laboratory, Cam-
bridge
Cabinet of Comp. Anatomy,
Moscow
Botanic Garden, Oxford a
Prof. Jeffrey Parker, Dunedin .
Dr. M. Peracca, Turin
Mr. A. Skrébitzky,
Lausanne
Indian Museum, Calcutta .
Museum of Natural History,
Stockholm
Mr. T. Bolton, Birmingham
Phys. Mem. Inst., Strasburg
Prof. M. Braun, Rostock . -
Fourth Higher Middle School,
Kanazawa, Japan
Prelaz
Lire c.
Collection 125-75
Collection 375°
Various 34:25
Pleurobranchea . 755
Eggs of Cephalopoda . 19:15
Dog-fish F : 5 24-
Phoronis 2°65
Collection 157°55
Various 24°45
Various 32-20
Various 55°20
Collection 55°75
Amphioxus, Ciona . 223-50
Squatina 35°50
Algze . 3 5 ae) PEACE
Polygordius . : _-
Elaphis é - . Ade
Collection 300:
Siphonophora, various. 42-70
Fishes , 87-15
Amphioxus . 14:15
Mantle of Ciona . 58°75
Worms —
Collection 291-50
462
1889. Aug.
»”
Sept.
”
”
”
”
”
Oct
”
”
”
ho
”
»”
”
”
”
”
r+)
Nov.
”
”
»
”
”
”
”
”
”
”
”
3”
be)
”
”
”
”
Dec
”
”
”
”
”
”
”
”
”
»”
»
”
1890, Jan
REPORT—1890.
Mr. W. Schlatter, Catania
R. Museo di Fisica,
Florence
Zootom. Institute, Warsaw
University College, London
Dr. H. Driesch, Bonn 4
Musée Royal dHist.
Brussels
Veter. Institute, Dorpat . 5
Mr. J. Chalon, Namur 3 F
Mr. W. Schliiter, Halle a/S.
Dr. B. Rawitz, Berlin : 5
Mr. W. Vogel, Magdeburg
Mr. H. V. Tebbs, London .
My. E. Halkyard, Knutsford
Zool. Instit., Berlin .
Museum of Natural History, A
Hamburg
Dr. F. Keibel, Freiburg i/B.
Prof. Ciaccio, Bologna ‘
Dr. Prenant, Nancy . j
Calderoni & Co., Budapest
Mme. Vimont, Paris . .
Zool. Museum, Naples.
Dr. Edinger, Frankfort a/M.
etc.,
Nat.,
Dr. E. Gaupp, Breslau. ;
Zool. Laboratory, Catania
Dr. Barrois, Lille . :
Mr. V. Fric, Prague . ,
Dr. G. Frank, Wiesbaden .
Yorkshire College, Leeds .
Mr. T. Bolton, Birmingham
University of Colorado, Boulder
Zool. Museum, Siena
Cab. of Histology, Rome .
Lab. d’ Anatomie, Geneva .
Accademia dei Fisiocritici,
Siena
Dr. F. Zschokke, Bale A
Zool. Inst., Ziirich . 5 0
Zool. Museum, Bologna
Prof. d’Oliveira, Coimbra .
Universita Libera, Perugia
Staatsgymnasium, Heruals
Mr. F. Heydrick, Langensalza .
Dr. H. Fowler, Plymouth.
Dr. L. Eger, Vienna .
Dr. M. Peracca, Turin ;
Mr. H. Bernard, Jena
Zool. Staatssammlung, Munich
Lab. d’Anatomie, Lausanne
Zool. Lab., University, Edin-
burgh
Zool. Lab., University College,
London
Faculté de Méd., Lille . °
Zool. Museum, Modena . :
Calderoni & Co., Budapest
Zool. Cabinet, University, War-
saw
Morphological Laboratory, Cam-
bridge
Various : ‘ :
Peneus
Embryos of Pristiurus .
Various
Pennaria
Collection . ; ,
Collection .
Elaphis
Collection
Various
Shells .
Collection
Foraminifera
Various
Collection
Embryos of Selachians
Embryos of Selachians
Embryos of Selachians
Various : 3 -
Siphonophora . 5
Collection
Embryos of Scyllium,
Torpedo
Embryos of Pristiurus
Various : .
Pinnotheres
Various
White Rats .
Amphioxus .
Amphioxus .
Collection
Collection
Brains of Dog- fish
Amphioxus .
Protozoa
Carcinas, Squilla .
Collection ‘
Embryos of Torpedo é
Collection .
Various
Various 5 3 A
Alge . k d :
Isopoda . :
Labrus : -
Lacerta : 4
Asterina, Palmipes
Collection . c
Siphonoph., Echinod. .
Notomastus : 2
Bourgainvillia , .
Tristomum . oe
Brains of Dog- -fish
Collection .
Collection . '
Scorpions . :
1890. Jan.
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION
Zool. Inst., Berlin
Oberrealschule, Sechshaus
Paravia & Co., Rome ;
Prof. Wood Mason, Calcutta
Natural History Museum, Not-
tingham
Zool. Museum, Palermo
Zool. Inst. Freiburg i/B. .
Anatom. Inst., Groningen. .
Prof. G. Vimeriati, Florence
Dr. P. Pelseneer, Ghent
Zool. Museum, Bologna
Mr. Gwatkin, Cambridge .
Zool. Inst., Vienna
Mason College, Birmingham
Prof. Kunnamoto, Yamaguchi,
Koto Chagakko, Japan
Zoolog. Institute, Konigsberg .
University, Sydney . c
Dr. E. J. Weber, Geneva .
Morphological Laboratory, Cam-
bridge
Académie de Nancy . 3
Vassar College, Poughkeepsie ;
Univ. College, Aberystwith
Prof. J. Cohn, Breslau
Zool. Museum, Perugia .
High School for Girls, Swansea
Zool. Lab., Univ., Edinburgh
Durham College of Science,
Newcastle-on-Tyne
Prof. d’Oliveira, Coimbra .
Anatom. Inst., Freiburg i/B.
Dr. C. Hartlaub, Gottingen
Luco Cirillo, Naples . H
Dre, Davignon, St. Petersburg
Zool. Museum, Munich .
Zool. Museum, Naples
Museum of Natural History,
Hamburg
Mr. W. W. Norman, Indiana .
Mr. C. Schreiber, Wiirzburg .
Prof. K. Kraepelin, Hamburg .
Landesrealschule, Waidhofen .
Mr. 8. Brogi, Siena . b
Mr. E. H. Butler, London +
Mme. Vimont, Paris . >
Dr. M. Sulzer, Bale .
Mr. W.Schliiter, Hallea/S. .
Zoolog. Museum, Bologna 5
University of Minnesota, Min-
neapolis
Zootom, Inst., Warsaw
Zoolog. Sammlung, Ztirich
Zoolog. Laborat., Ziirich .
Zoolog. Museum, Karlsruhe
Zoolog. Inst., Heidelberg .
R. Liceo, Messina . Fy
Queen’s College, Belfast .
Mr. 8. Brogi, Siena . 9
Zoolog. Laborat., University Col-
lege, London
AT NAPLES.
Lire c.
Arca 9°55
Collection : 98°85
Collection . F . 189°90
Peneus, Sicyonia. ‘ 9°50
Amphioxus . 3 : 9:95
Collection - 800°
Various 2 ay) AT
Embryos of Dog- fish - 27°65
Various T5'15
Mollusca 15°40
Embryos of Lacerta 6°85
Mollusca 8:60
Aplysia 7:05
Collection 273°50
Collection 441°60
Heads of Dog-fish . 33°70
Siphonophora yr
Collection . é - 585°55
Julus . < : 19°20
Ophiactis . 4:55
Collection . I : 598°80
Various 3 3 78°45
Caulerpa . : : 4:
Pecten é 4:45
Collection 11410
Torpedo 18°
Amphioxus . 11:95
Collection . 195°65
Torpedo 15:
Placellophora 8:25
Collection . 171°35
Collection 143°65
Mustelus Raja 18°50
Gobius 15°
Collection 667:05
Fishes 4 Z : 25°
Julus terrestris . : 7:25
* c 15:
Collection 43°55
Olindias p $ 9°80
Amphioxus . : 3 14°50
Torpedo 24:75
Various P 25°
Various 36°25
Embryos of Torpedo . a ee W
Collection . ‘5 . 1457°30
Embr. of Petromyzon. 11:15
Various ; F 87°55
Collection . a - 288°55
Collection . . 273°85
Collection . 217°95
Collection 198:
Amphioxus, Corallium 45°30
Anemonia . - 5 8°25
Various 5 z
464 REPORT— 1890.
Lire ec.
1890. May 7 Zoolog. Inst., Prof. Fritsch, Heptanchus nie
Prague
eS », Indian Museum, Calcutta. Balanoglossus 2°15
3 » Mr. Nicholson, London Amphioxus . 4°75
Pa 9 Mr. Schumann, Berlin Shells . 18°75
» 12 Académie, Nancy : Echinoderms 6°20
» 13 Dr. Killian, Freiburg i/B. Embryos of Selachians 23-20
i. », Baron S. Joseph, Paris Annelids . é 5 22:10
“4 » Zoolog. Instit., Munich Amphioxus . 3
a » Univ. College, London Astroides 7:05
» 20 Ambherst College, Amherst Collection . 261°
iy » Williston Seminary, East- Collection 153°
hampton
A » Mr. Godet, Neuchatel Various 97°50
if » Mr. Mauler, Neuchatel Various 65°55
= » Académie, Neuchdtel Collection . : 193-90
a » Anatom. Instit., Munich Stages of Petromyzon. 50°
» » Prof. Riidinger, Munich + 15°
» 21 Zoolog. Inst., Munich : Amphioxus : 13°50
» 23 Marine Biol. Station, Plymouth Solea . 11°85
3 28 Rev. A. M. Norman, Burnmoor Collection . 215:40
Rectory
x 31 Mr. H. A. Ward, Rochester Collection . 618°30
June 10 Prof. van Rees, Amsterdam Various 20°
» 13 Scienceand ArtMuseum,Dublin Various 120°75
» 17 Univ. College, Aberystwith Various 13°50
ss 18 Christian College, Madras Collection . 174:
53 20 Zoolog. Inst., Munich : Amphioxus . 10°50
i 29 Zoolog. Inst., Heidelberg . Brachiopods 11°25
17449°95
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor NewTon, Mr. JoHNn
CoRDEAUX (Secretary), Mr. J. A. Harvir-Brown, Mr. R. M.
BaRRINGTON, Mr. W. EAGLE CLARKE, and the Rev. E. P. KNUBLEY,
appointed to make a digest of the observations on Migration of
Birds at Lighthouses and Lightvessels which have been carried
on from 1879 to 1887 inclusive by the Migrations Committee of
the British Association (with the consent of the Master and
Elder Brethren of the Trinity House and the Commissioners of
Northern and Irish Lights), and to report wpon the same.
Srvcz the last meeting of the Association the Committee have to report
that Mr. W. Eagle Clarke, of the Museum of Science and Art at Edin-
burgh, who undertook to prepare a digest of the observations in connec-
tion with the investigation which was carried out from 1879 to 1887,
has made very considerable progress with the systematic tabulation of
the facts on a method that permits of realising the importance or other-
wise of each separate movement. Taking into consideration, however,
the enormous bulk of material to be consulted, and the somewhat limited
hours for private work at Mr. Clarke’s disposal, some time must yet
elapse before it is possible to complete the work in a sufficiently concise
and satisfactory manner, so as to justify the Committee placing the
results before the Association. They would, therefore, respectfully solicit
their reappointment as before.
ON THE DISAPPEARANCE OF NATIVE PLANTS. 465
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. A. W. WILLS
(Chairman), Mr. E. W. BapGer, Mr. G. CLARIDGE Druce, and
Professor HILLHousE, for the purpose of collecting information
as to the Disappearance of Native Plants from their Local
Habitats. Drawn wp by Professor HiLLHousE, Secretary.
In compiling the present Report the Committee has confined its atter-
tion mainly to the north of England and the Isle of Man, adding, how-
ever, a few memoranda having reference to South Wales, these latter
being interesting in view of the visit of the Association to Cardiff in
1891. In preparing the following list the Committee has been guided
by the same rules as in former reports, only deviating from them for the
purpose of including some case likely to be of special interest to botanists,
such as Nos. 23, 54, 1,026, 1,063, 1,091, 1,169, and 1,652. The number-
ing and nomenclature are those of the ‘ London Cataiogue,’ ed. 8, cor-
rected reprint of 1890.
In the collection of the Yorkshire records the Committee has to
express its great indebtedness to the active assistance of an influential
local committee formed by the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union, Mr. Charles
P. Hobkirk being chairman. This local. committee apparently experi-
enced a like difficulty to ourselves in inducing local botanists to take the
needful trouble in order to send in reports. Less than 10 per cent. of
our own circulars elicit a reply, and the Committee therefore feels bound
to commend to the notice of the secretaries of local societies the example
of one such, who, having sent on the circular to the botanical recorder of
his society, and being informed that the latter wouldn’t ‘bother’ to
answer the questions, considered that it was ‘ only fair’ to his society to
make a report, and therefore compiled one for himself.
As in the last Report, the partial or complete extirpation of ferns.
forms a considerable proportion of the lists of the Committee’s correspond-
ents, the tourist in part, but in greater degree the ‘collecting dealer,’
being held responsible. The Committee particularly regrets also to
have to draw attention to the rapidly approaching extermination of
Cypripedium Calceolus, and hopes that strenuous efforts will be made to
protect it in its few remaining stations.
It is grievous to every lover of plants to read the accounts received
from all quarters of the ruthless stripping of every accessible station of
its floral treasures. While it is hardly practicable, or even desirable, to
seriously interfere with the wish of the tourist to gather for himself some
living memento of a pleasurable visit (however much it may be felt that
there are better ways of obtaining possession of the plants than this), the
various correspondents are practically unanimous in expressing a wish
that in some way the law of trespass or of wilful damage should be
brought to bear upon the collecting dealer, without the systematic
ravages of whom they believe that any approach to extermination would
in most cases be impossible.
3. Thalictrum minus, L, S. Wales; formerly abundant at Giltar, near
Tenby, now almost extinct (F. W.).
[23. Ranunculus sceleratus, L. S. Wales; a case of extending distri-
bution, a large crop having sprung up in a marsh near Tenby within the
last four years (F. W.).] :
1890. HH
466 REPORT—1890.
39. Trollius ewropeus, L. Yorkshire; gradually becoming much
rarer round Richmond (EH. B. W.).
40. Helleborus viridis, L. Cumberland; has been recently exter-
minated from its old quarters at Threapland Ghyll, near Aspatria, by the
working of limestone quarries for the supply of stone to the iron furnaces
at Maryport (W. H.).
54, Papaver Rheas, L. Cumberland; not entirely extinct, but very
greatly diminished in quantity within living memory from the gradual
abandonment of cereal tillage ali over the county, and especially in the
upland districts. P. dubium and P. Argemone hold their ground much
better (W. H.).
59. Glaucium flavum, Crantz. S. Wales; formerly plentiful on rocks
and shore near Tenby, now almost extinct; depredations of visitors
137? Brassica monensis, Huds. I. of Man; disappeared from Douglas
through improvements and building; from a like cause is in danger of
extirpation at the Moiragh, Ramsay, where it was first found by Ray in
2670 CP: M,C. K.).
150. Hutchinsia petrea, R. Br, 8. Wales; formerly plentiful on
walis at Penally, near Tenby, now rare (I. W.).
152. Crambe maritima, L. Cumberland ; formerly plentiful on coast
between Maryport and Workington ; has within living memory entirely
disappeared, owing partly to tidal encroachments, but more to the
establishment of ironworks and the accumulation of mounds of slag on
its site (W. H.). Yorkshire; much scarcer on the sands at Coatham
JB. 45.)s
: 161. Helianthemum marifotium, Mill. S. Wales; not uncommon a
few years ago on edges of cliffs at Stack Rocks, Tenby, now very rare,
probably through tourists (F’. W.).
291. Geranium sanguineum, L. Yorkshire; scarcer on coast sandhills
between Redcar and Marske (R. B. S.).
292. Geranium striatum, L. Cumberland; recorded in Watson’s
‘New Botanists’ Guide,’ p. 661, for between Flimby and Workington, in
a clearly defined station, which is now built over (W. H.).
294. Geranium pheum, L. Yorkshire; now very rare round Rich-
mond (H. B. W.).
316. Rhamnus catharticus, L. S. Wales; extinct at Flat Holm,
Cardiff (J. 8.). Almost its only station in 8. Wales.
369. Lotus angustissimus, L. Cumberland ; came up twenty-five years
ago on a newly formed railway slope near Bullgill Station, on the Der-
went Branch Railway, but year by year diminished in quantity, and has
now disappeared (W. H.).
372. Astragalus hypoglottis, L. Yorkshire; formerly plentiful in
Langton Wold, near Malton, but is now nearly extinct owing to the
pasture being ploughed up; is still found in small quantity on some
grassy banks near (M. B. §.).
416. Rubus ideus, L. Yorkshire; formerly plentiful in Dungeon
Wood, near Huddersfield, but destroyed by railway embankment and
cutting (C. P. H.).
544. Saaifraga tridactylites, L. S. Wales; diminishing in neighbour-
hood of Cardiff (J. §.).
561. Cotyledon umbilicus, L. 8. Wales; diminishing in neighbour-
hood of Cardiff (J. S.).
ON THE DISAPPEARANCE OF NATIVE PLANTS. 467
611. Eryngium maritimwm, L. Yorkshire; very rare, if not extinct,
at Lazenby, Redcar (R. B. S.).
629. Carum verticillatum, Koch. §. Wales; formerly plentifal at
Saundersfoot and Rhode Wood, near Tenby, now very scarce, probably
from ravages of botanical collectors (F, W.).
651. Hnanthe fistulosa, L. Cumberland ; until about 1874 grew on
edge of Salta, or Saltholm Moss, near Allonby, where it has not lately
been found (W. H.).
661. Meum athamanticum, Jacqy. Cumberland; formerly at Fell End
in Ennerdale; now reported to be extinct (W. H.).
684. Sambucus Hbulus, L. S. Wales; extinct at Cogan Pill, near
Cardiff, from railway construction (J. S.).
733. Erigeron acre, L. Cumberland ; formerly at Dalston, near Car-
lisle; apparently extinct through road-making (W. H.). This was
apparently its only Cumberland station.
750. Inula erithmoides, L. S. Wales; formerly pretty common on
the rocks at Lydstep, near Tenby, now only in inaccessible places, pro-
bably from visitors (F. W.).
779. Doronicum Pardalianches, L. Cumberland ; formerly on embank-
ment at Brayton Hall, probably brought with the material, but has gra-
dually died out (W. H.).
823. Cichoriwm Intybus, L. S. Wales; formerly common round
Tenby, now almost extinct, probably from visitors gathering the flowers
928. Pyrola rotundifolia, L. Yorkshire ; formerly at Birch Cave, near
Middleton-one-row, but now very rare, if not extinct (R. B.§.).
934. Statice Limonium, L. Yorkshire; formerly very abundant in
marshes between Coatham and Middlesbrough, now scarce (R. B. §.).
944. Primula farinosa, L. Yorkshire; gradually much rarer round
Richmond (HK. B. W.). Formerly plentiful in a marshy field near
Darlington Waterworks, now much scarcer, probably from botanists and
others (R. B.8.). Formerly on stream-side, Gordale Scar, Upper Aire-
dale, but now extinct, probably from collectors (C. P. H.).
966. Blackstonia (Chlora) perfoliata, Huds. S. Wales ; almost extinct
in many localities round Tenby, probably from visitors (F. W.).
979. Menyanthes trifoliata, L. Yorkshire; wet places, Littondale,
700 feet; extinct through drainage (W. S. S.).
990. Lycopsis arvensis, L. S. Wales; round Tenby, where it was
always rare; it has apparently quite disappeared, no doubt from visitors
gathering the flowers (F. W.).
1,020. Hyoscyamus niger, L. S. Wales; apparently extinct at
Manorbier, near Tenby, probably through visitors gathering it (F. W.).
1,026. Verbascewm Blattaria, L. Cumberland ; ‘mentioned by the
Rey. Jno. Dodd, Vicar of Aspatria in 1800, as being common in the
churchyard there, but unknown in 1850 and onwards, till in 1872, when
the adjacent vicarage came to be rebuilt and the garden levelled, when
the plant reappeared in hundreds’ (W. H.).
1,063. Veronica Chamedrys, L. S. Wales; has considerably dimi-
nished in cultivated ground round Tenby from some unknown cause,
5 its place appears to be taken by V. Buabawmii, Ten. (V. persica,
oir.
1,091. Lathrea Squamaria, L. Reference is made (W. H.) to a habit
this plant is said to possess of disappearing from a station for the time
HH 2
468 REPORT—1890.
being and reappearing in exactly the same spot after an interval of thirty
or forty years. Can instances of this be given ?
1,169. Plantago arenaria, L. Cumberland; in 1884 grew abundantly
(along with Adonis autumnalis) in a flax crop on a farm at Flimby, no
doubt being introduced with the seeds; both have disappeared, but the
plantain has since appeared upon ballast heaps near Workington (W. H.).
1,256. Euphorbia Portlandica, L. Cumberland ; formerly grew on
the Solway shore between Maryport and Workington, and especially on
the beach at Flimby, but, like No. 152, has disappeared, and from the
same causes. In 1888 asingle plant was noticed close to Flimby rail-
way station, but it disappeared after a high tide in 1889 (W. H.).
1,344, Epipactis palustris, Crantz. Yorkshire ; once not uncommon at
Hellkettles, near Darlington, but now almost extinct, being eradicated by
botanists and collectors (RK. B. S.). S. Wales; extinct at Culver House,
near Cardiff, from formation of new Barry Railway (J. 8.).
1,358. Ophrys apifera, Huds. S. Wales; has quite disappeared from
the neighbourhood of Tenby through visitors, &c. (F. W.). Has been
exterminated from some stations in the neighbourhood of Cardiff through
indiscriminate gathering (J. S.). From one station the extirpation of
this, together with four ferns (Osmunda regalis, Adiantum Capillus-
veneris, Polystichum angulare, and Asplenium marinum), all referred to
after, is attributed by our correspondent ‘to a... . parson who came
here and thought he was justified in selling them for the benefit of what
he called his ‘“‘ mission station.” ’
1,361. Ophrys muscifera, Huds. Yorkshire ; has disappeared from a
wood in Littondale (W. 8S. S.). S. Wales; has quite disappeared from
the neighbourhood of Tenby through visitors, &c. (F. W.).
1,369. Cypripedium Calceolus, L. Yorkshire; has disappeared from
the woods on the south side of Littondale, through ‘ botanical robbers ’
(W. S. 8.). Similar reports have been received as to its Durham
stations, where it is described as ‘nearly eradicated by collectors for
trade purposes.’
1,390. Asparagus officinalis, L. S, Wales; extinct at Grangetown,
Cardiff, through extension of ship-building yards (J. 8.).
1,421. Colchicum autumnale, L, Cumberland; up to about 1864 was
fairly abundant in a meadow near Blennerhassett, on the R. Ellen, but was
then lost through draining and ploughing (W. H,). This was probably
its most northern native station.
1,424. Paris quadrifolia, L. Yorkshire; has gradually become much
rarer round Richmond (HE. B. W.). Formerly in the woods near Storthes
Hall, near Huddersfield, but apparently exterminated by ‘the rapacity of
collectors’ (C. P. H.).
1,613. Carex punctata, Gand. S. Wales; apparently extinct at
Waterwynch, near Tenby (I. W.).
1,652. Phleum arenarium, L. Cumberland; formerly found, with
152, 1,256, &c., on the beach at Flimby, but finally disappeared after a
storm early in 1884. From St. Bees Head northwards the sea has for
many years past been gradually making inroads upon the land (W. H.).
1,764. Adiantum COapillus-veneris, L. I. of Man; is now very
scarce, and in danger of extermination from its sale to ‘ trippers’ in the
Douglas Market; ‘loafers’ go in boats with ladders, and procure it from
the rocks to sell it in the towns (P. M. K.). 8. Wales; much rarer round
Cardiff, though nowhere extinct. See No. 1,358 (J. 8.).
ON THE DISAPPEARANCE OF NATIVE PLANTS. 469
1,766. Oryptogramme ecrispa, R. Br. I. of Man; is now very scarce,
and in danger of extermination from its sale to ‘trippers’ in Douglas
Market (P. M. K.).
1,771. Asplenitum marinwm, L. Cumberland and Westmoreland; is
rapidly diminishing in the Lake district generally through the action of
‘rapacious local dealers’ and tourists (W. H.). 8S. Wales; is much
rarer round Cardiff, but nowhere extinct. See No. 1,358 (J. 8.).
1,772. Asplenium viride, Huds. Cumberland and Westmoreland ;
has entirely disappeared from a well-known station at Brandy Ghyll, a
deep gully at the 8.W. base of Carrock Fell, and is now quite scarce in
many of its remaining recorded habitats in the Lake district, &c., through
collectors. and tourists (W. H.). Durham and Yorkshire; is much
searcer in all its Teesdale localities, Falcon Clints, and Green Fell, &c.,
through tourists and collectors (R. B. S.).
1,773. Aspleniwm Trichomanes, L. Cumberland and Westmoreland ;
rapidly diminishing in the Lake district generally through ‘ rapacious
local dealers’ and tourists (W. H.). Yorkshire; formerly in Dungeon
Wood, near Huddersfield, in clefts of the rocks, but is now extinct,
partly from collectors and finally through the construction of a railway
er. HH.)
: 1,781. Ceterach oficinarum, Desv. Cumberland; formerly grew on
many of the southern bluffs of Gowbarrow Fells over Ulleswater, where
hardly a single specimen now exists; Aira Crag, Yew Crag, and Priest
Crag, formerly well-known stations, have been completely denuded ;
collectors and tourists are responsible (W. H.). I. of Man; the plant
is scarce in the island ; near Ramsay it is extinct, owing to removal of
the old walls (P. M. K.).
1,782. Scolopendrium vulgare, Symons. Cumberland and Westmore-
land; is rapidly diminishing in the Lake district generally through
local dealers and tourists (W. H.). Yorkshire; formerly grew profusely
in the neighbourhood of Richmond, but is now becoming scarce in con-
sequence of the depredations of professional fern-collectors (E. B. W.).
Formerly fairly plentiful at Hazlegrove, Saltburn, but now almost totally
extinct through visitors, collectors, &c. In other glens in the neighbour-
hood it is also becoming rare from the same cause (R. B. 8.). I. of
Man ; not very plentiful in the island ; it is now fast disappearing from
the glens, as e.7., Ballure, owing to people, mostly the ‘ trippers,’ carrying
off roots. Other ferns, besides those specifically mentioned in this
report, are being diminished from like causes, but not to such an extent
(P. M. K.).
1,783. Woodsia ilvensis, R. Br. Durham and Yorkshire ; formerly in
several localities in Teesdale, &c., but now quite extinct through the
action of collectors (R. B. 8.). This was its most southern English
station.
1,785. Cystopteris fragilis, Bernh. Cumberland, &c. ; associated with
No. 1,781, and has similarly suffered, but not to so great an extent
(W. H.).
1,788. Polystichum Lonchitis, Roth. Cumberland, &c. ; rapidly
diminishing in the Lake district ; ‘rapacious, local dealers and tourists’
(W. H.). Durham and Yorkshire; formerly in several localities in
Teesdale, but now quite extinct; collectors, &c. (R. B. S.).. Rocks in
the high pastures, Littondale; ‘botanical robbers,’ and possibly also
severe weather (W. S.8.).
470 REPORT—1890.
1,790. Polystichum angulare, Presl. S. Wales ; round Cardiff is much
rarer, but nowhere extinct. See No. 1,358 (J.8.).
1,798. Lastrea spinulosx, Presl. 8. Wales; almost extinct in Rhode
Wood, near Tenby, no doubt from fern-hunters and visitors (F. W.).
1,800. Lastrea emula, Brackenbridge. 8S. Wales; as with No. 1,798.
Some ten or twelve years ago a cartload of plants might have been got
E,W),
: 1,806. Osmunda regalis, L. Cumberland; formerly quite abundant
round Derwentwater and Borrowdale, but now extinct. At one time the
plant, known locally as the ‘ bog-onion,’ was so plentiful round Gosforth,
&c., that the farmers used the dried fronds as a covering for their potato-
carts, to protect the contents from frost when attending the markets at
Whitehaven or Egremont (W. H.). Yorkshire ; formerly in Marsh
Wood, near Huddersfield, but extirpated by building (C. P. H.). I. of
Man; is still plentiful, but now for some years has been taken to Douglas
by the cartload and sent off by steamer (P. M. K.). 8S. Wales; getting
gradually rarer round Cardiff, but nowhere extinct. See No. 1,358
(J. S.). Has now almost disappeared from the neighbourhood of Tenby,
where it formerly grew in the wet fields everywhere; carried away by
visitors (I. W.).
1,807. Ophioglossum vulgatum, L. Yorkshire ; formerly grew on the
banks on the south side of Littondale, but has not been seen for the last
five or six years (W.8.8.). Our correspondent wishes to know whether
it is the habit of this plant to disappear for a time, as he feels sure it has
not been removed.
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Foster,
Professor BAYLEY BaLrour, Mr. Tuisetron-DyeER, Dr. TRIMEN,
Professor MarsHaLL WarpD, Mr. CARRUTHERS, Professor HarrToa,
and Professor BowER (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of
taking steps for the establishment of a Botanical Station at
Peradeniya, Ceylon.
Ture Committee report that during the year a proper water supply has
been led into the laboratory in the Royal Gardens, Peradeniya, and a
sink has been provided. The expense entailed has been larger than was
at first anticipated, owing to the fact that the water could not be drawn
directly from the river close at hand, but had to be brought by pipes a
distance of about 450 yards. The total cost has been over 50/. The
Committee have devoted 25/. towards meeting this cost, and the balance
of the expense has been undertaken by the Ceylon Government. No
further expenses have been incurred during the year, owing to the fact
that the laboratory has not been occupied ; but, considering the large per-
sonal expenses which must be incurred by any one using the station, the
Committee do not anticipate that a succession of applications will ever be
regularly maintained. An application for use of the station during the
coming year is, however, in the hands of the Committee. In order to
meet the further expenses of equipment of the laboratory to suit the
convenience of students, and to make it permanently useful, and in con-
sideration of the fact that the Committee have been able to return half
of the money granted last year, they request that they may be reappointed,
and that the sum of 501. be placed at their disposal.
ON IMPROVING AND EXPERIMENTING WITH A DEEP-SEA TOW-NET. 471
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Happon, Mr. W. E.
Hoy e (Secretary), and Professor W. A. HERDMAN, appointed
for improving and experimenting with a Deep-sea Tow-net,
for opening and closing under water.
Tux report which this Committee had the honour of presenting at the
last meeting of the Association concluded with the statement that an
attempt was being made so to modify the net that it should be opened
and closed, not by the agency of sliding weights, but by an electric
current. The work of the past twelve months has been a successful
endeavour to carry out this programme.
The new apparatus, of which hitherto only a provisional model has
been made, is in its main principles very similar to the one already
described. No change of importance has been made in the net itself, but
she Committee has procured a net-frame, made according to the design
advocated by Professor Hensen, of Kiel, which contains some improve-
ments in points of detail, and appears likely to render very efficient service.
The mode of opening and closing the net by the successive detachment
of two cords, or links, has been retained; but these are now looped
round the shorter arms of two bell-crank levers, the longer extremities of
which rest upon two studs projecting laterally from the sector of an
escapement wheel near its circumference. The lengths of the levers are
so adjusted that when the first tooth of the escapement is liberated one
of them falls, whilst the second is retained until the third tooth has been
liberated.
The escapement sector is actuated by aspring, and its movements are
controlled by an electro-magnet, whose armature is attached to, or rather
made solid with, the escapement itself.
The current passes to the magnet down a wire in the rope by which
the net is towed, and when the net is let down closed the circuit is open.
As soon as the desired depth has been reached contact is made, the
movement of the armature releases the first tooth of the escapement, and
the net opens. When the circuit is broken the second tooth of the sector
is caught by the escapement, and held until a second contact sets free the
other lever and closes the net.
The apparatus has been tried, first, in a fresh-water pond in the
vicinity of Manchester, and secondly, on one of the dredging excursions
of the Liverpool Marine Biology Committee in the s.s. Hyena. The
facilities for experiment on this occasion were extremely great, as the
vessel was provided with a dynamo, and the apparatus worked success-
fally to a depth of from ten to fifteen fathoms.
The funds at the disposal of the Committee were not sufficient to
enable them to hire a vessel for making further trials in deep water, and
their efforts to obtain an opportunity of doing so by any other means
have failed ; but it is hoped that the means may be forthcoming during
the next twelve months.
The thanks of the Committee are due to Messrs. B. and S. Massey,
who have constructed the new lock gratuitously, and thus enabled the
work of the Committee to be done much more economically than would
otherwise have been possible; to the Liverpool Marine Biology Com-
mittee for the possibility of utilising the cruise of the Hyena for the
trials; to Mr. J. A. Henderson for the loan of one of his very conveniently
472 REPORT—1890.
arranged bichromate batteries, which was of great use in the experi-
ments ; as well as to Professor Schuster, F.R.S., and Mr. Haldane Gee for
assistance and advice.
The probable Effects on Wages of a general Reduction in the
Hours of Labour. By Professor J. E. C. Munro, LL.D.
[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso. |
Section I. Introduction.
A ‘GENERAL REDUCTION’ in the hours of labour implies, strictly speaking,
a reduction of working hours in all trades. It would be interesting to
discuss the effects of such a reduction, assuming that the amount of the
reduction in each trade was proportionate to the hours worked previous
to the change. But no one has made such a proposal, and in order to
avoid the charge of introducing before this Section a practical question
of the day in too academic a form, I propose to assume that a general
reduction of the hours of labour means a reduction of hours in those
industries in which the hours of labour greatly exceed what may be
called ‘a normal day.’ By a ‘normal day’ is not to be understood a day
of a fixed number of hours—e.q., an eight-hours day. A fixed, unvarying
day for every worker is impossible because (apart from the varying degrees
of intensity of labour in different industries) of the necessity for prelimi-
nary work before the bulk of the labourers can begin their daily toil. The
miner, for instance, cannot go down the mine until the engineman has
started the necessary machinery. Hence the more rational proposals to
establish a short working day recognise that some latitude ought to be
given in particular industries. In textile factories the present working
hours are 563 per week. We may assume, however, for the purposes of
this paper, that a ‘normal weck’ for all skilled industries, due allowance
being made for preliminary work, would correspond to 48 hours. From
this point of view industries may be divided into three classes:—
1. Those in which a normal day has already been established. In
Cornwall, for instance, an eight-hours day has been in force for a long
period of time in the mining industry.
2. Those in which the reduction would be of a moderate amount.
Under this class may be placed industries where the reduction would not
exceed 8} hours per week—e.g., if the working week was reduced from
565 to 48 hours.
3. Those in which the reduction would be very substantial in amount.
The abolition of overtime would merely reduce still further the hours
of labour in those industries where it is practised ; and in order to avoid
any difficulties as to overtime it will be assumed that all overtime is
reduced in the same proportion as the hours of labour.
‘Wages’ I take as meaning ‘real’ wages as opposed to money or
nominal wages.
The method of obtaining the reduction in hours does not come within
the scope of this paper. It will be assumed that whether a general
reduction in the hours of labour be brought about by agreement or b
the State is immaterial as regards economic effects, though it is of the
highest importance as regards economic friction, and as regards fixing
the moment of time when the reduction is to take place.
It is proposed to discuss the main subject from three points of view,
viz., produce, capital, and international trade.
=...
ON WAGES AND THE HOURS OF LABOUR. 473
Section Il. Lffects as regards Produce.
A general reduction in the hours of labour will at first reduce the not
produce! available for distribution amongst producers. It is true that
(a) any improvement in the efficiency of labour due to shorter hours,?
(b) the impulse that may be given to the invention of labour-saving
appliances,® or (c) greater economy in the use of labour, will tend to
lessen the reduction in produce; but in all industries of the second class
(i.e., where the reduction is moderate in amount), a class that includes
most of the skilled industries of the country, the reduction in produce
will at first correspond very closely to the reduction in hours. A cotton-
spinner spins practically as much during the last hour as during the
first hour of the day, and in the opinion of competent judges a reduction
of one-eighth in the hours of Jabour in the cotton trade would practically
reduce the produce one-eighth also. Improved machinery might in time
obviate this, as it did after the Factory Acts were passed; but there are
many industries in which improvements in production operate but slowly ; *
and it must be remembered that the conditions, especially as regards
foreign competition, under which production is now carried on have
greatly altered since the introduction of factory legislation.
The produce may be reduced in some trades in a greater proportion
than the reduction in the hours of labour by the effects at the margin of
cultivation. A farm, or even a factory, possessing so few advantages, as
regards either fertility or situation, that it yields barely sufficient to pay
ordinary interest and wages, may cease to be profitable, and may go out of
cultivation, or cease to be worked. In such a case the reduction in hours
not only reduces the net produce, but throws capital and labour out of
employment.
It has been suggested that the net production could and would
be maintained (if not increased) by the employment of the unemployed.
Such a suggestion implies that there is a class of unemployed possessing
the requisite physical powers, mental intelligence, and technical skill
required in the industries where the hours of labour are reduced. No
such assumption can be granted. Indeed, there is ample ground for con-
tending that, as far as skilled industries are concerned, the bulk of the
unemployed do not possess the necessary skill to engage in them. It
must not be forgotten that division of labour has been carried out to
such an extent in this country that a skilled artisan may be totally unfit
for any industry except that for which he has been trained ; hence there
may be skilled artisans out of employment and trades seeking skilled
artisans at one and the same time. LHven in what are called unskilled
industries physical strength is usually a necessity, and amongst the
chronic unemployed it is, as a rule, wanting. The length of the hours of
labour is not the chief cause of want of employment. Excessive hours
of labour are themselves the result of causes which would largely remain
in force even if the hours of labour were shortened,® and whilst the.
1 By ‘net produce’ is meant the total amount of new wealth produced in a given
time, eg., in a year.
2 Report on Depression of Trade, Q. 11,935. 3 See Appendix (a).
* «The reduction of hours in the flax-spinning trade reduced the output in pro-
portion, no relief being obtained from improved machinery.’—Report on Depression
of Trade, Q. 7,012.
* See Miss Potter's article on the ‘ Sweating Committee’ in Contemporary Review,
June 1890.
A474 REPORT—1890.
shortening of hours might benefit in one way the unfortunate class
whose condition is described in the ‘ Lords’ Report on Sweating,’ it will
not of necessity maintain or improve their wages. ‘ We give out our
work to whoever will take it, to the man who will do it best and the
cheapest, and we get off with the least trouble,’ says the employer.
‘We cannot check the supply of native workers,’ says Miss Potter. . . .!
‘The large supply of cheap female labour, occasioned by the fact that
married women, working at unskilled labour in their homes . . . and. not
wholly supporting themselves, go forth to work at what would be starva-
tion wages to an unmarried woman.’ Shorter hours of labour may coexist
with poverty, especially where the supply of unskilled labour is large
and combination is absent. Low wages are largely responsible for the
long hours of the unskilled worker, and the first step towards the amelio-
ration of his position would be a rise in wages rather than a shortening of
hours, as the latter would follow the former.
It must also be remembered that unless a man is a ‘ wealth-creating’
worker the community will derive no benefit from his labour. It is
possible for a man to work, and yet to destroy more than he produces ;
in such a case the community may find itself benefited by supporting
that man in idleness rather than by allowing him to destroy, under the
guise of producing, wealth. The State is not, therefore, of necessity a
gainer by the employment of the unemployed—it only gains in so far as
such employment results in a real increase of wealth.”
On the other hand, it has been suggested to me by a keen observer
that to give employment even to a wealth-destroyer might be regarded
as an alternative plan to our present system of poor relief. The objection
to such a method of supporting unproductive individuals in this way lies
in the fact that the burden would fall on particular employers instead of
being borne by the community as a whole or by some definite section
thereof.
Let us, however, assume that by the employment of additional hands
the net produce (say in a year) is maintained. We have now the same
amount of net produce as before, but a greater number of producers,
In other words, though the total produce is the same the production per
producer per year is reduced, and from the point of view of distribution
the net production per head per annum is of greater importance than the
net produce.
The argument that the production might be increased by the system
of ‘shifts’ was met by the statement of one of the witnesses examined
before the Royal Commission on the Depression of Trade. ‘If you pro-
duced double the quantity of goods, and there was no demand for them
you would be compelled to sell the goods at a cheaper rate, and
instead of benefiting the manufacturer and the workman, it would injure
them: they would have such a large stock of goods that they would
come to a deadlock.’ Resort might be had to ‘shifts’ in order to main-
tain the net produce, but this would only be possible in those imdustries
» Contemporary Review, ante.
? It is on this principle that Mr. Booth’s suggestion of a State-supported class is
based. The same principle applies to employers. See Appendix (0b).
3 Q. 1,334.
ON WAGES AND THE HOURS OF LABOUR. 475
where a double shift, working the reduced hours, would produce the
same quantity as a single shift working the original hours.!
Before considering on which of the classes of producers loss in
production will fall the question arises, Will the loss be restricted to
those industries (A) in which the reduction takes place, or will it extend
to other industries (B)? If the a producers consume their own products
the loss will fail on them; but, as a rule, one form of wealth is created
in order to be exchanged for another form, and hence to the extent that
the B producers are consumers of the a produce they will participate in
the reduction of the net produce. If the demand of the B producers con-
tinues in intensity they may have to bear the whole loss: on the other
hand, the demand may fall off to such a degree that the a producers
will suffer; but the probability is that the loss will be shared between
the two classes, and therefore all industries will tend to be affected.
The reduction in hours being supposed to be unequal in the different
trades that form the 4 group, the corresponding reduction in net produce
will also be unequal. Hence producers and consumers will be unequally
affected, and the ‘economic equilibrium’ that existed previous to the
reduction in hours will be disturbed. Capital and labour will then tend
to migrate from one industry to another until a new equilibrium is estab-
lished, under which each industry will, everything considered, hold out a
hope of the same reward to the producer.
Add to this, that the proposal for a working day of a fixed number of
hours takes no regard of many elements that enter into the determination
of the amount of net produce that an industry must yield in order to attract
capital and labour. For instance, the ‘intensity’ of labour is one of the
important factors in determining the reward of labour. A fixed, unvary-
ing working day would apparently require from the man whose labour is
heavy and trying the same number of hours’ work as from him whose
labour is ight and easy. But working men—so long as human nature is
what it is—will expect that the degree of irksomeness in their work will,
if ignored in the hours of labour, be recognised in the reward of labour.
By the migration of labour this result will be attained.
The migration of capital or of labour will depend on several circum-
stances. Hixed or sunk capital cannot easily be moved from one in-
dustry to another. A railway is immovable, and any loss resulting frora
a reduction of hours cannot be avoided except by a sacrifice of the capital
represented by the permanent way. The shaft of a mine, too, cannot be
removed, but the profits of mining are supposed to replace the capital
spent in sinking the shaft before the lease of the mine expires. Machinery
Wears out in a given time, but by allowing for depreciation capital spent
on building returns to the capitalist. The argument that fixed capital is
immovable cannot, therefore, be taken but with large limitations arising
out of the ‘degree of fixity.’ Besides, fixed capital is not co-extensive
with wealth devoted to production. Various economists have pointed
out the influence on production of “loan capital.’ The great characteristic
of such capital is that it exists in such a form that it can readily be di-
verted from one industry to another ; and we may expect that it will seek
those industries in which there is the possibility of the greatest reward.
The extent to which shifts may be adopted is discussed under the section
devoted to capital.
476 REPORT—1890.
Just as there are checks to the migration of capital so there are
hindrances to the migration of labour. These have been dwelt upon by
all economic writers, and they need not be enumerated. Admitting their
existence, as well as the barriers in the way of migration of capital, there
will, nevertheless, be a tendency towards migration where any disturb-
ance of economic equilibrium occurs, and in this way the effects of a
reduction in the hours of labour in some of the industries of the country
may possibly be far-reaching and affect industries generally.
Assuming, as we are justified in doing, that the net produce per pro-
ducer per annum will tend to be reduced by a reduction in the hours of
labour—the number of producers remaining the same, but the net
produce being diminished, or the net produce remaining the same, the
number of producers being increased—it remains to consider on which
of the producing classes—landlords, capitalists, and labourers—the loss
will tend to fal),
Theoretically it might be argued that the loss will tend in the
first instance to fall on the landlord, inasmuch as the art of production
will tend to be increased, and land at the margin of cultivation will tend
to go out of cultivation. The surplus available for rent will be decreased.
We ought not, however, to ignore the fact that at the margin of cultiva-
tion there is no rent on which the loss can fall. A certain amount of
land may, as we have seen,! go out of use or of cultivation, and the
capital and the labour employed on such land will compete with the
capital and the labour engaged in other industries, thus sending down
both profit and wages. Further, to the extent that land goes out of use
or of cultivation, the supplies of either the raw material of industry or
of food will be decreased. If industry be checked by the want of raw
material, interest and wages will be further decreased, whilst a diminished
supply of food will tend to Jessen still further real interest and real
wages. But it may be said that industry will require the same amount
of raw material as before, and labour will demand the same supply of
food. This is possible; but the former cultivators on the margin will
only resume their occupations when others are willing to give them in
exchange for raw material or food such an extra amount of produce as
will cover the loss sustained by the decrease in the hours of labour.
This extra produce must come out of the amount available for interest
and wages in other industries; and thusa loss, which in the first instance
fell on the landlord, might ultimately tend to be thrown, in part at least,
on the capitalist or on the labourer or on both.
I have assumed that the only industries on the margin are those
producing food or raw material. What would be the result if we
suppose that every industry in which the reduction takes place has a_
‘margin of cultivation’ at which point no rent is payable? For the sake
of simplicity, let it be assumed that the consequent reduction in the
amount of raw material and of food corresponds to the reduction in
the product of manufacturing industry. Produce rents will fall, and the
capital and labour set free will either remain idle or go to reduce interest
and wages in all industries. In other words, the loss in the first
instance tends to fall on the landlord, but a portion of such loss will be
eventually transferred to interest and to wages.
1 Ante, p. 473.
ae
ON WAGES AND THE HOURS OF LABOUR. ATT
In manufacturing and in mining industries rent may often be
eliminated—as, for instance, where the land on which a factory is built
belongs to the capitalist as part of his capital, or where a mine is leased
for a definite time at a fixed rent. The question of the effects of a
reduction of hours may in such cases come to be one between the
capitalist (assuming him to be also the employer) and the labourers.
Which will suffer ?
We have seen that a reduction of hours in some trades will tend to
affect all other trades, inasmuch as by the migration of capital and
labour the reduction in the net produce may be spread over all industries.
Whether the capitalist or the labourer will bear the loss will depend
largely on two considerations, viz. (1) the extent to which labour or
capital migrates to foreign countries, and (2) the effects of the reduction
of hours on population and on capital. The effects on capital are so im-
portant as to require separate consideration ; and since population will
not be directly affected we have only to consider the possibility of capital
and labour migrating to other countries. In this respect capital has the
advantage. Owing to the growth of banking and financial houses, and
the development of foreign trade, capital possesses an international
organisation, and can be promptly and readily directed to the best
openings. Labour, on the other hand, moves slowly; it deteriorates by
non-use, and possesses no international organisation. It is therefore
highly probable that a large share of the reduction in the net produce,
due to shorter hours, will be thrown upon labour,
It remains to consider how far the foregoing conclusions may be
affected by (1) monopolies; (2) combination; (3) metkods of paying
wages.
(1) A monopolist, whether a private person, or a group of persons, or
a municipality, or a state, will in some cases be able according to the
intensity of the monopoly to throw the whole or part of the loss due to
a reduction in the hours of labour in his industry upon those who use
the article or the service subject to the monopoly. For example, a cor-
poration that has the sole right of manufacturing and vending gas may
by raising the price of gas reduce the hours of labour without affecting
profits or wages. The power of raising the price will be limited by the
advantages possessed by other luminants. The loss is thrown upon the
community, including labourers if they use gas. The Post Office might
reduce the hours of labour at the expense of the senders of telegrams,
though not so easily at the expense of the senders of letters, owing to the
fact that small variations in postage are not always practicable.!
Even where the monopoly does not arise from law, but is due to
limited resources being owned by one or by a few persons, any loss due to
a reduction in the hours of labour will tend to fall on the consumer if the
produce is of such a nature that the community, rather than be without it,
will give an increased value for it. There might, however, be a rise in
the values of monopolised articles without affecting real wages. The
labourers usually confine their consumption to certain groups of articles;
and in considering how they are affected as consumers, regard must
always be had to the articles that form the chief part of their consumption.”
? But small variations could be introduced in the price of post-cards.
* For a detailed discussion of the causes that affect the price of different types of
monopolies, see Marshall’s Principles af Economics, p. 457.
478 REPORT—1890.
(2) Combination may be resorted to by labour as a method of preyent-
ing outside labour from coming into an industry. For instance, the
number of labourers may be restricted by rules regarding apprentices.
The Trade Union rule that Unionists will not work with non-Unionists
has sometimes a similar effect; though this difficulty may be avoided
by providing different workrooms for the two classes of workers. To
the extent that combination enables producers to control the produc-
tion of a given article to that extent, a trade may escape sharing in a loss
due to a reduction of hours in other trades. Combination amongst
capitalists falls under the head of monopolies, but there might be an
agreement amongst employers not to employ men hoiding particular
religious or political views or men belonging to trade unions.
(3) Hitherto the methods of paying wages have not been taken into
account. As a rule wages in the skilled trades are paid by piecework ;
the spinner and the weaver receive a certain rate of wages for every
yard they spin or weave respectively; the miner is paid by the ton, and
the bricklayer by the yard. In other trades wages are paid by the hour,
whilst in the unskilled industries wages are paid by the day of a varying
number of hours. A reduction of hours where piecework prevails
would not ipso facto affect the ‘rate’ of wages, but would lessen the
‘amount’ of wages, inasmuch as a fewer number of yards would be
woven and a fewer number of tons obtained in the shorter hours. The
wages earned in a year would be reduced in proportion to the reduction
in hours. But this would not leave the capitalist in the same position as
before, as he would have a smaller gross return on the same amount of
fixed capital; and if he has only been receiving an economic return before,
a reduction in the ‘rate’ of wages may be required to prevent a migra-
tion of capital into some other industry.
Where wages are paid by the hour similar results would follow.
In both the above cases the method of paying wages is such that a
reduction of hours reduces automatically the ‘amount’ of wages with-
out affecting the ‘rate’ of wages; but where labour is paid by the day the
method of payment will, if no alteration takes place, continue the same
wages as before for a smaller amount of labour. If the economic equili-
brium is to be maintained the ‘rate’ which in these cases is the same as
the ‘amount’ of wages will have to be reduced ; and it may be admitted
that a reduction in the rate of wages is always a matter of difficulty. It
is therefore quite possible that whilst in piecework wages would at once
fall in proportion to the reduction in the hours of labour, in day work the
reduction might be for a time delayed.
To argue as some do that day wages govern piece wages is to assume
a relation of cause and effect that does not exist. There is more reason
for saying that piece wages govern day wages than that day wages govern
piece wages, since piecework is the rule in all the chief industries of the
country, and the skilled industries have greater effect on wages than the
unskilled industries. The high piecework wages of the manufacturing
county of Lancashire have raised the day wages of agricultural labourers
and of domestic servants in the North of England. If day wages
governed piece wages we would expect the wages in skilled industries to
approximate to the low wages of farm labourers, but this has not been the
case.
ON -WAGES AND THE HOURS OF LABOUR. 479
Secrion III. As regards Capital.
(1) In so far as the net produce is diminished a check will be given
to the accumulation of capital. It is true that the motives or causes that
lead to saving rather than to spending are very various, and that the
addition to capital made in any one year is but a small portion of the
total stock of the nation; nevertheless the amount of new wealth
produced in a year is a material factor in determining how much can be
saved in such year.
(2) Capital will tend to avoid undertakings where the reduction of
hours lengthens the time of completion. A railway ora canal yields no
return until constructed, and hence the length of time occupied by con-
struction is a very material circumstance in determining whether the
capital will be advanced or not.
Where interest is paid on capital out of capital during the construc-
tion of the works any extension of time will necessitate a corresponding
increase in the capital required, just as any contraction of such time will
reduce the capital required,!
Hence we reach the conclusion that the reduction in the hours of
labour may check the accumulation of capital and cause at the same
time an increased demand for it, and so raise the rate of interest. <A rise
in the rate of interest does not of necessity imply a reduction in wages;
but where it is preceded by and is due to a reduction in the annual net
produce in the state, it implies a fall in the shares taken by producers
other than capitalists, and in manufacturing industry, apart from
capitalists, labourers form the great bulk of the producers.
This line of argument must not be pressed too far, as a decrease in the
supply of capital may be counteracted by an increase in its efficiency.
On the Manchester Ship Canal the work proceeds by night as well as by
day, and that withont any increase in the requisite machinery. In mines
itis Immaterial, as far as the work is concerned, at what hour the miner
descends ; and the system of double shifts has been long known in Corn-
wall, whilst in Durham and Northumberland treble shifts are usually
adopted. But there are very important limits to the extent to which the
efficiency of capital can be improved in this way :—
(1) Fixed capital, such as machinery, is not a necessity in all trades.
(2) In some tfades the requisite conditions do not exist. For
instance, an industry may require different classes of labour, and a supply
of one of these classes may not be forthcoming for night work as well as
for day work. It is a noteworthy fact that whilst the Northumber-
land and Durham adult miners work a treble shift of less than eight
hours, the boys in the mines work two shifts of over ten hours
each,”
(8) The adoption of a double shift, say of eight hours each, instead
of one shift of say ten hours or twelve hours, will increase production
more than the reduction of hours diminished production, and as such a
? The shareholders in the Manchester Ship Canal Company receive interest during
the construction of the canal, hence the engineer has orders to make the canal
within the shortest time possible.
* It is difficult to see how to defend a methcd of working which imposes longer
hours in a mine upon boys than upon grown-up men,
480 REPORT—1890.
system is only possible in certain trades, its sudden adoption will affect
relative values.
In so far as the producers in the trades where production is increased
belong to ‘non-competing groups’ the benefit of increased production
may go entirely to those engaged in industries where no increase in pro-
duction is possible or takes place, and it is even possible that the varia-
tion in relative values may leave the first-mentioned producers worse off
than before.
An illustration may be given. Suppose there are in a factory 100
men working 12 hours a day: the number of hours’ work each day ‘is
1,200. Suppose the hours of labour reduced to 8, then the 100 men will
in one day work 800 hours. In order to maintain the aggregate produce
50 additional men will be required, working 8 hours a day; hence the
second shift will have to consist of 50 men only. If 100 men instead
of 50 were employed, the total production per day would be 1,600 hours,
and it is possible, under the circumstances above mentioned, that the
product of the 1,600 hours may exchange for the same amount? of other
commodities as the product of the original 1,200 hours. In such a case
the consumers are benefited, but the 200 producers have, after the
exchange, the same amount of commodities to divide as the 100 original
producers.
Subject to these limitations there is no doubt that the efficiency of
fixed capital in many industries might be largely increased, and such
increased efficiency would tend to modify any loss that might fall on
the labourer, owing to any decrease in the rate at which capital accu-
mulates under a régime of shorter hours of labour.
Section IV. As regards International Trade.
Notwithstanding the enormous extent of the export and import trade
between nations, there are numerous classes of commodities and services
that each State must obtain within its own borders. Amongst such
commodities and services may be mentioned :—
(a) Products that from their nature cannot be easily imported into an
island like Great Britain—e.g., water, gas, electricity—though their pro-
duction is liable to be affected by the possibility of importing substitutes.
(b) Products that take the form of improvements to or erections on
land, e.g., railways, canals, roads, houses, and buildings.
(c) Services relating to the carriage of products from the producer to
the consumer within the State.
(d) Services of those employed by the State, either directly or
indirectly through local bodies.
(e) Domestic services.
(f) Services relating to the transport of individuals.
Other examples might be added, but these are sufficient to show that
there are a large number of persons employed in producing forms of
wealth, and in rendering services that do not enter into international
trade. Would a reduction of the hours of labour in such employments
affect the export and import trade of the country? No very definite
answer can be given, but it is conceivable that capital and labour might
be drawn off from other industries in order to maintain the aggregate of
such products and services, and then the home demand for foreign com-—
ON WAGES AND THE HOURS OF LABOUR. 481
modities might decrease in intensity. Even if the aggregate be not
maintained we reach the same conclusion, as the worker will have a
decreased command over commodities, including imports and the ‘re-
ciprocal demand,’ for the articles exchanged between nations will thus
be affected.
Turning to the products of labour that are bartered between nations,
a reduction in the hours of labour may (1) destroy the gain arising from
international trade, or (2) only diminish it.
In discussing these two points, it is desirable to take two countries
exchanging two products, and assuming the theory of international trade
laid down by Ricardo, and explained and developed by Mill, Cairnes,.
Bastable, and other writers, to inquire how far, if at all, the net pro-
duce of the nation will be diminished by the effects of a reduction in
hours on international trade. To the extent of any such diminution the
results on wages, as regards the home trade already referred to, will be
intensified.
Mr. Bastable (‘Theory of International Trade,’ p. 23) illustrates the
gain from international trade as follows :—‘Let it be granted that a
unit of productive power in A can produce 10 2 or 20 y, and that a unit
of productive power in B can produce 10% or15y. It follows from the
law of comparative cost that it will be to the interest of A to confine
itself to the production of y, and of B to devote its resources to the
production of 2.’
_ (1) The ‘total gain’ per unit of productive power, i.c., the gain to be
divided between A and B, is represented by 5 y. Assume a reduction in
the hours of labour in A, in the y industries only, this reduction may be
so great that a unit of productive power will now produce in A 102 or
15 y—in other words, B has no longer any incentive to exchange z for y,
inasmuch as it can produce y as well as z, under as favourable circum-
'stancesas A. The foreign trade in these two classes of commodities will
cease, and A will find its net produce diminished.
(2) The reduction in hours may, however, only diminish the ‘total
gain,’ eg.: If A with a unit of productive power produces 18 y instead
| of 20 y, the total gain is reduced from 5 y to 3y. Will this reduction fall
on A or on B, or on both? The answer depends on the effect the reduc-
tion in productive power in A will have on the intensity of the ‘ recipro-
cal demand,’ and though we may mention some of the conditions that
will mainly affect the ‘reciprocal demand’ it is not possible to forecast
with accuracy the amount of loss that will fall on A.
G.) The demand for « may continue to be so intense in A, and the
. ay for y may so decrease in B, that the whole loss may be thrown
upon A.
; (ii.) On the other hand, the foreign demand may continue its intensity,
whilst the home demand remains as before; in such a case the loss will
tend to fall on the foreign country: the home country may even be a
gainer.
Gi.) A third type of case may be mentioned, viz., that in which there
is such a variation in reciprocal demand that the loss is divided between
the two countries.
__ Where an exporting country possesses a monopoly of production aris-
‘ing out of climate or natural resources, it will be able to make a better
bargain in the export market than if such a monopoly did not exist. To
the extent that a country reducing its hours of labour possesses a mono-~
fi
: 1890. II
t
482 REPORT—1890.
poly of production it may throw a large portion of the loss on its foreign
customers.
But a monopoly that depends on special productive power may be de-
stroyed by a reduction in hours, and foreign customers may be able to
obtain better terms from other States. 5
The relative importance to the two States of the article each imports
is also very material as regards demand. The necessaries of life are more
important to a nation than luxuries, and a decrease in supply in the
former would probably not affect demand so much as a decrease of supply
in the latter.
The possibility of finding a substitute amongst the commodities pro-
duced by trades where no reduction has occurred, may result in a new
direction being given to foreign trade, with a consequent disturbance to
industry.
These and other circumstances will tend to determine how much of
the decrease in ‘total-gain’ will fall on the country that reduces its
hours of labour.
If, instead of confining our attention to one or two articles, we look at
foreign trade as a whole, the question becomes more complex, though the
results of a reduction in hours will be governed by the considerations
applied to the simpler case of two commodities.
A reduction in the hours of labour that is not universal, and yet is
unequal in amount, will, apart from diminishing the gain arising from
foreign trade, greatly disturb relative values, and tend, for a time at
least, to disorganise industry. We cannot assume that the foreign
demand for commodities will vary in each industry with the correspond-
ing reduction in hours and in produce, or that such reduction will not
affect the home demand for foreign produce. Hven were we to suppose
that we should lose none of our foreign trade, yet the direction of such
trade would tend to alter, and the process of adjusting our industries to
meet the changed conditions would undoubtedly tend to injure, at least
for a time, the working classes.
If, however, the reduction in hours is general and uniform and
applies to all industries, relative values will remain undisturbed, but if
the output in every industry is diminished a smaller amount of exports
will be available for exchange with foreign countries, whilst the ‘ total
gain’ may be diminished. As far as the home country is concerned, it
has, owing to relative values being unchanged, the same incentive as
before to export some commodities and import others, but whether foreign
countries will or will not be prepared to give the same amount of their
exports for a smaller quantity of the home country’s produce will depend
on the circumstances (already referred to) affecting reciprocal demand.
It is conceivable that the home country, owing to its special facilities for
production, may still obtain as large a quantity of imports, and as large
a share of the ‘ total gain’ as before. It is even possible that its imports
and its gain from foreign trade may increase. But in view of the deve-
lopment of the industrial resources of the world and the improvement in
means of communication, it is more probable that a disturbance might
Hae in some industries, and that the direction of foreign trade may be
altered.
On the other hand, if the output be maintained after the reduction
in hours and relative values remain unchanged, the course of foreign
ON WAGES AND THE HOURS OF LABOUR. 483
trade will tend to remain unaltered, since the amount of exports will not
diminish, the home country having the same interest as before in con-
tinuing the exchange of commodities.
Professor Sidgwick has suggested that the characteristic of inter-
national trade is not the immobility of capital and labour, but the cost
of carriage. Assuming that the exchange of commodities between
nations is governed by cost of production, he regards the problem
of international values to consist in the determination of the conditiors
that govern the division of cost of carriage between the countries con-
cerned.,!
Assuming this view, the effects of a reduction of hours on international
trade would be similar to the effects on the home trade described in
sections 2 and 3 of this paper. But the following special considerations
arise :—
1. A reduction in net produce that might appear substantial mea-
sured with reference to exports would be much less if measured with
reference to exports plus imports. We have seen that a reduction
in hours will affect all trades and all producers; the greater the area
over which the effects are spread the smaller the loss each industry will
suffer.
2. But capital and labour are less inclined to migrate to foreign
industries than to home industries ; hence the economic equilibrium may
be only partially adjusted aud the chief loss may be thrown on the home
country.
3. The cost of production being increased by the reduction in the
hours of labour, foreign customers may find it to their advantage to
buy elsewhere, and a portion of the foreign trade may be lost, or if
retained, it will be by receiving in exchange a smaller amount of foreign
oods.
‘4 The net produce would under such circumstances be reduced.
The cost of carriage would, for a time at least, tend to increase, inas-
much as a smaller amount of exports or of imports would require to be
carried, and the probability is that this loss would fall on the country
that reduced its hours of labour.
~
The main conclusions, then, at which we have arrived may be summed
up as follows :—
1. That a reduction in the hours of labour which is neither universal nor
uniform, will tend to reduce the net produce available for division amongst
the producing classes, but such reduction may be lessened or counteracted
by greater efficiency in labour and in the use of capital.
2. Capital will be able to throw a portion of the loss on labour, and
labour generally will be affected.
3. That any check to the accumulation of capital due to the re-
duction in the net produce will tend to raise interest and lower wages,
but this may be avoided to some extent by the more economic use of
capital.
4, That the reduction in hours will not necessarily lessen the number
of the unemployed, inasmuch as it will not increase the purchasing power
1 Political Economy, Bk. II. ¢. iii.
484 . REPORT—1890.
of the consumer and will not affect the chief causes of poverty incident
to our present organisation of industry.
5. That the position of the chronic unemployed or residuum will not
be materially improved.
6. That in so far as additional labourers are employed to maintain the
net produce, it will be at the expense of other workers, if the net produce
remains the same but the number of producers increases.
It is necessary to point out that arguments which may be urged
against a general though unequal reduction of hours do not apply with
the same force to a reduction of hours in a particular trade that may be
the subject of special economic surroundings. Before venturing to ex-
press an opinion on the desirability of reducing hours in a given industry,
e.g. in mining, the economist will require to investigate these surroundings
in order to estimate what loss, if any, will occur, and on whom such loss
will fall.
But even if there be a loss in a particular industry or a national loss,
it may be more than made good to the nation by the beneficial effects on
the working classes of greater leisure. Hence the importance of asking
what will the working classes do with the hours they gain from toil.
Looking at the development of university teaching amongst the North-
umberland miners, the progress of co-operation in Lancashire, the interest
that is being developed in education, elementary, commercial, and technical,
by trade unionists, and the increasing attention that the working classes
are giving to the work of government, it is more than probable that, as
far as the skilled industries are concerned, the workers would on the
whole utilise additional leisure in a manner creditable to themselves and
useful to the State.
APPENDIX.
(a) The employer will probably prefer to maintain production by the
use of machinery, or of improved machinery, rather than by employing
additional labour. On the introduction of the ‘nine hours’ into the
engineering trades many employers maintained their output without
employing additional hands.
(b) The owner of a factory handed it over to his son. At the end of
a year he found that, owing to mismanagement, all profit was tending to
disappear. He pensioned the son, employed a competent manager, and
restored the business to former prosperity.
(c) That a reduction of hours in a skilled industry will not per se
afford additional employment is borne out by the following figures relating
to the engineering trades. In 1871 the hours of labour in the engineer-
ing trade varied from 60 to 54 per week, and the percentage of unemployed
members of the Amalgamated Society of Engineers was 1:3. In the
following year the hours were reduced to a number varying from 54 to
51 per week, the percentage of unemployed in the same society being 0°9.
In 1875 a week of 54 hours was made universal. The number of members
of the society and the number and percentage of unemployed members
since 1872 have been as follows:
as
ON WAGES AND THE HOURS OF LABOUR. 485
= Average No. unemployed) Average Percent-
— No. of Members ye pst =f
per Month age per Month
1872 41,075 397 0-9
1873 42,382 465 HEAL
1874 43,150 674 16
1875 44,032 1,077 2-4
1876 44.578 1,627 3°6
1877 45,071 2,118 AT
1878 45,408 2,974 6°5
1879 44,078 5,879 13°3
1880 44,692 2,646 59
1881 46,101 1,630 35
1882 48,388 889 1°8
1883 50,418 es 2°3
1884 50,681 2,591 51
1885 51,689 3,240 6:2
1886 52,019 3,859 TA
1887 51,869 3,292 6°3
1888 53,740 2,239 4:2
1889 60,728 1,208 19
These figures show conclusively that the number of hours in a skilled
industry may be reduced, and yet many workers in the industry may
remain unemployed. A bad harvest, a commercial crisis, a hostile tariff,
are examples of causes that affect employment; such causes would not be
removed by a reduction in the hours of labour.
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. GirFreN (Chair-
man), Professor F. Y. EpGEworts (Secretary), Mr. 8. BouRNE,
Professor H. S. FoxweE.u, Professor ALFRED MARSHALL, Mr. J. B.
Martin, Professor J. 8. Nicnotson, Mr. R. H. INGLIs PALGRAVE,
and Professor H. SipGwick, appointed for the purpose of inves-
tigating the best methods of ascertaining and measuring Varia-
tions in the Value of the Monetary Standard.
Your Committee have further considered the matters referred to them,
with special attention to the question as to the way in which the method
of an ‘index-number ’ for the prices of leading commodities, which they
have found to be the best method of ‘ascertaining and measuring varia-
tions in the value of the monetary standard,’ may be applied in practice.
They have come to the conclusion that, in practice, what will have to
be done, when opinion is ripe on the subject, will be, that Governments
should appoint special commissions or direct existing departments of State
to collect a sufficient number of prices officially, to publish these prices
officially, to deduce one or more index-numbers from them, and to publish
the variations in these index-numbers annually, or at more frequent
periods if found desirable.
In doing so, it would be desirable that Governments should have
regard to the theoretical principles explained in our previous reports,
especially to the principle of weighting the different articles, of which the
prices are to be obtained, according to their relative importance in the
486 REPORT—1890
group or groups of articles for which index-numbers are to be formed.
Probably it may be found, as a matter of convenience, that the best way
in which this can be done practically is to place in a particular group two
or more closely allied articles, according to the importance intended to be
given to the generic article under which they may be described, as is done
in fact in the Economist Index Number, which is often referred to, by_
means of several kinds of cotton articles counting each as one.
To save all question, however, we should also recommend that, in form-
ing either a general or special index-number, the prices of a considerable
number of articles should be obtained, for reasons which have been fully
apparent in the previous reports and discussions that we have submitted.
We are unable, however, to recommend at the present stage what
particular articles or groups of articles should be included in forming
index-numbers for use in this country. We trust that the suggestions
made in our previous reports will be found useful by any Government in
taking up the subject, but in the present state of information as to the
relative importance of articles, as to the prices it may be possible to ob-
tain, and as to the practical objects which Governments would have in
view in forming index-numbers, we do not think it practicable to go into
detail onthis head. At the same time, it is not in our power to make
the requisite inquiry, which can only be carried out by Governments,
and will not, of course, be undertaken by Governments until there is a
sufficient body of practical opinion in favour of index-numbers.
What we should recommend first of all would be that the importance
of obtaining systematically and regularly more prices than are now —
obtained should be pressed on the Government, and that the principle of
the Corn Returns Acts, under which the prices of grain have been ob-
tained for more than a hundred years in England, by means of records of
actual sales systematically collected, should be more extensively applied.
Were there more of such official prices, their practical utility in many
ways would soon become obvious, and it would be easy for individuals to
make index-numbers of their own, which would prepare the way for official
index-numbers. As matters stand at present, the way is being prepared
to some extent by the habit of using index-numbers—such as those of the
Economist, Mr. Sauerbeck and Dr. Soetbeer—which is steadily growing,
but the use of a larger number of official prices would conduce further to
the same end.
We doubt if it would be expedient at the present stage to press very
strongly for the actual appointment of a Government Royal Commission
or Parliamentary Committee with a view to make the necessary inquiries
as to what statistics of prices should be obtained, in order to the imme-
diate formation of one or moreindex-numbers. We hardly think that opinion
generally is ripe enough for such a step being taken. But the exigencies
of such public discussions as those engaged in by the Royal Commissions
on Trade Depression and on Gold and Silver, and which have been going on
with reference to the Tithe Settlement of 1836, will possibly lead before long
to the question becoming immediately practical, and there would be room
at present, or very soon, we believe, for a small committee, under one of
the Government Departments, such as the Board of Trade or the Treasury,
to prosecute an inquiry of the nature suggested. It will be expedient,
however, to defer any further practical action until opinion is more
ripened. The main thing to get into the public mind is the notion that a
monetary ‘standard’ is itself a thing whose variations may require
ON VARIATIONS IN THE VALUE OF THE MONETARY STANDARD. 487
measuring for various practical purposes. And, although the idea is get-
ting more about than was the case ten or twenty years ago, and is
admitted theoretically, it is not yet so well understood generally among
our leading public men that practical action can be considered immedi-
ately possible.
With a view still further to stimulate discussion and prepare public
opinion, we propose to append to this report a draft of an Act of Parlia-
ment, which was originally submitted to us by the Chairman, and on
which various amendments have since been made at the suggestion of
members of the Committee. This draft, Mr. Giffen informs us, is modelled
on the provisions of the Corn Returns Acts. It will be understood that
it is merely the sketch of an Act which may become possible when opinion
has further ripened. The method of a weighted index-number is not ex-
pressly referred to in it, neither is a first list of articles included such as
would not improbably be specified in any such Act when legislation be-
comes actually possible. But it must be understood that the principle of
a weighted index-number is adhered to by the Committee as expressed in
their previous reports, although it is not explicitly given effect to in the
appended sketch.
In conclusion, the Committee would summarise the results they have
arrived at in their present report as follows :—
1. That our work as to the theoretical issues raised is now fairly
complete.
2. That a further inquiry is needed as to the best way of obtaining
the requisite statistics, and that it is beyond our power to conduct such
an inquiry.
3. That it would be expedient, when public opinion has further ripened,
that a Royal Commission or a Departmental Committee be appointed to
undertake this task and report on it.
4 That meanwhile Government should be stimulated to obtain and
publish more official prices than they do.
5. That the statistics which are ultimately collected should be used in
the formation of several official index-numbers, each of which should be
specially adapted for some particular purpose, and that they should be
published in detail so as to be available for use by private persons in the
affairs of business and in statistical inquiry.
6. That the general method to be adopted should be that of ‘the
weighted mean,’ but that we have not at present sufficient information as
to the number and accuracy of the statistics of prices, and volumes of
production and consumption, that will be procurable for the purpose of
enabling us to make a more detailed report. Our views as to the aims to
be pursued, the practical importance of those aims, the difficulties to be
encountered, and the best methods of dealing with those difficulties—so
far as they are of a theoretical nature—have been sufficiently indicated in
our earlier reports.
7. In case it should be found impracticable to get approximate
‘weights,’ a reasonably good makeshift would be found by selecting
_ twenty important representative commodities and averaging their varia-
tions without weighting them.
By way of suggesting the direction which legislation might take on
this last supposition, the Committee append to their report a proposal for
an official index-number originally drawn up by Mr. Giffen, and on which
various amendments have since been made.
488 REPORT—1890.
DRAFT PROPOSAL FOR AN OFFICIAL INDEX-NUMBER.
1. Appoint a Special Commission to collect prices of such principal
articles of production and consumption as may, from time to time, be
directed by Order in Couucil.
2. Commission to have power to appoint inspectors of prices in towns,
markets, and other places; and to direct by Order in Council that persons
buying and selling in these towns, &c., such articles as may be prescribed,
are to make returns in the prescribed form to the inspector so appointed
or direct to the Commission.
3. Such persons failing to make a return, or making a false ge
to be liable to a penalty of 201. on conviction, ke,
4, The Commission shall publish, from time to time, in the Gazette,
in prescribed form, the prices so obtained.
5. The Commission shall also publish on January 1 next, or on such
other date as may be fixed by them after the commencement of this part
of the Act, upon such evidence as shall appear to them satisfactory, a
statement of the average prices of each of the specified articles for the
ten years immediately preceding, and for each of these years; and the
prices so declared shall be taken to be the par prices for the purpose of
this Act.
6. In January of each year following, the Commission shall publish
the prices for the previous year for the same articles as ascertained in the
manner prescribed by the Commission under this Act; and shall also
publish in the prescribed form a table of the proportion of these prices to
the par prices, each of the par prices being reckoned for this purpose as
100, and the proportion in each case being stated in the form of the pro-
portion to a hundred. The sum of these proportions shall also be stated.
The table may be divided into parts, and the sum of the proportions in
each part stated separately. The sum of the par prices, each reckoned
as 100, shall be called the par index-number, and the sum of the propor-
tions in each year shall be called the proportionate index-number for
each year; and the sum of the par prices for each part, and of the pro-
portions in each year, shall be called the par index-number, and the
proportionate index-number for each part.
7. It shall be lawful in all contracts for payments in money to express
that the payment is to be made for a given year in the proportionate
index-number for that year, either for the whole of the said table or for a
part of it, and thereupon payment may be made in such sum of sterling
money as will correspond in respect of the sum contracted to be paid to
the proportion which the proportionate index-number bears to the par
index-number. It shall also be lawful in all such contracts to agree that
the actual payment to be made in a given year shall be a sum of sterling
money, bearing the same proportion to the sum named in the contract as
the proportionate index-number for the said year bears to the propor-
tionate index-number for the year in which the contract was made.
8. New articles may be introduced into the list and the table, from
time to time, by Order in Council, which order shall declare the par price
and index-number, and thereupon the amended list and table shall be
used for all purposes as if it were the original list and table.
ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 489
Report of the Committee, consisiing of Dr. J. H. GLADSTONE
(Chairman), Professor ARMSTRONG (Secretary), Mr. STEPHEN
Bourne, Miss Lyp1a BEcKER, Sir Jonn Luszock, Bart., Dr. H.
W. CrosskEY, Sir RicHarD TEMPLE, Bart., Sir Henry E. Roscoe,
Mr. JAMES Heywoop, and Professor N. STORY MASKELYNE, ap-
pointed for the purpose of continuing the inquiries relating to
the teaching of Science in Elementary Schools.
In presenting the report for the present year, your Committee have to
record with great regret the death of Miss Lydia Becker, who has been
a member of this Committee from its first appointment, and has always
taken an active part in its proceedings.
While in some former years your Committee have had to chronicle a
decreasing attention to Elementary Science in the schools, and futile
attempts of the Legislature to improve education, they are able this year
to speak of good promise, if not of actual progress.
The return of the Education Department, issued this spring, shows a
slight turn of the tide in 1888-9. The following are the statistics of the
class subjects as compared with the six previous years :—
Class Subjects.— _
Departments 1882-3 | 1883-4 | 1884-5 | 1885-6 | 1886-7 | 1887-8 | 1888-9
English . 4 - | 18,363 | 19,080 | 19,431 | 19,608 | 19,917 | 20,041 | 20,153
Geography . - . | 12,823 | 12,775 | 12,336 | 12,055 | 12,035 | 12,058 | 12,171
Elementary Science . 48 51 45 43 39 36 36
History : : ; 367 382 386 375 383 390 386
Drawing . 3 - == — = 240 505 — —
Needlework. - . | 5,286 | 5,929 | 6,499 | 6,809 | 7,137 | 7,424 | 7,620
The number of scholars examined in the scientific specific subjects are
as follows :—
Specific Subjects.—Children | 1882-3 | 1883-4 | 1884-5 | 1885-6 | 886-7 | 1887-8 | 1888-9
Algebra. 26,547 | 24,787 | 25,347 | 25,393 | 25,103 | 26,448 | 27,465
Euclid and Mensura-
tion 5 ; . | 1,942 | 2,010 | 1,269 | 1,247 995 | 1,006 928
Mechanics A. . | 2,042 | 3,174 | 3,527 | 4,844 | 6,315 | 6,961 | 9,524
. BS™. ; — 206 239 128 33 331 127
Animal Physiology . | 22,759 | 22,857 | 20,869 | 18,523 | 17,338 | 16,940 | 15,893
Botany ; 3,280 | 2,604 | 2,415 | 1,992 | 1,589 | 1,598 |} 1,944
Principles of Agricul-
ture ; F é 1,357 | 1,859 | 1,481 | 1,851 | 1,137 | 1,151 | 1,199
Chemistry . 1,183 | 1,047 | 1,095 | 1,158 | 1,488 | 1,808 | 1,531
Sound, Light, and Heat 630 | 1,253 | 1,231 | 1,334 | 1,158 978 | 1,076
Magnetism and Elec-
tricity . . | 8,643 | 3,244 | 2,864 | 2,951 | 2,250 | 1,977 | 1,669
Domestic Economy - | 19,582 | 21,458 | 19,437 | 19,556 | 20,716 | 20,787 | 22,064
Total - - | 82,965 | 84,499 | 79,774 | 78,477 | 78,122 | 79,985 | 83,420
Number of eo |
in Standards V., VI.,
286,355 325,205 352,860 393,289 |432,097 |472,770 |490,590
and VII. J
490 REPORT—1890.
It will be seen that there is a considerable increase in Mechanics A,
due, no doubt, to the fact that this subject has been the one selected by
some of the largest School Boards in the kingdom to be taught by their
peripatetic science demonstrators. There has also been a marked pro-
portionate increase in Botany over the last two years. Algebra and
Domestic Economy have about held their own, while Animal Physiology,
Chemistry, and Magnetism and Electricity show a considerable actual
decrease.
The general result has been that the very serious annual decrease in
the percentage of children taught these specific subjects as compared with
the number that might have taken them has been arrested, or rather shows
a fractional improvement.
In 1882-3 . ; : ° é . 29-0 per cent.
», 1883-4 3 : : : . 26:0 is
», 1884-5 . : ; : , . 22°6 by
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» 1888-9 . é : : : ge?
Tue New Cope.
The principal feature of this year has been the introduction of a code
of regulations by the Education Department which makes many reforms
in education, some of which refer to the teaching of science. The Code
was generally accepted by both sides of the House of Commons.
This Code provides that science and manual instruction are recognised
subjects ‘in making up the minimum time constituting an attendance
. . whether or not they are given in the school premises or by the
ordinary teachers of the school, provided that special and appropriate pro-
vision . . . is made for such instruction.’ This gives official sanction to
the teaching of these subjects in centres, or by the peripatetic system.
It does away with the restriction, of which your Committee have so
long complained, that if class subjects be taken in a school, one of them
must be English—an arrangement that virtually excluded the teaching of
Elementary Science.
There is, however, the restriction that specific subjects cannot be
taken unless the larger of the two principal grants was obtained at the
preceding inspection. This is objectionable, as it is often in those very
schools where literary excellence is difficult to attain that a knowledge
of Mechanics, or the Principles of Agriculture, or Domestic Economy would
be most valuable; and these could not be taken, unless, indeed, as class
subjects.
In the appendix are inserted the new schedule of Elementary Science,
and the alternate courses for that subject and for Geography. In the
arrangement of these three members of your Committee were more or
less consulted. It will be seen that the model course of Elementary
Science in Schedule II. is made complete, and that several alternate
courses are suggested which are essentially the specific subjects of
Schedule IV. extended over five years, with object lessons bearing upon
each subject for the two preceding years. It will be seen also that in
the alternate courses for Geography the first is especially physical, the
second specially commercial, while the third runs through only the first
four standards, and the fourth is arranged to be taught in three divisions
ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 491
‘in order to adapt it to small schools in which the average attendance
does not exceed sixty.
In the Revised Instructions to her Majesty’s Inspectors it is stated
that ‘in sanctioning any modification of the printed schemes it will be
necessary to have regard to the experience and qualifications of the
teacher, and to any special opportunities afforded in the town or district
for instruction by a skilled demonstrator, who visits several schools in
succession, or who gives collective lessons at suitable centres.’
The general scheme of these schedules will greatly encourage and
facilitate the taking up of these subjects, but the members of your Com-
mittee who are practical teachers of science are not satisfied with the final
form in which they appear. They disapprove of the way in which object
lessons in Standards I. and II. are treated, and especially that in the
alternate courses they are made so closely connected with the special
science which is to occupy the learners’ attention in the later standards.
They also disapprove of many details of arrangement in the respective
standards; and of the minute subdivision in the schedule of sciences
which are closely related to one another. The National Association for
the Promotion of Technical Education endeavoured to get some modifica-
tions of these schedules, and drew up an alternative scheme of three
courses in which the specialisation began at the Fourth Standard. None
of these suggested improvements, however, appears in the ‘ Minute of the
Committee of Council on Education modifying certain provisions of the
new Code (1890),’ which was passed on July 11. This minute, however,
contains two clauses which will have an important bearing on the teach-
ing of science. The first allows scholars who have passed the Seventh
Standard, but are under fourteen years of age, to be retained on the
school rolls and to count in the average attendance. The second rescinds
the prohibition against presenting scholars in specific subjects in any
school which in the preceding year failed to obtain the principal grant of
14s., unless such failure was due to other causes than that of the scholars
not having been satisfactorily taught recitation.
In the specific subjects contained in Schedule IV. the principal altera-
tions are the dropping of the alternative course in Mechanics, which was
mainly theoretical and was rarely taken, and theseparation of Mensuration
from Euclid.
The alterations in the Code with regard to evening schools are
important, and, as far as they go, are in accordance with the proposals of
the Council of the British Association in 1881. These are, the rescinding
of the requirement that scholars in the evening schools must be presented
for examination in Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic, so far as those that
have passed the Fifth Standard are concerned ; and of the requirement that
if special subjects are taught English must be one. Those scholars who
have already passed Standard V. in the day school may be presented for
examination in not less than two and not more than four of the special
subjects. The omission of the elementary subjects has necessitated the
passing of a small Bill through Parliament to legalise the making of grants
to schools where elementary instruction was not the principal part of the
instruction given. This Bill of Sir William Hart Dyke, which passed
without opposition, opens the way for a considerable extension of natural
science teaching.
There is still, however, one serious omission in the Code—the want of
any stipulation that pupil teachers shall receive instruction in some branch
of Natural Science. It still remains the case, as has already been pointed
492% REPORT—1890.
out, that a pupil teacher may gain a Queen’s Scholarship without any
acquaintance with scientific subjects. This is the more anomalous as
pupil teachers are very frequently called upon to give object lessons in the
schools to which they are attached.
The Code, it is true, gives this encouragement, that marks are given
at the Queen’s Scholarship Examination to pupil teachers and other candi-
dates who have passed in one scientific subject at a previous Science and
Art Examination ; and last year 855 males and 559 females, out of 1,774
males and 2,453 females, received credit for having passed in some branch
of science. This is a considerable advance upon previous years ; but still
it represents barely half of the male, and less than one-fourth of the female,
teachers.
ScorLanD.
Some very important changes have been made in the Scotch Code of this
year affecting the teaching of science, and apparently in an adverse direc-
tion. The former regulation, that if any class subjects are taken one
must be English or Elementary Science, has been abrogated, and now
teachers are left at liberty to choose any three or less of the recognised
subjects, which are, English, Geography, History, Needlework for girls,
Elementary Science. The scheme for this last-named subject, which was
almost identical with that of the English Code, has been expunged, so far
as the upper standards are concerned, and a tripartite course is given for
Elementary Science for Standard IIT. and upwards, in the Animal King-
dom, the Vegetable Kingdom, and General Physics; and it is recom-
mended that the three divisions of the subject should be taken in rotation.
The schedule is given in Appendix II. According to the last report of
the Committee of Council on Education in Scotland, of 3,113 boys and
girls’ departments, class subjects were taken in 3,048. Of these, 2,941
took the joint subject of History and Geography, and 107 took Elementary
Science ;—a considerably larger proportion than in England and Wales.
As regards the specific subjects, the whole of the more strictly scien-
tific subjects—Mechanics, Chemistry, Animal Physiology, the two branches
of Physics (Light and Heat, Magnetism and Electricity), Physical Geo-
graphy, and Botany—have been entirely dropped, leaving only Mathe-
matics, Principles of Agriculture, and Domestic Economy (girls). It is
true that the Department proposes that ‘instead of specifying a limited
choice of subjects, with strictly prescribed courses of instruction, we have
given to school managers the most complete freedom in suggesting subjects
which they deem suitable to the requirements of their own locality, and
in drawing up, for approval, schemes under which instruction in these
subjects may be given ;’ but it remains to be seen whether they will take
advantage of this liberty, and whether the number of scholars who were
examined last year in Physical Geography (21,686), and in Animal
Physiology (7,786), will not be considerably diminished in the fature.
IRELAND.
The fifty-sixth Report of the Commissioners of National Education in
Ireland gives a very interesting account of the practical teaching that is
introduced into the National Schools of Ireland. There is alarge amount
of manual instruction, and the rudiments of technical education. The
teaching of Agriculture is obligatory in country schools for children above
the Third Class or Standard, and 50,143 out of a possible 183,065 passed
i eh
ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 493
in this subject. It is interesting also to know that all children above the
Second Class go through a course of instruction in Geography.
Science anp Art DEPARTMENT.
Although the Code allows mannal instruction to be put on the time-
table of Elementary Schools it does not provide for any Parliamentary
grant. The Science and Art Department, however, have resolved to give
a grant of 6s., or if excellent of 7s., for every scholar, subject to the
following conditions :—
‘3. The instruction must be—
(a) in the use of the ordinary tools used in handicrafts in wood or
iron ;
(b) given out of school hours in a properly fitted workshop ;
(c) connected with the instruction in drawing; that is to say, the
work must be from drawings to scale previously made by
the students.
‘4, The instruction may be given by one of the regular teachers of the
school if he is sufficiently qualified ; if not, he must be assisted by a skilled
artisan.
_ £5, The work of the class will be examined by the local Inspector of
the Department, accompanied if necessary by an artisan expert, on the
occasion of his visit to exarnine in drawing.
‘6. If it appears that the school is properly provided with plant for
instruction, and that the teaching is fairly good, a grant of 6s., or if excel-
lent of 7s., will be made for every scholar instructed, provided (a) that he
has passed the Fourth Standard; (6) that he has received manual instruc-
tion for at least two hours a week for twenty-two weeks during the school-
year ; (c) that a special register of attendance is kept; and (d) that each
scholar on whom payment is claimed isa scholar of the day-school and has
attended with reasonable regularity. The grant may be reduced or wholly
withheld at the discretion of the Department, if it appears that the plant
is insufficient, or that the instruction is not good.’ As, however, the
provision that this instruction should be given ‘out of school hours’
is inconsistent with its being put upon the time-table, and interfered
seriously with the arrangements for teaching in centres, strong represent-
ations were made to the authorities, and a new circular was issued,
stating ‘ that the restriction in Section 3 (b)—that the manual instruction
shall be given out of school hours—does not prevent this instruction being
included in the time-table of the school; provided that the time devoted to
manual instruction by any scholar, for the purposes of the grant from the
Department of Science and Art, does not include any part of the two con-
secutive hours of instruction in the subjects of the English and Scotch
Codes requisite to constitute an attendance ; or of the four hours a day
secular instruction requisite under the rules of the Commissioners of
National Education in Ireland.’ This explanation, however, fails to
remove the difficulties that are felt in practically carrying out this manual
instruction.
The Science and Art Department have also issued a circular, stating,
among other things, that ‘after the examinations this year no pupil on
the register of an elementary school receiving aid from the English or
Scotch Education Departments or from the Commissioners of National
Education in Ireland may be presented for examination by the Depart-
494 REPORT—1890.
ment of Science and Art, or registered as a student in any subject of
science in a science class under that Department.’ This would have been
extremely injurious to the higher elementary schools which have been
established in many of the large provincial towns; and memorials were
therefore presented pointing out the necessity of a modification. This led
to the withdrawal of the paragraph quoted and the restoration of the
paragraphs in the ‘Science and Art Directory’ (§ 16, p. 30, and § 12,
p-. 56) which were affected by it, ‘with this modification, that no scholar
of an elementary school may be presented for examination by the Depart-
ment of Science and Art in any subject in which he has been examined
since the preceding lst August by the English or Scotch Education
Departments for a class or specific subject grant, or by the Commissioners
of National Education in Ireland for an extra branch fee.’
General Conclusion.
It will be seen that this year has been fruitful in legislative and
administrative changes that bear upon the teaching of science in elemen-
tary schools. They have generally met with the approval of those educa-
tionists who are interested in science and its applications, but it has yet
to be seen how far they may be practically adapted to the purpose in view.
APPENDIX I.
Elementary Science.
Standard I. Standard IT. Standard III.
|
Thirty lessons on common | Thirty lessons on common | Simple principles of
objects, e.g.— objects, such as animals,| classification of plants
A postage stamp; the post;| plants, andsubstancesem-| and animals. Sub-
money; a lead pencil; a} ployed in ordinary life,| stances used in the
railway train ; e.g.— arts and manufac-
Foods and clothing ma- tures. Phenomena of
terials, as bread, milk, eet ae the earth and atmo-
cotton, wool; aaa Bap a sphere.
Minerals; natural pheno- eee ez Aue:
mena, as gold, coal, the aap Par
day, the year. ues ARES
Standard IV. Standard Y. Standard VI. Standard VII.
A more advanced know- | (a) Animal or plant | (@) Animal | (a) Distribution of
ledge of special groups| life; or and plant| plants and ani-
of common objects, such | (6) The principlesand | life; or mals, and of the
as— processes involved |(d)Thecom-} races of man-
(a) Animals, or plants,| in one of the chief} monest| kind; or
with particularreference | industries of Eng-| elements, | (b) Properties of
to agriculture; or land; or and their| common gases;
(b) Substances employed | (¢) The physical and | compounds;| or
in arts and manufac-| mechanical prin-| or (¢) Sound, or light,
tures ; or ciples involved in| (¢) The me-| or heat, or elec-
(ce) Some simple kinds of | the construction of | chanical| tricity, with ap-
physical and mechanical | some common in-| powers. plications.
appliances, e.g. the] struments, and of
thermometer, barometer,| some simple forms
lever, pulley, wheel and} of industrial ma-
axle, spirit level. chinery.
I errerst poet pel remy Jal e ye tal jidejoe aly gil ysieie golie ee pe Eye,
495
ee MENTARY SCHOOLS.
ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE I
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496 RERQBT—1890.
SUPPLEMENT TO SCHEDULE II.
Elementary
Any of the following alternative courses may be chosen in schools in which the
same subject is not taken up as a specific subject. The courses should be taught
throughout the school by means of conversational object lessons in the lower
standards, and more systematic instruction with the aid of text-books in the higher
standards.
The object lessons given in Standards I. and II. should include, in Mechanics,
Botany, and Physics, some lessons on the phenomena of nature and of common life ;
in Physiology, on the external structure and habits of animals; in Agriculture, on
food substances, familiar animals, and common plants; in Domestic Economy, on the
principal substances used for food and for clothing. Specimens of a few such topics
are given.
Standards I. and II.
Course A. Mechanics
Course B. Animal Physio-
logy.
|CourseC. Botany. .
Course D. Principles of
Agriculture,
Course E. Chemistry .
Course F. Sound, light,
and heat.
OourseG. Magnetism and
electricity.
Course H. Domestic Eco-
nomy (girls).
Thirty object lessons, e.g.—
A pair of scales. A pair of bellows. A ham-
mer. Aclock. Carriage wheel. Building of a
house. Iron and steel. Gold.
Thirty object lessons, e.g. on the external struc-
ture and the habits of common animals.
Thirty object lessons, e.g.—
Tea. Sugar. Coffee.
Potato.
Cabbage. Carrot.
Thirty object lessons, e.g.—
The usefulness of the various animals kept on
a farm, and how they repay kindness and care.
Bees. Earth-worms. <A grain of wheat. Hay.
Work inaforge. The work to be done on a farm
in the different seasons. Gardening. Garden
tools.
Thirty object lessons on familiar objects, e.g. of
the inorganic world.
Thirty object lessons, e.g.—
Bell. Trumpet. Tuning fork.
Primary colours. Candle. A _ fire.
water. Red-hot poker.
Sunlight.
Boiling
Thirty object lessons, e.g.—
Amber. Glass. Sealing-wax.
Thirty object lessons on materials used for food,
e.g.—
Flour. Pree, veeetablee, Tea. Coffee.
alt.
Milk. Fruits.
Standard III.
Matter in three states :
solids, liquids, and
gases.
The build of the human
body.
Characters of the root,
stem, and leaves of a
plant, illustrated by
common flowering
plants.
The supply of plant food
in the soil.
Properties of the com-
mon gases, such as
oxygen, hydrogen, ni-
trogen, and chlorine.
The three modes in
which heat may be
conveyed from place
to place.
Attraction, repulsion,
and polarity, as illus-
trated by the magnet.
Mariner's compass.
Chief materials used in
clothing and washing,
eg.—
Silk. Linen. Wool. Cot-
ton. Fur. Leather.
Washing materials.
ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE # ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS.
ALTERNATIVE COURSES—continued.
Science.
497
If two standards are grouped together, the portion given to the lower standard
may be taken one year, and that assigned to the higher standard in the next year, in
eases where this is practicable and consistent with the relation between the two
portions ; or the two portions may be taken in outline one year, and more fully in the
next year.
It is intended that the instruction in Elementary Science shall be given mainly by
experiment and illustration.
If these subjects are taught by definition and verbal
‘description, instead of by making the children exercise their own powers of observa-
tion, they will be worthless as means of education. The examinations by the inspectors
will be directed so as to elicit from the scholars, as far as possible in their own
language, the ideas they have formed of what they have seen.
Standard IV.
The mechanical proper-
ties peculiar to each
state. Matter is por-
ous, compressible, elas-
tic.
Names and positions of
the chief internal or-
gans of the human
body.
Characters of the parts
of the flower, illus-
trated by common
flowering plants.
The necessity for culti-
vation, and the cir-
cumstances making
tillage more or less
effective.
The chemical character
and constituents of
pure air, and the na-
ture of the impurities
sometimes found in it.
Effects of heat on solids,
liquids, and gases. Ex-
pansion by heat. The
thermometer.
Attraction of light
bodies by rubbed seal-
ing-wax and glass. Ex-
perimental proof that
there are two forms of
electricity. Attraction
and repulsion.
Food: its composition.
Clothing and washing,
1890.
Standard V.
Measnrement as prac-
tised by the mechanic.
Measures of length,
time, velocity, and
space.
The properties of muscle.
The mechanism of the
principal movements
of the limbs and of the
body as a whole.
The formation of dif-
ferent kinds of fruits.
Cells and vessels,
The principles regulat-
ing the more or less
perfect supply of plant
food.
The chemical character
and constituents of
pure water, and the
nature of the impuri-
ties sometimes found
in it.
Propagation of light.
Intensity, shadows.
Reflection, mirrors;
refraction, lenses.
Gold-leaf electroscope.
Construction of elec-
tropborus, electrical
machines, and Leyden
jar.
Food and beverages:
their properties and
nutritive value and
functions.
The skin and personal
cleanliness.
Standard VI.
Standard VII.
Matter in motion, The
weight of a body; its
inertia and momen-
tum.
The organs and func-
tions of alimentation,
circulation, and re-
spiration.
Functions of the root,
leaves, and different
parts of the flower.
Food of plants, and
Manner in which a
plant grows.
Manures as supple-
mentalsources of plant
food, and recapitula-
tion of the course for
Standard VY.
The properties of car-
bon and its chief in-
organic compounds.
Non-metallic bodies.
Elementary explanation
of the microscope, ca-
mera obscura, and ma-
gic lantern. Reflecting
and refracting tele-
scopes.
Voltaic battery and no-
tions of a _ current.
Magnetic effect of a
current. Galyanome-
ter. Electro-magnets.
Food: its preparation
and culinary treat-
ment generally.
The dwelling—
Warming. Ventila-
tion. Cleaning.
The lever; the wheel and
axle; pulleys; the in-
clined plane; the wedge;
thescrew. The parallelo-
gram of velocities. The
parallelogram of forces.
Examples commonly
met with illustrating the
mechanical powers.
The general arrangement
of the nervous system.
The properties of nerve.
Sensation.
The characters of the
larger groups and most
important families of
flowering plants. The
comparison of a fern and
a moss with a flowering
plant. ;
The principles regulating
the growth of crops, and
the variation in their
“yield and quality.
Metallic bodies. Combi-
nation by weight and
volume. The useof sym-
bols and chemical for-
mule.
Propazation of sound.
Elementary notions of
vibrations and waves.
Reflection of sound,
echoes.
Terrestrial magnetism.
Chemical effect of a cur-
rent. Electrolysis. In-
duced currents. The
electric telegraph.
Food: simple dishes.
Rules for health.
Common ailments
their remedies.
Management of a sick-
room.
and
KK
498 REPORT—1890.
APPENDIX II.
ScoOTLAND.
Hlementary Science Schedule.
(a.) ANIMAL.—St. III. General notions of the differences of structure of beast, bird,
fish, insect, and reptile.
St. IV. Classification, with habits and uses.
St. V. (Man.) Circulation, respiration, and alimentation.
St. VI. (Man.) Bones, muscle, brain, nerves; the organs of sight,
smell, touch, hearing, and taste.
(b.) VEGETABLE.—St. III. Comparison of animal with vegetable life. General
structure of a plant, root, stem, flower, with specimens.
St. IV. Plant structure. Wood, bark, pith, cells. Uses of
different parts of a plant.
St. V. Food and growth of plants. Exogens and endogens.
Formation of different kinds of fruit.
St. VI. Principles of classification, with a general knowledge of
the chief orders. Germination, ferns, mosses.
(e.) Marrer.—St. III. Matter, organic and inorganic, elementary and compound.
Its three interchangeable states, solid, liquid, gaseous. The
properties of matter.
St. IV. Energy indestructible. Force, inertia, momentum, gravita-
tion, cohesion, chemical affinity, combination and decomposition.
Preparation and properties of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and
chlorine.
St. V. Heat. What it is; effects of; modes of; thermometer.
Reflection and refraction of light; dispersion of light by a prism,
Microscope ; telescope.
St. VI. Magnets; kinds, structure, uses. Mariner’s compass. Elec-
tricity, kinds, laws; electroscope, electrophorus, telegraph, Lever,
wedge, screw.
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. S. BouRNE, Pro-
fessor F. Y. EpGEwortH (Secretary), Professor H. 8. FOXWELL,
Mr. RopertT GIFFEN, Professor ALFRED MarsHaLi, Mr. J. B.
MartTIN, Professor J. S. NicHotson, Mr. R. H. InGiis PALGRAVE,
and Professor H. Sipawick, appointed for the purpose of in-
quiring and reporting as to the Statistical Data available for
determining the amount of the Precious Metals in use as Money
in the principal Countries, the chief Forms in which the Money
is employed, and the amount annually used in the Arts.
Your Committee, as stated in last year’s report, anticipated that a good
deal of light would be thrown on this subject by the experience gained
in connection with the withdrawal of the pre-Victorian sovereigns and
the arrangements which were made by Mr. Palgrave and Mr. Martin to
count samples of the coinage in circulation and to ascertain the propor-
tion of the pre- Victorian coinage to the total.
Messrs. Martin and Palgrave have informed the Committee, however,
that they have not yet completed the investigations in which they have
been engaged. As the information may become public through some
other channel, and as no progress can be made in other directions, it will
be for consideration whether the Committee need be continued. ‘
ne
“a
ON SOME NEW TELEMETERS, OR RANGE-FINDERS. 499
On some New Telemeters, or Range-finders. By Professors ARCHI-
BALD Barr, D.Sc., M.Inst.C.£., and Witu1aM Stroup, B.A.,
D.Sc.
[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]
Tue conditions of modern warfare have given rise to the requirement of
efficient range-finders for artillery and infantry use and for coast defence.
Such instruments are, however, not only indispensable for military
purposes, but civil engineers have long felt the want of reliable telemeters,
both for use in rapid survey work of a more or less rough and preliminary
kind, and for making accurate measurements under conditions not
favourable to the application of ordinary methods of surveying.
With a view of meeting these requirements a great variety of
instruments have been devised, a few of which have been brought into
use, and have proved more or less successful in practice. For coast
defence may be instanced the position-finder of Major Watkin, in use in
England, and that of Lieutenant Fiske, used in America; for artillery and
infantry purposes the instruments of Watkin, Weldon, and Labbez; and
among instruments for surveying purposes the stadiometer, tacheometer,
and omnimeter.
Instruments have been devised for military range-finding to indicate
the distance of an enemy by a measurement of the time-interval between
seeing the flash or smoke from one of his guns and hearing the report;
but such a method of operation could not, for obvious reasons, serve all
the purposes of military range-finding, and could not be relied upon for
purposes either of attack or defence. Setting these aside, we may say
that all range-finders and telemeters—properly so called—depend for
their indications upon the measurement of the elements of a triangle, one
of whose sides is the range to be determined. In nearly every case,
too, the triangle to be solved is approximately right-angled, and the
operation of determining the range of a point o from 4 (fig. 1) consists
virtually in setting out the base aB, and measuring the angle subtended
by it at 0, or in setting ont the angle at 0 and measuring AB. In such
cases, as the side 4B—which is referred to as the base of operation—is
very small compared with the range 04 (or 0B), the distance of 0 from
A (or B) will be expressed, with sufficient accuracy, by AB/a, where
a=angle A OB in radian measure.
Telemeters naturally divide themselves into two classes —(1) those
using a base of known or observed length at the distant object ; (2) those
working from a base of known or measured length at the observer's
station. Instruments of the former class, using as base the distance
between two marks (or the interval between two observed graduations)
upon a staff heid at the distant point (e.g., the tacheometer and omni-
meter), are, as a rule, the most accurate and convenient for surveying
work when the distant point is accessible to a man carrying the base-
staff. We hope on a future occasion to describe some new telemeters of
this ciass which we have recently devised. Proposals have been made
to determine the distance of an enemy by means of simple instruments
working upon this principle, and using the height of a man in the
enemy’s ranks as a base; but besides the impossibility of getting reliable
results, under the most favourable circumstances, with a base so ill-
KK 2
500 REPORT—1890.
defined and so variable in length, it is seldom that observations of the
kind required can be made at all under modern systems of warfare. The
only range-finders suitable for general military purposes, therefore, belong
to the second class.
Telemeters which utilise a base at the observer’s station may, again,
be divided into two sub-classes—(a) instruments having a short rigid
base, and usually arranged to be operated by one observer, such as those
of Adie, Christie, Mallock, and Haskett-Smith, and one recently brought
out by the present writers; (b) instruments working from long bases,
say 20 to 50 yards, and requiring two observers (or one observer
observing successively from the two ends of the base), such as Weldon’s,
Lynam’s, and Watkin’s artillery and infantry range-finders. The three
instruments which we are about to describe also belong to this division,
to which we shall alone refer in what follows.
Fi4. 1. Fig. 2.
oO
0
g
>»
iS
©
S
4 8B (eS Es Pe tt Sa
A<-Measured---rB
116 devs '
These long-base instruments may yet again be subdivided into two
groups—(a) those using constant angles and variable base, such as the
Weldon; and (f) those with constant base, one constant angle, and one
variable angle, such as Watkin’s and Lynam’s infantry range-finders.
Major Watkin’s artillery range-finder practically belongs to this class as
well, though it admits of the base being arbitrarily chosen within certain
limits.
Colonel Weldon’s instrument consists essentially of two triangular
doubly-reflecting prisms, ground to give the angles at the base of a
right-angled triangle of which the base is 3'5 of the perpendicular
(which is the range required). The mode of operation of this range-
finder is illustrated in fig. 2. It is usually worked by one observer, who
stations himself at A, and observes with the 90° prism what distant object
at ¢ appears reflected into coincidence with the object 0. He then walks
out along the line cA produced to B, where c appears in coincidence with
o when using the second prism. The distance aB is then measured by a
cord or tape marked at every two yards to represent hundreds of yards of
range, and subdivided to indicate tens of yards.
Instruments of the constant-base and variable-angle type have
ON SOME NEW TELEMETERS, OR RANGE-FINDERS. 501
hitherto usually consisted of an optical square, or instrument working on
the sextant principle, with fixed mirrors for setting out a constant angle,
and an instrument of the same kind with mirrors capable of relative
motion for measuring the variable angle at the base of the triangle of
observation. Each instrument has attached to it a prominent mark—in
the form of a vertical white line on a black background—and when in
use the instruments are connected together by a cord of, say, 25 yards
in length. The optical square consists essentially of a pair of mirrors
fixed at 45° to each other (see fig. 3) ; and the variable-angle instrament
of a pair of mirrors similarly arranged at an angle of about 45° to each
other, one of the mirrors, however, being capable of a slight angular
motion relatively to the other.
In using range-finders of this class the chief observer, carrying the
variable-angle instrument, takes up a fixed position at B (see fig. 4),
while the assistant observer, carrying the optical square, moves round the
FIG. 3. Fi4. 4.
oO
m2
__--------C60 yds /
chief observer as a centre, keeping the base cord taut between the
instruments, till he finds the point a from which he sees the chief observer’s
mark superimposed by reflection upon the distant object. When he has
accomplished this adjustment of his position he informs the chief observer
of the fact by shouting ‘on’; the latter meanwhile operates the mechanism
which alters the angle set out by his instrument till he brings the mark
on the assistant observer’s instrument into apparent coincidence with
the distant object. The mechanism which operates the movable mirror
also moves a scale, which indicates the distance of the object when
correct alignment has been made by both observers. When the range
of a moving object is being taken, the assistant observer must con-
tinuously shift his position so as always to set out a right angle between
the chief observer's mark and the distant object. To do this with
sufficient accuracy is uot difficult when the enemy is approaching or
receding in nearly a direct line to or from the observers, for the rate of
change of direction of the base is then very slow. The difficulty is, of
pele much greater when the enemy is moving rapidly across the field
of view.
502 REPORT—1890.
There would be no difficulty in constructing satisfactory instruments
of this variable-angle class were it not for the fact that, the base being
necessarily very limited in length compared with the ranges to be
determined, the angles to be dealt with are exceedingly small, and
consequently the slightest relative movement of the mirrors puts the
instrument out of adjustment. Thus, let us assume that in the
instruments themselves, independently of errors in observation and
alteration in the length of the cord, there is not to be an error of more
than 1 per cent. at 1,000 yards,! and that the base is 25 yards. This
means that the angles must be set out correctly to about 50” ; and since
by reflection any angular shift of a mirror is doubled, a shift of any
one of the four mirrors, or of these collectively, of more than 25’ is
inadmissible. Moreover, the mechanism operating the movable mirror
and scale must work correctly to 25’. This necessitates the use of
micrometric devices of great delicacy. Such instruments are, therefore,
not only liable to derangement by slight displacement of the mirrors, but
micrometric arrangements, however perfect at first, are subject to wear
and to rusting, especially under the conditions of actual service in the
field, where they must necessarily be exposed to the damaging effects of
rain and dust.
Colonel Weldon’s instrument has a great advantage over instruments
of the variable-angle class as hitherto made, in that it is incapable of
derangement; but it has what appears to us to be the almost equally
great disadvantage, that it is nothing like so facile in operation, especially
for taking the range of an enemy in motion.
Our object in designing the range-finders we are about to describe
has been to overcome the difficulties to which we have referred, and to
combine the invaluable feature of non-liability to derangement with the
facility of operation which is the characteristic of instruments based on the
constant-base system. We believe that these three instruments are unique
among constant-base range-finders in being quite incapable of optical
derangement, whatever the treatment to which they may be subjected.
In each of the three range-finders at present to be dealt with, we use
two instruments connected by a base-cord in the manner above described.
The cord should, of course, be as inextensible as possible, and should not
be subject to alterations in length through dampness. Fishing-line can
readily be obtained very suitable for the purpose. Small variations in the
length of the cord cause, however, no appreciable error—e.g. a variation
of length of ] inch in 25 yards will only affect the indication of the range
by 1 part in 900.
The first of the three instruments is operated in the manner described
with reference to other constant-base instruments, and illustrated in fig. 4.
The instrument carried by the assistant observer is an optical square, but
instead of heing formed in the usual way of a pair of mirrors fixed at an
angle of 45° to each other (fig. 3), it consists of a doubly-reflecting prism
of a pentagonal form (fig. 5). The faces AB and BC are at right angles
to each other, and the faces AB and cD, which are silvered, are inclined
at 45° to each other. If the angles between these pairs of faces be exactly
90° and 45° respectively, then the prism forms a true optical square in-
capable of derangement. The course of a ray of light through the prism
is represented in the figure. These prisms possess a great advantage
1 This appears to us to be a large error to assume as allowable.
ON SOME NEW TELEMETERS, OR RANGE-FINDERS. 503
over the right-angled isosceles prisms (fig. 6) used in the Weldon range-
finder, in that the field of view is very much larger.!
The difficulties of constructing such prisms so accurately that no error
is perceptible is so great that we have had recourse to a very simple,
expeditious, and cheap method of correcting them without regrinding.
This consists in providing, in the path of one of the beams of light (either
that passing through the prism from the mark upon the other instrument,
or that of direct vision over or under the prism), a refracting prism of
very small angle, rotating it in its own plane till the adjustment is perfect,
and then fixing it securely in this position. This refracting prism may
be cemented on to the face Bc of the prism (fig. 5), but we prefer to fix
it separately in front of the prism in the direct beam, as shown in fig. 7,
where the angle of the prism is greatly exaggerated. It will be seen that
when the prism is in the position shown by the full lines the angle set
out will be the angle between the lines mr and H 0’; whereas, when the
prism is rotated through 180° in its own plane so as to be in the position
FI Fa. 6.
ae ee
or
indicated by the dotted lines, the angle set out will be that between the
lines MF and uo”. For intermediate positions of the refracting prism
the angle set out will lie between those extremes. In this way the angle
can be made 90° to any desired degree of accuracy. It must be under-
stood that the angle of deviation of this refracting prism need never
exceed a few minutes.
The variable-angle instrument, carried by the chief observer, is con-
structed in exactly the same manner, except that the refracting prism is
of larger angle, and instead of fixing this prism in one position it is left
free to be rotated relatively to the frame carrying the reflecting prism.
The disc in which the refracting prism is held is provided with a scale
marked upon its circumference, and an index is provided upon the frame
in which the reflecting prism is fixed. The scale is marked to give the
distance in yards of the object whose range is required.
The nature of the scale is indicated in fig. 8. It will be evident that a
ray of light GH (supposed reversed in direction so as to proceed outwards
from the eye to H) (fig. 7) will, after passing through the refracting prism,
1 Such pentagonal prisms, we now find, have already been used for some time
on the Continent.
504 REPORT—1890.
be deviated from its course, as shown by HO’. When, however, the prism
is rotated, this line will describe a cone, or, as projected upon the distant
view, a circle, which fig. 8 may be taken to represent, the point Y corre-
sponding to the position of the prism shown in full lines, and the point x
to the position shown in dotted lines. The vertical motion of the image
of the object viewed through the refracting prism is of no consequence,
because the instrument may be directed up or down so as to observe upon
any level. It will be evident that in this way 180° of angular rotation
of the prism in its own plane might be utilised for setting out different
angles by the instrument ; but it is better to restrict the motion to some-
thing like 120° in all—60° on each side of the mean position of the prism
when its thin edge is horizontal; this is shown in fig. 8, the motion
of the prism being restricted by suitable stops, so that it cannot pass
-beyond the division 6 on the one side of the upper scale and the division
20 on the other side. This restriction of the motion possesses the advan-
Fig. 7. Fig. 8.
tage that the greater part of the horizontal shift produced by the
prism is utilised, while the vertical motion is very little.
To understand the graduations of the scale it will be simplest to sup-
pose that the marks on the two instruments and the distant object are in
the same horizontal plane. If, then, the thin edge of the prism is
horizontal, the angle set out by the variable-angle instrument will be
simply that due to the reflecting prism, fig. 7; whereas, if the refracting
prism be rotated from the previous position through an angle 6, the angle
set out by the instrument will be different by an amount represented
by = 6 sin 6, according to the direction of rotation, where 8 represents
the angle of deviation of the refracting prism. Let, then, a be the angle
set out by the fixed instrument, and B that set out by the other instru-
ment before the prism is introduced. Then for a position 6 of the re-
fracting prism (defined as above, and reckoned positive when it increases
the angle set out by the instrument) the sum of the angles set cut by
the instruments will be A+3B+6 sin 6, and the supplement of this angle
will be the angle subtended by the base of observation (of length b) at
the distant object. The range will therefore be, for this position of the
ON SOME NEW TELEMETERS, OR RANGE-FINDERS. 505
prism, and after the two observers have taken up their correct positions
and the requisite coincidences have been effected,
: b
Hence the equation Baa a Tein B
poses of graduation when the values of the constants a, B, 6, and b have
been determined.
This question may, however, be looked at from a different standpoint.
For constant-base range-finders the scale of ranges is naturally a scale of
reciprocals, as is represented for another of our instruments in fig, 14,
This scale of reciprocals is shown marked in fig. 8 on a horizontal line,
and it is drawn by taking points marked 6, 7, 8, 9, &c., at distances from
the mark co proportional to +, 4, 4,4, &c. The sum of the angles set
out by the two reflecting prisms (viz. A+B) determines with a particular
b
(et NE
yards in drawing fig. 8. The point corresponding to 920 yards is to be
taken as the ceutre of the circle of graduations. The radius of this circle
wili be dependent solely on 6, the angle of deviation of the refracting
prism, and the particular base selected for observation. The distance, in
7—A—B—O sin 0.
could be utilised for pur-
base b a range = This range we have supposed to be 920
fact, on the scale from co to the point corresponding to : will give the
radius required. In fig. 8 this distance is that between the points co and
15. With centre 920 and radius equal to this distance a circle has been
described, and the points on the graduated circle have been so selected
that their projections fall on the corresponding points on tke horizontal
reciprocal scale. By producing these lines downwards to meet the lower
semicircle, and doubling the numbers to be read at each, a scale is obtained
for a base of length 2b.
The complete instruments are shown in figs. 9,10, 11l,and12. Fig.9
is a plan of the two instruments connected together by the cord, A being
Fié. 9.
geen 25 Or 50 YAROS —————————
A 8B
the assistant observer’s instrument, and B the chief observer’s instra-
ment. The cord is attached to each instrument by two chains, whose
lengths are adjusted once for all, so that when the instruments are pulled
apart the chains direct them into such a position that the mark upon
_ each instrument is brought into the reflected field of view of the other
instrument. M M are the marks (white upon a black ground) which are
seen in the plan on account of being placed sloping, as shown in fig. 11.
506 REPoRT—1890.
Fig. 10 is a side view of the chief observer’s instrument as seen by the
assistant observer. The upper part of the plate upon which the mark m
is carried is hinged to the lower part for convenience in packing. Fig. 11
shows a sectional elevation, and fig. 12 a sectional
Fig. 10. plan of the chief observer’s instrument, P being
mw the reflecting prism and Rk the refracting prism.
The latter is shown as constructed of crown and
flint glass, so as to be achromatic. This is not
necessary except for telescopic observation, but
it possesses the advantage that, by rotation of the
crown and the flint relatively to each other, the
angle of deviation of the compound prism can be
varied within certain limits, and so adjusted to a
desired angle. The reflecting prism P is placed
above the level of the centre of the instrument,
so that a direct view is obtained below it through
the refracting prism r. The prism P is rigidly
fixed in the frame F by means of a very hard
cement—almost as hard as the glass itself—so
that relative rotation of the prism and the frame
is absolutely impossible. The prism Rk is similarly
rigidly fixed into the carrier c, a flat portion
being ground off the circular prism, and its place
in the carrier filled by a metal sector soldered
in. The carrier ¢ is supported in F so as to be free to rotate, and it is
milled on the edge p to facilitate the rotation. s is the scale ring,
graduated on the periphery, as above described; and> indexes at 11
serve to read the scales for the 25-yard base and the 50-yard base re-
spectively. kK is a piece which covers the scale except in the vicinity of
the indexes.
The construction of the frame F and carrier ¢ is such that there are
no openings by which dust or rain can get into the interior except
through the small eye-hole B, and even this can be closed if thought
desirable by a small piece of glass. The plate upon which the mark mu
is carried, together with the tubular piece tT to which it is fixed, may be
removed by unscrewing the eye-tube u, so that more convenient access
can be had to clean the outer face of the prism Pp, for which purpose, also,
the frame r is bevelled off at B.
It need hardly be pointed out that the angle of deviation of the prism
R cannot be altered by accident or by use, neither can the angle set out
by the prism P be altered. Moreover the prism Rk is rigidly fixed to the
scale-piece, so that relative motion is quite impossible ; and the prism P is
fixed into the frame Fr, upon which the indexes are marked, so that
relative rotation between these is impossible. Provision is made for the
removal of the prism-carrier c from its bearing in the frame F at an
time for cleaning, and its replacement, without of course disturbing the
attachments of the prisms to these pieces. In fact the whole instrument —
can be taken to pieces in a few seconds (if, say, it has been under water),
and half a minute will suffice to clean the faces of the prisms, so that
within less than a minute the instrument can be taken to pieces, cleaned,
and put together again without the remotest possibility of anything being
put out of adjustment. It will therefore be seen that the instrument is
incapable of suffering any optical derangement from accident or USC, —
Pio eh eesnsesome-
ON SOME NEW TELEMETERS, OR RANGE-FINDERS. 507
Even though either of the prisms be cracked, the angles they set out will
not be altered, though possibly vision may be impaired. Any wearing of
the bearing of ¢ in Fr can only affect the reading by moving the index upon
the scale by an amount equal to the slackness, but no appreciable error
could arise from this cause by any wear that could take place after years
of use. No doubt the instrument can be destroyed; but so long as an
observation can be taken with it, it will be correct if the instrument was
Fie. 11.
originally correctly made and adjusted. In short, in a well-made instru-
ment there can be no instrumental errors at any time which are not
utterly negligible for military purposes, no matter how rough the treat-
ment to which the instrument is subjected.
The cap in which the eye-hole & is formed (fig. 12) is pivoted to the tube
U in the manner common with telescope caps. When greater delicacy of
observation is wanted than can be obtained by the naked eye, the cap is
swung out of the way, and a small Galilean telescope (an opera-glass
combination), supplied with the instrument, is inserted into the tube v.
The telescope may have a magnifying power of, say, 24 diameters, and
508 REPORT—1890.
requires no focussing arrangement, as it will necessarily only be used by
approximately normally-sighted persons in military range-finding.
The assistant observer’s instrument is of the same construction as the
chief observer’s instrument, except that it is turned right for left, and the
prism R is fixed into a carrier which is incapable of rotation in the frame
F, and of course the scale is omitted. The refracting prism is in this
case only used in the original adjustment of the instrument by the
maker.
The second of the three range-finders is unique in having no moving
parts of any kind and still working from a constant base. It consists of
two fixed-angle instruments (not necessarily setting out exactly right
angles), similar to the assistant observer’s instrument above described,
one right and one left hand. The instrument carried by the chief
Fig. 12.
c 2
FEED EZZZZZEZZEZ_D
: SESSiZNAN ESSER
4 BNEZ Ee ANG |
ese Nee
SS
ZZ
SSS
N
ts
:
SS KS
LLL he hhc
observer bears a mark M as above described ; while the assistant observer’s
instrument is atiached to a board, say, about 15 inches long and 4 inches
broad, wnich may be constructed of several pieces hinged together so as
to be readily packed into a small space. Upon the board a scale of
reciprecals is painted (fig. 14), the graduations and figures being in white
upon a black background, and sufficiently bold to be very readily read-
able by the chief observer from the other end of the base (20 yards of cord)
with the aid of his telescope. The method of using the instrument is illus-
trated in fig. 13, where A is the assistant observer’s instrument attached
to the scale s, and B is the chief observer’s instrument. The assistant
observer adjusts his position, as before, till he sees the mark on the chief
observer’s instrument reflected upon the distant object. The chief
observer then sees the scale projected by reflection upon the distant object
at the graduation corresponding to its distance, so that the distant object
itself forms an index or pointer for the scale. The scale can be arranged
to rest comfortably upon the assistant observer’s shoulder when the in-
strument is placed to his eye. The whole essential adjustment of this .
ON SOME NEW TELEMETERS, OR RANGE-FINDERS. 509
instrument, should the angles set out by the instruments be different
from those aimed at, may be made by moving the assistant observer’s
instrument along the scale. Fasteners can then be arranged which can-
not hold it in a wrong place at any subsequent time. It will be at once
seen that the scale will not require to be at all a nice piece of workman-
ship. Hrrors which would be quite inadmissible in an ordinary folding
two-foot rule would be inappreciable in this scale. It will be evident,
also, that observations can be made by means of this instrument with very
great rapidity, and that, as any movement of either observer will cause a
slight apparent motion of the object relatively to the scale, a mean value
can be taken, thus ensuring considerable accuracy. It would require
considerable telescopic power to enable the range to be read toone or two
Fig. 13. Fig, 14.
0
if 7 &910l2 16
| Pb aba datubbtd
yards at 1,000 yards, but the instrument will give indications much
within the requirements of the infantry service with great rapidity, while
-the instrument is quite incapable of derangement.
Although this instrument is not quite so good as the preceding one
for the most accurate observations possible on a fixed object, yet for
military purposes, where the objects to be fired at are in motion to or
from the observers, it becomes just as accurate as the instrument first
described when, as would ordinarily be the case, the guns are sighted for
a particular range, say 1,000 yards, and the order to fire is given when
_the enemy has reached this range as indicated by the particular object in
the enemy’s ranks agreed upon by the two observers coinciding with
the 1,000-yard mark as seen by the chief observer.
The third of the range-finders now to be referred to is a modification
of the last one. The instruments carried by both observers again set
out constant angles. The assistant observer’s instrument in this case
carries a mark, while the chief observer’s instrument is attached to a
scale (a reciprocal scale as before), which, however, in this case is narrow,
and graduated for reading only from close quarters. Fig. 15 shows the
arrangement, A being the assistant observer’s instrument, bearing a mark
510 REPORT—1890.
wu, and B the chief observer’s instrument. The scale s, attached to B,
slides relatively to a mark m,, which may be supported upon a rifle or
light staff or simply held in the hand. The assistant observer adjusts his
position with reference to this mark and the distant object, while the
chief observer moves his instrament and scale forwards or backwards till
he sees the assistant observer’s mark in contact with the distant object.
He then reads his scale by reference to an index attached to the piece
M,. This instrument may also be adjusted once for all, and so con-
structed as to be incapable of being put out of adjustment.
Fig, 15. Fria. 16.
Q
The distance between two distant and inaccessible objects can readily
be determined by any of these telemeters, but most conveniently perhaps
by the first one. For this purpose the scale is set to read any convenient
multiple of the base, the base-cord is discarded, and the telemeter used as
a fixed-angle telemeter in a manner similar to that described with refer-
ence to fig. 2. For example, let the scale for 25 yards base be set to
read 1,000 yards, giving a multiplier of 40. One of the observers takes
up a fixed position 8, fig. 16, and sights one of the distant objects o!.
The other observer moves out in the direction BA! set out by B’s instru-
ment (guided by directions of ‘forward’ or ‘ back’ from B) till he sees
B’s mark reflected upon the object 0', while B sees A’s mark also reflected
on 0}. The distance Ba! will then be ~, of Bo!. The observer A
leaves a mark at A', and then proceeds in like manner to find the point
4? corresponding to 0%, B remaining at the same point. Then Ba? will
be 5 of Bo, and, since the angle a! 8B a? will evidently be equal to
0' Bo’, the distance a! a? will be 31, of the distance 0! 0? between the two
distant objects ; in fact, the triangle a! 8a? will be a map of the triangle
ON SOME NEW TELEMETERS, OR RANGE-FINDERS. dll
o!8 0? on a scale of 7 of the actual size. In this way two observers
occupying only a very limited piece of ground may very rapidly deter-
mine the data necessary for making a map of the whole tract of country
visible from their station.
The value of this method in military operations will be obvious.
When troops are about to take up a new position, they may determine
beforehand the distances of different landmarks from their intended
position, so that the range of the enemy during action may be judged by
reference to the points determined. This method of surveying would
also, no doubt, prove very useful in exploring and prospecting, since the
necessary instruments are very small and not liable to derangement, and
in the ordinary practice of engineering surveying there are many cases in
which it will be of value in enabling a survey to be made without travers-
ing the ground to be surveyed.
Of course a survey may be made in a similar manner by means of the
fixed-angle telemeters referred to above, but the variable-angle instrament
has the great advantage, even for this purpose, that the scale upon which
the miniatures of the distances to be determined are set out can be varied
at will to suit the nature and extent of the ground available for the
observers. Besides this, the variable-angle instraments are much better
suited, as has been said, for the rapid and accurate determination of
direct distances.
It is impossible to state what accuracy is attainable with these instru-
ments, because that will obviously depend upon the nature of the object
observed upon, the character of the light at the time of observation, the
perfection or imperfection of the eyesight of the observers, the steadiness
of the observers, and other elements; but we may say that it is easy to
construct the instruments once for all to have in themselves no error that
could be visible under the most favourable circumstances in the field, and
this condition will be permanent. We have devised special means for
measuring (in the workshop) the angles of reflection of the reflecting
prisms and the angles of refraction of the refracting prisms to any desired
degree of accuracy (to a few seconds of angle), and of adjusting the in-
struments to give true readings without any field trials. These appliances
we hope.on a future occasion to bring before the Association.
Roughly speaking, it is easy to determine rapidly the distance of
tolerably well-defined objects by means of the first or third instrument
described to 10 yards at 1,000, which is, of course, well within any
requirements for military purposes ; while for surveying purposes, with a
little more time and care, and by taking the mean of several observations,
a distance of about 1,000 yards can be determined within two or three
yards with certainty, and a distance of 500 yards could be determined to
one yard. As we have explained, the second instrument described
(fig. 13) is not designed for the determination of distances with minute
accuracy, but it may be used very rapidly, and gives very reliable results
well within the allowable limits for infantry purposes. ‘The instruments
are so simple in operation that we have found that a few minutes’ practice
will enable an observer—previously ignorant of range-finding—to take
quite good observations.
In conclusion we would point out that the vital requisites of a military
range-finder are that it should be incapable of derangement however
rough the treatment, and at the same time that it should possess the
facility of operation characteristic of constant-base instruments. Instrn-
512 REPORT— 1890.
ments have been devised by military men and others to satisfy either the
one or the other of these requirements, but we believe the instruments
just described to be the first that have been designed to satisfy both
requirements.
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir J. N. Douauass,
Professor W. C. Unwin, Professor OSBORNE REYNOLDS, and
Messrs. W. TopLey, E. LEADER WILLIAMS, W. SHELFORD,
G. F. Deacon, A. R. Hunt, W. H. WHEELER, and W. ANDERSON,
appointed to investigate the Action of Waves and Currents on
the Beds and Foreshores of Estuaries by means of Working
Models.
[PLATES J-XVIII.]
Tue Committee held a meeting in the City and Guilds of London
Institute and considered the results obtained since the last report and
the proposals of Professor Reynolds for the continuation of the investiga-
tion, which were approved.
At a second meeting, held at the Owens College, Manchester, it was
arranged that Professor Reynolds should draw up a report on the results
obtained.
At a third meeting, held in the committee room, Section G, at Leeds,
the report submitted by Professor Reynolds was considered and adopted.
On Model Estuaries.
By Professor Osporne Rernoups, F’.R.S., M.Inst.0.L.
CONTENTS.
SECTION I.—Zntroduction.
ARTICLE PAGR
1. Objects of the continued investigation m : ' ; - ; - 513
2. The work accomplished : : 513
3. The systems of conducting the experiments, observing and recording the
results . 5 : - . 3 : . : . : . - 513
SECTION II.—General results and conclusions.
4. The limits to similarity in rectangular model estuaries . . . 514
5. The causes of change in the manner and rate of action . = : . 515
6. Criterion of similar : action . - c - . - 516
7. Critical value of the criterion for rectangular estuaries . : 4 . 516
8. Critical value of the criterion for V- shaped estuaries . ‘ 0 ‘ . 517
9. Conditions under which the criterion = 0:08 5 : . - f s.. BLT
10. Distribution of sand in V-shaped estuaries. ¢ : ; ; ‘ » DLT
11. Distribution of sand with a tidal river z : : x 5 : . 518
12. The effects of land water . : . 518
13. The deposit from the land water in the upper portion of the river 7 - 519
14, Experiments on a model of the Seine. .Mengin . . < ‘ . 519
15. Recommendations for further seats ; : : ; . s 519
SEcTION IIIl.—Lxtensions and modifications of the apparatus.
16. The general working . - 520
17. Adaptations and extensions for V- shaped estuaries in Tanks A, 'B, C, D . 6520
18. Adaptations and extensions for V-shaped estuaries in Tanks H, F, F’ . 520
19. The numbering of the cross sections in Tanks C, D, B, F . : é . 520
20. Apparatus for regalating the land water . ; : ¢ : ‘ . 621
ON TIE ACTION OF WAVES AND CURRENTS. ous
ARTICLE PAGE
21. Automatic tide gauges . - 4 ; . A : 521
22. Compound harmonic tide curves . : : ‘ : : : : ee
SEcTION IV.—Description of the experiments.
23. Continuation of Experiments VII. Tank A,and III. Tank Bs. 523
24, Experiments to find the limits of similar action, VIII. and IX. A,
BV). Vill Boer . 524
25. Experiments in rectangular tanks with land water, X. JN sh) VIII. B 525
26. Experiments in short "Vs shaped estuaries without and with land water,
XI. and XII. A,and X—XII.B . ° 526
27. Experiments in long V-shaped estuaries without and with land water, i
and II.C,andI.and1II.D . 527
28 Experiments in long V-shaped estuaries with a tidal river, ‘with land
water, I. E, and ii FandF’. 528
29. The gradual diminution in the rise of tide owing to the lowering of the
sand : 530
30. Long V-shaped estuaries with a tidal river » ‘ithout land water, II. E,
and II. F c : : : . : : : : : : . 531
TABLE I.— General conditions and results of the experiments . 532
» IL—Mean slopes in the pe, V.to X. A, and ITT. to VII. B,
in rectangular tanks , ? 534
PLATES.
I. Tanks and appliances.
II. Reduced slope from Table II.
IIJ._XVII. Plans and sections of the experiments.
XVIII. Tide curves.
§ I.—Inrropuction.
1. In accordance with the suggestion in the report read at the
Neweastle-upon-Tyne meeting of the British Association, 1889, the in-
vestigation has been continued with a view (1) to complete the first
series of experiments by determining the smallest vertical exaggeration
at which similar results can be obtained with tides ranging upwards
from half an inch in rectangular estuaries, and so to determine the law
of the limits; (2) to determine how far similar effects can be obtained
with land water acting on such slopes as had been already obtained in
rectangular estuaries; and (3) to investigate the character and similarity
of the results which may be obtained with V-shaped estuaries.
2. The two models, subject to such modifications as were required
for the various experiments, have been continuously occupied in this
investigation, running, driven by the water motor, at all times when
they were not stopped for surveying or arranging a fresh experiment.
They have thus run about five-sixths of the time day and night. In this
way the large model has worked through in the twelve months 500,000
tides, corresponding to 700 years. These tides have been distributed
over ten experiments or numbers from 32,000 to 100,000. The smaller
model has run more tides than the larger, and these have been distributed
over fourteen experiments.
3. The experiments have all been conducted on the same system
as is described in last year’s report.
Initially, with two exceptions, the sand has been laid with its surface
as nearly as possible horizontal at the level of half-tide, extending from
the head of the estuary to Section 18, and in the later experiments to
ean 1 The vertical sand gauges, ‘distributed along the middle line
LL
o14 REPORT—1890.
of the estuary, have been read and recorded once a day. Contour
surveys have been made after the first 16,000 tides, and again after the
first 32,000, and in the longer experiment further surveys have been
made ; in all, fifty complete-surveys have been made, and forty-four plans,
showing contours at vertical intervals corresponding to 6 feet on a
30-foot tide, are given in this report.
The general conditions of each experiment, together with the general
results obtained, are given in Table I., pp. 532, 533, and a description of
each experiment is given in § III.
_ The importance of a better means of recording the tide curves was
mentioned in last year’s report. Such means have been (see p. 522)
obtained during this year, and automatic tide curves have been taken as
nearly as practical at corresponding numbers of tides during the experi-
ments, these curves being taken at several definite sections in each tank.
Two series of these curves have been taken in the later experiments, one
in which the paper is moved by a clock, the pencil being moved by a
float; the other in which the paper is moved by the tide generator, by
which means exactly similar motion for the paper is secured at all points
of the estuary, so that differences in the phases of the tide at different
parts of the estuary are brought out. These curves are shown on the plates.
Mr. H. Bamford has continued to conduct the experiments, but on
account of the very great amount of detailed work the entire time of a
second assistant has been occupied. For this the services of Mr.
J. Heathcott, B.Sc., were obtained from October to February, when
Mr. Heathcott obtained an appointment in the office of the engineer to
the L. & N. W. R. in Manchester. Mr. Greenshields then applied for
and obtained the post, and has continued the work with great patience
and zeal.
§ Il.—Grnerat Resunts anp Conciusions.
A, The Limits to Similarity in Rectangular Estuaries—In the experi-
ments of last year it was found (1) that as regards
1. Rate of action as measured by the number of tides run ;
' 2. Manner of action; and
3. The final condition of equilibrium
with tides of 0-176 foot and periods of 50 and 35 seconds the results
= constant; (2) that,
as regards rate and manner of action, the results obtained with tides of
0-094 foot and periods 23°7 seconds were similar to those with the tide
of 0:176; but the experiment had not proceeded to the final condition of
equilibrium.
It was also found that with tides of ‘088 foot and periods 35-4 seconds
the results obtained differed in a marked manner from the others as
regards rate and manner of action, so much so as to render the attainment
of a final state of equilibrium impracticable.
These results seemed to indicate that for each rise of tide there exists
some critical period such that for all smaller periods the results would
be similar according to the simple hydrokinetic law, while for larger
periods the results would be dissimilar in a greater or less degree to
those obtained with periods smaller than the critical period. Whether
or not the results obtained with periods greater than the critical periods
were similar, according to the hydrokinetic law =
T.-C
ee
>_>,
ON THE ACTION OF WAVES AND CURRENTS. 515
would present a general similarity amongst themselves, or even similarity
under particular relations among the conditions, were still open questions.
The experiments, as shown in Table I., Table IJ., made this year
emphatically confirm the conclusions (1) as to the existence for each rise
of tide of a critical period at which the rate and manner of action begin
to change, being similar for all smaller periods; (2) these experiments
also confirm the general similarity of the final states of equilibrium as
regards slopes for periods smaller than the critical period, as shown in
Table II.
The experiments (Experiments IV. and VIII., B) this year also show
that with tides 0:094 and 0:097 foot the periods 34°4 and 35°4 seconds are
greater than the critical periods, although the results show a nearer
approach to similarity as regards manner and rate of action than the
results obtained last year in II., B, with the tide ‘088 foot and period 35:4
seconds, while the final conditions of similarity were approximately reached.
With tides 0:088 foot and periods 69°3 seconds the results in rate and
manner of action are emphatically different from those with less than the
critical period, and with tides of 0°042 foot and periods 50°5 seconds still
greater differences are presented.
On the other hand, it is found with (V., B) tides 0:042 foot and
periods 50°5 seconds that if the sand be given a condition correspond-
ing with the condition of final equilibrium, as if the period were above
the critical period according to the simple hydrokinetic law, this is a
state of equilibrium; and, further, that it is not a state of indifference is
shown, since on diminishing the period the sand readily shifted so as to
bring it nearer the theoretical slope for the new period. This shows
that the state of equilibrium follows the simple hydrokinetic law for
periods greater as well as less than the critical period, which is thus
shown to be critical only as regards rate and manner of action in
reducing the sand from the initial level state to the final condition.
The experiments carefully considered suggest that there is some
relation between the rise of tide and critical period. They do not, how-
ever, cover sufficient range to indicate what this relation is with any
exactness. The critical period diminishes with the rise of tide, but much
faster than the simple ratio.
5. Causes of the Change in Manner and Rate of Action.—The change
in the action which sets in at the critical period is the result of some
action, of which no account is taken in the simple hydrokinetic law.
A list of five such sources of possible divergence from the hydrokinetic
law is included in last year’s report (p. 339), and with a view to obtain
an indication of some relation between the rise of tide and period (or
vertical exaggeration, as compared with the standard tide of 30 feet, by
the kinetic law), which relation would be a criterion of the limiting
conditions under which the simple kinetic law may be taken as approxi-
mately accurate, these five discarded actions were carefully considered.
The fouling of the sand by the water, although it comes in as pre-
venting further action, cannot take any part in imposing these limits,
since it is at the immediate starting of the experiments that the actions
observed to fail. For the same reason the limits cannot be in any way
due to the drainage from the banks, as these banks have not appeared
above water.
Again the limit cannot be due to the size of the grains of sand because
it would then occur at particular velocities, whereas this is not the case.
LL2
616 REPORT—1890.
The other actions are the bottom resistances and the viscosity of the
water, which causes a definite change! in the internal motion of the water as
the velocity falls below a point which is inversely proportional to the dimen-
sions of the channel.
That this last source of divergence from the simple kinetic law must
make itself felt at some stage appeared to be certain. But the critical
velocity at which the motion of the water changes from the ‘sinwous’ or
eddying to the direct is inversely proportional to the depth, and by
the kinetic law the homologous velocities in these experiments are pro-
portional to the square roots of the depths only ; hence this action would
seem to place a limit, if it were a limit, to the least tide at which the
kinetic law would hold independently of the period, and this is not
the case. Observation of the action of the water above and below the
critical periods, however, confirmed the view that the limit was in some
way determined by this critical condition of the water. For when water
is running in an open channel above the critical velocity the eddies of
which it is full create distortions in the evenness of the surface which
distort the reflections, creating what is called swirl in the appearance of
the surface. Now it was noticed and confirmed by careful observation
that in the cases where similarity failed the swirl was absent at the
commencement of the experiment, while it was easily apparent, par-
ticularly on the ebb in the other experiments. Subsequently it appeared
that the velocity of the water, particularly during the latter part of the
ebb, which has great effect in the early stages, might be much affected
by the bottom resistances, and hence not follow exactly the kinetic law.
6. Theoretical Criterion of Similar Action.—The velocities of the
water running uniformly in an open channel, 7 being the slope of the
surface and m the hydraulic mean depth, is given by
v=AVJ/in,
where A is constant.
If, then, 7 is proportional to e (the exaggeration of scale) and m pro-
portional to h, since at the critical velocity y is inversely proportional to
h, at this velocity he has a constant value.
The function h’e=C is thus a criterion of the conditions under which
similarity in the rate and manner of action of the water on the sand ceases.
7. The Critical Values of the Criterion for Rectangular Tanks—Taking
h to represent the rise of tide in feet, and e to be the vertical exaggeration
as compared with a 30-foot natural tide by the simple hydrokinetic law,
the values of this criterion have been calculated for each of the experi-
ments and are given in Table I.
Experiments I. and II., B, First Report, C=0:046, showed marked slug-
gishness and local action; IV., B, C=0:058 and VIII., B, C=0-064,
showed less, but still a certain amount of sluggishness and local
action,? while in III, B, C=0-083, the rate of action was good and
the action similar to the experiments with values for C higher than
0:087,2 whence it would seem that the critical value of the criterion is
about 0:087, and it may provisionally be assumed that C=0-09 indicated
the limits of the conditions of similar action.”
1 Reynolds on the Two Manners of Motion of Water, Phil. Trans. 1883, pt. iii.
2 In both these experiments, IV. and VIII., B, the mean level of the tide was
above the initial level of the sand, which would naturally increase the value of the
criterior,
' ON THE ACTION OF WAVES AND CURRENTS. 517
8. The Value of the Criterion for V-shaped Estuaries.—This critical
value of C deduced from the experiments in rectangular tanks appears
to correspond very well with the results of the experiments in the V-shaped
estuaries. In the experiments Table I. with V-shaped estuaries in the
small tank, the value of C is in no case far from the critical value ‘09 or
either side. In Experiment IX., B, however, the value of C at starting was
only 0-046 as in 1., B, and in consequence of the observed sluggishness
and local character of the action in the lower estuary, the rise of tide
was increased from 0-088 to 0°11, which remedied the action and raised
the criterion to 0°101, and in Experiments X. and XII., B, and in I,, D,
the values are between 0°095 and 0:°084. In Experiments II., D, F, and
¥’, owing to the falling off in the tide in consequence of the addition of
the river, the criterion is as low as 0°073. In these experiments signs of
sluggishness and local action in the lower estuary were observed at
starting, and the difference in the action of the upper estuary as compared
with Tank E in respect of closing up the tidal river may have been due
to tke low value of the criterion.
In the experiments in the large tanks the values of C are all well
above the critical value: the nearest are the experiments in Tank KE,
©=0°'17, which is only double the critical value, and the action was as
quick and general as in the case where C=0°5.
It may be noticed that the range through which the value of C asa
criterion has been tested is small. Had the form of criterion been appre-
hended sooner this might have been somewhat extended, though con-
siderable adaptation of the apparatus would be required to carry it far.
, 9. If C=0-08
With a tide 0-1 ft. the greatest period is 32 secs. and least exaggeration 80.
af 0°12 ft. a AS 60 secs. fi 5 47.
<3 0-14 ft. “c re 102 secs. 3 = 30.
= O72 it. fr rf 6 mins. 9 secs. 5 A 10.
. 0:43 ft. - °; 1h. 33 m. 48 s. Fs PP 1.
From which the size of tanks and length of periods necessary to verify
this law for exaggerations of less than thirty can be seen.
10. The General Distribution of Sand in V-shaped Estuaries.—The
experiments all show that with sufficiently high values of the criterion,
as in the rectangular tanks so in those of symmetrical V-shape, the sand
arrives at a definite general state of equilibrium after a definite number
of tides. This state in the rectangular tanks was a general slope which
corresponded to a definite curve, twelve miles long as reduced by the
kinetic law to a 30-foot tide, between the contours at high and low water in
the generator. This slope was furrowed by 3 or 4 shallow channels at
distances of some two miles, commencing very gradually at the top and
dying out at some distance below low water. In the V-shaped estuaries
the state of equilibrium differs from that in the rectangular tanks in a
very systematic manner ; it consists in a main low-water channel com-
mencing at the end and extending all the way down the V out into the
parallel portion of the tank. If this channel is in the middle it is the
only channel, but if, as is as often as not the case, it takes one side of the
estuary, then at the lower end there is on the other side a second channel
starting at some distance down the estuary. The height of the banks
above the bottom of the main low-water channel towards the lower end
of the V is much greater than in the rectangular estuaries. No general
methed of comparing the general slope or distribution of the sand in the
518 | REPORT—1890.
V-shaped estuaries has been suggested other than that of comparing the
contoured plans and the longitudinal section taken down the highest
banks and lowest channels, together with the cross sections which have
been plotted on the plans. These are very similar for the similar tanks
and corresponding periods. They show that the slope in the channels
down to low water is nearly the same as in the rectangular tanks, the
level of low water being reached at distances from the head of the estuary
a little greater than in the rectangular tank, and a little greater in the
long V than in the short. Below low water the slope in the channels is
less than in the rectangular estuaries, which is, doubtless, a consequence
of lateral spreading. The slope of the banks is much less than in the
rectangular tanks, and these extend from two to three times as far from
the top of the estuary according to the angle of the V.
The range of observations on V-shaped estuaries has necessarily been
limited, and time has not sufficed to duly consider all the results obtained,
but the following conclusions may be drawn :—
(1) In similar shaped V-estuaries configurations similar according to
the simple hydrokinetic law are obtained irrespective of scale, provided
the criterion of similarity has a value greater than its critical value.
(2) That the general character is that of a main channel and high banks.
(3) That the estuaries are longer in a degree depending on the fineness
of the V than rectangular estuaries with corresponding tides, while the
low-water contour reaches to nearly the same distance from the top of
the estuary.
ll. In the experiments with a long (fifty miles) tidal river increasing
in width downwards slowly until it discharges into the top of the V-shaped
estuary the character of the estuary is entirely changed. The time
occupied by the tide getting up the river and returning causes this
water to run down the estuary while the tide is low, and necessitates a
certain depth of water at low water, which causes the channel to be much
deeper at the head of the estuary. In its effect on the lower estuary the
experiments with the tidal river are decisive, but as regards the action
of silting up the river further investigation is required, both to establish
the similarity in the models and to ascertain the ultimate state of
equilibrium.
It may, however, be noticed that the general conditions of the experi-
ments in Tank E do not differ greatly from the conditions of some actual
estuary, as, for instance, the Seine. This estuary is some thirty miles long
before it contracts to a tidal river which extended fifty miles further up.
In the model the tidal river reduced to a 30-foot tide is forty-nine miles
long and the V extends down twenty-eight miles further, while the results
in the model show about the same depth of water in the channel down
the estuary as existed in the Seine before the training walls were put in.
12. The Effects of Land Water.—These come out clearly in the experi-
ments, which show that the stream of land water running down the
sand, although always carrying sand down, does not tend to deepen its
channel, since at every point it brings as much sand as it carries away.
If it comes into the estuary pure, it carries sand from the point of its
introduction and deposits it when it gets to deep water, somewhat
deepening the estuary at the top and raising it below, which effect
is limited by the influence the diminished slope has to cause the flood
to bring up more sand than the ebb carries down. The principal effect
of the land water is that running in narrow channels at low water, which
ON THE ACTION OF WAVES AND CURRENTS. 519
are continually cutting on their concave sides, it keeps cutting down the
banks, preventing the occurrence of hard high banks and fixed channels.
When the quantities of land water are small as compared with the tidal
capacity of the tank, its direct action on the régime of the estuary is small.
But that it may have an indirect action of great importance in connection
with a tidal river is clearly shown. In the upper and contracted end of
a tidal river the land water may well be sufficient to keep it open to the
tide, whereas otherwise it would silt up. This was clearly the effect in
the experiments H, 1 and 2, and by keeping the narrow river open the
full tidal effect of this was secured on the sand at the top of the estuary,
causing a great increase of depth. The effects of large quantities of land
water, such as occur in floods, have not yet been investigated.
13. Deposit of the Land Water in the Tidal River.—One incident con-
nected with the land water in the tidal river is worth recording, although
not directly connected with the purpose of the investigation.
The land water, one quart a minute, was brought from the town’s
mains in lead pipes. It is very soft, bright water, and was introduced
at the top of the estuary. This went on for about three weeks. At the
commencement the sand was all pure white, and remained so throughout
the experiment except in the tidal river. At the top of the river a dark
deposit, which washes backwards and forwards with the tide, began to
show itself after commencing the experiment, gradually increasing in
quantity and extending in distance. At the end of the experiment the
sand was quite invisible from a black deposit at the head of the river and
for 5 or 6 feet down; this, then, gradually shaded off to a distance of
12 feet. Nor was it only a deposit, for the water was turbid at the top of
the river and gradually purified downwards.
On the other hand, in the precisely similar experiment, without land
water the sand remained white and the water ciear right up to the top
of the river. This seems to suggest that these experiments might be
useful to those interested in river pollution.
14, The International Congress on Inland Navigation—During the
Fourth International Congress on Inland Navigation, held in Manchester
at the end of July, the members were invited to see the experiments then
in progress, the subject being one which was occupying the attention
of the Congress. Advantage of the invitation was taken by many engi-
neers, and especially by the French engineers. M. Mengin, engineer in
chief for the Seine, stated in a paper! read at the Congress that in con-
sequence of the paper (read by the author before Section G at Man-
chester) the engineers interested had advised the Government to stop the
improvement works on the Seine until a model having a horizontal
scale of 1 in 3,000 was constructed, and the effect of the various improve-
ments proposed investigated in the model, the model being then nearly
ready, but the experiments had not commenced. M. Mengin paid
several visits to the laboratory and carefully examined the apparatus and
experiments, for which all facilities were placed at his disposal.
15.. Recommendations for further Bxperiments.—Although theimmediate
objects proposed for investigation this year have been fairly accomplished,
there remain several general points on which further information is very
important, besides the further verification of the criterion of similarity,
and the determination of the final conditions of equilibrium with tidal
rivers, already mentioned. It seems very desirable to determine the
} International Congress on Inland Navigation, 1890.
520 REPORT—1890.
effect of tides in the generators diverging from the simple harmonic tides
so far used, simple harmonic tides being the exception at the mouths of
actual estuaries. It would also be desirable before concluding these
experiments that they should include the comparative effects of tides
varying from spring to neap.
§ III.—Morirications or THE APPARATUS.
16, General Working of the Apparatus—The apparatus has worked
perfectly in all respects except that of the driving cord connecting the
water motor with the gearing. For this cord hemp was first used, as it
was liable to be wet. This hemp cord wore out with inconvenient
rapidity. A continuous cord made of soft indiarubber was then tried,
and, after several attempts, has been made toanswer well. The only other
failure was the small pinion, which was fairly worn out, and had to be
replaced.
17. Extensions.—F¥or carrying out the experiments on the V-shaped
estuaries the original tanks had to be increased in length. To do this it
was necessary to remove temporarily part of the glass partition dividing
the engine room of the laboratory, in which the tanks are placed from
the testing room. This being done, the tanks were then extended, as
shown in Plate I., the first extension being an addition of a trough 6 feet
long and 2 feet wide to Tank A, and a similar extension of half the
size to Tank B, the new tanks being thence called C and D.
18. Extensions for Tidal Rivers.—The second extension consisted of a
trough 19 feet long and a foot wide to the end of C, the new tank being
thence called KE. The corresponding extension to D was not at first made
in the same way, because to do so would require the removal not only of
a panel of the glass partition, but also of a fixed bench, which was a
much more serious matter, or else the extension would have closed up an
important passage. The extension was therefore made, as shown in Plate
XVII., which admitted of the tidal river being the corresponding length
to that in E, but required a bend of 180°, which was effected by two sharp
corners. This tank was thence called F’. This was the best that could
be done during the time the students were in the laboratory. It was not
certain that the corners would produce any sensible effect, whereas if the
results obtained in F’ were not similar to those in E no time would have
been lost, since the straight extension could not be made till the end of
June. As the results in FE’ were not similar to those in E in a way
which might be explained by the bends, as soon as possible the straight
extension was made similar to EH, and the tank called F.
All these tanks were constructed in the same manner as the original
tanks, and covered with glass at the same level as A and B, under which
glass survey lines, conforming to those on A and B, were set out.
19. The Numbering of the Cross Section.—The extension of the tanks
raised the question as to how the new cross sections should be numbered :
the numbering of A and B ran from the ends of the tanks, and it seemed
best to run the numbers in © and D from the ends of these tanks, con-
tinuing this new numbering to the generators. On the other hand, as
the long, narrow extensions in E and F were more in the nature of a tidal
river than an estuary, the numbers in these were carried backwards 1,
&c., from the ends of C and D, in which the cross sections preserved the
saine numbers as before.
ON THE ACTION OF WAVES AND CURRENTS. 521
20. Appliances for Land Water.—The introduction of land water,
besides the extension of the pipes for its introduction, required certain
arrangements for its regular supply in definite quantities. The water
was to be taken from the town’s mains. And in the first laying down
the pipes it had been anticipated that it would be sufficient to regulate
the supply by cocks against the pressure in the mains. Fresh water
regulated in this way had been from the first supplied in small quantities
into the generators to ensure the level being kept properly. The experi-
ence thus gained showed that it was impossible to obtain even approxi-
mate regularity in this way, as the nearly closed cocks always got choked
even within twenty-four hours.
To meet this it was arranged to supply the water through thin-lipped
circular orifices under a small but constant head of water, which head
can be regulated to the quantity required. The head of water in the tank
from which the orifices discharge is regulated by a ball cock, which only
differs from an ordinary ball cock in that the ball is not fastened directly
on to the arm of the cock, but is suspended ‘from it by a rod so arranged.
that the distance of the ball below the arm can be adjusted at pleasure.
This arrangement has answered well. The cylinder in which the ball
cock works is made of sheet copper, with a water gauge in the form of a
vertical glass tube, with a scale behind to show the height of water above
the orifices, which are made in the bottoms of two lateral projections from
the sides of the cylinder. One of these orifices feeds the large and the
other the small tank. The streams from the orifices descend freely
in the air for about 4 inches, and are then caught in funnels on
the tops of lead pipes leading to the respective tanks. The cylinder
is fixed against a wall about 8 feet above the floor, and conveniently near
the tanks. Any obstruction in the pipes conveying the water to the tanks
would be at once shown by the overflow of the funnel. The orifices are
made with areas in proportion to the quantities to be supplied to their
respective tanks. Then the supply cock connecting the ball cock with
the main is fully opened, and the ball is adjusted till the quantity sup-
plied to one of the tanks is correct. The other is then measured ; if this is
not found correct one of the holes is slightly enlarged until the proportions
are correct.
This having once been done for an experiment, no further regulation
is required except to test the quantities and wipe the edges of the orifice.
When the tanks are stopped for surveying, the water is shut off from the
main and simply turned on again on restarting.
21. The Tide Gauges.—In the experiments made last year a tide gauge
was used. This gauge consisted of a small tin saucer with a central
depression in its bottom, in which a vertical wire rested, restraining any
lateral motion in the float, the wire being guided vertically by a frame
made to stand on the level surface of the class covers, while the wire
passed down between two of the covers opened for the purpose, the frame
carrying a vertical scale. This gauge was used both to adjust the levels
of the water and to obtain tide curves by observing the heights of the
tide at definite times and then plotting the curves with the heights of
the tide as ordinates and the times as abscisse.
For the earlier experiments this year the same gauge was used for
both purposes, and it has been used all through: for the purpose of ad-
justing the levels of the water, automatic arrangements being used for
drawing the tide curves.
522 REPORT—1890.
In devising these automatic arrangements several difficulties presented
themselves besides those inherent in all chronographic apparatus. Any-
thing in the nature of standing apparatus was inadmissible, as it would
interfere with the working and adjusting of the tanks. The apparatus
must be such as could be put up and taken down with facility, and hence
could not admit of complicated arrangements. A pencil worked direct
by a float with a drum turning about a vertical axis by a clock, all to
stand on the level glass surface, appeared the most desirable arrangement.
In the first instance, a clock driving a detached vertical cylinder with a
cord was kindly lent by Dr. Stirling from the Physiological Laboratory
of Owens College, and an arrangement of float and stand was con-
structed by Mr. Bamford. The loan of this clock was temporary, and
experience gained with it led to the purchase of an ordinary Morse
clock from Latimer, Clark, & Co. at comparatively small cost. A pulley
was fitted so that the clock would drive the borrowed cylinder. This
clock did its work quite as well as the more costly instrument. Its
rate of action varied considerably with the resistance of the apparatus
to be driven, so much so that the curves taken at different times from
the same experiment could not be compared by superposition. Still, the
action of the clock during the individual observations was sufficiently
regular to give a fairly true tide curve, and it became obvious that it
would be impossible to obtain any independent clock-driven apparatus
that would give absolutely constant speeds such as would admit of the
comparison of the curves taken from different parts of the estuary by
direct superposition. To obtain such comparison it would be necessary
to move the paper by the gearing which moved the generator.
22. Compound Harmonic Tide Curves——On considering how best this
might be done, it appeared thatif the paper had a horizontal motion -
corresponding to the rise and fall of the generator while the pencil had a
vertical motion corresponding to the rise and fall of the tide at any point
in the tank, then if the tide were in the same phase as the generator the
curve would be a straight line or an ellipse of infinite eccentricity with a
slope (tan 6) equal to the rise of tide divided by the horizontal motion
imparted to the paper, while any deviation of phase would be shown by
the character of the ellipse or closed curve described by the pencil, and
that to obtain the time-tidal curve from such curves would be easy by
projecting on to a circle, while for the purpose of comparison and bringing
out any difference of phase or deviation from the harmonic curves such
compound harmonic curves would be much more definite than the harmonic
curves. ‘This plan was therefore adopted with the happiest results, for,
although it may take some study to become familiar with the curves, the
obvious differences in these curves taken at different parts of the tanks
and at the same part at different stages of the progress towards a state
of equilibrium, together with the similarity of the curves taken in the
two tanks or in different experiments at the corresponding places and
corresponding numbers of tides run, including the final states of equili-
brium. Plate XVIII. brings out more emphaticaliy than anything the in-
terdependence of the character of the tide on the arrangement of the sand
and the coincidence of a state of equilibrium of the sand with a particular
tide curve at each part of the estuary.
In these experiments the balance of the tanks has been adjusted so as
to make the time intervals of rise and fall of the generator equal, .¢., to
make the motion of the generator harmonic, so that these compound
ON THE ACTION OF WAVES AND CURRENTS. 523
harmonic curves are at all parts of the tank comparable with a simple
harmonic motion. But it is important to notice that they are not essen-
tially so, being merely comparable with the motion of the generator, so
that if the generator were given a compound harmonic motion, such as
that of the tide in the mouths of most estuaries, these curves would have
a different dynamic significance. These curves would still be valuable as
showing the state of progress and final similarity of the tidal motion at
the same parts of the estuaries, but to bring out their dynamical signifi-
cance it would be necessary to substitute a simple harmonic motion with
the same period for that of the generator.
§ IV.—Descrirtion or tHe Hxpurmments on THE Movement or Sand
IN A 'TIDEWAY FROM SEPTEMBER 9, 1889, ro Sepremper 1, 1890.!
23. Continuation of Experiments VII., Tank A, and III., B, Plate IIT.,
September 7 to October 11.—These experiments were in progress at the
time of the Newcastle Meeting of the British Association, and had so far
advanced that tracings of the first surveys were exhibited and included
in the First Report. So far as they went, they took an important place
in the conclusions arrived at in that report, showing that with a vertical
exaggeration of 100 the results obtained in the small tank (B) with
rectangular estuaries without land water as to rate and general distribution
of the sand were closely similar to those obtained in A, and that the
mean slopes reduced to a 30-foot tide in these experiments agreed with
those obtained in A, with vertical exaggerations of 64, It was desirable
to continue these experiments to see how far a state of equilibrium had
been arrived at. This was accomplished by the assistance of Mr. Foster,
who kindly looked after the running of the tanks till the return of the
author and Mr. Bamford in October, and thus enabled a month which
would otherwise have been wasted to be utilised in obtaining an experi-
ence of the effect of about 100,000 tides after apparent equilibrium had
been obtained in each tank. Daily records of the counters were taken,
and although there were several stops the intervals of running gave the
periods very constant.
The plans show but little alteration, except that the sand, particularly
in B, had shifted upwards and accumulated somewhat at the head of the
estuary, leaving the slope the same ; a circumstance which would be ac-
counted for by a difference in the level of the water, and which is also
indicated by the mean slope reduced to a 30-foot tide shown in Plate II.
The agreement of the slopes here shown as compared with the mean
slope in the case of Experiment V., A, which has been introduced in
this, diagram for the sake of comparison, is quite as great as could be
expected, considering the difficulties of the experiments, and affords very
valuable evidence of the permanence of these slopes when once a condition
of equilibrium has been attained.
In respect of the ripple the two tanks presented a very different ap-
pearance, which is clearly shown in the plans and sections. While the
ripple in A was comparatively small and shallow, in B it was larger and
deeper than anything previously noticed; that this was a symptom of
the condition of B being on the verge of dissimilarity seemed probable,
and to test this the period of B was increased from 23°85 to 26-5 seconds,
* In the published report of these experiments it is not thought desirable to give
the daily records of progress in the notebook.
§24 REPORT—1890.
and it was allowed to run on 16,000 more tides and again surveyed.
Plan 3 shows the result ; the ripple has increased in breadth though rather
diminished in depth.
24. Experiments to find the Limits to Similarity. Experiment IV., B,
Plate III., October 22 to November 27.—In this the rise of tide was
0-094 foot and the vertical exaggeration as compared with a 30-foot tide
71. In Experiments I. and II., B, with a rise of tide 0-088 and a vertical
exaggeration 68, described in the First Report, it had been found that the
rate and manner of distribution of the sand did not correspond with that
in the corresponding experimert in the larger tank, indicating that with
an exaggeration 68 the tide of -088 was somewhat below the limit of
similarity. The determination of these limits being a primary object of
the investigation, it appeared desirable to repeat these experiments with
a slightly higher tide. In IV., B, the character of the action presented
the same peculiarities as previously observed, but in a smaller degree,
and the final state, as shown in the plans and in the curve of slopes
(Plate I1.), is a much nearer approach to the general law, the conclusion
being that in IV., B, the conditions were still below the limit, but nearer
than in I. and II., B.
Hzperiment VIII, A, October 22 to November 14.—This was an ex-
periment to determine the manner of action with the same horizontal
scale as the first part of Experiment V., A, but half the rise of tide.
Experiments I. and II., B, with a rise of tide of ‘088 foot and a period
of 36 seconds, being a vertical exaggeration of 68, had indicated that with
this rise of tide a change in the manner of action had already set in,
but it was none the less desirable to see what would be the character
of the action and the final state of equilibrium well below this limit.
The rise of tide in VIII., A, was 0-088 foot and the mean level 0°138
foot from the bottom, and the period to 70 seconds, the sand being placed
level at a uniform depth of 15 inch to Section 18 as in the previous
experiments. The vertical exaggeration would thus be only 34.
The manner of action of the water on the sand was in this case
essentially different from that in any previous experiments even in
I. and II., B, although it presented characteristics which had been in-
dicated in those experiments. Instead of the sand being in the first
instance rippled over the whole surface a middle depression was formed,
extending some way up the estuary, the bottom and sides of which were
rippled ; the rest of the sand soon became set and yellow. After 16,000
tides 4 survey was made and the experiment continued to 24,000, when
another partial survey was made, showing very small alterations, and
those nearly confined to the rippled channels. It was, in fact, clear that
the apparent equilibrium was owing to the sand having become set, and
that to proceed till real equilibrium was established would take an almost
indefinite time.
As the setting of the sand, owing to the slow action of the water,
appeared to play such an obstructive part, it seemed possible that better
results could be obtained if the sand could be kept alive with waves.
Accordingly the experiment was stopped, to be repeated with waves.
Heperiment IX., Tank A, Plans 1, 2, 3, Plate IV. (with Intermittent
Waves), November 16 to January 4.—The conditions were the same as in
Experiment VIII., with the addition of the waves.
This experiment presented the same characteristics as those observed
in VIII., A. The rate of action did not fall off so rapidly or completely
ie Oi
ON THE ACTION OF WAVES AND CURRENTS. 19 PA33
as in VIII., but was mainly confined to the channels; and, although the
experiment was continued to 57,000 tides, the condition of equilibrinm
was far from being arrived at owing to the setting of the sand. After
the last survey a small stream of land water (one pint per minute) was
admitted at the top of the estuary without any perceivable effect for 1,000
tides, wherenpon the experiment was stopped.
Hzperiment V., B, Plan 1, Plate IV., November 21 to December 2.—
This was the corresponding experiment in B to Experiment VIII. in A,
the rise of tide being one-half inch (:042 foot), and the period 50 seconds,
exaggeration 32. The characteristics were yet more definitely marked,
rippling being entirely absent, and the action being entirely confined to
the space between Sections 14 and 18.
Experiment VI, B, December 5 to December 9.—In this experiment the
conditions were exactly the same as in Experiment V., B, except that
the sand, instead of being laid level, was laid with a slope of 1 in 124,
the slope corresponding to the theoretical condition of equilibrium as in
the previous experiment. After 6,757 tides with a mean period of 60°1
seconds the sand was not moved anywhere in the slightest degree.
Bzperiment VII., B., Plans 1 and 2, Plate V., December 9 to January
3.—This was a continuation of Experiment VI., with the tidal period
diminished in the ratio 1 to »/2 from 50 to 35°35,
The effect of changing the period would be to increase the vertical
exaggeration, so that the slope of 1 in 124 would not be the theoretical
mean slope of equilibrium as previously determined, which would be
1 in 87, so that any sensitiveness to the condition of equilibrium would
be shown by the shifting up of the sand.
This commenced at once and continued until the mean slope was
about 1 in 100 above Section 13.
The absolute quiescence of the sand in Experiment VI., B, when laid
with the mean slope of equilibrium corresponding to the period, together
with the increase of the slope with the increase of period in Experiment
VII, B, indicates that, although, as shown in Experiment V., the
limiting conditions under which the water could redistribute the sand
from the level condition had been long passed, the conditions of
equilibrium remained the same; or, in other words, that for a half-inch
tide, with a period of 50 seconds—i.e., an exaggeration of 32—with
the sand originally distributed, according to the theoretical slope of
equilibrium, the sand will be in equilibrium, while if the sand be laid
with a smaller slope the water will shift it, tending to institute the slope
of equilibrium.
25. Rectangular Estuaries with Land Water. Experiments X., A, and
VIL, B, Plate VI., January 7 to March 10.—The conditions in Tank A
were the same as in Hxperiment V., Plan 1. The sand lay 0°25 foot
deep, height of mean tide 0°256, rise 0:176, tidal period 50:2 seconds.
A tin saucer was placed on the sand under Section 1 in’ the middle of
the estuary, and a stream of water (one quart per minute, about 1 in 170
the tidal capacity of the estuary per tide) run into the pan.
During the early distribution of the sand the land water produced no
apparent effect, but as the sand approached a condition of equilibrium
the effect of the fresh water in keeping a channel full of water at low
tide from the source all down the estuary was very marked. The effect
of this river in distributing the sand at the top of the estuary was also
marked. The channel did not remain in one place; it gradually shifted
526 REPORT—1890.
from the middle towards one or other of the sides, cutting away high”
sandbanks until it followed along the end of the tank into the corner,
and then flowed back diagonally into the middle. Then, after some
10,000 tides, a fresh channel would open out suddenly towards the
middle of the estuary, and then proceed in the same gradual manner
perhaps to the other side. This happened more than once during the
progress cf the experiment, which was carried to 85,000 tides. The
different positions of the channels are apparent in the plans 1, 2, and 3.
The comparison of these plans and the accompanying sections ‘with
Plan 1, Experiment V., in the last report shows but slight general effect
of the land water—so slight, indeed, that it might pass almost unnoticed.
This shows that the land water does not alter the greatest height of the
banks or the lowest depth of the channels.
It will be noticed, however, in the plans that the land water has
lowered the general level of the sand in the middle of the estuary at the
top and raised it towards low water. This effect comes out in the mean
reduced slopes shown in Plate II. From these it appears that the
effect of the land water, by continually ploughing up the banks at the
top of the estuary, has been to disturb the previous state of equilibrium,
lowering the sand near the top and raising it further down the estuary.
In Experiment VIII., B, the conditions at starting were the same as
those in 1V., B, and one quart of land water in 2:8 minutes was admitted
in the same manner as in X., A, the period being 35°4 seconds. The
quantity of land water per tide was one-fourth the quantity in A, while
the capacities of the estuaries are as 1 to 8, or the percentage of land
water in B was 1°8 that of the tidal capacity at starting. After running
600 tides the rise of tide was increased from 0:094 to 0:097 foot without
any alteration in the period. The experiment was then continued to
91,184: tides.
The apparent effects of the land water observed were exactly the
same in character as in A, but were decidedly greater on account of the
larger quantity. The curves agree fairly with those in A.
26. Hxperiments in short V-shaped Estuaries with and without Land
Water.—In the tanks A and B inner vertical partitions were introduced
so as to form the upper end of the tank A into asymmetrical V, of length
6 feet and greatest breadth 4 feet; while that of tank B was formed in a
similar manner into a V of length 3 feet and breadth 2 feet. The lengths
of the tanks were thus unaltered, the tidal capacity being reduced to
three-quarters of what it was before. ;
The sand was arranged in a similar manner to that previously adopted,
except that the initial depth of the sand was 4 inches (0°33 foot in A)
instead of 3 inches, and the scummers raised so as to maintain the water
higher in a corresponding degree.
Heperiments XI, A, and X., B, Plate VIIL., March 18 to-April 29.—In
Tank A the rise of tide was 176 and the period 47:20. The experiments
were first started without land water. The observed character of the
action was much the same as with the rectangular estuaries, being more
intense towards the top of the V, and quieter at and below the broad
end.
The first attempt in Tank B showed that, owing to the diminished
capacity of the estuaries, the sand would not come down even so well as in
corresponding experiments with rectangular estuaries. This led to the
abandonment of Experiment IX., B, and starting X., with a rise of tide
.
ON THE ACTION OF WAVES AND CURRENTS. 527
0110, without, however, altering the level of the sand. The experiments
were continued in both tanks without land water until about 40,000 tides
had been run, and Plans 1 and 2 had been taken. These plans show the
similarity of the effects in the two tanks. They also show decidedly the
character of the distribution of the sand in the V-shaped estuary. It will
be seen that the extreme positions of the contours up the estuary are
much the same as in the rectangular estuaries, while the extreme posi-
tions down the estuaries are very much increased. The low-water contours
extends from Section 11 to Section 19, while in Experiment V., A, Plan 1,
it extend from Section 11 to Section 18. The low-water channels are
nearly the same depth at corresponding points all down the estuary in
both experiments, while in the V estuaries the banks extend 6 to 7
miles (reduced to a 30-foot tide) further down,
. After Experiment XI., A, and X., B, had proceeded to about 40,000
tides, corresponding quantities of land water were introduced at the tops
of the estuaries, one quart in one minute in A, about 1 in 140 the tidal
capacity ; in B one quart in 5°68 minutes, or about 1 in 140 the tidal capa-
city. The tanks were then run on for 12,000 tides, and surveys for the
plans 3 made. The general effect of this land water, as shown in these
experiments, is, as before, to lower the sand at the tops of the estuaries
and slightly to raise it at the bottom. They were not, however, continued
long enough to show a state of equilibrium. As in the rectangular
estuaries, the detailed effects of the land water were much more observ-
able than those shown in the surveys. The land water continually
ploughed up the sand at the top of the estuary and kept the banks down,
but owing to the narrowness of the estuary the general effects of this were
not so striking as in the rectangular estuaries.
Hzperiments XII., A, and XII., B, with Land Water, Plate X., April 29 to
May 19.—These were under conditions precisely similar to XI., A, and X.,
B; XI., B, with land water, was started, but owing to an accident it was
re-started as XII., B.
Both experiments were run about 16,000 tides and then surveyed, and
then run on about 16,000 more tides and surveyed again.
The plans are all very similar, and show but little difference from the
plans 3 with land water in the previous experiments.
27. Experiments in long V-shaped Hstuaries without and with Land
Water in Tanks C and D.—Tank C was formed by extending A by adding
a rectangular trough to the top, and so as to admit of partitions forming
a V extending from Section 23 (12 A), and D was formed by extending
Bin a similar manner. The lengths of the tanks were thus extended
6 feet and 3 feet greater than A and B, while the capacities were the
same as the original capacity of A and B.
The sand in C (A extended) was laid 4 inches deep from the top of
the V to Section -28°5 C (17°5 A).
The sand in D (B extended) was laid 2} inches deep from the top of
the V to Section 28°5 D (17°5 B).
Experiments I., C and D, Plate XI., May 24 to June 16, without Land
Water.—In C the tide was 0°162 foot., and the scummer was placed so that
the mean tide when running was 0:008 foot above the initial level of the
sand ; this was not observed at the time, being a consequence of the land
water raising the level of low water by the necessity of getting over the
weir.
In D the tide was 0°105 foot and the mean tide was ‘010 foot below
528 REPORT—1890.
the initial level of the sand. Thus reduced to a 30-feet tide, the initial
depth of the sand was 5 feet higher in C than in B. The experiments
were run for about 16,030 tides and surveyed, then re-started, when the
level of water in C fell owing to a leak in the scummer.
This lowered the sand at the lower end of the estuary, and a partial
survey was made, and then the experiment continued until both tanks
had exceeded 30,000 tides. The results, as shown in the plans, are very
much alike, considering the very considerable differences in the initial
quantities of sand. Owing to the much higher level of the sand in D,
the top of the V was much more silted up in the early part of the experi-
ment, and the sandbanks were higher towards the bottom of the estuary.
Otherwise both tanks show the same characteristics.
The highest point of the contour low water in the generator is still at
Section 15, while the highest point of the contour at high water in the
generator is at Section 4, so that the distance between the highest points
of these sections was still about 11 miles, while the banks at low water
extended down to Section 26.
Experiments IL, Tanks C and D, with Land Water, Plate XIT., June 17
to July 8.—The conditions in these experiments were the same as in
Experiments I., Tanks C and D, except that the scummer in D was altered,
until the mean tide level was only ‘003 foot above the initial height of
the sand, and in Tank A :002 foot above, while the rise of tide in A was
slightly greater and that in B slightly less.
Surveys were taken at about 16,000 and 82,000 tides respectively ;
they are very similar, and the effects of the land water are, as before, to
slightly raise the lower sand and lower the upper. At low water there
was still water in the channels right up to the top of the estuary, and at
high water there was what would correspond in a 30-foot tide with 10 or
12 feet of water at the top in the low-water channels.
28. Experiments in long V-shaped Estuaries with straight tidul Rivers
extending up from the top of the V with and without Water in Tanks B, E",
and F.—Tank E was formed by opening out the partition boards in Tank
C at the end of the V to a distance of 4 inches. That portion of the V
below Section 12 remained as in Tank C, the position of the partition
boards not being altered. Ata section, 12'5, a small angle was formed, so
that while the boards above thesection remained straight their ends stood
apart 4 inches instead of closing up to forma V. Tank C was extended
by a trough 19 feet long, in which partition walls were constructed con-
tinuing the partitions in the lower portion up to a section, 38, above the
zero in Tank C ; these were straight, vertical boards, the distance between
them contracting from 4 inches at the lower end to 1 inch at the end of
the river. $
Tank F’ was formed in a similar manner, except that the upper
extension was bent through two sharp right angles so as to return along
the side of the tank ; and subsequently Tank F was formed exactly similar
to Tank E with half the dimensions.
Experiment with Land Water, I. and IL, Tanks E and F’, Plates XTII.-
XVIL, July 11 to July 31.—In Tank E the sand was laid to a depth of
4 inches, the same as in C, from the upper end of the river, Section 38
down to Section 28. The rise of tide was 0°140 foot, and the mean level
of the tide abont ‘016 foot above the level of the sand. The period
49 secs. and water 1 quart a minute, or 1/200 the tidal capacity per tide,
was introduced at the upper end of the river.
ON THE ACTION OF WAVES AND CURRENTS. 529
In Tank F’ the sand was laid similar to that in Tank E, the rise of tide
0:1 foot, and the mean tide 9-006 foot above the level of the sand. The
period being 30:04, land water, 1/200 the capacity of the estuary, was
introduced at the top of the river.
In starting these experiments the effect of the tidal river was very
marked. After the first tide in Tank E some depth of water remained
in the river and a long way down the estuary at low water, and the tide
came up with a bore increasing in height all the way to the top of the
river, and then returned with a bore to the lower end of the river. The
bore, as before, soon died out over the greater part of the estuary as the
sand at the bottom became lower. And the bore gradually died out in
the top of the V until as the number of tides approached 16,000 the bore
only began to show at about Section 4 and ran up the river very much
diminished from what it was originally.
Owing to the indraught and outflow of the river, the velocity of the
water and its action on the sand was greater at the top of the V and the
mouth of the river than at any part of the estuary, while for some way
up the river and all the way down the estuary there was a large volume
of water running at low water. The top of the river was ninety miles
(reduced to a 30-foot tide) from the bottom of the estuary, and the tide
did not commence to fall at the top of the river until after low water at
the mouth, so that nearly all the tidal water in the river ran over the
estuary during the low water. The delay in the return of the water from
the river obviously played a most important part in the effects produced..
At the bottom of the estuary the sand came down much as usual, but,
it did not rise at the head of the estuary. For the first 10,000 tides the-
sand was all covered at low water and rippled with active ripples up to.
the end of the river, and it seemed as if no banks were going to appear. .
The sections of the sand appeared as nearly as possible horizontal. The-
level having lowered from the bottom of the estuary up to Section 15,
from Section 15 to Section 3 it was somewhat raised, then from 3 up-
wards to 7 it was lowered, and thence up to the top of the river it was..
raised in a gradual slope. At about 12,000 tides two small banks ap-
peared at low water, one on each side of the estuary at Section 13.
Everything was perfectly symmetrical so far, but from this time the bank
on the right of the estuary extended downwards, while that on the left .
extended upwards and a depression or channel formed between them.
extending across the estuary in a diagonal manner. This was the con-
dition when at 16,000 tides the first survey was made.
As the running continued these banks continued to rise, that on the-
right downwards, that on the left upwards, until a distinct channel was.
formed from the mouth of the river down to Section 20, as shown in the.
second survey at 32,000 tides.
The level of the sand at the mouth of the river altered very little,
diminishing during the first 10,000 tides and then reassuming its original
height, but the sand passed upwards through the mouth and gradually.
raised the level in the river above until there was only about 0:02 foot in
the shallowest places at low water (corresponding to 5 foot on a 30-foot
tide) ; this level was first reached at the top of the river and then grada-
ally extended down to Section 19, which point it had reached at 32,000,
tides when the second survey was taken. In this condition the bore still
reached the end of the river, raising the water 0:02 foot (5 feet on the
ier ee Fae Above Section 19 all motion of the sand had ceased, but
. MM
530 REPORT—1890.
below this the sand was still moving up when the experiment stopped.
The bore still formed at the mouth but very much diminished, and was
very slowly diminishing. The final condition of the estuary shows the
contour at low water in the generators extending up to Section 9, and the
contour at high water in the generator to Section 11.
In tank IF” with the sharp turns in the river the action of the sand at
the bottom of the tank was at first sluggish, as in Hxperiment IV. In
the top of the estuary and river the appearance of things for the first
10,000 tides was much the same as in Tank E, except that the ripple ot
the sand did not extend more than half-way up the river and deep holes
were formed at the bends, banks being formed between them. The bore,
however, ran up to the end of the river until some time after the first
survey was taken, and the tide still rose very slightly when the second
survey was made, though the river was barred by a bank between the
bends by which the flood just passed in small channels at the sides,
The sand had risen in the top of the estuary until it virtually closed the
mouth of the tidal river, and the condition of the estuary resembled that
obtained in Tank D. This virtually ended the experiment, but oppor-
tunity was taken to try the effect of a larger quantity of land water, which
was increased to one quart in two minutes—7.e., nearly three times—and
the experiment continued for 20,000 more tides without any material
effect. oi
In Tank F the action at the lower end of the tank was again slug! ‘sh.
At the top of the estuary and in the river the conditions of the sand Were
as near as possible similar to those in Tank H, but, as it came out, the
mean level of the water relative to the level of the sand was some 5 feet
(reduced to a 30-foot tide) lower in F than in E.
The appearances for the first 16,000 tides were the same as far as was
observed ; the ripple now extended up to the top of the river and no
banks formed at the mouth. Nevertheless, before the second survey was
taken, the tide ceased to rise above the mouth of the river, proving that
the previous failure to realise the same state in the small tank as in the
larger had not been entirely due to the bends in the river. The question
remained whether it might not be owing to the higher level of the sand
relative to the mean level of the tide.
This question brings into prominence a fact observed during all the
experiments, but which had not previous to the experiments on E and F
assumed a position of importance. This is the gradual diminution of the
rise of tide owing to the lowering of the sand.
29. The rise of the tide depends not only upon the rise of the generator,
but also upon the tidal capacity of the tank. This capacity is the product
of the area of the surface at high water multiplied by the rise of tide less
the volume of sand and water above low water in the generator. Now
in starting the experiments with the sand at the level of mean tide, not
only is there much more sand above the level of low water in the generator
than when the final condition of equilibrium is obtained, but the quantity
of water retained on the top of the level sand is considerable, so that the
tide rises considerably higher in the generator at starting than when the
condition of equilibrium is obtained, which excess of rise gradually
diminishes as the sand comes down at the lower end of the estuary.
Although the foot of the sand comes down pretty rapidly at the com-
mencement of the experiment, owing to the surface being rippled the
water runs off slowly, ard it is not till the sand at the head of the estuary
ON THE ACTION OF WAVES AND CURRENTS. 531
has been raised and a slope formed that the water runs down freely at
low water, so that during the early part of the experiment not only is
the rise of tide at the head of the estuary high, but also the low tide and
the mean level of the tide. The result is that the mean level of the water
at the head of the estuary is higher during the early part of the experi-
‘ment. These changes in the tide at different parts of the estuary and at
different stages of the tide are well shown by the automatic tide curves,
Plate XVIII. As the sand is rising at the top of the estuary the result
of the high water is to raise the first banks above the level to which the
tide finally rises.
As these banks come out and the ripple is washed off, leaving smooth
surfaces and channels from which the water runs, leaving clean dry
banks, the mean level as well as the rise of tide falls, leaving the tops of
the bank, which were at first covered, high and dry.
These effects were much greater in Experiments C and D than in A
and B, and still more marked in K, F’,and F. In EH, F, EF’, the plans
land 2, taken at 16,000 and 33,000 tides respectively, show the differ-
ence in the level of the sand at the mouths of the respective rivers. In
Tank E the rise of tide at the mouth of the river was observed to be
0:02 higher at 16,000 than at 33,000 tides, and in Tanks F and EF” at
16,000 tides there was a bore which ran up to the top of the river, while
at 3° ,000 tides the sand at the mouth was not covered at high water.
t thus seems that the condition of things which follows from starting
wii. the sand level and a constant height of low water is to institute a
distribution of sand at the top of the estuary corresponding to a state of
equilibrium with a higher tide than that which ultimately prevails; and
the greater the initial height of the sand relative to the mean level of the
water the greater will be this effect. That this action tends to explain
the closing of the mouths of the rivers in Tanks I” and F and not in E is
clear. But it is not clear that this is the sole explanation ; the conditions
in F’ and F were not far removed from the limits of similarity obtained
in the rectangular tanks, and it is not clear that these limits may not be
somewhat different in the long estuaries with tidal rivers. This is a
matter which requires farther experimental examination, for which there
has not been time.
30. Experiment IT. in E and F, Plates XV. and XVI, without Land
Water, August 5 to September 1.—These experiments have been made
under the same conditions as in E and F, 1, except for the landwater. The
general appearance of the progress of the experiments was nearly the same,
and Pian 1 shows little difference. But as the experiment in E proceeded
it became clear that the river was going to fill up gradually from the end.
The bore no longer reaches the end at 16,000 tides, while it had ceased
to exist and the tide had ceased to rise at Section 11 in the river at
32,000 tides, the end of the estuary also having filled up, the action in F
being nearly the same. Thus we have evidence similarly shown by both
estuaries that, although the fresh water produces little effect on the
condition of equilibriam of a broad estuary, the existence of a long tidal
river above the estuary does produce a great effect on the level of the
low-water channels in the upper portions of the estuary, and that land
water, even in such small quantities, is effective to keep open a long tidal
riyer emptying into a sandy estuary or bay.
REPORT—1 890.
TasLe I.—General Conditions
References Horizontal scales
| Shape of the Estuary
© | Percentage of Land Water
o
Rectangular
—————$<— ee er _—] Se ——————~>Ss —i!846nS«_
Sie oO Ess
ova Nang
Short V-shaped
Long V-shaped
Long with Tidal River
ig | Sek 49°8 12,100 | 5:22 185 | 0-162 65-4
1 ” 359 20,900 | 3:03 285 | 0-105 73:1
2 s 46 2 13,200 | 4:78 190 | 0158 69°5
2 + 344 21,800 | 2°90 286 | 0:2105 76:0
1| XII 48:4 12,500 | 5°04 188 | 0-160 66°8
1 9 34°6 22,200 | 2°85 300 | 0:100 741
2 5D 48-4 12,500 | 5:04 188 | 0-160 66°8
2 ” 346 22,200 | 2:85 300 | 0100 74:1
XIV} 48:9 13,100 | 4:82 208 07143 63:2
3 30°0 25,800 | 2°45 313 | 0-096 82°5
XIV | 478 13,400 | 4:70 208 | 0-143 64-6
3 30:0 24,700 | 2°56 313 | 0:096 82°5
“g 13,500 | 4:67 214 | 0-140 63:4
es 315 25,400 | 2:49 327 | 0-091 77'8
XVI | 47:9 13,600 | 4°64 217 | 0-138 62:9
" 30°3 26,200 | 2-41 321 | 0:093 81-86
XVII} 301 25,500 | 2°48 300 | 0-100 85:1
y 30'1 25,700 | 2°46 305 | 0:698 844
Period Verti- | Rise of | Vertical
in Inches) 2! tide in | exagge-
32 seconds an to a | scale feet ration
® ‘ : 1 in. e
=| mile
7
<a) a) Au i)
a|2| ut | 335 |17,600 | 358 | 1771 o170 | 99-7
B 2 » 23°8 33,600 | 1°88 327 | 0-094 102-0
+ 3 ” 23°8 33,600 | 1:88 327 0-094 1020
5 1 ” 34-4 23,300 | 2°71 327 | 0:094 71:0
A 1 IV 69°3 10,500 | 6:02 333 | 0-090 31°6
B LS) Nonae 50°5 23,600 | 2°68 720 | 0:042 32:0
A 2 ” 69°3 12,400 | 5:08 379 0:080 32:0
5 3 ” 67:3 12,600 | 5:02 366 | 0:082 34:5
B 1 Vi 34:0 39,200 | 1:57 986 | 0-030 39°0
B 2 $2 34:0 39,200 | 1°57 986 | 0-030 39:0
A te) vir 50°2 11,500 | 5:49 wet 0-176 67:0
B 1 ” B54 22,000 | 2°87 309 | 0-097 71-0
A 2 ” 486 11,900 | 5:30 171 0-176 69:0
B 2 ” 345 22,600 | 2°8 309 | 0-097 730
A oly VOLE 48-6 11,900 | 5:50 171 0-176 69-0
B 3 » 34:5 22,600 | 2°8 309 | 0-097 730
A 1 | VIII 475 12,400 | 5:10 177 0-170 71:0
B 1 oy B54 20,700 | 3:05 273 | 0-110 758
A 2 Bs 472 12,670 | 5:01 181 0:166 69°5
B 2 s B5°4 20,700 | 3:05 273 | 0-110 758
A 3) IX 47-2 12,400 | 5:08 177 | 0170 709
B 3 BS 34:0 21,800 | 2:90 280 | 0107 78:0
A 1 xX 48:2 12.300 | 5:15 179 | 0-168 68-4
B il ” 34:2 21,700 | 2:91 280 | 0107 776
A 2 7 47 0 12,700 | 5:00 182 | 0-165 69-4
B 2 a5 34:2 21,900 | 2°88 286 | 0-105 750
Cc
D
C
D
Cc
D
Cc
D
E
F
E
F
E
¥
E
F
=
LN ll OS OD oll el No No
<
rs
~
wo)
tal be
ON THE ACTION OFWAVES AND CURRENTS. 533
and Results of the Experiments.
| Criterion| Height | Height | Number| Action of the water on the sand in forming the
of simi- | of initial| of mean | of tides bed at the lower end of the estuary
larity | sandin | tide in | from the
| C=l%e | teet feet start
Manner Rate Final state
0:490 0-25 0°265 93,839 | General Normal _
0-083 07125 | 0:140 99,388 | General Normal Normal
0:083 0125 | 0140 /|130,176 — —_ Large ripple
0:058 0-125 | 0-130 16,344 | Nearly normal) Nearly normal|Nearly normal
0-023 07125 | 0:1325 | 13,078 Very partial | Very slow —
0-002 0°65 0-065 L799 y |” — Zero =
0-016 0-125 | 0-142 36,776 = — —
0-019 0125 | 0:141 78,986 — — Not reached
0-001) | Slope 1 pene? 17,424 —_ Zero —
0-001! in 124 {| ,, 39,727 — = Nearly normal
0:252 0°25 0:256 19,437 | Normal Normal —
0-064 0:125 | 0148 18,332 | Nearly normal) Nearly normal —
0:362 0:25 0-256 42,820 -- Normal Normal
0:066 0-125 | 0-148 68,861 -- — —_
0-362 0°25 0:256 76,273 | See description — See description
0-066 07125 | 0-148 91,184 | Seedescription — See description
0:346 0333 | 0°337 17,206 | Normal Normal —
0-101 0-166 | 0:179 17,879 = Normal —
0°320 0°333 | 0348 39,809 — — Normal
0-101 0-166 | 0-169 40,268 _ — Normal
0°543 0:333 | 0-348 60,248 | Normal Normal Normal
0-095 0-166 | 0:169 57,024 | Normal Normal Normal
0°327 0°333 | 0:340 16,538 | Normal Normal =
0:095 0166 | 0-168 15,981 | Normal Normal =
0°315 0:333 | 0-343 31,991 | Normal Normal Normal
0-081 0-166 | 0-175 35,129 | Normal Normal Normal
0-278 0333 | 0:341 16,943 | Normal Normal —
0-084 0-187 | 0-179 16,383 | Nearly normal| Nearly normal —-
0-275 0333 | 0°345 30,584 | Normal Normal Normal
0:088 0-187 | 0-179 35,344 | Nearly normal| Nearly normal|Nearly normal
0-274 0333 | 0:344 16,908 | Normal Normal —
0-074 0°187 | 0-190 18,128 | Nearly normal| Nearly normal —_—
0:274 0:333 | 0°335 31,127 | Normal Normal Normal
0:074 0-187 | 0-190 31,928 | Nearly normal) Nearly normal Nearly normal
0-185 0-333 | 0:350 16,368 | Normal Normal —
0:073 0187 | 0-191 16,577 | Partial Sluggish --
0:189 0°333 | 0:337 32,635 —- Normal Normal
0-073 | 0-187 | 0-191 | 32,880 ss Ls Ripple large
0-174 0333 | 0°349 15,871 | Normal Normal —
0:960 0-187 | 0:198 17,184 | Partial Sluggish —_
0-163 0°333 | 0:349 32,501 — — Normal
0:066 0-187 | 0-192 29,947 — — Ripple large
0:085 0-187 | 0-187 16,577 | Partial Sluggish _—
0080 0187 | 0:187 32,677 — — Ripple large
REPORT—1890.
534
TasLeE IT.—Mean Slopes of the Sand in Rectangular Tanks.
TANK A
‘ - 9
areacaved Experiment V., Plan 4 Experiment VII., Plan 2
Heights of = = a
Contours Mean Hori- Mean Hori-
ae Height (re- Scot ve Horizontal Height (re- rem oye Horizontal
duced to a entonretror Distances re-| duced toa Contonrestven Distances re-
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Feet Feet Unit 6 inches Miles Feet Unit 6 inches Miles
1 — —0°975 —165 as —1:792 —8°003
0176 30°00 0°00 0:00 30°000 0-000 0-000
0146 24°39 0:79 1355 24°546 0°647 1135
07116 18°68 1:86 3°20 19:092 1:254 2171
0086 13°00 2°96 5°07 14638 2°356 4085
0056 7°46 4°64 7:95 9184 3°724 6°447
0-026 1:87 6°63 11-38 3°730 5°428 9:397
—0°004 —3°74 8-43 14°50 —1724 7467 127930
—0°034 —9°35 10°30 17°80 —7:178 9°283 16070
—0°064 —15°00 12°17 21°60 —12°632 11-780 207400
—0°094 —20°80 13°60 23°40 —18-086 14:008 24235
—0:124 —26:20 15°88 27-30 _ = =
Experiment X., Plan 1 Experiment X., Plan 2
Feet Feet Unit 6 inches Miles Feet Unit 6 inches Miles
1 _- —0°690 —0°774 —_ — 1-032 —1°167
0°176 307000 0-000 0°000 30°000 0-000 0-000
0146 24-886 0-741 0°810 24°86 0-665 0°752
0-116 19°772 2°147 2°347 19°772 1/900 27149
0-086 14°658 4256 4°652 14°658 3°648 4124
0°056 9544 6-916 7-560 9544 6631 7507
0°026 4°430 9°880 10800 4-430 9101 10-290
—0°004 —0°684 11533 12-606 —0°684 11-227 12°594
—0°034 —5'798 13-737 15°013 — = ed
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Experiment III., Plan 2 Experiment IV., Plan 1
Feet Feet Unit 3 inches Miles Feet Tnit 3 inches Miles
1 = —3°540 —5°643 — —0-994 —1:124
0-094 307000 0-000 0:000 30-000 0-000 ~ 0°000
0-079 25°213 0°760 1-240 25°213 0°665 0:760
07064 20°426 1°330 2163 20°426 1558 1773
0-049 15°639 2052 37340 156389 27185 2°487
0-034 10°852 3°249 5°290 10°852 4142 4714
07019 6°065 4°332 7044 6065 6-859 7806
0-004 1-218 6:061 9-854 1-278 9°766 11120
-—0011 —3°509 7828 12:727 —3°509 12-046 13°710
—0°026 —8:296 9-291 15110 —8:296 _— =
—0°031 —13°083 11°341 18°430 _ = =
Experiment VIII., Plan 1 Experiment VIII., Plan 2
= = i
Feet Feet Unit 3 inches Miles Feet Unit 3 inches Miles
1 — —0595 —0°621 — —1°925 —2-062
0°097 30°000 0-000 0:000 30-000 0-000 0:000
0:082 257360 0°608 0°634 25°360 0-988 1660
0:067 20°720 2-090 2181 20°720 1-672 1°792
0°052 16:080 3°268 3°410 16-080 2°983 3°197
0°037 11:440 5244 5472 11°440 57168 5538
0022 6°800 8-987 9°378 6°800 8-398 9-000.
0:007 27160 11400 11°896 2°160 11°285 127100
—0'008 —2°480 13148 13°720 —2°480 13°108 14050
—0°023 _ — — —77120 14°535 15°570
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ON THE NOMAD TRIBES OF ASIA MINOR. 535
t of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Garson (Chairman),
r. J. Turopore Benr (Secretary), Messrs. H. W. Barss,
LOXAM, and J. Stuart GLENNIE, Sir FREDERIC GOLDSMID, and
essrs. PENGELLY and RUDLER, appointed for the purpose of
westigating the Geography and the Habits, Customs, and
hysical Characters of the Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor and
orthern Persia, and to excavate on sites of ancient occwpa-
Sommittee have to report that during the past year they have had
le advantage of the services of the Secretary, Mr. Bent, in carrying out
@ Objects for which they were appointed. ‘T'he results of the researches
Mr. and Mrs. Bent have been drawn up by them, and the Committee
nsider it desirable to adopt and reproduce the report as submitted to
sm by the authors.
The whole of the money voted by the Association at its meeting at
stle last year has been expended. A
The Committee ask to be reappointed, and that a sum of 301. be placed
their disposal.
Report to the Committee. By Mr. J. Toropors Benr.
That corner of Asia Minor which constitutes the ancient country of
yo Cilicias, mountainous or rugged Cilicia, and Cilicia of the plain,
of the best points in the world for comparative ethnological study.
sreat plain, which runs up into the heart.of the Taurus Mountains, is
er scattered over with nomads from the highlands, who erect on it
eed or wicker huts, or dwell in tents until the warm weather drives
p again in search of pasture in the spring. There are Circassians,
s, Turcomans, Bosdans, and Afshars, all with their different customs
culiarities.
actually on, but in, the valleys of the mountain, and by the coast
he mountains jut out into the sea south-west of Mersina, you find
ss encampments of Yourouks, so called from the Turkish word
amek, to wander, descendants of the first nomads, who overran
sia Minor after the fall of the Byzantine Empire.
ain, around Tarsus and Mersina there exist numerous colonies of
from distant parts of the world. Sepoys from India, Afghans
ssinians; and, lastly, there is a large colony of Ansairee from the
on, who speak Arabic, and are known by the Arabic appellative,
winter and spring we spent several months amongst the Yourouks
ountains and the heterogeneous mass of nationalities on the plain,
2 so doing, by perpetual contact with them, were able to amass.a
amount of anthropological material. We dwelt in their tents, in
d in tombs, when nothing better presented itself, so as to better
ourselves with the peculiarities of these primitive wanderers.
st of all I will speak of the Yourouks of the mountains, who are
on the southern slopes of the Taurus, or Bulghar dagh, in their
vhenever a little clearing offers a means of subsistence for their
_ Some of them have adopted a semi-sedentary life for three
536 REPORT—1 890.
months of the year, dwelling in hovels erected out of ancient ruins, in the
tombs of the ancient Greeks and in other ruins, but as soon as spring comes
their abodes become uninhabitable from vermin, and they betake them-
selves again to their tents. They are an exceedingly peaceful and law-
abiding race, a great contrast to their neighbours the Afshars, Kourds,
and Circassians, whose habitat is more to the east, and the Turks look
upon them as the policemen of the mountains, for they are always ready
to give information concerning the thefts and smuggling of the less peace-
ful tribes, several instances of which came under our notice.
The natural abode of the Yourouk is his black goat’s-hair tent, with
the camel pack-saddles built round for a wall and the family mattresses
spread in the midst; his life is occupied in looking after his flocks, and
according to the season he moves from one pasture to another; there are
also Yourouk tribes who occupy themselves in wood-cutting and char.
coal-burning, and carry on their business with merchants on the coast by
an elaborate system of tallies, but they are not so numerous as the purely
pastoral tribes.
Their year they divide into three seasons—namely, Yas, spring, five
months; Gus, summer, four months; and winter, three months, which
they again subdivide into three parts: (1) Kampsin, fifty days; (2)
Karadés, black winter, ten days; and (3) one month, March, Zembrai, or
the opening.
They are a fine, active race, insensible to fatigue and hardship, tall
and strong, with open countenances, usually dark hair, but lighter com-
plexions than most other tribes in Asia Minor. They dress in loose cotton
clothes, and their women do not veil their faces. Their infants they
swaddle, first binding round the child’s body a rag containing earth
heated with a stone; but infant mortality is enormous amongst them.
Nearly every woman has a large family, of which only two or three
survive. Hence the survival of the fittest and the healthy lives they
lead contribute to the fineness of the race. .We found a considerable
percentage of idiots amongst them, whom they treat with superstitious
care ; and many instances of abortion in the shape of infants without
arms, a wrong number of fingers, &c. One man, from the village of
Tapan, north of Sis, had a horn like a goat’s horn growing on his head.
He is, I hear, coming to Europe to exhibit himself.
Diseases are uncommon amongst them except teletmeh, or throat
' disease, to cure which they wrap the patient in the warm skins of newly
slaughtered animals, and disease of the spleen, which they treat with
poultices and decoctions of mountain herbs.
Their intercourse with the outer world is very limited; often a well-
to-do citizen of some town furnishes a body of Yourouks with flocks by
contract ; the Yourouk to provide so many okes of milk, cheese, butter,
&c., whilst the tribes get what milk is over, the hair, &c., and the con-
tractor agrees also to keep up the flock, if by chance it diminishes. This
is termed ‘an immortal contract.’ In this way the Yourouks often amass
flocks of their own, and in time pay off the lender.
These nomads are very destructive to the country they travel over:
lighting their fires beneath trees, they ruthlessly destroy acres of timber—_
and the valleys of this part of the Taurus are rich in tall, straight fir-trees
used for masts; then they lay bare whole tracts of country, that they
may have fodder for their flocks, and nothing is so destructive to timber
as the habit they have of tapping the fir-trees near the: root for the
—_
ON THE NOMAD TRIBES OF ASIA MINOR. 537
turpentine. A deep notch is cut, and the turpentine all flows to this part.
After a while the tree is cut down, and the wood in the vicinity of the
notch is used for torches, the only light they make use of. Again, they
bark the cedars to make their beehives, and for roofing purposes, and are
the most destructive enemy the forests of Asia Minor have. Luckily, the
yast extent of forest and the sparsity of inhabitants make the destruc-
tion of timber less marked; but it is a steady destruction if slow, and
must in the end ruin the forests of the country.
In his mountain wanderings the Yourouk has regular visitors at
stated times. The goat and sheep merchant comes in the spring, pitches
his tent in a central place, sits with the big men of the tribe around him
on cushions, smokes his narghili, and has a pot of coffee boiling in the
embers, and buys from those who are willing to sell. When he has
amassed as many as he can conveniently manage, he sets off to the nearest
town to realise a large profit.
They are great camel-breeders, and produce the valuable sort of mule
eamel common to Asia Minor, and known as the Toulou camel, a cross
between the Bactrian and the Syrian; and in spring large Bactrian stal-
lions are brought round amongst the encampments. This cross produces
a camel excellent for mountaineering purposes, alike impervious to the
snows of the mountains and the heat of the plains.
Then the tax collector comes to gather in the Ashr, or tax on their
cattle : he also pitches his tent, and is surrounded by the leading men;
but as often as not he has a lot of trouble, for when they are advised of
his advent the Yourouks hide a portion of their flocks in out-of-the-way
caves to avoid the tax. Then comes the travelling tinker—the great im-
porter of external gossip amongst them—to mend their copper pots ; he
settles for a few days at each place where-he finds ten or more tents, with
his bellows and his assistant, and mends with nitre the quaint-shaped
coffee-pots and household copper utensils which they use, in return for
which he gets butter and cheese, and with these he returns to the town
as soon as he has got together as much as his mule cancarry. Visits are
also periodically expected from the wool merchants, skin dealers, and the
public circumciser, who initiates the young Yourouks into the first
mysteries of the Mohammedan faith.
In food the Yourouks are exceedingly frugal—their bread in times of
plenty is made of flour, in times of famine of acorns; it is of the oatcake
type, and baked with great dexterity by women on copper platters over
a few embers—cakes with vegetable inside, milk cheese, and very rarely
meat, and no wine. Coffee, however, is essential to them, and often J
had wondered what these nomads, so unchanged in everything else, did
before coffee was made known, until one day when coffee ran short an excel-
lent substitute was provided for us, made of the seeds of a fine species of
thistle, botanically termed Gundelia Tournefortia, for it was discovered by
Gundelscheimer and Tournefort, who calls it the ‘ finest plant in the whole
Levant,’ though he apparently was not aware of its use. It grows in
dry stony places all over the southern slopes of the Taurus, and is, I
understand, very plentiful in Afghanistan. The coffee produced by it is
a little lighter in colour, but more aromatic and bitter than ours; they
use it also as a stomachic.
By boiling the cones of the Juniperus drupacea in a large cauldron
for a long time, a thick, sweet stuff is produced; this they mix with flour,
and the result is not unlike chocolate cream: they call it pelteh.
538 REPORT—1890.
In producing material from the mountain herbs the Youronks are
very cunning. Before aniline dyes were invented they drove a good
trade in colours, but now it does not pay them to continue making them,
and European dyes are used by their women in making the Karamanian
carpets. The milk of a spurge, called Galawidhi by the Greeks, is boiled
with onion-leaves. When the wool is put in, the colour does not at first
appear until it is plunged into cold water, when a brilliant red is the
result. From the gall of the Quercus infectoria they make another dye—
in fact, their mountains are covered with herbs useful for all kinds of
purposes.
The Yourouks will do anything for tobacco. When it is not forth-
coming they make use of certain leaves known to them, and are even
known at times to use smoke-dried fig-leaves.
The Yourouks are an exceedingly polygamous race. Poor though he
is, a man will often have seven wives, or, more properly speaking, seven
slaves. Each wife generally occupies a different tent: one attends to a
portion of the flock in one part, another in another direction, another
wife looks after the camels, another stays at home to weave carpets,
another collects wood and fetches water: and he must be a very poor man
indeed who cannot boast of at least three wives. The natural result
of this is that the female population, though in excess of the male, is not
enough to meet the demand, so that much is done in the way of woman
stealing, and if report speaks truly, a Yourouk who wants a wife is not
particular in appropriating a married woman from another, tribe.
On marriage the husband generally pays something to the father, and
this has given rise to the idea that the nomads are in the habit of selling
their wives for the harems of Constantinople, whereas they are only
carrying out their legitimate idea of the marriage contract. The
Yourouks are, strictly speaking, endogamists as far as they can manage
it, only going outside when necessity obliges them. In this they are a
marked contrast to their neighbours the Circassians, who generally seek
a wife from a remote settlement. The Circassians also pay something
down for a wife. The kalim, or price, is fixed in baitals, or mares, their
ordinary scale of measurement: 1 camel = 5 mares, 20 sheep = 1 mare,
&c. Ata betrothal the Yourouks kill a Jamb, play the tambourine, let
off guns, &c., and exchange handkerchiefs—nothing else. The marriage
is a little gayer—dancing and feasting for three or four days; but the
ceremony so often repeated seems to lose its zest.
The Turkish Government is anxious to get the Yourouks to settle in
some of the more favourable localities on the southern slopes of the
Taurus, where a few wretched hovels have been erected, but the
Yourouks resent the idea, and doggedly refuse to have a mosque or @
Hodja. We saw several attempts to thus bind them ; but they resent the
idea, and the mosque falls into ruins. Their religion is a truly pastoral
one. Sacred trees by the side of the pathways are hung with rags to
cure fever, wooden spoons, &c., and there is a little pile of stones hard
by which passers-by add to; and when a Yourouk dies, they bring his
body to one of these open-air temples, read a little over it from the Koran,
and take a few of the small stones to put over his lonely grave. They
prefer to bury near a path, so that the passer-by may say a prayer, and
this has given rise to the erroneous belief that their cemeteries are those
of villages which have disappeared.
Their superstitions are few; they have their Piri, who inhabit streams
ON THE NOMAD TRIBES OF ASIA MINOR. 539
and houses and cliffs like all savage races, but they believe in nothing
that harms them, and have no special dread of ruins. In the mountains
where rain-water has settled they say that if a wild animal—an ibex or
* a bear—has drunk there, and a man from civilisation drinks after it, he will
become wild like they are, and this is how they became Yourouks. Where
the Yourouk is sedentary and produces crops his tools are of the most
primitive nature: the threshing-machine of pine wood, set with flint
stones at the bottom fixed along the grain of the wood—ef. Isaiah xli. 15:
‘The new sharp threshing instrument having teeth.’ On this the man
sits and is dragged by bullocks round and round. Their spade is the
old Roman bipalium, and their sheep are the fat-tailed ones such as
_ Herodotus described as being ‘one cubitin width’ (Herod. ui. § 113), and
such as one sees on the bas-reliefs of Persepolis. Their churns are skins
hung on three sticks, and stirred with a dasher. Wooden utensils are
the most generally in use, a wooden mortar for pounding cofiee, wooden
dishes, bowls, &c.; but then each tent has its heirlooms of copper
utensils, which are mended with great care and handed down for
generations.
The Yourouks are believers in magic, and have prophets among them,
who look in water, open books, and from the grain of wood can tell who
has stolen a goat and where it is. The evil eye, too, they strongiy believe
in, and the efficacy of an onion hung up in the tent to keep it oii. Their
games are mostly rough, and consist of wrestling and feats of strength.
Yourouk women often mark their bread with the sign of the cross,
haying seen Christian women doing so, and believe it brings good luck.
They cut the ears of goats, camels, and cows, so that each may know
his own cattle by its mark, and some of the marks have a very grotesque
effect.
; It is difficult to obtain from their tradition any idea of the origin of
the Yourouks. They will always tell you that they are the descendanis ot
those who inhabited the ruins amongst which they now dwell, and that
their kind ancestors put up letters on the walls to inform them concerniag
_ treasure they had concealed. I have seen a Yourouk hard at work with
_ a chisel making his way into a column in which he is sure gold is hidden,
I have seen them dig holes below Greek inscriptions with the same
object in view.
Each tribe has its Agha, or chief, who is held responsibie by the
Government for the good conduct of the tribe. Practically he is their
legislator, and settles all disputes, for a Yourouk never thinks of taking
his grievances before the Turkish law courts.
The advent of the Yourouks into Asia Minor and their origin is lost
in obscurity. Bertrandon de la Broquiére tells us how two waves of
them spread over Asia Minor in the fifteenth century, the first settling in
the towns and blending with the Turks, the second preferring to keep up
the nomad habits of their forefathers. The great number of Persian
_ words in the dialect of Turkish that they speak—words never used by
_ other Turks, such as beruh, ‘be off,’ shwma for ‘you,’ pool for ‘money,’
_ &c.—stamps them as originally having used that language and coming
_ from the Persian mountains. In features and colour they are more akin
=. to the Kourds than the Persians or the Armenians. Their skin is fairer,
2 and their cast of countenance would argue that they are of northern
_ origin, perhaps from the mountainous district east of the Caspian.
_. The physical nature of the country they inhabit to the south of the
a
"y
540 REPORT—1890.
Taurus is wild and romantic in the extreme. Deep gorges cut the slopes
of the mountains, through which streams find their way to the sea
through cliffs of calcareous limestone, sometimes 2,000 feet high—a dis-
trict rich in deposits of the Miocene period, often full of fossils. Then
there are the great caves, or rather depressions, caused by the action of
underground streams, known in Asia Minor by the name of dudens.
The best known of these is the anciently famed Corycian cave, which we
thoroughly investigated, and added a large number of inscriptions which
had been previously unknown. Adjoining this is a cave of the same
nature, called Purgatory by the nomads, into which no one can descend,
as the sides slope inwards. Five miles from these is the Olbian cave,
three-quarters of a mile round and 200 feet deep.
This country was in ancient days called Olba, and was ruled over by
priest-kings of the Tencrid dynasty, as Strabo tells us. We discovered
the capital of Olba at a place called Uzenjaburdj, 5,850 feet above the
jevel of the sea, and many inscriptions which quite agree with Strabo’s
statement. In ancient Greek days this district was covered with towns
and villages. Now it is given up to the nomads, and with difficulty one
makes one’s way through rocks and brushwood where once the grape grew
in abundance, and the wild olives and caroubs are the descendants of the
ancient cultivation which made this district one of the most favoured
eorners of the globe, until the advent of these nomads, who have ruined
and devastated it.
Our second point of observation this winter was amongst the Ansairee
fellaheen who dwell in and around Tarsus, and who are a branch of the
race who dwell in the mountains to the north of Latakich, and who
practise a secret religion which has been a subject of great discussion
amongst travellers.
Tarsus forms a particularly favourable point for studying this people,
inasmuch as they live here amidst an alien population ready to spy on
their mysteries and impart what they know. Some years ago an Ansairee
youth named Suleiman abjured his faith and wrote an account of it,
which was translated and published by Prof. Salisbury in a number of
the American Asiatic Society’s Journal. This assisted us much in making
our researches.
Last year, when travelling in the mountains of Media, near Lake
Urumea, we investigated the religious tenets of a race existing there
called by the Persians Ali-Ullah-hi, or people who call God Ali. These
people also practise a secret religion, and the results of our inquiries I
set forth in my report last summer to the Anthropological Section of the
British Association at Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
On studying the Ansairee of Tarsus, we were not a little surprised to
find that their religion was precisely the same as that practised by the
tribe in the North of Persia, and from this coincidence we were able to
make valuable anthropological deductions as to the extent of this religion
and the number of its devotees.
First, the village in the mountains of Media, which we visited, and
which is the headquarters of the sect of the Ali-Ullah-hi, is called Baba
Nazere, and they affirm that a certain individual called Nazere was the
founder of their sect. Now the Ansairee of Tarsus, or the Nasaree, as the
Arabs call them, claim as the founder of their religion a man who lived
early in the eleventh century, who is styled in their books as ‘the old
tman of Nazere,’ giving us the reason for the name Baba, or old man,
Sd.)
ON THE NOMAD TRIBES OF ASIA MINOR. ott
which is placed before the name of the village in Persia, and at once
establishing a bond of union between the two religions.
Ali is the name for God, the Allah of the Mussulmans, the God of the
Christians, in use amongst ‘both of them ; and throughout, when closely
examined into, the religions are identical.
These points gave us the somewhat startling fact of the vast extent
of this secret religion, which has hitherto been supposed to be more or
less confined to the so-called Ansairee mountains of the Lebanon and the
adjacent villages, whereas in reality it extends from the shores of the
Mediterranean to the Caspian, and may be styled the religion of the
nomads who traverse this wild mountain district. Future investigations
proved to us that the Afshars also belong to it, the Kizilbash, and many
Kourdish tribes, and they are all knit together by one bond of mystic:
brotherhood of religious belief, and know each other, much as the Free-
masons of Hurope do, by secret signs.
In Persia the Ali-Ullah-hi outwardly conform to the Shiite sect of the
Mohammedans. In Turkey the Ansairee outwardly conform to that
of the Sonnee, the only external evidence to the contrary being that
they have no mosques and say no prayers, never go to Kerbela or Mecca,.
and do not keep the fasts. To arrive at a definite knowledge of this
religion is exceedingly difficult ; the facts which I have gathered are from
three sources :—
1. The above-mentioned statement of the renegade Suleiman. '
2. Information given me concerning the Ali-Ullah-hi in Persia by
people of reliable authority.
3. Personal investigations made this year at Tarsus, and evidence
contributed by Greeks, Armenians, and Protestants of that place; and as.
these three sources of information are thoroughly independent, and on
the face of it admit of no collusion, they may be clearly taken as giving
satisfactory proof of the mysteries of the religion, its vast extent, and
the principal tenets which it inculcates.
The fundamental principle of their mystery is to believe in a god
whom they call Ali, a name doubtless chosen as a blind in the first
instance to their Mohammedan neighbours. In their forms of prayer
they address God in somewhat similar strains to those found in Christian
prayer-books—‘ the Creator of all Things,’ ‘Lord of Glory,’ ‘the Seed-
burster,’ ‘the Prince of Bees,’ or rather Prince of Angels, for the Ansairee
have the idea that bees are angels who visit the earth in this form, and
suck the fragrance of earth’s sweetest flowers.
They have a special prayer to revile those who say that Ali ever took
upon himself the form of man, ate, drank, or was subject to like passions
as man; their prayers may be styled invocations rather than supplications.
The Ansairee or Nasaree, though admitting as a body the same basis
of religious belief, are divided into four sects :—
1. The Northerners or Shemali, a name derived from the ae
Shems, the sun, who say that God, or Ali, dwells in the sun. To this sect
belong the Ali-Ullah-hi of Northern Persia; their ziarets, or sacred places,
are all set up on hill-tops, and the origin of this may possibly be traced
to the existence of sun-worship in those parts in ancient days. The
~ Shemali are great fire-eaters, and on the sacred tombs of their departed
Seids they say the holy light of Ali comes down much as the Zoroastrians
used to say of their fire-temples in olden days.
2. The second sect are called the Kalazians, or moon-worshippers-—
542 REPORT —-1890.
that is to say, they believe that Ali dwells in the moon, which he created
as a palace for himself, and the dark spots thereon resemble him, they
say, with the crown on his head and the sword by his side. Most of the
Ansairee dwelling around Mersina and Tarsus belong to this sect, and
we had ample opportunities of verifying for ourselves the respect they
pay to the moon. At full moon they go out and worship to the sound
of tambourines, and make a great noise. Andagain, when the new moon
first appears, they prostrate themselves before it. When they pray the
Kalazians make the sign of the crescent with their thumb and first
finger.
"3. The third sect of the Ansairee say that Ali dwells in the twilight,
and at that period of the day, the hour of prayer, he pervades the whole
heaven.
4. The fourth sect say that he dwells in the air and is for ever present ;
but of these two latter sects I have had no personal experience, and pre-
sume they are only to be met with in the Ansairee mountains of Syria.
The next point of interest, and the one which appears more than any-
thing else to connect them with Christianity, is the Ansairee Trinity.
Dr. Wolff and other Orientalists have tried to prove that they have really
a Christianity of a decayed form, but from my own investigations I should
rather believe that what we find of Christianity amongst them was
borrowed and incorporated by the early founders. We have traces of
Judaism, Mohammedanism, and sun-worship also in large numbers, and
I cannot see that Christianity has any special right to claim them for
itself.
Ali is the Father, Mohammed the Son, and Salman el Farsi, abbreviated
to Sin, the Holy Ghost. Ali became man, they say, not in his own
person, but through his veil Mohammed, and Mohammed when he returned
to heaven appointed Salman to superintend the affairs of this world.
This Trinity is known amongst them as the mystery of the Ain, Min,
Sin, from the three initial letters of the Trinity, A. M. 8S. By this
mystery the novice at his initiation is always made to swear and to repeat
the words Ain, Min, Sin over 500 times. Salman is supposed to have
superintended the creation of the world, and to have made five incom-
parables to assist him in regulating the affairs of men.
Bar Hebreeus tells us that the old man of Nazere was an inhabitant of
the village of Nazaria, in Arabia; he is somewhat cast into the shade as
the founder of the religion by one Al Khusaibi, who is said to have
perfected it, and to have formed the prayers as they are now used. He
taught that all great men and prophets in all ages, leaders of men in fact,
are incarnations of Ali—a subtle way, common also to Mohammedans, of
trying to introduce the cream of several religions into their own. In this
list we find Plato, Socrates, Alexander the Great, Jesus Christ, Mohammed
the founder of Islamism, and many others; whereas celebrated women,
the wives of these great men, with the exception of Noah’s and Lot’s
wives, are said to be incarnations of Salman el Farsi.
From the surrounding religions they have borrowed their festivals
and religious observances, and arguing from this Dr. Wolff has gone as
far as to say that Nazere is derived from Nazareth, and that the errors
only crept in when Al Khusaibi recognised the religion; but this is mere
speculation, and I think it much more likely that he strove to embrace
in his cult all that he thought expedient from all parties.
The cup of wine common in all their feasts may be said to be of
ON THE NOMAD TRIBES OF ASIA MINOR. 543
distinctly Christian origin: ‘the image of Ali,’ as they call it, is passed
round and partaken of by each of the guests; first the Seid, or priest,
drinks some and hands it to his right-hand neighbour, who kisses his
hand and passes it on: whereas a distinct trace of Judaism is found in
the Persian mountains—a sheep without blemish is roasted without its
hoofs and horns, and the Seid distributes the meat in portions to the
assembled worshippers; but I could not find that this was done at the
Ansairee feasts in the Cilician plain. Some say, whether from this cause
I know not, that the Ansairee are Canaanites, descendants of those whom
the children of Israel cast out of Palestine; but I do not see any
foundation for this theory.
With the Christians the Ansairee observe Epiphany, the feast of
St. John the Baptist, the feast of Mary Magdalene, Good Friday, and
Christmas. One of their prayers for Christmas Eve, the feast of Melad
as they call it, is very curious: ‘Thou didst manifest in that night thy
name, which is thy soul, thy veil, thy throne to all creatures as a child,
and under human form’; but whilst they do not believe in the Crucifixion,
but say that Ali took up Kesa to himself, as they call Jesus, they will at
the same time go to the Greek church at Tarsus on Good Friday, and,
like the Greeks, pass under the representation of the Entombment, appear-
ing to derive physical good from so doing.
Epiphany is called by them the feast of Yetas, and on this day the
Ansairee of Tarsus go in parties to the banks of the river Cydnus, perform
their ablutions, and wash their clothes.
Some of their prayers to or invocations of Aliare really very beautiful,
and great solemnity is a feature in their worship, silence being always
observed ‘over the myrtle,’ as they term their services, from the myrtle
boughs which are spread for them to sit upon. Sometimes before the
Sheikh or Seid a bowl of water is placed, and olive-twigs are put inside.
Afterwards these are distributed to the people, who stick them in their
gardens and beehives for good luck. From a Greek of Tarsus, who
professed to have been eye-witness of one of their services from a lemon-
tree in a remote garden, I had evidence confirming the use of the myrtle
amongst them as a sacred plant. It is very plentiful in this locality, and
the name of the town, Mersina, is derived from it.
At Tarsus the Ansairee are all gardeners, and own most of the pro-
ductive gardens filled with oranges, lemons, and pomegranates, which
surround the city; their love of flowers is excessive. Ansairee women,
who go about unveiled, wear an extravagant number of flowers in their
hair, and at an Ansairee wedding I witnessed the display of flowers was
magnificent; the women dance publicly before men, a thing which
greatly scandalises the Turks, who would not so much as touch a piece
of meat which had been killed by an Ansairee. Their Sheikh goes once a
week to the Mosque for appearance sake.
Sheikh Hassan is the chief of the Kalazians at Tarsus, and one of
the richest men in the place; he has a fine open countenance, ruddy
complexion, and long grey beard; he told me that he came to Tarsus
with others of his race from the Lebanon about fifty years ago, probably
the time of the first Ansairee colony in Cilicia ; they were poor, and came
in search of work, but now by their industry they have got most of the
good land of Tarsus into their own hands, and they are reported to be
10,000 strong. Be this as it may, they practically govern the town, and
dictate to the Turkish governor what terms they please. Many entire
544 REPORT—1890.
villages on the plains belong to them, and as they are most of them
Kalazians, Sheikh Hassan is a man of considerable importance. He
receives tithes from the people, and lives in one of the best houses on the
outskirts of the town. He has a reputation for great generosity, as he
feeds 150 poor at his own expense every Friday. He is one of those
who, they say, will at once become stars when they die, without going
through any of those unpleasant transformations which are a common
fact of their belief. With them metempsychosis partakes strongly
of the ridiculous: bad men put on ‘low envelopes,’ or Kamees, in
the next world; Mussulmans become jackals, and Jewish Rabbis apes ;
a man may be punished by becoming a woman, but a good woman may
be rewarded in the next life by becoming a man; and many kindred ideas
of this nature.
Lastly, I will say a few words about the mystery of initiation into the
Ansairee faith—E] Kudda, as they call it. Only males are initiated, and
not till they are sixteen or thereabouts. The admission is only done by
degrees; only after the lapse of various probationary periods, sometimes
never at all, the final mysteries are revealed. The cup of wine is present,
as at all their festivals, and the sandal of the Seid or Sheikh is bound on
to the head of the novice with a white rag. The novice has to have no
less than twelve sponsors, who promise to cut him in pieces if he discloses
anything, and it is commonly reported at Tarsus, with what amount of
truth I know not, that the tongues of two men who revealed secrets are
kept in pickle and shown at the initiation as an awful warning to the
youth. For the twelve sponsors there are to be two other sponsors, who
are answerable for the good conduct of the twelve, and the oath by the
mystery of the Ain Min Sin is administered, the novice repeating the same
500 times.
The various probationary periods are forty days, and then seven
months, by which time the novice is supposed to have had time to learn
the sixteen prayers to Ali, and to be sufficiently prepared to become an
ordinary member of their body. What leugth of time it takes before the
youth is admitted into the higher degrees Ido not know. Altogether
their system of secrecy is very like that of the Freemasons. By a shake
of the hand an Ansairee will know his co-religionist, whether he dwells
on the shores of the Caspian or the Mediterranean, and they have kept
their secret well, quite as well as the masonic bodies of Western Europe.
Our further investigations into the nomad tribes of this district were
to the north-east of the Cilician plain, where vast tracts of uncultivated
country are given up to them and their flocks, a country capable of great
development if only a settled government could give security to the
farmer ; as it is, nearly every attempt at farming has failed. Near Adana
I was told of a farm with house and stock which could be bought for
150/., but then there had been three years of famine, and the landowners
were at their wits’ end to pay their taxes and their wages.
Our first intercourse with the Afshars of the Cilician plain was near
the rock fortress of Anazarba, where a detachment of them have taken
up their winter quarters. The Afshars are a very numerously divided
scattered tribe, chiefly of nomadic tendency. We saw a good deal of them
in Northern Persia, where they are said to have aspired to the throne,
and the great Shah Abbas of Persia, to counteract their influence, esta-
blished the tribe of the Shah Sevan.
In Persia the Afshars would appear to be of Kourdish origin, from
ON THE NOMAD TRIBES OF ASIA MINOR. 545
their names and propensities. The Afshars to the south are much mixed
up with the Armenians, having old Armenian words in their dialect of
Turkish, and names of a distinct Armenian provenance. In Persia they
talk Tatar-Turkish, but to the south their dialect is little different from
that of the other nomads amongst whom they live.
The Afshars, who were encamped just inside the ruined walls of
Anazarba, bnild themselves wicker huts made very dexterously out of the
reeds which grow in the neighbouring marshes; most of them consist of
two rooms, with a partition in the middle for the calves; the floors are of
mud, and in wet weather, as it unfortunately was during most of our time
there, these tenements are exceedingly disagreeable. In spring-time,
when they go up to the mountains with their cattle, they set fire to these
huts and rebuild them again the following winter.
One of the most notable points about these nomads are the magnificent
dogs they possess—huge animals resembling St. Bernards and intensely
savage. During our stay we never dared to go out alone, without one of
the tribe, man, woman, or child, to protect us. They feed them on butter-
milk poured into holes in the ground, and at night-time they are trained
to prowl] about and patrol the encampment at a certain distance, 30 as to
give ample warning of the approach of an enemy; for in this part of
Cilicia there are many robbers from the Kourdish and Circassian tribes.
They cut their ears short, so that they may hear better, and they are
exceedingly attached to them. ‘Better shoot one of their children than
one of their dogs,’ I was warned when threatening to shoot one if attacked.
The nights we spent in these huts were miserable; it would seem that
the Afshars never sleep, and all night long they were watching their
cattle, driving them from the reed houses, which they tried to eat, and no
peace of any sort could be got. At early dawn the noise of the churning
began, and quiet only appeared to reign during the absence of the flocks
at their pasturage.
The Afshar is very different from a Yourouk; he is not so tall or well
built, he is swarthy, has a round and often hairless face, and small, narrow
eyes ; a face which often reminded us of the Chinese type, and it would
seem that he has come from far in the heart of Asia.
The women are fat and stumpy : they wear down their backs long plaits
of false hair, which they make out of cotton or silk, and then dye to suit
the colour of their own hair; on to this they fasten odds and ends of silver
ornaments, and they call them owrmeh. Their faces are always unveiled,
except a bride, who conceals her face for the space of a year, and most
of them have their noses bored; into the hole they puta clove, which
puzzied us for a long time, for it resembled a nail—the idea being, |
imagine, to sweeten the breath. They wear red drawers, go about with
their feet always bare, and have embroidered jackets. Modesty seems to
be a thing unknown amongst them; several times we saw women stark
naked by a stream washing themselves and their clothes, and the presence
of men in the vicinity did not appear to disconcert them in the least.
For fuel they use nothing but the reeds from the neighbouring marsh,
which they put damp on to their fires, and they go off like a fire of mus-
ketry, rather alarming us at first at night-time, when we never felt sure
that a body of Circassian robbers was not upon us. In other encamp-
ments we found them using tezek, ov dung cakes, for fuel, in making which
the women are principally employed.
ee they use curious large wooden amphore, hollowed out of
. NN
546 REPORT—1890.
the trunks of trees and elegantly carved; out of trunks of trees they
make their beehives too, blocking up the ends with cakes of dung. Their
bees they always take with them to the mountains, and they boil the wax
and honey together, making cakes resembling soap, which they eat.
The men of some of these tribes wear very pretty loose blue jackets
embroidered with gold, and carry narrow-handled guns beautifully chased,
and with the barrel decorated with six or seven bands of silver.
The Bosdans, or followers of Bosadan Oglon, are another tribe, but of
distinctly the same origin as the Afshars, and, I imagine, come from the
same stock. Their women wear the same costume, only that they have
large, circular, gold ornaments at each ear, and are altogether more lavish
in the number of ornaments which they contrive to fasten on to the
ourmeh, or false plait, which hangs down their back.
The women of these tribes are great workers, and produce a great
number of the gelims, or coarse carpets, inferior indeed to the Karamanian
carpets made by the Yourouks, but very effective when the patterns are
elaborate and the colours well blended; in every wicker house is the
loom, with holes in the ground where the legs of the woman at work
disappear to work the pedals. By the Jeihan, the ancient Pyramus, the
tribes have great quantities of buffaloes and rude carts, with large round
wheels, made out of one piece of wood, with the axle passed through.
At Hemita-kaleh the resemblance to Chinese was very marked. A
man without his fez, with the front part of his hair shaved close, and left
to grow long behind, with his yellow skin, high cheek-bones, and almond-
shaped eyes, would pass very well for an inhabitant of the Celestial
Empire. Many of these Afshars claim to reach a greatage. We were
shown one who said he was 121, and could walk well; the only point,
however, which is certain is that longevity is common amongst them.
At Bodroum our home again was a hovel built out of wattled bam-
boos, and covered on the inside with pats of manure, which they white-
wash and decorate with rude patterns in henna. Here, again, they are
Afshars, but the women wear a different costume—red leather shoes to
keep off the snakes, red baggy trousers, blue skirt, and red satin jacket,
a fez bound round with lace, and splendid gold ornaments at each ear,
and a frontlet of coins.
At Bodroum are the extensive ruins of an ancient city, on a slope
about three-quarters of a mile from the Pyramus. These ruins are full
of nomads ; one family lives in the ancient theatre, another in an ancient
Christian church, another has taken possession of a tomb; and woe to
anybody who wanders about unprotected—the dogs of the place are
perfect demons. Appellatives are given to individuals, such as ‘the
broken hand,’ ‘ the lame man,’ from misfortunes that have happened to
them. ‘I'he owner of the theatre had had his leg and right arm damaged
in a struggle with a leopard, and hence gained his distinguishing name.
On the banks of the Pyramus they have fine fields of grain; when
reaped and threshed they bury the grain in holes in the ground, cover it
with straw, bushes, and earth, and keep it thus till wanted. This is a
very ancient custom, common in classical days, when these holes in the
ground were called cyof. Our investigations at Bodroum eventually
resulted in our discovering from several inscriptions that the ancient
name of the place was Hieropolis Castabala. Strabo gives an account of
the priestesses of Artemis Perasia, who here walked over burning coals
unhurt. Many commentators have tried to argue that for Perasia should
ON THE NOMAD TRIBES OF ASIA MINOR. 547
be read Persica, but we discovered two inscriptions with the word
Perasia thereon, distinctly proving that Strabo was right.
4 Furthermore, by the identification of this site, the route Alexander the
Great took before the battle of Issos is more clearly demonstrated.
From the coast line he went inland to Castabala, sent Parmenio to
reconnoitre the pass through which the main road to Syria then passed,
and when he had made sure of the ground behind him he dropped down
___ tothe coast again, which is about twenty miles distant, keeping the Amanus
mountains to his left. Hitherto travellers have sought for Castabala
down by the coast, but the identification of our site by epigraphy leaves
no room for doubt that this was the point to which Alexander made.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir WrLLIaM Turner, Mr.
BioxaM, Professor FLower, Dr. E. B. TyLor, and Mr. RISLEY,
appointed to investigate the Habits, Customs, Physical Charac-
teristics, and Religions of the Natives of India.
Preparations have been made for carrying on the work of the Committee
during the ensuing year, when Mr. Risley will have returned to India.
A series of questions specially applicable to the natives of India is being
drawn up, and the Committee anticipate valuable results from the replies
that will be received from the officials and others amongst whom these
questions will be circulated.
The Committee ask for reappointment, and that the grant of 101.,
which was made last year in view of possible preliminary expenses but
has not been drawn, may be renewed.
Report of the Committee, consisting of General Pitt-Rivers, Chair-
man, Dr. Garson, Secretary, and Dr. BeEppoE, Professor FLOWER,
Mr. Francis GaLton, and Dr. E. B. TyLor, appointed for the
purpose of editing a new Edition of ‘ Anthropological Notes
and Queries.’
Tue Committee has to report that during the past year substantial
progress has been made with the new edition of ‘ Anthropological Notes
and Queries,’ by the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and
Ireland, under the supervision of the council, of which body the work is
being done,.as stated in the last report. During the present year the
medical portion of the work has been entirely reorganised and rewritten
by eminent members of the medical profession, and has been printed.
The part of the work on physical anthropology has been almost entirely
rewritten, and is all but ready for the press. Some delay has been
caused by the difficulty of obtaining satisfactory coloured plates for
standards of the colour of hair, skin, and eyes. Those in the previous
editions, it has been found, lost colour rapidly, even when not exposed to
the light. As these standards are necessarily exposed to a considerable
extent where the book is in constant use changes take place more rapidly ;
hence the results obtained from them are liable to be very fallacious.
he desirability of obtaining standard colours which are less liable to
548 REPORT—1890.
deteriorate is most important, and it is hoped the difficulties hitherto
met with on this score may be overcome. By the end of the present
year the Committee expects the work will be in the hands of the public.
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Jon Luszocr,
Dr. JouN Evans, Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, Dr. R. Munro,
Mr. W. PENGELLY, Dr. Henry Hicks, Professor MELpoua, Dr.
MurrHead, and Mr. James W. Davis, appointed for the pur-
ose of ascertaining and recording the localities in the British
Islands in which evidences of the existence of Prehistoric
Inhabitants of the country are found. (Drawn up by Mr. JAMES
W. Davis.)
THE report now presented by your Committee is somewhat brief; it is
expected, however, that those interested in the subject—who are pre-
paring reports for the counties of Northumberland, the West Riding of
Yorkshire, North Lancashire and Westmoreland, Essex, Hampshire and
Dorsetshire, and the northern counties of Ireland—will be prepared to
present them for publication at no distant date, and it is hoped that at
the next meeting of the Association the report will not only be a more
voluminous and important one, but that several additional lists will be in
course of preparation in other parts of the country. It is desired to draw
the attention of those who have undertaken to record the occurrence of ~
prehistoric objects, or who may do so, to the method suggested in the
first report made in 1887, in which it is requested that information be
given as to (1) the object, (2) the locality where found, (3) the date
when found, (4) state if previously described and where, (5) special
characteristics, and (6) where the object is now deposited. In the case
of large objects, as caves, earthworks, lake-dwellings, tumuli, dolmens,
&c., it has been decided to record them on the l-inch Ordnance Survey
maps, and the signs and colours adopted are given in the second report
of the Committee, published in the volume for year 1888.
A list of prehistoric objects found in the parish of Rochdale, prepared
by J. Reginald Ashworth, Honorary Secretary of the Rochdale Literary
and Scientific Society, has been received by the Committee.
Flint implements and chippings have been found in the neighbourhood
of Rochdale at :—
Blackstone Edge
Brandwood Moor
Brown Wardle Hill
Cow Heys,
Crow ical } Hangh
Culvert Clough, Bleakedgate-cum-
Roughbank
Flower Scar Hill, Todmorden
Foxton Edge, Bleakedgate-cum-
Roughbank
Hades Hill, Huddersfield
Helpit Edge, Haugh
Hunger Hill,
Knoll Hill, \ Catley Lane
Longden End Moor, Lowhouse
Lower Moor, Todmorden
Middle Hill, Wardle
Ramsden, Walsden
Robin Hood’s Bed
Rough Hiil,
Rashy Fill, } Wardle
Tooter Hill, Brandwood
Trough Edge,
Turnsbaw Hill, Catley Lane
Wardle
Wardle Moor
Well ’ith’ Lane
ON THE PREHISTORIC INHABITANTS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 549
a
The flint objects are generally discovered on the neolithic floor, found
about 1,300 feet above sea-level, and covered with a layer of peat varying
from 1 to 10 feet in thickness. They consist of knives, scrapers, arrow
heads, spear tips, and very small implements, possibly for boring eyes in
bone needles, all unpolished.
The list has been extracted principally from the recently published
‘History of Rochdale,’ by Lieut.-Col. Fishwick.
Dr. H. C. Marsh has found fragments of hematite and graphite on
_ Knoll Hill (one of the localities where flints have been discovered),
which may have been used as pigments.
Four years ago some tumuli at Worsthorn and Extwisle, near
_ Burnley, were investigated, and a cinerary urn was disinterred from one
of them. It is 12 inches in height and 104 inches in diameter, made of
unbaked clay, and pre-Roman in character. The urn contained the
_ charred remains of two bodies ; the only artificial object being a bronze
pin. Dr. Marsh, who described the urn and its contents, considers that
the interment took place during the Bronze Age.
Your Committee request to be reappointed without a grant.
Report of the Committee, consisting of General Pitt Rivers, Dr.
Garson, and Mr. Bioxam, appointed for the purpose of
Calculating the Anthropological Measurements taken at the
Newcastle Meeting of the Association in 1889. (Drawn up by
Dr. Garson, Secretary.)
Tus Committee has to report that the arrangements made by the local
committee for the Anthropometric Laboratory in connection with the
Anthropological Section at Newcastle last year were most excellent. A
arge and well-lighted room in the same building as the meeting-room
f the Section was set apart for the laboratory, aud the services of aclerk
were placed at the disposal of the sectional officers. By the kind permis-
sion of Mr. Francis Galton, the services of the superintendent of
his laboratory at South Kensington—Sergeant Randal—were again
available to carry on the work of the laboratory, in conjunction with
Mr. Bloxam and Dr. Garson. The new instruments mentioned in last
report were used for the first time, and proved fairly satisfactory.
With the prospect of an efficient number of instruments available for
work in the laboratory, it was decided that the observations made should
be of a somewhat more physical character than had been previously the
ease, and that they should agree as much as possible with the system of
ebservations instituted by Professor Topinard. As the number of hands
in the laboratory was limited in proportion to the number of applicants
to be measured, it was necessary to select the most important measure-
ments, and those which could be made with the greatest amount of
accuracy in the least possible space of time. On this account it was
thought desirable to cut ont several observations previously made, par-
ticularly amongst those relating to the efficiency of some of the organs of
Sense, which required some time to test accurately.
The list of observations was as follows :—sex, age, birthplace, occu-
‘pation, colour of eyes and of hair, the height of body when standing with
550 REPORT—1890.
boots or shoes on the feet, and the thickness of the heel; by subtracting
the latter the actual stature was determined: the height when sitting
and when kneeling with the body in an upright position; the maximum
length and breadth of the head, and the cephalic index: the vertical
distance or projection from the vertex to the tragus, to the mouth and to
the chin respectively ; the length and breadth of the nose and nasal
index; the length and breadth of the face (the former measured from
the nasion to the under surface of the chin, the fatter the greatest width —
between the external surfaces of the zygomata),,and the facial index
obtained from these measurements ; the length of cubit and of middle
finger ; the space of arms measured across the back; the weight in ordi-
nary walking clothing ; the strength of pull with right and left hands,
and the strength of pull of a person, being the mean pull of the two
hands; the vital capacity of the chest. In males the circumference of
the chest during greatest inspiration and during forced expiration were
ascertained and the difference recorded. The vision of each eye and the
power of distinguishing colour were the only observations made on the
efficiency of the senses. As on previous occasions, a duplicate form was
provided of these observations, and by means of a sheet of carbon paper
a duplicate copy of the measurements was made and handed to each
person who submitted to the various tests.
The number of persons measured was 125; of these 81 were males
and 44 females. The time occupied in going through the various tests
was about a quarter of an hour per person. During the first day the
number of members and associates who found their way to the labora-
tory were small, consequently the number of observations made that day
were few. Afterwards, however, the numbers were increased and the
attendants and one or other of the secretaries (when the latter was able
to leave the duties of the Section room and take part in the laboratory
work) were kept very busy. Indeed it was impossible for the staff to
measure nearly all who presented themselves for that purpose, notwith-
‘standing that the laboratory was kept open daily from 19 a.m. till 4 p.m.
till the close of the meeting.
The work of the laboratory was ample to test the capabilities of the
instruments, and although these were, on the whole, very satisfactory for
the purposes for which they were intended, yet improvements were sug-
gested by practical experience which would render them more efficient. —
During the winter these alterations have been carried out. It must be re- —
membered, however, that the funds subscribed were only sufficient to —
purchase the most necessary instruments in the first instance, and that —
some more apparatus is still necessary before the laboratory can be con- —
sidered to be efficiently equipped. i
In compiling the results of the observations made in the laboratory —
last year at Newcastle, the system of centesimal grades introduced by —
Mr. Francis Galton has been employed, as in the previous report of the
laboratory at the Bath Meeting of the Association. This system is found —
to be less laborious in working, and to give much more information —
regarding the variations in the series of persons measured. The Com- —
mittee is also satisfied that the list of measurements adopted last year is —
a distinct advance on those previously used, in that much more extensive ~
information is gained regarding the physical characters of the persons —
examined, and the results obtained will be more widely comparable to —
those made in other countries on other races of mankind, being the same
ON CALCULATING THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS, 551
in the most essential elements as have been submitted to anthropologists
in France by Professor Topinard, and as are adopted in the new edition
of ‘ Anthropological Notes and Queries’ of the Association.
As the Committee considers that valuable statistics are yearly obtained
from the Anthropometric Laboratory of the Association regarding the
physical characters of the educated classes of the community who live
under favourable circumstances as to nourishment and development, it
asks to be reappointed, and that such a sum of money be placed at its
disposal for carrying on the investigations this year as the Committee of
he Anthropological Section may recommend. All the money granted
y the Association last year has been expended on printing and working
up the following statistical results.
AGE.
The age of the persons on whom observations were made is as follows :
ales, under 20 years, 10; between 20 and under 30 years, 23; be-
ween 30 and under 40 years, 21; between 40 and under 50 years, 8;
between 50 and under 60 years, 10; between 60 and under 70 years, 6;
between 70 and under 80 years, 3.
Females: under 20 years, 9; between 20 and under 30 years, 12;
between 30 and under 40 years, 11; between 40 and under 40 years, 8;
between 50 and under 60 years, 3; between 60 and under 70 years, 1.
BIRTHPLACE.
Great diversity was found, as might be expected, regarding the birth-
Place of those examined. There were persons from almost all parts of
he United Kingdom, but almost 50 per cent. were born in Newcastle
od the country and towns round about it. The next most frequent
birthplace was London, where rather more than 14 per cent. were born.
Cotour or Eyes anp Harr.
_ The number of males with light eyes and light hair was 44, and of
females, 21. With light eyes and dark hair there were 26 males and 13
With dark eyes and dark hair there were 8 males and 6
Two ladies are noted to have had dark eyes and light hair ;
is combination was not observed amongst the males.
HeIcHt wHen Sranpina EReEct.
The most accurate method of measuring the stature is doubtless with-
ont boots or shoes. To measure in this way was not practicable, so that
the method of measuring the person in boots and shoes, and subtracting
from the stature so obtained the thickness of the heel, had to be adopted.
Tn the males the actual stature thus obtained varied from 1™ 575 to
1™875, the mid-stature being 1™715. At the 25th grade it is found
to be 1™-670, and at the 75th grade 1™-760; the probable deviation being
45mm. (i.e., half the difference between these two last grades), the cor-
rected mid-stature is 1™-715. In the females the actual stature varied
from 1™-450 to 1™-775, the mid-stature being 1™-589. At the 25th grade
it is 1™541, and at the 75th grade 1™-627, the probable deviation between
these two last grades being 43mm. ‘The corrected mid-stature of the
ie
a, REPORT—1890.
females is 1™-584, which shows a difference of 131mm. less than the males
(=abonut 5} inches).
Stature in Males.
1575}1600)1625| 1650/1675) 1700)1725|1750|1775|1800|1824|1850)1875) Stature in mm.
Pete ee ed Meteo! TOs aie) <3 Joc8 Weel pie
Dalmoinly tual elon 20) 38 | 50 60 | 71 | 74 | 77 | 78 | 79 | Abscissz 0-79
Stature in Females.
1450147: 15001525 1550}1575) L60C] 1625) 1650 16751775 Stature in mm,
11 3 1 | ATE BA edialss Zl {Os 2 ling Total observations 43
1 4 5 | 9 | 16 | 21 | 28 | 35 | 40 42 | 43 Abscissz 0-43
Hach of these divisions progressing by 25mm., they may roughly be
taken to represent inches, 1™575 being equivalent to 62 inches, and 1™-600 —
to 63 inches, and so on. i
The stature of persons measured at Bath Meeting contained in last
year’s Laboratory Report are somewhat different, as there we found that
the corrected male mid-stature was 1™:725, and that of the females
1™'587.
LENGTH OF THE Bopy WHEN SITTING.
The length of the trunk of the body indicated by the sitting height
varies in the males from 800mm. to 960mm., the mid-length being 896mm.
At the 25th grade it is 862mm., andat the 75th grade 916mm.; the pro-
bable deviation is therefore 27mm., giving a corrected mid-grade of
889mm. In the females this length varies from 790mm. to 910mm., mid-
length being 830mm. At the 25th grade it is 805mm., and at the 75th
grade 858mm. 27mm. therefore represents the probable deviation, giving
a corrected mid-grade of 830mm., or 59mm. less than in the males. In
last report the corrected mid-grade of body length was found to be
900mm. in the males, and 847mm. in the females.
Males.
|
00/8 10|820|8301840/850'860|870/880 890 900 910 920/930,940/950 960 Sitting height
: Total observa-
1/2/2]2] 8] 7} 2) 2] 7] 7) sj10faa| 5] 4} 3} 3} {70 ons
;
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Ol wh [tepu wl Brit. As SOC. L890 IP ] ate x IX.
Nore.,— Zhe Tinneh are according to Dr. G. M. Dawson. Broad coloured lines denote
limits of branches of one linguistic stock, thin coloured lines limits of more
closely related dialects.
Illustrating the Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of the
Dominion of Canada.
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 553
Siath Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. E. B. Tytor,
Mr. W. Bioxam, Sir Danie Witson, Dr. G. M. Dawson, General
Sir H. Lrerroy, and Mr. R. G. Hatisurton, appointed to in-
vestigate the physical characters, languages, and industrial
and social condition of the North-Western Tribes of the
Dominion of Canada.
[PLATE XIX.]
Tue Committee have been able once more to secure the services of Dr.
Boas, who has drawn up the bulk of the report on the tribes of British
Columbia. This is accompanied by a linguistic map, and preceded by
remarks on British Columbian ethnology by Mr. Horatio Hale. The
grant made to the Committee was supplemented by 500 dollars from the
Canadian Government, and the Committee suggest that each member of
the Dominion Parliament should be supplied with one copy of the report.
The Committee ask for reappointment, and for a grant of 2001.
Remarks on the Ethnology of British Columbia: Introductory to the Second
General Report of Dr. Franz Boas on the Indians of that Province. By
Horatio Hate.
A reference to the map annexed to this report will show at a glance
those striking characteristics of British Columbian ethnography which
were described in my remarks prefixed to the report of 1889.!_ These
peculiarities are the great number of linguistic stocks, or families of
languages, which are found in this comparatively small territory, and
_ the singular manner in which they are distributed, especially the sur-
_ prising variety of stocks clustered along the coast, as contrasted with
the ‘ wide sweep’ (to use the apt words of Dr. G. M. Dawson) ‘of the
languages of the interior.’ To this may be added the great number of
dialects into which some of these stocks are divided. The whole of the
interior east of the coast ranges, with a portion of the coast itself, is
_ occupied by tribes belonging to three families—the Tinneh, the Salish
(or Selish), and the Kootenay (or Kutonaqa). What is especially
notable, moreover, is the fact that, according to the best evidence we
_ possess, all the tribes of these three stocks are intruders, having penetrated
into this region from the country east of the Rocky Mountains. In the
q third report of this Committee. (1887) are given the grounds for conclud-
ing that the Kootenays formerly resided east of these mountains, and
were driven across them by the Blackfoot tribes. In the fourth report
1 Tt should be mentioned that this map has, on my suggestion, been framed on
the plan of my ‘ Ethnographic Map of Oregon,’ though necessarily on asmaller scale
(see vol. vii. of the United States Exploring Expedition under Wilkes : ‘ Ethnography
and Philology,’ p. 197). The two maps are, in fact, complements of each other.
Those who desire to study this subject thoroughly, however, should refer to the valu-
able maps of Mr. W. H. Dalland of Drs. Tolmie and Dawson, the former appended
to the Report of Dr. George Gibbs to the Smithsonian Institution on the ‘ Tribes of
_ Western Washington and North-Western Oregon,’ in vol. i. of Powell’s Contributions
to North American Ethnology (1877), and the latter attached to their Comparative
Vocabularies of the Indian Tribes of British Columbia, published by the Canadian
Government (1884). These maps are on a much larger scale and supply many
_ important details.
1890. 00
&
554 REPORT—1890.
(1888) the connection between the Tinneh tribes east and west of the
mountains is explained ; and in the Smithsonian report of Dr. Gibbs on
the West Washington tribes, that accomplished ethnologist has given his
reasons for holding that the Salish formerly resided east of the mountains,
and have made their way thence to the Pacific, driving before them or
absorbing the original inhabitants.! To this intrusion and conquest are
doubtless due the many Salish dialects, or rather ‘ dialect-languages,’
differing widely in vocabulary and grammar, which have been evolved
(like the Romanic languages of Southern Europe or the modern Aryan
languages of Hindustan) in the process of this conquest and absorption.
A remarkable evidence is found in the case of the Bilhoola (Bilqula)
tribe and language. This tribe, belonging to the Salish family, is wholly
isolated from the other septs of that family, being completely surrounded
by Kwakiutl tribes and Tinneh, into whose territory it has apparently
pushed its way. Asa result its speech has undergone so great a change
that by some inquirers it was at first supposed to be a totally distinct
language. A still more striking instance of a mixed language, though
not belonging to the Salish family, is furnished by what is now termed
the Kwakiutl-Nootka stock. Until Dr. Boas last year visited the Nootka
people and carefully analysed their language, it had been supposed by all
investigators, himself included, to be a separate stock, radically distinct
from all others. The analysis now furnishes clear evidence of a connec-
tion between this idiom and the more widespread Kwakiutl. The
connection, however, is so distant, and the differences in vocabulary and
grammar are so important, that we are naturally led to suspect here also
a conquest and an intermixture. The Nootka tribes who inhabit a -
portion of the west coast of Vancouver Island, and who were so named
from a harbour on that coast, have been more lately styled by good
authorities the ‘Aht nation’ from the syllable aht or ath, meaning
‘people’ or ‘tribe,’ with which all their tribal names terminate—
Nitinaht, Toquaht, Hoyaht, Seshaht, Kayoquaht, &e. Their speech,
though in certain points resembling the Kwakintl, has yet, to a large
extent, its own grammar and vocabulary. It seems probable that we
see in it the case of an originally distinct stock, which at some early
period has been overpowered and partially absorbed by another stock
(the Kwakiutl), and yet has subsequently pursued its own special course
of development. The comparison of the two languages, as now presented
by Dr. Boas, offers, therefore, a particularly interesting subject of study.
All the languages of British Columbia of every stock have a peculiar
pkonology. Their pronunciation is singularly harsh and indistinct.
The contrast in this respect between these languages and those immedi-
ately south of them is very remarkable and indeed surprising. As the
point is one of much interest, I may venture to quote the remarks on
this subject with which (in my work before cited) the account of the
‘Languages of North-Western America’ is prefaced :—
‘The languages of the tribes west of the Rocky Mountains may be
divided into two classes, which differ very strikingly in their vocak
elements and pronunciation. These classes may be denominated the
northern and southern, the latter being found chiefly south of the
Columbia, and the former, with one or two exceptions, on the north
of that river. To the northern belong the Tahkali-Umqua (or Tinneh),
' See page 224 of the report referred{to in the preceding note.
j ON THE NORTH-WESLERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 555
the Salish, the Chinook, and the Iakon languages, with all on the north-
west coast of which we have any knowledge. The southern division
comprehends the Sahaptin, the Shoshoni, the Kalapuya, Shaste, Lutuami,
and all the Californian idioms so far as we are acquainted with them.
Those of the northern class are remarkable for their extraordinary
harshness, which in some is so great as almost to surpass belief. The
Chinooks, Chikailish, and Killamuks appear actually to labour in speak-
_ ing; an illusion which proceeds no doubt from the effect produced on the
_ ear of the listener by the harsh elements with which their languages
_ abound, as well as the generally rough and dissonant style of pronuncia-
tion. The x is in these tongues a somewhat deeper guttural than the
Spanish jota. The q is an extraordinary sound, resembling the hawking
_ noise produced by an effort to expel phlegm from the throat. Ty/ is
_ acombination uttered by forcing out the breath at the side of the mouth
_ between the tongue and the palate. These languages are all indistinct as
_ well as harsh. The same element in the Chincok and other tongues is
_ heard at one time as a v, at another as a J, and again as an m, the latter
being probably the most accurate representation. Similarly the n and d
are in several dialects indistinguishable, and we were constantly in doubt
whether certain short vowels should be written or omitted.
‘The southern languages are, on the other hand, no less distinguished
for softness and harmony. The gutturals are found in two or three,
_ into which they seem to have been introduced by communication with
the northern tribes. The rest want this class of letters, and have in their
place the labial f, the liquid r, and the nasal % (ng), all of which are
unknown to the former. Difficult combinations of consonants rarely
occur, and the many vowels make the pronunciation clear and sonorous.
There is, however, a good deal of variety in this respect, some of the
languages, as the Lutuami, Shaste, and Palaihnik, being smooth and
agreeable to the ear, while the Shoshoni and Kalapuya, though soft, are
nasal and indistinct.’ !
At the time when this description was written, I had formed no
opinion as to the origin of these contrasted phonologies. I am now
inclined to believe that the difference is due mainly to climatic influences.
The harsh utterance extends from Alaska southward to the Columbia
iver, where it suddenly ceases, and gives place to softer sounds. This
is exactly the point at which the coast ceases to be lined by that network
of islands, straits, and friths, whose waters, abounding in fish, afford the
main source of subsistence to the tribes of the northern region. The
climate, except for a brief summer, is that of an almost perpetual April
or October. This part of the coast is one of the rainiest regions of the
earth, and the fishermen in their canoes are almost constantly exposed to
the chilling moisture. Their pronunciation is that of a people whose
“yocal organs have for many generations been affected by continual coughs
and catarrhs, thickening the mucous membrane and obstructing the air-
passages. A strong confirmation of this view is found in Tierra del
¥ 1 Ethnography and Philology, p. 533. The orthography here employ2d is some-
what different from that of Dr. Boas, who, by my advice, has avoided the use of
| Greek or other foreign characters, employing only English letters with various dia-
_ critical marks. This alphabet somewhat disguises to the eye the extreme difficulties
of the pronunciation. The ¢x/, for example, is written by him simply ¢/, but the / is
defined as an ‘explosive J.’ It is the combination so frequent in the Mexican (or
_ Nahuatl) tongue.
,
002
556 REPORT— 1890.
Fuego, where apparently a climate and mode of life almost exactly
similar have produced the same effect on the people and their language.
Anyone who will compare my above-quoted description with the well-
known and amusing account given by Darwin of the speech of the
Fuegians will be struck by the resemblance. He writes, in his ‘ Voyage
of the “ Beagle’’’ : ‘ The language of these people, according to our notions,
scarcely deserves to be called articulate. Captain Cook has compared it
to a man clearing his throat; but certainly no European ever cleared his
throat with so many hoarse, guttural, and clicking sounds.’ Yet the
Fuegian language has been found to be, in its grammar and vocabulary
(like the languages of our north-west coast), highly organised, and
abounding in minutely expressive words and forms.!
South of the Columbia River the coast becomes nearly bare of islands.
Harbours are few. The purely fishing tribes are no longer found. The
milder climate of California, resembling that of Southern Italy, begins to
prevail, and the soft Italian pronunciation pervades all the languages,
except those of a few Tinneh septs which have wandered into this region
from the far north, and still retain something of the harshness of their
original utterance.
Not merely in their modes of speech, but also in more important
points, do the northern coast tribes show a certain general resemblance,
which, in spite of radical differences of language, and doubtless of origin,
seems to weld them together into one community, possessing what may
fairly be styled a civilisation of their own, comparable on a small scale
to that of the nations of Eastern Asia. Dr. Boas is the first investi-
gator whose researches have extended over this whole region. Other
writers have given us excellent monographs on separate tribes. The
work of Mr. Sproat on the Nootka, and those of Dr. Dawson on the
Haida and Kwakiutl may be particularly mentioned. But a general
description was needed to bring out at once the differences and the
resemblances of the various stocks, and to show the extent to which
similar surroundings and long-continued intercommunication had availed
to create a common polity among them.
Two institutions which are, to a greater or less extent, common to all
the coast tribes, and which seem particularly to characterise them and to
distinguish them from other communities, may here be specially noted.
Both appear to have originated in the Kwakiutl nation, and to have
spread thence northward and southward. © These institutions are the
political secret societies and the custom of ‘potlatch.’ Secret societies
exist among other Indian tribes, and probably among all races of the
globe, civilised or barbarous. But there are perhaps no other communi-
ties in which the whole political system has come to be bound up with
such societies. As Dr. Boas informs us, there are in all the tribes three
distinct ranks—the chiefs, the middle class, and the common people—or,
as they might perhaps be more aptly styled, nobles, burgesses, and
rabble. The nobles form a caste. Their rank is hereditary; and no one
who was not born in it can in any way attain it. The nobles have dis-
tinction and respect, but little power. The government belongs mainly
to the ‘burgesses,’ who constitute the bulk of the nation. They owe their
position entirely to the secret societies. Any person who is not a member
of a secret society belongs to the rabble, takes no part in the public
' See Fr. Miiller, Grundriss von Sprachwissenschaft, vol. iv. p. 207; and Max
Miiller’s Science of Thought, p. 437.
te ne
EEE
—— - \*
a
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. Siii/
councils, and is without consideration or influence. The greater the
number of secret societies to which any man belongs, the higher is his
standing in the community. As there are several of these societies in
every tribe, it is evident that no person whose character: would make him
a desirable member of one of them is likely to remain outside of the
burgess class. The lowest class, or rabble, is therefore a veritable
residuum, composed of feeble-minded or worthless individuals, with, of
course—in those tribes which practise slave-holding—slaves and their
descendants. Grotesque as this system seems at first thought, further
consideration shows it to be by no means ill-contrived for keeping the
government of the tribe permanently in the worthiest hands, and bringing
men of the first merit into the most influential positions.
Connected with this system is that of the ‘ potlatch,’ or gift-festival,
a custom which has been greatly misunderstood by strangers, who have
regarded it as a mere parade of wasteful and ostentatious profusion. It is
in reality something totally different. The potlatch is a method most
ingeniously devised for displaying merit, acquiring influence, and at the
same time laying up a provision for the future. Among these Indians, as
among all communities in which genuine civilisation has made some pro-
gress, the qualities most highly esteemed in a citizen are thrift, forethought,
and liberality. The thrift is evinced by the collection of the property ©
which is distributed at the gift-feast ; the liberality is, of course, shown
in its distribution; and the forethought is displayed in selecting as the
special objects of this liberality those who are most likely to be able to
return it. By a well-understood rule, which among these punctilious
natives had all the force of a law of honour, every recipient of a gift ata
potlatch was bound to return its value, at some future day, twofold. And
in this repayment his relatives were expected to aid him; they were
deemed, in fact, his sureties. Thus a thrifty and aspiring burgess who,
at one of these gift-feasts, had emptied all his chests of their accumulated
stores, and had left himself and his family apparently destitute, could
comfortably reflect, as he saw his visitors depart in their well-laden
canoes, that he had not only greatly increased his reputation, but had at
the same time invested all his means at high interest, on excellent
security, and was now in fact one of the wealthiest, as well as most
esteemed, members of the community.
We now perceive why the well-meant act of the local legislature,
abolishing tke custom of potlatch, aroused such strenuous opposition among
the tribes in which this custom specially prevailed. We may imagine the
consternation which would be caused in England if the decree of a
superior power should require that all benefit societies and loan companies
should be suppressed, and that all deposits should remain the property of
those who held them in trust. The potlatch and its accompaniments
doubtless had their ill effects, but the system clearly possessed its useful
side, and it might perhaps have been better left to gradually decline and
disappear with the rise and diffusion of a different system of economy.
The nature of the civilisation and industry which accompanied it may
be shown by a brief extract from the report of Dr. George Gibbs, already
referred to. In 1858 he visited a village of the Makahs, a Nootka tribe,
near Cape Flattery. It consisted of two blocks of four or five houses
each. These houses were constructed of hewn planks, secured to a strong
framework of posts and rafters. The largest was no less than 75 feet
long by 40 in width, and probably 15 feet high in front. In chests of
558 REPORT—1890.
large size and very neatly made, and on shelves overhead, were stowed
the family chattels and stores, a vast and miscellaneous assortment.
‘Mr. Goldsborough,’ he adds, ‘ who visited the village in 1850, informed
me that the houses generally were on an even larger scale at that time ;
that the chief’s house was no less than 100 feet in length, and that
about twenty women were busily engaged in it, making bark mats and
dog-hair blankets.’
It is evident that these people differ in character and habits as widely
from the Indians of the interior as the Chinese and Japanese differ from
the Tartar nomads. The coast tribes of British Columbia are communi-
ties of fishermen, mechanics, and traders, with a well-defined political
and commercial system. They were to all appearance especially suited
for accepting the industrial methods of modern Europe; and it becomes a
subject of interest to inquire into the probabilities of the future in this
respect.
a this inquiry the element of the radical difference of stocks comes
very distinctly into view. We find that, despite the superficial resem-
blance in polity and usages which has been noted among these tribes,
their moral and intellectual traits, like their languages, remain widely
dissimilar. These differences become strikingly apparent in reviewing
the recent information given respecting the condition and progress of
the British Columbian tribes in the valuable annual reports of the Cana-
dian Department of Indian Affairs.
Thus the Kwakiutl people—known in these documents by the griev-
ously disordered name of ‘ Kwaw-kewlth ’—are described in a late report
(1887) as ‘the least advanced and most averse to civilisation of any in
the province.’ ‘The missionaries of several Churches,’ we are further
told, ‘ have endeavoured to carry on mission work among them, but each
was obliged to abandon them as hopeless, until, several years ago, the
Rey. Mr. Hall, of the Church of England, was stationed there, and, in
spite of all the obstacles and discouragements encountered by him, re-
mained, and has apparently won the confidence of some of these poor,
ignorant creatures.’ Jn the following year the local agent reports some
improvement, but adds that ‘the school is not so well attended as could
be desired. The children are not averse to learning, but their parents
see in education the downfall of all their most cherished customs.’ In
1889 he finds among them some signs of progress in the mechanic arts,
and a willingness to give up some of their superstitions. ‘Only to the
potlatch,’ he adds significantly, ‘do they cling with great pertinacity.’
To understand these facts it should be known that the Kwakiutl, by
virtue of their force of character, their stubborn conservatism, and what
may be called, in reference to their peculiar creed and rites, a strong
religious sentiment, held a high position, and exercised a prevailing
influence among the neighbouring tribes. The changes introduced by
civilisation have naturally been repugnant to them. They cling to their
ancient customs and Jaws; and when these are set aside, the sense of
moral restraint is lost, and the Spartan-like persistency which made
them respected degenerates into a sullen recklessness, combined with an
obstinate hostility to all foreign influences.
A remarkable contrast appears in the character and conduct of their
northern neighbours, the Tsimshians. These are the people among whom
Mr. Duncan had such distinguished success in founding his mission of
Metlakahtla. According to the brief description given in H. H. Ban-
ae
ee ene ee Ss ee
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 559
eroft’s ‘ History of British Columbia,’ this mission, which was commenced
in 1858, had in 1886 ‘developed into a town containing some 1,500 so-
called civilised natives, with neat two-story houses and regular streets.
The principal industry was the weaving of shawls. There were also a
salmon cannery, with a capacity of 10,000 cases a year; a sash and door
factory ; and a sawmill and a brickyard. The church, built entirely
by the natives, and the materials for which, with the exception of the
windows, were of home production, had a seating capacity of nearly a
thousand, and was one of the largest in British Columbia.’
The unfortunate events which resulted in the withdrawal of Mr.
Duncan and five hundred of his people from the province need not be
referred to here, farther than by stating that they led to the appointment
of a commission, composed of two members, representing respectively the
Dominion and the Provincial Governments, to inquire into the condition
of affairs in this quarter. 'The commissioners visited the various stations
on the Tsimshian coast in the autamn of 1887, and presented a very
able and interesting report, which is published in the volume of that
year. ‘Their descriptions fully confirm all that has been said concerning
the great and indeed astonishing advances which have been made by
these natives in all the ways of civilisation. Of the village of Kincolith,
comprising a population of about two hundred, they say :—
‘ The houses are mostly on the plan of those at Metlakahtla, one and
a half stories high, with a room for reception and ordinary use, built in
on the space between each two houses. Some of the houses are single-
story, and several ‘‘ bay windows” could be seen. There are street-
lamps and sidewalks, and the little village bears every indication of
prosperity. The place was tidy and orderly, and the Indians evidently
thriving and well-to-do.’
The larger town of Port Simpson, with a population estimated at
about a thousand, is thus described: ‘The Indian village, spread over a
considerable area, with several streets and numerous houses, presented
quite an imposing appearance. The houses are substantially built, and
are varied in fashion by the taste of the natives. A long line of houses
fronts upon an esplanade, commanding a fine sea-view, and another on
Village Island faces the harbour. The cemetery on the extremity of this
island is largely in modern style, and contains many costly monuments.
The island is connected with the rest of the town by a ‘long bridge.’
There are a handsome church—said to rank next in size to the one at
Metlakahtla, which is the largest in the province—a commodions school-
house, and a well-conducted orphanage, all bearing testimony to the
energy of those in charge of the mission. There are a fire-brigade house
‘and a temperance hall; street-lamps are used; and a brass band was
heard at practice in the evening. On the commissioners’ arrival a salute
was fired and a considerable display of bunting was made.’
The report of these impartial and liberal-minded commissioners shows
that these Indians held themselves to be completely on a level with the
white settlers, and that they felt a natural unwillingness to be confined to
a ‘reserve,’ and to be placed under an ‘Indian agent.’ Their sentiments,
manly and self-respecting, were precisely such as might have been ex-
pressed by a colony of Norwegians or Japanese, but with the added
claim to consideration that the claimants regarded themselves as the
rightful owners of the land, on which their people had resided from time
immemorial,
560 REPORT—1890.
The widespread bands of the great Salish people show many varieties
of character, as might be expected in the septs of what is evidently a
mixed race. The majority, however, are industrious, and readily adapt:
themselves to the new conditions of their present life. As fairly typical,
the account which is given in the latest report (for 1889) of the
Tl-kamcheen or Lytton band may be selected. This is the principal
band of the ‘ Ntlakyapamuq tribe,’ whose location will be found on the
map near the junction of the Fraser and Thompson Rivers. The
resourcefulness and versatile industry by which the members of this
band manage to thrive under very adverse circumstances are well
described by the local agent, Mr. J. W. Mackay: ‘ Although these
Indians,’ be observes, ‘ have had a large acreage allotted to them, but a
very small portion of it can be cultivated, owing to the entire lack of
water. These Indians are great traders and carriers. They draw the
agricultural products which they require from the neighbouring reserves
at Spapiam, N.humeen, Strynne, and N.kuaikin. They help the Indians
of these reserves to sow and harvest their crops, and take payment for
their services in kind. They mine for gold, carry goods for traders from
Lytton to Lillooet, and work for the Canadian Pacific Railway Company.
They own a large number of horses, which they pasture on the lands
allotted to them. They have a few head of horned cattle, and they
cultivate the few available plots of land belonging to their reserves.
They are in good circumstances. They pay cousiderable attention to the
offices of religion.’
The Cowichin tribe (on the map ‘Kauwitcin’), on the south-east corner
of Vancouver Island—another sept of this stock—are described as
making fair progress, but as more unsettled in their habits. The recent
statutory interference with some of their customs had produced a re-
markable effect. Under the peculiar stimulus of their own system they
had accumulated in 1888 ‘personal property’ to the large amount of
407,000 dollars. In the following year that value had suddenly sunk to
80,000 dollars. This startling change is briefly explained by the Indian
Superintendent for the Province: ‘The decrease in the value of personal
property as compared with last year,’ he states, ‘is ascribed by Mr. Agent
Lomas to the fact that most of the natives have not collected property
for potlatching purposes.’ Thus it appears that a law of compulsory
repudiation, enacted with the most benevolent motives, had in a single
year reduced the personal wealth of one small tribe from over 400,000
dollars toa fifth of that amount. This must be deemed a lesson in politi-
cal economy as striking as (coming from such a quarter) it is unexpected.
One of the smallest and, at the same time, most interesting of the
tribes of this province are the Kootenays (Kutonaqa on the map).
They number only about five hundred souls, and inhabit a spacious valley
in the extreme east of the province, enclosed between the Rocky Moun-
tains and the Selkirk Range. Their language is distinct from all other
known idioms. In their customs they do not differ widely from the other
interior tribes. Their chief distinction is in their moral character. In
regard to this distinction all authorities agree. The Catholic missionaries,
when they first came among them, were charmed with them. The Rey.
P. J. De Smet, in his little volume of ‘Indian Sketches,’ writes thus
enthusiastically concerning them: ‘The beau-ideal of the Indian cha-
racter, uncontaminated by contact with the whites, is found among them.
What is most pleasing to the stranger is to see their simplicity, united
a a "Fas. . >
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 562
with sweetness and innocence, keep step with the most perfect dignity
and modesty of deportment. The gross vices which dishonour the red
man on the frontiers are utterly unknown among them. They are honest
to scrupulosity. The Hudson Bay Company, during the forty years that
it has been trading in furs with them, has never been able to perceive
that the smallest object had been stolen from them. The agent of the
company takes his furs down to Colville every spring and does not
return before autumn. During his absence the store is confided to the
care of an Indian, who trades in the name of the company, and on the
return of the agent renders him a most exact account of his trust. The
store often remains without anyone to watch it, the door unlocked and
unbolted, and the goods are never stolen. The Indians go in and out,
help themselves to what they want, and always scrupulously leave in
place of whatever article they take its exact value.’
This was written in 1861, but describes the Kootenays as the author
found them on his first visit to them in 1845, when they were still
heathen. In 1888 the report of the local agent, Mr. Michael Phillips,
brief and business-like in its terms, entirely confirms this description :
‘The general conduct of the Upper Kootenay Indians,’ he writes, ‘ has
been good. Not a single charge has been laid against any one of them
for any offence during the last twelve months, nor has any case of
suspected dishonesty or misconduct been brought to my notice. From
conversations I have had with Major Steele, I should judge that they
are in point of moral conduct far superior to the Indians of the North-
West.’ By the latter expression the writer evidently refers to the
Indians of what are known as the ‘North-West Territories’ of Canada,
east of the Rocky Mountains.
Finally, in the same year (1888) the Chief Superintendent of Indian
Affairs for the Dominion adds his emphatic and decisive testimony to the
good qualities of the Kootenays in a single line: ‘ They are a strictly
moral, honest, and religious people.’ ! ;
Much more might be added, if the space at our command would allow,
to show the great and very interesting differences which prevail among
the tribes of British Columbia. The farther our investigations are
carried, the more numerous and important the subjects of inquiry become.
The experience of another year confirms the opinion expressed by me in
the last report of the committee, that no other field of ethnological
research is to be found in North America which equals this province in
interest and value. Indeed it may be questioned whether anywhere on
“the globe there can be found within so limited a compass so great a
variety of languages, of physical types, of psychical characteristics, of
social systems, of mythologies, and indeed of all the subjects of study
embraced under the general head of anthropology. And, finally, the
facts given in the present and former reports show how rapidly the
Opportunities for preserving a record of these primitive conditions are
‘passing away.
These rapid changes, in themselves for the most part highly bene-
ficial, are due, in a large measure, to the action of the Canadian and
Provincial Governments. As something has been said on this point, it
is but just to add that a careful examination of the official reports, as
‘ It should be mentioned that these statements refer specially to the ‘Upper
Kootenays.’ Of the ‘Lower Kootenays,’ who are partly within the United States’
territory, and who appear to be of mixed origin, the accounts are less favourable.
562 REPORT—1890.
well as of all the other evidence at hand, leaves a highly favourable
impression in regard to the policy and methods which have been pursued
by the Canadian legislatures and executive authorities in dealing with
these tribes. If any mistakes have been committed, they have been due
chiefly to defective information. The evidence presented by these reports
is that of a careful and kindly guardianship, more considerate and liberal,
perhaps, than any barbarous tribes, in the like situation, have ever before
experienced.
Second General Report on the Indians of British Columbia.
By Dr. Franz Boas.
Intropuctory Nore.
In the report of the results of my reconnaissance in 1888 I have given
a summary of the most important facts relating to the ethnology of
British Columbia so far as known. According to instructions of the
editor of these reports, Mr. Horatio Hale, on my last journey, in the
summer of 1889, I paid special attention to the study of the Nootka and
the Salish tribes. Certain results of my investigations among the Nootka
made it necessary to collect some additional facts on the Kwakiutl.
Therefore the following report will be devoted to a description of the
Nootka, Salish, and Kwakiutl. The Salish stock inhabits a considerable
part of the interior of British Columbia and the southern part of the
coast. In describing the ethnology of this people the former group must
be separated from the latter, which participates in the peculiar culture
of the coast tribes of British Columbia. As the Salish are subdivided
into a very great number of tribes speaking different dialects, I have
thought it advisable to study one tribe of each group. Among the coast
tribes I selected the Lku/igrn, among those of the interior the Shushwap.
The first part of the report contains a description of the tribes or groups
of tribes mentioned: the Lku/igrn, Nootka, Kwakiutl, and Shushwap.
In my first report a sketch was given of four linguistic stocks of this
region: the Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, and Kutonaqa. In the second
part of the present report the review is completed, a sketch of the
Kwakiutl, Nootka, and Salish languages being given. As the last is
subdivided into a great number of dialects, it was necessary to select
only the most salient points of the various dialects. This seemed the
more advisable, as the Kalispelm dialect is well known through
Mengarini’s grammar and Giorda’s dictionary. The measurements of
crania were made in the anthropological laboratory of Clark University,
Worcester, Mass., which is well fitted with the necessary instruments.
The described specimens were collected in part by Mr. W. J. Sutton, of
Cowitchin, B.C., in part by myself during the years 1886 to 1888. I
have to express my thanks to Dr. N. L. Britton, of Columbia College,
New York, for determining a number of plants for me. I am indebted
to the kindness of Dr. George M. Dawson for photographs of specimens
in the museum of the Geological Survey of Canada in Ottawa, from
which a number of sketches were made.
The following alphabet has been used in the report :—
The vowels have their continental sounds, namely: a, as in father ;
e, like a in mate; 7, as in machine; 0, as in note; u, as in rule.
In addition the following are used: d, 6, as in German; d=aw in
law; z=e in flower (Lepsius’s e).
,
1
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 563
Among the consonants the following additional letters have been
used: g', a very guttural g, similar to gr; k, a very guttural i, similar
to kr; q, the German ch in bach; u, the German ch in ich; @, be-
tween g and H; c=sh in shore; ¢, as th in thin; tl, an explosive 1;
dl, a palatal J, pronounced with the back of the tongue (dorso-apical).
I THE LKU’NGEN.
The Lku/figen are generally known by the name of Songish. They
inhabit the south-eastern part of Vancouver Island. They belong to the
Coast Salish, a group of tribes of the Salish stock (see Fifth Report of
Committee, p. 804). They are called Lki’men by the Snanai/mug. Their
language is called the Lkuiigé/nrn. The same language, with very slight
dialectic peculiarities, is spoken by the Qsa’nite (Sanitch) of Sanitch
Peninsula and on the mainland, south of Fraser River; the Sa/ok of
Sooke Inlet and the Tla’/lam on the south side of Juan de Fuca Straits.
The name of ‘ Songish’ is derived from that of one of their septs, the
StsA/igus, who live south-west of Victoria.
Hovusrs anp Boats.
The Lku’figen use the long houses of the Coast Salish. In British
Columbia this type of house is used on the west coast of Vancouver
Island, on the east coast, south of Comox, and on the coast of the
mainland. In the upper part of the Fraser River delta subterranean
houses of the same type as those used in the interior of the province are
used. The framework of the house consists of heavy carved uprights
which carry heavy cross-beams. The uprights are generally rectangular
(u, figs. 1,2). The cross-beams, ¢, are notched, so as to fit on the top of
Fig. 1—Plan of Lku/igrEn House.
were wey
fa ee a i a a
ee
X
wee eee}
the uprights. The uprights which are nearest the sea are a little higher
than those on the opposite side. The higher one of the long sides of the
564 REPORT—1890.
house faces the sea. A series of rafters, R, are laid over the cross-beams, c.
Close to the uprights a number of poles are erected which are to hold the
wall. They stand in pairs, the distance between the two poles of each
pair corresponding to the thickness of the wall. The top of the outer
poles is ornamented as shown in fig. 2, p. Heavy planks are placed
Fia. 2.--Section of Lku’/figEn House.
between these poles, the higher always overlapping the lower so as to
keep out the rain. They are held in place by ropes of cedar-branches
which pass through holes in these boards and are tied around the poles, L.
The uppermost board on the honse-front serves as a moulding, hiding
from view and closing the space between the rafters and the front of the
house. The door is either at the side or, in very large houses, there are
several on the side of the house facing the sea. The roof consists of
planks as described in the Fifth Report of the Committee, p. 818. The
uprights of the Lku’/igrEn house are carved and painted as shown in fig. 3.
In some instances their surface is plain, but animals are carved on it, the
whole being cut out of one piece. Such posts do not belong to the
Lku’iigen proper, but were introduced into one family after intermarriage
with the Cowitchin. The posts shown in fig, 4 belong to a house in
Victoria, and the same figures are found in a house at Kua/mitcan
(Quamichin), where the mother of the house-owner belongs. They
represent minks. The human figures represent the spirits whom the
owner saw when cleaning himself in the woods before becoming a member
of the secret society Teyiyi’wan (see p. 578). It is worth remarking that
the faces of these figures are always kept covered, as the owner does not
like to be constantly reminded of these his superhuman friends and
helpers. Only during festivals he uncovers them. All along the walls
inside the house runs a platform of simple construction. Posts about
one foot high, A, are driven into the ground at convenient intervals.
They are covered with cross-bars which carry the boards forming the
platform. In some parts of the house shelves hang down from the rafters
about seven or eight feet above the floor. Hach compartment of the
house, i.e., the space between two pairs of uprights, is occupied by one
family. In winter the walls and the dividing lines between two compart-
ments are hung with mats made of bullrushes. The fire is near one of
the front corners of the compartment, where the house is highest. The
5
i
=
:
Sy hee lS pe
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 565
boards of the roof are pushed aside to let the smoke escape. Household
goods are kept on the platform ; here are also the beds. The bed consists
Fic. 3.—Upright of Lku’igEn House. Fic. 4.—Upright of Lkv’/igEn
House.
of a number of mats made of bullrushes, the upper ends of which are
rolled up and serve as a pillow.
At the present time the Lkuw’igmn use only two kinds of boats: the
566 REPORT—1890.
small fishing-boat snz'quatl and the Chinook boat d’/tqzs. The latter,
however, is not an old style Lku/figeEn boat, but belongs to the Nootka.
The snz/quatl is a long, narrow boat with slanting stern, similar in shape
to a small Kwakiutl boat; its peculiarity is the bow as shown in fig. 5,
Fria. 5. FIa. 6.
The Cowitchin boat has a stern similar to that of the Kwakintl boat, fig. 6.
It is called by the Lku/figen st?’ uwaitatl, i.e., boat with a square bow.
The Kwakiutl boat is called pé’'ktlzntl or tc’d'dtlte. Besides the small
Fic. 7.—Lku'figEn Fishing Canoe.
boat, the Lku/igrn used the large fishing-boat called stz/tlzm or i’la'i,
and the war-boat kuiné'itl. I have had models made of these boats; the
former is shown in fig. 7,a lateral view of the latter in fig. 8. The
Fic. 8.—Lku’figEen War Canoe,
Bes
square stern is peculiar to the Lku’figern fishing-boat. It seems that it
was not made of one piece with the boat, but consisted of a board inserted
into a groove, the joints being made water-tight by means of pitch.
MANUFACTURES AND Foop.
I do not intend to give a detailed report on these subjects, but confine
myself to describing such manufactures and such methods of preparing
food as I had occasion to observe. Blankets are woven of mountain-goat
wool, dog-hair, and duck-down mixed with dog-hair. The downs are
peeled, the quill being removed, after which the downs are mixed with
dog-hair. A variety of dogs with long white hair was raised for this
purpose ; it has been extinct forsome time. The hair which is to be spun
is first prepared with pipe-clay (st’d’uwok').! A ball, about the size of a
1 Dr. George M. Dawson obtained a specimen of this material from Indians in
Burrard Inlet in 1875. It proved to be diatomaceous earth, not true pipe-clay. The
material used by the Lku’/igeEn is found somewhere north-east of Victoria, the exact
spot being unknown to me,
r
fist, of this clay is burnt in a fire made of willow wood ; thus it becomes
a fine, white powder, which is mixed with the wool or hair. The mix-
ture is spread over a mat, sprinkled with water, and for several hours
thoroughly beaten with a sabre-like instrument until it is white and dry ;
thus the grease is removed from the hair. Then it is spun with the hand
on the bare thigh. The thread is worked into a basket ; thus two baskets
full of thread are made. Then the two threads are rolled up together
on a stick and a large ball is made, which can be unrolled from the inner
end. The latter is next fastened to the shaft of the spindle. The spindle
has a shaft about three feet long, a heavy disc of whale’s bone about a foot
in diameter being fastened to its centre. When in use, the upper end of
the shaft rests between the thumb and first finger of the left, while its
lower end stands on the ground. It is turned with the right hand by
striking the lower surface of the disc. Thus the two threads are twisted
one around the other, and the double thread is rolled on the shaft of the
spindle until the whole ball has been spun. These threads are used for
a variety of purposes ; for making blankets, for fringes, for making straps.
The blanket is woven on a very simple loom. The cloth- and yarn-bars
rest in two vertical posts, which have each slits for these bars. The ends
of the bars turn in these slits. The bars are adjustable, wedges being
inserted into the slits so as to regulate their distance. The warp is hung
over the bars, passing over a thin stick which hangs in the middle be-
tween the bars. The weft is plaited in between the warp, beginning
under the stick. Unfortunately, I am unable to describe the exact
_ method of weaving. The weft is pressed tight with the fingers. The
blankets have a selvage, which consists of a long thread with loops, that
- form a fringe when the blanket is finished. Some blankets of this style
are made with black zigzag stripes.
Nettles serve for making ropes and nets. They are cleaned between
a pair of shells, then split with a bone needle, dried, and finaliy peeled.
The fibres are then spun on the thigh. Another fibrous plant called
_etca/muk*, which is found on Fraser River, is traded for and used for making
nets. Red paint is not made by the Lku’igmn, but traded from the tribes
on the mainland. Neither do they make cedar-hark mats, the manu-
- facture of which is confined to the Kwakiutl and Nootka.
Burnt pipe-clay is used for cleaning blankets. The clay is spread
oyer the blanket, sprinkled with water, and then thoroughly beaten.
Clams are prepared in the following way. They are opened by being
spread over red-hot stones and covered with a mat; then they are
taken out of the shell, strung on poles, and roasted. After being roasted
they are covered with a mat and softened by being trampled upon. Next
they are taken from the sticks on which they were roasted and strung on
cedar-bark strips. In this shape they are dried and stored for winter use
in boxes. They are eaten raw or with olachen oil.
Salal berries are boiled and then dried on leaves; the boiled berries
are given the shape of square cakes. When eaten they are mashed in
water.
The root of Pteris aquilina is roasted, pounded, and the outer part is
eaten.
Haws are eaten with salmon roe.
On boat journeys the roots of Pteris aquilina and a species of onions
called k-tla’ol, serve for food.
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 567
568 REPORT—1890. 4
Satmon FisHina.
Every gens has its own fishing-ground. The chief of the gens will
invite a number of families to help him catch salmon, and in return he
feeds them during the fishing season. Shortly before the fishing season
opens they collect bark, dry it, and make nets out of it. At the same time
strong ropes of cedar-twigs are made with a noose at one end. The
are fastened to heavy stones, which are to serve as anchors for the fishing-
boats. Two such anchors are prepared and finally thrown into the water
at the fishing-ground. The upper end of the rope is fastened to a buoy.
When the men go out fishing a fishing-boat (¢l’la’i, see fig. 7) is fastened
to each anchor and a net stretched between the two boats. When the
net is full, one boat slackens the rope by which it is tied to the buoy and
approaches the other, the net being hauled in at the same time. The
fishing village is arranged in the following way (fig. 9). The centre is
Fig. 9.—Fishing Village.
|
1. House of owner of fishing district. 2. Houses of fishermen (shape and
number not known). 3. Squlaa’/utq. 4. Ditches for roasting salmon.
formed by the scaffold for drying salmon (squlad'utq). It consists of
two pairs of uprights carrying a cross-beam each, which support the long
heavy beams on which the salmon are dried. These are cut off close to
the supports nearest the sea, while at the other end their length is dif-
ferent, according to the size of the trees which were used in the construc-
tion. The house of the owner of the fishing-ground stands behind the
scaffold. On both sides of the latter there are a number of huts. The
crew of one boat lives on one side, that of the other on the other side. The
owner appoints a chief fisherman (kwn’d'liin), who receives in payment the
catch of two days and a few blankets. His hat is trimmed with fringes
of mountain-goat wool. He divides the fishermen into two crews. On
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 569
‘the day when the first salmon have been caught, the children must stand
on the beach waiting for the boats to return. They must stretch their
arms forward on which the fish are heaped, the head always being kept in
the direction in which the fish are swimming, as else they would cease
running. The children carry them up to the grassy place at the sides of
the squlad'utq and deposit them there, the heads always being kept in
the same direction. Four flat stones are placed around the salmon, and
‘the owner burns on each Peucedanum leiocarpwm, Nutt., red paint, and
Dullrushes as an offering to the salmon. Then the men and women, who
have painted their faces red, clean and open the salmon. Each boat’s
crew dig a ditch, about three feet wide and as long as the squlad’utq, in
front of their houses. Long poles are laid along the sides of the ditch
and short sticks are laid across in a zigzag line. On these the salmon
are roasted. The kun’d'liin divides the salmon among the boats’ crews.
When they are done the children go to the ditch and each receives a
salmon, which he or she must finish. For four days the salmon are roasted
over this ditch. Everyone is given his share by the kun’dliin, but he
must not touch it. The bones of the salmon that the children have eaten
must not touch the ground and are kept on dishes. On the fourth day
an old woman collects them in a huge basket, which she carries on her
ack, and they are thrown into the sea. She acts as though she were
On the fifth day all the men turn over the roasted salmon that
had fallen to their share on the previous days to the kun’d'liin. When
they come back from fishing the women expect them on the beach carrying
baskets. ‘The salmon are thrown into these, and from this moment no
notice is taken of the direction in which they lie. They are thrown
down under the scaffold and the kun’da'liin divides them into two parts,
ne for each crew. Then the women clean and split the fish and tie them
ether by twos with strings of carex. The men paint their faces and
8 in their best blankets. They take long poles and stand in one row
he lower end of the scaffold, one at each beam on which the salmon
are to be hung. A pair of salmon is hung on the point of each pole, and
now the men push four times upward, every time a little higher, blowing
at the same time upward before they hang up the salmon.
Soctan ORGANISATION AND GOVERNMENT.
~The Lku/figen are divided into the following gentes, each of which
wns a certain coast-strip and certain river-courses on which they have the
exclusive right of fishing, hunting, and picking berries. The following
is a list of the gentes and the territory each occupies :—
i, 4 ¥ ; . Qltla/sen :
2, ao. \ Coabore Bay. f Lao } Meneill Bay.
3. Skifigé’nes, Discovery Island. 9. Squi/fiqun, Victoria.
4. Sitea/nét], Oak Bay. 10, Qsa’psEm, Esquimalt (=Sassz-
9d. Tek’ufigé’/n MeNejll B ma’ letl.
«6. Teikaviate } as a 11. Stsa/iges From Esquimalt
12. K-ék-a/yék'mn { to Beecher Bay.
Hach gens-has names of its own. There are three classes of people,
_ the nobility, called stlzté'tlk-atl (collective of stlé’tlkatl, nobleman) ; the
middle class, called #la’m’al; and the common people, called ¢l’ai’tcitl.
i ae these classes has also names of its own, so that a common man
0. PP
570 REPORT—1890.
cannot use a middle-class name, a middle-class man cannot use a noble-
man’s name. Here are afew examples :—
Stsa’/iiges nobility names :
Males: Qtci/tlem, Enqii/im, Tilsk‘é/inmm.
Females; QupQoa’p, 'T's’Elé’qoya.
Tcik‘au’/atc common men: Ctcad’satl, Ham.
I was unable to ascertain the derivation of any of these names.
Common people may rise tothe rank of the riddle class by giving feasts,
but middle-class people can never become noblemen. Wealth gives per-
sonal distinction only, not inheritable rank. The children of middle-
class people are born common people. In order to raise their rank their
parents or uncles give a feast, and distribute a certain amount of property in
their behalf. By this means they become middle-class people, and are given
a middle-class name. There is a complete scale of names, each being higher
in rank than the other. By giving a number of festivals the child’s rank
can be raised higher and higher, until it obtains a high position among the
middle class. In the same way the children of noblemen are given names
of chiefs of higher and higher rank. The nobility have the privilege of
dancing with masks.
The Lku’/igen gentes have no crests, particularly not the Sqoa’/éqoé,
which belongs to a number of tribes of the Coast Salish; the Catlo/ltq,
Snanai’muQ, K:oa/ntlem, and probably several others. In one house in
Victoria the mink (fig. 4) is found carved on the upright. It does not
belong, however, to the Lku’‘figrn, but the owner’s wife, who belongs to a
Cowitchin family, gave it to her husband when they were married. The
couple have an only daughter, who will inherit this crest.
The chief of the tribe (sii’m) belongs, of course, to the nobility.
When giving a great ‘ potlatch ’ to his own and neighbouring tribes, which
is his privilege, he stands on a scaffold which is erected in front of his
house and lets his daughter or son dance by his side before distributing
the property. The elevation of the scaffold may be seen in fig. 2. In
case of war, chiefs are forbidden to fight in the front ranks, but are care-
fally protected, as their death would be considered a severe loss to the
tribe.
After the death of the chief the chieftaincy devolves upon his eldest
son. If he has none his younger brother and his descendants succeed
him. A daughter or a son-in-law cannot succeed him. The new chief
takes the name of the deceased, and when doing so has to give a great
festival.
In war a war-chief is elected from among the warriors. War expeditions
are confined to nightly assaults upon villages. Open battles are avoided.
An expedition on which many men are lost, even if successful in its
object, is considered a great misfortune to the tribe. Fires are burnt on
mountains to notify distant villages or individuals that some important
event has taken place.
Slaves were held by all classes. They were either captives or pur-
chased from neighbouring tribes.
If a man has offended a foreign tribe, all members of his own tribe are
liable to be seized upon, being held responsible for all actions of any one
member. Therefore it is considered condemnable to offend a member of
a foreign tribe, and when, for instance, a man has stolen something from
a foreign tribe, and is found outby his own people, the chief will compel him
ae wath
ON THE NORTU-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. ath
to return the stolen property. A man who is offended has the right to
take revenge at once. If he does not do so the perpetrator has the right
to pay off his offence.
It may be mentioned here that sometimes men assume women’s dress
and occupations, and vice versd. Such individuals are called st#’o’mztce.
This custom is found all along the North Pacific coast.
GAMBLING AND PASTIMES.
1. Smétalé’—A game at dice is played with four beaver-teeth, two
_ being marked on one of their flat sides with two rows of small circles.
_ They are called ‘ women’ (sld/naé smétalé'). The two others are marked
on one of the flat sides with cross-lines. They are called ‘men’
(suwé'l:a smétalé’). One of them is tied with a small string in the
middle. It is called iuk-ak’é’sen. The game is played by two persons.
According to the value of the stakes, thirty or forty sticks are placed
between the players. One begins to throw. When all the marked faces
are either up or down he wins two sticks. If the faces of the two ‘men’
are up, of the two ‘women’ down, or vice versd, he wins one stick. When
the face of the iak-ak’’é'sen is up, all others down, or vice versd, he wins
four sticks. Whoever wins a stick goes on playing. When one of the
players has obtained all the sticks he has won the stake.
2. Slzhd'lzm, or wugk’ ats, is played with one white and nine black discs,
‘The former is called the ‘man.’ Two players take part in the game. They
sit opposite each other, and each has a mat before him, the end nearest
the partner being raised a little. The player covers the discs with cedar-
bark and shakes them in the hollow of his hands, which are laid one on
the other. Then he takes five into each hand and keeps them wrapped
in cedar-bark, moving them backward and forward from right to left.
Now the opponent guesses in which hand the white disc is. Each player
has five sticks lying in one row by his side. If the guesser guesses right
he rolls a stick over to his opponent, who is the next to guess. If the
guesser guesses wrong, he gets a stick from the player who shook the
dises, and who continues to shake. The game is at an end when oneman
has got all the sticks. He has lost. Sometimes one tribe will challenge
another to a game of slzhd/lum. In this case it is called lehdlzmé'latl, or
wugle atse'latt.
3. K'ioid/ls—A game at ball; the ball, which is made of maple
knots, is called smuk. It is pitched with crooked sticks and driven from
one party to the other.
4, Hawaud' latcis—The game of cat’s cradle. A great variety of figures
are made. Only one person is required to make these figures. Some-
times the teeth must help in making them.
This is only a partial list, containing only those games of which I ob-
tained descriptions. Besides these, throwing and catching of hoops is a
favourite game. In gambling, the well-known sticks of the northern
_ tribes are often used, or a piece of bone is hidden in the hands of a mem-
ber of one party, while the other must guess where it is.
_ It is considered indecent for women to look on when the men gamble.
Only when two tribes play against each other are they allowed to be
_ present. They sing during the game, waving their arms up and down
_ rhythmically. Menand women of the winning party paint their faces red.
4 rPp2
jT2) REPORT—1890.
CUSTOMS REFERRING TO Bintu, Marriace, AND Deratu.
Daring the period of pregnancy, women take off bracelets, anklets,
and necklace. This custom, which is also found among the Nootka, prob-
ably means that there must be no stricture around the body which might
hinder birth. They must also bathe regularly in the sea. When the
time of delivery approaches, the parents engage an old man to ent the
cedar-branch from which the cradle is to be suspended, and five old
women to soften the cedar-bark to be used for bedding the babe in the
cradle. They are paid for their services. There are no professional mid-
wives, but sometimes the si/dua (see p. 580) is called to accelerate birth.
The navel-string is cut with a broken shell by an old woman. The child,
as soon as it is born, is smeared with bear grease and dogfish oil, particu-
larly the navel and any sore parts of the skin. On the first day the child
does not get any food. As soon as it is born the mother rubs it from the
mouth towards the ears, so as to press the cheekbones somewhat upward.
The outer corners of the eyes are pulled outward that they may not be-
come round, which is considered ill-looking. The calves of the leg are
pressed backward and upward, the knees
Fic. 10.—LkwigeEn Cradle. are tied together to prevent the feet from
turning inward. ‘The forehead is pressed
down. They have a saying referring to
children who have not been subjected to
this treatment, and, therefore, according to
Indian taste, ill-looking: tow d’wuna tins
ksztctcd’ ai, that means, ‘as if no mother had
made you look nice.’ It is doubtful whether
this treatment, except the flattening of the
head, which is continued through a long
period, has any effect upon the shape of the
face. I do not believe that it has, at least not
upon bones, as the effect would be that of
producing chameconchic orbits, while, in
fact, they are very high. If there is any
change of form of the face, a question to
which I shall refer later on, it is more prob-
ably due to the deformation of the cranium.
made of bullrushes. The latter comprise
five bundles of rushes, each about an inch
or an inch and a half in diameter. The
outer one, fig. 10 (1), is given the shape of
a horse-shoe ; the others, which have only
about half the length of the former, are
placed inside the horse-shoe, parallel to its
sides, so that they fill the intervening space
and form a flat surface (2). These bundles
are kept in place by two sticks (3), one
being pushed through them near the curve,
the other near the end. The curved part is to be the head end of the
cradle. Both sides of the outer bundle are set with loops made of a thin
rope, which serve for fastening the baby to the cradle. A larger loop (4)
The child is first strapped on to a cradle '
——l————— EE —— LS eS TLC!
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 573
is attached to the curve. This frame is covered with a layer of fine cedar-
bark. This layer is made of fibres of double the length of the cradle-board
or frame. They are combed and carefully stretched out. Then a roll of
bark about two inches wide by one inch high is laid on the middle part
of the layer, and the fibres are doubled up so as to cover the roll. The fibres
are plaited together with a thread of mountain-goat wool close to the roll,
and thus keep it in place. A fringe of wool is fastened to the roll which
forms the pillow of the infant (5). On top of the infant’s head a cushion
for pressing down the forehead is fastened (6). It consists of a series of
flat rolls of cedar-bark, covered with a layer of fibres of cedar-bark in the
same way as the pillow. Hach roll is held in place bya plaiting of moun-
tain-goat wool thread. The upper end of the cushion is also set with a
fringe of this material. Between the cushion and the head a thick veil
of cedar-bark is placed. This is made by drawing bundles of long fibres
of cedar-bark through a cord of mountain-goat wool thread. The fringes
lie over the head and occiput of the infant joining the pillow. The cord
from which the veil hangs down lies across the forehead. The cushion is
placed on top of this veil, so that its fringes hang down at the occiput of
the child, while the plain edge lies near the forehead. A string is attached
to the centre of the cord of the veil, and pulled backward over the cushion
to the loop fastened to the curve of the cradle-board, to which it is
fastened. Under the compressing cushion at both sides of the face rolls
of cedar-bark are placed and pressed against the head, their upper end
being also ornamented with fringe of mountain-goat wool thread. Then
a cord is tied over the cushion and pulled downward to the third or fourth
loop on the sides of the cradle. Thus a strong pressure is brought to
act upon the region of the coronal suture. A cord of mountain-goat
wool passes from side to side over the cradle and holds the infant. The
face is covered with a hood-like mat to keep off the flies. When the
child is about a month old it is placed in a wooden cradle. This is shaped
like a trough. An inch or two above the bottom a kind of mattress is
fastened, which consists of longitudinal strips of cedar-wood ticd to two
cross-pieces. The latter are tied to the sides of the cradle. In the bot-
tom of the trough there is a hole for the refuse to run off. At the foot
end there is a small board, ascending at an angle of about 30°, on which
the child’s feet rest, so that they are higher up than the head. The child
is fastened in this cradle in the same way as on the first. The cradle is
suspended from a cedar-branch, which is fastened to the wall or set up
still attached to its trunk. It is worked by means of a rope attached to
the point of the branch. For some time after birth the husband must
keep at some distance (or out of sight ?) from his wife, and must bathe
and clean himself in the woods, that the child may become strong.
Both parents are forbidden to eat fresh salmon. When the woman first
rises from her bed after the child has been born, she and her husband
must go into the woods and live there for some time. They make a camp
in which they remain. Early in the morning one (doubtful which) goes
eastward, the other westward, and bathe and clean themselves with cedar-
branches. They stay in the woods about a month. As soon as the child
is able to walk, the cradle and the branch from which it was suspended
are deposited at certain places above high water. One of these points
used to be where the Hospital of Victoria now stands. Its name is
_ P’f/latses (=the cradles) ; another, the point Quqé’leq, the third point
east of Beacon Hill.
574 REPORT—1890.
Twins, immediately after birth, possess supernatural powers. They
are at once taken to the woods and washed in a pond in order to become
ordinary men. Ifthe twins are girls, it is an indication that a plentiful
supply of fish will come. Ifthey are boys, they will be good warriors.
It seems that the women are held responsible for the behaviour of
their children, for if a child cries the husband may beat his wife.
While children, and when reaching maturity, they must go frequently
into the woods and bathe and clean themselves, in order to become strong
and healthy. Girls, even before reaching maturity, must not eat parts of _
fish near the head, but only tails and adjoining parts, inorder to secure _
good luck in their married life. On reaching maturity they have to ob-
serve numerous regulations. They must eat only dried fish; they may
eat fresh clams. Gooseberries and crab-apples are forbidden, as it is
believed that they would injure their teeth. When a girl has ieft the
house she must return in such a direction that the sun is at her back
when she starts to return, and then walk in the direction the sun is
moving. At Victoria the girl, when reaching the age of puberty, must
take some salmon to a number of large stones not far from the Finlayson
Point Battery (see p. 578). This is supposed to make her liberal. She
will also visit the hill Putlé’wan, not very far from Cloverdale, on the
summit of which is a small pond. She will dip her hand into the water
and slowly raise the hollow hand. If she finds some grass, &c., in it she
will expect to become rich and a chief’s wife, else she will become a poor
man’s wife. (The name Petlé’wan refers to this custom, being derived
from tld'pxt, to feel around.) Young men and women must not live luxu-
riously ; then they will become rich in later life. They must not eat
while the sun is low, as they believe it to be detrimental to health. Old
people may eat at any time.
Menstruating women must not come near sick persons, as they would
make them weak (?’k'él).
The lobes of the ear and the helix are perforated while the child is
young. After the operation they have to abstain from fresh fish. Arms
Fig. 11.—Tattooing.
tnd)
Pee sel
and chins of women are tattooed when they reach maturity. I have seen
three diverging lines running from the lip downward on the chins of a
few old women. Fig. 11 shows designs on the arms and hands of two
i
3
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. Die
~ women of about fifty-five and seventy years ofage. The tattooing is done
j by women, charcoal of bullrushes being introduced under the skin by
means of a needle that is held horizontally.
: When a man, particularly a chief’s son, wants to marry, two old
_ people are sent to the girl’s parents to ask for the girl. They are called
| kulnd/kuii. At first the girl’s parents refuse. Then the k-wlnd'kuit are
sent back with a large supply of food which they present to the girl’s
parents. They accept it, but do not eat it. They give it to the dogs. The
messengers however, persevere, until the parents give their consent.
Then the young man goes to the girl’s house in the evening and sits down
near a post, where he remains for four days. When he becomes tired he
leaves the house for a short time, but returns to his former place after a
few minutes. During these days he does not eat, but drinks a little water
only. He remains at the post and does not come near the fire. Finally
the girl’s parents send two old people to lead him to the fire, where a mat
is spread for him; but he must not yet sit near the girl. Her parents
prepare a good meal, but he eats very litile only, carrying the full dishes
to his mother. On the next day he returns home, and his family give
many and valuable presents to the girl’s father, which are carried there
by young men. They do not go near the fire, but sit down on a place
that is offered to common people only, in the middle of the house, or at
the foot ofa post. The girl’s father has the presents piled up in one
corner of the house and pays the messengers. Then the bride is led to
the young man. Her father delivers a speech, and gives her presents of
the same value as those received from the young mau’s father. The mes-
sengers take the bride to the young man’s house. The parents of both
usband and wife continue to send presents to each other, and to the
ouple fora long time. The latter are particularly supplied with food by
both parents.
After death the face and the head of the body are painted red, and the
female relations of the deceased wail for him. The body is at once taken
out of the house through an opening in the wall from which the boards
hhaye been removed. It is believed that his ghost would kill everyone if
the body were to stay in the house. A man who does not belong to the
gens of the deceased (?) is engaged and paid for arranging the burial.
He is called mzk’dié'ngatl. Rich people and chiefs are buried in canoes
which are placed under trees; poor people are wrapped in mats or moun-
tain-goat wool blankets (the knees being drawn up to the chin) and placed
on branches of trees. The body, after being wrapped up, is frequently put
into a box. It seems that in olden times the body was doubled up and
hen covered with heavy stones. Such cairns are found all over the
south-eastern part of Vancouver Island. The implements of the deceased
are deposited close to the body, else his ghost would come and get them.
_ Sometimes even his house is broken down. Two or three days after burial
_ food is burnt near the grave. At times food is set aside for the deceased
by his friends. After burial the whole tribe go down to the sea, wash
their heads, bathe, and cut their hair. The nearer related a person is to
the deceased the shorter he cuts his hair. Those who do not belong to the
_ deceased’s family merely clip the ends of their hair. The hair that has
been cut off is burnt or buried. Atachief’s death one or two of his slaves
used to be killed and buried with him. Widow and widower, after the
death of wife or husband, are forbidden to cut their hair, as they would
gain too great power over the souls and the welfare of others, They
A,
a
576 REPORT—1890. | -t
must remain alone at their fire for a long time, and are forbidden to
mingle with other people. When they eat nobody must see them. They
must keep their faces covered for ten days. They fast for two days after’
burial and are not allowed to speak. After two days they may speak a
little, but before addressing anyone they must go into the woods and
clean themselves in ponds and with cedar-branches. If they wish to harm
an enemy they call his name when taking their first meal after the fast
and bite very hard in eating. It is believed that this will kill him. They
must not go near the water, or eat fresh salmon, as the latter might be
driven away. They must not eat warm food, else their teeth would fall
out. The names of deceased persons must not be mentioned. Levirate is.
practised. The brother or cousin of a man marries his widow, and a
widower marries either his wife’s sister or cousin after her death.
Mepicinr, OmENs, AND BE.iers.
Most of the medicines used by the Lku’figrn have no real relation to’
the disease for which they are used, but an imaginary one only. In many
cases this connection is founded on a certain analogy between a property
of the medicine and the desired result. This will become clear afte
reading the following list. I am indebted to Dr. N. L. Britton for the |
determination of the various plants.
Sedum spathulifolium, Hook.—The plant is chewed by women in the
ninth month of pregnancy every morning to facilitate birth.
Pteris aquilina.—Leaves (szkdé'n) are chewed by children. They pro
duce a considerable flow of saliva; which children use for washing thei
hands before eating fresh salmon. They must not use water for this
purpose. The root (sk-w'yuq) is eaten (see p. 567).
Berberis aquifolium (sk-oa'teasitltc)—The stem is pounded and boiled,
The decoction is drunk as a remedy against skin diseases, particularly
against syphilis, and to strengthen the body. The fruits (sk'od'tcas) are
eaten raw or boiled.
Abies grandis, Lindl. (skumé'iks).—The branches are warmed and |
applied to the stomach and sides as a remedy against pains of the stomac b
or sides.
Aspidium munitum, Kaulfuss (sqii'lem).—Spores removed and dried. |
They form a fine powder, which is put on sores and boils to dry up the
flowing pus.
Symphoricarpus racemosus, Michz,—Fruits rubbed on sores, and applied |
to the neck (under the chin) as a remedy against sore throat.
Achillea Millefoliwm (tl’k-0é'tltc).—Soaked in water, pounded and used
as a poultice on head against headaches. 4
Fumer salicifolius, Weinmann.—Roots boiled and applied to swellings
in form of a poultice. .
Clayionia Sibirica (sqod'iigiten).—Applied to head as a remedy against
headaches. Ea
Alnus rubra, Bongard (skod'iigatltc).—Fruits burnt to powder, whic al
is spread over burns. The cambium (qa’ mgam) is scratched from the tree
and eaten. :
Rubus Nutkanus, Moc. (sk-uliiuqui'ilte) —The green berries (sk-ula/leiuq)
are chewed and spread over swellings.
Thuja giganter, Nutt.—The inner layer of the bark is pulverised, laid
on swellings, aud then ignited. It burns slowly and serves the purpos¢
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 577
of cauterisation. The bark of a tree named k‘tlemé’itc is used for the
same purpose.
Rheumatism.—The skin is scratched with sharp shells and then
rubbed with either ¢s’xtqcdtlic or kw'nitlp. Ido not know what plants.
these are. ;
Carex sp.—Haten to bring about abortion, or when the menses are
irregular. As the edges of the leaves are sharp it is supposed that they
will cut and thus kill the embryo, and that they will cut the inside of the
woman, thus producing the menses.
Populus trichocarpa, S. and Gr. (pk’életltc)—Fruits pulverised and
mixed with fish oil, used as hair oil to make the hair grow. The fruits
are found high up on the tree—a long way up, therefore they will make
the hair long.
Wasps’ nest.—Decoction of wasps’ nest or of flies drunk by barren
women to make them bear children, as both bring forth many young.
Wasps are burnt and the.faces of warriors are rubbed with the ashes,
before they go on a war expedition, to make them brave. Wasps are
warlike insects, and therefore will make the warrior brave like themselves.
Osmorrhiza nuda, Torr.—Roots chewed by girls in spring as a loye-
charm. The girl first bathes, then chews the root and rubs the saliva on
_ her left arms upwards towards the heart, at the same time naming the man
whose love she wishes to win. Then she rubs the saliva with the left hand
up the right arm towards the heart, speaking her own name. She ends
the latter motion in such a way that the hand remains above the place
where she put the young man’s name. Thus her own name is placed
above his and she has conquered him.
Peucedanum leiocarpum, Nutt. (k'zqmé'n).—This plant is one of the
most powerful ‘medicines.’ It is burnt to drive away ghosts. The first
salmon of the season are roasted on it, and it is used in carrying them to
the house. It is chewed and the juice swallowed as a remedy against.
cough. A poultice of k:zqmé’n is spread on the head to cure headache.
To spit water on a sick person alleviates his pain.
Fractured bones are bandaged by means of the outer layer of cedar-
bark. In complicated fractures the splinters of bone are first removed,
then the limb is bandaged.
Rattlesnake poison is obtained by trade from the tribes on the upper
Fraser River and on Thompson River. A powder of human bones is
drunk as an antidote,
Omens.—Sneezing, ringing of the ear, twitching of muscles on right
side are good omens, on left side bad omens. These also mean that people
are speaking good or ill of the person according as the sensation is felt on
the right or the left side. When one feels a weight on the breast or a
fluttering of the heart, or when one must sigh, it indicates that something
ill will happen to a relative or friend. When the lower eyelid twitches
it indicates that one will weep. When an owl alights near a house and
moves bat little, husband or wife will die. When a large owl cries near
the village, someone will die. To dream something ill of someone means
that he will have bad luck.
An arrow or any other weapon which has wounded a man must
be hidden, and care must be taken that it is not brought near the fire
* until the wound is healed. If a knife or an arrow which is still covered
with blood of a man is thrown into the fire the wounded man will become
very ill.
578 REPORT—1890.
Menstruating women must keep away from sick persons, or else the
latter will become weak.
There are a number of large stones not far from ‘the Battery’ in
Victoria ; when they are moved it becomes windy. If a man desires a
certain wind he moves one stone a very little from its place, each stone
representing one wind. If he should move it too much the wind would
be very strong.
Certain herbs which secure good luck are fastened to the door of the
house.
Gamblers use the same method to secure good luck. All these charms
must be kept secret, and nobody must know what the charm of a man is,
else it would lose its power.
Dreams come true. If one dreams of some future events that scem
highly desirable, they will not come to pass if one speaks about the dream.
Secret Socieries.
The Lku’figrn have two sceret societies: the Teyiyi’wan and the
Qengani'trl (= dog-howlers). Any member of the tribe may join the
Teyiyi’wan. For this purpose he goes into the woods and stays there for
some time, continually bathing in lakes and washing his body with cedar-
branches. The novice is called Qausa'lokutl. Finally he dreams of the
dance which he is to perform and the song he is to sing. In his dream
his soul is led all over the world by the spirit who gives him his dance
and his song. Then he returns to the village. According to what he has
dreamt he belongs to one of five societies which constitute the Tcyiyi’ wan:
(1) the Sk’é’iep, who dance with their elbows pressed to the body, the
arms extended forward and continually moving up and down; (2) the
Nugqsoa’/wék-a, who jump around in wild movements ; (3) the Sk-a/k‘oatl,
who dance in a slow movement; (4) the Sk-oié'lec, whose dance is similar
to that of the Sk‘é/iep; and (5) the Tcilk-tn’ini (derived from ted/lok’,
woods). The general name of the dances of the T'cyiyi’wan is Mé‘itla,
which word is borrowed from the Kwakiutl. When the novice returns
from the woods he teaches his song to the members of the society to
which he is to belong for two days. ‘Then the dance is performed, and
henceforth he is a regular member of the secret society.
The Qenqani’tzl, the second secret society, are also called Tlékoa'la
and No’ntlem, although the first name is the proper Lku/igen term. The
Lku/ngrn say that they obtained the secrets of this society from the
Nootka, and this is undoubtedly true. I pointed out in my last report
that the secret societies which we find on the North Pacific coast evidently
spread from the Kwakiutl people. The facts collected on the southern
end of Vancouver Island corroborate this opinion. The names Tlokoa/la
and No’ntlum both belong to the Kwakiutl language, and are also used
by the Nootka to designate their winter dances (see p. 599). The secrets of
these societies spread from the Nootka to the Lku/ignn, Tla/lam, and the
tribes of Puget Sound. The Tc’d’tutlp, a sept of the Sanitch tribe, also
have the No/ntlem; while the Snanai’muaq, the Cowitchin, and the tribes
of Fraser River have not got it. The Comox and Pentlatch obtained it
through intermarriage with both the Kwakiutl and the Nootka. The
right to perform the No/ntlum is jealously guarded by all tribes who
possess it, and many a war has been waged against tribes who illegiti-
mately performed the ceremonies of the society. Its mysteries were kept
We Pk
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 579
~ a profound secret, and, if a man dared to speak about it he was torn to
pieces by the K-uk'k’’é/lni, about whom I have to speak presently. Only
rich people can become members of the Qungani'tzl, as heavy payments
are exacted at the initiation. If the father of the novice is not able to
pay them, his relatives must contribute to the amount required. The
initiation and the festivals of this society take place in winter only. When
a young man is to be initiated his father first invites the Qungani'tzl to
a feast which lasts five days. During these days mask dances are per-
formed, which those who are not members of the society are also per-
mitted to witness. They occupy one side of the house in which the
_ festivities take place, while the Qrnqani’trl occupy the other. The latter
wear head-ornaments of cedar-bark and have their hair strewn with down.
‘ The faces of all those who take part in the festival are blackened. At the
end of these days the father of the novice invites four men to bathe his
gon in the sea. One of them must wash his body, one must wash his
head, and the two others bold him. In return they receive one or two
blanketseach. During this ceremony the K‘ukk’’é'lei, who are described
as ‘wild men,’ dance around the novice. They have rupes tied around
their waists, and are heid by other members of the society by these ropes.
Then the Qrnqani'tEl lead the novice into the woods, where he remains
_ foralong time, until he meets the spirit who initiates him. It seems that
during this time he is secretly led to the house in which the Qunqani‘tel
continue to celebrate festivals at the expense of the novice’s father, and
there he is taught the secrets of the society. During this time, until the
return of the novice from the woods, the house is tabooed. A watchman
is stationed at the entrance, who keeps out uninitiated persons. During
the absence of the novice his mother prepares cedar-bark ornaments and
Weaves mountain-goat blankets for his use. One afternoon he returns,
and then his father gives a feast to let the people know that his child has
returned. The latter performs his first dance, in which he uses masks
and cedar-bark ornaments. This dance is called Nuqnzii/mrn. On this
day the father must distribute a great number of blankets among the
— Qengani’tel. The uninitiated are permitted to take part in the feast, and
sit on one side of the house. The new member spends all his nights in
the woods, where he bathes. In spring the new member, if a man, is
thrown into the sea, and after that is free from all regulations attending
the initiation. One of the principal regulations regarding novices of the
‘Qengani’tel is that they must return from the woods in the direction in
which the sun is moving, starting so that the sun is at their backs. There-
fore they must sometimes go in roundabout ways. They must go back-
ward through doors which are stld'lzk:am against them (see below).
Frequently the si/6ua is called to bespeak the door in their behalf before
_ they pass through it. Before their dance the si/dua must also address the
earth, as it is supposed that else it might open and swallow up the dancer.
It is also s#la/lzk-am against the novice. The expression used is that the
_ earth would ‘open its eyes’ (k’u/nalasen), that means, swallow the novice.
In order to avert this danger the si/dua must ‘ give name to the earth’ and
_ strew red paint and feathers over the place where the novice is to dance.
RELIGION AND SHAMANISM.
All the tribes of the Coast Salish, from Comox to Puget Sound,
_ believe in the Great Transformer, who is called Kumsnd'otl (=our elder
580 REPORT—1890.
brother) by the Catlo’ltq of Comox, Qa'is by the Sk-qd’mic, and Qiéils by
all other tribes. The Lku’igsn pray to him, and expect that he will
again descend from heaven at some future time and again wander all over
the earth, punishing the bad. ‘heir dances are said to be performed to —
please him. Although it seems probable that there exists some connection —
between Qals and the sun, I have found no clear evidence showing this to be ©
the case. Itis said that Qails made the sun and the moon. The Snanai’muq,
who are closely related to the Lku/igen, and whose customs are very much
the same as those of the Lku’igern, worship the sun and pray to him.
Traces of sun-worship may be found among the Lku’figen in the custom of
young girls and boys avoiding to eat until the sun is high up in the
sky, in the si’dua offering her prayers towards sunrise, and in the regula.
tion that novices and menstruating girls must go homeward in a direction
following the course of the sun. :
Animism underlies the religious ideas of the Lku’figrn, as well as —
those of all other North American Indians. Animals are endowed with
superhuman powers, and inanimate objects are considered animate. Trees —
are considered transformed men. The creaking of the limbs is their
voice. Animals, as well as the spirits of inanimate objects, but princi-
pally the former, can become the genii of men, who thus acquire super- —
natural powers. A peculiar conception is what is called stla'lzk-am.
This is as well the protective genius of a man, as a supernatural being —
whose power is directed against a man. Therefore it seems to express
the relation of man to supernatural powers. Certain occupations or ©
actions are forbidden to mourners, parents of new-born children, men- —
struating women, shamans, novices of secret societies, and dancers,
because certain objects are stld'/lzk:am against them. The door and the
earth, as being stld'lzk-am, were mentioned in a foregoing paragraph.
In dreams the soul leaves the body and wanders all over the world. The —
soul after death retains human shape and becomes a ghost. Shamans
are able to see ghosts. Their touch causes sickness. They make those
who have not regarded the regulations regarding food and work mad. —
Their touch paralyses man. When one feels afraid, being alone in the
woods or in the dark, it is a sign that a ghost is near. They know who ~
is going to die, and approach the villages early in the evening to take the
soul of the dying person away. In order to drive the ghosts away the
people cry g, g/ beat the walls of the houses with sticks, and burn Peuce-
danum leiocarpum, Nutt., to drive them off. Some people believe indivi-
dually that the soul of a man may be born again in his grandchild.
There are two classes of conjurers or shamans, the higher order being
that of the sawnii/am, the lower that of the sz/dua, The si/dua is generally
a woman. It seems that her art is not acquired by intercourse with
spirits, but it is taught. The principal function of the si/dua is that of
appeasing hostile powers. It is believed that certain objects are hostile
to man, or to man in certain conditions; for instance, to mourners, to
menstruating women, to shamans, dancers, and novices of secret societies.
These hostile powers may be appeased by the si/dua bespeaking them in
a sacred language. The words of this language are handed down from
one si/dua to the other, and heavy payments are exacted for instruction.
There is not one si/dua left among the Lku’figrn, and my endeavours to
learn any of the words of this language were consequently vain. The
same means are used for endowing men or parts of the body, weapons, &¢.,
with special power. This is called ‘to give a name to an object’ (for
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 581
instance, k‘ci' tes, to give a name to the door, see p. 579), ndsz'netzs, or
i‘cz'netes, to give a name toa man). The si’dua givesa name to the body
(nanahé’ kustes) to enable man to go easy, that means, to be able-bodied
and strong. She invokes good fortune by going down to the beach at
the time of sunrise and at the time of sunset, and, looking eastward, she
dips her hands into the water, sprinkles a few drops upward, and blows
a few puffs of air eastward. She is able to cure such diseases as are not
due to the absence of the soul from the body. She rubs the sick person
with cedar-bark, paints his face red, and blows some puffs of air upward.
The sick one must fast all day, and at sunset she goes to the beach and
talks towards sunrise in the sacred language. She is applied to by
women who desire to bear children. They are given decoctions of wasps’
nests and flies, as both lay many eggs. She also helps women to bring
about abortion. For this purpose she kneads the belly of the woman in
the second month of pregnancy. Her hands and the skin of the belly
“are made more pliable by means of tallow and grease. She also lets the
Woman lift heavy loads and eat leaves of a species of Carex, which have
“yery sharp edges, that they may cut the embryo (see p. 577). For a love-
‘charm she rubs girls with cedar-bark, and in the same way she restores
the lost affection “of a husband. When a man has been absent for a long
time on a hunting expedition, and his friends fear that some accident
may have befallen. him, they call the si/dua, who stretches out her hands
70 where he has gone. If, on doing so, she feels a pressure on her breast,
something has happened to the absent man ; if she does not feel anything
he is safe. All these practices of the si/Gua are accompanied by incan-
tations in her peculiar language and by dances and dancing songs. In
dancing she holds her arms on both sides of the body, the elbows not far
om the waist, the hands upright, the palms forward, approximately on
a level with the head. Her hands are trembling while she dances, I
as irae So me SST ST SL
oe sss =
e)
a= sae SS ee
La-ma - tla-ta Qwé-ma - Ha-qan ho-yé - yeé-€ ho-yé - yé-é.
‘The Lku'figrn equivalent of these words is: K’u'nettsza qtriigé'k'en, 1.e.,
‘See her (the si’dua) now going along.
__ The saund'am, the shaman, is more powerful than the sidua. He is
able to see the soul and to catch it when it has left the body and its
owner i is sick. A man becomes a sQuna/am by intercourse with super-
“natural powers. Only a youth who has never touched a woman, or a
‘Virgin, both being called tc’éits, can become shamans. After having had
Sexual intercourse, men as well as women become ?’k'é’el, 7.e., weak,
incapable of gaining supernatural powers. The faculty cannot be regained
by subsequent fasting and abstinence. The novice goes into the woods,
where he bathes and cleans himself with cedar-branches (h’oatcd’set).
He sleeps in the woods until he dreams of his guardian spirit, who
_ bestows supernatural power upon him. This spirit is called the ?k"’a'yin,
and pemresponds to what is known as the tamanowus in the Chinook
_ jargon, and ‘medicine’ east of the Rocky Mountains. Generally the
ahd yim is an animal, for instance a bear, a wolf, or a mink. This
+
|
582 REPORT—1890.
animal is henceforth, as it were, a relation of the shaman, and helps him
whenever he is in need of help. He is not allowed to speak about his
Wk’ a'yin, not even to say what shape it has. When he returns from the
woods the shaman is able to cure diseases, to see and to catch souls, &e.
The best time of the day for curing disease is at nightfall. A number of
people are invited to attend the ceremonies. The patient is deposited
near the fire, the guests sit around him. Then they begin to sing and
beat time with sticks. The shaman (who uses no rattle) has a cup of
water standing next to him. He takes a mouthful, blows it into his
hands, and sprinkles it over the sick person. Then he applies his mouth
to the place where the disease is supposed to be and sucks at it. As
soon as he has finished sucking, he produces a piece of deer-skin or the like,
as thongh he had extracted it from the body, and which is supposed to
have produced the sickness. If the soul of the sick person is supposed
to be absent from the body the shaman sends his tl’k’’d/yin (not his
soul) in search. The ¢/’k’a'yin brings it, and then the shaman takes it
and puts it on the vertex of the patient, whence it returns into his
body. These performances are accompanied by a dance of the shaman.
Before the dance the si’dua must ‘give name to the earth,’ which else
would swallow the shaman. When acting as a conjurer for sick persons
he must keep away from his wife, as else his powers might be interfered
with. He never treats members of his own family, but engages another
shaman for this purpose. It is believed that he cannot cure his own
relatives. Rich persons sometimes engage a shaman to look after their
welfare.
The shaman is able to harm a person as well as to cure him. He
causes sickness by throwing a piece of deer-skin, or a loop made of a
thong, on to his enemy. If someone has an enemy whom he wants
to harm he endeavours to obtain some of his saliva, perspiration, or
hair, the latter being the most powerful means, particularly when taken
from the nape or from the crown of the head. This he gives to the
shaman without saying to whom it belongs, and pays him for bewitching
it. I did not learn the method of treating these excretions of the enemy’s
body, except that the performance takes place at nighttime. Then
the man to whom the saliva, perspiration, or hair belongs undergoes
cramps and fits. The sQuni/am, as well as the si/dua, may take the
soul of an enemy and shoot it with arrows or with a gun, and thus
kill their enemy. If a man is ‘too proud and insolent’ the doctor
will harm him by simply looking at him. It is told of one shaman that
he made people sick by giving them charred human bones to eat.
The third function of the shaman is to detect evil-doers, particularly
thieves, and enemies who made a person sick by employing a shaman.
They solve this task by the help of their tl’k‘a’yin. When it is assumed
or proved that a man has caused the sickness of another the latter
or his relatives may kill the evil-doer,
II. THE NOOTKA.
Our knowledge of the Nootka is not so deficient as that of most other
tribes of British Columbia, as their customs have been described very
fully by G. M. Sproat in his book ‘Scenes and Studies of Savage Life’
(London, 1868). The descriptions given in the book are lively and
~
Li
ai
~
s
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 583
trustworthy, so far as they are founded upon the author’s own observa-
tions; but unfortunately he has not always referred to his informants,
so that it is impossible to distinguish what he has observed himself
from what he has learnt from hearsay. The linguistic part of his
book is taken almost bodily from an anonymous work by a Catholic
missionary, named Knipping, ‘Some Account of the Tahkaht Language
as spoken by several tribes on the Western Coast of Vancouver Island ’”
(London, 1868), which latter book has remained almost unknown. The
power of observation exhibited in the descriptions of the author, how-
ever, is not to be depreciated. I confine myself in my description to
recording the new facts that I have observed or learnt by inquiries
among the older Indians.
The Nootka consist of twenty-two tribes, the names of which are
derived from the names of the districts they inhabit. The tribes speak
closely allied dialects of the same language. North of Barclay Sound
the changes of dialect are so gradual that it is impossible to draw any
distinct lines between them. It seems that the dialects of Cape Flattery
and of Nitinat Sound are also very closely affiliated. Thus it appears that
the tribes of the Nootka stock may be divided into three groups speaking
distinct dialects, but all intelligible to each other. The following is a list
of these twenty-two tribes :—
I. 1. Tlai/asath=ontside people . . Cape Flattery.
2. Patcina/ath é : : . San Juan Harbour.
ot Na‘tinath:, . ; 3: x . Nitinat Sound.
II. 4, Ho/aiath . F : 5
5. Hauteu’k tlés’ath x
6. Ekilath=bushes on hill people
7. Hatea/ath . ; : : - Barclay Sound.
8. Ts’éca/ath . :
9, Tok’oa/ath .
10. Hopetcisa’th
Ili. il. Yutli’lath : A F . Northern entrance
Barclay Sound.
12. Tlad/kwiath ; ;
13. Keltsma/ath=rhubarb people
14. A’hansath . ‘ . ; Clayoquaht Sound.
15. Ma/noosath = houses on _ spit
people.
16. He’ckwiath : : :
17. Mo’atcath . 5 . : |
18. Mo’tclath . . : : Nootka Sound.
19. Nutea’tlath |
20. Hvhatisath . :
21. Kayd’kath . : : :
22. To’é’k‘tlisath=large cut in bay } North of Nootka Sound.
5 people.
(Tlahosath).
__ Thave given the last name in parentheses, as even on special inquiry
Idid not hear anything about this tribe, which is the last in Sproat’s
584 REPORT—1890.
list, but is not contained in that of Knipping. The Eki/lath and
Hatca/ath are not contained in the former lists. The Hki’lath have
greatly decreased in numbers and therefore joined the Ts’éca/ath; the
Haca/ath have become extinct. The tribes of Barclay Sound claim that
the Hopetcisa’/th did not belong originally to the Nootka people, but that
they were assimilated when the Ts’éca/ath migrated up Alberni Channel
and settled in the upper part of this region, which event is said to have
‘taken place less than a century ago. The Hépetcisa’th, who at that time
inhabited the head of Alberni Channel and Sproat Lake, are said to have
spoken the Nanaimo language. I have tried to find any traces of that
language in local names, but have been unsuccessful. It is true that the
natives do not understand the meaning of most of the names of places ;
but, on the other hand, I have not found any that can be referred to the
Nanaimo language. A number of men of the age of about fifty years
affirm that their grandfathers did not know the Nootka language, but
spoke Nanaimo, and that their fathers still knew a number of words of
the old language. It may be mentioned in this connection that the
vocabulary contains a few words borrowed from the Nanaimo. The
traditions and totems of the Hopetcisa/th bear out their claim that they
originally lived in the interior of the island, and did not visit the mouth
of Barclay Sound (see below). I have not succeeded in finding any
evidence of this change of language except the unanimous assertions of
the natives.
The single tribes are subdivided into septs, which seem to correspond
very closely to the gentes of the Coast Salish, as described in the first
section of this report. I obtained lists of the septs of three tribes, the
Ts’éca/ath, the Hopetcisa’th, and the Tok’oa/ath.
I. Septs of the Ts’éci/ath.
1. Ts’éca’ath : . . . Crest: Wolf.
2. Nn’c’asath ; : : : » Whale.
3. Netcimi/asath . 3 : : » hunder-bird.
4, Waninta/th . : ; ; 5 = Suake,
5, Ma/ktVaiath . x 3 : » Orab:
6. Tla’sEniiesath . : : ‘ » Aia/tlk-é.
7. Ha'méyisath . 3 ‘ A » Sea-otter.
8. Ku’tssemhaath . ; P ; » Tc’éné’ath.
9. Kuai/ath . ; P ; : » Whale and man.
II. Septs of the Hopetcisa’th. Crest: Bear, wolf.
1. Mo’hotl’ath. 3. T'sd0/més’ath.
2. TVi‘kutath.
III. Septs of the Tok’oa’ath.
1. Tok’oa/ath. 7. Tuckis’a/th.
2. Maa/koath. 8. Kodhatsdath.
3. Wa’stsanek. 9. Te’é/nate’aath.
4, To/tak‘amayaath. 10. Mststd/asath.
5. Tsa/k‘tsak‘oath. 11. Tcd/maath.
6. Mu/ktciath.
The septs as given here are arranged according to rank, the highest
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 585
in rank being given first. The whole tribe possesses its territory in
common. There seem to be no subdivisions of territory belonging to
the various septs. In some instances the tribal boundaries are marked
_on the coast by some rock of singular shape. Thus a large rock resting
on two boulders at Vob Point, Barclay
Sound, marks a tribal boundary. It does
not seem that artificial monuments were
_ made for this purpose. Hach sept has a
chief whose authority is restricted to his
_ sept. Only the chief of the sept that is
highest in rank exercises some limited
_ authority over the whole tribe. What-
ever is found adrift on the sea, as canoes,
paddles, &c., in his territory must be de-
livered to him, and he has to give a pre-
sent for the same to the finder. Animals
found adrift are excluded from this rule.
_ When a sept goes on a hunting expedition
the chief, if he has not a sufficient number
of canoes, rents them from other septs
and pays the crews. The affairs of the
tribe are discussed and decided in a coun-
cil, in which only the chiefs of the septs
take part. It is called ici’mitl. They de-
cide all important affairs of the tribe, peace
and war, marriages of chiefs’ daughters
and sons, &c. The council also appoint
the herald or orator of the tribe (tsi k'sak'tl),
whose services are required in all festivals
given by the tribal chief and in negotia-
tions with other tribes. The decisions of
the council are kept secret. Chiefs alone
are allowed to hunt whales and to act as
harpooners. This accounts for the obser-
vation of Sproat that the right of whaling
and the office of harpooner are hereditary
(p. 116). Chiefs alone are allowed to give
*potlatches.’ Hach sept has names that
belong exclusively to its members. The
chief and the chief’s wife of each sept
have always a certain name. I give here the chief’s names of the
8 éci/ath tribe :—
Fic. 12.—Upright in house of the
Ts’éca’ath gens.
Sept Chief Chief’s Wife
* DiTs’éca/ath . Wihsuse/nEp : . Ts’écia/aks.
2. Nu'c’asath . . Nez’c’asath . : . Nec’a’saksup.
3. Nutcimiasath . Hitatlu’ksois : . Ho6’pkustaak's.
4. Waninka/th . . Haihaiyu’p . : . Hai’nak-autl.
eee (8. Ma’ktl’aiath . . Haa’yuih . : . Hayi’poutl.
6, Tla’/suntiesath . T’a’psit : : . Te’éitle/mek-.
7. Ha’méyisath . . TWéeatsdis . } . Hai/kwis.
8. Ku'tssemhaath . Ma/mak‘ha’nek . . Haia’ntl.
9. Kuai’ath : . Kuai/ath . : - Kuai‘aksup.
1890. QQ
586 REPORT—1890.
The chief of the sept, on assuming his position, must take the
appropriate name according to the sept to which he may belong; but in
course of time, when he gives a great ‘potlatch,’ he is allowed to
assume another name. As soon as the chief's name has thus become
Fria. 13.—Upright in house of the Ts’éca’ath gens.
= ae Site”
free, another man of the same sept will take it up. However, no one
who does not belong to the chief’s family is allowed to assume a chief’s
name. Thus it happens that any member of the chief’s family may, ai
the time of the chief’s demise, have the name of the chief of the sept.
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 587
He is then compelled to give it up and take a new name on the
accession of the new chief. I give here a few other names that a chief or
a member of a chief’s family may assume :—
Ts’éca‘ath names: Nenetli’qsenzp.
Ne'c’asath 5 Nawé’ek.
Netcimwu’asath ,, Tlusé’sem.
Waninka’th 1 Tlemis’oa,
Ma’ktl’aiath - Hayuane, Yahkoyap, Teihmatlne,
T’é/yukuit.
Mamah’is (female).
Kuai/ath 9s Tlapé’i.
Fig. 14.—Painting on house of the NE'c’asath chief.
eS
hails dL OMIUL TELL LLL
It is stated that the Ts’éca’ath had the privilege to hunt fur-seals.
Each sept has an animal for its crest, as shown in the list of septs of the
Ts’éca/ath, to the names of which that of their crest has been added.
The crests do not play by far so important a part as in the social
“institutions of the Kwakiutl and of the other tribes living farther north.
The crest is only used in the ‘ potlatches ’ and in the secret society Tsa’yék’,
as will be described later on. We find, however, paintings and carvings
on many houses which are in the same way connected with the legends
of the sept, as was described in my former report when treating of the
Kwakintl. Fig. 12 shows one of the uprights in the house belonging
to the chief of the Ts’éca/ath. It represents the fabulous ancestor of this
sept, who is said to have descended from heaven. Fig. 13 shows
another support of the main beam of the same house. It represents a
man who is about to hurl a stone, a game which is always played at the
beginning of a ‘ potlatch.’ The whale shown in fig. 14 is painted on
few boards on the outside of a house belonging toa chief of the Nu’c’asath
sept.
aa 2
588 REPORT—1890.
Tue PotTuarcH.
The custom of giving great feasts, at which a large amount of pro-
perty is distributed, is common to the Nootka and all their neighbours.
The principle underlying the potlatch is that each man who has received
a present becomes, to double the amount he received, the debtor of
the giver. Potlatches are celebrated at all important events. The
purchase-money of a wife belongs to this class also, as it is returned to the
purchaser after a certain lapse of time (see below). After the death
of a chief, his heir is not installed in his dignity until he has given a
great petlatch. If he is to be the chief of the whole tribe the neighbour-
ing tribes are invited to take part in the potlatch. The taking of a name
and that of a dance (see p. 600) are also celebrated by a potlatch. This
custom is practically the same among all the tribes of the north-west
coast. When a chief has to give a great potlatch to a neighbouring
tribe, he announces his intention, and the tribe resolve in council when
the festival is to be given. A messenger is sent out to give notice of the
intention of the chief to hold a potlatch at the agreed time. When all
preparations have been finished, and the time has come, another
messenger, called ia/tsetl, is sent out to invite the guests to come to the
festival. The guests come in their canoes, and when not far from the
village they halt and dress up at their nicest, smearing their faces with
tallow and then painting with red colour. Then the canoes proceed to
the village in grand procession, their bows being abreast. At this time
certain songs are sung, each tribe having its own song. When they are
seen to approach, the tribe who have invited them go down to the beach.
The chief’s son or daughter is attired in the dress and mask of the crest
animal of the sept, and performs a dance in honour of the guests. The
ta'tsetl next calls the name of the head chief of the visitors, and he comes
ashore. Then the others are called according to rank. They are led
into the chief’s house, after having received one or two blankets when
landing. On entering the house they are also given a few blankets.
The guests are feasted first by the chief and then by all other members
of the ‘tribe who can afford it. Finally, after a number of feasts have
been given, the chief prepares for the potlatch, and under great cere-
monies and dances the blankets are distributed among the guests, each
receiving according to his rank. At the potlatch certain songs are sung.
Each chief has a song of his own that is only sung at his feasts. Here is
the song of the Ts’éca’ath sept, sung when its chief gives a potlatch :—
Solo. Chorus.
2s = Se] ae Fs a
Se ee
eS “st “o-oo. =o f=; i =
Ha-wa-wi - na - yi ha-wa-wi - na-yi ae -Wa- Wi - na-yi
eating “lly pt Bg | O242| &e.}
1 The batons used in beating time are raised at the heavy parts of the bar: this —
accounts for the peculiar rhy thm given above. a
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 589
— == = ——
<< 0" os - Se Pee ee Same
na - na - teikte wii-p’a - tcitl hautl k-é - wi - na
<= a === f= == ee ast
0 ES
p’a - teékte wii p’a - teekte wii hé ho
Te., Ha! Boats are coming. He will give again blankets to the chiefs among the
coming boats. He will give blankets.
After the death of a chief this song is sung; but after that the people
__ are forbidden to use it for one year, when the potlatch is given in which
_ the succeeding chief assumes his dignity. Among the gifts bestowed at
a potlatch is the right to perform certain non-religious dances that are
only danced at such feasts. In such cases the original owner retains the
right to the dance, although he has given the same right toafriend. In
this respect the customs of the Nootka differ from those of the Kwakiutl,
among whom a man who gives away the right to perform a dance loses
the right to perform the same. I will give an instance showing the way
in which a certain dance may be passed from tribe to tribe. The
Kayo‘kath have a tradition that at one time their chief when hunting met
a man who had descended from heaven beside a small lake on one of the
islands near Kayo/kath. The man had ten mouths, each of different shape,
which he showed in succession. He asked the chief whether he desired
to have always a plentiful supply of salmon. The latter replied that he
did not need any salmon, as his people used to gather an abundant supply
of mussels, which had red flesh as well as the salmon, and that conse-
quently he had no use for the latter. Then the stranger made the pond
dry up, and ever since that time there have been no salmon at Kay0o’/kath.
The chief, in memory of this encounter, danced in potlatches with the
mask representing the many-mouthed being. He dances behind a cur-
tain, only the upper part of his body being visible; now and then he will
stoop down, so as to become quite invisible, and then reappear with
another mouth. Here is his song :—!
eae a
Wa-a ha - ye-é€ hé - yé a@ - m&a-ye - ya
SaaS a = ae — SSapewaes =F}
= wecbe el ee =
— - hé he ya @ a na wai héi
re te a 8 ae
== [== ———_ eg ae
SSS SSeS SSeS:
wai te’e tei - mi-si - ma t’ce tcl-mi-si - ma a-
wai a@ - a-ta-ho - ie fee way ta bo "-" 16 hé
1} IT heard the song sung by a very poor singer. The rhythms are probably correct,
the intervals very doubtful.
590 rEporT—1890.
= === = =3=fea= ape aa ae “|= aaespes Se = See
—~e—5-6 = hs ey se Rew aed | og = = Soe =
né-su-mat mi-yée - a - ae - he - hé he-
yé - site ha - witl-mé - is ae ‘i a = na = ‘he =the he-
SS SS = SS eae | eS See ees =
SS
@ F -
ya a a n wai hei ho
ya a a na wai héi ho.
Ie., Get ready, all you tribes. He says my property will be rushed down the river.
The chief of the Kayd’/kath gave this song to the Ahau’sath at a pot-
latch, who, in their turn, gave it asa present to the Ts’éca/ath chief. It
seems that the Nootka do not use dancing-aprons as the Kwakiutl do.
In the potlatch dances men, women, and children dance the same dances.
It is stated that the Ahan’sath at one time made
different dances for men, women, and children, but
this was an exceptional experiment. In former times
the privilege of performing a certain dance was rigidly
guarded, and many wars were raged against tribes
who performed a dance to which they had no right.
Some persons tattoo their crest on their bodies.
An old man of the Hopetcisa’th tribe, for instance,
has a wolf tattooed on his belly and breast. The
hands of women and men are frequently tattooed.
I observed one man who had a line tattooed connect-
ing both eyebrows. The same person had the upper
half of his moustache pulled out. It is stated, how-
ever, that these practices have been recently intro-
duced (fig. 15).
i; J may remark in this place that the copper plates
which play so important a part in the customs of the
northern tribes are not used by the Nootka.
Fie. 15.—Nootka
Tattooing.
GAMES.
The games of the Nootka are identical with those of the neighbouring
tribes. A favourite game is played with hoops, which are rolled over
the ground. Then aspear is thrown at them, which must pass through
the hoop (nitnii/tc). A guessing game is frequently played between two
parties, who sit in two rows opposite each other. One party hides a
stone, the men passing it from hand to‘hand. The other party has to
guess where it is (¢’é?’dtszk'tlis). The following song, although belong-
ing originally to Cape Flattery, is used all along the west coast of Van-
couver Island in playing the game lehal :—
a SSS PSS are
la wia - 6, a - la - wid - 6 a= 1s) = aia. '=0
‘ - la wia - 6, tlé-as - go-dak a « la - wia- 6
“fae eee ere
ee ee eae Pe ee
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 591
A A EES = SER eee: see Tee
——
SS oo ie 3
ie
Sat | .
“ef 6 620 5 6 o-oo
a-la-wia-6 a - a- la-wia-6 a - la - wid - 6 a - la - wia - 6.
Nac-wi-to0-ah a - a-la-wii-6 a -la-wia-6 a - la - wid - 6.
I.e., I, Nacwitoah, have missed it.
Lullaby.
—_—— ee
3 = aan ae oe rer ee, ==
= Page es = =
re a
Teatci - nai - ha tea - tei - na - hi tea- tcik-stcik-
5 Se oe eS ee ee Be ee ees
eg 8 ee a te et Soe
mi-ha tei - a - ti-h&i teartd mats tea - tei - la.
I.e., See the mink there diving between the islands.
CUSTOMS REFERRING TO BirtH, Puserty, Marriacn, anpD Drata.
The customs referring to birth seem to be almost the same as those
of the Lku/igrn. During the period of pregnancy the woman must not
wear bracelets and anklets. After the child is born the father must
clean himself by bathing in a pond. For four days he is forbidden to go
inacanoe. He and also the young mother are forbidden to partake of
fresh food. The former must speak in whispers only. The infant’s
head is flattened in acradle, which is very much like that of the Lku‘igmn
in construction. The cradle is either made of wood or platied of strips
of cedar-bark. Immediately after birth the eyebrows of the babe are
pushed upward, its belly is pressed forward, and the calves of the leg
are squeezed from the ankles upward. All these manipulations are
believed to improve the appearance of the child. It is believed that the
pressing of the eyebrows will give them the peculiar shape that may be
seen in all carvings of the Indians of the North Pacific coast. The
squeezing of the legs is intended to produce slim ankles. It is, however,
probable that these manipulations have no lasting effect.
Numerous regulations refer to the birth of twins. The parents of
twins must build a small hutin the woods, far from the village. There
they have to stay two years. The father must continue to clean himself
by bathing in ponds for a whole year, and must keep his face painted
red. While bathing he sings certain songs that are only used on this
occasion, Both parents must keep away from the people. They must
not eat, or even touch, fresh food, particularly salmon. Wooden images
and masks, representing birds and fish, are placed around the hut, and
others, representing fish near the river, on the bank of which the hut
stands. The object of these masks is to invite ail birds and fish to come
and see the twins, and to be friendly to them. They are in constant
danger of being carried away by spirits, and the masks and images—or
rather the animals which they represent—will avert this danger. The
twins are believed to be in some way related to salmon, although they
592, REPORT—1890. ,
are not considered identical with them, as is the case among the
Kwakiutl. The father’s song which he sings when cleaning himself is
an invitation for the salmon to come, and is sung in their praise. On hear-
ing this song, and seeing the images and masks, the salmon are believed
to come in great numbers to see the twins. Therefore the birth of twins
is believed to indicate a good salmon year. If the salmon should fail to
come in large numbers it is considered proof that the children will soon
die. Twins are forbidden to catch salmon, nor must they eat or handle
fresh salmon. They must not go sealing, as the seals would attack them.
They have the power to make good and bad weather. They produce
rain by painting their faces with black colour and then washing them,
or by merely shaking their heads.
I obtained a comparatively full account of customs practised at the
time when the girl reaches puberty (see Sproat, p. 94). She is placed
on the platform of the house, opposite the door, and the whole tribe are
invited to take part in the ceremonies. A number of men and women
are engaged to sing and dance on this occasion, and are paid for their
Fig. 16.—Screen with painting representing Thunder-bird and Whale.
services. While these songs, which are called ’ta’md, are sung, a man in
the attire of a thunder-bird stands on each side of the girl. The dresses
of these men consist each of a large mask, to which a complete dress, set
with feathers and having two wings, is attached. The dancers wear no
masks. Then eight men take each a dish, go down to the river, and
fetch water, with which they return to the house. In doing so the
must move in a circle, having their left hand on the inner side of the
circle. Then they pour the water on the girl’s feet and return to the
river, still moving in a circle, their left hand being on the inner side.
As soon as this performance is over, a screen, painted with images of
thunder-birds (fig. 16),’ is set upon the platform in front of the girl, so
as to hide her completely. On both sides mats are hung up, and thus a
small room is provided for the girl, who has to stay here hidden from the
sight of men for a number of days. During this period she is always
attended by a number of girls and women. According to Sproat’s state-
ment, she is not allowed to see the sun or afire. According to my inform-
ant, she must be guarded against seeing anything ugly and against
1 A second screen with a symmetrical drawing adjoins the left side of the one
figured above.
; ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 593
seeing men. During the time of her seclusion she wears no shirt, and
is forbidden to move and to lie down, but must always sit in a squatting
position. She must avoid touching her hair, but scratch her head with
a comb or with a piece of bone, provided for the purpose. Neither is she
allowed to scratch her body, as it is believed that each scratch would
leave a scar. While she is hidden behind her screen the festival con-
tinues. Sometimes they even begin the Tlokoa'la (see below, p. 599).
Here are two songs which are sung on these occasions :—
| pene aa el
Clapping? ‘a | fe eft ig . | &e.
i - a ma? Uae cia a= i-ya ov na See
Kaq - ci ka - ma’ tla - tl kui-tutl-sya i - ni Da
O - 6 tu - tlah as - ih as O-uc pa - teitl i - a
Hi - né tsutl- kit at - li ya hoqtlak-tsak-k iis is {hai
: An - a sa - ko tea- kop u - atl-k-atha - tlih i - 4
; rl eget ee re tt Hey phe ah sor uath ne Ee
_ Le., Thad a bad dream last night. I dreamt my husband took a second wife. Then I
! packed my little basket and [ 2], and I said before Ileft, There are plenty of men,
Thus I dreamt.
i -——>—_—_ —_ Fsameoifeseer eee ose | fees Nnies [ora Nos) range see irene
a a Ss Se Sey AE eel EE eee va al
G21 Se ee ee
:
1. Eh yi-na hé i-ya-yi na i ee na he I ya-yi na he
7 eee ——-—— af Sees esi eee Poe a
Go 2— ef e =a o-o—oa- ne Se
a ree = =F=5=
ya a he ivan i Onge 2h -she win - sta ks hé
SS5Es = ee ee =:
SaaS eS SS Ea San ae er ee. a
a 222 2 ar @ —so- as = =~ —9- 0-9 —2— 7 sea eee
I-ya-yi- na i-nE-ma-é he Iya i nauk - sa-wuk:-tla hé
SS Sr Ee | ee eee oe
= (zeae == =n 2-35 S et
bI=e—ee eS gor 222 22 a a
= i eyard ma. 38. acs hé i- yi- na ha - i-ya-i na hé
——————————E
¢ saan eal [Ee a == SS
} j— —H-—_R@— 2 ——— = y=
: 20-222 a= See
i-ya-i-na 4.E- ni - ma-its-kwe hé I ya-yi na
| SSeS s eS Sres
: = paraea =e eed a a a a 2 =
O-ma-kotlhé - i ya i na yute - kitltsek-tsin he I ya-yi na.
Le., I wish I had my face at a girl’s bosom. I should feel good. Oh, dead!
Yes, your face is large enough for a thing that is never satisfied. 3
During her seclusion in her small room the girl fasts, and for eight
months after reaching maturity she is forbidden to eat any fresh food,
594. REPORT—1890.
particularly salmon. On the fourth day after her first menses she puts
on a peculiar head-ornament, which she must wear during each of her
first eight menses for four days. During these months she must eat by
herself, and use a cup and dish of herown. These latter regulations
have to be observed by all women during menstruation. After reaching
maturity girls must bathe regularly inthe woods. They are forbidden to
bathe near the village where the men might happen to pass by.
The marriage ceremonies have been so well described by Sproat that
I confine myself to giving a few additional data, referring to the marriage
of persons of the rank of chiefs. When a young man wishes to marry a
certain girl his father sends messengers to the girl’s father to ask his
consent. At first it is not given, and the messengers are sent again and
again, until the consent of the girl’s father is obtained. The messengers
do not enter the house of the latter, but deliver their message outside the
door. At last the girl’s father consents, and then the messengers plant
a staff into the ground close to the door. A blanket is wrapped around
the staff, which is made to represent a wolf, a bird, or aman. Bird’s
down is strewn on the top of the figure. On the following day the
girl’s father sends back this figure with a large quantity of food, and the
message that the young man may come and marry his daughter. The
young man’s father invites all his relatives, and gives a feast of the food
sent by the girl’s father. On the same night whistles imitating wolves’
voices are blown in the houses and on the street. I do not know
whether the origin of these whistles is kept a secret from the people, but
think it probable that only the members of the Tlokoa'la (see below)
know about it. On the following morning a platform is built by cover-
ing two boats with planks. The young men of the groom’s family
paddle away from the shore and then return dancing. The groom him-
self dances in the mask and dress of the thunder-bird, one of his relatives
in that of a whale. All the dancers are painted, and have their hair
strewn with feathers. They land, and a man dressed up like a wolf is
the first to go ashore. A number of men carrying blankets follow him.
When the groom’s party is heard to approach, the bride’s father calls
upon a number of strong men from among his family, and places them in
front of his house. When the other party arrives and prepares to enter
the house the opposite party drives them back. This is done four times.
Then they are allowed to enter; the leader throws down the wolf’s mask
in the house of the bride’s father, and the blankets which his followers
carry are piled up on top of it. The bride’s friends next prepare games,
which are played out of doors, weather permitting ; else they are held
indoors. First, twelve men stand in two rows of six each, one opposite
the other. They carry torches of bundles of cedar-bark, so that there
is a narrow lane left between the lights of the opposite rows. The
groom’s father and one or two of his uncles must pass through this lane.
Next two long poles are tied together at their points, and put up verti-
cally. A pulley is attached to the joint, a thin rope is passed through it,
and a small carved wooden whale is suspended from it. The feet of the
two poles stand about six feet apart, and the joint is about twelve feet
high. The carved figure hangs so high that it requires a good jump to
reach it. One of the bride’s relatives holds the free end of the line
attached to the carved figure. The groom’s relatives try to catch the
carved figure, which, however, is pulled up by the man holding the rope
as soon as anyone tries to take hold of it. The man who finally succeeds
a VW,
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 595
in grasping it receives a few blankets from the girl’s father. Then a
horizontal pole is fastened at one end, swinging freely at the other. The
men belonging to the groom’s party have to try to walk down to the
swinging end, and whoever succeeds receives blankets from the girl’s
father. Heavy weights are lifted; they try who is the best jumper. A
blanket with a hole in the centre is hung up, and men walk up to it
blindfolded from a distance of about twenty steps. When they get near
it they must point with their fingers towards the blanket, and try to hit
the hole. They also climb a pole, on top of which an eagle’s nest, or
something representing an eagle’s nest, is placed. The winner of each
game receives a number of blankets from the girl’s father. When the
games are at an end the groom’s father distributes blankets among the
other party. Now they are allowed to take the girl with them. A man,
dressed up as a wolf or a whale, leads the party, and they follow him in
Indian file, gomg around in a circle, the left hand being on the inner
side (that is, opposite to the course of the sun). They take the girl to
their house, and give a great feast. After a while the bride’s father
gives a feast to his son-in-law, who returns it after a short time, and
thus they continue to feast, sometimes for a whole year. Then the bride’s
relatives return all that was paid to them at the marriage ceremony.
The wolf's head which was thrown into the girl’s house is always
returned at once.
The child belongs to that sept which is considered the nobler. If, for
instance, the mother is a T's’éci/ath, the father a Kuai‘ath, the child will
be a Ts’éca/ath. Cousins and second cousins are not allowed to inter-
marry, but there is no restriction against marriages between members of
the same gens.
I have nothing of importance to add to Sproat’s description of the
mortuary ceremonies, except that the names of the deceased must not be
_ mentioned. Mourners cut their hair short ; but while among the Lku’igmn
the nearer relatives cut it shorter than the others, among the Nootka
all cut it equally short. The women wail early in the morning.
RELIGION AND SHAMANISM.
The mythology of the Nootka refers to two men who descended from
heaven and transformed the semi-human beings of the ancient world
into men and animals.!_ They are called Kwéka/stucszp, 7.e., the trans-
formers, and are said to have taught men to worship the deity in heaven.
The name of the deity is kept a profound secret from the common people.
Only chiefs are allowed to pray to him, and the dying chief tells the
name, which is Ka’tse (i.e., the grandchild) to his heir, and teaches him
how to pray to the deity. No offerings are made to Ka’tse; he is only
prayed to. Ina tradition of the Nootka it is stated that a boy prayed to
_ a being in heaven called Ciciklé, who is probably identical with Ka’tse.
The boy is described as praying, his arms being thrown upward. Ordi-
narily the Nootka pray to the sun and the moon for health, or, as the
expression in their language is, for life and the well-being of their
children. The moon especially is asked for food and for good luck in
hunting. Both are believed to have human shape. Besides these higher
deities, the Nootka believe the whole of nature to be animated. The
rainbow was originally a man, and still retains much of his power.
? See Swan, The Indians of Cape Flattery, p. 64.
596 REPORT—1890.
Wolves are considered powerful beings, whose friendship is sought for
and whose anger is dreaded. Therefore chiefs are not allowed to kill
them. Especially is this the case with the Hopetcisa/th chiefs, whose
erest is the wolf. The real meaning of this belief will become clear when
taken in connection with the Tlokoa‘la rites and traditions. It is believed
that the wolves drive the deer towards the Hopetcisa’th, more particularly
to the T's’6’mos hunters.
The world is believed to be a round disc which is supported by a pole.
Kclipses of sun and moon are produced by the ‘ door of heaven’ swallow-
ing them. This door of heaven occurs frequently in tales, and threatens
to swallow any person who intends to pay a visit to the deity in heaven.
Attempts are made during eclipses to free the sun or the moon by making
noise and by burning food on the beach. Thunder is produced by the
flapping of the wings of the thunder-bird Ti’tutec, the lightning by his
belt, the snake Hahé'k'toyek-, which he casts down upon the earth. The
fortunate finder of a bone of the Hahé’k-toyek’ possesses one of the most
powerful charms the natives know of.
The soul has the shape of a tiny man; its seat is the crownof the
head. As long as it stands erect the person to whom it belongs is hale
and well; but when it loses its upright position for any reason its owner
loses his senses. The soul is capable of leaving the body; then the
owner grows sick, and if the soul is not speedily restored he must die.
To restore it the higher class of shamans called K-ok‘oi/tsmaah (soul-
workers) are summoned. I cannot give a satisfactory explanation of the
methods employed to gain this power, as the natives proved to be rather
reticent in regard to these subjects, as well as many others that are among
the most interesting to ethnologists. The K-ok‘oa/tsmaah seems to ac-
quire his power by fasting and cleaning himself in ponds, as is the custom
among all tribes of this region. He catches the wandering soul in his
hand, and after having shown it to the people restores it to its proper
place by laying it on the top of the head of the sick person. I heard
several Indians maintain that they had seen the soul caught by the
shaman, who let it march up and down on a white blanket. The second
class of shamans are the Ucta/k-yu, 7.e., the workers. I did not hear
anything regarding an initiation of these shamans by encounters with
spirits. It seems that the Tsa’yek’ ceremony, which will presently be
described, is actually the initiation of the shaman of this class, although,
on the other hand, I am not sure that all the members of the T'sa/yek: are
considered to have the power of curing diseases. These shamans are
capable of curing all diseases, except such as are caused by the soul
leaving the body. The cause of sickness is either what is called ‘ mi’yatle,’
7.e., sickness flying about in the shape of an insect and entering the body
without some enemy being the cause of it; or the sick person has been
struck by sickness thrown by a hostile shaman, which is called ‘mrnu’qcitl.’
Their ordinary method of removing disease is by sucking and singing
over the patient. Here is a song which I heard sung by a shaman when
curing a sick person :—-
== ae — aes. he
= —_ == = => ==
ae ae = Se
Ha ne nai wu wa - a tice - te - ak--ya
Clapping mapeal &e.
ovoecee
eS Se
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 597
| = LA Zee tee ee ee ee
2 SS i222 2S See
(an Se See iets
Sas
u- @ na uw wa u - take- -
= 57 > Sai Jn J = Ouse ae.
— ya - ho- 6 koa a hak - koa
A SA aes mek, Pie Sao aes AeGas
SSS SSS Se == Pease ee
= =o: o- wisi OOo isas SLs |
a kis - tic - tak: - yu ho - a.
During the conjuration they frequently wash their hands and warm
them ata fire. It is told as a feat of a female conjurer that she gave her
husband something to eat which she promised to extract again from out
of his belly ; a feat which she is believed to have actually accomplished.
Other shamans are said to be able to suck out arrows, bullets, and the
like. In cases of fractures of bones they give the patient a mixture of
ground human bones to drink, or spread it over the fractured place.
They treat abscesses by massage or kneading, and open them and take
out the matter. If the fish do not come in time, and the Indians are in
want of food, a shaman makes an image representing a swimming fish,
and puts it into the water in the direction in which the fish used to come,
and it is believed that this means will induce them to come at once. He
prays at the same time for the fish to come, and calls them.
Hyery man, upon reaching maturity, may obtain a charm by continued
fasting and bathing in ponds. When trying to ascertain how far back
historical tradition extends, I was told the following by Tlutisim, a man
about thirty years old, belonging to the Netcimi’asath sept: His great-
grandfather’s orandfather—i. ae , five generations back—sat one night on
his bed resting, but not sleeping, as hunters willdo. At midnight he
heard someone singing on the beach. He went out to see who was ; there,
_ and discovered a number of Ya/é—a fabulous people living in the woods—
landing a sea-lion which they had caught. It is always a foreboding of
good Inck to see those people. The man ran down to the beach, cried
‘hé,’ and the Ya/é were transformed into sea-foam. He gathered it care-
. fully, and hid it. It became his charm, and henceforth he was a great
D at
wd
‘
and successful hunter.
After death the soul becomes a ghost, which is called Tci/ha. The
world of the souls is in the earth (Hita/kutla) ; but chiefs and good men
who always prayed to the sun and moon go up to heaven (Hina’yitl).
Those who are killed in war and have had their heads cut off have in
after life their faces on their breasts. Drowned persons become spirits
called Pu/kmis. They are generally invisible, and linger on the beach.
Whenever they appear to men they are seen to shiver for cold. Ghosts
have no bones; they produce nightmare by appearing in sleep; to see
them causes sickness.
In connection with these beliefs I may mention the following facts
“which throw some light upon the ideas of the Nootka regarding the rela~
tion of soul and body. About twenty years ago a man lost his senses,
598 REPORT—1890.
and attacked another man with a hatchet. The other succeeded in
wresting the weapon from his hands. After some time the madman
apparently died and was buried, the body being tied up between boards,
deposited in the woods, and covered with branches and brushes. After
a few days a number of children found him sitting on the beach. He
declared that the ghosts had sent him back from their country. The
people did not allow him to enter the village until he had bathed and
cleansed himself. After a while he was killed by the man whom he had
formerly assaulted. As the people continued to be in dread of him, his
body was cut to pieces.
A very remarkable method of curing diseases is used when the prac-
tices of the shaman prove of no avail. In such case the patient is initiated
in the secret society, Tsa/yek.! I obtained the following description of
the Tsi/yek* ceremonies: The members of the Tsa/yek’ assemble and
begin to make a circuit through the whole village, walking in Indian file
and in a circle, so that their left hand is on the inner side. Nobody is
allowed to laugh while they make their circuit. The following song is
sung by the T'sa/yek: society of the Hopetcisa/th and Ts’éca/ath during
their circuit through the village :-—
Se == = = SR SS
s = a — 2S
NS : = =e E = =|
a a a
Ha hi ha he a ha ho he he é ha
Soe EES aD == = ) Ss Se a
ar a a 3 f= eet E See ==
21 gem Sh oe. ge. ° S ice aa
ho wek mo - te - ta’‘k'- yu ha ne he he.
Le., he is not conjurer.
In dancing they hold the first fingers of both hands up, trembling
violently. They enter the houses and take the patient and all others
who have expressed the wish of becoming 'sa/yek: along, two members
of the society taking each novice between them and holding him by his
hair, while they continue to shake their other hands. The novice must
incline his head forward and shake it, while they continue their circuit.
Thus they go from house to house and take along all those who desire to
join the society. The circuit finished, they assemble in a house in which
for the following days none but members of the Tsa/yek’ is allowed.
They sing and dance for four days ; after these days the novice obtains
his cedar-bark ornament. The latter is almost identical with the one
described by Swan (p. 74). Small carvings representing the crest of
their septs are attached to the front part of their headrings. The dress
of the Ucta/k'yi, who is the most important member of the society, is
larger than those of any of the other members. The following song is
one of those sung by the members during the initiation ceremonies in the
house :—
Sa ee ee
=e st =e “The = =f Te A
ee Seeicryes mer weer eR Pere Arye 68 Ger rae: eo cca
A yauueye sya ye ya ye a ho te - ta’-kyti a
neste ESE aoe Jd didi
1 See Swan, l.c. p. 73, ff.
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 599
esses Se ee
ae toe st =e ef se ||
sane [ere eo e- ey) o_o o—p—3- cam
ye ya yé ya ye a ho 6 tle tcei-tu-tlé yé &€ ye _ ye.
@
The song is repeated ad infinitum; in the repetitions quarters are beaten.
-
The dancer jumps at the end of each quarter from one leg to the other.
At each jump he lifts one hand and extends the other downward and
backward.
I append here a few omens and crrrent beliefs. If there is an
irritation in the right side of the nose so that one must sneeze, something
good is said of one ; if in the left, something bad is said. If one chokes
oneself in drinking, the thing one happens to think of will not come true.
If one wants to become a great hunter one must not eat of the first game
one gets. The first salmon of the season are split on both sides of the
_ backbone, which is then taken out. The head must not be cut off, but
remains attached to the backbone. While the head and backbone are
thrown into the water, the rest of the fish must be roasted without being
cut to pieces. No fresh venison or other meat must be eaten after the
salmon begin to run, as else they would stop running for a number ot
days. The first salmon of the season must not be sold. Salmon are
_ always dried in the houses.
Tur TLOKOALA.
Among the customs of the Nootka their winter dances have always
attracted the greatest attention of travellers who came into contact with
this people. Good descriptions of the customs connected with these
festivals have been given by Sproat, Swan, Jewitt, and Knipping. The
meaning of the festivals has, however, remained obscure. This is in part
due to the fact that the custom has been borrowed from the Kwakiutl.
The name Tlokoala itself, which is a Kwakiutl word, proves its foreign
origin. The Tlokoala of the Kwakiutl will be described in the next
chapter. Suffice it to say here that the Tlokoala of the Nootka corre-
sponds to the Walas’aqa’ or wolf’s dance of the Kwakiutl. It has, how-
ever, certain other features embodied in it; for instance, the ceremonies
of the Ma/trm dance. The Tlokoala are a secret society, who celebrate
their festivals in winter only. They have a chief who is called
Yak'syak:stéitk-. Anyone who wishes to join the Tlokoala can do so,
or the society may invite a man to become a member. Then the friends
of the person who is to become a member make a collection in his behalf,
and turn over the property collected to the chief of the Tlokoala, who
distributes it during a great feast among the members. Those who are
not Tlokoala are called Wicta’k-yi, ¢.e., not being shamans. The Tlokoala
is believed to have been instituted by the wolves, the tradition being that
a chief’s son was taken away by the wolves, who tried to kill him, but,
being unsuccessful in their attempts, became his friends and taught him
the Tlokoala. They ordered him to teach his people the ceremonies on
his return home. Then they carried the young man back to his village.
They also asked him to leave some red cedar-bark for their Tlokoala
behind, whenever he moved from one place to another ; a custom to which
the Nootka tribes still adhere. Every new member of the Tlokoala must
be initiated by the wolves. At night a pack of wolves—that is, Indians
dressed in wolf-skins and wearing wolf-masks—make their appearance,
pe at
600 yy REPORT—1890.
seize the novice, and carry him into the woods. When the wolves are
heard outside the village, coming in order to fetch the intending novice,
the members of the Tlokoala blacken their faces and sing the following ©
song :—
ps es Bs Oia Nh ls th Ee — -———_ —_—__() —-——_
——
2286 S]2e2e ge ee
Ya na a 4 he ye he ya yé ya a né koa-yes ‘tlo - koa
A A
oe SSS Se See | aes ae ee eee a
= Se a
ne # he héye é hak-tlés-hanat - mots sa-eme nétl-ko - a né
SS SES
pa es = ws ran SS ers ET a
- aa aa ae ae oo gi ae shige e326.
ha-na-ké-is’-et an-és tlo-koa-né & hé he ye 6.
I.c., Among all tribes is great excitement because I am Tlokoala.
On the following day the wolves return the novice dead, then the
Tlokoala have to revive him. The wolves are supposed to have put the
magic stone hii/ina into his body, which must be removed in order to
restore him to life. The body is left outside the house, and two shamans
go and remove the hi/ina. It seems that this stone is quartz. The idea
is the same as that found among the Kwakiutl, where the Ma‘trm is
initiated by means of quartz which is put into his body by the spirit of
his dance. The returning novice is called @cinak.
After the novices have been restored to life they are painted red and
black. Blood is seen to stream from their mouths, and they run at once
down to the beach and jump into the water. Soon they are found to
drift lifeless on the water. A canoe is sent out and the bodies are
gathered in it. As soon as the canoe lands, they all return to life, resoré
to the dancing house, to which none but the initiated is admitted, and
stay there for four days. At night dances are performed in the house,
which the whole population is allowed to witness. After the four days
are over the novices leave the house, their heads being wound with
wreaths of hemlock(?) branches. They go to the river, in which they
swim, and after some time are fetched back by a canoe. They are almost
exhausted from the exertions they have undergone during the foregoing
days. Novices must eat nothing but dried fish and dried berries.
Each Tlokoala lasts four days. It is only celebrated when some
member of the tribe gives away a large amount of property to the Tlokoala,
the most frequently occurring occasion being the initiation of new
members. Sometimes it is celebrated at the time of the ceremonies
which are practised when a girl reaches maturity. The house of the man
who pays for the Tlokoala seems to be the taboo house of the society.
As soon as the Tlokoala begins, the ordinary social organisation of the
tribe is suspended—as is also the case among the Kwakiutl. The people
arrange themselves in companies or societies which bear the names of the
various Nootka tribes, no matter to which tribe and sept the persons
actually belong. Hach society has festivals of its own, to which members
of the other societies are not admitted, although they may be invited.
These societies are called @’patl. Each has a certain song which is sung
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 601
during their festivities. Here are songs of the Nutca’tlath and Mé’tclath
societies of the T's’éca/ath tribe.
Song of the Nutca'tlath Society.
=f ee er en eS
eS sae Sea ee a ee ee
Se ee oe SS
ev oe as
Wa é yé ye-6& ye é€ ya hé wi + a yeé
—— ——— Se
Sia ee ee = S = SS
6=- ae gt ere ad 3 | ae Sees
é he ye hé yé 6é a ketcitl hakwé tsakwa
SS SS SS I
SS a eee | eS
<< eae, lea Se =a =i
9 os 9 SS SS So SS SEF eS
He hé ha ya-é he hé ha ya-é tlo-koa'‘na = ya-é he
ee See A SR he ee ae tl IN
SS
a © « « @¢ @ ~@ 27se za
hé ha ya-é he hé ya ya-é he hé ha ya- é.
At night, when the whole tribe assembles in the taboo house, the
societies still keep together. They are hostile to each other, and railleries
between the various groups are continually going on. It seems that
there are no separate societies for men and women, but a certain
division must exist, as they seem to have separate feasts. When a
man, during a Tlokoala, brings in any game, and he does not give half of
it to the women, but retains the whole for the use of the men, the
former will attack him and wrest the share due to them from the men.
Tn the same way the women must share all they get or cook with the
men.
Originally each dance belonged to one family, and was transmitted
from generation to generation. Mother as well as father had the right
to transfer their dance to their children. Thus dances which belonged
0 one tribe were transmitted to others. The dance was given to the.
Novice at the time of his or her initiation, and no more than’ one
dance could be given at atime. At present these restrictions are
becoming extinct. Whoever is rich enough to distribute a sufficient
amount.of property may take any dance he likes. I was even told
that the chief of the Tlokoala, at the beginning of the dancing season,
distributes the various dances among the members of the order, and that
' he may redistribute them at the beginning of the following season.
It is a peculiarity of the dances of the Nootka that two masks of the
same kind always dance together.
1890. RR
602 REPORT—1890.
Among the dances belonging to the Tlokoala I mention the Aai’tlk'é
(=feathers on head). The ‘Aai'tlk's is supposed to be a being living in
the woods. He wears no mask, but a head-ornament of cedar-bark dyed
red, the dyed cedar-bark being ‘the emblem of the Tlokoala. This orna-
ment consists of a ring from “which four feathers wound with red cedar-
bark rise, three over the forehead, one on the back. The face of the
dancer is smeared with tallow and then strewn with down. The orna-
ments of each dancer—of the Aai’tlk‘é as well as of all others—must be
Fia. 17.—Head-mask of Hi’nemin,
= sr Say ES. “ ne
a
a aia
Pep le
Abt
their personal property. They must not be loaned or borrowed. The
following is the song of the Aai’tlk-é :—
Fine.
Se Rese abet re ered tocar
2 (tama ag seas ae mergers eee Ser
Ha ya ha yi. Hii ya ha a nanu i - tli - me.
= SS as ees Se Se
SS ae ee eee
o 06 36° oo &. @ 8 Gg tO
hi ya nanu i thi mé nanu wt tli mé ha _ ya.
Another dance is that of the Hi/nemin, a fabulous bird-like being.
The dancers wear the head-mask, fig. 17. On the top of the mask there
is a hole, in which a stick is fastened, which is greased and covered with
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 603
down. When the dancer moves, the down becomes loose, and whoever
among the spectators catches a feather receives a blanket from the chief
of the Tlokoala. The following is the song of Hi/nemin :—
6 << “Saar a 22S
Ha-na-i ya i a na ha na-i ya ha a na
Clapping Mie thot hE ae.[.ee
———— SS SS eas el ae ieee eee eee
SSa—= a
ines: eh, nai ya ha nai yo ho no
ae Sa eres ewe
gw a. OS OC gg pn ee a
: hé né minsna a haa natl wek kus-ta ma-
j Seren aN ee eee Sf
ote Ot tee Sa ee pee SF
i hae nasi “ya, * i a na ha na-i ya ha ai a
;
a
= SS SS SS ge ay gee ees,
ha né a ha na-i ya ha na-i yo - ho no ho.
The A’tlmaqk6é is a dance in which two men wearing two human
masks appear. The masks are called A’tlmaqkd. When they appear
he spectators sing :—
| PGagbe Oy tn ith AL gree hay
, o see
Kwai-as kwai- as Atlmaq - k6
Te., Back out, back out, Atlmagko !
hen they leave the house and run about in the village. The A’tlmaqké
is a being living in the woods. The first to see him was a Netcumu’asath,
and ever since this sept dances the A’tlmaqko dance.
The Sa/nek (panther) dance corresponds to the No/ntlem of the
wakiutl. The dancer wears a large head-mask, like that of the Hi/nemin,
da bear-skin. He knocks everything to pieces, pours water into the
fire, and tears dogs to pieces and devours them. Two canine teeth in
the mouth of the mask are its most characteristic feature. A rope is
tied around his waist, by which he is led by some attendants.
_ The hi’tltak, self-torture, corresponds to the hawi?'natl of the Kwakiutl.
The dancers rails their bodies with the juice of certain herbs, and push
‘small lances through the flesh of the arms, the back, and the flanks.
Other dances are the Pu’kmis dance (see p: 597), i in which the dancer
is covered all over with pipe clay; the Hu’tlmis dance, the Hnu’tlmis
» The last note drawn down an eighth.
RR2
4
604 REPORT—1890.
being another fabulous being living in the woods and always dancing;
the Hué’mis dance, which is performed by women only, who wear red
cedar-bark ornaments and down, and who dance with one hand extended
upward, the other downward; the A’yék’ dance, in which the dancer
knocks to pieces whatever he can lay his hands on ; and dances represent-
ing a great variety of animals, particularly birds.
The tribes north of Barclay Sound have a dance in which the per-
former has to cut long parallel gashes into his breast and arms. The
Ha/mats’a dance, which has been borrowed from the Kwakiutl, has spread
as far south as Nutca’lath, having been introduced there by intermarriage
with the Kwakiutl. The killing of a slave, which has been described by
Sproat (p. 157) and Knipping, may belong to this part of the Tlokoala
(see below, pp. 616, 617).
Wh THE KWAKIO TE.
The Kwakiutl language is spoken in two main dialects, the Héiltsuk’,
from Gardner Channel to Rivers Inlet, and the Kwakiutl proper. I have
formerly given the Lé’kwiltok’ as a separate dialect, but this view has
proved to be incorrect, it being almost identical with the Kwakiutl. As
stated in my last report, the tribes speaking the Héiltsuk: and Gyimano-itq
dialects are in the maternal stage, and are divided into gentes having
animal totems; while the southern group are in the paternal stage, and
are divided into gentes which have no animal-crest (see Fifth Report of
Committee, p. 829). I collected in the summer of 1889 an almost com-
plete list of tribes, septs, and gentes of the Kwakiutl, which is here
given. The social position of the tribes and gentes will be discussed
later on. The gentes of the Kwakiutl proper are given according to their
rank.
A. Harirsux: DIAvectr.
1. Qaisla’.
Gentes: Beaver, Eagle, Wolf, Salmon, Raven, Delphinus orca.
2. Qana‘ks’iala, called by the Héiltsuk- Gyiman6-itq.
3. Qé’qgaes. Chinaman Hat.
4, Hé’iltsuk’. Bellabella. Gentes : 1. Wik’dqténog (eagle people) ;
Septs: a. K’’O'kaitq 2. K-’0é'ténoq (raven people) ; 3.
b. O@'tlitq Ha’lq’ainténoq (killer people).
ce. O'éalitq
5. So’mequlitq. Upper end of Awi’ky’énoq Lake.
Gentes: 1. Sd’mequlitq.
2. T’sé’dkuimig or Ts’é’uitq.
6. Nod’qunts’itq. Lower end of Awi’ky’énoq Lake. ’
7. Awi/ky’énoq (=people of the back country?). Rivers Inlet.
Called by former authors Wikéno.
Gentes: 1. K’oi/kyaqténog. Crest: whale.
. Gyi’gyilk-am (=those first to receive). Crest: bear.
. Wad/kuitem. Crest: raven. '
oe oo LS
. Wa'wikyem. » 2 eagle.
. Kué'tela. »» : eagle. -
6. Na‘lekuitq. sae 2 Whale. ey
Panty oy
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 605
B. Kwaxrutt DIauect.
1. Tla’sk’énoq (=people of the ocean). Klaskino Inlet.
Gentes: 1. T’é’t’anétlénoq. x
2. O’manitsénog (=people of O’manis, name of a place,
alleged to be a Nootka word).
2. Gua’ts’énoq (=people of the north country). Northern side of
entrance to Quatsino Sound.
Gentes: 1. Qa’mando.
2. Gua’ts’énoq.
3. Kyo’p’énog. Entrance of Quatsino Sound.
Gentes: 1. Kyd'p’énoq.
2. K’’o'tlénoq.
4, K'osk’é’moq. Koskimo.
Gentes: 1. Gyé'qsEm (=chiefs).
Nee’nsHa (=dirty teeth).
Gyé’qsrms’anatl (=higher than Gyé’qsEm ?),
Tsé’tsaa.
W oqua’ mis.
Gyék’’0/lek-oa.
. _Kwakak‘ema’l’énoq.
SS) Se ev LS.
0. Nak‘o’mgyilisila (=always staying in their country; descendants:
of K’’a/nigyilak‘). ©. Scott.
Gentes: 1. Gyé’qsnm (=chiefs).
2. Nee’rsHa (=dirty teeth).
} 6. Tlatlasik‘oa’la (=those on the ocean; descendants of Nomase’nqilis)..
Nahwitti.
Gentes: 1. Gyi/gyilk'am (=those to whom is given first).
2. La’ladtla (=always crossing sea).
3. Gyé’qsem (=chiefs).
7. Guasi’la (=north people). Smith Inlet.
Gentes: 1. Gyi/gyilk'am (=those to whom is given first).
2. Si’sintlaé (=the Si/ntlaés). Crest: sun.
3. K’’d/mkyittis (=the rich side).
8. Na’/k-cartok. Seymour Inlet.
Gentes: 1. Gyé’qsrm (=chiefs).
. Sisintlaé (=the Si/ntlaés). Crest: sun.
. Tsitsimé’lek-ala.
. Wa/las (=the great ones).
. Te’mtemtlels (=ground shakes when they step on if).
. Kwa’/kokyitl (=the Kwa’kiutl).
Cp Or 09 BO
_ The Kwakiutl live at Fort Rupert, Turner Island, Call Creek. The
tribe consists of the following three septs :—
606 REPORT—1890,
9, Kué’éerla.
Gentes: 1. Maa’mtagyila (=the Ma’tagyilas).
2. K*kwa/kum (=the real Kwa’kiutl).
3. Gyé’qs—Em (=chiefs).
4, Laa/laqsent’aid (= La/laqsEnt’aids).
5. Si/sintlaé (=Sintlaés).
10. K’’6’moyué (=the rich ones). War name: Kué’ga (murderers).
Gentes: 1, K’kwa/kum (=the real Kwa’kiutl).
2. Ha’anatlénog (=the archers).
3. Yaai’Hak‘Emaé (=the crabs).
4, Haai/lakyemaé (=the conjurers, or La’qsé.
5. Gyi’gyilk‘am (=those to whom is given first).
11. Wa’laskwakiutl (=the great Kwakiuil). Nickname: La’kuilila
(=the tramps).
Gentes: 1. Ts’n/ntspnuk’aid (=the Ts’n/nuk:aids).
2. Gyé’qsEm (=chiefs).
3. Wa’ulipoé (=those who are feared).
4, K-0'mkyitis (=the rich side).
12. Ma’malélek‘ala (=Ma'lélek-ala people). Village Island.
Gentes: 1. Ts’/mtrmtlels (=ground shakes when they step on it).
2. Wé’dmask'ema(=high people).
3. Wa’las (=the great ones).
4, Ma’malélék‘am (=the Ma’lélek-as).
13. Kwé’k'sdt’énoq (=people of the other side). Gilford Island.
Gentes : 1. Naqna/qola (=standing higher than other tribes ?).
2. Mé/mogyins (=with salmon traps).
3. Gyi’gyilk-am (=those to whom is given first).
4, Né/nelpaé (=an upper end of river).
14, Tlau’itsis (=angry people). Cracroft and Turner Islands.
Gentes: 1. Si’sintlaé (=the Si/ntlaés).
. Nunemasek:a/lis (=who were old from the beginning).
. Tlée'tlk ét (=having great name).
. Gyi'gyilk‘am (=those to whom is given first).
15. Ne’mk‘ic. Nimkish River.
Gentes :
He ey bo
Tsétsétloa/lak‘emaé (=the most famous ones).
. Tlatrla’min (=the supporters). Crest: eagle.
. Gyi/gyilk'am (=those to whom is given first). Crest :
thunder-bird.
. Si/sintlaé (=the Si/ntlaés). Crest: sun.
. Né/nelky’énoq (=people of land at head of river).
ce «Oto
[Ma’tilpé (=head of Maa'mtagyila) are no separate tribe. They
belong to the Kwa’kiutl proper.
Gentes: 1. Maa/mtagyila.
2. Gyé’qsrm.
3. Haai’'lakyemaé. |
16.
Lf:
18.
Inlet.
19.
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 607
Tena’qtaq. Knight Inlet.
Gentes: 1. K’a'mk~’amtrlatl (=the K’’a'mtelatls).
2. Gyé’qsem (=the chiefs).
3. K-oé’koaai’noq (=people of [river] K-oa’is).
4. Yaai'Hak'Emaé (=the crabs).
5. P’é’patlé’noq (=the flyers).
Aoai’tlela (=those inside of inlet). Knight Inlet.
Gentes: 1. Gyi’gyrlk'am (=those to whom is given first).
2. Ts’d’ts’éna (=thunder-birds).
3. Ka’ekuky’é’noq.
Tsa’watkénog (=people of the olachen country). Kingcombe
Gentes: 1. Lé/lewagyila (=the heaven-makers—mythical name
of raven).
2. Gyi'gyEk‘rmaé (=the highest chiefs).
3. Wi/0k'Emaé (whom none dares to look at).
4, Gya'gygyilakya (=always wanting to kill people).
5. K-a/k-awatilikya (=K-awatilikalas).
Guau’aénog. Drury Inlet.
Gentes: 1. Gyi’gyilk‘am (=those to whom is given first).
2. Kwi'koaénoq (=those at lower end of village).
3. Kwa/kowénog.
. Haqua’mis. Wakeman Sound.
Gentes: 1. Gyi'gyilk’am (=those to whom is given first).
2. Gyé’qs—Em (=the chiefs).
3. Haai/alikyauaé (=the conjurers).
4, ?
The Lé’kwiltok’, who inhabit the country from Knight Inlet to Bute
Inlet, consist of the following septs :
21.
Wi'wék‘aé (=the Wé'‘k‘aés).
Gentes: 1. Gyi/gyilk‘am (=those to whom is given first).
2. Gyé’qsrm (=the chiefs).
3. Gyé/qsEm (=the chiefs).
4, Wi'wéak'am (=the We’k'aé family).
22. Qa’qamitses (=old mats, so called because slaves of the
Wi'wek‘aé). Recently they have taken the name of Wa’litsum (=the
great ones).
Gentes: 1. Gyi'gyilk‘am (=those to whom is given first).
2. Gyé’qsem (=chiefs).
23. Kué’qa (=murderers).
Gentes: 1. Wi'wéak'am (=the Wé’k‘aé family).
2. K’’0'’moyué (=the rich ones).
3. Kué’qa (=murderers).
24, Tlaa/luis. Since the great war with the southern tribes, which
was waged in the middle of this century, they have joined the Kué’qa,
of whom they form a fourth gens.
25. K*’d’m’énog. Extinct.
608 REPORT— 1890.
SoctaL ORGANISATION.
The social organisation of the Kwakiutl is very difficult to under-
stand. It appears that, in consequence of wars and other events, the
number and arrangement of tribes and gentes have undergone consider-
able changes. Such events as that of the formation of a new tribe like
the Ma’tilpi, or the entering of a small tribe into another as a new gens
like the Tlaa’luis, seem to have occurred rather frequently. On the
whole the definition given in my last report of a tribe as being a group
of gentes the ancestors of whom originated at one place seems to be
correct. The tribe is called gyduklit =village community, or lé'lk'olatlé,
the gens nzm’é’mut =fellows belonging to one group. The name of the
gens is either the collective form of the name of the ancestor, or refers to
the name of the place where it originated, or designates the rank of the
gens. In the first case it appears clearly that the members of a gens
were originally connected by ties of consanguinity. In the second case it
would seem that historic events had led to the joining of a number of
tribes, as mentioned above. For instance, in going over the list of the
gentes of the Nu’mk«ic, it would seem very likely that the Né’nelky’énoq,
the people of the land at the head of the river, who used to live in the
interior of Vancouver Island, originally formed a separate tribe. In such
cases in which gentes of various tribes bear the same name, the name
being that of the ancestor, it seems likely that they formed originally
@ne gens, which was split up in course of time. This seems most likely
in cases in which the gentes refer their origin to a common mythical
ancestor, as, for instance, that of the Si’sintlaé. This opinion is also
sustained by the tradition that the gentes were divided at the time of the
flood, one part drifting here, the other there. The various gentes named
Gyé'qsrm, Gyi’gyilk‘am, &c., which names merely designate their rank,
may have adopted these names independently, and are probably not
branches of one older gens. Changes of names of gentes and tribes
have occurred quite frequently. Thus the name K-’d/moyué of one of
the Kwakiutl tribes is a recent one. The name Wa’litsum has been
adopted by the Qaqama’tses only twenty or thirty years ago. The tribes
Ma/malélék-ala and Wi’ wék-aé bear the names of their mythical ancestors,
Ma‘lélék'a and Wé'k-aé. They have gentes bearing the names of
Ma'lélék-a’s and Wé’k‘aé’s families. It seems probable that the other
gentes joined the tribe later on. The impression conveyed by the
arrangement of tribes and gentes is that their present arrangement is
comparatively modern and has undergone great changes.!
According to the traditions of this people the K-osk-é’moq, Gua'ts’énoq,
Ky6'p’énoq, and Tla’sk’énoqg drove tribes speaking the Nootka language
from the region south of Quatsino Inlet. The K-osk’é/moq are said to
have exterminated a tribe of Kwakiutl lineage called Qd/éas who lived
on Quatsino Sonnd.? The Kwakiutl occupied the district from Hardy
Bay to Turnour Island; the Nimkish the region about K-amatsin Lake
and Nimkish River, and the Lékwiltok: the country north-west of Salmon
1 After the above was in type the interesting descriptions of the Apache gentes,
by Capt. J. Bourke, and of the Navajo gentes, by Dr. W. Matthews, appeared:
(Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1890, pp. 89, 111). Tkeir conclusions regarding the gentes, ,
of these people closely agree with the views expressed above regarding the Kwakiutl.
? See also Dr. G. M. Dawson, Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, 1887, ii. p. 70.
uh
4
River. They did not conquer Valdes Island until the middle of last
century.
The child does not belong by birth to the gens of his father or
mother, but may be made a member of any gens to which his father,
mother, grandparents, or great-grandparents belonged. Generally each
child is made a member of another gens, the reason being prevention of
poverty, as will be explained later on. The child becomes member of a
gens by being given a name belonging to that gens. On this occasion
property must be distributed among the members of the gens according
to the rank of the name. By taking a name belonging to another gens,
to which one of his ancestors belonged, a man may become at the same
time a member of that gens. Thus chiefs are sometimes members of
many gentes, and even of several tribes. One Kwakiutl chief, for
instance, belongs to six gentes. The gentes differ in rank, and in
_ festivals are placed accordingly, those highest in rank sitting in the rear
of the house near the fire, the others arranged from that place towards
the door, ranging according to rank. In each gens those highest in rank
sit nearest the fire. The proper place of a gens is called ¢ld’goé. The
gens highest in rank receives its presents first. The latter are not given
individually but in bundles, one for each gens. Those who belong to.
_ yarious gentes receive presents as members of each gens. Hach man
_ becomes debtor for double the amount of presents he has received, to be
_ returned at convenience. Therefore those who belong to various gentes
become as many times debtors as they are members of gentes. When a
_ man dies his grandchild or child generally receives his name. Then the
_ latter becomes responsible for all the debts of the deceased, and the out-
standing debts of the deceased become due to him. If the child or
grandchild does not take his name he does not need to pay the debts of*
the deceased, nor has he a claim upon outstanding debts. Children are
_ generally given the names of deceased relatives, as then all debts become
_ due to them, and they are thus provided for in case the father should die.
_ For the same reason children of one family are made members of various.
_ gentes, so as to receive property as members of each gens. If a man has
_ to give a great feast the members of his gens are bound to help him, and
are assessed, according to their wealth, double the amount of the loaned
_ property to be restored later on. The property given to a gens is dis-
tributed among its members according to rank and wealth.
The chiefs of various gentes of one tribe are, when still young,
instigated by their elders to outdo each other in feats of bravery as well
as in giving festivals. This spirit of rivalry is kept up throughout
their lives, and they continually try to outdo each other as to who will
distribute the greatest amount of property. Generally this strife is
between the chiefs of two gentes; among the Nemk‘ic, for instance,
between Tla’g’dtas, chief of the T's’étsétloa/lak‘emaé, and Wa/qanit,.
chief of the Si’sintlaé. The two opposite gentes always watch each
other to see whether the opponent regards all the rules and _ restric-
tions by which the life of the Indians is regulated. If they detect their-
opponents in breaking a rule the latter have to make payments to them.
In general it is not allowed that a woman give a feast; but by paying
twenty blankets to the opposing gens permission may be obtained.
The method of acquiring certain privileges by marriage was described
in the Fifth Report of the Committee (p. 849). It may be added here
that when a man purchases a wife for his brother he also may take the:
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 609:
610 REPORT—1890.
privileges, particularly the dances, of the bride’s father. The gentes are
not exogamous, but marriages between cousins are forbidden.
CusTOMS REFERRING TO BrerH, MarriaGE, AND Dears.
The customs referring to birth, marriage, and death were described
in the Fifth Report of the Committee. I have, however, to correct, to a
certain extent, the statements referring to the dowry. Before and after
marriage the woman begins to collect small copper plates (éla'tlagszm),
four of which are tied together and to the point of a short stick, and
the gyi'segstdl, each of which is valued at about one blanket. The
gy? seqstal (=sea-otter teeth) or kok-etaya'nd (=lid of box) is a heavy
board of cedar-wood about 23 feet long by 145 foot wide, resembling in
shape somewhat the lids of Indian boxes, but being far heavier. Its
front is painted and set with sea-otter teeth. All these boards are
very old. When the woman has collected a sufficient quantity of these
boards—sometimes as many as 200—she gives a feast. The gyi'seqstdl
are placed in a long row on the beach, so that their fronts form one line.
The men sit down on them, and beat time on the boards and sing. On
this occasion the woman presents the boards and the coppers to her
husband. I inquired once more as to the meaning of this peculiar
institution. It would seem that it originally meant that the woman
owned many boxes, each board representing one lid. But besides this
the sea-otter teeth were considered a valuable possession, and it may
be that this accounts for the fact that they are said to represent the
woman’s teeth. When a woman has not given gyi'seqstdl to her
husband it will be said to her: lopuépité, t.e., you carry no teeth in your
head, or wi'pet ha'mas lag tla/k'oa k env't, your teeth are not good to bite
copper.
The Héiltsuk: prepare corpses before burial by taking out the entrails
and drying the body. A widow, in addition to the regulations recorded
in my last report, must wear for four days after the death of her husband
his clothing. From the fifth to the sixteenth day after the death she may
lie down at night-time, but must sit up again before the crows cry in the
morning. She must not comb her hair or cut it.
Parents of twins must for sixteen days after the children are born
live in a corner of the house, paint their faces red, and strew their hair
with eagle-down every fourth day.
RELIGION.
The Kwakiutl worship the sun, whom they call d/ta and gyi’ k'amaé
(chief). It seems that his third name, k-ants 6’wmp (our father), was
not used before the advent of the whites, but this is not quite certain.
He is also called ‘ our elder brother,’ ‘the one we pray to,’ ‘the praised
one.” They pray to him. I recorded two formulas: In bad weather the
steersman of the canoe will pray: dd’koatla gya'genugq! gyi/k'amdé! i.e.,°
take care of us, chief! A frequent prayer is: di gyi/k-amaé! wa'watle
gya'genug! i.e., O chief, take pity upon us!
Besides the sun a host of spirits are worshipped, particularly those
of the winter dances, as set forth in my last report (p. 850).
The soul is seated in the head, and may leave the body in sickness.
It may be restored by the shaman. Two days before death the soul
aa pe eee
— a
J
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 611
leaves the body. It becomes a Laé/lénoq, the sight of whom is deadly.
The ‘seer’ sees the soul Jeaving the body, and therefore can predict the
death of aman. The La/lénog either live in Bébénak‘aua (=the greatest
depth) underground or roam through the woods. They are not per-
mitted to enter a house and hover around the villages causing bad
weather. It is said that the name of Bébénak‘aua was not invented
until after the advent of the whites, but the idea of the ghosts having
their abode in the lower world is consistently carried through all tales
and customs of the Kwakiutl as well as of the Nootka, and must there-
fore have existed before the whites arrived on the North Pacific coast.
The soul of a deceased person returns again in the first child born after
his death.
These beliefs are well described by the following iale, the events of
which are believed to have happened comparatively recently. There
were two chiefs among the Nak‘oartok’, Ank-oa’lagyilis and T's’Eq’n’té.
The former had given away many blankets and was T's’Eq’r’té’s superior.
He was one of twins, and used to say that ata, the deity, took special
care of him, and that he would go to him after death. He had been
accumulating property for a new festival for four years. When the tribe
went olachen fishing he hid his property under stones in the woods. His
wife helped him. Ts’kq’s’té followed them unnoticed and killed them
with his lance. He loaded the bodies with stones and threw them into
the sea. Nobody knew what had happened to the chief and to his wife.
Ank‘oa/lagyilis had a son whom he bad left to the care of one of his
brothers. When the boy was grown up he married, and his wife had a
son. It was Ank‘oa/lagyilis who was thus born again. The boy when
a few years old cried and wanted to have a small boat made, and when
he had got it asked for a bow and arrows. His father scolded him for
having so many wishes. Then the boy said, ‘I was at one time your
father, and have returned from heaven.’ His father did not believe
him, but then the boy said, ‘ You know that Ank‘oa’lagyilis had gone to
bury his property, and nobody knows where it is. I will show it to you.’
He took his father right to the place where it lay hidden, and bade him
distribute it. There were two canoe-loads of blankets. Now the people
knew that Ank‘oa/lagyilis had returned. He said, ‘I was with d’ta, but
he has sent me back.’ They asked him to tell about heaven, but he
refused to do so. He became chief and refrained from taking revenge
upon T’s’Eq’n’'té.
SHAMANISM AND WITCHCRAFT.
The shamans of the Kwakiutl are called hé’/ilikya, paga’la, or naw'alak’,
the latter being the general name, while the first and second are only
used for the shaman when curing disease. When curing a sick person
he has a small dish of water standing next to him, and moistens the part
_of the body in which the pain is seated before beginning his incantations.
He uses a rattle, dances, and finally sucks the disease out of the body
(k#’iqoa’) which he shows to the bystanders, the disease being a piece of
skin, a stick, a piece of bone or of quartz. He also uses whistles and
blows the disease, which he holds in the hollow of his hands, into the air
(hé'ilikya or po'qua). He is also able to see the soul, and on account of
this faculty is called d’d'qts’as, the seer. In his dreams he sees leaving
the body the souls of those who are to die within a short time. If a
man feels weak and looks pale the seer is sent for. He feels the head
612 REPORT—1890. )
and root of the nose of the patient, and finds that his soul has left his
body. Then he orders a large fire to be made in the middle of the
house, and when it is dark the people assemble and sit around the plat-
form of the house, the sick one sitting near the fire. The shaman stands
near him, and by means of incantations catches the soul, which he shows
standing on the palm of his hand. It looks like a mannikin or like
a small bird. Then he restores it to the patient by putting it on the
crown of his head, whence it slides into his head. The soul is supposed
to occupy the whole head.
The shaman is also able to hurt a man by throwing disease into his
body (ma‘k-a, see p. 622). He throws a stick, a piece of skin or quartz
into the body of his enemy, who falls sick, and if the disease should
strike his heart must die. The shamans of the Awiky’énog occasionally
perform a ceremony called Mid'k-ap, t.e., throwing one another, in which
two shamans try to strike each other with disease. The dance of the
Ma’mak'a (see p. 622) represents the throwing of the disease by the
shamans.
In order to bewitch an enemy two means may be applied. A portion
of his clothing may be buried with a corpse (1d'prtanté), or the ceremony
called é’k:’a may be performed. Particularly such parts of clothing are
effective that are soiled and saturated with perspiration, for instance,
kerchiefs, the lower parts of sleeves, &c. I learnt about two cases which
occurred in 1887 and 1888 at Fort Rupert. In one case a girl fell sick,
and as it was suspected that she was bewitched the box was opened in
which a man who had recently died had been put up. Parts of her
clothing were found in the month, nose, and ears of the body. The
articles were taken away, the body washed with fresh water, and replaced.
In the other case a grave was opened, and it was found that the tongue
of the body had been pulled out, and its mouth stuffed with parts of
clothing, This body was treated in the same way as the other one.
The second method of bewitching an enemy is practised by the é’k’énog
and is called é’%’a. This custom has been well described by Dr. G. M.
Dawson:! ‘Anendeavour is first made to procure a lock of hair, some
saliva, a piece of the sleeve and of the neck of the dress, orof therim of the
hat or headdress which has absorbed the perspiration of the person to be
bewitched. These are placed with a small piece of the skin and flesh of a
dead man, dried and roasted before the fire, and rubbed and pounded
together. The mixture is then tied up in a piece of skin or cloth, which
is covered over with spruce gum. The little package is next placed in
a human bone, which is broken for the purpose, and afterwards care-
fully tied together and put within a human skull. This again is placed
in a box which is tied up and gummed over, and then buried in the
ground in such a way as to be barely covered. A fire is next built
nearly, but not exactly, on the top of the box, so as to warm the
whole. Then the evilly-disposed man, beating his head against a tree,
names and denounces his enemy. ‘This is done at night or in the
early morning, and in secret, and is frequently repeated till the enemy
dies. The actor must not smile or laugh, and must talk as little as pos-
sible till the spell has worked. If a man has reason to suppose that he
is being practised on in this way he or his friends must endeavour to find
the deposit and carefully unearth it. Rough handling of the box may
» Trans. Roy. Soc. of Canada, 1887, ii.:p. 77.
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 613
prove immediately fatal. It is then cautiously unwrapped and the con-
tents are thrown into the sea. If the evilly-disposed person was dis-
covered he was in former years immediately killed. If after making up
the little package of relics as above noted it is put into a frog, the mouth of
which is tied up before it is released, a peculiar sickness is produced,
which causes the abdomen of the person against whom the sorcery is
directed to swell.’ The reports which I have received agree in all the
main points with the foregoing. Mr. George Hunt, of Fort Rupert, told
me of an interesting experience. One day, when walking in the woods,
he fellin with two men who had made a fire, and one of whom was hold-
ing his face and crying like a woman. The other moved a box towards
the fire, keeping it covered with soil. When they saw that they were
observed they ran away. Mr. Hunt took the box home, and was pre-
vailed upon bya sick person called ‘ Captain Jim’ to give itto him. The
latter maintained to have felt a sudden pain and then a relief at the
moment when the box was taken from the fire. He opened the box, and
in it was found a human right femur, a right bumerus, and askull. The
former had been split and tied up with human sinews. They were opened,
and a piece of a shirt, a handkerchief, some saliva, a piece of the rim of a
hat, and piece of a mat were foundin the bones and in the skull. The
nose, orbits, and foramen magnum of the skull were closed with leaves.
The contents were thrown into the sea after being covered with feathers.
When a man knows that an é’k’’énoq is bewitching him, he may call
the dé’gyintzénog, who is able to undo the practices of the former. He
goes through the same ceremonies, taking parts of the sick man’s
elothing, enclosing them in human bones, and making a fire over them.
By performing these practices a second time the effect of the first
performance is counteracted.
Various BEtirrs.
The sight of a ghost is deadly. A few years ago a woman who was
wailing for her mother suddenly fell into a swoon. The people first be-
lieved her to be dead, and carried the corpse into the woods. There they
discovered that she continued to breathe. They watched her for two days,
when she recovered. She told that she had seen two people enter the
house. One of them had said, ‘ Don’t cry; I am your mother’s ghost.
We are well off where we live.’ She had replied: ‘No, I mourn because
you have left me alone.’ Then she had fallen into a deep swoon.
When an eclipse of the sun or moon takes place the heavenly bodies
are being swallowed. The eclipse is called nek:z'k‘=swallowed. In
order to liberate the sun or the moon they make a great fire, and burn
blankets, boxes, and food. They also make a noise to frighten away the
enemy, and sing hauk'ud !=throw it up !
Earthquakes are produced by ghosts. To drive them away bees make
a noise and burn blankets, food, boxes, &c.
Wolves must not be killed, as else no game could be obtained.
Wolf’s heart and fat are used as medicines for heart diseases.
Women are forbidden to touch a wolf, as else they would lose their
husbands’ affections.
Hair, nails, and old clothing are burnt as a protection against witch-
craft. For the same reason they spit into water or fire.
When a salmon is killed its soul-returns to the salmon country. The
614 REPORT—1890.
bones must be thrown into the sea, as they will be revived in that case.
If they were burnt the soul of the salmon would be lost.
Twins, if of the same sex, were salmon before they were born. Among
the Nak‘o’mgyilisila the father dances for four days after the children
have been born, with a large square rattle. The children by swinging
this rattle can cure disease and procure favourable winds and weather.
A story that is worth being recorded is told by the Ne’mk-ic re-
garding the supernatural powers of twins. An old woman named
We'tsak:anitl, who died only a few years ago, had no teeth left. She was
one of twins, and told the people that she would ask her father for new
teeth. Then afew large black teeth grew in her mouth. Everyone came to
see her. A few years later she said, ‘Iam getting tooold. Don’t ery when
I die, I merely go to my father. If you cry, no more salmon will come
here. Hang the box into which you will put my body on to a tree near
the river after having painted it. When you pass by, ask me for salmon,
and I shall send them.’ She asked the chief, Na/ntsé (—Great Bear),
‘Shall I become your child, and do you prefer a son or a daughter P’
He asked her to become a boy, and seven months after her death his wife
gave birth to a son, although she was quite old and had had no children
since a long time.
Of another twin, a boy, it is told that after eating fresh salmon he
became crazy, but regained his senses after having eaten half-dried
olachen.
SECRET SOCIETIES.
In my first report I have explained the principle underlying the secret
societies of the Kwakinutl, and will merely repeat here that each class of
this society has its ruling spirit, who initiates the novice, but that at the
same time only such people are allowed to become members as have
acquired the right of initiation by inheritance or marriage. Each class
wears certain ornaments of cedar-bark which is dyed ‘red, and called
tla/kak’. The highest in rank among the members of this society is the
ha'mats’a, the eater, who devours the flesh of corpses and bites pieces of
flesh out of the arms, breasts, back, or legs of the living. The season
during which the festivities of the society are performed is called 7's’é'ha
by the Kwakiutl, while the other tribes use generally the collective form
Ts’ atsa’ék'a, which means ‘ the secrets.’ This season lasts from November
to February. The rest of the year is called Ba’qus, the time during
which the secret societies are forbidden to appear. The same name is
applied to the uninitiated and to the festivities of sammer. The 7's’étsa/ck-a
does not last throughout the winter, but includes only a succession of
dances, ceremonies, and feasts to which one man sends out invitations.
No more than four Ts’ étsa'ék-a must be celebrated in one season. The
man who gives the T's’étsa/ék‘a has to pay the expenses of the ceremonies,’
and particularly has to supply the immense quantities of food that are
required. He is called yé'winila. He must have accumulated the follow-'
ing amount of property before he is allowed to become yé’winila: Two
blankets for each man who is to take part in the festival, one spoon, one
mat, ten pairs of copper bracelets, one pair of mountain-goat horn brace-
lets inlaid with haliotis shells, two fathoms of pearls, two tla‘tlags—Em
(see p. 610), and two gyi’seqstal (ibid.) for each man and for each
woman, one dish and one box for each two persons.
The Ts’ étsa'ék-a is celebrated when a novice or a member of the secret
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 615
society returns from the woods after being initiated or after haying had
intercourse with the genius of hisdance. Generally it is arranged in such
a way that the man who intends to give the 7s’étsa'ék'a sends his son or
some other relative into the woods. By his staying there with the spirits
he will rise toa higher class of the society, and thus partake of the distine-
tion arising from the celebration. But this is not necessarily the case.
While the young man stays in the woods the yé’wintla sends two messen-
gers around (¢/é'lala) to give notice that he intends to give a 1's’étsd’ éka.
A few days before the beginning of the festivities he sends the same mes-
_ sengers to invite the people (d’etsésta), and finally at the night of the
_ beginning of the festivals, when everything is ready, the messengers call
the guests to come (dlaw’it kd'tsist).
So far the customs are common to all tribes speaking the Kwakintl
dialect, but the details of the societies as well as their rank and the cere-
monies of various dances differ somewhat among various tribes. Four groups
may be distinguished, each having peculiar customs. The first comprise
the Kwakiutl, Nemk‘ic, Ma’malélék-ala (Matilpi), Tlau’itsis, Tena’qtaq,
_ and Lé’kwiltok: ; the second the Tsa/watrénoq, Guan’aénoq, and Haqua’-
ae
_ mis; the third, the Tlatlalisk-oa’la, Nak-o'mgyilisila, Na‘k-oartok’, and
Gnuasi/la; the fourth, the K-oské’mog, Kyo’p’énoq, Tla’sk’énoq, and
Gua'ts’énoq. Ishall first describe the customs of the first group.
Some time before the beginning of the festivities the yé’wintla must
give a large quantity of cedar-bark to the ‘ master of the cedar-bark’
(tla tlak'aksila), who has to make all the ornaments for the various
members of the Ts’étsa/ék‘a. Four days after he has received the bark
he invites the whole tribe and distributes the ornaments. 'Uhis festival is
called k-ap’é'k‘. He also gives to all those present three kinds of tallow
for smearing the face, mountain-goat, deer, and k*a/tsek (?) tallow. This
office is acquired by being inherited from the father, not by marriage.
There are three more offices of a similar kind which are inherited in the
same way, that of the singing-master, who teaches songs and rhythms,
the baton-master (¢’a’miatsé), who has to procure the batons for beating
ree 5 and the drum-master (md’menatsila), who has to look after the
drum.
As soon as the T's’étsa/ék-a begins, the gentes and the social rank of
ordinary times are suspended, and a new arrangement takes place. The
people drop their ordinary names and assume their T's’étsa/ék-a names. The
tribe is divided into two groups, the mé'emkoat (seals) and the k'wé!h-utsé,
the former being higher in rank. All those who are initiated may become
members of the mé’emkoat, but they are at liberty to join the hrué'utsé
for one Ts’étsa/ck'a. They have to pay a number of blankets to the
mé'emkoat for obtaining the right to stay away from the group to which
_ they properly belong. Only the highest grade of the members of the
_ Ts’étsa/ék'a, the ha’mats’a, must join the méemkoat. They must dress in
black, and, itis said, are called ‘seals’ for this reason. The house of the
yé'wiuila is their house, and is tabooed as long as the ceremonies last. . It
18 called tlamé’latsé, and no uninitiated (Ba’'qus) is allowed to enter. They
have to stay in this honse throughout the duration of the 7s’étsa’éia.
Sometimes a large ring of cedar-bark dyed red, the emblem of the society,
is fastened to the door of the house to indicate that it is tabooed. The
_ hd mats’a is the chief of the mé’emkoat, and, therefore, during the festival,
_ of the whole tribe. If a member of the mé'emkoat wishes to leave the
house he must obtain his permission first. When the ha’mats’a wishes
616 F REPORT—1890.
to obtain food he may send anyone hunting or fishing, and his orders
must be obeyed. Only during dances’ and feasts the uninitiated are
admitted to the taboo house. If anyone intends to invite the mé’emkoat
to a feast the ha'matsa’s wife may enter the house and deliver the message
after having publicly announced that she will go there. The mé/emkoat
are not permitted to touch their wives, but nowadays this custom is
mostly restricted to the hd’mats’a.
The k-ué'k'utsé are subdivided into seven societies :
1. Maa'mq’énog (killer whales), the young men.
2. D’d'd@op’z (rock-cods), men about thirty to forty years of age.
3. Tlé tlaqan (sea-lions), men forty to fifty years old.
4. K-oé'k-oim (whales), old men and old chiefs.
5. Kékyaqala'k-a (crows), girls.
6. K-a'k-akao (chickens), formerly called wa'qwaqoli (a small species
of birds), young women.
7. Md smos (cows), old women,.! (This name was recently adopted,
but I did not learn the old name.)
During the Ts’étsd’ék'a all these societies wear ornaments of the animals
which they represent. They are opponents of the mé’emkoat. The
mé'emkoat and each of the groups of the k-ué’k-utsé give feasts to each
other ‘in order to keep their opponents in good humonr.’ Nevertheless
the k-ué'k'utsé always attempt to excite the mé’emkoat, as will be described
presently, and the latter will attack the k-wé'k-utsé. The natives consider
these festivals not purely from a religious point of view, although the
latter is their principal character, but it is at the same time the social
event of the year, in which merry-making and sports of: all sorts are en-
joyed. . Even the attacks of the mé’emkoat, which will be described here-
after, are considered as part of the ‘fun.’
The mé'emkoat are subdivided into a great number of classes which
have different rank. I give here the list of the divisions of the mé’emkoat
arranged according to rank :
1. Ha’mats’a. 8. M@'itla.
2. No’ntsistatl. 9. Nod’/ntlem.
3. K’’0é’k-oastatl. 10. Kyimk”’alatla.
4, Nu’tlmatl. 11. Tlokoa’la.
5. Na/né. 12. lakwiata’latl.
6. To’q’uit. 13. K’’d/malatl.
7. Ha/ilikyilatl. 14. Hawi'nalatl.
Then follow a number of dances, which are all of equal rank: ©
Ha/maselatl, Ha/okhaok’, Ku’nqulatl, K’6'lus, and many others. The last
is the Lolo’tlalat], which is as high in rank as the Ha'mats’a, but is opposed
to him, and therefore stands at the other end of the dancers.
1 This peculiar custom of suspending the gentes on certain occasions, and intro-
ducing a class system instead, seems worthy of attention. Although this fact is far
from being a proof of the former existence of such a system among the Kwakiutl,
still its correspondence to the Australian class system is certainly suggestive, and may
point to a development of the social institutions of these tribes. The idea of the
possibility of suspending all gentes points out that the latter are either of compara-
tively recent origin or that they are degenerating. The former alternative appears
more probable, as in religious festivities, such as the 7s’@tsa'ck a. Generally ancient
institutions are preserved. It is hardly necessary to mention that similar class sys-
tems are found east of the Rocky Mountains.
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 617
1. The Hi'mats’a and the No’ntsistatl are initiated by Baqbakua-
lanusi’uaé,! Baqbakua’latlé, Ha’maa, or Hia’okhaok-, the first being,
however, by far the most important. During the dancing season the
hd mats’a may devour corpses and bite people. It seems that in former
times they also killed and devoured slaves. His ornaments are a very
large head-ring, three neck-rings and bunches tied into his hair, around
his wrists and ankles, all these ornaments being made of cedar-bark
dyed red. His face is painted black. He has six large whistles, each
whistle being a combination of several whistles with one common mouth-
piece. They are called meztsé’s, which is said to mean ‘ making him gay.’
He dances in a squatting position, his arms being extended horizontally,
first to one side, then to the other. His hands tremble continually. His
eyes are staring, his lips protruding voluptuously. Others in dancing
keep their hands pressed against the belly, to keep back the spirits which
are supposed to dwell in the belly, and whose voices are heard, their
voices being the sounds of the whistles. When dancing the ha'mats’a
cries hap hip! Onthe morning when the hd’mats’a returns from the
_ woods atthe beginning of the T's’étsd/éka he uses hemlock wreaths instead
of cedar-bark rings. On thesame evening he dances with his cedar-bark
ornaments. Sometimes the hd’mats’a has two or four rattles. He does
‘not swing them himself, but has four companions, called héili’Iya or
s@/latlila, who stand around him rattling. The highest hd/mats’a use
the masks of the hd/ok-haok’, or of the g‘ald/kwiois. Women cannot attain
the rank of the highest ha/mats’a, although they can become members of
the fraternity. They use the ha’msiué (i.e., hi’matsa’s mask for the fore-
head), but do not dance themselves, a man acting in their stead. One
cannot become hd’mats’a unless one has been a member of one of the
lower ranks of the Ts’étsa/éka for eight years. When the hd/mats’a
returns from the woods the kyi’mk:’alatla (No. 10), who is his servant,
must attend him. The latter carries a large head-ring, a small whistle,
and a large rattle. He carries a corpse on his arms, and thus entices the
ha'mats’a to follow him info the dancing-house. From the moment when
he is found in the woods the s@’latlila surround him. The ky?'mk’alatla
‘leads him into the rear of the house, leaving the large fire which is
burning in the centre of the house to his left. Then he deposits the
forpse, and tastes its flesh four times before giving it to the hd’mats’a.
When the latter begins to devonr the flesh, which he must bolt, not chew,
the kyi’mi’alatla brings him water, which the hd’mats’a drinks in
hetween. The kyi’mk*alatla cuts the flesh in narrow strips. The bodies
which are used in this ceremony are prepared by being soaked in salt
water. The flesh is removed from under the skin with sharp sticks, so
that only skin, sinews, and bones remain. When the other ha'mats’a see
‘the corpse they make a rush at it, and fight for the flesh. The kyi’mk’’a-
Y@ila breaks the skull and the bones, and gives them the brains and the
‘marrow. It was stated above that the k-ué'kutsé always try to excite
‘the mé/emkoat, and particularly the hd'mats’a. This is done by trans-
@ressions of any of the numerous rules relating to the intercourse with
the hd’ mats’a. Nobody is allowed to eat until he has begun. Or: he is
offered a feast. A kettle is filled with food, and as soon as it begins
to boil they will upset the kettle. When a Lold'tlalatl (ghost dance)
Song is sung the hd’mats’a will become excited as soon as the word
1 See Journ. Amen. Folk-Lore, i. p. 53, ff.
1890. Ss
618 REPORT—1890.
Lé'lenog (ghost) occurs, the Ldld'tlalatl being his opponent. As soon as
the ha'mats’a gets excited the nz{lmatl will close the door and prevent
the escape of those present. Then the ha@’mats’a rushes around and bites
the people. At the same time, when the ni’tlmatl rises, the kyi!mkalatla
must rise and attend his master, the ha’mats’a following all his move-
ments. If the latter is unable to get hold of anyone eise he bites the
kyi'mk’alatla. When the hd'mats’a returns from the woods a post
called ha/mspiq (=eat-post) is erected in the dancing-house, and remains
there for four days. It is a high pole, with a short cross-piece on top. Itis
wound with red cedar-bark, which spreads toward the cross-piece in the
shape of a fish-tail. After the fourth night the pole and the cedar-bark
are burnt. During the Ts’étsd/ék'a season the hd/mats’a must speak in
whispers only. When he has eaten a corpse he has to observe certain very
strict regulations for four months after the end of the dancing season
before he is allowed to haye unobstructed intercourse with the rest of the
tribe. He is not allowed to go out at the door, but a separate opening is
cut for his use. When he rises he must turn round four times, turning
to the left. Then he must put forward his foot four times before actually
making a step. In the same way he has to make four steps before going
out of the door. When he re-enters the house he has to go through the
same ceremonies before passing the door, and must turn round four
times before sitting down. He must use a kettle, dish, spoon, and cup
of his own, which are thrown away at the end of the four months. Before
taking water out of the bucket or river he must dip his cup four
times into the water before actually taking any. He must not take more
than four mouthfuls at one time. When he eats boiled salmon he must
not blow on it in order to cool it. During this period he must carry a
wing-bone of an eagle, and drink through it, as his lips must not touch
the brim of his cup. He also wears a copper nail to scratch his head with,
as his nails must not touch his skin, else, it is believed, they would
come off. At the end of the Ts’étsa’/ék-a many people surround the
ha'mats’a and lead him into every house of the ‘village and then back to
the dancing-house. This is called wéi/léka. When the dancing season is
over, the hd’ mats’a feigns to have forgotten all the ordinary ways of men
and has to learn everything anew. He acts as though he were very
hungry. The bones of the corpse he has eaten are kept for four months.
They are kept alternately four days in his bedroom and four days under
rocks in the sea. Finally they are thrown into the sea. After the
Ts’étsa'ck'a is over he has to pay everyone whom he has bitten. It
is said that the Kwakiutl obtained the hd’mats’a ceremonies from the
Awi'ky’énoq, Tsa/watnénog, and Héiltsuk-.
2. The No’ntsistati is also initiated by Baqbakualanusi’uaé. He is
painted black, covered with ashes, and carries firebrands, which he bran-
dishes in dancing. He has two whistles, is allowed to bite people, and
eats out of one dish with the hd/mats’a.
3. K’o0é'k-oastatl (from k°’0é'koasa, to beg), the beggar dancer, carries
two whistles. He is so called because anything he asks for must be
given him.
4, Ni’tlmatl (=the fool dance). The Nitlmatl carries a lance, sticks, —
or stones. When he is excited by the k-wé’k-ntsé he knocks to pieces
what he can lay his hands upon, and strikes the people. In order to excite
him they sing a song taken from a legend referring to the mink and the
wolves, Mink, Tic'selagyilak‘ (= made the sun), had killed two sons of
stint iin
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 619
the chief of the Atla’/lénoq (= wolves), who were preparing themselves
in the woods for the Ts’étsa/ék'a. The Atla/lénog learnt that he had
committed the murder, and invited him to a feast, during which they
intended to kill him. He came and sang: Kap’amd'lug Kuén ago
nEk'ama'eags Atld'lénog, 1.e., Kea (=mink), took the middle of face
(= nose) of Atli’lénoq for his cap. This song is used ‘to make the
Natimatl wild.’ If anyone makes a mistake in dancing he is killed by
the Nitlmatl, who is assisted by Na’né, the grizzly bear. (See also
No. 14.
5. stains, the grizzly bear, also knocks down people when heis excited.
He hates the red colour. (See also Nos. 4 and 14.)
6. Td’q’uit is danced by women, the arms of the dancer being raised
high upward, the palms of her hands being turned forward. The upper
part of the dancer’s body is naked; hemlock branches are tied around her
waist. She has four attendants, who always surround her. The dance is
said to have been originally a war-dance. he warriors, before going on an
expedition, went into the woods in order to meet the double-headed snake,
the Si’siutl, which gives them great strength and power. After return-
ing from the woods they engage a woman to dance the TO’q’uit. Very
elaborate arrangements are made for this dance. A double-headed snake,
about 20 feet long, made of wood, blankets, and skins, is hidden in a long
ditch, which is partly covered with boards. Strings are attached to it,
which pass over the beams of the house, and are worked by men who
hide in the bedrooms. As soon as the dancer appears, the people begin
to sing and tobeattime. In dancing the woman acts as though she were
_ trying to catch something, and when she is supposed to have got it she
throws back her hands and the Si’siutl rises from out of the ground, moving
its heads. If it does not move properly the Ha’mats’a, No’ntsistatl,
Nia‘tlmatl, and the bear jump up and bite and strike the people, driving
them out of the house. Finally the snake disappears in the ditch. A mes-
senger next calls upon one of the attendants to kill the dancer. Appa-
_ rently a wedge is driven through her head. It consists of two parts, each
being fastened to one side. She continues to dance, the wedge sticking
out of both temples, and blood flowing down freely. Then her head is
struck with a paddle, which is cut out so as to fit in the head, and she
continues to dance, her head being apparently split by the paddle. Some-
_ times she is burnt. For this purpose a box having a double bottom
is prepared. She lies down, and the box is turned over so that her body
may be conveniently pushed into it. At the place where she lies down
_ a pit is dug, in which she hides. The box is turned up again, closed,
_and thrown into the fire. Before the beginning of the ceremony a corpse
has been put into the lower part of the box. From the pit in which
the dancer hides, a tube of kelp has been laid underground, leading
to the centre of the fire. It acts asa speaking tube. The woman sings
through it, and her voice apparently comes out of the fire. Afterwards
the bones are found in the fire. They are collected, laid on a new mat,
and for four days the people sing over the bones, while the woman
remains hidden in a bedroom. At last the bones are heard to sing
(which is done by placing the mat over the mouth of the speaking tube),
and the next morning the woman is seen to be once morealive. After the
woman has been apparently killed the d’z'ntsik: is seen behind the spec-
tators. It consists of a series of flat carved boards, which are connected
on their narrow sides by plugs, which are passed through rings of cedar
- ss2
620
Fig: 18.—D’E’ntsik .
REPORT— 1890.
ropes. It has two or three points on top, and is
ornamented with mica (fig. 18). It is intended to
represent the Gi’siutl It is set in undulating
motions. Generally three of these figures appear.
In the To’q’uit the No/ntlemgyila (=making fool-
ish) is also used. It is a small, flat, human figure
with movable head and arms. Two lines of mica
run from the eyes to the corners of the mouth. Its
head is set with bunches of human hair. In a
number of these figures the head can be taken off,
being inserted into the body by means of a plug.
Then two carved birds are used, which fly down
from the roof, flapping their leather wings. They
grasp the head and carry it away, to return it after
a while. The figure is also worked from under-
ground.
¢. Ha/ilikyilatl is the conjurer’s dance.
9. No/ntlem dances the hands alternately, one
turned up to the shoulder, the other downward and
backward as far as possible.
10. Regarding the Kyi'mk’’alatla see p. 617.
11. The Tlokoa’la is the wolf’s dance. It corre-
sponds almost exactly to the Tlokcala of the Nootka
(see p.599). They wear the wis?’waé,a small carved
wolf’s head, on the forehead. They crawl on the
knuckles of the fingers, the thumbs turned back-
ward, and on the toes around the fire.
12. lakuiata/latl. Dance of the sea-monster or
lake-monster Ia’kHim with the mask (fig. 19).
13. The K’’6'malatl is initiated by the bird
Matr’m, who is said to live on a high mountain
inland, and conveys supernatural powers, particu-
larly the faculty of flying, through pieces of quartz,
which he gives the novice. The dancer’s body is
covered with blood, and he has five pieces of quartz
in his hair, arranged on the medial line.
14, Hawi/nalatl. The Hawi’nalatl is initiated
by the Wina’lagyilis, a genius of warriors. The
Hawi'nalatl has his shoulders and thighs perforated,
and ropes pulled through the wounds. Small and
thin slabs of wood are sewed to his hands. A heavy
post is leaned against the front of the dancing-
house, and a block is fastened to its top. A rope is
passed over the block and fastened to the ropes
which have been pulled through the Hawi‘nalatl’s
flesh. He is raised on the pole, hanging from these
ropes. He carries a Si’siutl knife, with which
he himself cuts his wounds, and wears a Si'siutl
belt. The Ha’mats’a, Nitlmatl, and bear stand
around him. If the ropes should give way the
eer two kill him, while the Ha’mats’a devours
im
In the Lélo’tlalatl dance the dancer appears to be
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 621
taken by the ghosts to the lower world. For this purpose a long, deep
ditch is dug out behind the fire. The dancer, who wears a long veil of
cedar-bark over his face, has a rope tied round his waist, which is held
Fig. 19.—Ia’/kHim Head-mask.
by his attendants. Speaking tubes of kelp are laid so as to terminate in
the fire. Through these many voices are heard, and the ghosts take the
dancer into the lower world, ¢.e., he disappears in his ditch, drawing the
rope after him, while the others feign to try to hold him. After a while
622 REPORT—1890.
the voices are heard again, and a black head is seen rising from the earth,
which brings him back.
The members of the 7s’étsa/ék'a among the Tsawatzénoq, Guan’aénogq,
and Haqua’mis are the following, arranged according to rank :-—
1. Ma’mak’’a.
2. Ha’'mats’a.
3. Hai/ak’’antelatl (= speaker dance).
4, Hané’gak‘ulatl induces chiefs to break coppers, to destroy pro-
perty, &e.
5. Walas’aqi’atl.
6. Haua‘iadalatl.
The Ma’mak-’a (= the thrower) dances with his palms laid against
one another, making motions like a swimmer. Suddenly he is supposed
to have found his magical stick, which he throws upon the bystanders.
One of them falls down, and blood flows from his head. He has been
wounded by the Ma’mak’’a, who then extracts his stick. The latter con-
sists of a hollow piece of wood, in which another piece slides up and
down. It is covered with skin, so that it appears as though the stick
decreases and increases in size.
The Walas’aqa’atl (=great dance from above) belonged formerly also
to the first group of tribes. It was, however, taken from them in a war.
It is somewhat related to the Tlékoa/la. Inthe dance a great wolf appears
from above. It is danced by men and women.
The Hani‘iadalatl swings a great knife. He pretends to cut his
throat at each beating of the drum.
The K-o'sk‘émoq, Ky’dp’énoq, Tlask’énoq, and Gua/ts’énog have the
following dances, arranged according to rank, so far as I am acquainted
with their dances :—
1. To’q’uit.
2. Ma’mak~’a.
3. Ha’mats’a.
It is stated that they acquired the Ha'mats’a from the last group,
which comprises the Tlatlasik-oala, Nak-o’mgyilisila, Na’k-oartok, and
Guasila. They have two dancing seasons in winter, the first called
Néntlem, and lasting from November to about the winter solstice, and the
Ts’étsa/ék'a during the following two months. During the No/ntlem the
gentes remain in force. Instead of cedar-bark, which has been dyed red,
undyed cedar-bark ; instead of eagle feathers and down, feathers and down
of the cormorant are used. Songs belonging to the Ba’qus (see p. 614),
Né'ntlem, and Ts’étsa'ék'a are sung. There is no difference in rank of
the various members of this society. Here belong all the animals and
birds which among the Kwakiutl belong to the 7's’étsa/ék'a and also the
Ni’tlmatl] and Hawi’nalatl. The Ni’tlmatl has not the same duties as
among the Kwakiutl. When the Hawi'nalatl’s ropes tear out of the flesh
he is not killed, but the conjurers heal him.
The members of the 7's’étsa/ck'a are the following, according to their
rank :—
1. Ma’mak’’a.
2. Ha’mats’a.
x Bh O’lala (=T6’q’uit of the Kwakiutl). It contains the Ts’é’kois and
1 US.
-
fad
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 623
4. L6]d’tlalatl.
5. Hai‘alikyalatl.
6. Yia‘iatalatl.
7. Pa‘qalalatl, a female conjurer, who has to sooth the Ha’mats’a and
keep him from using his whistles.
8. Wa/tanum. Those who join for the first time the 7s’ étsd'éh-a, 1.e.,
novices of the lowest grade.
Among this group the Ha’mats’a, on returning from the woods, dances
four nights with wreaths of hemlock branches; the following four nights
(fifth to eighth) with no ornaments whatever; then four nights (ninth to
twelfth) with ornaments of red cedar-bark. He wears eight bundles over
his forehead which are called ky’a'stwé, and four on each side. The fol-
lowing night (thirteenth), after he has finished dancing, one of the
ky’ a! stwé is taken off, which is publicly announced on the following morning.
The fourteenth night two more of these bundles are taken away; the
next, two more; and finally, the sixteenth, one more, which is also publicly
announcedeach morning. The seventeenth night a black line is drawn over
his face from the left side of his forehead to the right side of his chin,
and then he rises to bite people. Later on he is excited by mistakes
made in songs, and by Lolo’tlalatl songs.
The gentes are suspended during the 7s’Ztsd'ck'a, and societies take
their place. The members of the Ts’étsd'/éka are called K”a/k-ana’s
(‘stickshoes’ ?). Ifa dancer makes a mistake he is tied up in a blanket,
thrown into the fire, and roasted alive.!
The following customs belong to the Kwakiutl group, but are probably
more or less in common to all those tribes.
In order to become a member of any one of these societies the novice
must be initiated by the spirit of the grade he intends to occupy. But
when first entering the society the novice must take the lowest degree,
from which he may gradually rise. A number of these grades are the
property of cortain gentes, so that anyone who is a member of the gens
may acquire it, provided he finds someone who is willing to give the
Ts’étsa/ék'a for him. For instance, the Ha/ili’kyilatl belongs to the gens
Haai/lakyemaé of the K’’d/méyué. Asa rule, however, the right to be-
come a member of the respective grade of the society is acquired by
marriage, after the consent of the council has been obtained. After tbe
marriage has been consummated the woman’s father must give up his
dance to his son-in-law, as described in my last report (p. 838). If a man
— a wife on behalf of his brother he may take the woman’s father’s
ance.
The father of the novice gives a feast, at which the young man
dances, and then retires to the woods, where he must prepare himself by
fasting and bathing for the encounter with the spirit. The spirits
appear only to clean men; others are not likely to see them, and if they
did the spirits would kill them. Sometimes the novice disappears sud-
denly during the feast, and is supposed to have flown away. After he
has been initiated by the spirit of the grade he wishes to acquire he
returns to the village, and his whistle or his voice is heard in the woods.
Then the yé'winila, who is to give the Ts'étsa'ck'a, calls the whole tribe
to the first dance, which is called kikyi'Inala. The yé'winila has to give
‘ T have no trustworthy information regarding the rank of dances of the Hé'iltsuk’.
They call the Ha'mats’a, Tani’s.
624 REPORT—1890.
the more presents during the T's’étsd’ék'a, the higher the grade is that the
novice has acquired.
On this day each society, after having received their cedar-bark
rings from the éld'tlak-ak'sila, goes into the woods and holds a meeting,
in which their chief instructs them regarding their dances. This is
called Natlzemi'tl’zls (=beginning of foolishness). All those who make
mistakes later on are killed by the Nutlmatl.
In the evening the ¥é’winila sends out two male messengers to invite
all people to bis house, which henceforth is the taboo-house of the
mé'emkoat, The messengers say: laments wutld'qotlé pépaga'la (let us
all try to bring him back by our sacred dances). The people assemble
and sit down in groups, each society by itself. The mé’emkoat have the
places of honour, and among them the hd’mats’a has the first place,
sitting in the rear of the house in the middle. The other mé’emkoat are
arranged at his sides according to rank around the house, the lower in
rank the farther from the hd’mats’a and the nearer the door. The
Léld'tlalatl, who is as high in rank as the ha'mats’a, sits close to the door
opposite the ha’mats’a, The societies dance one after the other, accord-
ing to rank, the Maa’mq’énoq beginning. The yé'winila stands in the
middle of the house, two messengers attending him. These he despatches
to members of the various societies, and orders them to dance. The
interval until the dancers are dressed up and make their appearance is
filled with railleries between the messengers. For instance, if a woman
is to dance, the one will say: ‘She will not come; when I brought her
the message she was fighting with her husband.’ The other will answer:
‘Oh, you lar! She is dressing herself up, and you will see how nice
she looks!’ As soon as the two watchmen who stand at the door see her
coming they begin swinging their rattles, and then the people begin to
sing and to beat time with their batons, which were distributed by the
Va'miatsé (see p. 615). When the festival begins, the ‘drum-master ’”
carries his drum into the house on his shoulder, going four times around
the fire, which is on his left, before he takes his place in one of the rear
corners of the house. While making his circuit he sings a certain song.
The dancer enters the house, and, turning to the right, goes around’ the
fire until he arrives in the rear part of the house. Then the people stop
singing and beating time until his dance begins. The dancer first faces
the ha’mats’a, who sits in the rear of the house. Then he turns to the
left, to the fire, and finally faces the hd/mats’a again. He leaves the
house, having the fire on his left side. Thus all the societies dance. The
last are the mé'emkoat, the members of whom dance according to rank,
the lowest first, the hd'mats’a last. After his dance whistles are suddenly
heard outside the house, aud the novice appears on the roof of the house,
where he dances, eventually thrusting his arms dewn into the house; but
finally he disappears again.
On the next morning the whole tribe goes into the forest to catch the
novice. They take a long rope made of cedar-bark, and having arrived
at an open place lay it on the ground in form of a square. They then
sit down inside the square, all along the rope, and sing four new songs
composed for the purpose. The two first are in a quick binary measure,
the third in a five-part measure, and the last in a slow movement.
Bde ee
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ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA,
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One man dances in the centre of the square. Meanwhile the wife of
the yé’winila invites the women and the old men to a feast which is
celebrated in the house. All the men are painted black, the women red.
They wear headrings of red cedar-bark, and their hair is strewn with
eagle down. The men who are in the forest wear headrings and necklets
of hemlock branches. While they are singing and dancing the novice
appears. He looks pale and haggard from continued fasting; his hair
falls out readily. His attendants surround him at once, and he is taken
back to the village, where he performs his dances and ceremonies.!
In the winter of 1886-87 I collected a number of Ts’ étsa’ék'a songs in
Newette Nahwitti without being able to obtain a translation.
summer of 188 I read my notes to a number of natives of Alert Bay,
and obtained the translation and explanations. All tke songs consist of
four parts, but I have not obtained the complete songs in all instances.
I give a series of these songs here :—
T. Ha'mats’a.
1. Haok'haok’qd'laé sta/mk uti iwésta/kqtis na’la.
Hdok'haok’’s voice is all around the world.
Hoqoéna’kolastlas ts’é’tséqkengélis 16’wa !
Assemble at your all the lower the
places. dances around world
the edge of
2. K'uik'uag6’laé stamkuti iwésta/kqtis na’la.
The raven’s voice is all around the world.
Kyimk‘ona/kolastlas bébéku'ngélis
_ Assemble at your places all the men around the edge of
3. Hamats’alaq6'laé stamkuti iwésta/kqtis nala.
Hamats'a’s voice is all around the world !
Kyimk:ona’/kolastlas bébéku’nqélis
Assemble at your places all the men around the edge of
II. Ha’mats’a.
1. Léistaistlagyiliskya’so !
He goes around the
world, truly!
2. Hamasaia/lagyiliskya’s6 !
For food he looks around
the world, truly!
Laq wa’qsEngqélis kya’tsis 16’wa.
Something on both sides of world, of heaven.
Fotk-Lore, i. p. 58, ££.
1d/wa
the world
lo’wa!
the world
1 This description supersedes the description formerly given in Jawrn. Amer.
In the
626 REPORT—1890
3. K’ak‘ék‘atsa/la gyiliskya’so !
He always wants truly !
much to eat on world ;
Hao, tlokoa’la.
Hao, the Tlokoala.
Laq nanaqutsa’lisuqtis.
What he has been eating alone.
K-oé’sdtungélis kya’tsis _ (10’wa).
Far away at the edge of world, of heaven.
4, Waqsenk-’aszla’gyiliskya’so !
From both sides he eats on
world, truly!
Had, tlokoa’la.
Hao, the Tlokoala.
Laq wimk’asa/suqtis.
What he is not satisfied with.
Héilky’dtu/ngélis kya’tsis 10/wa.
On the right side of world of heaven.
Translations: 1. Truly, he goes around the world!
2. Truly, he looks for food all over the earth, going on
both sides of earth and heaven.
3. Truly, he wishes to eat plenty, the great Tlokoala,' of
what he found at the edge of the world.
4, Truly, now he eats with both hands, the greati
Tlokoala, what did not satisfy him when he found
it on the right side of the sun.
Ill. Haialikyd latl.
1, Aia haia; haialikya’latlk-uliskyastlala, Tlokoa/la! T's’étsa/ék‘alak-u-
liskyastlala !
Aia haia; Haialikya'latl- noise, truly make! Tlokoa'la ! Ts’ étsa'ék-a, noise,
truly make !
Tlokoa/la !
. Tlokoa'la !
2, Aia haia; Ja‘kyastloistlas éiwa/lakyastlotl. Tlokoa’Ia !
Aia haia ; you, truly, will to you they will Tlokoa'la !
be the one, speak about their
wishes.
3. Aia haia; lakyastléistlas kuitlaqa/laskyas. Tlokoa'la!
Aia haia ; you, truly, will the one they will Tlokoa'la!
be the one, untie.
4, Aia haia; 1a/kyastloistlas ma/muntliakya/stlotl. Tlokoa‘la!
Aia haia; you, truly, will you they will ask to Tlokow'la /
be the one, give enough to eat.
1 Tlokoala = Ha'mats’a, the one who found his magic treasure.
wate
cc)
r
i
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 627
Translation: 1. Aia haia! Sing Haialikya/latl, sing Ts’étsa/ék‘a
songs, Tldkoa’la !
2. Aia haia! Then the people will ask you to fulfil
their desires, Tlokoa/la !
3. Aia haia! Then they will take the cedar-bark
ornaments out of your hair, Tlokoa’la !
4, Aia haia! Then they will ask you to give them
plenty to eat, Tlokoa’la!
IV. Ma'mak-a.
1. Hau. Wiaiikyasle! dd/k-oatlakyas naua’lakuas; ia!
Hau. Go on! See his great
nawalak; 1a!
2. Wa/ikyaslz ! diddk‘sz’méqs k-a/mina !
Goon! Look after your sacred implement !
3. Hiaikya’smis wi osukuila k-a/mina.
Truly it makes that they have no the sacred implement.
time to escape
4, Hiikya/smis ts’étsak'wila nau’alak-.
Truly it shortens life the nau'alak.
Translation: 1. Hau: Behold his great nau‘alak ; ia!
2. Be careful in swinging your sacred implement.
3. Truly it kills the people, so that they have no time
to escape the sacred implement.
4, Truly, it cuts short their lives, the nan‘alak.
Nore.—k'a'mina is the name of the Ma’mak:a’s stick, described on
page 70. Nau'alak: designates any kind of dancing implement.
V. O'lala.
Olala sings: 1. K’alak-olistsuqtEn léintinla’kyaatla ts’éqpék'a'lagyilis.
The world knows me when I reached the dancing pole
in the earth.
People sing: 2. K’rltitsema’aqus aly’aé’ems lowa!
You are the bringer of the foundation of daylight !
3. Ald’mitsEma/aqus alH’aé’ems lowa !
You are the finder of the foundation of daylight !
4, Kdtitsima/aqus k’otk'oté’ems lowa!
You reach to the pointing to heaven!
earth
VI. Tsé'k’ois (=bird inside).
i; Omatatla/lagyila k'a/minatsé tsé/ak'os ; 14!
Make silent! the sacred implement inside your great; wi!
2. Tlétléqk-d/lagyilitsuq, tpmilk‘oatlalagiis nau’alak: tséak‘os ; id!
Everybody names you, let it be still whistle your great; iad!
628 REPORT—1890.
3. Tlétléqk-alagyilitsuq ; haiatlilak:as.
Everybody names you; medicine woman.
Translation :
Let the sacred voices in your body be silent, ia!
Everybody knows your name. Let your great whistle be still, ia!
Everybody knows your name, you great medicine woman.
VII. Si’?is (=snake in belly).
The people sing :
Héié, héié, ia. Sa/tsia sEnsk'a’laité !
Héié, héié, ia. How great our renowned man !
Ia. Sa’tsia senstlék-alai’té !
la. How great our named man!
Gyapaqsalaétlog gyi/lnms na’naualak-.
He comes in canoe the dreaded naualak. |
Ia. Sa’tsia wista tlék-alai’te !
Ia, How great he the named one!
Silis sings:
Kya nékuséwé'tika kua’/kungqs’a'lagyitl Hayatlélak‘a’s6.
Kya, they say to me they counsel what to do for Hayatlélak-a'so.
Kya nékuséwé'tiku hama’yanilitsuq Ia/lagyilis.
Kya they say to me they treat very carefully Id lagyilis.
The people sing :
Ky’é’slis no’/ntliek‘alatl! — t10’koitsé.
Don’t be troubled ! great Tlokoa'la.
Ky’é'slis kyékyalik‘alatl! — tld’koitsé.
Don’t be afraid! great Tlokoa’la.
Kya gyi/k‘ama gyiliskya’ska Sisiutlkyas tld’koitsé k*’alai’té.
Kya chief _ the very first is the true Sisiutl, yougreat that you
Tlikoa'la are named.
VIII. Yia'iatalatl.
1. Ta/haha hana. Haikya’smis ts’atsekéndeteyi'tl.
Lahaha hana. Truly, that is why they dance with you.
2. K’é/nkui'lisus amiaqai’kyaso.
For that of which you have you are praised.
plenty in your hands
3. K:ais ye/tEnikui'lisus.
Because of the rattle in your hand.
4, Tsuloak‘aitkya’sd.
Your name is called.
IX. L6ld'tlalatl.
1. Ia’qaima ia lau qi/ma gya’qen O'lain kyasdtl.
Iaqa'ma ia lau qa’ma Icome ? P
1 .
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 629
2. Tlatlék-éla’lait.
Everybody calls your name.
3. Wikyi'stoa siitld’q léla’alénoq.
You cannot contend against —ldlénogq.
the name
A. Mamentléaskyastloq léla/alénoq.
They will always be satisfied by la'lénog.
your supply of food
X. Wa'tanum.
JE Wigqselé’stogq ; ts’ étl’u/mistalis.
He did not go in boat; this news is spread everywhere.
2. Wigselé’stogq ; tléqk'u’mistalis.
He did not go in boat; this name is spread everywhere.
3. Gyi'lemkyastlus nana/alak’.
You will be feared, Naualak-.
4, Atsi’/kyastlus. gyilemkyastlus nana/alak:.
Oh, wonder you, you will be feared, Nawalak.
Nontiem Sones.
I. Io/kuim (=badness). Mask, fig. 19.
K’’a/qolitsétlala Ia/kuim supa’ni.
He will rise the great Ia/kuim from below.
P’o'lik-ola'maséita Ta/kuim aski na’la; ni/nsgyitala.
He makes the sea boil, the Ia'kuim of the world; we are afraid.
Jayakilatla Ta/kuim aski nalaié ; latsk:tlalatl.
He makes the face of the Ia'kuim of the world; we shall be afraid.
the sea bad
Tak‘amgyustaé’latl k*’a/qola-utlé Ta/kuim aski na/laié.
He will throw up blankets out of the salt water, the Ia'/kuim of the world.
II. Si’'siutl (the double-headed snake). Song probably incomplete.
Sasisla/itia! Suns gyik‘emaikya’sd Sisiutllaitlé.
How wonderful! Our very chief dances as Sisiutl.
Sens gyik‘emaikya’sO ia lamlau’isoq maqsalisatl nemsk‘ama 1é’Ik-olatlé.
Our very chief ia he is going to swim in half one tribe.
(= to destroy one half)
III. Nitlematl. Song probably incomplete.
© Waié ai’'tsikyasotl! tléaana/lagyilitsumkya’s6.
Waié oh wonder! He makes a turmoil on the earth.
Aitsikyasotl ! sioltalagyilitsumkya/sd.
Oh wonder ! He makes the noise of falling objects on the earth.
Gydqey6qk oalagyilitsumkya’so,
- He makes the noise of breaking objects on the earth.
630 REPORT —1890.
IV. Tsdnd'k-oa.
ed anaes r
‘Halselau’qten wi'tsumgyila ha’amutisa ha/amutisa.’
‘I almost not in tume for rest of ford on for rest of food on
beach. beach.’
Talagyilis leq na/la haitsé k’a’maqotl tla’ wisilak‘.
Continuing in the world the great one always made to stand.
ee a ee er
Waiatigyilak‘, kué’qagyilak‘.
Made to pity none, made to kill.
Gya'qtléq wiwangyilatlotl lélqoala’tlé.
You come tomake poor the tribes.
Ie., Ts6nd’k'oa :
‘I was almost in time to see them eating on the beach.’
Chorus :
You are the giant who always stands upright in the world,
You are made to pity nobody, you kill everybody ;
You come to impoverish the people.
V. Nan (=black bear).
Hai’60’ a hai‘iod’! —s Tlé’katsé’lalaikya $$ nanqatséla _laikya!
Hai! d0' a hai'iod’! ~=Call your great name called great bear let you !
La’tlaoq hayi’mk-ama tlak-é’ la tlétlek‘amnu’qsis é’iatlala na/nkyaso.
Heis straight to the first who have names enslaved verily bear!
going the first among your tribes
Sa/qautlasn/ntsia qomatlatla’sia.
Then we shall have «a war.
Sa/qautlasy’ntsia tsinaqua’latla/sia.
Then we shall have trouble.
I.e., Haidd’ a hai’iod’! Let your great name be called, great bear!
You will at once kill the chief of the tribes who become your
slaves, great bear !
Then we shall have a war.
Then we shall have trouble.
VI. Wolf.
Taii’kalak-oala ha/is gyasengyaq wa’wakulitla. We'kyétlus é’telis
Noise of giving they will come barking in the You will again
away blankets. and make noise house.
k’oa/qélis walas temna/qoa; k’uliakui’gyilis stis gyigyik‘a’ma.
grow as great as you were you oldest on of all chiefs.
always ; earth
Yi/heyi.
Yu heyt.
Auila/laé watltz/mas atla‘nemas gyigyik‘a’maé ! ninila’‘k-nts
Wonderful the words of the wolves of the chiefs! they say: we (come)
er:
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 631
gyinli‘kyelé p’ip’ayia/latl p’esagyi’la p’esagyi’la, mia/qoagyila
together with to promise to to giveaway to give away to give away
children give away blankets blankets many
blankets blankets
mogqsista’lis’a léilk-oa/atlé. Yi/heyi.
to gwe away tribes. Yi'heyt.
blankets to
everyone
Waansala iautlemé’tl atla/nema gyigyik'a’maé atld’q’é _—‘k’oé’gyilisa
Try tomake him of the the chiefs thatitmay something
mild wolves not happen
quagueé’gyi'lisa wi/lagyila nemia/lisila k-amélék‘agyila. Yuiheyi.
(moving his make short make short make people fall Yiheyt.
tail ?) life lived dead together.
Ie., The chiefs of the wolves will come and bark in the house, giving
away blankets. You will always be one of the greatest, you!
the oldest of all the chiefs of the world. Yiheyi.
Wonderful are the words of the chiefs of the wolves. They say:
We shall all assemble with our children, to the promise to give
away blankets, to the giving away of blankets to all the tribes
of the world. Yiheyi.
Let us try to make them mild the chiefs of the wolves, that he
may not unexpectedly shorten our lives and kill all of us by
moving his tail. Yiheyi.
VII. Kuniqua.
Kunquakyastléqk‘ae. Sa/kyastlasé ku’/nquakyaso.
Verily ! it will thunder loud for him. Oh! wonderful will be that thunder.
VIII. Qo'los (a species of eagle).
K-oa’lanits ha’winalanak: Ts’é’k‘oa cuns gyi/k‘amaé qo’loskyaso
Let us not frightenhim Ts'é’k'oa our chief the wonderful eagle
koa’ latlala nak‘otlid/is Ens nia’la.
sitting down on the middle of of the sky.
top of
Ie., Let us not frighten him the great bird, our chief, the wonderful
eagle, who sits down in the middle of the sky.
IX. Henkyagstdla or Kita’ qolis.
Ya/lamla/wiszns nnma/lamené’qom Qua/nék‘n/Inqtlé Omagyilak‘srns
Tt is said that together the small move heuds in. who ts made
we will ones dancing after him our chief’s son
nEmts’aqké’alisé.
the only greatest one.
Ma’sé wa/tldems Ni’tlemgyila?
What is the word of Natlemgyila ?
632 REPORT -1890.
Haiqo wai/tldems Ni’tlemgyila nemts’aqk‘é’alisé.
That is the word of Nia'tlemgyila the only greatest one.
Ie., It is said that we, the unimportant people, shall dance after him
who is made the son of our only greatest chief.
What said Ni’tlemgyila P
Thus spoke Ni’tlumgyila, the only greatest chief.
X. Tlé'qalaq.
Gya’qen tlé’k‘andmutl tléqtlék‘a/ita Wina/lagyilis.
Icome to name you named by all Wina'lagyilis.
Gya’qnn; k’amtEmotltdlalagyilitsus Wina’lagyilis.
Lcoue; he throws a song out of Wind’ lagyilis.
boat on land
Gya’qméseEn ; ha/nk-Emlisasus Wina/lagyilis.
I have come ; at lands Wina' lagyilis.
Gya’gen; —_ kyaqotlta’lisaisus tsé’qéoégyilis = Wina’lagyilis.
I come; he brings me out of boat his dancing cap Wina'lagyilis.
IV. THE SHUSHWAP.
The ancient customs of the Salish tribes of the interior of the Province
of British Columbia have almost entirely disappeared, as the natives have
been christianised by the endeavours of Catholic missionaries. Only
a very few still adhere to their former customs and usages; for instance,
a group of families living in Nicola Valley and another on North Thomp-
son River. I did not come into contact with any of these, and conse-
quently the following remarks are founded entirely on inquiries. I
selected the Shushwap as an example of the tribes of the interior. The
customs of the Ntlakya’pamug, Stla/tliume, and Okana/k-én differ very
slightly from those of the Shushwap, if at all. The information con-
tained in the following chapter has been collected at Kamloops. The
proper name of the Shushwap is Si’quapmug or Sequapmug. The district
they inhabit is indicated on the map accompanying this report. They
call the Okana/k‘én Setswa/numa, the carriers Yi/nana, the Chilcotin
Persqa’qenEm (Dentalia people), and the Kutonaqa Sk‘ésé/utlk'uma. The
organisation of the tribe is similar to that of the southern branches of
the Coast Salish, as described on p. 569; that is to say; the tribe is
divided into a great number of septs, or, as we might say more properly, in
the present case, village communities. While on Vancouver Island these
septs bear still a limited similarity to the gentes of the northern coast
tribes, this is no longer the case on the mainland. The Ntlakya’pamua,
Stla'tliama, Shushwap, and Okana’k‘én are subdivided in the same way ;
but besides this the tribes speaking the same language are comprised
under one name. I shall not enumerate the villages of these tribes, as
my lists are far from being complete.
Hovusrs anp Lopaes.
The characteristic dwelling of these Indians is the subterranean
lodge, generally called in the Jargon ‘keekwilee-house,’ i.e., low or under-
7 ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. -633
ground house. It was used by all the Salish tribes of the interior, and
“spreads as far down Fraser River as the mouth of Harrison River, where
Fig. 20.—Plan of Subterranean Lodge and Construction of Roof.
both the large wooden house of Vancouver Island and the subterranean,
_ lodge are in use. The latter is built in the following way. A pit, about.
Fic, 21.—Elevation of Subterranean Lodge (Section A B).
s
12 to 15 feet in diameter and 4 feet deep, is dug out. Heavy posts,
penne @ square, are planted in the bottom of the pit, about 4 feet from
90. TT
634 REPORT—1890.
its circumference. These posts (1, figs. 20, 21) are about 6 or 7 feet
high, and have a fork formed by a branch at their top, in which slanting
beams rest (2), running from the edge of the pit over the fork to the
centre, which, however, they do not reach. These beams consist of trees
split in halves, and support the roof. Next, poles are laid from the edge
of the pit to these beams, one on each side (3). Then heavy timbers are
laid all around the pit; they are to serve as a foundation for the roof and
run from the beams along the slanting poles (4). Thus the whole build-
ing assumes approximately an octagonal form. On top of these timbers
other timbers or poles are laid, the shorter the nearer they approach the
centre of the pit and the higher parts of the beams (2) on which they
rest. They are laid alternately on adjoining sides of the octagon, so
Fiq@. 22.—Plan of Winter Lodge.
that the poles of one side always rest on the ends of those of the neigh-
bouring sides. This framework is continued up to the ends of the
beams (2). Here a square opening or entrance-way, of the form of a
chimney, is built, the logs being placed on top of each other in the same
way as those of a log cabin. The whole roof is covered with bundles of
hay, which are kept in place by means of poles (6) laid on top of the
roof, between the beams. Finally, the whole structure is covered with
earth. A ladder cut out of a tree ascends into the entrance, the steps
being cut out of one side and going down to the bottom of the pit. The
upper extremity of the ladder is flattened at both sides and provided
with a notch, which is used for tying the moccasins to it which are not
taken inside the dwelling. The fire is right at the foot of the ladder ;
_the beds are in the periphery of the dwelling, behind the posts (1).
Another kind of winter lodge is built on the following plan: A hole,
j
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 635
about 18 inches deep, is dug. It is about 12 feet long and 8 or 9 feet
wide, with rounded corners. In the front and the rear—that is, at the
narrower ends—pairs of converging poles are erected (1, figs. 22, 23).
They are connected by two cross-bars on each side (2). In the front and
the rear four or more slender poles are tied to the converging poles and.
planted into the ground, so that they form a slight curve in the front and
in the rear of the lodge (3). They are steadied by means of wickers (4).
The lower part of this structure is covered with bundles of hay, the upper
part with a double layer of mats made of rushes, The ridge remains
open and serves as a smoke-escape. In some instances the hut is covered
with bark.
The temporary summer lodge consists merely of three or four con-
verging poles, connected by wickers, and covered with mats made of
bullrushes—much more usually a complete criss-cross of branches running
Fic. 23.—Front Elevation of Winter Lodge.
in two directions, six or eight sticks each way. It differs in no essential
- from sweat-houses used all over the northern interior of the continent.
_ The sweat-house is always used when a person has to undergo a pro-
cess of ceremonial cleansing. It is built on the bank of a creek and
consists of two. stout willow branches, crossing each other, both ends
being planted into the ground. It is covered with skins. The door is
at the foot of one of these branches and can be closed by a piece of skin.
_ The principal method of fishing is by means of bag-nets. Platforms
are built, projecting over the river. On these the fishermen stand, pro-
vided with a large bag-net. Salmon are also caught with the spear.
The fish are dried on platforms, which are erected on the steep banks of
the rivers, the lower side being supported by two pairs of converging
poles, the upper resting on the ground. Venison is dried on platforms
of a similar description. Provisions are stored, either in small sheds
which stand on poles, about 6 feet above the ground, or in caches. If
| ae is to be dried very quickly it is hung up in the sweat-house (see
below). -
TT 2
636 REPORT—1890.
The clothing of the natives was made of furs or of deer skin. Tanz
unable to give a satisfactory description, as I have not seen any.
Women wear dentalia in the perforated septum of the nose. Men and
women wear ear-ornaments of shells or teeth all around the helix. Both
men and women were tattooed, the designs consisting of one or three lines
on each cheek and three lines on the chin. So far as I could make ont
there is no connection between this custom and the reaching of puberty.
In dancing the face is painted with designs representing sun, moon, or
stars, birds or animals. They may take any design they like. The hair
is strewn with eagle-down.
Deer-skins are prepared in the following way: The skin is. soaked in
a brook or in a river for a week. Then the hair is removed with a knife.
The hind-feet are next tied to a stick, which the worker holds with his
feet. Another stick is pushed through the fore-feet, which are also tied
together, and the skin is wrung out and dried. When it.is dry, water is
made lukewarm, and the brains of a deer or any other animal are mixed
with it. This mixture is spread over the dry skin, which is then wrung
out once more, and worked with.a stick, to the end of which a stone
scraper is attached. Now a pit is dug, the bottom of which is filled with
rotten wood. The latter is ignited, and both sides of the skin are smoked
over the burning wood for a short time, the skin being stretched over
the pit. Finally, it is washed in clear water and dried. It is believed
that the smoking process has the effect of preventing the skin from
becoming hard after getting wet. The skins of bucks and does are con-
sidered equally good; they are best in the autumn.
The Shushwap do not know the art of pottery, and do little, if any,
carving in wood. Their household goods are made principally ot
basketry, in which they excel. Basketry of the Shushwap and Ntlakya-
pamngq is sold extensively to the tribes of southern Vancouver Island.
Their baskets are made of roots of the white pine. The roots are dyed
black with an extract of fern root; and red with an extract of alder-
bark or with oxide of iron. Very beautiful patterns are made in these
three colours. Baskets are used for storing, carrying, and cooking pro-
visions.
The Shushwap make mats of bulrushes, which are strung on threads
of nettles, in the same way as the Lku’figrn and their neighbours do.
Mats are also plaited, threads made of nettles being braided across bul-
rushes.
Fire was obtained by means of the fire-drill, rotten willow roots being
used for spunk. In travelling they carried glowing willow roots.
Canoes are made of cotton-wood, cedar, or in rare instances of bark.
For working wood stone hammers and wedges were used. In hunting
expeditions they cross rivers on rafts made of rushes or on logs. In
‘winter snow-shoes are used on hunting expeditions. There are two
patterns, one imitating the shape of a bear’s foot. The former consists_
of a frame of bent wood, with a cross-bar near its broad end. Thongs
run from this bar to the front, like the toes of a bear’s foot, and a net-
work of thongs runs back from the bar, filling the hind part of the
frame. The balls of the toes rest on the cross-bar. The other pattern
consists of a long frame of bent wood, the point of which is turned up.
There are two cross-bars near the centre in front of which the foot rests.
The front and rear ends are filled with a network of sinews.
Deer were hunted with the help of dogs. In the autumn, when the
«
FY
F
deer cross the lakes and rivers, they were driven by hunters and dogs to
a certain point, where others lay in waiting with their canoes. As soon
as the deer took to the water they were attacked by the canoe-men.
Dentalia and copper bracelets served as money. ‘The former were
obtained by trade from the Chilcotin, who for this reason had the name
Psqii’qrnem, 7.e., dentalia people. In exchange, the Shushwap gave dressed
deer-skins and, probably, in late times, horses. They traded the dentalia
they had received from the Chilcotin to the Okana’‘k’én for horses. Trade
was also carried on with the northern Tinneh tribes, especially the Car-
riers. There was no communication with the Lower Fraser River on
account of the prevailing hostility between the tribes of these regions.
Copper was obtained, partly by trade, but some was dug by the natives
themselves. There was a digging at Kamloops Lake, which was worked
up to the last generation, when a man was killed by a fall of rocks which
buried the mine. Since that time it has never been worked.
Food was boiled in baskets, which were filled with water that was
made to boil by throwing red-hot stones into it. Roots are cooked in the
following way: A hole is made in the ground, and red-hot stones are
thrown into it. These are covered with willow twigs and grass. A
stick is placed upright in the centre of the pit and the roots are laid on
top of the grass around the stick. They are covered with more grass
and the hole is filled up with earth, so that part of the stick remains
projecting out of it. Then water is poured out, so that it rans down the
stick into the hole, and on touching the red-hot stones produces steam.
Winally, a fire is built on top of the hole. The belief prevails that the
roots must be cooked in this particular way by women only, and early in
_the morning, before they have taken any food, as else they could not be
properly done. No man is allowed to come near the place when they
are being steamed.
There is no fixed time for meals. Hunters who leave early in the
morning take breakfast before leaving, their wives eating after they have
gone.
The reports on social organisation which I obtained from my infor-
mants are very meagre. Each of the numerous tribes of the Shushwap
had its own chief. The people are divided into nobility and common
people. Common people can, on account of bravery or wealth, attain
high rank, but cannot become noble, as nobility is hereditary. There is
no indication of the existence of gentes. The family is ‘paternal.’ The
ehieftaincy is also hereditary. The chief is naturally a member of the
nobility. At the death of the chief his eldest son or, if he has no son,
‘his younger brother, succeeds him at once. The affairs of the whole
tribe are governed by the chief and a council of the elders. Among the
prerogatives of the chief I heard the following: When the first salmon
of the season are caught, or when the first berries are picked or the first
deer killed, no one must eat of it until it has been presented to the chief,
who must pray over it and partake of it. It did not become quite clear
from the statements of my informants whether this is entirely a religious.
function, or at the same time a tribute. It is certainly of interest to see
that here, as well as among the Nootka, we find certain religious func-
tions vested in the chief. At the time when the berries begin to ripen
am overseer is set [by the chief ?] over the various berry patches, whose
aluty it is to see that nobody begins picking until the berries are ripe,
He announces when the time has come, and on the next morning the
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 637;
638 REPORT— 1890,
whole tribe set ont and begin to pick berries, the field being divided up
among the tribe. After they are through picking, the berries are divided
among the families of the tribe. The chief receives the greatest portion.
In the same way an overseer is set over the salmon fisheries, and the
catch is divided among the whole tribe. It seems that the various tribes
of the Shushwap had no separate hunting grounds, but that they hunted
over the whole territory, wherever they liked. I do not think, however,
that the fisheries and berry patches belonged to the whole people m
common. Disputes arising between members of the same tribe were
generally settled by arbitration. For instance, where a number of men
had driven deer into a lake and a dispute arose as to who had driven
one particular deer, an arbitrator was appointed, who had to track it and
whose decision was final. The old were well treated and respected. In
some instances when a man believed himself slighted he would commit
suicide.
The tribes and families had separate hunting grounds originally. The
custom still holds to some extent among the Nicola Indians, but is now
almost forgotten by the Kamloops people.
The chief was not leader in war, the war-chief being elected among
the ‘braves.’ The hostile tribes would meet, but sometimes, instead of a
battle between the whole parties taking place, the war-chiefs would fight
a duel, the outcome of which settled the dispute. Their weapons were
bow and arrow; a lance; a bone club with a sharp, sabre-like edge; a
stone axe having a sharp point, the stone being fastened in a perforated
handle ; and a stone club, consisting of a pebble, sewed into a piece of
hide, and attached to a thong, which was suspended from the wrist.
They protected themselves with armours of the same kind as those used
on the coast—coats made of strips of wood, which were lashed together,
or jackets of a double layer of elk-skin, and a cap of the same material.
In time of war a stockade was made near the huts of the village. A
cache was made in it, and baskets tilled with water were kept in it:
When an attack of the enemy was feared, the whole population retired to
the stockade, the walls of which were provided with loopholes. Captives
made in war were enslaved. At the end of the war, captives were
frequently exchanged.
The following tale of a war may be of interest. One summer, about
eighty years ago, the Seka’uma, who live near the head waters of North
Thompson River, stole two Shushwap women at Stlie’tltsuq (Barriére)
on North Thompson River. Their brothers pursued the Szka/uma, but.
were unable to overtake them. In the fall, when the snow began to
cover the country, they started out again and soon found the tracks of
their enemies, who were travelling northward. One of the women wore,
at the time when they were surprised by the enemies, a white-tail deer
blanket. She had torn it to pieces and put them into split branches of
trees, which she broke and turned in the direction in which they were
travelling. The Shushwap found these, and knew at once that they were
on the right track. Finally the Shushwap reached a camp which the
Srka’umg had left on the same morning. They followed them cautiously.
While they were travelling a troop of deer passed close by, and they
wounded one of them with their arrows. Among the party of the
Srka/umg was a blind old man, who was led by a boy, and, as he was not
able to walk as fast as the others, followed them at some distance. The
wounded deer ran past them and the boy observed the Shushwap arrow.
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 639
He cried: ‘ There is a deer that has been struck by a Shushwap arrow.’
The old man at once despatched him to the main party, and told him to
inform the chief of what he had seen. The boy obeyed, but the chief did
not believe him. He merely made a gesture indicating that the Shush-
wap would not dare to show their backs in this country. (He closed the
thumb and the third and fourth fingers of his right hand, bent the first
and second fingers towards the thumb, holding them apart, the palm
directed towards his face.) The two women heard what was going on.
They thought that their brothers might have followed them, and at
nightfall went back to see whether they might discover anyone. They
met the Shushwap, who instructed them to keep their husbands—for
they had been married to two men of the Seka/umQ—awake until early in
the morning. They obeyed, and when the men had fallen asleep in the
morning the Shushwap made an attack upon the camp and killed all but
three, who had succeeded in putting their snow-shoes on and fled. The
Shushwap pursued them, and one of the Seka/umQq jumped into a hole
formed by the melting of the snow around a tree. From his hiding
place he wounded a Shushwap called Ta/leqiin, when passing by. Two
of the fleeing Seka’umg were killed, the third escaped. Ta’leqin died
of his wound when they were returning homeward. His body was burnt
and his bones taken along, to be buried in the burial ground of his native
village.
Sian Lancuace.
On the coast of British Columbia the extensive use of the Chinook
jargon has almost entirely superseded the use of the sign language; but
there is little doubt that it has been in use in former times. The only
instance of the use of signs—except in making tales more vivid and graphic
—that came under my observation was when an old Haida, who did not
understand Chinook, wanted to tell me that he could not speak the
jargon. He introduced the first finger of his right hand into his mouth,
acted as though he attempted to draw out something, and then shook his
finger.
; is the interior of the province the sign language is still used
extensively. The following signs were collected among the Shushwap.
1. All.—Right hand held in front of breast, palm downward, moved
around horizontally.
2. Bear.—Both fists held in front of breasts, knuckles upward, the
thumbs touching the bent first fingers; fists pushed forward alternately
in circular motions, imitating the movements of a bear.
3. Bear’s hole—Second, third, and fourth fingers of both hands closed ;
thumbs and first fingers extended, points of both thumbsand of both first
fingers touch, so that they form a circle.
4, Beaver.—Right hand drops, palm downward, between the extended
thumb and first finger of left, so that the wrist rests on the interstice.
Imitation of beaver’s tail.
5. Boy, about fifteen years of age-——Open hand raised in front of
breast to the height of the chin, palm turned toward face.
6. Bush.—Open .hands placed against each other, so that both
thumbs and both fourth fingers touch,
7. Daylight.—Hands half opened, first finger slightly extended held
upward in front of body, palms inward at height of chin, hands then
moved outward, describing circles.
640 REPORT—1890.,
8. Deer.—Hands held up on both sides of head, at height of ears,
palms forward, open.
9. Deer running.—Fists held in front of breast, knuckles upward,
striking out alternately and horizontally full length of arms,
10. Doe.—Hands brought up to ears, thumb, third and fourth fingers
closed, first and second extended backward, touching one another, back
of hand upward.
11, Fish.—Hand stretched out, held horizontally in front of breast,
palm downward, moving in quick wandering motions in horizontal
lane.
‘ 12. Many fish.—Both hands held in the same way as last, one above
the other, but fingers slightly spread, both hands performing wandering
motions.
13. Girl.—Both hands, half opened, held not far from shoulders, palms
forward, then suddenly pulled back to shoulders.
14. Horse.—Thumb, third and fourth fingers closed, first and second
-extended horizontally, parallel to breast, touching one another.
15. I do not understand.—Palms clapped on ears, then hands taken
- off and shaken.
16. Lake.—Hands held before breast close together, fingers describe a
wide circle forward and back to breast.
17. Nightfall._—Both hands held slightly bent in front of breast, palms
downward, then moved downward.
18. Noon.—Right hand closed, first finger extended, heid up in front
of face.
19. Old man.—First finger of right hand held up, slightly bent, the
- other fingers being closed, indicating the bent back.
20. Quick.—Right arm pushed upward and forward, slightly to the
~vight, at the same time left fist striking breast.
21. Ridev.—First and second fingers of right hand straddling the first
and second of the left, whichis held in the position of ‘ horse.’
22. Rock.—Both fists held up in front of face, knuckles towards
rbody, struck together and separated again.
23. To run.—Elbows close to body, lower arms held horizontally,
thands closed.
24, Stop.—Hand raised, open palm forward, then shaken.
25. Sunrise.—Right hand half opened, first finger slightly extended
upward, palm towards body, then moved upward.
26, Sunset.—First finger pointing downward in front of breast and
moved downward.
27. Trap.—Both palms clapped together.
28, Young man.—As ‘ Boy,’ but hands raised higher.
See also pp. 638, 639.
For indicating the direction in which a party travels, poles are planted
into the ground, pointing in that direction, or twigs of brushes or trees are
broken and pointed in the same way. A pole directed toward the part of the
sky where the sun stands at a certain hour indicates at what time some-
thing is to be done or has been done. Figures of men drawn on the sand
indicate how many have been killed by a war party. A number of hairs
from a horse’s mane indicate the number of horsemen that passed by.
Such messages are left particularly at crossings of trails.!
1 See Fifth Report, p. 836.
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 641
Fires are used to give signals to distant parties.
A number of rock paintings are found on the shores of Kamloops
Lake. I have not seen them, and do not know what they represent.
GAMES.
The games of the Shushwap are almost the same as those of the coast
tribes. We find the game of dice played with beaver-teeth (see p. 571),
and the well-known game of lehal. Children and women play ‘ cat’s
cradle.’ A peculiar gambling game is played in the following way: A
long pole is laid on the ground, about fifteen feet from the players ; aring,
about one inch in diameter, to which four beads are attached at points
dividing the circumference into four equal parts, is rolled towards the
pole, and sticks are thrown after it, before it falls down on touching the
pole. The four beads are red, white, blue, and black, The ring falls
down on the stick that has been thrown after it, and, according to the
colour of the bead which touches the stick, the player wins a number of
points. Another gambling game is played witha series of sticks of maple
wood, about four inches long, and painted with various marks. There
are two players to the game, who sit opposite each other. A fisher-skin,
which is nicely painted, is placed between them, bent in such a way as to
present two faces, slanting down toward the players. Hach of these
takes a number of sticks, which he covers with hay, shakes and throws
down one after the other, on his side of the skin. The player who throws
down the stick bearing a certain mark has lost.
Shooting matches are frequently arranged. An arrow is shot, and
then the archers try to hit the arrow which has been shot first. Ora
bundle of hay or a piece of bark is thrown as far as possible, and the men
shoot at it. The following game of ball was described tome: The
players stand in two opposite rows. A stake is driven into the ground
on the left side of the players of one row, and another on the right side of
the players of the otherrow. Two men stand in the centre between the
two rows. One of these pitches the ball, the other tries to drive it to one
of the stakes with a bat. Then both parties endeavour to drive the ball
to the stake on the opposite side, and the party which succeeds in this
has won the game.
CUSTOMS REGARDING Brrtu, MarriaGe, AND DEATH.
My information regarding customs practised at the birth of a child is
very meagre. The navel-string is cut with a stone knife. The child is
washed immediately after birth. The custom-of deforming certain parts
of the body does not prevail. The mother must abstain from ‘ anything
that bleeds,’ and consequently must not eat fresh meat. There are no
regulations as to the food or behaviour of the father. The cradle after
being used is not thrown away, but hung to a tree in the woods. If a
child should die, the next child is never put into the same cradle which
was used for the dead child.
A girl on reaching maturity has to go through a great number of
ceremonies. She must leave the village and live alone in a small hut
on the mountains. She cooks her own food, and must not eat anything
that bleeds. She is forbidden to touch her head, for which purpose she
uses a comb with three points. Neither is she allowed to scratch her
642 REPORT—1890.
body, except with a painted deer-bone. She wears the bone and the
comb suspended from her belt. She drinks out of a painted cup of
birch-bark, and neither more nor less than the quantity it holds. Hvery
night she walks about her hut, and plants willow twigs, which she has
painted, and to the ends of which she has attached pieces of cloth, into
the ground. It is believed that thus she will become rich in later life.
In order to become strong she should climb trees and try to break off
their points. She plays with lehal sticks that her future husbands might
have good luck when gambling.!
Women during their monthly periods are forbidden to eat fresh meat,
but live principally on roots. They must not cook for their families, as
it is believed that the food would be poisonous. During this time the
husband must keep away from his wife, as else the bears would attack
him when he goes hunting.
A man who intends to go out hunting must keep away from his wife,
as else he would have bad luck. They do not believe that the wife’s
infidelity entails bad luck in hunting and other enterprises.
Women must never pass along the foot or head of a sleeping person,
as this is unlucky.
Women who are with child must not touch food that has been touched
by mice, or eat of a plate which a dog has licked off. If she should eat
a bird that has been killed by an animal her child would be subject to
dizziness.
The marriage ceremonies weredescribed to me as follows: A young man
who wishes to marry a girl takes a number of horses and other property
that.is considered valuable and offers it to the father of the girl he wishes
to marry. The latter, before accepting the price offered, invites his
whole family to a council and asks their consent. If they agree to accept
the suitor and the price he has offered for the girl they tie the horses to
their stable, and take the other goods into the house, as a sign of their
willingness. After this the young man may take the girl without farther
ceremonies. After the marriage the bridegroom and his family go on a
hunting expedition, and try to obtain as much game as possible, which is
to be given to his father-in-law. The latter dresses the meat and invites
the whole tribe toa feast. Then he and his family in their turn go hunt-
ing, and present the game they have obtained to the young man’s father,
who gives a feast to the whole tribe. At this time the girl’s father
returns all the payments he has received to the young man’s father. For
a number of days the couple live with the girl’s family. When the
young man goes to reside with his wife he asks all his friends to support
him, and they give him presents of food and clothing. The latter he
‘puts on, one suit on top of the other, goes to his father-in-law, and gives
1 The following custom was described to me by Mr. J. W. Mackay, the Indian
‘Agent for the Kamloops district. He heard it described at Yale, and therefore it
probably belongs to the tribes of the Lower Fraser River. My inquiries at Kamloops
regarding the custom were resultless. Mr. Mackay states that at the end of the
puberty ceremonies the shaman led the girl back from her seclusion to the village
in grand procession. He carried a dish called tsugtd’n, which is carved out of —
steatite, in one hand. The dish represents a woman giving birth to a child, along
whose back a snake crawls. The child’s back is hollowed out and serves as a recep-
tacle for water. In the other hand the shaman carries certain herbs. When they
returned to the village the herbs were put into the dish, and the girl was sprinkled ~
with the water contained in the dish, the shaman praying at the same time for her
to have many children. :
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 643
him all the property he carries. The latter distributes this property
among the whole tribe according to the contributions everyone has
made. Then the young couple remove to the young man’s family, and
before leaving her father’s house the bride is fitted out with presents in
the same way as the young man was when he came to reside with her
family. This is a present to the young man’s father, who also distributes
it among the tribe. Marriages between cousins were not forbidden.
When a 'person died at the village the body was tied up in sitting
posture, the knees being bent to the chin, and the arms tied together.
A grave was dug, and its sides were rubbed with thorn bushes. Then
the body was buried, and a number of poles were erected over the grave
in the shape of a conical hut. The sand inside and around the hut was
carefully smoothed. If on one of the following days tracks were seen
in the hut, the being—animal or man—to whom they belonged would be
the next to die. If after a while the sand should be blown away, the
bones were buried again. Wherever they find human bones they clean
them and bury them, thinking that others may do the same to their own
relatives. When a person died far from home, for instance on a hunting
expedition, the body was burnt,.and the charred bones were carried home
to be buried at the native village of the deceased. The report that the
bones of the dead were washed regularly, which has been made by
several travellers, seems to rest on these facts. No carved figures were
placed over the graves, as was the custom on the Lower Thompson River.
At the burial or the burning of the body, slaves, hounds, and horses of
the deceased were killed. His favourite slaves were buried alive; the
horses were eaten by the mourners, to whom a feast was spread: on the
grave. In some cases the uncle or nephew of the deceased would kill a
number of his own slaves at the grave. Winter provisions, prepared by
a woman before her death, were burnt. The clothes of a dead person
must be washed before being used again.
A year after the death of a person his relatives collected a large
amount of food and clothes, and gave a new feast on the grave. This
was the end of the mourning period, and henceforth they tried to forget
the deceased. At this feast his son adopted his name.
The relatives of a dead person during the mourning period must not
eat deer, salmon, or berries, as else the deer and salmon would be driven
away, and the berries would spoil. Their diet is confined to dried veni-
son and fish. They cut their hair, and keep it short for one year, untit
the final feast is given. They must avoid touching their heads except
with a stick ora comb. Names of deceased persons must not be men-
tioned during the mourning period. Men as well as women must go
every morning to the river, wail, and bathe. When a man or a woman
dies, the widow or widower is kept asa captive in the house of a brother-
in-law. As soon as the mourning period, which in this case is particu-
larly strict, is at an end, the widower must marry a sister or the nearest
relative of his dead wife; the widow is married to her dead husband’s
brother, or to his nearest relative.!
Widows or widowers have to observe the following mourning regula-
1 The mourning ceremonies of the Shushwap are evidently greatly influenced by
‘tthose of their northern neighbours, the Carriers, which have been described by the
Rey. A. G. Morice in the Proceedings of the Canadian Institute, 1889. The strictness
teed levirate and the ceremonies celebrated at the grave are almost the same in
cases,
644 REPORT— 1890.
tions: They must build a sweat-house on a creek, sweat there all night,
and bathe regularly in the creek, after which they must rub their bodies
with spruce branches, the branches must be used only once, and are
stuck into the ground all around the hut. The mourner uses a cup and
cooking vessels by himself, and must not touch head nor body. No
hunter must come near him, as his presence is unlucky. They must
avoid letting their shadows fall upon a person, as the latter would fall
sick at once. They use thorn bushes for pillow and bed, in order to keep
away the ghost of the deceased. Thorn bushes are also laid all around
their beds. A widower must not go hunting, as the grizzly bear would
get his scent and attack him at once,
Various BELIEFS.
Twins.—When twins are born, the mother must build a hut on the
slope of the mountains, on the bank of a creek, and live there with her
children until they begin to walk. They may be visited by their family,
or any other who wishes to see them, but they must not go into the
willage, else her other children would die. Twins are called skumku'mq-
sisilf, 1.e., young grizzly bears. It is believed that throughout their lives
they are endowed with supernatural powers. They can make good and
bad weather. In order to produce rain they take a small basket filled
with water, which they spill into the air. For making clear weather
they use a small stick, to the end of which a string is tied. A small flat
piece of wood is attached to the end of the string, and this implement is
shaken. Storm is produced by strewing down on the ends of spruce
branches. While they are children their mother can see by their plays
whether her husband, when he is out hunting, is successful or not. When
the twins play about and feign to bite each other he will be successful ;
if they keep quiet he will return home empty-handed. If one of a
couple of twins should die the other must clean himself in the sweat-house
‘in order to remove the blood of the deceased out of his body.’
A decoction made of certain herbs, when used as hair-oil or mixed
with the saliva of a person, acts as a love-charm.
To break eggs of the ptarmigan produces rain.
If one has a feeling as though someone was standing behind one’s
back, or if a sudden chill goes down one’s back, it is a sign that someone
will die. If one’s leg twitches, someone is coming. When the ears ring,
someone speaks ill of one. The owl cries muktsd'k: (he is dead),
and calls the name of the person who will die.
One cannot make fire with the fire-drill after having eaten in the
morning.
Hair that has been cut off must be buried or thrown into the river.
Beaver-bones (not those of the salmon, as is the custom on the coast)
must be thrown into the river, else the beavers would not go into the
traps any more. The same would happen if a dog should eat beaver-meat,
or gnaw a beayer-bone.
When making bullets they mix wood that has been struck by lightning
with the lead. They believe that the bullets thus become more deadly,
as they will burn the deer’s flesh.
They believe that the beaver, when constructing its dam, kills one of
its young and buries it under the dam, that it may become firmer and
not give way to flcods. if
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 645
RELIGION AND SHAMANISM.
I received very scanty information only regarding the religious ideas.
of the Shushwap. Chiefs before smoking their pipes would turn them
towards sunrise, noon, and sunset, after having them lighted, and thus
offer a smoke to the sun, at the same time praying silently to him. The-
same custom is practised in British Columbia by the Kootenay. I did
not find any other trace of sun-worship.
Souls do not return in newborn children.
When a person faints, it is a sign that a ghost pursues him.
The shaman is initiated by animals, who become his guardian spirits.
The initiation ceremonies for warriors and shamans seem to be identical,
the object of the initiation ceremonies being merely to obtain super-
natural help for any object that appeared desirable. The young man, on
reaching puberty, and before he had ever touched a woman, had to go out
on the mountains and pass through a number of performances. He had
to build a sweat-house, in which he stayed every night. In the morning
he was allowed to return to the village. He had to clean himself in the:
sweat-house, to dance and to sing during the night. This was continued,
sometimes for years, until he dreamt that the animal he desired for his
guardian spirit appeared to him and promised him its help. As soon as
it appeared the novice fell down in a swoon. ‘ He feels as though he
were drunk, and does not know whether it is day or night, nor what he
is doing.’ The animal tells him to think of it if he should be in need of
help, and gives him a certain song with which to summon him up.
Therefore every shaman has his own song, which none else is allowed to
sing, except when the attempt is made to discover a sorcerer (see p. 646).
Sometimes the spirit comes down to the novice in the shape of a stroke
of lightning. If an animal initiates the novice it teaches him its lan-
guage. One shaman in Nicola Valley is said to speak the ‘coyote lan-
guage’ in his incantations. Unfortunately, I did not learn the details of
this language, so that I do not know whether it is a sacred language
common to all shamans, or merely an individualinvention. If the young
man desires to become a successful gambler he must practise gambling
while he is on the mountains. He throws the gambling sticks into the
water while it is dark, and tries to pick them up again without looking.
If he wishes to become a lightfooted runner he must practise running.
It is said that one young man used to roll rocks down the slope of
Paul’s Peak, near Kamloops, and then ran after them until he was able to
overtake the rocks, which leaped down the steep’sides of the hill.
After a man has obtained a guardian spirit he is bullet and arrow
proof. If an arrow or a bullet should strike him he does not bleed from
the wound, but the blood all flows into his stomach. He spits it out,
and is well again. ‘ Braves,’ who have secured the help of spirits, are
carried to the fighting ground. No woman must see them when on
their way, as else they would lose their supernatural power. When an
attack is going to be made ona village the guardian spirit of the warriors
will warn them. In dreaming or in waking they see blood flying about,
and this is a sign that someone will be murdered. Before going on
a war expedition warriors would fast and abstain from sleep for a whole
week, bathing frequently in streams. It was believed that this would
make them nimble-footed.
Men could acquire more than one guardian spirit, and powerful
646 REPORT—1890.
shamans had always more than one helper. The principal duty of the
shaman was to cure the sick. Disease may be due to a foreign body enter-
ing the body of a person, to disobeying certain rules, to the temporary
absence of the soul, or to witchcraft. In all of these cases the help of the
shaman is needed. The most important among the paraphernalia of the
shaman is a headdress made of a mat, which is worn in his incantations.
The mat is about two yards long by one yard wide. The corners of one
of the narrow ends are sewed together, and it is put on as a headdress,
the whole length of the mat hanging down the back of the shaman. —
Before putting it on they blow on it and sprinkle it with water which
had been poured over magic herbs. As soon as the shaman puts on
the headdress he ‘acts as though he was crazy,’ 7.e., he puts himself
into a trance by singing the song he had obtained from his guardian
spirit at the time of his initiation. He dances until he perspires freely,
and finally his spirit comes and speaks to him. Then he lies down next
to the patient and sucks at the part of the body where the pain is. He
is supposed to remove a thong or a feather from it, which was the cause
of the disease. As soon as he has removed it he leaves the hut, takes
off his mat, and blows upon the object he has removed from the
body, which then disappears. It is stated that in his dances he some-
times sinks into the ground down to his knees.
If the disease is produced by witchcraft or by disobedience to certain
regulations, the shaman, during his trance, goes into the lower world, i.e.,
underground, in order to consult with his guardian spirits. After a while
he returns to the upper world and announces the cause of the sickness,
saying that a woman passed by the head of the patient, or that the
shadow of a mourner fell upon him, or giving some other imaginary
cause of sickness. The most elaborate performance is the bringing back
of absent souls. The Shushwap believe that while a man is alive the
shaman is able to see the soul. After death the soul becomes invisible,
although its movements may be heard. Therefore the shaman will some-
times lie down, the ear on the ground, and listen. If he hears a noise
of a passing soul without seeing anything he will say: ‘So-and-so has
died. I heard his soul, but did not see it passing by.’ If he sees it, it is
a sign that the person to whom the soul belongs is sick, but may recover
if his soul is restored to him. Then the shaman puts on his mat and
begins his incantation. As soon as he has succeeded in summoning his
spirit he sets out with him in search of the lost soul. While he is
unconscious he runs and jumps, and is heard to speak to his spirit. He
will say, for instance, ‘Here is a chasm; let us jump across it!’ He
actually gives a jump and says, ‘ Now we have passed it,’ &c. Finally
he meets the soul, and is seen to have a severe fight with it until it is
finally overcome. Then he returns in company with his spirit to the
upper world, and throws off his mat as soon as he comes back. He
restores the soul to the sick person by laying it on the crown of his head.
Sickness due to witchcraft is treated in the following way: When a
shaman hates any person and looks at him steadfastly, he sends the latter’s
soul underground, to sunrise or sunset. The anger of a shaman may be
aroused, for instance, by a young man who prides himself on his courage,
and in order to show his undaunted spirit paints his face with figures,
representing stars, sun, moon, birds, or any other designs that are con-
sidered becoming to the most powerful men of the tribe. After the soul
has left the body of the young man another friendly shaman is called.
He begins at once to sing all the songs of the shamans of the tribe. It
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA, 647
is believed that as soon as he begins the song of the shaman who has
bewitched the patient, the evil-doer will become crazy.
The shaman can also bewitch his enemy by throwing the cause of
disease, 7.¢., a feather or a thong, at him; or by putting magic herbs into
his drink. Ground human bones, mixed with food, are believed to make
the hair of the person who eats it fall out. If parts of the clothing of a
person are placed in contact with a corpse the owner must die. It is
-¢ believed that the shaman can in no way harm a white man.
The shaman also endeavours to obtain game in times of want. He
begins his incantation and sends his soul in search of deer and other
game. When he returus he tells the hunters to go to such and such a
place in order to find the animals. When they find any they must bring
the venison to the shaman. Nobody is allowed to eat of it until the
shaman has eaten his share.
Frequently after a death has occurred the shaman is called by the
relatives of the deceased. It is believed that the ghost of the dead
person is eager to take one of his nearest relatives with him to the country
of the souls. In order to drive the ghost away the shaman is called. He
sees the ghost, and orders all the members of the mourning family to stay
in the house, which the ghost cannot enter. Then he speaks to the ghost,
asking him whom he wants, and telling him that he cannot have the
person he wants. He appeases the ghost, who then leaves, and does not
further trouble his relatives. The shaman is paid a high price for
this service.
Contests between shamans, in order to ascertain who is the most
powerful, are not rare. The one will take his charm first, blow on it,
and throw it at the other. Ifthe other is weaker he will fall on his back,
and blood will flow from his mouth. Then the former blows on him and
restores him by this means. They also practise jugglery. The shaman
is tied, and he frees himself by the help of his spirit.
‘
DEFORMED CRANIA FROM THE NORTH PACIFIC COAST.
In describing the customs of the Lku/igen and of the Kwakiutl, men-
tion has been made of the methods employed for deforming the cranium.
It remains to say a few words regarding the effects of such deformations.
So far as I am aware there exist three distinct types of intentional head
deformation, which, however, are connected by intermediate types. These
types may be designated as the Chinook, the Cowitchin, and the Koskimo,
from the names of certain tribes practising these methods of deformation.
The first is found in the region of Columbia River, principally among
the Chinook and Cowlitz. Its northern limit is unknown to me, The
second is practised on Puget Sound, by the Lku’igen, Cowitchin, and
Sk-qomic of British Columbia. The Catloltq form a gradual transi-
tion to the last type, which reaches its highest development at Kwatzino
Sound, but extends southward along the coast of ‘Vancouver Island
and the mainland opposite to Toba Inlet and Comox. The Chinook
cranium is excessively flattened (figs. 24 to 26), the forehead being
depressed. The head is allowed to grow laterally. Consequently a com-
pensatory growth takes place in this direction. The Cowitchin do not
flatten the cranium, but rather shorten it by means of a strong pressure
upon the region of the lambda and farther down. It appears that the
subsequent flattening of the forehead is mainly due to growth under the
altered conditions, after the compressing cushions have been removed.
648 . REPORT—1890.
The third form of cranium is produced by combination of frontal,
occipital, and lateral pressure. In crania of the southern tribes of this
region, evidence of a pressure upon the lambda may be seen; but the
forehead is at the same time flattened, and the total distance from
glabella to lambda increased, the occiput being inclined backward. There-
fore the occipital index of these crania is very large. The Koskimo crania
are compressed on all sides, and therefore very long, the axis of the
cranium being depressed.
I give here a series of measurements of crania, showing the typical
deformations. I have to thank Professor F. W. Putnam, Director of the
Peabody Museum of American Archeology of Cambridge, Mass., for his
kind permission to me to describe the three Chinook crania.
8 A =) 5 a Hi 2 @ B
mee] Bos Bes Oo =o sé
Osa | © =) OBS ic | | ae
bt tee) leg | tes) s@ | Se | be
ao | S82 | 83k] ys me | 68
ep ws? | pe? |] ray ep
2 ahalek Bi? 3
mm. mm. mm mm. mm. | mm,
Horizontal length . |) alas 170 155 160 181 199
Maximum length . : oy eore 171 155 161 181 199
Occipital length . : : — 37 55 39 55 73
Maximum width . : sal) bap 164p | 152 160p | 1384p] 137
Minimum frontal width f 99 101 (90) 95 92°5| 102
Height . é a : .| 126 129 _ 134 131 130
Height of ear F er 16 116 — 120 115 114
Length of basis . 5 ‘ (93) 106 — 95 99 106
Width of basis. : . | (102) 113 94 (111) 99 105
Length of pars basilaris i 25 28 ~- 26 25 27
Length of foramen magnum . 35 38 — 38 39 35
Width of foramen magnum . 28 32°5 -- 29 30 29
Horizontal circumference .| 516 534 492 508 507 555
Sagittal circumference . .| 334 334 305 335 357 399
Frontal arch of sagit. circum. | 117 112 101 116 121 138
4 Parietal arch of sagit. circum. 105 114 104 119 109 133
Occipit.arch of sagit. circum. | 112 108 100 100 127 128
Vertical circumference . «| 315 330 _— 330 298 296
| Height of face . : 2 — —_ _- 118 — 126
Height of upper part of face 70 78 52 70 69 80
Width of maxillary bone . 96 107 72 105 91 110
Width between zyg. arches .| 140 148 108°5 149 125 141
Height of nose . ‘ ‘ 50 55 36°5 50 49 60 |
Width of nose E ; 22 27 19 23 22 23
Width of orbit. fs : 40 42 34 41 39 41
Height of orbit . 3 : 36 38 32 36 36 41°5
Length of face . . 5 97 |} 112 — 101 97 105
Length of palate . . c 49 55 34 51 49 51
Anterior width of palate a 39 44 30 39 37 34
Posterior width of palate . (45) 50 35 45 39 43
Capacity c ‘ . | 1390cce. — = — — —
Cephalicindex . * 94°6 96°4 9871 100°0 74:0 68°8
Index of height . ; ; 74:7 759 —- 80:4 72°4 65:3
Index of upper part of face . 50:0 52:7 479 47:0 55-2 56-7
Index of nose - - c 44-0 49-1 51:8 46:0 44°9 38:3
Occipital index . : ; — 21:7 35°5 | 24:4 30°4 36-7
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 649
1. Wyman, 890. Adult male. Calvarium. The cranium is much
flattened and asymmetrical, as appears in the norma occipitalis. Sutures
open; teeth not worn. The sutures are rather complicated, a Wormian
body in the right coronal suture, others in the left asterion. The sagittal
suture from obelion to lambda is depressed, being the deepest line of a
shallow groove. The left mastoid process is absent, two small elevations
Fie. 24.—Chinook Male,
(Wyman Collection, 890; Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass.)
being the only indication. The condyles are small. The squama occipitalis
is very asymmetrical, the occipital protuberance large but.flat. The palate
is high and arched ; short traces of the sutura incisiva are found. The
alveolar arch is almost angular at the canine teeth, turning suddenly
backward. The right wisdom tooth is not developed. Fossa glenoidalis
‘shallow ; styloid processes large and heavy. Right ear round, left ear
Fie. 25.—Chinook Male. (Wyman Collection, 890.)
_ Marrow, oval. Pars basilaris high. On the right side a complete
_ processus frontalis of the temporal bone is found, and in addition to it an
_ €pipteric bone ; on the left an incomplete processus frontalis and a larger
_ epipteric bone are found. Part of the tissues of the face are preserved ;
a of the face is coloured green by copper. The cross-section
650 REPORT—1 890.
of the nose is high and rounded ; its upper part is narrow, the lower rim
rather sharp, the septum asymmetrical. The lacrymal ducts are small.
Fic. 26.—Chinook Male. (Wyman Collection.)
Superciliary ridges well developed ; slight traces of frontal suture above
nasion.
2. Peabody Museum, 38946. Adult male. Sutures open ; teeth
moderately worn. Left zygomatic bone broken. Calvarium. The skull
Fie@, 27.—Chinook. (Peabody Museum, Cambridge, 38,946.)
alae v
is flattened in the same way as the foregoing. Sutures rather simple.
A small Wormian bone in the lambda, others near both asteria. The
superciliary ridges are strongly developed; the temporal lines short and
*
‘
j
j ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 651
indistinct. A trace of a double frontal suture extends from the nasion
1 cm. upward. The occiput is flat, the linee nuche very distinct.
Mastoid processes large, incisuree mastoides deep. The pars basilaris is
wide, the condyles far apart, much curved. The styloid processes are
large. The palate is high but flat-roofed. Teeth large; retention of
Fic. 28.—Chinook. (Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass., 38946.)
econd left incisor. On both sides very large exostoses in ears. Alveolar
rch rounded. Juga alveolaria large. Fosse canine deep. Nose large.
asal bones 30 mm. long, with many foramina. Cross-section of nose round.
renasal fosse. Septum asymmetrical. Edges of orbits overhanging.
3. Peabody Museum, 6782. Child. Pars basilaris lost; right side of
Fic. 29.—Chinook. (Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass., No. 6782.)
occiput broken. Skull very much flattened ; deep groove behind coronal
suture. Sutures simple; frontal suture persistent. On inner side of
uv2
4
=
652 REPORT—1890.
frontal bone deep depressions of conyolutions of brain. Squama occipi-
talis ellipsoidal. Palate very uneven. First and second molars developed,
first dentition. Sutura incisiva open. Nose flat, lower edge rounded.
Fig. 30,—Chinook. (Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass., No. 6782.)
On the left side a small epipteric bone and a small frontal process of the
temporal bone, which remains, however, 6 mm. distant from the frontal
bone.
4. Cox Island. Adult male. Flattened from obelion to inion.
Fie. 31.—Cox Island.
;
Sutures open, simple. Wormian bones in right coronal suture. Fore-
head flat ; superciliary ridges moderately developed. Pterion depressed.
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 653
Squama occipitalis low and flat. Incisure mastoides deep. Alveolar
arch round; palate arched. Teeth moderately worn. Facial bones
heavy. Root of nose flat, narrow. Lower rim of nose sharp. Lower
Fie. 32.—Cox Island.
jaw heavy; incisura semicircularis small. Large epipteric bone on right
side.
_ 5. May’s Place (Tliksiwi). Adult female. Sagittal and coronal
_ sutures partly synostosed. Skull artificially lengthened. Sutures com-
Fig. 33.—May’s Place.
_ plicated. Squama occipitalis very high. Base of skull flat. Alveolar
arch parabolical, narrow. Nose high; cross-section of nasal bones arched.
Lower edge of nose sharp. Foramina infraorbitalia double. Slight trace
654 REPORT—1890.
of frontal suture near glabella. On right side large processus frontalis
of temporal bone, separating the sphenoid from the parietal bone.
Fig. 34.—May’s Place.
6. Bull Harbour. The cranium has all the characteristics of a male,.
although the excessive elongation is said to be practised on females
only. The bones are thick, the whole cranium large and heavily built,
Fie, 35.
4
Sutures very simple, but a few Wormian bones are found in the right
coronal suture. The teeth are well worn, the lower parts of the coronal
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 655
suture synostosed. The frontal bone is long and narrow. Superciliary
ridges large. Double temporal lines well developed. Depression all
around the cranium behind the coronal suture. Exostosis at obelion.
Fria. 36.—Bull Harbour, No. 90.
_ Protuberantia occipitalis very large. Squama occipitalis narrow, high.
_ Foramen magnum small; condyles small; mastoid process large. Inci-
sura mastoidea of right side small. Nose very high and narrow; lower
edge sharp. Orbits. large.
It seems that the lateral compression of the cranium affects also the
face, as the indices of the upper face and of the nose show.
LINGUISTICS.
KWAKIUTL.
In the following notes observations on the Héiltsuk: and Kwakiutl dialects of
this stock are contained. The former were obtained in the years 1888 and 1889
from a number of men who visited Victoria. The latter are derived from collections
made at Hope Island and Alert Bay, 1886; Victoria, 1888; and Alert Bay, 1889.
I give only such parts somewhat fuller in which my conclusions differ from those of
the Rey. Alfred J. Hall, whose notes on the grammar of the Kwakiutl language were
published in the ‘ Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada,’ 1888, sec. ii. K. in
the following chapter means Kwakiutl dialect ; H. means He'iltsuk: dialect.
PHONETICS.
Vowels : a, “i 26, He 1, Ol U.
Consonants: b,p; w; m; gy, KH; g, k; g°, k*; q, Q; y, H; d,t, n; s, ts;
(Chtc) sels ral ths) he
There is a strong tendency to elimination of vowels in the Héiltsuk- dialect.
656 REPORT—1890.
Tne surds and sonants are difficult to distinguish. Sand ts have frequently a slight
touch of the ¢ and tc, the teeth being kept apart and the articulation being post-
alveolar. Ispell here ka in preference to ky, as this sound—the anterior linguo-
palatal sound—is almost always strongly exploded. It is the sound described by
Mr. Hall as ‘ the croaking of the raven.’
All sounds occur as initial sounds. There is a remarkable difference between the
two dialects regarding initial combinations of consonants. Among approximately
1200 words of the Kwakiutl dialect I found the following beginning with more than
one consonant :
kqsis, trousers. qn, my, but also gen.
kuqlak’, crow. tskuls, obsidian (?).
In the Héiltsuk: dialect the following combinations of consonants were found to
begin words:
bg ks k-ks kuHk Hm qk mky sq tk tlk
kkH knql qt ss tlky
kp kup qtl sHs tqk tlk
tqs tla
k's kHsk* tqtl tlHs
kt tHt tlq
kts tsk’ — tiqlk
tsq
tss
It is of importance to note that these combinations occur rarely, and that they
evidently originated through elimination of vowels. The following examples, taken
from{both the Héiltsuk: and Kwakiutl dialects, will prove this fact :
Héiltsuk-. Kwakiutl.
to speak (man), dyua'la (=man’s voice). begua'la (ba' kus, men).
eye, keke. kayaks.
widower, k:hya' sit. hehyd'sit.
bark, gk'umn. qa' kum.
grouse, mhy Els. ma' koals.
Chinook canoe, sgam. se'gem.
to jump, touit. tu quit.
bow, tlhué's. tla' huis.
old woman, tlhoa'né. tlakod'né.
All the combinations are such as are likely to originate through elimination of
vowels. It is remarkable that the combination fs, st, sp, &c., do not occur.
Sonants do not occur as terminal sounds. W and kx do not terminate words.
The following combinations are found to terminate words :
kk mp lks qt
kk kk ks k-Qt
qk qs, pqs
kuk mt
Ik lk: lq mkH mH Is nt
sk nk nq nkH ms st, qst
tsk tsk: qskH msH ns
ntk tk: tq ts, nts, lts
tlk:
GRAMMATICAL NorTEs.
THE NOUN AND THE ADJECTIVE. .
The noun has no plural, but a distributive, which is mostly formed by reduplica- $
tion, epenthesis, or dizeresis:
man, begud/num, K. H. a deer, k:a@’méla, H.
two men malik‘ bugua num, K. a group of deer, k:ak:a'méla, H.
malo'guis baegua'num, H. a stone, 7’é’sem, K. H.
a group of men, bébzgua'num, K. H. a heap of stones, 7’é/?asem, K. H.
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 657
When the noun is used as a verb corresponding to our noun with verbum sub-
stantivum the distributive may be used for forming the plural.
Jam a smoker, wa/gpisin, K, uagpisno'qua, H.
we (incl.) are smokers, u2z'wagpisints, K. waau'gpisints, H.
we (excl.) are Europeans, kh’ omusi' oanth‘ and hoe! hk Omaust/oanth*, H.
The plural of adjectives with the verbum substantivum is formed in the same way.
dead, tlz/, pl. tlétlzl, K.
sick, ts’zqk-a’, pl. tsz'ts' ugha, K. tlogoa'la, pl. tlotlogoa'la, H.
iW The plural of the verb is formed in the same way (sce p. 663).
The genitive is expressed by the preposition is, which serves also to connect the
F adjective with the following noun:
_
i
A
Na’ntsé’s child, gond'h‘ is Na'ntsé, H.
¢ a large country, h:é'hyas is tsk‘emsh-, H.
NUMERALS.
: ' CARDINAL NUMBERS.
K. 18{.
1, nEm. MEn.
2, matl. matl.
3, yutq. yutq.
4, mu. mu.
5, sky’a. sky’a.
_ 6, katla’. k-atla .
(ablibm: matlaau’s.
8, matlguanatl. yu'tquaus.
9, na’nEma. ma’mEné,
10, lasti. ai/ky’as.
11, ne/mayt. mEnéegyi.
12, ma‘tlagyi. mala’/gya.
13, ya'tqwagyt. yutoa’gyi.
14, mi/agyi. mitia/eyt.
15, sky’a’gyi. sky’a/gyi.
16, k-atla’gyu. k-atla’gyi.
17, atlibt’agyi. matlaau’sgyi.
18, matlguanatlagyi. yutquau’seyi.
19, na‘nEmagyi. mamEné/agyu,
20, matlsEmgyustau.
masE’mkostéyo or masEmkuisté/ua.
21, nanEmk<dla.
mEné’kadla.
22, ma’tladla. matlao’la.
23, yutqad’la. yutqad’la.
24, mok:oa0'la.
25, sky’ak:a0'la.
30, yutqsEmgyustau. yutqsuk.
31, yitqsEmgyustau himisa nEm. yutqsuk gyigyi mEnt'k-.
40, mok'suk.
50, sky’a’ksuk.
60, k-atlai’/Hsuk.
79, matso'ukaus.
80, yutqstkaus.
90, ma’ MEnEHst'koa.
100, 1a’kint or nEmpEnya’gi. o/pEnHstais.
200, matl pEnya’gi. matlpEnHstais.
7 1,000, 10’‘qsEmH’'it. loqsEm Hit.
: It appears that in the Kwakiutl dialect eight and nine are formed from two and
_ one respectively, being two and one less than ten. In the Héiltsuk: dialect seven
_ and eight are formed from two and three, as is the case in most languages of British
Columbia. Nine is derived from one. The inversion of the consonants in the words
for ‘one’ (mzn and nem) is very curious.
The numerals take suffixes which denote the objects counted. Besides the class-
suffixes for animate beings, round, long, flat objects, days, fathoms, the numerals
4
658 REPORT—1890.
may take any of the noun suffixes (see p. 665), The Rev. A. J. Hall has given a
few classes in the Kwakiutl dialect on pp. 68 and 69 of his grammar. Hereareafew
classes taken from the Héiltsuk: dialect :
|
— One Two Three
Animate . meEND hs maalo'k yiituk
Round ; meE'nsk: am mia'sEM yutgsEm
Long . me'nts’ak: ana'ts' ak yu'tuts'ak’
Flat . ; mEnagsa! matlgsa yutgsa’
Day . : op’éné' auils matl p’éné'auls| yutqpéné' quis
Fathom 5 : o'p’ Enku matlp’enkx yutgp Enku
Grouped together . — ma'tloutl yu'toutl
Groups of objects nEemtsmd'ts’utl | mdatltsmd'ts’utl | yiitgtsmd'ts’utl
Filled cup meEngtla'la matlagtla'la yiitgtla/ la
Empty cup. mengtla' ma tlagtla yt'tgtla
Full box . . : meEnsk ama'la ma! semala yutgsemala
Empty box (see round) mE'nsk-am ma'sEM yutgs' Em
Loaded canoe . : . | meEnts'ake’ mia'ts'aké" yututs ake!
Canoe with crew . | me'ntsakis ma'ts’akla yututs'ak la
Together on beach . al — mi'alis —
Together in house &c. — maa’ lztl —
It appears from these examples that the number of classes is unlimited. They
are simply compounds of numerals and the noun-suffixes.
ORDINAL NUMBERS.
the first, gyd’/la, H. at first, gya'la’it, H.
the second, @’t/’it, H.
the third, wand’‘hy’a, H.
the last, walda’gtlé, H.
NUMERAL ADVERBS.
four times, mépu'nazit.
five times, sky’ape'nuit.
ten times, Aditlopx'nuit.
once, d'pennit, H.
twice, mdtipu'nunit, H.
three times, yiitqpxr'nuit, H.
PRONOUN.
PERSONAL PRONOUN.
The personal pronoun in the Kwakiutl dialect is very difficult to understand.
There are two forms, but I cannot explain their separate use. It seems that only
one form occurs in the Héiltsuk: dialect:
K. K H.
i no'gua, yin. me, gyd/qEn. no' gua.
thou, 8o', yutl. thee, sdt. hqso.
he, — —
we (incl.), »d’guants, yints. us, gya'qents. nogua'nts.
we (excl.), nd'guanugq, yi/nuq. us, gya'qEnuq. nogua'nths.
you, sdqdda'q, yiedaqo'tl, h:acksoa' ea.
It is remarkable that while in Héiltsuk: the plural of the second person is formed
by reduplication, in the Kwakiutl dialect, the suftix -ddq is used for this purpose. We
shall see later on that the same difference is found in the inflection of the verb. It
seems that the stem of the second person is sd. I have not given the third persons,
as they seem to be rather demonstrative pronouns.
In order to explain the use of the two separate forms in the Kwakiutl dialect I
give a series of examples:
it is I, ndguazm.
I? yin ? (in reply to, They say you stole it,
also to the question, Who shall do it ?)
I, nd’gua (in answer to the ques-
tion, Who is going to do it ?) I, yin (Shall he do it? No, I).
|
pa Pe de) A ho ee
ON ek ie le el oe
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 659
I will go, ndguati lati. thou, yu? (in answer to, Who shall do it?
Is that thou? sa’o ? I? Yes, thou !)
thou, sd’wm (in reply to: Who
said so ?)
we (will do it), nd’guanugq.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN.
The Kwakiutl language distinguishes four locations of objects which take the
place of demonstrative pronouns. The location is expressed by suffixes, which are
used with all classes of words. They are the following:
K. H.
Near speaker, --iha. —hy.
Near person addressed, —wq. —Uuq.
Distant, visible, —é. —a (@).
Distant, invisible, —é’. —ats (éts).
For instance :
K. i,
he (near speaker) is my father, hyé'men o'mpika. nésky au'mp.
he (near person addressed) is my father, yii’mzn o'mpugq. né' sug au'mp.
he (absent, visible) is my father, ha’meEn 0'mpé. né'sé au'mp.
he (absent, invisible) is my father, ha'men o'mpé’. né'séts au'mp.
The following is the independent demonstrative pronoun in the Kwakiutl dialect :
he (near speaker), gyat. they (near speaker), gyaqdaoq.
he (near person addressed), yit. they (near person addressed), yti/gdaoq.
he (absent, visible and invisible), hét. they (absent, visible and invisible), hégdaoq.
POSSESSIVE PRONOUN.
The adjective possessive pronoun is derived from the article-pronoun. In the
Kwakiutl dialect it has a number of separate forms, formed by one of the letters
q, 8, ts, and the termination derived from the article-pronoun. It seems that g stands.
for the subject and object, s and ¢s for the genitive and instrumentals. It is, how-
ever, far from certain that this explanation is correct. The terminations are in the
Kwakiutl dialect :
Singular, 1st person, 2. Plural, 1st person, inclusive, nts.
s 2nd, «= s — is. A Ys e exclusive, nuq.
3 8rd » Ss. » 2nd ,, —is daog.
» ord , —daogs.
Generally the location of the object possessed, and in the third person also that
of the possessor, is expressed by means of the demonstrative terminations. The
latter is placed between the character of the pronoun (q, s, ts) and its termination,
and is also affixed to the noun. The pronouns of the first person seem to take the
demonstrative ending for ‘near the speaker’ only.
Our (inclu- Our (exclu-
— My father sive) father (sive) father
Thy father | Your father
RS 1 S agyints |qgyinug | ghy
Near speaker .| qgyin d'mpika | qhy eg G!mpiky | o'mpiky a'sdaogihy
Near personad-||_ -, S { gents qenugq qug
dressed far" Oee | ae bet L ampug | o'mpuq dsdaoquy
on afte Mf) gents qEnugd ap
Absent, visible | gen d'’mpa g @'sa o'mpa a! mpa } q @'sdaoga
EBM: 2 = tee * gent. ENtS 4 y
Absent,invisible| gun d’mpé’ q a'sé Toanppet 12 a'mpe! \ q a'sdaoge'
1 Gs, thy father ; dmp is a compound of the stem @ (from ama) and -emp desig-
_ nating relationship. The latter evidently drops out in the second person.
660 REPORT—1890. 4
His father
Near speaker [Near person address’d| Absent, visible Absent, invisible
Near speaker
yighkye o'mpkyes yigkye o'mpkyasug | yigkye o’'mpryasé yigkye o'’mpkyasé!
Near person ad-| yiqug o’mpugsiky yiqug o'mpugs yiqug o'mdugsé , yt'qug o'mpugsée!
dressed. ;
Absent, visible yig Ompasiky vig Ompasug vig o'mpas vig o'mpase! .
Absent, invisible | vig o’mpésiky yig Ompéesuq yig O'mpésa
wig 0’ mpésé!
Their father is formed correspondingly: yighye dmpdaoghyes, &e.
The use of the various forms of the possessive pronoun is illustrated by the
following examples :—
héem wi'tldem gn o'mpa, that is what they said to my father (literally, that
the word to my father). ;
he'zm wa'tldem sen o'mpa, that is what my father said (that is my father's word).
héem wa'tldemtl tsn o'mpa, that is what my father will say.
henm watldemtl qn o'mpa or tsé gn o'mpa, that is what they will say to my father
gyt' koa sen o'mpa, vay father’s house.
gn O'mpa agé'tuk:, my father took it.
tsa tsen tltn'mtlug la gn o'mpa, give my hat to my father.
tsa qn titn'mtlug, give to my hat!
tap e'tentla qyishyin likya'yuku, I broke this with my hammer here.
tap ’é'tantla qgyin likya'yuku, I broke my hammer here.
qn O'mpa ag é't tsn tltz'mtla, my father took my hat (away).
qn Ompa agutlisot { es tlte'mtla, my father took my hat (but left it here).
When the sentence contains an interrogative or demonstrative pronoun the pos-
sessive pronoun is generally attached to them.
nt'den likya'yi ? where is my hammer? gyi’mrn likyd'yi, here is my hammer.
ni'nEn o'mpa ? where is my father? gyca'mgyin ompky née'hya, my father
here said this.
hé'meEn o'mpa né'kya, my (absent) father
said it.
The pronoun may be affixed to the noun as well:
he (absent) is thy father, hé/=m d'mpé and hd'nm 4a'sé.
he (absent) is your father, hiézms d'mpdaoqué and hiizm a'sdaoqué.
It is remarkable that the possessive suffix may be given to the verb as well, at
least in imperative forms:
give me thy hat (near thee), g-2'tsds titz'mtluq.
SUBSTANTIVE POSSESSIVE PRONOUN.
: 2 Ours Ours
= Mine | Thine | (inclusive) | (exclusive) | Yours
Near speaker .- . .| nd'siky | ho'siky | no'sentsiky | nosnnughn | ho'sdaoghy
Near person addressed | nd'sug | ha'sug | no'sentsug | nd'srnuqug ho'sdaoqug
Absent, visible . no' sé ho' sé no'sEntsé no'spnugé ho'sdaogé
Absent, invisible n0'sé" ho'sé no'sentsé' no'senugé’ | ho'sdaoge'
His
= Near speaker pie ase Absent, visible | Absent, invisible
Near speaker hashyda' kika haskyda' hug haskya'k: hashya' ké
Near person ad-| hasd'quqhk ihn haso' qoak ug haso'qoak: haso' qoaké
dressed
Absent, visible hase’ hikn haso' hug hasé'h: hasé'hé
Absent, invisible | haséhihu hasok- ug hasé' Ek: hasé'Ehé
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 661
’ Theirs is formed in the same way: hasdaoghyd'hikx, &c.
The possessive pronoun of the Héiltsuk- dialect is far less complicated.
ADJECTIVE POSSESSIVE PRONOUN.
Singular, Ist person, k:s— _ Plural, 1st person (incl.), k:ants—
Fame 2nd:;,°\\—(@)s » Ist ,, (exel.), Rantki—
“A 350 es ee —s oe eas —(0)s \ noun redu-
srs —s ff plicated.
We have to distinguish in this dialect also the four locations of near to speaker,
near person addressed, visible, invisible.
, : os : |
_— My father | Thy father Our Gadus ney) ae ee Your father |
Near speaker . |k:sau'’mphu au'mphys h-antsau! mphu \k-anthkau'mpku| aiaw'mphys
Near _ person |k'saw'mpuq au'mmpuqs \k-antsau'mpug k:anthau'mpug | aiau'mpugs
addressed
Absent, visible |A:sau'mpa |au'mpos |k-antsau'mpa \k-antkau'mpa | aiau'mpos
Absent, invisible|:sau'mpats|au'mpatsos k:antsau' mpats k-anthkau mpats| aiau'mpatsos
His father
lw.
es “ 7 ear person | , ae Absent,
| Near speaker addressed Absent, visible snwinible
Near speaker aumkyaskn | au’mpugsky | au'mpaska | au'mpatshn
Near person addressed au'mkyasug | au'mpugsug | au'mpasug | au'mpatsug
Absent, visible au'mkyasé | au'mpugsé | au'mpasé au mpatsé
ee $ ss
Absent, invisible au'mkyasits | au'mpugsits | au'mpasits | au'mpatsits
; Their father is formed in the same way from the reduplicated noun: aiau'm-
hyasku.
SUBSTANTIVE POSSESSIVE PRONOUN.
— Mine Thine (inclusive) Ours (exclusive) Yours
Near speaker . . | né’soka \kausi'hu| néso'k'untshu| néso'k-nnthhy | k-ek-a'usohu
Near person ad-| né!soqg |kauso'g | nésd'h-untsug| néso'k-enthug | kek-auso'g
dressed
Absent, visible. .| nés@ |kaust’ |néso'hentsé | nésd'h-enthé heh a! usé
Absent, invisible . | né'séts |k'ausé'ts | néso'kuntscts, neso'hk-untkets | k-éh:a'uséts
his (absent, visible), asd’h-oé. theirs (absent, visible) aé@3d'k-o2.
» ( 5, » invisible), asd’k-oéts. » (4, , invisible), aésd’h-oéts.
THE VERB.
INTRANSITIVE VERB.
Kwakiutl Dialect.
1. Noun or Adjective with verbum substantivum,
‘ smoker, ua’qpis.
1st person singular, ua'g pisin
2nd ,, a ua'g pits.
ord. » near speaker, ua'g pisthn.
REPORT—1 890.
662
3rd person singular, near person addressed, wa'g pisuq.
Sede 9 A ss absent, visible, ua'g pisé.
SiKol se en absent, invisible, ua' ¢ pisée.
Ist ,, plural, incl., Ut'uag PisEnts.
sti: - excl., ut wag pisEnug.
2nd _ s,, * uiua'y pits.
STON Gy 5 near speaker, uiua'g pisthu.
BIG. (55 », hear person addressed, wtua'gpisug.
BIGua es » absent, visible, utua'g pisé.
Biya) Se 5 absent, invisible, Utua' g PiseE.
2. Intransitive Verb.
to eat, hamda'p.
Ist person singular, hamda'pen.
Qnd ,, Ey hamda' pus.
ord, se near speaker, hamda' piku.
3rd_siy, Ps near person addressed, hamd'puq.
Sroeer. a absent, visible, hama'pé
Sigob Fe absent, invisible, hama' pé'.
Ist ,, plural, incl., hama'pents.
Ist ., ms excl., hama'penuq.
2nGe ss, a hama'pdaogs.
Sivsle a5 “ near speaker, hama'pdaogiks.
ayol ee e near person addressed, hamda'pdaog’ugq.
Boll bs absent, visible, hama'pdaogé.
3rd - absent, invisible, hamda'pdaog éz.
1st person sing.
2nd
3rd!
” ”
” ”
Héiltsuk* Dialect.
1. Noun or Adjective with verbum substantivum.
smoker, wa’ qpis.
Ist person singular, ua'¢ pisnogua.
2nd ,, ua'g pitso.
OG arses . absent, visible, wa'g pitsé.
iste 45)° plural, "incl: waau' ¢ pisEents.
lists = excl. uaau'g pisenths,
2nd _,, » uaau'g pitso-:
Bld. a5 », absent, visible, waau'g pisé.
2. Intransitive Verb.
to drink, nd@’k'a.
, na'k:andgua. 1st person plural, incl., nZA:a’nts.
steal i% ee excl., nak-a'ntk*.
naka'sd. 2nd ,, “ ak:a'stla and néna' kaso.
nah a' sé. ord laes - nika'sé and nénd'k-asé.
I do not enter into the tenses of the verb, as the material at my disposal is not
sufficient to bring out clearly the nice distinctions between the numerous tenses (see
Hall, Z.c. p. 79 ff.). I turn at once to the transitive verb with incorporated object,
which has been treated very fragmentarily by Mr. Hall.
1 As the various forms of the third person are formed in the same way as those
of the possessive pronouns, &c., they have been omitted here.
‘
f
J
q
.
. ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 663
Kwakiutl Dialect.
to kill, tlela'mas.
_ stem of the verb:
Singular
Object
1st person 2nd person 3rd pers. near speaker
1st pers. sing. = —as gya'qEn —iku' gyd'gen
GE ts ay —eEntlutl — —iknutl
Me 53) a5 —eEntlakikn —asé'hikn —hyd'hikn 4
1st pers. plur. incl. — _ —thu gya' gents
Ist ,, ay) GESGlE — —as gyd'qenug -—tha gya' qenug
end’ ,, a —daogentlutl — —daogikyutl
ard. ,, at —daogentlak thu —daoqast'kikx* —daoghya' k:tkn
Plural
Object - = :
1st pers. incl. | 1st person excl. 2nd person 3rd person
1st pers. sing. — _— —daogas gya'qen |\—daogikn gyd'gen
2nd ,, je — —Enuqitl — —daogikyttl®
3rd_,, »| |—Entsak‘tha | —enuquaktku |—daogasthktka —|—daoghya'hiku'
Ist ,, plur. — == _— tlétlelamasdaogikn
incl. gya' gents §
1st pers. plur. — — —daogas gyd'ge- \tlétlelamasdavgikn
excl. nug® gya' qenug |
2nd pers. ,, — — = tlétlzlamas
daogiky ttl
SEED ss. yy) 5_ 5 —daoqgasektku" |tlétlzlaimas-
daoghya' ktkx*
The characters of the tenses : —wtl for the past and —7¢Z for the future follow the
we have killed thee, tlelamas'utlenu'qitl.
we are going to kill thee, tlzelémastlenu'qitl.
The transitive verb may be inflected by means of auxiliary verbs, in which case the
latter are treated like an intransitive verb, while the verbal stem retains the incor-
porated pronoun or is followed by the pronominal object.
I have killed thee,
thou hast killed me,
lemeEn tlela'masitl.
I have killed him (near me), demen tlela'maskthu.
lexz!'ms tlela'mas gya'qen.
1 The form for ‘ person near speaker’ is here given; for ‘near addressed person’
—éz or @’.
the ending is —ug instead of —ikux; for absent, visible, —@; for absent, invisible,
2 Also instead of the plural form with —daog with reduplication: ¢lélzla ma-
| sase'hikn.
8 Near person addressed: —ugiutl; absent, —zZitl.
___ * Thevarious forms corresponding to the locations of subject and object correspond
_ to those of the substantive possessive pronoun, third person (see p. 660).
° These forms have the same ending as that with the object in 3rd (viz. 2nd) person
singular, but is reduplicated : ¢létlzlamasxntsak‘?'ha, tlétlela'masenuqitl, and tlétlz-
la masenugiak? ku.
§ Or tlétlzla'masas gyd'qenugq.
7 Or, if it does not appear from the context that the object is plural: t¢létZzlama-
sasthi'hu. The forms of the subject, second person singular, object, third person
identical ; it must be decided from the context what is meant.
8 In this and the following form the verb must be reduplicated.
plural, and subject, second person plural, object, third person singular and plural are
664
REPORT—1890.
Héiltsuk’ Dialect.
to kill, zlga (— stands for the singular, zlga : = for the plural, aizlqa).
Singular
Object
1st person 2nd person 3rd person 2
1st person singular — — sontla —hyintla
2nd.__,, a —nogutla — —hyittla
Sra oo 55 oie —no'quak'ku* — sok’ hu 2
Ist ,, plural inel. = = —hyintlints
SG Alas ae exele — = sontlinth* —hyintlinth*
2nd _,, ” =no'gutla — = stlsosk-kx®
hol We ae = noguak ka = sok hu 2
Plural
Object
1st person incl. | 1st person excl. | 2nd person 3rd person ?
1st person sing. — == = sontla =hyintla
ZUG es, ” _ —meEnthutla —_— =hyititla
Side oe —meEntsh hi —menthhku —soh'hu 2
Ist ,, plur. incl. — — — = hyintlints
Ist 3 #iiexcl, — = = sontlinth' =hyintlinth
YANG -— = menthutla aie | 2
Drdee 55 eel = meEntsh- hi =meEnthkha = sok:-hn r
The characters of the tenses —aiate for the past and —¢/ for the future follow”
the stem of the verb.
The principal differences between the inflexions of the transitive verbs in the two
dialects are found in the incorporation of the object first person in the verb in the
Héiltsuk: dialect and the constant reduplication of the stem in the same dialect.
The latter evidently disappeared in the Kwakiutl dialect through the use of the
plural —daog. Auxiliary verbs are used in the Héiltsuk in the same way as in the
Kwakiutl.
IMPERATIVE. .
Knakiutl. Héiltsuk.
eat! (singular) héma'p / ha'mseus ! *
let us eat ! hamh’r'tatsents ! + haia'msrnsEents !
eat! (plural) hé’map / haia'msans !
Héiltsuk:: let him (near speaker) eat ! hamseusé'lykh !
let him (near speaker, food near speaker) eat! hamsrhsé'ivhu !
let him (food, absent, visible) eat ! hamsensé k:ék: !
let him (absent, visible) eat ! hamsensé'lé !
let him (absent, invisible) eat ! hamseusélé'ts !
1 The third person location near speaker is given. The other forms are formed
from the corresponding endings : near person addressed, —ndquak-ug ; absent, visible,
—noquaké ; absent, invisible, —ndquak‘éts.
2’ Near person addressed, —wqgintla; absent, visible, —@intla; absent, invisible,.
—étsintla.
3 Also = hyutla. aizlgastiso'sé he (absent, visible) will kill you.
appears rather doubtful.
4 Formed from another derivative of the stem ham, to eat, viz., hamn’it ; while
the others are derived from hama'p.
5 From ha’msa.
This form
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 665
Kwakiutl | Heiltsuk-
’ |) = MaMa
Strike (singular) Strike (plural) | Kill (singular) Kill (plural)
|
me! min’i'tas gyd'qun min itinda' ogelas | elqansen’tla aizlgqause'ntla
gyaiqen —
_ [him! min?'task iku min itinda'ogelas- |\rlgaust'kiku |aivlqausc'hihn
_ | (near speaker) hrihu &e. |
jus! min’'tas gya'qenug — elganse'ntlinth aizlgause'ntlinth
_ |them! same as singular —_— \wizlgause'h ihn \aivlgaunse'h the
let me feed thee ! hamgytlalasentlitl, K.
‘ let me feed you ! hamgytladaoglasentlitl, K.
: gy q
let us feed thee! hamgyilala'senoqitl, K.
’ let us strike him, them! m7?mttasentsak’, K
let us kill him ! Elqause'ntsk-2, H
let us kill them ! aielgansr'ntshé, H.
An interrogative exists in both dialects, but it has not become quite clear to me:
dost thou eat ? hamsa'sa? H.
does he (near pers. addr.) eat ? hamsa'eugtsa ? H.
do you eat? haia'mses? H.
One of the most important characteristics of the verb is that, whenever it is
peecompanied by an adverb, the latter is inflected, not the verb:
I do not eat, hyéd'sniqua ha'msa, H.
he did not(1) say(2) so, kyé'sthku(1) né'hya(2), K
In the case of transitive verbs the adverb takes the ending corresponding to the
intransitive verb, the verb retains the incorporated object. Thus the adverb
assumes the character of an aoe verb. In some cases the object is treated in
the same way:
we see (2) all (1) of them, dgya'mxnth‘ (1) dok-ola'k-aé (2), H
FORMATION OF WORDS.
Mr. Hall does not enter into this subject very fully, and the following notes
will, for this reason, be welcome. The analysis of words of the Kwakiutl language
is very easy. A great number of nouns occur in two separate forms, independent
and dependent. Whenever such a noun occurs in connection with another word it
is incorporated in the latter. So far as I am aware, only suffixes occur in Kwakiutl.
A number of these nouns signify classes, for instance tree, female. Locative suffixes
are found in very great numbers. Adjectives and verbs are also incorporated. I
give a list, arranged alphabetically:
about, here and
there —uilila,' K. tlz' hkwilila, moving about.
la'kuilila, camping here and there.
ng —xntala, K. along round object: composed with —niés, side
of—, k-a'tsniitsentdla, to walk along round
object.
along flat object : composed with —xng, edge
of—, hk:a'tsenggpntala, to walk along flat
i object.
always —tl, K. amda'qulatl, always giving away blankets.
ot bagbaku' lati, always eating human flesh.
among —ak-a, K. H. neq ak a'la, to pull out of full box, K. (ie.,
Ps from among).
A mda'k-ak-a, to throw among, H.
arm,upper | —siaipé, K.H. destdépé', upper arm, K. H.
af
tlétstapz', skin of upper arm, K.
huk utsid'pé, skin of upper arms, H.
1 The —la in this and several others is probably a verbal suffix.
1890. x
666
around
back
beach
body
bottom of
breast
to call
in canoe
capable of
to take care of
corner
country, outside
house
down
down river
ear
earth
edge
expert
eye
face
to do something
with face
farthest
fire
foot
forehead
fragment
=
REPORT—1890,
—ésta, K. H. h:a'tséstala, to walk all around, K.
toe'stala, to go all around, H.
one’ sta, rim.
—ikya, K. H. ani kya, back, K.
dsk-amé' kya, back, H.(=round outside of back)
mini'kyent, K., to strike back,
—is, K. H. lz'qots, wide beach, K.
ya'kois, Ariftwood on beach, H.
eigyispalis, sandspit on beach, K. (aiku, good,
-——is beach [compound é@#gyis=sand], —pa
point, —Jis beach). Cf. country.
—lis, K. H.
—na, H. dhona’', body, H.
tlogoana'la, sick all over body, H.
—qsté, K. o'qsté, bottom of a thing, K.
—qté, H. k:qa' gqte, notch of arrow (=notch in bottom), H.
—poé, K. Gpo'é, breast, K.
ha'k*dpoé, breastbone, K.
—poa, H. ts’id'poa, breastbone, H.
—qa, K. qua'qunaqan, I call a canoe’s name, #.e., want
to buy a canoe.
—gsa, K. gua'gsala, to sit down in canoe (gua, to sit ;
—qsa, canoe ; —la, verb).
—qs, H. laqsut, to load canoe (da, to go; —gs, in canoe ;
—ut, V.a.).
—ts’Es, K. do'qts’rs, seer (ddqg—to see).
—tes, H. k-a'wat’rs, with good power of hearing.
—qsila, K. ma'mugsila, taking care of salmon weirs.
—né, K, gua'né, to sit down in corner,
—us, —is, K. H. beg’u's, man in woods, in country, K.
tldau's, to stand outside, H.
we'nakwis, world, K.
—lis, K. héstalis, round the world (—ésta, around; lis,
country), K.
—alis, H. iuia'lis, land where always wind, H. Cf. beach.
—qa, K. H. la'ga, to go down, H.
h:a'tséqala, to go down, K.
—tusrla, K.H. latu'sela, to go down river in canoe, K.
—atoé, K. ts’enda'tola, ear is sick, K.
—atoa, H. naksodetoa', both ears, H.
—gyilis, K.H. — la'gyilis, to land, K. H. (la, to go).
—ngé, K. H. amai'ngé, youngest child, K. (ama, small; —nqgé,
edge = smallest).
mik-a'ngaut, to throw along, H. (mdk-a, to
throw; —nyZ, edge; —vwt, v.a.).
—pis, K. H. ni'kpis, drunkard, K. H.
—ilk:, K. H. na'kilk:, drunkard, K. H.
nak i'lk-in, I drink often, K. |
—gstoé, K. éikusogstoé, with pretty eyes, K.
—gqstoa, H. ha'bagstoa, eyelashes, H. (hap— hair). |
—eEmaé, K. mé'maatlemaé, two faces, K. |
—eEmé, H. R’u'smé, skin of face, H.
—h-Em, sem, K. H.d/ikyak'emwit, to look up, K. (dikya, above;
—h-um, face; —u tt, verb suffix), see: outside
of round thing.
dikyak-aua, farthest above, K.
ha'netlala, kettle on fire, K. H.
kh’ eqtlala, much fire, K.
k-oa'k:oansitsé, toes, H.
ogtlakst'tsé, heel, K.
—hk-aua, K.
—gqtlala, K. H.
—sitsé, K. H.
—a'oé, K. aihya'oé, pretty (=good forehead), K.
—é'ioa, H. tlak‘é'ioa, headring of cedar-bark, H.
—tses, K. quda' kunatses, fragment of canoe. a
— ow
to go to look for
group
hand
head
head covering
hindpart
in
instrument
interior of house
interior of man
large
to make
motion
mouth
inside of mouth
mouth of river
neck
noise
nose
on (roof, chair)
on flat object
on a long object
Opposite
other side
out of—
outside of house
outside, in woods
participle passive
penis
people
}: f
i
ft place of, house of
place where some-
thing is regularly
done
place of, probably
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA.
—aiala, K.
—qsem, K.
—tsdna, K.
—shkyana, H.
—héa, H.
—mtl, K. H.
—qtlée, K. H.
—tsd, tsoa, K. H.
—ayo, K. H.
—itl, K. H.
—is, K. H.
—tsé, K.
—hyd'oé, H.
—gyila, K.
—ila, K. H.
—nakula, K. A.
—agqsté, K.
—qta'é, H.
—étlqd' oé, K.
—sinaé, K.
—qi'oé, K.
—qd'oa, H.
—hyala, K. H.
—ala, K. H.
—itlpa, K. H.
—latlz (la), H.
—tsué, K.
—tsoa, H.
—hyena, K. H.
—hyitit, K.
—sut, K.
—dtltsoa, K. H.
—aqsé, H.
—ils, K. H.
—sd, K. H.
—sak-Go, K.
—énoq, K. H.
—itq, H.
—ala, K.
—as, K. H.
—tems, K.
_ hollow receptacle—atsé, K. H.
point
pole
to pretend
purpose
to reach
real
refuse
—pa, K. H.
—pih:, K. H.
—bitila, K.
—numa, K.
—hk:a, K. H.
—hyaso, K.
—mit, K.
—doa, H.
667
ha'natlaia'la, to go to buy a gun,
gyé'qsEm, a group of chiefs.
k-emqo'tltsaina, left hand,
h’ogskyana, hand cut off.
tla'k-h:@a, bareheaded.
yiqu'mtl, mask ( = dancing head covering).
dogtlé'e, stern of canoe, K.
wala'qtlék's, youngest|\daughter, H, (—z's, fem.),
la'tsoa, to enter, H. (la, to go).
ts’éutsdla, headache, K. (=inside sick).
st'wayd, paddle, K.
qta'yd, knife, H.
goa'ttl, to sit in house, K. H.
sé'ilis, snake in man, K.
gyoktsé, large house, K.
@e'semkya'oé, large stone, H. (see: real).
ha'mggila, to feed.
ha'iatlila, to mend, K.
ké'inakula, to go straight ahead, H.
ha'pagsté, beard, K.
hapqta’é, beard, H.
napetiga'oé, saliva (water inside mouth), K.
(See neck.)
tliest'waé, mouth of river with clover roots.
oqa'oé, K., neck.
tVak-qa'oa, H., neckring of cedar-bark,
kh’ dmustuakyala, H., white man’s language.
bgua'la, K. H., to speak (man) (=man’s noise).
khya'la, K. H., to speak (female) (= woman’s
noise).
a' lkitlpa, H., to bleed from nose.
gua'latlela, to sit on chair.
k:a'tseltsué, to walk on a plank.
to'tsoa, to walk on a plank.
gua'kyena, to sit on a long object.
neghyw'ta, opposite a rocky place (—a, rock).
k-oé'sut, far away on other side.
te’dtltsoa, H., to jump out of.
gua’ qsé, H., to sit outside the house.
@api' ls, K., to flood ground,
ha'inakyalaso, K., the hated one.
moqgsak-a'o, K., with tied penis (a name oc-
curring in a tradition),
tlask’é'noqg, K., people of the ocean.
ma'qénogq, K., killer whale (=secretly pursuing
people).
ha'lgénog, H., killer whale (= murderer).
Kok-ai'tq, H., people of K-6'k:a.
Tla'tlasik:oa'la, K., people of the ocean.
gy o'lotas, K., porpoise place.
k-ut'lastems, K., feasting place.
mEkoa'tsé, H., mortar.
ai'kupa, K., sharp =good pointed.
mo'qpik, K., heraldic column (= pole to which
[blankets] are tied).
mé'gabitla, to pretend to sleep.
kh’ akotla'numa, to come to learn.
la'ha, K., to go past.
begua'numkyaso, a real man.
ha'mit, rest of food.
hdmasda'oa, rest of food.
668 REPORT—1890.
relationship —mp, H. K. au'mp, H., father.
side of round thing —niutl, K. o'nutlemé, cheek = side of face.
small —pitu, plur.
—meEné'g, K. gyokpiti, pl. gyokmené q, small house.
—oé, H. gukoé, small house.
smell —p'ala, K. H. ua'gp'ala, smell of smoke.
stone —a, K. H. gua'la, H., to sit on stone.
superlative —hkhamé, K.H. ndlok:emaé, no'lok:amé, K., the greatest fool.
surface of water —?lé, K. H. gytlo'tlé, to steal on water, to go stealing in
canoe, K.
taste —p'a, K. H. aikup'a, sweet = good taste.
through —qsi'oa, H. lagst'oa, to go through—
time of— —xnq, K. H. tliz'ny, H., time of potlatch.
tooth —uHé, K. h-agué, having lost one tooth (=notch in
teeth).
—uxsia, H. tloqoausia, toothache.
top —qto'é, K. gua'gtoa, to sit on top of a thing.
top of box, bucket,
&e. —hyaé, K. A. nwé'hyaé, H., not quite full (v2, negation).
tree —mis, K. ba/aqumis, rnaple (=leaf tree).
under —a'poa, K.H. tdda'put, H., to walk under.
upward —usta (la), K t?xpusta'la, to climb a mountain.
—sustéwa, H. @oqsusté'na, to look up.
verbal suffixes —nit, K. H. Wopuit, H., it is ebb tide.
—it, K. H. na'k it, K., to drink.
—la, K. H. tlok‘oa'la, H., to be sick.
verbum activum -—d, K. H. ta'k-umt, H., to cover face with blanket.
—ut, K. H. la'qsiit, H., to load canoe.
to want —éqst, K. H. na'hégst, K., thirsty.
water —sta, K. H. tu'gsta, H., to jump into water.
in water —is, K. H. winung a' pois, H., bottom of sea (—nge, edge;
—apoa, under ; —is, in water).
woman —h:a, —has, K. tloléh-as, niece.
a'taka, pet daughter.
—aqgsEem, —hs, H, Bi'bilqulagsem, Bilqula woman (stem redupli-
cated). :
mENU' yaks, sister.
NOOTKA.
The following notes have been derived from material collected in 1888 in
Victoria from two Tlao’kath, from other material collected 1889 in Alberni, prin-
cipally from a half-blood Indian named Wa’té. Bishop N. J. Lemmens, of Victoria,
B.C., had the great kindness to give me the pronouns and the inflection of the verb
in the Tlad‘kath dialect. A number of suffixes were obtained from a manuscript of
the Rey. Father Brabant, who is said to be thoroughly conversant with the language.
The dialect treated here is the Ts’icia’ath, which differs somewhat from the northern
dialects. Incidentally, remarks on the Tlad'/kath are given.
PHONETICS.
Vowels : 2) 10) SK len kOsa eG, iia
Consonants : Dig sWiy aM alcy, yekoeks Cs Qi) ye Elects aoe ans
(c, te); tl; h.
s and ¢s partake of the character of ¢ and ¢c, as in Kwakiutl, and it is doubtful
whether they can be considered separate sounds. All consonants occur as initial
sounds, No combinations of consonants occur in the beginning of words. ‘The
following terminal combinations were observed
kh ks
sk hs kt ktl
tek qs pt qtl
tk tk: th ms mts ct mtl
ntl
Bs
——-—7."
a See
ey Oe eS
ae
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 669
The terminal m and x are sonant and somewhat lengthened. In this dialect &
takes generally the place of g of the northern dialects.
GrRAmMatTiIcAL Nores.
THE NOUN AND THE ADJECTIVE.
The noun has a singular and plural. The latter is formed by the suffix —mezna.
In a few cases it is formed by reduplication, epenthesis, or dizresis,
fire, 2/nik; pl. 2't’inik and i/nikmena.
house, mahté; pl. mama/hté.
village, ma'utl; pl. ma'mautl.
common man, m6é’steim; pl. maid'stcima.
child, ta'na ; pl. ta'tnéis (—is, diminutive).
canoe, tea'pats ; pl. tceya'pats and tedpatsmEna.
man, kés; pl. kd'os.
man, tce'hup ; pl. tea'hupéa.
island, ted'ok; pl. tea'teak.
woman, tlo'tsma; pl. tlotsama.
chief, ted'mata ; pl. te’ated'mata.
I am not quite certain whether this is really a plural or whether it is rather a
distributive. In a number of cases I found the singular form applied where we should
expect the plural; p.c., all the men, tedd’te tcz'kup. My impression is that -mzna
is a real plural, while the amplified stem is actually a distributive. The exceptions
given above may be explained by assuming that the distributive is used instead
of the plural. This opinion is supported by the fact that any noun when it is clearly
distributive has.a form corresponding to the exceptions given above. This becomes
clear in compounds of parts of the body that are double. We find, for instance, in
compounds with -nwk, hand:
bones of hands, haha'mutnuku'm; from ha'mat, bone.
flesh of hands, ts'ish-tsésnuku'm ; » ts'i'sk-mis, flesh.
second fingers, teté'itsnuku'm ; » ta'ia, elder brother.
skin of hand, tutw'k-oak:nukw'm ; », tw'koak’, skin.
strong-handed, na'cnaknuk » na'cuk, strong.
The plural of adjectives with the verbum substantivum is formed in the same
way:
sick, ¢2’itl; pl. tatéitl.
long, id’: ; » d'iak’.
large, th; sameerive
(See p. 671, Inflection of the Verb.)
NUMERALS.
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
J nup. 1 man, ts’0'wak. 9 ts’o’wakutl. 100 site’é’k:,
2 a’tla. 10 hai’a. 120 nod’p’ok:.
3 k-a/tstsa. 11 hai’t ic ts’6’wak. 140 a'tlpok.
4 mo. 20 tsa'k-éits. 160 a’tlakutlék:.
5 st'tca, 30 tsa’kéits ic hai’a. 180 ts’o’/wakutlé’k-,
6 nd'po. 40 atlé’k. 200 hai’uk:.
7 a’tlpo. 60 k-atstsé’k:. 1000 suatec’ék-pEtak:.
8 a’tlakutl. : 80 moyé’k-.
The system of numerals is quinary vigesimal. Eight and nine are respectively
two and one less than ten.
The numerals take suffixes which denote the objects counted. Besides the class
_ Suffixes for round, long, flat objects, days, fathoms, the numerals may take any of the
noun and verbal suffixes (see p. 676). The numerals are all derived from the same
stems, the sole exception being one, ts’d'wak, which is applied to men only. Itisa
curious fact that in counting objects other than men derivatives of ts’o'vak are used
for nine and twenty.
670 REPORT—1890.
— One Two
round thing; animate nu’pk‘amitl a'tlak‘amitl
long nu’pts’ak: a’tlats’ak-
flat —_ e-
day nu’ptcitl a’tlatictl
fathom nu'pietl a'tlietl
span nu’ pit a’tlpitanoutl
: nu’ptak-ak- —_
group of objects { nupta’k-amitl al
basket, bag nuphtak a'tlahtak
round thing in canoe nupk‘a’mias atlak-a/mias
round thing on beach nupk:a’/miis atlak-a/miis
&e.
ORDINAL NUMBERS.
the first, W'wi. the third, o'hsnutl.
the second, 0'pitcas. the last, oa'k tle.
NUMERAL ADVERBS.
once, 22’ pit. twice, d'tlpit. three times, h'a/tstsapit.
DISTRIBUTIVE NUMBERS.
one to each, tsatsa'wak, nunu'p. four to each, md'md.
two to each, ad'tla. five to each, susute’a’.
three to each, k:aka'tstsa. six to each, nunupo.
Distributive numerals are also formed from compound numerals:
one long thing to each, nu/nuptsw’k-.
THE PRONOUN.
PERSONAL PRONOUN.
Kayokatq dialect.
I, sé'ya. me, sé'teitl.
thou, sd’ua. thee, sd’titl.
he (ots). —
we, né!1va. us, né'Adaitl. we, nd'va. us, 20'haitl.
you, s2/wa. to you, sé’haitl.
they (ots).
In a few cases I find another personal pronoun derived from the article pronoun
(see the Verb, p. 671):
we, a'nine. you, ané'tsd. they, ané’atl.
Teetc’im’i sin’a ané'tsd matema'sis, make yourselves ready, you tribes.
POSSESSIVE PRONOUN.
ic is mine, sZid'sa. it is ours, néwa'sEn.
it is thine, sdwd/séits. it is yours, s@wasé'itsd.
it is his, d'tsma. it is theirs, dtsmd'atl.
my, -is. our, -k-ine. his, -yé. their, -yéetl.
thy, -2. your, -ith'so. his (absent), -%. their (absent), -2é¢1.
In terms of relationship the suffix -2k'sd, forming the term, is omitted in the first
and second persons of the possessive pronoun:
father, ndné'h-sd. thy father, 2d/mvé.
my father, nd nis. his father, ndwé'h'soyé. :
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN.
this, hit? ié; (hé'ts, Tladkath).
that. a'gha ; (ywis, ee);
q
5
,
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 671
The stem it- is composed with suffixes denoting locality to form demonstrative
pronouns, which are very numerous :
hitapois, that one underneath on beach.
hitahs, that one in canoe.
hititi, that one in house. &c.
THE VERB.
INDICATIVE.
— Present Imperfect Perfect
1st person singular ha-wknah ha-uhitah ha-ukz'tlah
2nd_s,, BS ha-uhoe'its ha-uhitéits ha-uketlé'its
Brd. ~5, - ha-whma ha-ukitma
Ist » plural ha-ukwi'ne ha-uhkiti'ne &e.
2nd_sCy, a ha-ukoé' itso ha-uhité'itso
mr © 5, =p ha-w' kmatl ha-ukitatl
—_— Plusquam Perfectum Future Futurum Exactum
Ist person singular ha-uketlitah ha-uka'k-tlah ha-uka'ktlitah
2nd » ”
ard ”
pj ist ,, plural &e. &e. &e.
|2nd ,, ”
Bi srd ,, ”
‘ There are four principal tenses, from which the others are derived: Present,
_ Imperfect, Perfect, Future. The first is derived from the stem; the second has the
_ character -it; the third, -z¢t7; the fourth, ak-tl.
: In the plural forms the stem of the verb may be amplified by reduplication
_ dizeresis, or epenthesis, as the case may be.
Present.
1st person plural, hduknine and hawakamine.
2nd ,, » ha-ukoé'itsd ,, hdwakamé'itso.
Dd — 5, » ha-whmatl ,, hawva'kamaatl and hanva'kama.
}
: Or, from ¢2’itl, sick:
4 1st person plural, ¢2't¢line and tatéitli'ne
a
Other plurals of verbs are:
a not to know, hayi'mhe ; pl. ha'hazemhe.
Y to sleep, wa'-ite ; 3 Ad ite.
’ awake, tlu'pha ; » tlo'yupha.
" to sneeze, to'p’itscitl ; » totop’itscitl.
When the stem of the verb ends with a vowel, m is inserted between stem and
ending. It may also be used after the character of the perfect -ztl. :
not to see, ted'tné. we eat, hawakami'ne.
I do not see, tea/tnémah. I have eaten, ha-uhz'tlah and ha-ukz'tlmah.
When the stem of the verb ends in p the latter is transformed into m when
followed by a vowel, except in the case of the perfect :
to know, ka'métap. I know, himétamd’/h. I have known, kaémétapetla'h.
The perfect is used frequently where we should expect the present tense. The
imperfect is used in describing past events, The meaning of the other tenses needs
no explanation.
672 REPORT—1890.
CONDITIONAL.
The following forms were obtained from the Rev. Father Nicolai, the missionary
stationed at Alberni:
Ishould have I should have known, or
I should know. known. I intended to know.
1st person singular: kimétapd'sah. himétapahitah. himétapaqatii'tah.
2nd a, x haimétaposé'its. &e, &e.
SIGs “55 a hamétaposma,
or himétaposa.
1st » plural kdmétapisine. &c.
I have obtained none of these forms, but another instead; the form was obtained
in the foliowing sentence :
if I had been well I should have left, wZkeaha'mith'ds waha'hitlith és
(wahi'h, to leave).
By varying this sentence I obtained the following forms:
I should have gone, wahd'hitlith és.
thou wouldst have gone, wahda'hitlitsuh.
he would have gone, wahd'hitlitha.
we should have gone, wahd'hitlithine.
you would have gone, wahd'hitlitasuk.
they would have gone, wahdhitlkaatl.
The terminations of this form resemble those of the conditional in the Tlad'kath
dialect, which will be found further below.
SUPPOSITIONAL.
to kill, k'a’qsap.
if I should kill. &e.
— Present Past Future Sad |
Ist pers. sing. | h:agsaphk-d's kragsamitho's | k:agsapak tlkd's | ksaqgsapak tlith'd's
PAN AS haqsaph;o'h ;
3rd, oy keagsaphk-o'
Ist ,, plur. | hagsaphw'ne | . ke. &e. Re. ,
2005 0 t.,5 k-aqsapho'sb
3rd, ” h-aqsapk'o'atl
The suppositional is also used as optative. It seems that in this case it takes a
terminal -c. ;
I wish I could eat =if I could eat, ha-w'khie.
I wish thou couldst eat, ha-whkhoke. &c.
Pd a 3g s Me
The same terminal ¢ was found in a number of cases:
if he had been well I should have gone, wékeahda' mith de wohd hitih-és.
wre
IMPERATIVE.
The imperative has a great variety of forms, and I was unable to classify them in —
any satisfactory way. According to Bishop Lemmens, the subjunctive and impera- —
tive are distinguished in the Tlad'kath dialect, and similar forms may occur in the
Ts’icia’ath. :
The most frequent forms are on -2 in the second person singular and -ite in the
second person plural.
eat ! (singular) ha’-uhwi. drink ! (singular) nak-eii’.
eat! (plural) ha’-uknite. drink ! (plural) nak-ciite.
go away ! ké'itcz; from ké'i. come here! tei hua.
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 673
RELATIVE.
The use of the relative form will become clear from the following example :
I say (1) so (2), who I am (3) shaman (4).
namah (1) ted (2) yak‘has(3)tucta'kyu(4).
1st person singular, yak-h-das. 1st person plural, yak-k-ine.
2nd ,, 3 yak heh. 2nd 3; » Yak ke'so.
3rd, oN yak ké't. 3rd | » yak he'itatl.
Past, yakith as, Future, yakak'tlh-as or yak‘a'k tle.
There are other variations of this form:
what a shaman (2) Iam (1)! k-oayé's (1) aicta'h'yt (2)!
which is inflected in the same way.
I believe the following form must be classed here also:
I know (1) that thou art (2) a shaman (3), kama'tamah(1)ané'k (2) ticta'h-yit.
This form is inflected as follows:
1st person singular, ané's. 1st person plural, ani’ne.
2nd. 4, a ané'k. 2nds 5.3 » ané'so.
STs» \55 3 ané'. Suwanee » ané'tatl.
The personal pronoun mentioned on p. 118 is evidently derived from the same stem.
INTERROGATIVE.
sick, t2’itl
Ist person singular, ¢2’itlhas. Ist person plural, ¢é’itlhené.
2nd _,, 3 té'itlhak. nt aes fF té'itlhaso.
3rd, 5 té/itlha. ard, » téitlhaatl.
PASSIVE.
to shake, hi’scitl.
Present.
1st person singular, hisciata'h. 1st person plural, hisciati'ne.
2nd -,, 5 hisciaté'its. 2nd ss, » hisciaté'itsd.
BLO "5s Pa hi'sciatma. Siiile as » hisciatmaa'tl.
Imperfect: hiscianitah.
Perfect : hiscizetlatah.
Future : hiscitlak latah.
Fut. exact.: hiscitlak:tlanitah.
Conditional: hisciatosah (according to Rev. Father Verbeck)
Subjunctive : hisciatlis ( 9 ” ” )
The Verb of the Tlad'kath Dialect according to Bishop J. N. Lemmens.
INDICATIVE.
to kill, k-a’qsap.
_ Present Imperfect Perfect
Ist per. sing. | k:agsaps or k-agsapsic k-agsamits or k:agsapints _|\k-agsapatis or
k-agsapatlsic
2nd ,, “; h:aqsapitsh h:agsamititskor k:aqgsapintitsh
BEd gy), heagsapie h:agsapintic
Ist ,, plur| kagsapnic hk-aqsaminic
7530 h-aqsapitsoc h'agsapintitsoe
303! h-agsap(akayie haqsapintic
674 REPORT—1890.
_ 2nd Perfect. |Plusquam perfectum Future. Futurum exactum
Ist per. sing. | k:aqsapamits k-aqgsapatlints h:agsapak:tls h-aqsapak:tlints
2nd , 4, | kagsapa'mititsh| h-aqsapatlintitsk | k:aqsapak tlitsk &e.
3rd 4, ~4, | kagsapaimitic | kaqsapatlintice | k-aqsapak-tlic
Ist ,, plur.| kagssapa'minic | h-agsapatlminie | r-agsapak tinic
2nd ,, 4, | kagsapamititsic| k'aqsapamititsoc | k-agsapak'tlitsoe
3rd 4, 4, | Magsapamitic haqsapamitie hagsapak:tlic
CONDITIONAL.
1st Conditional 2nd Conditional
1st person singular, h-aqgsaptsimits h:aqsapcqgatlints or k:agsapé' gamits
&e.
2nd person singular, h:aqsaptsiméitsh
&e.
SUPPOSITIONAL
is identical with that of the Ts’icia’ath dialect.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
let me kill, h:aqsapa' qs lect us kill, h-aqsapa'ne
thou mayest kill, k-aqsapda'ets you may kill, k-agsapda'atsd
he may kill, k-agsapa' at they may kill, h-agsapda' at
IMPERATIVE.
2nd person singular, k-a'gsape or k:agsapetle'
2nd person plural, :aqsapic or k-agsapatlic
RELATIVE.
— Present Past Conditional
Ist per. sing. | yak-is yak-emd'tis yak-osis
PTH S52 35 yak-ih yak-emo' tik yak-osik
SG ess yak et yak émo'té or yakemo'tith | yak'o'sé or yak‘dsitek
Ist ,, plur. | yak-ine yak emo'thine yak-osine or yak'osecine
PARGL op or yak és0 yak-emo'tithso yak'dseso
Old seas yak er yak emote yak’o' sé
INTERROGATIVE.
dirty, tsicgal. wdwa, to say.
_ Present Past Past
1st person singular tsicgalhas tsicgalinths nawaimithas
2nd 4; *s tsicgalk tsicgalinth wanaimith
ard 55 3 tsicgalh tsicgalinth &e.
Ist ,, plural tsicgalhine tsicgalinthine
2nd 5 Bs tsicgalhso tsicgalinthso
Std. =, x tsicgalh tsicgalinth
PASSIVE.
to strike, hiscitl.
— Present Past Future
Ist person singular | hisciats hiscianits hiscitlak tlatsie
2nd, «3 hisciatitsh hiscianititsh hiscitlak tlatzitsk
3rd Re 5 hisciatic hisc?'anitic or hisciatminic &e.
Ist ,, plural hisciatenic hiscianitenic
2nd _ A hisciatitsoc hiscianititsoc
ord es hisciatic hiscianitic
—— Ss. mc
ti eel
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 675
Futurum exactum: hiscitlaktlanits
Ist Conditional : hiscitltsimatsic
2nd Conditional : hiscitlatahints
SUBJUNCTIVE PASSIVE.
let me be struck (=strike me), hiscits let us be struck, hiscié'ne
thou mayest be struck, hiscié'itsh you may be struck, hiscié'itsd
he may be struck, hiscié'it they may be struck, hiscié'it
INFINITIVE.
Active: to strike, hiscit? Passive: to be struck, hisciat
Participle.
one killing, k-aqsape' one being killed, h:agsapatit
one having killed, k-agsaptskme one about to kill, k;agsapnahet
Bishop Lemmens does not give any detailed information on the transitive
yerb incorporating the pronominal object. I found the following forms in the
Ts’icia/ath dialect. The terminations are suffixed to the verb with its various
temporal characters. In order to simplify matters I give only the terminations :
Subject.
Singular Plural
Object
1st Person | 2nd Person | 3rd Person | 1st Person | 2nd Person | 3rd Person
1st person singular _ —éitsEs —ata — —éitsd (?) —atahatl
Qnd ,, = —ah sd'titl — —até@its —ine sd’titl — —atéitsatl
ards yy “ —a —Z@its —atE’ma |—ine —é'itsd —amaatl
Ist ,, plural — —Vits n@hetl | —atinE _ —é'itsd né hetl|—atineatl
2nd ,, “ —ah s@haitl — —at@etsd |—ineséhaitl = —até’etsdatl
ora 4, = —atl —@itsatl —atEmaa/tl |—ineatl —éitsdatl —atEmaatl
IMPERATIVE.
Subject.
Object 2nd person singular 2nd person plural
1st person, singular —is —itces
3rd ys . —i —ite
ish 5, plural! —ine —itcine
ard. > 4; a —iatl —ite’atl
NotEe.—Whenever the verb is accompanied by an adverb the latter may, and in
the majority of cases does, take the verbal inflections.
I do not (1) sing (2), wé'kah nond'k.
The looseness of the composition of the verb and its modal and temporal cha-
racters and personal terminations is clearly brought into view by this fact. The verb
sometimes retains its temporal character, while the adverb takes both temporal
character and personal ending.
If I had been well I should have gone, ayétlitah wékcaha'mith:ds woha'katl.
uyétlitah, I should have been some time (from w#yé, some time).
mékcaha', to be well. Suppositional past, Ist person singular, wékcaha'mitk'os.
nmoha'k’atl, having gone, from woha'k to go, to leave.
DERIVATIVES.
Quotative: —wo-i'n, Tlad'kath : wa-t'c
it is said he is sick, ¢2itlvo-i'n (Ts’icia/ath)
téitlva-i'c (Tlad'kath)
676 REPORT—1890,
Desiderative :—maaiqtl— he wishes to eat, ha-ukmaai'gtlma
—méh— I am thirsty, nak-emé' ha, from to drink, naky—
Durative : —tik— I eat always, hané'ihah
Inchoative: —uti— I begin to sleep, wditcutlah
Frequentative is formed by reduplication.
to yawn, hacyck:citl, to yawn often, haha! cyik-a
For others see under Formation of Words.
FORMATION OF WORDS.
The remarks made on the formation of words in Kwakiutl hold good in Nootka
also. As the similarity of structure of the two languages is brought out very clearly
in this respect I give a list for the purpose of comparison :
to acquire —ha tlu'tcha, marriage = buying a woman.
along, long —anutl hina'nutl, along, up river.
pitsa'nutl, cedar-bark rope.
among —éhsta ok-we'hksta, among certain people.
back —pé a'ppé, back.
id'kpé, sore back,
beach —is Ra'nis, to camp on beach,
hitlasé'is, sandy beach.
belly —imnaké nacsink:é', strong belly.
belonging to —iets nékiets, orphan, belonging to nobody.
breast —asho(tl) ta' kiishotl, sore breast.
tca'upkashom, breastbone.
to cause, to make —ap ka'hsap, to kill.
é'qsap, to make one cry.
out of canoe —6otlta tlotco'tita, landing a woman.
in canoe —ahs
dance —inek titskathineh, thunder-bird dance,
daughter of —is Tokwitis, daughter of Tokwit.
down —atd nate’a'atd, to look down.
dry —uct tlossuct, dry herring.
ear —imtl idaida'mitl, long-eared.
expert —nuk hucnuk, smoker.
eye —su(tl) ia'iaksutl, sore-eyed.
face —u(tl) hi'tlutl, face
hok-o'ma, mask = hollow thing used for face.
to fetch, to get —itl ha'-umitl, to fetch food.
foot —qte txté'igtim, big toe, =elder brother of feet.
full (solid objects) —tsa ha-u'mtsd, containing food.
to go to —as ha-ui's, to go to eat.
hand —nuk 1ahia'kenuk, sore hands.
hanging —pé hayi'pé, ten hanging ones.
head, point —hé a'sh:@, bald-headed.
hind part —ak:tlé hita’k:tlé, hind part.
inside —tsd a'ktsd, large bag.
into, inside —tséitl tatstsé'itl, to enter = to walk into.
inside of house —itl ¢é' kuitl, to sit down on floor.
inside of mouth —tsuk'a 1a'ktsuka, sore inside of mouth.
inside of man (male)—aktl ta'ak:tl, splinter in flesh.
inside of woman —swqtl oksugti, woman, being happy.
instrument —yek tla'te’yek’, chisel.
liquid —sit teamda'ssit, sweet liquid (molasses).
looking like —huk (with re- s7/sitskuk, rice = similar to maggots. :
duplication) 22'ahhuk, it looks large. “
made of —tin iniksétin, made of wood. '
just made, new —hak: tla'mak‘ak', new canoe.
man, people —ath d'ath, people of a certain place.
ma' ptogsath, warrior.
middle —winis ta'winis, to erect vertically in centre.
mouth —khsu(tl) ia'kuksutl, with sore mouth. $
neck —ini(tl) ia'kunitl, with sore neck. 3
nose, point
not seen
to obtain
obtained
on a long thing
on round thing
one another
out of
outside of round
thing
outside of house,
in woods
to take part in
to partake of some-
thing
people of
family
place where some-
is done
thing
regularly
place of
to play with
_ to pretend
_ to possess
_ quality of
_ receptacle
_ relationship
_ road
_ season
season when some-
:
thing is done
to separate
side
side
_ side of body
small
smell
son of
sound of
_ stone
surface of water
a
®
5
q
drifting on water
taste
thing
- through
time when some-
thing willhappen
time, when some-
thing happened
top, end, ahead
towards
tree, wood
underneath
useless, fragment,
&e,
one
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA.
—ahta
—tce
—yep
—ukt
—khuanes
—h-oas
—statl
—husta(s)
—im(tl)
—as
—aksté
—Zéis
—utskui
—utl
—nit
—snaatl
—té'itla
—nak
—mis
—seEts
—éhksd
—tcikh
—éite
—-patl
—ato
—pa
—tk
—as
—is
—puk's
—mit
—atuk
—a
—teict
—matlnré
—matlé, Tladkath
—p'atl
—tup
—sué
—ikhhd
—uith:
—tsagtihk
—mapt
—apoa
—tshui
a'néhtéis, with short nose.
hipaa'hta, with round point.
Sé'anitetce, Sanitch, a country one has never
seen.
uqyep, to find.
nucu'kt, obtained at potlatch.
vé'k‘wanus, to sit on long thing,
?é'k-oas, to sit on round thing.
tsu'k:statl, to strike one another,
tatskustas, to walk out of.
hi'tlimtl, outside of round thing.
tla'as, outside.
@é'as, to sit in woods on ground.
tséa'ksté, to take part in a conversation.
tlo'mahs’éis, to drink warm water.
hi'-uiahutshui, chief families.
hawa'utl, table = eating place.
matinit, place of coldness.
hinemiusnaatl, to play with Hinemin (a
mask).
weitcté'itla, to pretend to sleep.
tlitenak, to have a wife, to be married.
tcimigtu'hmis, avarice.
kw cszts, pipe = tobacco receptacle.
numwe'k'so, father.
uceheratcih, close in shore (from wé'héis, bush),
tlop’é'ite, summer = warm season,
kok:pati, hunting season.
makato, to sell= to separate by trading.
h:atspd, left side.
nunata'ak, paddle steamer = wheels on sides.
papée'nakum, ear ornament; pan ornament,
-ak side, -um used for.
k-atsa'as, left side.
ana'h’is, small.
tca'maspuk's, sweet smell.
A'tuemit, son of Atuc.
koa tsa'tlatuk, nice sound.
t'éa'a, to sit on a stone.
hi'natcict, surface of water.
ma'matiné, Kuropean = house adrift on water.
ma'matlé, Huropean.
tca'masp’atl, sweet taste.
éhtup, whale = big thing.
tz'tltup, devilfish = bait thing.
tu'gsué, to jamp through.
motlu' kuikk-o, when it will be high water.
motlukuith, when it was high water.
opé, ahead of.
ma'péas, house on top of hill (-as, outside,
country).
aptsagtuk yu'é, fair wind.
k-atmapt, oak=hard wood.
hita'poas, underneath in woods.
ta'qtskui, saliva = useless water.
ki'tltskui, fragment,
678 REPORT—1890.
to become useless —huitcitl inikkuitcitl, to be burnt.
to make useless —huiap inikkuiap, to burn.
usitative —iik hani'k, always eating.
voice —(hk')ée'iutl pick é'iutl, bad, croaking voice.
woman —ak'sup Heheshnia'k:sup, Heskwiath woman.
COMPARISON BETWEEN THE KWAKIUTL AND NOOTKA LANGUAGES.
From what has been said regarding the formation of words in these languages it
is clear that a mere comparison of words cannot bring out the similarity or dissimi-
larity between the two languages. Their similarity is most clearly brought out in
comparing the methods of formation of words.
1. In both languages only suffixes are used for forming words. Among these the
following are found to have similar phonetic elements :
Kwakiutl Nootka
in boat —aqs(a) —ahs.
out of boat —oltla —otlta.
beach —is —is.
having —nak —nuk.
inside of house —itl —itl.
head, top —h ta —ke.
point, end pe —pé.
people —itg, -énog —ath.
stone —a ——e
underneath —apoa —é'poa.
receptacle —atsé —sets.
round things —hkam —ham.
long things —ts'ak: —ts'ak.
female —ak:sup —ak'srm, -ah's, -h-as.
drifting on surface —tlé —matiné, -matlé.
to partake of —es —Zis.
through —sioa — sué.
hind part —alk tlé —aktlé.
inside —tsoa —tsd.
rim —iésta —its.
smell —pa'la —puk:s.
taste —pa —pratl.
upward —usta —husta.
liquid —sta —sit.
outside of house —as, -ils --as.
side of —us —as.
In Nootka these suffixes may be made independent words by being appended to
the stems 6-, a certain (definite), dc- some (indefinite), Ait- and hitl-, that ; ap-, pro-
bably side. In Kwakiutl the suffixes may be made independent nouns by being
affixed to d-, dk-, ds-, hi-, anz-, the separate meanings of which have not become clear
tome. They are, however, used in exactly the same way as the corresponding stems
in Nootka.
2. The following words, other than pronouns, are alike:
Kwakiutl Nootka
hair hap- hap-*
to fly maté(la) ma'maté (reduplicated) bird.
chief hé'was, hé'mas haw'ia.
ear p usp eyo puye.
eye ka'yak's ha'sé.
star to't'oa tat’a's.
wind Yyti- yu'é.
moon nO' si 5 sun, vas.
earth tsgans ts'ak’u'mts.
salt temp to(p).
stone ni' hye nu'ksi, mu' ksi.
to drink nak; - nak
to eat han- ha-un-
ly Sa See ee 04
if t Bag deo
F
‘
yw
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA.
679
Kwakiutl Nootka
snow huit'sa hot's,
root tla'paku tlo'p'ate.
wedge tla'nut tla'nut.
mother abo'h amako' (Nitinath).
hollow opening ak: ak.
not (wyt, (hYt, (hnye (wt, (A)i.
to jump tug— tug—
one NEM nup.
two matl atla.
four mit mo.
five shy’a sii'tca.
seven atlilii' a'tlpo.
times —pennit, H. —pit.
—pana, K.
While many of these may be loan-words, it is highly improbable that any of the
suffixes should be borrowed.
3. Pronouns :
Kwakiutl Nootka
I, no' gua sé/ya.
thou, stem: sd so'wa.
we, no'guants. nena.
no'wa, Kayo'kath.
Personal suffives of verb, indicative:
Kwakiutl Nootka
I; —niogua, H. —-in, K. —s(ie), Tl. —ah Ts.
thou, —sd, H. —xs, K. —itsk, Tl. —Zits, Ts.
we, —rEn(ts) —En(uq). —nic, Tl. —ine, Ts.
you, —itsd, H. —itsic, Tl. —éitsd, Ts.
4. The formation of the collective form of nouns, of plural of verbs, the in-
flection of adverbs accompanying verbs instead of the verb is the same in these two
languages and in the Salish. (The exclusive use of suffixes is not found in the
latter.) The peculiar use of the negation in compounding words is also common to
_ the two languages.
5. The phonetics are probably the same ; the few instances in which a word begins
with several consonants in Kwakiutl seem all to be due to an elimination of vowels,
and these words are found in very rare instances only in the southern dialect.
The similarity of structure of the two languages is far-reaching. The words
which may be referred to the same root are so numerous, considering the small
amount of available material, that the conclusion seems justified that both have
sprung from the same stock.
THE SALISH LANGUAGES OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.
As at least one Salish language, the Salish proper, is comparatively well known,
through the efforts of the Jesuit missionaries,' I confine myself to a few brief re-
marks on the languages belonging to this stock. I select the Bilqula, Snanaimug,
_ Shushwap, Stla‘tlumy, Okana’k-én, as representing the principal types of the great
Mg
5
number of dialects.
Bilqula. ies
The plural of nouns is formed in various ways:
1. Singular and plural have the same form: beaver, hdl0'n.
deer, supani'tl.
stone, tgt.
2. The plural is formed by the suffix —wks: woman, sing. xnac, pl. una'cuks.
is 13 4 —tH: man, sing. ¢/’u'msta, pl. t?’umsta'tz.
4, 5 7 », reduplication: tree, sing. stn, pl. stntn.
1 See Mengarini’s Grammatica Lingue Selice ; Giorda, Dictionary of the Calispeln.
680 REPORT—1890.
An article is used extensively ; it precedes nouns and adjectives, and stands be-
tween the substantive and the verb. It has a masculine and feminine gender.
the bird (1) flies (2), ts?tsipé’ (1) ti st’usehk: (2)
my grandmother, tsi hikia'tstsu.
It seems that only females of men and animals have the feminine article.
The numerals have various classes:
Animals : -
— Men fathoms, ai toes Box, vessel Ronee
blankets ale eine
1 NONMaAt é sma'o smau'aag manu atl sma! otl
2 nutlno'sau tlnos tindsa'aq tlua'satl tind'sutl
3 naasmd' sau asmo's asmosi' ag asmo'sutl asmo'sutl
4 numo' sau mos mosi'ag mo'sutl mo'sutl
5 nuts’é'n’0a ts’éa ts’éqi'aq ts'@'qutl
6 nutgo'tlau tgotl tqotla'ag tqo'tlutl
Numeral adverbs are formed by the suffix —anz'msts.
Personal pronouns are : I, ens. we, umitl.
thou, ind. ye, tloptl.
he, taiz. they, tats.
The possessive pronouns are twofold:
my, enstl. our, Hnutl.
thy, indtl. your, ¢V’dptl.
his, ?aintl. their, (?)
my house, enstd ti sotl.
The second form is suffixed :
my—ts. our—itl, 3
thy—xno. your—apa. ;
his—s. their—auts. ;
my grandson, stlémtsts. ;
thy grandson, stlémtsno. ;
L
When the noun is a feminine the possessive pronoun takes the ending—antsu:
my granddaughter, stl@mtstsutsu.
thy granddaughter, stlémtsnoutsu.
The intransitive verb is inflected either by means of suflixes or by joining the
pronoun to it by the article. A third form originates by repetition of the pronoun.
to go, tl’ap.
1st person sing, tVapsts ens ti tlap tl’apsts ti ens.
2nd) 5 = tlapnuts ino ti tVap tVapnuts ti ind.
Srdick 05 y taps Cain ti tlap tlaps ti ut’ain.
Ist ,,. plur: tVapitl umitl ua tVap Vapitl ua umitl
2nd, Bs tl apapa tloptl ua tap Wapapa ua tl opt.
3rd, gins - tVapauts tats ua tVap tVapauts ua ats.
The pronominal object is incorporated in the pronoun. My collection is, how-
ever, not sufficient to give the transitive verb in a paradigmatic form.
Snanaimua.
The noun has no separate forms for singular and plural. It has a distributive
formed by reduplication, epenthesis, or dizresis, :
Distributive. Diminutive.
deer, smé'yx¢. sEmé'yes. —
deer, ha'pet. hala' prt. —
mink, tcitct'ehan. teiletct'eh'an. —_
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 681
Distributive, Diminutive.
whale, k:w'nes. hohud'nis. =
raven, spal spelpa' l. —
crow, k:zla' kha kelk-nla'ka. —
river, std’lo. stulta’lo. sta’'trld.
salmon, stzd'atltzm stseltsa'atltnn. sted'tsrlatltrn.
post, k-a/k-nn. ki'lak-rn. hak heen.
frog, wu'qas. haunwe'qas. me wegas.
flower, spa'k:zm. spa'lakem. spa'phem,
house, la/lzm. lali'lzem. lé'lem.
An augmentative is formed by similar processes: snu'quitl, boat ; snd'quétl, large
boat.
The numerals have two classes; one for counting men, the other for all other
objects :
Counting Men
1, nz'ts’a. nanEts’a.
sf 2, yisa'le. ya'isEla.
" 3, tléq. tlquii'la.
4, qad'cEn. qacda'la.
; 5, tlhd'tsxs. tlh-atsi'la.
_ The numerals are not frequently combined with nominal affixes, as is the case in
the dialects of the interior.
Personal pronouns:
I, dns. we, tetiné'metl.
thou, nd’wa. you, tetlve'lap.
he (present), ¢¢d. they (present) m. and f., tsa@'7éi.
he (absent), hed. they (absent) m. and f., ¢d’let.
she (present), ¢d.
she (absent), 2tld.
POSSESSIVE PRONOUN.
Singular Plural
Present Absent Present Absent
J Mase. tsen hoz Masc. tse—tst keu—tst
my * (Fem. ¢en ktls oe | Fem. sz—tst tle—tst
| th J Mase. tsa’xs hed'rs can J Mase. tsa’z—lap h’un—lap
\ Fem. sd’zs htld' zs y { Fem. sda’z—lap ksen—lap
his SJ Mase. tsz—sta kgz—s thei Mase. tse—stla'léi| hen--sta' lei
L Fem. ¢z—stea ktlz—s Fem. se—stla'léi tlz ---stsd'léi
f Mase. tse—s¢a kgzp—s
her | Fem. ¢z—s¢ii htle—s
THE VERB.
The verb is inflected either by means of suffixes or by auxiliary verbs. The tenses
e expressed by suffixes, —Z¢7 denoting the past, —tsxn the future.
sick : present k"a'k’'éi, future k"ak’@'itsEn, past k’ak"é'iétl.
_ Verbs form a plural as well as nouns; it is, however, not always used, the plural
‘boing expressed sufficiently clearly by the suffixes. In solemn speeches the plural
‘forms are always used :
; Sick Present Future Past
| Singular, 1st person kak’ @i-tsen k'ak’6/i-tsEn-tsE kak" éi-atl-tsen
mn» 5 kak" i-(£)tc k’'ak"éi-tsEn-(E)te kak" Gi-étl-(E)te
amd ys kv’ak’@/i k"ak’’@/i-tsen kak” éi-étl
Plural, 1st ,, k’a(ijk"@i-tst k"a(i)k”’@'i-tsEn-tst k"a(i)k*’6i-étl-tst
Qnd ,, k"a(i)k *Gi-()tsiip k’a(i)k”éi-tsEn-(E)tsiip e ’a(i)k” éi-étl-(z)tsap
3rd, k’aik’ Gh | k’aik’éi-tszn k"aik” éi*-étl
1890. YY
682 REPORT—1890.
The following future forms indicate the existence of another future :—
I shall eat, atltEn-tEn-tst. IT shall be sick, k’ak-’@i-tEn-tsE.
Inflection by means of auxiliary verbs is very frequent.
Sick Present’ Future 0:
Sing., Ist pers. (n)é-tsEn k"'a/k’éi nim-tsen k’a’k"’éi (n)étl-tsE(n) k’a/k’éi
2nd ,, (n)é-(z)e = niim-(£)te by (n)étl-(£)te 7
3rd. ,, masc. (n)é(-tsE) ) nim na (n)étl a
” ” fem. (-GE)
Plural, 1st ,, (n)é-tst = k’A(i) kG niim-tst k”a/(i)k’éi (n)étl-tst =k "a(i)k’Gi
and 4, (n)é-(z)tsiip BS nim-()tsaip re (n)étl-Etsip -
aigile 633 (njé k’dik’ Giétlten nim k*aik"’éi (n)étl-k"a/ik"’Gi-étltEn
The auxiliary verb of the future tense means ‘ to go,’ that of the present and past
tenses @ is evidently the verbum substantivum. Frequently the particle p’a is added
to the inflected forms. I am unable to explain its meaning.
I am sick,’ ak’é'i-tsEn p’a.
é-tsEn p’a k’ak’é’i.
LT have been sich, étl-tsE p’a k’a’k”’éi.
at is he, nétl p’a.
The initial m is used if the person spoken of is absent. In the third person a dis-
tinction is made between the person being present, absent, and invisible, and absent
and visible.
he is sick (he present), 6-p’a k’ak’ei.
nS (he absent, invisible), né p’a k’ak”’éi.
a (he absent, visible), a’et p’a k’ak”éi.
they are sick (they present), & p’a k’a'ik’éi,
or & p’a k’ak’é'i-étltEn.
The present tense formed with the auxiliary verb serves as a perfect:
IT sit down, a'mat-tsEn. I lie down to sleep, &'EtHt-tsEn.
I am sitting, 6-tsEn amat. I am asleep, étsEn &'EtEt.
When the initial is used in the first and second persons the verb refers to a
past or future state or action. This is probably caused by the expression of absence
which in these persons cannot be in space, but must be in time.
A double future is sometimes formed by using the future of the auxiliary verb:
I shail be sich, niim-tsEn-tskE k"’a/k’éi.
The active verb, when it has no pronoun for object, is inflected in the same way
-as the neutral verb, either by suffixes or by auxiliary verbs. If it has a pronominal
object the latter is expressed by a suffix to the verb, and the latter is then treated
exactly like an intransitive verb, This close connection of the activity and the object
-acted upon, while the subject remains independent of this combination, is very inter-
esting. It explains also the syntactic peculiarity that the subject is attached to the
adverb, while the object is attached to the verb. I collected only a small portion of
the objective forms of the verb.
Singular Plural
Object ——— ee
1st person 2nd person 3rd person 1st person
Ist per. sing. — —amc —ame —
2nd 4) ae —ima — — —dma
3rd ” ” —uq —uq
Ist ,, plural —
2ndi\ssvehre —a'la
Srds e, F —t(étltEn) — —qus
MANET HH
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA.
These forms are treated exactly as the intransitive verb:
T see you, lilemagé’ma-tsEn (p’a),
or
(n)é’tsE(n)(p’a) laélemagaé’ma.
I shall see you, lilkmacé'ma-tskn-tsE(p'a) &c.
Singular: write / qa/lem-tla!
mrite/! qalEmii’-tla!
IMPERATIVE.
The imperative is frequently circumscribed by: i is good that you—, ai—.
take care! ai ku sid!
take pity upon me! ai(p’a) kuns tsQui/mEgama |!
The indicative is frequently used instead of the imperative.
Don’t go! (plural) au'atsEp nim (verbatim, you do not go).
683
The principal peculiarities of the Shushwap are the occurrences of an exclusive
and inclusive form of the plural and the great frequency of irregular plurals.
The distributive form of the noun is formed by amplification of the stem, generally
_ from a separate stem :
boy, time'ut.
country, temé'a.
dog, ska! qa.
head, sha'phEn.
house, tsita.
man, sk-a' lemue.
old man, stl¢’a'am.
old woman, gie'ia.
woman, no'gonud.
bad, Rest.
good, la.
strong, rulral.
old, ha'wulq.
to come, stlaq.
to dance, k-oié'la.
to go, k-utsa'ts.
to run (animal), noq.
to sing, sitsé’nEm.
to stand, stsila’ut.
Trregular plurals :
small, huié'esa.
to cry, ts’om.
to laugh, 6lé' lum.
torun (man), 2a’/wulq.
to sit (v.a.), ami't.
to sit (v.n.), mot.
to return, tstra'p.
to sleep, pelé't.
to speak, hoto't.
to walk, howa'tem.
girl, od’ utzm.
little girl, eved'qutzm.
lake, pasi'tlhkua.
by reduplication. Irregular distributives of nouns are rare.
and verbs are formed in the same way.
”
There is no indication of the existence of a gender.
Diminutives are formed by amplifications of the stem :
distributive, ewedutzm.
”
distributive, tutuwé' ut.
temtemé’e.
sh: agh a' qa.
sh-epha'pqen.
tsitst'te.
sk: a'lk elemue.
stegtl¢’d’am.
gigit’ia.
nogno' gonud.
hy'eshést.
lzla'.
rilrilra'l.
huka'wulg.’
strtla'q.
hoikh oié'le.
h-utsd'ats.
no'qnoq.
sisitsé'nEM.
stsistsild'ut.
tsitsitsema' st.
hroa'ht.
qoigoa'yos.
toa'na.
tla’ hele.
tsia'm.
tshitse.
eemha'ut.
h-od' les.
Qqusa't.
Quead' qutEm.
small lake, papsi'tlhua.
yx2
Plurals of adjectives
In the latter the plural is frequently derived
684 REPORT—1890.
Augmentatives are formed by a similar process :
stone, seana. large stone, seaaa'ne.
There are various classes of numerals:
— Counting Men Round, flat objects Days
1 NERO nuk ua' tl nuk o'tl nuk? askt
2 sEsa'la tiksa' ha siVo'tl silaskt
3 hetla’s tiketla's — hilaskt
4 mos tMO’SEMES — meEsaskt
5 tsilhst thtst' ltsikst = = :
6 thinahst thma' k:makst —
The numerals may be composed with any nominal affix:
1 head, nwh’d's. 1 piece of clothing, nuk'a'lzk s.
1 hand, nuk’a'kst. 1 tooth, enwh’a'ns.
1 water, eznuh’a'thua. 1 road, enuh’a'us.
&e.
the first, etak:s.
the second, Azkat nr etak's=next to first.
the third, Azhkat ne skemda'os=next to middle.
the fourth, Azkat ne sketla's =next to three.
once, nEsQEta' hs. three times, nxshitla' sta.
twice, nzsrséa'les. four times, nxzsmd'sts.
PERSONAL PRONOUN.
I, antsa'wa. we, inclusive, wt/nuéa' ht.
thou, ani'é we, exclusive, utlnué'eshua.
he, she, nwé’s. you, utlnué'emp.
they, wtlnué'es.
POSSESSIVE PRONOUN.
my house, xtsite. our (inclusive) house, tsitekt.
thy house, ratsite. our (exclusive) house, tsiteskugq.
his house, tsites. your house, tsitewmp.
their house, tsi’tsites.
In some cases the initial » of the second person singular is omitted.
it is mine, ntsditswa. it is ours (inclusive), so’trnkt.
it is thine, asd'trn. it is ours (exclusive), sa’tenskuq.
it is his, sd’tens, it is yours, sdtenze'mp.
it is theirs, sd’tzns.
The verb is generally inflected by the means of auxiliary verbs, which express
the tenses with great nicety.
I am_ a Kamloops, sthamlé'psemgqh én.
thou art ,, 7 sthamlo'psrmg@hk.
he is * eS sthamlo'psemgk.
we (inclusive) are Stkamlopszmgq, sthamlo'psem@ht.
we (exclusive) a9 a sthamlo'psemghue.
you “5 me sthamlo'psemgkp.
they ay as sthamlo'psemghk.
In the plural the verb takes generally its plural form:
Tam sick, kyeaphin you are sick, kyehya'pkp.
Statements are generally made in a mild, dubitative form.
sick, kyéa'p, one says, kyéa'pnuk, I think he is sick.
to eat, é'tlzn.
Perfect: mz é@'tlenkén, I have eaten.
Imperfect: daqa é'tlenuan, I was eating,
Future: ma é'tlenkén, I am going to eat,
Instead of, he is
Bis hte d sh
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 685
TRANSITIVE VERB.
Subject.
Singular
Object
1st person 2nd person 3rd person
ist person singular . — —tsa'tsEmue —tsa'tsEms
2nd ” ” = —tsén —tsés
Brd .,, » «+ | —ta'ten nué’s —tig —tas
fetes, plur. incl. — = —ta'lns
feo), > excl. = —ta'ghug —tia'skuq
Bnd ,, a . | —to'lemen — —to'lums
ae 5g A . | —ta'ten utl nué's —tig utl nué's —
4 Plural
| Object
1st per. incl. Ist per. excl. 2nd person 3rd person
1st person singular — — —tsa'tsilp —tsi/tsEms
mud’ - ,, ee — —tsé't — —tsés
Brn 5, » . | —taém nué's | —ta'’mkug nué's | —tap —tiis
Ist »» Plur. incl. — — _— —ta'las
1st Rae day eXCl, _- — — —ta' skuq
NG. ~ 5) teas — —ta'lemt —ti'phug —to' lems
3rd By Ahiss — —tsit —tiip —_—
Stla’tlumu.
The noun has no separate forms for singular and plural. The distributive is
formed by reduplication of the stem; the diminutive and augmentative are also
- amplifications of the stem. There is no gender.
The numeral has several classes. In counting men the numeral is reduplicated.
In counting animated beings it is amplified in another way. It may be compounded
_ with any of the innumerable affixes.
— Counting Men Animate
if pe'la pa'prlia _ pe'prla
a) G@'NUEC ENG'NUEC a'anuec
3 haetla'c hkha'aetlia'e haatle'ls
4 qoo'tcin qoq o'tcin Go'otcin
5 tei’ likst ter ltcilikst tei'tcilikst
6 Va k-emkist tlak-e tlh-a'mhist +V'a'tlh:amk'st
7 teitlaka teutltclaka'a tei'telaka
$$$ $$$ —
I mention the following compounds :
; 1 canoe, pa'loluitl. 1 fire, pa'lékup.
4 1 house, pa'Valte. 1 day, pal’ask é'it.
E 1 tree, pa'Taluk:. 1 stone, pa'lalte.
1 water, pal'a'th oa. 1 dollar, pa'Voca.
1 country, pal’a'imue. &e.
Personal pronouns are:
I, czintea. we, nucné'mutl.
thou, snd'a. you, sndla'p.
he, cné'itl. they, wucné'itl
POSSESSIVE PRONOUN.
my, x— our, —tlkatl.
thy, -—suda. your, —lap
686 REPORT—1 890.
his, —s. their, —é.
my grandfather, ndz’i'tszp’a.
our grandfather, dz’i'tszp’atlkatl,
INTRANSITIVE VERB.
we are Huropeans, caé'maatlhatl.
you 5 ca'matlka' lap.
they ” ca'manit.
Iam a European (ca’ma), ca'matlhan.
thou art s ca'matlhauq.
he is “D ca'maaté.
The verb is in many cases inflected by means of auxiliary verbs:
Iam eating, waxztlkin é'tlen (2'tlzn, to eat).
I am just sitting down to eat, é'tlzntlkan.
I have eaten, prla'ntlkain to wa é'tlen.
I was just going to eat, hd'itlkan ci'na é'tlen.
I was eating (i.e., when you came), 2'wva an é'tlen.
TRANSITIVE VERB.
Subject.
Singular
Object
1st person 2nd person 3rd person
1st person singular. -- —cha'ue —cae
2nd A Beds —citlkin — —ci' hae
3rd. r) “iar —han —haiue —as
1st syeepluralyy x. — — omotlhiue —to'motlas
ZAG A = —o'motlhan = —tama' lapas
8rd a “1 = —dnitlkan —owitha'ue (2)
Plural
Object
Ist person 2nd person 5rd person
Ist person singular . — —cha'lap —calitas
2nd ” » 8 —cr™m = —c' hasuit
3rd 5 oat —EM —ha' lap —ié'tas
Ist » plural. — -—0'matlha'lap —o'mélitas
2nd_ss,, ye —temtlha' lap — —tamalapa' suit
3rd, rane —ta'nemuit —ha' lapuit (2)
SS oe a ee ee eee
It is of great interest to see that whenever the verb is inflected with an auxiliary
verb, the latter takes the endings of the intransitive verb, while the transitive verb
retains the incorporated object. This is the case also in the dialects of the coast,
and in Shushwap, but I have not given a paradigm, as I have no complete set of
forms in the other dialects. |
Subject.
Singular and Plural
Object
1st person 2nd person
1st person singular . = — —c |
2nd_ sy, 5 4 ‘ —cin —
3rd ” ” e e aoa as
Ist” 135). “plurals: - — —tomotl
2nd. Fe ; , —timotl = ;
83rd wit —uit ”
” ” . .
~~ 'ta'nitan
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA.
Okand'kén.
687
Nouns have a distributive which is formed by amplification of the stem:
Indian, skéle.
man, sh-EltEmé' ea. fs
boy, tetuné't. 1
to give, Qué'tsiat.
to tell a lie, smd'lzlagda, ,,
sick, sh? n'lelt. ce
distrib. sk-zlk2'la.
sk elk' eltemé'e.
to'tuit.
plural, seué'tsieté.
smElmdlzlaga'a.
sh’ ilh’é'Tte.
Irregular plurals are not as frequent as is Shushwap, but still very numerous:
woman, tk itlemé'lugq, distributive, emdémzé'm.
boy, squinu'mta. 5 spela'l.
baby, shukut'melt. 3 sttsem’a' la.
torun, é'tcilie. plural, Qé'temést.
to sleep, zte. + ts'ateé' ligia.
to speak, k-ulkoé'lzlt. Fo sk:oak:oa'l.
to stand, aksumvé'e. 3 Vone's.
to walk, ewi'ste. 3 tekod'tumé.
NUMERALS.
Persons Other objects Persons Other objects
1. kendh:s nak's 4. k'emd'sencis mas
2. k:asrast'l act'l 5. ktctltcilhust tctlkust
3. k-ak:datili'e h:a'tléec 6. ktak'tak emkust ta' kh: emkust
Besides this numerals can be composed with
language :
two houses, aslé'tle.
two canoes, aslé'utl.
two trees, asla'luk:.
two faces, aszlii's.
Personal pronouns are :
I, enta'hen.
thou, hanué’.
he, tein?’ tl.
The possessive pronouns are :
my, in—.
thy, an.
his, h@—s.
my father, in Zzé@’u.
his father, hé lzé/us.
any of the numerous affixes of the
two fires, aseli'selp.
two days, asela'skt.
two stones, aseli'sern.
two blankets, asu/lt'tsa, kc.
we, mné'mitit.
you, mné'mtlem.
they, mné'mtcilia.
our, —tet.
your, —mp.
their, —slia.
our father, lzé'utrt.
When the noun begins with an s, 7 and & stand for the first and second persons :
my mother, 7sh’d'i.
INTRANSITIVE VERB.
I am sick, kines k’2'lzlte.
we are sick, his k’’é'lzlta.
thou art sick, ’uts kh’ é'lelte.
he is sick, sk’é'lzlte.
The difference between the verbs with definite and indefinite object, described
you are sick, ps h’é'lzlta.
they are sick, sits h-’é'ligile.
by Mengarini in his Salish grammar, is found here also :
I work, kines k’d'lem.
thou workest, ’uts k’o'lem.
he works, ’0'lzm.
I work at it, héts h’d'lestxun.
thou workest at it, héts k’d'lzste.
he works at it, hZts k’d'luste.
we work at it, héts h’d'lustem.
you work at it, héts h’d'lustzp.
they work at it, héts h’d'lzstcile.
688 REPORT—1 890.
These brief notes will suffice to give an idea of the general character
of the various dialects of the Salish languages. The principal points of
difference are the following. The Bilqula and the Coast Salish have a
pronominal gender, masculine and feminine, and distinguish throughout
presence and absence. The Shushwap has exclusive and inclusive forms
of the first person plural, and a remarkably great number of irregular
plurals. The Okana’k’én and Stla/tlemy have none of these peculiarities,
The Ntlakya’pamuq resembles the Stla’tlemu in its structure. It seems
that incorporation of nouns is carried to a far greater extent in the
dialects of the interior than in those of the coast (see Vocabulary). All
the Salish dialects use auxiliary verbs in inflecting the verb.
TERMS OF RELATIONSHIP OF THE SALISH LANGUAGES.
It is rather interesting to compare the systems of terms of relation-
ship in various groups of Salish people, as the systems are fundamentally
different. Among the Coast Salish, to whom the Lku’figmn belong,
there is no distinction between relations in the male and in the female
line. Relations of males and females are designated by the same term.
While brothers and sisters of both parents are designated as uncles and
aunts, their wives and husbands are styled ‘acquired fathers and mothers.’
Cousins are termed and considered brothers, although there exists also a
separate name for the relationship. Brothers’ and sisters’ grandchildren
are termed grandchildren. The most peculiar features of the Salish
system of relationship, particularly among the Coast Salish, is the use of
distinct terms for indirect affinities, when the intermediate relation is
alive and when he is dead. This seems to imply that after the death of
the intermediate relative the mutual relation between the two indirect
relatives undergoes a change.
I give here a table of terms of relationships representing the system
of the Coast Salish. It is taken from the Sk‘q6’mic dialect.
I. DIRECT RELATIONSHIP.
Great-great-great-grandparent, ha-wknwiyuk' great-great-great-grandchild.
great-great-grandparent, ts’d'peyuk- great-great-grandchild.
great-grandparent, ste’a'mik: great-grandchild.
JS father, mother, = child,
5 Luncle, aunt ti LEE TP nephew, niece
min, father, MEN, child.
tci'ca, mother, sé’entl, eldest child.
a'nontate, second child.
meEntcé'tcit, third child,
sa/ut, youngest child.
hupkuo'pits, )rothers, sisters, and cousins together.
some, brother, | father’s ) jf brother’s :
tuo'pits, elder sister, f’ {mother’s f elder § sister’ 3 }enita.
brother,| _f father’s J brother's
sister, |’ { mnother’s Younger Lsister’s
snte’o'itl, cousin.
séel, gran
shah, younger } child.
II. INDIRECT RELATIONSHIP.
1. INTERMEDIATE RELATIVE ALIVE.
- . J father’s ) {brother a brother’s i
aa Nese JS (sister : ~ cath, | Sister's }cnita,
; ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 689
: cousin cousin's 3
wife's : 2 wife 71
teema'e, Wichand’s i {bros b brother 3 { husband f
sister, sister’s
son
= daughter | .
-in-law.
8” 497) father
mother
skué'was.—If a member of one family has married a member of another his and
her relatives call each other skuwé’was, e.g., step-brother, &c.
2. INTERMEDIATE RELATIVE DEAD.
a father’s f brother | Kees ep brother’s | 1).
uotsa' éqoitl, TnEean (sist er f? swinéma'itl, sister's f child.
eft ife’s 1 cousin, cousin’s ae
tea'idé, {fn ; brother, >, brother’s
husband’s f ister pas ‘husband.
cE hye son, daughter,] .
slik:oa'itl, { thes mmotites -in-law.
III. ACQUIRED RELATIONSHIP (THROUGH MARRIAGE).
sesé/el, wife’s grand { ea , Step-grand em
sg’mdn, aunt’s husband, step-father.
satci‘ca, uncle’s wife, step-mother.
semen, step-child.
15) a son’s wife
poe ars, Bran 1 Seeereeeey peeeeen
4 wife’s father, +745. f husband
sesd/aq, eae oD nee sete p-childs Lwife.
Bilqula.
, I have not been able to get a satisfactory collection of terms of relationship from
the Bilqula. The following will show, however, that their system differs greatly
_ from that of the Coast Salish. It seems the distinction between the two classes of
- indirect relationship does not exist.
: ha' kpi, father 8 father, granduncle. stlémts, grandchild.
: ‘L mother’s gt &
Pee ei taoher's Er ; i
GG, > other's J mother, grandaunt. talau'sau, married couple.
| man, father. k:dalz'm, elder i netas
4
: x ee brother
: stan, mother. sdaqgé', younger or ea
: -)< Jf father’s
mz'na, child. 8180, 1 no tote brother.
| een father’s .
siskuso'm, igh are sister.
father
skus?, < mother \-in-law.
child
Stla’tlema.
There is no distinction between terms of relationship used by male or female.
Only terms of affinity are affected by the death of an intermediate relation.
Great-grandparent, ts’w'péyuk*, great-grandchild.
690 REPORT—1890.
Bar sty = father’s
dvitsp’a'a, ad dressed spa'pea, imathet 4 father.
f father’s
haw 7H <
hu'hoda, addressed ta’taa, (mother’s
\ mother.
é'emate, grandchild.
sk:a'tza, father.
shkéqedza'a, mother,
skoza'a, child.
k‘ektcik, elder brother. 5 father’s A
sta'a, sister.
LR ve father’s
sal
cécha'a, oaeee brother.
kz'qk'xq, elder sister. mother’s
appt brother's
tu'nie F daughter.
ils ss brother : ? \sister’s } 8
cick: oa' dz, younger fears \ 1 1 Ave f{ brother’s
omrea a sister’s }
k‘tamtc, husband,
al, ;
enm'a'm, wite. né'u, address for husband and wife.
TERMS OF AFFINITY.
1. Husband, viz., wife alive.
“poy 7
cqund mt { es as b parents call are g ie parents,
cd/ngaa, parent-in-law.
ctita'tl, son-in-law.
ca'prn, daughter-in-law.
cts’agt, wife’s brother.
cka'd, husband’s sister.
c’a'ctem, wife’s sister and husband’s brother.
2, Husband, viz., wife dead.
ck’a'lpaa, used for all relatives by marriage after death of husband or wife.
It is a significant fact that one term serves to designate the wife’s sister and the
husband’s brother, who become the wife or husband of the widower, or widow. On
the coast, when a masculine or a feminine article is used, the same terms serve for
male and female relations. Here, where there is no grammatical distinction between
the sexes, separate terms are used. It is worth remarking that the Bilqula, who
have grammatical distinction of sex, distinguish between but a few of these terms.
This may indicate that the separate forms have been lost by the tribes who use
grammatical sex.
Shushwap.
Here we find a number of terms differing for males and females:
sla'e, great-grandparent and ancestors, EmeEmts?'tsilt, great-grandchild,
sla'a, grandfather. gya@'a, grandmother.
_— émts, grandchild.
k:a'atza, father. gyé'eqa, mother.
Eas brother’s brother’s
shii'ya, son pistes } son, stlemka'lt, daughter yee } daughter.
smalt, children. mEméa'us, married couple.
sqa'lua, husband. smar'm, wife.
k:a'tsk-a, elder brother, k:a’k:a, elder sister.
brother,
Ura rE :
sh'uro'ré, younger aintcie
TERMS USED BY MALE.
o'k2, brother.
- father’s
’
laua, mother’s
“father’s )
\ brother. Ro'ya, mother’s f
sister,
"7
u
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 691
TERMS USED BY FEMALE,
o'ké, sister.
; father’s A. f father’s é
[) /
8i'84,4 V other's i brother. to'ma, { mothera,, sister.
AFFINITY.
1. Husband, viz., wife living.
sqa'qgod, father-in-law and his tltsitsa'k, mother-in-law and her
brothers. sisters.
snektl, son-in-law. sd'pen, daughter-in-law.
sts'agt, wife’s brother, sister’s ska’i%i, husband's sister.
husband.
3’a/tstem, wife’s sister, husband’s brother.
2. Husband, viz., nife dead.
sk’a'lp, used for all relations by marriage after death of husband or wife.
The most important feature of this system, besides those which are similar to
the Stla’tlemH, is the use of separate terms for ‘uncle’ and ‘aunt’ by boy and girl.
' From a comparison with other dialects it appears, that boys call their uncles fathers,
their aunts aunts, while girls call their aunts mothers (derived from tom, to suck),
their uncles uncles.
Okand'kén.
Great-grandfather, tat’d’pa, great-grandchild,
sqa'qpa, father’s father. h’i‘koa, mother’s father.
k:a'k-ana, father’s mother. stemté'ma, mother’s mother,
sen’é'mat, grandchild.
sk's@, son. st’ehié'lxlt, daughter.
sqgé'lui, husband. na'gnug, wife.
nEgEnuqué'us, married couple.
tlk:a'ktsa, elder brother. tlkt'kqa, elder sister.
st'/sentsa, younger brother. stcetcrd'ps, younger sister.
sm’é'elt, father’s brother. sist', mother’s brother.
sk’d'koi, father’s sister. swawa'sa, mother’s sister, step-mother.
stluni'l, brother’s, sister’s child.
: TERMS USED BY MALE.
lzé'u, father. sk’o'i, mother.
TERMS USED BY FEMALE.
mistm, father. tom, mother.
TERMS OF AFFINITY.
1. Husband, viz., wife alive.
sq@ ga, father-in-law. tltcttck, mother-in-law.
nté'mtEn, { ee as} family calls aa or family.
stsiet, wife’s brother, sister’s husband.
séasta'm, wife’s sister, brother’s wife, husband’s brother.
2. Husband, viz., wife dead.
Relationship ceases, except the one corresponding to séasta'm, which is called
ee, deceased wife’s sister, deceased brother’s wife, deceased husband’s
rother. '
_ This brings out very clearly the peculiar form in which the levirate prevails among
this tribe.
692 REPORT—1890.
Kalispeln.
I give the terms of relationship in this dialect, which is closely related to the
Okana’k’én according to Mengarini.
to'pie, ancestor.
sqacpe, father’s father. hene', father’s mother.
sile', mother’s father. ch’chitz, mother’s mother.
skusé'e, son. stomchelt, daughter.
A re °
h’eus, elder brother. lcl’chschée, elder sister.
sinzé, younger brother. lhak’ze, younger sister.
“A .
snveél, father’s brother. ka'ge, mother’s sister.
s’si’i, mother’s brother.
TERMS USED BY MALE.
Leu, father. shoi, mother.
shokoi, father’s sister.
sgusmem, sister.
. S brother's :
tonsch, sister’s child.
TERMS USED BY FEMALE.
mestm, father. tom, mother.
tikul, father’s sister.
snkusigu, sister.
J brother's
> | sister’s
brother's }
»
sister’s f son. sttmel elt
shuselt, { } daughter.
In Kalispelm we find once more a separate set of terms for indirect relationship —
when the intermediate relation is dead:
niuestn, father’s brother. sl uelt, brother’s child.
TERMS OF AFFINITY.
1. Husband, viz., rife alive.
>
sgagée, husband’s, wife’s father. izezch, husband’s, wife’s mother.
sgelui, husband. nognag, wife.
husband’s |
seqgunemt, eel Ws i parents call Site's yf Pee
enéechigu, son-in-law. zepn, ee
szescht, sister’s husband.
sestem, sister's husband, brother’s wife.
2. Husband, viz., nife dead.
s’chélp, daughter-in-law.
nhoi'ztn, sister’s husband, brother’s wife.
COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY OF EIGHTEEN LANGUAGES
SPOKEN IN BRITISH COLUMBIA.
[The following vocabularies comprise mainly the well-known list of
words selected by Gallatin for his great work, the ‘Synopsis of the Indian
Tribes’ (published in 1836), which may be said to have laid the founda-
tion of American ethnology. The list was necessarily adopted, for the
purpose of comparison, ten years later, in the Report of the Wilkes
Exploring Expedition on the Tribes of Oregon, and subsequently, for the
same object, by other investigators, including such eminent authorities as
Messrs. Gibbs, Dall, and Powers, of the U.S. Bureau of Ethnology, and
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 693
Drs. Tolmie and Dawson, of Canada. With some obvious defects, due
to Gallatin’s imperfect materials, it has the cardinal merit of including
all those groups of words which are specially serviceable in tracing the
affiliation of languages, viz., the primary terms of kinship, the names of
the parts of the body, and of the most common natural objects, the per-
sonal pronouns, and the numerals. In practice “American ethnologists
have found Gallatin’s vocabulary of very great scientific usefulness.
They have been able, mainly by its aid, to accomplish already, in great
part, the difficult work of classifying the numerous tribes and languages
of North America and bringing the ethnology and archeology of that
region out of utter chaos into some hopeful order. The following
vocabularies, which have been gathered with much care, will, it may be
hoped—taken in connection with the grammatical outlines given in this
and the preceding reports—serve materially to further that important
work as well as to elucidate the division into linguistic stocks and
dialects presented in the map accompanying this report.—H. H. ]
The dialects of the Athapascan (or Tinneh) languages are not con-
tained in the list. It would have been desirable to add vocabularies of
t
the Kaigani dialect of the Haida, of the Nasqa dialect of the Tsimshian,
and of the Lower Kutonaqa, in order to give a complete review of all the
distinct dialects of this group of languages. There are slight differences
between the dialects of various tribes in each group which, however,
cannot be included in this brief review, as they are merely provincialisms
which do not hinder communication between the tribes. The dialects of
the various stocks, particularly those of the Salishan stock, are arranged
in groups according to their affiliations.
Man Woman
Stock Dialect
Independent aaa Independent etn
Tlingit 1 Stikeen ka, tlingit _— ca’ wat —
Haida 2 Biidseate i ga, é’tlinga — dj’a —
Tsimshian 3 Tsimshian id/ot — hana/aq =
Kwakiutl- 4 Heéiltsuk: we/sEm brgu— g’anr’m kyay-,-ak'srEm
| “Nootka } 5 Kwakiutl _ | begua/num —_— tsEta’q kyay-,-k'as
6 Nootka. Ts'éciath| ten/kup ‘| - sain © |tivtma | —aksap
Salish 7 Bilqula tl’umsta/ — Hnac ==
ivi/lkH
8 Catloltq k-ai/miq _ —
9 Pentlate cuvale — —
10 Siciatl sk‘a/Imiq _ —
11 Snanaimuq sué/k'a —_ _—
12 Sk'qémic sué‘k-a _— —
13 Lkungren sué/k'a — <=
14 Ntlakyapamuq | sk‘a/yuq — eEmi‘tlate _—
15 StlatlumH sk'a/yuq — cia/k'tcE _
16 SrQquapmuQq sk'/lemuq _— no’qonuq
17 Okana’/k’én sk‘EltEm6/Q - tkitlmmé/luq
coll., cmamEé/m _
Katonaqa 18 Columbia Lakes | ti’tk-at — pa'tlki =
694. REPORT—1890.
Stock Dialect Boy Girl Infant
Tlingit 1 Stikeen grata’ catk‘ gat’a/gr’/tsk6 ° (male)
catk‘gn’tsk6 © (female)
Haida 2 Skidegate gyit aM eWaqa
Tsimshian 3 Tsimshian womtlk tlku hana’/aq gyiné’es (male)
wok"'a’uts 7 (female)
Kwakiutl- 4 Héiltsuk qapqo' g”ank/msd qeni’q’o
Nootka 5 Kwakivtl ba/bakum!' kyaya/lam * wi'sa
6 Nootka. Ts’éciath| méi’/tlk-ats ha’kuatl naiak‘ak-
Salish 7 Bilqula ivilivi'lku * HiHna’c * =
8 Catldltq ted/i sa/atlq* qé@ep,® te’tciat
9 Prntlate stau’qoatl sla/atlnaé * tcitcteuwa’a
10 Siciatl mé’maan ? sla/atInaé + _
11 Snanaimuq suék‘a’tl * slenia’ltl > k‘ti/ela ° (male)
ka/k'ela ° (female)
12 Sk'qimic sué’kaotl * slenia/ltl, k’a’maé | sk-a/k‘el
13 LkufigEen sué‘k-alatl > slentca/latl > kak:
14 Ntlakyapamuq | tid’t cla/nats skikumemé't
15 Stlatlumu sk'k/k-Eyugq * c‘yée'ik'tea * sk'ik’mét
16 SEQquapmug tiwé’ut Qa/utEm skuima/melt
17 Okana/k*én tEtuwée't Qé’Q0tEm skukui/mrlt,
coll, sitsEm’a/la
Kutonaga 18 Columbia Lakes | staha/tl o'té tlka/m6
7 = little man, 2 = child: 3 = young man.
* = diminutive. * = young woman. ® = little boy, girl.
4 y YY:
7 = without labret. ® = cradle (Kwakiutl). ° = weak.
Father
| kuii (said by male)
| qait (said by female)
| npgua/at
| a/bo (addressed)
au’mp (stem: awa-)
aiu’mp (stem: awa-)
ats (addressed)
nuwé'k'sd
no/we (addressed)
Mother
atli’
abd/uk
at (addresssed)
abr/mp
at (addressed)
nuum’é’k's6
6/mé (addressed)
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA.
695
ctan
tan; niku(addressed)
ta/a
tan
ti/n
tci’cia
tan
ski/Hetsa, gi/ka
skéqeda’a
Husband Wife Child
ka ca/wat grat’a’
tlal dj’a gyi
naks naks tlkua/meElk
tla/unrm g’ann/m qo/nok
collec., gyina/nrm
tla/unEm g’ann’/m go/nok
collec., gyina/nkm
ter/kup tld‘tsma ta/na
k'tEmts Hac mena; k-@/k'té
gya/k-as satltq ma/ana
cuwa/k'ag teuwa’c meE‘na
nuwa/k-a¢ ia/ksoo mé’man
sta/las tsii’/q stlé’tlék-atl
teuwa/c teuwa/c mEn
sué/k'a sta/lEs tlétlk'é/n
nE/iEnRiga
sqai/owé cEm’a/m sku’za
k*tamtec cEm’a/m sk6za/a
néu (addressed)
néu (addressed)
coll., sku’kuza
Iné'u (said by male)
‘mistm (said byfemale)
't6 (said by male)
(said by female)
sk’6'i (said by male)
tom (said by female)
ma
sqé/lui
titkat
na/qnuq
pa/tlki
sk'sé, son
st’‘Emkié/lElt, daughter
tlka/ms6
696 q REPORT—1890.
Stock Dialect Elder brother Younger brother Indian
Tlingit 1 Stikeen unw’q kik‘ tlingit
Haida 2 Skidegate gua/i da/orEn qa’eda
Tsimshian 3 Tsimshian wegy (said by male) tlrmkté’ (said by female) _—
Kwakiutl- 4 Héiltsuk* no/la ; gyi/i (addressed) | ts’d/ea; wis (addressed) ba’/q’um
Nootka } 5 Kwakiutl no'la ts’a/ea ; wis (addressed) ba’q’um
6 Nootka.Ts’éciath! tai/ié katla/tdk kor’s
Salish 7 Bilqula koa/Im a/qé =
8 Catloltq no‘utl * k@eq —
9 Prntlate tlée’wét ke sk'a/lémiq
10 Siciatl sEtla/aten, nd/utl * k@eq ; k'at@/e Qu’Imuq
11 Snanaimuq sEtla/étEn sk'ii/ek: Qud'Imig
12 Sk*'qdmic —_— sk'ak* stE/lmiq
13 LkufigrEn cd/itl sa/itern qué'Imiq
14 Ntlakyapamuq | k‘atck cei/ntci sk'a/ing
15 Stlatluma k'Ek'tcik ? cick”’oa/dz 6’/Quilmigq
16 SequapmuQq ka’tsk’a skuro/ré —_
17 Okana’/k‘én tlka/k'tsa * si/sEntsa * sk-élq
Kutonaqa 18 Columbia Lakes | tat tsa, tsEn aqtsema/-
kinik |
* Borrowed from Kwakiutl. * k'r’qk‘eq, elder sister. q
* tikikqa, elder sister. * stcktchO’ps, younger sister.
Forehead Ear
Stock Dialect
Independent In compounds! Independent
Tlingit 1 Stikeen kak‘ _ gtk
Haida 2 Skidegate kul _— gyi
Tsimshian 3 Tsimshian wapq — mo
Kwakiutl- 4 Héiltsuk- tEk@ioa —é'ioa b’Esbé’y6 *
Nootka } 5 Kwakiutl o/kwiwae —aoée b’E/sbaya
6 Nootka, Ts‘éciath| imits’a’t’a _ pa’p’é
Salish 7 Bilqula y/loma a ta/nkuta
8 Catldltq @itesEn —_— koa/ana
9 Prntlate sik'ts@/n ~ squé/na
10 Siciatl E'ltctrn —_— kula/na
11 Snanaimuq sk’o/mals — k’o/nkrn
12 Sk'qomic st’o’/kyus —_ k"o/lan
13 LkufigEn k"d/muqs —_— k’olen
14 Ntlakyapamuq _— — tl’a/né
15 StlatlumH a/lkénus —kénus tl'e/na
16 SEQuapmuQq tk’amé’sHin —isHen tl'a’/na
17 Okana’/k’én k’amé'lsgEn —ésQEn t’@/na
Kutonaqa 18 Columbia Lakes | aqking’a/tl _ aqg'o/k‘oat
1 p’Espé’yo ?
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 697
Head Hair Face
In com- In com- In com- In com-
pounds Independent pounds Independent pounds Independent pounds
_ ca — caqa/wu 7 _ | TE —
_— ka/tsé — kaitl — qaii _
— tEmg’a/us — g'a/us _ ts’al _
—énog,-itq | hai/ate —kéa sa/ia hap— kokéme’ | —Emé
—énoq ha/inté —k’éa sa/ia hap— kékomé | —zmé
ha/ps’‘iup hap— hitlotl —utl
mElHk‘oa — | md/sa —ds
ma/k*én = m6d/¢ —ds
sqik*é/n aa sqmd/sten _—
sma/k‘én — m66/s _
ca’/yitrn _ ¢'a/cEs _
sk’oma/i _— $'a/tsds _
si/atEn — s’a/SES —os
sky’a/pkan — sktlic
ma/k-én — ck‘utl6’s —6oe
ka/utEn — sk‘tlos —ds
kapk@/ntEn _ sk‘tlés —ds
aqg’ok'dtla/m — | — _
* Relatives. ‘ * =head hair,
Nose Mouth Tongue
I 2 o
Independent Independent sormnae Independent Sane
tld kva — tl’6t —
kun qé'tl’é _ t’a/figEl _
ds’aq kutl’a’/q —_— di’zla —
Hmak sums —qtaé gyi’/lmm —
sums —gqstaé | gyi/lzm —_
yi/neksutl te’up _
tsii’tsa —6dts ti/Htsa —lé@'its
¢0’¢in —_ té’qeuatl _—
¢0’cin —_ té/qeuatl —
¢0/sin _ té’qguatl —
ga/sin — téq¢atl —
ts6‘tskn — toscs
—Ek'sEn | sa’/sEn — =
_— spli’tcin Ls
—alrk's | tet’tcin —ite ta’/tla _
—ak's spli’tcin tiqua/atsk‘
—ak's spElé‘mtsEn |—a/usk-En] tégte =
aqk'uk'tsa’tla aqk’atlu’ma — watlona’k‘ _
* =point.
698 REPORT—1890,
Tooth Neck
Stock Dialect : Beard ,
Inde- In com- . q
pendent | pounds Independent | In compounds |
Tlingit 1 Stikeen oq — k-atatsa/yé dléti’q —-
Haida 2 Skidegate dz’En | — sk’@/6ré qil _
Tsimshian 3 Tsimshian ua/n — émq tEmla/né
Kwakiutl- 4 Héiltsuk* gyiky —Hsia hapeusia’ * g’dg"o'ne _—
Nootka 5 Kwakiutl gyiky —Hweé hapa/qstéya? | g’og"o'n —
6 Nootka. Ts’éciath| tei'tcitei | = — ha/paksum? | ts’é/kumuts —
Salish 7 Bilqula sk'obd’/ts asa/lqé
8 dji/nis — k‘d/pocEn sa/itlatl _
9 yi/nis — k'd/pocEn sik'tlsé/e _
10 Siciatl yi/nis — kopd/o¢in s’a/Itlatl =
11 Snanaimuq ye’nas — kuiné/icrn a/ltlatl —
12 Sk-qomic yi/ni's — sk‘oa/ns k'E/nEK* =
13 Lkufigen tsH/nks = koai/nisen qoa/hgan =
14 Ntlakyapamuq | qia/q — cuptei'n sk’ame'tEn =
15 Stlatluma ra/itemEn cwupte ka/‘kanaa —atlk'uitl
16 SEQuapmuQq
17 Okana/k-én aai/tEmE’ — coptcé’n
Kutonaqa 18 Columbia Lakes | aqk‘u/nan _- aqkuk‘tla/qa | aqgo/ugak _
+ =tooth hair, 2 =mouth hair.
:
Body Chest
Stock Dialect Nail I
In com- n com-|
Independent pounds Independent pounds
Tlingit 1 Stikeen qak: — — etka —-
Haida 2 Skidegate sl’g’u’/n téa/né — kan =
Tsimshian 3 Tsimshian tings — _ ka'yek* — 4
Kwakiutl- } 4 Héiltsuk- ts’E/mts’Emskyané| 6k’ona! —na tqk*apoa! —poa
Nootka 5 Kwakiutl ts’p/mts'‘mm dk’ona! —na_ | poe —poe-
6 Nootka. Ts’éciath| tc’a/tltc’a = —p’a_ | ama/shotl —shotl
ah eee Pie ee =
Salish 7 Bilqula sk’atHé/qoak s’d/nqta —alos | sk*'ma —alés
8 Catléltq kap’adjék'6/dja gi/éus _ aié/nas _
9 Prntlate qolée’koya we'yus _ sékéna/s -—5
10 Siciatl kap'é/k0yam — _ alé/nas
11 Snanaimuq k'qoa/lautsis — — s’é/les
12 Sk‘qomic k-qoyek'd/yate — — s’é/lénes —énEs
13 LkufigEn teca/Ises tea/léiten | —ékus | tsfigatl én BS
14 Ntlakyapamuq | k’uqk-é/nkqst — — tlikmo/qtck _
15 Stlatloma k-qk-énakaa mxra/te — ta/qoate —qoal
17 Okana’k‘én k-uqk:énkust sk étlk* _ sky'iltkamé’les
Kutonaqa 18 Columbia Lakes | aqgd/ukp = ~ aqguwi'trgak
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA.
699
Hand
Finger Thumb
Sennae Independent ree cl
— djin _ tl’ék go/ue
os sla/é — slk"a/iigeé slik'ust ,
— an’o’/n _— _— maa aes ae
—siap’é’ | haia/so —skyané coa/coagakyané ‘ kd/na
— koa/koaqtsana | —tsana k-oa/koaqtsane k'd/‘ma
kwi/kunikso
ts'ats’atlak‘nuku/mE
uts’i/tlikak
— kutétsino‘dja
= sik'enatcd’ya
= kut’ecind/ya
= ted/lic
=< sk'utn/lqsek
—odja tea/las
—oya qoa/dk'odja
—oya nik6’/yats
—autsis | gdlik‘o/ya
—autsis | snk‘qtsEs
aqgé'i
* Borrowed from K wakiutl.
aqgEtsg"a
tlaqék'd'/dja
tlatlqé/qkdya
tlaqak’d'ya
smntla/lautsis 2
asé/ntlEk-d/yate?
sltla/leses
skiagé’/nkst
tsk'0/lak‘a, skil’a/ka
stomkust
poe ee ee ee
@utsa’k
* =hand’s elder brother.
Leg Foot
Female © |. @——____
Toes
breasts Independent Incom-} Inde- | In com-
pe pounds | pendent | pounds
tla k’ds — k’ds —_ ks tl’@k-
kan gy’ath — st’a/é -— st’a k’a/figé
= si — sI _ —
ts’am * asa/notsEqtlé _— ko/kué —sitsé | koa/koasitse
ts’am* OnutsE’qsté _— gyt’koiti | —sitsé | k-oa/k-oasitse
—nak‘é i/nzma aptsita’k-tlé * — tlictlin | —ti/mx’ ts’ats’atlak-ti‘me
Oo
us—6tsitl | toms* 7/Ha _— skutlqsrtl
tsu/mtEn dji’cin —cin qoa‘oadjicin
sk‘Ema/o* a/utcin —cin qulék’d’cin
k'Emd/o? yi’cin _ —
sk'ma* 2 sqe/na —cin 3g sna/qein
strlk-oé’m * 8 sqan —cin S| néqk'd/icin
sk‘ma? = | sae/na —aitcite* Sh —
2 —sen ¢ FI
Painters | rosstecesterneeetesees Lecccsscccneescneee |B [ecccnsees aoe
= 4 | sk’aqt —qrEn | leqqrn
sk'ra/m sk"aqt —qeEn | neqo/liqen
sk-aa/m / | sk’oa/qt —qEn léqqEn |
sk-@é/ms ? sts’0/gan —(0st)qEn sto’mqrn
ee is ee
_ aqkti/k — aqkink’a’tlik |
* From to suck. * Outer side of thigh. > Leg. * Foot. |
ZZ 2
rEPoRT—1890.
Borrowed from Kwakiutl.
Stock Dialect Bone Heart Blood Town Chief
Tlingit 1 Stikeen s'ak- tek: ci an ank'a/6
Haida 2 Skidegate sk'd/tsé ték’d’/yo gai la/‘na étlqaqagida *
Tsimshian 3 Tsimshian sa/yup k-a/ot itlé’ k"'a/lds’ap) sem’a’yit
— =f
Kwakiutl- } 4 Héiltsuk: qak: wa’strma | a/le’um gok* hé/mas
Nootka j 5 Kwakintl qak no/kié alg‘ gyok‘ gyi/k-amé?
6 Nootka.Ts’éciath| ha’mit ti toma he/smis ma/utl ha’utl, tea/mata'
Salish 7 Bilqula snlkH sIH apso’tl stalto’mH
8 Gatioita tla/qégan | k'ué’tl vacat hé’gyus
9 Prntlate cia/6 sth/mtrn k-0/étl vacat hé’wus
10 Siciatl — tla/qéwan | skué’tl vacat hé/wus
11 Snanaimuq etcam tstila ¢0’cin vacat sia/m
12 Sk-qomic ts’a/lé sta’/tsiém vacat sia/m
13 Lkungen tlukoa/figal ciictcin
sQuo/qok pEti‘la vacat ki’kpi*
15 Stlatlumi kok 5) itl sQua/kuk pti/laa teitcitq* | kd’kpi
17 Okana’kén sts’ém epod’s ‘| terter’ta * latent
Kutonaqa 18 Columbia Lakes méa/kn aqkitlweé’ wa/nmd aqkrktlo 7 naso/ke'
1 =houses. =the highest chief. * k0/kpi, Bilqula= grandfather,
Canoe
Stock Dialect Axe Knife
In Com-
Indepe ident pounds
Tlingit 1 Stikeen cEnqoa’ri tlta ya/uk —
Haida 2 Skidegate kyétldsa’/o sqa/u tlo/u —
Tsimshian 3 Tsimshian dahkr/rEs hatlébi/esk qsa —
Kwakiutl- } 4 Héiltsuk’ k’d/kunakula qtai/o gyil'oa —_
Nootka 5 Kwakiutl nee i: ‘yo ah ‘auwai’d gya/lo —qs
6 Nootka. Ts Yeciath Ween ae tca’'pats —ahs
Salish 7 Bilqula ee Ketla tla/las _—
8 eerie 8 Spain ® = teta/éten nF’quitil i
Entlate s’opai’t * nF’quitl —_
10 Siciatl sd’paius * skué/tetmn nEqui'tl —_
11 Snanaimuq sk’k'um tla/tstrn sne¥’quitl —
12 Sk-qomic kku/mEn tla/atctrn sne’/quiil =
13 Tel kkum ci ge snk/quitl —qutl
4 ileryapanea ss *ofisk' an \cn’s tskaa/utl aad
15 StlatlumH” k*‘oé@/ck" a tlamé’/n ie te kalats —
16 Be oe iment seame asi aut —autl :
ewwwwewee | ~~ eee ewe eeeene] & eucccecee| = eres ee
W ‘Oman én Guiematia de Wamu sta/tiom: _—
Kutoraqa 18 Columbia Lakes | aqkatlé/etis aqktsa’/m6tl yak'tso’mitl _
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA.
701
House
Warrior Friend Kettle Bow Arrow
In Com-
Independent pounds
g’ans’até/? qonée! hit = | Oq’akagantn’ | skk's teuné’t
gutl’i/sta qué! na ae k-a-étla tlkét ts’I/talen
| — nesé/bansk | walp — — haukta’/k* | haua’l
————
: — = gok‘ —itl hanutiala* | tlkue’s ha/ntlem
| winaé/noq nEmd'k gyok* —itl hanHtlala* | tlkué’s ha/ntlem
howa/ten mahté’ = sutl mo/staté ts’é’haté
kama/its sotl = qanisa/tls po’tstmn tsHné’mta
tlems, a/ya = ha/nintlala*+ | haihe’ tlok: a
tlems a ha/nintlala* | k'tsé/ite tats’d/mén
Ey tlzm, é/luwEm _— k'w'Istan haia/iten | tlok:
siti/ia li/lem = ckoa/Is ta/qoats skuli/ce
SS lam = nk’d/isten to’qoats sEk’Ela/e
—_ ale —itq ek'uk'w'ls eq’uma/tEn | tsemii/n
= teitg = qaié’’k'a tekui/nEk | skui’
me 7 = i to’qoate k“‘ema’lite
= tekui/nik | skui’l
= tekué/nik | tek-é/len
| guwanak-ana/niau’é | siiwo! ta/o aqkuqumatleé’et
{ =war master. 2 =man. 3: =kettle on fire. * Borrowed from Kwakiutl,
le f :
_ Moccasins Pipe Tobacco Sky Sun Moon Star
} 4
|
. | ttt ts’ék'dakét g’ante akawaqa’ts gan dis k-utaq’arenaha/
—<—<_
| st’atlk’u/nkyé g‘a/éu da/o gul kOyék'a ran dzilg’oé/ k’nh kéitsa/d
| aqpéya/n wunda’ ts’Em laqa’ gyi/m’uk | gya’m’uk pias
; | keenaq wa'qatsé * tla/uk lewa! tVéusioala | nd/si t’d/toa
f | wa'q’atsé* tla/uk 1o/ua tlé/sEla mi’k’ola t’d/toa
b | tat’d’s
bE zs
| réng nusu’k* pia tla/uk — menmé’kutl
ee | (eae ou | a see eee
wale? até" a! wak* kua/yano ‘gyi gy:
wa/q’atsen* | a/wak* skua/yil st’é/qgém spé’/los kud/sil
p'a/tlnma/lé | spa/tlen skua/yil stsok" cia/Isiatl kud/sen
cprtlemii/lak"| spa/ltEn skua/yil cia/k'um tlkdlts koa/sEn
ntsk‘d/tstEn | spd/tlen skua/yil tlk a/ite tlk'a/ite ko’sen
| ktleitcin potlema/la — skoa'teil sk‘ok‘o!l tik-alte ka/sEn
‘citltss’we ntsak'd'étetrn| chmé/n’Eq | stlékt ma/qEten
| ci/tltsé ts'k‘d/otetzn | cma/nin stlék't snu/kum | tl’a/namten | kako/cinEt
tsk’6/otEn stlek-t skwa/k‘as | ma/qé skukd/sent
sEnma/nuqtEn| sma/n’uQ st’Eky’Ema/sqk*} qéa/tlnuq | géa’/tinuq squkd/sent
kos ya'/k’ét aqkitlmi’yit nata/nik nata/nik aqkitlnohd6’s
» Borrowed from Snanaimugq.
=common shoes.
=smoke receptacle.
* Borrowed from Kwakiutl
702 REPORT—1890.
Stock Dialect Day Night Morning Evening
Tlingit 1 Stikeen yigEri’ tat ts’u tat qa’na
Haida 2 Skidegate sEn galqua sEn aé/QEn
Tsimshian 3 Tsimshian sa h6/opEn kantlak* ski'yetlak's
Kwakiutl- 4 Héiltsuk’ na/la nékk K’0a/k-oai/la _
Nootka } 5 Kwakiutl na/la k-a/nitl na/H’it _—
6 Nootka.Ts’éciath| nas a/t’hai k6/atl to’peitl
SS (ee
Salish 7 Bilqula kH’i/mtam YHentl i/naq entl
8 Catloltq ts’Ok- nat kai na/anat
9 PEntlate koa'yil nat na/tatl
10 Siciatl skua/yil _ skué/kueé
11 Snanaimuq skua’yil snét na/tétl
12 Sk-qomic skua/yil snat natl
13 LkufigEn skua'tcil nat kutce?'l
14 Ntlakyapamuq | ci’tlk’’at ci'tict nuwE/nuwEn
15 Stlatluma sk’ @it citst na’/natQ
16 SEQuapmug sitk't si'tist Qua’niin
17 Okana’kén sqElqa’l cEnikoa/ats tlétlkiikoa’st ky’Ela/up
Kutonaqga 18 Columbia Lakes | giti/kwéyit tsitlni'yit wu'tinam watlgoa'it
Fire
Stock Dialect Rain Snow
In Com-
Independent pounds
Tlingit 1 Stikeen sé/u dléet kan =
Haida 2 Skidegate dal d@’ara/u — —
Tsimshian 3 Tsimshian was ma/dem lak =
oreaaa 4 Héiltsuk: id’/koa na/é* Qui/ltEla
Nootka 6 Kwakiutl id/koa na/é? Hé’k-ala —
6 Nootka.Ts’éciath} mi’tla kwi's inik* =
Salish 7 Bilqula atlvu'lat ke ’ai néiq —
8 Catléltq tcié’tl k-d/mai qoa’uitq _—
9 PeEntlate sma/yelam aq epats _
10 Siciatl teié’tl sk‘d’/maé tcitci’em —
11 Snanaimuq slx/mEq ma/kit hai/uk* _—
12 Sk'qdmic slumq ye'iotl —tsEp
13 LkufigEn tlemq ctcik’d/esa —
14 Ntlakyapamuq | tektl ciiu’gt duktik‘ _
15 StlatlumH ckwic ma’k‘aa ru/lep —ik‘p
17 Okana’/kén ck"ét sEmé/k‘t teii/quap _
Kutonaga 18 Columbia Lakes | guwatloék-uk‘u’k'ut a/qktl6 aqkink’d/k*s _
* It issnowing, kué/sa.
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 703
|
Spring Summer Autumn Winter Wind Thunder Lightning
= k'uta/n — _ ky’étlea’ | etl Hétl é/gu
kin re'da k’in — sEngaé/rat | tadza’/d hé'lan sqitg’a/uldai
—_ sont ks0/ot katl piisk kaleplé/em laqa’| ts’a/mti
wéa'gyioa ha/ing = tsawi'nq ia/la ki/ninua =
= héianq — tsawa/nq ia/la ki/ninua tlmné’quit
ee a oe fon nn---- nan cnnennee [esa aennnenonecncens HEE Saecr ona oatend| tc anz\wedaaeu~|] saa cane eepeenem nA. | oneness seen ectealbaspanaar
tla/k-citl * tlop’é’ite * aié/te tsdié’te * we'k'sé tttsk'i/nE tléhtlé/ha
— amtl nuskHiqutsts | nuskHluts | asd/kH nilqi/m sququ’/m
tl@itcus tlEk6’/é — go'bite | po/qam qutk”’umé’ns sasa/gyim
trmtlqmos tEm’é’yus — tEmgé'tlém) paha/m wald/qum la/ImEn
a = — — po/ham kutstcié/m s0/usowum
ecici/wa k"oé’les misa’tets susa/tits stsE/qum | sQuQoa/as qEqr’nak't
@kumé koa/koasi| trtrmié’is _ tEmt’éq spEhé’m | énénia/qaan tqa/éutsé, Enéniii/-
qan
—_ k*'oé’/les — _ spquk’la | squgoa/as k’une'la
— cfénk" oiya/nk: = — ena/ut ki/kiaq nmama‘am
NKO'tsk'da pépa’ntcik tl'wa/litsten | cu’tik ck’a/qEm | cki/lgklEq wulwulk’’6’cEm
skinEkina’p
sk:apts sk'a/Ik‘altrmaQ} tlwa/Isthn sistk sna/ut skinkina’p sikwa/kEmmEnst
pEsk'é’/pte pestcza’k’ péskkrai’ pésreé’/stk sEné/ut | sek'tsk’a/m cuwik’ést
‘sy ts os — aqk0o/mé | ndo’/ma no/ma
A ——————— ell |e ee | ea
* = sprouting season. 2 = warm season, > = season when everything clean.
Ice Earth, Land
ca : ae hy: Sea River
: e- In Com- n Com- n Com-
| pendent | pounds Independent | pounds| dependent | pounds
_— vék _ a/né _ rek‘a/k hin
— ka/lga — tiga — ta/figa k'a/ura
— da/u — dsa‘atskks _ qatla ; laq man*| gala aks?
—sta tq _— tsqams _ trmsH wa
—sta tl'd’q, — t’H/kya —_ tEmsH wa
—_ k-d/uq _— ts’a/k’umts _— t6/p’atl ts’a/ak
= skH’ilk — koqtld/lem _ soli’t tmH, anaqd’/m
_ tau’d — gi’dja _ kud/tlko k’utE/m
_ spe'a — mé'i _ kud/tlko std/lau
_— spé’a _ tEmé’q _ kud/tlk6 sta’ol6
_ spe’ — th/mEq —_— k’ua/tlkua sta/lo
—_ s’6/Hen — trmé’q —_ kud’tlk stak*
— stla lng — ta/iguq — tltli/tlsé sta/lo
_— npa/ué —_— trmi’Q _— — k'0/u
—atkua | ck’é/malrtc — tEmé’Q _ k’otl
—atkua | sQi’yint — tEmé’Q, tlu/k'luq —_ _
el/wutlk‘ | —itk‘ $Qd/int —iken | temEqd/lau — _ ca/t’itk*
wo'u _ a/qgut _— —_ _ aqk’asuk’wi'6 | aqkinmi’tuk
* =on the salt. 2 =ascending water,
704 REPORT—1890.
Stock Dialect Lake Valley Mountain Island f
14
Tlingit 1 Stikeen ak‘ | cia/naq cia! kat
Haida 2 Skidegate sil tl’a/dan téis gua/i
Tsimshian 3 Tsimshian — tikut’é/en sqané‘ist Inksd’a/*
eee
Kwakiutl- 4 Héiltsuk- g’a/us pea g’0'/gwis tl'ékya/é
Nootka 5 Kwakiutl ts’a/latl * _ ni/kyé? makyala
6 Nootka, Ts’éciath| a/uk‘ — nu’kyé tea/ék
Salish 7 Bilqula tsatl nutvEl smnt k‘enk‘e'lsk
8 Catloltq sa/eatl djuqtla/te ta/k*’at* ku’cais
9 Prntlate sEl’a/tl tlzpk’é/n sma/nit ckea/as
10 Siciatl tslatl tlepké’/n smant skué/ktsaa¢
11 Snavaimuq _ eqola’k smiant skea
12 Sk'qdmic — SQd/qul sma/nét s'a/ek’s
13 LkufigEen — —_ shga/nit tltcas
lt Ntlakyapamuq | pe’tluckum — skum —_
15 Stlatlumu teala/tl ntcitce’t skum k’qi/ndEc
aomoank=etsdenadsdelsRelsan=enbe|| bow emas ous nga = -vex seWaeal [deen e=- =e ake pews anes cee eee eee eel eee eee me Bieta
16 SEQquapmuq a qlaté’/kin tsk*6m st/nkum
17 Okana/k‘én véek’ut tsEnla/ut mEkwi'ut ked/nuk
!
Kutonaqa 18 Columbia Lakes | aqk'u’g*unuk — aqkowuqtlé/et | aqg’’a/nkemé 7
? Borrowed from Salish,
2 Borrowed from Nootka.
3 Vide stone.
* =sitting alone,
Stock Dialect Wood Leaf Bark Grass Flesh, Meat
Tlingit 1 Stikeen gran kag‘ant/ atlaqé’ sd/uk* dlir
Haida 2 Skidegate tikyan tleya‘igual | k’s/tsé Hil gyéri’ ;
ee §
Tsimshian 3 Tsimshian _ ia/nEs gyimst kpya’qt ca/mi
at 4 Héiltsuk: gya’'p’as mémé/eqtla6 | qk’um ky’é/tEm mnéa/s
Nootka 5 Kwakiutl — paa’/k- ~ | ga/k’um ky’é/tEm Elts
6 Nootka. Ts’éciath] i/niksé tla/k'ap ts’a/k*mis a/k*mupt —
Salish 7 Bilqula kumtl koa'Is ik _— _
8 Catloltq koi/q p'a/k’am * ‘a/ian tleqrem mE’gyas
9 Prntlate kG/iq p’a/k"’'am ? tla/k"'ot sa’qoitl slék*
10 Siciatl sk'oiqia’/6 p’a/k"’am * spela/n _ slék*
11 Snanaimuq sia/tl ts’a/tlam sla/én = slék-
12 Sk‘qomic ye/iotl cte’d/tla — sa/qoé slék
13 LkuiigEen etcatl _— =— _— slék
14 Ntlakyapamuq _ — knzé! _— smite
15 StlatlumH m0'lrq pi'tekEtl e7/kil cts’E/pEZ ts’I
17 Okana/k’én sElé/p patcktl cdpd/lauQ
Kutonaga 18 Columbia Lakes | —wok aqku’tlatl aqgi'tsk‘atl | qa atltsin
» Borrowed from Kwakiutl.
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA.
705
Stone Tree
Salt Tron Forest
In com- In com-
Independent pounds Independent pounds
étl ther _— ik-éyé’ts — kats —
ta/figa g’a/ga’* | tlqa _ iré’ts tlkyan © ket _—
man lap _— t’d/otsk — kan —
temsH vé'srEm —a — koa s lek‘oa/ —mis
to’p’atl té/sum —7 —_— a/tlen” tla’/qtlos —mis
it] mu’ksi —a _ — tla/k-aas —mopt
sts tat‘ — — ~_ strn —
k’6'tlom qaadjé’c — — cV'teim dja’ia —
k”o'tlom qia'ls _— _ ¢i/teim sk'o/ig _
10't16 = — i/tcim sia _-
—_ _— tsa/lak* sk-ait —
= = tci/cEm stsEk* —atlp
ae = tei/tEig skaiyai’eiig —Etltc
— — _ ciqa’p _
a — mElm0'lEq cEra/ap _
stlikitlk’a/luk
= sgeng —asgEn | swilewula/lem’ | nEka/qt tsEra/p _
stsiltsa’1
Htlot _ wulewulé’m hensti’tso tciré’p —
pwistla/qané | nd/okwé — | ni/tlgo tsitleit aqgitstla/en =
=dry sea. ? =English ? > =French, * See mountain. S’ =hard thing. ® See wood.
7 =rear of, interior of country.
Fi ; Bear,
Be Bear, Black Grizzly Wolf Deer Elk Beaver
ts’ék Qits g’d/ute kooka/n tsisk‘ ts’ikredé’
Qd’ots g°d/ute g’at tsi’/eku © ts’Efi
meEdi/ek kyebo’ wan sia/n sts’al
tl’a® k’usE’ls ka/méla tlad/ls k6l6/n ®
gyi'la atla/nEm k'@’ was tldls ts’a/6
_— k"a/natla a/tuc tld/nem a’t’d
tl’a nutsek’d/aq sHpa/nitl tla/les” kdld/n.
qau‘gas tla/acdm ké/gac ? k'éete smaya'd
qai/uas tattcid/Imig * sqo/icin tséna/te t’ako'm
qau’gyas tk’a/ia ha/opet ke/lite ko lat
k’O/yétsin | stk’a/ia ha/opet k-YVete sk'Ela’'6
stlatla/lem | tk’’a/ia kié/ete (?) k-ié/ete sk'EHa'6
k’O/yétein | tk’d/ia smé’yis * kwa/waatec sk Ela/6
_ sk”a/um emi’ete § sqoia/qk*En cEni’'ya
stlatla/lem | sk*’a/uam stl’d'la | _ sk‘Elo
skEmqi’s ma/lEmstlia ts’é
cEkii/ap ckimré’s gy éla/una | nts’é/tsim stlats!/nzm ené’ktltsa sténQ
qku/tlak | ni’pkd tla/utla ka/qgen tsu'pk-a g’atlg’a’tlé sina
* Borrowed from Kwakiutl.
* = people of woods. ® See flesh.
? Borrowed from Kwakiutl.
© Berrowed from Tlingit.
* Borrowed from Bilqula.
> Borrowed from Bilqula.
* Borrowed from Kwakiutl.
706 REPORT—1890. re
Stock Dialect Fly Mosquitoe Snake
Tlingit 1 Stikeen — — tut tla‘k
Haida 2 Skidegate d@idrn ts’pra/ItEguan cik
Tsimshian 3 Tsimshian _— gyiek matqala’ltq
Kwakiutl- 4 Héiltsuk- —.- k’a/éqa s/tlem
Nootka } 5 Kwakiutl = — si/tlkem
6 Nootka. Ts’éciath) ma/tskwink tz/nakmis hai/yé
Salish 7 Bilqula ma/mic = papé/nkn
8 Catldltq —- ts’a/djus otlk-a/i
9 Prntlate _ tstci/6s c7/ésim
10 Siciatl _ stsetdjo’us otlk'a/i
11 Snanaimuq — koar/n atlk-é/i
12 Sk-qomic _— k‘on’é’mate atlhkai
13 Lkuiigen kEkayé/qEna pqoa’/ék'sEn s’0/tlké
14 Ntlakyapamuq _ k0’koaské eméiq
15 StlatlumH qmats koal’é/mak naqor’t
16 SEQuapmuQq qma’yé koné’mik'tl tstlwa/woltsk
17 Okana/k‘én qamé’tl sEla/k's ckikawi'lgaq
Kutonaga 18 Columbia Lakes | yanugk‘tluk’u’tlop k-atsetsa/tla tau
|
Stock Dialect Salmon Name White Black
Tlingit 1 Stikeen grat sari’ tlédi/qaté* d’d‘ute
Haida 2 Skidegate tein —_ ga/ta tlk’ atl
Tsimshian 3 Tsimshian han wa maks *| t’d/otsk
Sere: 4 Héiltsuk- méa’ — mdo/k‘oa ts’6’tla
Nootka 5 Kwakiutl ma tlé’/k'am meE‘la ts’0'tla
6 Nootka. Ts’éciath| me’at ai/miti tli/suk tu’/pkuk
Salish 7 Bilqula sEmlkH tom tsq skust
8 Gatloltq tlaqoa/é ki/ic pE/k’pEk qus
9 Prntlate kd/loq kiic gasqos casqus
10 Siciatl skud/l6 kiie prk: _
11 Snanaimuq ts’a/k06 kivic prk- tsk"éq
12 Sk-qomic — kii/ns pik: kEqk’éq
13 Lkufigren ctcai/nuq -kiic pEk’ neEk’éq
14 Ntlakyapamuq | sk‘éé/itEn _ stpék* sti’ptipt
15 Stlatluma sts0’k-oats skwa/tcite prEk- k°uq’a/q
16 SEQquapmuq skela/ItEn — prk- kuyuk’é't
17 Okana’‘k’én ndidi/Q skui/st prk: k’oa'i q
Kutonaqa 18 Columbia Lakes | suwa/kem6 ga/ktlé kamnu’qtlé kamk”6k’"’d/kutl
1 =snowlike colour.
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 708"
Bird . Feathers Wing Goose Duck Fish
|
stl k“oa'tl kite ta/wok guts hin tak’a’té
abet g'a'u Hei tigyitewn | tha teitl
3/6'wots li kak" a/i ha/aq mé'Ek luwr/lem tsEm aks
pa'tl’a ma'tlmatmrm | -_— tlaa'tla ma/gyilis
ts'i/IkyrEm p’p'tlem ne/qak’ tla/tlkyo —
| ho/k'sem na‘qtate ta/tluk
| qa’qatl _— _
— pa’k”’énate kénké/n djanq
stsd/ts’ok- qo/senate tr/nEk’sEn spé’p’acut
—_— — pa’k’énate tr/nEk's cia/nq
— -- tli/k‘oaqan tr/nEk’sEn slok
stlpa/lqén _— qo/oken tn/nuk‘sEn otsts’d’'kol
ts’@ek't ts’ék't tli/k-oagan tE/nEk’sEn _—
— — Foaci’q sqiik- _
.| O'k‘oal stlak-a/al k‘cé/uQ sqik- _
sqa/qpEls skiikoa/qan ksiq s‘astlq6 ewa’utl
sputlt skewa/qEns | k‘siq qoa’tqut k-ak.qu/lq
Ok-utska’/mena} aqg’uk'tlu’pk‘a aqkingo/ua g-aqutld/ok gang‘usk’d/ék-a gia‘kqo
Light blue
ts/dyi’qaté
koa’yelaks
tsa/ca
p’a/tstem
p’Etcé/m
p’Etcé’m
tsi/tsEqum
ntl’Etl
stkw'ltsk‘ultst
k:uzk0a/z
‘kand/hus
yami’/nk-an
§ =firelike colour.
Yellow
kyétlhatlé yi/qate 2
Light green
ts’dyi/qaté
NO nnn
Great, Large
Independent
tlén
gotlratl g’antlratl g’antlratl yu’/rn =
kuskua’sk mEtléitk meEtléitk * wi --
té/qa
tsitsité’/k tl
tl’Esé’m
tl’Esé/m
tl’Esé’m
tsk‘oa/i
tlstlés
ts’a/citl
kakuli’a
gak'tloi‘tga
gé/ekop
* =dog-dung colour.
k’aié/kyas —tsé
wa/las > —tsé
ti —
tée/ié =
si —=
hé/ié —
terk: _
ci/luqoa, pl. pEE’stlaat
wi'tlk'a
> Tlatlasikoala : 6mas.
708 REPORT—1890.
Small, Little jj
Stock Dialect —— SS SS SS SEES Strong ;
Independent In Compounds rs!
Tlingit 1 Stikeen ga’tsko _ tliwu’s
Haida 2 Skidegate gE/dsd —_ diakuya’
Tsimshian 3 Tsimshian tigua = =
Kwakiutl- 4 Héiltsuk- haula/tl — t1d/‘kuim
Nootka } 5 Kwakiutl ama/ —bédo tlo‘kuim
plural, mEné/q
6 Nootka. Ts’éciath| ana’h’is —is na/cuk
Salish 7 Bilqula k@kté — til
8 Catléltq te’i'tcia — tla’/tlsam
9 PEntlate Ge'igdi _— tla/t’am
10 Siciatl k’équa'l6 — skoa/mkum
11 Snanaimuq tlé/tsemats _ kua/mkum
12 Skqomic atsi/m = éié’m
13 LkufigEn teitcé/itl — k’oa/mkum
14 Ntlakyapamuq | k’umé’mat _ =
15 Stlatluma k'wék's — rulral
k’nuié/ksa dpe ies
16 SEQuapmuQq { plural, tsitsi’tsemazt — yaya’t, rilra’lt
17 Okana’/k-én { Kuid’ma _ g’utegoa’tst
plural, tcitca/mat
Kutonaga 18 Columbia Lakes | tsek'u’na — tsema/k-ek'a
Stock Dialect Warm | I Thou He
Tlingit 1 Stikeen YE ta qat, gate woe’, woe’tc hu, héote
Haida 2 Skidegate ky’é/ina déa, tla’a da/a, da/iiga laa
Tsimshian 3 Tsimshian gya/muk nE’rid nE/rEn né/EdEt
Kwakiutl 4 Héiltsuk- k6/qoa no/gua k'qs6 =
‘Nootka 5 Kwakiutl ts’i/1lk‘oa no/gua, yin yitl, si/um hé, yat
pata A Dee ie fececcsdestacwsanscnoreté-||luacincsesensper2acse—saual|| noe soe= neon ee eer
6 Nootka.Ts’éciath, tl’u’pa sé/ia sd/ua =
Salish 7 Bilqula kul ens ind (t’aiHl)
8 Catldltq k’O/as djini’tl nE’gi ==
9 PEntlate k’d/as tein@itl nué! —
10 Siciatl — djini’'tl nivéla —
11 Snanaimuq k"’od/koas tens te nd/ua —
12 Sk:qomic | kua’s te ens nd/a _
13 Lkufigen k"’0a‘les a’sé nd/kuea tsii/e
14 Ntlakyapamuq — —_— = =
15 Stlatluma k Emp cri/ntca snd/a ené‘itl
teini/tl —
Kutonaga | 18 Columbia Lakes | ii’/temé kamin ninko ninkd’is
-ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF
CANADA. 709
Se
Old Young Good Bad Dead Sick Cold
‘in ga’tsko re ké | tlétl uck’é* | na nek‘ sia/t
ai gitgE da(ranga) k’6't’utl st’é qui’
md’a/gyat* copac hada/q ts’ak si/epk qkua’tko
’ — iaku * tlrl tl’d’qoala t’mné’k‘
— iaku * tlEl ts’@/Hk'a ww tal
ta/néis p’i/cak* k'a/hak teitl matlu’/k
- sq ath/ma kH’imalai/ku | skH’ilkHts
ook, tl’a/qai tlEq kai‘i 1 ga/tak djim
ma/i, st’'aq ailéto | ma/i tE/mEn k-a/kaleut djyim
Srernall mai koi — cteimd’tl
= kal kai ka/k" Gi qivitl
| ha/atl | ké/i koi sk"’0/i t/ék
i sqa/a, kal kai qa/itl’et q’a/itl
tVist zuk* kunuw’g —
| towe’ wut,ckukumé’t k El 6/uk* _— qutl
al. 3 ktsak* , As
_tuwe’wut ky’ést { pl. qoa/et ky’ea’p ts’atlt
of g3SRes Se || eaacndeecGeeaackeericnc))| HEsrasenons| (pee eoasos acca \Peereeste oo eoteeoh be oeecoot fiscal | Feats
_ ky’ast —_ sk’ é/lElt ts’ atlt
m tla/ktlé na/na san op sé/ntlqo sk‘a/t’éi
; 1 =great man. 2 =old man 3 =not good
We Ye They This That All
a’/n, 0ha/nte riwa/n, riwa/nte has, haste rr tat | ru tat —
etl, d’aln/figua daln/fi laa (?) _— -- tld/qan
nF/rEcEM né/EdEt — —_ tqani
nelu, nog oa/nts k'aeksoa/ea — ar F a/gyem
clu. ndgoa/ntk ) -
(inclu. nogoame'nts
yints soqda/qEm hé/qdaq, yi/qdaq gya yut k"a/laue
elu. yinuq
si/wa —_ hi'tl’ié | a/qgha te’otck
tlop tail _ stai
nd/uap _— _ héitl auk
nd/lap _ —= _ ete’t
no/la _ _— = =
te tlwé/lap _— _— * = muk’
2 = o/nitl. ; ei
te nuya’p —_ nitl { co/nitl, pees } @eq
nEkué/léya tsa/éyatltEn tli/a — mek:
; =. —, ar — te/k'rm
wucené/mutl snéla’/p wucné itl — _ .
inclu, utinué’/kt =) 1 =
{ Pecldentinue/eskug utlmé/emp utlnué’es
mné’mltit mné/mtlem mné’mtciliq aga’ ia/qis yaya/at
kamwina’tla minkd/nisgitl ninkd'isis na _ k’a'pé
*
==
710 REPORT—1890, >
Stock Dialect Many, Much Who Far Near _
Tlingit 1 Stikeen kt6q adu’tsé tlé tlétl wu tle*
Haida 2 Skidegate sk0'ul, k'oa/n, yii/En gyisto dziiiga a/qan
Tsimshian 3 Tsimshian hii/ldE go va —
Kwakintl- 4 Héiltsuk- k’ai/nrm akoiqk'an | qué’sala nEqoa/la
Nootka } 5 Kwakinutl k"ai/nem ungweé k-uésa
6 Nootka.Ts’éciath] ai/a atci’/k saia/
Salish 7 Bilqula ékuli
8 Catléltq éi@/imik-
9 Prntlate dje/é/dji mit
10 Siciatl _ €e/lwet
11 Snanaimuq _— tlétlk-@/i
12 Sk-qomic k-eq _— qa’ta é'te’éet ?
13 Lkufigmn figrn _ la/el tletlé’tlki
14 Ntlakyapamuq | qué’t — _ a
15 Stlatluma Qué’t cuwa't kaka/o k'i/kta
16 SEQuapmug Qqué't — keka’/s nEa/lie
17 Okana/k-én Qqué't Tkiit gik’a/at
Kutonaqga 18 Columbia Lakes | ni/ntik gva/tlaki wutlé’et —
? Not far
Stock Dialect No One Two
| Tlingit 1 Stikeen tlek‘ tléq déq
U OD. '
Haida 2 Skidegate gau’/and { aauwee Oe stifi |
|
Tsimshian 3 Tsimshian atlgE gyak’, gak’, g’b/rkl,k’al tkpqa’t, g0/upEl |
Kwakiutl- 4 Héiltsuk: ky’é; 1, hi, wi mEn matl
Nootka 5 Kwakiutl ky’é ; i, hi, wi num matl
6 Nootka.Ts’éciath|] wék, I, hi ts’6/wak, nup a/tla
Salish 7 Bilqula a/qko (s)ma/otl tlnds
8 cama Quo'k* pa/a ; pépa/a saa, sésa/a
9 PEntlate — tlt’als, tlt’a/lé visa/lals, yaisa/lé
10 Siciatl =— pa/luls, nEteialé temei/nuls, temeina/lé _
11 Snanaimuq nk&’ts’a, na/nEts’a yisa/oles, ya/iskla |
12 Sk*qomie — ntc’d/i, nEtcintca’s a/nos’6'i, ana/nos
13 Lkufigen au/a nz’tsa, na/tse tck/sa, tea/asis
14 Ntlakyapamuq — pé’#, papé/a Bia, cicé'ia |
15 Stlatlumu Qua/s pE'la a/nuEc |
16 SEQquapmugq ta/a nEK‘O SEsa/la
17 Okana/k-én 10t nak's acy’)
Kutonaga 18 Columbia Lakes | mats o/kwe as
pe eee
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. (22!
There To-day Yesterday To-morrow Yes
ia/yigEri tn/tgE sérb/nk* a
_ da/rgatl tlga’/é da’rgatl a, 6, a/iga
stigya/wun gyets’é'ip tségyets’é/ip 6
—_——_—_— |
goa/k’plai/oq tla/ntsé tla/nstlats la/a
qoana/laq tlansutla’ tin’/nstla la‘a
tla/h iiyé nasia’ amé/iyé a/mitlik haa
atiso/nHt atlo/nini ikai/nugs d/ua; wisq
héeitl’ot sts’6k cisnia/sotl kivisem gyinaq
koa’yil djila’k-atlét ki/ice _
trstsok* cisia/sotl kui/skoa _
tE nakua’yil tsela/katl wukoa’yiles _
ti stsé/is kuiteil’a’/k'tl k*kofilas _
tla/ak6 tia/anuk tcela’qatl kukuia’tcilas =
—_ citlk”’at spéeqa’/ut péaqa’ut _
la/ta; iltEu’, Elknd’ te’a/kosk"’é/it ina/tquas pei'las é
piée/n pEsts’a/tl pEqia’ut ma
ha/pEna p’éstcitl qzla’p _
nagyu/kéyit wa/tlgoa | gaumi‘yit hé
Four Five Six Seven
dak’’d’/n kédji/n tlédureu’ dagqadurcu’
sta‘DsEi tlétl dik'und/utl dzi’/gura
tqalpq ketone kalt teEpqa’lt
mo siky’a’ k-atla/ matlaau’sis *
mi siky’a! K'atla/ a/gdlibta
mo sti/tea n6'po a'tlpo
mos tséH tqotl nustlnés
_| tsidtlas, sia/tla m6'sa tséatsa/é taqania/é ts'utcisa/é
| tleqa'ls, tléqoa/lé q’d/séna nukua/teisa p’ults6/éa ts’6/étcis
} teaatla’suls, tciatla/lé | q/dsena/lé silatesa/lé tEqnma/lé ts’dtcisa/lé
} tlé’quis, tlquia/la ga’cinis, qac’é'le tlqii’tses tqam ts’a/uks
i ee qad’tsen’di, tséyatcis’6i t’a/qate’oi takosaik’O'i
| tea/nat’ci, teintea/nat { qaq’o/étsen { tsitcé’/atcis { tqta/qats { tkta/kosats
tlég, tlqua/1 fids, fiesa/la tlk"i/teis tqaf ts’a/kus
. mH « =H os { t’a’/k-amakst teutlka
Tan aa totkst, ter'totkst | { treitiairamakst | { toutlteutlka
qoo’tcin tei/likst tl’a/k-Emkist tei‘tlaka
tkmakst tsdtslka
mos tcilkust t’a/k Emkust ai’spilk’
g‘a/tlea qa/tsa i@/hk6 | nmi’sa nsta/tla
Se
* Seven men.
712 REPORT—1890. fe
a
Stock Dialect Eight Nine Ten S
Tlingit 1 Stikeen naskadureu’ go/cuk* djt/nkat
Haida 2 Skidegate stu/nsEfira tlalei sqoa/fisEfi tla’atl
Tsimshian 3 Tsimshian guandii/lt, yukta/lt ketEma/c gy’ap, k’pé/el
Kwakiutl- 4 Héiltsuk’ yutqo'sis mamané'is a/kyas’is
Nootka } 5 Kwakiutl ma/tlguanatl na/nama lasti’
6 Nootka. Ts’éciath| 4/tlakuatl ts’o/wakutl hai/a
Salish 7 Bilqula k’étlnd’s k’esma/n tskHlakut
8 gallcita taatcisa/é tigeqoa/é opana/é
9 Pentlate ta/atcis ta/wiq tlk'd'ya
10 Siciatl taatcisalé tawéqua/lé opana/lé
11 Snanaimuq tqii/tse tid/q 4’/pEn
12 Sk'qdmic tqa/te’di, tqtqate tss6/i, ts’H/sts’Es 6’pan, opd/pEn
13 LkungEn tii/asEs to’/kuq a/pEn
14 Ntlakyapamuq pid’pst tEmtlpii/a 6’/pEnakst, 6/papEnakst
15 Stlatluma p’El'd/opet k”ampa/lemEn “amp
16 Srquapmuq nEk’dps temtlenkd‘k’a 6/pukst
17 Okana/k'én ti/mitl qEqEn’d’'t 6’/penkust
Kutonaqa 18 Columbia Lakes | duqa/tsa gaik”i’t’6w6d tows
Stock Dialect One thousand To eat To drink To walk
Tlingit 1 Stikeen a qa tana’ god, at
Haida 2 Skidegate 1a/gua tale tla/atlé ta qotEl
Tsimshian 3 Tsimshian k‘pal ya/wig, pl. gap | aks
Kwakiutl- 4 Héiltsuk: — ha/msa na/k'a
Nootka } 5 Kwakiutl 10’qsEmHit ha/mB’it na/k'a
anew nace annsnwenccscced Me | <== ww a <r eancconccene|teenneseesnnscce
6 Nootka. Ts’éciath| siitce’ék-prtik: ha/uk- na/kcitl
Salish 7 Bilqula _— atltp ka/aqla
8 peice tusa/ite é'tltEn k6/0k'6
9 Prntlate tlqoa/wite é’tltEn kd/ok‘0a
10 Siciatl ts’a/wite étitmn k'd/k'oa
11 Snanaimuq 4/pEn nits’d’wuts a/tltEn ka/ka
12 Sk‘qomic na/tcauwite étltEn tak't
13 LkufigEn opa/anite é’tlen k-0a/koa
14 Ntlakyapamuq | dpena qatsqkaik:ankst tlaqa’/ne 6‘/k‘oaa
15 Stlatlumu = @tlen O/k'oaa
a al Ics re) skiuwa/trm,
16 Srquapmugq opukstqatspk'é’k-enkst | s’é/tlen sta { pl. qusa’t
17 Okana’k'én _ s’é/tlen
Kutonaqa 18 Columbia Lakes | gyit’uw6 tletuwd/nowo | ik i/kwitl =
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA,
713
Twenty Thirty Forty One hundred
tlé/k'a* natsk’djinka/t dak’d/n djinka’t ké/djin k-a
lag‘usqaa/négo tlalé dlk'u'nutl t1a/lé sta/nsEit la’/gua tla/atl
kyédéel gulé/wulgyap tqalpwulgyap keEn&Eca/1
masEmkuis té/uais yutqso’ké m0/qsokué —
| matilsEmgyustau yutqsum gyustau mosk*Emgyaskait la/kyint
| ; ae a es ; z seecweveuabeeei|+y : ae coon ceeco aan saeeeeeeea 5 “ ° = Ga vcssesssdeesvercaceate
e| tindswos tskHlakuts
| ‘sEmcia/a
sEmcia/a
_ | sEmcia/lé
_tskuc
| witlte’si, wutlwutlte
| ts'uqk"u’s
asm0/ses tskHlakHts
djenogqsia’a
tléqoatcia/a
teiqoatleia’/a
tlnqutleii’
tluqttled'i
tikxtctleii/e
moses tskHlakHts
mosatsia/a
q’dsenatcia/a
qosEnatleia/a
qasEntlciii’
qadtsnEtlea/a
iigstled/e
ts’é/Holags
tEsa/ite
tlqoa/wite
ts’a/wite
nits’d’/wuts
na/atcauwite
na’ts’dte
qatsqk’a/k:ankst
qtcEpk’é’/k-enkust
} citld’‘penakst
a/nuEc k”amps
i “sitl 6’/pukst
asile 6/penkust
katld’/penakst
kartla/c k’amps
motl 6/penakst
qod'tcin k’amps
kitl 6’pukst meEtl 6/pukst qatspké/k-enkst
k-a/trle 6/pEnkuHst mistle 6/penkust qatcitci/kst
g-atlsa/n6wo qatsa/n6w6 gyit’uwd/nowo
|
i
-ai’wo
* =one man.
To dance To sing To sleep To speak To see To love
ci ta yu’q’a—tEn sgvan
sqala/i ka —_ stat’n’1
l/émi qstoq a/lgiaq hasa/oknEnan
né/noya gy’a’tla bgoa’la * dd/koa —_
sa/lala mé’q’ét bpenaila: x dd‘koala
waite wawa na/tsa —
tsitd’ma —_ kH’H anoai/kH
tla/tsit k'0a/i, otlotas ku/néim —
&tut — la/mat _
— k’u/ném _—
t’é'talem — la/mat _
wunumapaa’yicis — kua/kt _
trtlé/elem — k’u/nét —
VtlEm _— wi'k’rEm —
é/t’Em k'oald't a’/tsqan qa/tlmén
1 meh peEle't kEli’t. =r oe
sl'emtmna‘m { pl. qemka/ut { pl. k:oa/les ween
=) itg, k-ulk-9é'lnlt, =r . =)
amikune’g { pl iwatgattiia | 1 pl.sk-oakoa | We’kED igamie’n
) :
k@eauwitl gawasqoni‘am g”’om ka/kye u/pga =
| 1890.
* = man speaks ; k‘kya’/la, woman speaks.
i=
’
(14 REPORT—1890. |
ee ee
Stock Dialect To kill To sit To stand To leave
;
Tlingit 1 Stikeen — “- gya god |
Haida 2 Skidegate té/aqan k"’au/d gia’/ran ka /
Tsimshian 3 Tsimshian ds’ak da ha’yitk da! wult
et 4 Héiltsuk* ha/iqa gua— tla— _—
Nootka 5 Kwakiutl tlatlala/ gua— tla— pia’/o
6 Nootka.Ts’éciath| ka/hsop _ =
Salish 7 Bilqula — amt pps taia/mkits
8 eee cEqoa/item am0o't Ek: ‘alt waiad
Entlate kutE/mEn a/mot é’mai
10 Siciatl = amo’t skod/cit- @mec
11 Snanaimuq — a/omat ckat ha/ya
12 Sk‘qdmic — a/mot stsktsk* é@/mac
13 Lkufigren k’0a/teit a/mat — ia/a
14 Ntlakyapamuq — mi’teaak* te’tliga —_—
15 Stlatluma ok's mi’teak* ta/tElQ k-oatca’te
pol’/strm, mot. } 5) “taal
16 SEQuapmuQq { plural tl’ék-un | plur 41 tsia’m stsla/ut k'utsa’/ts
17 Okana’/k'én kspo/lstrm, mot, aksuwé’/Q,
pl. stlnqunté’m plural kékulé’nt} plural t’owe’s
Kutonaqa 18 Columbia Lakes — sank*’a/mit gawi'ska
[The occurrence of these errors may be ascribed mainly to the distance between
Errata in the Fifth Report of the Committee.
printer and author, preventing a proper revision of the proofs. |
Page 806, line 8, instead of P:b'ntlate read PEntlatc.
» 36,
» 15,
last line,
line 18,
” 8,
” 21,
» 10,
” 22,
» 30,
” 30,
” 2,
» 42,
last line,
line 13,
»”» 23,
” 52,
» 22,
”
”
jaw read chin.
g’ano’k read g'ano'k.
snow 7¢ad town.
waski sead wask’.
k’ok’ read k’0k*.
(vaven)= read =(raven).
K-om0’k‘oa vead Komo'k‘oa.
Lagsé read Liqse.
Tsétsétloa'lak'amaé vead Tsétsétloa'lakiamaé.
Gyi'gyitk:am read Gyi'gyilk‘am.
Ts'E/nHk’aid read TsE/’nuk-aid.
K’omena’kula vead K:omena/kula.
1888 read 1890.
any other read any.
Kemiaminow 7ead Vemiaminoy.
place, or ead place in.
good read food.
sarees omit (with outspread wings).
» 43, instead of koa'qaten read k-oa'qaten,
maple read alder.
Ts'ilky- read Ts’ilky-.
” 13,
” 45,
” 24,
”
iby
”
ttétl read tletl.
» 982, insert ti in beginning of line.
» 8, instead of tliqa read tli qa.
k” read always k*.
gadE read qadB.
3 908;
» ~S2l,
” ”
» 822,
» 823,
» 824,
» 9820,
Sails
” ”
» 828,
» 829,
» 830,
» 831,
» 836,
» 841,
» 846,
eye wise
” ”
» 849,
» 852,
» 860,
” ”
yO OLs
5 S00;
» 864,
” ”
» 865,
Ay hore
», 07-42,
» 37,
”» ”
” 9,
” 13,
”
ka t gad! read ka to qadE
nék’ vead nek‘,
su q' 7ead su q.
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA.
To steal | To lie down To give | Tolaugh To ery
= ajer—te | at —cd'uk: gig
tlé’etcin
tsk’oa/tsut
ia'la
k’e'tlél
na/wulq
pl. gé’tEmést
k@tciliq,
=
kulé’tl
tad
k"6'tlta — @ista | k‘a sk‘ a/ithl
— nag gyEna’m | sis‘a’qs wiha/ut *
kan
tei’l’dtl
sk‘én
tcid/oten
— tld’quit
a/qis ea/sé « ni/em qa/wan
a/qis — qa/agiam qa/qawun
sEni's a/qus yr/nEm qim
= sa/teit qa’yentcin gam
— sa Tigats — qoa’am
_ wow! iq
ka/knzaa O'MEn, Qui'tsHit | k’ak’aca/nik @lal
— { wulé/lem } { tsE0'm,
qoi qoa’yos
—_ Qué’‘tsigt sa/intett
hautlu’pk‘an
‘a’ k'qka —_ oma’ts tlan
Page 867,
” ”
» 869,
OO:
Ord,
” ”
” ”
Sy ay
” ”
=e etethon
ch) ”
” ”
= SHALE
” ”
» 878,
Seog,
” ”
” ”
” ”
Ee osay
” ”
” ”
a ON;
888;
” ”
” ”
ys; «6890,
Ay GEE
» =great say.
?
NG
25,
29
,, 884, last Line,
"886, line 31,
line 19, instead of to read to.
2
© te read té.
6 stiv read sti%.
3 then read there.
“a k'un—ra read k-ufira.
* gya’gen vead gya'gEn.
e tlgogai read tlgagai.
a lu'nséda read 1 u/nséda.
* k-a’itlha'ga read k-aitlha’ga.
“5 yu'Enga read yu'Enga. »
5 yu’'EngEn read yi'EngEn.
5 hi vead Hi.
3 a'ldégi read ha‘ldégi.
33 ts’én read ts’én.
= stz read sts.
3 k aina read k-aina.
ef ds’ak’ read ds’ak‘.
as watk’ read watk*‘.
» _ ds’ak’ read ds’ak*.
re Dords vead Dzords.
- sawuus 7¢ad sawuns,
a5 si/epgEt read si/épe Et.
i wa'usEm 7ead wa'nsEm.
3 sissisi/epkEnd read sissisi'épgEno.
fe si‘epkEn0 read si/épg End.
Pe t’o'uskEno read t’0'us¢End.
3 ya’niqk'En read ya'wiqk'En.
Se hatlubi'etsgEda read hatlebi'etsek da.
3 k-amé’eleq read k-amé'elnq.
is tn’o’n read ano’n,
= se read sii.
is gyituwo’ndwo read cyit’uwd'nowd
es giantlikq6 read giantli'kq6.
= vibrate read verbal. 3A
bo
pl. koa/k't
4
4
‘TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
~
full
f
4
a
j
~
At Ve ff. Sere ee eer Sse
as
719
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS,
Suction AA—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—J. W. L. GLAISHER, S¢c.D., F.R.S , V.P.R.A.S.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
The PresrpEnT delivered the following Address :—
No one who is called upon to preside over this section can fail to be struck by
the range of subjects comprehended within its scope. The field assigned to us
extends from the most exact of all knowledge, the sciences of number, quantity,
and position, to branches of inquiry in which the progress has been so slight that
they still consist of little more than collections of observed facts. This breadth of
area has obvious disadvantages, but it is not without some compensating advan-
tages. In these days when science is so much subdivided it is well that. students
of subjects even so diverse as those with which we have tu deal should occasionally
meet on common ground, and have the opportunity of learning from each other’s
lips the kind of work in which they are engaged. Wide as is our range, we
should remember also how closely knit together in various ways are the more
important of our subjects; and in the case of Mathematics, Astronomy, and
Physics, besides their actual and historical alliance, a mathematician may be
permitted to feel that a special bond of union is created by the mathematical
processes and language which are essential for their investigation and expression.
It is, I am afraid, unfortunate for my audience, that my own subject should be
at one extreme, not only of those dealt with by our section, but even of the still
greater range covered by the Association, I will endeavour, however, in my
remarks to confine myself to a few general considerations relating to pure mathe-
matics which I hope will not be considered out of place on this occasion.
By pure mathematics I do not mean the ordinary processes of algebra,
differential and integral calculus, &c., which every worker in the so-called
mathematical sciences should have at his command. I refer to the abstract
_ sciences which do not rest upon experiment in the ordinary sense of the term, their
fundamental principles being derived from observations so simple as to be more or
less axiomatic. To this class belong the theories of magnitude and position, the
former including all that relates to quantity, whether discrete or continuous, and
the latter including all branches of geometry. The science of continuous magni-
tude is alone a vast region, containing many beautiful and extensive mathematical
theories. Among the more important of these may be mentioned the theories
of double and of multiple periodicity, the treatment of functions of complex
variables, the transformation of algebraical expressions (modern algebra), and the
higher treatment of algebraical and differential equations as distinguished from
their mere solution. It is this kind of scientific exploration which fascinates
720 REPORT—1890.
and rewards the pure mathematician, and upon which his best work is most
profitably spent. I do not wish to under-estimate the importance of such a
subject as Finite Differences, in which a number of distinct problems are treated
with more or less success by interesting methods specially adapted to their solution.
Nor would I willingly undervalue the interest of those branches of mathematics
which we owe to the mathematical necessities of physical inquiry. But it always
appears to me that there is a certain perfection, and also a certain luxuriance and
exuberance, in the pure sciences which have resulted from the unaided, and I might
almost say inspired, genius of the greatest mathematicians which is conspicuously
absent from most of the investigations which have had their origin in the attempt
to forge the weapons required for research in the less abstract sciences. To
illustrate my meaning, I may take as an example of a subject of the latter class
the theory of Bessel’s functions. The object of mathematicians in this case has
been to investigate the properties of functions which have already presented them-
selves in Astronomy and Physics. Formule for their calculation by means of
series, continued fractions, definite integrals, &c., have been obtained in profusion,
numerous theorems of various kinds and applicable to different purposes have been
discovered, extensions and developments have been made in all directions, and
finally the large body of interesting analysis thus accumulated has been classified
and systematised. But, valuable and suggestive as are many of the results and
processes, such a collection of facts and investigations is necessarily fragmentary.
We do not find the easy flow or homogeneity of form which is characteristic of a
mathematical theory properly so called. In such a theory, as for example the
theory of double periodicity (elliptic functions), the subject develops itself
naturally as it proceeds; one group of results leads spontaneously to another ; new
and unexpected prospects open of themselves; ideas the most novel and striking,
which penetrate the mind with a charm of their own, spring directly out of the
subject itself. We are surprised by the wonderful connections with other subjects
which unexpectedly start into existence, and by the widely different methods of
arriving at the same truths; in fact, as our knowledge progresses, we continually
find that results which seemed to lie far away in the interior of the subject—so
remote and concealed that, at first sight, we might think that no other path except
the one actually pursued could have reached them—are actually close to its edge
when approached from another side, or viewed from another standpoint. We
notice, too, that any great theory gives rise to its own special analysis or algebra,
frequently connecting together into one whole what were hitherto merely isolated
and apparently independent analytical results, and affording a reason for their
existence, and also—what is often even more interesting—a reason for the non-
occurrence of others which analogy might have led us to expect. I do not pretend
that there are not many branches of mathematics which partake of both these
characters, nor do I suppose that the description I have given of a mathematical
theory is at all peculiar to pure mathematics. Much of it is common to all scientific
research in a fruitful field, though, possibly, we may not find elsewhere such pro-
fusion of ideas or perfection of form.
I have been tempted to speak at such length on the objects and aims of the
mathematician by the feeling that they are not infrequently misunderstood by the
workers in the less abstract sciences. I do not think that mathematical formule
or processes, merely as such, are much more interesting to the pure than to the
applied mathematician. The one studies number, quantity, and position, the other
deals with matter and motion ; and in both cases the investigations are carried on
by means of the same symbolic language.
The order in which the subjects which form an ordinary mathematical course
are presented to the student is regulated by the fact that portions of the elements
of the pure sciences are required for the explanation and development of any exact
science ; for example, a knowledge of the elements of trigonometry, analytical geo-
metry, and differential and integral calculus, must necessarily precede any adequate
treatment of mechanics, light, or electricity. The majority of students, after
mastering a sufficient amount of pure mathematics to enable them to pass on
to the physical subjects, continue to devote their attention to the latter, and
—_——_-—
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 72)
never know more of the nature of the pure sciences than they can derive
from the processes and methods which they learned at the very outset of their
mathematical studies. This is necessarily the case with many of the wranglers, as
the first part of the mathematical tripos includes no true mathematical theory.
Most of the mathematical text-books in use at Cambridge are so admirably adapted
to the purposes for which they are intended that it seems ungracious to make an
adverse criticism of a general kind. But I cannot help feeling regret that their
writers have had so much in view the immediate application of the principles of
the pure subjects to the treatment of physical problems, In the case of the differen-
tial and integral calculus, for example, there seems an increasing tendency to intro-
duce into the bookwork and examples propositions which really belong to the
physical subjects. This is an important tribute to the growth and influence of
physical mathematics in this country, and a zealous physicist might even consider
it satisfactory that the student should not be required to encumber himself with
Imowledge which was not directly applicable to the theory of matter. But from
the mathematician’s point of view it is unfortunate, for, while shortening by very
little the path of the student, it cannot fail to give an incomplete, if not erroneous,
idea of the relations of the pure to the applied sciences. How can he help feeling
that the former are merely ancillary to the latter when he finds that the mathe-
matical problems which arise naturally in physical investigations have been already
dealt with out of their place in the treatises which should have been devoted
solely to the sciences of quantity and position?
Perhaps few persons who have not had the matter forced upon their attention
fully realise how fragmentary and unsatisfactory is the treatment of even those
fundamental subjects in pure mathematics which form the groundwork of any
course of mathematical study. Algebra is necessarily the first subject set before
the student ; it has therefore to be adapted to the beginner, who at that time is only
learning the first elements of the language of analysis. It is customary to regard
trigonometry as primarily concerned with the solution of triangles; the geometrical
definitions of the sine and cosine are therefore adopted, and after the application of
the formulze to practical measurement and calculation a new departure is made with
De Moivre’s theorem. The elementary portions of the theory of equations and the
differential and integral calculus and differential equations are valuable collections
of miscellaneous principles, processes, and theorems, useful either as results or as
instruments of research, but possessing no great interest of their own. Analytical
geometry fares the best, for it includes one small subject—curves of the second
order—which is treated scientifically and with thoroughness. It is true, however,
that the course of reading just mentioned includes one theory which, though itself
an imperfect one, receives a tolerably complete development—I mean the theory of
single periodic functions: but it is dispersed in such small fragments among the
various subjects that it does not naturally present itself to the mind as a whole. If
we could commence this theory by considering analytically the forms and necessary
properties of functions of one period (thus obtaining their definitions as series and
products), and could then proceed to a detailed discussion of the functions so
defined—including their derivatives, the integrals involving them, the representa-
tion of functions by their means in series (Fourier’s theorem), &c.—we should
obtain a connected system of results relating to a definite branch of knowledge
which would give a good idea of the orderly development of a mathematical
theory ; but the fact that the student at the time of his introduction to sines and
cosines is supposed to be ignorant of all but the most elementary algebra places
great difficulties in the way of any such systematic treatment of the subject.
Passing now to the consideration of pure mathematics itself, that is to say, of
the abstract sciences which can only be conquered and explored by mathematical
methods, it is difficult not to feel somewhat appalled by the enormous development
they have received in the last fifty years. The mass of investigation, as measured by
the pages in Transactions and Journals, which are annually added to the literature
of the subject, is so great that it is fast becoming bewildering from its mere magni-
tude, and the extraordinary extent to which many special lines of study have been
carried. To those who believe, if any such there are, that mathematics exists for
722 REPORT—1890.
the sake of its applications to the concrete sciences, it must indeed seem that it has
long since run wild, and expanded itself into a thousand useless extravagances.
Eyen the mathematician must sometimes ask himself the questions—not un-
frequently put to him by his friends—‘To what is it all tending? What will be
the result of it all? Will there be any end?’ The last question is readily
answered, There certainly can be no end ; so wide and so various are the subjects
of investigation, so interesting and fascinating the results, so wonderful the fields of
research laid open at each succeeding advance—no matter in what direction—that
we may be sure that, while the love of learning and knowledge continues to exist in
the human mind, there can be no relaxation of our efforts to penetrate still further
into the mysterious worlds of abstract truth which lie so temptingly spread
before us. The more that is accomplished, the more we see remaining to be
done. Every real advance, every great discovery, suggests new fields of inquiry,
displays new paths and highways, gives us new glimpses of distant scenery.
This wonderful suggestiveness is itself one of the marks of a true theory, one
of the signs by which we know that we are investigating the actual, exist-
ing truths of nature, and that our symbols and formule are expressing facts
quite independent of themselves, though decipherable only by their means. As
for the other questions, it is very difficult to render intelligible even to a
mathematician the kind of knowledge acquired by mathematical research in a new
field until he has made himself acquainted with its processes and notation, and we
cannot hope to find in the remote regions of an abstract science many results so
simple and striking as to appeal forcibly to the imagination of those who are
unfamiliar with its conceptions and ideas. It would seem therefore that the
question, ‘To what is it all tending P’ could never be answered in general terms.
I do not think any mathematician could see his way to a reply, or even
give definite meaning to the question. He might feel daring enough to predict
the probable drift of his own subject, but he could scarcely get a broad enough
view to enable him to indulge his fancy with respect to more than a very
minute portion of the field already open to mathematical investigation. To the
outsider I am afraid that the subject will continue to present much the same
appearance as it does now; it will always seem to be stretching out into limitless.
symbolic wastes, without producing any results at all commensurate with its
expansion,
Instead of attempting to consider the general question of what may be expected
to result from the progress of mathematical science, we may restrict ourselves to:
asking whether the great extension of the bounds of the subject which is taking
place in our time, will materially add to its powers as a weapon of research in the
concrete subjects. This is a question of the highest interest, and one that cannot
fail to have occupied the thoughts of every mathematician at some time or another
in the course of his work. For my own part, I do not think that the bearing of
the modern developments of mathematics upon the physical sciences is likely to be
very direct or immediate. It would indeed be rash to assert that there is any
branch of mathematics so abstract or so recondite that it might not at any moment
find an application in some concrete subject ; still, it seems to me that, if the exten-
sion of the pure sciences could only be justified by the value of their applications,
it is very doubtful whether a satisfactory plea for any further developments could
be sustained. As a rule each subject involves its own ideas and its own special
analysis, and it can only occasionally happen that analytical methods devised for
the expression and development of one subject will be found to be appropriate for
another. It is obvious also that the chance of such applications becomes less and
less as we travel farther and farther from the elementary processes and methods
which are common to all the exact sciences. There is a general resemblance of
style running through much of the analysis required in the physical sciences, but
there is no such resemblance in the case of the pure sciences, or between the pure
and the physical sciences. It appears likely therefore that, in the future, the
mathematical obstacles which present themselves in physical research will have to
be overcome, as heretofore, by means of investigations undertaken for the purpose,
Cee 1.) ee
»
and that analysis will continue to be enriched by conceptions and results, and . ;
n
-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 723:
eyen by whole subjects (such as spherical harmonics), which will be entirely
due to the concrete sciences. Of course, it will sometimes happen that a
differential equation or an integral has already been considered in connection
with some other theory, or a whole body of analysis or geometry will suddenly be
found to admit of a physical interpretation ; but, after all, even the pure sciences
themselves exert but an indirect effect upon the perfection of mathematical
formulz and processes, and we must be prepared to find that in general the
requirements of physics have to be met by special analytical researches. Having
now endeavoured to consider the proposed question impartially, and from a cold
and rational standpoint, I cannot refrain from adding that, in spite of all I have
said, I believe that every mathematician must cherish in his heart the conviction
that at any moment some special analysis, devised in connection with a branch of
pure mathematics, may bear wonderful fruit in one of the applied sciences,
giving short and complete solutions of problems which could hitherto be
treated only by prolix and cumbrous methods. For example, it is difficult to
believe that the present unwieldy and imperfect treatment of the Lunar Theory is
the most satisfactory that can be devised. We cannot but hope that some happy
discovery in pure mathematics may replace the clumsy and tedious series of our
day by simple and direct analytical methods exactly suited to the problem in
question. In the different branches of pure mathematics, we find not infrequently
that researches connected with one subject incidentally throw a flood of light
= pe another, and that we are thus led to solutions of problems and explanations
of mysteries which would never have yielded to direct attack in the complete
absence of any guide to the proper path to be pursued. So, too, in the Lunar
Theory, if the direct attack should fail to supply any better treatment of the sub-
ject, we cannot but hope that some day the development of a new branch of
mathematics, entirely unconnected with dynamics, may supply the key to the
required method. It should be remembered also that dynamics, which differs
from the pure sciences only by the inclusion of the laws of motion, is but little
removed from them in the character of its more general problems.
It would seem at first sight as if the rapid expansion of the region of mathe-
matics must be a source of danger to its future progress. Not only does the area
widen, but the subjects of study increase rapidly in number, and the work of the
mathematician tends to become moreand more specialised. It is of course merely
a brilliant exaggeration to say that no mathematician is able to understand the work
of any other mathematician, but it is certainly true that it is daily becoming more
and more difficult for a mathematician to keep himself acquainted, even in a
general way, with the progress of any of the branches of mathematics except those
which form the field of his own labours. I believe, however, that the increasing
extent of the territory of mathematics will always be counteracted by increased
facilities in the means of communication. Additional knowledge opens to us new
principles and methods which may conduct us with the greatest ease to results
which previously were most difficult of access; and improvements in notation
may exercise the most powerful effects both in the simplification and accessibility
of a subject. It rests with the worker in mathematics not only to explore new
truths, but to devise the language by which they may be discovered and expressed ;
and the genius of a great mathematician displays itself no less in the notation he
invents for deciphering his subject than in the results attained. There are some
theories in which the notation seems to arise so simply and naturally out of the
subject itself, that it is difficult to realise that it could have required any creative
power to produce it; but it may well have happened that in these very cases it
was the discovery of the appropriate notation which gave the subject its first
real start, and rendered it amenable to effective treatment. When the prin-
ciples that underlie a theory have been well grasped, the proper notation almost
necessarily suggests itself, if it has not been already discovered ; but some sort of
provisional notation is required in the early stages of a theory in order to make
any progress at all, and the mathematician who first gains a real insight into the
nature of a subject is almost sure to be the first to seize upon the right notation.
Ihave great faith in the power of well-chosen notation to simplify complicated
‘724 REPORT—1890.
theories and to bring remote ones near; and I think it is safe to predict that the
increased knowledge of principles and the resulting improvements in the symbolic
language of mathematics will always enable us to grapple satisfactorily with the
difficulties arising from the mere extent of the subject.
Quite distinct from the theoretical question of the manner in which mathe-
matics will rescue itself from the perils to which it is exposed by its own prolific
nature is the practical problem of finding means of rendering available for the
.student the results which have been already accumulated, and making it possible
for a learner to obtain some idea of the present state of the various departments of
mathematics. This is a problem which is common to all rapidly moving branches
of science, although the difficulties are increased in the case of mathematics by its
wide extent and the comparative smallness of the audience addressed. The great
mass of mathematical literature will be always contained in journals and transactions,
but there is no reason why it should not be rendered far more useful and accessible
than at present by means of treatises or higher text-books. The whole science
suffers from want of avenues of approach, and many beautiful branches of mathe-
matics are regarded as difficult and technical merely because they are not easily
accessible. ‘Ten years ago I should have said that even a bad treatise was better
than none at all. Ido not say that now, but I feel very strongly that any intro-
duction to a new subject written by a competent person confers a real benefit on
the whole science. The number of excellent text-books of an elementary kind
that are published in this country makes it all the more to be regretted that
we have so few that are intended for the more advanced student. As an example
of the higher kind of text-book, the want of which is so badly felt in many
subjects, 1 may mention the second part of Professor Chrystal’s Algebra, published
last year, which in a small compass gives a great mass of valuable and fundamental
knowledge that has hitherto been beyond the reach of an ordinary student, though
in reality lying so close at hand. I may add that in any treatise or higher
text-book it is always desirable that references to the original memoirs should
be given, and, if possible, short historical notices also. JI am sure that no
subject loses more than mathematics by any attempt to dissociate it from its
history.
There is no more striking feature in the mathematical literature of our day than
the numerous republications in a collected form of the writings of the greatest
mathematicians, These collected editions not only set before us as a whole the
-complete works of the masters of our science, but they make it possible for others
besides those who reside in the vicinity of large libraries to become acquainted
with the principal contributions with which it has been enriched in our century ;
and, besides being of immense advantage to the science at large, they even go some
way towards supplying the want of systematic introductions to the advanced
subjects. Among these republications the collected edition of Cayley’s works, now
in course of publication by the University of Cambridge, is deserving of especial
notice. By undertaking this great work, not only in the lifetime of its author, but
while in the full vigour of his powers, the University has secured the inestimable
advantage of his own editorship, and thus, under the very best auspices, the world
is now being placed in full possession of this grand series of memoirs, which
already cover a period of nearly fifty years.
Although it may not be possible to contemplate the actual position of pure
mathematics in this country with any great amount of enthusiasm, we may yet
feel some satisfaction in reflecting that there is more cause for congratulation at
present than there has been at any time in the last hundred and fifty years, and
that we are far removed from the state of affairs which existed before the days
of Cayley and Sylvester. Unfortunately, we cannot point with pride to any
distinct school of the pure sciences corresponding to the Cambridge school of
mathematical physics, and I am afraid that the old saying that we have generals
without armies is as true as ever. For this there is no immediate remedy;
a school must grow up gradually of itself, as the study of mathematical physics
has grown up at Cambridge. I certainly should not wish, even if it were possible,
to obtain more recruits for the pure sciences at the expense of the applied, nor do I
a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 725
desire to see the system of instruction which has found favour in this country so:
modified that pure mathematics could be carried on by narrow specialists. I
should be sorry, for example, that a student, after learning algebra and differential
calculus, should pass directly to the theory of curves, and devote himself to
research in this field without ever having acquired a general knowledge of other
branches of mathematics or of any of its applications. Every person who proposes:
to engage in mathematical research should be equipped at starting upon his career
with some knowledge of at least all the subjects included in the first part of the
mathematical tripos. From what I have said in an earlier portion of this address
it may be inferred that, from the point of view of the pure mathematician, I think
that the course of study, and some of the text-books, are capable of improvement ;.
but I am satisfied that a general mathematical training such as the tripos requires
is of the greatest possible value to every student, and that without it he cannot
even make a good decision as to the class of subjects to which he is likely to devote
his labour with the best effect. If the student were brought by the shortest
possible route to the frontier of one of the subjects, where a fruitful field of
research was pointed out to him, there is no doubt that the amount of mathe-
matical literature produced might be greatly increased; but I am sure that the
advantage to science would not be proportional to this increased amount. I am
convinced that no one should devote himself to the abstract sciences unless he
feels strongly drawn to them by his tastes. These subjects are treated by means of"
a powerful symbolic language, and it is the business of the investigator to
discriminate between equations and formule which represent valuable facts in
nature, and those which are merely symbolic relations, deducible from others that
are more fundamental, and having no special significance in the subject itself.
The mathematician requires tact and good taste at every step of his work, and he
has to learn to trust to his own instinct to distinguish between what is really
worthy of his efforts and what is not; he must take care not to be the slave of his-
symbols, but always to have before his mind the realities which they merely serve
to express. Tor these and other reasons it seems to me of the highest importance
that a mathematician should be trained in no narrow school; a wide course of
reading in the first few years of his mathematical study cannot fail to influence for
good the character of the whole of his subsequent work.
Before leaving this part of my subject I should like to say a few words upon
the subject of accuracy of form in the presentation of mathematical results. In
other branches of science, where quick publication seems to be so much desired,
there may possibly be some excuse for giving to the world slovenly or ill-digested
work, but there is no such excuse in mathematics. The form ought to be as perfect as
the substance and the demonstrations as rigorous as those of Euclid. The mathe-
matician has to deal with the most exact facts of nature, and he should spare no:
effort to render his interpretation worthy of his subject, and to give to his work its
highest degree of perfection. ‘ Pauca sed matura’ was Gauss’s motto.
The Universities are the natural home of mathematics, and to them we chiefly
owe its cultivation andencouragement. There is, however, one other much younger
body whose services to our science should not be passed over in any survey of its
present state—I mean the London Mathematical Society. Twenty-five years ago,
upon its foundation, I think the most sanguine mathematician would scarcely have
ventured to predict that it would so soon take the position that it has among the
scientific institutions of the world. The continuous interest taken by its members in
its meetings, and the number and value of the papers published by it, show how
steadily the flame of mathematical inquiry is burning among us. I do not presume to-
assert that the interest taken in the pure sciences can be regarded as an index of the
energy and power of a nation, but it is certain that mathematical research flourishes
only in a vigorous community. The search after abstract truth for its own
sake, without the smallest thought of practical application or return in any form,
and the yearning desire to explore the unknown, are signs of the vitality of a
people, which are among the first to disappear when decay begins.
In conclusion, I will refer in some detail to one special subject—the
Theory of Numbers. It is much to be regretted that this great theory, perhaps the
726 REPORT—1890.
greatest and most perfect of all the mathematical theories, should have been so
little cultivated in this country, and that no portion of it should ever have been
included in an ordinary course of mathematical study. It may be said to date from
the year 1801, when Gauss published his ‘ Disquisitiones Arithmetice,’ so that it is
nearly thirty years older than the Theory of Elliptic Functions, to which we
may assion the date 1829, the year in which Jacobi’s ‘Fundamenta Nova’ appeared.
But the latter theory has already found a congenial home among us, while the
former is nowhere systematically studied, and is still without a text-book. The
chapters in books upon Algebra which bear the title ‘Theory of Numbers’ give a
misleading idea of the nature of the subject, the results there given being mainly
introductory lemmas of the simplest kind. The theory has nothing to do with arith-
metic in the ordinary sense of the word, or numerical tables, or the representation of
numbers by figures in the decimal system or otherwise. All its results are actual
truths of the most fundamental kind, which must exist in rerwm naturd. Its principal
branches are the theory of forms and the so-called complex theories. Such a pro-
position as that every prime number, which when divided by 4 leavesremainder 1,
can always be expressed as the sum of two squares, and that this can be done in
one way only, affords a good example of a very simple result in the theory of forms.
It is entirely independent of any method of representing numbers, and merely asserts
that if we have 5, 13, 17, 29,.&c., things—let us say marbles, to fix the ideas—we
. can always succeed in so arranging them as to form them into two squares, and
that for each number we can do this in but one way. Simple as such a theorem is
to enunciate and comprehend, the demonstration is far from easy. This is charac-
teristic of the whole subject ; simple propositions, which we can easily discover by
trial, and of the universal truth of which we can feel but little doubt, require for
their demonstration a refined and intricate analysis, founded upon the most difficult
and imaginative conceptions which mathematics has as yet attained to in its
struggles to grapple with the actual problems of the worlds of thought and matter.
The theory of quantity consists of two distinct branches—one relating to discrete
quantity and the other to continuous quantity. To the latter branch belong
algebra and all the ordinary subjects of pure mathematics; the former bears the
name of the theory of numbers. Its truths are of the most absolute kind, involving
only the notions of number and arrangement; in fact, if we imagine all the exact
sciences ranged in order, it naturally takes its place at one end of the series. Different
sciences appeal to different intellects with very different force, but there are some
minds over which the absolute character of the fundamental truths that belong to
this theory and the absolute precision of its methods exercise the strongest fascina-
tion, and excite an interest which neither the truths of geometry nor the most
important discoveries depending upon the constitution of matter are capable of
producing.
Many of the greatest masters of the mathematical sciences were first attracted to
mathematical inquiry by problems relating to numbers, and no one can glance at the
periodicals of the present day which contain questions for solution without noticing
how singular a charm such problems still continue to exert. This interest in numbers
seems implanted in the human mind, and it is a pity that it should not have freer
scope in this country. The methods of the theory of numbers are peculiar to itself,
and are not readily acquired by a student whose mind has for years been familiarised
with the very different treatment which is appropriate to the theory of continuous
magnitude ; it is therefore extremely desirable that some portion of the theory
should be included in the ordinary course of mathematical instruction at our
Universities. From the moment that Gauss, in his wonderful treatise of 1801, laid
down the true lines of the theory, it entered upon a new day, and no one is likely
to be able to do useful work in any part of the subject who is unacquainted with
the principles and conceptions with which he endowed it.
Undoubtedly the subject is a difficult and intricate one even in its elementary
parts, but there can be but little doubt that when the processes which are now
only read by specialists on their way to the border become more generally known
and studied, they will be found to admit of great simplification, It is in fact a
territory where there is quite as much scope for the mathematician in simplifying
i
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. T27
what has been already won as in securing new conquests. I hope that the apathy
of so many years may lead to a splendid awakening in this country, and that our
past neglect of this most beautiful theory may be atoned for in the future by
special devotion and appreciation.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee on Hlectro-optics.—See Reports, p. 144.
2: Notes on High Vacua.! By J. SwInBorne.
I.
A form of Geissler pump is described, in which the head of the pump delivers
into an exhausted chamber, whose valve is opened automatically so that there is no
_ back pressure due to small condensations of air or vapours.
II.
Experiments with two M‘Leod gauges were made to find the tension of mercury
vapour. Roughly, the pressure is about fifty-one millionths of an atmosphere, so
that a mercury pump cannot produce vacua of one millionth, or one three-hundredth
of a millionth, as commonly supposed.
3. On the Use of the Lantern in Class-room Work.
By Professor Arcu. Barr, D.Sc., and Professor W. Stroup, D.Sc.
After referring to the advantages of lantern illustrations as compared with
diagrams for class lectures, the authors described arrangements whereby the lantern
may be used in partially lighted rooms during the daytime, and in the evening
without diminishing the ordinary illumination. In these cases the lantern-screen
is placed so that no direct light falls upon it. The lantern is placed on the lecture-
table and operated by the lecturer.
The authors described a simple and convenient form of lantern to be used for
horizontal or vertical projection. When using vertical projection for exhibiting
lantern slides, the slides are seen by the lecturer in their proper aspect (z.e., not
inverted nor turned right for left), so that any details may be readily indicated by
‘a small pointer on the slide itself. By using a finely ground and oiled glass-plate
in place of the lantern slide, the lecturer may write or sketch upon it instead of on
the blackboard.
\ An apparatus was exhibited for the preparation of lantern slides in large num-
_ bers from illustrations in books, periodicals, &c. This consists of a book-holder
having provision for enabling the operator at once to set the picture centrally oppo-
_ site the camera. A carriage, movable along a railway, supports the camera by a
mechanism which permits it to be adjusted to any desired height, but constrains it
so that it is always horizontal and properly directed. A scale upon the railway
and upon the base of the camera graduated in accordance with the size of the illus-
trations to be photographed enables the operator at once to set the camera at the
roper distance from the picture, and to focus it; thus, if the picture be 15 inches
ong the carriage is moved to the graduation 15 on the railway and the back of the
camera to a graduation 15 on the base. The height of the camera also is adjusted
by a scale in accordance with the reading of a scale placed on the book-holder at
the side of the picture. By these means the camera is completely set and focussed
without the use of a ground-glass screen, The picture is illuminated by gas or
other artificial light.
1 Electrician, Sept. 5, 1890.
728 REPORT—1890.
4, On Refraction and Dispersion in certain Metals.
By H. E. J. G. pv Bors and H. Rusens.!
Kundt’s method of experiment with very thin electrolytic metal biprisms was
used in this investigation. In the first place measurements were made on red light
obliquely transmitted ; from the deviations thus observed a process of integration,
entirely independent of any particular optical theory, led to the empirical law
connecting ¢ and ?z,,; these symbols denoting the inclinations of the wave-front in
the air and the metal respectively to their common bounding-surface. Secondly,
the dispersion was determined with all possible care, using four kinds of light
defined by spectral lines. The following is a synopsis of the results :—
I. Light, on passing from Fe, Co, and Ni (probably also from a number of other
metals) into air, begins by following Snellius’ sine law for small angles of emission.
II. The refractive index of such metals is mathematically defined as
Hi (ain éjsin én).
III. The actual metals deviate from ideal substances, supposed to possess the
index thus defined in the following sense: to a given ti, corresponds a greater
value of 2, or to a given 7a lesser value of 7 .
The differences become more marked the greater the inclination, and are given
empirically by the authors’ experiments ; for the three metals they decrease in the
order Ni, Co, Fe.
TV. The anomalous dispersion is illustrated by the following table of refractive
indices :—
Line | Li. a D F G
7
Tron ADEE, ri sont 3:12 2-72 2:43 2-05
Cobalt 3-22 2-76 2°39 2°10
Nickel 2-04 184 171 1°54
5. On an Illustration of Contact Electricity presented by the Multicellular
Electrometer. By Sir Witu1am Tomson, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.
In the multicellular electrometer, the force between the aluminium needles and
the brass cells is modified by the ‘contact-electricity ’ difference between polished
brass and polished aluminium. In the trial instruments made up to about a year
ago, the result was scarcely perceptible; probably because care had not in them
been bestowed to give high polish to the metallic surfaces.
In the instrument as now made, differences of from two-tenths to three-tenths
of a volt are found; averaging about + of a volt.
The force by which + of a volt of difference of potential, on a difference of
100 volts, bears to the force by which the same difference could be shown with the
two metals in metallic connection, the ratio of (100+2)?—100? to (2)? or of
800 tol. Thus the use of the multicellular electrometer gives a new and very
interesting direct proof of Volta’s contact electricity.
Some careful observations in Major Cardew’s new standardising laboratory of
the Board of Trade, made by Mr. Rennie at frequent intervals during the last’ six
weeks, have given doubled differences of from 65 to ‘6, seeming to show a slight
tendency to decrease with time.
6. On Defective Colour Vision. By Lord Rayunicu, Sec.R.8S.
The existence of a defect is probably most easily detected in the first instance
by Holmgren’s wool test ; but this method does not decide whether the vision is
truly dichromic. For this purpose we may fall back upon Maxwell’s colour discs.
1 Berlin Acad. Sitzungsber. July 24, 1890.
~
TRANSACLIIONS OF SECTION Ae 729
“Dichromic vision allows a match between any four colours, of which black
may be one. Thus we may find 64 green + 36 blue =61 black + 39 white, a neutral
matched by a green-blue. But this is apparently not the most searching test.
The above match was in fact made by an observer whose vision I have reason to
think is not truly dichromic, for he was unable to make a match among the four
colours red, green, blue, black. The nearest approach appeared to be 100 red=
8 green +7 blue + 85 black, but was pronounced far from satisfactory. An observer
with dichromic vision, present at the same time, made without difliculty 82 red +
18 blue = 22 green + 78 black, a bright crimson against a very dark green.
It would usually be very unsafe to conclude that a colour-blind person is in-
capable of making a match because he thinks himself so, But, in the present
" instance, repeated trials led to the same result, while other matches, almost equally
forced in my estimation, were effected without special difficulty. It looked as
' though the third colour sensation, presumably red, was defective, but not absolutely
missing. When a large amount of white was present, matches could be made in
| spite of considerable differences in the red component, but when red light was
' nearly isolated its distinctive character became apparent.
This view of the matter was confirmed by experiments with my colour box, in
which, by means of double refraction, a mixture of spectral red and green can be
exhibited in juxtaposition with spectral yellow (‘ Nature,’ Nov. 17,1881). A match
to normal vision requires, of course, that (by rotation of the nicol) the red and green
should be mixed in the right proportions; and secondly, that (by adjustment of
gas) the brightness of the spectral yellow should be brought to the right point.
An observer whose vision is dichromic does not require the first adjustment; any
mixture of red and green, or even the red and green unmixed, can be matched against
the yellow. In the present case, however, although the green could be matched
satisfactorily against the yellow, the red could not. The construction of the
“instrument allowed the point to be investigated at which the match began to fail.
Pure green corresponding to 0, and pure red to 25, the match with yellow began
to fail when the setting reached about 17. Normal vision required a setting of
about IHG
_ Truly dichromic vision may be thus exhibited in a diagram. If we take red,
green, blue, as angular points of a triangle, there is a point upon the plane which
represents darkness. Any colours which lie upon a line through this point differ
‘only in brightness. Maxwell determined the point by comparison of colour-blind
“matches with his own normal ones. It seems preferable to use the colour-blind
“matches only, as may be done as follows: From the match between red, green,
‘blue, and black, the position of black on the diagram may be at once determined,
and for most purposes would represent darkness sufficiently well. A match be-
tween white and the principal colours will then fix its position relatively to the
fundamental points. A line joining black and white is the neutral line; all colours
‘that lie on one side of it are warm, like yellow; all that lie upon the other side
are cold. The point representing darkness will lie upon the neutral line and a
little beyond black. The diagram sketched depends upon the following matches
D
oo from an observer, whom Holmgren would call green-blind :—
Red Green Blue Black White Yellow
— 82:0 +21°8 —18:0 +782 0 0
+ 57:2 —100 +4:8 0 + 38:0 0
0 +96°0 +40 —53:0 — 47:0 0
—100 0 +50 +787 0 +163
7. On some New Vacuum Joints and Taps. By W. A. SHENSTONE.
1890. 38
730 ore REPORT—1890.
8. On the General Theory of Ventilation, with some Applications.
By W. N. Suaw, M.A.
For successful ventilation two primary conditions must be satisfied: (1) there
must be a sufficient supply of air; (2) the entering air must be suitably distributed
in the ventilated space. These two conditions suggest corresponding divisions of
the subject. That part dealing with the amount of air supplied is referred to by the —
term ‘general circulation,’ while the other part, which is concerned with distribu-
tion, may be said to deal with ‘local circulation.’ In this paper the general circula~ —
tion alone is discussed. The motion of the air is supposed to be ‘steady.’
If numbers are used, the units supposed to be employed are the foot, pound,
and second respectively.
The process of ventilation is treated as the flow of air through a duct of more
or less complicated shape. For an ordinary room with open fireplace the parts of
the complete duct are (1) the inlet openings (often indefinite), (2) the room itself,
and (8) the chimney.
The motion of air upon which the ventilation depends is due to the existence
of a ‘ head,’ which is numerically expressed by the work done in driving unit mass
of air through the whole length of the duct. If the work is measured in foot-
pounds and the mass in pounds, the head is expressed as a number of feet in
height of air, and therefore corresponds to a pressure-difference that can be ex-
pressed as difference of water-level or lbs.-weight per square foot.
The head may be due to one or more of the following causes :—
(1) Wind impinging directly upon an opening ;
(2) Wind blowing across an opening ;
(83) Ventilating fans and blowing machines ;
(4) High temperature in a vertical shaft.
The numerical value of the head in feet of air can be calculated from certain
data for each of the four causes.
The volume of air flowing in the unit of time across any imagined cross-section
of. the duct can be expressed in cubic-feet per second, and is called the ‘ flow.’
The following general laws of ventilation are established :—
Law I. Continuity of flow—The mass of air flowing per second across all
transverse sections of the duct is the same. Hence the flow across any section is
inversely proportional to the density of air at that section. If the variations of
density are negligeable we may say that the flow is the same across every section. ~
It would be strictly so if the air were an incompressible fluid.
Law II. Definition of resistance and of equivalent orifice.—For any duct the
ratio of the head to the square of the flow is a constant which depends on the
shape and dimensions of the duct, and is called the ‘ resistance of the duct.’ Two
ducts may give the same flow for the same head, although they may be of widely
different shapes; thus every duct, no matter how complicated, is equivalent to and
can be represented by an orifice of suitable size in a thin plate. The thin-plate
orifice equivalent to a duct is called (following M. Murgue) the ‘ equivalent orifice —
of the duct.’ If r bethe resistance of a duct, and a the area of its equivalent
orifice, R=1/27a? approximately. [Foot, Ib. sec. units. ]
The resistance of a duct of known form can be calculated from its dimensions ;
bends, gratings, &c., increase its resistance, and can be allowed for, as shown in
Péclet’s Traité de la Chaleur.
Law III. Ducts in series.—If a duct is formed by connecting ‘in series’ two
or more separate ducts, its resistance is the sum of the resistances of the several
components, provided that two ducts are only, understood to be connected when
the opposed ends of each communicate with an ample air-space (otherwise closed)
separating them.
The head for the complete circulation may be regarded as the sum of the heads
for each component duct.
Law IV. Parallel ducts—When ducts are arranged parallel, or in ‘ multiple
arc’ (as when a number of openings are made side by side in one wall), they are
a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 731
equivalent to a resultant duct whose equivalent orifice is equal to the sum of the
equivalent orifices of the components.
These Laws are applied to furnish solutions (making certain assumptions) to the
following problems :—
1. To determine from measurements of the flow the equivalent orifice of a
duct—e.g., a chimney.
2. To determine the equivalent orifice of the casual inlets (chinks in doors and
windows) of a room.
3. To calculate the amount of air that will enter by an open window into an
otherwise closed room, maintained at a known difference of temperature above
that of the outside air.
4, To calculate the conditions under which a straight vertical chimney is liable
to act as inlet and outlet simultaneously.
5. To calculate the condition under which the outward flow through an extract-
ventilator is liable to be reversed in a room with an open fire.
6. To determine the conditions necessary for the isolation of one circulation
from another—e.g., to prevent the air of one room passing into an adjoining room.
9. Account of Hzperiments to determine the Variations in Size of Drops
with the Interval between the Fall of each. By W. Binnie, B.A.
These experiments were carried out while the author was engaged in construct-
ing a self-registering rain-gauge, designed so as to count each drop as it fell from
the funnel. Thus, the correct working of the gauge depended on the assumption
_ that drops falling from a tube remained constant in size under varying conditions.
This assumption proved partially incorrect, as it was found that the size of the drops
varied, within certain limits, with the interval of time between the fall of each;
_ but, as will be seen, by choosing the funnel of such a diameter as not to discharge
drops at more than a certain speed, error from this cause could be eliminated. The
variations which took place with various tubes of different diameter, also with a
drop falling from a plate, were shown in a diagram; the horizontal scale re-
presenting the interval in seconds, the vertical the size of drops in hundredths
of one cubic centimetre. Similar variations took place in all the tubes. When the
interval remained constant, the size of the drop was constant. When the interval
between the fall of each drop was greater than ten seconds or thereabouts the size
of the drop became constant, as shown by the curve in each case becoming parallel
with the horizontal scale. About this point a variation began to set in when the
intervals between the fall of each drop grew shorter, and this variation rapidly
increased, until, when the interval became nothing, or, in other words, the drops
formed a stream, a drop of infinite size, the curves would become asymptotic to
the vertical scale line. The curves show the variations which take place between
these two extreme cases. Drawings of the drops seemed to indicate that, with
intervals shorter than ten seconds or thereabouts, small accessory drops became
split off together with one main drop, so that the variation might be due to the
fact that this accessory detachment became larger relatively to the main drop as
the interval became shorter. The theoretical size of the drop for each tube is also
plotted on the diagram, and is in each case considerably above the value of the drop
when it became constant. This might be due to the tubes not being perfectly
clean.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 65.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Recent Determinations of the Absolute Resistance of Mercury.
By R. T. Guazesroor, M.A., F.R.S.
402 REPORT—1 890.
2. Suggestions towards a Determination of the Ohm.)
By Professor J. Viriamo Jonzs, M.A.
The main suggestions offered for consideration are—
1. That the time is ripe for a new determination of the ohm that shall be final
for the practical purposes of the electrical engineer.
2. That such a determination may be made by the method of Lorenz, the spe-
cific resistance of mercury being obtained directly in absolute measure by the
differential method described.
3. That the standard coil used in the determination should consist of a single
layer of wire, the coefficient of mutual induction of the coil and dise circumference
being calculated by a new formula (communicated by the author to the Physical
Society in November 1888, ‘ Phil. Mag.’ January 1889).
Measurements have been made on the lines indicated in the Physical Laboratory
of the University College at Cardiff. Five complete sets of observations were taken
in the spring of this year, with the following results for the specific resistance of
mercury at O° C. :—
(1) 94,108 absolute units
(2) 94074, yy
(3) 94098,
(ay "ado
(5) 94,021 ss "
Mean 94,067 +10 (probable error).
The result may be otherwise expressed by saying that the ohm is equal to the
resistance of a column of mercury of one square millimetre sectional area, and
106307 centimetres long, the probable error being + 0:012.
[These Papers were followed by a Discussion on Electrical Units. ]
3. On Alternate Currents in Parallel Conductors of Homogeneous or.
Heterogeneous Substance. By Sir Witu1am THomsoy, D.C.L., LL.D.,
FE.R.S.
This Paper consists of a description of some of the results of a full mathema-
tical investigation of the subject, which the author hopes to communicate to the
‘ Philosophical Magazine ’ for an early number :—
1. Two or more straight parallel conductors, supposed for simplicity to be
infinitely long, have alternating currents maintained in them by an alternate-
current dynamo or other electro-motive agent applied to one set of their ends at so
great a distance from the portion investigated that in it the currents are not
sensibly deviated from parallel straight lines. The other sets of ends may,
indifferently in respect to our present problem, be either all connected together
without resistance, or through resistances, or through electro-motive agents. All
that we are concerned with at present is, that the conductors we consider form
closed circuits, or one closed circuit, and that therefore the total quantities of —
electricity per unit of time at any instant traversing the normal sections in opposite —
directions are equal.
2. We suppose the period of the alternation to be very great in comparison
with the time taken by light to traverse a distance equal to the greatest diameter
of cross-section of our whole group of conductors. This supposition is implied in —
the previous assumption of parallel rectilinearity of the electric stream lines, and —
of equality of the quantities of electricity traversing, in opposite directions, the —
several areas of a normal section.
3. We further suppose that the length of our conductors and their effective
1 Published in eatenso in the Electrician, vol. xxv. No. 644.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 733
ohmic resistances are so moderate! that the quantities of electricity deposited on
and removed from their boundaries to supply the electrostatic forces along the
conductors required for producing the alternations of the currents, are negligeable
in comparison with the total quantity flowing in either direction in the half period.
This supposition excludes important practical problems of telegraphy and tele-
phony, the problem of long submarine cables, for instance; but it includes the
problem of electric lighting by alternating currents transmitted at high tension
through considerable distances; as, for example, from Deptford to London,
4, The general investigation includes as readily any number of separate circuits
of parallel conductors as a single circuit, but, for simplicity in describing results, I
suppose our system of conductors to be so joined at their ends as to constitute a
single simple circuit of two parallel conductors? It may be either two parallel
conductors or one conductor, one of which may or may not surround the other, as
shown in Figs. 1 and 2, representing cross-sections. Each conductor may be
single, as in Figs. 1 and 2, or either may be multiple parallels.
Fig. 1.
5. We suppose each conductor to be homogeneous in substance, and in cross-
section from end to end, but not necessarily homogeneous in different parts of the
cross-section. Thus the two conductors, or the different parts of either, may be
of different metals, or either conductor or any part of either conductor may consist
of me metals (as iron and copper, or iron and lead) laid parallel and soldered
together.
an We shall call A and A’ the cross-sectional areas or groups of areas of the
two conductors respectively of the other. All the different portions of A are con-
nected metallically at their two ends, and are thus all of them at one potential at
one end and another potential at the other end; and similarly for A’. The homo-
geneousness of the material and of the cross-sections along the length of the con-
ductors and the uniformity of the total currents assumed in section 3, implies that all
the different parts of A in one cross-sectional plane are at one potential, even
though A consist of mutually isolated parts, or A’ consist of isolated parts. If, as
1 The circumstances in which this condition is fulfilled may be usefully illustrated
by considering the important practical cases of submarine cables, and of metallic
circuits of two parallel wires insulated at a distance anything less than a few
hundred times their diameter. For all these cases the numeric expressing the
electrostatic capacity of either conductor per unit length (the other supposed for the
moment to be at zero potential) is between 2 and 0:1, and for our present rough com-
parison may be regarded as moderate in comparison with unity. On this supposition
the condition of the text requires for fulfilment that the mean proportional between
the velocity which expresses in electro-magnetic measure the resistance of one of the
conductors and the velocity of a body travelling the length of the conductor in a time
equal to half the period of alternation, shall be exceedingly small in comparison
with the velocity of light.
? The case of a single circuit made up of parallel conductors, so joined at their
ends that to travel once round it we must go and come two or three or more times
along separate conductors, joined by their ends in series, so as to make one circuit,
is specially considered in my Paper on ‘ Anti-Effective Copper in Parallel or in Coiled
Conductors for Alternating Currents,’ p. 736.
734 REPORT—1890.
in Figs, 1 and 2, all the parts of A are in mutual metallic connection, and all the
parts of A’ are in mutual metallic connection, this would entail uniformity of
potential through A, and uniformity of potential through A’, even without the
limitation of our subject laid down in section 3.
7. The following are some of the most noteworthy results of the full mathe-
matical treatment of the subject :—
I. When the period of alternation is large in comparison with 400 times the
square of the greatest thickness or diameter of any of the conductors, multiplied by
its magnetic permeability, and divided by its electric resistivity, the current
intensity is distributed through each conductor inversely as the electric resistivity ;
the phase of alternation of the current is the same as the phase of the electro-
motive force; and the current across every infinitesimal area of the cross-section —
is calculated, according to the electro-motive force at each instant, by simple
application of Ohm’s law.
II. When the period is very small in comparison with 400 times the square of
the smallest thickness, or diameter of any of the conductors, multiplied by its
magnetic permeability and divided by its electric resistivity, the current is confined
to an exceedingly thin surface-stratum of the conductors. The thickness of this
stratum is directly as the square root of the quotient of resistivity, divided by
magnetic permeability, of the substance in different parts of the surface. The total
quantity of the current per unit breadth of the surface independent of the material,
and, except in such cases as those referred to at the end of II. below, varies in each
cross-section in simple proportion to the electric surface density of the’ static
electrification induced by the electro-motive force applied between the extremities
for maintaining the current. The distribution of this electric density is similar in
all cross-sections, but its absolute magnitude at corresponding points of the cross-
section varies along the length of the conductor in simple proportion to the
difference of electric potential between A and A’, and is zero at one end, in the
particular case in which the conductors are connected through zero resistance at
one end, while the electro-motive force is applied by an alternate current dynamo
at the other end. On the other hand, the surface distribution of electric current is
uniform throughout the whole length of the conductors, and it is only its distribu-
tion in different parts of the cross-section that varies as the electric density.
The proportionality of surface intensity of the current to electric density,
asserted above, fails clearly in any case in which the circumstances are such that
the distance we must travel along the surface to find a sensible difference in
electric density is not very great in comparison with the thickness of the current-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. dao
stratum. Such a case is represented in Fig. 3, which is drawn to scale for alternate
currents of period ; of a second in round rods of copper of six centimetres
diameter. The spaces between the outer circular boundaries and the inner fine
circles indicate what I have called the ohmic thickness,! being ‘714 of a centimetre
for copper of resistivity 1611 square centimetres per second. The full solution for
such a case as that represented in Fig. 3 belongs to the large class of cases inter-
mediate between I. and II., and could only be arrived at by a kind of transcendent
mathematics not hitherto worked. But, without working it out, it is easy to see
how the time-maximum intensity of the current will diminish inwards from the
surface, and will be, at any point of either of the inner fine circles, about one-half
or one-third of what it is at the nearest point of the boundary surface ; and that at
points in the surface, distant from B B’ by one-half or one or two times the ohmic
thickness, the current intensity will be much smaller than it isat B and B’.
TII. In Case I. the heat generated per unit of time, per unit of volume, in
different parts of the conductors, is inversely as the electric resistivity of the sub-
stance, and directly as the square of the total strength of current at any instant.
In Case II. the time-average of the heat generated per unit of time, per unit of
area of the current stratum, is as the time-average of the square of the quantity
of current per unit breadth, multiplied by the square root of the product of the
electric resistivity into the magnetic permeability.
IV. Example of III.: Let the conductor A be a thin flat bar, as shown in the
diagram (Fig. 4), A’ being a tube surrounding A, or another flat bar like A, or a
conductor of any form whatever, provided only that
its shortest distance from A is a considerable Fie, 4.
multiple of the breadth of A. The thickness of
A must be sufficiently great to satisfy the condition
of II., and its breadth must be a large multiple of
its thickness. (For copper carrying alternating
currents of frequency 80 periods per second, these
- conditions will be practically fulfilled by a flat bar
of 4 ems. thickness and 30 or 40 cms. breadth.) bee
The current in it is chiefly confined to two strata,
_ extending to small distances inwards from its two
sides. (For copper and frequency 80 periods per second, the time-maximum of in-
tensity of the current at the surface will be about e*, or 7-4 times what it is at a
distance 1:43 cm. in from the surface.) The quantity of current per unit breadth,
or, a8 we may call it for brevity, the surface-density of the current in each stratum,
is determined by the well-known solution of the problem of finding the surface-
electric-density of an electrified ellipsoid of conductive material undisturbed by any
other electrified body. The case we have to consider is that of an ellipsoid whose
longest diameter is infinite, medium diameter the breadth of our flat conductor,
and least diameter infinitely small. In this case the electric density varies in-
versely as 4/(OB?—OP*). The graphic construction in the drawing shows
PQ=./(OB?—OP?), and we conclude that the time-maximum of the surface-
density of the current varies inversely as PQ. The infinity, which in the electric
problem we find for electric density of the ideal conductor, is obviated for the
electric current problem by the proper consideration of the rectangular corners or
the rounded edge (as the case may be) of our copper bar, which, though exceed-
ingly interesting, is not included in the present communication. Suffice it to say
that there will be no infinities, even if the corners be true mathematical angles.
Y. Example of Cases I. and II.: Let A consist of three circular wires, C, L,
and I, of copper, lead, and iron respectively. In Case I. the quantities of the
whole current they will carry, and the quantities of heat generated per unit of
time in them, will be inversely as their resistivities. In Case II., if the centres of
the three circular cross-sections form an equilateral triangle, the quantities of heat
generated in them will be directly as the square roots of the resistivities for 0 and L;
and for I would be as the square root of the product of the resistivity into the
magnetic permeability, if the magnetic permeability were constant and the viscous
1 Collected Papers, vol. iii. Art. cii. section 35,
736 REPORT—1890.
or frictional resistance to change of magnetism nothing for the iron in the actual
circumstances. This last supposition is probably true approximately with a
permeability of 4; for iron or steel, according to Lord Rayleigh, if the current is
so small that the greatest magnetising force acting on the iron is less than
10C.-G.-S.
VI. The dependence of the total quantity carried on extent of surface, accord-
ing to the electrostatic problem described in II., justifies Snow Harris, and proves
that those who condemned him out of Ohm’s law were wrong, in respect to his
advising tubes or broad plates for lightning conductors; but does not justify him
in bringing them down in the interior of a ship (even through the powder maga-
zine) instead of across the deck and down its sides, or from the masts along the
rigging and down the sides to the water. The non-dependence of the total quan-
tities of current on the material, whether iron or non-magnetic metals, seems
quite in accordance with Dr. Oliver Lodge's experiments and doctrines regarding
‘alternative path’ and lightning conductors. ‘The case of alternate currents is, of
course, not exactly that of lightning discharges ; but from it, by Fourier’s methods,
we infer the main conclusions of II. and V., whether the discharges be oscillatory
or non-oscillatory, provided only that it be as sudden as we have reason to believe
lightning discharges are.
4. On Anti-EHffective Copper in Parallel Conductors or in Coiled Conductors
for Alternate Currents. By Sir Witu1am TuHomson, D.O.L., LL.D., F.B.S.
1. It is known that by making the conductors of ‘a circuit too thick we do not
get the advantage of the whole conductivity of the metal—copper, let us say—for
alternate currents. When the conductor is too thick, we have in part of it com-
paratively ineffective copper present ; but, so far as I know, it has generally been
supposed that the thicker the conductor the greater will be its whole effective con-
ductance, and that thickening it too much can never do worse than add compara-
tively ineffective copper to that which is most effective in conveying the current.
It might, however, be expected that we could get a positive augmentation of the
effective ohmic resistance, because we know. that the presence of copper in the
neighbourhood of a circuit carrying alternate currents causes a virtual increase of
the apparent ohmic resistance of the circuit in virtue of the heat generated by the
currents induced in it. May it not be that anti-effective influence such as is thus
produced by copper not forming part of the circuit can be produced by copper
actually in the circuit, if the conductor be too thick? Examining the question
mathematically, I find that it must be answered in the affirmative, and that great
augmentation of the effective ohmic resistance is actually produced if the con-
ductor be too thick; especially in coils consisting of several layers of wire laid over
one another in series around a cylindric or flat core, as in various forms of trans-
former.
2. Fig. 1 may be imagined to represent the secondary coil of a transformer con-
sisting of solid square copper wire in three layers. For simplicity we suppose the
axial length to be infinitely great, and straight; but the uniformity which this
involves, and a close practical application to its simplicity, is realised in that ex-
cellent form of transformer which consists of a toroidal iron core completely
covered by primary and secondary wires laid on toroidal surfaces. To simplify the
mathematical work, I suppose the whole thickness of the three layers to be small
in comparison with the greatest radius of curvature of the circular or flat cylindric
surface on which the wire is wound, but if it is not so the solution is easily
obtained, for the case of circular cylinders, in terms of the Fourier-Bessel functions.
It is of no consequence for our present question what there be inside of coil No. 3,
and, if we please, we may imagine there to be nothing but air; the drawing, how-
ever, indicates an iron core and aspace which might be occupied by the primary coil,
if a transformer is the subject ; or our coil A A A A may be the primary coil of
a transformer with secondary coil and core inside it, and the alternate current
maintained in it by an external electro-motive agent acting in an arc between its
ends outside. Our present results are applicable to all these varieties of cases
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 737
indifferently, all that is essential being that the total quantity of current be given
at each instant, and be uniform throughout the whole length of the coiled con-
ductor.
8. This last condition is secured by perfectness of insulation between all con-
tiguous turns of the coil, unless we were considering so enormously long a coil that.
Fie. 1.
the quantity of electricity required for the essential changes of static electrification
would be sensible as constituting drafts from, or contributions to, the current in
the coil. The consideration of static electrification, involved in the maintenance
of alternate currents through acoil such as that represented in Fig. 1, is exceed-
ingly curious and interesting ; but we do not enter on it at present at all, as in all
practical cases the quantities concerned are quite infinitesimal in comparison with
the whole quantity flowing in one direction or the other in the half period.
4, In the drawing the section of the wires is represented as square; but this:
is not essential, and in practice a flat rectangular ribbon would, no doubt, for some:
dimensions of coils, be preferable. I assume the thickness of the insulation
between the successive squares or rectangles in each layer to be infinitely small in
comparison with the breadth of the rectangle ; but the thickness of the insulation
between successive layers, which is a matter of indifference to my calculations,
may be anything ; and would, in practice, naturally be, as shown in the diagram,
considerably greater than the thickness of the insulation between the contiguous.
portions of the coil in each layer.
5. The full mathematical work which I hope to communicate to the ‘ Philo-
sophical Magazine’ for publication in an early number includes an investigation of
the self-induction of the coil with or without anything in its interior (such as core
or primary wire of a transformer) ; but at present I merely give results, so far as:
effective ohmic resistance, or generation of heat in the interior of the wire of the coil
A A A A itself, is concerned, which, as said above, is independent of everything
in the interior, and of the mode in which the alternating current is produced,
provided only that the total amount of electricity crossing the section of the wire
per unit of time be given at each instant.
6. Asa preliminary to facilitate the expression of these results, it is convenient.
first to give a general statement of the solution of the problem of laminar diffusion
of a simple harmonic variation, applied to the case of electric currents in a homo-
geneous conductor. Let the periodically varying magnetic force in the air or other
insulating material in the neighbourhood of so small a portion, S, of the surface of
a conductor that we may regard it as plane, be given. Resolve this magnetic
738 REPORT—1 890.
force into two components, one, perpendicular to 8, which we may neglect, as it
has no influence in connection with the currents we are to consider, the other,
parallel to S, which we shall eall the effective component and denote by Y.
Through any point O, of S, draw three rectangular lines OX, O Y, OZ, of which
OY and OZ are in §, and O X is parallel to the direction of the effective magnetic
force component Y. Let now the value of Y at time ¢ be
Qrt
—
where M denotes a constant, and T the period of the alternation. The varying
magnetic force Y, to whatever causeit may be due, implies currents parallel of
OZ in the conductor, expressed by the formula for y, the current intensity at
distance X from the plane S, provided T be small enough to fulfil the condition
stated below :—
Y=M cos
_ M282 | (Get Bee 1),
a Aaya A COS T a NX +47 ?
where A denotes what we may call the wave-length of the disturbance, and is
given in terms of T, the period of the disturbance, and p and II the resistivity
and magnetic permeability of the substance, by the following formula :—
a= 4/32.
II
For copper we have I1=1, and p=1611 square centimetres per second; and thus
for 80 periods per second \=4°49, or, say, 4$ centimetres. In order that the
formula for y may be approximately true it is necessary, in the first place, that A
must be small in comparison with the distance we must travel in any direction in
the surface of S before finding any deviation of it from the tangent plane through
© comparable with A. Secondly, for a very good approximation, A must be so small
that we may be able to travel inwards in any direction from O, through a space
equal to at least twice A, without coming to any other part of the bounding surface
of the conductor. If, for example, the surface be a flat plate, this condition
requires that the thickness be more than twice A. But (because e—7 is less than
2) the formula gives a very fair approximation requiring for a half the thickness
of the plate inwards from S no greater correction than about 4 per cent., even if
the thickness of our plate be no greater than A. When the thickness of the plate
is less than 2 A, we may consider waves of electric current as travelling inwards
from its two sides, and being both sensible at the middle of the plate; and a
complete solution of the problem is readily found by the method of images. But
a direct analytical investigation, by which the proper conditions of relation to
varying magnetic force on the two sides of the plate are fulfilled, is the most con-
venient way of fully solving the problem, and it is thus that the results given
below have been obtained.
7. The smallness of the insulating space between the successive turns in each
layer of our coil A A A A, and the equality of the whole current through them
all, prevent any surface disturbance from being produced at the contiguous faces,
and allow the problem to be treated as if, instead of a row of squares or rectangles,
we had a continuous plate forming each stratum. The smallness of the thickness of
this plate in comparison with the radius of the cylindric surface to which it is bent
allows, as said above, the mathematical treatment for an infinite plate bounded by
two parallel planes to be used without practical error. I have thus found an
expression for the intensity of the current at any point in the metal of any one
of the layers of a coil of one, two, three, or more layers; and have deduced from
it an expression for the quantity of heat generated per unit of time, at any instant,
per unit breadth in any one of the layers. I need not at present quote the former
expression ; the latter is as follows :—With gq to denote the dynamical value of the
time-average of the heat generated per unit of time at different instants of the
period, per unit breadth and unit length in layer No. ¢, from the outside of the
a. *=—- += 7)
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 4A. 739
coil, c* the time-average of the square of the total current per unit breadth, and a
the thickness of the layer,
2 ec?
q- we ’
A
where
26 : = 910 r) c = 6
&€ 4+2sin26-¢ estas &°—2'sin 6—€
O= — ae Ah (esi) SS
20 _20 @ a6:
€ —2cos2ZA+é —E +2cos6+€&
and
ga274
x
8. The numerical results shown in the table have been calculated, and the
ree graphic representation (Fig. 2) drawn for me by Mr. Magnus
aclean,
Hreteg!
Table of Values of ®.
ao 8 ey (25 i483 er
vie
1 5113 5-118 5-127 5141
2 2-553 9-592 2-669 2-786
4 1:316 1634 2270 3-224
6 ‘9854 1:997 4-019 7-053
8 ‘9173 2-993 7-143 13:37
10 9459 4-062 10:30 19°65
12 9822 4-899 12°73 24-48
14 1-000 5-276 13°83 26°66
16 1-002 5362 14-08 27-16
i“ 5-000 3-00 25-00
740 REPORT—1890.
9. We see from the tables and curves that each curve has a minimum distance
from the line of abscissas, and that each comes to an horizontal asymptote, parallel
to the line of abscissas, for = oc. By looking at the formula we see that there is,
in fact, an infinite succession of minimums and maximums in the expression for © ;
but it is only the first minimum and following maximum that occur within the
range of variation of ©, which we regard as sensible. In the case of 7=1 the
formula gives 6=4-7 for the first minimum. The curves show for the cases of
t=2, 3, 4, respectively the first minimum at 160 =4}, 3, and 2°6 respectively.
us
The thickness which corresponds to 6=7 is the half-wave length of the electric
disturbance, which, as we have seen, is for copper 2:244 centimetres when the fre-
quency of the alternations is 80 periods per second ; and for this case, therefore, the
thicknesses that give minimum generation of heat in the first, second, third, and
fourth layers are respectively 11-22, 6°31, 4:21, and 3°65 millimetres. Anything
more of continuous copper than these thicknesses in any of the layers would. be
not merely ineffective or comparatively ineffective, but would be positively anti-
effective. Even with so small a thickness as 2°8 millimetres, for copper and
frequency 80, line 2 of the table (corresponding to a sixteenth of the wave length)
shows, in the first, second, third, and fourth layers, losses of 0:3 per cent., 2 per
cent., 5 per cent., and 10 per cent. in excess of that due to the true ohmic
resistance of the copper were it all effective. When the size chosen for the trans-
former and the amount of output required of it are such that a thickness of 24
millimetres in the direction perpendicular to the layers is insufficient, a remedy is
to be had by using braided wire, or twisted strand, with slight insulation of varnish
or whitewash, crushed or rolled into rectangular or square form of the desired
thickness and breadth. A very slight resistance between the different wires thus
crushed together would suffice to cause the current to run nearly enough full bore
to do away with any sensible loss from the cause which forms the subject of this
communication.
5. The Molecular Theory of Induced Magnetism (with exhibition of a Model).
By Professor J. A. Ewine, F.R.S.
In applying Weber's theory of molecular magnets to explain the phenomena of
induced magnetism, it is not necessary to assume that the molecules are subject to:
any other directional constraint than is supplied by their mutual magnetic forces.
This is demonstrated by means of a model consisting of a group of small perma-
nent magnets, each free to turn about a fixed centre. The manner in which the:
configuration of the group changes when an external magnetic field is imposed or
varied in any way is shown, by means of the model, to correspond exactly with.
the known character of the corresponding changes of induced magnetism in
iron and other susceptible metals. Hysteresis, of which magnetic retentiveness is
one manifestation, occurs in virtue of the movements of the molecules through con-
ditions of instability ; these movements, being mechanically irreversible, involve dissi-
pation of energy. Such movements occur when metals are subjected to cyclic
strains, apart from the existence of magnetisation. The author has developed his.
views in a paper communicated to the Royal Society (‘ Proceedings, June 19, 1890)
and republished in the ‘Philosophical Magazine’ for September 1890. The con-
siderations adduced there lead to the following conclusions :—
1, That in considering the magnetisation of iron and other magnetic metals
to be caused by the turning of permanent molecular magnets, we may look simply
to the magnetic forces which the molecular magnets exert on one another as the
cause of their directional stability. There is no need to suppose the existence of
any quasi-elastic directing force or of any quasi-frictional resistance to rotation.
2. That the intermolecular magnetic forces are sufficient to account for all
the general characteristics of the process of magnetisation, including the variations
of susceptibility which occur as the magnetising force is increased.
3. That the intermolecular magnetic forces are equally competent to account
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 741
for the known facts of retentiveness and coercive force and the characteristics of
cyclic magnetic processes.
. 4, That magnetic. hysteresis and the dissipation of energy which hysteresis in-
volves are due to molecular instability resulting from intermolecular magnetic
actions, and are not due to anything in the nature of frictional resistance to the
rotation of the molecular magnets.
5. That this theory is wide enough to admit explanation of the differences in
magnetic quality which are shown by different substances or by the same substance
in different states. .
6. That it accounts in a general way for the known effects of vibration, of
temperature, and of stress upon magnetic quality.
7. That in particular it accounts for the known fact that there is hysteresis in
the relation of magnetism to stress.
8. That it further explains why there is, in magnetic metals, hysteresis in
physical quality generally with respect to stress, apart from the existence of
magnetisation.
9. That, in consequence, any (not very small) cycle of stress occurring in a
magnetic metal involves dissipation of energy.
6. Some Experiments to determine Wave Velocity in certain Dielectrics.
nd By Frep. T. Trovuron,
The general method employed was described in ‘ Nature,’ January 1890. In
Hertz’s well-known experiment of ‘ Loops and Nodes’ a sheet of a dielectric is
inserted between the reflector and the resonator. The effect of this is to shift
the system of loops and nodes towards the reflector. From the amount of this
shift the index of refraction can be found. If the reflection from the surfaces
be neglected p=“2—*
where x, is the distance to the node in air or one quarter
of the wave-length, and w the distance on inserting the sheet, 7 being the thickness
of the sheet. A more complete formula, where the multiple reflections are con-
sidered, as in Newton’s rings, is
: l
Q sin ct
RCN aa nslaite 58" Yio dbo
Fie 2
ws (uw? —1) + (uw? +1) cos mpl
Xo
Experiments were made with pitch, solid paraffin, and sulphur. The index, as
determined from the more complete formula for pitch, was found to be about 1:7
(Hertz with his great pitch prism found about the same), but for sulphur and
paraffin it came out quite too large—between 3 and 4. An explanation of this
was put forward in the paper. The size of the reflector employed was so small
that it introduced diffraction phenomena; that is to say, the nodes were situated
further out than if an infinite plane were used as reflector (see ‘ Nature,’ August
1889). This is caused by the increased velocity of the disturbance near a small-
sized reflector. The explanation put forward maintains that this abnormal value
of the velocity is effected in a greater ratio by the insertion of the dielectric sheet
than the normal velocity would be. Taking the value of this velocity at distance
Qo 2qe2
ras V=v es , where v is the normal value, it was shown that the index or
ratio of the velocities at distance » was greater than p, the normal index. This
would explain why pitch came out satisfactorily, while paraffin and sulphur did
not. For the pitch sheet was over 6 cm. thick, while the other two were only
about 3 cm.
Part of the paper contained an account of experiments on the absorptive
powers of certain substances made by obtaining reflection from thin sheets. Thus
glass and limestone 2 cm. thick afforded reflection. This is no doubt due to the
absorption of the beam reflected from the back being so weakened by absorption
742 REPORT—1890.
that it is unable to interfere with that from the front and produce ‘ darkness,’ ag
it does in the case of paraftin, &c.
Other experiments with substances in the state of powder, such as chalk, sand,
&c., were made. These absorbed but slightly. Lampblack acted more strongly.
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
The following Papers were read :—
DEPARTMENT I.—MATHEMATICS.
1. On the Physical Character of Caustic Surfaces. By J. Larmor.
The diffraction produced at a caustic is peculiar in that it is not conditioned by
a beam of light limited by an aperture or otherwise. The theoretical explanation
why undulations, propagated by unlimited wave-fronts, cannot penetrate beyond a
certain geometrical surface, was slightly indicated by Thomas Young, and fully
worked out on Fresnel’s principles by Sir G. B, Airy, for the special case of the
rainbow.
It is worth while to formulate the general law of the thicknesses of the bright
bands which, for any kind of homogeneous light, lie parallel to the principal
physical caustic. As the beam of light is determined solely by the geometrical
caustic, or ray-envelope, it is clear that the law must be expressed in terms of
this surface. It comes out that
The bands form, along with the geometrical caustic, a system whose relative dis-
tances apart are in every case the same, and whose absolute distances at any point
are proportional to the two-thirds power of the radius of curvature of the caustic
surface at the point, measured in the direction of the rays.
2. The Buckling of Plates. By G. H. Bryan.
In this paper are worked out the analogues for a plane plate of the well-
known conditions of stability of a straight elastic wire under axial force.
The first case considered is that of a rectangular plate, supported but not
clamped round its boundary, and acted on by different uniform edge thrusts in its
plane applied perpendicularly to the sides and ends. The conditions of stability
are found, and the most interesting point which they lead to is the determination
of the number of corrugations produced when buckling takes place. If the thrust
per unit length on the sides be less than half that on the ends, the plate will
buckle into a series of undulations, whose number will depend on the ratio of the
length to the breadth of the plate. In the case of an infinitely long strip the
corrugations will divide the strip into rectangles, which will diminish in length
as the lateral thrust is diminished, will become squares when there is end
thrust only, and will become closer and narrower when the lateral force changes
sign and becomes a tension. This effect may be easily illustrated by wetting the
middle of a sheet of thin paper, which is then stretched over two rulers. If now
the rulers be pulled apart with increasing force, the wrinkles will become more
numerous and finer.
The undulatory character of the buckling is also analogous to the ‘ collapse into
rings’ of a boiler flue.
The paper also contains an investigation of the stability of a circular plate
clamped round the edges, and acted on by uniform normal edge thrust in its
plane. This kind of buckling is well illustrated in the circular lid of a canister
whose rim is in a state of tension.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 743
3. On the Pulsations of a Rotating Bell. By G. H. Bryan.
Tt is well known that if a vibrating elastic rod of circular section be rotated
upon its axis, the plane of vibration remains fixed in space, instead of turning with
the rod—an experiment frequently used to illustrate the corresponding property of
polarised light. If, on the other hand, a tuning-fork be rotated, beats will be heard
which indicate that the vibrations turn with the fork.
The object of the present paper is to show that when a vibrating ring,
cylinder, bell, or other elastic shell in the form of a surface of revolution is
_ rotating about its axis of figure, the nodes and points of maximum radial motion
will not remain fixed either in space or in the body, but will turn about the
axis with angular velocity less than that of the body. The author first proves
this mathematically for a ring or cylinder. As in the investigations of Hoppe and
Lord Rayleigh, this is supposed inextensible, and in order to show more fully the
difference between the actual effects of rotation and the purely statical effects of
centrifugal force, the author supposes the ring to be acted on by an attraction to
the centre varying directly as the distance, which may be so chosen as to counteract
the latter force. Taking the type of vibration, which has 2n nodes, it is shown
that these nodes rotate about the axis with angular velocity—
n* — Li.
n+l’
where is the angular velocity of the ring. Instead, therefore, of hearing 2n
beats per revolution, as we should if the nodes remained fixed relatively to the
ring, we actually only hear
on n? —1
n> +1
beats per revolution. Putting n=2, 3, &c., we find the corresponding numbers to:
be 2°400, 4:800, 7:059, 9:231, 11:351, &c., approximately.
The author finds that the results of experiment agree pretty closely with
theory. A champagne-glass was clipped on a microscopist’s turn-table, which
was set in motion by a string twisted once round its axle. One end of this string
was held in the hand and the other passed over a smooth peg, and was attached to
a weight. The glass having been struck, the number of beats was counted while
the weight was drawn up from the floor to the peg, the number of revolutions
being counted separately. Two glasses were used, and rotated with various
angular velocities; the results for the fundamental tone being respectively 2°6
beats per revolution (11 observations), and 2°2 beats per revolution (26 observa-
tions). Considering the vast difference between the champagne-glasses used in
these rough experiments and the ring or cylinder of Hoppe, the agreement of
observation with theory is remarkable ; and more especially so as the mean of the
observed results is exactly the number found by theory.
4. On the History of Pfaff’s Problem. By A. R. Forsytu, F.R.S.
The paper was an abstract of Chapter III. of the author’s ‘Theory of
Differential Equations,’ Part I., Exact Equations and Pfaff’s Problem, subse-
quently published.
5. On some Geometrical Theorems relating to the Powers of Circles and
Spheres. By Professor WILLIAM WooLSsEY JOHNSON.
The determinant of the powers of three circles relatively to three other circles
was shown to be sixteen times the product of the areas of the triangles, whose
vertices are the centres of the circles of each group into the relative power of the
circles orthogonal to the groups. It vanishes only when these circles cut at right:
angles.
744 REP)RT—1890.
In like manner the corresponding determinant for two groups of four spheres
each is 288 times the product of the volumes of the tetrahedrons, whose vertices
are the centres into the power of the spheres orthogonal to the two groups. In
particular the determinant of squared distances vanishes for two groups of four
points each, taken respectively on two spheres which cut at right angles; and also
for two groups of three points each, if the circle passing through one group cuts
at right angles any sphere passing through the other groups.
6. Possibility of Irreversible Molecular Motions. By BE. P, ConveRweuu, M.A~
In a paper in ‘Phil. Mag.’ July 1890, I have shown by examples, as well as by
general reasoning, that there is nothing in the general equations of Dynamics
in virtue of which the configuration of a system tends to a permanent average
state, independent of the initial conditions—t.e., to such a configuration as accords
with the second law of Thermodynamics. To reconcile actual phenomena with
the hypothesis of reversible motion, it would be necessary to show that the initial
configurations are always of a very special type; for there are as many sets of
initial conditions in which the subsequent motion would violate the second law as
there are sets in which it would fulfil that law.
It is now pointed out that the reversibility of ultimate motions is an entirely
unproved hypothesis. If the laws of motion are fulfilled by bodies composed of
particles whose molecular motions are irreversible, the above difficulty is avoided,
because it is evident that irreversible systems may tend to a final condition quite
independent of the initial conditions.
Treating bodies as composed of molecules (which may, however, themselves be
composed of an indefinite number of subsidiary particles), it isshown that there are
myriads of systems of which the motions of the molecules are reversible, and
which yet obey the Newtonian laws of motion when taken en masse. Of these
systems one of the simplest examples is composed of groups of six molecules or
particles, P,, P,, P,, P,, P;, P,; the force on the particle P,, due to P,, P;, P,, P,,
P,, as measured by its acceleration, may consist of an ordinary function of the
masses and distances of the particles, together with a part involving the velocities
in the following way:—the 2-acceleration of P, varies as the x-velocity of P,
multiplied by the volume (taken with proper sign) of the tetrahedron formed by
P,, P,, P;, and P,, and so on for the others, the force, of course, changing sign when
one particle, say P,, passes through the plane of the other three, say P,, P,,
and P,. The motion of such a system obeys accurately the Newtonian laws of
motion—z.e. :
=(mé —X) =0, = {y (m# —X) - x(mj—Y) b =0,
together with the conservation of energy—ze.:
3(3ma* + V) = 2 (Xda + Ydy + Zd,).
Another class of irreversible motions is given in which, though the Newtonian
laws of motion are accurately fulfilled, the body loses energy or gains energy as the
case may be: It is also shown that, on the ordinary potential theory, the centre of
mass of a body composed of particles could not accurately fulfil the New-
tonian laws of motion when energy was communicated to it—z.e., when it rose in
temperature.
It is then pointed out that it is not necessary that the laws of motion should be
accurately fulfilled, but only that the divergence should be periodic, the period
being so short that no observations could detect it; and this opens up another
wide range of possible irreversible hypotheses consistent with observed facts.
It is then contended that irreversible motions, in which a portion of the force
swith which one particle or portion of matter acts on another, or on the ether,
depends on the velocities of the particles relative either to each other or to the
ethereal medium in which they exist, must be accepted as a scientific hypothesis.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 745
7. On some Arithmetical Functions connected with the Elliptic Functions
of 3 K. By Dr. J. W. L. Gratsner, F.R.S.
8. On Systems of Simultaneous Linear Differential Equations.
By A. R. Forsyru, F.R.S.
9. Chess Problem.’ By Lieut.-Col. Attan Cunnincuam, R.F.
‘To find the number of different positions after two moves on each side at the
game of chess.’
This is—in a mathematical sense—a fairly simple problem in combinations ; but
the rules of chess introduce into it such a number of variations requiring separate
estimation, as to make the complete solution a pretty laborious task. Without
» great care in the detail there is much risk of omission, also of counting the same
position twice, and of counting positions which cannot be formed in actual play.
On account of the great historic interest of the game of chess, it is thought
worth while to publish the results. The following is an abstract :—
I. Pawns only moving . ¢ . ‘ ; ‘ . 16,556
4 II. Captures by pawns; at least one piece moved. : 347
: Ill. No captures by pawns; both sides move at least one
q piece : : : : : : : : . 19,441
1 IV. No captures by pawns; one side moves pawns only,
the other side moves at least one piece. : . 35,438
Grand total =. 21,782
10. On a Remarkable Circle through two Points of a Conic.
By Professor Geneszr, M.A.
A, B are two fixed points of a conic, C the pole of AB, P a variable point os
the curve. Through C an antiparallel is drawn to ABwith respect to the angle
APB, meeting its arms in Q, Q’; in other words, QCQ’ is drawn so that the points
A, B, Q’,Q lie on a circle. This circle is invariable.
__ AQ’, BQ meet on the conic, at P’, say ; then PP’ passes through a fixed point
T (the pole of AB with respect to the circle).
Thus, using C, the circle can, by means of the ruler, be transformed into the
conic, or, using T, the conic can be retransformed into the circle.
It will be noticed that the point T has the property that for any chord PP’
through it the sum of the angles APB, AP’B with a proper convention is constant.
11. Ferrel’s Theory of the Winds. By Cuartes Cuampgrs, F.R.S.
The object of this paper is to point out a defect in Dr. Ferrel’s analytical in-
vestigation of the motions of the atmosphere, to supply that defect, and to substi-
tute legitimate interpretation and geometrical illustrations of the analytical results
arrived at for a misleading and irrelevant exposition given in several of the revisions
% of Dr. Ferrel’s research that have been published from time to time during the last
thirty years.
,
e
q DxrpaRtMEentT IJ.—GeEnERAL Puysics anD Enncrrorysis.
1. On a Method of determining in Absolute Measure the Magnetic Suscepti-
bility of Diamagnetic and Feebly Magnetic Solids. By Sir Witviam
a Tuomson, D.C.L., DL.D., F.R.S.
The communication was suggested from two directions in which the subject
__ had been treated—(1) Professor Riicker’s investigations of the magnetic suscepti-
‘ This problem has been published iz extenso in the Royal Engineers’ Journal for 1889.
— 1890. 3
746 REPORT—1890.
bility of basaltic rocks, to which he was led in the interpretation of the results of
the great magnetic surveys made by himself in conjunction with Dr. Thorpe, by
which remarkable disturbances due to magnetisation of the rocks and mountains
were found ; (2) Quincke’s determinations of the magnetic susceptibility of liquids,
The method proposed by the author consisted in measuring the mechanical force
experienced by a properly shaped portion of the substance investigated, placed
with different parts of it in portions of magnetic field between which there was a
large difference of the magnetic force. A cylindrical or rectangular or prismatic
shape, terminated by planes perpendicular to its length, was the form chosen; the
component magnetic force in the direction of its length was equal to 3n(R?—R”)A ;
where p» denoted the magnetic susceptibility, R, R’ the magnetic force in the
portions of the field occupied by its two ends, and A the area of its cross-section,
For bodies of very feeble susceptibility the best arrangement of field was that
originally adopted by Faraday, and pushed so far recently by Professor Ewing, in
the way of giving exceedingly intense fields. One end of the prism, or plate, or
wire was in the air between flat ends and conical magnetic portions; the other
might be in a place practically out of the field, or, if the portion of the substance
given were exceedingly small, it might be in the field, but in a place of much less
force than in the centre of the field. ‘The measurement of the magnetic force of
the field was easily made by known methods: best by measuring the force ex-
perienced by a short element of wire carrying a measured current. This portion
of wire should be placed in the positions occupied by the two ends of the plate or
wire of the substance, first in one position and then in the other. But when the
second position was in a place of sensibly known force, the single measurement
with the element of the wire in the first position sufficed.
2. On the Tension of Water Surfaces, Clean and Contaminated, investigated
by the Method of Ripples. By Lord Ray.etcu, Sec.R.S.
The ripples were rendered visible by a combination of Foucault’s optical
arrangement with intermittent illumination. Two frequencies were used, about
43 and 128 per second. The principal results may be thus summarised. The
tension of a water surface, reckoned in C.G.S. measure, is, in the various cases :
Clean . : . 740
Greasy to the point where the camphor motions nearly cease . 53:0
Saturated with olive oil ; : : é ; 4 . 41:0
Saturated with oleate of soda , : 3 A 25:0
3. On the Adiabatic Curves for Ether, Gas and Liquid, at High
Temperatures. By Professor W. Ramsay, F'.R.S.
4, Report of the Committee on Electrolysis —See Reports, p. 138.
5. Report on the State of our Knowledge of Electrolysis and Electro-
Chemistry. By W.N. Saaw.—See Reports, p. 185.
6. On the Action of Semi-permeable Membranes in Electrolysis.
By Professor W. Ostwatvp.
The author gave an account of experiments upon the passage of an electric
current through solutions in series separated by semi-permeable membranes, and
pointed out the importance of such phenomena to physiology. He explained that
a semi-permeable membrane would allow ions of one kind to pass through, but
“
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 747
arrest ions of another kind, and thus act as though it were a metallic electrode.
The deposit of copper upon a semi-permeable membrane forming the cathode
boundary between copper sulphate solution and a solution of ferrocyanide of potas-
sium was demonstrated experimentally to the meeting. The paper appears in the
‘Zeitschrift fiir Physikalische Chemie,’ vol. vi. p. 71, 1890.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee on the Ben Nevis Observatory.
See Reports, p. 174.
2. Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations in Canada.
See Reports, p. 183.
3. Report of the Cominittee for Comparing and Reducing Magnetic
Observations.—See Reports, p. 172.
4. Report of the Committee for Determining the Seasonal Variation in the
Temperatures of Lakes, Rivers, and Estuaries.—See Reports, p. 92.
9. Report of the Committee on Solar Radiation See Reports, p. 144.
6. Report of the Committee on the Volcanic and Seismological Phenomena
of Japan.—See Reports, p. 160.
7. On a Meteorological Observatory recently established on Mont Blane.
By A. Lawrence Rorcn, 8.B., F.R.Met.Soc. of Boston, U.S.A.
It is generally conceded that the future progress of meteorology depends chiefly
upon the study of the upper regions of the atmosphere. Thus the vital, and at the
present time, disputed question as to the vertical decrease of temperature in
eyclones and anti-cyclones, upon which rest our theories of the general movements
of the atmosphere, and hence our deductions expressed in weather forecasts, can
only be settled by simultaneous observations at high and low altitudes. Dis-
regarding balloons as unavailable for this purpose, we must turn to the mountain
observatories, for whose establishment and maintenance large sums of money have
been expended by various nations.
Until recently the highest meteorological station in the world was in the
United States on Pike’s Peak, at an elevation of 14,134 feet above the sea, while
among the ten or more European stations, the loftiest has been that in the Austrian
Alps on the Sonnenblick, at an altitude of 10,170 feet. The French, however, who
have contributed more towards mountain meteorology than any other nation by
their fine observatories on the Pic du Midi, the Puy de Dome, and the Mont Ven-
toux, may now claim what is probably the highest meteorological station in the
world in the one which has just been established by M. J. Vallot on Mont Blanc,
at an altitude of about 14,320 feet above sea-level.
The summit of Mont Blanc, rising to a height of 15,780 feet, and dominating
3c 2
748 REPORT—1890.
the neighbouring mountains, offers an admirable site for a meteorological station,
but the shifting snow renders the erection there of a permanent building imprac-
ticable. The site chosen by M. Vallot was at the Rocher des Bosses, about 1,460
feet below the summit, and here he has re-erected a wooden cabin, constructed at
Chamonix, and carried up in pieces on the backs of guides and porters. The cabin
is intended to serve both as a refuge for tourists and as a meteorological and
physical observatory. The latter is completely equipped with the registering
meteorological instruments of Richard Brothers, which operate during fifteen days
without attention, and it is hoped to maintain them in action during four consecu-
tive months. ‘Their installation will not be completed this year, and several inter-
mediate stations are proposed, including a similar cabin to be erected by M.
Janssen, the French physicist, at the Grands Mulets, at an elevation of 10,000
feet. A base station at Chamonix (3,450 feet) is already in operation. Further
details from the author's personal inspection will be given in the ‘ American
Meteorological Journal.’
8. The Climate of Scarborough compared with that of some other Seaside
Health Resorts! By Joun Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.
After giving reasons for inferring that meteorological observations taken con-
tinuously during the decade 1880-89 may advantageously be utilised to deduce
the most important elements of the climate of any place in the British Isles, the
author showed that observations taken at Scarborough during this period fulfilled
the necessary requirements as to accuracy and continuity, and also as to uniformity
with those taken at other places with which he compared the principal results.
A table showing the monthly and annual means of temperature (mean, mean
minimum, mean maximum, and mean daily range), relative humidity, cloud, and
rainfall, and the extremes of temperature at Scarborough, for this decade, was
given, and the general results of comparison with the chief elements of the climate
of four other seaside health-resorts, situated in succession at nearly equal distances
round our coast, were summarised thus :—
Temperature = |
—| me | 8 2 | Raj
; U =A |] os ain-
1880-89 Means Extremes Za Ea fall
—— = co o) for)
Mean | Min. | Max. | Range| Min. | Max. |
5 é F 3 é é % | 0-10 | Ins.
Scarborough . | 47°5 | 42:6 | 52:5 9:9) 1} 10-5.) 83'8 83 66 | 28:26
Lowestoft . - | 48:2 | 42-4 | 53:9 | 11-5 2 | 87:0 83 68 | 24°15
Worthing . a ADB AST OP Sb IG! | 1h 13-5e 83:3 83 59 | 26°55
Babbacombe . | 49:9 | 440 | 55-9 | 11:9 | 15-6 | 85°6 82 70 | 33°58
Llandudno. «| 49:2 | 44-1 | 54:3 | 10:2 | 14:5 | 84:0 79 69 | 29:13
Mean . | 48:9 | 43-4 | 54:4 | 11-0 | 12-7 | 84:8 82 66 | 28°33
Scarborough is thus about a degree and a half colder than the mean of the five
places, has about a degree less mean daily range of temperature, is one per cent.
more humid, and has the mean amount of cloud and nearly the mean rainfall.
9. The Inland compared with the Maritime Climate of England and Wales.
By Joun Hopkinson, F.L.8., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.
The author first endeavoured to show that the chief difficulties in making a
satisfactory comparison between our inland and our maritime climate would be
» Printed in extenso in the Scarborough Mercury of September 19, 1890,
-_
—eo
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 749
removed if a sufficient number of meteorological stations could be found which
represent approximately the mean height and the range of the height of the land
in the interior and near the coast, and if the mean position of both the inland and
the maritime places were almost identical and not far distant from the centre of
England. From the ‘ Meteorological Record’ of the Royal Meteorological Society,
compiled by Mr. W. Marriott, he selected, as approximately fulfilling these con-
ditions, Buxton, Woburn (Aspley Guise), Croydon (Addiscombe), Cheltenham,
and Churchstoke, to represent the interior of the country, and Scarborough,
Lowestoft, Worthing, Babbacombe, and Llandudno, to represent the sea coast.
The mean height above the sea of the meteorological stations at the five inland
places is 469 feet, and the mean height of those at the five maritime places is 124
feet, the range in the former being from 184 to 987 feet, and in the latter from 21
to 295 feet. The mean latitude of the five inland places is 52°12’ N.; the mean
longitude, 1° 82’ W. The mean latitude of the five maritime places is 52° 22’ N.;
the mean longitude, 1° 16’ W. The mean position indicated is, in each case, near
the centre of Hneland (a little south of Birmingham),
The values for the decade 1880-89 for the chief elements of the climate of the
five places situated on the coast are given in the author’s paper on the climate of
Scarborough, and in the following table those for the five places situated in the
interior, with the means, and, for easy comparison, the means for the seaside places,
and for the whole :—
| Temperature 3
bal S. ‘
1880-89 Means Extremes us) 5 = = Rain-
= 5 fall
Tia EI a 5 or)
Mean | Min. | Max. | Range| Min. | Max. |
7 b 4 i, % | 0-10 | Ins.
Buxton . .| 44:6 | 37-6 | 51-6 | 140 | —4:0| 82:1 | 85 | 7:3 | 48-09
Wobum . . | 47°6 | 40-4 | 54°38 | 146 |—1:0| 86:1 | 83 | 7:5 |32-06
Croydon . ./| 488 | 41:9 | 55°38 | 13:9 | 11-6] 92-4 | 80 | 7-4 | 25-56
Cheltenham . | 47:9 | 40-4 | 55-4 | 15:0 | —3:3 | 87:8 | 83 | 7:0 | 28-86
Churchstoke ./| 46-7 | 40-4 | 548 | 144 | 69/907 | 83 | 69 | 24-46
Ween paises 47-1 | 39:9 | 54:3 | 14-4 20 87:8)" (83: 3 T2" 81-80
Maritime | 48:9 | 43-4 | 544 | 11:0 | 12:7 | 848. | 82 | 66 |28-33
if
Mean of all . | 48-0 | 41:65| 54:35| 12-7 | 7-35] 86-3 | 82°5| 69 | 30-07
The chief conclusion to be drawn from this table appears to be that in every
respect, so far as regards our comfort, and most probably also our health, our
maritime climate is on the whole superior to our inland climate, being warmer,
owing (it is most important to be observed) to the nights not being so cold while
the days are no hotter, the extremes of temperature being much less, the air rather
less humid, the sky less cloudy, and the rainfall less,
10. A Comparison of the Climate of Halifax, Wakefield, Bradford, Leeds,
and Hull. By Joun Horxinsoy, F.L.8S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soe.
Meteorological observations having been taken at these five manufacturing
towns in the South of Yorkshire during the decade 1880-89 with sufficient uni-
formity and continuity for a tolerably satisfactory comparison to be made,! the
author gave the principal results for this purpose in the following table :—
1 The position of the instruments at Bradford and Leeds is not satisfactory.
750 REPORT—1890.
Temperature a=]
be] 2. Rai
8 I 3 axtr Teo ere tes ain-
1880-89 Means Extremes oi Za fall
EO Bf
Mean | Min. | Max. | Range} Min. | Max. aI
° ° ° ° ° ° % 0-10 Ins.
Halifax ; . | 465 | 39°6 | 53-4 | 13:8 | 10:0 | 89-0 83 70 | 36°55
Wakefield . 47-7 | 41:0 | 544 | 13:4 | 11:5 | 868 84 73 | 28:01 |
Bradford . . | 48:0 | 42-4 | 53-7 | 11:3 | 12°0 | 84-4 As 72 | 30°15
Leeds. » | 488. | 42°6. | 55:h.) 12:5. |. 12:0. |.87-0 81 6:7 | 25°53
Hull . . .| 47-1 | 39°9 | 54:3 | 14:4 6:0 | 85:0 81 6:3 |. 27:07
Mean . a AneOin| 41d. Wl basso) Se | 10:3. | 86-4 814 | 69 | 29-46
In order to render more perspicuous the relation which the above values bear
to the mean and to each other, the deviations per cent. from the mean were
deduced (all the deviations in temperature being computed in percentages of the
mean temperature), with the following result :-—
Temperature a=
. »”
AS eas | 2a =8 ‘Rain
21) | nee = | ost A mo A |, tvain-
1880-89 Means | Extremes eee Ba fall
—— ie a 5°
Mean | Min. | Max. | Range} Min. | Max. |
| = —
5 % % % % % % | % % %
Halifax . Fal —38 —2 +1 —1 +5 +2 +2 | +24
Wakefield . : = =| +1 +1 +2 +1 +3 +6 | -— 5
Bradford . cally behead +3 -1 —4 +4 —4 | -3 +4 ]/ + 2
Leeds. 3 | +2 +3 | +2 —1 +4 +1, -1 —3 | —13
Hull . : .| -l = 3 | 7 = +3 —9 —3 —1 -9 |— 8
11. Photographs of the Invisible, in Solar Spectroscopy.
By ©. Prazzt Suyru, LL.D.
The photographs submitted on this occasion are two, each of them murally
mounted and measuring 40 inches long by 20 high. They represent in reality
only very small portions of the faint ultra-violet of the Solar Spectrum, but on a
whole scale of 57 feet long from red to violet, and are located quite outside the
spectral limits of visibility to the human eye, with the grating spectroscope con-
cerned, whether under summer or winter sun.
Yet the previous empty fields of ultra-violet view became filled with wondrous
detail as soon as they were entrusted for record to actinism and the photographie
film. This, too, in dull winter weather, with a lamentably low sun, on December
12, 1889, or when the eye could see only less than nothing.
Some degree of power in photography to record further into the spectrum than
the human eye has long been well known; but in this instance there had been
supposed proof obtained of a positive incapacity of the grating’s metal substance to
reflect ultra-violet, or even violet, light. Yet here this accusation has been shown
to be false the moment photography was applied, and powerful pictures have been
procured thereby, as witness these enlargements by Mr. 8. H. Fry, at Kingston-on-
Thames, from the author's original negatives on glass.
The definition is not indeed yet what the author desires, but he expects soon to
make it so, by aid of a contribution lately received from the Government Grant
Committee of the Royal Society; so that then, having a sufficient supply of
electricity already on the premises, he may be able to photograph a more crucially
telling comparison between certain earthly elements and the Solar Spectrum lines
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 751
than has yet been accomplished ; if, indeed, the present meeting will extend to him,
among the annual votes for the promotion of science, a sufficient one for carrying on
an end-on-gas-vacuum-tube method of photographing, which is alone suitable to
high spectroscopy.
12. On Meteorological Photography.
By Joun Horxinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., FR. Met. Soc.
The author called attention to the increasing importance attached to photo-
graphy as a means of illustrating scientific subjects and aiding in scientific research.
In no branch of science, he thought, could photography be of greater value than in
meteorology, owing to the transient nature of meteorological phenomena.
The appointment of a Committee of the British Association on Meteorological
Phenomena, by which committee instructions to photographers would be issued
with the view of instituting a systematic method of working, &c., would, he felt
sure, greatly extend the interest taken in the subject and increase the scientific
value of the results. The chief object of such a committee would be to investigate
and report upon the means by which photography can most advantageously be
applied to the elucidation of meteorological phenomena, such as the forms of clouds,
lightning flashes, and the effects of storms. The committee would also undertake
the collection of photographs of such phenomena and keep a register of them,
reporting additions annually, and would compile a bibliography of the subject.
In the study of the various forms of clouds, the author believed that a satisfac-
tory classification could best be made by the comparison of numerous photographs ;
the relation between cloud forms and atmospheric pressure and temperature
would be an interesting field for research; and an attempt might be made to
ascertain the best means of overcoming the difficulty of photographing light clouds
on a blue sky, due to blue rays being almost as powerfully actinic as white.
Tn the investigation of lightning by photography special attention would be given
to the phenomenon of the appearance on the plate of so-called dark flashes, with
the object of arriving at a conclusive explanation of the effect, and an endeavour
might possibly be made to determine whether lightning really forms a streak or
a point in excessively rapid motion. The collection and exhibition of photographs
_ showing the destructive effects of storms—whether the destruction or damage
were wrought by rain, by wind, or by lightning—might not be considered of such
scientific importance as the investigation of clouds and lightning, but it would add
much to the general interest of the inquiry.’
13. On the Spectra of the Elements and the Constitution of the Sun.
By Professor H. A. Rownanp.
14. On Regional Magnetic Disturbances in the United Kingdom.
By Professors A. W. Ricxrr, /.R.S., and T. E. Tuorrz, F.R.S.
15. Sur les perturbations magnétiques en France.
By Professor H. Mascarr.
16. Hehibition of Photographs of Clouds. By Frinsr GREENE.
1 The Committee here suggested was appointed.
752 REPORT—1890,
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. Optique minéralogique.—Achromatisme des Franges.
By Professor E. Mascarr.
2. Instantaneous Photographs of Water Jets.
By Lord Rayuuicu, Sec. B.S.
These photographs were taken by the light of the electric spark. A battery of
Leyden jars was charged by a Wimshurst machine, and discharged itself between
brass balls, held almost half an inch apart, in the optical lantern. By means of a
large condenser a good proportion of the light was concentrated upon the lens of
the camera. The jet of water, regularised by a tuning-fork, fell in front of the con-
denser, and was focussed upon the photographic plate.
In the absence of anything to diffuse the light, the pictures are simple shadows,
such as have been obtained without any optical appliances by Mr. Bell and Mr.
Boys. The only detail is due to the lens-like action of the jets and the drops into
which it is resolved. This arrangement is quite sufficient to illustrate the behaviour
of electrified jets. But the interposition of a plate of ground glass close to the con-
denser effects a great improvement in the pictures by bringing out half tones, and
the results printed on aristotype paper are -now very good. The only difficulty is
that due to the loss of light. In some of the experiments it was found advantageous
to diminish the diffusion by slightly oiling the ground glass.
The degree of instantaneity required depends upon circumstances. In some
cases the outlines would have lost their sharpness had the exposure exceeded
rvoop second, It is probable that the actual duration of the principal illumination
was decidedly less than this.
3. Report of the Commvittee on Electrical Standards, including the four
following Papers.—See Reports, p. 95.
4. On Variations in some Standard Resistance Coils.
By R. T. Guazesroox, F.R.S.—See Reports, p. 98.
5. On some Standard Arr Condensers. By R. T. Guazesroox, F.R.S., and
Dr. A. Murruzap.—See Reports, p. 102.
6. On the Specific Resistance of Copper.
By T. C. Firzparricx.—See Reports, p. 120.
7. A Comparison of a Platinum Thermometer with some Mercury Thermo-
meters. By K. H. Grirriras.—See Reports, p. 180.
8. On the Character of Steel used for Permanent Magnets.
By W. H. Preucs, F.R.S.
The quality of English magnet steel having apparently deteriorated, and being —
much below that of France, led the author to make an exhaustive inquiry into the
comparative merits of each kind. Samples were obtained from all the leading
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 753
makers of both countries, magnets were made, and a careful magneto-metric series
of measurements taken for some months. The French steel showed itself to be far
superior to the English. The details of the comparison are given in the paper,!
but the reasons for this marked superiority remain for further investigation.
9. The Effect of Oxidation on the Magnetic Properties of Manganese Steel.
By L. T. O’Suua, B.Sc.
When manganese steel drillings are oxidised they become magnetic, the
development of magnetic properties being due to removal of manganese by oxida-
and to the magnetic properties of the oxide of iron (probably magnetic oxide)
ormed, .
When the oxidised product is reduced in hydrogen, the iron oxide is converted
into metallic iron and the manganese remains as manganous oxide (MnO). The
reduced steel is now powerfully magnetic in virtue of the magnetic properties of
unalloyed metallic iron.
During the process of oxidation the proportion of manganese to iron oxidised
in a given time is only very slightly in excess of the proportion of manganese to
iron in the original steel. ‘The excess of manganese oxidised is, in all probability,
due partly to the greater susceptibility of manganese to oxidation, and partly to
the heterogeneous structure of the steel.
10. On Testing Iron.2 By J. Swixsurne and W. F. Bourne.
11. The Compensation of Alternating-Ourrent Voltmeters.”
By J. SwiveuRye.
The communication relates to an arrangement for compensating alternating
voltmeters for changes of frequency.
It is much more easy to make a current indicator for alternating than direct
currents, for troubles from hysteresis do not come in, and the slight tremble makes
the moving part hang freely. If it is attempted, however, to use such an instru-
ment as a voltmeter, the self-induction makes the reading far too low, and the
error varies with the frequency.
To get over this trouble, a voltmeter may have a non-inductive, or nearly non-
inductive, resistance put in series with its active coil. A coil with an adjustable
iron core is then put in shunt to the active coil, this shunt coil having a very much
larger time-constant. The instrument is calibrated with a direct current. An
alternating current is then put on, and the core of the shunt coil regulated till the
readings agree with those of the direct current.
12. Note on a Kinetic Stability of Equilibrium with Electro-magnetic Forces.
By Professor G. F. Firzcrranp, F.R.S.
If a perfect conductor move near a magnet there are currents induced in it
which tend to stop the motion. If the conductor he perfect, the kinetic energy of
motion will ultimately, if small enough, be all changed into electrokinetic energy
and the conductor will begin to move in the opposite direction, and when in its
former position its electrokinetic energy will have been reconverted into kinetic
energy. For instance, if a perfect conducting shell were placed near three mag-
netic poles it would be in a state of kinetic equilibrium, if the energy given to it
by a small disturbance were not great enough to drive it to infinity or into contact
with the magnet. It is to be remarked that I have assumed the perfect conductor
to have been brought within a finite distance of the magnet pole without haying
! Published in the Hlectrician, September 19, 1890.
2 Electrician, October 1890.
754 REPORT—1890.
had currents induced in it-—z.e., I have assumed that the body can be brought up
as an imperfect conductor and then changed into a perfect conductor i situ. As
the effect of a magnetic pole is to induce in a perfect conducting plane sheet
currents which can be magnetically represented by a pole at the reflection of the
first pole in the sheet, it follows that with a perfect conducting sheet there would
be no action, such as in Arago’s experiment prevents motion of the sheet parallel
to itself. There would, no doubt, be a gradual radiation of the energy due to the
varying magnetic fields. This would have a damping effect on the vibrations,
much the same as would result from resistance in the conductor. If there were a
constant force like gravity acting, the equilibrium might exist only for the radiation
of energy. There is no very great difficulty in calculating the conditions for
vibrational and logarithmic motions respectively.
The system is interesting as an illustration on a large scale of how meteoric
swarms have their energy gradually frittered away into electromagnetic radiations,
13. On Electrical Oscillations in Air.! By J. TROWBRIDGE.
14. On the Electrostatic Forces between Conductors and other matters im
connection with Electric Radiation.2 By Professor Outver J. Lopes,
F.R.S.
The author gives an account of an investigation into the forces between electric
resonators as examined experimentally by Boys, and therefrom branches out into
several allied subjects connected with the mechanical forces of electric pulses and
waves.
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On Atom-grouping in Orystals (with exhibition of a Model).
By W. Bartow.
After referring to some comments made by Sir William Thomson and Professor
Sohncke on a paper on the same subject read by the author at the Aberdeen
Meeting of the Association in 1885,° the author stated one of the objects of the
present paper to be to call attention to some interesting properties of the simpler
kinds of symmetrical grouping of points, and to an easy method of studying them
by means of the model exhibited.
He then described the model as consisting of parallel equi-distant planes of
homogeneously distributed points (réseaux) represented by beads, and furnished
with an appliance for simultaneously moving the planes nearer together or further
apart, while still keeping them equidistant.
He pointed out that if a series of similar triangularly arranged plane systems
are so placed in the model, and the distances between the planes so chosen that
the assemblage of points has the grouping of the cubic system, of which we have
an example in the arrangement of the centres in a triangular stack of cannon-balls,*
1 The paper is printed in full in the Proceedings of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, vol. xxv. (N.S. xvii.)
2 The paper appears in the Philosophical Magazine for September 1890.
8 See ‘On the Constitution of Matter,’ by Sir William Thomson, Proceedings
Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1889, pp. 712, 715, 716, and ‘ Erweiterung der Theorie
der Krystallstruktur,’ von Dr. Leonhard Sohncke, Zeitschrift fiir Krystallographie,
&e., xiv. 5, pp. 429, 430, 433, 443.
“See paper read by the author in 1885, published in the Chemical News of
January 1 and 8, 1886.
_—— ae
4
' then two other values for the distances apart of the planes will also give an
arrangement of the points according to the cubic system, and that these values are
respectively one half and one quarter of the values first employed.
He then pointed out the effects of interlacing th> systems thus obtained in
reproducing similar systems differing only in scale.
. He then passed to the principal topic of his paper—some additional evidence
in favour of the theory which he had previously put forward, that it is the diffe-
rent kinds of atoms of the elements rather than the molecules or units of chemical
compounds which are symmetrically arranged in crystals.
Symmetrical systems of atom-arrangement were shown in the model as pro-
bably those of Iceland spar and Tetrahedrite, the numerical proportions of the beads
of different colours, and the symmetry of grouping being respectively, in both
cases, in harmony with the atom-composition and the crystal forms of these
substances.
With regard to the former, he pointed out that the theory given by Huyghens,
that the rhombohedric form of Iceland spar is derived by shrinkage of the tetra-
hedric form of grouping along a perpendicular to one of the faces of the pile, and
the theory of Sir William Thomson that it is derived from shrinkage of a cubic
grouping, have their parallel in the case of the symmetrical arrangement suggested,
the grouping exhibited being derived by shrinkage of a cubic grouping. This
cubic grouping was then exhibited by shifting the planes of the model further
apart.
The author remarked that the view that the symmetrical grouping in Iceland
spar is the result of the shrinkage of a cubic arrangement derives great support
from Baumhauer’s beautiful discovery that crystals of this substance can be twinned
artificially by means of a Imife. For corresponding to each! pair of alternative
positions for the atoms revealed by the phenomenon there must evidently be an
intermediate position similarly related to both, and, for the arrangement of the
atoms in the intermediate position to be similarly symmetrical with respect to the
two extreme positions zn all the three cases, it must be derived from the cubic form.
He then suggested the probability that all crystals which do not belong to the
cubic system are produced by the shrinkage of assemblages originally belonging to
this system.
With regard to the atom-grouping exhibited, as probably that of Tetrahedrite,
the author pointed out how completely the arrangement was in harmony with the
form of the crystal—regular twin tetrahedra. He explained the method of build-
ing up the group, and pointed out its opposite polarity along perpendiculars to the
faces, which corresponds with the hemihedral form which the crystal displays.
And he also remarked on the fact that the disposition of the layers of different.
atoms resembled that of the arrangement of the elements in a thermo-electric pile,
and would account for the pyro-electric properties of the substance if the atoms of
different kinds exercise the same electric functions individually which they exercise
when present in large masses not chemically combined, and therefore unintermixed
with other atoms.
He noted that the absence of one of the two atoms of antimony would deprive
the assemblage of its opposite polarity.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 755
2. On an Episode in the life of J. (Hertz’s Solution of Maxwell’s Equations).
By Professor G. F. Firzapratp, F.R.8.
If in Maxwell’s equation of the electromagnetic field it is assumed that
dF dG dH dv. - dP dQ dR
44 = = 1) 2 — ens
mat ae ne and that instead of A?’¥=0 we take zt a a 0,
which is the real condition for no electrification at a point in a non-conductor, we get
Ay = g. If we take F.G, H, the proper form to satisfy Maxwell’s equations for
dt
1 There are three directions in which the knife can be held.
756 REPORT — 1890.
Pp]
them, namely, eee &c., we must assume them connected with a current
intensity at each point u, v, w, by equations of the form
= | | [te Sut dxdydz,
r
when w=, cos ¢ is assumed as the particular case of an harmonic solution. From
this we can see that
w= [208 C=) dedyde,
where e=e, cos ¢ is the varying electrical charge at any point, will satisfy the
conditions
awat¥ and — ay 4 afi, dG oH
dé dt dee ideas
We have thus the means of calculating at any point the electric force
dF dv
ae
: dG dH. - pr e3:
and the magnetic force a= Aa, a if we know the distribution of electricity
Gs 4
and electric currents in a neighbouring conductor. It is sometimes more conve-
nient for calculation to apply this method than that of assuming a knowledge of the
distribution of electric and magnetic force in the neighbourhood of the conductor.
For example, in the case of a small Hertzian vibrator we get at once that if we
calculate a quantity I= ences dts) then the function Y= = being here due to
Tr as
two equal and opposite charges at a distance e apart, while all the current being
w, we get nae so that Hertz’s S is Maxwell’s vector potential, for Hertz’s
equations for the electric and magnetic forces are those derived from Maxwell's in
the way above described.
If we apply this method to calculate the forces due to an harmonic distribution
of electrification and current on a line we require to evaluate integrals of the
form
sin 2 sin7
U= | . dx
ze
where
=a +p,
If we suppose
sin 7
—— =A + Ay, Cosa + A, Cos 2a one
5
we can evaluate A,,and observing that the function satisfies the differential
equation
a oe: a =U,
dp» p dp dz
so that
PAy ,1 das
dp’ p ap
the solution of which is the Bessel function
An =J, (iv /1+7°*).
If we wish to apply Hertz’s method we get the same equations, but we must first
see how to build up a large body with given currents and electrifications out of a
—(1+n2)A, =0,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. : 757
number of small Hertzian oscillators. In the case of a long linear oscillator, it is
easy to see that, calling % the strength of a Hertzian oscillator, then we must have
the electrification e at any point oe! while the current at the point must be
s
that in the oscillator. Thus, if
e=e, cost sin s,
we have
h= h,—e, cost coss,
and then, in order that the distribution of current may be greatest in the centre
where s=0, we must have the strongest Hertzian oscillator there, and consequently
hg =0. Applying similar considerations, any distribution can be built up, and
Hertz’s, z.e., Maxwell’s, equations applied to the case of large conductors, as, for
example, to telephone circuits, alternating current circuits, and to the superficial
conditions in reflection at metallic surfaces, or to calculate the force between two
; neighbouring Hertzian receivers, as in Mr. Boys’s experiment.
; 3. Report of the Committee on Molecular Phenomena attending the
by Magnetisation of Iron.—See Reports, p. 145.
_ 4, Note on the Relation between the Diffusion of Motion and Propagation of
___— Disturbance in some turbulent Liquid Motions. By Professor G. F. Frrz-
GERALD, F'.R.S.
5. A Coefficient of Abrasion as an Absolute Measure of Hardness.
By ¥. T. Trovron.
Mohs’s scale of hardness, though probably affording all that is wanted by the
practical mineralogist, can hardly be considered as very satisfactory from the
_ physical point of view. .The scale is constructed by the selection of a number of
substances (ten in all) of unequal hardness, ranging from the softest to the hardest
of ordinary minerals—from tale to diamond. The process of determining hard-
ness ultimately resolves itself to finding by scratching the given substance with
the selected minerals in turn whereabouts in the scale the substance stands. In
this way hardness is said to be 4 or between 4 and 5, &e., according to the results
of comparative operations.
One of the principal objections which has been urged to a method of this kind
for measuring hardness is its being completely arbitrary, in so much as there can be
no guarantee, that between successive numbers on the scale there is the same advance
in hardness, whatever may be the proper meaning to be attached thereto. Thus it
has been a subject of regret that, since this method is independent of all methods of
_ measuring other quantities, there can obviously be no dimensional equation repre-
senting the dependence of the unit of hardness on the units of other physical
quantities.
An altogether different way of measuring hardness suggested itself to me nearly
two years ago, on seeing an apparatus which was constructed for the purpose of
_ testing the durability of paving setts to traffic wear. In this apparatus a rotating
iron or steel rubber (not unlike a pointless drill) was employed to wear away the
stone, and in this way various stones could be compared by weighing the loss under
similar circumstances. It occurred to me that an absolute scale of hardness might
be invented, through the device of simply supposing each substance to be rubbed by
itself, thus eliminating out the arbitrariness introduced into this method through
the arbitrary selection of the material of the rubber.
In this way for various substances the amount worn off could be determined, on
the passage at a certain velocity of two portions of the same kind of matter over
each other, under a certain pressure. The ratio of what might be called the
758 REPORT—1890.
‘coefficient of abrasion’ of two kinds of matter would then be the ratio of the losses
under similar circumstances,
It seems highly probable that within wide limits this ratio would be indepen-
dent of either the velocity or the pressure at which the comparisons were made;
for it seems reasonable to suppose that in each case the weight abraded would be
proportional, other things the same, to the pressure (from the laws of friction), simi-
larly also to the velocity, for in each case the work done is so proportional. If
this be assumed to be so, we have, at least, within wide limits, m= Be where m
is the weight abraded over the area a under the pressure p in the time ¢, the sur-
faces having the relative velocity v, / being the necessary equating constant, and
might be well called the coefficient of abrasion, or the ‘ absolute coefficient of hard-
ness,’ to distinguish it from Mohs’s scale.
Thus the definition of ‘absolute hardness’ would be the reciprocal of the
weight abraded over unit area under unit pressure in unit time, where the surfaces
have relative unit velocity, or, combining the last two, per unit displacement.
The value of & taken should be the final one; that is to say, the process should
go on sufficiently long so as to reach a constant stage. Also it is necessary to sup-
pose that by some means the abraded material is removed as it is generated.
The total work may be divided into two parts—the heat <enerated and the work
spent purely in disintegrating the material. It by no means follows, because the
total work applied to produce a given displacement is proportional to the pressure,
that the amount of material abraded is so proportional. For the parts may not
always bear the same ratio to each other. However, within limits they probably
do so, but the question, of course, is simply a matter for experiment.
Some preliminary experiments have been carried out with the object of investi-
gating this, but the apparatus used, which was only a modification of the original
plan, proved unsuitable. It, however, afforded encouragement to pursue the investi-
gation further, and at present an apparatus is being constructed for the purpose.
The original plan consisted essentially of two cylinders of the material to be
tested placed parallel, touching each other, which were to be rotated in the same
direction, and to rub each other while being pressed together by a constant force.
It is unnecessary to know the areas in contact, for the pressure being the force
divided by the area, the area appears in both numerator and denominator.
On account of expense in construction this plan was modified in the experi-
ments made, the second surface being stationary and always completely covered by
the rotating cylinder. It was chiefly through this that the experiments were un-
satisfactory, for the abraded material could not be removed from under the sta-
tionary surface, and a very fine powder, which acted as a lubricant, gradually
collected. Were both surfaces to rotate, the cylinders could be continuously cleaned
by brushes as they turned round.
It is easy to see that the dimensions of / are the same as that of the square of a
velocity
K=[V"]=[L°T-]
6. The Effect of Direct and Alternating Pressures on the Human Body.'
By J. SwInsurye.
A Wheatstone’s bridge, which measured the resistance of the patient under
various pressures, was made up. The alternating currents were measured with a
non-inductive wattmeter arranged as an ammeter, the pressure being taken with a
hot wire voltmeter. The tests were taken from hand to hand, the hands being dry,
or wet with dilute acid in the case of direct currents, and dry in the case of
alternating.
The maximum current taken was ‘04 ampére by a subject whose resistance is
low. He could have taken more if available. All the resistances are much lower
1 Hlectrician, September 19, 1890.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 759
_ than those obtained by the usual method of measuring with a bridge and one or
two cells. Probably polarisation then interferes.
Out of the five subjects tested four could stand no more than 18 volts alter-
nating, with a maximum effective current of ‘03 ampére. The fifth took 54 volts
and nearly a tenth of an ampére.
7. On the Use of Fluor Spar in Optical Instruments.
By Professor Sirvanus P. Tuompson, D.Sc.
The author referred to the existing uses of fluor spar for experiments on radiant
heat, and in the ‘apochromatic’ microscope lenses of Zeiss. The latter application
derives its importance from the extremely low dispersion—relatively to the mean
refractive power—of the material. To these applications the author now added
that of the construction of spectroscopic direct-vision prisms; and he described
two prisms, both constructed for him by Mr. C, D. Ahrens, one consisting of a
fluor prism cemented between two flint glass prisms, and a second consisting of
_ one Iceland spar prism cemented between two fluor prisms. The former was con-
_ siderably shorter than the ordinary direct-vision prism of equal power. The latter
_ had the property of polarising the light, as well as dispersing it, and presented the
- novel feature of a true polari-spectroscope.
_ 8. A new Direct-reading Photometer measuring from Unity to Infinity.
5 By Freprrick H. Varuey.
‘ __ This photometer was designed to meet the wants of electrical engineers and
_ others. The conditions to be observed are that the instrument should be portable,
_ have a range from one candle power to that of the electric arc, that the light to be
+ measured and that of the standard should be exactly at the same distance from the
sereen. This instrument consists of two discs each pierced by two semi-ring-
shaped windows or apertures; these extend to half a circle (180°) ; both are of the
same width (1 inch). The openings in the two discs are placed in reverse positions
to one another, so that if one half-ring is opened to its full extent (180°) the other
half-ring is entirely closed ; or, if the discs are shifted to an intermediate position,
both apertures will be opened to an equal extent, namely, 90°. If in this position
the discs are rotated it is obvious that an equal amount of light can pass through
both rings; but, if the light to be measured is as one to seventeen candle-power,
then the angular length of the two apertures must bear a proportionate ratio, in
order that the two shadows shall be of equal density, and accordingly one aperture
will be open to the extent of 10° for the brighter light, whilst that of the standard
light is opened to 170°. Instead of dividing the circle into the usual 360°, the
_ half-circle is divided into 2,000 parts, this giving a range from 1 to 1,999, or 2,000
in round numbers. By still further shifting the discs this aperture may be entirely
; closed, and read up toinfinity. The divisions of the half-circle are numbered from
7
*
‘
left to right, and right to left, showing at once the fractional values of the angular
extent of the opening, and thereby giving the value of the light.
. In order to make the discs turn one upon the other, the author devised a modi-
fication of the Ferguson paradox; that is to say, the discs are carried by
independent shafts, one of which is hollow, to allow the central axis to turn
within it; at the end furthest from the discs a cog-wheel is fixed to each axis.. By
means of a sliding link the two wheels can be brought into gear with another axis,
also provided with cog-wheels, each being of the same diameter, but one is cut
with 100 teeth, whilst the other has 99 teeth ; thus, upon rotating the dises, each
revolution of the gearing wheels advances the discs, and so changes the proportion
_ of the openings, one decreasing whilst the other increases, and vice versd. This we
ean do until the two shadows are of equal density, or approximately so. The final
adjustment is then made by hand. Behind the windows two hollow cones are
placed, which have their axis directed to a point common to both, but at some
distance in front of the discs, where the two shadows fall upon the screen. A
760 REPORT— 1890.
second or back screen is then placed at the mouth of these cones, over which it fits
and effectively cuts off one light from the other, so that on one side, say, is the
electric light, on the other is the standard candle. The light from both passes
through the axis of their respective cones, through the discs and on to the screen,
upon which the shadow-image is cast.
9. On a Radiometric Record of Sun-heat from different parts of the
Solar Disc. By W. EB. Witson. Communicated by Professor G. F.
FirzGurawp, F.R.S.
The author had represented, by means of a photograph curve, the variation of
the effect on a radio-micrometer, 2mm. in diameter, as the image of the sun, 80
cm. in diameter, passed over the instrument. The curve is not a smooth one, and
in the opinion of the author the cause of the unevenness lies in the uneven
amount of radiation from the different parts of the sun’s disc.
10. Recent Photographs of the less refrangible portions of Solar Spectrum
under different Atmospheric Conditions. By Grorce Hices.
During the last few months the author has endeavoured to photograph under
ag many conditions as possible the atmospheric absorption regions of the solar
spectrum. A number of results have been obtained within a few minutes after
sunrise, some of which include the great A line at the extreme end of the visible
red, and, judging from eye observations, it is supposed that this group is almost
constant in intensity.
The photographs show, however, that it is quite as variable asthe Bline. The
paper prints represent the head and portion of fluting, a few of the fainter lines
are lost through under-development, but what may be photographed with a hich
sun, using the second order spectrum, is fairly represented.
Original negatives of a very low sun show the head as one broad line, whereas
between forty and fifty may be counted with midday sun; a corresponding nebulo-
sity broadens the lines composing the tail, which becomes irresolvable.
In about an hour after sunrise the thick band begins to break up in the region
of the edge; the general nebulosity decreases but never disappears entirely, even
with 12 o'clock sun.
The B group photographed under similar circumstances might easily be mis-
taken for that of A with a high sun, but the relative variability of the two lines is
apparently the same, and has doubtless the same common origin.
I believe that Professor Liveing has shown both to be due to oxygen.
A sufficient number of photographs of these portions, together with those em-
bracing little a, C, a, the so-called rain bands and atmospheric zones, w. 1. 5,700,
have been taken to show the existence of other sets of lines whose variation in
intensity is still greater than that of A and B.
To complete the work in the regions referred to, other photographs are still
required, and provision has been made to enable photographs to be taken during dry
and frosty weather, to facilitate comparison by inspection with those already taken,
where the quantity of aqueous vapour was considerable.
Some photographs of the invisible red, w. 1. 8,350, will also show those lines
which have a tellurie origin.
itd a
===
»
761
Section B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—Professor T. E. THorrn, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.LS8.,
Treas.C.8,
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
The President delivered the following Address :—
Lesps has one most notable association with chemistry of which she is justly proud.
In the month of September 1767 Dr. Joseph Priestley took up his ahode in this town.
The son of a Yorkshire cloth-dresser, he was born in 1735 at Fieldhead, a village
about six miles hence. His relatives, who were strict Calvinists, on discovering
his fondness for books, sent him to the Academy at Daventry to be trained
for the ministry. In spite of his poverty and of certain natural disadvantages
of speech and manner, he gradually acquired, more especially by his controver-
sial and theological writings, a considerable influence in Dissenting circles. A
pressing invitation and the offer of one hundred guineas a year, induced him to
accept an invitation to take charge of the congregation of Mill Hill Chapel here.
He was already known to science by his ‘ History of Electricity,’ and the effort
was made to attach him still more closely to its cause by the offer of an appoint-
ment as naturalist to Cook’s Second Expedition to the South Seas. But thanks
to the intervention of some worthy ecclesiastics on the Board of Longitude who
had the direction of the business, and who, as Professor Huxley once put it, ‘ pos-
sibly feared that a Socinian might undermine that piety which in the days of Com-
modore Trunnion so strikingly characterised sailors,’ he was allowed to remain in
Leeds, where, as he tells us in his Memoirs, he continued six years, ‘ very happy
with a liberal, friendly, and harmonious congregation,’ to whom his services (of which
he was not sparing) were very acceptable. ‘In Leeds,’ he says, ‘I had no unreason-
able prejudices to contend with, and I had full scope for every kind-of exertion.’ ?
We have every reason to feel grateful to the ‘ worthy ecclesiastics,’ since their
action indirectly occasioned Priestley to turn his attention to chemistry. The
accident of living near a brewery led him to study the properties of ‘ fixed air,’ or
carbonic acid, which is abundantly formed in the process of fermentation, and which
_at that time was the only gas whose separate and independent existence had been
definitely established. T'rom this happy accident sprang that extraordinary sue-
cession of discoveries which earned for their author the title of the Father of
Pneumatic Chemistry, and which were destined to completely change the aspect
of chemical theory and to give it a new and unexpected development. ;
I have been led to make this allusion to Priestley, not so much on account of
his connection with this place as for the reason that, asit seems to me, there has
been a disposition to obscure his true relation to the marvellous development of
chemical science which made the close of the last century memorable in the history
of learning. Our distinguished fellow-worker, M. Berthelot, the Perpetual Secre-
_ | Leeds still enjoys one of the fruits of Priestley’s insatiable power of work
in her admirable Proprietary Library. He seems to have suggested its formation
and was its first honorary secretary.
1890. 3D
762 REPORT— 1890.
tary of the French Academy, has recently published, under the title of ‘ La Révo-
lution Chimique,’ a remarkable book, written with great skill, and with all the
charm of style and perspicacity which invariably characterise his work, in which
he claims for Lavoisier a participation in discoveries which we count among the
chief scientific glories of this country. From the eminence of M. Berthelot’s posi-
tion in the world of science his book is certain to receive in his own country the
attention which it merits, and as it is issued as one of the volumes of the Biblio-
théque Scientifique Internationale it will probably obtain through the medium of
translations a still wider circulation. I trust that I shall not be accused of being
unduly actuated by what Mr. Herbert Spencer terms ‘the bias of patriotism’ in
deeming the present a fitting occasion on which to bring these claims to your notice
with a view of determining how far they can be substantiated.
All who are in the least degree familiar with the history of chemical science
during the last hundred years will recognise, as I proceed, that the claims which
M. Berthelot asserts on behalf of his illustrious predecessor are not put forward for
the first time. Explicitly made, in fact, by Lavoisier himself, they were uni-
formly and consistently disallowed by his contemporaries. M. Berthelot now
seeks to support them by additional evidence and to strengthen them with new .
arguments, and asks us thereby to clear the memory of Lavoisier from certain grave
charges which lie heavily on it. You have doubtless anticipated that these claims
have reference to Lavoisier’s position in relation to the discovery of oxygen gas and
the determination of the non-elementary nature of water.
The substance we now call oxygen—a name we owe to Lavoisier—was discovered
by Priestley on August 1, 1774; he obtained it, as every schoolboy knows, by the
action of heat upon the red oxide of mercury. We all remember the character-
istically ingenuous account which Priestley gives of the origin of his discovery.
M. Berthelot sees in it merely the evidence of the essentially empirical character
of his work. ‘ Priestley,’ he says, ‘the enemy of all theory and of every hypothesis,
draws no general conclusion from his beautiful discoveries, which he is pleased,
moreover, not without affectation, to attribute to chance. He describes them in
the current phraseology of the period with an admixture of peculiar and incoherent
ideas, and he remained obstinately attached to the theory of phlogiston up to his
death, which occurred in 1804’ (p. 40). Such a statement is calculated to give an
erroneous idea of Priestley’s merit as a philosopher. That the implication it con-
tains is wholly opposed to the real spirit of his work might be readily shown by
numerous quotations from his writings, Perhaps this will suffice: ‘It is always
our endeayour, after making experiments, to generalise the conclusions we draw
from them, and by this means to form a theory or system of principles to which
all the facts may be reduced, and by means of which we may be able to foretell the
result of future experiments.’ This quotation is taken from the concluding chapter
of his ‘Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air,’ in which he
actually seeks to draw ‘general conclusions’ concerning the constituent principles
of the various gases which he himself made known to us and to show the bear-
ing of these conclusions on the doctrine of phlogiston. That he was content to
rest in the faith of Stahl’s great generalisation, even to the end, is true, and the
fact is the more remarkable when we recall the absolute sincerity of the man,
his extraordinary receptivity, and, as he says of himself, his proneness ‘to em-
brace what is generally called the heterodox side of almost every question.’ If
it is argued that this merely shows Priestley’s inability to appreciate theory, it
must be at least admitted that there is no proof that he was inimical to it. His
position is clearly evident from the concluding words of the section of his
work from which I have already quoted: ‘This doctrine of the composition and
decomposition of water has been made the basis of an entirely new system of
chemistry, and a new set of terms has been invented and appropriated to it. It
must be acknowledged that substances possessed of very different properties may,
as I have said, be composed of the same elements in different proportions and
different modes of combination. It cannot, therefore, be said to be absolutely zm-
possible but that water may be composed of these two elements or any other. But
then the supposition should not be admitted without proof; and if a former theory
Se ee
4
.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 763
will sufficiently account for all the facts there is no occasion to have recourse
to a new one, attended with no peculiar advantage (doc. cit. p. 548).... I
should not feel much reluctance to adopt the xew doctrine, provided any new and
stronger evidence be produced for it. But though I have given all the attention
that I can to the experiments of M. Lavoisier, &c., I think that they admit of the
easiest explanation on the old system.’ (Loc, cit. p. 563.)
The fact that Priestley was the first to consciously isolate oxygen is not contested
by M. Berthelot, although he is careful to point out, what is not denied, that the
exact date of the discovery depends on Priestley’s own statement, and that: his first
publication of it was made in a work published in London in 1775. It was known
before Priestley’s famous experiment that the red oxide of mercury, originally
formed by heating the metal in contact with air, would again yield mercury by the
simple action of heat. and without the intervention of any reducing agent.
Bayen, six months before the date of Priestley’s discovery, had observed that
a gas was thus disengaged, but he gave no description of its nature, contenting
himself merely by pointing out the analogy which his experiments appeared to
possess to those of Lavoisier on the existence of an elastic fluid in certain
substances. Afterwards, when the facts were established, Bayen drew attention
to his earlier experiments, and claimed, not only the discovery of oxygen, but all
that Lavoisier deduced from it. ‘But,’ says M. Berthelot, in reference to this -
circumstance, ‘his contemporaries paid little heed to his pretensions, nor will
posterity pay more’ (‘ La Révolution Chimique,’ p. 60).
M. Berthelot, however, does not dismiss Lavoisier’s claims to a participation in
the discovery in the same summary fashion. On the contrary, whilst not explicitly
claiming for him the actual isolation, in the first instance, of oxygen, the whole
tenor of his argument is to palliate, and even to justify, his demand to be
regarded as an independent discoverer of the gas. He begins by asserting that
Lavoisier had already a presentiment of its existence in 1774, and he quotes, in
support of this assumption, an abstract from Lavoisier’s memoir, published in
December 1774, in the ‘Journal de Physique’ of the Abbé Rozier: ‘This air,
deprived of its fixable portion (by metals during calcination), is in some fashion
decomposed, and this experiment would seem to afford a method of analysing the
fluid which constitutes our atmosphere and of examining the principles of which
itis composed... . I believe I am in a position to affirm that the air, as pure as
it is possible to suppose it, free from moisture and from every foreign substance,
far from being a simple body, or element, as is commonly thought, should be
placed, on the contrary, . . . in the group of the mixtures, and perhaps even in
that of the compounds.’
M. Berthelot further asserts that Lavoisier was at this time the first to
recognise the true character of air, and he expresses his belief that it is probable
_ that he would himself have succeeded in isolating its constituents if the path of
inquiry had been left to him alone. It is no disparagement to Lavoisier’s
prescience to say that there is nothing in these lines, nor in the memoir of the
repetition of Boyle’s experiments on the calcination of tin to which they refer, to
show that Lavoisier had made any advance beyond the position of Hooke and
Mayow. It has been more than once pointed out that the chemists of the
seventeenth century understood the true nature of combustion in air much better
than their brethren of the last quarter of the eighteenth century. Hooke, in the
_‘*Micrographia,’ and Mayow, in his ‘Opera Omnia Medicophysieca,’ indicated that
combustion consists in the union of something with the body which is being burnt;
and Mayow, both by experiment and inference, demonstrated in the clearest way
the analogy between respiration and combustion, and showed that in both processes
one constituent only of the air is concerned. He distinctly stated that, not only is
there increase of weight attending the calcination of metals, but that this increase
is due to the absorption of the same spiritus from the air that is necessary to
respiration and combustion. Mayow’s experiments are so precise, and his facts so
incontestable, that, as Chevreul has said, it is surprising that the truth was not
fully recognised until a century after his researches. (Vide Watts’s ‘ Dictionary of
Chemistry,’ by Morley & Muir, art. ‘Combustion,’ p. 242.)
3D2
764 REPORT—1890.
It is now necessary to examine Lavoisier’s claims rather more closely and in
the light of M. Berthelot’s book. A réswmé of his work ‘On the Calcination of
Tin’ was given by Lavoisier to the Academy in November 1774, but the complete
memoir was not deposited until May 1777. A careful comparison of an abstract
of what was stated to the Academy in November 1774, contributed by Lavoisier
himself, in December 1774, to the ‘Journal de Physique’ of the Abbé Rozier,
makes it evident that very substantial additions were made to the communication
before it was finally printed in the ‘Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences.’ The
possibility of this is allowed by M. Berthelot. He says (p. 58): ‘A summary
communication, often given wvd voce to a learned society, such as the Academy of
Sciences of Paris or the Royal Society of London, would immediately call forth
verifications, ideas, and new experiments, which would develop the range and even
the results of such communication. The original author, when printing his
memoir, would in return—and for this he is hardly blamable—embody these
additional results and later interpretations. It thus becomes most difficult to
assign wupertially to each his share in a rapid succession of discoveries.’ (Loc.
cit. p. 58.)
But although, as we shall see, Lavoisier was certainly aware of Priestley’s great
discovery, no allusion is made to the gas, nor to Priestley’s previous work on the
other constituent of air, which is printed in the ‘Philosophical Transactions’ for
1772, and for which he was awarded the Copley Medal by the Royal Society. It
is simply impossible to believe that Lavoisier could have been uninfluenced by this
work, Indeed, we venture to assert that the full and clear recognition of the non-
elementary nature of air which he eventually made was based upon it. It is
noteworthy that in the early part of his memoir he states his opinion that the
addition not only of powdered charcoal, but of any phlogistic substance, to a
metallic calx is attended with the formation of fixed air. It is certain that at this
period he had not only not consciously obtained any gas resembling Priestley’s
dephlogisticated air from any calx with which he had experimented, but that none
of his experiments had afforded him any idea that the gas absorbed during
calcination was identical with it.
At Easter 1775 Lavoisier presented a memoir to the Academy ‘On the
Nature of the Principle which combines with Metals during Calcination.’ This
was ‘relu de 8 aoiit, 1778.’ To the memoir there is a note stating that the first
experiments detailed in it were performed more than a year before; those on the
red precipitate were made by means of «a burning glass in the month of November
1774, and were repeated in the spring of 1775 at Montigny in conjunction with
M. Trudaine. In this paper Lavoisier first distinctly announces that the principle
which unites with metals during their calcination, which increases their weight,
and which transforms them into calces, is nothing else ‘than the purest and most
salubrious part of the air; so that if that air which has been fixed in a metallic
combination again becomes free, it reappears in a condition in which it is eminently
respirable, and better adapted than the air of the atmosphere to support inflamma-
tion and the combustion of substances,’ (‘(Huvres de Lavoisier,’ official edition,
vol. ii, p. 123.) He then describes the method of preparing oxygen by heating the
red oxide of mercury, and compares its properties with those of fixed air. There
is, however, no mention of Priestley, nor any reference to his experiments. It can
hardly be doubted that in this memoir Lavoisier intended his readers to believe
that he was ‘the true and first discoverer’ of the gas which he afterwards named
oxygen. This is borne out by certain passages in his subsequent memoir ‘On the
Existence of Air in Nitrous Acid; Zu de 20 avril, 1776, vemis en décembre 1777.
He had occasion incidentally to prepare the red oxide of mercury by calcining the
nitrate, and says that he obtained from it a large quantity of an air ‘much purer
than common air, in which candles burnt with a much larger, broader, and more
brilliant flame, and which in no one of its properties differed from that which I
had obtained from the calx of mercury, known as mercurius precipitatus per se, and
which Mr. Priestley had procured from a great number of substances by treating
them with nitric acid,’ |
In another part of this memoir he says that ‘ perhaps, strictly speaking, there is _
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 765
nothing in it of which Mr. Priestley would not be able to claim the original idea;
but as the same facts have conducted us to diametrically opposite results, I trust
that, if I am reproached for having borrowed my proofs from the works of this
celebrated philosopher, my right at least to the conclusions will not be contested.’
M. Berthelot remarks on the irony of this passage: we may infer from it
that the friends of the English chemist had not been altogether idle. In his
memoir ‘On the Respiration of Animals,’ read to the Academy in 1777, he again
appears to admit the claim of Priestley to at least a share in the discovery: ‘It is
known from Mr. Priestley’s and my experiments that mercurius precipitatus per se is
nothing but a combination’ &c. In several subsequent communications Priestley’s
name is mentioned in very much the same connection, until we come to the
classical memoir ‘On the Nature of the Acids,’ when it is said: ‘I shall henceforth
_ designate the dephlogisticated air, or the eminently respirable air... by the
_ name of the acidifying principle, or, if it is preferred to have the same signification
_ under a Greek word, by that of the “principe oxygine.”’
In none of the memoirs after that of Easter 1775 is the claim for participation
more than implied ; it is made explicitly for the first time in the paper ‘On a
Method of Increasing the Action of Fire,’ printed in the ‘ Mémoires de l’Académie’
for 1782, and in these words: ‘It will be remembered that at the meeting of
Easter 1775 I announced the discovery, which I had made some months before
with M. Trudaine, in the laboratory at Montigny, of a new kind of air, up to then
absolutely unknown, and which we obtained by the reduction of mercurius pre-
- eipitatus per se. This air, which Mr, Priestley discovered at very nearly the same
time as I, and I believe even before me, and which he had procured mainly from
the combination of minium and of several other substances with nitric acid, has been
named by him dephlogisticated air.’
In the ‘Traité Elémentaire de Chimie’ the claim for participation is again asserted
in these words: ‘This air, which Mr, Priestley, Mr. Scheele, and I discovered at
about the same time... ’
Now there is no question that Lavoisier knew of the existence of oxygen some
months before he made the experiments with the burning glass of M. Trudaine at
Montigny for the simple reason that Priestley had already told him of it. Priestley
left Leeds in 1773 to become the librarian and literary companion of Lord Shel-
burne, and in the autumn of 1774 he accompanied his lordship on to the Continent,
and spent the month of October in Paris. Lavoisier was famous for his hospitality;
his dinners were celebrated ; and Priestley, in common with every foreign savant of
note who visited Paris at that period, was a welcome guest. What followed is
best told in Priestley’s own words: ‘Having made the discovery [of oxygen] some
time before I was in Paris, in the year 1774, I mentioned it at the table of
Mr. Lavoisier, when most of the philosophical people of the city were present,
saying that it was a kind of air in which a candle burnt much better than in
comm: air, but I had not then given it any name. At this all the company, and
Mr. an i Mrs. Lavoisier as much as any, expressed great surprise. I told them I
had gotten it from precipitate per se and also from red lead. Speaking French very
imperfectly, and being little acquainted with the terms of chemistry, I said plombe
rouge, which was not understood till Mr. Macquer said I must mean miniwm,’
In his account of his own work on dephlogisticated air, given in his ‘Observa-
tions,’ &c., 1790 edition, he further says, vol. ii. p. 108: ‘Being at Paris in the
October following [the August of 1774], and knowing that there were several
very eminent chemists in that place, I did not omit the opportunity, by means of
_ my friend Mr. Magellan,’ to get an ounce of mercurius caleinatus prepared by Mr.
_ Cadet, of the genuineness of which there could not possibly be any suspicion: and,
at the same time, I frequently mentioned my surprise at the kind of air which
1M. Trudaine de Montigny died in 1777.
? Prof. Grimaux (Lavoisier, p. 51), says: ‘Un de ses | Lavoisier’s] amis qui habitait
_ Londres, Magalhaens ou Magellan, de la famille du célébre navigateur, lui envoyait
tous les mémoires sur les sciences qui paraissaient en Angleterre et le tenait au
courant des découvertes de Priestley.’
766 REPORT—-1890.
had got from this preparation to Mr. Lavoisier, Mr. le Roy, and several other
hilosophers, who honoured me with their notice in that city, and who, I dare say,
cannot fail to recollect the circumstance.’
If any further evidence is required to prove that Lavoisier was not only not
‘the true and first discoverer’ of oxygen, but that he has absolutely no claim to be
regarded even as a later and independent discoverer, it is supplied by M. Berthelot
himself. Not the least valuable portion of M. Berthelot’s book, as an historical
work, is that which he devotes to the analysis of the thirteen laboratory journals
of Lavoisier, which haye been deposited, by the pious care of M. de Chazelles, his
heir, in the archives of the Institute. M. Berthelot has given us a synopsis of the
contents of almost every page of these journals, with explanatory remarks and
dates when these could be ascertained. As he well says, these journals ‘are of
great interest because they inform us of Lavoisier’s methods of work and of the
direction of his mind—I mean the successive steps in the evolution of his private
thought.’ On the fly-leaf of the third journal is written, ‘du 25 mars, 1774, au
18 fevrier, 1776.’ From p. 30 we glean that Lavoisier visited his friend M. Trudaine
at Montigny about ten days after his conversation with Priestley, and repeated the
latter’s experiments on the marine acid and alkaline airs (hydrochloric acid gas and
ammonia). He is again at Montigny some time between the February 28 and
the March 31, 1775, and repeats not only Priestley’s experiments on the decom-
position of mercuric oxide, presumably by means of M. Trudaine’s famous burning
glass, but also his observations on the character of the gas, The fly-leaf of the
fourth journal informs us that it extends from February 13, 1776, to March 3, 1778.
On p. 1 is an account of experiments made February 13 on ‘précipité per se de chez
M. Baumé,’ in which the disengaged gas is spoken of as ‘ Pair déphlogistique de M.
Prisley’ (sic). Such a phrase in a private notebook is absolutely inconsistent with
the idea that at this time Lavoisier considered himself as an independent discoverer
of the gas. How he came to regard himself as such we need not inquire. Nor is it
necessary to occupy your time by any examination of the arguments by which M.
Berthelot, with the skill of a practised advocate, would seem to identify himself
with the case of his client. We would do him the justice of recognising the
difficulty of his position. He seeks to discharge an obligation, of which the
acknowledgement has been too long delayed. The Académie des Sciences a year
ago awoke to the sense of its debt of gratitude to the memory of the man who had
laboured so zealously for its honour, and even for its existence, during the stormy
period of which France has just celebrated the centenary, and out of the éloge on
Lavoisier which M. Berthelot, as Perpetual Secretary, was commissioned to deliver,
has grown La Révolution Chimique. To write eulogy, however, is not necessarily
to write history. We cannot but think that M. Berthelot has been hampered
by his position, and that his opinion, or at least the free expression of it, has
been fettered by the conditions under which he has written. We imagine we
discern between the lines the consciousness that, to use Brougham’s phrase, the
brightness of the illustrious career which he eulogises is dimmed with spots which
a regard for historical truth will not permit him wholly to ignore.
Two cardinal facts made the downfall of phlogiston complete—the discovery of
oxygen and the determination of the compound nature of water. M. Berthelot’s
contention is that not only did Lavoisier effect the overthrow, but he also discovered
the facts. In other words, he has not only a claim to a participation in the
discovery of oxygen, but he is also ‘the true and first discoverer’ of the non-
elementary nature of water. This second claim is directly and explicitly stated.
Although it is supported by a certain ingenuity of argument, we venture to think
that we shall be able to show it has no greater foundation in reality than the first.
Members of the British Association, who are at all familiar with its history,
will recall the fact that this is not the first occasion on which the attempt to
transfer ‘those laurels which both time and truth have fixed upon the brow of
Cavendish’ has had to be resisted. At the Birmingham Meeting of 1839 the Rev.
W. Vernon Harcourt, who then presided, devoted a large portion of his address to
an able and eloquent vindication of Cavendish’s rights. The attack came then as
now from the Perpetual Secretary of the French Academy, and the charges were
ee ee ee “~~ Se ee SS
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 767
also formulated then, as now, in an éloge read before that learned body. The
assailant was M. Arago, who did battle, not for his countryman Lavoisier, whose
claims are dismissed as ‘pretensions, but on behalf of James Watt, the great
engineer, who was one of the foreign members of the Institute.
It is not my wish to trouble you at any length with the details of what
has come to be known in the history of scientific discovery as the Water Con-
troversy—a controversy which has exercised the minds and pens of Harcourt,
Whewell, Peacock, and Brougham in England; of Brewster, Jeflrey, Muirhead,
and Wilson in Scotland ; of Kopp in Germany ; and of Arago and Dumas in France.
This controversy, it has been said, takes its place in the history of science side by
side with the discussion between Newton and Leibnitz concerning the invention of
the Differential Calculus, and that between the friends of Adams and Leverrier
in reference to the discovery of the planet Neptune. Up to now it has practically
turned upon the relative merits of Cavendish and Watt. M. Berthelot is the first
French savant of any note who has seriously put forward the claims of Lavoisier,
his countryman and predecessor Dumas having deliberately rejected them.
At the risk of wearying you with detail, I am under the necessity of restating
the facts in order to make the position clear. Some time before April 18,
1781, Priestley made what he called ‘a random experiment’ for the entertainment
of a few philosophical friends, It consisted in exploding a mixture of inflammable
air (presumably hydrogen) and common air, contained in a closed glass vessel, by
the electric spark, in the manner first practised by Volta in 1776. The experiment
was witnessed by Mr. John Warltire, a lecturer on natural philosophy and a friend
of Priestley, who had rendered him the signal service of giving him the sample of
the mercuric oxide from which he had first obtained oxygen. Warltire drew
Priestley’s attention to the fact that after the explosion the sides of the glass
vessel were bedewed with moisture. Neither of the experimenters attached any
importance to the circumstance at the time, Priestley being of opinion that
the moisture was pre-existent in the gases, as no special pains were taken to dry
them. Warltire, however, conceived the notion that the experiment would afford
the means of determining whether heat was ponderable or not, and hence he was
led to repeat it, firing the mixture in a copper vessel for greater safety. The results
of these observations are contained in Priestley’s ‘Experiments and Observations
on Air,’ vol. v. 1781, App. p. 3965.
' At this period Cavendish was engaged on a series of experiments ‘made, as
he says, principally with a view to find out the cause of the diminution which
common air is well known to suffer by all the various ways in which it is
phlogisticated, and to discover what becomes of the air thus lost or condensed,’
(Cavendish, ‘ Phil. Trans.’ 1784, p. 119.) On the publication of Priestley’s work
he repeated Warltire’s experiment, for, he says, as it ‘ seemed likely to throw great
light on the subject I had in view, I thought it well worth examining more closely.’
The series of experiments which Cavendish was thus induced to make, and which
he made with all his wonted skill in quantitative work, led him some time in
the summer of 1781 to the discovery that a mixture of two volumes of the inflam-
mable air from metals (the gas we now call hydrogen) with one volume
of the dephlogisticated air of Priestley combine together under the influence
of the electric spark, or by burning, to form the same weight of water. If
Cavendish had published the results of these observations at or near the
time he obtained them, there would have been no Water Controversy. But in
the course of the trials he found that the condensed water was sometimes acid, and
the search for the cause of the acidity (which incidentally led to the discovery of
the composition of nitric acid) occasioned the delay. The main result that
a mixture of two volumes of inflammable air and one volume of dephlogisticated
air could be converted into the same weight of water was, however, communicated
to Priestley, as he relates in a paper in the ‘ Phil. Trans.’ for 1783. Priestley was
at this time interested im an investigation on the seeming convertibility of water
into air, and he was led to repeat Cavendish’s experiments, some time in March
1783, on what was apparently the converse problem. Priestley, however, made a
fatal blunder in the repetition. With the praiseworthy idea of obviating the pos-
768 REPORT—1890.
sibility of any moisture in the gases, he prepared the dephlogisticated air from
nitre, and the inflammable air by heating what he calls ‘ perfectly made charcoal ’
in an earthenware retort. At this time, it must be remembered, there was no sharp
distinction between the various kinds of inflammable air: hydrogen, sulphuretted
hydrogen, marsh gas and olefiant gas, coal gas, the vapours of ether and turpen-
tine, and the’gas from heated charcoal, consisting of a mixture of carbonic oxide,
marsh gas, and carbonic acid, were indifferently termed ‘ inflammable air.’ Priestley
attempted to verify Cavendish’s conclusion on the identity of the weight of the
gases used with that of the water formed; but his method in this respect, as in his
choice of the inflammable air, was wholly defective, and could not possibly have
given him accurate results. It consisted in wiping out the water from the explo-
sion vessel by means of a weighed piece of blotting-paper and determining the in-
crease of weight of the paper. He says, however: ‘1 always found as near as I
could judge the weight of the decomposed air in the moisture acquired by the
paper. ... I wished, however, to have had a nicer balance for this purpose ; the
result was such as to afford a strong presumption that the air was reconverted into
water, and therefore that the origin of it had been water.’ These results, together
with those on the conversion of water into air, were communicated towards the
end of March 1783 by Priestley to Watt, who began to theorise upon them, and
then to put his thoughts together in the form of a letter to Priestley, dated April
26, 1783, and which he requested might be read to the Royal Society on the occa-
sion of the presentation of Priestley’s memoir. In this letter Watt says: ‘Let us
now consider what obviously happens in the case of the deflagration of the inflam-
mable and dephlogisticated air. These two kinds of air unite with violence, they
become red-hot, and upon cooling totally disappear. When the vessel is cooled, a
quantity of water is found in it equal to the weight of the air employed. This
water is then the only remaining product of the process, and water, light, and heat
are all the products. Are we not then authorised to conclude that water is composed
of dephlogisticated air and phlogiston deprived of part of their latent or elementary
heat ; that dephlogisticated or pure air is composed of water deprived of its phlogiston
and united to elementary heat and light, §c.?’
This letter, although shown to several Fellows of the Society, was not publicly
read at the time intended. Priestley, before its receipt, had detected the fallacy of
his experiments on the seeming conversion of water into air, and as much of the
letter was concerned with this matter Watt requested that it should be withdrawn.
Watt, however, as he tells Black! in a letter dated June 23, 1783, had not
given up his theory as to the nature of water, and on Noy. 26,1783, he restated his
views more fully in a letter to De Luc. In the meantime Cavendish, having com-
pleted one section of his investigation, sent in a memoir to the Royal Society,
which was read on January 15, 1784, in which he gives an account of his experi-
ments and announces his conclusion ‘ that dephlogisticated air is in reality nothing
but dephlogisticated water, or water deprived of its phlogiston; or, in other words,
that water consists of dephlogisticated air united to phlogiston; and that inflam-
mable air is either pure phlogiston, as Dr. Priestley and Mr. Kirwan suppose, or else
water united to phlogiston.’ Watt thereupon requested that his letter to De Luc
should be published, and it was accordingly read to the Royal Society on April 29,
1784, Which of the two—Cavendish or Watt—is, under these circumstances, to
be considered as ‘ the true and first discoverer’ of the compound nature of water is
the question which has been hitherto the main subject of the water controversy.
Let us now consider the matter as it affects Lavoisier. In 1783 Lavoisier had
publicly declared against the doctrine of phlogiston, or rather, as M. Dumas puts
it, ‘against the crowd of entities of that name which had no quality in common
except that of being intangible by every known method.’ (‘ Lecons sur la Philosophie
Chimique,’ p. 161.) How completely Lavoisier had dissociated himself from the
theory may be gleaned from his memoir of that year. ‘Chemists,’ he says, ‘ have
made a vague principle of phlogiston which is not strictly defined, and which in
consequence accommodates itself to every explanation into which it is pressed,
1 Watt, Correspondence, p. 31.
iat
Ld
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 769
- Sometimes this principle is heavy and sometimes it is not; sometimes it is free
fire and sometimes it is fire combined with the earthy element ; sometimes it passes
through the pores of vessels and sometimes they are impenetrable to it: it explains
at once causticity and non-causticity, transparency and opacity, colours and the
absence of colours. It is a veritable Proteus which changes its form every
moment.’
But Lavoisier had merely renounced one fetich for another. At the time that
he penned these lines he was as much under the thraldom of le principe oxygine as
the most devoted follower of Stahl was in the bondage of phlogiston, The idea
thatthe calcination of metals was but a slow combustion had been fully recognised.
-“M. Berthelot tells us that as far back as the March of 1774 Lavoisier had written in
“his laboratory journal : ‘I am persuaded that the inflammation of inflammable air
is nothing but a fixation of a portion of the atmospheric air, a decomposition of
air... . In that case in every inflammation of air there ought to be an increase
of weight,’ and he tried to ascertain this by burning hydrogen at the mouth of ,a
vessel from which it was being disengaged. In the following year he asks, what
remains when inflammable air is burnt completely? According to the theory by
which he is now swayed it should be an acid, and he made many attempts to cap-
_ ture this acid. In1777 he and Bucquet burnt six pints of the inflammable air from
- metals in a bottle containing lime-water, in the expectation that fixed air would be
_ the result. And in 1781 he repeated the experiment with Gengembre, with the
- modification that the oxygen was caused to burn in an atmosphere of hydrogen, but
not a trace of any acid product could be detected. Of course there must have been
considerable quantities of water formed in these experiments, but Lavoisier was
preoccupied with the conviction that oxidation meant acidification, and its presence
was unnoticed, or, if noticed, was unheeded. Macquer, in 1776, had drawn atten-
tion to the formation of water during the combustion of hydrogen in air, but
Lavoisier has stated that he was ignorant of that observation. What was it, then,
that put him on the right track? We venture to think that M. Berthelot has him-
self supplied the answer. He says (p. 114): ‘ Rumours of Cavendish’s trials had
spread throughout the scientific world during the spring of 1783. . . . Lavoisier,
always on the alert as to the nature of the products of the combustion of hydrogen,
was now in such position that the slightest hint would enable him to comprehend
its true nature. He hastened to repeat his trials, as he had the right to do, never
having ceased to occupy himself with a question which lay at the very heart of his
doctrine.’
‘On the 24th of June, 1783,’ continues M. Berthelot, ‘he repeated the com-
bustion of hydrogen in oxygen, and he obtained a notable quantity of water
without any other product, and he concluded from the conditions under which he
had worked that the weight of the water formed could not be other than equal to
that of the two gases which had formed it. The experiment was made in the
presence of several men of science, among whom was Blagden, a member of the
Royal Society of London, who on this occasion recalled the observations of
Cavendish (qui rappela a cette occasion les observations de Cavendish).
On the following day Lavoisier published his results. The following is the
official minute of the communication taken from the register of the sittings of the
Académie des Sciences :—
Meeting of Wednesday, June 25, 1783.
R MM, Lavoisier and De Laplace announced that they had lately repeated the com-
_bustion of Combustible Air with Dephlogisticated Air; they worked with about 60 pints
of the airs, and the combustion was made in a closed vessel: the result was very pure
water.
————— =. OU
__ The cautious scribe who penned that minute did not commit himself too far.
M. Berthelot, however, regards it as the first certain date of publication, esta-
Dblished by authentic documents, in the history of the discovery of the composition
of water; ‘a discovery,’ he adds, ‘ which, on account of its importance, has excited
the keenest discussion.’
You will search in vain through the laboratory journals, as given by M.
770 REPORT—1 890.
Berthelot, for any indications either of experiments or reflections which would
enable you to trace the course of thought by which Lavoisier was guided to the
truth. There is absolutely nothing on the subject until in the eighth volume
(25 mars, 1783, au février 1784), and on p. 63 we come to the experiment of June
24, and we read: ‘In presence of Messieurs Blagden, of [name illegible],
de Laplace, Vandermonde, de Fourcroy, Meusnier, and Legendre,
we have combined ina bell-jar dephlogisticated air and inflammable
air drawn fromiron by means of sulphuricacid &c.... The amount
of water may be estimated at 3 drachms: the amount which should
have been obtained was 1 ounce 1 drachm and 12 grains. Thus we
must suppose that there was a lossof two-thirds of the amount of
the air or that there has been a loss of weight.’
And this is the experiment which, according to M. Berthelot, enabled Lavoisier
to conclude that ‘ the weight of the water formed could not be other than equal to
that of the two gases which had formed it!’ It is on this single experiment,
hurriedly and imperfectly done, that Lavoisier’s claim to the discovery of the com-
pound nature of water is based! M. Berthelot objects to the assumption that it
was hurriedly done. He says, on p. 114: ‘ Lavoisier caused a new apparatus to be
made, with a couple of tubes and two reservoirs for the gases; an arrangement
which would require a certain amount of time to put together; this circumstance
proves that it could not have been an improvised trial.’ To what extent it was
improvised will be seen immediately.
Now although the laboratory journals do not in this case ‘ inform us of Lavoisier’s
methods, and of the direction of his mind . . . the successive steps in the evolution
of his private thought, we have other means of ascertaining how he arrived at
his knowledge. The method was simplicity itself: he was told of the fact, and his
informant was none other than Cavendish’s assistant, Blagden.
Cavendish’s memoir was published in 1784. Before it was struck off its author
caused the following addition to be made: ‘ During the last summer also a friend
of mine gave some account of them [the experiments] to M. Lavoisier, as well as
of the conclusion drawn from them, that dephlogisticated air is only water deprived
of phlogiston ; but at that time so far was M. Lavoisier from thinking any such
opinion warranted that, till he was prevailed upon to repeat the experiment him-
self, he found some difficulty in believing that nearly the whole of the two airs
could be converted into water.’ This addition, as I have had the opportunity of
verifying by an inspection of the original MS. in the archives of the Royal
Society, was made in the handwriting of Cavendish’s assistant and amanuensis,
Blagden.
‘When Lavoisier’s memoir appeared it was found to contain the following
reference to this circumstance: ‘It was on the 24th of June that M. de Laplace
and I made this experiment in presence of MM. le Roi, Vandermonde, and several
other Academicians, and of Mr. Blagden, the present Secretary of the Royal Society
of London. The latter informed us (ce dernier nous apprit) that Mr. Cavendish had
already tried, in London, to burn inflammable air in closed vessels, and that he had
obtained a very sensible quantity of water.’
This reference was so partial, and its meaning so ambiguous, that Blagden
addressed the following letter to Crell to be published in his ‘Chemische Annalen’
(Crell’s Annalen,’ 1786, vol. i. p. 58).
It is so direct and conclusive that I offer no apology for giving it almost
entire :—*
I can certainly give you the best account of the little dispute about the first discoverer of
the artificial generation of water, as I was the principal instrument through which the first
news of the discovery that had been already made was communicated to Mr. Lavoisier. The
following is a short statement of the history :—
In the spring of 1783 Mr. Cavendish communicated to me, and other members of the
Royal Society, his particular friends, the result of some experiments with which he had for a
long time been occupied. He showed us that out of them he must draw the conclusion that
1 Mr. Muirhead’s translation. Vide Watt, Correspondence, ‘Composition of Water,’
pivk
a oe vtditaha vy
ee ee eee
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. TEL
dephlogisticated air was nothing else than water deprived of its phlogiston; and, vice versd,
that water was dephlogisticated air united with phlogiston. About the same time the news
was brought to London that Mr. Watt, of Birmingham, had been induced by some observations
to form a similar opinion. Soon after this I went to Paris, and in the company of Mr.
Lavoisier and of some other members of the Royal Academy of Sciences I gave some account
of these new experiments and of the opinions founded upon them. They replied that they
had already heard something of these experiments, and particularly that Dr. Priestley had
repeated them. They did not doubt that in such manner a considerable quantity of water
might be obtained, but they felt convinced that it did not come near to the weight of the
two species of air employed, on which account it was not to be regarded as water formed or
produced out of the two kinds of air, but was already contained in and united with the airs,
and deposited in their combustion. This opinion was held by Mr. Lavoisier, as well as by the
_ rest of the gentlemen who conferred on the subject ; but, as the experiment itself appeared to
them very remarkable in all points of view, they unanimously requested Mr. Lavoisier, who
possessed all the necessary preparations, to repeat the experiment, on a somewhat larger scale,
as early as possible. This desire he complied with on the 24th June, 1783 (as he relates in the
latest volume of the Paris memoirs). From Mr. Lavoisier’s own account of his experiment,
it sufficiently appears that at that period he had not yet formed the opinion that water was
composed of dephlogisticated and inflammable airs, for he expected that a sort of acid would
be produced by their union. In general, Mr. Lavoisier cannot be convicted of having
advanced anything contrary to truth; but it can still less be denied that he concealed a part
of the truth ; for he should have acknowledged that I had, some days before, apprised him of
Mr. Cavendish’s experiments, instead of which the expression ‘il nous apprit’ gives rise to
the idea that I had not informed him earlier than that very day. In like manner Mr. Lavoisier
has passed over a very remarkable circumstance, namely, that the experiment was made in
consequence of what I had informed him of. He should likewise have stated in his publica-
tion not only that Mr. Cavendish had obtained ‘une quantité d’eau trés sensible,’ but that
the water was equal to the weight of the two airs added together. Moreover, he should have
added that I had made him acquainted with Messrs. Cavendish and Watt’s conclusions,
namely, that water, and not an acid, or any other substance, arose from the combustion of the
inflammable and dephlogisticated airs. But those conclusions opened the way to Mr. Lavoisier’s
present theory, which perfectly agrees with that of Mr. Cavendish, only that Mr. Lavoisier
accommodates it to his old theory, which banishes phlogiston.... The course of all this
history will clearly convince you that Mr. Lavoisier (instead of being led to the discovery
by following up the experiments which he and Mr. Bucquet had commenced in 1777) was
induced to institute again such experiments, solely by the account he received from me, and
of our English experiments , and that he really discovered nothing but what had before been
pointed out to him to have been previously made out and demonstrated in England.
To this letter, reflecting so gravely on his honour and integrity, Lavoisier made
no reply. Nor did Laplace, Le Roi, Vandermonde, or any one of the Academicians
concerned vouchsafe any explanation. De non apparentibus et de non existentibus
eadem ratio. No explanation appeared, because none was possible. M. Berthelot
ignores this letter, which is the more remarkable, since reference is made to it in
more than one of the publications which he tells us he has consulted in the pre-
paration of his account of the Water Controversy. If he knew of it he must regard
it either as unworthy of an answer or as unanswerable.
It would be heaping Ossa on Pelion to adduce further evidence from letters of
the time of what Lavoisier’s contemporaries thought of his claims. De mortuis
nil nist bonum. I would much more willingly have dwelt upon the virtues of
Lavoisier, and have let his faults lie gently on him; but I have felt it incumbent
on me on this occasion to make some public answer to M. Berthelot’s book, and in
no place could that answer be more fittingly given than in this town which saw the
dawn of that work out of which these grand discoveries arose. It may be that much
of what I have had to say is as a twice-told tale to many of you. I trust I need
make no apology on that account. The honour of our ancestors is in our keeping,
and we should be unworthy of our heritage and false to our trust if we were slow
to resent or slack to repel any attempt to rob them of that glory which is their
just right and our proud boast.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee on recent Inquiries into the History of Chemistry.
[A Report will be presented at the next meeting of the Association.]
772 : REPORT—1890.
2. Report of the Committee on the Silent Discharge of Electricity in Gases.
See Reports, p. 338. ,
3. Report of the Committee on the present Methods of Teaching Chemistry.
See Reports, p. 265.
4. On Recent Legislation as Facilitating the Teaching of Science.
By Sir Henry Roscon, MP., F.B.S.
5. The Refraction and Dispersion of Fluorbenzene and Allied Compounds.
By J. H. Guavstonz, Ph.D., F.R.S., and Guorce GuaDstTone.
The authors had determined the molecular refraction of very pure specimens of
fluor-, chloro-, bromo-, and iodo- benzene for the solar lines ACDEGH. The
compounds of the three more common halogens gave the following results for
chlorine, bromine, and iodine :—
Chlorine Ry = 10:00, Ry_, = 0-70
Bromine ,, =15:28, ,, =1°41
Jodine. ,, =25:20, ,, =3'43
These are in conformity with numbers previously determined for the halogens,
especially when deduced from such bodies as bromoform, dibromide of ethylene,
&c. In the case of the fluoride the molecular refraction is exceedingly small, and
smaller for each successive line of the spectrum; so that for
Fluorine Ry = 4+ 0°63, Ry-a = —028
This small molecular refraction is also in accordance with what was previously
known ; but a negative dispersion of the same character has never before been
observed. Upon examining, however, the refraction of fluorspar and aqueous
solutions of fluoride of potassium, the fluorine in them was found to exhibit the
same reversal. The double fluosilicates examined by Topsoe and Christiansen also
appear to lead to the same inference, though the data for exact calculation are
wanting.
6. A Method of Quantitative Analysis. By G. H. Bary, D.Sc., Ph.D.,
and J. C. Carn.
The method consists in precipitating in the ordinary manner, and weighing the
precipitate in the liquid, having previously determined its specific gravity. The
specific gravity of the liquid and of the precipitate being known, and the volume of
the flask in which the weighing is made, it is possible to calculate the weight
of the precipitate directly, avoiding the troublesome operations of filtering and
washing.
It is not necessary to wash the precipitate free from the supernatant liquor, since,
by having two flasks of, say, 100 c.c. content, and filling one with the supernatant
liquor, and the other with supernatant liquor and precipitate, and then determin-
ing the weight of both, we have all the data required. The 100 c.c. flasks as
ordinarily made for volumetric analysis are too wide in the neck to admit of
accuracy, and flasks having narrow necks with graduations were used in the
experiments. Special arrangements were also made to overcome the difficulty of
introducing the liquids and precipitate through a neck of such small diameter.
The method is specially recommended for commercial analyses where a
tolerably large quantity of the sample to be determined is available, and the
amount taken should be such as to yield not less than 5 grammes of precipitate.
A manifest objection that might be raised to such a process is that the specific
gravity of the precipitate varies according to the circumstances under which precipi-
tation occurs. ;
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 773
A number of details are given in the paper dealing with this point. A great
advantage of the method is the saving of time, especially where a series of
determinations of a similar character have to be made.
7. The Behaviour of the More Stable Oxides at High Temperatures.
By G. H. Barury, D.Sc., Ph.D., and A. A. Ruan.
This is a continuation of the work already published on the behaviour of
oxide of copper. The oxides which have now been submitted to the action of the
oxidising flame of an oxy-coal-gas jet are the most stable of the oxides of lead—
bismuth, tin, vanadium, antimony, uranium, molybdenum, and tungsten. Of these,
vanadium pentoxide, antimony tetroxide, and molybdenum trioxide undergo de-
composition, yielding respectively vanadium trioxide (which readily oxidises on
exposure to tetroxide), antimony trioxide, and the blue oxide of molybdenum
respectively. The other oxides appear to undergo no change of composition,
excepting in the case of tin, where a slight loss of oxygen occurs.
8. The Spectra of the Haloid Salts of Didymiwm.
By G. H. Baitey, D.Sc., Ph.D.
The observations, of which a 7éswmé is given, were commenced some years ago,
and a communication made upon the earliest results at the Southport Meeting by
Professor Schuster, in conjunction with the present author. The observations made
may be classified into qualitative and quantitative, according as they deal with a
change in the appearance of the absorption-bands, or in their position,
Crystals of the chloride having been prepared, they were subjected to examina-
tion, under ordinary light and under polarised light, in such a way that the plane
of polarisation was parallel to the ortho- and klino-diagonal of the crystal re-
spectively. No change in the position of the bands was observed, but there were
marked differences in intensity of several of the bands under each of these condi-
tions. In like manner, the effect of the presence of reagents in solutions of the
salts on the position or character of tle bands was studied. Nitric acid was found
to increase the intensity of certain bands and diminish that of others; so that in its
presence the character of the spectra is much altered. Other strong acids had
little effect. Thus far the results are of a qualitative nature. When, however,
a comparison was made of the spectra of the chloride, bromide, and iodide of
didymium, it was found that the bands of these salts presented a general similarity
in character, but occupied different positions : those of the bromide being nearer the
red, and those of the iodide being nearer the violet, than in the case of the chloride.
Moreover, the bands of the solution of the chloride were displaced to the
violet side of the crystal, so that they occupied approximately the same position as
those of the crystalline iodide. Finally, equal displacement of all the bands did
not occur ; and there appeared in these quantitative measurements, as also in the
case where nitric acid was added, a selective action, so that certain bands underwent
greater displacement or alteration than others, These point to the compound nature
of didymium, and show some relation to its proximate constituents, praseo- and
neo-didymium.
9. On the Condition of the Air in Public Places of Amusement, with special
reference to Theatre Hygiene. By W. Herwortu Coxtins, £.C.8.,
F.R.M.S.
The principal theatres in Manchester were taken as types of well-arranged
English theatres. Samples of air were taken at stated periods during the perform-
ances in the months of December 1889 and January 1890. Duplicate samples
were analysed in all cases, and samples of the air outside the theatre were taken
simultaneously for the purpose of comparison. The examination of the samples
was confined to the estimation of—(1) carbonic acid (by Pettenkofer’s method) ;
(2) organic matter (by Carnelley’s method, ‘Proc. Roy. Soe,’ xli. 238); and
774 REPORT—1890.
(3) micro-organisms (by Hesse’s method, ‘ Mittheilungen aus dem kaiserlichen
Gesundheitsamte,’ ii. 182).
The results are contained in the following tables :—
A.— Comedy Theatre, Manchester.
Carbonic | Organic = | ‘Total
Place Time |{e™Per-! Acid per| Matter | Bacteria | Moulds | yficro.
fap HAND wolsy per cent.| PO &® | P ‘| organisms
p.m. a
Stalls . 6.30 53 6-2 14°6 6 34 40
3 : : 9.0 71 9°6 B42 29 41 70
Pit . : 9.40 96 11:3 60:4 36 39 75
” . - | 10.5 103 13:9 631 69 104 173
Gallery . 8.5 90 121 49-0 34 20 54
ne 9.5 116 12°6 56°3 45 45 90
6.30 36 5-1 16:6 253 638 89
9.0 36 5:0 16°9 26°9 106 140
Eee Pee. 940 Lui a87 51 | 166 | 406] 64 116
outside the- Es on ~.9 7. 2
hates 10.5 37 52 17-1 109 103 214
8.5 3 5:2 26°9 26 41 73
9.5 36 53 16°9 26 40 66
B.—Theatre Royal, Manchester.
Carbonic | Organic - : Total
Place Time oe Acid per Matter eee ibe Micro-
‘ae lng 10,000vols| per cent. 1 Se lees organisms
p-m 6 |
Pit a 5 7.45 69 12°6 69°5 60 60 120
as ; 7 8.15 100 141 70:0 65 69 134
Gallery . : 8.30 121 ~16°9 105 96 106 202
“4 ‘ , 9.30 116 165 109 Oi 120 217
Cirelety. : 9.30 95 12°3 46 29 11 40
mo: Bohs - | 10.0 90 11:3 69 4/6736 41 77
TA5 39 | 4-9 16:9 26 40 66
: 8.15 39,! 4-9 17-4 3 36 67
ee eee || 830.41) 20h or. date 41, UT Otay G29 30 69
outside the- 9.30 | $3) | ‘
Theatre 9.30 / 33 56 26°9 45 60 105
10.0 35 59 63°6 69 100 169
C.—Princes Theatre, Manchester.
Carbonic | Organie A : Total
Place Time ran seoce Acid per | Matter said Moulds Micro-
; ures ** 110,000vols per cent. PAGES Sees organisms
p-m. a
Pit : ; 7.45 67 113 60°5 “16 26 +2
% : . 9.0 104 13-0 106 69 43 112
Circle . ; 8.0 73 10:9 49 40 6 46
A 4 » LOO 90 14:0 109 26 90 116
Gallery . é 7.45 94 14:6 116 60 40 100
ee - | 10.0 116 173 206 143 51 194.
7.45 39 5°6 165 29 6 Bd
Peter Street, ~ a a aes 20 2 =
outside the ; ; sie 2p a G6
Theatre _ 10.0 32 4-6 169 6 51 7
7,45 39 51 40°3 15 11 26
10.0 30 5-0 40:9 12 14 26
3
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 775
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives.
[The report is deferred for completion. ]
, 2. The Development of the Ooal-tar Colour Industry since 1882.!
By W. H. Perxin, Ph.D., F.R.S.
In the brief report given, the first development since 1882 referred to was
that of the synthetical formation of colouring-matters of the para-rosaniline group
by means of tetramethyl diamido-benzophenone, produced by dimethylaniline and
_ phosgene gas, and the formation from that body of hexamethyl para-rosaniline,
;
e
La
Victoria blue, &c., also auramine. Reference was then made to the group of
phthaleins, as ccerulein, galleine, fluoresceine, and more especially to the beautiful
new colouring-matter derived from meta-amidophenol and phthalic anhydride,
rhodamine, its relationship to fluoresceine being shown. The rhodamine derived
from meta-amidophenol and succinic anhydride was also referred to, In the
alizarine series it was mentioned that this group of colouring-matters had been
speedily increasing in consumption, chiefly in the woollen trade, and that the isomer
of purpurin, anthragallol, made synthetically, had been added to this list of colouring-
matters. Alizarine blue in its soluble state, when combined with bisulphate of
sodium, was also more appreciated as a substitute for indigo, Some peculiar deri-
vatives of alizarine blue, known as alizarine green and alizarine indigo blue, had
also lately been introduced. For the purpose of producing a great variety of
shades of grey, slate, drab, olive, brown, black, &c., along with alizarine colours,
some products not belonging to the alizarine series, such as galloflavine and
_naphthazarine, had also come into use. Amongst the yellow dyes there have also
been several additions, as quinoline yellow, and some oxyketones produced from
benzoic acid and pyrogallol, as ‘alizarine yellow A,’ triovybenzophenone, and
‘alizarine yellow C,’ which is gallacetophenone. Also tartrazine, a product
obtained from dioxytartaric acid and phenylhydrazine monosulphonic acid.
Great improvements have also been made in the preparation of methylene blue, by
which the yield of colouring-matters has been increased, with a corresponding
cheapening of its cost.
With respect to the azo colours, their manufacture has attained colossal pro-
portions, and their purity has reached a great state of perfection.
The next series of colouring-matters mentioned was the remarkable class of
compounds known as substantive dyes—colouring-matters which unite with cotton
fibre without the intervention of a mordant; the number of these discovered
during the last few years places at the disposal of the dyer yellow, red, purple,
fo}
blue, and other colouring-matters of this class.
As to the annual value and cost of the coal-tar colouring-matters now made, it is
found difficult to get a correct estimate. In 1882 it was thought to be about
3,350,000/. ; but the large increase of weight of colouring-matters produced since
that time, it was believed, had been fully compensated by a corresponding reduc-
tion of their selling-price.
Germany still holds the first position in this industry, though competition of
Swiss, French, and English manufacturers with that country has been steadily
increasing. The use of the precise methods of scientific research in this industry,
especially in Germany, and the consequent improvement in quality and yield of
colouring-matter, with diminished cost, showed the great importance of manu-
facturing under these circumstances, and it was hoped that chemical manufacturers
of this country would profit by their example, and, by having good laboratories in
® Published in Industries, September 26 and October 3, 1890.
776 REPORT—1890.
their works, occupied by highly-skilled chemists, would raise the chemical industries
of the country to the highest state of perfection.
3. Behaviour of Copper Potassium Chloride and its Aqueous Solutions at
different Temperatures. By J. H. Van ’t Horr.
When the blue crystalline double chloride of copper and potassium (CuCl,,
2KCl, 2H,0) is heated to 100° C. it changes colour, and can be seen to be decom-
posed into three constituents—water, small cubical crystals of potassium chloride,
and reddish-brown needles of a new double salt (CuCl,, KCl), This double salt
may also be prepared by gently heating the blue double salt with excess of cupric
chloride ; thus :—
CuCl,, 2KCl, 2H,0 + CuCl,, 2H,O = 2CuCl,K + 4H,0.
Both these changes are reversible, and take place at fixed temperatures, which were
determined by noting the change of volume of the mixtures in a dilatometer. The
first change was found to take place at 98°C., the second at 56°C.
The solubility of all the salts concerned was carefully examined, and the vapour-
pressures of the different solutions were determined simultaneously in a manometer
with four branches.
A, Report of the Committee on the Action of Light on the Hydracids of
the Halogens in presence of Oxygen.—See Reports, p. 263.
5. Experiments on the Combustion of Gases wider Pressure. By Professor
Liveine, F.R.S., and Professor Dewan, F.R.S.
6. On the Rate of Explosion of Hydrogen and Chlorine in the Dry and Moist
States.' By Professor H. B. Dixon, F.2.8., and J. A. Harker.
The authors have previously shown (confirming Pringsheim’s experiments) that
a mixture of hydrogen and chlorine in a thoroughly dried state is far less sensitive
to explosion by light than when the gases are moist. The authors have now
determined the rate of the ‘ explosion-wave’ of hydrogen and chlorine in the dried
and in the moist states. The gases were fired by an electric spark, and the measure-
ment was begun at a distance of 4 feet from the firing-point. The mean rate
for the dried gases is slightly faster than that for the moist gases, a fact which
points to the direct combination of hydrogen and chlorine under these conditions
without the interaction of water.
7. On the Ignition of Explosive Gaseous Mixtures.
By G. 8. Turrin, B.A., D.Sc.
The author has commenced a thorough investigation of the conditions affecting
the ignition of explosive mixtures of gases, and the present paper gives an account
of the results obtained in a series of experiments on the temperatures of ignition of
various mixtures of OS, vapour with oxygen and other gases.
Davy was the earliest investigator of the subject, but his method, which was to
observe the effect of plunging a heated rod of iron into a jar containing the gaseous
mixture, could not lead to any definite results. This same method was afterwards
applied by Frankland, and, with considerable improvements, by Wiillner and O.
Lehmann. A far better apparatus was described by A. Mitscherlich in 1877, but
apparently ke did not carry out the investigation he had planned. The principle
ef this apparatus is the same as the first one used by Mallard and Le Chatelier a
1 Published in eatenso in the Memoirs of the Marchester Lit. and Phil. Soc., 1890-1.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 777
few years later, and consists in passing the mixture through a water-valve into a
tube heated to a known temperature. But Mallard and Le Chitelier’s second
method is a still further improvement. In this they introduce the mixture into a
heated and exhausted bulb. This is the method which, with some modifications, is
employed by the author.
Davy found that slow combustion goes on at temperatures considerably below
that at which the mixture takes fire. The existence of a discontinuity between this
gradual combustion and ignition proper is assumed by the phrase ‘temperature of
ignition.’ The author shows that such a discontinuity does really exist in some
eases, while in others, especially in mixtures containing a large proportion of
an inert gas, there is a perfect gradation from the slow combination through a
- combination lasting many seconds and attended only by a faint glow up to prac-
tically instantaneous combination accompanied by a bright flame. The discon-
tinuity is explained as due to the effect of the heat produced by the slow combustion
_ of the mixture in raising the temperature of the gases above that of the bulb into
_ which they have been introduced. In accordance with this explanation the tem-
_ perature of ignition is higher in a narrow tube than in one of larger diameter.
With most mixtures ignition takes place at temperatures not much above the
minimum temperature only after the lapse of a period of delay which may amount
_ to thirty seconds or more. During this interval it is supposed that the temperature
of the mixture is being raised above that of the tube by slowcombination. At the
same time that the temperature of the mixture is raised its composition is also
altered by the slow combustion, and these two effects oppose one another. In some
mixtures this change of composition brings about the extinction of the combustion
unless it be rapid at the commencement, and then the phenomenon of a delay in the
ignition is not observed.
The slow combustion of CS, is perceptible at 100°, and is comparatively rapid
at 130°. It is attended by the production of a reddish-brown solid, which is
deposited on the sides of the tubes, and also issues as a finely-divided smoke with
the gaseous products of combustion. This powder contains both carbon and sulphur,
but its composition has not yet been thoroughly made out. SO, is produced in
abundance, but very little, if any, CO, or CO.
The temperature at which the slow combustion develops into ignition varies
considerably with the composition of the mixture. It is lowest for mixtures con-
taining a large excess of oxygen, and is raised distinctly by the addition of nitrogen
or carbon dioxide, but much more by addition of sulphur dioxide. This will be
seen from the following table giving the temperatures of ignition in a tube of 5mm.
internal diameter :—
Ree MOO Yip iss oc. «<> >. get ante ee
Po nome ane. AG! SOA cite
Pees 4 ee ee ee
a ene EGO! 28 |, sf Yea aire
ereriressO. 0 eee ge
The effect of change of pressure on the ignition was also examined, and found to
be somewhat complex. The general effect of rarefaction is to lessen the discon-
tinuity in the phenomena, while raising the temperature, of ignition; and this is
readily explained as due to the smaller frequency of the molecular encounters at a
low pressure. On the other hand, the extinguishing power of SO, was found to be
-much diminished by rarefaction, the mixture CS,+50,+5SO, igniting at 195°
ander a pressure of 150mm. ; and this has an influence on the ignition of mixtures
which contained no SO, originally, since that gas is formed during the slow com-
_ bustion in the period of delay which precedes ignition, Thus the mixture CS, + 100,
_ under a pressure of 750 mm. ignites at 160° after a delay of 1-2 seconds, and under
_ a pressure of 300mm. at 155° after a delay of as much as 15 seconds. These two
effects of rarefaction act in opposite directions, and in some mixtures the one and in
other mixtures the other of them has the preponderance.
1890. 35
778 REPORT—1890.
8. The Orthophote. By Jamus T. Brown.
An instrument for the instant and simultaneous correction of photometric
observations for consumption of standard, volume of gas, and variations in the:
amount of gas consumed in the test burner.
This instrument, as arranged for use, with photometers fitted with graduated
bars, consists of two similar, appropriately-calculated, logarithmie scales, with
numbers and marks corresponding with those on the photometer bar. The lower
scale is at the upper edge of the lower bar, and the upper scale is at the lower edge-
of the upper bar. These two scales are separated by an interval, in which a slide
works freely. The lower half of the face of this slide is graduated in terms of the
unit adopted as standard, and the upper half is occupied by a scale for the correc-
tion, of the gas consumed, for variations in atmospheric conditions. The normal,.
or standard lines of these two scales exactly correspond, and as they are engraved
on the same sliding block they cannot be misplaced with reference to one another.
Then, by moving the slide so that the number indicating the extent to which the:
standard has varied from its normal rate of consumption is opposite the bar-reading,
the position of the normal line on that scale shows what the bar-reading would
. have been if the standard had consumed its correct quantity. Now, if the atmo-
spheric conditions have been normal, that will be the corrected value of the gas;
but if these are abnormal, the finally-corrected reading of the gas-value will be
opposite the tabular (or Aérorthometer) number. If the standard employed does
not require correction, the lower half of the slide has no scale. If the reading is
taken by the quantity of gas required to render a disc evenly illuminated, that gas:
scale may be either on the lower, long bar, or on the lower half of the slide. The
instrument can be fitted with the appropriate scales and slide for any photometer,
any standard, and any range or quality of gas. It may be arranged vertically, or
with the long scales on a bar sliding in a groove between the two short scales.
SATURDAY, SHPTEMBER 6.
The Section did not meet.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee on an International Standard for the Analysis
of Iron and Steel—See Reports, p. 262.
2. Report of the Committee on the Influence of Silicon on the Properties
of Steel_—See Reports, p. 262.
3. Report of the Committee on the Properties of Solutions.
See Reports, p. 310.
A. Report of the Commitee on the Bibliography of Solution.
See Reports, p. 310.
6 = ee ae
p>.
» ee
ee
ret a
o<
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 779
5. On Recent Swedish Investigations on the Gases held in Solution by the
Sea-water of the Skagerack. By Dr. O. PErrersson.
6. Joint Discussion with Section A onthe Nature of Solution and its Oon-
nection with Osmotic Pressure, opened by S. W. PicxErina, F'.R.S., in ao
Paper on the present Position of the Hydrate Theory of Solution.— See
Reports, p. 311.
7. The Molecular Refraction of Substances in Solution.
By J. H. Guavsronz, Ph.D., F.R.S.—See Reports, p. 322.
8. On an Apparatus for the Determination of Freezing-points of Solutions.
By P. J. Harroe, B.Sc., and J. A. Harker.
Tn order to avoid the inconvenience and wastefulness involved in the use of ice
and salt freezing mixtures, Raoult proposed to cool solutions by evaporation of a
volatile liquid, such as carbon bisulphide. The authors have devised a convenient
form of apparatus for this purpose, which has been rendered suitable not only for
the exact determination of the freezing-point, but also for use in those cases so fre-
quent in organic chemistry, where it is desirable that a reaction should take place
without any considerable rise in temperature. It may also be used for crystallising
salts, whose solubility diminishes with fall of temperature.
9. The Sulphur Waters of Yorkshire. By C.H. Botwamusy, F.L.0., F.0.8.
The sulphur waters of Yorkshire are divided geologically into two groups.
One set of springs comes to the surface along a great anticlinal in the Yoredale
beds which runs from Clitheroe, in Lancashire, to a little distance beyond Harro-
gate, the point at which the springs make their appearance in greatest number and
volume. The springs of the other group rise in a deposit of river warp and gravel,
with an overlying layer of peat, running along the base of magnesian limestones
aon beyond Pontefract to Doncaster; they are found in greatest number at
skern.
The Harrogate waters contain a large proportion of solid matter, sometimes
rising to as much as 14 in 1,000. The greater part is sodium chloride, with mag-
nesium and calcium chlorides also in considerable quantity; sulphates are absent ;
lithium, bromine, and iodine are present in small quantities. Perhaps the most
remarkable fact is the presence of barium chloride in quantity amounting, in some
cases, to nearly 10 grains in the gallon, or nearly double the amount of the total
solid matter in the potable water supplied to Leeds. In the strong sulphur waters
the proportion of hydrogen sulphide amounts to about 80c.c. per litre. The
waters are almost entirely free from organic matter, rise from comparatively deep-
seated springs, and have retained their general character for a long period.
The Askern waters rise from no great depth, and may almost be regarded as
surface waters. They contain a considerable quantity of dissolved peaty matter ;
and the proportion of hydrogen sulphide, which is all in the form of dissolved gas,
reaches 50 c.c. per litre in the stronger springs. The total amount of solid matter
is much lower than in the Harrogate waters, being about 2 parts in 1,000,
and is totally different in its character. Chlorides are almost entirely absent, and
the chief constituents are calcium carbonate and calcium and magnesium sulphates.
Iodine is present in minute quantity ; but potassium, lithium, bromine, and barium
could not be detected in 5 litres of the water. This group of waters is still under
investigation.
3 5
780 REPORT—1890.
10. The River Aire: a Study in River Pollution.
By T. H. Easterriepd, B.A., F.C.S., and J. Mircuett Witson, M.D.
The paper contained the result of a series of analyses of the water of the River
Aire, from its source at Malham Cove to its junction with the Ouse above Goole.
From these results it was shown:—(1) That the river, though a pure stream in its
upper reaches, becomes more and more polluted as it passes through the townships
of Gargrave, Skipton, Keighley, Shipley (with Bradford), Kirkstall, and Leeds ;
(2) That the curves exhibiting the ratio of pollution to mileage from the river source
showed a series of maxima corresponding to the above centres of population, there
being a tendency for the river to purify itself, to some slight extent, by natural causes
when passing through areas in which no sensible amount of pollution was taking
place; (3) That the Rivers Pollution Acts had been very inefficiently enforced
in the basin of the River Aire.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Provisional Report of the Committee on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy.
See Reports, p. 261.
2 Report of the Committee for preparing a new series of Wave-length Tables
of the Spectra of the EHlements.—See Reports, p. 224.
3. Report of the Committee on the Absorption-Spectra of Pure Compounds.
See Reports, p. 339.
4. On Phosphorous Oxide. By Professor T, E. Toorpz, F.R.S.
5. Diazoamido-Compounds: a Study in Chemical Isomerism.?
By Professor RapHanL Mexpora, F.R.S.
The author gave a résumé of a series of experimental investigations with which
he had been occupied, in conjunction with Mr. F, W. Streatfeild, for four years,
and from which it appeared that when the hydrogen atom of mixed diazoamido-
compounds is replaced by an alkyl radicle, three isomerides are capable of exist-
ence; whereas the prevailing view of the constitution of these compounds admits
only of two isomerides. It has been found that the third isomeride can be
produced in all cases by the combination of two unsymmetrical alkyl-diazoamides.
Arguing from the view that the power of combination between the two isome-
rides is due to the unsaturated chain of nitrogen atoms, the author pointed out
that combination might be expected to occur between two totally distinct un-
symmetrical compounds. Experiment has justified this conclusion, and two
cases were described in detail. From these results it follows that the mole-
cular weight of the mixed diazoamides is double that of the generally-received
formula. These compounds have been shown by previous investigators, as well
as by the author, to behave under the influence of most reagents as though
they contained two isomerides. The present researches tend to prove that this is
actually the case, the two isomerides constituting the molecule of a mixed diazo-
amide being held together by the residue of affinity pertaining to the chains of
1 Published in extenso in Chem. News, vol. 1xii. p. 167, &c.
2 See Journ. Chem. Soc. Trans. 1890, vol. lvii. p. 785.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 781
nitrogen atoms. This view explains also the well-known fact that a mixed diazo-
amide is the same in whichever order the amines are diazotised and
combined. The third isomeride is, in fact, a polymeride; but in spite of this
inevitable conclusion the depression of freezing-point in benzene solution, as deter-
mined by Raoult’s method, agrees more closely with the half-molecular formula, a
fact which indicates that dissociation takes place in solution. The force which
binds together the constituents of the molecule is regarded by the author as similar
in nature to that which holds together the constituents in a ‘molecular compound.’
6. The Action of Light upon the Diazo-Compounds of Primuline and Dehydro-
thiotoluidine: a Method of Photographic Dyeing and Printing. By
ArtTHuR G, GREEN, CHArtes F. Cross, and Epwarp J. Brvan.
In the early part of 1887 one of us (Green) discovered that by heating para-
toluidine (2 mols.) with sulphur (4 to 5 atoms) at 200°-300° C. a very complex
amido base was obtained, which on treatment with fuming sulphuric acid at a low
temperature was converted into a sulphonic acid, the alkaline salts of which were
easily soluble in water, and had the peculiar property of dyeing cotton primrose
yellow from an alkaline or neutral bath without the use of a mordant. Further,
the amido compound thus fixed upon the fibre could be diazotised in situ by
passing the material through a weak solution of nitrous acid, and when diazotised
could be combined with various phenols and amines, thus producing a variety of
different colours, which, being formed within the fibre, were all distinguished by
great fastness to washing, &c. The soluble amido sulphonic acid was named
*Primuline’ by its discoverer, and has found a yery extensive employment in
cotton dyeing; the colours produced from it within the fibre were called ‘Ingrain
Colours.’?
Although the chemical constitution of primuline base (of which primuline is
the mono-sulphonic acid) has not yet been determined with certainty, there is no
doubt that it is a condensed derivative of dehydrothiotoluidine, a body which
-always accompanies it in its formation, and that it differs from the latter in exactly
the same way as dehydrothiotoluidine itself differs from para-toluidine. As there
is scarcely any doubt that dehydrothiotoluidine has the formula—-
O,H,(CH,) << >0.C,H,(NH,)
#.e., is an amido-benzenyl-amido-thiocresol, it follows that the formula of primuline,
or rather of its chief constituent, is? probably
CHy(CH) CN >O.0,H <p >0-C,H sy >C.C,H,(S0,Na)(NH,)
In a similar manner by heating meta-xylidine or pseudo-cumidine with
sulphur, homologues of primuline are obtained, which, like primuline itself, dye
cotton without a mordant, and can be diazotised and combined with phenols
within the fibre.
It has been long observed by one of us (Green) that the diazo-compound of
primuline was very sensitive to the action of light, being readily decomposed
thereby, and losing its property of combining with phenols and amines. Upon
this fact we have now founded a photographic process, by means of which designs
can-be produced in fast colours upon cotton, silk, wool, linen, or other fabrics. It
ean’also be applied to wool, xylonite, celluloid, paper, or to gelatine films upon
glass, thus affording a very wide range of employment. The process, which is a
very simple one, merely depends upon the fact that if a material containing diazo-
tised primuline be exposed to light under a design, those parts which are acted
upon by light will be decomposed, whilst the parts protected from the light will
1 A. G. Green, Journ. Soc. Uhem. Ind. 1888, p. 179.
? A. G. Green, Journ. Chem. Soc. 1889, p. 227; Ber. 22, 968; P. Jacobsen, Ber.
22, 330; L. Gattermann, Ber. 22, 422+ W. Pfitzinger and L. Gattermann, Ber. 22,
1063.
782 REPORT—1890,
remain unaltered, and consequently, on subsequent development with a phenol or
amine, will produce colours, whilst the decomposed portions will not. The details
will of course depend somewhat upon the material to be treated. As an instance
we may take the production of a design upon cotton cloth, cotton velveteen, &c.
The material is first dyed with primuline from a hot bath containing common salt
until the required depth is obtained. It is then washed and diazotised by being
immersed for } minute in a cold bath containing about }p.c. of sodium nitrite,
and strongly acidified with sulphuric or hydrochloric acid. The material is washed
again, and exposed damp (or if preferred after having been dried in the dark) to
the action of light beneath leaves, ferns, flowers, or other natural objects, or
beneath glass or transparent paper upon which may be painted or printed any
design which it is required to copy. Wither the are electric light or daylight may
be employed ; in the latter case the time of exposure will of course vary with the
intensity of the light; under 4 minute is required in bright sunshine and nearly
3 hour in very dark cloudy weather. When the decomposition is complete, which
may be readily ascertained by means of a test slip exposed simultaneously, the
material is removed from the light and either passed into the developing bath at
once, or is kept in the dark until it is convenient to develop it. The developing
bath consists of a weak solution (4 to 3 p.c.) of a phenol or amine made suitably
alkaline or acid, the phenol or amine employed depending upon the colour in which
it is required to produce the design, thus :—
For ved . . an alkaline solution of 8-naphthol.
» maroon . an alkaline solution of B-naphthol-di-sulphonic acid,
» yellow . an alkaline solution of phenol.
» orange . an alkaline solution of resorcin.
y, brown . asolution of phenylene diamine hydrochloride,
yy» purple . asolution of a-naphthylamine hydrochloride.
If it is required to produce the design in two or more colours, the respective de-
velopers, suitably thickened with starch, may be applied locally by means of a
brush or pad. After development the material is thoroughly washed and requires
no further fixing.
Linen, silk, and wool are treated in exactly the same way. Paper for copying
drawings, &c., is coated on the surface with primuline by means of a brush or
roller. For the production of gelatine films upon glass the primuline is incor-
porated with the gelatine before being applied to the glass.
In place of ordinary primuline the homologues already mentioned may be used.
For silk and wool the primuline may be replaced by dehydrothiotoluidine-sulphonic
acid, by means of which colourless backgrounds may be obtained.
Concerning the reaction which occurs when the diazo-primuline or the diazo-
dehydrothiotoluidine is decomposed by light, we cannot at present say anything
definite, except that the diazo group is completely destroyed, for on treatment with
sodium hydrosulphite (true hyposulphite) it cannot be converted into the amido-
group (re-forming primuline or dehydrothiotoluidine). The reaction may consist
in a replacement of the N, group by OH or by H, or may be even more complex.
Although we cannot affirm that this reaction to light is a property of the diazo-
compounds of this group of bodies only, yet it is certain that they possess an
extreme susceptibility to light far greater than that of other diazo-compounds,
whilst at the same time they are far more stable to heat. It is thus possible that
this property may depend in some way upon the sulphur which they contain.
7. Fast and Fugitive Dyes.1 By Professor J. J. HuMMEL.
The influence of light on dyed colours was considered, and after explaining
that, according to Chevreul, the fading of such colours is due to the combined action
of light, atmospheric oxygen, and moisture, the results of experiments made in the
Dyeing Department of the Yorkshire College, Leeds, were briefly given. The
1 In extenso vide Textile Manufacturer, 1890, vol. xvi. p. 506.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 783
influence of mordants was observed to vary with different colouring-principles.
Some, for example, those of alizarin, anthrapurin, flavopurpurin, nitro-alizarin,
ecerulein, alizarin blue, carminic acid, and others, give fast colours with all the
usual mordants (Cr, Al, Sn, Cu, Fe) ; others, e.g. heematein, give comparatively fast
colours with Cr, Ou, Fe, and fugitive colours with Al and Sn; and others, again, e.g.
fisetin, give fugitive colours with all mordants. With respect to colouring-matters
not requiring the aid of mordants, they are found to comprise both fugitive and fast
dyes, their behaviour differing, apparently, according to their chemical constitution.
A comparison made between the natural and artificial colouring-matters showed
that we have at the present time a total of about three times as many fast coal-tar
colours as we have of fast natural dye-stuffs. Of the three hundred or so of
distinct coal-tar colouring-matters, thirty give extremely fast colours, and an equal
number or more give medium fast colours; whereas of the thirty natural dye-stuffs
usually employed, only about ten may be reckoned as giving fast colours.
The general conclusion arrived at was that, if it were necessary or desirable, the
modern textile colourist could, even now, dispense entirely with the natural dye-
stuffs, and that, too, without any detriment to the permanency of his productions.
Great stress was laid upon the necessity of employing the coal-tar colours aright,
with discretion and intelligence, suiting the colouring-matter to the fabric and its
ulterior use, whereby the evil repute into which they have fallen in many places
would be entirely removed.
8. Notes on the Limits of the Reactions for the Detection of Hydrogen Diowide,
and the Reactions for Uranium. By T. Farruny, F.R.S.E.
The results as regards very dilute solutions show :—
1, That on the addition of a dilute solution of uranium nitrate to one of hydro-
gen dioxide, it is preferable not to have an excess of hydrogen dioxide,
2. That a distinct precipitate is obtained on allowing a solution of 0-002 per
cent. hydrogen dioxide to stand for two hours with excess of uranium nitrate.
3. That it is doubtful if less than 0-005 per cent. of hydrogen dioxide can be
detected by the chromic acid and ether test.
4, That the limit of uranium which potassium ferrocyanide can detect is about
0:005 per cent. (very faint).
5. That the limit of uranium which hydrogen dioxide can detect is about
0-015 per cent.
Further, as regards the actual quantities detected, working with 5 c.c. of the
solution in each case :—
2. 00001 grammes of hydrogen peroxide gave a precipitate with excess of
uranium in two hours.
3. It is doubtful if less than 000025 grammes of hydrogen dioxide can be
detected by the chromic acid and ether test in such dilute solutions as the above.
4, The limiting quantity of uranium which potassium ferrocyanide detected was
0:00025 grammes.
5. The limiting quantity of uranium which hydrogen dioxide detected was
0:00025 grammes.
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On Veratrin, and on the Existence of Two Isomeric B-Picolines.
By Dr. F. AwRENS.
The experiments of Wright and of Bosetti on the action of alkalies were re-
peated and extended. It was found that when veratrin is treated with potash or
with baryta water, or when it is heated to 200° C. with ammonia or distilled
water, it is decomposed into angelic acid and a basic substance of the composition
C,,H,,NO,.
784. REPORT—1890.
Important results were got by the dry distillation of veratrin, which yielded tiglic
acid and 8-picoline, and by the distillation of veratrin with lime, which yielded par-
ticularly isobutylene, 8-picoline, and 8-pipecoline. The picoline so formed has this
peculiar property, that it is not miscible with water in all proportions, and is more
soluble in cold than in hot water—a cold, saturated, aqueous solution becomes milky
when very gently warmed. The picoline prepared from strychnine by Stoehr has
the same properties, whereas the picoline prepared synthetically by Zanoni dissolves.
in water in all proportions. The boiling-points of the two picolines also differ by
6° C. Ladenburg found that the double salts formed by these two picolines with
platinic chloride when boiled with water, both yield yellow crystalline sediments ;
these are identical in composition, but differ by 16° C. in their melting-points.
Ladenburg concludes that two isomeric 8-picolines must exist, and draws attention
to the important theoretical consequences of this discovery.
2. The Action of Phosphorus Trichloride on Organic Acids and on Water.
By C. H. Botnamuey and G. R. THompson.
The action of phosphorus trichloride on organic acids is given in all text-books
as a general method for the preparation of acid chlorides, and, with scarcely any
exceptions, the reaction is represented by the equation, 3RCOOH + PCI, =8RCOCI
+H,PO,. Some years ago, in his paper on ‘ Specific Volumes of Liquids,’ Thorpe
showed that in the case of acetic acid the reaction is properly represented by the
equation, 3CH,COOH + 2PCl, =38CH,COC]+8HCl+P,0,; but this fact has been
overlooked, and the incorrect equation may be found in the most recent text-
books.
The authors find that in the case of propionic and butyric acids the change is
represented by a precisely similar equation, but that the reaction is liable to become
complicated in presence of excess of one or other of the compounds. As a rule, a
small quantity of the phosphorous oxide decomposes, with formation of P,O and
other products.
In the case of benzoic acid the reaction is much more complicated, the yield of
benzoyl chloride being always lower than the calculated amount. Hydrochloric
acid is evolved in large quantities in this case also.
It would seem that, although the chief reaction is expressed by the equation,
8RCOOH + 2PCl, =38RCOC1+ P,O,+3HCl, and though, under certain conditions,
this equation may be strictly true, especially with the acids of the acetic series of
low molecular weight, many other changes may take place, to an extent depending
on the conditions. Some of these changes are, interaction of the acid chloride with
the unaltered acid; decomposition of the phosphorous oxide, which takes place
more readily in presence of organic compounds, &e. Possibly, with acids of higher
molecular weight some phosphorous acid may be formed, and this will interact
with the phosphorus trichloride still present, forming phosphorous oxide and
hydrochloric acid. This reaction, together with the subsequent decomposition of
the P,O,, would explain the greater formation of P,O in the case of acids of higher
molecular weight. Direct evidence was obtained of the formation of benzoic acid
by the interaction of phosphorous acid and benzoy] chloride.
The action of phosphorus trichloride on water takes place in accordance with
the ordinary equation, PCl, +3H,0=H,PO,+3HCl, so long as the water is in
considerable excess ; but if the chloride is in excess it reacts with the phosphorous
acid, with formation of hydrochloric acid and yellow phosphorous oxide mixed
with other oxides, and, in some cases, with free phosphorus. In the interaction
of water and excess of phosphorus trichloride, the authors obtained the soluble
form of P,O or P,OH in the cooler parts of the vessel; but if exposed to a tem-
perature above 70° it became insoluble, a result which agrees with an early state-
ment of Gautier.
In the interaction of phosphorus trichloride and organic acids we may, therefore,
have several reactions taking place simultaneously, and the extent to which any
one of them proceeds will depend largely on the temperature. The action of
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 785:
phosphorus trichloride cannot be regarded as a good general method for the
preparation of acid chlorides ; it gives good results only in the case of the lowest
members of the acetic series.
3. On the Constitution of the Alkaloid, Berberin.
By Professor W. H. Perkin, Jun., F.K.S.
4. The Production of Camphor from Turpentine.
By J. EH. Marsy and R. STocKDAue.
5. On a Double Aspirator. By T. Farruey, F.R.S.E.
6. On the Vulcanisation and Decay of Indiarubber.
By W. Tuomson, F.R.S.H., FCS.
Indiarubber is vulcanised to alter its character, so that it will not become hard
when exposed to cold, or soft and plastic when exposed to heat. Vulcanisation
is usually effected by incorporating sulphur with the rubber, and then heating
the mixture to a high temperature, when the sulphur combines with the rubber,
producing vulcanised rubber.
In making waterproof cloth for ‘ macintoshes,’ the rubber cannot be heated to
a high temperature, as that would be liable to make the cloth tender, or to damage
the dye on it. In this case the so-called ‘cold vulcanising process’ is employed,
which consists in the application of a mixture of chloride of sulphur dissolved in
bisulphide of carbon ; the latter penetrates the layer of rubber, carrying with it the
chloride of sulphur: and it is generally believed that the sulphur of the chloride of
sulphur combines with the rubber, producing vulcanisation, whilst the chlorine
combines with the hydrogen of the rubber, producing hydrochloric acid. The
author showed by analysis that the chlorine, more than the sulphur, produced the
vulcanisation, and found about 6} per cent. of chlorine in combination with the
rubber for every 23 per cent. of sulphur present, part of which was in the free or
uncombined condition. The higher chlorides of sulphur are liable to produce
over-vulcanisation, and this is generally explained on the assumption that these
compounds break up more easily than the lower chlorides, thus giving to the
rubber an excess of sulphur, The author points out that this is simply due to
the excess of chlorine which combines with the rubber.
Vegetable oils are converted into a solid substance resembling rubber by treat-
ment with a mixture of the chloride of sulphur and bisulphide of carbon, and the
author finds that here, also, the vulcanisation of the oil is due to the chlorine more
than to the sulphur present. Vulcanised oil, called rubber-substitute, contains a
liquid, oily matter, which is generally supposed to be injurious to indiarubber ; and
as this substitute is employed for mixing with rubber, manufacturers often reject
‘rubber-substitute’ which contains much of this substance. He found that this
oily matter, instead of acting injuriously on rubber, like the oil from which it is
produced, tends to preserve it, by preventing oxidation.
It is known that copper salts have a most injurious effect on indiarubber, and
as copper is sometimes used in dyeing blacks and other colours, cloths so dyed are
liable to decompose and harden the rubber put upon them. A peculiarity investigated
by the author is that metallic copper placed in contact with thin sheets of india-
rubber brings about oxidation and hardening of its substance, although no appreci-
able quantity of copper enters the indiarubber. Metallic platinum also produces,
but to a much less extent, the same effect ; whilst metallic zinc and silver have an
injurious effect on the rubber.
786 REPORT—1890.
7. On the Unburned Gases contained in the Flue-gases from Gas Stoves
and different Burners. By Witu1am THomson, F.R.S.E., F.C.S.
The author has been working for some time with a view of determining
whether the gases escaping as flue-gases from gas-stoves and different burners were
really free from gas capable of combustion, such as carbon monoxide, or unburned
hydrocarbons or hydrogen, He spent some time in trying to separate and deter-
mine the quantity of carbon monoxide present, if any; but this problem was beset
with so many difficulties, that for the moment he abandoned it, and contented him-
self for the present with determining the quantity of unburned carbon and hydrogen,
in whatever forms these might exist. For this purpose he arranged an apparatus
consisting of two carefully-weighed U-tubes filled with strong sulphuric acid, and
two U-tubes filled with soda-lime, through which the flue-gases were first passed ;
these absorbed the water and carbon dioxide contained in the flue-gases, leaving
the hydrocarbons (not absorbed by oil of vitriol), hydrogen, and carbon monoxide
to pass through a redhot glass tube filled closely, to the extent of 15 inches, with
oxide of copper prepared im situ from copper-wire gauze. The gases were then
passed through strong sulphuric acid and soda-lime contained in previously-weighed
U-tubes, and the results were calculated on the gas measured at 60° Fahrenheit
and 380 inches barometric pressure, from the measure of gas drawn into the
aspirator (treated as water-saturated gas), and the carbon dioxide and water-
vapour absorbed in the tubes were then added on, to make up the measure of flue-
gas originally employed.
The coal-gas employed was previously passed through large cylinders filled
with calcium chloride, to dry it before combustion; and at the time when the
experiment was going on, and side by side with it, were estimated the carbon
dioxide and water-vapour present in the air itself, by passing them, by means of
another aspirator, through strong sulphuric acid and soda-lime in U-tubes previously
weighed.
The carbon dioxide in the air itself ranged from 0:41 to 0°66 grains per cubic
foot of air, and the water from 3°51 to 7:23 grains in the same volume.
The amounts of carbon dioxide and water collected from the flue-gases, after
deducting the quantities actually present in the air, were taken as those due to the
combustion of the coal-gas.
The standard employed was the one used by Professor Roberts-Austin in his
analysis of the flue-gases from the burning of coal, and the apparatus employed
was also generally similar to that employed by him.
The carbon and hydrogen left unburned were measured in terms of 1,000 parts
of carbon completely burned, derived from the combustion of the gas in the stove or
burner.
The total quantities of carbon dioxide and of water in the flue-gases amounted
to from 6°6 to 10°8 grains per cubic foot for the former, and from 5’6 to 10°5 grains
of the latter, in the same volume.
The amount of flue-gas passed in each experiment was about 1 cubic foot, and
although the variations were considerable, the general results were conclusive in
showing that the combustion of gas when burned in gas stoves for heating purposes
is much more incomplete than one might be led to believe.
The only burner in which the weights of the tubes remained constant after
passing the burned gas, and in which the combustion was complete, was in a
paraffin oil lamp in which the flame was not turned to the highest point.
Another experiment with the flame turned on gave 12-04 and 3:09 respectively of
carbon and hydrogen unburned per 1,000 of carbon completely burned.
The next nearest approach to complete combustion was in an Argand burner,
in which the carbon compounds were completely burned; but an amount represent-
ing 0:2575 parts of hydrogen per 1,000 parts of carbon completely burned was
registered in one experiment, whilst in a second experiment 0:113 of carbon,
2'5414 of hydrogen were registered per 1,000 parts of carbon completely burned.
Then came a flat flame, Bray’s burner, burning 4 cubic feet per hour, which gave
11:12 of carbon and 0°95 hydrogen unburned per 1,000 of carbon completely
burned.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 787
Following in order these results came the Welsbach light, in which the gas
heats to whiteness a tube or mantle, composed of a filmy thickness, of the oxides
of Zirconium and Thorium, the mantle being surrounded by a glass tube similar
to that used in some paraffin oil lamps; in this case the unburned carbon exceeded
in amount the unburned hydrogen, there being 15:486 of the former and 3-794 of
the latter per 1,000 of completely burned carbon.
Three experiments were made with a Marsh-Greenall’s heating stove, in which
three Bray’s luminous burners were employed.
The first was made with a consumption of 5:62 cubic feet of gas per hour, when
12°6 and 3:0 parts of carbon and hydrogen respectively were registered per 1,000
parts of carbon completely burned.
The second experiment, with a consumption of 5°74 cubic feet per hour, gave
37°6 and 11:8 respectively of carbon and hydrogen unburned.
The third experiment, with an increased consumption of gas (7'1 cubic feet per
hour), gave 97°4 and 12:1 of carbon and hydrogen respectively unburned.
Two experiments were made with one of T. Fletcher’s heating stoves, in which
eight Bunsen burners play upon some fancy metal-work (iron coated with magnetic
oxide) ; the one experiment, in which the amount of gas passing was not measured,
gave a of carbon and 24°6 of hydrogen unburned per 1,000 of carbon completely
burned.
In the second experiment, where 6°81 cubic feet of gas were burned per hour,
66°3 and 20:0 respectively of carbon and hydrogen unburned were registered.
One experiment was made with one of T. Fletcher’s stoves in which twenty
Bunsen burners play on asbestos projecting from a fire-clay back; with a consump-
tion of 8:14 cubic feet of gas, 138°9 and 11:7 parts respectively of carbon and
hydrogen per 1,000 parts of completely burned carbon were formed.
8. Contributions to the Analysis of Fats.)
By J. Lewxowirscu, Ph.D., F.I.C., £.C.8.
The author gave in brief outline a review of the methods for the chemical
analysis of fats. He recommended for the estimation of glycerol in fats, as the
most exact method, the combination of the alcohol-ether extraction with Benedikt
and Cantor's acetic method, which he has shown to give concordant results. The
various methods for determining the nature of the various fats, and especially of
the fatty acids, were shown by means of an analytical table, and the methods of
Hehner, Reichert, Kéttstorfer, Hiibl, and Hazura were referred to.
The author took objection to Benedikt’s method of determining the ‘ acetyl
value ’—z.e., to give a value for hydroxylated acids present in a fat. Benedikt
assumed that hydroxylated fatty acids, on being boiled with acetic anhydride, were
acetylated, and transformed into acetyl hydroxylatids. On titrating these products
in alcoholic solution with standard alkali, Benedikt obtained a certain acid value,
due to the COOH group (as he thought) of the (supposed) acid, and, on saponifica-
tion, when the acetyl was split off, a larger saponification value; the difference
between the two values yielded the ‘acetyl value.’ The two reactions that were
to take place may be expressed by the following equations for ricinolic acid :—
1. C,,H,,(00,H,0)COOH + 1KOH =C,,H,,(0C,H,0)COOK + H,0.
2. C,,H;,(0C,H,0)COOH + 2KOH =0,H,0, OK + C,,H,,(OH)COOK + 2H,0.
The author, however, has shown that on boiling fatty acids with acetic anhy-
dride the acids are transformed into their anhydrides, and he has proved this for
capric, lauric, palmitic, stearic, cerotic, and oleic acids. A hydroxylated acid, eg.,
dihydroxystearic acid, which was prepared from oleic acid, undergoing this opera-
tion will, of course, become acetylated, but at the same time anhydrated, so that the
resulting product is nothing else than diacetylhydroxystearic anhydride. These
anhydrides give no acid value, and all the ‘acid values’ which Benedikt has found
in his experiments are only due to the fact that he dissolved the products of the
1 Journ. of the Society uf Chemical Industry, 1890, p. 842.
" 788 REPORT— 1890,
action of acetic anhydride on the acids in alcohol, when a partial hydrolysis of the
anhydrides took place. Had he shaken up his substances with water he would, on
titrating, have found no acid value, or a very small value, owing to slight hydro-
lysis in aqueous solution. The experiments of the author on dihydroxystearic
anhydride prove his conclusions beyond doubt.
The method of boiling fatty acids with acetic anhydride may qualitatively
indicate the presence of hydroxylated fatty acids, and this will be the case if the
saponification values of the original fatty acid and of the acetylated fatty acid
shows a considerable difference. The real ‘acetyl values’ will be found by
quantitatively estimating the amount of acetyl (as acetic acid) that has been
taken up by the fatty acid on boiling with acetic anhydride.
The author has shown that this may be conveniently done by means of a
method closely resembling that of Reichert. He estimated the ‘acetyl’ in the
diacetylhydroxystearic acid in this way, and found results concordant with those
required by theory.
9. On the Condensation of Dibenzylketone with Oxalic Ether.
By Tuos. Ewan, Ph.D., B.Sc.
The author, who undertook this work at the suggestion of Professor Claisen,
found that dibenzylketone and oxalic ether condense together, under the influence:
of sodium ethylate, according to the equation—
C,,H,,0 + C,H,,0, = C,,H,,0, + 2C,H,OH.
The substance so obtained (oxalyldibenzylketone) forms yellow plates melt-
ing at 189-190°. On boiling with caustic potash it is decomposed, with formation
of dibenzylketone. It forms salts, in which either one or two atoms of hydrogen
are replaced by metal. These two hydrogen atoms can also be replaced by methyl
groups. The monomethyl compound, on boiling with caustic potash, yields a
methyldibenzylketone, while the dimethyl compound gives the monomethyl com-
pound again. Acetic anhydride converts it into a monacetyl derivative. It also
yields an anilide, hydrazone, and anoxime. With m.p. toluylene diamine it gives
a phenazine.
From the method of formation, and the above reactions, there is no doubt that.
the substance possesses the constitution—
co
| |
C,H,, CH-—CO- CO-CH, O,H,.
When heated above its melting-point it changes into an isomeric substance melt-
ing at 249°. Its salts contain only one atom of metal; it forms also an acetyl
derivative. On boiling with potash it is decomposed, with formation of dibenzy}
glycolic acid. It is therefore probably represented by the formula—
6] 0) eee I)
| «
C,H,, C =C(OH) -— C=CH, 0,H,.
}
b
789
Srction C.—GEOLOGY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor A. H. Green, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S,
THURSDAY, SHPTEMBER 4.
The PRresIDENT delivered the following Address :—
The truth must be told; and this obliges me to confess that my contributions
to our stock of geological knowledge, never very numerous, have of late years been
conspicuously few, and soI have nothing to bring before the Geological Section
that can lay any claim to be the result of original research.
In fact, nearly all my time during the last fifteen years has been taken up in
teaching. This had led me to think a good dea] about the value of geology as an
educational instrument, and how its study compares with that of other branches of
learning in its capability of giving sinew and fibre to the mind, and I have to ask
you to listen to an exposition of the notions that have for a long time been taking
shape bit by bit in my mind on this subject.
I am not going to enter into the question, handled repeatedly and by this time
pretty well thrashed out, of the relative value of natural science, literature, and
mathematics as a means of educational discipline ; for no one who is lucky enough
to know a little of all three, will deny that each has an importance of its own and
its own special place in a full and perfect curriculum. The question which is the
most valuable of the three I decline to entertain, on the broad general ground that
* comparisons are odorous,’ and for the special reason that the answer must depend
on the constitution of the mind that is to be disciplined. I might quite as reason-
ably attempt to lay down that a certain diet which suits my constitution and mode
of life, must agree equally well with all that hear me.
I need scarcely say that nothing would induce me, if it could possibly be helped,
to say one word that might tend to disparage the pursuit to which we are all so
deeply attached. But I cannot shut my eyes to the fact that, when geology is to
be used as a means of education, there are certain attendant risks that need to be
carefully and watchfully guarded against.
Geologists, and I do not pretend myself to be any better than the rest of them,
are in danger continually of becoming loose reasoners. I have often had occasion
to feel this, and I recall a scene which brought it home to me most forcibly. At
a gathering, where several of our best English geologists were present, the question
of the cause of changes of climate was under discussion. The explanation which found
most favour was a change of the position of the axis of rotation within the earth
itself; and this, it was suggested, might have been brought about by the upheaval
of great bodies of continental and mountainous land where none now exist, and an
accompanying depression of the existing continents or parts of them. That such a
redistribution of the heavier material of the earth would result in some shifting of
the axis of rotation admits of no doubt. The important question is, How much?
What degree of rearrangement of land and sea would be needed to produce a shift
of the amount required? It is purely a question of figures, and the necessary
calculations can be made only by a mathematician. I ventured to suggest that
790 REPORT— 1890.
some one who could work out the sum should be consulted before a final decision
was arrived at, for I knew perfectly well that not one of the company present
could do it. But if I say that my advice met with scant approval, I should repre-
sent very inadequately the lack of support I met with. The bulk of those present
seemed quite content with the vague feeling that the thing could be done in the
way suggested, and there was a general air of indifference as to whether the
hypothesis would stand the test of numerical verification or not.
I could bring many other similar instances which seem to me to justify the
charge I have ventured to make; but it will be more useful to inquire what it is
that has led to a failing, which, if it really exist, must be a source of regret to the
whole brotherhood of hammerers.
The reason, I think, is not far to seek. The imperfection of the Geological
Record is a phrase as true asit is hackneyed. No more striking instance of
its correctness can be found than that furnished by the well-known Mammalian
jaws from the Stonesfield slate. The first of these was unearthed about 1764,
others, to the number of some nine, between then and 1818. The rock in
which these precious relics of the beginning of mammalian life occur has been
quarried without intermission ever since ; it has been ransacked by geologists and
collectors without number; many of the quarrymen know a jaw when they see it,
and are keenly alive to the market value of a specimen; but not one of these
prized and eagerly-sought-after fossils has turned up during the last seventy
ears.
z Then again how many of the geological facts which we gather from observa-
tion admit of diverse explanation. Take the case of Hozoon Canadense. Here we
have structures which some of the highest authorities on the Foraminifera assure
us are the remains of an organism belonging to that order; other naturalists,
equally entitled to a hearing, will have it that these structures are purely mineral
ageregates simulating organic forms. And hereby hangs the question whether the
limestones in which the problematical fossil occurs are organic, or formed in some
other and perhaps scarcely explicable way.
And this after all is only one of’ the countless uncertainties that crowd the
whole subject of invertebrate paleontology. In what a feeble light have we con-
stantly to grope our way when we attempt the naming of fossil Conchifers for
instance. The two species Gryphea dilatata and G. bilobata furnish an illustra-
tion. Marked forms are clearly separable, but it is easy to obtain a suite of
specimens, even from the Callovian of which the second species is said to be
specially characteristic, showing a gradual passage from one form into the other,
And over and over again the distinctions relied upon for the discrimination of
species must be pronounced far-fetched and shadowy, and are, it is to be feared,
often based upon points which are of slender value for classificatory purposes. In
the case of fossil plants the last statement is notoriously true, and yet we are con-
tinually supplied with long lists of species which every botanist knows to be words
and nothing more, and zonal divisions are based upon these bogus species and con-
clusions drawn from them.
It is from data such as have been instanced, scrappy to the last degree, or from
facts capable of being interpreted in more than one way, or from determinations
shrouded in mist and obscurity, that we geologists have in a large number of cases
to draw our conclusions. Inferences based on such incomplete and shaky founda-
tions must necessarily be very largely hypothetical. That this is the character of
a great portion of the conclusions of geology we are all ready enough to allow with
our tongue—nay, even to lay stress upon the fact with penned or spoken emphasis.
But it is open to question whether this homage at the shrine of logic is in many
cases anything better than lip-service ; whether we take sufficiently to heart the
meaning of our protestations, and are always as alive as our words would imply to
the real nature of our inferences.
A novice in trade, scrupulously honest, even morbidly conscientious to begin
with, if he lives among those who habitually use false scales, runs imminent risk
of having his sense of integrity unconsciously blunted and his moral standard
insensibly ]owered, A similar danger besets the man whose life is occupied in
— - —_
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 791
deducing tentative results from imperfectly ascertained facts. The living, day by
day, face to face with approximation and conjecture must tend to breed an indif-
ference to accuracy and certainty, and to abate that caution and that wholesome
suspicion which make the wary reasoner look well to his foundations, and reso-
lutely refuse to sanction any superstructures, however pleasing to the eye, unless
they are firmly and securely based.
If I am right in thinking that the mental health of the geologist of matured
experience and full-grown powers is liable to a disorder of the kind I have indi-
cated, how much greater must the risk be in the case of a youth, in whom the
reasoning faculty is only beginning to be developed, when he approaches the study
of geology! And does it not seem at first sight that that study could scarcely be
used with safety as a tool to shape his mind, and so train his bent that he shall
never even have a wish to turn aside either to the right hand or to the left from
the strait path that leads through the domain of sound logic ?
That it is hazardous, and that evil may result from an incautious use of
geology as an educational tool, I entertain no doubt. The same may indeed be
said of many other subjects, but I feel that it is specially true in the case of geology.
But I should be guilty of that very haste in drawing conclusions against which I
am raising a warning word, if I therefore inferred that geology can find no place
in the educational curriculum.
To be forewarned is a proverbial safeguard, and those who are alive to a danger
will cast about for a means of guarding against it. And there are many ways of
neutralising whatever there may be potentially hurtful in the use of geology for
educational ends. It has been said that the right way to make a geologist is not
to teach him any geology at all to begin with. To send him first into a laboratory,
give him a good long spell at observations and measurements requiring the
minutest accuracy, and so saturate his mind with the conception of exactness that
nothing shall ever afterwards drive it out. Ifa plan like this be adopted, it is
easy to pick out such kinds of practical work as will not only breed the mental
habits aimed at, but will also stand him in good stead when he goes on to his
special subject. Goniometrical measurements and quantitative analysis will serve
the double purpose of inspiring him with accurate habit of thought, and helping
him to deal with some of the minor problems of geology. And I cannot hold that
this practice of paying close attention to minute details will necessarily unfit a man
for taking wider sweeps and more comprehensive views later on. That habit
comes naturally to every man who has the making of a geologist in him directly
he gets into the field. Put such a man where a broad and varied landscape lies
before him, teach him how each physical feature is the counterpart of geological
structure, and breadth of view springs up a native growth. Ido not mean to say
that the plan just suggested is the only way of guarding against the risk I have
been dwelling upon. There are many others. This will serve as a sample to show
what I think ought to be aimed at in designing the geological go-cart. And any
such mind-moulding leads, be assured, not to hesitancy and doubt, but to con-
clusions, reached slowly it may be, but so securely based that they will seldom
need reconstruction.
There is another aspect of the question. The uncertainties with which the
road of the geologist are so thickly strewn have an immense educational value, if
only we are on our guard against taking them for anything better than they really
are. Of those stirring questions which are facing us day by day and hour by hour,
none perhaps is of greater moment than the discussion of the value of the evidence
on which we base the beliefs that rule our daily life, A man who is ever dealing
with geological evidence and geological conclusions, and has learned to estimate
these at their real value, will carry with him, when he comes to handle the com-
plex problems of morals, politics, and religion, the wariness with which his geo-
logical experience has imbued him.
Now I trust the prospect is brightening. Means have been indicated of guard-
ing against the danger which may attend the use of geology as an educational instrue
ment. Need I say much to an audience of geologists about the immense advan~
tages which our science may claim in this respect? In its power of cultivating
792 REPORT—1890.
keenness of eye it is unrivalled, for it demands both microscopic accuracy and
comprehensive vision. Its calls upon the chastened imagination are no less urgent,
for imagination alone is competent to devise a scheme which shall link together the
mass of isolated observations which field work supplies; and if, as often happens,
the fertile brain devises several possible schemes, it is only where the imaginative
faculty has been kept in check by logic that the one scheme that best fits each case
will be selected for final adoption. But, above all, geology has its home, not in the
laboratory or study, but sub Jove, beneath the open sky; and its pursuit is in-
separably bound up with a love of Nature, and the healthy tone which that love
brings alike to body and mind.
And what does the great prophet of Nature tell us about this love P
The boy beholds the light and whence it flows ;
The man perceives it die away,
And fade into the light of common day.
Will it not then be kind to encourage the boy to follow a pursuit which will
keep alive in him a joy which years are too apt to deaden; and will not the
teaching of geology in schools conduce to thisend? Geology certainly should be
taught in schools, and for more prosaic reasons, of which the. two following are
perhaps the most important. Geography is essentially a school subject, and the
basis of all geographical teaching is physical geography. This cannot be under-
stood without constant reference to certain branches of geology. Again how
many are the points of contact between the history of nations, the distribution and
migrations of peoples, and the geological structures of the lands they have dwelt in
or marched over.
But geology is not an easy subject to teach in schools. The geology of the
ordinary text-book does not commend itself to the boy-mind. The most neatly-
drawn sections, nay, even the most graphic representations of gigantic and uncouth
extinct animals, come home to the boy but little, because they are pictures and not
things. He wants something that he can handle and pull about; he does not
refuse to use his head, but he likes to have also something that will employ his
hands at the same time.
The kind of geology that boys would take to is outdoor work ; and, of course,
where it can be had, nothing better could be given them. A difficulty is that
field work takes time and filches away a good deal of the intervais that are
devoted to games. Still cross-country rambles and scrambling about quarries and
cliffs are not so very different from a paper-chase; and if the teacher will only
infuse into the work enough of the fun and heartiness which come so naturally in
the open air, he need not despair of luring even the most high-spirited boy, every
now and then, away from cricket and football.
But there are localities not a few—the Fen country, for instance—where it is
scarcely possible to find within manageable distance of the school the kind of
field-geolory which is within the grasp of a beginner. But even here the teaching
need not be wholly from books. The best that can be done in such cases is to
make object-lessons indoors its basis. For instance, give a lad a lump of coarsish
sandstone; let him pound it and separate by elutriation the sand grains from the
clay ; boil both in acid, and dissolve off the rusty coating that colours them ;
ascertain by the microscope that the sand grains are chips and not roundea
pellets, and soon. All such points he will delight to worry out for himself; and,
when he has done that, an explanation of the way in which the rock was formed
will really come home to him. Or it is easy to rig up contrivances innumerable
for illustrating the work of denudation. A heap of mixed sand and powdered
clay does for the rock denuded; a watering-can supplies rain; a trough, deeper at
one end than the other, stands for the basin that receives sediment. By such
rough apparatus many of the results of denudation and deposition may be closely
imitated, and the process is near enough to the making of mud-pies to command
the admiration of every boy. It is by means like these that even indoor teaching
of geolozy may be made lifelike.
I need not dwell upon the great facts of physical geolory which have so
———————<———_ — —
i aad
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 793
important a bearing on geography and history ; but I would, in passing, just note
that these too often admit of experimental illustration, such for instance as the
well-known methods of imitating the rock folding caused by earth-movements.
I would add that wherever in speaking of school teaching, I have used the word
‘hoy,’ that word must of course be taken to include ‘ girl’ as well.
In conclusion I should like to give you an outline of the kind of course I
endeavour to adopt in more advanced teaching in the case of students who are
working at other subjects as well and can give only a part of their time to geology,
‘During the first year the lectures and bookwork should deal with physical geology.
In the laboratory the student should first make the acquaintance of the commoner
rock-forming minerals, the means of recognising them by physical characters,
blowpipe tests, and the simpler methods of qualitative analysis, and may then go
on to work at the commoner kinds of rocks and the elements of microscopic
petrography. During the summer months I would take him into the field, but
not do more than impress upon him some of the broader aspects of outdoor work,
such as the connection between physical feature and geological structure.
During a second year stratigraphical geology should be lectured upon and
studied from books, and so much of animal morphology as may be necessary for
paleontological purposes should be mastered. The practical work would lie mainly
among fossils, with a turn every now and again at mineralogy and petrology to
keep these subjects going. Out of doors I would not yet let the student attempt
geological mapping, but would put into his hands a geological map and descriptions
of the geology of his neighbourhood, and he would be called upon to examine in
minute detail all accessible sections, collect and determine fossils, and generally see
how far he can verify by his own work the observations of those who have gone
before him.
Indoor work during the third year would be devoted to strengthening and
widening the knowledge already gained. Out of doors the student should attempt
the mapping of a district by himself. It will be well, if there is any choice in the
matter, to select one in which the physical features are strongly marked.
This sketchy outline must serve to indicate the notions that have grown up in
my mind on the subject now before us, and the methods I have been led to adopt
in-the teaching of geology. I trust that they may be suggestive, and may call
forth that kindly and genial criticism with which the brotherhood of the hammer
are wont to welcome attempts, however feeble, to strengthen the corner-stones
and widen the domain of the science we love so well, and to enlarge the number of
its votaries.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Gigantic Ceratopside (or Horned Dinosaurs) of North America.
By Professor O. C. Marsu.
In this paper the author gave the principal characters of the huge horned
Dinosaurs which he had recently secured from the Laramie formation of North
America. These reptiles differ widely from any other known Dinosaurs, and he
has placed them in a distinct family, the Ceratopside.'
The geological horizon in which tbey are found is in the Upper Cretaceous, and
has now been traced nearly eight hundred miles along the eastern side of the
Rocky Mountains. It is marked almost everywhere by remains of these reptiles,
and hence the strata containing them have been called the Ceratops beds. They
are freshwater or brackish deposits, which form a part of the so-called Laramie,
but are below the uppermost beds referred to that group. In some places they
rest upon marine beds which contain invertebrate fossils characteristic of the Fox
Aiills deposits.
' The fossils associated with the Ceratopside are mainly Dinosaurs, representing
1 American Journal of Science, 3rd series, vol. xxxvi. p. 477, December 1888. See
also vol. xxvii. p. 334, April 1889 ; vol. xxviii. p. 173, August 1889; p. 501, December
1889 ; and vol. xxxix. p. 81, January 1890; p. 418, May 1890.
1890. 3F
794 REPORT—1890.
’
two or three orders and several families. Plesiosaurs, crocodiles, aud turtles of
cretaceous types, and many smaller reptiles, have left their remains in the same
strata. Numerous small mammals, also of ancient types, a few birds, and many
fishes, are likewise entombed in this formation. Invertebrate fossils and plants
are not uncommon in the same horizon.
The skull of Triceratops, the best known genus of the family, has many re-
markable features. First of all its size, in the largest individuals, exceeds that of
any land animal, living or extinct, hitherto discovered, and is only surpassed by
that of some of the Cetaceans. The skull, represented natural size in one of the
diagrams shown, was that of a comparatively young animal, but is about six feet in
length. The type of Triceratops horridus was an old individual, and the head,
when complete, must have been nearly eight feet in length. Two other skulls,
both nearly perfect, were also represented by life-size sketches, and others from
the same horizon have equal dimensions.
Another striking feature of this group is its armature. This consisted of a
sharp cutting beak in front, a strong horn on the nose, a pair of very large pointed
horns on the top of the head, and a row of sharp projections around the margin of
the posterior crest. All these had a horny covering of great strength and power.
For offence and defence they formed together an armour for the head as complete
as any known. This armature dominated the skull and in a great measure deter-
mined its form and structure.
The skull itself is wedge-shaped in form, especially when seen from above. The
facial portion is very narrow and much prolonged infront. In the frontal region
the skull is massive and greatly strengthened to support the large and lofty horn-
cores which formed the central feature of the armature. The huge expanded
posterior crest which overshadowed the back of the skull and neck was evidently
of secondary growth, a practical necessity for the attachment of the powerful
ligaments and muscles that supported the head.
The brain of Triceratops appears to have been smaller in proportion to the
entire skull than in any known vertebrate. Its position and relative size were
shown in a diagram. The position of the brain in the skull does not correspond to
the axis of the latter, the front being elevated at an angle of about thirty degrees.
The teeth of Triceratops and its near allies are very remarkable in having two
distinct roots. This is true of both the upper and lower series. These roots are
placed transversely in the jaw, and there is a separate cavity, more or less distinct,
for each of them. One of these teeth was represented by an enlarged figure and
another tooth was itself exhibited. The teeth form a single series only in each
jaw, but the grinding surface is reversed, being on the inner side of the upper series
and on the outer side of the lower series.
The atlas and axis of Triceratops are co-ossified with each other, and at least
one other vertebra is firmly united with them. These form a solid mass well
adapted to support the enormous head. The remaining cervical vertebrae are
short and have the articular faces of the centra nearly flat.
The trunk vertebrae have very short centra with flat articular ends. The
posterior trunk vertebre have diapophyses with faces for both the head and
tubercle of the ribs, as in crocodiles. The sacrum was strengthened by union with
several adjacent vertebr, ten in all being co-ossified in one specimen of Triceratops.
The caudal vertebr are short and rugose, and the tail was of moderate length,
The ilium is elongated and massive and the front portion more expanded than
the posterior. The ischium is slender and curved inward and backward. The
pubis extends forward and its distal end is much expanded. Its posterior branch
is wanting.
The limbs were short and massive and all four were used in locomotion. The
feet were all provided with broad hoofs. All the bones of the skeleton appear to
have been solid. Dermal ossifications were present and some species were protected
by armour.
The main characters which separate the Ceratopside from all other known
families of the Dinosauria are as follows:
1. A rostral bone forming a sharp cutting beak.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 795
2. The skull surmounted by massive horn-cores.
3. The expanded parietal crest with its marginal armature.
4, The teeth with two distinct roots.
5, The anterior cervical vertebree co-ossified with each other.
6. The posterior dorsal vertebree supporting on the diapophysis both the head
and tubercle of the rib.
The Ceratopside resemble, in various points, the Stegosauria of the Jurassic,
especially in the vertebrae, limbs, and feet. The greatest difference is seen in the
skull, but the pelvic arch also shows a wide divergence. In the Ceratopside there
is no marked enlargement of the spinal cavity in the sacrum, and there is no
postpubis.
In conclusion, the author stated that on this group of Dinosaurs he had in
preparation an illustrated memoir, which would be published by the United States
Geological Survey.
2. The Carboniferous Strata of Leeds and its immediate suburbs.
By Bensamin Houeate, £.G.S.
As is well known, Leeds stands in an enviable position as regards its minerals.
Situated as it is on the lower coal measures, it is rich in coarse and fine building
and monumental stone of the greatest durability, of stone suitable for some
kinds of grindstones, and of iron ores of such quality that it has taken steel to even
_ partially displace the iron made from it. Another industry has arisen, nanzely,
that of brickmaking, which places us in a better position than perhaps any other
town for making a minute investigation of a great section of measures as exposed
in its open clay quarries. The bricks are made, not from any particular seam or
bed, but from all the strata by mixing and grinding together the most siliceous,
_ dry, and stony strata with those of a more bituminous, oily, and clayey kind, the
result being a brick hard, durable, and strong, and thus almost every cubic foot of
the strata is made use of.
Some of these quarries are 70 feet in depth, and, as they are heing con-
stantly worked at, they always present a fresh face, and it so happens that, owing
to the dip of the strata and the position of the quarries, the tops of some are at
about the same horizon as the bottoms of others. We thus have a succession
of different varieties of strata representing a vertical section of upwards of 300
feet, and including four well-known and important coal seams, namely, the
“ Better,’ ‘ Black,’ ‘Crow,’ and ‘ Beeston Beds,’ the latter eight feet in thickness
and fully exposed to view. Different fireclays, some of them of the greatest value
and much worked, are also exposed. The sections show the ever varying conditions
ander which they were deposited.
; At some horizons we have fine binds or shales of light colour entombing the
fronds of ferns and most delicately marked plants.
At others, darker shales, which entomb stems, roots, and fruits; and again in
others strong black oily shales, which contain the remains of many fishes and
shells. Here we see indications of a quiet nook in which light plants have floated,
_ become water-logged, and sunk. There we find the ripple-mark and the worm-
burrow which inform us that the strata were deposited in a tidal estuary.
At one horizon we obtain a mineral water containing magnesia and sulphur
in such quantities that it was at one time celebrated as a spa water, until sought
| ae for manufacturing purposes, and spoilt by being mixed with those from other
ers.
4 At another horizon we have water containing such an amount of chloride of
sodium and magnesium that it is as salty as sea water.
The fossils are numerous individually, but meagre in the number of species;
_ but some of the stigmaria, calamites, lepidostrobi, and dadoxylons are perhaps
_ the most suitable for examination of any that have been discovered, as their
_ structure has been preserved.
These strata show almost every variety of conditions of the coal period.
The colour indicates the enclosed fossils, Fronds of ferns and delicate plants
3 Fr 2
796 REPORT—1890.
give blue stems, and the larger parts of plants, when numerous, give black, whilst
mineral remains, owing to the quantity of oil they contain, give hardness and black-
ness. The nodules are harder and contain most iron in the black shales.
There is no great upheaval in the district, but the strata tell us their ever--
changing history as it went steadily on over a very long period of time.
3. Some Physical Properties of the Coals of the Leeds District.
By Bunsamin Horeare, F.G.8,
The coals of this immediate neighbourhood have not been subjected to so many
changes since their formation as have the coals of many other districts.
Again, the variety of ways in which coals are used in the district give us.
peculiar advantages in practically watching their behaviour under different condi-
tions of combustion and distillation.
The temperature at which coals are burnt has much to do with that behaviour.
Thus, some coals which give a warm glow leaving a dry ash when burnt at the
low temperature of a house fire might not be the best suited for use in the furnace
of a boiler, and still less so for use in a reverberatory furnace for the manufacture
and working of iron, steel, or glass, in which case coal is burnt at a very high tem-
perature. These coal seams are those of the upper part of the lower and the
lower part of the middle coal measures, and they are exceedingly variable in their
physical properties and in their behaviour during combustion.
There is the createst difference between coals of different horizons even of the
same seam. Some have the cleat or cleavage wide apart, and contain very little
mineral charcoal; they have a brown streak, and are very hard, being of a dull
black colour. If thrown to the eround they give a sonorous ring.
Immediately over or underlying these may be another coal with its cleat or
cleavage very close, bright in appearance, easily broken, soft and light.
It is evident that these two coals, lying in the same seam and having been
subjected to the same geological conditions and changes, must have been originally
made of very different materials. Between these two we have many varieties.
If we slice the dull black coal in a vertical section we shall find that we cut through
numerous resinous spores. If without slicing we grind and polish it vertically
we find the same resinous spores protruding in the polished surface. Again, if we
fracture the coal we can see with the naked eye the spores standing out on the:
fractured surface; on the other hand the bright coals which break into smaller
pieces cannot be sliced in sufliciently thin sections to be transparent. They
contain more mineral charcoal, and from examination we may infer that they are
made more of stems of plants than the others. This is still further proved by the
examination of the baume pots which are found in the middle of coals of this kind.
There are two coals, many feet apart, which have the same characteristics,.
namely, the ‘better bed’ and one portion of the ‘ Middleton little coal.’ These are
made up in a great measure of spores; their ash is not easily fused ; they contain
a very small proportion of sulphide of iron or other fusible salts, so that they are
best for use under circumstances where the temperature is high.
The other coals, those with their cleat close together, when thrown upon the
fire at once break down into small pieces which cool the fire, and by preventing
the passage of a sufficient quantity of air are distilled more slowly and give off a
different compound of gases from those given off by the coals with wider cleavage.
This is the principal difference between a caking and a non-caking coal. They
also contain a larger amount of sulphide of iron and different soluble and easily
fusible salts, which go to make not only more ash, but ash of such a kind that
it fuses and blocks up the spaces between the fire-bars, by this means pre—
venting a more perfect combustion with our present rude methods of burning the
coal. These fusible salts were not all present when the coals were originally
placed where we find them, but they have been deposited by water since that time,
and since the cleat was: formed, for they lie in the thin interstices of the cleat-
It follows then that there is more ash and more sulphur in coals having a close
cleavage than in those in which the cleavage is farther apart. This has come
— |
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 797
about, first, through chemical changes in the different substances of which the
coal was composed ; secondly, the different forms which the coal has assumed in
the geological changes that have taken place since; and it follows that we must
look as much or more to the geological features as to the chemical ones for a
right judgment as to the uses to be made of them for coking, gas-making, and
for use in different kinds of fire-ranges and furnaces.
4. On the Boulders and Gilaciated Rock-surfaces of the Yorkshire Coast.
By G. W. Lamptucn, F.G.S.
An enumeration and analysis of the larger boulders (those over one foot in
diameter) which strew the cliffs and beaches of the Yorkshire coast have yielded
interesting results bearing on the direction and character of the ice-flow.
Comparisons of the lists compiled at various widely-separated localities reveal
points of agreement, and of difference, which are equally suggestive.
The following condensed table shows the chief features of these boulder-lists :—
Eel saul
n Ss] _ «9
peo lege l2.o | Bsia.g| as | Bs
ze O83 |aea. AER és a S.4
Bee | Bae lmoes| oaks lease | 2s [eee
Boulders over 1 foot in diameter. Aad | S64 |. @us|/ aon |, 2s rales apb.4
Origi Om SHH |2458|/ haf) 644] oF | Suez
rigin. Bee | mas |ese=| seo | S38) $8 | ees
2 | a8 |2sea| ee | bss = |Bas
Bea | 5228 |3°8"| 82/52) 22 | 8
Eee | ean rs eave) ae che Ae
QR eo\a S ca Ss S aS Ss
| r=) mn al a
| per per per per per per per
| cent. | cent. cent. cent. cent. | cent. cent.
Carboniferous Limestone (in- | 22°8 JAE? | BIS 13° Het ewileee }) “Bip
cluding also a few other
Palaeozoic Sedimentary Rocks)
Sandstones, Grit, Conglomerate, | 14:4 45° | 26°8 15- 25 28 18
&e. (probably all, or nearly all,
from Carboniferous or other
Palzozoic Rocks)
Mesozoic Rocks (Jurassic Lime- | 22:1 22: 1: 51: 40: 48- | 35:5 |
stones and Sandstones, Chalk,
&¢.)
Basaltic and other Eruptive | 37:3 14° | 43°2 19: 18: 7 |e1b5
Rocks
Granite, Schist, Gneiss, &c. . 34 ZEON R34 7p ett 4: gloat
| | |
Total . : : . | 100° | 100: | 100: | 100: | 100° | 100- | 100: |
Nores oN THE Lists.
Although there is usually some difference in the distribution of the various
rocks at ditferent horizons, these lists may be taken as indicating the relative pro-
portion of the different rocks among the larger boulders contained in the whole
mass of the drift. In two localities, however, where it was necessary to examine
the boulders lying on the beach, it is probable that the proportion of the basaltic
rocks has been unduly increased, and that of the sandstones diminished, through
the differentiating action of beach-erosion.
In every case the proportion of boulders from the Carboniferous system is high,
ranging from about 25 per cent. to as much as 60 per cent., or even more if the
basalts, which must often have come from the same formation, be reckoned in,
} This paper formed the fourth of a series published in Proc. Yorks. Geol
and Polytech, Soc. for 1887-9 and 1890.
798 REPORT—1890.
Basaltic rocks of various kinds are usually very numerous. The far-travelled
boulders of granite, gneiss, schist, &c., thongh never absent, are always in small
proportion, generally under 5 per cent. It is, as might be expected, in the local
Secondary rocks that the greatest differences occur ; these are all but absent from
the Flambro’ Head list, while at Filey, only a few miles away, they comprise over
50 per cent.
A petrological examination of a selection of these boulders has been carried out
by Mr. A. Harker, M.A., F.G.S.,' who finds that some of the igneous rocks are
certainly—and others probably—from the south and west of Norway; while
others have been derived from the northern and eastern parts of the English Lake
District; from Teesdale; from the Cheviot Hills; and from the southern part of
Scotland.
In discussing the theoretical bearing of these results, it is shown that they are
consistent with the views, elsewhere expressed, that land-ice has moved southward
over the bed of the North Sea, and, in doing so, has deflected and carried southward
the glaciers which were streaming eastward from the Tees and other northern
valleys, pressing them against the high eastern coast-line of Yorkshire.
A well-glaciated surface of Coralline Oolite recently discovered under the drift
near Filey Brigg yields positive evidence as to the direction of the ice-movement,
the grooves and scratches pointing N. 20° E. Also in several places on Flambro”
Head the upper layers of the chalk are puckered up into sharp folds, which die out
downwards, and these have evidently been caused by a force bearing from north to
south across the surface.
5. Hast Yorkshire during the Glacial Period. By G. W. Lamptuau, F.G.S.
In this paper the author sums up his observations on the drift deposits of the
Yorkshire coast. The marine beds of Sewerby and Speeton are placed at the
base of the glacial series, and it is argued that the ‘ Basement Clay’ registers the
history of the first general glaciation of the area, which was wholly extrinsic, and
in no degree dependent upon local accumulation.
The Basement Clay with its shelly inclusions (Bridlington Crag) is explained
as the result of the encroachment upon the coast of land ice, which had gradually
filled up the northern part of the bed of the North Sea. This ice carried forward
portions of the sea-bed and became charged with marine débris. Off Flambro’
Head it seems to have reached a thickness of about 500 feet, and the slope of its
upper surface rose higher eastward. It slightly overtopped the chalk escarp-
ment at Speeton, and gravels washed from its flanks were lodged on the crest of
the Wold there, but the mass of the ice was deflected along the face of the cliffs.
The lower portion of the headland, near Flambro’ village, was, however, com-
pletely overridden, and the ice passed across into Bridlington Bay. Holderness,
at that time an open bay, was overwhelmed up to the slope of the Wolds, but the
Wolds themselves remained bare.
The next stage, that of the ‘ Purple Clays’ of Holderness, seems to have been
marked by a general lowering of the surface of the ice and by wide oscillations of
its margin, so that a large portion of Holderness was uncovered, as was also the
ground at the foot of the Wolds and Moorlands. These areas received thick but
irregular deposits of silt, sand, and gravel (often with a thin sprinkling of marine
shell-fragments), derived partly from the surface drainage of the ice and partly from
the bare land to the westward. Within the margin of the ice, however, the for-
mation of boulder clay was still going on, and thus it is that much of the ‘ Purple
Clay’ of eastern Holderness is probably contemporaneous with the intermediate
gravels of the interior and of the country north of Flambro’ Heal.
Then followed the period of the Upper Boulder Clay. This clay, which is
inclusive of the ‘Hessle Clay’ of Messrs. Wood and Rome, is best studied —
north of the Wolds. Its source does not seem to have been quite the same as
that of the Basement clay, the ice by which it was laid down coming chiefly
from the high Carboniferous region in the north-west. If the glacier of the North —
1 Printed in extenso in Proc. Yorks. Geol. and Polytech. Soc. for 1889 and 1890.
;
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 799
Sea which formed the Basement clay had, at this period, so far receded as to leave
a hollow between its western margin and the eastern moorlands, it is conceivable
that the Teesdale glacier and other northern British ice may have crept down the
valley, overriding the old moraine and all except the highest of the gravel mounds.
It is suggested that the shrinkage of the extra-British ice concurrently with the
increase of ice within our own borders, for which there is much evidence, may
have been brought about by the shifting westward of the main area of snow pre-
cipitation, and therefore of ice formation, consequent upon the encroachment of the
high plateau of the ice-sheet upon the surrounding seas and the wide obliteration
of the open water-surface.
The Upper clay is often very loose in texture, and sometimes passes insensibly
into sand and gravel, and it is possible that it may have been formed through the
gradual melting of the icy covering and the resultant deposition of the insoluble
residue, as suggested by J. G. Goodchild for the western drifts.
The arrangement of the Yorkshire drifts into Upper and Basement Boulder
Clays, with an intermediate series consisting partly of stratified beds and partly
of boulder clay, would remove many of the difficulties which have prevented their
correlation with the glacial deposits of surrounding areas.
6. Final Report on an Ancient Sea Beach near Bridlington.—See
Reports, p. 375.
7. On Liassic Sections near Bridport, Dorset.
By Joun Francis Waker, M.A., F.G.S.
The author refers to descriptions by Day, H. B. Woodward, and Buckman,
and then gives the results of his own observations in 1887 and 1888 :—
(1) The roadside cutting in North Allington shows the following section in
descending order: (a) clay, (6) stone 2 feet 4 inches, consisting of 8 inches white
limestone, 1 inch clay, 11 inches pink limestone, 8 inches marlstone, (c) 3 feet
2 inches sandy clay, (@) 5 inches brown sandy limestone, (e) about 6 feet sandy
marl obscured, (f) 2 feet, 1 inch brown friable sandstone; the brickfield below
contains another stone band embedded in clay with Rhynchonella amalthet and
Monotis inequivalvis. The stone band (d) contains fossils corresponding with
those of the brown sandy limestone of the beach, Rhynchonella tetrahedra vay.
Northamptonensis, Rh. furcillata, Waldheimia perforata var., Spiriferina pinguis,
Monotis inequivalvis, Pholadomya ambigua, Pleuromya sp., Belemnites.
(2) In the field, opposite, the following section was exposed in 1887: soil
6 inches, (a) hard clay 2 feet, ferruginous marl 8 inches, (6) white stone and pink
sandy stone 14 inches, marlstone 6 inches, (c) sandy clay. The pink rock yields
Rh. Bouchardi, and in its upper part, Ammonites striatulus ; the warlstone blocks
yield Rh. tetrahedra, Rh. fallax, Rh. serrata, Terebratula punctata.
(8) A section at Shoots Lane, Symondsbury, somewhat overgrown, shows: (0)
white and pink rock 18 inches, brown rock 2 feet 6 inches, (¢) brown sandy clay
3 feet ; the brown rock contains RA. serrata in the upper part and Rh. tetrahedra
in the lower.
.(4) Information from the workmen, and measurement of the blocks removed,
indicate that the following section was revealed at Shipton Long Lane, Bothen-
hampton, in a hole on the roadside, which was blasted for road metal and subse-
quently filled by order of the police: Unfossiliferous sandstone 4 inches, top bed of
white stone 14 inches, brown stone | foot, brown and pink stone 2 feet, marlstone
1 foot, bluish unfossiliferous limestone 8 inches. The marlstone becomes more red
towards the top, and is covered in some blocks by the pink rock, containing ferrugi-
nous oolitic grains, in others by a sandy conglomerate, which appeared to change
gradually into the hard red (or in places cream-coloured) rock. The marlstone
contains Ammonites spinatus; in its lower part are Rh. tetrahedra, Rh. fallax, T.
punctata, W. perforata var., W. resupinata, (but no Rh. acuta); in its upper part
800 REPORT—1890.
Rh. serrata is very abundant. The pink rock contains Rh. Bouchardit, W. Moore,
and in the conglomerate beds masses of .A. difrons in a pinky-brown ferruginous
rock were the common fossils, but there were large worn specimens of A, serpentinus,
and also in a creamy rock A. crassus ; the brown and white stones have a Rhyncho-
nella, somewhat like Rh. jurensis Quenst. ; the brown rock contained A. thouarsensis
d’Orb. = A. striatulus, and the white rock A. Aalensis Zieten Germanii d’Orb.
If this last section is correctly restored it corresponds with that at [minster,
as far as the zone of Rh. Bouchardit ; there is then wanting the serpentinus and
the lower part of the communis zone, the fossils from which are deposited in the
brown conglomerate bed of the age of A. bifrons, which is covered by the zones of
A. striatulus and A. jurensis.
The brown conglomerate rock has been confounded with the brown marlstone
§n the blocks found on the sea-shore near Chideock, Dorset; and the fossils have
been mixed.
8. On the Sounds known as the ‘ Barisal Guns,’ oceurring in the Gangetic
Delia. By T. D. ua Toucue.
The ‘Barisal Guns’ are sounds resembling the firing of heavy cannon at a distance.
They are heard at various points in the Delta of the Ganges and Brahmaputra,
and in the hills to the north of it; their origin has never been satisfactorily
explained, though many theories have been advanced to account for it. Of
these the principal are :—(i.) The breaking of surf-rollers during the South-west
Monsoon on the shores at the head of the Bay of Bengal; (ii.) The falling in of
high banks along the courses of the rivers in the Delta; (i.) The firing of bombs
by the natives at their marriage festivities; (iv.) Atmospheric electricity ; and
(v.) Subterranean or subaqueous volcanic or seismic agencies.
It is shown that none of these theories is entirely satisfactory, except, perhaps,
the last ; and that a cause of the sounds may possibly be found in slight movements
of the layers of silt, composing the Delta, over each other, as they settle down ;
movements which may be augmented by the strains set up by the increase and
decrease of pressure on the surface, due to the inflow and outflow of the tides along
the river channels.
The paper concludes with a request for information regarding similar sounds, it
it has been observed that any such occur in other large deltas.
9. On the so-called Ingleton Granite.1 By Tuomas Tare, F.G.S.
Under this commercial name a rock has recently been brought into the market
as a road-metal.
It is quarried opposite Dale Barn, Ingleton, in the Borrowdale series, under-
lying the Mountain Limestone, forming Twistleton Scars on the north-west and
Raven Scars on the south-east, extending thus quite across the valley, with a sharp
dip to the south-west, for a thickness of about 400 yards.
This rock has been variously described by previous observers before the applica-
tion of the microscope to its interpretation. It is a greyish-green quartzose
voleanic tuff. No lapilli or any included fragments conspicuously exceeding the
average are present. This marked uniformity in texture at each horizon—graduat-
ing from grains one-eighth of an inch down to the finest particles—points to the
sorting action of gravity exerted upon materials in aqueous suspension. By the
parallelism of the longer axes and the stratification arising therefrom, sedimentation
is further in evidence.
The detritus of a quartzite has supplied most of the clastic elements; next to
this come crystals of quartz and of felspars, both orthoclase and plagioclase, the
latter being the more abundant relatively, in the finer-erained layers. Ancient
lavas, both acidic and basic—devitrified spherulitic rhyolites and augite andesites—
have contributed of their spoils. While the majority of the components have
! For full Report see Proc. of Yorks. Geol. and Polytech. Soc. vol. xi. (1891).
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 801
sharply angular outlines, some few are exceptionally well rounded and water-worn,
These detrital products, enclosed in a volcanic ash matrix of a diabasic character,
have consolidated mto a tough rock of low specific gravity (2-693), possessing
great tenacity of resistance to abrasion. With the exception of a few strain-
shadows in quartz grains, the microscopic slides exhibited offer no suggestion of
the ingredients having suffered from mechanical deformation ; but in the quarry
may be noted one or two examples of schistosity resulting from shearing, these
being restricted locally to the proximity of shrinkage joints now filled in with
quartz and an earthy, green, derivative product. Above and below, this rock
shades off into indurated grey-green ash beds, Flakes and lenticular fragments of
volcanic mud scooped off the old sea floor have been caught up in the superposed
volcanic tuff near to the line of junction, and some of these entangled patches,
when freshly exposed in the quarry, show a septarian arrangement internally, the
outer portions flaking off along faces coated with a lustrous film, the inner surface
subsequently weathering to a variegated dull purple or brownish tint.
The quarry may be inspected on the way to or from Ingleborough.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. The Devonian Rocks, as described in De la Beche’s Report, interpreted in
accordance with Recent Researches. By W. A. E. Ussuer, F.G.S.
[Communicated by permission of the Director-General of the Geological Survey.]
Owing to the very complex association and variable characters of the Devonian
rocks of the South-Western counties, the information gleaned by Sir Henry De la
Beche, during a very rapid survey made more than fifty years ago, did not enable
that eminent pioneer of Stratigraphical Geology to arrive at any certain conclu-
sions respecting the relations of the strata composing the then-called Grauwacke
System. The results obtained by a careful study of Chapter III., on the Grauwacke
System, in De la Beche’s Report, are most unequal.
Where the structure is comparatively simple, as in North Devon, the succession
is given (pp. 45-56) in a plain and masterly manner; and although no classification
is put forward, the strata are described in successive groups, each of which corre-
sponds to a true subdivision. The grouping I have adopted for North Devon, by
mapping out the subdivisions in the field, is De la Beche’s grouping accentuated
by names and geological boundaries. He applies the same grouping to West
Somerset, where the structure is much more complex, and his correlations are correct.
Sections I. and II., Plate III., are admirable illustrations of the succession of the
Devonian subdivisions.
Turning to the intricate and involved region of South Devon (pp. 64-78),
we find that the grouping is based on the assumption that strike-lines have the
value of horizons, and thereby the South Devon limestones are made to occupy
several distinct horizons in the slates. Although contemporaneous voleanic action
is pointed out, yet the greatest tract of voleanic rocks in the whole region (z.e.,
the Ashprington Series) is confounded (p.76) with arenaceous rocks (now known
to be Lower Devonian). Inverted junctions are regarded as natural junctions, as
in the Plymouth succession (p. 65). As De la Beche’s suggested correlations apply
to an interpretation of this part of the area supplied by co-workers, the reader must
not hold him in any way responsible for them.
The treatment of Cornwall differs from South Devon, with which itis in many
places so interwoven as to render it difficult to follow the text. Here we appear
to have the strivings of the great geologist to piece together and simplify the results
of his direct personal observations, That he failed is due, not only to insufliciency of
material, but to the absence of allowance for inverted junctions ; again and again
he is confronted with anomalous appearances of this kind, so that his correlations,
802 REPORT—1890.
always made with extreme caution and great ability, in some cases, when studied
by transferring the information to a map, prove to be contradictory. Although
much involved, De la Beche’s descriptions of Cornwall seem to furnish some clue:
to the structure of that county, when interpreted by a comparison with the known
regions of North and South Devon.
The following classification of the Cornish rocks is arrived at by an exhaustive
study of De la Beche’s Report, and by some years of hard work in the Devonian
rocks of North and South Devon, supplemented by careful observation of the coast
from Plymouth to Looe, and by traverses in the Launceston, Petherwin, and Tavi--
stock country. These materials are sufficient to justify the classification as a sug-
gestive and tentative one ; beyond this nothing is attempted.
Upper Devonian.
Tintagel and Petherwin Series with contemporaneous Volcanic Rocks.—The-
major part of the series consists of grey slates, but red slates (St. Kew and St.
Minver, St. German’s and Mutley, &c.) seem to predominate in the lower beds.
Extent :—Pentire Point to St. Tudy and Eeloshayle, and round the Camelford
granite, between Tavistock and Plymouth.
Correlations :—With Entomis and Goniatite slates of South Devon. In the
upper horizons, also with Livaton and Druid beds; with Pilton beds, Pickwell
Down slaty horizons, and (?) Morte slates.
Middle Devonian.
Grey slates, with occasional limestone bands.
Extent :—From Permizen Bay, toward St. Tudy, and perhaps on north of St.
Breock Down eastward to Warleggon, Mount Edgecumbe, Landulph Promontory
on the Tamar, and probably elsewhere in the neighbourhood.
Correlations :—With slates between Plymouth and Totnes; with Ilfracombe
series.
Lower Devonian.
Upper Coblenzian.—St. Breock Down and Bocoanoe arenaceous beds, Pickle--
combe and Maker grits.
Correlations :—With Hangman series of North Devon; with Staddon and
Cockington grits.
Lower Coblenzian.—Mawgan slates, Tregantle limestone, &c. (?) Newauay
slates.
Correlations :—With Lynton beds of North Devon, Meadfoot beds of South
Devon.
Hunsruckien (?)—Variegated slates of St. Austell, extending from Talland, by
St. Blazey to St. Stephen's, and from Tregoss Moor to Watergate Bay.
Correlations :— With Dartmouth slates ; (?) with Foreland grits.
Upper Gedinnien.—Looe Beds. Pencarrow and Gribbin Head, at the Black
Head, and thence to the West coast near St. Cubert. If the Newquay slates do:
not belong to this horizon, the red slates of Watergate Bay would be in an anti-
cline, and be represented in the area between Oubert and Newquay by a continua--
tion of the St. Austell beds west from St. Stephen’s.
Lower Gedinnien.— Grampound and Newlyn Down arenaceous rocks; possibly
the base of the Devonian beds, and separating them from Lower Silurian rocks.
extending to the south of the latitude of Grampound.
The extension of the Grampound horizon south of Newlyn Down is inferred.
by De la Beche, but it is not noticed in his section from Newdowns Head to the
. Lizard (Plate II., Fig. 4). De la Beche correlated the Gorran limestones with
those of the Looe beds, and regarded the red slates of Falmouth as a lower horizon.
than the St. Austell band.
The grouping south of Grampound may be inverted ; in which case (1) slates,
with occasional contemporaneous volcanic rocks of Penzance, Gwinear, perhaps:
Feock, might be uppermost, and in descending sequence therefrom (2) Falmouth
slates, (3) Mevagissey slates, (4) Gorran, Veryan, Nare Head, and Porthalla beds.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 803.
2. On Pre-Cambrian Rocks occurring as Fragments in the Cambrian Con-
glomerates in Britain.! By Henry Hicks, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
In this paper the author indicates by a table the contents of the basal Cambrian
conglomerates in several areas in Britain, where he and others have claimed that
Pre-Cambrian rocks are now exposed. He shows, on the authority of such eminent
petrologists as Professor Bonney and Mr. T. Davies, that rock-fragments which
have been collected from the conglomerates in various districts by Professor Hughes,
Dr. Calloway, and himself, have been proved to be identical in character in the
minutest microscopical details with some peculiar granitoid rocks, and some basic
and acid volcanic rocks, schistose rocks and porcellanites, which have been described
by them as Pre-Cambrian rocks in those areas. He further shows that in some
places the conglomerate is almost entirely made up of rolled fragments from imme-
diately underlying rocks. At Ramsey Island, and Treffgarn in Pembrokeshire, at
Bangor, and near Llanberis and Bethesda in Carnarvonshire, where the Cambrian
conglomerates rest on Felsites and old Rhyolites, more than three-fourths of the
pebbles, which are frequently of very large size, have been derived from the imme-
diately underlying rocks. Near St. David’s, and at other places where the con-
glomerates rest on various altered volcanic tufts, a large number of the pebbles have
been derived from those tuffs after they had been cleaved and otherwise changed
into their present condition. At Porthclais, Chanter’s Seat, and Porth Melyn, near
St. Dayid’s, a large number of the pebbles (mostly of small size) and the mixture of
broken quartz and felspar, of which some of the beds are almost entirely composed,
could only have been derived from the underlying granitoid rocks (Dimetian). The
author shows that near Llanfaelog and Llanerchymedd, in Anglesea, very large:
pebbles of the underlying granitoid rocks are abundant in the overlying Cambrian
conglomerates, and that at Twt Hill, near Carnarvon, the matrix and many of the
pebbles must undoubtedly have been derived from the underlying granitoid rocks.
Table showing the rocks which have been found in the Cambrian
Conglomerates in different areas.
4 g S : 2 2 ey
TE Ee an RS Si Ong AP ae 7a fees
Rocks 2h eal Ae ul obaivn Geo) Bach oe
ag hag ua 2 is hoa tat = a BA
Ay = S as n 64 a
Granitoid (Granite, Pegmatite, i.
i 05) Io a : - : x x x x Wx x x
Quartz porphyry x — x x -
Felsite ; ; . : x x x x x
Rhyolite, Dacite, and Andesite x x x x x
Diorite and Syenite . : .| — — — = — x x
Diabase and Basalt . x x x x x x x
Gneiss : : 8 - — — — x x x x
Sericite schist . : x x x x x x
Chlorite schist . ; x x 7 x x x
Hornblende schist —_ — = x — x x
Mica schist x x x x x x x
Quartz schist 5 3 ‘ x x x x x x x
Volcanic fragmental (Acid and
Basic) . 5 ; x x x x x x
Porcellanite - x x x x x
Clay slate . x x x x x x x
Quartzite . x x x x x x x
Sandstones x x x x x x x
Calcareous — —- — x — — x
Ferruginous . = - x x x x x x x
Quartz, Jasper,&ke. . x x x x x x x
' Published in extenso in Geol. Magazine for November 1890.
804 REPORT—1890.
The author states that the so-called Torridon conglomerates and sandstones,
in Ross and Sutherland, contain abundant evidences to show that most of the
materials were obtained from the rocks upon which they now rest, after the latter
had assumed their present condition.
He claims that the presence of pebbles of granitoid rocks, quartzites, quartz-
schists, &c., in all the areas, proves clearly that some granitoid rocks were exposed
to denudation on a large scale in many areas, in very early Pre-Cambrian times,
for materials derived by denudation from the latter rocks must have been formed
into quartzites, porcellanites, and schists (Arvonian rocks) in early Pre-Cambrian
times. By subsequent denudation these yielded pebbles to the newer Pre-Cambrian
rocks (Pebidian), and afterwards to the basal Cambrian conglomerates.
The author maintains therefore that the Pre-Cambrian rocks contain evidences
of successive periods of elevation and depression, and probably of volcanic activity,
and that the tendency of the evidence is undoubtedly to show that some of the
granitoid rocks (Dimetian) are amongst the very oldest of the Pre-Cambrian rocks
which are now found exposed, and that some quartzites, porcellanites, and schists
occupy an intermediate position in age between these granitoid rocks and the
Pebidian series. The Pre-Cambrian periods, therefore, which have been defined by
the author by the terms Dimetian, Arvonian, and Pebidian, are easily recognisable
whether the names be accepted or not.
3. The Effects produced by Earth-movements on Pre-Cambrian and Lower
Paleozoic Rocks in some Sections in Wales and Shropshire.’ By Hunry
Hicks, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
The author in this paper gives examples to show the powerful influences exerted
by earth-movements in producing changes in the rocks, and in obliterating the
evidences of succession in the disturbed areas in Wales and Shropshire. He points
out that the difficulties experienced by geologists who examine these areas for the
first time are mainly due to their being unable or unwilling to recognise the extra-
ordinary effects produced by these earth-movements, and especially the complica-
tions due to faults and thrusts. Frequently, he says, portions of the Pre-Cambrian
rocks have been forced in among the Lower Paleozoic rocks so as to appear either
to be parts of the series or to be intruded into it. In other places they have been
made to appear to overlie much newer beds. A section across the St. David’s pro-
montory shows an arch of Cambrian rocks, and of Arenig beds containing great
masses of igneous rocks, probably portions of sheets in the forms of Laccolites, all
bent over a core of Pre-Cambrian rocks, and repeatedly broken on the west side by
thrust-moyvements, causing newer beds to be driven over beds of various horizons,
in some cases many thousands of feet apart in the succession ; whilst on the east
side the limb is broken by reversed faults, so as to make the beds appear to dip
under the Pre-Cambrian rocks. Again, in the Pre-Cambrian core itselt the Pebidian
rocks are not only sheared to an enormous extent, but are also made, on the south
side, by reversed faults, to appear to lie under paris of the granitoid rocks (Dime-
tian) ; one result of these mechanical movements being to make the Dimetian look
as if intruded into the Pebidian beds, whilst in reality it is everywhere here bounded
by faults, as the result of repeated earth-moyements in Pre-Cambrian and subse-
quent periods. The author also shows that very similar results have taken place
in the sections between the Menai Straits and the Snowdon district, where not only
do the Cambrian rocks appear to underlie the Pre-Cambrian, but at one point even
Arenig beds are made to dip under both,
The author states that in a section in Shropshire, extending from the Longmynd
across Caer Caradoc, Lower Paleozoic rocks are faulted so as to appear to underlie
the Pre-Cambrian rocks of Caer Caradoc; whilst on the east of Caer Caradoc, as
the result of thrust-moyements, great thicknesses of the lower beds have been
hidden by much newer ones. He mentions that the changes which have been
produced in the rocks themselves are also very marked. The granitoid rocks give
' Published in extenso in Geol. Magazine for December 1890.
~~
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. . 805:
evidence of having been greatly crushed by the earth-movements in Pre-Cambrian
times, and in the lines of fracture secondary minerals have been freely deposited.
That these secondary minerals date back to Pre-Cambrian times is shown by the
fact that the pebbles of these granitoid rocks in the Cambrian conglomerates con-
tain all the evidences of the early crush with secondary minerals in the crush-lines,
in addition to those of subsequent fracture and deformation by pressure after they
had been entombed in the conglomerates. Some of the felstones in Pre-Cambrian
times were crushed so that they were formed into felsitic schists, and fragments of
these schists occur frequently in the Cambrian conglomerates. Various dykes in
the Pre-Cambrian rocks exhibit indications of having suffered greatly from mecha-
nical pressure in Pre-Cambrian times, the diahase dykes in the Dimetian being
frequently cleaved so as to look almost like slates, Fragments of these and of many
other cleaved and altered rocks occur frequently in the Cambrian conglomerates.
Tn the Cambrian and Ordovician rocks the evidences of pressure during subsequent
earth-movements are also abundant, and secondary minerals have been freely
developed along planes of cleavage and in lines of fracture. The effects on some of
these rocks near thrust-planes are well exemplified by the remarkably distorted
condition of some of the fossils. In Tremadoc beds, near St. David’s, an orthis,
which in its normal condition was about 7 lines in width, was so distorted that it
measured over 27 lines, and others were still further drawn out so as to be almost
unrecognisable.
4, On the Mineral Resources of New South Wales.
By C. S. Wirxinson, £.G.S.
In this paper the author described the economic geology of the colony of New
South Wales. This territory occupies the central portion of eastern Australia,
and has a frontage to the Pacifie Ocean of 850 miles, with Port Jackson, or
Sydney Harbour, situated midway along this coast line. It is remarkable that all
the chief characteristic physica] features of the great island-continent of Australia
are represented in New South Wales. The Cordillera, or Main Coast Range,
culminating in Mount Kosciusco, the highest mountain in Australia (7,176 feet),
and snow-clad during many months of the year, extends through the colony from
north to south ; the largest Australian river flows through the vast delta-plains and
almost treeless downs of the western interior; the Cordillera, especially on its
eastern slopes, is in places clothed with dense forests of the finest timber trees, and
the coast is indented with several splendid shipping ports. The geological features.
of the colony embrace nearly all the principal sedimentary and igneous formations
of the Old World series, from the Silurian upwards; and in these occur, in more
or less abundance, most of the commercially valuable mineral products :—Coal,
gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, antimony, iron, manganese, chromite, bismuth, alunite,
diamonds, marbles, clays, &c, From the Cretaceous formation of the arid downs of the
western interior fresh artesiam water is obtained by boring. New South Wales,
therefore, favoured also with a splendid climate, possesses natural resources of
great significance for the future development of the mining, agricultural, and other
industries,
The total value of the minerals raised in New South Wales to the end of 1889
is 81,598,11342.
Coat.—The Coal Measures are of Carbonifero-Permian age, and occupy an area
of about 24,000 square miles. There are three main series :—The Lower Coal
- Measures, consisting of plant-beds interstratified with beds containing a Car-
boniferous marine fauna; and the Middle and Upper Coal Measures, consisting also
of plant-beds. Glossopteris is one of the characteristic fossil plants found in each
of these series. The aggregate thickness of coal in the seams worked is about.
130 feet. One seam lately discovered near West Maitland by Mr. T. W. E.
David, Geological Surveyor, is over 30 feet thick. Coal was first worked in the
colony in the year 1830, though discovered about 1796. The value of the total.
quantity raised to the end of 1889 is 22,787,155/., the production for the year
1889 being 5,655,632 tons, valued at 1,632,848/7. Several seams, up to 5 feet
806 REPORT—1890.
‘thick, of Petrolewm-oil Cannel coal, or ‘ Boghead mineral, occur in the Coal
Measures. This so-called ‘ Kerosene Shale’ is the richest of the kind found in the
world, and yields up to 150 gallons of crude oil, or 18,000 cubic feet of gas per
ton, with an illuminating power equal to over forty candles.
Go1ip.—Gold has been worked from reefs and the alluvial deposits derived
therefrom. The reefs occur in the Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous strata ;
also in granite, porphyry, diorite, serpentine, &c. The auriferous alluvial deposits
resulting from the denudation of these, are found in the Carbonifero-Permian,
‘Cretaceous, Eocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Recent formations. Gold
with platinum has been obtained in the débris from basalt. Gold was discovered
in 1851, and the total yield to the end of 1889 is 10,092,355 ounces, valued at
37,614,8877. Numerous gold-bearing reefs, as yet undeveloped, are known to
exist. With proper appliances for extracting gold from sulphides, &c., its output
is likely to largely increase.
SILVER AND SitvER-LEAD.—The lodes containing these metals chiefly occur in
the Silurian and Devonian formations and in the igneous rocks (chiefly granites),
intruding them. The most important lode yet opened is at Broken Hill. It is a
fissure-lode consisting of gossan with manganese, carbonate of lead, and sulphides
-of lead, iron, and zinc. The Broken Hill Proprietary Company’s Mine on this lode
has yielded since May 1885 to July 1890, 17,457,279 ounces of silver from
385,880 tons of ore treated, besides a laree quantity of lead. The silver lodes
.at Gunny Corner, Captains Flat and Costigan, contain also a fair quantity of gold.
There are numerous small lodes to be developed. The value of the silver and
silver-lead produced in the colony to December 31, 1889, amounted to 4,909,9521.
Tix.—The ore of this metal has chiefly been worked as stream-tin from the
Tertiary and Recent alluvial deposits. The Tertiary deep leads, or ancient river-
beds, as yet unworked, are extensive. Numerous tin-bearing lodes have been
discovered in the granites of New England and the Barrier Ranges, but they have
-only been slightly worked. The value of the production of tin and tin ore to
31st December, 1889, amounted to 8,925,543/,
CoppEr.—Copper lodes have been opened in various parts of the Colony in the
Silurian and Devonian formations, and are capable of being further extensively
worked. At the surface they consist chiefly of gossan containing rich carbonates
of copper, which pass downwards into sulphides of copper and iron. The value of
the total production to the end of 1889 is 5,645,0271.
Antimony.—The principal antimony lodes occur in association with dykes of
_granite traversing Devonian strata, Stibnite and Cervantite are found occasionally
in many quartz reefs. At Hillgrove, in New England, and at Razorback, the antimony
lodes contain payable quantities of gold. In the New England and Macleay
districts the development of auriferous antimony mines will probably be very
important. The value of antimony exported to December 31st, 1889, is 73,501/.
Tron.—Deposits of brown hematite and magnetite occur in numerous localities,
and, in places, in proximity to coal and limestone. The deposits at Mittagong
have been estimated to contain, within a radius of five miles, about 2,872,000 tons
of ore in sight. In the district traversed by the Great Western Railway line the
deposits of ore are, perhaps, more extensive; and near Stroud and Musclebrook
-there are beds of rich magnetite, containing, however, some titanium.
CHromitE, Copatt, Mancanesn, BismurH, axp Mercury.—Ore deposits of
these minerals have been opened in several parts of the Colony, but only worked
as yet on a small scale; they deserve greater attention than has hitherto been
bestowed upon them.
WoLFRAM, SCHEELITE, and BLENDE occur in several localities in some quantity,
cand will in the future be probably worked with profit.
ALUNITE.—A rich deposit of this mineral has been recently opened near Stroud
for the manufacture of alum.
Diamonds AND OTHER Gurms.—Upwards of 50,000 diamonds have been
obtained from the Tertiary and Recent drifts in the Bingera, Cope’s Creek,
Cudgegong, and Mittagong districts. The largest diamond weighed about
58 carats. With efficient appliances, the diamond mining industry is likely to
Py Se | he Oe
badd
Se
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 807
‘become a profitable one in New South Wales. Sapphires, topazes, beryls, garnets,
and zircons are of frequent occurrence.
Buitpine Sronrs, Marsies, SERPENTINES, Porrery, and Brick Crays occur
in abundance, and of excellent quality. Full particulars are given in the reports
of the Department of Mines, Sydney, and samples of all the above-mentioned
minerals were exhibited in the New South Wales Court in the International Mining
Exhibition at the Crystal Palace, London.
5. Highteenth Report on the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and
Ireland.—See Reports, p. 340.
6. On the Glacial Phenomena of the Isle of Man. By P. F. Kenpaut.
The author briefly referred to the work done by Strickland, Forbes, Cumming,
Clifton Ward, Horn, and Hewitt, and proceeded to give some details of the distri-
bution of the deposits.
The Ramsey Brooghs exhibit a section showing two beds of boulder clay
separated by a bed of false-bedded sand.
Beyond the Dog Mills a section is exposed showing a great series of shingly
and sandy beds, which the author regards as a true beach. These deposits cannot
be with certainty correlated with the Ramsey series, but the author regards them
as probably superior to them.
The cliffs attain an altitude of 200 feet, and extend for several miles. Beneath
the beach series a very rich deposit of shelly clay is exposed, which has yielded
many remarkable shells.
At the mouth of Ballure Glen a section is visible which shows a varied series
of glacial deposits bedded at a high angle against the clay slate.
The cliffs near Kirkmichael are similar in character to those near the Dog
Mills. Near St. John’s a deposit of shell-bearing sands occurs.
Jn the south of the island many good exposures of boulder clay are visible, and
in several cases a striated surface of limestone is to be seen.
Dr. Tellet quotes a statement by Campbell of Islay to the effect that a gravel
bed containing scratched stones occurs on Snaefell at an altitude of 1,400 feet.
The Source and Distribution of the Erratics.—In the glacial tract of Ramsey
and Kirkmichael Skiddaw slates, Carboniferous limestone, Red sandstones, and
breccias and flints are abundant; and the author identified many granites, &c.,
from the south of Scotland, and the Eskdale granite. He could not find a single
example of the Manx igneous rocks.
In the south of the island Cumming had shown that local rocks were abundant,
and had a well-defined trail coinciding with the direction of the strie, The
foreign stones were similar to those found in the northern deposits. Boulders of
the granite of Foxdale have been found lifted 800 feet above the natural outcrop
in a distance of two miles. It is remarkable that no foreign stones occur at high
altitudes in the island.
Paleontology.—The author refers to the work of Strickland and Forbes, and
criticises their lists.
He identifies the Nassa Pliocena, Strick., with the Nassa serrata, Brocchi.
4 Fusus Forbest, Strick., he holds to be distinct from the American F. cinereus,
ay.
"ithe author’s own collections from the island include Cemoria noachina, and
many other shells not commonly found, but the most remarkable find is that of
Columbelia sulcata, Sow. (by Mr. Kermode). It is a characteristic Red-Crag
species like Nassa serrata and N. Monensis. It may be that these shells and the
mollusca of southern range which occur in the Lancashire Drift are of remanié
origin.
808 REPORT—1890.
7. On the Speeton Clays and their Hquivalents in Lincolnshire. By G. W.
Lamwetuea, £.G.S.
In a recently published description of the Speeton section,' the author, after
showing that the accepted classification of the Lower Cretaceous beds had beem
vitiated by misunderstandings as to certain parts of the series, proposed a re-
classification, based on the Belemnites, which are the most abundant and most
characteristic fossils.
Fresh evidence is now brought forward in support of this suggestion ; and the:
zones adopted at Speeton have been traced in beds of the same age in Lincolnshire.
The escarpment in the neighbourhood of the abandoned Acre House ironstone:
mines affords the most convenient sections, and the following correlation is based.
chiefly on the fossils collected there :-—
Speeton : Yorkshire. Acre House: Lincolnshire.
Red Chalk Red Chalk
Zone A.—Marls, with Bel. minimus . Carsrane
Zone B.—Zone of Bel. semicanalicu- Tealby Limestone
latus (2)
Zone C.—Zone of Bel. jaculum Tealby Clay
Zone D.—Zone of Bel. lateralis, apiil Claxby Ironstone
cluding (E) Coprolite Bed Spilsby Sandstone
Zone F.—Bituminous Shales ; 7 |
(Upper Kimeridge of English Upper Kimeridge Shales
geologists) f
Noves,
F. Bituminous Shales.—These undoubtedly Upper Jurassic beds give a good
base for the correlation. In spite of the limited nature of their fauna, the separate |
areas have yielded several characteristic species in common. It is probable, how-
ever, that the topmost layers of the division (which in Yorkshire contain a long
Belemnite allied to Bel. Owentt, Pratt.) are wanting in most, if not in all, of the:
Lincolnshire sections through the overlapping of the Spilsby sandstone.
D. Zone of Bel. lateralis, Phil—tThis zone deserves close consideration because
of the recently-discovered analogy between it and the ‘Upper Volga’ beds of
Russia, and because of the doubts which exist as to its precise age. At Speeton it
has yielded certain fossils which have been supposed to be Portlandian forms, thus
bearing out its stratigraphical position; but on the other hand it has also yielded
numerous species usually referred to the Lower Cretaceous or Neocomian epoch.
In Lincolnshire the zone comprises both the Spilsby sandstone and the Claxby
ironstone, which, contrary to the accepted practice, and in spite of their lithological
difference, should be thus united, on the palzontological evidence. The Claxby
ironstone may be correlated with the upper beds of the zone at Speeton as low as:
D 4,” and the Spilsby sandstone with the lower beds. The zone contains a more
numerous and varied fauna in Lincolnshire than in Yorkshire.
1 On the Subdivisions of the Speeton Clay: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. xlv. p. 575.
2 These letters and figures are those used for distinguishing the different zones:
in the above-cited paper on the Speeton Clays.
ak
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 809
C. Zone of Bel. jaculum, Phil.—-In contrast with the preceding, this zone is
feebly developed in the Acre House section, as compared with its great thickness
and variety of fauna at Speeton. The Tealby clay falls wholly within the zone, but
may represent only the upper portion of the Yorkshire section. It is possible
that the top of the ironstone may in some place reach up into this division, but
further research is needed.
B. Zone of Bel. (semicanaliculatus ?)—The Upper, or Tealby, limestone in the
neighbourhood of Normanby and Tealby contains many of the characteristic fossils
of the lower part of the zone of Bel. (semicanaliculatus ?), but it is not yet possible
to say to what height in the Speeton section this correlation should be extended.
Consequently nothing definite can be stated with regard to the beds overlying
the limestone, in which fossils are all but absent, but it is believed that the Car-
stone may have its partial equivalent in the marls (A) at the base of the Red
Chalk at Speeton.
The paper concludes with some paleontological notes on the Speeton beds, based
_ chiefly on a re-examination of the old collections ; and with arguments derived from
_ these notes as to the age and relations of the series.
By Professor H. G. Sretzy, F.R.S.
The author described the vertebra of Ichthyosaurs and showed, on the evidence
of specimens in the British Museum and that of A. N. Leeds, Hsq., that the
neural arch has no zygapophyses or zygapophysial facets, but that there is a single
flat median facet of vertically ovate form above the neural canal back and front,
which is termed a proto-zygapophysis. The character has been found in many
Species from the Lias and lower Oolites, and in Ophthalmosaurus from the Oxford
clay.
8. On the Neural Arch of the Vertebree in the Ichthyosauria.
d
9. On the Marbles and other Ornamental Rocks of the Mediterranean.
By W. Brinvinry, 7.G.8., F.R.M.S.
White marbles only were used by the Classic Greeks, this material as a
superior building stone being the most plentiful, and no doubt its purity had great
influence on the refinement of their architecture, colour afterwards being applied
to reduce its dazzling brightness. The Romans, following the Greeks, endeavoured
to get lasting colour effect by the use of coloured marbles, every shade of which
was found on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea. The Greek quarries of
Pentelicus and Paros were very extensive, and are still workable. Under the
Roman Empire there does not appear to have been any workable rock, even in
the most remote spots. They did not find and transport to Rome. From
Carystus in Eubcea were taken the Cipollino monoliths of the Temple of
Antoninus and Faustina. The shores of Thessaly and Magnesia supplied the
Various greens ; Synnada, the choice Pavonazzetto Antico, used in the Pantheon :
these quarries, sixteen in number, have just been rediscovered, and are workable.
Those of Giallo Antico in Tunis, the ancient quarries of Numidia, are now
ensively worked. The quarries of Rosso Antico and Green Porphyry are in
_ duaconia.
___ Down the Nile was brought the Oriental alabaster, the granite monoliths of the
_ portico of the Pantheon and Forum of Trajan. Also down this river came the
_ Most sumptuous decorative stone the world has ever known, namely, Imperial Red
Porphyry ; blocks, 20 tonsin weight, were procured, as seen in the Vatican. These
quarries are now being reworked, and 280 small blocks from them haye just
‘arrived in London, many of which show the old methods of working, namely,
splitting with wedges, scappling into rough shapes with hammers, rough and smooth
pickaxed dressing, and truthfully sawn faces 2 feet in Jength. The coast of
' Published in full in the Builder, September 20, and the Building News,
_ September 19, 1890.
1890. 3@
810 REPORT— 1890.
Algeria and Tunis abounds with choice marbles, the richest of which are those of
Kleber, near Oran. The Mediterranean coast of Spain is nearly one continuous
mass of marble, producing whites of excellent quality, which were used for
building the Alhambra, and also all shades of reds, yellows, and greens.
Rich red marbles of all sorts and mixtures are also found near the French
coast of this sea. Italy is now the chief marble-producing country of the world;
the quarries of Carrara and Monte Altissimo Serravezza produce more annually
than all the rest of the quarries put together, and the various islands of this
country possess valuable quarries, those of Sicily being of especial value.
10. The supposed Volcanic Eruption of Cape Reykjanes.
By Tsurest Anderson, M.D., B.Sc., and H. J. Jounston-Lavis, M.D.
Tt is currently believed in Iceland, and was stated in some of the public prints
at the time, that a volcanic eruption or earthquake had taken place at Cape
Reykjanes in October 1887, by which a large new Gia or chasm had been formed
separating a large rocky promontory, almost deserving the name of a mountain,
from the main Cape on which the lighthouse stands. This chasm, at least 50 feet
wide, was pointed out to the authors from a passing steamer, the captain declaring
he remembered the rocks before they were rent asunder. Here, then, appeared a
case of the formation of one of the Gids or chasms which form such a characteristic
feature of Icelandic geology. ‘There are several such on the Reykjanzs peninsula,
huge chasms, several feet wide and of unknown depth, stretching for miles across
the lava deserts of which the district is composed. In this district they usually,
though not always, have a throw of a few feet or yards, but one of those at
Thingvalla, more in the centre of the island, the Allmanagia, has a throw of about
100 feet. In this instance the authors are satisfied that the Gia is due to the
unequal settling of a crust of lava, formed on the surface of a still fluid mass,
which has found an outlet and flowed out after the solidification of the surface.
They are not prepared, however, to say that this explanation will hold in the case of
all the rifts on the Reykjanzs peninsula. Consequently, any clear case of the for-
mation of a fresh Gia in strata long cooled and solidified would have been of great
theoretical importance.
From a careful examination of the locality it appears that no formation of a
fresh Gid has taken place, but that certain small portions of the rock on which the
lighthouse stands have been loosened, partly by ordinary denudation and partly by
earthquakes, which are frequent here, and fallen on to the beach. The strata of
partly consolidated volcanic ash, &c., are quite continuous in the end of the small
cove or recess between the two large rocks above referred to.
Photographs were shown on the screen illustrating these points and showing
several real and spurious rifts, and the structure of the lighthouse rock, which is
the remains of a dissected volcano.
11. On Lepidophloios and Lepidodendron.
By Wn. Casu, F.G.S., F.L.S., F.B.M.S., and Jas. Lomax.
The genus Lepidophloios appears to have been established by Sternberg at a
time when our knowledge of Carboniferous plants was based, for the most part,
upon merely superficial characters and not upon the anatomical structure of the
plants themselves. The two genera, Lepidodendron and Lepidophiotos, though
long known to hold close affinities, are clearly separated by well-marked characters.
In Lepidodendron the leaf-cushions are fusiform or quadrate, varying much in
form, even in the same species, according to their posicion on the stem and
conditions of growth. Situated on the cushions and generally above the centre is
the leaf-scar proper, whose upper and lower boundary lines are usually more or less
convex and unite in lateral angles. Within the leaf-scar are three punctiform
cicatricules, the central of which is alone connected with the vascular system, the
two lateral being probably glandular. The cones in some species are borne at the —
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 811
terminations of the branches, and in others in two opposite vertical rows (Uloden-
dron, L. and H., zz part).
In Lepidophioios the leaf-cushions are rhomboidal (as in LZ. laricinum) or
elongated-truncate (as in Z. scoticum), and the leaf-scar is situated at the extremity
of the cushion, having three punctiform cicatricules as in Lepzdodendron. The
cones are borne on specially modified branches and are arranged in spirals
(Halonia, L. and H.).
The two genera are therefore very distinct in the position of the leaf-scar on the
cushion, as also in their mode of fructification. The knowledge obtained of the
structure of Lepidophloios since Sternberg’s time, and especially that acquired in
recent years, has confirmed the view of its close affinity with Lepidodendron.
Williamson has described the twigs, branches, stems, and fruits of Lepzdophloios
brevifolium from Burntisland, and has shown that, fundamentally, these have the
structure of the same parts of Lepzdodendron.
Sohns-Laubach, in his ‘ Einleitung in die Paliiophytologie,’ states that Corda’s
Lomatophloios crassicaule has a structure similar to that of the true Lepidodendron
Harcourt.
Inasmuch, however, as Corda’s genus Lomatophloios is Sternberg’s Leyrdophiotos,
there is sufficient justification for his conclusion that the structure of Lepidodendron
Harcourti may occur in Lepidophloios.
Further, the same authority states that the plant described by Williamson as
Lepidophloios brevifolium is intermediate in structure between Lepidodendron
Harcourtit and Lepidodendron vasculare, Binney (L. selaginoides, Carr and Will.).
Its primary xylem has zof the crenulated outline of the former species, though its
structure is the same, but its leaf-trace bundles run downwards with only a slight
projection, as in the latter. It further agrees, he adds, with the latter in the
massive development of its secondary xylem. ‘To these proofs of the near relation
of the two genera under consideration, we are in a position to add yet another, drawn
from a specimen which we discovered some short time ago. This consists of a
fossil stem whose external surface is marked by tolerably well-preserved characters,
which leave no doubt that it must be referred to the genus Lepidophloios as defined
by Sternberg.
Transverse sections of it show, however, that in internal structure it is identical
with the plant described by Williamson in his XIth memoir as Lepidodendron
Harcourt, but since named by him Lepidodendron fuliginosum.
The primary xylem has an outer periphery s/ightly crenulated, is in the form of
a thin, hollow cylinder, and encloses a tolerably large pith composed of thin-walled
parenchyma. Surrounding the primary xylem is a zone of dark, indistinct tissue
in which are radially disposed elements, and which Williamson regards as the
exogenous zone (secondary xylem) in an immature condition. Outside this is the
thick cortex, which, in its general appearance as well as in the structure and the
arrangement of several layers, is in close agreement with that of Lepidodendron
Suliginosum.
12. On the Changes of the Lower Carboniferous Rocks in Yorkshire from
South to North.| By J. R. Daxyys.
The author describes, without going into details, the chief changes which the
rocks undergo from south to north. These may be summed up as follows :—
1. The simple fourfold division of the Millstone grit prevalent in Derbyshire,
ceases to be applicable northward, owing to the setting in of several fresh sand-
stones.
2. The Yoredale type of beds can hardly be said to exist south of Kettlewell.
From Grassington northwards the carboniferous limestone becomes split up with
beds of sandstone and shale, and north of Kettlewell important rocks, to wit the
Underset and Main limestone, set in among the limestone shales, so that finally
we have in Yoredale the well-known type of beds that go by that name.
3. In the southern part of its course the Main limestone is immediately overlain
} This paper is to be published in the Trans. of the Yorks. Geol. Sez.
3a2
812 REPORT—1890.
by the Millstone grit, but northwards a set of cherty beds comes in between the
limestone and the Millstone grit ; this begins at Coverhead merely as a thin cherty
top to the limestone, but the chert gradually develops into a series of cherty beds,
sandstones, and shales, known as the Black and Red Beds in Swaledale. Still
further north the cherty beds change into a set of coal-bearing sandstones, grits,
and shales, known as the Coal Sills, overlain by a thin but persistent bed of lime-
stone, known as the Little Limestone.
4, Owing to the deterioration of the lowest Millstone grit in Walden, Cover-
dale, and on the flanks of Penhill, it is somewhat uncertain what line should be
taken further north as the Millstone grit base, so as to keep to the same horizon.
In the author’s opinion the best line (at least the most certain line) to take is the
tov of the cherty series and its equivalent the Little Limestone. Thus we shall, at
all events, keep to one and the same horizon.
5. It is important to notice that the siliceous grits and ganister-like beds that
occur in the Millstone grit series above the Kinderscout grits, become more pro-
nounced northwards, so that at length they become regular ganister measures
similar to the ganister measures of the lower part of the Coal Measures.
13. Human Footprints in recent Volcanic Mud in Nicaragua.
By Dr. J. CRAWFORD.
In this communication the author refers to an article in the Proceedings of the
Victoria Institute for 1889, reprinted from letters by Dr. E. Flint, and comments
thereon by Dr. D. G. Brinton, published by the Philosophical Society of Phila-
delphia. Footprints of men and of wild and domestic animals occur on a bed
of volcanic mud, now much hardened and overlain by alternations of finer and
coarser consolidated ashy muds derived from volcanoes, near Lake Managua. ‘The
footprints are of Indians, with short, broad feet, evidently hastening towards the
lake. The bed containing them rests on a yellow (so-called Miocene) sand, really
a consolidated mud similar to those which overlie it, and the whole series of beds
for at least 10 feet below the bed bearing ‘the footprints is of recent date. The
author, in illustration of the formation of volcanic muds, instances the great
‘ Aluvion de Barro’ of 1876, which covered the Plaza grounds in Managua to
a depth of 5} feet, and also filled up the street previously called Calle Honda
(deep street), which was 3 feet below the surface north and south of it, so that
it is now a very important street, on the same level as the adjoining part of the
city, and called Calle Mercado.
14. On the Geology of Nicaragua. By Dr. J. CRAWFORD.
The author divides the country into five areas for geological purposes:
I. A western section, roughly parallel to the Pacific coast, and including the
large lakes Managua and Nicaragua, and several smaller crater lakes, some of
which are filled with fresh water, while others contain large proportions of salts.
'!'he strata are mainly volcanic ashes, marine and lacustrine beds, with shells, and
some deposits like glacial drift. The following heights are given :—
Voleanoes: Viejo, 6,160 ft.; Momotombo (smoking), 6,510 ft. ; Cosequina,
3,860 ft.; Masaya (large crater), 3,800 ft.; Mombacho, 5,100 ft.;
Ometepa (hot top), 5,800 ft.; Madera, 5,000 ft.
Lakes: Fresh-water—Managua, 123 ft.; Tiscapa, 176 ft.; Masaya, 216 ft. ;
Apoyo, 85 ft. Slightly saline—Nicaragua, 106 ft. Saline—Nejapa,
168 ft.; Giloa, 138 ft.
None of the volcanoes is now active, but there are boiling springs and old
floods of mud, ‘ aluviones,’ which mimic older stratified deposits.
II. A section north-east of the last consists of Recent delta deposits, Post-
Glacial brick-earths and cave deposits, Pliocene, Miocene, Eocene, Cretaceous,
‘Wealden, Oolitic, Permian, and Carboniferous rocks. In this section are found
nly he
————SE——
ese, rer lc ”—~C~S
=
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 813
reptile and other bones, bituminous coal, copper, silver, and iron ores, but there
are no craters, lakes, or mineral springs.
III. A band of gneiss, granite, slates, crystallised limestone, and iron ores of
Archiean and Silurian ages, intersected by dykes and lodes carrying gold, silver,
lead, &c. In these rocks are large caves in which human crania and other frac-
tured bones of Neolithic or earlier date are found. There are cold and hot mineral
springs but no volcanoes in this section.
IV. A narrow strip adjoining the last, and quite similar to section II.,
except that the rocks have not been so much disturbed. This section contains
several gold placer mines—the beds of large early quaternary period rivers—some of
them rich in gold; for example, the old river bed near to and on the north side of
the present epoch river Prince Apulca.
Y. Azone 80 to 100 miles wide, adjoining the Caribbean Sea, consisting of
lagoons, swamps, and deltas, with a raised bed of sand. Mounds occur in this
section containing stone hatchets, flint arrow-heads and spear-heads, and bones of
man older in date than the Spanish occupation.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
The ‘following Papers and Reports were read :—
L. Preliminary Note on the Composition and Origin of Cheshire Boulders.
By J. Courts Antrosus, M.A., and Freverick H. Hatcu, Ph.D., F.G.S.
During the past twenty years a great number of boulders have been col-
lected by the first-named author within a two-mile radius of Eaton, near
Congleton. A microscopic examination of thin sections made from specimens of
these boulders has been productive of interesting results, and has given certain
indications of the sources whence the ice-borne boulders have been derived. The
specimens examined constitute a fair average of the boulders as they occur, with
the exception perhaps that the sedimentary rocks have been somewhat neglected
as compared with the igneous samples. Of 68 specimens examined, 38:2 per
cent. were granites, microgranites, and granophyres; 41°2 per cent. were volcanic
(lavas and tuffs); 13:2 per cent. were sedimentary (quartzites) ; while 7:4 per
cent. remained undetermined. Of the granites, &c., 15:2 per cent. were assigned
to the Lake District, four specimens being identified as Muncaster granite and five
as Buttermere granophyre; the rest are derived from the South of Scotland, and
possibly the Western Isles of Scotland.! Shap granite, so abundant in the more
easterly counties, was not found in the district under examination. The volcanic
rocks are represented by types of lava, breccia and tuff, familiar to the student of
Lake District geology. ‘They belong to the Borrowdale Voleanic series, Hight
specimens were found to be andesite; seven specimens rhyolite, and thirteen
breccia or tuff. One specimen of gabbro and one of basalt are identical with those
of the Western Isles of Scotland or of Antrim. The quartzites appear to be
derived from the Ganister beds of the Carboniferous system.
; 2. On some West-Yorkshire Mica-trap Dykes.
By Freperick H. Haroun, Ph.D., F.G.S.
These notes refer to the petrographical character of the mica-trap dykes which
are so numerous in the neighbourhood of Sedbergh, where they occur traversing
rocks chiefly belonging to the Coniston Limestone series. They are fairly compact
rocks, usually varying in colour from almost black to light-grey, but occasionally
they are of a reddish-brown, or even of a cream colour. Their most constant
? Comparisons with the rocks from these districts have yet to be made,
814 REPORT—1890.
feature is an abundant brown mica, dispersed through the rock in lustrous plates.
In some cases these are of considerable size; in most of the rocks, however, they
sink to minute specks, which are present in considerable number and give the rock
a glittering appearance.
These notes are based on work done by the author for the Geological Survey,
The specimens were collected by Mr. Strahan and himself in the summer of this
year, and full details of their investigations will be published in the Survey Me-
moir on Sheet 97, N.W., now in course of publication. Sections for the microscope
were made from dykes in the following localities: Backside Beck, west of the vol-
canic series ; dyke in Wattle Gill; dyke in the Rawthey at Ward’s Intack ; dyke in
Taith’s Gill, 200 yards north of Fox Hole Rigg; dyke in Backside Beck, 100 yards
north of the Wandale Fault ; dyke at base of first felsite, Backside Beck; dyke
near the foot of Wattle Gill; dyke in shale near the topmost felsite, Wattle Gull ;
dyke 300 yards west of Rawthey Bridge.
Under the microscope the mica sometimes appears in regular six-sided plates,
but more frequently in ragged patches and blades. It is a dark-brown biotite,
probably meroxene. Penetrating the mica, fine needles of apatite are often to be
observed.
Another striking feature in these rocks is the presence of carbonate of lime in
considerable quantity. In many cases they are so highly charged with calcite as
to effervesce freely with acid. This mineral has completely replaced the original
constituents of the rock, forming pseudomorphs, the shape of which gives some
indication of the nature of the replaced mineral, Augite has doubtless been
replaced in this way, and the shapes of some of the calcite pseudomorphs clearly
point to olivine having been an original accessory constituent of these rocks. The
felspar (orthoclase) is surprisingly small in quantity, being confined to small
microlites and interstitial patches in the groundmass, but the latter is generally so
obscured by calcite dust and stained by oxide of iron that even this can only be
made out after dissolving away the carbonate of lime from the section with dilute
acid. Chlorite is also present in patches and scattered fibres. In part this
mineral is no doubt derived from the decomposition of the biotite, in part also from
the augite. Magnetite is present in scattered granules.
3. Note on Phillips’s Dyke, Ingieton. By Tuomas Tats, F.G.S.
The author stated that visitors to Ingleborough could examine an interesting
mica-trap, the only one of the numerous West Yorkshire dykes described by
Phillips in his classical work (‘ Yorkshire Geology,’ Part II., Mountain Limestone,
p. 85, 1835).
Intrusive in Coniston calcareous shales, north of the Cravenfault, it projects as
a nearly vertical dyke from the east bank of the Doe, three hundred yards above
the Catleap waterfall, Storrs, Ingleton.
Macroscopically it is a flesh-coloured matrix, fine-grained, and of uniform
texture, enclosing porphyritic crystal groups of somewhat larger felspar crystals
surrounded by a framework of brown mica.
The microscopic sections (exhibited) reveal a holocrystalline ground mass, of
which orthoclase, hornblende, and biotite are the chief components, the latter
mineral alone presenting idiomorphic contours.
Two generations of felspar; small crystals of uniform size diffused through,
and originally the main constituents of, the ground-mass; and larger crystals in
glomero-porphyritic clusters, each enclosed by magnesian mica generated around
it, repeat the peculiar structure seen in hand specimens. The rock is a Mica-
syenite or Minette, the best preserved of all the West Yorkshire traps.
4, Sixth Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of Veswvius.—See
Reports, p. 397.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 815
5. On the Origin of the Saline Inclusions in the Crystalline Rocks of Dartmoor.
By A. R. Hunt, W.A., £.G.S8.
The author stated that he had examined 24 sections of crystalline rocks and
quartz veins connected with the granite of Dartmoor, and found them all to
contain without exception fluid inclusions with cubic crystals. That the cubic
crystals in the Dartmoor granites indicate, to some extent at least, chloride of
sodium seems hardly open to doubt, as the inclusions are exactly like those figured
by Dr. Sorby from Cornwall, which proved on analysis to contain that salt.
There are four classes of rock in which these saline inclusions occur, viz. :
(1) The ordinary porphyritic granite of Dartmoor.
(2) Eruptive veins of fine-grained granite traversing the main mass and the
adjacent sedimentary rocks.
(8) Quartz-tourmaline-felspar veins of aqueous origin, also traversing the
main mass and adjacent sedimentaries.
(4) Veins of pure quartz in the culm slates.
A quartz crystal about one-thirtieth of an inch in diameter in one of the
aqueous veins contains six different sorts of inclusions, viz, :
(1) Trregular cavities with both cubic crystal and bubbie.
(2) Irregular cavities with cubic crystal alone.
(8) Irregular cavities with bubble alone.
The same three varieties occur as negative hexagons, making six altogether.
The bubbles vary greatly in relative size and activity. In the case under
discussion variation cannot be explained either on the hypothesis of original and
secondary inclusions or on that of variation in weight of superincumbent strata
by accumulation or denudation.
After consolidation the crystal was never crushed, nor was it plastic, nor was
it permeated by fluids; but during growth it was subjected to rapid alternations of
salt water and fresh, and to great changes of pressure.
Dynamic pressure by earth movements, and variation in the weight of superin-
cumbent rocks, being negatived, there seems to be nothing to fall back upon to
explain the variations of pressure except irregularly heated water in the vein
itself.
Hot salt springs occur in Cornish mines, probably (as shown by the late Mr.
J. A. Phillips) derived from the sea.
The phenomena of the Dartmoor veinstones can be explained on the hypothesis
that sea-water gained access to highly heated granite during the epoch of their
formation.
Sufficient heat would vaporise the brine and render possible the inclusion of
fresh water in the form of compressed steam, in close juxtaposition with an
inclusion of saturated brine previously entangled by the growing crystal. The
occurrence of fresh water and brine inclusions close together must be explained
somehow.
Any explanation relied on for the veinstones must also cover the case of the
main mass of the granite, saturated as it seems to have been with salt.
Under extreme changes of temperature granite cracks throughout without much
alteration in appearance, but a minutely cracked granite would suck in salt water
like a sponge either under pressure or by capillary attraction.
From some cause or other the granite of Dartmoor has been cracked throughout,
as evidenced by many of the porphyritic felspars. A rise of the isogeotherms, or
plutonic action, of which latter there is abundant evidence in the elvans and granitic
veins, are possible sources of the required heat.
The theory of the marine origin of the saline inclusions in the Dartmoor rocks
seems to harmonise well with the view commonly entertained that the chlorine
and chloride of sodium emitted by volcanoes are derived from the sea.'
In the case of volcanoes the presence of hydrogen and chlorine may be
1 See Characteristics of Volcanoes, J. D. Dana, p. 8.
816 REPORT—1890.
accounted for by the dissociation of the water and of the chloride of sodium by
the intense heat,' and the combination of the two gases thus formed would result in
the production of hydrochloric acid.
In the case of the cooler granites there is no question of dissociation and of
gases, but of the entanglement of brine and steam at more moderate temperatures.
Thus the access of salt water to highly heated rocks seems to account for some
of the more important gases emitted by lavas and of the more characteristic fluid
inclusions caught up by granites.
An alternative theory, that the crystals of salt in the Dartmoor rocks ‘had
been formed from hydrochloric acid acting on the soda in the rocks,’ does not
seem to the author to account for the crystals in the quartz-veins of the culm slates,
or to explain the complete permeation of the granite by the chloride of sodium.
Moreover, the one theory accounts for the presence and origin of the hydrochloric
acid as well as of the soda, whereas the other has to assume the previous existence
of soda and the advent of hydrochloric acid from unknown quarters.
6. On the Strata forming the Base of the Silurian in North-East
Montgomeryshire. By J. Bickerton Moraan, F.G.S.
The area in which the rocks referred to in this communication occur is situate
between the towns of Welshpool and Llanfyllin, on the North Wales border.
These basal rocks, which were investigated by the author at the suggestion of Pro-
fessor Lapworth, are first seen in Powis Castle Park, one mile to the south-west
of the former place, where they come to the surface in the form of a small anticline,.
the southern limb of which furnishes the foundation upon which stands the ancient
and picturesque structure of Powis Castle. From this point they take a north-:
easterly direction, and, passing through the upper, or western, portion of the
town, are abruptly terminated at Red Bank by a north-east and south-west fault..
Westward of the town they crop out in the neighbourhood of Frochas, and,
striking thence through the folded strata north-eastward, they extend for several
miles in the direction of Llansaintffraid.
The character of these basement rocks is, for the most part, that of a hard
quartzose grit, the base of which, in places, takes the form of a coarse purple
conglomerate, and which sometimes includes amongst its more siliceous constituents
pebbles obtained from the underlying rocks, and occasionally contains green,
earthy, concretionary patches. The grit-beds are sometimes sub-calcareous, and
graduate upwards into fine-grained sandstones, the whole being characterised by
possessing a deep red colour.
On sheet 60 N.E. of the Geological Survey Map these grits and sandstones are
shown as Caradoc, and in both ‘The Silurian System’ and ‘Siluria’ Sir Roderick
Murchison identifies them as belonging to the upper portion of his Caradoc sand-
stone. Although fossils are by no means abundant or generally distributed,
sufficient palxontological evidence has been obtained from these beds to prove
that they are of unquestionable May Hill age.
As these strata are followed from point to point in the district, they are found
to repose transgressively upon different zones of the underlying Ordovician Rocks,
so that in this area there is a distinct prolongation of the regional unconformity
between the Ordovician and Silurian systems, an unconformity which can now be:
followed continuously from Llandeilo to Llanfyllin.
Above these red rocks comes a series of shales, mudstones, and sandstones, in
which occur occasional courses of more calcareous matter, containing fossils of
Lower Wenlock age.
The discovery of the May Hill age of these rocks will, therefore, necessitate a
re-mapping of the district for the purpose of rectifying the boundary line at the
base of the Silurian—a task the author hopes to complete in his leisure time.
' See Characteristics of Volcanoes, J. D. Dana, p. 8.
ia ——s
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 817
7. The Geology of the Long Mountain, on the Welsh Borders.
By W. W. Warts, M.A., F.G.8.
The author described the Silurian succession in a part of West Shropshire and
East Montgomeryshire.
1. May Hill grit, sometimes conglomeratic, containing one richly fossiliferous
band of limestone at Cefn, Buttington. This is traced from Cefn to the north end
of the Breidden Hills, where it appears to thin out. It rests unconformably on
various members of the Bala group, and at Cefn a small dyke of diabase is intruded
along the junction line.
2. Purple and green shales with very rare fossils, chiefly entomostraca and small
brachiopods.
3. Wenlock mudstones, earthy in the lower part, and more calcareous above,
and containing Cyrtograptus Linnarssoni, Monograptus Flemingu, M. dubvus, and
M. serra, These beds appear to represent the upper part of the Wenlock shale
and the Wenlock limestone.
4, Thin muddy shales with rare flaggy ribs, containing Monograptus colonus,
M. Nilssoni, and Cardiola interrupia; these are the equivalent of the Lower
Ludlow beds.
5. Hard thick flags, with occasional shales. Monograptus Leintwardinensis,
M. Salweyi, M. Roemer, the equivalent of the Aymestry limestone.
6. Thin fissile shales almost barren, but with Cardiola. These occupy the place
of the Upper Ludlow Rocks. Above these beds comes an outlier of the Passage
beds with Zrngula and entomostraca.
The structure of the range is a large syncline with a steep dip on the north-
west side, but this is complicated by several dip- and strike-faults and one or two
small synclines.
The author acknowledged the great help rendered by Professor Lapworth in
determining the graptolites.
8. Elbolton Cave Exploration. By the Rev. Epwarp Jonts.
Elbolton Cave lies at the foct of a small scar near the summit of Elbolton, a
conical limestone hill near the village of Thorpe, about nine miles north of Skipton
in Craven. Under the auspices of the Craven Naturalists’ Association this cave
is being explored. The present entrance is pit-like, and after a descent of 20 ft. we
come to the level of the First Chamber, as seen before the exploration began.
This chamber is from 30 to 40 feet long, and varies from 7 to 13 ft. in width. So
far the workings have been confined to this chamber. During the summer of 1888
and the autumn of 1889 a great mass of material has been removed and examined.
The level of the cave floor was painted on the walls, and this painted line marked
off into divisions three feet apart on the north and south walls, and numbered in
feet from a datum line at the cave mouth. These cave markings correspond with
a plan of cave, in which the whole surface is divided into square feet. As the
excavation proceeded the floor altered in shape, and other plans at 5 and 10 ft.
‘deep from the surface line were made. The upper layer consisted of loose
angular fragments of limestone rock. This we have termed the Upper Cave
earth. It is of varying thickness, from 4 ft. at, the entrance to the cave to
17 ft. at the west end. All the human remains have been found in this deposit,
but as yet no implement or evidence of man beneath it. Beneath this Upper Cave
earth we come to a layer of angular stones imbedded in a stiff clay. At the east
end a floor of stalagmitic breccia lies between the two layers. The clay layer has
not yet been pierced. At the west end we have now reached a depth of 382 ft.
from the cave floor; 17 ft. of this is the loose upper cave earth, and the remainder
clay and stalagmite. Both the upper and lower strata abound in remains. The
upper is evidently Neolithic. No metal of any kind, either bronze or iron, has
been found. Remains of a dozen men haye come to hand, the greater part
scattered amidst other bones, but some have been found in situ as buried. At
12 ft. S. from the datum a skeleton nearly complete was found; in a recess three
feet further another was seen, and in the middle of the chamber a third was
818 REPORT—1890.
obtained. Two of these were in an upright sitting posture, the knees being bent
close to the skull and the thigh bones still inserted in the sockets of the pelvis.
The skeleton of the first was similarly bent, but the body had evidently been laid
sloping, and not erect. All the skulls are similar in character, of the ‘long-headed’
type. The quantity of bones of other animals brought out of this layer is very
great. The bones of horse, boar, bos longifrons, red deer, sheep, fox, dog or wolf,
badger, wild cat, smaller carnivora and rodents, and four or five kinds of birds
are numerous. All the lerger bones other than the human have been broken ;
many split lengthwise, most likely by the cave men to obtain marrow.
That the cave was occupied by neolithic men as well as used as a burial place,
is shown in the presence of charcoal and burnt peat, with calcined bones. At
18 ft. north side, depth 9 it. 6 in., evidence of an actual hearth was seen; a
quantity of fragments of neolithic pottery was found, All the pieces were coated
with charcoal on the inside. Ornamentation varied. Pot boiler, made of rounded
grits, with marks of fire, and pieces of Silurian slates that may have been used to
sharpen their bone implements have been found. The absence of flints is remark-
able. A variety of bone pins have been picked up: some may have been hair-pins,
others bodkins, and one undoubtedly was used to ornament the pottery, as the
indentation on some pieces is the exact mould of the bone instrument.
The bones found in the lower clay bed are different in character from those
found in the upper layer. The human bones, together with animals associated
with man, are not found in this layer; but in their place we have those of bears,
alpine hares, foxes, and the reindeer. Most of the bears are Ursus ferox. Some
await further determination, and may turn out to be those of the caye bear, The
hares are specially abundant, more than one hundred individuals having been
already obtained.
Much work remains yet to be done. We have not reached the rock floor of
the chamber, nor determined the original entrance into the cave. The exposed
face of unworked material is now 22 ft. in thickness, all of it full of animal
remains. The funds at the disposal of our small local society for this exploration
are nearly exhausted. Yet we think that it is very desirable that the explora-
tion of this interesting little cave should be satisfactorily completed.
9. Physical Studies of an Ancient Estuary.
By the Rev. A. Irvine, D.Se., F.G.S,
Attention is drawn to some of the more important instances of the formation
of new land by rivers which Lyell has discussed in his ‘ Principles,’ a process aptly
termed by the French geologists ‘atterrissement.’ The formation of Sunk Island
in the Humber is especially referred to; a genuine island just raising its head
above the waters in the time of Charles IL., it had joined itself to the land and
acquired an area of between 6,000 and 7,000 acres by the middle of the present
century. Professor Green’s discussion of the physical geology of estuarine areas in
his ‘Physical Geology’ is referred to as involving a series of conditions, all of
which are more or less represented in the physical history of the Bagshot Beds of
the London Basin ; the physical, the stratigraphical, and the paleontological lines
of evidence concurring to point to such a gradual advance from strictly fluviatile
conditions to those of a marine estuary as can only be explained by a slow subsi-
dence with intermittent pauses of long duration, during which the relative levels
of sea and land remained pretty stationary.
The definite results of the author’s own work, which have been in part pub-
lished, are then reviewed ; the organic origin of the green colouring-matter of
many of the beds, and of the glauconite, the part played by vegetation in the
production of limonite and pyrites, the formation of nodules of ironstone, the
occurrence of lignite, the false-bedding of the sands and their interlamination with
thin seams of pure clay at certain horizons, the possible origin of pipe-clay, are
all briefly discussed with reference to the London Bagshots. Reference is also
made to the author's discovery of remains of freshwater Diatoms in some of these
beds. Additional facts are brought forward tending to strengthen the author's —
o
4
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 819
view as to the lagoon-origin of the green earthy sands, and an attempt is made to
assign its real value to such fossil evidence as they furnish.
With regard to the view lately reiterated by Messrs. Gardner, Keeping, &
Monckton, as to the possible marine origin of the upper sands, it is shown that the
evidence is quite compatible with the theory of their marine-estuarine origin,
while many of the features they present on a closer study can hardly be explained °
in any other way. The author, however, agrees with those writers that there is
no real necessity for postulating any considerable break in time between the two
series, as has been done by the Geological Survey. The distribution of the pebble-
beds is discussed, and shown to admit of a rational explanation in accordance with
the author’s view as to the history of the Bagshot series. The ‘ decalcification’
hypothesis of the writers referred to is criticised, and the probable mode of genesis
of the irony casts found in the Upper Sands pointed out.
Lastly, the time required for the formation of these few hundred feet of strata,
as measured by their continental equivalents, is seen to harmcnise with the
exceedingly slow rate of deposition which a study of the evidence of their physical
history reveals to us.
10. Sixteenth Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters.
See Reports, p. 352.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Eighth Report upon the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks.
See Reports, p. 424.
2. Report on the Cretaceous Polyzoa.—See Reports, p. 378.
3. Suggestions on Sites for Coal-search in the South-Hast of England.
By W. Wuiraxker, F.R.S., F.G.S.
The object of the note is to point out that there are sites, favourably placed for
the search, where much of the work is already done, in borings for water, &c., and
the following places are noted :— At St. Margarets, near Dover, Gault was reached
548 feet down; as the Secondary beds thin northward a further depth of 700 or
800 feet might be enough to show whether or not coal is present. At Chartham,
near Canterbury, Gault was reached at the depth of 735 feet. At Chatham, a
boring penetrated Gault to 943 feet, and then entered Oxford Clay for 22 feet, a
trial on Government land, which ought certainly to be continued, as is further urged
by the results of the Chattenden boring. Shoreham (Kent), in Lower Greensand at
475 feet. Bushey (Herts), in Gault at 700 feet. 200 feet more here might yield
useful results. Loughton—apparently through the Gault at nearly 1,100 feet.
Coombs, near Stowmarket, in Gault at 895 feet.
Other borings, that reach to below the Chalk, at Caterham, East Horsley,
_ Saffron Walden, Norwich, and Holkham, are referred to.
4, Notes on the Bunter and Keuper Formation in the Country around
Liverpool. By G. H. Morron, £.G.S.
The Bunter and Keuper formations forming the Trias are fully developed in the
district. Leaving out of consideration the Red Marl, of which only the lower beds
? Published in full in Geol. Mag. dec. iii. vol. vii. pp. 514-516 (1890).
820 REPORT—1890.
occur, these formations are thicker than anywhere else in England. The thickness
of the subdivisions of both Bunter and Keuper have been determined with great
accuracy in recent years, and it is desirable to record the results.
The following section shows the succession and relative thickness of each of
the subdivisions as derived from railway sections and tunnels, borings for water
and coal-pits :—
Feet
> { Red marl 5 . A - 400
1d euuiaeet. | Keuper sandstone . : . 400
Trias. | (peg: soft sandstone . - 550
| Upper pebble-beds . z . 400
ener Hyena: | Lower pebble-beds . “ - 600
Lower soft sandstone . - 400
2,750
Excavations and borings have been in constant progress for many years, so that
every bed in the Trias has been perforated, and in most horizons many times in suc-
cession, and it is now possible tu tell exactly the strata to expect at any given depth
when once those at the surface are ascertained.
Microscopic Structure.—In the Trias, the sandstones forming the subdivisions
present typical characters, though it often happens that some interstratified beds of
a softer or harder nature occur, and differ trom those forming the rest of the
strata. Ina series of beds of sandstone 2,350 feet in thickness, it is difficult to draw
general conclusions of much value, but the microscopical examination of a great
number of specimens from many horizons in the Trias around Liverpool shows that
there are five normal types, although they run, more or less, into each other, as
follows :-—
1. Coarse-grained sandstone, composed of rounded and sub-angular grains of
quartz, above ;},, of an inch in diameter.
2, Fine-grained sandstone, composed of rounded and sub-angular grains of
quartz, Zess than ;1, of an inch in diameter.
3. Coarse-grained sandstone, containing a great number of large grains of quartz,
st and <4 of an inch in diameter, like a minute conglomerate.
4, Coarse-grained sandstone, composed of rounded, sub-angular, and crystallised
grains of quartz—the crystallised faces having been deposited on the original grains
after the sandstone was formed.
5. Coarse-grained sandstone, or quartzite, originally formed of rounded and sub-
angular grains which have been united, by the deposition of silica, into a hard rock
after the formation of the sandstone.
The lower soft sandstone is largely composed of the Nos. 1 and 3, and the upper
soft sandstone of No. 2. Both the lower and upper pebble-beds are made up of No. 4,
while the Keuper is the most variable, and consists of the Nos. 1 and 4, but all sub-
ject to the occurrence of exceptional beds of sandstone.
Triassic Pebbles.—The pebbles that occur in the Bunter formation are all found
in the lower pebble-beds, and are usually less than an inch across, and it is very
seldom that any reach the diameter of six inches. They consist of white-veined
quartz, and quartzite varying in colour from white and grey to dark-red and brown.
Nearly all are of a rounded or oval form, perfectly smooth, and must have come
from a great distance, and most probably from the Cambrian and Silurian rocks of
central England or Scotland. Next in frequency, though relatively few, are rough
pebbles and angular fragments of coarse felspathic grit, sandstone, and chert,
resembling beds in the Cefn-y-Fedw sandstone, Millstone Grit, and Coal Measures
within 20 miles from Liverpool. These are generally found singly, but occur in
brecciated beds on the coast of Cheshire, and the fragments are the largest at
Hilbre Point at the mouth of the Dee. According to Professor T. G. Bonney, F.R.S.,
the quartzite pebbles resemble those found in Staffordshire, and it seems a question
whether such a variety could have been derived from central England, or whether
they did not probably come from the west of Scotland and travel along the easter
side of the present North Channel into Lancashire and Cheshire.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 821
The pebbles of the Keuper sandstone occur almost entirely about the base of
the formation, but they are few in number and variety compared with those in the
Bunter. They consist of vein-quartz and quartzite of various shades of light and
dark-grey. They do not seem to have been derived from the Bunter, and it is not
likely that it was exposed to denudation when the Keuper was deposited. Probably
the pebbles came from the same source as those in the Bunter, when the supply had
dwindled away and was almost limited to those of light-coloured quartzite.
5. Notes on the Morphology of the Cystidea.
By P. Herpert Carpenter, D.Sc., F.R.S.
In many Cystidea the plates enclosing the lower part of the body are as regularly
arranged as in thecup of a Crinoid. Thus in Caryocrinus, which is a hexamerous
form, the base is dicyclic. Resting on the stem are four infra-basals, two of which
are double plates. Above and alternating with these are the six hasals, and above
them again isa ring of eight plates, six of which alternate with the basals and repre-
sent the radials of a Crinoid, while the other two, each resting upon a basal, are
supplementary or interradial plates. Memicosmites is another dicyclic and hexame-
rous form, but has three supplemental interradials. Protocrinites too seems to haye
a dicyclic and hexamerous base. A similar interpretation may be given of many
pentamerous genera besides the well-known Porocrinus. Thus, in Echinoencrinus
plates 1 to 4 of Edward Forbes’s nomenclature are infra-basals, No. 3 being a double
plate. The sub-ovarian series, Nos. 5 to 9, alternating with them, are basals,
while Nos. 10 to 14, thecentrolaterals, Forbes, are radials. Nos. 15 to 19, alternat-
ing with these, and called supra-ovarian by Forbes, are interradial, and are per-
haps homologous with the deltoids of the Blastoidea. The construction of the
calyx in Apiocystis, Callocystis, Cystoblastus, Glyptocystis, Pseudocrinus, and various
other well-known genera, is essentially similar to this, while there are three or
more tiers of alternating plates in Homocystis, Lichenotdes, Macrocystella, and
Mimocystis. In some genera the mouth was protected by five oral plates, that
on the anal side being larger than its fellows, as in the Paleocrinoids. Cyatho-
cystis, Glyptosphera, Spheronis, and Pyrocystis had five, while Caryocrinus had
8lx, with the posterior one subcentral, as in the Camerata. Two of Barrande’s
figures of Pyrocystis desideratus, which are internal and external views of the
same specimen, show the relation of these oral plates to the ‘ hydrophores palmés.’
These structures were not at the dorsal pole, as supposed by a recent writer in
‘Nature,’ but they were rightly interpreted by Neumayr as the remains of sub-
tegminal ambulacra. In those types without a genital pore the anal pyramid
may have subserved generative functions, as in the recent starfish Hymenaster.
The armoured forms of the Psolidee among Holothurians, with their anal pyramid
and oral plates, present many points of resemblance to the Cystidea. Aristocystis
seems to have had a fourth opening near the peristome, which was possibly
nephridial, and the similar position of the third opening in Echinoencrinus suggests
that it, too, may have been nephridial rather than genital.
6. On the Sources of the River Aire.
By Professor Sitvanus P. THompson, D.Sc.
The author proposed to explore the source of the river Aire by a method involv-
ing the use of fluorescent bodies, such as fluorescein or its soluble derivative, uranin.
Very small quantities of this material give a visible coloration to the surface of
the water. He had applied this substance to test whether the water of Malham
Tarn, which sinks into the ground about half a mile after leaving the tarn, emerges
at the reputed ‘ Aire-head’ two miles below, or at Malham Cove one mile below.
He incidentally noticed that there is a second water-sink, not marked as such on
the Ordnance maps. In a preliminary experiment about 12 pounds of uranin were
thrown into the recognised water-sink ; but after a lapse of three hours nothing
whatever had been seen at Aire-head and nothing distinctive at Malham Cove.
822 REPORT—1890.
The author concludes that either there isa considerable body of underground water
at some intermediate spot between the water-sink and the cove, or that the Aire-
head spring communicates.with some water-sink—possibly the one he had noticed—
other than that marked on the Ordnance Survey maps.
7. Report on the Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of
Photographs of Geological Interest.—See Reports, p. 428.
8. Onthe Discovery of a Jurassic Fish-Fauna in the Hawkesbury-Wianamatta
Beds of New South Wales. By A. Su1ra Woopwarp, I’.G.S.
A large collection of fossil fishes from the Hawkesbury-Wianamatta series of
Talbralgar, New South Wales, has been forwarded to the author for examination
by Messrs. C. S. Wilkinson and R. Etheridge, jun., of the Geological Survey of
New South Wales. The final results will appear in a forthcoming memoir, to
be published by that Survey ; but the investigation has already proceeded so far as
to justify the announcement of the discovery of a typically Jurassic fish-fauna in
Australia. Fine examples of the Paleoniscid genus Coccolepis occur, and this
has previously been met with only in the Lower Lias of Dorset, the Purbeck beds
of Wilts, and the lithographic stone of Bavaria. A new fish, allied to Semzonotus,
but with thinner, much imbricating scales, is also conspicuous; and another new
form, allied to the Dapedioids, is remarkable from the presence of typical
rhombic ganoid scales in the front half of the trunk and deeply-overlapping cycloid
scales over the whole of the caudal region. A Leptolepis-like fish, with a persistent
notochord, seems to represent a third unknown generic type. Of Leptolepis itself
there are many hundreds of individuals in a fine state of preservation. The
fishes occur in a hard, ferruginous, fissile matrix, associated with well-preserv ed
remains of plants.
9. Restorations of the Paleozoic Elasmobranch Genera Pleuracanthus and
Xenacanthus. By Dr. Axron Frirscu. (Communicated by A. Sire
Woopwarp.)
The author forwarded for exhibition the series of plates illustrating the forth-
coming part of his work on the fauna of the Lower Permian gas coal of Bohemia.
These were devoted to Plewracanthus and Xenacanthus, of which the examination
of more than 200 specimens had enabled the author to attempt nearly complete
restorations. The chief result of the investigation is that the three genera, Ortha-
canthus, Pleuracanthus, and Xenacanthus, are well characterised, and prove to be
true Selachians, having the cranial cartilage simple, with no distinct tracts of ossi-
fication. The skull resembles that of Hybodus and the Opistharthri of Gill. There
are seven branchial arches, as in Heptanchus. The median fins are embryonic in
character, and the two anal (?) fins take the place of the lower part of the hetero-
cercal caudal tin. The pectoral fin is most primitive in Orthacanthus, more
advanced in Xenacanthus, and still more resembling that of recent sharks in
Pleuracanthus, There is no pelvic arch. The claspers of the male closely resemble
those of recent Elasmobranchs, and are formed by modified postaxial rays. Inter-
calaria are developed in the vertebral column, but the notochord is persistent.
10. On Fossil Fish of the West Riding Coal-field.
By J. W. Davis, F.G.S.
The first recorded discovery of fossil fish-remains in the West Riding was in 1833,
when Professor Johnston of Durham, along with a number of local geologists, found
the remains of a large fish in the Deep coal at Middleton (which afterwards served
as the type of the genus Megalichthys when the late Professor Agassiz visited Leeds
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, 823
in 1834, after the meeting of the British Association at Edinburgh). - Other frag-
mentary remains were found at Low Moor, near Bradford. Ina paper read at a
meeting of the Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society in December 1839
Mr. T. Pridgin Teale was able to enumerate four genera of ganoid and seven
genera of placoid fish-remains which had been discovered in this coal-field. They
were: Megalichthys, Acanthodes, Platysomus, and Holoptychius; Gyracanthus,
Hybodus (Ctenacanthus), Pleuracanthus, Helodus, Ctenoptychius, Ctenodus, and
Diplodus. In 1845 Mr. Henry Denny was able to add Petalodus to the genera
previously known, and gives the authority of Agassiz for the occurrence of Dip-
lopteris, but where he had not been able to ascertain. He also mentions the large
tail of Calacanthus phillipsvi found in the Lower coal-measures near Halifax. Mr.
Denny records the discovery of batrachian reptiles in the Belgian coal-field, and
whilst stating that no examples had been found in this country, recommends that
search be made for them. After this time little interest appears to have been taken
in the subject until the discovery of a bone-bed in the Lower coal-measures. It
occurs immediately above the Better-bed coal; it extends over an area of ten square
miles, and has nowhere a greater thickness than half aninch. In a communication
to the Geological Society of London in 1876 fourteen species of Ganoids and twenty-
one species of Elasmobranchs were enumerated from this bed, several of them being
new. Bones of Labyrinthodonts were identified by Professor Miall as those of
Loxomma. At Tingley, five miles from Leeds, the Adwalton Cannel coal is
worked, and associated with it a very large number of fish-remains have been
found. These formed the subject of another paper read to the Geological Society,
in which twenty-five species, several new, of fossil fish-remains are enumerated.
The most abundant fish is Celacanthus tingleyensis, Davis, and it is no exaggeration
to state that thousands of this species have been dug up. Besides the fish-remains
already described and recorded, others await determination. These two beds have
proved by far the most prolific, but fish-remains have been found on seven other
horizons, including the Halifax Hard-bed coal, Black-bed coal (Low Moor), Silk-
stone coal, Middleton Main coal, Yard or Jcan coal, and the Barnsley Thick coal.
Altogether more than fifty species of fossil fishes have been discovered and recorded
from the Yorkshire coal-field.
ll. Fourth Report on the ‘ Manure’ Gravels of Wexford.
See Reports, p. 410.
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
The following Reports and Papers were read :-—
1. Report on the Registration of Type Specimens.—See Reports, p. 339.
2. On Peat overlying a Lacustrine Deposit at Filey.)
By the Rev. E. Mavis Corz, M.A., F.GLS.
Several of the numerous lacustrine deposits on the top of the boulder clay cliffs:
of Holderness are visible from the shore, and are shown by bands of freshwater
marls, varying from 1 to 3 feet in thickness. Some, like that of Skipsea (in
which remains of the Irish elk have been found), are accompanied by peat.
Phillips noticed a lacustrine deposit at Filey, and described it as clay, with a
small amount of peat, in all 4 feet thick. Since then the denudation of the cliff has:
shown a section in which the peat is 6 feet thick and nearly 60 yards in width. A
report of the flora is expected from Mr. Cash, of Halifax. The author suggests
! Published in extenso in the Naturalist, January 1891.
824 REPORT— 1890.
that the rainfall which fed this and other lacustrine deposits came from higher
ground to the east, as the course of all the streams from the Holderness and Filey
boulder clay is westwards.
3. On the Origin of Gold. By Professor J. Locan Lostey, F.G.8.
After pointing out that it was not the origin of auriferous veins, but of the
gold itself that was the subject of his paper, the author, from facts recently made
known, showed that while geological evidence is against its igneous origin, all the
gold of all the rocks may have been derived from aqueous deposition—that, in
fact, all this gold may have been deposited by marine action in the same way as
the materials of the aqueous rocks themselves have been. And, moreover, that
our unaltered sedimentary rocks, even of Tertiary age, may contain an equal
amount of gold in proportion to their bulk with that of those altered or metamor-
phosed Cambrian and Silurian rocks, which have hitherto been regarded as the
earth’s great treasures of the precious metal.
The knowledge now possessed of Secondary and Tertiary auriferous veins in
California controverts the Plutonic as well as the Palzeozvic hypothesis, and the
discovery of gold in sea-water and of its precipitation by organic matter alters the
position of the question from that it occupied in the days of Murchison and
Forbes.
If gold was originally derived from Plutonic sources it ought to be found among
volcanic products which come from the same deep-seated sources, and only differ
from Plutonic rocks in being solidified under different conditions. But gold, although
a most widely distributed metal, is almost, if not quite, unknown as a product of
voleanic regions. This is strongly against its igneous origin, and consequently
points to the gold of the Paleozoic auriferous veins being derived by removal from
sedimentary rocks in which it had been originally deposited. This removal could
be effected by chemical combination, solution, infiltration, and segregation. Since
silica may combine with gold under heated conditions, and the silicate of gold so
formed be soluble in hot water, asis also silica, gold in the form of silicate could be
carried by water, heated by deep-seated conditions or by the neighbouring uprise
of fused matter, from its original position, and be deposited in veins with silica
itself, when subsequent segregation would separate the silica of the silicate of gold
and leave it as free gold imbedded in quartz as it is now found.
The discovery by Sonstadt of nearly a grain of gold to the ton of sea-water
shows that the sea has always held in solution an ample store to give to its sedi-
ments the amount of gold they aze now found to contain, and Daintree’s discovery
of the power of organic matter to precipitate gold from a solution of the ter-
chloride explains the deposition of gold from sea-water, since on the sea-bottoms
there has always been a large amount of organic matter.
Though the gold so deposited would be in infinitesimal proportion to the mass
of the marine mineral sediments, it would be aggregated by nuclei of metallic sul-
phides by which it would be retained until thermal conditions favoured its conver-
sion to a soluble silicate. The sulphide of iron, or pyrites, is known to nearly
always contain gold, and hence it is to be concluded that the gold of the sedimen-
tary rocks which have not been subjected to the favouring conditions for its separa-
tion and preservation in quartz veins is now in the metallic sulphides these rocks
contain. In such rocks as the Chalk and the London Clay, the amount of pyrites
is very great, and the author concluded by giving a rough estimate of what may
be the amount of the gold now in the surface-rocks of the south-east of England,
from which it appears that these deposits may contain gold to the value of
100,000,000Z. sterling.
4. As to certain Alterations in the Surface-level of the Sea of the South
Coast of England. By R. G. M. Browne, I.G.S.
With reference to the alterations everywhere observable, which have taken
place in the positions, relatively with each other, of the land and sea surfaces, the
author suggests that the mode in which such alterations have occurred’ does not
Aika
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 825
appear to have been very fully discussed ; and he points out that it seems to have
been assumed that there is no alternative between the two hypotheses, either that
there has been a general lowering of the ocean all the world over, or that the
land has been repeatedly moved upward or downward. He states that the alter-
native doctrine, inferable from a logical analysis of astronomical phenomena
bearing upon the subject, does not appear to have been seriously considered, and
he mentions that some actual evidences are available, showing that in relation to
the land the surface-level of the sea has, within comparatively recent historic
times, hecome altered in some localities without any simultaneous uprising or
dilatation of the solid land. He proceeds to show that the aiteration in the shore-
line of the coast, whereby the old sea-ports of Winckelsea and Rye have become
inland towns, has been accompanied by a gradually progressive reduction in the
depth of the water off that coast; that the surface-contour of the land up the
valleys debouching on to the flat or level between those towns plainly indicates
that when the sea flowed in and out of those valleys, as it did prior to the time
of its receding from the old coast line, now some distance inland, and extending
from Winchelsea to Rye, its surface-level in that part of the English Channel was
higher than it now is even at the times of highest high tides; that the absolutely
undisturbed structure of the Hastings sand-deposit—of which that inland district
consists—defies the supposition that the ‘change of level’ between the land and
sea surfaces in that neighbourhood has arisen from the upheaval of the land, and
further, that certain ancient documents now existing in the Town Hall of Rye-—
among others, a charter of King Richard I. (in 1194) and a document of Kine
Henry III.’s time (1248)—plainly show that prior to those dates the sea had sur-
rounded the town of Rye, and that by reason of that town being no longer insu-
lated it was more open to the attack of enemies, rendering necessary the repair
of its walls of defence. The author also points out that certain circumstances,
incidentally mentioned by Leland, Jeake, and other old writers, afford further
historic evidence to the same effect.
5. Notes on Volcanic Eruptions. By THomas Hart, F.G.S.
It seems to be an undoubted fact that water coming into contact with highly-
heated rock is one of the most important requisites to produce and sustain a volcanic
eruption.
The difficulty has been to explain how the passage of water in such considerable
quantities is brought about.
The author thinks that we must look to some other explanation than a supply
from ordinary percolation alone, and refers to the active volcanoes of the world
being in close proximity to coast lines or in land areas surrounded by the sea, also
in a more special degree in voleanic island groups.
In his account of the great eruption of Vesuvius in 4.p.79 Pliny the Younger
says: ‘There had been noticed many days before a trembling of the earth, but
that night it was so violent that one thought that everything was being not merely
moyed, but absolutely overturned.’
The author suggests that the principle of the ‘ self-acting injector,’ now generally
used for supplying steam-engine boilers with water, comes into play during violent
paroxysmal outbursts of voleanic activity, and is assisted by the d/ast afterwards
produced by the conversion of water into steam.
In the construction of these injectors the elastic force of the steam in the boiler
is utilised, not only to force water into the boiler itself, but when required to lift
‘it ten to twenty feet in addition as in a pump.
Therefore, applying this principle to the great eruption of Vesuvius in a.p. 79,
the impetuosity of the current from below would carry water from the Bay of
Naples along with it through the fissures produced by the preceding earthquake.
The same principle will apply to all volcanic eruptions, the water being
‘supplied either by percolation, the sea, or both combined.
1890. 3
826 REPORT— 1890.
Secrion D.—BIOLOGY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor A. MILNES MARSHALL, M.A., M.D.,
D.Sc., F.R.S.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
The PrusrpEent delivered the following Address :—
As my theme for this morning’s address I have selected the Development of
Animals. I have made this choice from no desire to extol one particular branch
of biological study at the expense of others, nor through failure to appreciate or at
least admire the work done and the results achieved in recent years by those
who are attacking the great problems of life from other sides and with other
weapons,
My choice is determined by the necessity that is laid upon me, through the
wide range of sciences whose encouragement and advancement are the peculiar
privilege of this Section, to keep within reasonable limits the direction and scope
of my remarks; and is confirmed by the thought that, in addressing those specially
interested in and conversant with biological study, your President acts wisely in
selecting as the subject-matter of his discourse some branch with which his own
tudies and inclinations have brought him into close relation.
Embryology, referred to by the greatest of naturalists as ‘one of the most im-
portant subjects in the whole round of Natural History,’ is still in its youth, but
has of late years thriven so mightily that fear has been expressed lest it should
absorb unduly the attention of zoologists, or even check the progress of science by
diverting interest from other and equally important branches.
Nor is the reason of this phenomenal success hard to find. The actual study
of the processes of development ; the gradual building up of the embryo, and then
of the young animal, within the egg; the fashioning of its various parts and
organs ; the devices for supplying it with food, and for ensuring that the respiratory
and other interchanges are duly performed at all stages: all these are matters of
absorbing interest. Add to these the extraordinary changes which may take
place after leaving the ege, the conversion, for instance, of the aquatic gill-
breathing tadpole—a true fish as regards all essential points of its anatomy—into
a four-legged frog, devoid of tail, and breathing by lungs; or the history of the
metamorphosis by which the sea-urchin is gradually built up within the body of
its pelagic larva, or the butterfly derived from its grub. Add to these again the
far wider interest aroused by comparing the life-histories of allied animals, or
by tracing the mode of development of a complicated organ, eg. the eye or the
brain, in the various animal groups, from its simplest commencement, through
gradually increasing grades of efficiency, up to its most perfect form as seen in
the highest animals. Consider this, and it becomes easy to understand the
fascination which embryology exercises over those who study i.
But all this is of trifling moment compared with the great generalisation which
tells us that the development of animals has a far higher meaning ; that the several
embryological stages and the order of their occurrence are no mere accidents,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 827
but are forced on an animal in accordance with a law, the determination of which
ranks as one of the greatest achievements of biological science.
The doctrine of descent, or of Evolution, teaches us that as individual animals
arise, not spontaneously, but by direct descent from pre-existing animals, so
also is it with species, with families, and with larger groups of animals, and so also
has it been for all time ; that as the animals of succeeding generations are related
together, so also are those of successive geologic periods; that all animals, living
or that have lived, are united together by blood relationship of varying nearness or
remoteness ; and that every animal now in existence has a pedigree stretching
back, not merely for ten or a hundred generations, but through all geologic time
since the dawn of life on this globe.
The study of Development, in its turn, has revealed to us that each animal
bears the mark of its ancestry, and is compelled to discover its parentage in its
own development; that the phases through which an animal passes in its
progress from the ege to the adult are no accidental freaks, no mere matters of
developmental convenience, but represent more or less closely, in more or less
modified manner, the successive ancestral stages through which the present con-
dition has been acquired.
Evolution tells us that each animal has had a pedigree in the past. Embryology
reveals to us this ancestry, because every animal in its own development repeats
this history, climbs up its own genealogical tree.
Such is the Recapitulation Theory, hinted at by Agassiz, and suggested more
directly in the writings of von Baer, but first clearly enunciated by Fritz Miiller,
and since elaborated by many, notably by Balfour and by Ernst Haeckel.
It is concerning this theory, which forms the basis of the science of Embryology,
and which alone justifies the extraordinary attention this science has received,
that I venture to address you this morning.
A few illustrations from different groups of animals will best explain the
practical bearings of the theory, and the aid which it affords to the zoologist of to-
day ; while these will also serve to illustrate certain of the difficulties which have
arisen in the attempt to interpret individual development by the light of past
history—difficulties which I propose to consider at greater length.
A very simple example of recapitulation is afforded by the eyes of the sole,
plaice, turbot, and their allies. These ‘flat fish’ have their bodies greatly com-
pressed lateraliy; and the two surfaces, really the right and left sides of the
animal, unlike, one being white, or nearly so, and the other coloured. The flat
fish has two eyes, but these, in place of being situated, as in other fish, one on each
side of the head, are both on the coloured side. The advantage to the fish is clear,
for the natural position of rest of a flat fish is lying on the sea bottom, with the
white surface downwards and the coloured one upwards. In such a position an
eye situated on the white surface could be of no use to the fish, and might even
become a source of danger, owing to its liability to injury from stones or other
hard bodies on the sea bottom.
No one would maintain that flat fish were specially created as such. The
totality of their organisation shows clearly enough that they are true fish, akin to
others in which the eyes are symmetrically placed one on each side of the head,
in the position they normally hold among vertebrates. We must therefore suppose
that flat fish are descended from other fish in which the eyes are normally situated.
The Recapitulation Theory supplies a ready test. On employing it, z.e., on
studying the development of the flat fish, we obtain a conclusive answer. ‘The
young sole on leaving the egg is shaped just as any ordinary fish, and has the two
eyes placed symmetrically on the two sides of the head. It is only after the young
fish has reached some size, and has begun to approach the adult in shape, and to
adopt its habit of resting on one side on the sea bottom, that the eye of the side
on which it rests becomes shifted forwards, then rotated on to the top of the
head, and finally twisted completely over to the opposite side.
The brain of a bird differs from that of other vertebrates in the position of the
optic lobes, these being situated at the sides instead of on the dorsal surface.
Development shows that this lateral position is a secondarily acquired one, for
3H2
828 REPORT—1890.
throughout all the earlier stages the optic lobes are, as in other vertebrates, on
the dorsal surface, and only shift down to the sides shortly before the time of
hatching.
Crabs differ markedly from their allies, the lobsters, in the small size and rudi-
mentary condition of their abdomen or ‘tail.’ Development, however, affords
abundant evidence of the descent of crabs from macrurous ancestors, for a young
crab at what is termed the Megalopa stage has the abdomen as large as a lobster
or prawn at the same stage.
Molluscs afford excellent illustrations of recapitulation. The typical gastropod
has a large spirally-coiled shell; the limpet, however, has a large conical sbell,
which in the adult gives no sign of spiral twisting, although the structure of the
animal shows clearly its affinity to forms with spiral shells, Development solves
the riddle at once, telling us that in its early stages the limpet embryo has a spiral
shell, which is lost on the formation, subsequently, of the conical shell of the
adult.
Recapitulation is not confined to the higher groups of animals, and the
Protozoa themselves yield most instructive examples, A very striking case is that
of Orbitolites, one of the most complex of the porcellanous Foraminifera, in
which each individual during its own growth and development passes through the
series of stages by which the cyclical or discoidal type of shell was derived from
the simpler spiral form.
In Orbitolites tenuissima, as Dr. Carpenter has shown,!' ‘the whole transition
is actually presented during the successive stages of its growth. For it begins life
as a Cornuspira,... . its shell forming a continuous spiral tube, with slight
interruptions at the points at which its successive extensions commence; while its
sarcodic body consists of a continuous coil with slight constrictions at intervals.
The second stage consists in the opening out of its spire, and the division of its
cavity at regular intervals by transverse septa, traversed by separate pores, exactly
asin Peneroplis. The third stage is marked by the subdivision of the “ peneropline ”
chambers into chamberlets, as in the early forms of Orbiculina. And the fourth
consists in the exchange of the spiral for the cyclical plan of growth, which is
characteristic of Orbitolites; a circular disc of progressively increasing diameter
being formed by the addition of successive annular zones around the entire peri-
hery.’
; The shells both of Foraminifera and of Mollusca afford peculiarly instructive
examples for the study of recapitulation. As growth of the shell is effected by the
addition of new shelly matter to the part already existing, the older parts of the shell
are retained, often unaltered, in the adult; and in favourable cases, as in Orbitolites
tenuissima, all the stages of development can be determined by simple inspection
of the adult shell.
It is important to remember that the Recapitulation Theory, if valid, must
apply not. merely in a general way to the development of the animal body, but
must hold good with regard to the formation of each organ or system, and with
regard to the later equally with the earlier phases of development.
Of individual organs, the brain of birds has been already cited. The formation
of the vertebrate liver as a diverticulum from the alimentary canal, which is at
first simple, but by the folding of its walls becomes greatly complicated, is another
good example; as is also the development of the vomer in Amphibians as a series
of toothed plates, equivalent morphologically to the placoid scales of fishes, which
are at first separate, but later on fuse together and lose the greater number of
their teeth.
Concerning recapitulation in the later phases of development and in the adult
animal, the mode of renewal of the nails or of the epidermis generally is a good
example, each cell commencing its existence in an indifferent form in the deeper
layers of the epidermis, and gradually acquiring the adult peculiarities as it
approaches the surface, through removal of the cells lying above it.
1 -W. B. Carpenter, ‘On an Abyssal Type of the Genus Orbitolites, Phil, Trans.
1883, part li. p. 5&3.
: TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 829
The above examples, selected almost haphazard, will suffice to illustrate the
Theory of Recapitulation.
The proof of the theory depends chiefly on its universal applicability to all
animals, whether high or low in the zoological scale, and to all their parts and
organs. It derives also strong support from the ready explanation which it gives
of many otherwise unintelligible points.
Of these latter a familiar and most instructive instance is afforded by rudimentary
organs, 2.e., structures which, like the outer digits of the horse’s leg, or the intrinsic
muscles of the ear of a man, are present in the adult in an incompletely developed
form, and in a condition in which they can be of no use to their possessors; or else
structures which are present in the embryo, but disappear completely before the
adult condition is attained, for example, the teeth of whalebone whales, or the
branchial clefts of all higher vertebrates.
Natural Selection explains the preservation of useful variations, but will not
account for the formation and perpetuation of useless organs; and rudiments such
as those mentioned above would be unintelligible but for Recapitulation, which
solves the problem at once, showing that these organs, though now useless, must
have been of functional value to the ancestors of their present possessors, and that
their appearance in the ontogeny of existing forms is due to repetition of ancestral
characters. Such rudimentary organs are, as Darwin pointed out, of larger relative
or even absolute size in the embryo than in the adult, because the embryo repre-
sents the stage in the pedigree in which they were functionally active.
Rudimentary organs are extremely common, especially among the higher groups
of animals, and their presence and significance are now well understood. Man
himself affords numerous and excellent examples, not merely in his bodily structure,
but by his speech, dress, and customs. For the silent letter 5 in the word ‘ doubt,’
or the w of ‘ answer,’ or the buttons on his elastic-side boots are as true examples of
rudiments, unintelligible but for their past history, as are the ear muscles he
possesses but cannot use, or the gill-clefts, which are functional in fishes and tad-
poles, and are present, though useless, in the embryos of all higher vertebrates,
which in their early stages the hare and the tortoise alike possess, and which are
shared with them by cats and by kings.
Another consideration of the greatest importance arises from the study of the
fossil remains of the animals that formerly inhabited the earth. It was the elder
Agassiz who first directed attention to the remarkable agreement between the
embryonic growth of animals and their paleontological history. He pointed out
the resemblance between certain stages in the growth of young fish and their fossil
representatives, and attempted to establish, with regard to fish, a correspondence
between their paleontological sequence and the successive stages of embryonic
development. He then extended his observations to other groups, and stated his
conclusions in these words:' ‘It may therefore be considered as a general fact,
very likely to be more fully illustrated as investigations cover a wider ground, that
the phases of development of all living animals correspond to the order of succession
of their extinct representatives in past geological times.’
This point of view is of the utmost importance. If the development of an
animal is really a repetition of its ancestral history, then it is clear that the agree-
ment or parallelism which Agassiz insists on between the embryological and
palzeontological records must hold good. Owing to the attitude which Agassiz
subsequently adopted with regard to the theory of Natural Selection, there issome
fear of his services in this respect failing to receive full recognition, and it must not
be forgotten that the sentence I have quoted was written prior to the clear
enunciation of the Recapitulation Theory by Fritz Miiller. :
The imperfection of the geological record has been often referred to and
lamented. Itis very true that our museums afford us but fragmentary pictures of
life in past ages; that the earliest volumes of the history are lost, and that of
others but a few torn pages remain to us; but the later records are in far more
satisfactory condition. The actual number of specimens accumulated from the
more recent formations is prodigious; facilities for consulting them are far greater
1 L, Agassiz, Essay on Classification, 1859, p. 115.
830 REPORT—1 890.
than they were ; the international brotherhood of science is now fully established,
and the fault will be ours if the material and opportunities now forthcoming are
not rightly and fully utilised.
By judicious selection of groups in which long series of specimens can be
obtained, and in which the hard skeletal parts, which alone can be suitably pre-
served as fossils, afford reliable indications of zoological affinity, it is possible to
test directly this correspondence between paleontological and embryological
histories, while in some instances a single lucky specimen will afford us, on a
particular point, all the evidence we require.
Great progress has already been made in this direction, and the results
obtained are of the most encouraging description.
By Alexander Agassiz a detailed comparison was made between the fossil
series and the developmental stages of recent forms in the case of the Echinoids, a
group peculiarly well adapted for such an investigation. The two records agree
remarkably in many respects, more especially in the independent evidence they
give as to the origin of the asymmetrical forms from more regular ancestors. The
gradually increasing complication in some of the historic series is found to be re-
peated very closely in the development of their existing representatives ; and with
regard to the whole group, Agassiz concludes that,! ‘comparing the embryonic
development with the palzontological one, we find a remarkable similarity in both,
and in a general way there seems to be a parallelism in the appearance of the fossil
genera and the successive stages of the development of the Echini.’
Neumayr has followed similar lines, and between him and other authorities on
the group there seems to be general agreement as to the parallelism between the
embryological and paleontological records, not merely for Echini, but for other
groups of Echinodermata as well.
The Tetrabranchiate Cephalopoda are an excellent group in which to study the
problem, for though no opportunity has yet occurred for studying the embryology
of the only surviving member of the group, the pearly nautilus, yet owing to
the fact that growth of the shell is effected by addition of shelly matter to the
part already present, and to the additions being made in such manner that the
older part of the shell persists unaltered, it is possible, from examination of a single
shell—and in the case of fossils the shells are the only part of which we have exact
knowledge—to determine all the phases of its growth; just as in the shell of
Orbitolites all the stages of development are manifest on inspection of an adult
specimen.
In such a shell as Nautilus or Ammonites the central chamber is the oldest or
first formed one, to which the remaining chambers are added in succession, Tf,
therefore, the development of the shell is a repetition of ancestral history, the
central chamber should represent the palontologically oldest form, and the re-
maining chambers in succession forms of more and more recent origin. Ammonite
shells present, more especially in their sutures, and in the markings and sculpturing
of their surface, characters that are easily recoenised, and readily preserved in
fossils ; and the group, consequently, is a very suitable one for investigation from
this standpoint.
‘Wiirtenberger’s admirable and well-known researches* have shown that in the
Ammonites such a correspondence between historic and embryonic development
does really exist ; that, for example, in Aspidoceras the shape and markings of the
shells in young specimens differ greatly from those of adults, and that the characters
of the young shells are those of palezontologically older forms.
Another striking illustration of the correspondence between the palzontological
and developmental records is afforded by the antlers of deer, in which the gradually
increasing complication of the antler in successive years agrees singularly closely
with the progressive increase in size and complexity shown by the fossil series from
the Miocene age to recent times.
' A. Agassiz, Paleontological and Embryological Development, ‘ An Address before
the American Association for the Advancement of Science.’ 1880.
* L, Wiirtenberger, ‘Studien iiber die Stammesgeschichte der Ammoniten.
Ein geologischer Beweis fiir die Darwin’sche Theorie.’ Leipzig, 1880.
Ay
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 831
Of cases where a single specimen has sufficed to prove the paleontological
significance of a developmental character, Archeeopteryx affords a typical example.
In recent birds the metacarpals are firmly fused with one another and with the
distal series of carpals; but in development the metacarpals are at first, and
for some time, distinct. In Archzeopteryx this distinctness is retained in the
adult, showing that what is now an embryonic character in recent birds, was
formerly an adult one.
Other examples might easily be quoted, but these will suffice to show that the
relation between Paleontology and Embryology, first enunciated by Agassiz, and
required by the Recapitulation Theory, does in reality exist. There is much yet
to be done in this direction. A commencement, a most promising commence-
ment, has been made, but as yet only a few groups have been seriously studied
from this standpoint.
It is a great misfortune that paleontology is not more generally and more
seriously studied. by men versed in embryology, and that those who have so greatly
advanced our knowledge of the early development of animals should so seldom
have tested their conclusions as to the affinities of the groups they are concerned
with by direct reference to the ancestors themselves, as known to us through their
fossil remains.
I cannot but feel that, for instance, the determination of the affinities of fossil
Mammalia, of which such an extraordinary number and variety of forms are now
known to us, would be greatly facilitated by a thorough and exact knowledge of the
development, and especially the later development, of the skeleton in their existing
descendants, and I regard it as a reproach that such exact descriptions of the later
stages of development should not exist even in the case of our commonest domestic
animals.
The pedigree of the horse has attracted great attention, and has been worked
at most assiduously, and we are now, largely owing to the labours of American
palzontologists, able to refer to a series of fossil forms commencing in the lowest
Eocene beds, and extending upwards to the most recent deposits, which show a
complete gradation from a more generalised mammalian type to the highly
specialised condition characteristic of the horse and its allies, and which may
reasonably be regarded as indicating the actual line of descent of the horse. In
this particular case, more frequently cited than any other, the evidence is entirely
paleontological. The actual development of the horse has yet tobe studied, and
it is greatly to be desired that it should be undertaken speedily. Klever’s? recent
work on the development of the teeth in the horse may be referred to as showing
that important and unexpected evidence is to be obtained in this way.
A brilliant exception to the statement just made as to the want of exact know-
ledge of the later development of the more highly organised animals is afforded
by the splendid labours of Professor Kitchen Parker, whose recent death has
deprived zoology of one of her most earnest and single-minded students, and
zoologists, young and old alike, of a true and sincere friend. Professor Parker's
extraordinarily minute and painstaking investigations into the development of the
vertebrate skull rank among the most remarkable of zootomical achievements, and
afford a rich miue of carefully recorded facts, the full value and bearing of which
we are hardly yet able to appreciate.
If further evidence as to the value and importance of the Recapitulation
Theory were needed, it would suffice to refer to the influence which it has had
on the classification of the animal kingdom, Ascidians and Cirripedes may be
quoted as important groups, the true affinities of which were first revealed by
embryology ; and in the case of parasitic animals the structural modifications of the
adult are often so great that but for the evidence yielded by development. their
zoological position could not be determined. It is now indeed generally recog-
nised that in doubtful cases embryology affords the safest of all clues, and that the
zoological position of such forms can hardly be regarded as definitely established
unless their development, as well as their adult anatomy, is ascertained.
1 Klever, ‘Zur Kenntniss der Morphogenese des Equidengebisses,’ Momphologisches
Vahrhuch xv. 1889, p. 308.
832 REPORT—1890.
It is owing to this Recapitulation Theory that Embryology has exercised so
marked an influence on zoological speculation. Thus the formation in most, if
not in all, animals of the nervous system and of the sense organs from the
epidermal layer of the skin, acquired a new significance when it was recognised
that this mode of development was to be regarded as a repetition of the primitive
mode of formation of such organs; while the vertebral theory of the skull
affords a good example of a view, once stoutly maintained, which received its
death-blow through the failure of embryology to supply the evidence requisite in
its behalf. The necessary limits of time and space forbid that I should attempt to
refer to even the more important of the numerous recent discoveries in embryology,
but mention may be very properly made here of Sedgwick’s determination of
the mode of development of the body cavity in Peripatus, a discovery which has
thrown most welcome light on what was previously a great morphological puzzle.
We must now turn to another side of the question. Although it is undoubtedly
true that development is to be regarded as a recapitulation of ancestral phases,
and that the embryonic history of an animal presents to us a record of the race
history, yet it is also an undoubted fact, recognised by all writers on embryology,
that the record so obtained is neither a complete nor a straightforward one.
It is indeed a history, but a history of which entire chapters are lost, while in those
that remain many pages are misplaced and others are so blurred as to be illegible ;
words, sentences, or entire paragraphs are omitted, and worse still, alterations or
spurious additions have been freely introduced by later hands, and at times so
cunningly as to defy detection.
Very slight consideration will show that development cannot in all cases be
strictly a recapitulation of ancestral stages, It is well known that closely allied
animals may differ markedly in their mode of development. The common frog is
at first a tadpole, breathing by gills, a stage which is entirely omitted by the
‘West Indian Hylodes. A crayfish, a lobster, and a prawn are allied animals,
yet they leave the egg in totally different forms. Some developmental stages, as
the pupa condition of insects, or the stage in the development of a dogfish in
which the cesophagus is imperforate, cannot possibly be ancestral stages. Or again,
a chick embryo of say the fourth day is clearly not an animal capable of inde-
pendent existence, and therefore cannot correctly represent any ancestral condition,
an objection which applies to the developmental history of many, perhaps of most
animals.
Haeckel long ago urged the necessity of distinguishing in actual development
between those characters which are really historical and inherited and those
which are acquired or spurious additions to the record. The former he termed
palingenetic or ancestral characters, the latter cenogenetic or acquired. The
distinction is undoubtedly a true one, but an exceedingly difficult one to draw in
practice. The causes which prevent development from being a strict recapitulation
of ancestral characters, the mode in which these came about, and the influence
which they respectively exert, are matters which are greatly exercising embryolo-
gists, and the attempt to determine which has as yet met with only partial success.
The most potent and the most widely spread of these disturbing causes arise
from the necessity of supplying the embryo with nutriment. This acts in two
ways. Ifthe amount of nutritive matter within the egg is small, then the young
animal must hatch early, and in a condition in which it is able to obtain food for
itself. In such cases there is of necessity a long period of larval life, during which
natural selection may act so as to introduce modifications of the ancestral history,
spurious additions to the text.
If, on the other hand, the egg contain within itself a considerable quantity of
nutrient matter, then the period of hatching can be postponed until this
nutrient matter has been used up. The consequence is that the embryo hatches at
a much later stage of its development, and if the amount of food material is suffi-
cient may even leave the egg in the form of the parent. In such cases the earlier
developmental phases are often greatly condensed and abbreviated; and as the
embryo does not lead a free existence, and has no need to exert itself to obtain
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 833
food, it commonly happens that these stages are passed through in a very
modified form, the embryo being as in a four-day chick, in a condition in which it
is clearly incapable of independent existence.
The nutrition of the embryo prior to hatching is most usually effected by
granules of nutrient matter, known as food yolk, and embedded in the protoplasm
of the egg itself; and it is on the relative abundance of these granules that the
size of the egg chiefly depends.
Large size of eggs implies diminution of number of the eggs, and hence of the
offspring ; and it can be well understood that while some species derive advantage
in the struggle for existence by producing the maximum number of young, to
others it is of greater importance that the young on hatching should be of consider-
able size and strength, and able to begin the world on their own account. In other
words, some animals may gain by producing a large number of small eggs, others
by preaneing a smaller number of eggs of larger size—z.e., provided with more
food yolk.
The immediate effect of a large amount of food yolk is to mechanically retard
the processes of development ; the ultimate result is to greatly shorten the time
occupied by development. This apparent paradox is readily explained. A small
egg, such as that of Amphioxus, starts its development rapidly, and in about
eighteen hours gives rise to a free swimming larva, capable of independent exist-
ence, with a digestive cavity and nervous system already formed; while a large
egg, like that of the hen, hampered by the great mass of food yolk by which it is
distended, has, in the same time, made but very slight progress.
From this time, however, other considerations begin to tell. Amphioxus has
been able to make this rapid start owing to its relative freedom from food yolk.
This freedom now becomes a retarding influence, for the larva, containing within
itself but a very scanty supply of nutriment, must devote much of its energies to
hunting for, and to digesting, its food, and hence its further development will
proceed more slowly.
The chick embryo, on the other hand, has an abundant supply of food in the
egg itself; it has no occasion to spend time searching for food, but can devote its
whole energies to the further stages of its development. Hence, except in the
earliest stages, the chick develops more rapidly than Amphioxus, and attains
its adult form in a much shorter time.
The tendency of abundant food yolk to lead to shortening or abbreviation of
the ancestral history, and even to the entire omission of important stages, is well
known. The embryo of forms well provided with yolk takes short cuts in its
development, jumps from branch to branch of its genealogical tree, instead of
climbing steadily upwards.
Thus the little West Indian frog, Hylodes, produces eggs which contain a
larger amount of food yolk than those of the common English frog. The young
Hylodes is consequently enabled to pass through the tadpole stage before hatching,
to attain the form of a frog before leaving the egg; and the tadpole stage is only
imperfectly recapitulated, the formation of gills, for instance, being entirely omitted.
The influence of food yolk on the development of animals is closely analogous.
to that of capital in human undertakings. A new industry, for example that of
pen-making, has often been started by a man working by hand and alone, making
and selling his own wares; if he succeed in the struggle for existence, it soon
becomes necessary for him to call in others to assist him, and to subdivide the work;
hand labour is soon superseded by machines, involving further differentiation of
labour ; the earlier machines are replaced by more perfect and more costly ones ;
factories are built, agents engaged, and, in the end, a whole army of workpeople
employed. In later times a man commencing business with very limited means.
will start at the same level as the original founder, and will have to work his way
upwards through much the same stages, 7.¢., will repeat the pedigree of the industry.
The capitalist, on the other hand, is enabled, like Hylodes, to omit these earlier stages,
and, after a brief period of incubation, to start business with large factories equipped
with the most recent appliances, and with a complete staff of workpeople, z.e,, to
' spring into existence fully fledged.
834 REPORT—1890.
There is no doubt that abundance of food yolk is a direct and very frequent
cause of the omission of ancestral stages from individual development; but it must
not be viewed as a sole cause. It is quite impossible that any animal, except
perhaps in the lowest zoological groups, should repeat all the ancestral stages in the
history of the race ; the limits of time available for individual development will not
permit this. There is a tendency in all animals towards condensation of the
ancestral history, towards striking a direct path from the egg to the adult.
This tendency is best marked in the higher, the more complicated members of a
group; ze., in those which havea longer and more tortuous pedigree; and though
greatly strengthened by the presence of food yolk in the egg, is apparently not due
to this in the first instance.
Thus the simpler forms of Orbitolites, as O. tenwissima, repeat in their develop-
ment all the stages leading from a spiral to a cyclical shell; but in the more
complicated species, as Dr. Carpenter has pointed out, there is a tendency towards
precocious development of the adult characters, the earlier stages being hurried
over in a modified form; while in the most complex examples, as in O. complanata,
the earlier spiral stages may be entirely omitted, the shell acquiring almost from
its earliest commencement the cyclical mode of growth. There is no question here
of relative abundance of food yolk, but merely of early or precocious appearance of
adult characters.
The question of the relations and influence of food yolk, involving as it does
the larger or smaller size of the egg, is, however, merely a special side of the much
wider question of the nutrition of the embryo, one of the most potent of the
disturbing elements affecting development.
Speaking generally, we may say that large eggs are more often met with in the
higher than the lower groups of animals. Birds and Reptiles are cases in point,
and, if Mammals do not now produce large eggs, it is because a more direct and
more efficient mode of nourishing the young by the placenta has been acquired by
the higher forms, and has replaced the food yolk that was formerly present, and is
now retained in quantity by Monotremes alone. Molluscs afford another good
example, the eggs of Cephalopoda being of larger size than those of the less highly
organised groups.
The large size of the eggs of Elasmobranchs, and perhaps that of Cephalopods
also, may possibly be associated with the carnivorous habits of the animals; for it
is of importance that forms which prey on other animals should hatch of con-
siderable size and strength.
The influence of habitat must also be considered. It has long been noticed as
a general rule that marine animals lay small eggs, while their fresh-water allies
have eggs of much larger size. The eggs of the salmon or trout are much larger
than those of the cod or herring ; and the crayfish, though only a quarter the length
of a lobster, lay eggs of actually larger size.
This larger size of the eggs of fresh-water forms appears to be dependent on the
nature of the environment to which they are exposed. Considering the geological
instability of the land as compared with the ocean, there can be no doubt that the
fresh-water fauna is, speaking generally, derived from the marine fauna; and the
great problem with regard to fresh-water life is to explain why it is that so many
groups of animals which flourish abundantly in the sea should have failed to
establish themselves in fresh water. Sponges and Ceelenterates abound in the sea, but
their fresh-water representatives are extremely few in number; Echinoderms are
exclusively marine: there are no fresh-water Cephalopods, and no Ascidians; and
of the smaller groups of Worms, Molluscs, and Crustaceans, there are many that do
not occur in fresh water.
Direct experiment has shown that in many cases this distribution is not due to
inability of the adult animals to live in fresh water; and the real explanation
appears to be that the early larval stages are unable to establish themselves under
such conditions. This interesting suggestion, which has been worked out in detail
by Professor Sollas,! undoubtedly affords an important clue. To establish itself
1W. J. Sollas, ‘On the Origin of Freshwater Faunas,’ Scientific Transactions of
the Royal Dublin Socicty, vol. iii. ser. 11, 1886.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 835
permanently in fresh water an animal must either be fixed, or else be strong enough
to withstand and make headway against the currents of the streams or rivers it
inhabits, for otherwise it will in the long run be swept out to sea, and this con-
sideration applies to larval forms equally with adults.
The majority of marine Invertebrates leave the egg as minute ciliated larve:
and such larvz are quite incapable of holding their own in currents of any strength.
Hence, it is only forms which have got rid of the free swimming ciliated larval
stage, and which leave the egg of considerable size and strength, that can establish
themselves as fresh-water animals. This is effected most readily by the acquisition
of food yolk—hence the large size of the eggs of fresh-water animals—and is often
supplemented, as Sollas has shown, by special protective devices of a most interesting
nature. For this reason fresh-water forms are not so well adapted as their
marine allies for the study of ancestral history as revealed in larval or embryonic
development.
Before leaving the question of food yolk, reference must he made to the
proposal of the brothers Sarasin, to regard the yolk cells as forming a distinct
embryonic layer, the lecithoblast,! distinct from the blastoderm. I do not desire
to speak dogmatically on a point the full bearings of which are not yet apparent,
but I venture to think that this suggestion will not commend itself to embryologists.
The distinction between the yolk granules and the cells in which they are embedded
is a real and fundamental one; but I see no reason for regarding the yolk cells as
other than originally functional endoderm cells in which yolk granules have
accumulated to such an extent that they have in extreme cases become devoted
solely to the storing of food for the embryo.?
Of all the causes tending to modify development, tending to obscure or falsify
the ancestral record, food yolk is the most frequent and the most important; its
position in the ege determines the mode of segmentation ; and its relative abun-
dance affects profoundly the entire embryonic history, and decides at what
particular stage, and of what size and form, the embryo shall hatch.
The loss of food yolk is another disturbing element, the full influence of which
is as yet imperfectly understood, but the possibility of which must be always kept
in mind. It is best known in the case of mammals, where it has led to apparent,
though very deceptive, simplification of development; and it will probably not be
until the embryology of the large-yolked monotremes is at length described, that we
shall fully understand the formation of the germinal layers in the higher placental
mammals.
Amongst invertebrates we know but little as yet concerning the effects of loss
of food yolk. It has been suggested that the extraordinary nature of the segmen-
tation of the egg of Pertpatus capensis, made known to us through Mr. Sedgwick’s
admirable researches, may be due to loss of food yolk ; a suggestion which receives
support from the long duration of uterine development in this case.
Our knowledge is very imperfect as to the ease with which food yolk may he
acquired or lost; but until our information is more precise on this point, it seems
unwise to lay much stress on suggested pedigrees which involve great and frequent
alternations in the amount of food yolk present.
Of causes other than food yolk, or only indirectly connected with it, which
tend to falsify the ancestral history, many are now known, but time will only
permit me to notice the more important. These are distortion, whether in time or
space ; sudden or violent metamorphosis ; a series of modifications, due chiefly to
mechanical causes, and which may be spoken of as developmental conveniences ;
the important question of variability in development ; and finally the great problem
of degeneration.
Concerning distortions in time, all embryologists have noticed the tendency to
anticipation or precocious development of characters which really belong to a later
1P. and F. Sarasin, Lrgebnisse naturwissenschaftlicher Forschungen auf Ceylon.
Bd. ii. Heft iii. 1889.
2 Cf. E. B, Wilson, ‘The Development of Renilla,’ Phil. Trans. 1883, p. 755.
836 REPORT—1890.
stage in the pedigree. The early attainment of the cyclical form in the shell of
Orbitolites complanata is a case in point; and Wiirtenberger has specially noticed
this tendency in Ammonites. Many early larve show it markedly, the explana-
tion in this case being that it is essential for them to hatch in a condition capable
of independent existence, #.e., capable, at any rate, of obtaining and digesting their
own food.
Anachronisms, or actual reversal of the historical order of development of organs
or parts, occur frequently. Thus the joint surfaces of bones acquire their charac-
teristic curvatures before movement of one part on another is effected, and before
even the joint cavities are formed.
Another good example is afforded by the development of the mesenterial
filaments in Alcyonarians. Wilson has shown in the case of Renilla that in the
development of an embryo from the egg the six endodermal filaments appear first,
and the two long ectodermal filaments at a later period; but that in the formation
of a bud this order of development is reversed, the ectodermal filaments being the
first formed. He suggests, in explanation, that as the endodermal filaments are
the digestive organs, it is of primary importance to the free embryo that they
should be formed quickly. The long ectodermal filaments are chiefly concerned
with maintaining currents of water through the colony ; in bud-development they
appear before the endodermal filaments, because they enable the bud during its
early stages to draw nutrient matter from the body fluid of the parent; while the
endodermal filaments cannot come into use until the bud has acquired both mouth
and tentacles.
The completion of the ventricular septum in the heart of higher vertebrates
before the auricular septum is a well-known anachronism, and every embryologist
could readily furnish many other cases.
A curious instance is afforded by the development of the teeth in mammals, if
recent suggestions as to the origin of the milk dentition are confirmed, and the
milk dentition prove to be a more recent acquisition than the permanent one.!
But the most important cases in reference to distortion in time concern the
reproductive organs. If development were a strict and correct recapitulation of
ancestral history, then each stage would possess reproductive organs in a mature
condition. This is not the case, and it is clearly of the greatest importance that it
should not be. It is true that the first commencement of the reproductive organs
may occur at a very early larval stage, or even that the very first step in develop-
ment may be a division of the egg into somatic and reproductive cells; and it is
possible that, as maintained by Weismann, this latter condition is a primitive one.
Still, even in these cases the reproductive organs merely commence their develop-
ment at these early stages, and do not become functional until the animal is
adult.
Exceptionally in certain animals, and as a normal occurrence in others,
precocious maturation of the reproductive organs takes place, and a larval form
becomes capable of sexual reproduction. This may lead to arrest of development,
either at a late larval period as in the Axolotl, or at successively earlier and earlier
stages, as in the gonophores of the Hydromeduse, until finally the extreme condi-
tion seen in Hydra is produced.
We do not know the causes that determine the period, whether late or early,
at which the reproductive organs ripen, but the question is one of great interest
and importance and deserves careful attention. The suggestion has been made
that entire groups of animals, such as the Mesozoa, are merely larve, arrested
through such precocious acquiring of reproductive power, and it is conceivable
that this may be the case. Mesozoa are a puzzling group in which the life history,
though known with tolerable completeness, has as yet given us no reliable clue
concerning their affinities to other animals, a tantalising distinction that is shared
with them by Rotifers and Polyzoa.
1 Cf. Thomas Oldfield, ‘On the Homologies and Succession of the Teeth in the
Dasyuride, with an attempt to trace the history of the evolution of the Mammalian
teeth in general,’ Phil. Trans. 1887.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 837
Distortion of a curious kind is seen in cases of abrupt metamorphosis, where,
as in the case of many Echinoderms, of Phoronis, and of the metabolic insects, the
larva and the adult differ greatly in form, habits, mode of life, and very usually in
the nature of their food and the mode of obtaining it; and the transition from one
stage to the other is not a gradual but an abrupt one, at any rate so far as external
characters are concerned.
Sudden changes of this kind, as from the free swimming Pluteus to the
creeping Echinus, or from the sluggish leaf-eating caterpillar to the dainty
butterfly, cannot possibly be recapitulatory, for even if small jumps are permissible
in nature, there is no room for bounds forward of this magnitude. Cases of
abrupt metamorphosis may always be viewed as due to secondary modifications,
and rarely, if ever, have any significance beyond the particular group of animals
concerned. For example, a Pluteus larva may be recognised as belonging to the
group of Echinoidea before the adult urchin has commenced to be formed within
it, and the Lepidopteran caterpillar is already an unmistakable insect. Hence,
for the explanation of the metamorphoses in these cases it is useless to look outside
the groups of Echinoidea and Insecta respectively.
Abrupt metamorphosis is always associated with great change in external form
and appearance, and in mode of life, and very usually in mode of nutrition. A
gradual transition in such cases is inadmissible, because in the intermediate stages
the animal would be adapted to neither the larval nor the adult condition; a
gradual conversion of the biting mouth parts of the caterpillar to the sucking
proboscis of a moth would inevitably lead to starvation. The difficulty is evaded
by retaining the external form and habits of one particular stage for an unduly
long period, so that the relations of the animal to the surrounding environment
remain unchanged, while internally preparations for the later stages are in pro-
gress. Cinderella and the princess are equally possible entities, each being well
adapted to her environment. The exigencies of the situation do not permit, how-
ever, of a gradual change from one to the other: the transformation, at least as
regards external appearance, must be abrupt.
Kleinenberg has recently directed attention to cases in which the larval and
adult organs develop independently; the larval nervous system, for instance,
aborting completely and forming no part of that of the adult. Iam not sure that
I fully understand Kleinenberg’s argument, but it seems very possible that such
cases, which are probably far more numerous than is yet admitted, may be due to
what may be termed the telescoping of ancestral stages one within another, which
tales place in actual development, and may accordingly be grouped under the head
of developmental convenience. Undue prolongation of an early ancestral stage, as
in cases of abrupt metamorphosis, must involve modification, especially in the
‘muscular and nervous systems ; in such cases a telescoping of ancestral stages takes
place as we have seen, the adult being developed within the larva. Such tele-
scoping must distort the recapitulatory history, and as the shape of the larva and
adult may differ widely, an independent origin of organs, especially the muscular
and nervous systems, may be acquired secondarily.
The stage in the development of Squilla, in which the three posterior maxil-
lipedes disappear completely, to reappear at a later stage in a totally different
form, is not to be interpreted as meaning that the adult maxillipedes are entirely
new structures unconnected historically with those of the larva. Neither is the
annual shedding of the antlers of deer to be regarded as the repetition of an
ancestral hornless condition intercalated historically between successive stages pro-~
vided with antlers. In both cases the explanation is afforded by convenience,
whether of the embryo or adult. ;
Many embryological modifications or distortions may be attributed to me-
chanical causes, and may fairly be considered under the head of developmental
conveniences.
The amnion of higher vertebrates is a case in point, and is probably rightly
explained as due in the first instance to sinking or depression of the embryo into
the yolk, in order to avoid distortion through pressure against a hard unyielding
eggshell. A similar device is employed, presumably for the same reason, in the
838 REPORT—1890.
early development of many insect embryos; and the depression of the Tzenia head
within the cyst is a phenomenon of very similar nature.
Restriction of the space within which development occurs often causes dis-
placement or distortion of organs whose growth, restricted in its normal direction,
takes place along the lines of least resistance. The telescoping of the limbs and
other organs within the body of an insect larva is a simple case of such distortion ;
and a more complicated example, closely comparable in many ways to the invagi-
nation of the Tzenia head, is aflorded by the remarkable inversion of the germinal
layers in Rodents, first described by Bischoff in the Guinea pig, and long believed
to be peculiar to that animal, but subsequently and simultaneously discovered by
three independent observers, Kupffer, Selenka, and Fraser, to occur in varying
degrees in rats, mice, and in other rodents.
One of the most recent attempts to explain developmental peculiarities as due
to mechanical causes is Mr. Dendy’s suggestion with regard to the pseudogastrula
stage in the development of the calcareous sponges. It is well known that while the
larva is in the amphiblastula stage, and still embedded in the tissues of the parent,
the granular cells become invaginated within the ciliated cells, giving rise to the
pseudogastrula stage. At a slightly later stage, when the larva becomes free, the
invaginated granular cells become again everted, and the larva spherical in shape ;
while still later vagination occurs once more, the ciliated cells being this time
invaginated within the granular cells, The significance of the pseudogastrula
stage has hitherto been undetermined, but Mr. Dendy points out that the larva
always occupies a definite position with reference to the parental tissues; that the
ciliated half of the larva is covered by a soft and yielding wall, while the opposite
half, composed of the granular cells, is covered by a layer stiffened with rigid
spicules ; and his observations on the growth of the larva lead him to think that the
pseudogastrula stage is brought about mechanically by flattening of the granular
cells through pressure against this rigid wall of spicules.
* Embryology supplies us with many unsolved problems, and it is not to be
wondered at that this should be the case. Some of these may fairly be spoken of
as mere curiosities of development, while others are clearly of greater moment. I
do not propose to catalogue these, but will merely mention two or three which
I happen to have recently run my head against and remember vividly.
The solid condition of the cesophagus in Hlasmobranch embryos, first noticed by
Balfour, is a very curious point. The cesophagus has at first a well-developed
lumen, like the rest of the alimentary canal; but at an early period, stage K of
Balfour’s nomenclature, the part of the oesophagus overlying the heart, and immedi-
ately behind the branchial region, becomes solid, and remains solid for a long time,
the exact date of reappearance of the lumen not being yet ascertained.
Mr. Bles and myself have recently noticed that a similar solidification of the
cesophagus occurs in tadpoles of the common frog. In young free swimming
tadpoles the cesophagus is perforate, but in tadpoles of about 7} mm. length it
becomes solid and remains so until a length of about 104 mm. has been attained.
The solidification occurs at a stage closely corresponding with that in which it first
appears in the dogfish, and a curious point about it is that in the frog the
cesophagus hecomes solid just before the mouth opening is formed, and remains
solid for some little time after this important event.
This closing of the cesophagus clearly cannot be recapitulation, but the fact
that it occurs at corresponding periods in the frog and dogfish suggests that it may
possibly, as Balfour hinted, ‘turn out to have some unsuspected morphological
bearing.
Another developmental curiosity is the duplication of the gill slits by growth
downwards of tongues from their dorsal margins ; a duplication which is described
as occurring in Amphioxus and in Balanoglossus, but in no other animal; and the
occurrence of which, in apparently closely similar fashion, is one of the strongest
arguments in favour of a real affinity between these two forms. It is hardly
possible that such a modification should have been acquired independently twice
over.
A much more litigious question is the significance of the neurenteric canal of
Biss
~
>:
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 839
vertebrates, that curious tubular communication between the central canal of the
nervous system and the hinder end of the alimentary canal that is conspicuously
present in the embryos of lower vertebrates, and retained in a more or less dis-
guised condition in the higher groups as well.
The neurenteric canal was discovered by that famous embryologist Kowalevsky
in Ascidians and in Amphioxus. He drew special attention to the occurrence of a
stage in both Ascidians and in Amphioxus in which the larva is free swimming
and in which the sole communication between the alimentary cavity and the exterior
is through the neuventeric canal and the central canal of the nervous system ; and
suggested + that animals may have existed or may still exist in which the nerve
tube fulfilled a non-nervous function, and possibly acted as part of the alimentary
canal; a suggestion that has recently been revived in a somewhat extravagant
form.
A passage of food particles into the alimentary cavity through the neural tube
has not yet been seen, and probably does not occur, as the larva still possesses
sufficient food yolk to carry it on in its development. It is therefore permissible
to hold that the neurenteric canal may be a mere embryological device, and devoid
of any deep morphological significance.
The question of variation in development is one of very great importance, and
has perhaps not yet received the attention it deserves. We are in some danger of
assuming tacitly that the mode of development of allied animals will necessarily
agree in all important respects or even in details, and that if the development of
one member of a group be known, that of the others may be assumed to be similar.
The more recent progress of embryology is showing us that such inferences are not
safe, and that in allied genera or species, or even in different individuals of the same
species, variations of development may occur affecting important organs and at
almost any stage in their formation.
Great individual variations in the earliest processes of development, z.e., the
segmentation of the egg, have been described by different writers.
In Renilla, Wilson found an extraordinary range of variation in the segmentation
of eggs from which apparently identical embryos were produced. In some cases
the ege divided into two in the normal manner; in other cases it divided at once
into eight, sixteen, or thirty-two segments, which in different specimens were
approximately equal or markedly unequal in size. Sometimes a preliminary change
of form occurred without any further result, the egg returning to its spherical
shape, and pausing for a time before recommencing the attempt to segment. Segmen-
tation sometimes commenced at one pole, as in telolecithal eggs, with the formation
of four or five small segments, the rest of the egg breaking up later, either simulta-
neously or progressively, into segments about equal in size to those first formed :
while lastly, m some instances segmentation was very irregular, following no
apparent law.
It is noteworthy that the variability in the case of Renilla is apparently
confined to the earliest stages, for whatever the mode of segmentation, the embryos
in their later stages were indistinguishable from one another.
Similar moditications in the segmentation of the ege have been described in the
oyster by LGrooks, in Anodon and other Mollusca, in Hydra, and in Lumbricus, in
which last Wilson has recently shown that marked ditferences occur in the eggs
even of the same individual animal. In the different species of Peripatus there
appear also to be considerable variations in the details of segmentation.
In the early embryonic stages after the completion of segmentation very consider-
able variation may occur in allied species or genera. Among Ccelenterates for:
instance the mode of formation of the hypoblast presents most perplexing modifica-
tions: it may arise as a true gastrula invagination; as cells budded off from one
pole of the blastula into its cavity; as cells budded off from various parts of the
wall of the blastula; by delamination or actual division of each cell of the blastula
Wall; or it may be present from the start as a solid mass of cells enclosed by the
Rul i rn
‘A. Kowalevsky, ‘Weitere Studien iiber die Entwickelungs-Geschichte des.
Awphioxus lanceolatus; Archiv fiir mikroshopische Anatomie, Ba. xiii. 1877, p. 201..
840 REPORT—1890.
epiblast cells. It is in connection with these variations that controversy has arisen
as to the primitive mode of development of the gastrula, a pomt to which I shall
return later on.
Among the higher Metazoa or Ccelomata the extraordinary modifications in the
position and in every conceivable detail of formation of the mesoblast in different
and often in closely allied forms have given rise to ardent discussion, and have led
to the proposal of theory after theory, each rejected in turn as only affording a
partial explanation, and now culminating in Kleinenberg’s protest against the use of
the term mesoblast at all, at any rate in a sense implying any possibility of
comparison with the primary layers, epiblast and hvpoblast, of Ccelenterata.
This is not the place to attempt to decide so difficult and technical a point, even
were I capable of so doing, but we may well take warning from this extraordinary
diversity of development, the full extent of which I believe we as yet realise most
imperfectly, that in our attempts to reconstruct ancestral history from ontogenetic
development we have taken in hand no light task. To reconstruct Latin from
modern European languages would in comparison be but child’s play.
Of the readiness with which special developmental characters are acquired by
allied animals the brothers Sarasin! have given us evidence in the extraordinary
modifications presented by the embryonic and larval respiratory organs of
Amphibians.
onfining ourselves to those forms which do not lay their eggs in water, and in
which consequently development takes place within the egg, we find that Ichthy-
ophis and Salamandra have three pairs of specially modified external gills.
Nototrema has two pairs; Alytes and Typhlonectes have only a single pair, which
in the latter genus take the form of enormous leaf-like outgrowths from the sides
of the neck. In Hylodes and Pipa there are no gills, the tail acting as the larval
respiratory organ; and in Rana opisthodon, according to Boulenger, larval respira-
tion is effected by nine pairs of folds of the skin of the ventral surface of the body.
Most of these extraordinarily diversified organs are clearly secondarily acquired
structures ; it is possible that they all are, and that external gills, as was suggested
by Balfour for Elasmobranchs, are to be regarded as embryonal respiratory organs
acquired by the larvee and of no ancestral value. The point, however, cannot be
considered settled, for on this view the external gills of Elasmobranchs and
Amphibians would be independently acquired and not homologous structures, a view
contradicted by the close agreement in their relations in the two groups, as well as
by the absence of any real break between external and internal gills in Amphibians.
It is well known that the frog and the newt differ greatly in important points
of their development. The two-layered condition of the epiblast in the frog is a
marked point of difference, which involves further changes in the mode of formation
of the nervous system and sense organs. The kidneys and their ducts differ
considerably in their development in the two forms, as do also the bloodvessels.
Concerning the early development of the bloodvessels, there are considerable
differences even between allied species of frogs. In Rana esculenta Maurer finds
shat there is at first in each branchial arch a single vessel or aortic arch, running
directly from the heart to the aorta: from the cardiac end of this aortic arch a
vessel crows out into the gill as the afferent branchial vessel, the original aortic arch
losing its connection with the heart, and becoming the efferent branchial vessel.
Afferent and efferent branchial vessels become connected by capillaries in the gill,
and the course of the circulation, so long as gill-breathing is maintained, is from the
heart through the truncus arteriosus to the afferent branchial vessel, then through the
gill capillaries to the efferent branchial vessel, and then on to the aorta. When the
pulmonary circulation is thoroughly established the branchial circulation is cut off
by the etferent vessel reacquiring its connection with the heart, when the blood
naturally takes the direct passage along it to the aorta, and so escapes the
gill capillaries.
In Rana temporaria the mode of development is very different: the afferent and
1 Pp. and F. Sarasin, Ergebnisse naturnissenschaftlicher Forschungen auf Ceylon,
vol, ii. chap, i. pp, 24-38.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 841
efferent vessels arise in each arch independently and almost simultaneously: the
_ afferent vessel soon acquires connection with the heart; but, unlike 22. esculenta,
_ the efferent vessel has no connection with the heart until the gills are about to
atrophy.
In other words, the continuous aortic arch, from heart to aorta, is present in
R. esculenta prior to the development of the gills: it becomes interrupted while the
gills are in functional use, but is re-established when these begin to atrophy. In
. temporaria, on the other hand, there is no continuous aortic arch until the gills
begin to atrophy.
The difference is an important one, for it is a matter of considerable morpho-
logical interest to determine whether the continuous aortic arch is primitive for
vertebrates: z.e., whether it existed prior to the development of gills. This point
could be practically settled if we could decide which of the two frogs, R. esculenta
and R&. temporaria, has most correctly preserved its ancestral history in this
respect.
Hit this there can be little doubt. The development of the vessels
in the newts, a less modified group than the frogs, agrees with that of 2. esculenta,
and interesting confirmation is afforded by a single aberrant specimen of R.
temporaria, in which Mr. Bles and myself found the vessels developing after the
type cf 2. esculenta, t.e.,in which a complete aortic arch was present before the
gills were formed.
We are therefore justified in concluding that, as regards the development of
the branchial bloodvessels, . esculenta has retained a primitive ancestral
character which is lost in &. temporaria, and it is interesting to note that were
our knowledge of the development of amphibians confined to the common frog, the
most likely form to be studied, we should, in all probability, have been led to
wrong conclusions concerning the ancestral condition of the bloodvessels in a
point of considerable importance.
ee Pe
A matter which at present is attracting much attention is the question of
degeneration.
Natural selection, though consistent with and capable of leading to steady
_ upward progress and improvement, by no means involves such progress as a
B necessary consequence. All it says is that those animals will, in each generation,
have the best chance of survival which are most in harmony with their environ-
ment, and such animals will not necessarily be those which are ideally the best or:
most perfect.
If you go into a shop to purchase an umbrella the one you select is by no
means necessarily that which most nearly approaches ideal perfection, but the one
which best hits off the mean between your idea of what an umbrella should be
and the amount of money you are prepared to give for it: the one, in fact, that is
on the whole best suited to the circumstances of the case or the environment for
the time being. It might well happen that you had a violent antipathy to a
crooked handle, or else were determined to have a catch of a particular kind to
secure the ribs, and this might lead to the selection, z.¢., the survival, of an
article that in other and even in more important respects was manifestly inferior to
the average.
So is it also with animals: the survival of a form that is ideally inferior
is very possible. To animals living in profound darkness the possession of eyes
is of no advantage, and forms devoid of eyes would not merely lose nothing
_ thereby, but would actually gain, inasmuch as they would escape the dangers that
_ might arise from injury to a delicate and complicated organ. In extreme cases,
as in animals leading a parasitic existence, the conditions of life may be such
as to render locomotor, digestive, sensory, and other organs entirely useless ;
and in such cases those forms will be best in harmony with their surroundings
which avoid the waste of energy resulting from the formation and maintenance
of these organs.
Animals which have in this way fallen from the high estate of their fore-
fathers, which have lost organs or systems which their progenitors possessed, are
1890. 3) ai
842 REPORT—1890.
commonly called degenerate. The principle of degeneration, recognised by
Darwin as a possible, and, under certain conditions, a necessary consequence of his
theory of natural selection, has been since advocated strongly by Dohrn, and later
by Lankester in an Evening Discourse delivered before the Association at the
Sheffield Meeting in 1879. Both Dohrn and Lankester suggested that degeneration
occurred much more widely than was generally recognised.
Tn animals which are parasitic when adult, but free swimming in their early
stages, as in the case of the Rhizocephala whose life history was so admirably
worked out by Fritz Miiller, degeneration is clear enough: so also is it in the case
of the solitary Ascidians, in which the larva is a free swimming animal with a
notochord, an elongated tubular nervous system, and sense organs, while the adult
is fixed, devoid of the swimming tail, with no notochord, and with a greatly
reduced nervous system and aborted sense organs.
In such cases the animal, when adult, is, as regards the totality of its organ-
isation, at a distinctly lower morphological level, is less highly differentiated than it
is when young, and during individual development there is actual retrograde
development of important systems and organs.
About such cases there is no doubt: but we are asked to extend the idea of
degeneration much more widely. It is urged that we ought not to demand direct
embryological evidence before accepting a eroup as degenerate. We are reminded
of the tendency to abbreviation or to complete omission of ancestral stages of which
we have quoted examples above; and it is suggested that if such larval stages
were omitted in all the members of a group we should have no direct evidence of
degeneration in a group that might really be in an extremely degenerate condition.
Supposing, for instance, the free larval stages of the solitary Ascidians were
suppressed, say through the acquisition of food yolk, then it is urged that the
degenerate condition of the group might easily escape detection. The supposition
is hy no means extravagant ; food yolk varies greatly in amount in allied animals,
and cases like Hylodes, or amongst Ascidians Pyrosoma, show how readily a
mere increase in the amount of food yolk in the egg may lead to the omission of
important ancestral stages.
The question then arises whether it is not possible, or even probable, that
animals which now show no indication of degeneration in their development are in
reality highly degenerate, and whether it is not legitimate to suppose such degenera-
tion to have uccurred in the case of animals whose affinities are obscure or difficult
to determine.
It is more especially with regard to the lower vertebrates that this argument
has been employed; and at the present day, zoologists of authority, relying on
it, do not hesitate to speak of such forms as Amphioxus and the Cyclostomes
as degenerate animals, as wolves in sheep’s clothing, animals whose simplicity
is acquired and deceptive rather than real and ancestral.
I cannot but think that cases such as these should be regarded with some
jealousy: there is at present a tendency to inyoke degeneration rather freely
as a talisman to extricate us from morphological difficulties; and an inclination
to accept such suggestions, at any rate provisionally, without requiring satis-
factory evidence in their support.
Degeneration of which there is direct embryological evidence stands on a very
different footing from suspected degeneration, for which no direct evidence is
forthcoming ; and in the latter case the burden of proof undoubtedly rests with
those who assume its existence.
The alleged instances among the lower vertebrates must be regarded
particularly closely, because in their case the suggestion of degeneration is
admittedly put forward as a means of escape from difficulties arising through
theoretical views concerning the relation between vertebrates and invertebrates.
Amphioxus itself, so far as I can see, shows in its development no sien of
degeneration, except possibly with regard to the anterior gut diverticula, whose
ultimate fate is not altogether clear. With regard to the earlier stages of develop-
ment, concerning which, thanks to the patient investigations of Kowalevsky and
Hatschek, our knowledge is precise, there is no animal known to us in which the.
— ae: OY
—-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 843
sequence of events is simpler or more straightforward. Its various organs and
systems are formed in what is recognised as a primitive manner; and the develop-
ment of each is a steady upward progress towards the adult condition. Food
yolk, the great cause of distortion in development, is almost absent, and there is
not the slightest indication of the former possession of a larger quantity.
Concerning the later stages our knowledge is incomplete, but so much as has been
ascertained gives no support to the suggestion of general degeneration.
Our knowledge of the conditions leading to degeneration is undoubtedly
incomplete, but it must be noticed that the conditions usually associated with
degeneration do not occur. Amphioxus is not parasitic, is not attached when
adult, and shows no evidence of having formerly possessed food yolk in quantity
sufficient to have led to the-omission of important ancestral stages. Its small size
as compared with other vertebrates is one of the very few points that can be
referred to as possibly indicating degeneration, and will be considered more fully
at a later point in my address.
A consideration of much less importance, but deserving of mention, is that in
its mode of life Amphioxus not merely differs as already noticed from those groups
of animals which we know to be degenerate, but agrees with some, at any
rate, of those which there is reason to regard as primitive or persistent types.
Amphioxus, like Balanoglossus, Lingula, Dentalium, and Limulus, is marine, and
occurs in shallow water, usually with a sandy bottom, and, like the three smaller
of these genera, it lives habitually buried almost completely in the sand, into
which it burrows with great rapidity.
I do not wish to speak dogmatically. I merely wish to protest against a too
ready assumption of degeneration; and to repeat that, so far as I can see,
Amphioxus has not yet, either in its development, in its structure, or in its habits,
been shown to present characters that suggest, still less that prove, the occurrence
in it of general or extensive degeneration.
In a sense, all the higher animals are degenerate ; that is, they can be shown
to possess certain organs in a less highly developed condition than their ancestors,
or even in a rudimentary state.
Thus a crab as compared with a lobster is degenerate in the matter of its tail,
a horse as compared with Hipparion in regard to its outer toes; but it is neither
customary nor advisable to speak of a crab as a degenerate animal compared to a
lobster ; to do so would be misleading. An animal should only be spoken of as
degenerate when the retrograde development is well marked, and has affected not
one or two organs only, but the totality of its organisation.
It is impossible to draw a sharp line in such cases, and to limit precisely
the use of the term degeneration. It must be borne in mind that no animal is at
the top of the tree in all respects. Man himself is primitive as regards the
number of his toes, and degenerate in respect to his ear muscles; and between
two animals even of the same group it may be impossible to decide which of the
two is to be called the higher and which the lower form.
Thus, to compare an oyster with a mussel. The oyster is more primitive
_ than the mussel as regards the position of the ventricle of the heart and its
lett
relations to the alimentary canal; but is more modified in having but a single
adductor muscle ; and almost certainly degenerate in being devoid of a foot.
Care must also be taken to avoid speaking of an animal as degenerate in
regard to a particular organ merely because that organ is less fully developed
than in allied animals. An organ is not degenerate unless its present possessor
has it in a less perfect condition than its ancestors had.
A man is not degenerate in the matter of the length of his neck as compared
with a giraffe, nor as compared with an elephant in respect of the size of his front
teeth, for neither elephant nor giraffe enters into the pedigree of man. A man is,
_ however, degenerate, whoever his ancestors may have been, in regard to his ear
muscles; for he possesses these in a rudimentary and functionless condition,
which can only be explained by descent from some better equipped progenitor.
_ Closely connected with the question of degeneration is that of the size of
animals, and its bearing on their structure and development; a problem noticed
312
844 REPORT—1890. _
by many writers, but which has perhaps not yet received the attention it
merits.
If we are right in interpreting the eggs of Metazoa as representing the
unicellular or protozoan stage in their ancestry, then the small size of the egg may
be viewed as recapitulatory.
But the gradual increase in size of the embryo, and its growth up to the
adult condition, can only be regarded as representing in a most general way, if
at all, the actual or even the relative sizes of the intermediate ancestral stages
of the pedigree.
It is quite true that animals belonging to the lower groups are, as a general
rule, of smaller size than those of higher grade; and also that the giants are
met with among the highest members of each division. Cephalopoda are the
highest molluscs, and the largest cephalopods greatly exceed in size any other
members of the group; decapods are at once the highest and the largest
crustaceans ; and whales, the hugest animals that exist, or, so far as we know,
that ever have existed, belong to the highest group of all, the mammalia. It would
be easy to quote exceptions, but the general rule obtains admittedly.
However, although there may be, and probably is, a general parallelism
between the increase in size from the ege to the adult, and the historical increase
in-size during the passage from lower to higher forms; yet no one could maintain
that the sizes of embryos represent at all correctly those of the ancestors ; that,
for instance, the earliest birds were animals the size of a chick embryo at a time
when avian characters first declare themselves, or that the ancestral series in all
cases presented a steady progression in respect of actual magnitude.
In the lower animals, e.g., in Orbitolites, the actual size of the several ancestral
stages is probably correctly recapitulated during the growth of the adult; and it
is very possible that it is so also in such forms as the solitary sponges. In higher
animals, except in the early stages of those forms which are practically devoid -
of food yolk, and which hatch as pelagic larve, this certainly does not obtain,
This is clear enough, but is worth pointing out, for if, as most certainly is the
case, the embryos of animals are actually smaller than the ancestral forms they
represent, it is possible that the smallness of the embryo may have had some
influence on its organisation, and be responsible for some of the modifications in
the ancestral history; and more especially for the disappearance of ancestral
organs in free swimming larve.
In adult animals the relation between size and structure has heen very clearly
pointed out by Herbert Spencer. Increased size involves by itself increased
complexity of structure; the determining consideration being that while the
surface area of the body increases as the squares of the linear dimensions, the
mass of the body increases as their cubes.
Tf, for example, we imagine two animals of similar shape and proportions, but
of different size—for the sake of simplicity, we may suppose them to be spherical,
and that the diameter of one is twice that of the other—tken the larger one will
have four times the extent of surface of the smaller, but eight times its mass or
bulk: and it is quite possible that while the extent of surface, or skin, in the
smaller animal might suffice for the necessary respiratory and excretory inter-
changes, it would be altogether insufficient in the larger animal, in which increased
extent of surface must be provided by foldings of the skin, as in the form of
ills.
i“ To take an actual instance; Limapontia is a minute nudibranchiate, or sea-
slug, about the sixth of an inch in length; it has a smooth body, totally devoid
of respiratory processes, while forms allied to it, but of larger size, have their
extent of surface increased by branching processes, which often take the form of
specialised gills.
This is a peculiarly instructive case, because Limapontia in its early develop-
mental stages possesses a large spirally-coiled shell, and shows other evidence of
descent from forms with specialised breathing organs. We are certainly right
in associating the absence of respiratory organs in the adult with the small size of
the animal; and comparison with allied forms suggests very strongly that there
7,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 845
has been in its pedigree an actual reduction of size, which has led to the
degeneration of the respiratory organs.
This is an important conclusion: it is a well-known fact that the smaller
members of a group are, as a rule, more simply organised than the larger members,
especially with regard to their respiratory and circulatory systems; but if we are
right in concluding that reduction in size may be an actual cause of simplification
or degeneration in structure, then we must be on our guard against assuming hastily
that these smaller and simpler animals are necessarily primitive in regard to the
groups to which they belong. It is possible, for instance, that the simplification
or even absence of respiratory organs seen in Pauropus, in the Thysanura, and in other
small Tracheata, may be a secondary character, acquired through reduction of size.
An interesting illustration of the law discussed above is afforded by the
brains of mammals; it has been noticed by many anatomists that the extent of
convolution, or folding of the surface of the cerebral hemispheres in mammals, is
related not to the degree of intelligence of the animal, but to its actual size, a
beaver having an almost smooth brain and a cow a highly complicated one.
Jelgersma, and, independently of him, Professor Fitzgerald,! have explained this
as due to the necessity of preserving the due proportion between the outer layer
of grey matter or cortex, which is approximately uniform in thickness, and the
central mass of white matter. But for the foldings of the surface the proportion
of white matter to grey matter would be far higher in a large than in a small
brain,
It must not be forgotten, on the other hand, that many zoologists hold the
view, in favour of which the evidence is steadily increasing, that the primitive
or ancestral members of each group were of small size. Thus Fiirbringer remarks
with regard to birds, that on the whole small birds show more primitive and
simpler conditions of structure than the larger members of the same group. He
expresses the oyinion that the first birds were probably smaller than Archxopteryx,
and notes that reptiles and mammals also show in their earlier and smaller types
more primitive features than do their larger descendants. Finally, Fiirbringer
concludes that ‘it is therefore the study of the smaller members within given
groups of animals which promises the best results as to their phylogeny.’
Again, one of the most striking points with regard to the pedigree of the
horse, as agreed on by paleontologists, is the progressive reduction in size which
we meet with as we pass backwards in time from stage to stage. The Pliocene
Hipparion was smaller than the existing horse, in fact about the size of a
donkey ; the Miocene Mesohippus about equalled a sheep; while Eohippus, from
the Lower Kocene deposits, was no larger than a fox. Not onlyis there good reason
for holding that, as a rule, larger animals are descended from ancestors of smaller
size, but there is also much evidence to show that increase in size beyond certain
limits is disadvantageous, and may lead to destruction rather than to survival. It
has happened more than once in the history of the world, and in more than one
group of animals, that gigantic stature has been attained immediately before
extinction of the group, a final and tremendous effort to secure survival, but a
despairing and unsuccessful one. The Ichthyosauri, Plesiosauri, and other
extinct reptilian groups, the Moas, and the huge extinct Hdentates, are well-known
examples, to which before long will be added the elephants and the whales, and,
it may be, ironclads as well.
The whole question of the influence of size is of the greatest possible interest
and importance, and it is greatly to be hoped that it will not be permitted to
remain in its present uncertain and unsatisfactory condition.
It may be suggested that Amphioxus is an animal which has undergone
reduction in size, and that its structural simplicity may, like that of Limapontia, be
due, in part at least, to this reduction. Such evidence as we have tells against
this suggestion ; the first system to undergo degeneration in consequence of a re-
duction in size is the respiratory, and the respiratory organs of Amphioxus, though
very simple, are also, for a vertebrate, unusually extensive.
' Cf. Nature, June 5, 1890, p. 125.
846 REPORT— 1890.
We haye now considered the more important of the influences which are
recognised as affecting developmental history in such a way as to render the recapi-
tulation of ancestral stages less complete than it might otherwise be, which tend to
prevent ontogeny from correctly repeating the phylogenetic history. It may at this
point reasonably be asked whether there is any way of distinguishing the palingenetic
history from the later cenogenetic modifications grafted on to it; any test by which
we can determine whether a given larval character is or is not ancestral.
Most assuredly there is no one rule, no single test, that will apply in all cases ;
but there are certain considerations which will help us, and which should he
kept in view.
A character that is of general occurrence among the members of a group, both
high and low, may reasonably be regarded as having strong claims to ancestral
rank; claims that are greatly strengthened if it occurs at corresponding develop-
mental periods in all cases; and still more if it occurs equally in forms that
hatch early as free larva, and in forms with large eggs, which develop directly
into the adult. As examples of such characters may be cited the mode of
formation and relations of the notochord, and of the gill clefts of vertebrates, which
satisfy all the conditions mentioned.
Characters that are transitory in certain groups, but retained throughout life
in allied groups, may, with tolerable certainty, be regarded as ancestral for the
former ; for instance, the symmetrical position of the eyes in young flat fish, the
spiral shell of the young limpet, the superficial positions of the madreporite in
Elasipodous Holothurians, or the suckerless condition of the ambulacral feet in
many Echinoderms.
A more important consideration is that if the developmental changes are to
be interpreted as a correct record of ancestral history, then the several stages must
be possible ones, the history must be one that could actually have occurred,
z.e., the several steps of the history as reconstructed must form a series, all the
stages of which are practicable ones.
Natural selection explains the actual structure of a complex organ as having
been acquired by the preservation of a series of stages, each a distinct, if slight,
advance on the stage immediately preceding it, an advance so distinct as to confer
on its possessor an appreciable advantage in the struggle for existence. It is not
enough that the ultimate stage should be more advantageous than the initial or
earlier condition, but each intermediate stage must also be a distinct advance.
If then the development of an organ is strictly recapitulatory, it should present to
us a series of stages, each of which is not merely functional, but a distinct ad-
vance on the stage immediately preceding it. Intermediate stages, eg., the solid
cesophagus of the tadpole, which are not and could not be functional, can form
no part of an ancestral series ; a consideration well expressed by Sedgwick? thus:
‘Any phylogenetic hypothesis which presents difficulties from a physiological
standpoint must be regarded as very provisional indeed.’
A. good example of an embryological series fulfilling these conditions is afforded
by the development of the eye in the higher Cephalopoda. The earliest stage
consists in the depression of a slightly modified patch of skin; round the edge
of the patch the epidermis becomes raised up as a rim; this gradually grows
inwards from all sides, so that the depressed patch now forms a pit, com-
municating with the exterior through a small hole or mouth. By further
growth the mouth of the pit becomes still more narrowed, and ultimately
completely closed, so that the pit becomes converted into a closed sac or
vesicle ; at the point at which final closure occurs formation of cuticle takes
place, which projects as a small transparent drop into the cavity of the sac; by
formation of concentric layers of cuticle this drop becomes enlarged into the
spherical transparent lens of the eye, and the development is completed by
histological changes in the inner wall of the vesicle, which conyert it into the
? Sedgwick, ‘On the Early Development of the Anterior Part of the Wolffian
Duct and Body in the Chick,’ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, yol. xxi.
1881, p. 456.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 847
retina, and by the formation of folds of skin around the eye, which become
the iris and the eyelids respectively.
Each stage in this developmental history is a distinct advance, physiologically,
on the preceding stage, and, furthermore, each stage is retained at the present day
as the permanent condition of the eye in some member of the group Mollusca.
The earliest stage, in which the eye is merely a slightly depressed and slightly
modified patch of skin, represents the simplest condition of the Molluscan eye, and
is retained throughout life in Solen. The stage in which the eye is a pit, with
widely open mouth, is retained in the limpet; it is a distinct advance on the
former, as through the greater depression the sensory cells are less exposed to
accidental injury.
The narrowing of the mouth of the pit in the next stage is a simple change,
but a very important step forwards. Up to this point the eye has served to dis-
tinguish light from darkness, but the formation of an image has been impossible.
Now, owing to the smallness of the aperture, and the pizmentation of the walls of
the pit which accompanies the change, light from any one part of an object can only
fall on one particular part of the inner wall of the pit or retina, and so an image,
though a dim one, is formed. This type of eye is permanently retained in the
Nautilus.
The closing of the mouth of the pit by a transparent membrane will not affect
the optical properties of the eye, and will be a gain, as it will prevent the entrance
of foreign bodies into the cavity of the eye.
The formation of the lens by deposit of cuticle is the next step. The gain here
is increased distinctness and increased brightness of the image, for the lens will
focus the rays of light more sharply on the retina, and will allow a greater quantity
of light, a larger pencil of rays from each part of the object, to reach the corre-
sponding part of the retina. The eye is now in the condition in which it remains
throughout life in the snail and other gastropods. Finally the formation of the
folds of skin known as iris and eyelids provides for the better protection of the eye,
and is a clear advance on the somewhat clumsy method of withdrawal seen in
the snail.
The development of the vertebrate liver is another good but simpler example.
The most primitive form of the liver is that of Amphioxus, in which it is present as
a simple saccular diverticulum of the intestinal canal, with its wall consisting of a
single layer of cells, and with bloodvessels on its outer surface. The earliest stage
in the formation of the liver in higher vertebrates, the frog for instance, is practically
identical with this. In the frog the next stage consists in folding of the wall of
the sac, which increases the etticiency of the organ by increasing the extent of
surface in contact with the bioodvessels. The adult condition is attained simply
by a continuance of this process; the foldings of the wall becoming more and more
complicated, but the essential structure remaining the same—a single layer of
epithelial cells in contact on one side with bloodvessels, and bounding on the other
directly or indirectly the cavity of the alimentary canal.
It is not always possible to point out the particular advantage gained at each
step even when a complete developmental series is known to us, but in such cases
as, for instance, in Orbitolites, our difficulties arise chiefly from ignorance of the
particular conditions that confer advantage in the struggle for existence in the case
of the forms we are dealing with.
The early larval stages in the development of animals, and more especially those
that are marine and pelagic in habit, have naturally attracted much attention, since
in the absence, probably inevitable, of satisfactory paleontological evidence, they
afford us the sole available clue to the determination of the mutual relations of the
large groups of animals, or of the points at which these diverged from one another.
In attempting to interpret these early ontogenetic stages as actual ancestral forms,
beyond which development at one time did not proceed, we must keep clearly in
view the various disturbing causes which tend to falsify the ancestral record; such
as the influence of food yolk, or of habitat, and the tendency of diminution in size
‘to give rise to simplification of structure, a point of importance if it be granted
848 REPORT—1890.
that these free larvee are of smaller size than the ancestral forms to which they
correspond,
If, on the other hand, in spite of these powerful modifying causes, we do find a
particular larval form occurring widely and in groups not very closely akin, then
we certainly are justified in attaching great importance to it, and in regarding it
as having strong claims to be accepted as ancestral for these groups.
Concerning these larval forms, and their possible ancestral significance, our
knowledge has made no great advance since the publication of Balfour's memorable
chapter on this subject; and I propose merely to allude briefly to a few of the
more striking instances.
The earliest, the most widely spread, and the most famous of larval forms is the
gastrula, which occurs in a simple or in a modified form in some members of each of
the large animal groups. It is generally admitted that its significance is the same in
all cases, and the evidence is very strong in favour of regarding it as a stage ances-
tral for all Metazoa. The difficulty arising from its varying mode of development
in different forms is, however, still unsolved, and embryologists are not yet agreed
whether the invaginate or delaminate form is the more primitive. In fayour of the
former is its much wider occurrence; in favour of the latter the fact that it is easy
to picture a series of stages leading gradually from a unicellular protozoon to a
blastula, a diblastula, and ultimately a gastrula, each stage being a distinct advance,
both morphological and physiological, on the preceding stage; while in the case of
the invaginate gastrula it is not easy to imagine any advantage resulting from a
flattening or slight pitting in of one part of the surface, sufficient to lead to its
preservation and further development.
Of larval forms later than the gastrula, the most important by far is the Pilidium
larva, from which it is possible, as Balfour has shown, that the slightly later Echino-
derm larva, as well as the widely spread Trochosphere larva, may both be derived.
Balfour concludes that the larval forms of all Coelomata, excluding the crustacea
and vertebrates, may be derived from one common type, which is most nearly repre-
sented now by the Pilidium larva, and which ‘ was an organism something like a
Medusa, with a radial symmetry.’ The tendency of recent phylogenetic specula-
tions is to accept this in full, and to regard as the ancestor of Turbellarians and of
all higher forms, a jelly-fish or ctenophoran, which in place of swimming freely
has taken to crawling on the sea bottom.
Of the two groups excluded above, the crustacea and the vertebrata, the interest of
the former centres inthe much discussed problem of the significance of the Nauplius
larva. There is now a fairly general agreement that the primitive crustacea were
types akin to the phyllopods, z.e., forms with elongated and many-segmented bodies,
and a large number of pairs of similar appendages. If this is correct, then the
explanation of the Nauplius stage must be afforded by the phyllopods themselves,
and it is no use looking beyond this group for it. A Nauplius larva occurs in other
crustacea merely because they have inherited from their phyllopod ancestors the
tendency to develop such a stage, and it is quite legitimate to hold that higher
crustaceans are descended from phyllopods, and that the Nauplius represents in more
or less modified form an earlier ancestor of the phyllopods themselves.
As to the Nauplius itself the first thing to note is that though an early larval
form it cannot bea very primitive form, for it is already an unmistakable crustacean ;
the absence of cilia, the formation of a cuticular investment, the presence of jointed
schizopodous limbs, together with other anatomical characters, proving this point
conclusively. It follows therefore either that the earlier and more primitive stages
are entirely omitted in the development of crustacea, or else that the Nauplius
represents such an early ancestral stage with crustacean characters, which properly
belong to a later stage, thrown back upon it and precociously developed.
The latter explanation is the one usually adopted; but before the question can
be finally decided more accurate observations than we at present possess are needed
concerning the stages intermediate between the egg and the Nauplius.
The absence of a heart in the Nauplius may reasonably be associated with the
small size of the larva.
Concerning the larval forms of vertebrates, it is only in Amphioxus and the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 849
Ascidians that the earliest larval stages are free-living, independent animals. In
both groups the most characteristic larval stage is that in which a notochord is
present, and a neural tube, open in front, and communicating behind through a
neurenteric canal with the digestive cavity, which has no other opening to the
exterior. This is a very early stage, both in Amphioxus and Ascidians; but, so
far as we know, it cannot be compared with any invertebrate larva. It is custo-
mary, in discussions on the affinities of vertebrates, to absolutely ignore the
vertebrate larval forms, and to assume that their peculiarities are due to precocious
development of vertebrate characteristics. It may turn out that this view of the
matter is correct; but it has certainly not yet been proved to be so, and the
development of both Amphioxus and Ascidians is so direct and straightforward
that evidence of some kind may reasonably be required before accepting the
doctrine that this development is entirely deceptive with regard to the ancestry of
vertebrates.
Zoologists have not quite made up their minds what to do with Amphioxus :
apparently the most guileless of creatures, many view it with the utmost suspicion,
and not merely refuse to accept its mute protestations of innocence, but regard and
speak of it as the most artful of deceivers. Few questions at the present day are
in greater need of authoritative settlement.
That ontogeny really is a repetition of phylogeny must, I think, be admitted,
in spite of the numerous and various ways in which the ancestral history may be
distorted during actual development.
Before leaving the subject, it is worth while inquiring whether any explanation
can be found of recapitulation. A complete answer can certainly not be given at
present, but a partial one may, perhaps, be obtained.
Darwin himself suggested that the clue might be found in the consideration
that at whatever age a variation first appears in the parent, it tends to reappear at
@ corresponding age in the offspring ; but this must be regarded rather as a state-
ment of the fundamental fact of embryology than as an explanation of it.
It is probably safe to assume that animals would not recapitulate unless they
were compelled to do so: that there must be some constraining influence at work,
_ forcing them to repeat more or less closely the ancestral stages. It is impossible for
instance to conceive what advantage it can be to a reptilian or mammalian embryo
_ to develop gill clefts which are never used, and which disappear at a slightly later
stage; or how it can benefit a whale, that in its embryonic condition it should
possess teeth which never cut the gum, and which are lost before birth.
Moreover, the history of development in different animals or groups of animals,
offers tc us, as we have seen, a series of ingenious, determined, varied, but more or
less unsuccessful efforts to escape from the necessity of recapitulating, and to
_ Substitute for the ancestral process a more direct method.
A further consideration of importance is that recapitulation is not seen in all
forms of development, but only in sexual development ; or, ut least, only in
development from the ege. In the several forms of asexual development, of which
budding is the most frequent and most familiar, there is no repetition of ancestral
_ phases ; neither is there in cases of regeneration of lost parts, such as the tentacle
_of a snail, the arm of a starfish, or the tail of a lizard; in such regeneration it is
not a larval tentacle, or arm, or tail, that is produced, but an adult one.
The most striking point about the development of the higher animals is that
they all alike commence as eggs. Looking more closely at the egg and the condi-
tions of its development, two facts impress us as of special importance : first, the
egg is a single cell, and therefore represents morphologically the Protozoan, or
earliest ancestral phase ; secondly, the egg, before it can develop, must be fertilised
by aspermatozoon, just as the stimulus of fertilisation by the pollen grain is neces-
sary before the ovum of a plant will commence to develop into the plant-embryo.
The advantage of cross-fertilisation in increasing the vigour of the offspring is
well known, and in plants devices of the most varied and even extraordinary kind
_are adopted to ensure that such cross-fertilisation occurs. The essence of the act of
_cross-fertilisation, which is already established among Protozoa, consists in com-
850 REPORT—1890.
bination of the nuclei of two cells, male and female, derived from different
individuals. ‘The nature of the process is of such a kind that two individual cells
are alone concerned in it; and it may, I think, be reasonably argued that the
reason why animals commence their existence as eggs, 7.c.,as single cells, is because
it is in this way only that the advantage of cross-fertilisation can be secured, an
advantage admittedly of the greatest importance, and to secure which natural
selection would operate powerfully.
The occurrence of parthenogenesis, either occasionally or normally, in certain
groups is not, I think, a serious objection to this view. There are very strong
reasons for holding that parthenogenetic development is a modified form, derived
from the sexual method. Moreover, the view advanced above does not require
that cross-fertilisation should be essential to individual development, but merely
that it should be in the highest degree advantageous to the species, and hence
leaves room for the occurrence, exceptionally, of parthenogenetic development.
If it be objected that this is laying too much stress on sexual reproduction, and
on the advantage of cross-fertilisation, then it may be pointed out in reply that
sexual reproduction is the characteristic and essential mode of multiplication
among Metazoa: that it occurs in all Metazoa, and that when asexual reproduc-
tion, as by budding, &c., occurs, this merely alternates with the sexual process
which, sooner or later, becomes essential.
If the fundamental importance of sexual reproduction to the welfare of the
speciesbe granted, and if it be further admitted that Metazoa are descended from Pro-
tozoa, then we see that there is really a constraining force of a most powerful nature
compelling every animal to commence its life history in the unicellular condition,
the only condition in which the advantage of cross-fertilisation can be obtained ;
z.e., constraining every animal to begin its development at its earliest ancestral
stage, at the very bottom of its genealogical tree.
On this view the actual development of any animal is strictly limited at both
ends: it must commence as an egg, and it must end in the likeness of the parent.
The problem of recapitulation becomes thereby greatly narrowed ; all that remains
being to explain why the intermediate stages in the actual development should
repeat the intermediate stages of the ancestral history.
Although narrowed in this way, the problem still remains one of extreme
difficulty.
It is a consequence of the Theory of Natural Selection that identity of structure
involves community of descent: a given result can only be arrived at through a
given sequence of events: the same morphological goal cannot be reached by two
independent paths, A negro and a white man have had common ancestors in the
past; and it is through the long-continued action of selection and environment
that the two types have been gradually evolved. You cannot turn a white man
into a negro merely by sending him to live in Africa: to create a negro the whole
ancestral history would have to be repeated; and it may be that it is for the same
reason that the embryo must repeat or recapitulate its ancestral history in order to
reach the adult goal.
Tam not sure that we can at present get much further; but the above con-
siderations give opportunity for brief notice of what is perhaps the most note-
worthy of recent embryological papers, Kleinenberg’s remarkable monograph on
Lopadorhynchus.
Kleinenberg directs special attention to what is known to evolutionists as the
difficulty with regard to the origin of new organs, which is to the effect that
although natural selection is competent to account for any amount of modification
in an organ after it has attained a certain size, and become of functional import-
ance, yet that it cannot account for the earliest stages in the formation of an organ
before it has become large enough or sufficiently developed to be of real use. The
difficulty is a serious one; it is carefully considered by Mr. Darwin, and met
completely in certain cases; but, as Kleinenberg correctly states, no general
explanation has been offered with regard to such instances.
As such general explanation Kleinenberg proposes his theory of the develop-
ment of organs by substitution. He points out that any modification of an organ
a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 851
or tissue must involve modification, at least in functional activity, of other
organs. He then continues by urging that one organ may replace or be substituted
for another, the replacing organ being in no way derived morphologically from
the replaced or preceding organ, but having a genetic relation to it of this kind,
that it can only arise in an organism so constituted, and is dependent on the prior
_ existence of the replaced organ, which supplies the necessary stimulus for its
formation.
As an example he takes the axial skeleton of vertebrates. The notochord,
formed by change of function from the wall of the digestive canal, is the sole
skeleton of the lowest vertebrates, and the earliest developmental phase in all the
higher forms. The notochord gives rise directly to no other organ, but is gradually
replaced by other and unlike structures by substitution. The notochord is an
intermediate organ, and the cartilaginous skeleton which replaces it is only intel-
ligible through the previous existence of the notochord; while, in its turn, the
eo skeleton gives way, being replaced, through substitution, by the bony
skeleton.
The successive phases in the evolution of weapons might be quoted as an illus-
tration of Kleinenberg’s theory. The bow and arrow is a better weapon than a
stick or stone; it is used for the same purpose, and the importance or need for a
better weapon led to the replacement of the sling by the bow; the bow does not
arise by further development or increasing perfection of the sling: it is an entirely
new weapon, towards the formation of which the older and more primitive weapons
have acted as a stimulus, and which has replaced these latter by substitution,
while the substitution at a later date of firearms for the bow and arrow is merely
a further instance of the same principle.
It is too early yet to realise the full significance of Kleinenberg’s most sug-
gestive theory; but if it be really true that each historic stage in the evolution of
an organ is necessary as a stimulus to the development of the next succeeding
stage, then it becomes clear why animals are constrained to recapitulate. MKleinen-
berg suggests further that the extraordinary persistence in embryonic life of organs
which are rudimentary and functionless in the adult may also be explained by his
_ theory, the presence of such organs in the embryo being indispensable as a stimulus
to the development of the permanent structures of the adult.
| It would be easy to point out difficulties in the way of the theory. The
- omission of historic stages in the actual ontogenetic development, of which almost all
‘That recapitulation does actually occur, that the several stages in the develop-
“ment of an animal are inseparably linked with and determined by its ancestral
history, must be accepted. ‘To take any other view is to admit that the structure
of animals and the history of their development form a mere snare to entrap our
judgment.’
Embryology, however, is not to be regarded as a master-key that is to open
the gates of knowledge and remove all obstacles from our path without further
trouble on our part; it is rather to be viewed and treated as a delicate and com-
licated instrument, the proper handling of which requires the utmost nicety of
balance and adjustment, and which, unless employed with the greatest skill and
judgment, may yield false instead of true results.
Embryology is indeed a most powerful and efficient aid, but it will not, and
€annot, provide us with an immediate or complete answer to the great riddle of
852 REPORT— 1890.
life. Complications, distortions, innumerable and bewildering, confront us at
every step, and the progress of knowledge has so far served rather to increase the
number and magnitude of these pitfalls than to teach us how to avoid them.
Still, there is no cause for despair—far from it ; if our difficulties are increasing,
so also are our means of grappling with them; if the goal appears harder to reach
than we thought for, on the other hand its position is far better defined, and the
means of approach, the lines of attack, are more clearly recognised.
One thing above all is apparent, that embryologists must not work single-
handed, and must not be satisfied with an acquaintance, however exact, with
animals from the side of development only ; for embryos have this in common with
maps, that too close and too exclusive a study of them is apt to disturb a man’s
reasoning power.
Embryology is a means, not an end. Our ambition is to explain in what
manner and by what stages the present structure of animals has been attained.
Towards this embryology affords most potent aid ; but the eloquent protest of the
great anatomist of Heidelberg must be laid to heart, and it must not be forgotten
that it is through comparative anatomy that its power to help is derived.
What would it profit us, as Gegenbaur justly asks, to know that the higher
vertebrates when embryos have slits in their throats, unless through comparative
anatomy we were acquainted with forms now existing in which these slits are
structures essential to existence ? Anatomy defines the goal, tells us of the things
that have to be explained ; embryology offers a means, otherwise denied to us, of
attaining it.
Comparative anatomy and paleontology must be studied most earnestly
by those who would turn the lessons of embryology to best account, and it must
never be forgotten that it is to men like Johannes Miiller, Stannius, Cuvier, and
John Hunter, the men to whom our exact knowledge of comparative anatomy is
due, that we owe also the possibility of a science of embryology.
The following Paper and Reports were read :—
1. On the Ornithology of the Sandwich Islands.
By Professor A. Newron, F.R.S.
2. Report of the Committee io Improve and Experiment with a Deev-Sea
Tow-Net. See Reports, p. 471.
3. Report of the Committee on the Naples Zoological Station.
See Reports, p. 449.
4, Third Report of the Commvittee on the Flora and Fauna of the West
India Islands.—See Reports, p. 447.
5. Third Report of the Committee on the Disappearance of Native Plants
Jrom their Local Habitats.—See Reports, p. 465.
6, Fourth Report of the Committee for establishing a Botanical Station
at Paradeniya, Ceylon.i—See Reports, p. 470.
7. Report of the Committee on the Migration of Birds.
See Reports, p. 464.
!
“ig
¥
:
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 853
8. Report of the Committee appointed to arrange for the Occupation of a
Table at the Marine Biological Luboratory, Plymouwth——See Reports,
p- 444.
9. Report of the Committee on the Invertebrate Fauna and Oryptogamic
Flora of the Fresh Waters of the British Isles.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Discussion on the Teaching of Botany, opened by Professors MarsHaLt
Warp, F. Otiver, and ¥. O. Bower.
2. On the Cretaceous Mammals of North Aimerica.
By Professor O. C. Marsh,
Remains of mammals have long been known from the Triassic and Jurassic
formations, both in the Old World and in the New, all indicating animals of small
size and low organisation. None were known from the Cretaceous, but in the
Tertiary above this class was dominant, and even at the base of the formation
was represented by many and various forms,
A comparison of the mammals from the Jurassic and Tertiary made it certain
that intermediate forms must exist in the Cretaceous, and for many years special
search has been made for them in various countries, but until recently without
success. ‘The most promising field was evidently in the Rocky Mountain region, and
here a systematic search had been made. A few fragmentary remains were found in
1882, but not in place. The author has since secured from the Laramie formation
more than a thousand specimens of mammalian remains, including jaws, teeth, and
various portions of the skeleton, most of them in good preservation. They repre
sent many new genera and species, and were all found in the typical Laramie,
either in place, or in association with other fossils that determine their geological
position beyond doubt.1
The vertebrate fossils found with them are mainly remains of Dinosaurs,
which are represented by several families. The most abundant specimens belong
to the Ceratopside, and with these are others allied to Megalosaurus, Hadrosaurus,,
and related forms. Crocodiles, turtles, and various fishes, mostly ganoids, are also
represented in the same deposits, which have been named by the author the
Ceratops beds.
The mammalian remains themselves also, to some extent, indicate their horizon,
and this is one of the interesting points connected with the discovery. Many of
them belong to the group the author has called the Adlotheria, which contains the
Triassic Triglyphus, Tritylodon, and Microlestes, the Jurassic Stereognathus,
Plagiaulax, and Bolodon in Europe, and Adlodon and Ctenacodon in America, as
well as some later forms.
Most of the genera show close affinities with the Triassic and Jurassic types,
and one genus cannot at present be distinguished from Dryolestes. Another genus
appears more like an insectivore, with teeth of the same general form as Jupaia.
Besides these, there are several genera of small marsupials, which, although quite
distinct, seem to have near affinities with some American Tertiary forms, or others
still existing, especially the Opossums.
Carnivores, rodents, and ungulates appear to be entirely wanting in this
unique fauna. A still more surprising fact is the absence of their probable an-
cestors, unless, indeed, the insectivorous forms are entitled to this important position.
1 American Journal of Science, vol. xxxviii. pp. 81-92, plates ii.y.
and pp. 177-80, plates vii—vili. August 1889.
854 REPORT—1890.
As a whole, the mammals already found in these deposits are very nearly what
was expected from the Cretaceous, but thus far the older types predominate.
The Allotheria from this horizon appear to be distinet from the Marsupialia, and
some of the specimens secured point to the Monotremes as possible allies. One
genus, at least, of the new forms has a free coracoid, as well as some other charac-
ters of Monotremes.
Characteristic teeth of the principal known genera of Cretaceous mammals were
exhibited by the author, who pointed out the close relationship of many of them
with Jurassic forms. All the Cretaceous mammals yet discovered are very small
in size, and all are from essentially the same horizon. They indicate a rich and
varied mammalian fauna in the Cretaceous period, but as a whole they are
Mesozoic in type. The ancestors of most of the Tertiary mammals are yet to be
discovered.
3. On Androgynous Cones in Pinus Thunbergii, and some remarks on their
Morphology. By ¥. Ernest WEIss.
The author described some male cones of Pinus Thunbergii (Massoniana), in
which the lower portion bore stamens, the upper portion ovuliferous scales sub-
tended by the usual bract scales. Such cones had been described by Dr. Masters
for this species of Pinus, but were stated by him to be modified female cones.
Among the transition stages from the male to the female portion of the cones, Mr.
Weiss described and figured some which had not previously been observed in the
numerous cases of androgynous cones examined by Mohl, Kramer, Dickson,
Oerstedt, and Masters. Above the ordinary staminal leaf he found one stamen
subtending a second stamen, and transition stages in which the upper stamen was
replaced by a rudimentary stamen, and finally by an ovuliferous scale. Hence he
concluded that the ovuliferous scale was a leaf-structure, and not a modified shoot,
as held by Strassburger, Dickson, and Masters, nor a fusion of two leaves as
considered by Celakovsky, Velenovsky, and others.
He also found stages in which the upper stamen persisted, but the subtending
stamen had become replaced by a bract scale. This afforded additional proof that
the ovuliferous scale was of the same nature as the single upper stamen, and
morphologically its equivalent. The writer then criticised Velenovslky’s last con-
tribution to the question of the morphology of the female cone (Flora, 1888), and
finally supported Eichler’s view that the bract scale and the ovuliferous scale are
parts of a single leaf, illustrating this view by the stages described above.
The stamen arising seemingly in the axil of a subtending stamen he considered
asa double stamen, formed either by ‘dedoublement’ or by reversion to an ancestral
peltate stamen with four sporangia, and derivable from a multisporangiate stamen
of a Cycad. The upper portion of the stamen usually disappeared in the group of
the Coniferze. In the same way the female cone could be derived from a female
cone of a Cycad by a division of the carpel into two, the upper portion carrying
the ovules, the lower portion sterile, but probably with some function such as
keeping the cone open during the time of pollination, and then becoming in most
cases unimportant and inconspicuous. The female cones of Pinus would therefore
be equivalent to those of Araucaria or the Cycads, and be of the nature of flowers,
like the male cone, and not as Celakovsky would have it, inflorescence.
The androgynous cone above described would be of the nature of an herma-
phrodite flower, and not a mixture of flower and inflorescence as it would be
according to Celakoysky’s interpretation.
A, On a curious Cell-content in Eucommia ulmoides (Oliv.).
By F. Ernest WEIss.
Some bark of this remarkable tree (Tu-chung) from Central China was given the
author for examination by Professor Oliver. The bark, and leaves also to a slight
extent, show when broken asunder a number of silly-looking threads, which are’
very elastic, but after a certain degree of tension very extensible. These threads,
insoluble in acids, alkalies, or alcohol, swell up greatly in chloroform, turpentine,
3
‘q
3
?
5
.
. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 855
or benzole, and are to a certain extent soluble in these substances when heated.
If the threads are heated dry they readily melt. This would indicate them to be
of the nature of resin or balsam. When examined microscopically these threads
are seen to run longitudinally in the inner cortex occasionally, but most fre-
quently in the phloem, between the sieve-tubes and the well-marked companion
cells. Only in a single instance was one seen to branch. In the leaf they
accompany the vascular bundles generally on both sides of the phloem, and
terminate among the collecting cells on the upper side of the leaf.
In the fruit which the author had examined the threads are much more
numerous, and are shown to be contained in cells which have a thicker cellulose
wall here than in the phloem, where they are very delicate indeed. He takes
them to be of the nature of latex cells, though their contents are more homogeneous,
never showing starch grains or other granules. It is curious to find this resinous
substance within the cells, in spite of the statements of De Bary, Tsirch, and
Volkens, that these substances are never found as such within the cells, but are
passed through the cell wall as resinogenous substances, and that the resin itself
is formed outside the cell.
5. On an Abnormality in Tropeolum, with remarks on the origin of the
Spur. By Professor A. Denny.
6. Notes on the Natural History of Hierro and Graciosa, two outlying
members of the Canary Islands. By the Rey. Canon Tristram, F.B.S.
7. Contributions to a Knowledge of the Composition of the Human Lens, espe-
cially in reference to the changes it undergoes with age and in cataract.
By Wivu1aM Jos Couns, M.D., M.S., B.Sc., FRCS.
This research was undertaken as being ancillary to the question of the pro-
priety of extraction of immature cataracts. It was found that information on
the subject of the varying composition of the human lens in regard to solids, water,
&¢., in relation to age was very meagre. The difficulty of obtaining clear, fresh,
human lenses for analysis restricted the number of observations and extended the
duration of the research; the value of the data obtained is enhanced by the iden-
tity of procedure in each case. Post-mortem material was not employed. Inci-
dentally the research corroborated some previous work on the increased weight of
the lens with advancing age. The weight, total solids, water, and ash, and the
percentage proportion of the three last to the first, are set forth in the case of
twelve clear human lenses at ages 4 to 68 in the following table :
. Total Percentum
No. Age Weicht | Water Solids Ash
7 Water Solids Ash
1 4 151 103 048 003 68 32 19
2 6 183 139 044 -002 76 24 1:0
3 i 143 ‘096 047 ‘001 67 33 ti
4 9 "180 "109 ‘O71 “001 61 39 “5
5 10 163 113 050 ‘001 69 31 6
6 | 11 *200 154 046 ‘001 106 23 5
7 26 "215 153 062 “002 71 29 9
8 27 188 136 “052 ‘001 72 28 5
9 28 *1915 132 *0595 002 69 31 1:0
10 40 "2175 "1575 ‘060 ‘001 72 28 5
ll 64 "247 176 ‘O71 ‘001 71 29 “4
12 68 *210 "135 “075 003 64 36 14
Average. .} 1908 "1336 ‘0571 ‘0016 70° 30°
. eee
856 REPORT—1890.
The researches of Becker, Deutschmann, Cohn, Laptschinsky, Priestley Smith,
and others are briefly reviewed. Due caution is observed in considering the results
of the analyses as rather contributory and suggestive than final and conclusive.
Attention is drawn to the increasing weight generally observed with age, and °
to the small range of the ratio of solids and water in healthy lenses, being
fairly constant at all ages. Comparison is made with similar analyses of ten
cataractous lenses, and conclusions drawn as to the nature of the change; and
certain bearings of the facts ascertained upon the nature of Presbyopia, Hyperme-
tropia acquisita, and Glaucoma, and the operation for cataract are pointed out.
8. Indications for the Cure of Infectious Diseases.
By #. H. Hankin, B.A., from the Cambridge Pathological Laboratory.
Koch’s discovery of the tubercle bacillus, and the great advance in our know-
ledge of the bacteriology of disease to which this gave rise, not only attracted
great attention in the scientific world, but produced the hope that the eure of infec-
tious diseases might be obtained simply by the employment of antiseptics. The
numerous attempts that were made to cure consumption and other diseases
by means of antiseptics, whether given by inhalation or otherwise, have practically
resulted in failure. All substances hitherto discovered that have the power of
destroying microbes are also poisons to the higher animals. If they are adminis-
tered to the animals in quantities necessary to destroy the pathogenic microbes,
they will also kill the infected animal.
The researches of Behring, Nissen, Bouchard, and others have shown that in an
animal that is naturally refractory to a disease, or which has been made artificially
immune against it, there is present some unknown substance which has, to adapt
Bouchard’s term, a bactericidal action on the microbe in question. In other words,
there is present a natural antiseptic of unknown nature in quantities sufficient to
prevent the growth of the pathogenic microbe, but yet without affecting the
general health of the animal. Is it not conceivable that by injecting this substance
into animals we might obtain better results in the way of curing infectious diseases
than have been obtained by means of such unnatural antiseptics (if the term may
be used) as mercuric chloride or eucalyptol ?
For some time past the author has attempted to discover the nature of these sub-
stances, and it appears to him that his results are sufficiently interesting to be com-
municated. In a conversation that he had with Dr. Lauder Brunton some years:
ago, he suggested to him that possibly the organism protects, or tries to protect,
itself from microbes by means of ferments. Just as an amceba seems to secrete a
ferment to digest a microbe that it has swallowed, so, possibly, the cells of the
higher animals secrete ferments to protect themselves against pathogenic microbes.
If this be so, it becomes of great importance to know what is the ferment in ques-
tion, and he thought it would be worth while to see whether any of the ferments
that the animal body is known to produce could exert any influence on the course
of the disease. His earlier results have appeared in a paper read before the Cam-
bridge Philosophical Society. By injection of minute quantities of pepsin and
trypsin into rabbits twenty-four hours after they had been inoculated with
anthrax, he found that the course of the disease could be in many cases modified in
aremarkable manner. In one case a rabbit that had been inoculated for him by
Professor Koch with virulent anthrax completely recovered. ‘Twenty-four hours
after its inoculation he injected 2 c.c. ot a ‘05 per cent. solution of trypsin into its
lateral ear vein. The same day its temperature was found to be 37°°4, that is to
say, nearly 23 degrees below the normal temperature of a rabbit. It remained at
approximately this low figure for some days, showing a very gradual rise, and only
on the sixth day after inoculation had it reached 38°.. From this point if rapidly
rose, till on the eleventh day after inoculation it was 40°:1. On the twelfth day
it stood at 40:05, when observation of its temperature was discontinued. Another
interesting point about the case was the appearance of pus at the seat of inocula-
tion, On the eighth day after the experiment began, a small hard tumour, about
ay
a aie
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 857
half an inch in diameter, was found at the seat of inoculation. On the thirteenth
day a second large tumour appeared in front of the former. This gradually in-
ereased in size, and was found to contain caseating pus. About a week later no
further increase in size could be noted. The animal appeared to be emaciated, but
after some weeks was strong and fat. Although he was not so successful with the
other twelve rabbits that he had used in this research, they often exhibited sym-
ptoms of great interest. In one case the rabbit lived for thirteen days; in most
cases, however, they died in 60-70, hours after inoculation, or perhaps lived no
longer than the control-rabbit. After treatment with either pepsin or trypsin the
following peculiar appearances could be observed in their spleens :
(1) Whereas in the control-rabbit, as was usual with virulent anthrax, the
bacilli were seen as short rods, in the research animals the bacilli were often to be
found arranged in the long chains so characteristic of attenuated anthrax.
(2) Whereas in the control-rabbit phagocytes containing bacilli can only very
rarely be found, in the rabbits treated with pepsin and trypsin, in some cases,
spleen-phagocytes containing bacilli are particularly numerous.
(3) The chains of bacilli sometimes showed signs of degeneration, staining very
irregularly, some joints being stained, others remaining nearly colourless. In
. other experiments that he has performed since, the author has seen degenerated
‘
bacilli at the seat of inoculation, but nowhere else.
Another interesting point is that rabbits whose life is prolonged by treatment
with ferment will occasionally show diarrhcea for some days before their death.
The author has only noticed this in two or three cases.
With regard to these facts, it may be noted that the attenuated appearance of
the bacilli, the signs of phagocytosis, the elongation of the incubation period, and
the diarrhoea, can all be regarded as indications that the power the animal possesses
of resisting the onset of the disease has been increased by the injection of ferments.
On the other hand, the striking irregularity in the results must be noticed. Often
an animal treated with pepsin or trypsin will die as soon as, or even sooner than, the
control-animal. The bacilli in its spleen may be not longer, but shorter than usual,
and phagocytosis, and the enlargement of the spleen that generally accompanies it,
may be completely absent. It is a general rule that opposing forces produce irregu-
lar results ; and the widely varying effects of ferment injection led me to look for
some conflicting tendencies. Possibly, on the one hand, the ferment was harmful
to the anthrax bacilli; but, on the other hand, also harmful to their host, and so
lowered its bactericidal power. He attempted to decide whether this was the
explanation of his results in the following way. So far as is known, acquired
tolerance ean be obtained far more readily against poisonous proteids than against
any other kind of poison. Since pepsin and trypsin either are proteid in nature, or
appear to be more allied to proteids than to any other class of bodies, would it not
be possible to obtain an acquired tolerance on the part of the rabbit against them,
leaving unaffected their action on the later-arriving anthrax bacilli? The first
experiment to test this had a result apparently favourable to the idea. On April 6
three rabbits, A, B, and C, received 4, 3, and 13 c.c. respectively of a ‘08 per cent.
solution of trypsin.! The next day 5,1, and 13 c.c. respectively of a ‘1 per cent.
solution were injected into each rabbit, and on April 8 they received respectively
4, 2,and2c.c. On April 7 they were all inoculated with anthrax. A control-
rabbit was also inoculated, and succumbed after about sixty hours. He has in his
notes that the anthrax culture was ‘ deuxiéme vaccin,’ but as it had been repeatedly
transmitted from culture to culture (on agar-agar) for at least eight months, and
generally killed rabbits in thirty-six to forty-eight hours, without any doubt it
had in some measure, at all events, recovered its virulence. All three rabbits had
diarrhceea. <A, that is to say the rabbit which had most trypsin, died a week after
the anthrax inoculation. The other two recovered. B had diarrhoea for some
days, but this had vanished, and its temperature was normal on April 18. At
this date C’s temperature was 40°-4, and it still had diarrhoea, which only dis-
1 The trypsin employed was obtained from Schering’s Griine Apotheke, Berlin.
1890. 3K
858 REPORT—1890.
appeared by the end of the month. On May 1, B, which seemed perfectiy healthy,
was re-inoculated with anthrax, and though it died at the same time as a control-
guinea-pig, namely, thirty-six hours, a large number of phagocytes containing
bacilli could be found in its spleen. Rabbit C remained emaciated. It seemed to
have a slight paralysis of the hind legs, and was killed on May 2. The spleen
showed many macrophages containing pigment granules, The supra-renal capsules
were enlarged, but no cavity was visible in them. The psoas muscle was reduced
almost to afilm. In another experiment, in which pepsin was employed in 1 per cent.
solution in repeated and gradually increasing doses, all three rabbits died within
thirty-six hours after inoculation; but many splenic phagocytes crowded with bacilli
were seen. In other respects the appearances were those of typical anthrax. In
a third experiment six rabbits each received 1-2 c.c. doses of ‘2 per cent. trypsin
on two successive days. The next day they were inoculated with anthrax, and
received 1-8 c.c. each of a1 per cent. solution of trypsin. Of these none lived
longer than sixty hours (the control had died in thirty-six hours). In all except
one the bacilli were, for the most part, in unusually long chains, and often either
in, or apparently growing out of, phagocytes.
In a fourth experiment five rabbits received slightly smaller doses of trypsin, and
died of typical anthrax at the same time as the control.
It is obvious that these experiments give but a meagre support to the suggestion
that the supposed harmful effect of the ferment (as regards the system) can be
obviated by producing an acquired tolerance against it, and, considering the small
number of his experiments, and the complicated nature of the factors involved, the
author is loth to draw any positive conclusion. But the further question arises, viz-
how, when the ferment does have any action at all, does it produce its effect on the
course of the disease ? He set out with the assumption that the ferments might exert
a direct bactericidal action on the microbe. But, considering the minute quantities
of ferment necessary to produce the results described above, and the complete
absence of evidence that pepsin and trypsin have any direct antiseptic action, it
seems hardly likely that this simple explanation is the true one. Another line of
work that he has recently been engaged in has, however, led him to another more
probable explanation of these results of ferment injection. In a paper that he
read last May to the Royal Society, he described a proteid body, which he has
extracted from the lymphatic glands and spleen of various animals, which has the
power of destroying anthrax bacilli. Since publishing this paper he has found that
a bacteria-killing substance can be extracted from the blood of febrile animals.
For example, a rabbit was inoculated with anthrax; twenty-four hours later, when
its temperature had risen to 40°-4, it was decapitated and the blood allowed to run
into alcohol. A watery extract of the precipitated blood showed bacteria-killing
powers. A watery extract of the blood of a normal rabbit similarly treated
showed, on the contrary, no distinct bactericidal action. This fact indicates that we
are dealing with one of the essential elements of the febrile reaction. Probably the
substance obtained from the febrile blood is identical with the bacteria-killing globulin
that he obtained from the cells of the spleen, and, if this be so, it seems to deserve
the name that he has already given it of a ‘defensive proteid.’ In other words,
the system, when menaced by the attack of a pathogenic microbe, is protected by
the appearance of this substance in the circulation. Now, a paper on the physio-
logical action of ferments has recently appearcd,' in which it is shown that these
substances, when injected into the blood, cause fever, and a diminution in the
number of the white blood-corpuscles. The author of this paper believes that these
white blood-corpuscles break up and liberate fibrin ferment. To this he ascribes
the increased coagulability of the blood which he finds to be present after injection
of small doses of various ferments. It is conceivable that the defensive proteid
that the author has discovered would also be thrown into the circulation on the
injection of ferments. Here, then, we have a possible explanation of the mode of
action of trypsin and pepsin in modifying the anthrax attack.
Hildebrandt, Virchow’'s A7chives, vol. ii. p. 1.
ae
CC Ce
se
1 eal
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION .D. 859
9. Experiments with Drugs as a Question of Science.!
By WitutaM Suarp, F.B.S.
At the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, held
at Nottingham in 1866, a paper was read ‘On the Physiological Action of
Medicines,’ the subject being the action of medicines when taken in health.
The experiments already tried were referred to, and suggestions were made
relative to further experiments (1) on the objects to be pursued, (2) on the mode
of proceeding, (3) on the utilisation of the results.
As these experiments have been continued by the author since the date of that
paper, now twenty-four years ago, it seems to be a duty to make some report to the
Association. On the present occasion this shall be confined to the conclusions
arrived at on one part of the question only. ‘To attempt more would occupy too
much of the time of this meeting.
Perhaps the Section may be reminded that the primary object of these experi-
ments is to answer this question in science: What is the action of the substances
called drugs on the living body of man?
It is evident that experiments made in order to discover this action must be
made on persons in health ; for, when drugs are given to the sick, the complications
arising from the existing disorder make it difficult, and often impossible, to dis-
tinguish the action of the drug from the effects of the disease.
Everyone is aware that this enquiry is comparatively a new one, and that as
yet little is known of it.
The conclusions arrived at, which are to be laid before the meeting to-day, are
the results of experiments with different quantities of the same drug.
They may be briefly expressed as follows :—
1. The smallest doses used in these experiments have power to act upon the
living human body.
2. The commonly received opinion that the actions of drugs are simply increased
in degree and not altered in character by increasing the dose is an error.
3. The actions of doses are sufficiently distinct to admit of classification.
4, This classification has-two divisions. The first contains groups of doses
arranged as they act upon the same person. The second contains groups of doses
arranged as they act upon different persons.
5. Experiments show that several small doses act upon the same person nearly
in the same manner; these, therefore, form a group. And there are several larger
doses which act differently from the first group, but in regard to themselves nearly
in the same manner; these, therefore, form another group. This is the first
division.
6. When not only the quantity of the drug but also the person experimented
upon is varied, a complication is introduced, owing to the varying sensitiveness of
different persons ; nevertheless a succession of groups of doses may still be observed,
These groups differ from, and often overlap, those of the first series. This is the
second division.
7. Each of the groups of doses in either division has characteristic actions, in
kind or in degree, which distinguish them from the others.
8. The actions of a group of certain small doses are directly contrary to the
actions of another group of certain larger doses, This conclusion is so clearly
established as applicable to all drugs, and is so new, that the author has felt it
necessary to give it a name, and has called it Antipraay, ¢.e., contrary action.
9. There is a group of intermediate doses, between these contrary-acting groups,
which has both actions in succession.
10. There is a group of still larger doses, which have the same actions as the
smallest ones, but differ from them in degree; they act more violently, and their
action is accompanied with more or less serious complication.
11. There are yet larger doses, which again act in the contrary direction.
12. The experiments already tried seem to indicate that between every two
1 The Paper, with a Supplement, will be published by Messrs. Bell & Sons as
Essay LVIII.
3K 2
860 REPORT— 1890.
single-action groups there is a group of intermediate doses having the double
action.
13. It would appear, therefore, that four groups of gradually increasing doses
form a cycle, which is then repeated.
14, These results of experiments are facts. Theoretical explanations of them are
to be rejected, such explanations being hindrances, not helps, in our search after
truth. The facts themselves, without any explanation of them, admit of being
made practically useful in prescribing medicines for the sick.
For details of many of these experiments the author refers to ‘Essay LVIL.,
A Study of Doses,’ published by Messrs, George Bell and Sons, London, 1890,
10. On the Incubation of Snakes’ Eqgs.1 By Dr. WattER SIBLEY.
After giving a short review of the literature and referring to the observations
of Valenciennes, Sclater, and Forbes on the increase of the temperature in the in-
cubating female Python, the author went on to describe a series of experiments
he had recently made on the eggs of the common English snake, in subjecting
them to various degrees of temperature and moisture. Some eggs were placed in
an incubator at a temperature of 90° F. and others were kept in a room of a
temperature of 63° F., and the respective dates of hatching given. Some of the
eggs which were kept in the room were one night placed in a low temperature of
85° F., and many of these afterwards hatched. The author then proceeded to
describe in detail the process of hatching. At first a slit, usually soon becoming
V-shaped, appeared at the highest part of the egg-shell, whether the egg was
placed on its side or on one end. At the crack the snout of the young reptile
appeared. Then after a time the head was protruded, and often it remained out
of the shell for some hours before the body and tail were hatched; if disturbed
the head was again withdrawn into the shell. The author had seen the fully
hatched young snakes return into their shells when alarmed. The appearances of
the snakes when first hatched were finally described. They were very smooth
and velvety to the touch, the yellow ring beautifully marked from the first, and
the eyes open, but often there was some opacity about the cornea, which disap-
peared in the course of a few hours. In length they were about six inches, and
in weight about eighty grains. The characteristic hissing sound produced, when
disturbed, was audible within the first few days.
11. Some of the probable causes of Variation in the Eggs of Birds.
By H. B. Hewerson.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Development of the Head of the Fly of Chironomus.
By Professor L. C. Mratn, F.L.S., and A. Hammonp.
2. On the Structure of Muscular Fibre as demonstrated by ‘ Castings’
taken in Collodium. By J. B. Haycrart.
3. Notes on the Anatomy and Morphology of the Cystidea. By P. H.
Carpenter, F’.R.S.—See p. 821.
1 Published in extenso in Nature, 1890.
4. On Variability in Development. By Professor A. Mitnes MarsHatt,
F.R.S., and KE. J. Buss.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 861
5. On Secreting Cells.1 By Professor G. Ginson.
During some years past the author has been engaged in studying the structure
and mode of action of secreting cells. For, with respect to the question of secre-
tion, it seems to him that, though an immense number of works have been published
on the subject, there remains still much that is unknown.
A complete and adequate summary of these still unfinished researches is not
given, the author confining himself to a very short account of the principal results
. obtained by describing in a few words several of the most interesting objects which
he has met with in different groups of beings.
: (1) The silk-producing cells of the Lepidoptera.—The author made a short com-
munication on the secretion of these cells last year, at the Newcastle meeting. On
that occasion he pointed out that these cells are perfectly closed elements, their
inner surface being covered with a thin but very strong and finely striated
membrane.
The silk substance, produced within the protoplasm, passes from it into the
cavity of the organ, not by forcing its way violently through this membrane, but
by filtering through it slowly and regularly.
(2) The epithehal cells with a striated plate—These cells are well known to
biological students ; but many are not aware of the degree of development to which
this striated plate may attain in several inferior animals, especially in the
arthropods.
There exist two kinds of striated plates, which shall be distinguished as the
open and the closed.
The former is composed of tiny rods only, very regularly disposed on the inner
surface of the cell, and entirely separated from each other. The cells bearing this
plate resemble so closely ciliated cells that one is apt to mistake one for the other;
but in the striated plate the tiny rods never move, and so in spite of their likeness
and morphological homology they are not real cilia.
These motionless rods are ordinarily glued together by a sticky matter, which
conceals them more or less from sight. But often, as happens particularly during
digestion, they are entirely free from this matter, and then they appear exactly
like cilia. It is thus scarcely necessary to say that there is no question of tubes
piercing the plate, and that therefore Professor Leydig’s denomination, ‘ Poren-
kaniilen,’ is by no means to be retained with respect to the strive.
Very striking instances of this kind of plate are found in the intestine and Mal-
pighian tubes of insects, myriapods, and crustaceans. In vertebrates this plate
is well known in the digestive organs. It exists also in the kidney, for the so-called
‘ Heidenhain’s rods’ are nothing else than the rods of an open striated plate covering
certain cells of the urinary tubes.
In the closed plate, on the contrary, the rods or cilia are united to each other
by transverse fibres, and its external surface seems to be closed with an extremely
thin’and apparently structureless membrane, Its structure does not differ from
that of many other cellular membranes.
Certain parts of the intestine of insects and crustaceans are covered with these
closed plates ; but in certain species, for instance in the Oniscus, the digestive tube
_ does not contain a single open plate.
(3) The silk-producing cells of Tenthredo—The silk-producing gland of this
species differs notably from that of the silkworm. It consists of an epithelial tube
with many large appendicular cells. These are the producing elements. They are
acked with silk spherules that fuse together into a more considerable mass, which
glides directly into the tube through a yawning aperture. In this case the secreted
substance does not filter through a membrane.
oe
1 This work when published in extenso will contain a summary and a criticism
of the literature of the subject.
862 REPORT—1 890.
(4) The bursting cells.—Many well-known epithelial cells are not essentially
different from the silk-producing cells of Tenthredo. For example, the so-called
‘ caliciform cells’ and other elements of the same kind.
These cells are ordinarily furnished either with real vibrating cilia, or with a
striated plate.
They work in the same way as the cells with a striated plate during the first
part of their life; but the secreted product soon accumulates within their proto-
plasm in the form of one or more small masses. These increase gradually in size,
and finally cause the cell membrane to burst. Their substance begins then to
glide more or less rapidly into the cavity of the organ.
The author has observed in certain cases, but not very often, for instance in the
Triton cristatus, that this gliding mass was divided from the protoplasm, not by a
thin and apparently structureless membrane, but by a striated zone entirely similar
to the plate, of which it was the continuation. In this case he is inclined to think
that the wall of the small cavity, as well as the striated plate itself, continues to
allow the permeation of the secreted fluid.
The intestinal villosities of certain coleoptera, for instance, the Cephalotes, con-
tain in their middle part a series of transparent cells entirely different from the
other epithelial cells. The nearer they lie to the digestive cavity, the larger they
are, The last and largest one is often found in a state of destruction, which
indicates that it has burst and given forth its contents.
Another kind of cell which does not exactly burst is found in the intestine of
many insects and myriapods. In these elements the secretion accumulates at the
extremity of the cell until it forms there a considerable protuberance. These
protuberances become pediculated, and finally they fall offinto the tube. Of course,
they themselves are destroyed later, bursting and setting free their contents.
These facts and many others which have not been mentioned induce the author
to adopt the following view on secretion :—
All the cases of cellular secretion are reduced to two general processes: the
regular filtration and the direct pouring out.
In the first process the substance permeates more or less rapidly through a
filtering membrane. A thin and apparently structureless membrane is found
ordinarily when the secretion is active and perfectly liquid, as, for instance, the
secretion of the bile. A striated plate is often connected with the slower produc-
tion of a more or less viscous substance. A viscous substance may certainly filter
through the striated plate, and this plate, perhaps, plays then the part of an accu-
mulating apparatus, out of which the substance may be cast quickly when a large
supply is wanted.
In the second process the substance does not pass through a filtering membrane,
but is cast out directly. The excess of production over elimination causes the sub-
stance at first to accumulate in a perceptible manner within the protoplasm, and
produces subsequently the opening or bursting of the cell. The first process seems
to be the primitive one, the most regular, and, in a certain sense, might be called
the most physiological process of cellular secretion.
6. On the Regeneration of Lost Parts in Polyzoa.
By Stoney F, Harmer, I.A., B.Sc.
It has long been known that, in the great majority of Polyzoa, a remarkable
process takes place, by which, in each individual unit of the colony, the polypide
degenerates from time to time, and becomes a ‘brown body.’ A new polypide is
then formed as an internal bud from some part of the old zocecium, and soon
becomes the functional digestive system of the latter.
In Crisia, one of the Cyclostomata, not only are the polypides periodically
renewed, but the zocecia themselves, or even whole branches of the colony, may
be regenerated. his regeneration of parts other than the polypides is a subject
which has hitherto attracted comparatively little attention.
In the early spring, submerged stones from suitable localities may be found to
be covered by the discoloured stumps of colonies of Crisia which grew in the
a
“
CR PP POC GE mt,
aa. 4
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7? £4 weve +
= oo
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 863
preceding year; and it may be seen that here and there a young zocecium or
branch, noticeable from its pure white colour, is being budded out from an appa-
rently dead stump.
This regenerative process may take place in various ways. For instance, an
old zocecium may form a fresh aperture, and again hecome tenanted by a polypide ;
or it may grow out into a rootlet or into a growing-point, which will, in course of
time, give rise to a complex branch. If a rootlet is formed, it may acquire a con-
siderable length, and then either give rise to a fresh stem as a lateral branch, or it
may after a time take on the characters of a growing-point, so that the new stem
is the direct prolongation of what was at first an ordinary rootlet. It is well
known that the rootlets formed during the normal life of the colony have also this
power of giving rise to fresh stems.
More commonly the new branches formed from the stumps of old colonies are
developed from the old joints; sometimes from the lateral joints, at the points
where old branches have been thrown off; and sometimes from the axial joints, at
the points where old axial internodes have been lost. Or if the fracture of a
branch has taken place across an internode, the broken surface of the internode
has the power of developing a fresh growing-point, which ultimately gives rise to
a new branch.
In certain species of Crista the aperture of the zocecium has the form of a long
tube. In the lower parts of the colony it is generally found that these tubular
portions have been lost, and that the part of the zocecium which is left behind is
protected from further injury by the development of a calcareous diaphragm, which
prevents foreign bodies from falling into the cavity of the zocecium. Diaphragms
of this nature have been described in a considerable number of Cyclostomata. If a
Crisia colony be stained and made transparent, it is found that a zocecium which
possesses a diaphragm contains a brown body, but no functional polypide. Here
and there it will be noticed that a polypide-bud is being developed below the
diaphragm. With the further development of this bud, the diaphragm is absorbed,
the mouth of the zocecium again growing out into a long tube, which terminates in
the aperture from which the tentacles of the now functional polypide can be pro-
truded.
7. On the Meaning of the Ampulle in Millepora murrayi (Quelch).
By 8. J. Hickson, M_A., D.Sc.
In a letter published in ‘Nature’ in 1884, Quelch called the attention of
naturalists to the presence of certain ampullz in a new species of Mvllepora, which
he called Millepora murrayt. At the time this letter was written the gonads of
Millepora were quite unknown, and Quelch naturally supposed that his discovery
indicated that the sexual products of Millepora were similar in origin and growth
to those of the Stylasteride, where the male and female products are contained in
the large and well-known ampulle that have been observed by many naturalists.
Upon examining the structure of Millepora plicata, the author found that
the ova are extremely minute, and the sperm sacs borne by the dactylozooids, an
arrangement quite distinct from that of any known Stylastertd. No signs of any-
thing corresponding to ampulle were to be seen.
He was very much puzzled, then, to account for the so-called ampullew of M.
murray?.
Early this year Professor Haddon placed in his hands some specimens of a
Millepora collected by him in Torres Straits. As the specimens are fragmentary,
it is difficult to say whether they are quite identical with the species described by
Quelch from Samboangan. At any rate, they possess some of the most marked
characteristics of Queich’s species, and—a fact of prime importance in connection
with the subject in hand—they are provided with ampulle.
These ampullz do not contain ova or embryos in any stage, but modified dacty-
lozooids bearing very large sperm sacs only
The eges of Millepora murray? are quite minute, as in Millepora plicata. They
' are found in the same positions, and they pass through similar, if not identical,
stages in their maturation and development.
864 ReEvorT— 1890.
The most important conclusion to be drawn from this investigation is that as
regards the position and general character of the gonads M7llepora is not related
to any of the known Stylasteride.
It may be added further, that the more completely the anatomy of Millepora is
known, the more sharply is the line defined that separates M2llepora from all the
other Hydrocoralline.
8. On the male Gonangia of Distichopora and Allopora.
By 8. J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc.
The author can find no reference by any previous writer to the male sporosacs
of Distichopora.
Those of Allopora were discovered and described by Moseley.
In Allopora the sperm sacs lie between the endoderm and ectoderm of club-
shaped, czecal diverticula of the canal system, that are given off some distance
below the surface of the corallum. They are not visible, therefore, in specimens
previous to decalcification.
In Distichopora these diverticula are not so long and prominent. They are
usually grouped together in threes and fours, and lie immediately beneath the
surface, so that they are when mature quite visible before decalcification. Moseley
calls attention to tail-like processes on the distal extremity of the sperm sacs in
Sporadopora. ‘These are, when the spermatozoa are mature, two cell-layered tubes
opening to the exterior for the escape of the spermatozoa. Similar structures
occur in Distichopora, but they are not so long, as the ampulle are more super-
ficial,
9. On the Tracheal Occlusor Apparatus in Insecta.
By Professor A. Denny.
10. The Life-History of the Hessian Fly, Cecidomyia Destructor (Say).
By ¥F. Enocx., F.E.S.
Though nearly a hundred papers of various lengths have been written by
American, English, German, and Russian entomologists since the Llessian Fly
first made its appearance in Long Island about the year 1778, few of the authors
have done much else than copy each other’s accounts, showing that their observa-
tions have not been made in the field of Nature; and it is only by the most careful
and patient watching that we can collect the various links required to form a com-
plete life-history.
In a brief abstract on such a subject as the life-history of so important an
insect as the Hessian Fly it is impossible to do anything like justice to it or give
more than a few facts.
The Hessian Fly generally makes its appearance towards the end of April,
continuing through May, June, and a considerable part of July, the main brood
laying eggs in May in the ridges of the lower leaves of wheat and barley. Each
female lays from 100 to 150 eggs, which hatch in four days, the young larve
working their way down the leaf, and between the sheath and stem, until they
arrive just above the joint. Here they fix themselves head downwards and
towards the stem, the juices of which they imbibe, so weakening the plant that _
it is unable to bear the weight of the partly formed ear, the stalk bending down
at the injured joint, generally stopping further development, and so impoyerishing
the ear that the grain does not come to perfection.
After feeding for about three weeks the larva assumes the so-called ‘ flax-seed”
state ; the outer skin gradually changes from white to chestnut colour, becoming
hard and somewhat brittle. At the same time that this drying-up and change of
colour has been going on a wonderful change has taken place within, the larva
shrinking and becoming entirely free, though still surrounded by the hardened skin
of the original larva. The mouth-organs of the internal larva are not much
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 865
changed, but more invaginated, and on the second segment, immediately below the
mouth, is the much-misunderstood ‘anchor-process,’ which has been described by
our English authors as assisting the larva in obtaining its food—a most extra-
ordinary error. Anyone taking the trouble to examine a feeding larva will see
that the anchor-process is not present, it not being required during that stage.
The author has proved by the most careful observations that the use of this
wonderful anchor-process is to assist the larva in its third stage to reverse its
position, so that when the insect is matured the fly can emerge; a thing impossible
_ for it to do did it remain in the original position occupied by the feeding larva.
This reversing of position does not take place until about two weeks before the fly
is fully matured. The anchor-process is really a most exquisitely formed bifid
_ lever, with which the larva gradually works its way round within the puparium ;
when this is effected the change to the pupa state soon takes place, the insect
emerging in two weeks. The pupa bears a very close resemblance in its details to
that of the Goat Moth (Cossus ligniperda).
Numbers of Hessian Flies emerge in September and lay their eggs upon the
self-sown barley and wheat, and where a field has been sown with clover there is
always plenty of cover for the flies, and aftergrowth, upon which they quickly
oviposit, the larvee feeding up and changing to puparia before winter, the flies
emerging before the clover is cut, and ready to injure the growing crops. Large
numbers of puparia are always left in the stubble.
Many remedies have been tried in America for the purpose of checking the
ravages of this ‘pest, but with very small success. The author does not think
that anything can be done except by taking advantage of Nature’s own remedy, viz.
the parasites, of which there are several species.
Not a very long time ago he wrote to the ‘Mark Lane Express,’ suggesting the
desirability and great importance of collecting and preserving the infested wheat
and barley for the purpose of breeding the parasites in quantities, and then turning
them down in infested districts. This proposition was met with the most extra-
ordinary and unaccountable opposition from a writer who but a short time before
_ had sung the praises of the parasites, The author still maintains that it zs possible to-
_ breed these parasites in vast numbers. He has had but little leisure for doing this,
and yet during the past three years he has bred over two thousand. During last
(
:
June he was enabled to send over three hundred Seméotellus nigripes to Professor
C. V. Riley, the State Entomologist at Washington, ard though, owing to the heat
and confinement during transit, they did not arrive so as to be of service, he expects.
to be able to introduce some thousands of this parasite into the United States during
1891, and anticipates that it, like other insects not indigenous to America, will
increase and make its presence known and felt. There is one immense satisfaction
in an endeavour to introduce such an insect into America, viz. every encouragement
is given there to the study of economic entomology.
Has not the time arrived when the British Government might vote a few pounds
a annum for a similar purpose, and so make the ‘ British Gallery ’ at the Natural
istory Museum, South Kensington, a place where farmers, and others who are
not farmers, might learn something more than the mere name of an injurious
insect? The very least that might be done would be that the Museum should
possess type specimens of injurious insects, and certainly of such parasites as prey
upon them. It is a lamentable fact that amid the numberless named insects in tha
oo there is not a single specimen of the American parasites of the Hessian
ae to those faint-hearted entomologists who assert that such a suggestion con-
cerning the breeding of parasites in number is not practicable, the author Calls.
their attention to the U.S.A. report on Mr. Koebele’s journey to Australia in
search of the ‘natural enemy’ of the orange scale, which he obtained in
hundreds—sent home, where it was reared in thousands and distributed to the
almost eaten-out orange-growers, and with the result that the pest has been cleared
off the face of the country. This enterprise will be a lasting monument to Pro-
: ae C. V. Riley, who does nor believe in such an expression as ‘It can’t be
_ done.
i
866 REPORT—1890.
11. Notes on the Spawning of the Anguilla. Dy the Rev. J. Hi. Fraser.
The hatchery was in an old stream which has not been known to run dry, and
about a dozen yards from the lake—lLochness—into which the burn flows. The
time or season was early in May and for three weeks in June. The stream was
shaded at the hatchery by alder trees. The establishment consisted of six
inhabitants—four males and two females. The act of reproduction was as follows.
The female adhered to or attached her head (mouth) to a firm stone or pebble,
then the male fixed himself to her head by suction or pressure, and put one coil of
his tail around the middle of her body, then slid or glided down that section,
until it reached the desired spot. From the moment of connection there is a
very lively play of tails, and so strong as to disturb the coarse sand and ova
recently deposited. The female apparently passes four or five eggs simultaneously
with the withdrawal of the male organ, The ova, asa rule, fell to the bottom,
and lay on the coarse sand or pebbles as small white, globular bodies. When the
reproductive act was a little stronger than the normal excitement, the ova ejected
and those deposited were carried a little way down stream, but only to sink to the
bed of the burn. After this observation had gone on for a time, two and even
three males were seen to fasten on the female, one on each side and a third on the
back, and the whole three would endeavour to impregnate her at the same time.
By means of a walking-stick, two of the eels were jerked out of the water. One
wriggled back, the other was brought back after a dry bath of five minutes. It is:
remarkable that the two thrown out were evidently females. This conclusion is
arrived at from the fact that no reproductive acts were observed among the
remainder, who kept about the place for a fortnight and then disappeared.
Twenty days after, the new hatchery of six (four males and two females) was
discovered higher up stream in complete working order, but operations were largely
conducted under a flat stone, which was removed without any apparent alarm.
The processes were as already described, and connection took place every three
minutes and lasted about six seconds. It may be mentioned that the male organ
was always unsheathed. ‘The day after removing the stone there was no trace of
eels or ova. Observation was very difficult, on account of the similarity of size
and constant sameness of motion and contiguity of the lively creatures.
It is very probable that the male by passing a coil of his tail end around the
female not merely keeps her zm situ, but likewise presses the ovarium, and thus
brings its more matured contents into immediate contact with the fertilising fluid.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Power of certain Bacteria to form Organic Compounds from
Inorganic Matter. By R. Warinaton, F.2.S.
The experiments of Warington, Munro, Frankland, and Winogradsky have
shown that the nitrifying organism can be easily propagated, and will discharge its
functions actively in ammoniacal cultures to which no organic matter bas been
added. From such cultures other similar inorganic solutions may be seeded, and
there is apparently no limit to the series of cultures which may be thus obtained.
With the nitrifying organism some other species of bacteria may be associated.
The subject has recently been rigorously investigated by Winogradsky. Using
vessels and solutions specially purified from organic matter, he finds that under
such conditions the nitrifying organism increases abundantly and discharges its
function with unabated vigour. He has further, in four cases, made actual deter-
minations of the carbon as organic matter formed in solutions during nitrification,
and finds this to be a very appreciable quantity.
The formation of organic matter from ammonium carbonate by an organism
:
——
Ns
——————— ee eS CO eee
—
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 867
destitute of chlorophyll, and growing most freely in darkness, is a fact of the
highest scientific interest. Winogradsky suggests that an amide is probably the
compound first produced. The formation of an amide, and still more the formation
of albumin or ceilulose from ammonium carbonate, is a very improbable chemical
reaction, asit must be attended with a large absorption of energy. If, however, we
may regard the molecule of ammonium carbonate existing in solution asa large one,
and that the oxidation of the ammonia to nitrous or nitric acid proceeds at the
same time as the formation of organic matter, the action becomes possible, the
large liberation of energy during the oxidation of the ammonia counterbalancing
the absorption of energy during the formation of organic matter.
2. Notes on Phylloglossum. By Professor F. O. Bower.
3. On the Question of the Phylogeny of Ferns. By Professor F. O. Bower.
4. On Hybrids and their Parents. By Dr. J. M. Macrarnann.
The author stated that about 2,000 hybrid plants had been recorded up to 1881
and that since then the number had been nearly doubled. While Kélreuter and
Gaertner had won for themselves lasting honour by conducting laborious and care-
ful experimental crosses, the first who attempted to compare minutely a hybrid
with its parents was the late Professor Henslow of Cambridge. Other observers
followed, but no attempt had been made to observe the individual cells of which
plants are built up.
Proceeding on this line of inquiry, Dr. Macfarlane stated that he found hybrid
plants to reproduce, in a blended manner, the structural peculiarities of both
parents. Selecting several well-known hybrids, he showed that alike in the vege-
tative and reproductive parts, the number of cells in a given area, the shape, size,
and contents of these, and even their growth, to give a certain position to the organs
of which they form the units, was intermediate in the hybrid between the parents.
Reference was then made to the remarkable Adam’s Laburnum (Cytisus
Adami), which was produced near Paris in 1825 as a graft hybrid, and was now
to be found in gardens and shrubberies throughout our country. This produces
on some parts of the tree branches bearing yellow flowers, exactly like the stock-
parent—the common Laburnum, or other small tuft-like growths with purple
tlowers, as in the purple Laburnum, and again branches with flowers intermediate
in size and colour. From microscopic examination it was proved that such a graft
hybrid as this differed from seed hybrids in showing largely a mixture of tissue
masses instead of a blending of cell characters.
The author pointed out how investigations such as these might aid in deter-
mining the relation of offspring to parents, the laws which govern the production
of hybrids, and the possible value of hybrids in the origin of species. He also
insisted on the need for microscopic comparison in the determination of the affinity
of species from an evolutionary standpoint, and in conclusion asked zoologists and.
delegates from local Natural History Societies to help forward the further study
of this extremely wide and interesting branch of inquiry.
5. Dehiscence of Fruit of Ecballium elaterium.
By Professor T. Jounson, B.Sc., F.L.S.
The author has examined the violent mode of dehiscence of the fruit of Zcballium
elaterium, to see how it compared with that of the parasitic phanerogam Arceutho-
bium oxycedri, previously investigated. In both cases dehiscence is due to rupture
under pressure of a basal zone of meristematic tissue, the fruit falling off and the
seeds or seed being jerked out. In £cballium F. Hildebrandt considers the thin
868 REPORT—1 890.
epicarp the main factor, and describes the diameter of the hole in the pericarp as
much larger than that of the fruit-stalk. The author considers this not to be the
case, and is led to regard the vascular basket-work and the thick-walled, pitted
cells of mesocarp and endocarp as the chief agents. Of the many plants examined
not one was found in which the stalk was not thicker than the diameter of the
pericarp hole, indicating that the pericarp contracts at rupture, owing to the
coming into play of the elasticity of the stretched mesocarp and endocarp. It is of
interest to note that, according to Van Tieghem, Ecballium elaterium is the only
one of the Cucurbitacee without tendrils, dissemination of seeds being thus ensured
in it by the violent manner of dehiscence.
6. Observations on Brown and on Red Seaweeds.
By Professor T. Jounson, B.Sc., F.D.S.
(1.) New Mode of Vegetative Reproduction in Pheeophycee.
The solitary or tufted hairs which give the trichothallic growth in so many
brown sea-weeds are well known. The author has found that in two closely
allied genera, Punctaria and Asperococcus, the tufts of hairs which, in the ordinary
life of the plant, contribute to the growth of the thallus are capable of giving rise
to new plants as the parent plant dies down. He has found herbarium plants,
especially of Punctaria, with such seedlings in the herbaria of the Royal Gardens,
Kew, British Museum (Natural History), and Trinity College, Dublin. The
specimens are not numerous, as the plantlets occur on apparently dying plants.
One specimen has the remark on the sheet, a‘ P. plantaginea, very small,’ He
has dredged plants bearing these plantlets several times in Cawsand Bay and other
parts of Plymouth Sound. He proposes to deal at length elsewhere with the
results to which this discovery has led him.
(2.) Arthocladia villosa.
Each compartment of the plurilocular zoosporangium of Arthrocladia villosa
contains 4-12 zoospores, not, as figured, a single large zoospore. The zoospores are:
all alike, and have the general structure of a phzophycean zoospore. In using the
term plurilocular zoosporangium one supposes each chamber of the sporangium to
contain only one spore. One ought to regard the stalked plurilocuiar zoosporangium
of A. villosa as a series of unilocular multisporous zoosporangia. The author
described the attempts he had made to observe the functions of the zoospores, and
also their behaviour to light.
(8.) ‘Oogonia of Cutleria multifida.’
In all the descriptions of fertilisation in the interesting group of the Cutleriacee
‘the absence of signs of a nucleus in the ovum is noted,’ in place of ‘the ovum is
said to be without a nucleus,’ This is no doubt due to the dense granularity of the
ovum and examination of contents by simple crushing. ‘Investigation of ripe ova
by microtome and suitable stains shows that each ovum is, as might be expected,
distinctly nucleated. A renewed investigation of the maturation and mode of fer-
tilisation of the ova of the Cutleriacee seems necessary. The author drew atten-
tion to the bearing the position of the oogonia in the Cutlertace@ and the Fucacee
has on the affinities of these two groups.
Specimens illustrating the above were exhibited.
7. On the Arrangements for recording Phenological Phenomena.
By G. J. Symons, FBS.
Phenological observations, which may perhaps be said to have originated with
Gilbert White, although studied with care in Austria, received little attention in
England until 1874, when the Royal Meteorological Society invited and obtained
ak Pon
a
2 eeeeEeEEOEOEeEeEeyEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEEeEEeEEE——EEy
——_——-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 869
the assistance of Delegates from the Royal Agricultural Society, Royal Horticul-
tural Society, Royal Botanic Society, Royal Dublin Society, and the Marlborough
College Natural History Society, who held several meetings, and eventually drew
up an elaborate report, which, curiously enough, upon re-examining after the lapse
of sixteen years, seems to show that practically few of the Delegates approved of it,
although from motives of politeness they allowed it to pass, Flowers and plants,
insects, and birds were referred respectively to the Rev. T. A. Preston, Mr.
McLachlan, and Professor Newton. Of plants the large number of seventy-one
were recommended for observation, of insects only eight, and of birds seventeen.
Mr. McLachlan, Professor Newton, Mr. Bell of Selborne, and Professor Thiselton-
Dyer all expressed the opinion that the list should be kept as short as possible, and
although the long list of plants was retained, it was resolved that special atten-
tion be called to fifteen out of the seventy-one, by printing their names in capitals.
The Royal Meteorological Society undertook the cost and trouble of preparing
and issuing the necessary forms, and from 1875 to 1888, both inclusive, the Rey.
T. A. Preston prepared and the Society printed annual reports embodying the
results obtained. Mr. Preston found it impossible to continue the work, and Mr.
E. Mawley took it up and prepared the report for 1889."
He has, however, arrived at the same conclusion as the authorities already
quoted, and his recommendation to reduce and simplity the observations has been
accepted by the Council of the Royal Meteorological Society, which now desires
to enlist as many observers as possible, all of whom are to work according to the
form, of which copies are submitted for consideration.
With this view the Council of the Royal Meteorological Society has endea-
voured to obtain the assistance of the Corresponding Societies on the British
Association list, and it is with the same object that the author has asked permission
to bring these few words also before this Section.
8. On the Floral Biology of Episcia maculata.
By Professor Ff. W. Oliver.
The subject of this communication was a plant recently sent over from British
Guiana to this country, and which had first flowered at Kew in the summer of
1888. It was, said the author, a climber with straggling habit, with many lurid
waxen flowers two inches in length. The plant was remarkable in that its flowers
were uever open, but the front lobe of the corolla was from the first folded back
so as absolutely to close the throat like a cork. Nevertheless all the arrangements
were such as were adapted for cross fertilisation, and this by the agency of some
insect. The pollen and stigma were successively matured—the pollen being shed
from the anthers before the stigma was ready for fertilisation. From the relative
Positions of the parts, self-fertilisation was an absolute impossibility. At the base
of the flower was a nectary of considerable size, which secreted a great amount of
nectar into the spur of the corolla. An insect, probably a bee with a very long
proboscis, visiting this flower for its honey, must be able to open the tightly fitting
lid, and as it passed this organ to the nectar would remove some of the pollen, and
subsequently visiting a somewhat more advanced flower would deposit some of this
on the stigma. The arrangements which obtained, however, prevented the insect
from depositing the pollen on the stigma of the same flower. Further, the lower
portions of the stamens were modified into curious flanges which guided the pro-
boscis to the nectar. Fruit was produced only by such flowers as were pollinated
by hand. The ovaries of undisturbed flowers always died off without maturing
seed. The seeds also show interesting structural peculiarities. The author con-
sidered that without doubt careful search in its native habitats would lead to the
discovery of some insect at once provided with a sufficiently long proboscis and
acquainted with the means of opening the lid. A parallel case was presented by
Darwin years ago in the orchid Angrecum sesquipedale, with its immensely long
1 Mr. Symons distributed copies of the schedule; others can be had on applica-
_ tion to Edward Mawley, Esq., Rosebank, Berkhampstead, Herts.
870 REPORT—1890.
nectary, for which he successfully prophesied the discovery of some moth capable
of reaching the nectar. Zpiscia maculata was of additional interest to the biolo-
gist in that it was protected from the ravages of unbidden guests, which would
be quite unable to ensure its fertilisation, The calyx and the bracts in the
neighbourhood of the flowers were covered with tiny glands, which secreted a
sugary mucilage, which arrested the various creeping insects that probably infested
the plant. These were content to suck up the juice, without interfering in any
way with the floral mechanisms. Further, the long tube of the flower was so
slippery that they would, in any case, find great difficulty in obtaining a foothold
and reaching the legitimate entrance. As the plant grew at Kew large numbers
of ants might be seen crawling about the calyx-segments and bracts, but they
were unable to advance any further. The plant was practically unique in being
at once closed and yet requiring an insect for its fertilisation.
9. On the Origin of Thorny Plants. By Professor P. GEpDEs.
The author stated the customary Darwinian or natural selectionist explanation
of the origin of thorns and spiny leaves. Spontaneous or indefinite variations
towards spininess preserved and accumulated by the selective influence of the
browsing mammals.
Apparent corroboration of this on all hands: e.g., Mexican and African cycads,
cretaceous and extant species. Thorny flora of goat-infested hills. Hollies, their
leaves less spiny on the lofty shoots. . Resultant application to difficult cases, e.g.,
Discaria or Aciphylla of New Zealand credited to Moa.
Personal abandonment of these views, necessitated by widened observation of cha-
racteristic general difference in vegetative habit between allied species, thornless and
thorny respectively. Consequent hypothesis of diminishing vegetativeness (‘ ebbing
vitality’) of the spiny forms, this in turn being frequently explicable by reference
to unfavourable (e.g., desertic) environment. This view stated as a detailed appli-
cation of more general theory of constitutional or definite variation in plants and
also animals (see ‘ Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb.’ 1886, article Variation and Selection
in ‘Encye. Britannica,’ and ‘ Life Lore,’ 1888).
Criticism of this view by Mr. Wallace (‘ Darwinism,’ p. 434) as ‘ glaring error’
(‘although the antagonism between vegetative and reproductive growth isa real
agency’). Summary of Mr. Wallace's arguments.
Reply in detail, e.g., Oceanic islands, and question of distribution of thorny
plants generally. Appeal to distributional systematist and paleontologist ; their
reliance on desertic environment. Case of hawthorn, thorny and thornless species.
Other rosacex, e.g., sloe, plum, pear, roses, brambles. Astragalus, Rhamnus,
Zizyphus, holly leaves, thistly cactuses, Euphorbias, &c. Actual evolution of
thorns ; the stages of morphological process illustrated (a) by allied species (Vella,
Rhamnus, &c.), (6) by same individual (Hawthorn, Discaria, &c.).
Corresponding physiological interpretation of this: obvious gradual death from
point backwards («.e., ebbing vitality).
Appeal to gardeners, z.e., from botanist misled by (hypothetical) interpretation
of non-living form to cultivator practically concerned with living habit. The con-
stitutional view a matter of everyday experience among gardeners, Spiny plants
‘are always given to die back,’ ‘ often prune themselves,’ ‘ are slow growers,’ &c.
Appeal to actual experiment on animals. Thorny plants often uneatable to
begin with, &e.
Appeal to actual utility of pruning many thorny plants, e.g., hawthorn, which
profits as well as suffers by the operation, Prosperity of .much browsed plants, e.g.
grasses.
Conclusion.—Recognition of element of truth in theory of selection by mammals,
which though denied so far as its essential claim goes, that of accounting for the orzgin —
and accumulation of thorny character, is freely admitted as an important factor
(along with desertic environment) in determining the distribution of thorny species.
The same adjustment applicable in other phenomena commonly explained by the
theory of natural selection, which thus becomes viewed as essentially an explana-
ee ee ee eee
ps?
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 871
tion fundamental as regards the facts of distribution, although inefficient: as regards
_ the origin of function or structure. The opposed theory of definite or constitutional
variation along ‘ grooves of change, with corresponding limitation of natural selec-
_ tion mainly to its evtinctive agency, may similarly be demonstrated in other cases
currently explained by natural selection only.
10. Note on the Occurrence in Yorkshire of Arenaria gothica (Fries).
By Professor Sirvanus P. THompson, D.Se. .
In June last year Mr. L. Rotheray, of Skipton, noticed, near Ribblehead station
on the Midland Railway, some specimens of Avenaria, which on examination proved
to be either Arenaria norvegica or Arenaria gothica, the two being scarcely dis-
tinguishable except by the fact that one is perennial, the other annual. It will be
sufficient here to accept the name of gothica, leaving the question of distinction for
others to decide.
The Ribblehead habitat was subsequently visited by Mr. Arnold Lees, Professor
_ Jefferson, Mr. J. G. Baker, and other botanists. It is a matter of great regret that
of the three hundred or so plants existing when it was discovered only a bare
dozen have survived the greed of collectors.
A second habitat was discovered in September of the same year by Mr. Arnold
Lees, being like the first a roadside spot, and not more than 300 yards from the
first.
The author now announced that during the first week in August of the present
year he discovered another habitat of Arenaria gothica, nearly three miles away
from the original habitat. It is about a quarter of a mile from the nearest farm-
house, and. lies nearer to the flank of Ingleborough, under Lord's Seat, at about
1,000 feet above sea-level. It is not like the original habitat, on recently made
ground, but is in a place where the limestone-rock comes up flat to the surface,
with a stream running over it, and a thin mossy vegetation, resembling an Alpine
garden, grows in patches on the rock.
The plants growing beside the Arenarta are Sagina nodosa, two Sedums,
| Luphrasia, and Arenaria serpyllifolia. It certainly cannot have been introduced
here. There were at least two thousand plants. During the month of August,
the author twice made subsequent visits to the spot, and has compared the specimens
there with specimens from the original habitat. They precisely agree in habit,
but are of a more luxuriant growth.
He has also, in company with his sisters, the Misses Thompson, of Settle,
searched the whole district between the original and the new habitat, but has
found no Arenaria growing at intermediate spots.
He forbears to indicate the spot more precisely lest the same fate that has
already overtaken the plants at Ribblehead should overtake those at :
11. The Flora of Victoria Park, Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada.}
By J. Horses Panton, M.A., F.G.S.
The writer in this paper described thirteen botanical districts into which the
Park may be conveniently divided for the study of its flora, and then gave a list
of the plants which he has obtained from them.
The list embraces 71 orders, 261 genera, and 458 species.
The Park contains 154 acres, in the form of a narrow strip of land, extending
about two miles along the river bank. ‘This he first divides into four distinct
divisions, viz. :—
1. Talus at the river’s edge, derived from the disintegration of the perpendicular
alls of dolomite, over 100 feet high.
2. The perpendicular rocks covered with mosses, lichens, &c., in many parts.
8. A level plain.
1 This paper is published in extenso in the Report of the Park for 1889.
872 rerort—1890.
4, A hillside; 3 and 4 constituting the Park proper.
The whole is divided into the thirteen areas already referred to. The combina-
tion of soil, temperature, and moisture at this place was shown to be well suited
to a marked variety in plant life, as well as to produce very luxuriant forms, in
striking contrast to plants of the same species a few miles from the Park.
12. The Cytology of the Chytridian Woronina.
By Professor Marcus M. Hartoc, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S.
This parasite of Achlyr has no microsomes. There is some evidence that spore
formation is not merely due to the separation of the contents of the sporange into
cells; but each of the many nuclei of the sporange divides first, so that twice as
many spores are formed as there were nuclei in the young sporange.
The discharging process is pushed out and formed by one of these nucleated
young spores which afterward degenerates completely.
13. On the Acclimatisation of the Tussock Grass of the Falkland Islands.
By Professor Marcus M. Harroe, M.A., D.Se., F.L.S.
This is noble grass, of the habit of the Pampas grass, and most valuable as fodder ;
will grow in bog land and close to the sea. It had been acclimatised many years
ago in the Lewis, but appears to be failing there owing to the unchecked browsing
of cattle. In introducing this plant into Ireland, in the spring of 1889, the author
aimed at raising a limited number of plants from seed, growing them sufficiently
wide to ensure good individual development, and increasing his supply of nursery
plants by dividing them from time to time into sets. He anticipates that in a few
years these plants will be propagated by sets from full-sized plants just like the
Pampas grass, and suitable directly for planting out on farms. The plant does well
at Cork; and at Dunmanway, in the west of the county, plants raised from seed in
spring and planted out in May had in the autumn formed tussocks of eighty or
more stems, each as thick as the finger at the base, and seeded, though not very —
freely.
14. On a Case of Apogamy in Vaucheria hamata (Vauch.) Lyngb.
By Tuomas Hick, B.A., B.Sc.
The sexual reproductive organs—oogonia and antheridia—of this species of
Vaucheria are found on short lateral branches of the thallus, both being found on |
the same branch. In the normal development of the oogonium, the apical growth
is arrested, and an obliquely ovoid dilation is formed ; oil, chlorophyll corpuscles,
protoplasm, &c. are accumulated im this dilated part, which is finally cut off from
the rest of the branch by a transverse partition. In the case of apogamy to which
attention was drawn, all the steps in the development of the oogonium save the
earliest were suppressed. The lateral branch ceased to grow at the apex, and the
obliquely ovoid swelling occurred in the normal fashion, but there followed no
ageregation of the cell contents and no formation of a transverse partition, After
the rudimentary oogonium had reached the stage indicated, the apex resumed its”
normal growth, and grew out vegetatively into an ordinary branch of the thallus.
This abnormal mode of development was met with in several instances, but it did
not wholly replace the normal one. The form and the development of the antheridia |
were quite normal, even on the branches which bore the abnormal oogonia.
15. An overlooked variety of Cynosurus cristatus (Crested Dog’s-tail-grass)
By W. Witson, Jun. ;
__ The attention of the writer has been directed for some years to what he con=
siders a variety of the above grass, which form is to be found growing occasional
wae
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 873
in similar situations to where Cynosurus cristatus is found. The plants of this
variety are generally smaller than those of the normal type. The culms are
generally or almost invariably lighter green, while the flowers are white.
The author has observed these plants for several years, and has coneluded that
there is a natural difference, and it is not the result of any untoward accident to
plants of the normal type. He proposes for it the name of Cynosurus cristatus,
variety Alba.
1890. 31
874 REPORT—1890.
Section H.—GHOGRAPHY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—Lieutenant-Colonel Sir R, Lampert PLAYFAIR,.
. K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
The PrestDENT delivered the following Address :—
The Mediterranean, Physical and Historical.
Wuen the unexpected honour was proposed to me of presiding over your delibera-
tions, I felt some embarrassment as to the subject of my address. Geography as
a science, and the necessity of encouraging a more systematic study of it, had been
treated in an exhaustive manner during previous meetings. The splendid discoveries
of Stanley and the prolonged experiences of Emin have been amply illustrated by
the personal narrative of the former. The progress of geography during the past
year has been fully detailed in the annual address of the President of the Royal
Geographical Society in June last; so that it would be a vain and presumptuous
endeavour for me to compress these subjects into the limits of an opening address.
Closely connected with them are the magnificent experiments for opening out
Africa which are being made by our merchant princes, amongst whom the name of
Sir William Mackinnon stands pre-eminent, and by our missionary societies of
various churches, all acting cordially in unison, and sinking, in the dark continent,
the differences and heartburnings which divide Christianity at home; I have
thought it better, however, not to discuss matters so closely connected with politi-
cal questions which have not yet passed into the realm of history.
In my perplexity I applied for the advice of one of the most experienced geo-
graphers of our Society, whose reply brought comfort to my mind. He reminded
me that it was generally the custom for Presidents of Sections to select subjects
with which they were best acquainted, and added: ‘ What more instructive and
captivating subject could be wished than THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND
HIsToRICAL ? ’
For nearly a quarter of a century I have held an official position in Algeria, and
it has been my constant delight to make myself acquainted with the islands and
shores of the Mediterranean, in the hope of being able to facilitate the travels of my
countrymen in that beautiful part of the world.
I cannot pretend to throw much new light on the subject, and I have written
so often about it already that what I have to say may strike you as a twice-told
tale; nevertheless, if you will permit me to descend from the elevated platform
occupied by more learhed predecessors, I should like to speak to you in a familiar
manner of this ‘great sea,’ as it is called in sacred scripture, the Mare Internum
of the ancients, ‘ our sea,’ Mare nostrum, of Pomponius Mela.
Its shores include about three million square miles of the richest country on
the earth’s surface, enjoying a climate where the extremes of temperature are
unknown, and with every variety of scenery, but chiefly consisting of mountains
and elevated plateaux. It is a well-defined region of many parts, all intimately
connected with each other by their geographical character, their geological forma—
Seat eS ee a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 875
tion, their flora, fauna, and the physiognomy of the people who inhabit them. To
’ this general statement there are two exceptions, namely, Palestine, which belongs
rather to the tropical countries lying to the east of it, and so may be dismissed
from our subject, and the Sahara, which stretches to the south of the Atlantic
region—or region of the Atlas—but approaches the sea at the Syrtis, and again
to the eastward of the Cyrenaica, and in which Egypt is merely a long oasis on
either side of the Nile.
The Mediterranean region is the emblem of fertility and the cradle of civilisa-
tion, while the Sahara—Egypt, of course, excepted—is the traditional panther’s
skin of sand, dotted here and there with oases, but always representing sterility and
barbarism, The sea is in no sense, save a political one, the limit between them; it is
a mere gulf, which, now bridged by steam, rather unites than separates the two
shores. Civilisation never could have existed if this inland sea had not formed the
junction between the three surrounding continents, rendering the coasts of each
easily accessible whilst modifying the climate of its shores.
The Atlas range is a mere continuation of the South of Europe. It is a long
strip of mountain land, about 200 miles broad, covered with splendid forests,
fertile valleys, and in some places arid steppes, stretching eastward from the ocean
to which it has given its name. The highest point is in Morocco, forming a
pendant to the Sierra Nevada of Spain; thence it runs, gradually decreasing in
height, through Algeria and Tunisia, it becomes interrupted in Tripoli, and it ends
in the beautiful ereen hills of the Cyrenaica, which must not be confounded with
the oases of the Sahara, but is an island detached from the eastern spurs of the
Atlas, in the ocean of the desert.
In the eastern part the flora and fauna do not essentially differ from those of
Italy ; in the west they resemble those of Spain; one of the noblest of the Atlantic
conifers, the Abies pirsapo, is found also in the Iberian peninsula and nowhere else
in the world, and the valuable alfa grass or esparto (Stepa tenacissima), from which
a great part of our paper is now made, forms one of the principal articles of export
from Spain, Portugal, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Tripoli. On both sides of
the sea the former plant is found on the highest and most inaccessible mountains,
amongst snows which last during the greater part of the year, and the latter from
the sea level to an altitude of 5,000 feet, but in places where the heat and drought
would kill any other plant, and in undulating land where water cannot lodge.
Of the 3,000 plants found in Algeria by far the greater number are natives of
Southern Europe, and less than 100 are peculiar to the Sahara. The macchie or
maquis of Algeria in no way differs from that of Corsica, Sardinia, and other
places ; it consists of lentisk, arbutus, myrtle, cistus, tree-heath, and other Mediter-
ranean shrubs. If we take the commonest plant found on the southern shores of
the Mediterranean, the dwarf palm (Chamerops humilis), we see at once how
intimately connected is the whole Mediterranean region, with the exception of the
localities I have before indicated. This palm still grows spontaneously in the south
of Spain and in some parts of Provence, in Corsica, Sardinia, and the Tuscan Archi-
pelago, in Calabria and the Ionian Islands, on the continent of Greece, and in
several of the islands in the Levant, and it has only disappeared from other coun-
tries as the land has been brought under regular cultivation. On the other hand,
it occurs neither in Palestine, Egypt, nor in the Sahara.
The presence of European birds may not prove much, but there are mammalia,
fish, reptiles, and insects common to both sides of the Mediterranean. Some of
the larger animals, such as the lion, panther, jackal, &c., have disappeared before
the march of civilisation in the one continent, but have lingered, owing to
Mohammedan barbarism, in the other. There is abundant evidence of the former
existence of these and of the other large mammals, which now characterise tropical
Africa, in France, Germany, and Greece ; it is probable that they only migrated
to their present habitat after the upheaval of the great sea which in Eocene times
stretched from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean, making Southern Africa an island
continent like Australia. The original fauna of Africa, of which the lemur is the
distinctive type, is still preserved in Madagascar, which then formed part of it.
The fish fauna is naturally the most conclusive evidence as to the true line of
381432
876 REPORT—1890.
separation between Europe and Africa. We find the trout in the Atlantic region
and in all the snow-fed rivers falling into the Mediterranean; in Spain, Italy,
Dalmatia; it occurs in Mount Olympus, in rivers of Asia Minor, and even in the
Lebanon, but nowhere in Palestine south of that range, in Egypt, or in the Sahara,
This fresh-water salmonoid is not exactly the same in all these localities, but is
subject to considerable variation, sometimes amounting to specific distinction.
Nevertheless it is a European type found in the Atlas, and it is not till we advance
into the Sahara, at Tuecurt, that we come to a purely African form in the
Chromide, which have a wide geographical distribution, being found everywhere
between that place, the Nile, and Mozambique.
The presence of newts, tailed batrachians, in every country round the Mediter-
ranean, except again in Palestine, Egypt, and the Sahara, is another example of
the continuity of the Mediterranean fauna, even though the species are not the
same throughout.
The Sahara is an immense zone of desert which commences on the shores of
the Atlantic Ocean, between the Canaries and Cape de Verde, and traverses the
whole of North Africa, Arabia, and Persia, as far as Central Asia. The Mediter-
ranean portion of it may be said roughly to extend between the 15th and 30th
degrees of north latitude.
This was popularly supposed to have been a vast inland sea in very recent
times, but the theory was supported by geological facts wrongly interpreted. It
has been abundantly proved by the researches of travellers and geologists that such
a sea was neither the cause nor the origin of the Libyan Desert.
Rainless and sterile regions of this nature are not peculiar to North Africa, but
occur in two belts which go round the world in either hemisphere, at about similar
distances north and south of the equator. These correspond in locality to the
great inland drainage areas from which no water can be discharged into the ocean,
and which occupy about one-fifth of the total land surface of the globe.
The African Sahara is by no means a uniform plain, but forms several distinct
basins containing a considerable extent of what may almost be called mountain
land. The Hoggar Mountains in the centre of the Sahara are 7,000 feet high, and
are covered during three months with snow. The general average may be taken at
1,500. The physical character of the region is very varied ; in some places, such
as at Tiout, Moghrar, Touat, and other oases in or bordering on Morocco, there are
well-watered valleys, with fine scenery and almost European vegetation, where the
fruits of the North flourish side by side with the palm tree. In others there are
rivers like the Oued Guir, an affluent of the Niger, which the French soldiers, who
saw it in 1870, compared to the Loire. Again, as in the bed of the Oued Rir,
there is a subterranean river, which gives a sufficient supply of water to make a
chain of rich and well-peopled oases equal in fertility to some of the finest portions
of Algeria. The greater part of the Sahara, however, is hard and undulating, cut
up by dry watercourses, such as the Igharghar which descends to the Chott
Melghigh, and almost entirely without animal or vegetable life.
About one-sixth of its extent consists of dunes of moving sand, a vast accumu-
lation of detritus washed down from more northern and southern regions—perhaps
during the glacial epoch—but with no indication of marine formation. These are
difficult and even dangerous to traverse, but they are not entirely destitute of
vegetation. Water is found at rare but well-known intervals, and there is an
abundance of salsolaceous plants which serve as food for the camel. This sand is
largely produced by wind action on the underlying rocks, and is not sterile in -
itself, it is only the want of water which makes it so. Wherever water does —
exist, or artesian wells are sunk, oases of great fertility never fail to follow. ‘
Some parts of the Sahara are below the level of the sea, and here are formed
what are called chotts or sebkhas, open depressions without any outlets, inundated
by torrents from the southern slopes of the Atlas in winter and covered witha
saline efflorescence in summer, This salt by no means proves the former existence _
of an inland sea; it is produced by the concentration of the natural salts, which _
exist in every variety of soil, washed down by winter rains, with which the salt
evaporated residue of water becomes saturated.
Sn
TRANSACTIONS OF SECLION E. 877
Sometimes the drainage, instead of flooding open spaces and forming chotts,
finds its way through the permeable sand till it meets impermeable strata below it,
thus forming vast subterranean reservoirs where the artesian sound daily works as
great miracles as did Moses’ rod of yore at Meribah. I have seen a column of water
thrown up into the air equal to 1,500 cubic métres per diem; a quantity sufficient
to redeem 1,800 acres of land from sterility and to irrigate 60,000 palm trees. This
seems to be the true solution of the problem of an inland sea; a sea of verdure and
fertility caused by the multiplication of artesian wells, which never fail to bring
riches and prosperity in their train.
The climate of the Sahara is quite different from that of what I have called the
Mediterranean region, where periodical rains divide the year into two seasons.
Here, in many places, years elapse without a single shower ; there is no refreshing
dew at night, and the winds are robbed of their moisture by the immense conti-
nental extents over which they blow. There can be no doubt that it is to these
meteorological, and not to geological, causes that the Sahara owes its existence.
Reclus divides the Mediterranean into two basins, which, in memory of their
history, he calls the Phoenician and the Carthaginian, or the Greek and Roman
seas, more generally known to us as the Eastern and Western Basins, separated by
the island of Sicily.
If we examine the submarine map of the Mediterranean, we see that it must
at one time have consisted of two enclosed or inland basins, like the Dead Sea.
The western one is separated from the Atlantic by the Straits of Gibraltar, a
shallow ridge, the deepest part of which is at its eastern extremity, averaging
about 300 fathoms; while on the west, bounded by a-line from Cape Spartel to
Trafalgar, it varies from 50 to 200 fathoms. Fifty miles to the west of the Straits
the bottom suddenly sinks down to the depths of the Atlantic, while to the east it
descends to the general level of the Mediterranean, from one to two thousand
fathoms.
The Western is separated from the Eastern Basin by the isthmus which extends
between Cape Bon in Tunisia and Sicily, known as the ‘ Adventure Bank,’ on which
there is not more than from 30 to 250 fathoms. The depth between Italy and
Sicily is insignificant, and Malta is a continuation of the latter, being only separated
from it by a shallow patch of from 50 to 100 fathoms; while to the east and west
of this bank the depth of the sea is very great. These shallows cut off the two
basins from all but superficial communication.
The configuration of the bottom shows that the whole of this strait was at one
time continuous land, affording free communication for land animals between
Africa and Europe. The paleeontological evidence of this is quite conclusive. In
the caves and fissures of Malta, amongst river detritus, ave found three species of
fossil elephants, a hippopotamus, a gigantic dormouse, and other animals which
could never have lived in so small an island. In Sicily, remains of the existing
elephant have been found, as well as the Elephas antiquus, and two species of
hippopotamus, while nearly all these and many other animals of African type have
been found in the pliocene deposits and caverns of the Atlantic region.
The rapidity with which such a transformation might have occurred can be
judged by the well-lmown instance of Graham’s Shoal, between Sicily and the
island of Pantellaria; this, owing to volcanic agency, actually rose above the
_ water in 1832, and for a few weeks had an area of 3,240 feet in circumference and
a height of 107 feet.
The submersion of this isthmus no doubt occurred when the waters of the
Atlantic were introduced through the Straits of Gibraltar. The rainfall over the
entire area of the Mediterranean is certainly not more than 80 inches, while the
eyaporation is at least twice as great; therefore, were the Straits to be once more
closed, and were there no other agency for making good this deficiency, the level
of the Mediterranean would sink again till its basin became restricted to an area no
_ larger than might be necessary to equalise the amount of evaporation and precipita-
tion. Thus not only would the strait between Sicily and Africa be again laid dry,
but the Adriatic and Aigean Seas also, and a great part of the Western Basin.
The entire area of the Mediterranean and Black Seas has been estimated at
.
878 REPORT—1890.
upwards of a million square miles, and the volume of the rivers which are dis-
charged into them at 226 cubic miles. All this and much more is evaporated
annually. There are two constant currents passing through the Straits of Gibraltar,
superimposed on each other; the upper and most copious one flows in from the
Atlantic at a rate of nearly 3 miles an hour, or 140,000 cubic métres per second,
and supplies the difference between the rainfall and evaporation, while the under-
current of warmer water, which has undergone concentration by evaporation, is
continually flowing out at about half the above rate of movement, getting rid of
the excess of salinity ; even thus, however, leaving the Mediterranean salter than
any other part of the ocean except the Red Sea.
A similar phenomenon occurs at the eastern end, where the fresher water of
the Black Sea flows as a surface current through the Dardanelles, and the salter
water of the Mediterranean pours in below it.
The general temperature of the Mediterranean from a depth of 50 fathoms
down to the bottom is almost constantly 56°, whatever may be its surface eleva-
tion. ‘This is a great contrast to that of the Atlantic, which ata similar depth is
at least 3° colder, and which at 1,000 fathoms sinks to 40°.
This fact was of the greatest utility to Dr. Carpenter in connection with his
investigations regarding currents through the Straits, enabling him to distinguish
with precision between Atlantic and Mediterranean water.
For all practical purposes the Mediterranean may be accepted as being, what it
is popularly supposed to be, a tideless sea, but it is not so in reality. In many places
there is a distinct rise and fall, though this is more frequently due to winds and
currents than to lunar attraction. At Venice there is arise of from one to two
feet in spring tides, according to the prevalence of winds up or down the Adriatic,
but in that sea itself the tides are so weak that they can hardly be recognised, ex-
cept during the prevalence of the Bora, our old friend Boreas, which generally
raises a surcharge along the coast of Italy. In many straits and narrow arms of
the sea there is a periodical flux and reflux, but the only place where tidal influence,
properly so called, is unmistakably observed is in the Lesser Syrtis, or Gulf of
Gabés ; there the tide runs at the rate of 2 or 3 knots an hour, and the rise and fall
varies from 3 to 8 feet. It is most marked and regular at Djerba, the Homeric
island of the Lotophagi; one must be careful in landing there in a boat, so as not
to be left high and dry a mile or two from the shore. Perhaps the companions of
Ulysses were caught by the receding tide, and it was not only a banquet of dates,
the ‘honey-sweet fruit of the Lotus,’ or the potent wine which is made from it,
which made them ‘ forgetful of their homeward way.’
The Gulf of Gabés naturally calls to mind the proposals which were made a
few years ago for inundating the Sahara, and so restoring to the Atlantic region
the insular condition which it is alleged to have had in prehistoric times. I will
not allude to the English project for introducing the waters of the Atlantic from
the west coast of Africa; that does not belong to my subject. The French scheme
advocated by Commandant Roudaire, and supported by M. de Lesseps, was quite
as visionary and impracticable.
To the south of Algeria and Tunis there exists a great depression. stretching
westward from the Gulf of Gabés to a distance of about 235 miles, in which are
several chotts or salt lakes, sometimes only marshes, and in many places covered
with a saline crust strong enough to bear the passage of camels. Commandant
Roudaire proposed to cut through the isthmuses which separated the various chotts,
and so prepare their basins to receive the waters of the Mediterranean. This done,
he intended to introduce the sea by a canal, which should have a depth of one
métre below low-water level.
This scheme was based on the assumption that the basin of the chotts had been
an inland sea within historic times; that, little by little, owing to the difference
between the quantity of water which entered and the amount of evaporation and
absorption, this interior sea had disappeared, leaving the chotts as an evidence of
the former condition of things; that, in fact, this was none other than the cele-
brated Lake Triton, the position of which has always been a puzzle to geographers.
This theory, however, is untenable ; the Isthmus of Gabés is not a mere sandbank ;
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 879
there is a band of rock between the sea and the basin of the chotts, through which
the former never could have penetrated in modern times. It ismuch more probable
that Lake Triton was the large bight between the Island of Djerba and the main-
land, on the shores of which are the ruins of the ancient city of Meninx, which, to
judge by the abundance of Greek marble found there, must haye carried on an
important commerce with the Levant.
The scheme has now been entirely abandoned; nothing but the mania for cut-
ting through isthmuses all over the world which followed the brilliant success
achieved at Suez can explain its having been started at all. Of course, no mere
mechanical operation is impossible in these days, but the mind refuses to realise the
possibility of vessels circulating in a region which produces nothing, or that so
small a sheet of water in the immensity of the Sahara could have any appreciable
effect in modifying the climate of its shores.
The Eastern Basin is much more indented and cut up into separate seas than the
Western one ; it was therefore better adapted for the commencement of commerce
and navigation ; its-high mountains were landmarks for the unpractised sailor, and
its numerous islands and harbours afforded shelter for his frail barque, and so facili-
tated communication between one point and another.
The advance of civilisation naturally took place along the axis of this sea,
Pheenicia, Greece, and Italy being successively the great nurseries of human know-
ledge and progress. Phcenicia had the glory of opening out the path of ancient
commerce, for its position in the Levant gave it a natural command of the Mediter-
_ ranean, and its people sought the profits of trade from every nation which had a
_ seaboard on the three continents washed by this sea. Phoenicia was already a
_ nation before the Jews entered the Promised Land, and when they did so they
_ carried on inland traffic as middlemen to the Phoenicians. Many of the com-
mercial centres on the shores of the Mediterranean were founded before Greece and
OE
Rome acquired importance in history. Homer refers to them as daring traders
nearly a thousand years before the Christian era.
__Formany centuries the commerce of the world was limited to the Mediterranean,
and when it extended in the direction of the Hast it was the merchants of the
Adriatic, of Genoa, and of Pisa who brought the merchandise of India, at an enor-
mous cost, to the Mediterranean by land, and who monopolised the carrying trade
_ by sea. It was thus that the elephant trade of India, the caravan traffic through
: Babylon and Palmyra, as well as the Arab kajfilehs, became united with the occi-
dental commerce of the Mediterranean.
: As civilisation and commerce extended westwards, mariners began to overcome
: their dread of the vast solitudes of the ocean beyond the Pillars of Hercules, and
the discovery of America by Columbus, and the cireumnavigation of Africa by
the Portuguese, changed entirely the current of trade as well as increased its mag-
nitude, and so relegated the Mediterranean, which had hitherto been the central
sea of human intercourse, to a position of secondary importance.
Time will not permit me to enter into further details regarding the physical
geography of this region, and its history is a subject so vast that a few episodes of
it are all that I can possibly attempt. It is intimately connected with that of
every other country in the world, and here were successively evolved all the
great dramas of the past and some of the most important events of less distant
ages.
As I have already said, long before the rise of Greece and Rome its shores and
islands were the seat of an advanced civilisation. Phoenicia had sent out her
pacific colonies to the remotest parts, and not insignificant vestiges of their handi-
craft still exist to excite our wonder and admiration. We have the megalithic
temples of Malta sacred to the worship of Baal, the generative god, and Ashtoreth,
the conceptive goddess, of the universe. The three thousand nurhagi of Sardinia,
- round towers of admirable masonry, intended probably for defence in case of sud-
_ den attack, and the so-called giant graves, were as great a mystery to classical
authors as they are to us at the present day. Menorca has its talayots, tumuli
somewhat analogous to, but of ruder construction than, the nurhagi, more than
200 groups of which exist in various parts of the island ; with these are associated
880 REPORT—1890.
subordinate constructions intended for worship; altars composed of two immense
monoliths, erected in the form of a T ; sacred enclosures and megalithic habitations.
One type of talayot is especially remarkable, of better masonry than the others and
exactly resembling inverted boats. One is tempted to believe that the Phoeni-
cians had in view the grass habitations or mapalia of the Numidians described by
Sallust, and had endeavoured to reproduce them in stone: Oblonga, icurvis
lateribus tecta, quasi navium carine sunt.
For a long time the Phoenicians had no rivals in navigation, but subsequently
the Greeks—especially the Phocians—established colonies in the Western Mediter-
ranean, in Spain, Corsica, Sardinia, Malta, and the South of France, through the
means of which they propagated not only their commerce but their arts, literature,
and ideas. They introduced many valuable plants, such as the olive, thereby
modifying profoundly the agriculture of the countries in which they settled. They
have even left traces of their blood, and it is no doubt to this that the women of
Provence owe the classical beauty of their features.
But they were eclipsed by their successors; the empire of Alexander opened
out a road to India, in which, indeed, the Phoenicians had preceded him, and
introduced the produce of the East into the Mediterranean, while the Tyrian colony
of Carthage became the capital of another vast empire, which, from its situation,
midway between the Levant and the Atlantic Ocean, enabled it to command the
Mediterranean traffic.
The Carthaginians at one time ruled over territory extending along the coast
from Cyrene to Numidia, besides having a considerable influence over the interior
of the continent, so that the name of Africa, given to their own dominions, was
gradually applied to a whole quarter of the globe. The ruling passion with the
Carthaginians was love of gain, not patriotism, and their wars were largely fought
with mercenaries. It was the excellence of her civil constitution which, according
to Aristotle, kept in cohesion for centuries her straggling possessions. A country
feebly patriotic, which entrusts her defence to foreigners, has the seeds of inevi-
table decay, which ripened in her struggle with Rome, despite the warlike genius
of Hamilkar and the devotion of the magnanimous Hannibal. The gloomy and
cruel religion of Carthage, with its human sacrifices to Moloch and its worship of
Baal under the name of Melcarth, led to a criminal code of Draconic severity and
alienated it from surrounding nations. When the struggle with Rome began,
Carthage had no friends. The first Punic War was a contest for the possession of
Sicily, whose prosperity is even now attested by the splendour of its Hellenic monu-
ments. When Sicily was lost by the Carthaginians, so also was the dominion of
the sea, which hitherto had been uncontested. The second Punic War resulted in
the utter prostration of Carthage and the loss of all her possessions out of Africa,
and in 201 8.c., when this war was ended, 552 years after the foundation of the
city, Rome was mistress of the world.
The destruction of Carthage after the third Punic War was a heavy blow to
Mediterranean commerce. It was easy for Cato to utter his stern Delenda est
Carthago; destruction is easy, but construction is vastly more difficult. Although
Augustus in his might built a new Carthage near the site of the old city, he could
never attract again the trade of the Mediterranean which had been diverted into
other channels. Roman supremacy was unfavourable to the growth of commerce,
because, though she allowed unrestricted trade throughout her vast empire and
greatly improved internal communications in the subjugated countries, Rome itself
absorbed the greater part of the wealth and did not produce any commodities in
return for its immense consumption, therefore Mediterranean commerce did not
thrive under the Roman rule. The conquest of Carthage, Greece, Egypt and the
East poured in riches to Rome, and dispensed for a time with the needs of produc-
tive industry, but formed no enduring basis of prosperity. ‘
It is only in relation to the Mediterranean that I can refer to Roman history, —
but I must allude to the interesting episode in the life of Diocletian, who, after an —
anxious reign of twenty-one years in the eastern division of the empire, abdicated —
at Nicomedia and retired to his native province of Illyria. He spent the rest of —
his life in rural pleasures and horticulture at Salona, near which he built that —
‘
:
|
———
a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 881
splendid palace within the walls of which subsequently arose the modern city of
Spalato. Nothing more interesting exists on the shores of the Mediterranean than
this extraordinary edifice, perhaps the largest that ever arose at the bidding of a
single man ; not only vast and beautiful, but marking one of the most important
epochs in the history of architecture.
Though now obstructed with a mass of narrow, tortuous streets, its salient
features are distinctly visible. The great temple, probably the mausoleum of the
founder, has become the cathedral, and after the Pantheon at Rome there is no
finer specimen of a heathen temple turned into a Christian church. Strange it is
that the tomb of him whose reign was marked by such unrelenting persecution of
the Christians should have been accepted as the model of those baptisteries so
commonly constructed in the following centuries.
Of Diocletian’s Salona, one of the chief cities of the Roman world, but little
now remains save traces of the long irregular wall ; recent excavations have brought
to light much that is interesting, but all of the Christian epoch, such as a large
basilica which had been used as a necropolis, and a baptistery, one of those copied
from the temple of Spalato, on the Mosaic pavement of which can still be read the
text, Stcut cervus desiderat ad fontes aquarum ita anima mea ad te Deus.
The final partition of the Roman empire took place in 365; forty years later
the barbarians of the North began to invade Italy and the South of Europe, and in
429 Genseric, at the head of his Vandal hordes, crossed over into Africa from
Andalusia, a province which still bears their name, devastating the country as far
as the Cyrenaica. He subsequently annexed the Balearic Islands, Corsica, and
Sardinia, he ravaged the coasts of Italy and Sicily, and even of Greece and Illyria ;
but the most memorable of his exploits was the unresisted sack of Rome, whence
he returned to Africa laden with treasure and bearing the Empress Eudoxia a
captive in his train.
The degenerate emperors of the West were powerless to avenge this insult, but
Byzantium, though at this time sinking to decay, did make a futile attempt to
attack the Vandal monarch in his African stronghold. It was not, however, till
533, in the reign of Justinian, when the successors of Genseric had fallen into
luxurious habits and had lost the rough valour of their ancestors, that Belisarius
was able to break their power and take their last king a prisoner to Constantinople.
The Vandal domination in Africa was destroyed, but that of the Byzantines was
never thoroughly consolidated; it rested not on its own strength, but on the
weakness of its enemies, and it was quite unable to cope with the next great wave
of invasion which swept over the land, perhaps the most extraordinary event in
the world’s history, save only the introduction of Christianity.
In 647, twenty-seven years after the Hedjira of Mohammed, Abdulla ibn Saad
started from Egypt for the conquest of Africa with an army of 40,000 men.
The expedition had two determining causes—the hope of plunder and the desire
to promulgate the religion of El Islam. The sands and scorching heat of the desert,
which had nearly proved fatal to the army of Cato, were no bar to the hardy
Arabians and their enduring camels. The march to Tripoli was a fatiguing one,
but it was successfully accomplished; the invaders did not exhaust their force in a
vain effort to reduce its fortifications, but swept on over the Syrtic desert and north
to the province of Africa, where, near the splendid city of Suffetula, a great battle
was fought between them and the army of the Exarch Gregorius, in which the
Christians were signally defeated, their leader killed, and his daughter allotted to
Ibn ez-Zobair, who had slain her father.
Not only did the victorious Moslems overrun North Africa, but soon they had
powerful fleets at sea which dominated the entire Mediterranean, and the emperors
of the East had enough to do to protect their own capital.
Egypt, Syria, Spain, Provence, and the islands of the Mediterranean successively
fell to their arms, and until they were checked at the Pyrenees by Charles Martel *
it seemed at one time as if the whole of Southern Europe would have been com-
pelled to submit to the disciples of the new religion. Violent, implacable, and
irresistible at the moment of conquest, the Arabs were not unjust or hard masters
in countries which submitted to their conditions. Every endeavour was, of course,
882 REPORT—1890,
made to proselytise, but Christians were allowed to preserve their religion on pay-
ment of a tax, and even Popes were in the habit of entering into friendly relations
with the invaders. The Church of St. Cyprian and St. Augustine, with its 500
Sees, was indeed expunged, but five centuries after the passage of the Mohammedan
army from Egypt to the Atlantic a remnant of it still existed. It was not till the
12th century that the religion and language of Rome became utterly extinguished.
The Arabs introduced a high state of civilisation into the countries where they
settled; their architecture is the wonder and admiration of the world at the
present day; their irrigational works in Spain have never been improved upon;
they fostered literature and the arts of peace, and introduced a system of agricul-
ture far superior to what existed before their arrival.
Commerce, discouraged by the Romans, was highly honoured by the Arabs,
and during their rule the Mediterranean recovered the trade which it possessed in
the time of the Phcenicians and Carthaginians; it penetrated into the Indian
Archipelago and China; it travelled westward to the Niger, and to the east as far
as Madagascar, and the great trade route of the Mediterranean was once more
developed.
The power and prosperity of the Arabs culminated in the ninth century, when
Sicily fell to their arms; it was not, however, very long before their empire began to
be undermined by dissensions; the temporal and spiritual authority of the Ommiade
Khalifs, which extended from Sind to Spain, and from the Oxus to Yemen, was
overthrown by the Abbasides in the year 132 of the Hedjira, a.p. 750. Seven years
later Spain detached itself from the Abbaside empire; a new Caliphate was
established at Cordova, and hereditary monarchies began to spring up in other
Mohammedan countries.
The Carlovingian empire gave an impulse to the maritime power of the South
of Europe, and in the Adriatic the fleets of Venice and Ragusa monopolised the
traffic of the Levant. The merchants of the latter noble little republic penetrated
even to our own shores, and Shakespeare has made the Argosy or Ragusie a house-
hold word in our language.
During the eleventh century the Christian Powers were no longer content to
resist the Mohammedans; they began to turn their arms against them. If the
latter ravaged some of the fairest parts of Europe, the Christians began to take
brilliant revenge.
The Mohammedans were driven out of Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and the
Balearic Islands, but it was not till 1492 that they had finally to abandon Europe,
after the conquest of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella.
About the middle of the eleventh century an event took place which profoundly
modified the condition of the Mohammedan world. The Caliph Mostansir let
loose a horde of nomad Arabs, who, starting from Egypt, spread over the whole
of North Africa, carrying destruction and blood wherever they passed, thus laying
the foundation for the subsequent state of anarchy which rendered possible the
interference of the Turks.
English commercial intercourse with the Mediterranean was not unknown even
from the time of the Crusades, but it does not appear to have been carried on b
means of our own vessels till the beginning of the sixteenth century. In 1522 it
was so great that Henry VIII. appointed a Cretan merchant, Censio de Balthazari,
to be ‘ Master, governor, protector, and consul of all and singular the merchants
and others his leges and subjects within the port, island, and country of Crete or
Candia.’ This is the very first English consul known to history, but the first of
English birth was my own predecessor in office, Master John Tipton, who, after
having acted at Algiers during several years in an unofficial character, probably
elected by the merchants themselves to protect their interests, was duly appointed
consul by Sir William Harebone, ambassador at Constantinople in 1585, and re-
ceived just such an exequatur from the Porte as has been issued to every consul
since by the government of the country in which he resides.
Piracy has always been the scourge of the Mediterranean, but we are too apt to
associate its horrors entirely with the Moors and Turks. The evil had existed
from the earliest ages; even before the Roman conquest of Dalmatia the Illyrians
it i i es
ee
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 883
were the general enemies of the Adriatic; Africa under the Vandal reign was a
nest of the fiercest pirates; the Venetian chronicles are full of complaints of the
ravages of the Corsairs of Ancona, and there is no other name but piracy for such
acts of the Genoese as the unprovoked pillage of Tripoli by Andrea Doria in 1535,
To form a just idea of the Corsairs of the past it is well to remember that com-
merce and piracy were often synonymous terms, even among the English. up to the
reion of Elizabeth. Listen to the description given by the pious Cavendish of his
commercial circumnavigation of the globe: ‘It hath pleased Almighty God to
suffer me to circumpass the whole globe of the world... . I navigated along the
coast of Chili, Peru, and New Spain, where I made great spoils. All the villages
and towns that ever I landed at I burned and spoiled, and had I not been discovered
upon the coast I had taken a great quantity of treasure ;’ and so he concludes, ‘ The
Lord be praised for all his mercies! ’
Sir William Monson, when called upon by James I. to propose a scheme for an
attack on Algiers, recommended that all the maritime powers of Europe should
contribute towards the expense, and participate in the gains by the sale of Moors
and Turks as slaves.
After the discovery of America and the expulsion of the Moors from Spain,
piracy developed to an extraordinary extent. The audacity of the Barbary corsairs
seems incredible at the present day; they landed on the shores and islands of the
Mediterranean, and even extended their rayages to Great Britain, carrying off all
the inhabitants whom they could seize into the most wretched slavery. ‘The most
formidable of these piratical states was Algiers, a military oligarchy, consisting of
a body of janissaries, recruited by adventurers from the Levant, the outcasts of the
Mohammedan world, criminals and renegades from every nation in Europe. They
elected their own ruler or Dey, who exercised despotic sway, tempered by frequent
assassination ;.they oppressed without mercy the natives of the country, accumu-
lated vast riches, had immense numbers of Christian slaves, and kept all Europe in
a state bordering on subjection by the terror which they inspired. Nothing is
sadder or more inexplicable than the shameful manner in which this state of things
was accepted by civilised nations. Many futile attempts were made during succes-
sive centuries to humble their arrogance, but it only increased by every manifesta-
tion of the powerlessness of Europe to restrain it. It was reserved for our own
countryman, Lord Exmouth, by his brilliant victory in 1816, for ever to put an
end to pira¢y and Christian slavery in the Mediterranean. His work, however, was
left incomplete, for though he destroyed the navy of the Algerines, and so rendered
them powerless for evil on the seas, they were far from being humbled; they
continued to slight their treaties and to subject even the agents of powerful nations
to contumely and injustice. The French took the only means possible to destroy
this nest of ruffians, by the almost unresisted occupation of Algiers and the depor-
tation of its Turkish aristocracy.
They found the whole country in the possession of a hostile people, some of
whom had never been subdued since the fall of the Roman empire, and the
world owes France no small debt of gratitude for having transformed what was a
savage and almost uncultivated country into one of the richest as well as the most
beautiful in the basin of the Mediterranean.
What has been accomplished in Algeria is being effected in Tunisia. The
treaty of the Kasr-es-Saeed, which established a French Protectorate there, and
the military occupation of the Regency, were about as high-handed and unjustifi-
able acts as are recorded in history ; but there can be no possible doubt regarding
the important work of civilisation and improvement that has resulted from them.
European courts of justice have been established all over the country ; the exports
and imports have increased from 23 to 51 millions of francs, the revenue from 6 to
19 millions, without the imposition of a single new tax, and nearly half a million
per annum is being spent on education.
Sooner or later the same thing must happen in the rest of North Africa, though
at present international jealousies retard this desirable consummation. It seems
hard to condemn such fair countries to continued barbarism, in the interest
of tyrants who misgovern and oppress their people. The day cannot be far off —
884 REPORT—1890.
when the whole southern shores of the Mediterranean will enjoy the same prosperity
and civilisation as the northern coast, and when the deserts, which are the result.
of misgovernment and neglect, will assume the fertility arising from security and
industry, and will again blossom as the rose.
It cannot be said that any part of the Mediterranean basin is still unknown, if
we except the empire of Morocco, But even that country has been traversed in
almost every direction during the past twenty years, and its geography and natural
history have been illustrated by men of the greatest eminence; such as Gerhard Robhlfs,
Monsieur Tissot, Sir Joseph Hooker, the Vicomte de Foucauld, Joseph Thomson,
and numerous other travellers. The least known portion, at least on the Mediter-
ranean coast, is the Riff country, the inhospitality of whose inhabitants has given
the word ‘ruffian’ to the English language. Even that has been penetrated by De
Foucauld disguised as a Jew, and the record of his exploration is one of the most
brilliant contributions to the geography of the country which has hitherto been
made.
Although, therefore, but little remains to be done in the way of actual explora-
tion, there are many by-ways of travel comparatively little known to that class of
the community with which I have so much sympathy, the ordinary British tourist.
These flock every year in hundreds to Algeria and Tunis, but few of them visit the
splendid Roman remains in the interior of those countries. The Cyrenaica is not
so easily accessible, and I doubt whether any Englishmen have travelled in it since
the exploration of Smith and Porcher in 1861.
Cyrene almost rivalled Carthage in commercial importance. The Hellenic
ruins still existing bear witness to the splendour of its five great cities. It was
the birthplace of many distinguished people, and amongst its hills and fountains
were located some of the most interesting scenes in mythology, such as the Gardens
of the Hesperides and the ‘ Silent, dull, forgetful waters of Lethe.’
This peninsula is only separated by a narrow strait from Greece, whence it was
originally colonised. There,and indeed all over the eastern basin of the Mediter-
ranean, are many little-trodden routes; but the subject is too extensive; I am
reluctantly compelled to restrict my remarks to the western half.
The south of Italy is more frequently traversed and less travelled inthan any
part of that country. Of the thousands who yearly embark or disembark at
Brindisi, few ever visit the Land of Manfred. Otranto is only known to them
from the fanciful descriptions in Horace Walpole’s romance. The general public
in this country is quite ignorant of what is going on at Taranto, and of the great
arsenal and dockyard which Italy is constructing in the Mare Piccolo, an inland
sea containing more than 1,000 acres of anchorage for ‘the largest ironclads afloat,
yet with an entrance so narrow that it is spanned by a revolving bridge. Hvyen
the Adriatic, though traversed daily by steamers of the Austrian Lloyd’s Company,
is not a highway of travel; yet where is it possible to find so many places of interest
within the short space of a week’s voyage, between Corfu and Trieste, as along
the Dalmatian and Istrian shores, and among the islands that fringe the former,
bes it is difficult to realise that one is at sea at all, and not on some great inland
lake ?
There is the Bocche di Cattaro, a vast rent made by the Adriatic among the
mountains, where the sea flows round their spurs in a series of canals, bays, and lakes
of surpassing beauty. The city of Cattaro itself, the gateway of Montenegro, with
its picturesque Venetian fortress, nestling at the foot of the black mountain, Ragusa,
the Roman successor of the Hellenic Epidaurus, Queen of the Southern Adriatic,
battling with the waves on her rock-bound peninsula, the one spot in all that sea
which never submitted either to Venice or the Turk, and for centuries resisting the
barbarians on every side, absolutely unique as a medisyval fortified town, and
worthy to have given her name to the argosies she sent forth; Spalato, the
grandest of Roman monuments; Lissa, colonised by Dionysius of Syracuse, and
memorable to us as having been a British naval station from 1812 to 1814, while
the French held Dalmatia ; Zara, the capital, famous for its siege by the Crusaders,
interesting from an ecclesiological point of view, and venerated as the last resting-
place of St. Simeon, the prophet of the Nunc dimittis; Parenza, with its great
:
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 885
Basilica; Pola, with its noble harbour, whence Belisarius sailed forth, now the chief
naval port of the Austrian empire, with its Roman amphitheatre and graceful
triumphal arches ; besides many other places of almost equal interest. Still further
west aré Corsica, Sardinia, and the Balearic Islands, all easily accessible from the
coasts of France, Italy, and Spain. Their ports are constantly visited by mail
steamers and private yachts, yet they are but little explored in the interior.
Iam tempted to linger a little over one of the places I have just mentioned,
and to devote more time to a physical and historical description of Corsica than I
can spare for the Mediterranean generally. Itis replete with all that makes travel
delightful—unequalled scenery, a brilliant climate, historical associations, and
the study of a race of men who still retain their national peculiarities. The facilities
for travelling are as great as can be fairly expected ; roads such as none but the
French seem able to make, winding along steep coasts and over high mountains,
plunging into the depths of shady valleys and amongst dark forests in search of
what is so dear to a French engineer’s heart, a uniform gradient, and metalled
with granite so hard that in the driest weather they are free from dust. I may
add that I never failed to find sufficiently good accommodation and a kindly recep-
tion in the smallest and most remote villages.
Corsica has been compared in shape to a closed hand with the index finger
extended, the latter being the promontory called Cap Corse. The island is
traversed in its whole length by a chain of high mountains, the general direction of
which is north and south, dividing it into two parts of nearly equal extent. Placed,
as it is, in the centre of the Western Mediterranean, between the Alps and the
Atlas, and with so great inequalities of surface, it presents an epitome of the whole
region from the warm sea-level to the Alpine character of the interior, where the
mountains rise to a height of nearly 9,000 feet, and are clothed in snow during the
greater part of the year.
All the western coast, and more than two-thirds of the whole island, are of
granitic formation. The central range throws out spurs towards the sea, forming
on the western side numerous bays of considerable size and depth. Nothing can
exceed the grandeur of the scenery on the coast which culminates in the celebrated
Calanches de Piana, a succession of stupendous granite rocks worn and hollowed
out in the most fantastic manner, fearful in their forms but soft and lovely in their
colouring. There are many similar rocks throughout the island, such as the
Calanches d’Evisa, the Fourches d’Asinao, and the Gorge of Inzeca, where a river
flows between great cliffs and amongst boulders of green serpentine, a sight never
to be forgotten.
The eastern side of the island consists of primary rocks, more or less easily dis-
integrated, the detritus being washed down by rains, so as to form the low plains
bordering that coast. As the rivers force their way through them with difficulty,
marshes and lagoons are created. These are hotbeds of malarious fever in summer,
dangerous even for the natives, who migrate to the hills at that season.
The forests, the great glory of the island, consist chiefly of oak, beech, birch, and
the Pinus laricio, indigenous to Corsica, and the monarch of European conifers,
which rises as straight as an arrow, sometimes to a height of 120 or 150 feet.
The Castagniccia, or country of the chestnut, is an extensive and very beautiful
district, especially when the trees are in full leaf. The fruit is more useful to the
people who inhabit the district than even the date to the Arab. He has to culti-
vate his palm trees laboriously, irrigate them in summer, and pick the fruit with
the greatest care. The chestnut demands no such attention; it grows spon-
_ taneously, requires no cultivation, and the fruit falls of itself when sufficiently ripe.
It is the staple food of the people, who eat it inevery form, even giving it to their
cattle instead of grain, while the sale of the surplus furnishes them with the other
necessaries of life.
After the forests the most pleasing feature in the island, and covering more
than half its surface, is the macchie, or brushwood, before mentioned, spreading its
delicious perfume through the air and lighting up the landscape with a blaze of
colour. There is also a constant succession of wild flowers, liliaceous plants,
orchids, cyclamen, and many others. In one pine wood I saw the ground carpeted
886 REPORT—1890.
with violets and primroses, while ferns, from the common bracken to the noble
Osmunda regalis, are found everywhere.
The principal towns are Ajaccio on the south-west, a well-known winter station,
the capital of the island, full of memories and memorials of Napoleon; Bastia to
the north-east, the commercial capital; Calvi to the north-west, a picturesque
stronghold rising high above the sea, and dominating the surrounding country.
The last is one of the few places that were always faithful to the Genoese cause,
and it still bears over the entrance gate the inscription, Civitas Calvi semper fidelis.
Tt made a desperate resistance to the English in 1794 under Hood and Nelson, who
reduced it almost to a heap of ruins before it surrendered. Nelson lost his eye in
the engagement. A local antiquary has tried to prove that Columbus was born
here, of Genoese parents, though he left at an early age for Genoa.
Corte, in the interior of the island, the ancient feudal capital, was the chief seat
of Paoli’s government, as well as the headquarters of the short-lived English
‘administration under Sir Gilbert Elliot. It is situated at the confluence of two
rivers, the Restonica and the Tavignano, which descend to the plains through a
series of magnificent gorges. High above the town, perched on the summit of a
rock, is the picturesque citadel built in the beginning of the fifteenth century.
In the extreme south is Bonifacio, another ancient fortress, not only strange
and beautiful in itself, but commanding fine views from its ramparts of Sardinia
and the numerous islands on both sides of the Straits.
Cargese, 28 miles north of Ajaccio, is exceptionally interesting. In 1676 an
emigration of about 1,000 Greeks from Maina, in the Morea, wearied with Turkish
oppression, took place to Genoa, whence they were sent to Corsica, A second
emigration of 400 started to join them in the following year, but they were over-
taken by the Turkish fleet and massacred. The prosperity of the small colony was
not of long duration, because, when the insurrection in Corsica against the Genoese
broke out, the Greeks, out of gratitude to their protectors, refused to join in it.
In consequence their villages were destroyed, their lands confiscated, and their
flocks driven away. They fled for refuge to Ajaccio, and there remained till the
advent of the French. It was one of the first acts of Comte Marbeuf, on assum-
ing the government of the island, to reinstate them in a new domain, and he it
was who built the present town of Cargese. The inhabitants, though in full
communion with the Church of Rome, still retain their Greek Liturgy, and to
some extent their language, and live on the most cordial terms with their Latin
neighbours.
The vendetta has always been one of the characteristic customs of Corsica,
although prevailing more in some parts of the island than in others, Such feuds
have been pursued with inveterate pertinacity, frequently involving whole families
from one generation to another. The custom originated in times when Genoese
justice was venal and corrupt, and men had to take the honour of their families
into their own keeping. After having accomplished their vendetta, the ‘ bandits,’
as they are called, are accustomed to take refuge in the macchie, but they are
never to be confounded with robbers, and there is no instance of strangers being
molested by them. ;
Corsica has an important ancient history, but time will not permit me to enter
into this subject in any detail; one episode, however, is especially interesting.
Seneca passed eight years here in exile: a tower is pointed out on the west coast
of Cap Corse which is said to have served as his prison. Even the glorious views
of sea and land which it commands could not compensate him for compulsory
banishment from the fertile plains of Italy. He may therefore be pardoned for his.
petulant injustice to the physical geography of the island when he penned his cele-
brated complaint, thus rendered by Boswell :—
Corsica, whom rocks terrific bound,
Where nature spreads her wildest deserts round,
In vain revolving seasons cheer thy soil,
Nor rip’ning fruits nor waving harvests smile ;
Nor blooms the olive mid the winter drear ;
The votive olive to Minerva dear.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 887
See spring returning spreads her milder reign !
Yet shoots no herb, no verdure clothes the plain,
No cooling springs to quench the trayeller’s thirst
From thy parched hills in grateful murmurs burst ;
Nor, hapless Isle | thy barren shores around,
Is wholesome food, fair Ceres’ bounty, found.
Nor even the last sad gift the wretched claim,
The pile funereal and the sacred flame ;
Naught here, alas! surrounding seas enclose,
Naught but an exile and an exile’s woes.
Nor is this the place even to summarise the modern history of the island, though
nothing can be more interesting than the story of the Pisan domination, the long
and tyrannical rule of the Genoese, the struggle of the islanders during four cen-
turies to regain their independence, the mock kingdom of Theodore, the wise rule
of Pasquale Paoli, the unfortunate English occupation, and the subsequent conquest
of the island by France.
I have endeavoured to sketch, necessarily in a very imperfect manner, the
physical character and history of the Mediterranean; to show how the commerce
of the world originated in a small maritime state at its eastern extremity; how it
gradually advanced westward till it burst through the Straits of Gibraltar, and
extended over seas and continents until then undreamt of, an event which deprived
the Mediterranean of that commercial prosperity and greatness which for centuries-
had been limited to its narrow basin.
Once more this historic sea has become the highway of nations; the persistent
energy and genius of two men haye revolutionised navigation, opened out new and
boundless fields for commerce, and it is hardly too much to say that if the Medi-
terranean is to be restored to its old position of importance, if the struggle for
Africa is to result in its regeneration, as happened in the new world, if the dark
places still remaining in the further East are to be civilised, it will be in a great
measure due to Waghorn and Ferdinand de Lesseps, who developed the overland
route and created the Suez Canal.
But the Mediterranean can only hope to retain its regenerated position in time
of peace. Nothing is more certainly shown by past history than that war and
conquest have changed the route of commerce in spite of favoured geographical
positions. Babylon was conquered by Assyrians, Persians, Macedonians, and.
Romans, and though for a time her position on the Euphrates caused her to rise
like a Phoenix from her ashes, successive conquests, combined with the luxury and’
effeminacy of her rulers, caused her to perish. Tyre, conquered by Nebuchadnezzar
and Alexander, fell as completely as Babylon had done, and her trade passed to-
Alexandria, Ruined sites of commercial cities rarely again become emporia of com-
merce; Alexandria is an exception dependent on very exceptional circumstances.
The old route to the East was principally used by sailing vessels, and was
abandoned for the shorter and more economical one by the Suez Canal, which now
enables a round yoyage to he made in 60 days, which formerly required from six
to eight months. This, however, can only remain open in time of peace. It is
quite possible that in the event of war the old route by the Cape may be again
used, to the detriment of traffic by the Mediterranean. Modern invention has
greatly economised the use of coal, and steamers, by the use of duplex and triplex
engines, can run with a comparatively small consumption of fuel, thus leaving a larger
space for cargo. England, the great carrying power of the world, may find it more:
advantageous to trust to her own strength and the security of the open seas than
to run the gauntlet of the numerous strategical positions in the Mediterranean,
such as Port Mahon, Bizerta, and Taranto, each of which is capable of affording
impregnable shelter to a hostile fleet, and though the ultimate key to the Indian
ean is in our own hands, our passage to it may be beset with a thousand
dangers. There is no act of my career on which I look back with so much satis-
faction as on the share I had in the occupation of Perim, one of the most important
links in that chain of coaling stations which extends through the Mediterranean to
the further East, and which is so necessary for the maintenance of our naval
885 REPORT— 1890,
supremacy. It is a mere islet, it is true, a barren rock, but one surrounding a
noble harbour, and so eminently in its right place that we cannot contemplate
with equanimity the possibility of it being in any other hands than our own.
It is by no means certain whether exaggerated armaments are best suited for
preserving peace or hastening a destructive war; the golden age of disarmament
and international arbitration may not be near at hand, but it is even now talked of
as a possibility.
Should the poet’s prophecy or the patriot’s dream be realised, and a universal
peace indeed bless the world, then this sea of so many victories may long remain
the harvest field of a commerce nobler than conquest.
The following Papers were read :—
1. The Vertical Relief of the Globe. By H. R. Miu, D.Sc., F.R.S.E.
This was a brief account of investigations already described in the ‘Scottish
‘Geographical Magazine’ for 1890,
2. Geographical Teaching in Russia. By H. R. Mit, D.S8c., FLR.S.H.
The author dealt mainly with Russian text-books of geography, which he
exhibited, showing how by means of maps of different scales the pupil is led out
from his immediate neighbourhood to the geography of his district, his province,
and so on, to still greater areas. Dr. Mill also pointed out the defects of the
Russian system.’
3. A Railway through Southern Persia.?
By Major-General Sir F. J. Gotpsuip, C.B., K.0.8.1., F.R.G.S.
This paper is intended as a supplement to one read in June 1878, at the Royal
United Service Institution, on ‘Communications with British India under Possible
Contingencies.’ The main object on that occasion was to advocate the construction
of a line of railway connecting the western shores of the Mediterranean with the
western coast of India by a direct, convenient, and politically expedient route—a
great part of which, on the eastern side, though terra incognita to the many, had
chanced to come under the personal examination of the writer and one or two
brother-officers. After delivery of the address (repeated by request at the Royal
Engineers’ Institute, Chatham), a leading article and some prolonged correspondence
in the Times, and more than one leading article in the Daily Telegraph, directed
public attention to the subject, interest in which was enhanced by the subsequent
occupation of Cyprus—practically the step recommended as an introduction to rail-
way operations on the coast opposite Famagusta.
One part of the programme originally sketched out, however, was wanting in
essential details. It was not laid down with any precision what should be the
actual course taken by the through line to India when branching off from the Lower
Euphrates. Surveys and reports by recent travellers have now rendered it easy to
supply this link of rail, one which may be appropriately called the Baghdad-
Bandar-Abbas section, or, more minutely, the Baghdad-Shiraz and Shiraz-Bandar-
Abbas sections. As to the route from Bandar-Abbas to Karachi on the east, and
from Tripoli to Baghdad on the west, any doubts or difficulties that present them-
selves are already ripe for discussion, and their solution cannot be treated as
Jependent upon further travel and research.
Tt is proposed to carry the line from Baghdad through Persian Arabistan, either
by way of Dizful and Shustar, continuing along the recognised track from the latter
place to Bebehan; or by an alternative route down the left bank of the Tigris, and
»id Haweizah to Ahwaz, whence Major Wells, R.E., has furnished full details of
1A full abstract in Proc. R. G.S. vol. xii. p. 669.
2 Printed in full in the Scottish Geographical Magazine, vol. vii.
a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 889
the route from his own experiences. The same officer has made, moreover, very valu-
able suggestions on the mode of reaching Shiraz from Bebehan. Comparing the
obstacles presented in this direction with those apparent in the more northern
tract of country, he writes :—
‘I think the railway engineer would prefer to take the line from Shustar wd
Bebehan to the Ardakhan Valley. He would find no stupendous obstacles this way,
and would have wormed himself’ to the roof of Central Persia without crossing one
of the ridges that would guard it; he would tap, too, its most fertile plains and
include Shiraz. The 7,200 feet kotud that lies between Ardakhan and Shiraz has
no difficulties or gradients that a “ Fairlie’s” engine, such as is used between Poti
and Tiflis, would not surmount. Or I should recommend the trial of the valley of
the Shapur river from Bushire to Nodun, where a tunnel would lead through to
the river Shur or Fahliyun, which runs from Ardakhan.’
On the country east and south-east of Shiraz the reports of travellers are noted,
and stress is laid upon the views of Mr. Preece of the Persian Telegraph, expressed
in the following extract from his report of a journey through Dara) and Forg :—
‘Should at any time the question of a railway to the Persian Gulf take tangible
form, a careful survey of this route, I am convinced, will repay the projectors. As
against the Shiréz-Bushire route, there can be no doubt of its greater adaptability
. . . the engineering difficulties are nearly ni... . a railway along this route
would tap a large grain-growing country, and would be easy of access to the inhabi-
tants of Yezd and Kirman.’
An alternative route is also mentioned, running south of Mr. Preece’s, through
Lar ; it is reported on by a late French traveller, M. Rochechouart, formerly Chargé
d’Affaires at the Shah’s Court.
A brief notice is given of Shustar, Shiréz, and Bandar-Abbas, and the lines
of traffic leading to these places. The writer brings his paper to a conclusion by
_ expressing his great faith in the drastic remedy of the iron rail and locomotive, to
awaken a slumbering but active-minded people, for whom it would he a novelty
of high price and usefulness. He does not, however, disguise the fact that the
scheme of railway which he describes has not had its origin in the mere wish to
benefit a particular nation, but rather in the intention of putting in a 900-mile link
in the inevitable great line which will some day connect England with her Indian
Empire, and which should be as readily available to passengers and goods as any of
the more popular and successful lines at home.
4. New Trade Routes into Persia. By H. F. B. Lrncu,
This paper had as its object an attempt to review the commercial geography of
Southern Persia from the standpoint of the writer's experience during recent
travels. A twofold consideration at once presented itself: firstly, what was the
physical configuration of the country between the Persian Gulf and the Persian
plateau, and, secondly, how could we apply the results of such an inquiry to the
benefit of commerce and of civilisation. Here an important element was intro-
duced ; for, given that geography had long ago decided that the present main
_ trade route was about the worst possible, and further, that she had, within recent
years, added much positive information regarding better roads, there still remained
_ the important questions, Might commerce enter by them, and, if allowed to enter,
would she be starved or fostered ? This was the political element, and he would
venture to offer a few remarks regarding it. The chief obstacles to the progress
of commerce in Persia lay not only in the indifference of the Persian Government,
but also in the apathy of the English people towards Persia and its polities. The
English ‘people had the largest interest in the foreign commerce of that Power
which was no distant neighbour of theirs in India; and, further, the value to
them of its political stability was such as to merit not their apathy but their zeal.
Stretching from the eastern borders of Turkey to the frontiers of Afghanistan and
from the Transcaspian provinces of Russia to the Indian Ocean, Persia covered an
“_ = oo square miles—a territory five times as large as that lie os
2 M
890 REPORT—1890.
within the United Kingdom. Of this the greater portion was mountain or spring-
less desert: enough remained of arable, of habitable, and of salubrious districts to
equal or exceed the area of our islands. The political importance to us of the
development of Persia as an integral state was this: it would be onerous to hold
it ourselves, it would be dangerous to let others hold it, it would be advantageous
if it could progress—but progress it must—under its present rulers. When
the Karun River—a great navigable waterway, and the only navigable river of
Persia—was thrown open to commerce under certain almost prohibitive conditions
by H.M., the Shah in 1888, the prospect of improved intercourse with Persia was
received with some interest by the English press. If certain restrictions could be
removed, and if certain facilities were offered, it seemed likely that the new trade
routes, the advantages of which our geographers had taken great pains to
demonstrate, would descend from the province of theory to that of reality. This
hope, in spite of the arduous labours of those who were well acquainted with the
methods and habits of the Hast, had only been partially realised. While H.M.
the Shah was being féted by the merchants of London, the writer himself, as a
traveller, was a witness of the scanty help—to say the least—which the Persian
Government were extending to London merchants engaged in laborious work on
the Karun. Individuals could only point out what measures it was necessary to
take to facilitate commerce ; our Government alone had the power to see that they
were taken. A mere declaration that a river might be navigated was not tanta-
mount to opening it to commerce. In what manner its proper navigation would
affect commercial intercourse it was now his object to describe.
After some general remarks regarding the physical geography of Persia as
bearing on the subject under consideration, the speaker proceeded to point out
that the largest cities and the central points of attraction to commerce by the
Persian Gulf were situated on the Persian plateau. Of these Ispahan contained
some 80,000 and Teheran some 200,000 inhabitants. The volume of Persian trade
flowed from and to the Persian Gulf by means of mule or camel transport; from
the gulf there was cheap water carriage to India and to Europe. A portion passed
by the Black Sea route dé Trebizond, while the rich province of Khorassan and the
shores of the Caspian were enclosed within the widening zone of Russian com-
mercial supremacy. Bushire stood at the entrance of the main avenue of the
Gulf trade; thence a most difficult track led over high and precipitous passes to
Shiraz; from Shiraz the way was easier towards Ispahan and Teheran. The
distances along this, the principal road, at present, into Persia by the Gulf, were :—
Shiraz, 200 miles; Ispahan, 520 miles; Teheran, 800 miles; and the elevations—
between Bushire and Shiraz a pass of 7,250 feet; between Shiraz and Ispahan, one
of over 8,000 feet ; between Ispahan and Teheran, the Kohrud Pass of 8,750 feet.
The difficulties along this road were so great that bulky goods destined for Persia
were taken by river to Bagdad, and thence, after passing the barriers of a Turkish
custom-house, reached the Persian plateau by the easier route wd Kerrind. A
glance at the map would show the advantages which Shushter, at the head of the
navigable portion of the Karun River, possessed over Bushire. There you had a
port distant some 130 miles by land from the Persian port of Mohammerah, to
which ocean steamers had access. Shushter commanded a series of routes to the
more populous districts and cities of Persia. The chief among these were :—
1. From Shuster v7é Khoremabad, Burujird, and Sultanabad to Teheran, a distance
of 480 miles, as against 800 between Teheran and Bushire. The elevations along
this road were:—For a distance of about 110 miles its profile rose from under
6,000 feet to passes over 7,000 feet high, the highest being that of Kushkedar,
between Sultanabad and Burujird, 7,490 feet high. A group of European
capitalists were engaged in constructing a cart road along this section, 2. From
Shushter vz@ Malamir to Ispahan, a distance of 250 miles by the road which
he had described in the current number of the Royal Geographical Society’s
Proceedings. The higher altitudes along this road extended for a distance of
about 73 miles, and the highest pass along it was about 8,650 feet high. By these -
two roads the distance between Teheran and a port was reduced from 800 miles
vid Bushire to 480 miles wd Shushter, while Ispahan held the benefit of 250 as
a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 891
zainst 520 miles. The first of the two routes from Shushter traversed a country
which had been subject to the depredations of the Lur tribes; but the opening of
the Karun River and the revenues derived from increased commerce would make
it worth while for the Persian Government to ensure its security. As to the
second it lay through the country of the friendly Bakhtiari, who were well within
the authority of the Persian Government.
Tt was now nearly two years since the Karun River had been declared open to
navigation as far as Ahwaz, at which point there was a natural dam across the
stream. A continuous steam service had, after much negotiation, been organised
both above and below Ahwaz. Why was commerce still loth to enter and avail
itself of the new trade routes? This was an important question which those
interested in commercial geography would not hesitate to ask. The commerce of
Great Britain and India with Persia had been estimated recently by a careful
writer at a value of 2,500,000/. a year. That figure alone made it seem worth
_ while to attempt an answer. The reasons might be briefly stated thus :—1. The
collection of customs was still in a state of disorder; a settlement had been arrived
at nearly a year ago between the British and the Persian Governments by which
the customs were to be collected at Shushter, the port of terminus, but this im-
portant measure still remained unfulfilled. 2. A postal service on the Karun
required to be organised ; this was a matter for our own Government, and its im-
portance had been pointed out by Colonel Bell and Sir R. Murdoch Smith. These
were the leading obstacles to commerce as far as Shushter ; once it had penetrated
thither it would soon pass further. The development of the short track to Ispahan
was well within the power of the Persian Government. The advantages which
would accrue to Persia by the use of the new trade routes would be enormous.
The benefits to ourselves and to European commerce would not be insignificant.
Tn the past our interest in Persia had been spasmodic ; sometimes we had thought
no expenditure too extravagant, at others we had wrapped ourselves in a cold
indifference to her fate. Would the new era repeat the uneven history of
the old ?
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Notes on the Country lying between Lakes Nyassa, Rukwa, and
Tanganyika. By Dr. Kerr Cross.
This paper describes the Ukonda plains at the north and west of Nyassa, the
people, their villages, banana groves, gardens, customs, &c. It also deals with the
hill-countries north of these, describes their valleys and rivers.
Then, leaving these, it describes the Stevenson road travelling from Karonga
to the extensive plateau country between the two lakes. The stockaded villages
of the people are described. The rivers are referred to—those running south into
the Zambezi and the Indian Ocean, those south and west into the Chambezi being
the eastern source of the Congo. The watershed of Lake Nyassa and Lake
Rukwa are described, with the country around. This little-known and brackish
lake, Leopold or Rukwa, is described, with the country at its south end. Certain
of the rivers flowing into it are described.
The commercial capabilities of Nyassaland generally are referred to ; its rain-
fall, its temperature, the richness of its soil, and its capacity for raising European
products. The question of native labour and European colonisation are pretty
tully gone into.
1 Printed in Proc. R.G.S. vol. xiii.
892 REVORT—1890.
2. Journeys in Ashanti and Neighbouring Regions.
By R. Austin Freeman, M.R.C.S.
The paper describes a journey through a tract of country in and to the north
of Upper Guinea, comprising the territories of FAnr1, Assin, ADANsI, ASHAN'TI,
JAman, and Grtinst. This tract extends from 5° N. to 10° N., and from 0° to
4° W. The first four countries are inhabited by various branches of the great
OrsHwi family, and the remainder by certain pagan aboriginal tribes, and by
numbers of WoneARA or Mandingo immigrants. Journeying from Cape Coast,
through Ashanti to Bontuku, the capital of Jaman, the author crossed three zones
of country: (1) open country covered with low bush about 30 miles broad ; (2)
dense forest about 180 miles broad ; (3) open park-like country which, alternating
with grassy plains, seems to occupy the greater part of Central and Eastern Africa.
On arrival at Kumasst, the capital of Ashanti, the author was received by the
king and principal chiefs with great ceremony, the court of Kumassi retaining
much of its former splendour. The town of Kumassi is much dilapidated, but
presents many relics of great interest. Jaman is a kingdom situated to the N.W.
of Ashanti, about 9,300 square miles in extent; its capital, BontUxu, is a large
town closely resembling in appearance the towns of the Tawarek and upper Niger.
It is inhabited almost exclusively by Mohammedans, and forms an important slave
depot, as do also the Griinsi towns of WA and Bérr. The commercial resources
of the tract of country here described are considerable ; over the whole of it gold
is fairly plentiful, and the forest abounds in rubber plants both in the form of
trees and vines. Hard woods are very plentiful, and are of great value in Europe,
notably the OpUm and Pappdo, both of which trees reach a height of nearly 200
feet. The Kola nut also, which grows abundantly in the forest, has a great and
increasing commercial value. The country is intersected by several considerable
rivers which might be easily rendered navigable, and thus form great highways of
trade. There are, moreover, no special obstacles to the construction of railways,
and the district may thus be expected to form one of the great commercial centres
of the future.
3. Zambezia.! By HE. A. Maun.
4. The Commercial Geography of Africa. By J. Scorr Kettm.
The author reviewed the physical characters of Africa, so far as known, and
pointed ont the probable bearings of them in the commercial development of the
Continent. He showed that, while all the natural vegetable and animal matter
and nearly the whole of the rainfall and water supply are concentrated in tropical
Africa, the value of the commerce of that region is insignificant compared with
that of the Mediterranean region and South Africa. In Central Africa nature
has been left to herself; in North and South Africa man has interfered with
profitable results.
5. The Political Partition of Africa. By A. Suva Waitt, F.R.S.2.
6. The Kalahari. By HK. Witx1yson.
1 See Proc. R.G.S. vol. xiii. p. 1.
; TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 893
3 MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. Joint Meeting with Section F' to consider the subject of the Lands of the
Globe. still available for European Settlement. Introduced in a Paper
by E. G. Ravensrery, F.L.G.S.!
2. On Exploration in North-Eastern Cilicia.? By J. Touopore Benv.
After showing how geography, history, and anthropology are interwoven in
this district, and the study of one is necessary to the understanding of the other,
the author gave an account of the Armenian fortress of Sis, and the reason for its
importance during the Roupenian line of Armenian kings.
The country between Sis and Anazarba was then described, and an account given
of the fortress-town of Anazarba and the rivers Jeihan, Sombaz, and Savroon.
Experiences amongst the nomad tribes, and their customs and mode of living
were then given, including the Afshars, the Bosdans, and the Circassians, who
frequent this portion of the Cilician plains during the winter months.
The country between Anazarba and Kars Bazaar was described, and this place
identified with the ancient Flaviopolis.
Exploration of ruins on a spot near the Pyramus, called Bodroum, was then
described, and its identification from epigraphy with the ancient Hieropolis-
Castabala.
Inscriptions which show that Artemis Perasia was worshipped here, as Strabo
tells us, were referred to to show that this is the Castabala which has hitherto
been placed in Cappadocia, and is also the spot which Alexander the Great visited
before the battle of Issos.
Notes on Osmanieh and the pass behind it leading into Syria.
EE — =" =
3. Report of the Committee for the Erploration of Cilicia.—See
: Reports, p. 535.
4. The Physical Geographical Features of Brazil, in relation to their Influence
upon the Development, or otherwise, of the Industrial and Commercial
Interests of the Country. By James W. Wetts, M.Iust.0.H., I. R.G.S.
: The purpose of the paper isto point out the contrast between the configura-
tion of the land of Argentina and of Brazil : how in the former it is so extremely
favourable to the rapid and inexpensire extension of railways ; whereas in the latter
country it has long been an obstacle to similar progress. Now that such obstacles
have largely been overcome, there is every prospect of a speedy construction of a
vast system of rail and fluvial communication over the vast area of Brazil—a
result which will be, and, as a matter of fact, actually is, the means of attraction
of aconsiderable number of desirable immigrants. And railway construction, and a
free and abundant immigration, inevitably lead to the development of all sorts and
conditions of industries, and prosperous commerce.
5. From Paraguay to the Pacific. By M. A. Tuovar.
M. Thouar made four expeditions in South America. In his first, made under
the auspices of the Bolivian Government in 1883, following the disappearance of
1 Full report in Proc. R.G.S. vol. xiii. p. 27.
2 See Proc. R. GS. vol. xii. p. 445.
3 See Scottish Geographical Magazine, vol. vi.
894 REPORT—1890.
the Crevaux Mission, he explored the unknown regions through which flows the
river Pilcomayo. The second in 1885, under the auspices of the Argentine
Government, was devoted to an overland exploration of the delta of the Pilecomayo
lying in the Argentine territory. The third, in 1886, was made in a northerly
direction from Rosaria to Salta, reascending the Humanuaca and the Cordilleras,
The fourth, under the auspices of the Bolivian Government, was made for the
purpose of discovering a navigable route eastwards for the commerce and
productions of Bolivia.
At the head of an escort of twenty men, afterwards increased to seventy,
M. Thouar left Chuquisaca in November 1886 for Izozg, vid Tomina, Tacupaya,
Padilla, and Lagunillas, following the course of the river Parapiti, to the heights
of Iguiasiriri; from thence they travelled northwards to Carumbei. The march
was here impeded for some months by an impenetrable forest of hardwood trees
intertwined with thorns, brambles, and cactus; water and pasture were extremely
scarce. In the meantime he explored the course of the Parapiti above Carumbei
as far as the beautiful lake Ancararenda, and the whole of the Chaco Central
and the Chaco Boreal in the province of Chiquitos.
Crossing the mountains of Machareti the party travelled E.N.E. to Puerto
Pacheco, but owing to the scarcity of water they were obliged to go southward.
In this inhospitable region, situated under the twentieth parallel thirty leagues
from the river Paraguay, they pushed on despairingly against the wild opposing
forces of nature, exhausted by fatigues and privations of all kinds. Harassed by
the Tapihetes Indians they were on the point of succumbing, when M. Thouar
and his three companions were rescued by Colonel Martinez, commander of the
Bolivian frontier, on the evening of October 1, 1887. They returned to the
colony of Crevaux without having been able to reach Puerto Pacheco. This
journey lasted from November 1886 to May 1888.
M. Thouar, by a series of daily observations carefully taken, has obtained the
following data:—1. The map of his journey on a large scale from Tarija to
Asuncion vd the Pileomayo. 2. A general hydrographical map of the river
Pileomayo with its numerous windings, drawn to a scale of ;,1... 3. A relief
: : : sae : 400900"
map, measuring 1] métre 23 centimétres by 1 métre 17 centimétres on a scale
of s55b005) Containing his four journeys.
The Geographical Society of Paris is now completing the publication of these
maps.
The eastern Bolivian Andes towards the west present a sombre appearance,
and are devoid of vegetation, The central part of the summit towards the east,
near the Cordillera de los Frailes, is occupied by an immense elliptical tableland,
surrounded by glaciers extending from the north to the gigantic yoleanoes of
Sorata and Ilimani, overlooking the majestic Lake Titicaca. The sky here is
incomparably brilliant. The tinkling of bells in a slight cloud of dust, indicating the
passage of a flock of llamas loaded with small sacks of copper ore from Oruro, is
the only sign of human industry. The huts and villages, which are frequently
met with, have a dusty, miserable, dull appearance, and a covering of volcanic
ashes conceals the richness of the mines. Vegetation is very scanty, and it is
doubtful if the Aymaras and the Quichuas succeed in obtaining even a scanty
crop.
Passing the Livichucho volcano, the scene changes, and we enter the second
chain. Leaving by degrees the high plateau, and descending the eastern Bolivian
slope, we enter the steppes, rich in all sorts of produce, leading to the vast plains
of the Chaco. On the right is Potosi, with its famous mines, Huanchaca, Lipez,
and Guadalupe; to the left Cochabamba, with its superb valleys; to the north
Chuquisaca, the capital, with its great silver mines at Colquechacha; and on the
south San Lucas, Cinti, and Taruja, with their beautiful valleys and forests.
Beyond these are the last undulations of the Andes, terminating in the vast Chaco
plains, extending like a limitless ocean. The Chaco, lying between the 18th
and 30th parallels 8. latitude and 63° and 57° W. of Greenwich, is divided into
three sections. The first, towards the north, is called the Chaco Boreal, and is
situated between Chuquitos and the Pilcomayo. The second, constituting the —
—EE
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 895
Chaco Central, is between the rivers Pilcomayo and Bermejo. The third, to the
south, is the Chaco Austral, and lies between the rivers Bermejo and Salado. It
is an immense sandy formation, sloping from N, to S. and from W.N.W. to E.S.E,
the depression being about 200 métres between Caiza and Formosa. It is drained
from W.N.W. to E.S.E. by the Pilecomayo and the Bermejo, two great arteries of
the La Plata.
The Pilcomayo takes its rise in the high Bolivian plateau in the vicinity of
Potosi, then, running 8.S.E, as a rapid and impetuous torrent, is enlarged by a
number of affluents, and then takes a precipitous course through a plain having a
fall of 21 centimétres per métre, and, rushing through masses of jasper, freestone,
and schists, which form the rocks of Aguaragui and Caipipendi, enters the Chaco
at San Francisco de Solano. The current runs at the rate of 13 to 2 miles per
hour, rendering navigation difficult; but at certain places, notably at Cavaya
Ropoli, a little below the Crevaux colony, the banks open out and the current
flows round innumerable islands.
Bolivia has established missions of Italian Franciscan friars at Machareti,
Tiguipa, Tarairi, San Francisco, and Aguarrenda. At this point we reach the
limit of civilisation, and passing northwards we enter Izozog, inhabited by the
Tapuis Indians, who dwell on the banks of the river Parapiti at Carumbei,
Guandare, Ipahuasu, Amenati, Aguarati, Tamane, Tobi, Cobei, Iguiasiriri,
Tapere, &c., &c. This group belongs to the tribe of Chiriguanos, who extend
along the whole of the missions as far as Caiza and Yacuiva. Immediately to the
south are the Matacos at Tonono and Itiyuru. In the thickest part of the forest
in the Chaco Boreal dwell the Sirionos, Itirucommbre, the ‘ En Pelotas,’ so called
because they are entirely naked, and are in a state of absolute savagery. They
live almost exclusively on honey, which is very plentiful, and drink, in the absence
of water, from a plant belonging to the Crucifere family growing very profusely,
and called by the Tapins the Cipo-hi, from Cipo plant, ie water. The whole of
the left bank of the Pilcomayo is inhabited by the Tobas, Choitis, and Tapihetes
Indians. These Indians, whose numbers are very considerable, form three different
groups, to judge from their dialects and customs.
On the right bank are the Matacos, the Guimages, with some of the Tobas;
these also form three distinct groups, less numerous but more tractable. The
Indians who massacred the members of the Crevaux mission in April 1882,
belonged to the Tobas, a very vindictive and sanguinary tribe.
On account of its impenetrable forests and the aridity of its sandy soil, the
Chaco Boreal cannot be utilised except for its timber, and the guebracho, for its
enormous quantity of bees-wax and honey deposited in its trunk. M. Thouar,
from a careful estimate made from various parts of the Chaco Boreal, calculates
that the average quantity of wax and honey that could be collected annually from
this region amounts to between 560,000 and 600,000 cwts. The surface of the
Chaco Central differs from the Chaco Boreal in being more open, and possessing
extensive prairies affording excellent pasturage lands interspersed with well-
timbered lands. The Indians living in this district possess numerous flocks of
cattle, sheep, goats, horses, and mules.
As regards the Chaco Austral, it is well known that the best colonies to the
north of Santa Fé are situated in this region ; the climate is.highly salubrious, the
soil is extremely fertile, and affords abundant scope for agriculture and cattle
rearing. The whole of the territory lying between the Pilcomayo to the north ard
the Salado to the south is most suitable to colonisation, and is destined to become
at some future day the granaryof South America. The attention of the Bolivian
and Argentine Governments has been directed towards the development of this
region.
Asi examination of the map of South America will satisfy anyone that this
part of Bolivia cannot be brought into direct communication with Europe by the
Chilian route vid Huanahuaca and Antofogasta, or the Peruvian route vid Puno
and Mollendo. On the other hand, a route across the Chaco Central by way of
the Pilcomayo, or, as has been mooted, a railway between Formosa and Caiza,
would bring the extensive and fertile region within eight days’ journey of Buenos
896 REPORT—1890.
Ayres. This suggested route would afford an expeditious outlet for its immensely
varied products—gold, silver, bismuth, mercury, marble, all kinds of agricultural
produce, &c., &c., and at the same time greatly facilitate the colonisation of
Hastern Bolivia.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Notes on a Journey in the Eastern Carpathians.
By Miss Ment Moriet Dowie.
Miss Dowie read a paper dealing with her experiences among the people who
inhabit the Carpathian Mountains on the Eastern or Polish side. She gave a
brief description of the life of these people, their work, costume, and character, and
included an account of her journeys, alone, on horseback there, the mountains, and
the conditions under which she was obliged to live. She concluded with some
remarks upon the future of Galicia and its great natural resources in the shape of
petroleum wells, salt and silver mines, together with the immense industries in
connection with its woods, yet to be fully developed.
2. The Present State of the Ordnance Survey and the Paramount Necessity
for a Thorough Revision.’ Henry T. Croox, C.L.
3. Ancient Maps of Egypt, Lake Moeris, and the Mowntains of the Moon
By Corr Wuirrnovss.
The revised (1890) map of Middie Egypt prepared by the Intelligence Depart-
ment of the War Office shows a part of the changes effected by the observations
of the author of this paper. A critical study of the manuscript and printed maps
attached to the text of Claudius Ptolemy had enabled him to aver, as a crucial
test of their authenticity, that a depression would be found to exist in the desert
to the west of the Nile, to the south of the Fayoum, with its western extremity
nearly south of Alexandria, due south of the Natron lakes, between the latitudes
of Heracleopolis and Oxyrhinchus, or (approximately) of Beni-Suef and Maghagha,
of a peculiar shape, somewhat resembling a clover-leaf and stem, with remains of
a Greek town at the north end of the narrow southern valley, on the east side. The
physical conditions of this region have now been determined with extreme accuracy.
The map exhibited received the approval of the International Jury at the Paris
Exposition (1889), médazlle d’argent, and has been used by the War Office (1890).
The most important maps of the printed editions of Cl. Ptolemy, of the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, have been reproduced in the facsimile atlas
(1890) prepared with great erudition and skill by Baron A. E. Nordenskiold,
translated by Mr. Clements R. Markham, U.B., F.R.S. [Maps evhibited.| The
oldest. known manuscript is that of Mt. Athos—possibly of the twelfth century.
[Exhibited in photographic reproduction.| The most accurate delineation of this
region is in the so-called ‘Agnese’ (Palmese), xvii. 29, a.p. 1554 (photographed
by Organia). A comparison shows that the Meridis Lacus, as it was in A.D. 150,
exactly corresponds to the Wadi Raiyan and Wadi Muellah, with the ruins of the
Deir Muellah, at the contour of high-Nile; or to that regulating reservoir, with
an area of 250 square miles and a depth of 220 feet, which will be formed by
putting this depression in communication with the Nile.
Mr. H. M. Stanley’s identification of Ruwenzori with the Mountains of the
Moon reversed this method. He found the mountains, and then examined the
1 Printed in full in the Proc. R.G.S. vol. xii. p. 674.
Ss
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 897
maps and the historical evidence. The result is the same. The existence of
ancient originals from which the medieval copies were made is no longer open to
dispute. They have never been subjected to critical analysis. It is reasonable to
anticipate other important additions to geographical knowledge as the result of
the renewed credit which will henceforth attach to the only atlas which has
reached us from ancient days.
4, Some Points in connection with Ptolemaic Geography and Ptolemaic
Maps.' By Dr. ScuuicuTer.
Dr. Schlichter sought to show by comparison of the positions given in
Ptolemy's geography that that geographer must have had trustworthy information
concerning North-east Africa, the Central Lakes, and the neighbouring mountains.
5. The actual State of the Question of the Initial Meridian for the Universal
Hour. By C. Tonpint DE QUARENGAI.
6. On recent Explorations in New Guinea.? By Coutts Trotter, F.R.G.S.
7. Honduras (Spanish).2 By Wiiu1am Pitcuer, F.R.G.S.
The writer visited the country December 1889, leaving it the end of
February 1890, and during that period travelled on muleback over 1,000 miles,
chiefly through that part of the country lying on the Pacific side of the
Cordilleras, which mountain range forms the backbone of the Central American
continent.
From Amapala, the Pacific port, to Tegucigalpa, the capital, from thence
to Juticulpa, in Olancho, then to Comayagua (the ancient capital), and the famous
silver mines of Opoteca, then to Yuscaran, in El Paraiso, another mining district,
back again by another route to Olancho, and finally journeying again from
Blancho through the capital to Amapala, and from there to La Union, Salvador,
where the Pacific mail steamer was picked up, gives a brief outline of the country
traversed.
This comprises the well-known rivers Guayape and Jalan, in Olancho,
where the gold-washing provides an easy living for the natives, an inspection of
the old Spanish mines at Opoteca and Yuscaran, and at the latter place of the
mining camps of the Americans and Germans now in full work, and in addition
takes the traveller through and over the beautiful and fertile valleys and plateaus
of this country, where tropical vegetation abounds, and coffee, rice, maize, sugar-cane,
bananas, plantains, saccate, guavas, oranges, lemons, and other fruits are continuously
produced without fear of frosts or adverse seasons. Herds of cattle and native
horses are scattered over the country.
The paper contained some figures and statements as to cattle raising, the culti-
vation of coffee, sugar-cane, and tropical fruits.
8. On a Visit to the Skaptor District of Iceland.
Dy Dr. Tempest AnpERsoN and Dr. Jounston-Lavis.
? Printed in Proc. R.G.S. vol. xiii.
? See Proc. R.G.S. vol. xii. p. 687.
* See Scottish Geographical Magazine, vol. vi.
898
REPORT—1890,
Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor ALFRED Marsuatt, M.A., F.S.S.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
The Presipent delivered the following Address :—
TABLE OF
§ 1. The aim of this paper is to indi-
cate some changes in the general attitude
of economists towards competition.
2. The earlier economists did not
sufficiently distinguish the effects of Pro-
tection in old and new countries. The
difficulties of a pioneer manufacturer.
§ 3. The action of the Laws of In-
creasing and of Diminishing Returns
intensifies the evils of Protection in Eng-
land, but lessens them in America.
§ 4. The balance of advantage appears
now, at all events, to be against Protec-
tion, even in America.
§ 5. But the valid arguments against
it have lost much of their force by being
associated with weak arguments.
§ 6. We pass to competition and
combination in domestic trade. Con-
trast between England and America.
§ 7. The progress of Trusts in Ame-
rica so far has been less solid than is
commonly supposed.
§ 8. They are, however, learning the
wisdom of a moderate policy; and this,
it is claimed, will give them great power.
§ 9. After they have once made a
permanent pool of their gains, they are
very apt to drift towards complete con-
solidation.
§ 10. The danger of regarding the
action of trade combinations of the looser
sort as in restraint of competition, while
similar actions on the part of individual
firms are treated as legitimate forms of
competition.
§ 11. English and American econo-
mists are facing the fact that in some
industries competition fails to be an
efficient regulator. They wish generally
for an extension of State control, and, in
CONTENTS.
some cases, of State ownership, but not
of State management.
§ 12. Passing to industries which do
not from their nature exclude efficient
competition, we mustallow some validity
to the claim that large combinations tend
to diminish the waste involved in older
methods of bargaining; but not, so far
as is yet shown, to the claim that they
make industry as a whole more stable
and constant.
§ 13. Trade combinations have some
advantages in availing themselves of
such economies of production on a large
scale as are already known.
§ 14. But they tend to check the
growth of nearly all inventions and im-
provements except those which result
directly from the progress of physical
science.
§ 15. This last class is, indeed, of
growing importance, and results chiefly
from work done for other motives than
the desire for pecuniary gain. And
similar motives play a larger part than
is commonly supposed in calling forth
the best energies of business men.
§ 16. The services of free competi-
tion in putting the ablest men into the
most important posts are of the highest
value to society ; but they do not depend,
as some economists have assumed, on the
maintenance of those extreme rights of
property which tend to augment the
inequalities of wealth.
§ 17. The Socialists have done good
by insisting that the desire for pecuniary
gain is not the only effective motive of
business work; but they underrated the
difficulty of business management.
§18. The growing importance of
ee
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 899
public opinion as an economic force, § 19. The difficulties of public
especially in cases in which effective | opinion, and the importance of its being
competition is impossible, or has been | trained for its new responsibilities.
displaced by combinations. § 20. Conclusion.
Some Aspects of Competition.
§ 1. I unpERSTAND that the function of an Opening Address to a section of this
Association is to give an account of the advances made in some part of the field of
study with which that section is specially concerned. The part of our field to
which I would direct your attention to-day is the action of competition in trade
and commerce. We cannot, in the short space of time allotted to us, make an
adequate study of the progress that has been made even in this part of our field;
but we may be able to go some way towards ascertaining the character of the
changes that are going on in our own time in the mode of action of competition,
and in the attitude of economists towards it.
I do not now speak of changes in the moral sentiments of economists with
regard to competition—though these, also, are significant in their way—but of
changes in their mental attitude towards it, and in the way in which they analyse
and reason about its methods of action. Of these changes, the most conspicuous
and important is the abandonment of general propositions and dogmas in favour of
processes of analysis and reasoning, carefully worked out, and held ready for
application to the special circumstances of particular problems relating to different
countries and different ages, to different races and different classes of industry.
This movement may, perhaps, best be regarded as a passing onward from that
early stage in the development of scientific method, in which the operations of Nature
are represented as conventionally simplified for the purpose of enabling them to be
‘described in short and easy sentences, to that higher stage in which they are
studied more carefully, and represented more nearly as they are, even at the expense
of some loss of simplicity and definiteness, and even apparent lucidity. To put
the same thing in more familiar words, the English economists of fifty years ago
were gratified, rather than otherwise, when some faithful henchman, or hench-
woman, undertook to set forth their doctrines in the form of a catechism or creed ;
and the economists of to-day abhor creeds and catechisms. Such things are now
left for the Socialists.
It has, indeed, been an unfortunate thing for the reputation of the older
economists, that many of the conditions of England at the beginning of this
century were exceptional, some being transitional, and others, eyen at the time,”
peculiar to England. Their knowledge of facts was, on the average, probably
quite as thorough as that of the leading economists of England or Germany
to-day, though their range was narrow. Their thoroughness was their own, the
narrowness of their range belonged to their age; and though each of them knew a
great deal, their ageregate knowledge was not much greater than that of any one
of them, because there were so few of them, and they were so very well agreed.
In these matters we economists of to-day have the advantage over them.
Their agreement with one another made them confident; the want of a strong
opposition made therm dogmatic; the necessity of making themselves intelligible to
the multitude made them suppress even such conditioning and qualifying clauses as
they had in their own minds: and thus, although their doctrines contained more
that was true, and new, and important than those promulgated by almost any other
set of men that have ever lived—doctrines for .which they will be gratefully
remembered as long as the history of our century retains any interest—yet, still,
these doctrines were so narrow and inelastic that, when they were applied under
conditions of time and place different from those in which they had their origin,
their faults became obvious and created a reaction azainst them.
Perhaps the greatest economic danger of our age is that this reaction may be
carried too far, and that the great truths which lie embedded in their too large
utterances may be neglected because they are not new, and men are a little tired
of them, and because they are associated with much that is not true, and which
900 REPORT—1890.
has become, not altogether unjustly, repugnant to men’s sentiments. I propose to
illustrate this danger chiefly by reference to that point at which it seems to assume
the gravest form just at present, viz., the relations between competition and com-
bination in domestic trade. But the relations between Protection and Free
Trade in foreign commerce have a longer and more fully developed history; and I
will begin by referring briefly to them, because they throw a clear light both on
recent changes in the methods of economic thought, and on the warnings which
the experience of our forefathers in dealing with the problems of their age gives us
with reference to those problems which are more specially ours.
§ 2. It is a constant source of wonder to Englishmen that Protection survives and
thrives, in spite of the complete refutations of Protectionist arguments with which
English economists have been ready to supply the rest of the world for the last fifty
years or more. I believe that these refutations failed chiefly because some of them
implicitly assumed that whatever was true as regards England was universally
true; and if they referred at all to any of the points of difference between Hngland
and other countries, it was only to put them impatiently aside, without a real answer
to the arguments based onthem. And further, because it was clearly to the interests
of England that her manufactures should be admitted free by other countries,
therefore, any Englishman who attempted to point out that there was some force
in some of the arguments which were adduced in favour of Protection in other
countries, was denounced as unpatriotic. Public opinion in England acted like the
savage monarch who puts to death the messenger that comes running in haste to
tell him how his foes are advancing on him; and when John Stuart Mill ventured
to tell the English people that some arguments for Protection in new countries
were scientifically valid, his friends spoke of it in anger—hbut more in sorrow than
in anger—as his one sad departure from the sound principles of economic recti-
tude. But killing the messengers did not kill the hostile troops of which the
messengers brought record ; and the arguments which the Englishmen refused to
hear, and therefore never properly refuted, were for that very reason those on which
Protectionists relied for raising a prejudice in the minds of intelligent and public-
spirited Americans against the scientific soundness and even the moral honesty of
English economics.
The first great difficulty which English economists had, in addressing themselves
to the problems of cosmopolitan economics, arose from the fact that England was
an old country—older than America in every sense, and older than the other
countries of Europe in this sense, that she had accepted the ideas of the new and
coming industrial age more fully and earlier than they had. In speaking of
England, therefore, they drifted into the habit of using, as convertible, the two
3D?
phrases—‘ the commodities which a country can now produce most easily,’ and ‘the
commodities which a country has the greatest natural advantages for producing,’
that is, will always be able to produce most easily. But these two phrases were
not approximately convertible when applied to other countries ; and when List and
Carey tried to call attention to this fact, Englishmen did little more than repeat
old arguments, which implicitly assumed that New England's inability to produce
cheap calico had the same foundation in natural laws as her inability to produce
cheap oranges. They refused fairly to meet the objection that arguments which
prove that nothing but good can come from a constant interchange of goods between
temperate and tropical regions, do not prove that it is for the interest of the world
that the artisans who are fed on American grain and meat should continue always
to work up American cotton for American use three thousand milesaway. Finding
that their case was not fairly met, the Protectionists naturally thought it stronger
than it was, and honestly exaggerated it in every way. One of my most vivid re-
collections of a visit I made, in 1875, to study American Protection on the spot, is
that of Mr. Carey’s splendid anger, as he exclaimed that foreign commerce had
made even the railways of America run from east to west, rather than from north
to south.
England had passed through the stage of having to import her teachers from
other lands. But her genius for freedom had attracted to her shores the pick of the
skilled artisans of the world; she had received the best lessons from the best
J
:
:
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 901
instructors, and seldom paid them any fee, beyond a safe harbour from political and
religious persecution. And modern Englishmen could not realise, as Americans, and
even Germans, could fifty years ago, the difficulties of a manufacturer taking part
in starting a new industry, when he came to England to beg or steal a knowledge of
the trade, and to induce skilful artisans to come back with him, He seldom got
the very best; for they were sure of a comfortable life at home, and were perhaps
not without some ambition of rising to be masters themselves. He had to pay their
travelling expenses, and to promise them very high wages; and when all was done,
they often left him to become the owners of the 160 acres allotted to every free
settler; or, the bitterest pill of all, they sold their skill to a neighbouring employer
who had been looking on at the experiment, and, as soon as it showed signs of pro-
sperity, stepped in, improved on the first experiments, and reaped a full harvest on
a soil that had been made ready by others.
Again, the pioneer manufacturer had to bring over specialised machinery, and
specialised skill to take care of it. If any part went wrong, or was superseded, the
change cost him ten times as much as his English competitor. He had to be self-
sufficing : he could get no help from the multitude of subsidiary industries, which
in England would have lent him aid at every turn. He had a hundred pitfalls on
every side: if he failed, his failure was full of lessons to those who came after;
if he succeeded, the profits to himself would be trivial as compared with those to
his country. When he told the tale of his struggles, every word went home to:
his hearers ; and when the English economists, instead of setting themselves to
discover the best method by which his country might help him in his experiment,
said he was flying in the face of Nature, and called him a selfish schemer for want-
ing any help at all, they put themselves out of court.
§ 3. But the failure of English economists to allow for the special circumstances
of new countries did not end here, They saw that Protective taxes in England had
raised the price of wheat by their full amount (because the production of wheat
obeys the Law of Diminishing Return ; and in an old country, such as England,
increased supplies could be raised only at a more than proportionately increased
cost of labour) ; that the high price of bread had kept a large part of the popula-
tion on insufficient rations; that it had enriched the rich at the expense of a much
greater loss to the rest of the nation; and that this loss had fallen upon those who
were unable to lose material wealth without also losing physical, and even mental
and moral strength; and that even those miseries of the overworked factory
women and children, which some recent German writers have ascribed exclu-
sively to recklessness of manufacturing competition in its ignorant youth, were
really caused chiefly by the want of freedom for the entry of food. They were
convinced, rightly, as I believe, that the benefits claimed for Protection in England
were based, without exception, on false reasoning; and they fought against it with
the honest, but also rather blind, energy of a religious zeal.
Thus they overlooked the fact that many of those indirect effects of Protection
which aggravated then, and would aggravate now, its direct evils in England,
worked in the opposite direction in America. For, first, the more America ex-
ported her raw produce in return for manufacture, the less the benefit she got from
the Law of Increasing Return as regards those goods that she manufactured for
herself; and thus her case was contrasted with England, who could manufacture
them more cheaply for her own use the more of her manufactures she sent abroad
to buy raw produce; and for this and other reasons, a Protective tax did not
nearly always raise the cost of goods to the American consumer by its full amount.
And, secondly, Protection in America did not, as in England, tax the industrial
classes for the benefit of the wealthy class of landlords. On the contrary, in so far
as it fell upon the exporters of American produce, it pressed on those who had
received large free gifts of public land; and there was no primd facie injustice in
awarding to the artisans, by special taxation, a small part of the fruits of that land,
the direct ownership of which had not been divided between farmers and artisans,
as it equitably might have been, but had been given exclusively to the former.
§ 4. I have touched on but a few out of many aspects of the problem. But
perhaps I may stop here, and yet venture to express my own opinion on the con-
902 REPORT—1890.
troversy. It is, that fifty years ago it might possibly have been not beyond the
powers of human ingenuity to devise schemes of Protection which would, on the
whole, be beneficial to America, at all events if one regarded only its economic and
neglected its moral effects; but that the balance has turned strongly against Pro-
tection long ago. In 1875 I visited America, discussed the Protective policy with
several of its leading advocates, visited some of the factories in almost every first-
class city, and compared as well as I could the condition of the workers there
with that of similar workers at home; and lastly I walked up and down the streets
and said to myself as I went, The adoption of Free Trade, so soon as its first dis-
turbances were over, would strengthen this firm, and weaken that; and [ tried to
strike a rough balance of the good and evil effects of such a change on the non-
agricultural population. On the whole, it seemed to me the two were about equally
balanced; and that those which would be likely to lose by the abandonment of
Protection were not the higher, but rather the lower, classes of manufacturing
industries: for instance. those metal and wood trades which give the best scope
for the special genius of the native American artisan would gain by the change.
Taking account, therefore, of the political corruption which necessarily results
from struggles about the tariff in a democratic country, and taking account also
of the interests of the agricultural classes, I settled in my own mind the question
as to which I had kept an open mind till I went to America, and decided that,
if an American, I should unhesitatingly vote for Free Trade. Since that time the
advantages of Protection in America have steadily diminished, and those of Free
Trade have increased; I can see no force in Professor Patten’s new defence of
Protection as a permanent policy. I have already implied that I believe that many
of those arguments that tell in favour of Protection as regards a new country,
tell against it as regards an old one. Especially for England a Protective policy
would, I believe, be an unmixed and grievous evil.
§ 5. But this expression of my own opinion is a digression. My present purpose
in discussing Protection is to argue that, if the earlier English economists had
from the first studied the conditions of other countries more carefuily, and aban-
doned those positions that were at.all weak, they could have retained the controversy
with their opponents within those regions where they had a solid advantage. They
would thus have got a more careful hearing when they claimed that, even though
labour migrated more freely between the west and the east of America than
between England and America, yet it was unwise to spend so much trouble on
protecting the nascent industries of the Kast against those of England, and none on
protecting the nascent industries of the West against those of the East; or, again,
when they urged that, the younger an industry was, and the more deeply it needed
help, the more exclusively would its claims have to stand on its own merits; while
its older and sturdier brothers could supplement their arguments by a voting
power which even the most honest politicians had to respect, and by a power of
corruption which would tend to make politics dishonest.
Had the English economists been more careful and more many-sided, they would
have gradually built up a prestige for honesty and frankness, as well as for scientific
thoroughness, which would have inclined the popular ear to their favour, even when
their arguments were difficult to follow. Intellectual thoroughness and sincerity
is its own reward; but it is also a prudent policy when the people at large have to
he convinced of the advisability of a course of action against which such plausible
fallacies can be urged as that ‘Protection increases the employment of domestic
industries,’ or that ‘it is needed to enable a country in which the rate of wages is
generally high to carry on trade with another in which it is generally low.’ The
arguments by which such fallacies can be opposed have an almost mathematical
cogency, and will convince, even against his will, anyone who is properly trained
for such reasonings. But the real nature of foreign trade is so much disguised by
the monetary transactions in which it is enveloped, that a clever sophist has a hun-
dred opportunities of throwing dust in the eyes of ordinary people, and especially
the working-classes, when urging the claims of Protection as affording a short eut
to national prosperity; and, to crown all, he contrasts America’s prosperity with
English prophecies of the ruin that Protection would bring on her.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 903
Tt is true that Ricardo himself, and some of those who worked with him, were
incapable of supposing that a doctrine can be made more patriotic by being made
less true ; and, so far as their limits went, they examined the good and evil of any
proposed course, and weighed the good and evil against one another in that calm
spirit of submissive interrogation with which the chemist weighs his materials in
his laboratory. But they were few in number, and their range of inquiry was some-
what narrow; while many of those Englishmen who were most eager to spread
Free Trade doctrines abroad had not the pure scientific temper.
Now at length, however, there seems to be the dawn of a brighter day in the
growth of large numbers of many-sided students, in England and other countries,
and notably in America itself, where the problems of Protection can be studied to
most advantage—students who are not, indeed, without opinions as to what course
it is most expedient to follow practically, but who are free from party bias, and
have the true scientific delight in ascertaining a new fact or developing a new
argument, simply because they believe it to be new and true, and who welcome it
equally whether it tells for or against the practical conclusion which, on the whole,
they are inclined to support.
§ 6. But I must leave the subject of competition from outside a nation, and pass
to that of competition within. Here the past counts for less; the present and the
future have to work for themselves without very much direct aid from experi-
ence. For, rapid as are the changes which the last few years have seen in the
conditions of foreign trade, those which are taking place in the relations of
different groups of industry within a country are more rapid still, and more funda-
mental. The whirligig of Time brings its revenges. It was to Kngland’s sagacity
and good fortune in seizing hold of those industries in which the Law of Increasing
Return applies most strongly that she owed in a great measure her leading position
in commerce and industry. Time’s revenge was that that very Law of Increasing
Return furnished the chief motive to other countries, and especially America, to
restrict their commerce with her by Protective duties to home industries. And
Time’s counter-revenge is found in this—that England’s Free Trade has prevented
the Law of Increasing Return from strengthening combinations of wealthy manu-
facturers against the general weal here to the same extent as it has in countries
in which Protection has prevailed, and notably America.
The problem of the relations between competition and combination is one in
which differences of national character and conditions show themselves strongly.
The Americans are the only great people whose industrial temper is at all like
that of the English ; and yet even theirs is not very like. Partly because of this differ-
ence of temper, but more because of the differences in the distribution of wealth
and in the physical character of the two countries, the individual counts for much
more in American than in English economic movements. Here, few of those who
are very rich take a direct part in business; they generally seek safe investments
for their capital; and again, among those engaged in business the middle class
predominates, and most of them are more careful to keep what they have, than
eager to increase it by risky courses. And lastly, tradition and experience are of
more service and authority in an old country than in one which, like America, has
not yet even taken stock of a great part of her natural resources, and especially
those mineral resources, the sudden development of some of which has been the
chief cause of many recent dislocations of industry.
In England, therefore, the dominant force is that of the average opinion of
business-men; and the dominant form of association is that of the joint-stock
company. But in America the dominant force is the restless energy and the
versatile enterprise of a comparatively few very rich and able men, who rejoice in
that power of doing great things by great means that their wealth gives them; and
who have but partial respect for those who always keep their violins under glass
cases. The methods of a joint-stock company are not always much to their
mind ; they prefer combinations that are more mobile, more elastic, more
adventurous, and often more aggressive. For some purposes they have to put up
with a joint-stock company; but then they strive to dominate it, not be dominated
by it. Again, since distances in America are large, many local monopolies are
904 4 REPORT— 1890.
possible in America which are not possible in England; in fact, the area of a local
monopoly there is often greater than that of the whole of England. <A local coal
combination, for instance, means quite a different thing there from what it does in
England, and is more powerful every way.
Again, partly, but not solely, because they are so much in the hands of a few
wealthy and daring men, railways, both collectively and individually, are a far
greater power in America than in England. America is the home of the popular
saying that, if the State does not keep a tight hand on the railways, the railways
will keep a tight hand on the State; and many individual railways have, in spite
of recent legislation, a power over the industries within their territories such as
no English railway ever had: for the distances are great, and the all-liberating
power of the free ocean befriends America but little.
It is this change of area that is characteristic of the modern movement. In
Adam Smith’s time England was full of trade combinations, chiefly of an informal
kind, indeed, and confined to very narrow areas; but very powerful within those
areas, and very cruel. Even at the present day, the cruellest of all combinations
in England are, probably, in the trades that buy up small things, such as fish, and
dairy and garden produce, in detail, and sell them in retail; both producers and
consumers being, from a business point of view, weak relatively to the intermediate
dealers. But even in these trades there is a steady increase in the areas over
which such combinations and partial monopolies extend themselves. New facilities
of transport and communication tell so far on the side of the consumer, that they
diminish the intensity of the pressure which a combination can exert; but, at the
same time, they increase the extension of that pressure, partly by compelling, and
partly by assisting, the combination to spread itself out more widely. And in
England, as in other Western countries, more is heard every year of new and
ambitious combinations ; and of course many of them remain always secret.
But it is chiefly from America that a cry has been coming with constantly
increasing force for the last fifteen years or more, that in manufactures free com-
petition favours the growth of large firms with large capitals and expensive plants ;
that such firms, if driven into a corner, will bid for custom at any sacrifice; that,
rather than not sell their goods at all, they will sell them at the Prime Cost—
z.e., the actual outlay required for them, which is sometimes very little; that,
when there is not enough work for all, these manufacturers will turn their bidding
recklessly against one another, and will lower prices so far that the weaker of them
will be killed out, and all of them injured ; so that when trade revives they will be
able, even without any combination among themselves, to put up prices to a high
level; that these intense fluctuations injure both the public and the producers ;
and the producers, being themselves comparatively few in number, are irresistibly
drawn to some of those many kinds of combinations to which, nowadays, the name
Trust is commonly, though not quite accurately, applied; and that, in short, com-
petition burns so furiously as to smother itself in its own smoke. Itisa Committee
of the American Congress that reports that ‘combination grows out of, and is the
natural development of, competition, and that in many cases it is the only means
left to the competitors to escape absolute ruin,’
The subject is one on which it would be rash to speak confidently. We of
this generation, being hurried along in a whirl of change, cannot measure accu-
rately the forces at work, and it is probable that the best guesses we can make
will move the smiles of future generations; they will wonder how we could
have so much over-estimated the strength of some, and under-estimated the strength
of othere. But my task is to try to explain what it is that economists of this gene-
ration are thinking about competition in relation to combination; and I must
endeavour to reproduce their guesses, hazardous though this may be.
§ 7. To begin with, I think that it is the better opinion that popular rumour,
going now as eyer to extremes, has exaggerated some features of the movement
towards combination and monopoly, even in America. For instance, though it is
said that there are a hundred commodities the sale of which in America is partly
controlled by some sort of combination, many of these combinations turn out to be
of small proportions, and others to be weak and loose, Again, the typical instances
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 905
_ which are insisted on by those who desire to magnify the importance of the move-
ment are nearly always the same, and they have all had special advantages of
- more or less importance.
: This is specially true of the only Trust which can show a long record of undis-
puted success on a large scale—the Standard Oil Trust. For, firstly, the petroleum in
which it deals comes from a few of Nature’s storehouses, mostly in the same neigh-
_ bourhood : and it has long been recognised that those who can get control over some
of the richest natural sources of arare commodity are well on their way towards a par-
tial monopoly. And, secondly, the Standard Oil Trust has many of those advantages
which have been long recognised as enabling large railway companies to get the
- better of their smaller neighbours; for, directly or indirectly, it has insome measure
controlled the pipe lines and the railways which have carried its oil to the large
towns and to tidal water.
: § 8. On the other hand, we must remember that the future of a young and
_ vigorous movement is to be measured, not so much by what it has achieved, as by
_ what it has learnt; and that every unsuccessful attempt to hold together a Trust
_ has been a lesson as to what to avoid, taught to men who are wonderfully quick to
jearn. In particular, it is now recognised that a very large portion of the failures in
the past have been due to attempts to charge too high a price; that this high price
has tempted those on the inside to break faith, and has tempted those on the out-
_ side to start rival works, which may bleed the Trust very much unless it consents
to buy them up on favourable terms; and, lastly, that this high price irritates
the public: and that, especially in some States, public indignation on such matters
leads to rapid legislation that strikes straight at the offenders, with little care as to
whether it appears to involve principles of jurisprudence which could not be
applied logically and consistently without danger. The leaders in the movement
towards forming Trusts seem to be resolved to aim in the future at prices which
will be not very tempting to anyone who has not the economies which a large com-
bination claims to derive, both in producing and in marketing, from its vast scale of
business and its careful organisation ; and to be content with putting into their
own pockets the equivalent of these economies in addition to low profits on their
capital. There are many who believe that combinations of this kind, pursuing a
moderate policy, will ultimately obtain so great a power as to be able to shape, in
a great measure, the conditions of trade and industry.
§ 9. It may be so, but these eulogists of Trusts seem to claim for them both
that individual vigour, elasticity, and originating force which belong to 2 number
of separate firms, each retaining a true autonomy, and that strength and economy
which belong to a unified and centralised administration. Sanguine claims of this
kind are not new; they have played a great part in nearly all the bold schemes for
industrial reorganisation which have fascinated the world in one generation after
another. But in this, their latest form, they have some special features of interest
to the economic analyst.
They have a certain air of plausibility. for the organisers of Trusts claim that
they see their way to avoiding the weak points in ordinary forms of combination
among traders, which consist in the fact that their agreements can generally be
evaded without being broken. For instance, the most remarkable feature in the
history of English railways during the present generation is, not their tendency to
_agree on the fares and freights to be charged over parallel lines—for that has long
been a foregone conclusion—it is the marvellously effective competition for traffic
which such railways have maintained, both of a legitimate kind, by means of
improved conveniences offered to the public as a whole, or of an illegitimate kind,
by means of those special privileges to particular traders which we are now, at
last, seriously setting ourselves to stop by law.
It is difficulties of this kind which the modern movement towards Trusts aims
specially at overcoming. Trusts have very many forms and methods, but their
chief motive in every case is to take away from the several firms in the combina-
tion all inducements to compete by indirect means with one another.'| The chief
: 1 P.S.—Professor Brentano has called my attention to the plan of the German Iron
4 Combination, which does not allow individual firms to sell direct to the consumer, but
bi 1890. oN
906 REPORT—1890.
instrument for this purpose is usually some plan for pooling their aggregate
receipts, and making the gains of each depend on the gains of all, rather than on
the amount of business it gets for itself. But her e the dilemma shows itself. If
each establishment is left to its own devices, but has very little to lose by bad
managemeat, it is not likely long to remain well managed, and anyhow the Trust
does not gain much of the special economy resulting from production on a very
large scale. For this a partial remedy can sometimes be found in throwing as
much of its work as possible on to those establishments which are best situated,
have the best and most recent appliances and the ablest management ; and perhaps
in closing entirely some of the others. But when once the pooling has begun, the
combination is on an inclined plane, and every step hurries it on faster towards
what is virtually complete amalgamation and consolidation. The recent history of
Trusts shows a constant tendency to give a more and more absolute power to the
central executive and to reduce the heads of the separate establishments more and
more nearly to the position of branch managers. In some cases the only substantial
difference between such a Trust and a consolidated joint-stock company is that it is
nominally left open to the several parties contracting to claim their separate
property after the lapse of a certain number of years, while some are already
preparing to dissolve and reconstitute themselves formally as joint-stock companies.
§ 10. This tendency has been helped on by the action of the legislature and the
law courts, and since this action can be traced back in some measure to the imperfect
analysis of competition in the older economic writings, it has a special interest for
us here. There seems to have been set up a false antithesis between competition
and combination. For instance, if 100 workmen agreed to act together, as far as
possible, in bargaining for the sale of their labour, they were denounced as
combining to limit freedom, even when they did not interfere in any way with
the liberty of other workmen, but merely deprived the employers of the freedom
of making bargains with the 100 workmen one by one. But the employer
himself was allowed to unite in his own hands the power of hiring a hundred or
twenty hundred men, and if he had not enough capital of his own he might take
others into private, if not into public, partnership with him. Now, no trades
union was likely to be as compact a combination, governed by as single a purpose,
as a public or private firm, still less as an individual large employer ; and therefore
there was not only a class injustice, but also a logical confusion, in prohibiting com-
binations among workmen, on the ground that free competition was a good, and
that combination, being opposed to free competition, was, for that reason, an evil.
It was an additional grievance to the workmen that employers had all manner
of facilities for combination, of which they made full use; as is vigorously urged
by Adam Smith, to whom the working classes owe more than they know. And
it was this social injustice, rather than the logical inconsistency of economists
and legislators, that led workmen to claim—and for the greater part successfully—
that nothing should be illegal if done by workmen in combination which would
not be illegal if done by any one of them separately—a principle which works
well practically in the particular case of workmen’s combinations if applied with
Sia ners though it has no better claim to universal validity than the opposite
octrine.
But at present it is with the latter that we are concerned—the doctrine, namely,
that a use of the rights of property which would be ‘combination in restraint of
competition’ if the ownership of the property were in many hands, is only a free use
of the forms of competition when the property is allin a single hand. This doctrine
has resulted in the prohibition of pooling between railways which were allowed to
amalgamate, and in the prohibition of combination on the part of a group of
traders to coerce others to act with them, or to drive others out of the trade, —
though all the while no attempt was made to hinder a single very wealthy firm
from obtaining the despotic control of a market by similar means.
.only through a central office. It fixes the amount of each firm’s produce which may
be sold, and the price of sale, and each firm gains by every reduction it can make in its —
own expenses of working. This plan has great elements of strength, and is probably —
specially suitable for Germany. But it is yet on its trial. ;
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 907
But to the economists of to-day the whole question appears both more complex
and more important than it seemed to their predecessors, so they are inquiring in
detail how far it is true that the looser forms of combination are specially
dangerous in spite of their weakness, and even to some extent because of their
weakness ; how far the greater stability and publicity, and sense of responsibility
and slowness of growth, of a single consolidated firm make it less likely to extend
its operations over a very wide area, and less likely to make a flagrantly bad use
of its power ; and, lastly, how far it may be expedient to prohibit actions on the
part of loose combinations, while similar actions on the part of individuals and
private firms are allowed to pass in silence, because no prohibition against them
could be effectual.
It is a sign of the times that the American Senate approved, on April 8 last, a
Bill of Senator Sherman’s, of which the second Section begins thus: ‘ Kvery person
who shall monopolise, or attempt to monopolise, or conspire with any other person
or persons to monopolise, any part of the trade or commerce among the several
States, or with foreign nations, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanour.’ This
clause is interesting to the constitutional lawyer on account of the skill with which
it avoids any interference by the central authority with the internal affairs of the
separate States; and though, partly for this reason, it is perhaps intended to be
the expression of a sentiment that may help to guide public opinion, rather than an
enactment which will bear much direct fruit; yet it is of great interest to the
economist as showing atendency toextend to the action of individuals a form of public
criticism which has hitherto been almost confined to the action of combinations.
To return, then, to the tendency of Trusts towards consolidation. It is probable
that the special legislative influences by which it has been promoted may be
lessened, but that other causes will remain sufficiently strong to make a combina-
tion, which has once got so far as any sort of permanent pooling, tend almost
irresistibly towards the more compact unity of a joint-stock company. If this be
so, the new movement will go more nearly on old lines than at one time
seemed probable; and the question will still be the old one of the struggle for
victory on the one hand between large firms and small firms, and on the other
between departments of the Government, imperial or local, and private firms. I
will then pass to consider the modern aspects of this question, ever old and ever
new, but never more new and never more urgent than to-day.
§ 11. To begin with, it is now universally recognised that there is a great in-
crease in the number and importance of a class of industries, which are often
called monopolies, but which are perhaps better described as indivisible industries.
Such are the industries that supply gas or water in any given area, for only one
such company in any district can be given leave to pull up the streets. Almost on
the same footing are railways, tramways, electricity supply companies, and many
others. Now, though there are some little differences of opinion among the
economists of to-day as to the scale on which the owners of such undertakings
when in private hands should be compensated for interference with what they had
thought their vested rights, we are all agreed that such right of interference must
be absolute, and the economists of to-day are eagerly inquiring what form it is most
expedient for this interference to take. And here differences of opinion show
themselves. The advantages of a bureaucratic government appeal strongly to
some classes of minds, among whom are to be included many German economists
and a few of the younger American economists who have been much under
German influence. But those in whom the Anglo-Saxon spirit is strongest, would
prefer that such undertakings, though always under public control, and sometimes
even in public ownership, should whenever possible be worked and managed by
private corporations. We (for I would here include myself) believe that bureau-
cratic management is less suitable for Anglo-Saxons than for other races who are
more patient and more easily contented, more submissive and less full of initiative,
who like to take things easily and to spread their work out rather thinly over
long hours. An Englishman’s or an American’s life would involve too much strain
to make them happy, while the Englishman would fret under the constraints and the
small economies of their lives. Without therefore expressing any opinion as to
8Nn 2
908 REPORT—1890.
the advantages of the public management of indivisible undertakings on the
Continent, the greater part of the younger English and American economists are,
I think, inclined to oppose it for England and America. We are not sure that
we could exchange our own industrial virtues for those of the Continent if we
wished to, and we are not sure that we do wish it. And though we recognise that
the management of a vast undertaking by a public company has many of the
characteristics of bureaucratic management, yet we think the former is distinctly
the better suited for developing those faculties by which the Anglo-Saxon race
has won its position in the world. We believe that a private company which
stands to gain something by vigorous and efficient management, by promptness in
inyenting, as well as in adopting and perfecting improvements in processes and
organisation, will do much more for progress than a public department.
Again, while a public company is inferior to a small private firm in its power
and opportunities of finding out which among its employés have originating and
constructive ability, a department of Government is far inferior to a joint-stock
company, especially in England. And, further, such a department is more liable
to have the efficiency of its management interfered with for the purpose of
enabling other persons to gain the votes of their constituents on questions in which
it has no direct concern; and as a corollary from this, it tends to promote the
growth of political immorality, and it suffers from that growth.
There is certainly a growing opinion among English and American economists
that the State must keep a very tight hand on all industries in which competition
is not an effective regulator ; but this is the expression of a very different tone of
thought from that which is leading so many German economists towards what is
called State Socialism. In fact, so far as I can judge, English economists at all
events are even more averse to State management than they were a few years ago ;
the set of their minds is rather towards inquiring how the advantages claimed for
State management, without its chief evils, can be obtained even in what I have
called indivisible industries ; they are considering how a resolute intervention on
the part of the State may best check the growth of Imperia in Imperio, and pre-
vent private persons from obtaining an inordinate share of the gains arising from
the development, through natural causes, of what are really semi-public concerns,
at the same time that it leaves them sufficient freedom of initiative and sufficient
security of gain by using that freedom energetically to develop what is most
valuable in the energy and inventiveness of the Anglo-Saxon temper."
But, though we dislike and fear the present tendency towards a widening of
the area of public management of industries, we cannot ignore its actual strength.
For more forethought and hard work are needed to arrange an effective public
control over an undertaking than to put it bodily into the hands of a public
department ; and there is always a danger that in atime of hasty change the path
of least resistance will be followed.
By way of illustration of the inquiries that have had their origin in this fear
of public management, as contrasted with public control and public ownership,
I would here mention a notion which has been suggested partly by the
relations of some municipalities to their tramways, gas and water works. At
present it is in a very crude form, and not ready for immediate application;
but it seems to have occurred independently to a good many people, and it
may have an important future. It is that a public authority may be able to
own the franchise and, in some cases, part of the fixed capital of a semi-public
undertaking, and to lease them for a limited number of years to a corporation who
1 Among the younger English economists who have written on the subject of
Combinations, Trusts, and Government interference, I would specially refer to
Mr. Rae and Professor Foxwell. Most of the other young American economists
have written on it instructively from various points of view, and in Mr. Baker’s
Monopolies and the People, to which I am myself much indebted, the English reader
will find condensed into a short compass an account of the general position of these
questions in America, together with some bold and interesting suggestions for reform.
Some useful documents relating to Trusts have recently been published in a.
Consular Report by our Foreign Office [5896-32].
Ee
ad
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 909
shall be bound to perform services, or deliver goods, at a certain price and subject
to certain other regulations, some of which may perhaps concern their relations
to their employés. In order that the plan may have a fair chance of success, it is
essential that the capital to be supplied by the private corporation should not be
so large as to prevent there being a real and effective competition for the franchise.
But this being assumed, the special point of the proposal is that, where possible,
the competition for the franchise shall turn on the price or the quality, or both,
of the services or the goods, rather than the annual sum paid for the lease.
Competition as to quality is, from the consumer's point of view, often just as
beneficial as competition as to price, and sometimes more so. And in industries
which obey the Law of Increasing Returns, as very many of these indivisible in-
dustries do, a reduction of price or an improvement of quality will confer on the
consumer a benefit out of all proportion to the extra cost involved.!
§ 12, But I have lingered too long over those industries which I have called in-
divisible, and I must pass to those in which competition exerts a pretty full sway.
The first point to be observed is that competition in bargaining and competition in
production stand in very different relations to the public interest ; and that one of
the great advances in modern analysis consists in the emphasis which it lays on the
distinction between the two. Competition in bargaining constitutes a great part
of competition in marketing, but is not the whole of it. For under mar rketing i is
included the whole of the effective organisation of the trade side of a business;
and most of this performs essential services for the public, and is, in fact, of the
same order as production commonly so called. But a great part of marketing con-
sists of bargaining, of manceuyring to get others to buy at a high price and sell at
a low price, to obtain special concessions or to force a trade by offering them.
This is, from the social point of view, almost pure waste; it is that part of trade
as to which Aristotle’s dictum is most nearly true, that no one can gain except at
the loss of another. It hasa great attraction for some minds that are not merely
mean; but nevertheless it is the only part of honest trade competition that is
entirely devoid of any ennobling or elevating feature. A claim is made on behalf of
large firms and large combinations that their growth tends to diminish the waste,
and on the whole “perhaps it does. The one solid advantage which the public
gain from ‘a combination powerful enough to possess a local “monopoly i is that it
escapes much waste on advertising and petty bargaining and manceuvring. But its
weakness in this regard lies in the fact that to keep its monopoly it must be
always bargaining and manceuyring on a large scale. And if its monopoly is
invaded, it must bargain and manceuvre widely in matters of detail as well as in
larger affairs.
Still less can we fully concede, without further proof, the claim which has
been urged on behalf of such combinations, that they will render industry more
stable and diminish the fluctuations of commercial activity. This claim, though
put forward confidently and by many writers, does not appear to be supported by
any arguments that will bear examination. On the one hand some industries
which are already aggregated into large and powerful units, such as railway com-
panies, give exceptionally steady employment; and others, such as the heavy iron
and the chemical industries, exceptionally unsteady. And when combinations suc-
ceed in steadying their own trades a very little, they often do it by means which
diminish production and disturb other trades a very great deal. The teaching of
history seems to throw but little light on the question, because the methods of
regulation which are now suggested have not much in common with those of
earlier times, while the causes which govern fluctuations in prices have changed
their character completely.
§ 18. Let us thea next turn to the economies of production ona large scale. They
have long been well known, and our forefathers certainly did not underrate their
importance. For, though the absence of any proper industrial census in England
prevents us from getting exact information on the subject, yet there seems no doubt
1 This belongs to a class of questions relating to monopolies, &c., the more general
and abstract aspects of which can be best shown by the diagrammatic method.
910 REPORT—1 890,
that the increase in the average size of factories has gone on, not faster, but slower
than was thought probable a generation or twoago. In many industries, of which the
Textile may be taken as a type, it has been found that a comparatively small capital
will command all the economies that can be gained by production on a large scale;
and it seems probable that in many industries in-which the average size of busi-
nesses has been recently increasing fast, a similar position of maximum economy
will shortly be attained without any much further increase in size.
Those reductions in the expenses of production of commodities which have
been claimed by the eulogists of Trusts and other large combinations, as tending to
show that their gains are not at the expense of the public, turn out generally to
have been at least equalled by the reductions in the expenses of production in
similar industries in which there was no combination. And this count in their
eulogy, though it may truly stand for something, seems to have been much
exaggerated.
§ 14. After all, what these very large public firms and combinations of firms have
done has generally been to turn to good account existing knowledge, rather than
to increase that knowledge. And this brings us to the main reason for regarding
with some uneasiness any tendency there may be towards such consolidations of
business. Observation seems to show, what might have been anticipated a priori,
that though far superior to public departments, they are, in proportion to their
size, no less inferior to private businesses of a moderate size in that energy and
resource, that restlessness and inventive power, which lead to the striking out of
new paths. And the benefits which the world reaps from this originality are apt to
be underrated. For they do not come all at once like those gains which a large
business reaps by utilising existing knowledge and well-proven economies; but they
are cumulative, and not easily reckoned up. He who strikes out a new path by
which the work of eight men is rendered as efficient as that of ten used to be, in
an industry that employs 100,000 men, confers on the world a benefit equal to the
labour of 20,000 men. And this benefit may in many cases be taken as running for
many years. For though his discovery might have been made later by someone
else of equal inventive power, yet this someone else, starting with that discovery in
hand, is likely to make another improvement on it.
I believe that the importance of considerations of this kind is habitually
underrated in the world at large; and that the older economists, though fully
conscious of them, did not explain with sufficient clearness and iteration the im-
portant place which they take in the claims of industrial competition on the
gratitude of mankind.
The chemist in his laboratory can make experiments on his own responsibility :
if he had to ask leave from others at each step he would go but slowly, and though
the officials of a company may have some freedom to make experiments in detail,
yet even as regards these they seldom have a strong incentive to exertion; and in
great matters the freedom of experimenting lies only with those who undertake
the responsibility of the business.
§ 15. It may indeed be admitted that some kinds of industrial improvements
are getting to depend on the general increase of scientific knowledge rather than
on such experiments as can only be made by business men. In a few cases large
firms hire specialists to make experiments in the technical applications of science.
But, on the whole, the dependence of an industry on the progress of that scientific
knowledge which is at once nationalised, or rather cosmopolitanised, tells on the
side of those small firms which have great managing ability in proportion to their
capital, but cannot afford to make many expensive experiments for themselves.
And these, which are important facts so far as they go, may be used as a convenient
introduction to the next point that I want to make in the analysis of competition.
It is that the motives which induce business men to compete for wealth are not
altogether as sordid as the world in general, and, I am forced to admit, economists
in particular, have been wont to assume.
The chemist or the physicist may happen to make money by his inventions,
but that is seldom the chief motive of his work. He wants to earn somehow the
means of a cultured life for himself and his family, but, that being once provided,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 911
he spends himself in seeking knowledge partly for its own sake, partly for the
good that it may do to others, and last, and often not least, for the honour it may
do himself. His discoveries become collective property as soon as they are made,
and altogether he would not be a very bad citizen of Utopia just as he is. For it
would be a great mistake to suppose that the constructors of Utopias from the
time of Plato downwards have proposed to abolish competition. On the contrary,
they have always taken for granted that a desire to do good for its own sake will
need to be supplemented by emulation or competition for the approbation of
others.
But business men are very much of the same nature as scientific men; they
have the same ‘instincts of the chase,’ and many of them have the same power of
being stimulated to great and even feverish exertions by emulations that are not
sordid or ignoble. This part of their nature has however been confused with and
thrown into the shade by their desire to make money. The chief reason why the
scientific man does not care much for money is that in scientific work the earning
of much money is no proof of excellence, but sometimes rather the reverse. On the
other hand, in business a man’s money-earning power, though not an accurate test
of the real value to the world of what he has done, is yet often the best available.
It is that test which most of those, for whose opinion he cares, believe to be
more trustworthy than the highly coloured reports the world hears from time
to time of the benefits which it is just going to derive from a new invention or
plan of organising that is just going to revolutionise a branch of industry. And so
all the best business men want to get money, but many of them do not care about
it much for its own sake; they want it chiefly as the most convincing proof to
themselves and others that they have succeeded.
§ 16. These are the very men for whom the older economists were most eager
to claim freedom of competition as needful to induce them to do fully their high
work for the world. But this seems to involve the error of running together, and
treating as though they were one, two different positions—an error which appears
to resemble, both in its character and in the gravity of its consequences, the neglect
to distinguish between the results of Protection in an old and a new country.
The first of these positions is that industrial progress depends on our getting
the right men into the right places and giving them a free hand, and sufficient
incitement to exert themselves to the utmost; and the second is that nothing less
than the enormous fortunes which successful men now make and retain would
suffice for that purpose. This last position seems to be untenable.
The present extreme inequalities of wealth tend in many ways to prevent
human faculties from being turned to their best account. A good and varied
education, freely prolonged to those children of the working classes who showed
the power and the will to use it well, an abundance of open-air recreation even in
large towns, and other requisites of a wholesome life—such things as these might,
most of us are inclined to think, be supplied by taxes levied on the rich, without
seriously checking the accumulation of material capital; and with the effect of
increasing rather than diminishing the services which competition renders to
society by tending to put the ablest men into the most important posts, the next
ablest into the next most important, and so on, and by giving to those in each
grade freedom sufficient for the full exercise of their faculties.
It is quite true that where any class of workers have less than the necessaries
for efficiency, an increase of income acts directly on their power of work. But
when they already have those necessaries, the gain to production from a further
increase of their income depends chiefly on the addition that it makes, not to their
power of working, but to their will to exert themselves. And all history shows
that a man will exert himself nearly as much to secure a small rise in income as a
large one, provided he knows beforehand what he stands to gain, and is in no fear
of having the expected fruits of his exertions taken away from him by arbitrary
spoliation. If there were any fear of that he would not do his best; but if the
conditions of the country were such that a moderate income gave as good a social
position as a large one does now; if to have earned a moderate income were a
strong presumptive proof that a man had surpassed able rivals in the attempt to
912 REPORT—1890.
do a difficult thing well, then the hope of earning such an income would offer, to
all but the most sordid natures, inducements almost as strong as they are now
when there is an equal hope of earning a large one.
§ 17. On all this class of questions modern economists are inclined to go a little
way with the Socialists. But all socialist schemes, and especially those which are
directly or indirectly of German origin, seem to be vitiated by want of attention
to the analysis which the economists of the modern age have made of the functions
of the undertaker of business enterprises. They seem to think too much of com-
petition as the exploiting of labour by capital, of the poor by the wealthy, and
too little of it as the constant experiment by the ablest men for their several tasks,
each trying to discover a new way in which to attain some important end. They
still retain the language of the older economists, in which the employer, or under-
taker, and the capitalist are spoken of, as though they were, for all practical purposes,
the same people. The organ of the German school of English Socialists prints
frequently in thick type the question, ‘Is there one single useful or necessary duty
performed by the capitalist to-day which the people organised could not perform
for themselves?’ It would be just as reasonable to ask if there is a single victory
to which Julius Cesar or Napoleon conducted their troops, which the troops
properly organised could not have equally well won for themselves ; or whether
there is a single thing written by Shakespeare which could not have been equally
well written by anyone else who, as Charles Lamb said, happened to ‘ have the
mind to do it.’ Itis quite true that many business men earn large incomes by
routine work. It is just in these cases that Co-operation can dispense with
middlemen and even employers. But the German Socialists have been bitter foes
of Co-operation; though this antagonism is less than it was.
The world owes much to the Socialists, as it does to every set of enthusiasts
among whom there are honest men; and many a generous heart has been made
more generous by reading their poetic aspirations. But before their writings can
be regarded as serious contributions to economic science, they must make more
careful and exact analysis of the good and the evil of competition. They must
suggest some reasonably efficient substitute for that freedom which our present
system offers to constructive genius to work its way to the light, and to prove its
existence by attempting difficult tasks on its own responsibility, and succeeding in
them ; for those who have done most for the world have seldom been those whom
their neighbours would have picked out as likely for the work. They must not,
as even Mr. Bellamy and other American Socialists do, in spite of their strong pro-
testations to the contrary, assume implicitly a complete change of human nature,
and propound schemes which would much diminish the aggregate production, but
which they represent as enabling every family to attain an amount of material
well-being which would be out of reach of the aggregate income if England or
America were divided out equally among the population.
§ 18. But though the Socialists have ascribed to the virtues inherent in the
human breast, and to the regulating force of public opinion, a much greater capacity
for doing the energising work of competition than they seem really to have; yet,
unquestionably, the economists of to-day do go beyond those of earlier generations
in believing that the desire of men for the approval of their own conscience, and
the esteem of others, is an economic force of the first order of importance, and
that the strength of public opinion is steadily increasing with the increase and the
diffusion of knowledge, and with the constant tendency of what had been regarded
as private and personal issues to become public and national.
Public opinion acts partly through the Government. But though the enforce-
ment of the law in economic matters occupies the time of a rapidly increasing number
of people; and its administration is improving in every way, it fails to keep pace with
the demands resulting from the growing complexity of economic organisation, and
the growing sense of responsibility of public opivion. A part of this failure is due
to a cause which might easily be remedied ; it is that the adjustment of punish-
ment to offences is governed by traditions descending from a time when the
economic structure of England was entirely different. This is most conspicuous
with regard to the subtler, or, as they are sometimes called with unconsciousirony,
*
oars
SS. -.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 913
the more gentlemanly forms of commercial fraud on a large scale; for which the
punishment awarded by the law courts is often trivial incomparison with the aggregate
gains which the breakers of the law, whose offences can seldom be proved, make
by their wrongdoing ; and it is still more trivial in comparison with the aggregate
injury which such wrongdoing inflicts on the public. Many of the worst evils in
modern forms of competition could be diminished by merely bringing that part of
the law which relates to economic problems of modern growth into harmony with
that which relates to the old-fashioned and well-matured economic questions relat-
ing to common picking and stealing. And somewhat similar remarks apply to the
punishments for infringements of the Factory Acts.
But at best the action of the law must be slow, cumbrous, and inelastic, and
therefore ineffective. And there are many matters in which public opinion can
exercise its influence more quickly and effectively by a direct route, than by the
indirect route of first altering the law. For of all the great changes which our
own age has seen in the relative proportions of different economic forces, there is
none so important as the increase in the area from which public opinion collects
itself, and in the force with which it bears directly upon economic issues.
For instance, combinations of labour on the one side, and of employers on
the other, are now able to arrange plans of campaign for whole trades, for whole
counties, for the whole country, and sometimes even beyond. And partly on
account of the magnitude of the interests concerned, partly because trade disputes
are being reduced to system, affairs which would be only of local interest are dis-
cussed over the whole kingdom.
The many turbulent little quarrels which centred more often about questions
of individual temper than of broad policy are now displaced by a few great
strikes ; as to which public opinion is on the alert; so that a display of temper is a
tactical blunder. Each side strives to put itself right with the public, and requires
of its leaders above all things that they should persuade the average man that
their demands are reasonable, and that the quarrel is caused by the refusal of the
other side to accept a reasonable compromise.
This change is increasing the wisdom and the strength of each side; but the
employers have always had fairly good means of communication with one another ;
it is the employed that have gained most from cheap means of communication by
press, by railway, and by telegraph, and from improvements in their education
and in their incomes, which enable them to make more use of these new and
cheaper facilities. And while the employers have always known how to present
their case to the public well, and have always had a sympathetic public, the
working classes are only now beginning to read newspapers enough to supply an
effective national working-class opinion; and they are only now learning how to
present their case well, and to hope much from, or care much for, the opinion of
those who are neither employers nor of the working classes.
I myself believe that in all this the good largely predominates over the evil.
But that is not the question with which I am specially concerned at present. My
point is that, in the scientific problem of estimating the forces by which wages
are adjusted, a larger place has to be allowed now than formerly to the power of
combination, and to the power of public opinion in judging, and criticising, and
aiding that combination ; and that all these changes tend to strengthen the side of
the employés, and to help them to get a substantial though not a great increase of
real wages; which they may, if they will, so use as to increase their efficiency,
and therefore to increase still further the wages which they are capable of earn-
ing, whether acting in combination or not.
§ 19. Thus public opinion has a very responsible task. I have spoken of it as
the opinion of the average man; and he is very busy, and has many things
to think about. He makes great mistakes; but he learns by all of them.
He has often astonished the learned by the amount of ignorance and false reasoning
which he can crowd into the discussion of a difficult question; and still more
by the way in which he is found at last to have been very much in the right
on the main issue. He is getting increased power of forming a good and helpful
opinion, and he is being educated in mind and in spirit by forming it, and by giving
914 REPORT—1890.
it effect. But in the task which he is undertaking there are great difficulties
ahead.
In an industrial conflict each side cares for the opinion of the public at large,
but especially for that of those whose sympathy they are most likely to get: in
the late South Wales strike, for instance, the railway companies were specially
anxious about the good opinion of the shippers, and the engine-drivers about that
of the colliers. And there is some fear that when party discipline becomes better
organised, those on either side will again get to care less for any public opinion
save that of their own side. And if so, there may be no great tendency towards
agreement between the two sides as to what are reasonable demands.
It is true that there is always the action of outside competition tending to visit
with penalties either side which makes excessive use of any tactical advantage it
may have obtained. As we have just noticed, the shrewdest organisers of a Trust
are averse to raising the price of its wares much above the normal or steady com-
petition price. And the first point which courts of Conciliation and Arbitration have
to consider is, what are the rates of wages on the one hand and of profits on the
other, which are required to call forth normal supplies of labour and capital
respectively ; and only when that has been done, can an inquiry be properly made
as to the shares in which the two should divide between them the piece of good or
ill fortune which has come to the trade. Thus the growth of combinations and
partial monopolies has in many ways increased, and in no way diminished,
the practical importance of the careful study of the influences which the normal
forces of competition exert on normal value.
But it must be admitted that the direct force of outside competition in some
classes of wages disputes is diminishing; and though its indirect force is being
increased by the increased power which modern knowledge gives us of substi-
tuting one means of attaining our ends for another, yet on the whole the difficulty
of deciding what is a reasonable demand is becoming greater. The principles
on which not only the average man, but also an expert court of Conciliation or
Arbitration should proceed in forming their judgment, are becoming, in spite of
the great increase of knowledge, more and more vague and uncertain in several
respects.
TA there are signs of a new difficulty. Hitherto the general public has been
enlightened, and its interests protected, by the fact that the employers and em-
ployed when in conflict have each desired to enlighten the public as to the real
questions at issue; and the information given on one side has supplemented and
corrected that on the other: they have seldom worked together systematically to
sacrifice the interests of the public to their own, by lessening the supply of
their services or goods, and thus raising their price artificially. But there are
signs of a desire to arrange firm compacts between combinations of employers
on the one side and of employés on the other to restrict production. Such com-
pacts may become a grievous danger to the public in those trades in which there
is little effective competition from foreign producers: a danger so great that if
these compacts cannot be bent by public opinion they may have to be broken up by
public force.
It is, therefore, a matter of pressing urgency that public opinion should accustom
itself to deal with such questions, and be prepared to throw its weight against
such compacts as are injurious to the public weal, that is, against such compacts
as are likely to inflict on the public a real loss much greater than the gain to that
trade ; or in other words, are of such a nature that if their principle were generally
adopted in all trades and professions, then all trades and professions would lose as
buyers more than they would gain as sellers.
§ 20. Tosum up. It seems that one cause of the present strength of Protection
in other countries is, that the earlier English economists lessened the force of the
valid arguments against it by mixing them up with others which, though valid as
regards England, did not apply without great modifications to new countries ; but
economists of the younger generation, however fervent their devotion to Free
Trade, seldom speak of Protection in new countries with the old, unmeasured bitter-
ness, The change of mental attitude towards competition in this aspect is in @
—_—
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 915
great measure accomplished ; and similar changes in the attitude of economists to
monopolies and combinations are now in progress. It is clear that Combinations
and partial Monopolies will play a great part in future economic history ; that
their effects contain much good as well as much evil, and that to denounce them
without discrimination would be to repeat the error which our forefathers made
with regard to Protection. If we do not take Time by the forelock, and begin early
to consider how their evil effects may be minimised and their possible good
developed, we shall miss an opportunity that will never recur ; for a later gene-
ration will find it more difficult to extricate the good from the evil than those who
are contemporary with that great growth of the facilities of communication which
are giving to the forces of combination and monopoly a new character, and in some
directions a new strength.
So far nearly all the younger economists appear to be agreed. But while some
would not be sorry to see small firms displaced by large, large firms by Trusts, and
Trusts by Government Departments, others, in whom the Anglo-Saxon spirit is
stronger, regard these tendencies with very mixed feelings, and are prepared to exert
themselves to the utmost to keep Government management within narrow limits.
They are most anxious to preserve the freedom of the individual to try new paths
on his own responsibility. They regard this as the vital service which free com-
petition renders to progress, and desire on scientific grounds to disentangle the case
for it from the case for such institutions as tend to maintain extreme inequalities
of wealth ; to which some of them are strongly opposed. In order to preserve
what is essential in the benefits of free competition, they are willing to have a great
extension of public control over private and semi-public undertakings; but, above
all, they look to the extension of the new force of public opinion as a means of
eliminating much of the evil effects of competition, while retaining its good effects.
I have spoken of some aspects of competition, but those of which I have said
nothing are more numerous, and certainly not less important. I have purposely
put aside, as belonging to a different order of inquiry, the moral aspects of competition,
and all study of its bearing on those who are least able to help themselves. ButI
should have liked, if time had sufficed, to compare the tendency towards the for-
mation of vast Trusts with that towards national or even international federation
of Trade Unions; and, again, with the growth of the centralised force of the Co-
operative Wholesale Society. I should have liked to examine the new forms of
indirect competition between industrial groups, each of which is in direct com-
petition with a third one, and so on.
I have, however, taxed your patience too long already, and must ask you to be
lenient in your judgment of this imperfect and fragmentary study. I have endeavoured
to give some illustrations of the changes which are coming over economic studies.
I believe that the great body of modern economists think that the need of analysis
and general reasoning in economies is not less than our predecessors supposed, but
more. And this is because we think economic problems more difficult than they
did. We are recognising more clearly than they did that all economic studies
must have reference to the conditions of a particular country and time. Economic
movements tend to go faster than ever before, but, as Knies pointed out, they tend
also to synchronise; and the economists of our own country have much more
to learn now than fifty years ago from the contemporary history of other countries ;
but in spite of the many great benefits which we are deriving from the increase of
our historical knowledge, the present age can rely less than any other on the
experience of its predecessors for aid in solving its own problems.
Every year economic problems become more complex ; every year the necessity
of studying them from many different points of view and in many different con-
nections becomes more urgent. Every year it is more manifest that we need to
have more knowledge and to get it soon in order to escape, on the one hand, from
the cruelty and waste of irresponsible competition and the licentious use of wealth,
and on the other from the tyranny and the spiritual death of an ironbound’
Socialism.
916 REPORT—1890.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Modern Forms of Industrial Combination. By Professor A. T. Hapiry.
Combinations have two distinct purposes—economy in production or monopoly
in sale. The former tends to lower prices; the latter, as a rule, to raise them.
The law has therefore favoured the former and discouraged or prohibited the
latter. In past times it has been easy to draw this distinction; to-day it is no
longer possible, for two reasons: 1. In many lines of industry (e.g., railways)
capital is invested on so large a scale that economy practically involves monopoly.
2. In all industries with large fixed capital competition often reduces prices below
cost, driving some concerns out of business, and causing fluctuation of prices (e.9.,
iron trade) and waste of capital. If some of this waste and fluctuation cau be
avoided by monopoly, it may involve public economy. Modern forms of combina-
tion have this double character as monopolies and means of economy.
A mere agreement to maintain rates is often tried, but almost always ineffec-
tive. A ‘corner,’ which attempts to control the sale of the product rather than the
means of production (e.g., the metal syndicate of 1887-88), is sometimes tempo-
rarily successful, but not permanently so. Of more lasting use have been divisions
of traffic between different producers, either a division of the field (gas companies),
or an allotment of traffic by percentage, sometimes called a ‘pool,’ in use among
factories, shipping, and railways. The International Steel Rail Combination (ing-
land, Belgium, and Germany) was the widest instance. Finally, they may divide,
not the traffic, but its proceeds (joint purse agreement), often coming little short of
actual consolidation. The Standard Oil Company has made the greatest success in
this kind of consolidation. A ‘ Trust,’ as used in America, is simply a means to this
end, whose importance has been over-estimated.
The dangers from combination are more obvious than the policy to be adopted.
Some advocate direct prohibition; this fails to-day because what is necessary and
economical is so intermixed with what is dangerous. Some advocate recognition
and supervision by the Government. The danger here, as in most cases of legalised
monopoly, is that the protected combinations will not be worked up to the best
standard of efficiency. A third policy, advocated by the Socialists, is that the
Government itself should own such industries. This solution is liable to the
same dangers as the second, and usually in a greater degree. The safest policy
would seem to be one of laissez-faire, based on somewhat different grounds from
those which would have been advanced thirty years ago. We can no longer
hold that free competition is an automatic regulator of prices, always tending to
put them where they belong, and that combination is economically wrong. But we
can maintain that the possibility of competition is the best if not the only available
stimulus for high industrial efficiency ; that unprotected combinations can succeed
only when they forestall such competition by efficiency and low prices on their own
part; and that, though the leaders of such combinations have not as yet fully
learned this lesson, there is an educational process going on, which radical inter-
ference on the part of Government would tend to check, without being able to offer
anything equally promising in its place.
2. The Ulterior Aims of Co-operators. By Bensamin Jones.
Statistics submitted to the last Annual Co-operative Congress show that in
1889 there were 1,515 co-operative societies with 1,054,996 members, and
18,675,819/. of capital. Their sales for the year were 40,225,406/., and their
nett profits after paying interest on capital were 3,775,4647. The increase in 1889
over the year 1888 was fully ten per cent.
These associations have been gradually developed during the last one hundred
years, and there are over thirty societies in existence whose birth dates from fifty
up to one hundred and thirteen years ago. But the growth of co-operation has
been mostly the result of the last twenty-five years, and the business of one society
alone in 1889 was more than double the total trade of all the co-operative societies
in 1865.
—E ee
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 917
While the majority of the societies have not yet got beyond the elementary
stage of co-operation, which is shopkeeping, large numbers have added productive
departments, such as baking, tailoring, dressmaking, and bootmaking. The
annual production is estimated to be 3,500,000/. Twenty-three societies also
work corn mills, with an annual output of over 1,500,000. The oldest exist-
ing society was started in 1795, and its first mill cost 2,200/. The newest corn
mill belonging to co-operators is on the Tyne, and is approaching completion. Its
cost will be 100,000/., and it will add about 400,000/. a year to the total output of
the co-operative mills.
There are two co-operative wholesale societies which supply the retail societies
on the same principles as the latter supply their individual members. 1,123
societies have shareholders. Their annual trade is 9,300,000/., and they manu-
facture boots, woollen cloth, clothing, soap, biscuits, jams, &c., to the value of
370,000/. a year.
Thirty-seven societies are engaged in farming operations, and there are seventy-
three other societies that are organised specially for various manufacturing opera-
tions. Their annual produce is about 700,000/.
A very important deyelopment of co-operation has been the formation of
working-class joint-stock companies in the cotton industry. The oldest existing
company was started at Bacup in 1850. Now half the cotton spinning of Oldham
and district is done by these companies. ‘
Among the miscellaneous efforts of co-operators are the building of houses for
their members, the expenditure of 30,0007. a year on education, the granting of
11,0007. a year to charitable purposes, and the subscription of 5,000/. a year to the
Co-operative Union, which is an organisation comprising most of the societies for
propagandist, educational, and defensive purposes.
The sense of the injustice of the ordinary industrial and commercial methods
is the cause of the inception and growth of co-operation. The leading idea has
always been a desire for equity; and they have felt that, just as in political
matters, the more democratic the organisation of a government becomes the more
the wants of the great masses of the people are considered ; so, in the world of
labour, democratic organisations would give to the worker that just consideration
and treatment which the master-and-man system has failed to supply.
Co-operators fully recognise the benefits of division of labour, and of free
exchange of products. But they think that to ensure equitable exchange there
must be full knowledge and equal power, or, in their absence, a cultivated self-
restraint on the part of the best informed and most powerful. ‘They insist on the
necessity for publicity in all essential matters, on the advisability of the one man
one vote principle in industry as well as in politics, on the necessity for all men
possessing capital, and on the abolition of all monopolies.
They think that co-operation ensures to every willing man an easy means of
acquiring capital, and of securing equity in all things; and if co-operators cannot
break down monopolies without the aid of the Legislature, they will not fail to seek
that aid in the same manner as they have repeatedly done in the past, when other-
wise insuperable obstacles required to be removed. Co-operators look upon local
and imperial government as links in the chain of a complete system of co-opera-
tion, and they are steadily increasing their active share in the task of government.
Personally, the writer thinks that there are indications of co-operators taking a
rapid step in exerting greater influence on the Legislature, as a means of accele-
rating the progress of industrial co-operation.
3. The Value of Labour in relation to Economic Theory.'
By James Bonar.
The author, after pointing out that labour is valued by the labourer as the
means of living, and by the employer as a means of production, said that the
essence of work for wages is that some one other than the labourer owns the
1 Printed in the Quarterly Journal of Economics (Harvard), 1891.
918 REPORT—1890.
articles made and gets their price, while the labourer gets a stated or stipu-
lated sum for the making of them. The employer may regard labour as a com-
modity, but it is not so in the same sense as his other means of production.
The position of free men is sui generts; and the power of a wages-earner to mutiny
or desert is the germ of all improvement in his condition. He binds himself to work
by a free contract, though, in the lowest forms of work for wages, his real dependence,
through ignorance and poverty, makes the freedom merely nominal. Combination
gives him a real power of choice, and may even make him stronger than the
employer. The wages of salaried managers of a company are to be treated as
similar; but wages of management are usually difficult to distinguish from profits.
In what way are all such wages related to cost and price? Not as other means of
production ; for there is no market for labour in the sense in which there is for
capital and commodities. The employer values the labourer by his contribution
to the product, but what is the relation of the labourer’s retribution to his con-
tribution? The theory of a wages fund defined his retribution by a general law,
according to which the wages were predetermined by the employer’s capital or
a stated portion of it. The theory was used too much as a statement of facts
instead of tendencies, and it depended on wrong assumptions about the equality of
the rate of profits, &e. A more recent theory that wages are determined by the
successful or unsuccessful competition of machinery with hand-labour does not
explain all the facts. There is a sense in which wages are limited by capital and
are advanced out of capital. The burning question is as to the precise extent of
the limitation, There is a margin within which wages may vary favourably or
unfavourably to the labourer in proportion to his strength through combination or
other resources. Even the theory that wages depend on the productiveness of
labour cannot ignore this margin, It is difficult in all cases to allocate to the
workman and to the co-operating means of production their exact respective shares
in the product. Even the theory of Jevons does not escape the difficulty, and
President Walker's really inverts the relations of employer and employed. The
existence of piecework, the sliding scale, and attempts at profit-sharing are an
acknowledgment that wages do not at present vary with productiveness. The
notion of final utility is of less use here than elsewhere, because (owing to labourers’
combinations and the probability of their increasing strength) wages are determined
rather by and for groups than individuals, and labour cannot be used in great and
small quantities at the pleasure of the employer. The cost of living, again, will
not furnish an adequate theory of wages; and, finally, though labour is part of the
employer’s cost, neither labour nor any other part of the cost can, strictly speaking,
be said to determine the value; it is the anticipated value that makes the cost
seem worth incurring. The author’s conclusions were that general theory can do
no more than lay down certain physical and moral limits within which wages
will be fixed. The employer’s power to pay ‘wages’ (as such) is limited by the
capital at his disposal for that purpose, and his will to pay them is limited by his
calculations of the value of the product. On their part the employed cannot take
less than what secures them bare life, and will not take less than what secures
them the conventional standard of living, while their power to secure more than
this will depend on their general resources as compared with the employer's.
4. Progressive Tawation. By C. F, Bastasre, DL.D.
Growing importance of the question. The older economists (with some excep-
tions) in favour of proportional taxation. New influences in recent years, viz. :
(1) Increased popular power, with tendency to place the burden of taxation on
the rich; (2) modern economic theories as to (a) capacity of taxpayers, and (6)
the nature of value and utility. Necessity for distinguishing apparent from real
progression. Chief examples of former: (1) Freedom of the minimum of sub-
sistence from taxation; (2) exemptions and abatements in favour of small incomes
in order to counterbalance the undue pressure of indirect taxation. Real pro-
gression: its forms; usually that of an income or ‘property’ tax. Principal
objections: (1) Arbitrariness; (2) risk of evasion; (3) hindrance to accumulation
a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 919
of wealth ; (4) unproductiveness. Argument for progression as realising equality
of sacrifice. Vagueness of sacrifice as a measure. Criticism of the argument that
the rule of proportional taxation must fall with the ‘assurance’ theory of the
State. Proportional taxation asa working rule of finance. Experience of pro-
gression mainly confined to small areas, and therefore (even if favourable) of little
service in considering the case of large territories. The social aspect of progressive
taxation.- Objection to the use of taxation for non-financial aims, Conclusion.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
The following Papers were read :—
1. The Probable Effects on Wages of a General Reduction in the Hours of
Labour. By Professor J. KE. C. Munro.—See Reports, p. 472.
2. The Agricultural Changes in England during the Period 1450-1650.
By Professor W. J. ASHLEY.
Recent writers have called attention to the agrarian changes in England in
the sixteenth century—changes which may be briefly described as the substitution
of pasture, or of a convertible husbandry with a preponderance of pasture, for the
tillage of the old common-field system. The object of the present paper will be to
determine the methods by which, and the extent to which, the change was
effected.
For this purpose it is necessary to distinguish between the various parts of a
manor :—
(1) As to the demesne. It had long been usual, where the lord was non-
resident, to lease the demesne to a farmer. [This, as applied to agriculturists,
seems to have been the earliest, and for some time the most important use of the
term ; and it was probably only during the sixteenth century itself that it came
to be more generally applied to tenants of all sorts.] Here the lord could not be
hindered from taking the land into his own hands, when the lease expired, and
devoting it to pasture; or from taking advantage of the increased demand for land
for sheep-breeding, to demand a higher rent. So far as the demesne lay in intermixed
strips in the common-fields, difficulties might arise owing to the claim of the
tenants to commonage on the fallow, though it is improbable that they would
receive any support from the law courts ; and the withdrawal of such strips from
tillage would hasten the break-up of the common-field system as a whole. But it
remains to be determined to what extent the demesnes were still composed of such
intermixed strips.
(2) As to the lands possessed by freeholders. Here again there would probably
be no legal obstacles in the way of enclosure; and the effect of such action upon
the three-field system would depend on the extent to which free holdings still lay
in the common-fields, which has not yet been ascertained.
(8) As to the common pasture and waste. Legislation and legal decisions as to
the right of approver probably gave the lords, where the pasturage was at all
extensive, a tolerably free hand. Where the pasturage was limited the lords could,
and frequently did, overstock it with their own sheep. The diminution of common
ae would have an injurious effect upon the common-field tillage, and would
ead, in some measure, to its abandonment.
(4) But the chief interest of the subject lies in the villein, customary, or copy-
hold tenancies. 1n the second half of the period, such enclosures as did occasionally
take place would appear not to have involved the dispossession, of landholders, and
to have been injurious only to the cotters. But there is abundant evidence that
great numbers of customary tenants were dispossessed during the first half of the
920 kKEPORT-—1890.
period, especially in the early years of the sixteenth century. And this brings us
to the important point, viz. that the agrarian changes were facilitated by the law
of customary tenure ; which but slowly recognised, or, at any rate, provided means
for enforcing, the right of the customary tenants to undisturbed: and hereditary
possession. The law as it appears towards the end of the period in Coke is very
probably itself the outgrowth of the policy of the government, and of public
opinion, in relation to the action of the lords of land, and does not represent the
older law. ‘This seems to be shown, among other arguments, by the history of the
celebrated clause in the later editions of Littleton, as to the judgment of Chief
Justice Brian, and by a comparison with legal doctrine in other countries, e.y., in
North Germany, where the conditions were in several respects similar. The views
which have of late years been taken of the history of land-tenure in the Middle
a\ges, have been unduly coloured by the assumption that the manor grew out of a
free community, and that the lord’s legal rights were all encroachments. It would
seem more likely that the legal right of the lord to dispossess his villeins is very
ancient ; that it was exercised most sparingly for centuries merely because it was
rarely profitable; that as soon as it became profitable it was exercised; and that
it was not taken away until it had had great practical consequences.
A similar point is illustrated by the development of the law as to fines on
succession. It is probable also that in many cases the way was prepared for the
removal of customary tenants by the substitution of leases for copyhold.
The extent of the revolution can only be exactly estimated when due regard
has been paid to each of the possible directions in which change could be effected.
All that can be here attempted is to take the most important of the innovations
tke enclosure of the open arable fields—and discover the area affected. ‘This can
be done to some extent upon the evidence of contemporary writers: thus there is
a concurrence of authorities that Essex and Kent were pretty completely enclosed
(in this sense). But the vague declamations of the pamphleteers of the period
need examination, e.g.,in the case of Oxfordshire; and even such a fact as the
rising in Norfolk does not bear the interpretation which it might seem natural to
put upon it. A more satisfactory basis for an estimate is to be found in the infor-
mation given in the Reports to the Board of Agriculture, in Arthur Young’s
Tours, and in Enclosure Acts, as to the extent to which common-fields still sur-
vived in 1750.
&. The Element of Chance in Examinations.
By Professor F. Y. Epcnworru, D.C.L.
This paper is a sequel to the paper on the Statistics of Examinations which
was read before the British Association in 1888, and was published in the ‘ Journal
of the Statistical Society’ for the same year. In that paper it was shown that the
discrepancies hetween examiners marking the same work are subject to the laws of
error which govern the differences between observations relating to the same
physical quantity. This theory is now exemplified by a variety of statistics, It is
shown that the following questions can be answered with some precision when the .
requisite data are available: At a given examination how many of the successful
candidates are quite safe—in this sense, that the chance is yery small (say 1 in
100) that any assigned one of them would have come out unsuccessful if the
work had been appraised by a different examiner or set of examiners? Of such
displacements, what is the most probable number under given circumstances? The
answer to the first question varies from a third to two-thirds of the successful can-
didates. In answer to the second question it is found that the number most likely
to he displaced by a change in the personnel of the examiners is sometimes a
seventh part of the number of the successful, sometimes less. It is shown that the
method of eliminating chance by manipulating the marks after they have left the
examiner's hands is often precarious and ineffective. Other methods of alleviating
the evil are considered.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 921
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
The following Papers were read :—
1. The Policy of exercising a Discrimination between the Deserving and
Undeserving in the giving of Public Poor Relief. By Joun Kiva.
The writer of the paper suggested that, had time permitted, the policy of exer-
cising such a discrimination might have been considered in connection with the
possibility of doing so, with advantage.
Because, if a correct discrimination be impossible in practice, it would clearly
be impolitic to attempt to discriminate at all. For present purposes it will not be
eae that it is impossible, leaving the policy of discriminating alone to be con-
sidered.
The subject could not be dealt with satisfactorily in the abstract ; experience
would have to be utilised.
The writer proceeded to define ‘deserving’ and ‘undeserving’ poor; and
assumed it would be granted that pauperism was a social evil, which it was
necessary to limit by measures of a repressive tendency; that the claims of the
destitute were to be considered in connection with the public interests. Among
civilised nations it was an admitted principle that no citizen should perish from
want; but it was the duty of the State so to administer relief as to encourage
industry and provident habits; and the converse. ‘The proper measure of public
relief should be restricted to affording the bare necessities of life; and the reason
was not far to seek, in the fact that such were all the poor labourer could procure
for himself and family by work. Fairness to him, therefore, directed that the
position of the indigent, maintained at the public expense, should, at least, be no
better. In the pauper’s own interest it should be no better; and the public weal
demanded that also,
These axioms were the result of experience and thought, and were taught by
history. The effects of giving almost unrestricted relief were disastrous to Athens
and Rome. In the former an impoverished State was attended with loss of indi-
vidual liberty ; whilst in the latter the physical and moral attributes were in a
great measure sacrificed to the custom of State relief, and induced the decline of
the world’s dictator. But our own country furnished sufficient illustration, which
would receive attention.
The origin of the Poor Law was then described, and the cost of the system
during the past year. In a matter of necessity, however, cost was immaterial. It
was not at all certain that the money spent in relief was all expended in the relief
of destitution; if it were, then the social system must be very imperfect. The
legislature of the period of Elizabeth had two main objects in view—to relieve
the aged and infirm, and to set to work the able-bodied. But gradually a departure
from this wise legislation was taken, and the relief became aids to poverty, granted
almost without test, and, at one time, without care or discrimination of any note-
worthy character.
Between the years 1720 and 1795, grants to the poor greatly increased, and, as
@ consequence, pauperism. To so great an extent was this carried on, that
in rural districts the greater portion of the poor classes received public relief.
All inducement to industry, morality, and the other social virtues was taken
away; poverty and intemperance increased, until, finally, the matter became so
serious as to threaten national disaster. Population increased to an abnormal
extent, and illegitimacy became rampant. By the Act 36 Geo. II. cap. 10, it may
be said pauperism was encouraged, and working under it, magistrates gave effect
to the legislative spirit, and in very many instances issued orders to the local
authorities to discriminate between the deserving and the undeserving. The
mischief of this was apparent; the poor themselves not only obtained relief
up to the measure of their necessities, but probably something over; whilst the
favourable opinion of the overseer as to some of them resulted in their procuring
1890. 30
’
922 REPORT—1890.
still greater liberality, to their own hurt and the loss of the ratepayers, who thus
became the subjects of unfair treatment.
Up to this point there was little room for the exercise of a discrimination apper-
taining to a semblance of check or repression. Injustice reached the culminating
point: and if the experience of that day was to be made use of, the error under
any such or like circumstances would never be repeated. The unsound policy
was clearly seen, and the only excuse for it was the exigencies of a political party.
Errors were multiplied with the miseries accompanying them. The State was
decidedly sick, and at last the Royal Commission of 1834 was appointed to
inquire into the evils of Poor Law administration, and point out the necessary
remedies,
Their report was quoted, and the author of the paper gave an epitome of its
contents, and also of the two principal Orders for the prohibition and regulation of
relief. In these the directions were so large and comprehensive as to those who were
to be relieved, that very little room was left for the exercise of any general dis-
crimination between classes ; whilst the orders were entirely silent on the matter
of discerning between the good and the bad.
Acts of Parliament, orders, rules, and regulations appear to have been issued
utterly regardless of the distinction of character ; and this avoidance of the matter
was no doubt the direct result of the Commission, which clearly adverted to the
evils which had theretofore to some extent resulted from the licence to discriminate.
Such evidence as that produced to the Commissioners ought to be received as a,
warning, and their conclusions and advice received with the utmost respect. The
exercise of a discrimination upon the basis of character at the present time had the
tendency to destroy great principles, found to be necessary for the safe administra-
tion of relief, and consequently to obliterate the proper lines of action.
The necessities of the applicant alone ought to be the ground‘of granting relief.
Indoor relief, being the kind least likely to be abused, required to be surrounded
by no very stringent safeguards. But the principles governing the grant of out-
relief were in a great measure identical with those practised with regard to the
Jatter. The condition of the workhouse indigent, so far as it might be regarded
from the cost point of view, ought not to be better than that of the poor labourer,
But even workhouse cleanliness, wholesome food, given at regular intervals, good
shelter, and necessary warmth were comforts such as but few of the poorest class
could command.
A summary of the contents of the paper would lead to the conclusion, that upon
the question whether an indigent should or should not receive assistance from the
public funds, there ought to be no exercise of a discrimination between the good and
bad. But when the nature of the relief to be given came to be considered, a minor
discrimination might be judiciously exercised.
In the workhouse, a safe and sound discrimination might be attempted.
There were to be found there persons whose condition had not been induced
by any errors of their own, and a sub-classification might be made, having
in view the placing together of such persons, when such privileges might be
accorded them as to render their position less irksome ; not forgetting, however, the
necessity still to make it an undesirable place of abode.
2. Exhibition of Maps illustrating the Statistics of Pauperism.
By Dr. Ropes.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Joint Discussion with Section E (Geography) on Lands still available for
European Settlement.
agar ®
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 923
2. Some recent Changes in the Conditions governing the London Money
Market. By Wynnarp Hooper.
Bagehot’s ‘Lombard Street.’ His remarks on the ‘ natural system’ of banking,
many banks each keeping its own reserve. The system that has grown up in
London is one in which a single bank keeps the whole reserve of the country. The
system cannot be altered. Bagehot showed how it could be worked safely. He
ractically established a ‘canon of criticism’ in relation to the management of the
Bank of Kngland’s reserve. The difficulties of the bank have increased since he
‘wrote ‘Lombard Street.’ The volume of business is larger, and the liabilities of
London and the whole country are much larger, but the reserve held against them
is only slightly larger than was the case twenty years ago. Improved steam
communication and the use of telegraphic transfers have made it possible to work
with a relatively smaller reserve, by enabling the four great centres of business to
support one another. é
The fabric of credit as indicated by the London Bankers’ Clearing Returns has
increased from 3,914 millions sterling in 1870 to 7,618 millions sterling in 1889,
or by about 95 per cent. This is due mostly to the growth of internal trade. It
implies an increased use of cheques, including ‘ international cheques,’ or tele-
graphic transfers, and has been accompanied by a diminished use of bills of
exchange. Cheques of very small amounts are now common, which was not so
even ten years ago. Most people now ‘ keep a banker,’
The deposits of banks have enormously increased. Those of the fourteen prin-
cipal London banks have risen from 103 millions in 1870 to 178 millions in 1889.
Other banks’ deposits have also increased, and a larger proportion of the deposits
are kept in London to be lent.
On the other hand, the reserve of the Bank of Engiand is, on the average, very
little larger than it was during 1870-79. Of course, the reserve is now ‘more
efficient’ than it used to be, for reasons already given, but nevertheless it is too
small. The Bank’s power over the market is not great enough to enable it to keep
@ proper reserve without making special efforts.
What should the reserve be? It need not, at any rate, be increased in propor-
tion to the whole increase in the banking liabilities of the country. But some
increase should have taken place on this score, and, further, the Bank cannot
disregard the fact that it is the only free ‘ international bullion store.’ The Banks
of France and Germany prevent withdrawals of gold from their coffers, The Bank
_of England cannot do that.
The remedy. Mr. R. H. Inglis Palgrave urges that the responsibility for the
reserve must be shared by the great banks whose operations govern the discount
rate; but they will not accept this responsibility, and the Bank must therefore use
_ its resources, which are very great, more freely, and obtain more control over the
market. This it has been to some extent doing during the last few months. It
might offer interest on deposits and do more discount business, and thus deprive
_the other banks of part of their power over the market.
3. The pure Theory of Distribution. By ArtHur Berry, M.A.
The paper attempts to give the outlines of a theory of distribution based on
consideration of the ‘marginal productivity’ of each factor of production. Von
» Thiinen and others have shown that the wages of the last labourer in any business -
are measured by the extra produce due to his labour. This is not true if the
increase of produce causes a sensible lowering of price, since this affects the whole
_ produce and not merely the extra produce. A new equation, involving change of
price, is then necessary. Von Thiinen’s equation holds if the produce of each busi-
ness is a small fraction of the total amount of the commodity produced. This
_ assumption is here made. The same considerations apply to the other factors of
production. It is assumed also, for simplicity, that a small increase in a business
causes no increase of work to the entrepreneur himself.
302
924 REPORT—1 890.
The whole production of a community is regarded as being carried on by a
number of entrepreneurs hiring land, labour, and capital, the two former being of
several different qualities. For each entrepreneur there is a production function
IG19 Jor 93+ + + ly ly 1, ... ©) expressing the amount of commodity produced
annually by the use of 7,, 9.9, . - . yards of lands of the Ist, 2nd, 3rd . . . quali-
ties, l,, J,, 4, . . . hours of labour of the Ist, 2nd, 3rd . . . qualities, and ec pounds
of capital. The form of f depends on the entrepreneur’s skill, ‘opportunity,’ &c.,
and is regarded as known for each entrepreneur. Then if p;, be the rent per annum
per yard of land of the k-th quality, w; the wages per hour of labour of the j-th
quality, z the interest per annum per pound, all measured in money; and p,, p,.. -
the prices of the commodities produced by the Ist, 2nd,3rd . . . entrepreneurs, the
equations of marginal productivity are—
d d Lf NOs- ;
rige =k Poe W; po =? for all values of 7, kh.
Uy _ Ty _ Ur
Pad Pk Pri, bey Wj PF yr
and so on for each entrepreneur.
For each commodity there is a demand equation of the form p=(f+f'+..-),
where f, f’, f’’. . . are the amounts produced by the several entrepreneurs who
produce the same commodity.
The conditions which remain to be expressed are that the whole available
amounts of land and labour of each quality and of capital are used. The last gives
=c=C, where = denotes summation for all entrepreneurs and C the total amount of
capital. We may roughly assume the amount of land of any quality available at
any time as known, or more accurately, take into account the quantity y;, used for
private houses, &c., for which there is a demand equation p;,=wW(y;,); and then
29x + Ye = Gy, where G;, denotes the existing amount of land of the k-th quality.
Similarly 2; = Sha where y is an ‘average’ disutility function for labourers of
the j-th quality. ‘We now have as many equations as unknowns, and the latter are
therefore determinate. The rate of growth of population and rate of accumulation
of capital do not enter into the equations. There is no more justification for
assuming wages to be measured by the produce of a labourer working on the margin
without capital than for assuming interest to be measured by the produce of an
amount of capital without labour.
If land, labour, and capital are perfectly mobile (7.e., can be transferred freely
‘from entrepreneur to entrepreneur), then p;, w;, 2 are the rates of payment of all the
land labour and capital, and not merely of the marginal doses. The entrepreneur's
share is then the surplus pf—Sgp—Slw—ic. If in any business this surplus
generally exceeds the surplus obtained in another business by entrepreneurs of
equal skill, &c., entrepreneurs tend to pass from the second business to the first and
to reduce profits in it by lowering prices.
If capital is ‘invested,’ interest on it is not necessarily the same as that on the —
marginal dose, and the capitalist’s share is in general merged in that of landlord or
entrepreneur, and economically undistinguishable.
4. A Theory of the Consumption of Wealth. By Professor P. GEDDES.
The importance of the study of consumption has always been recognised by
the biologist and anthropologist, the historian and moralist, yet less so by the
economist, whose attention at the beginning of the industrial age was naturally
awakened by the rapid transformations of the processes of production and distri-
bution, and has since been almost restricted to the elaboration of the economic
theory of these phenomena alone. The theory of consumption is thus not only
needed for the sake of economic science itself, but would lead to its direct and
profitable connection with the study of the other sciences, physical and biological -
on the one hand, historical and ethical upon the other.
— ee Tt.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 925
A historic survey is first necessary, dealing with consumption in early and
simple civilisations and in barbarism, and then, following the main line of Western
civilisation, e.g., interpreting the rise of Greek civilisation to the age of Pericles,
its private simplicity and public magnificence (one-third revenue spent on public
buildings). The rise of Roman luxury and subsequent exaggeration of this (as in
bath and dwelling, in feast or drama) is associated with corresponding progress
and decadence, private magnificence and public poverty, naturally culminating in
private orgies and public ruin. The historic recurrences of the same evolution
may be well illustrated in France, eg., the periods of Henri IV., Louis XIV.,
and Louis XV., or the history of the Second Empire. This decay of art and
luxury explains the recurrence of sumptuary laws of the Spartan or Puritan
criticism of art as efforts after simplification and purification of life by material
or moral compulsion towards asceticism.
These results of different forms of consumption may be viewed, not only in
societies, but in individual detail. A demand for commodities being a command
of labour (see Carlyle’s well-known passage on the possessor of a sixpence as to
Fia. 1. Fia. 2.
Self- Species- Self- Species-
regarding. regarding. regarding. regarding.
Niatzon
Clty
sa
pear ae
Licltvedita :
Bitola Se
that extent sovereign over all men), this determines (a) the function. of the con-
sumer, (6) the enveronment of the consumer, and so ultimately the duration and
the quality of the life of both. Hence the pressing necessity of the theory of con-
sumption to social improvement, and the necessity of co-operation between the
economist ancl the moralist for the criticism and counsel of the consumer.
The different types of consumption, zc. the ‘standards of comfort’ which
become broadly fixed in each age and country are capable of more precise classi-
fication in grades and degrades above and below the (physiological) necessaries of
life. The central question of practical economics may now be stated as that of
adjusting these standards of comfort towards the evolution of the species, the
society, and the individual. The co-operation of the cultivators of the allied
Sciences is thus required; and the more familiar problems of what and how to
produce, and of how to distribute, are thus also prepared for solution upon a less
uncertain basis.
Returning to the processes of consumption, we see, as fundamental, that of
food, and next of the individual necessaries of clothing, shelter, &c., with all their
associated rise of quantity and quality. Above this comes the consumption for
926 REPORT—1890.
maintenance of the other sex and for that of the family; next arises the consump-
tion of the wider associations arising beyond the family, of which there are many
leyels—civic, national, and universal. Civilisations and individuals thus first
differ in the different proportions of consumption upon each plane.
To each of these planes of legitimate consumption there is, however, to be
observed a corresponding negative plane. Thus to the normal or ideal scale of
expenditure on individual maintenance we must contrast that on intemperance;
to that on family, that on vice ; while to those of social well-being there are a no
less distinct series of contrasts, widening in their social destructiveness as we
descend.
The diagram must not be left blank, however, as in fig. 1, but becomes
capable of recording and contrasting the average type or tendency of consumption
for any given period or person. Thus A BE may denote the consumption of a
non-ascetic society or individual, which leaves only to higher planes what is not
required—+.e., consumable on the lower—and CD Z the ideal of the ascetic, who
limits every expenditure upon the lower planes in order to spend more upon the
higher. Between these two there are, of course, innumerable gradations—
Hellenic, Hebraic, Roman, Florentine, in fact, any and every society or
individual having its characteristic curve at any given time. But it is each of
these states of consumption that determines the nature of production; hence our
‘National Gikonomie’ (or our contemporary economic theory, which is only a
phase of national economy, and has, of course, no permanence) requires a
preliminary comprehension of the state and ideals of consumption at the time
under consideration. Here, then, also arises the connection of economics with
morals, since each ascending plane of consumption is more species-regarding—
z.e., more altruistic, more moral—than the one below it. The scheme of classifica-
tion, founded as it is on the stages of biological evolution, has similar parallels to
the stages of psychological evolution, which necessarily correspond, and thus a
regular and detailed parallelism of interpretation for any historic fact or social
process becomes possible. The aspects of this, biological or psychological,
economic and ethical, may thus be kept as clearly apart as the respective
specialists could desire, yet may also be superposed or compared at will. The
evolution of the animal through the lower stages, and of man through the whole,
is the biologist’s aspect of the subject; the corresponding evolution of mind the
psychologist’s; the corresponding concrete social processes are the phenomena
observed by the economist ; while the subjective aspect of these is criticised by
the ethicist. The synthesis of these four aspects is, in fact, the ideal of the science
of sociology.
It is only necessary briefly here to note the corresponding negative possibilities
of evolution in which the same four aspects become manifest.
The sociological analysis and synthesis here sketched out may now pass from
the abstract field to the concrete phenomena, with which the inquiry started, for
we see that what the anthropologist and the archeologist, the art critic and the
historian (who supply the materials to the four preceding schools of abstract
study), are respectively occupied with is, in every case, a study of actual social
life and its results upon all four planes, with their ascending and descending
stages. In short, within the diagrammatic outlines of the preceding classification
may now be reinterpretéd alike our facts of ancient or modern history, or the
details of our own personal expenditure, and this to their remotest bearings,
economic or ethical. We have, in fact, a common denominator by help of which
to re-read at will Darwin or Tylor, Roscher or Gibbon, Lepsius or Ruskin—
one might add even Zola or Dante.
A base of intercommunication and co-operation between all these abstract and
concrete specialists, and this especially as concerns the economist, is thus practi-
cable. The possibility of their co-operation in the criticism of actual life, and in
the task of social amelioration, also follows.
_
OO — — — —
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 927
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. The Factories and Workshops Acts—Past and Present.!
By G. H. L. Ricxarps.
The author gave a brief summary of the various Factory Acts passed between
1802 and 1889. The more important points in each Act were stated, so that those
unacquainted with factory legislation might be able to appreciate the course
adopted by the Legislature in promoting the safety, comfort, and improved con-
dition of the industrial classes in this country, as shown by the gradual and careful
manner in which the various Acts have been introduced.
The very important Act of 1878 was carefully considered, with reference to
‘domestic workshops,’ which then formed a new feature of the legislation on this
subject. Some remarks followed as to further legislation in that direction. Evi-
dence of the improvement in the physical condition of the factory operatives from
personal medical experience was also adduced,
2. Modern Changes in the Mobility of Labour. By H. Luewettyn Sura,
The author proposed to discuss the effects on mobility of labour of the intro-
duction of machinery and the tendency to production on a large scale. He treated
mobility chiefly from the point of view of free change of occupation rather than
of place.
Mobility is not the same as movement, nor is the one measured by the other.
We may have high mobility and little movement, and the reverse. Many modern
changes tend to increase mobility at the expense of movement. He drew examples
from the case of the old nomadic hand-combers, the influx to the towns and the
disturbance of labour caused by the Lancashire cotton famine. So in the case of
mobility from trade to trade, in normal times there may be in practice no inter-
change of labour, yet mobility may be almost perfect, except for a slight initial
friction. By mobility is meant the free economic choice of employment, either by
change of occupation or place. It is measured by the extent to which a set of
workers engaged in a particular process, or in making a particular article, would
or would not suffer economically by a change in the demand for that process
or that article. There is besides ‘ initial mobility’ to be considered, ¢.e., the free
effective choice of occupation at the outset. This is affected by localisation of
industries, and the tendency to heredity, which again is strongest in domestic
trades and weakest in factories. Excessive localisation of industries is in many
- districts giving way to local diversification.
Labour may be specialised in two ways—(1) with regard to a particular process,
(2) with regard to a particular product, e.g., the modern ‘engineer’ and the old
bootmaker. Thus we have to consider mobility both as (a) between different
processes of the same manufacture, and (5) between corresponding processes in
different manufactures. There are then two possible degrees of freedom, and
the general effect of machinery is to close the channels (a), and open up
channels (0).
’ As an example of modern changes, he took the change from the old hand-
combers, with their specialised skill, to the modern combing-mill.
(a) The makers of the combing machines, Here there are two classes of
workers, specialised as to process, but independent of the product.
(8) The workers of the machines. The motive-power department is completely
unspecialised so far as the product is concerned. He discussed how far the process
of minding the combing machines is specialised.
Examples were drawn from other kinds of machinery, and the power of inter-
1 Published in eatenso in Hygiene, December 1890.
928 REPORT—1890.
change among the various textile trades was discussed, especially with regard to the
‘initial friction’ and the question whether interchange is becoming easier.
He gave a similar analysis of a merchant’s business. Business power is rare,
but to a very large extent unspecialised with regard to a particular business.
So in many trades which have been taken over by machinery, less mere manual
dexterity but more judgment and responsibility are wanted. These are rare
qualities but not specialised. Hence their possessor is ‘ mobile.’
General result. Modern changes tend to divide up a process of manufacture
into a number of detail processes of which oue man performs only one, but the
various members of the group of workers producing a particular article become
less and less specialised with regard to that article, and their range of mobility,
which is narrowed as regards power of interchange among themselves, is widened
as regards power of interchange with workers engaged in corresponding processes
of other trades. Machinery often tends to facilitate this interchange by transforming
different manufactures into different groupings of nearly identical detail process.
Hence while dividing up employments on the one hand machinery reintegrates
them on fresh lines. Thus the boundaries of trades and industries are shifting and
industries regrouping themselves. Effect on apprenticeship and trade customs.
The paper touched slightly on the simultaneous tendency to shorten the time
necessary to learn a particular detail process, and so to increase the ease (though
not always the practical opportunity) of interchange among different processes of
the same trade.
The paper with additions and appendices has been published as a monograph
by the Toynbee Trustees (London: Frowde & Co. 1s. 6d.).
3. Report of the Committee on the Teaching of Science in Elementary
Schools——See Reports, p. 489.
4, Report of the Committee on the Standard of Value.
See Reports, p. 485.
5. Report of the Committee on the Statistics of the Use of the Precious
Metals.—See Reports, p. 498.
6. On the Ideal Aim of the Economist.
By Mrs. Vicror1a C. Woopuutt Martin.
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Drawbacks of Modern Economic Progress. By EH. L. K. Gonnzr,
2. On some Typical Economic Fallacies made by Social Reformers.
By L. L. Pricz, M.A.
The paper was devoted to the examination of three characteristic errors of
social reformers. Bagehot, in his ‘ Physics and Politics,’ had ascribed the success
of Englishmen to the possession of the quality of ‘animated moderation ;’ and at
the present time, while there was no doubt that the question of social reform was
in a state of animation, it might be doubted whether it was characterised by
a
\f
4
«
<
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 929
‘animated moderation.’ Englishmen were sometimes reproached for being illogical,
but this apparent want of logic was really another aspect of the quality of ani-
mated moderation. Bagehot’s language was not very precise, but it was suggestive,
and the lack of the quality of animated moderation was illustrated by three ten-
dencies which were found in many different quarters,
In the first place, there was the failure to recognise the difference between theory
and practice. ‘This was illustrated by the use made of the conception of the ‘ un-
earned increment.’ In the theory of rent there was a clear and definite distinction
between what was earned and what was unearned, but this distinction was obscure
and ill-defined in practice ; and so far as our conclusions rested on the nicety of
the distinction they were inapplicable to practice. The principle of ‘ betterment’
formed in some respects an exception, for it implied a definiteness which was
actually found in some cases, and it did not contemplate the possibility of an
unearned decrement. The nicety of the distinction on which the conception of
the ‘ unearned increment’ was based was realised more vividly when we considered
the extension of it to other forms of wealth, which was made in General Walker's
theory of business profits.
In the second place, the use of the terms ‘ socialism’ and ‘socialistic’ might be
considered. Mr. G. B. Shaw’s paper at the Bath Meeting and My. Sidney Webb's book
on ‘Socialism in England ’ illustrated a vague and unsatisfactory use of the terms,
for the question was essentially one of degree. Neither the sphere of the action of
the State, nor the sphere of the freedom of the individual, was conceived by any
but the most extreme writers or thinkers to be respectively so comprehensive and
so exclusive as to embrace for itself the whole of life and action and to leave no
room for the other; and a diflerence of degree was as important as a difference of
kind in the matter of socialism and individualism. ‘The term should therefore be
followed by an explanatory clause to show the sense in which it was used, and this
was rarely done.
In the third and last place, social reformers were apt to regard their own pet
scheme as the one panacea, and to refuse to allow a place in the society of the
future to the contemporanecus adoption of other schemes, This was a failing
characteristic of some co-operators, who were also liable to exhibit the lack of
discrimination considered before. And it was also found in some passages of so
fair and impartial an advocate of profit-sharing as Mr. N. P.Gilman. The society
of the future would, however, like the society of the past, in all probability be
characterised by diversity and not by uniformity.
3. The Use of Estimates of Aggregate Capital and Income as Measures of
the Economic Welfare of Nations. By Epwin Cannan, M.A.
If the wealth of a nation consists of the sum of the wealth of all its individual
members, to compare the wealth of different nations we have only to add up the
wealth of the individuals of whom each nation consists. But is this wealth which
is to be added the individuals’ capitals or their incomes? It is usually considered
to be their capitals, but it is much more reasonable to consider it their incomes.
Some of the objections to taking incomes, and not capitals, are founded on a mis-
leading conception of income, and others on a false analogy from the case of a
single individual. Nations being of very different magnitude, aggregate income
tells little till it is divided by population. The result of the division is a fiction
called average income, which takes no account of distribution. But common sense
teaches that very unequal distribution is uneconomic because it is ill-proportioned to
needs, This might have been set down as‘ mere sentiment’ till the introduction
of the Jevonian theory of value; but the decreasing utility of additional quantities
of any commodity to an individual, which serves as the basis of that theory, also
explains why inequality of income, or, strictly speaking, of expenditure, diminishes
the utility of a given aggregate income. The fact that the distribution of income,
as well as its amount, affects the economic welfare of a nation is fatal to the use of
statistics of income, however perfect, as exact measures of the economic welfare
of different nations,
930 REPORT—1590.
Section G—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—Captain Nostz, O.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
F.C.S., M.Inst.C.E.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
The PresipEnt delivered the following Address :—
In taking over the Chair of this Section from my distinguished predecessor, I
cannot but feel myself to some extent an intruder into the domain of mechanical
science, and I am conscious that the office which I have the honour to hold would
have been more worthily filled by one of the great mechanicians who have won
for the town in which we hold our meeting so widespread a reputation.
T can truly say the claims on my time are so considerable that I should not
have ventured to appear before you in the character of President of this Section,
had it not been for my desire to afford what little support might be in my power
to my friend the President of the British Association, with whom for so long a
period I have been associated by so many ties.
I believe I should have consulted best both my own feelings and your patience
by merely opening the Section in a formal manner, and proceeding at once to the
business of the meeting. One of my predecessors, however, has pointed out that
Sir F. Bramwell, whose authority is too great to be disputed, has ruled that to
depart from the time-honoured practice of an address is an act of disrespect to the
Section—a ruling which has, without cavil, been accepted.
I therefore propose to direct your attention, by a few brief remarks, to that
branch of mechanical science with which I am best acquainted. I shall endeavour
to show the great indebtedness of the naval and military services to mechanical
science during the period with which I have been more or less connected with
them, and the complete revolution which has in consequence resulted in every
department and in every detail.
But before commencing with my special subject, it is impossible that I should
pass over in silence the great work which has excited so much interest in the
engineering world, and which, since we last met, has, with formalities worthy of
the occasion, been opened by H.R.H. the Prince of Wales.
It is in no way detracting from the merit of the distinguished engineers who
have with so much boldness in design, with such an infinity of care in execution,
with so much foresight in every detail, given to the country this great monument
of skill, if I venture to point out that, without the great advance of mechanical
and metallurgical science during the present generation, and the co-operation of a
host of workers, a creation like that of the Forth Bridge would have been an
impossibility.
The bridge has been so frequently and so fully described, that it is unnecessary
in this address for me to do more than draw your attention to some of its main
features.
The bridge, with its approach-viaducts, has a total length of 8,296 ft., or
nearly a mile and six-tenths; and this length comprises two spans of 1,710 ft., two —
of 6808 ft., fifteen of 160 ft., four of 57 ft., and three of 25 ft.
H
a ae Hg
or
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 931
The deepest foundation is 90 ft. below high-water mark, and the extreme
height of the central position of the cantilever is 361 ft. above the same datum,
making the extreme total height of the bridge 451 ft.
The actual minimum headway in the channels below the centre of the main
spans at high-water spring tides is a little over 150 ft., and the rail level is about
6 ft. higher.
The weight of steel, nearly all riveted work, is 54,076 tons, and the amount
of masonry and concrete 4,057,555 cubic feet.
It is difficult, even for experts, fully to appreciate the stupendous amount of
work indicated by these figures. During the Paris Exhibition the Eiffel Tower
justly excited considerable admiration, and brought its designer into much repute;
but that great work sinks altogether into insignificance when compared with the
Forth Bridge.
Conceive, as I have heard described, the Eiffel Tower built, not vertically, but
horizontally ; conceive it further built without support, and at a giddy height over
an arm of the sea. Such a work would do little more than reach half across one
of the main spans of this great bridge.
Those only who have had work of a similar nature can fully appreciate the
innumerable experiments that must have been made, and the calculations that must
have been gone through, to secure the maximum attainable rigidity both with respect
to the strains induced vertically by the railway traffic and its own weight, and
horizontally by the force of gales.
The anxiety as to the security of the erection might well daunt the most skil-
ful engineer. We are told that, apart from the permanent work, many hundreds
of tons of weight in the shape of cranes, temporary girders, winches, steam boilers,
rivet furnaces, and riveting machines, miles of steel-wire rope, and acres of timber
staging were suspended from the cantilevers. A heavy shower of rain would in
a few minutes give an additional weight of about 100 tons; and in their unfinished
state, while approaching completion, the force of any gale had to be endured.
I trust that as the Forth Bridge has been a great engineering, it may
likewise prove a financial success, and I feel sure that all who hear me are rejoiced
that it has pleased Her Majesty to confer the distinguished honours she has
awarded to Sir John Fowler and Sir B. Baker—honours, I may add, that have rarely
been more worthily bestowed,
Let me turn now to the subject on which I propose to address you; and I shall
first advert to the change which within my own recollection has taken place in
that service which has been the pride and glory of the country in time past, and
on which we must rely in the future as our first and principal means at once of
defence and attack.
To give even an idea of the revolution which our navy has undergone, I must
refer in the first instance to the navy of the past. I must refer to those vessels
which in the hands of our great naval commanders won for England victories
which left her at the close of the great wars supreme upon the sea.
A ‘first-rate’ of those days (I will take the Victory as a type) was a three-
decker 186 feet in length, 52 feet in breadth, with a displacement of 3,500 tons,
and she carried an armament of 102 guns, consisting of thirty 42 and 32-pounders,
thirty 24-pounders, forty 12-pounders, and two 68-pounder carronades (the heaviest
of her guns was a 42-pounder), and she had a complement of nearly 900 men, When
we look at the wonderful mechanism connected with the armaments of the fighting-
ships of the present day, it is difficult to conceive how such feats were accom-
plished with such rude weapons.
With the exception of a few small brass guns, the guns were mere blocks of
east iron, the sole machining to which they were subjected consisting in the forma-
tion of the bore and the drilling of the vent.
A large proportion of nearly every armament consisted of carronades —a piece -
which was in those days in great favour. They threw a shot of large diameter
from a light gun with a low charge, and their popularity was chiefly due to the
rapidity with which they could be worked. The great object of every English
commander was, if it were possible, to bring his ship alongside that of the enemy ;
932 REPORT—1890.
and under these circumstances the low velocity given by the carronades became
of comparatively small moment, while the ease of working and the large diameter
of the shot were factors of the first importance.
The carriages on which the rude weapons I have described were placed were
themselves, if possible, even more rude. They were of wood, and consisted of two
cheeks with recesses for the trunnions which were secured by cap squares, the
cheeks being connected by transoms and the whole carried by trucks. The gun
was attached to the vessel’s side, and the recoil controlled by breeching. The
elevation was fixed by quoins which rested on a quoin bed, and handspikes were
used. either for elevating or for training.
It is obvious that to work smartly so rude a machine a very strong gun’s crew
was required. Indeed, the gun and its carriage were literally surrounded by its
crew, and I may refer those who desire to acquaint themselves with the general
arrangements of what was once the most perfect fighting-machine of the first navy
in the world, to the frontispiece of a hook now nearly forgotter—I mean Sir Howard
Douglas’s ‘ Naval Gunnery.’
The mechanical appliances on board these famed war-vessels of the past were
of the simplest possible form, and such as admitted of rapid renewal or repair.
There was no source of power except manual labour; but, when handled with the
unrivalled skill of British seamen, the handiness of these vessels and the precision
with which they were manceuvred was a source of never-ending admiration.
Those who have seen, as I have done, a fleet like the Mediterranean squadron
enter a harbour such as Malta under full sail, and have noted the precision with
which each floating castle moved to her appointed place, the rapidity with which
her canvas was stowed, have seen a sight which I consider as the most striking I
have witnessed, and infinitely more imposing than that presented under like
circumstances by modern vessels, any one of which could in a few minutes blow
out of the water half-a-~dozen such men-of-war as I have been just describing.
I must not, however, omit to mention two advantages possessed by the old type
of war-vessels, which, if we could reproduce them, would greatly please modern
economists. I meen, their comparatively small cost, and the length of time the
vessels remained fit for service.
When the Victory fought the battle of Trafalgar she had been afloat for forty
years, and her total cost, complete with her armament and all stores, was probably
considerably under 100,000/. The cost of a first-rate of the present day, similarly
complete, would be nearly ten times as great.
The most improved battle-ships of the period just anterior to the Crimean war
differed from the type I have just described, mainly by the addition of steam
power, and for the construction of these engines the country was indebted to the
great pioneers of Marine Engineering, such as J. Penn & Sons, Maudslay, Sons,
Field, Ravenhill, Miller, & Co., Rennie Bros., &c., not forgetting Messrs.
Humphreys & Tennant, whose reputation and achievements now are even more
brilliant than in these earlier days.
Taking the Duke of Wellington, completed in 1853, as the type of a first-rate
just before the Crimean war, her length was 240 feet, her breadth 60 feet, her dis-
placement 5,880 tons, her indicated horse-power 1,999, and her speed on the
measured mile 9:89 knots. Her armament consisted of 131 guns, of which thirty-
six 8-inch and 32-pounders were mounted on the lower deck, a similar number on
the middle deck, thirty-eight 32-pounders on the main deck, and twenty short
32-pounders and one 68-pounder pivot gun on the upper deck.
Taking the Cesar and the Hogue as types of second- and third-rate line-of-
battle-ships, the former, which had nearly the displacement of the Victory, had a
length of 207 feet, a breadth of 56 feet, and a mean draught of 21. She had 1,420
indicated horse-power, and her speed on the measured mile was 10°3 knots. Her
armament consisted of twenty-eight 8-inch guns and sixty-two 32-pounders, car-
ried on her lower, main, and upper decks. The Hogue had a length of 184 feet, a
breadth of 48 feet 4 inches, a mean draught of 22 feet 6 inches ; she had 797 indicated
horse-power, and a speed of 83 knots. Her armament consisted of two 68-pounders
of 95 ewt., four 10-inch guns, twenty-six 8-inch guns, and twenty-eight 32-pounders
of 56 cwt.—sixty guns in all,
—_—
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 933
Vessels of lower rates (I refer to the screw steam frigates of the period just
anterior to the Crimean war) were both in construction and armament so closely
analogous to the line-of-battle-ships that I will not fatizue you by describing them,
and will only allude to one other class, that of the paddle-wheel steam frigate, of
which I may take the Terrible as a type. This vessel had a length of 226 feet, a
breadth of 43 feet, a displacement of about 3,000 tons, and an indicated horse-~
power of 1,950. Her armament consisted of seven 68-pounders of 95 ewt., four
10-inch guns, ten 8-inch guns, and four light 32-pounders.
It will be observed that in these armaments there has been a very considerable
increase in the weight of the guns carried. As I have said, the heaviest, guns carried
by the Victory were the 42-pounders of 75 ewt., but in these later armaments the
68-pounder of 95 cwt. is in common use, and you will have noted that the carro-
nades have altogether disappeared. But as regards improvements in guns or
mounting, if we except the pivot-guns, with respect to which there was some faint
approach to mechanical contrivance to facilitate working, the guns and carriages
were of the rude description to which I have alluded.
In one respect, indeed, a great change had been made. Shell-fire had been brought
to a considerable state of perfection, and the importance ascribed to it may be
traced in the number of 10-inch and 8-inch shell-cuns which entered into the arma-
ment of the Duke of Wellington and the other ships I have mentioned. Moor-
‘som’s concussion fuse and other similar contrivances lent great assistance to this
mode of warfare, and its power was soon terribly emphasised by the total destruc-
tion of the Turkish squadron at Sinope by the Russian fleet. In that action shell-
fire appears to have been almost exclusively used, the Russians firing their shell
with rather long-time fuses in preference to concussion, with the avowed object of
there being time before bursting to set fire to the ship in which they lodged.
It is curious to note in the bygone discussions relative to shell-fire the
arguments which were used against it ; among others it was said that the shell
would be more dangerous to those who used them than to their enemies, There
was some ground for this contention, as several serious catastrophes resulted from
the first attempts to use fused shells. Perhaps the most serious was that
which occurred on board H.M.S. Theseus, when seventy 36 and 24-pounder shells
captured from a French store ship and placed on the quarter-deck for examination
exploded in quick succession, one of the fuses having by some accident been
ignited. The ship was instantly in flames; the whole of the poop and after-part of
the quarter-deck were blown to pieces. The vessel herself was saved from de-
struction with the greatest difficulty, and forty-four men were killed and forty-two
‘wounded.
This accident was due to a neglect of obvious precautions, which would hardly
occur nowadays, but I have alluded to the circumstance because the same argu-
ments, or arguments tending in the same direction, are in the present day reproduced
against the use of high explosives as bursting charges for shells. To this subject I
myself and my friend and fellow labourer, Mr. Vavasseur, have given a good deal
of attention, and the question of the use of these shells and the best form of explo-
sive to be employed with them is, I believe, receiving attention from the Govern-
ment. The importance of the problem is not likely to be overrated by those who
have witnessed the destruction caused by the bursting of a high explosive shell,
‘and who appreciate the changes that by their use may be rendered necessary, not
only in the armaments, but even in important constructional points of our men-of-
war.
Shortly before the termination of the long period of peace which commenced in
1815, the attention of engineers and those conversant with mechanical and metal-
‘lurgical science seems to have been strongly directed towards improvements in
war material. It may easily be that the introduction of steam into the navy may
haye had something to do with the beginning of this movement, but its further
progress was undoubtedly greatly accelerated by the interest in the subject
awakened by the disturbance of European peace which commenced in 1854.
Since that date—whether we have regard to our vessels of war, the guns with
which they and our fortresses are armed, the carriages upon which those guns are
mounted, or the ammunition they employ—we shall find that changes so great
934 REPORT—1890.
and so important haye been made that they amount to a complete revclution. I
believe it would be more correct to say several complete revolutions. It is at least
certain that the changes which were made within the period of ten years following
1854, were far more important and wide-spreading in their character than were all
the improvements made during the whole of the great wars of the last and the
commencement of the present century.
Indeed, it has always struck me as most remarkable that during the long
period of the Napoleonic and earlier wars, when the mind of this country must
have been to so large an extent fixed on everything connected with our naval
and military services, so little real progress was made.
Our ships, no doubt, were the best of their class, although, I believe, we were
indebted for many of our most renowned models to vessels captured from ovr
neighbours. They were fitted for sea with all the resources and skill of the first
seamen of the world, and when at sea were handled in a manner to command
universal admiration. But their armaments were of the rude nature I have
described, and so far as I can see possessed little, if any, advantage over those
of nearly a couple of centuries earlier. It is not improbable that the great success
which attended our arms at sea may have contributed to this stagnation.
The men who with such arms achieved such triumphs, may well be forgiven for
believing that further improvement was unnecessary, and it must be remembered
that the practice of engaging at very close quarters minimised to a great extent
the most striking deficiencies of the guns and their mountings.
I need scarcely, however, remind you that were two vessels of the old type to
meet, one armed with her ancient armament, the other with modern guns, it would
be vain for the former to attempt toclose. She would be annihilated long before
she approached sufficiently near to her antagonist to permit her guns to be used
with any effect.
It would be quite impossible, within reasonable limits of time, to attempt to
give anything like an historical account of the changes which have taken place in
our ships of war during the last thirty-five years, and the long battle between
plates and guns will be fresh in the memory of most of us. The modifications
which the victory of one or the other impressed on our nayal constructions are
sufficiently indicated by the rapid changes of type in our battle-ships, and by the
number of armour-clads once considered so formidable, but seldom now mentioned
except to adorn the tale of their inutility. The subject also requires very special
knowledge, and to be properly handled must be dealt with by some master of the
art, such as our Director of Naval Construction.
Let me now compare with the vessels of the past those of the present day, and
for my purpose I shall select for comparison as first-rates the Victoria and the
Trafalgar. The Victoria has a length of 340 feet, a breadth of 70 feet; she
has a displacement of about 10,500 tons, an indicated horse-power of 14,244, and
she attained a speed on the measured mile of 17} knots; she has a thickness of
18 inches of compound armour on her turrets, a similar thickness protects the redoubt,
and her battery-deck is defended with 3-inch plates. Her armament consists
of two 16}-inch 110-ton guns, one 10-inch 30-ton gun, twelve 6-inch 5-ton guns,
twelve 6-pounder and nine 3-pounder quick-firing guns, two machine-guns, and six
torpedo-guns.
The Trafalgar has a length of 345 feet, or very nearly double the length of the
Victory, a displacement of 12,000 tons, an indicated horse-power of 12,820, and
a speed on the measured mile of a little over 174 knots. Her armament consists
of four 68-ton guns, six 47-inch quick-firing guns, six G6-pounder, and nine
3-pounder quick-firing guns, six machine and six torpedo guns.
Comparing the armament of the Victoria with that of the Victory we find, to
quote the words of Lord Armstrong—which when evaluating the progress we
have made will bear repetition—that while the heaviest gun on board the Victory
was a little over 3 tons, the heaviest on board the Victoria is a little over
110tons. The largest charge used on board the Victory was 10 lbs., the largest on
board the Victoria close on 1,000 lbs.; the heaviest shot used in the Vectory was
68 lbs., in the Victoria it is 1,800 lbs, The weight of metal discharged from the
———
—
md
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 935
broadside of the Victory was 1,150 Ibs., from that of the Victoria it is 4,750 lbs,
But having regard to the energy of the broadside, the power of each ship is better
indicated by the quantity of powder expended than by the weight of metal
discharged, and while the broadside fire from the Victory consumed only 3565 lbs.
of powder, that from the Vzctorza consumes 3,120 lbs.
These figures show in the most marked manner the enormous advances that
have in every direction been made in the construction and armament of these
marine monsters; but it is when we come to the machinery involved in our first-
rates that the contrast between the past and the present is brought most strongly
into prominence.
I have alluded to the simplicity of the arrangements on board the old battle-
ships, but no charge of this nature can be made against the present. The Victoric
has no less than twenty-four auxiliary steam-engines in connection with her main
engines, viz., two starting, two running, eight feed, eight fan, for forced draught,
and four circulating water engines. She has in addition thirty steam-engines un-
connected with her propelling engines, viz., six fire and bilge engines, two
auxiliary circulating engines, four fan engines for ventilating purposes, two fresh-
water pumping engines, two evaporative fuel engines, one workshop, one capstan,
and five electric-light engines, four air-compressing and three pumping engines for
hydraulic purposes.
She has further thirty-two hydraulic engines, including two steering engines,
four ash-hoisting engines, two boat engines, four ammunition lifts, two turret-
turning engines, one topping winch, two transporting and lifting engines, two
hydraulic bollards, and fourteen other engines for performing the various
operations necessary for the working of her heavy guns, making a grand total of
eighty-eight engines. This number is exclusive of the machinery in the hier
and other steam-boats, and of the locomotive engines in the torpedoes carried,
which are themselves engines of a most refined and delicate character.
At an earlier point in my address I alluded to the incomparable seamanship of °
our bygone naval officers. Seamanship will, I fear, in future naval battles ne
longer play the conspicuous part it has done in times past. The weather gage
will belong not to the ablest sailor, but to the best engineer and fastest vessel, but
the qualities of pluck, energy, and devotion to their profession which distinguished
the seamen of the past have, I am well assured, been transmitted to their
descendants, and I am glad to have the opportunity of expressing my admiration
of the ability and zeal with which the naval officers of the present day have
mastered, and the skill with which they use, the various complicated, and in
some cases delicate machinery which mechanical engineers have placed in their
hands.
I pass now to a class of vessel—the fast protected cruisers—intended to take
the place and perform the duties of the old frigates. Of these I will take as
types H.M.S. Medusa and the Italian cruiser Piemonte. The Medusa has a
length of 265 feet, a breadth of 41 feet, a displacement of 2,800 tons, and her
engines have 10,010 indicated horse-power. Her armament consists of six 6-inck
breech-loading guns, ten 3-pounders, four machine-guns, and two fixed and four
turning torpedo tubes. The Piemonte has a length of 300 feet, a breadth of 38 feet,
a displacement of 2,500 tons, and her engines of 12,981 indicated horse-power de-
veloped on the measured mile a speed of 22:3 knots or about 26 miles, Her
armament, remarkable as being the first instance of an equipment composed alto-
gether of quick-firing guns, consists of six 6-inch 100-pounders, and six 4:7-inch
45-pounders, all with large arcs of training, ten 6-pounder Hotchkiss, four Maxim-
Nordenfelt machine-guns, and three torpedo guns.
These vesseis have a steel protective deck, with sloping sides from stem to
stern, protecting the vitals of the ship; above and below the armour deck the
vessels are subdivided into a large number of water-tight compartments, and a
portion of the vessel's supply of coal is employed to give additional protection.
With respect to the Piemonte the engines (vertical triple expansion) were
designed and constructed by Messrs. Humphreys, Tennant, & Co. They are, in
order that they may be wholly below the water line, of exceedingly short stroke
936 REPORT—1890.
(27 inches), and the behaviour of the engines, both on their trials here and in the
very severe weather to which the vessel was exposed on her passage out, amply
justify these eminent engineers in their somewhat bold experiment.
I might describe other cruisers, both larger and smaller than those I have
selected, but I must not fatigue you, and will only in this part of my subject draw
your attention to these triumphs of engineering ingenuity and skill, I mean the
torpedo boats, which (whether or not locomotive torpedoes continue to hold their
own as engines of destruction) are destined, [ believe, to play no insignificant
part in future naval warfare.
Let me illustrate the marvels that have been achieved by the great English
engineers who have brought these vessels to their present state of perfection by
giving you a few particulars concerning one or two of them.
A first-class torpedo boat by Yarrow has a length of 135 feet, a breadth of
14 feet, a displacement of 88 tons, and with engines of 1,400 indicated horse-power
attains a speed of a little over 24 knots.
A slightly larger hoat, built for the Spanish Government by Thorneycroft, has
a length of 147 feet 6 inches, a breadth of 14 feet 6 inches, and with engines of
1,550 indicated horse-power has attained a speed of a little over 26 knots.
It is interesting to note that the engines of the first-named torpedo boat
develop nearly exactly the same power as those of the 90-gun ship, the Cesar,
and the engines of the second-named but little less than that developed. by
the Duke of Wellington, two vessels which you will remember I have taken as
types of the second- and first-rate men-of-war of thirty-five years ago.
The weight of the engines of the Duke of Wellington and the Cesar would be
approximately 400 tons and 275 tons, while that of the torpedo boats is about
34 tons.
But if these results are sufficiently remarkable, the economy attained in the
consumption of coal is hardly less striking.
The consumption of coal in the early steam battle-ships was from 4 to 5 Ibs.
per indicated horse-power per hour, and occasionally nearly reached 8 lbs.
At the present time in good performances the coal consumption ranges from
14 to 13 lbs. per indicated horse-power per hour under natural draught, and from 2
to 21 1bs. per hour with forced draught.
In war-ships the engines are designed to obtain the highest possible power on
the least possible weight, and this for a comparatively short time, and, further, have
to work at such various powers, that the question of economy must be a secondary
consideration.
With the different conditions existing in the mercantile marine, more economical
results may be expected, and I believe I shall not be far wrong in assuming that
in special cases 1} lbs. may possibly have been reached; but I have not been able
to obtain exact information on this head.
Turning now to the guns, let me refer first to those which were in use thirty-
five years ago, and which formed the armaments of the ships of those days, and of
the fortresses and coast defences of the United Kingdom and colonies.
The whole of these, with the exception of a few very light guns, were made of
cast-iron. I have already alluded to the small amount of machine work (not of a
very refined character) expended on them. Although the heaviest gun in use was
only a 68-pounder, there were no less than sixty different natures of iron ordnance.
Of the 32-pounder alone there were as many as thirteen descriptions, varying in
length and weight. Of these thirteen guns, again, there were four separate calibres
ranging from 6°41 inches to 6:3 inches, and as the projectile was the same for all,
the difference fell on the windage. This varied, assuming gun and projectile to be
accurate, from about 0°125 to 0:250, so that it may easily be conceived the diversity
of the tables of fire for this calibre of gun were very great. And although from the
simple nature of the guns, and the absence of anything like mechanical con-
trivance connected with them, it was quite unnecessary to give to them the care
and attention that are absolutely indispensable in guns of the present day, it must
ee be supposed that they were altogether free from liability to accident and other
efects.
; TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 937
I had occasion recently to look into the question of the guns employed in the
siege of Sebastopol, and found that in that great siege no less than 317 iron
ordnance were used by this:country. At the close of the siege it was found that
8 had burst, 101 had been condemned as unserviceable, while 59 were destroyed by
the enemy’s fire.
The 95 ewt. 68-pounder gun seems to have been about the largest gun that could
safely be made of cast-iron, and that in it the limit of safety was nearly reached,
was shown by the fact that a serious percentage of this calibre burst or otherwise
failed. With the spherical shot the column of metal per unit of area to be put in
motion by the charge was small, and to this the guns probably owed their natcy:
When the same charge was used, and cylinders representing double, treble, or
_ quadruple the normal weight of the shot were fired, the end was rapidly reached,
_ the guns frequently bursting before cylinders four or five times the weight of the
shot were employed.
But the fact that a stronger and more reliable material than cast-iron was
necessary, was shortly to be emphasised in a much more striking manner. The
great superiority of rifled to smooth-bored ordnance in every respect, in power,
in range, in accuracy, in destructive effect of shrapnel and common shell, was
in this country demonstrated by Lord Armstrong and others. This led to
numerous attempts to utilise cast-iron for rifled ordnance. The whole of these
efforts resulted in failure. Although the charges were feebler than with smooth-
bored guns, these experimental guns burst one after the other with alarming
rapidity, generally before many rounds had been fired. The matter was not made
much better when the expedient was adopted of strengthening these guns by hoops
‘or rings shrunk on externally. Failures with this arrangement were little less
‘frequent, the cast-iron bursting under the jackets, and the only plans in which cast-
iron was used with any success were those proposed respectively by Sir W. Palliser
and Mr. Parsons, who inserted, the one a coiled wrought-iron, and the other a steel
tube in a cast-iron gun block.
But the country that suffered most severely from the use of cast-iron was the
‘United States. Their great civil war took place just when efforts were being made
in every country to introduce rifled artillery. Naturally every nerve was strained
to manufacture these guns, and naturally the resources that came most readily to
hand were first employed.
A report presented by the Joint Committee on Ordnance to the United States
Senate in 1869 gives the history of these guns, which were nearly all either cast-
iron or cast-iron reinforced with hoops in the way I have described. I have heard
the existence of internal strains disputed, but in this report we read that ten guns
‘burst, that is flew to pieces, when lying on chocks, without ever having had a shot
fired from them, and 98 others cracked or became ruptured under like conditions.
In the ‘Summary of Burst Guns’ in the same report, it is stated that 147
burst and 21 were condemned as unserviceable; 29 of them being smooth-bore and
139 rifled ordnance. But perhaps the most striking passage is that which relates
that in the action before Fort Fisher al/ the Parrott guns in the fleet burst, and
that by the bursting of five of these guns during the first bombardment, 45 men
were killed and wounded, while only 11 men were killed or wounded by the
enemy’s fire.
The muzzle velocity given by the smooth-bored, cast-iron guns may be taken
approximately at 1,600 f. s., and at the maximum elevation with which they
were generally fired their range was about 3,000 yards. The 32-pounder, with a
charge of one-third the weight of the shot and an elevation of 10°, gave nearly 2,800
yards, and the 68-pounder, with a charge of about one-fourth, nearly 3,000 yards.
The same gun, with an eccentric shot, and an elevation of 24°, gave a maximum
range of 6,500 yards.
But it must not be supposed because the range tables gave 3,000 yards as
practically the extreme range of the ordnance of 35 years ago, that our guns
possessed any high efficiency at that distance. At short distances, from 300 to 500
yards, dependent on the calibre, the smooth-bored guns were reasonably accurate,
but the errors multiplied with the distance in so rapidly increasing a ratio that
1890. 3 P
938 REPORT—-1890:
long before'a range of 3,000 yards was attained the chance of hitting an object
became extremely small.
It is desirable to give some idea of the accuracy, or rather want of accuracy, of
these guns.
In 1858 I was appointed secretary to the first Committee on Rifled Cannon,
and the early experiments showing how extraordinary was the accuracy of the
new weapons, it became a matter of importance to devise some means of comparing
in this respect the old and the new guns.
The plan I proposed was one which has since been followed by the artillerists of
nearly all countries. It was to calculate the probable error in range and the
probable error in deflection, and from these data the area within which it would
be an even chance that any given shot would strike; or, in other words, that area.
within which, out of a large number of rounds, half that number would fall. This.
area was for the smooth-bored gun at a range of 1,000 yards, 147-2 yards long by
9°1 yards broad, or 1,339:5 square yards, while the similar area for the rifled gun
at the same range was 23:1 yards long by 08 yard broad, or an area of 18°5
square yards. But the great decrease of accuracy due to an increase of range with
the smooth-bore guns is especially remarkable. Experiments showed that with
the smooth-bored gun an increase of range of only 350 yards more than doubled
the error in deflection, and made the area selected for comparison 206 yards long
by 20:2 broad, or 4,161 square yards, as nearly as possible trebling the area for ap
increase in range of 35 per cent.
But I have not done yet. These experiments were made with the same lots of
powder carefully mixed, and the irregularities in velocity would be such as are due
to manufacturers’ errors only. But the variations in the energy developed by the
gunpowder employed have still to be considered. In 1860, being then an associate
member of the Ordnance Committee, I carried on for the Government the first.
electro-ballistic experiments made in this country. My attention was early called
to the great variation in energy developed by powders recently made and pro-
fessedly of the same make, and I pointed out that in my experiments the variations
between one lot of powder and another amounted occasionally to 25 per cent.
of the total energy developed. It is unnecessary to say that on service, and when
powder had been subjected to climatic influences, the variations would have been
much greater.
The variations in energy of new powder were chiefly due to the method of proof
then in use, the Eprouvette mortar, than which nothing can be conceived better
adapted for passing into the service powders unsuitable for the guns of that
time.
But with the want of accuracy of the gun itself, and the want of uniformity in
the propelling agent, it may easily be conceived that a limit was soon reached
beyond which it was mere waste of ammunition to fire at an object even of con-
siderable size, and we can appreciate the reasons which led our nayal commanders,
whenever possible, to close with their enemy.
When we come to consider guns of the present day, the first point that attracts —
our attention is the enormous increase in the size and weight of the larger natures. :
It may fairly be asked indeed if, weight for weight, the modern guns are so much ©
more powerful than the old, and, if we have command of such great ranges, why ~
such heavy guns should be necessary.
The answer to this, of course, is that it has been considered essential to have
guns capable of piercing at short distances the thickest armour which any ship
can carry, and this demand has led us from guns of 5 tons weight up to guns of
110 and 120 tons weight, and to the development of the important mechanical
arrangements for working them, to which I shall presently refer.
On the principles which guide the construction of these large guns I shall say
little, both because the subject is too technical to be dealt with in an address, and
because the practice of all nations, though differing in many points of detail, in
essentials is closely accordant.
On three points of construction we lay particular stress in this country. These
points are: That the gun shall be strong enough to resist the normal working
5
:
TRANSACTIONS QF SECTION G. 939
pressure, even if the inner tube or barrel be completely split ; that whether we
regard the gun as a whole, or the parts of which it is composed, the changes of
form should be as little abrupt as possible; and that any sharp angle or corner
must be absolutely avoided.
As in principles of construction, so in material employed, is the practice of the
great gun-making nations closely agreed. The steel employed is ductile and sub-
jected to severe specifications and tests, which differ slightly one from the other,
ut exact, in effect, qualities of steel substantially thesame. So far as I know, the
application of the tests in this country is more severe than in any other, and I
take this opportunity of entering my protest against the statement which I have
seen more than once in the journals ofthe day—that English gun-steel is in any
way inferior to any that is produced in any part of the world. Sheffield has in
no respect lost its ancient reputation in the art of steel-making, and to my certain
Jmowledge has supplied large quantities of steel, admitted to be of the first quality,
to gunmakers of the Continent. The steel made by Sir J. Whitworth & Co. has
likewise lone been in great repute both at home and abroad, and looking at the
care devoted to the subject by the Government, and the eagerness with which
improvements in the quality and mode of manufacture are sought for and acted on
by the steel-makers, we may be absolutely certain that to the best of our Inow-
ledge the most suitable material is used in the construction of our guns.
As many of you are aware, the mild steel which is used for the manufacture of
guns is after forging and rough-boring subjected to the process of oil-hardening,
being subsequently annealed, by which process it is intended that any detrimental
internal strain should be removed. This process of oil-hardening, introduced first
by Lord Armstrong in the case of barrels, is now almost universally adopted for
all gun forgings. Of late, however, there has been considerable discussion as to
whether or not this oil-hardening is necessary or desirable; and while admitting
the increase of the elastic limit due to the process, it is asked whether the same
results would not be obtained by taking a steel with, for example, a higher per-
centage of carbon, and which should give the same elastic limit and the same duc-
tility. The advocates of oil-hardening urge that steel with low carbon, duly oil-
hardened to obtain the elastic limit and strength desired, is more reliable than
steel in which the same results are reached by the addition of carbon. Those who
maintain the opposite view point to the uncertainty of obtaining uniform results
by oil-hardening, to the possibility of internal strains, and to the costly plant and
delay in manufacture necessary in carrying it out. The question raised is un-
doubtedly one of great importance, but it appears to me to be one concerning
which it is quite within our power in a comparatively short time, by properly
arranged experiments, to arrive at a definite conclusion.
Sir F. Abel has in his Presidential Address given us so masterly a réswmé of the
present state of the steel question in its metallurgical and chemical aspects that it is
unnecessary for me to add anything on this head. I will only remark that in selecting
steel for gun-making, individually I should prefer that which is on the side of the
low limit, to that which is near the high limit, of the breaking weight prescribed by
our own and other Governments. I have this preference because, so far, experience
has taught us that these lower steels are safer and more reliable than the stronger
—and in guns we do not subject, and have no business to subject, the steel to
stresses in any way approaching that which would produce fracture.
Of course if our metallurgists should give us a steel or other metal which with
the same good qualities possesses also greater strength, such a material would by
_ preference be employed, but it must not be supposed that the introduction of such
new material would enable us, to any great extent, to reduce the weight of our
guns. As a matter of fact, the energy of recoil of many of our guns 1s so high that
it is undesirable in any case materially to reduce their weight. As an illustration
I may mention that some time ago in re-arming an armour-clad, the firm with
which I am connected was asked if by using the ribbon construction it would be
possible, while retaining the same energy in the projectile, to reduce the weight of
the main armament by three tons pergun. The reduction per se was quite feasible,
but when the designs came to be worked out it was found that, on account of the
3 P 2
940 REPORT—1890.
higher energy of recoil, no less than four tons weight per gun had to be added to
strengthen the mounting, the deck, and the port pivot fastenings.
The chamber pressures with which our guns are worked do not generally
exceed seventeen tons per square inch, or say 2,500 atmos. It must not be sup-
posed that there is any difficulty in making guns to stand very much higher initial
tensions; but little would be gained by so doing. Not only can a higher effect be
obtained from a given weight of gun if the initial pressure be kept within moderate
limits, but with high pressures the erosion (which increases very rapidly with the
pressure) would destroy the bores in a very few rounds.
In fact, even with the pressures I have named, the very high charges now em-
ployed in our large guns (1,060 Ibs. have frequently been fired in a single charge),
and the relatively long time during which the high temperature and pressure
of explosion are maintained, have aggravated to a very serious extent the rapid
wear of the bores. In these guns, if the highest charge be used, erosion, which no
skill in construction can obviate, soon renders repair or relining necessary. Reduced
charges, of course, allow a materially prolonged life of the bore, and there is also
a very great difference in erosive effect between powders of different composition,
but giving rise in a gun to the same pressures. Unfortunately, the powder which
has up to the present been found most suitable for large guns is also one of the
most erosive, and powder-makers have not so far succeeded in giving us a powder
at once suitable for artillery purposes, and possessing the non-eroding quality so
greatly to be desired.
An amide powder made by the Chilworth Company, with which I have, not
long ago, experimented, both gave admirable ballistic results, and at the same
time its erosive effect was very much less than that of any other with which
Iam acquainted. It is by no means certain that the powder would stand the
tests which alone would justify its admission into the service, but the question
of erosion is a very serious one, and has hardly, I think, received the attention its
importance demands. No investigation should be neglected which affords any
prospect of minimising this great evil.
On the introduction of rifled artillery the muzzle velocities, which you will
remember had been with smooth-bore guns and round shot about 1,600 f. s., were,
with the elongated projectiles of the rifled gun, reduced to about 1,200 f.s. Inthe
battle between plates and guns these velocities were with armour-piercing projectiles
gradually increased to about 1,400 f.s., and at about this figure they remained until
the appointment by the Government of a Committee on Explosives. By the experi-
ments and investigations of this committee it was shown that, by improved forms of
gunpowder and other devices, velocities of 1,600 f. s. could be obtained without
increasing the maximum pressure, and without unduly straining the existing guns.
Similar advances in velocity were nearly simultaneously made abroad, but in
1877 my firm, acting on independent researches on the action of gunpowder made
by myself in conjunction with Sir F. Abel, constructed 6-inch and 8-inch guns
which advanced the velocities from 1,600 to 2,100 f.s., and this great advance
was everywhere followed by a reconstruction of rifled artillery.
With the present powder the velocities of the powerful armour-piercing guns,
firing projectiles considerably increased in weight, may be taken at from 2,000 to
2,100 f.s. The distance of 3,000 yards, which I said practically represented the
extreme range of smooth-bored guns, is attained with an elevation of only 2° in the
case of the 68-ton gun, and of 34° in the 4'7-inch quick-firing gun, while at 10° the
ranges are 9,800 and 5,900 yards respectively, and, as an instance of extreme
range, I may mention that with a 9:2-inch guna distance of over 13 miles has
actually been reached.
Nor is the accuracy less remarkable. Bearing in mind the mode of comparison
which I have already explained, at 3,000 yards range the 68-ton gun would put half
its shot within a plot of ground 7:2 yards long by 0:3 broad, and the 4°7-inch gun
within a plot 19 yards long by 1:3 broad; or, to put it in another form, would put
half their rounds in vertical targets respectively 0°92 yard broad by 0°34 yard
high and 1:3 yards broad by 1°6 yards high. ;
Rut it cannot be assumed that we are at the end of progress, Already, with
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 941
the amide powder we have obtained nearly 2,500f. s. in a 6-inch gun with moderate
chamber pressures, and with the cordite originated by the Committee on Explosives,
of which Sir F. Abel is president, considerably better results have been obtained,
I have elsewhere pointed out that one of the causes which has made gunpowder so
successful an agent for the purposes of the artillerist is that it is a mixture, not a
definite chemical combination ; that it is not possible to detonate it; that it is free,
or nearly so, from that intense rapidity of action and waves of violent pressure
which are so marked with nitro-glycerine and other kindred explosives.
We are as yet hardly able to say that cordite in very large charges is
free from this tendency to detonation, but I think I may say that up to the
6-inch gun we are tolerably safe; at least, so far, I have been unable, even
with charges of fulminate of mercury, to produce detonation. I need not remind
you that cordite is smokeless, and that smokeless powder is almost an essential for
quick-firing guns, the larger classes of which are day by day rising in importance.
I now come to the third part of my subject—the modes which are now
adopted of mounting and working the ordnance I have described. I have alluded
to the carriages, which, at the beginning of the century, were made of wood, and
were worked solely by handspikes. Thirty-five years ago they were but little
changed, although in the case of pivot guns screws for giving elevation, and blocks
and tackle for training had been introduced, but timber was still the material
employed. A strong prejudice long existed in both services against iron for gun
carriages, as it was believed that iron carriages would be more difficult to repair,
and that the effect on the crew of splinters would be much more serious.
But when the experiment of firing at both types was made at Shoeburyness,
with dummies to represent the crews, 1t was found both that the wooden carriage
was far more easily disabled than the wrought iron, and that the splinters from
the wooden carriages were far more destructive,
In all other respects, the superiority of wrought iron as regards unchangeability,
durability, and strength, was so apparent, that iron, and later steel, rapidly dis-
laced wood. No gun carriages, not even field, are now made of that material.
t is impossible, within moderate limits, to give even a sketch of the various forms
of mountings that have, as the science of artillery has progressed, been designed to
meet the constantly changing conditions of warfare. I shal]l confine myself to the
description of certain types of carriages, dividing these generally into three classes,
viz., those for guns of the largest class, which require power to work them ; those
for guns of medium size, in which, by special arrangements, power is dispensed
with ; and those for guns of a smaller class, which are particularly arranged for
extremely rapid fire.
With respect to the first class. On the adoption of heavily armed, revolving
turrets of the Cowper-Coles type, in which the guns are trained for direction by
revolving the turret, the first idea which naturally presented itself was to utilise
steam power for this heavy work. It was, however, soon recognised that, on
account of its elasticity steam did not give the necessary steadiness and control cf
movement essential for accuracy of aim, and water under pressure was employed
as the means of transmitting the power from the steam-engine to the machinery
for rotating the turret and working the guns,
On land, where an accumulator can be employed, a small steam engine kept
constantly at work is used; but at sea, where accumulators, whether made to act
by the pressure of steam, air, or springs, are inadmissible, a very much larger
engine isemployed sufficiently powerful to supply water to perform all the operations
ever carried on together. When little or no work is required, the engine auto-
matically reduces its speed till it merely creeps, so that little or no power is consumed,
The mode of mounting the guns differs somewhat according as they are in-
tended to be placed in a barbette or in a turret. Our guns have gradually been
increasing in length, and are now so long (our largest has a length of nearly 45
feet) that it is impossible to provide an armoured turret of sufficient size to protect
the forward part of the gun, and under these circumstances it is a grave question
whether it is worth while to devote so much armour to the protection of what is
after all the strongest part of the gun
942 -- REPORT-—1890.
Of the eight new battle-ships now building, seven are to have their guns mounted
en barbette, and one is to be provided with armoured turrets. In either case the
guns and their machinery are carried on revolving turntables of practically the same
form. These turntables are placed in an armoured redoubt, and the guns, when
horizontal, are entirely above the armour ; but in the case of the ship provided with
turrets the breech ends of the guns are covered in, with the turrets placed as an
addition on the turntables.
The extra weight required thus to protect the breech ends of the guns is for
this ship about 550 tons.
As the hydraulic machinery for these new ships differs but slightly from that
fitted on ships of the Rodney and Nile classes, the same description will cover all
these vessels. The armoured barbette battery at each end of the ship is made of a
pear shape, as seen in plan, in order to provide for a pair of ammunition hoists
and hydraulic rammers at its narrower end.
These ammunition hoists come right up into the armoured barbette and
descend to the shell-room and magazine decks, forming the channel by which the
projectiles and charges are rapidly supplied to the guns; and it must be remem-~
bered that the weight to be lifted for a single round, including powder and projec-
tile, with the necessary cases, considerably exceeds a ton. The cage in each hoist
is worked by hydraulic cylinders with double wire-ropes, and in case of breakage,
automatic safety gear is titted to arrest and lock the cage.
While on the ammunition deck the cages are charged simultaneously from either
side, and when hoisted to the battery-deck are automatically slowed, and then stopped
at the proper position for loading the guns. Much depends upon the service of
ammunition by these hoists being protected from interruption, and in the event of
derangement of the cage, independent tackle, worked by an hydraulic capstan, is
provided to take its place,and a few rounds can also be stowed within the
battery.
In intimate connection with the ammunition hoists are the hydraulic rammers on
the ammunition deck for charging the cages, and in the battery for loading the guns.
To reduce their length within reasonable limits they are made telescopic, and they
are fitted with indicators to show when the charges are home.
In the shell-rooms hydraulic cranes and traversing bogies are fitted to convey
the shell to the base of the ammunition hoist, so that a projectile is transported
from the place where it is stowed to the shot-chamber of the gun without manual
labour of any sort except that of moving the various levers to set the hydraulic
machinery in motion. In the magazines hydraulic bollards are provided for
hoisting and transporting the powder-cases by means of overhead runners. Hand-
gear is provided as an alternative in both magazine and shell-rooms.
Each turntable carrying the guns and their fittings is rotated by a pair of
entirely independent three-cylindered engines, each engine being of sufficient
power to rotate the turntable at the speed of one revolution per minute. The gear
for controlling them is worked from two or three look-out stations, at either or any
of which the officer has to his hand the means of elevating, training, sighting, and
firing either one or both guns. The turning-engines are fitted with a powerful
spring break, which will hold in a seaway, but which is taken off automatically
when the water is admitted to start the engines. Easy control is obtained by the
use of seryo-motor valves, so that the handwheel is small and requires but little
power to move it. It only remains to describe as shortly as possible the system of
mounting the guns on the turntable. The guns are trunnionless, to allow them to
be as close together as possible, with the view of reducing to the smallest possible
size the diameter of the turntables. The carriages are cradles of steel grooved to
correspond with rings turned on the guns, and with straps by which the guns are
secured to the cradles. The carriages are mounted without rollers or wheels on slides
formed of steel beams of great strength, pivoted at their front ends and supported
on hydraulic presses by which they are bodily raised or lowered to give the guns
elevation or depression. In the case of the turret this system gives the smallest
possible port. The loading of the gun is effected while the gun is at extreme ele-
Vation, a position which is easily determined by dropping the slide on to fixed stops,
—
-
Oe
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 943
and which gives the best protection for the breech mechanism, for the hoist and
rammers. The operations of unlocking the breech-block, withdrawing it, traversing
it, inserting a loading tray, and, after completing the loading, performing the same
operations in reverse order, are all done by hydraulic power, and the fittings are so
devised that unless the gun is properly locked and run out it cannot be fired,
In certain foreign vessels provided with the hydraulic breech mechanism, a valve
has been arranged which makes in their proper order, and in that order only, the
eight or ten movements necessary to open and close the breech of the gun; but this
system has not been adopted in our own navy.
The sights are carried on the top of the turntable, or, in the case of a turret, on
the turret roof, and are worked automatically by an arc attached to the gun slide,
gearing into cog-wheels, with shafting reaching to each sighting position.
The system of recoil press adopted on all these ships is that which lends itself
most readily to employment also as a running-in-and-out press. It consists of a
simple cylinder carried in the middle of the slide, having working in it a ram with
piston, attached at the front end to the carriage. Spring-loaded valves are placed
in the recoil ram piston and at the end of the cylinder, and by these the water
escapes when the gun recoils. The water which passes through the cylinder
valves runs to the exhaust-pipe, while that which passes through the piston valve
yemains in the front of the cylinder, and prevents the gun charging out again.
When the recoil press is used to run the gun in and out these valves are
inoperative, as they are loaded much above the working pressure in the hydraulic
mains. The hich pressure of recoil does not enter the hydraulic mains, as the
supply to the rear of the press, where alone the high pressure of recoil exists, is
made backwards and forwards, through a valve which shuts itself automatically
when not in use.
Before leaving the working by power of heavy guns, there is one example of
mounting a pair of guns en barbette which, although it has many points in
common with the system I have just described, has also some points of difference,
which it may be worth while to note.
Objections have sometimes been urged to the fixed loading station on the
ground that it is necessary to bring the guns to it and lock them there until
sponged and loaded, thereby involving, not only a loss of time, but under certain
conditions exposing them more to the enemy’s fire.
In ships of the Re Umberto type, what is termed an all-round loading is
obtained by bringing up the ammunition through a central hoist to the deck below
the turntable. From this central hoist it is transferred to two other hoists, which
are carried on the turntable behind the guns. The transfer is made by hand for
the powder and by sliding down a tray for the projectile, this work being
rformed by men on the deck below the turntable. The hydraulic rammers are
fixed to the turntable, and are very much shortened by being made with more
rams. In spite of this arrangement, however, the hoists are rather cramped, and
the breech mechanism has to be made to pass from behind the gun, so as to
permit the gun to recoil, and the gun is rather further forward than usual when
run out.
With these reservations, however, the system has advantages: the reduction in
the armour required to protect the turntable and its machinery is considerable, and
the redoubt being round instead of pear-shaped presents a smaller and stronger
surface to the enemy when broadside on.
I very much doubt, however, whether with this system there can be any
advantage in rapidity of tire. Training to the loading station is in our navy very
quickly done, and the turntable is rotated while the guns are being run in or out.
It is hardly necessary to say that hydraulic machinery for guns was worked
out by my friend and late partner Mr. George Rendel, and up to the end of ;1881
all details connected therewith were made under his management.
I ought perhaps to give you some idea of the rate at which these heavy guns
_ worked by power can be fired.
+ In the case of the Benbow, with the 110-ton gun the time from ‘load’ to
‘ready’ was 24} minutes. In the firing trials of the Zrafalgar four rounds were
944 REPORT-—1890,
fired from one of her 68-ton guns in 9 minutes 5 seconds. In the Colossus, when
under command of Captain Cyprian Bridge, the average from one round to
another was 1 minute 45 seconds, and on one occasion, steaming at 8 knots per
hour past a target at a distance of 1,500 yards, she fired four rounds in six
minutes, striking the target three times.
Of the mountings which are worked solely by manual power, the whole range
for naval service is covered by the carriages of the type designed by Mr. Vavasseur.
No single description can be made to cover all the varieties of these mountings.
which have been worked out to meet the diverse conditions which have arisen in
the re-arming of old ships, and the fitting out of new vessels on modern and novel
designs, The very general adoption of breechloading ordnance brought with it the
necessity for a mounting which would give easier access to the breech of the gun
than was obtained with the long low gun-slide employed with the muzzle-loading
guns. The main features of the type therefore are, a hich slide, very short, so as
not to project beyond the breech of the gun, a short low carriage carrying on either
side the recoil presses, and a shield to afford protection both to the carriage and the
gun crew.
The increased importance of rapid-fire guns has led in later carriages to a strong
armour plate being built into the mounting as part of its structure, and to this
must be added the shield above mentioned, so that the total protective thickness of
plate is very considerable,
By means of a worm wheel sliding on a keyed shaft the movement of the gun.
for elevation or depression can be made up to the instant of firing—a decided and
very important advance on the older methods.
The arrangement of the recoil-cylinders is peculiar. They are fitted with a pair
of pistons with rotating valves, so adjusted as to be open when the gun is in the
firing position, and to be gradually closed during recoil by studs running along
rifled grooves in the cylinders ; by this ingenious contrivance the area of the ports
of the valves is increased and then decreased in proportion to the variation of the
velocity of recoil, so that the liquid passes from one side of the piston to the other
at as nearly as possible a constant velocity and under a constant pressure. The
velocity of the flow through the ports, and therefore the pressure of the liquid,
varies with the energy of the recoil of the gun, so that the length of the recoil is
with all charges practically the same.
Even a blank charge produces nearly full recoil, and on one occasion caused one
of these mountings to be reported as unserviceable, and unfit to fire a shotted
round. Constant length of recoil has the advantage over constant pressure in the
recoil-presses that, in the event of an unusually heavy recoil, a higher pressure
in the recoil-press would in the former case be the only result, and would do no.
harm, as the pressure would still be much below the test-pressure ; but in the latter
case there would be an increased length of recoil, and, unless considerable margin
were allowed, a possible destruction of the slide.
Most frequently the Vavasseur mountings are made with central pivots, and
there is then little tendency for the movements of the vessel to affect the mount-
ing, and as the weight is borne upon a ring of live rollers the greatest ease of train
ing is obtained.
In the larger sizes the centre pivot is increased in size, and made hollow so as
to provide for the passage through the centres of a powder hoist, which, after rising
high enough, curves to the rear under the gun and delivers its charge at the point.
where it can most conveniently be drawn out for insertion in the gun. In this
case a foot plate is also provided as a rear attachment to the slide, and from this
the crew work the gun. This foot plate is provided with boxes for eight or ten
projectiles, which are therefore ready for use at any moment and in any position of
training. These mountings are fitted in the belted cruisers of the Orlando class,
one being carried at the fore and one at the after end of each ship.
As a sufficient proof of the value of these mountings and of the ability which
has been displayed in their design, I may mention that practically all countries.
have adopted these carriages for modern guns, either without any alteration or
with comparatively unimportant modification.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 945:
In discussing our modern ordnance I only alluded to quick-firing guns, because
in their case the gun and mounting are so closely connected, the efficiency of the:
system depending as much upon the one as the other, that a separate description
of either would be incomplete, and they are more easily described together. The
great success which attended the small Hotchkiss and Nordenfelt three- and six--
pounder guns led me to consider whether the same principle could not be applied
to large guns, and we designed and made at Elswick the 4°7 inch and 5°65 inch
quick-firing guns which were so successfully tried by the Zvcellent at Portsmouth..
Subsequently, with the co-operation of Mr. Vavasseur, various improvements were
made, and for the sake of uniformity in calibre a 6-inch was substituted for the
65-inch gun.
One of the peculiarities of these guns is in the form of the breech-screw, which,
while on the principle of the interrupted screw, is made conical, so as to simplify
the action of opening and closing—the principle of the ordinary rifle cartridge
has been extended to the ammunition for these guns. This not only allows ex-
tremely rapid loading, but secures safety from premature explosions in rapid firing.
The cartridges are fired electrically, and, not having their own ignition, there is no
danger of exploding them either when stowed in the magazine or if accidentally
dropped in the handling.
To follow the rapid movements of a torpedo boat it is essential that there:
should be the most perfect control over the gun and mounting, and the most
effective mode of rapid fire is to keep the gun always ou the object aimed at, allow-
ing the gun itself to fire as the breech is closed. ‘The captain stands at the side of
the gun, shielded by a guard-plate from the recoil, his shoulders braced against a
shoulder-piece which is unaffected by the recoil; his eye aligns the sights; with
one hand he works the elevating or training wheel, and with the other grasps the
firing-trigger, or, for rapid firing, the training-wheel may be thrown out of gear
and direction given by the shoulder-piece alone. The mounting is a centre pivot,
and, being on live rollers, turns with the least effort. The gun has no trunnions,
but slides in a carriage which enyvelops it like a sleeve. The trunnions are on
this carriage, so that the two are together pivoted like an ordinary gun in a fixed
lower carriage. There is no preponderance when the gun is in the forward posi-
tion, and the recoil lasts for so short a time that the disturbance of the centre of
gravity is not felt on the elevating-gear or shoulder-piece. The lower side of the
carriage is formed into a recoil press, the piston-rod of which is attached to a horn
on the rear of the gun,
There is also a spring-box, with rod attachments to the horn, by which the gun
is instantly run out as soon as the recoil is expended. Efficient shields are pro-
vided to protect the crew. The revolving weight of the gun and mounting is 5
tons, yet, with the shoulder against the shoulder-piece, it can be swung through
90° in 2 seconds, and with the gear can be trained through the same arc in 5.
seconds. It is possible to fire from this gun at the rate of 10 to 12 rounds per
minute, and on one occasion 10 rounds were fired in 47 seconds; but perhaps the.
most striking experiment with the gun was made at Shoeburyness, when 5 rounds.
were fired in 31 seconds at a 6’ x 6’ target at 1,300 yards, all of which struck the
object aimed at.
A trial has also been recently made between two cruisers, the one armed with
ordinary breech-loading, the other with quick-firing artillery, from which it.
appears that when firing at a target the latter, in a given time, was able to dis-
charge about six times the quantity of ammunition fired by the former. I need
not impress upon you the significance of these facts or the importance of quick-
firing armaments, especially if firing shell, possibly charged with high explosives,
against the unarmoured portions ot cruisers or other vessels,
The accuracy and the shell power of rifled guns have naturally had their-
effect upon the mountings for the land service, experiments havirg conclusively
shown that batteries armed with guns placed in ordinary embrasures would soon.
be rendered untenable. Among the expedients that have been adopted or sug-
ae to meet the altered conditions, the system of making the gun disappear
ehind a parapet or into a pit, with which the name of Colonel Moncrieff has been.
946 ‘ REPORT—1890.
so long and so honourably associated, is more and more coming into favour, as the
most effective mode of protection for the gun and its mounting, as well as for the
gun detachment. During the last ten years much attention has been devoted to
the designing of various mountings on this system for all weights of guns from
3 up to 68 tons,
In the earliest carriages of this type the gun was raised by the descent of a
balance weight, but the most successful arrangement is that in which compressed
air is employed for the purpose. The 9:2-inch and 10-inch hydro-pneumatie
mountings are the largest sizes as yet adopted into the English service, and a
description of them will serve for that of the type generally.
The eun on this system is raised by compressed air stored in several chambers,
and acting through the medinm of a fluid upon a recoil ram.
On the recoil of the gun the liquid is driven from the cylinder by the incoming
ram into the lower parts of the air chambers, so that as much as is required of the
energy of recoil is stored up by the compression of the air, and is used to raise the
gun for the next round. The gun is raised up and lowered on two heavy beams
pivoted to the lower carriage. Two long light elevating rods, pivoted at one end
to the breech of the gun, at the other to the lower carriage, hold the gun in correct
position as it rises or falls; the elevation is changed by moving the position of the
lower ends of the elevating rods. This can be done when the gun is down without
disturbing it, and consequently with very little labour. The effect of the change is
apparent after the gun rises, when any slight correction can be made if desired.
Generally these mountings have been made with overhead shields placed a little
below the level of the top of the gun pit, and entirely closing it. There is an
aperture through which the gun rises, but which can be closed when the gun is
out of action.
In the case of the 10-inch gun the total weight of the revolving mass is
80 tons. Only two men are required at the hand wheels to revolve it—in fact, it
is within the power of one man to do the whole work. The ordinary speed of
training is 90° in 14 minute, while the time required to raise the gun to the firing
position is 20 seconds. The speed of rising might be considerably increased, but,
taking the weight of the mass in motion into account, it does not appear to be
desirable to accelerate it.
At Maralunga, Spezia, in March of the present year, the first 68-ton dis-
appearing mounting, manufactured for the Italian Government, was tried with most
satisfactory results. Fifteen rounds were fired in all, some of them being made to give
greatly increased energy of recoil, with the view of proving the gun and mounting.
The gun was worked entirely by hand-power, and on land no difficulty is
experienced in thus dealing with it, while the system possesses the advantage that
it is always ready for use should it be required, but no great alteration is necessary
to adapt the mounting for use with hydraulic power.
In this case the water from the recoil press is driven through spring-loaded
valves instead of into air chambers. There is, therefore, no storing up of the recoil
energy, and to raise the gun to the firing position, water pressure from an
accumulator kept charged by a steam-pumping engine in the usual way is em-
ployed. These guns and mountings are too large to be easily covered by an over-
head shield, but they are provided with shields at the front and rear to protect the
gun detachments.
Another very successful mounting for land service has been made for guns’
when the site is such that it is permissible to place them en barbette. The gun’
is entirely above the parapet, but the detachment is protected while loading and
working the gun by a broad sloping shield carried on the gun carriage and
recoiling with it. The shield is inclined so that any splinters, &c., striking it may:
be deflected in an upward direction.
The carriage runs back on a long slide inclined at 5°, and at the end of the’
recoil is caught by a spring catch, which retains it in the run in position until the
loading is finished. To load, the gun is put at extreme elevation, so that the
breech may be as much under protection as possible, the charge being rammed
home with a hand rammer worked by rope tackle. The slide is mounted on front
Se eS ee es ——— a
«| fl
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 947
and rear rollers, and has an actual centre pivot. The recoil is controlled by a
single Vavasseur recoil cylinder placed in the centre of the slide, and giving a
constant length of recoil for all charges, so that the spring catch to retain the gun
at extreme recoil for loading is always reached.
Torun out after loading, the spring catch is released, and the incline of the
slide is sufficient to cause the gun to run out, which it does smartly, but is checked
and brought to rest quietly by means of a controlling ram placed at the end of the
recoil press.
But I must conclude. I trust I have said enough to satisfy you as to the
indebtedness of the naval and military services to mechanicians and to mechanical
science, but you will also understand that within the limits of an address it is
impossible to give a complete survey of so large a subject, and that there are
important fields I have left wholly untouched.
The following Papers were read :—
1. A Hydraulic Steam Lifeboat, By J. F. Greuy.
The author pointed out that, had it not been for the perfection now reached
in the manufacture of mild steel and the invention of forced draught, the appli-
cation of steam to the propulsion of a lifeboat would have been impracticable.
The boat described in this paper has recently been built by Messrs. Green, of
Blackwall, for the National Lifeboat Association, and is stationed at Harwich.
Her principal dimensions are as follows: Length, 50 ft, Beam, moulded, 12 ft.
Extreme breadth, 14 ft. 8fin. Draft, when fully loaded, 3 ft. 6in. Displacement,
when fully loaded, 26 tons. Speed, when fully loaded, 9°367 knots. Indicated
horse-power, 170.
The author, after explaining why it was impossible to adopt either the paddle-
wheel or the screw as a means of propulsion, gave the following reasons in favour
of the hydraulic system, adding that the actual trials have fully justified its
adoption.
% The propelling power is instantaneous, and-as efficient in a heavy sea as in
smooth water.
2. No racing, loss of power, or injurious effects to the machinery in a rough
sea.
38. No vibration such as is caused by a screw or paddle-wheel.
4. The engine only running in one direction, there is no excessive wear of
machinery, or loss of time due to stoppage and reversal.
5. The management of the vessel is in the hands of the officer on deck.
6. No obstacles under water to interfere with sailing.
7. When the rudder is damaged, steering can be effected by the turbine.
The vessel is divided into 15 water-tight compartments and possesses ex-
ceptional stability, righting herself up to an angle of 110°, and on trial the
manceuvring power was not less satisfactory. A number of interesting experi-
ments which had keen made with a view to ascertain the behaviour of the boat in
ine eens of wreckage were also described ; their results were all that could be
esired.
The propelling machinery has been constructed by Messrs. Thorneycroft, of
Chiswick, the engines being of the horizontal compound surface-condensing type,
with cylinders 8} in. x 143 in., and 12 in. stroke. The paper gave details of the
boilers, fan engine, turbine, &c., and it may be added that this turbine delivers
ey through the outlets at the rate of 1 ton per second; the sailing power is
ood.
3 The well accommodates 30 passengers and is abaft the machinery, Under its
deck are two watez-tanks, which are filled when leaving for a wreck, being emptied
when passengers are taken on board.
The consumption of coal, even under forced draught, is small, averaging 2 cwt.
per hour, so that the bunkers hold a sufficient supply for 30 hours.
948 REPORT—1890.
2. On Aluminium Bronze for Artillery and Small Arms.
By J. H. J. Dacecmr, F.C.8., F.C,
As early as 1859-60, guns were cast in aluminium bronze by the French and
Bavarian Governments, and favourably reported upon by the authorities; but the
high price of aluminium at that time prevented its use for guns.
The cost of aluminium bronze in 1860 was 4s. 11d. per lb. ; to-day it is on the
market at 1s. 4d. per lb.
The results of mechanical and physical tests point to the fitness of this alloy
for artillery and small arms under the altered condition of explosives, the recent
trials of artillery—using the smokeless powder—by the German authorities proving
that steel guns were seriously injured by the new ammunition, and a return to
bronze for guns is adyocated by their artillerists; but in the properties essential.
to good gun-metal, aluminium bronze surpasses the ‘steel bronze’ or the tin
bronze used in the Uchatius system of gun fabrication. The following table gives
comparative tests of this alloy and aluminium bronze :—
genie. Elastic limit} Elastic ex- | Ultimate Heals
Alloy te ie rer pounds per / tension per |elongation oe Hardness
sq. inch sq-inch /|unit length] per cent. per cent.
Steel bronze (Sn 8: 43,200 5,672 00004 40 — 5:
Cu 92°) cast in
chilled mould
Steel bronze from} 60,350 15,620 0:00306 16°5 44 20°(?)
bore of gun (man-
drelled).
No.3 Al. bronze: Al.| 69,800 21,500 0:00133 32°8 32:1 13°46
75, Si 0°75, Cu
91°75, cast in
chilled mould
No. 1 Al. bronze: Al. | 114,514 —_ — 0°45 — —_—
10: Si 1:0 Cu 89
U.S. Ordnance .| 109,823 79,894 — 0:05 — 21:17
Office tests . .| 111,400 84,000 — 650 — —_
probable
Gun steel bs ; 98,134 57,796 — 16- — —
Compression test of
No. 1 Al. bronze
at Watertown Ar-
senal, 160,400 lbs.
Tests have shown that aluminium bronze maintains its strength through a high
range of temperature, being heated up to 500° F. without injury to its strength.
No liquation or separation of the metals takes place, as is the case with tin bronze ;
neither does it alter in composition or quality even after repeated remeltings, and
so obsolete and unserviceable guns would still retain their value as scrap metal,
and could readily be utilised for new ordnance. Its low melting point—1,600°
to 1,700° F.—would be favourable to good results, using the Rodman method of
cooling the casting from the inside.
Its resistance to corrosion, its non-liability to crystallise under repeated shocks,
as shown by a needle in a Springfield rifle bearing 11,000 discharges without
being injured, would make it valuable for rifles and small arms. These alloys,
having a tensile strength of 114,000 to 72,000 Ibs, per sq. inch, and elongation from
nil to 40 per cent., and elastic limit from 20,000 to 80,000 lbs. per sq. inch,
values likely to be increased by a process similar to those of Dean or Uchatius,
would give us a gun which would probably stand the severest test service.
The cost of a finished gun (at the present price of aluminium and copper)
would be about 196/. per ton.
:
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 949
These new alloys would enable us to provide rapidly in any emergency the
artillery and armament necessary for the public service.
3. Some new Telemeters or Range Finders. By Professors A. Barr and
W. Srroup. —See Reports, p. 499.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Estuaries Committee.—See Reports, p. 512.
2. Report of the Graphic Methods Committee.
3. The Process of Manufacturing Netting by slitting and expanded
Sheet Metal. By J. F. Goupine.
Expanded metal is an article so dissimilar to other manufactures of metals as to
require an arbitrary name, and the one given it is but meagrely suggestive of the
process inyolved in its production, and not of its qualities or appearance, as these
are only understood by the fullest description, or by ocular or physical demonstra-
tions and tests; but the name, suggesting the expansion of metal, does serve to
excite attention to the fact that thereby some new product of metals has been
made.
Briefly stated, the process of making expanded metal is the employment of a
machine, which so operates on a sheet or strip of metal as to slash it at intervals
in parallel lines, so as to leave uncut spaces, which serve to maintain the connec-
tion between all the strands produced by the act of slashing. The method by
which this slashing, as well as the opening up of the sheet or strip into meshes, is
performed is peculiar, and one which makes it possible to transform the sheet or
strip of metal into a finished article at one operation, and to this achievement is
due the great commercial value of the invention. The simultaneous act of slashing
and opening or expanding the sheet or strip at the slashes, leaving uncut spaces,
and giving uniform design and set to the metal forming the meshes, is exceedingly
novel, and most difficult of explanation, except by witnessing the movements of
the machines.
These machines are necessarily heavy to secure rigidity and consequent accuracy
in the slashing and shearing of the metal, but they are at once recognised to be
very compact and simple.
Any homogeneous metal, such as steel, copper, brass, &c., can be employed.
The machines as now constructed automatically feed a strip of steel between
their cutters, which, as explained, simultaneously slash and expand the metal into
meshes. These strips may be of any width, from 1 to 8 inches or wider, according
to the design of the machine or width of expanded metal desired ; the ratio of ex-
pansion being determined by the size of the mesh. Thus, a strip of steel 7 inches
wide by 9 feet long, made into $-inch mesh for lathing, gives as a result a sheet of
finished product, 18 inches wide and about 5 per cent. shorter than the original
strip, whereas a strip of metal 6 inches wide and 9 feet long, made into a 4-inch
mesh for fencing, gives as a result a finished sheet 4 feet wide by 8 feet long.
The cut edges of the strands forming the meshes are presented to the surface in
the finished sheet, thus giving rigidity to the expanded sheet many times greater
than the original flat sheet or strip.
950 REPORT—1890.
4, Cable Tramways. By W. Newsy Coram.
The author considered the present to be a not inopportune year for bringing
before the British Association the subject of his paper, because the conditions
imposed on the public had so changed of late as to make it necessary to adopt
some system of locomotion whereby citizens can be carried at cheaper rates anl
more quickly than by the plodding horse.
The various means of utilising electricity, air, steam, gas, and ammonia for
street traction were briefly referred to, and the author considered that only two of
them that had been working a sufficient time to afford a commercial test had been
able to survive. These were the cable and steam as applied to locomotives. Of
the electrical motors undergoing commercial trials abroad, he was of the opinion
that the storage system was the only one likely to be seriously entertained in this
country for street purposes. The author hoped that the day would not be far
distant when it could be proved that this means of applying electrical locomotion
in streets could be worked at a fair remuneration over the average roads, because
he considered it would then have a big field of operation. He, however, had
formed the opinion that electrical engineers had many difficulties to surmount
before this class of motor could face the varied work of ordinary streets and pay
well in this country. Steam-engines were, in his opinion, not likely to receive
much attention in the future for the purposes of traction through streets; but he
thought they would be found to be useful means of connecting districts. Under
the circumstances he suggested that in the cable might be found the mechanical
power to supersede horses in cases where horses were clearly not capable of
meeting the new conditions of travel.
The author next described the origin of cable tramways. He said success had
attended almost every inauguration in America and elsewhere, notwithstanding
quite unnecessarily large capital outlays. There are at present 501 miles of cable
tramways at work, which carried last year over 794,000,000 of people, or nearly
double the total passengers carried in England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland.
Dividends of 74 per cent. have been earned by the cable abroad, and in England
they are now being worked at 47 per cent. of the gross receipts. The author gave
his opinions as to the requirements to be observed in designing cable tramways in
order that they may meet with the approval of local authorities and ensure
economical results. He then described two lines he had made in Edinburgh
which have 5:4 miles of track worked from one depot, 3 miles of which are in one
district and 2:4 in quite another part of the city. The total cost of construction
and equipment to meet a three-minutes’ service of cars was stated to have been
57,2301., which was little more than for a horse-tramway to meet the same traffic.
He predicted that such a low constructional and equipment cost for a system
working at 47 per cent. in this country could not fail to attract attention and
demand the consideration of tramway authorities.
The paper was illustrated with models and diagrams,
5. On the ‘Serve’ Tube. By W. Baytey Marsuaty, M.Inst.0.2.
6. The Simplex Brake. By W. Baytny Marswatn, M.Inst.0.£.
The principal feature of this brake is that it can be applied or released from
either side of the wagon ; it is thus equivalent to an ordinary lever brake upon each
side of the wagon, but with this important difference, that in the case of the ordi-
nary lever-brake it must be released or taken off on the same stde on which it was
applied or put on; the Simplex can be taken off or put on at either side.
The brake apparatus consists of a lever or actuating handle, pivoted at its
centre, and working horizontally under the wagon. This lever is furnished with a
toothed rack to hold it in any desired position, and is connected by two links or
pull-rods to the ordinary brake apparatus. These links are furnished with slots,
Pb ed 3 5
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4
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‘ahh RTARTA RAS el” Be Sor
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 952
which engage with suitable pins upon the lever which they are connected to, and
equidistant from the central pivot. The normal position of the lever is at right-
angles to the side of the wagon; if the end be either pulled towards or pushed
from the headstock the brake is applied by means of the slotted pull-rods, the
Jeyer acting in the first or second order according to the direction in which it is
moved. The action is the same upon both sides of the wagon.
This brake has been working for some time past with great success upon the
London and South-Western, North-Eastern, Great Eastern, and Belfast and
Northern Counties Railways. It can be applied to present vehicles at small cost,
as the brake-rigging, such as shafts, hangers, levers, and brake-blocks, can be
utilised.
7. A Rotary Machine for Composing and Distributing Printing Type.
By Joun Souruwarp.
The author described an apparatus known as the Thorne Combined Type Setting
and Distributing Machine, one of the main features of which is that the rotary
principle has been utilised in it with remarkable results. In previous inventions for
the same purpose there has usually been an apparatus for distributing and one for
setting the type. It has not been found practicable to construct a distributor which
will do the work quicker than it is done by hand, and in some cases the saying
obtained from the mechanical composer is almost entirely lost by the slowness
of the distribution. Hence the failure of nearly ail the composing-machines
hitherto invented.
The two principal features of the new Thorne apparatus are a keyboard
and two vertical cylinders having the same axis, the upper cylinder resting
upon a pillar on the lower one. Both cylinders are cut with a number cf
vertical grooves of such a form as to receive the type which is to be first
distributed and then reset. There are ninety of these vertical grooves in each
of the cylinders, sufficient to contain all characters and kinds of characters that
are wanted for ordinary purposes. The keyboard carries a number of keys
corresponding to that of the grooves, and when the machine is in operation, what-
ever key is depressed the letter corresponding to it is ejected from its proper
groove in the lower cylinder upon a circular and revolving table, which has the
same axis as the cylinder hut is of larger diameter. Quite a number of types
may thus be ejected from the grooves in each revolution of the disc, and all
are brought round in their proper order to a point of delivery, where they are con-
veyed by a travelling band and fed continuously to a setting stick in front of the
keyboard and thence to a galley. Here, any ‘justifying’ that may be necessary
is done by a second operator, who sits opposite a small case containing spaces,
quads, and so forth.
The control of the types is effected by forming on the side of each character
recesses, something like the wards of a key, the arrangement, of course, being
different for each different character. The grooves in the lower cylinder are pro-
vided with projections corresponding to these grooves on the types, so that no type
will fall into any groove other than that for which it is intended. This arrange-
ment applies only to the lower cylinder, which does not revolve. The grooves
in the upper or distributing cylinder are large enough to receive all the types
indifferently that are fed into them. The work of distribution is effected as
follows: A suitable attachment to the side of the upper cylinder enables the
operator to place the galley containing the type to be distributed in contact
with the cylinder, and by a simple device line after line of type is fed into
the cylinder until, if desired, every groove is nearly filled, and the upper
cylinder is caused to revolve upon the lower one, with which it is in contact.
As the columns of mixed type pass over the bends of the shaped grooves of
the lower cylinder, letter by letter falls into its proper groove as soon as the
nicks in the types find their corresponding wards. In this way, and at a speed
depending on the rate at which the revolving table is driven, the types are all
under perfect control of the compositor.
952 REPORT—1 890.
By the adoption of this rotary principle the usual speed of a composing-
machine has been enormously accelerated. It has been found possible to com-
pose with accuracy over 12,000 types per hour—the usual speed at which
manual composition is done being about 1,000. The distributing is, of course,
done at the same rate of 12,000 per hour; indeed, the rate is practically un-
limited. The distributing is done with greater accuracy than in the ordinary way
‘by hand, as no type can get into a wrong cylinder. From the extraordinary
results obtained during the last few months, it may be expected that in future the
rotary principle will supersede all present appliances which depend upon a guide
plate, with its channels and switches so easily deranged, and working at such
a comparatively low speed, just as in printing machinery the cylinder has
superseded the platen of the press.
8. The Victoria and other Torpedoes. By G. Reap Mourpny.
The torpedo, by which term is meant a mass of explosives used for any destruc-
‘tive purpose, has been known and used since explosives were discovered and their
power realised.
The first successful torpedo that is recorded was used by Zambelli, an Italian
engineer, in 1585, at Antwerp. He completely destroyed a bridge with the aid of
avery primitive boat-torpedo. Since then, up to within comparatively recent
periods, torpedoes have been used, though with very poor results. In fact, with
the exception of one case, where it is claimed that a Whitehead torpedo sank a
vessel in the Russo-Turkish war, the spar torpedo has been the only torpedo that
has damaged or destroyed a vessel.
' ” The torpedoes now in use are the Whitehead torpedo—with which is included
the Schwartzkoff torpedo, which is simply a Whitehead torpedo made of phosphor
bronze ; the Brennan torpedo, which has established a reputation in England; the
Simms-Edison, and the Patrick torpedoes, which have established reputations in
America; and the Howel torpedo, which has received the favourable notice of
experts of many nations; and, lastly, the Victoria torpedo.
The Whitehead torpedo, which is in reality the father of modern torpedoes, was
originated by the Luppis surface torpedo-boat. In 1864 Mr. Luppis and Mr.
Robert Whitehead, then managers of small ironworks at Fumay, entered into an
‘agreement to develop this torpedo. The results of their experiments and labours
thave been that they now have a torpedo 20 feet long by 18 inches in diameter,
which is stated to have attained a speed of 33 knots per hour for a distance of
1,100 yards, running under water at a given depth. These torpedoes—or rather
torpedoes of which the present is a very great improvement—have been used in
many wars, notwithstanding which they have, with the one exception above
named, failed to do any damage. That they have thus failed is attributable to the
fact that the users made the mistake of pointing them at the object they were to
hit. It will be thus seen that uncontrolled torpedoes, except for very short dis-
tances, are very unreliable weapons; and though for short distances the Whitehead
torpedo, or modifications of it, may never be excelled, still, for general purposes, it
ig an admitted fact that only a controlled torpedo will be effective. With this fact
in view, Mr. Brennan, of Melbourne, conceived the very ingenious idea of making a
torpedo to go in a similar manner to a cotton-reel if you put it on the floor and
pull the cotton. This torpedo claims to have a range of 3,000 yards from a given
position. Even supposing it to have this range, as the given position will be known
to every Power of importance it will never be a very formidable weapon.
The Simms-Kdison is a torpedo worked by electricity generated at the sending
station, and thus has the same disadvantage that the Brennan torpedo has—viz.,
that it can be only worked from a fixed point that will be known by all Powers of
importance. They, both of them, are in fact torpedoes tied by the tail to a
‘stationary position.
The Patrick torpedo isa torpedo whose motive power is carbonic acid gas; this
torpedo can be used from any station, and it has been under the notice of experts
for a great number of years, but has failed to earn their approval.
ie Se
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 953,
The Howel torpedo is worked by power from a fly-wheel which is revolved at
a rate of 4,000 revolutions per minute. This torpedo compares favourably with,
the Whitehead for going short distances, for, though it is so slow, it keeps a
_ straight course.
The last torpedo is one of the author’s invention, which has so far been fortu-
nate in receiving the approval of all the leading experts, none of whom has yet
been able to point out any weakness in its mode of operation. This torpedo is
similar to a Whitehead torpedo, containing many improvements, and under perfect
control. It can be used from any position, either on shipboard or on land, and
can, with all its appliances, be taken about in a couple of wagons.
The idea of controlling a torpedo by electricity is not at all new. The author
was informed by Mr. Anderson, who was lately in the employ of the English.
_ Government, and on the Torpedo Board of the Admiralty, that nine years ago he
made a Whitehead torpedo to be steered by electricity direct, but it failed to meet _
with the approval of the authorities. Many other inventors have brought out
various plans for steering torpedoes with electricity direct, but as electricity trans-
mitted along a thread wire for the necessary distances is a weak and virtually un-
gaugable power, they have not succeeded. In the Victoria torpedo, by the use
of springs (one of which was exhibited), this difficulty has been overcome, as
all the electrical power has to do is to tap a spring which, by working a ratchet-
wheel, controls and governs the torpedo. By these means you have a power on
any required strength arrived at by simply using stronger or weaker springs,
and this power is transmitted as required by the use of the ratchet-wheel, so that
the torpedo is in every way controlled by a thread cable.
9. The Bénier Hot-Air Engine or Motor. By B. Vernon.
The question of hot-air or caloric engines has greatly interested the scientific
and engineering world for many years. It has been generally admitted that the
discovery of a really good hot-air engine would be of the greatest importance from
economical and other considerations; amongst other advantages, boilers, with
their attending expense and danger, being entirely dispensed with.
The author exhibited sectional diagrams of the hot-air motor invented by
MM. Bénier Fréres, and manufactured by the Compagnie Francaise des Moteurs
a Air Chaud of Paris. Several hundreds of these machines are already in use
in France, Germany, and Belgium for electric lighting and other purposes, ard
a number of them have been supplied to the French Government for use in the
most important lighthouses on the coast (Belle Isle, Dunkirk, &c.). In the engine
described the air passes through the fire itself directly into the combustion
chamber. With this type of engine a much greater initial pressure can be obtained
than in engines using a separate combustion chamber, where the air is heated
through an intervening metallic diaphragm. The drawing up of the grit and
ashes is completely prevented in the present motor, this latter feature forming an
important part of the invention.
As was seen by the diagrams, the engine is constructed on the beam principle,
and the combustion chamber is really a prolongation of the working cylinder.
' The piston, or, more properly speaking, plunger, is of considerable length, the upper .
part only being made to fit the cylinder; the lower part of the plunger is of
_ slightly less diameter, consequently an annular space is formed between it and-the.
_ cylinder.
yy This space is connected with the main air supply, which is controlled by a
_ valve, operated by a connecting-rod and cam lever worked from a cam on the
crank shaft of the engine. The air-pump is placed in the centre of the machine,
immediately beneath the beam standard, and is operated by a rod attached to the
_ rocking beam, and this is connected by a rod to the crank shaft.
Owing to the position of the beam, pump, and connecting-rods, the piston of
_ the air-pump is at the outer end of its stroke when the working piston on its
_ return stroke has reached a middle position. . During the last half of the return
3 ; a the working piston the air-piston is pushed inwards and compresses the
; ; 3Q
a
i
as
954 REPORT—1890.
charge of air previously drawn in until it has. reached the middle of its stroke, at
which moment the working piston is at the-end-of its stroke. The air-valve
operated by the cam, as already mentioned, has communicating passages with the
alr-pump, the furnace or combustion chamber, and the annular air or packing space
in the main cylinder. Consequently the compressed air is forced partly through the
fire and combustion chamber, and partly into the annular air space, the flow of air
continuing during the time the air-piston performs the second half of the stroke.
Meantime the main piston receives its charge from the combustion chamber, and
cold compressed air passes into the annular space and practically acts as a packing,
effectually preventing grit and dust rising from the fire to the working faces of the.
cylinder. When the air-pump has finished its stroke, the air-valve is closed, and
the air in the working cylinder is allowed to expand for the remainder of the
stroke. The cylinder is kept cool by means of a circulating water-jacket. The
bottom of the combustion chamber is hinged and lined with plumbago, and the
fuel used is coke. As the combustion takes place under pressure, an automatically
working air-lock is employed for feeding the fire.
The consumption of coke is from about 14 lbs. to 24 Ibs. per h.p. per hour,
These engines have now been working on the Continent for some time with
extremely satisfactory results, and one can be seen at the premises of Messrs.
Powis, Bale, & Co,, Engineers, Appold Street, Finsbury, H.C.
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Pneumatic Distribution of Power. By Professor A. Lupron.
2. On the Construction of Sluices for Rivers, Sc.
By F. G. M. Srongy, M.Inst.C.#.
In Indian irrigation many attempts have been made to work, or render more
workable, sluices for the supply of water to canals, and while some experimenters
confined their attention to finding means of overcoming great resistance with
greater power, others have more properly sought to devise means for eliminating
resistance to motion in sluices, rather than overcoming that resistance. This
latter is the true direction to work in, and has eventually conduced to the best
results,
Several forms of the throttle valve have been tried on irrigation sluices, and
have not succeeded. This principle is not very suitable for substances like water,
because what may be nicely balanced in static pressure may not be at all balanced
when eddies and reflex forces are generated under high velocities. Such sluices
have also failed mechanically, because of the too great concentration of load on
pivots ; moreover these pivots may be subject to the action of rust and grit.
The ordinary sliding doors are subject to an amount of friction which precludes
their useful application to such large openings as are now generally required.
Equilibrium sluices have been made by arranging two outlets directly opposite
each other, and the two doors closing the outlets so constructed as to form one
plug (as it were) filling the space. The water pressure on one door being equal
and opposite to that on the other door, the pair were in equilibrium. Here again
was a very promising scheme, but the heavy bodies of water directly impinging
would quite prevent this appliance being used in great sizes.
Another form of equilibrium sluice, specially designed for canal locks, was
made by stopping a horizontal circular orifice by a cylinder. This cylinder had
neither top nor bottom. Its lower edge, neatly faced in the lathe, rested on a
suitably prepared face round the valve seat, and the top of the cylinder stood
above water level. In this way the column of water was completely removed
i TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 955
- from above the sluice orifice, and the surrounding water simply tended to compress
- the cylinder, but not to prevent its vertical motion. The weight of the cylinder
was balanced, and lifting it one-fourth of its diameter gave the full area of the
sluice way.
Many of these sluices were made, and proved very useful. They were aban-
doned by the author chiefly for two faults: they pumped large quantities of air
- into the culverts, and they could not be applied to direct openings for scouring
purposes.
i The most successful sluice for almost any situation is the sluice on free rollers.
In this case there is not any sliding friction. The sluice door had its load of
water pressure on free rollers, the motion being similar to that of draw-bridges on
free rollers, and to that of observatory cupolas mounted in a like manner. There
is, however, one marked difference as to the planes of motion. The ordinary
application of free rollers is on horizontal planes; in the sluices it is on vertical
planes, which was one of the primary difficulties in the way. But no doubt the
bare idea of introducing free rollers between the sluice door and the sluice frame,
apparently precluding the possibility of a water-tight joint, was the real stumbling-
block to be got over. °
Sluices on free rollers are now constructed to any required size, and to be
easily workable under great pressure by one man, without hydraulic power. They
have proved very reliable during years of test, and the wear and tear is hardly
noticeable, chiefly because of the absence of resistance.
These sluices are made to suit single, double, or alternate pressures, and they
_ are made water-tight in various ways, according to the degree required, from
absolutely tight sluices to sluices purposely not made tight.
These sluices can be usefully applied to the purposes of increasing water power
without increased risk of flooding the country ; on the contrary, they have proved
most successful in preventing floods.
They can also be applied to the main stream of navigable rivers, as in the plan
now sanctioned by Parliament for Richmond, in which three sluice gates, each
_ 70 feet clear span, are used to hold up water to half-tide, and at that period or
_ level of water the gates are quickly raised some 23 feet above Trinity high-water
mark, to allow of barges and steamers sailing under.
:
mw, € ~
aA =
A new element has been introduced into these sluices, by which, during the
upper part of the lifting process, the gates automatically turn over on their flats
_ and disappear in the overhead bridges.
3. The Raiyain Canal.! By Cork WHITEHOUSE.
The general character of this canal, which it is intended to construct between
the Valley of the Nile and the Raiyan depression, at a point about 80 miles
south of Cairo, was explained at the Bath meeting. The proposed works have
now been elaborated in detail: (1) the size of the basin; (2) the section of the
canal ; (3) the water-surface levels of the Nile; (4) the minimum level of the Nile
in flood; (5) the works to the west of the Nile Valley—excavations, earthworks,
_ pitching, and masonry; (6) the works in the Nile Valley for the passage of existing
- canals, drains, and railways under and over the Raiyan flood-canal; (7) the time
required to fill the reservoir; (8) the quality of the water stored: tables, maps,
sections, photographs exhibited, and estimates given.
With an 80-metre wide canal the flood could be lowered at 50 centimetres per
_ 24 hours, and the reservoir, 250 square miles in area, and 220 feet in maximum
depth, filled to the level of + 27 metres above sea in three years. The total cost
_ is estimated at less than 1,589,000/. The duty of the reservoir would be to raise
_ the minimum flow of low-Nile from about 9,000 feet per second to 30,000, and fix -
_ @ maximum for high-Nile. The results anticipated would be practically to double
_ the present cultivated area and agricultural output, with large extension of internal
- nayigation in the Delta.
h
? 1 Published in Lngineering, September 19, 1890.
8 Q2
956 REPORT—1890.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
The following Papers were read :—
1. A New Electric Meter. The Multicellular Voltmeter. An Engine-room
Voltmeter. An Ampere Gauge. A new Form of Voltapile, useful in
Standardising Operations. By Sir Wituiam TxHomson, D.C.L., LL.D.,—
F.R.S.
2. The Lineff Electric Tramway. By Gispurr Kapp.
The conductor consists of bare copper strip or cable and of iron strip. The
latter is galvanised so as to protect it from rusting. It lies on the copper conductor,
and both are enclosed in a sealed channel formed of asphalt. The copper conductor
rests upon the bottom of a trough made of a succession of glazed tiles, and the
cover to this trough is formed by the lower flanges of iron rails arranged in short
sections so as to be insulated from each other. The head of one rail reaches up to —
the surface of the road, the head of the other is cut off, and this rail is therefore
completely buried in the asphalt. The surface rail, which may be arranged along-
side one of the ordinary tram rails or in the centre of the track, is in electric and
magnetic contact with an electro-magnet carried under the car. This magnet runs ©
upon the surface rail on wheels which form its north and south poles. The distance
of the wheels is greater than the length of a section of insulated rail, so that
successive sections become oppositely magnetised. This causes the iron strip
immediately below the magnetised region to be attracted upwards and thus come
into contact for a length of several feet with the under side of the two sectional
rails, At the same time the iron strip to both sides of this region remains in contact
with the copper conductor and forms thus an electrical connecting link between the _
copper conductor and a few sections of insulated rail under the car. The current |
asses from the surface rail through the body of the electro-magnet (which is
insulated from the body of the car) into the motor, and finally into the ordinary
tram rails and earth in the usual manner. The electro-magnet is energised by a
shunt current obtained from the main conductor, but to provide for the possibility
of dropping the strip from some unforeseen cause there is placed on the electro-
magnet a third thick wire coil, which can at all times be energised by two storage
cells carried on the car, and thus the strip can be picked up and the main circuit
again established if it should have been accidentally interrupted. It may, however,
at once be stated that during some tests made on an experimental line of this
kind, and which lasted over several days, there has been no need for the picking-up
battery, as the current was never lost. The way in which Mr. Lineff makes use
of magnetic lines of force to effect the attraction of the iron strip deserves
attention. It might perhaps be thought that the most direct, and therefore
the best, way of utilising the lines of force would be by one single line of
sectional rail, through which there would be longitudinal magnetic flux cor-
responding with the fore and aft position of the poles, and attraction of the strip
at every gap between two sections. Experiment has, however, shown that this
apparently direct way is by no means the best way, and that far more satisfactory
results can be obtained by arranging a more roundabout course for the lines of
force. This is attained by the employment of the subsidiary or buried rail, the
gaps in which do not exactly correspond with those in the main or surface rail, but
are shifted forward by a certain amount. In consequence of this arrangement the
buried rail acts as a kind of magnetic bridge to successive portions of the surface
rail, and this action takes place in two ways, one direct and the other indirect.
The direct way is longitudinal and does not affect the strip at all. The indirect
way is both longitudinal and transverse, the latter passing several times through
the strip. The buried rail isa rather imperfect bridge to the lines of force traver-
sing it longitudinally, because its magnetic resistance in that direction is great, but
this rail forms a very efficient bridge for lines passing through it transversely, owing
to its lower magnetic resistance in that direction which includes the strip. The
: TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 957
"flow of magnetic force transversely is therefore that which effects the attraction of
the strip, and may be represented as a series of magnetic stitches passing to and fro
between the two sets of rails and the strip.
j
3. Alternating versus Continuous Currents in relation to the Human Body.
By H. Newman Lawrence, M.[.H.E., and Arron Harriss, M.D.
This paper is based upon experiments made with dynamo-generated currents,
both continuous and alternating, and with the skin of the subjects in its normal,
-unmoistened state. The matter is considered under the following heads, viz.:—
Resistance, including variations due to change in contact-area; and Sensations,
_ including initial shock and continued contact.
Resistance was measured by connecting two or more persons to a dynamo
circuit at an E.M.F. of about 100 volts, noting the current-strength passed, and
then calculating therefrom the resultant resistance of each person. The tables
given show an average resistance to continuous current of 6,185 Ohms, and to
alternating current of 4,008 Ohms—.e., about 1°5 higher for continuous current than
ifor alternating. Experiments made regarding contact-area showed that it is an
important factor ‘ in determining the seriousness or slightness of accidents in light
wand power circuits.’
Sensation was tested by passing currents from the same dynamos, using resist-
rance-coils to reduce the current to a convenient level, Two distinct points of
comparison were taken, one called ‘ Discomfort Point,’ and the other ‘ Fixation
Point.’ The tabulated results show that discomfort point was reached with an
average of 18-7 milliampéres of continuous current, and with 3°9 milliampéres of
alternating current. This indicates that sensation to alternating current is 4°7
times greater than it is to continuous current.
With continuous current, ‘in each instance burning sensation under the elec-
trodes became unbearable after about thirty seconds ; this was the only objection-
able feature, though electrolytic action was sufficiently marked to induce slight
blistering in two of the cases.’
With alternating currents, a tingling sensation was felt, rapidly increasing to
muscular contraction, becoming more and more unpleasant, and accompanied by a
feeling of heat in the neighbourhood of the electrodes, though not immediately
under the site of contact, as in the case of the continuous current.
The average fixation point to alternating current was 7'5 milliampéres; but
no such point could be found with the continuous current, thus emphasising this
important difference between the two forms of current as regards danger likely
to result from accidental contact.
Initial shock is defined as that in which the time-period of contact was a
minimum. Many subjects were tested, who one and all considered the initial
_ shock of continuous current to be far less unpleasant than that of alternating cur-
rent when equal current-strength was used; but ‘this, from the nature of the
; experiment, can only be tested with small currents, and it is conceivable that with
_ larger currents such marked differences may not be observable.’
< In continued contact with the continuous current ‘we have no muscular fixa-
: fttion, and the subject of the accident would be able to release himself.’ On the
_ other hand, with alternating current ‘the subject would be absolutely fixed in setw
until released by extraneous aid, being exposed the whole time to the full effect
_ of the current passing.’
In drawing the following conclusions, the authors say: ‘We desire to call
_ attention to the fact that they are based upon certain conditions, and, while we
" helieve them to be sufficiently accurate and reliable under these conditions, we in
mo sense claim them as true under all conditions.’
‘ CoNCcLUSIONS.
_ £(a.) That when the human body, with the skin in its normal, unmoistened con-
_ dition, comes into contact for an appreciable time with bare-metal conductors of a
E ‘
ale
958 REPORT—1890.
dynamo-generated continuous current passing at about 100 volts, in such a way
that the current passes from hand to hand, and the total contact-area is about
90 square centimétres :—
‘1. A current of about 0°016 Ampére will pass through it.
‘2. That this current can be borne without discomfort for fifteen to thirty
seconds,
‘3, That after about thirty seconds unpleasant burning sensations become
marked, and quickly increase.
‘4, That the subject is perfectly able to release himself at will during any
portion of the time of contact.
‘(6.) That when the human body comes into contact with dynamo-generated
alternating currents alternating at about sixty to seventy per second, under the
same conditions as above :—
‘1. A current of about 0:025 Ampére will pass through it.
‘2. That this current is six times greater than that which produces discom-
fort.
‘3. That instantly the subject is fixed by violent muscular contraction, and
suffers great pain.
‘4, That the subject is utterly unable to release himself, but remains exposed
to the full rigour of the whole current that may be passing.
‘(c.) That when circuit from electric-light or power conductors is accidentally
completed through the human body, the danger of serious consequences is many
times greater when alternating than when continuous currents are passing at equal
voltage; and this is still, to a large extent, true if the voltage of the continuous
current be double that of the alternating.
‘(d.) That with both forms of current a reduction of contact-area materially
reduces the amount of current-strength that passes.
‘That with the alternating current, if the rate of alternation be reduced below
fifty per second, the sensations of pain accompanying muscular fixation will be in-
creased ; while, if the rate of alternation be increased, the pain will be diminished.’
4, On Electric Lighting and Fire Insurance Rules.
By Witson HartNeELL.
5. Secondary Cells. By W. J.S. Barper Srarkey.
The author in this paper limited himself to a description of his own experiences
in regard to secondary cells, primarily with a view to provoke discussion on the
subject.
Ss after the introduction of M. Faure’s cells his attention was drawn to the
hard film of sulphate of lead formed on the plates which materially interfered with
their efficiency, and, as a result of experiments, he ascertained that the addition of
a small quantity of carbonate of soda to the dilute acid serves to remedy this evil,
even when the cells are allowed to remain idle for a considerable time. Subse-
quently, in the case of a small installation of twenty-two E.P.S., 350 Ampére-hour
cells, the plates of which showed signs of sulphating, carbonate of soda (ordinary
washing soda) wasadded in small quantities, and on proceeding with the charging
the plates were restored to their original condition. The cells thus treated have
since been in use for a period of five years, and are now in perfect condition. The —
subsequent experiments on this subject by Mr. Preece were alluded to. 4
The author advised that large cells be used for stationary work, and that they
be both charged and discharged at low rates. Various details in regard to the ©
management of cells were discussed, the practice of packing the plates in a solid —
though porous mass formed by mixing plaster of Paris and sawdust being specially
recommended. =
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 959
The paper concluded with the expression of a hope that a thoroughly practical
cell for traction purposes may be introduced—one which will stand rough usage
’ and be free from the defects which characterise those at present in use,
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Form of Submarine Cables for Long-distance Telephony.
By W. H. Preece, F.B.S.
The early possibility of talking by telephone between London and Paris has
directed the author's attention to the proper form of cable to give the best result.
There is a particular size of cable for every circuit, which will give the smallest
possible outer diameter of gutta-percha at the least cost to secure clear speech.
For the new Channel cable this comes out: weight of copper 160 lbs. and weight
of gutta-percha 300 Ibs. per nautical mile. The paper contains the mathematical
development that leads to this conclusion.
2. Column-Printing Telegraph. By ¥. Hicarss.
This apparatus was originally patented ten years ago, and is now being practi-
cally introduced for the transmission of intelligence in this country.
The receiver, which is entirely automatic, consists of a type-wheel and frame ,
carrying the paper-sheet. The former derives the motive power for its rotation
_ from a train of wheelwork and a weight, and the latter from the battery at the
sending end.
The type-wheel is displaced laterally, after each print, by means of a screw, and
upon completion of a line of printing is released and returned to zero by a spring
which has been wound up by the movement of the printing-lever.
One train of clockwork is employed, and the motive power for printing, feeding
the paper, and traversing the type-wheel, is supplied by the printing electro-
magnets.
About twenty of these instruments may be introduced into the circuit of a single
line of wire, and any number may be worked from one transmitter, The type
rotates at any desired speed (from 100 to 150 revolutions per minute),and the same
signals operate both the type rotation and the printing, the difference being that
the signals for printing are longer than those operating the escapement, in order to
afford time for the establishment of the full strength of the current in the circuit,
and to overcome the inertia of the comparatively heavy parts of the printing
mechanism.
The other operations of synchronising, spacing between lines, &c., are deter-
mined by the angular displacement of the type-axis with respect to its zero position.
The transmitter is driven by an electro-motor, the speed of which is kept
uniform by an electrical governor.
A counter upon the transmitter announces to the operator when a line of type
has been filled.
From 1,800 to 2,000 words per hour would be the maximum speed.
Five thousand words can be received without attention, and the paper-supply is
sufficient for the reception of 30,000 words.
3. On Heavy Lathes. By A. Greenwoop.
960 ; REPORT-—1890.
4, Factors of Safety. By W. Bayuey Marssaut, M.Inst.C.L.
The factor of safety for materials used in constructional ironwork, bar iron of
various sections and plates, whether the material is puddled or ingot iron, has
usually been taken at 5 tons per square inch for ordinary quality and 6 tons for
specialiy good material. This limit is based upon a total resistance of about 23 tons
per square inch, and an assumed elastic limit of from 50 to 60 per cent. of the
total stress.
The importance of considering the elastic limit in determining the factor of
safety, or of ascertaining what stress any particular member will bear before it
begins to stretch, has frequently been demonstrated.
In the tables appended to the present paper the writer has endeavoured to show
that the elastic limit is the only constant quality in bar and plate iron; and that
whilst she total stress is frequently influenced by, and the reduction of area and
extension seem almost absolutely to depend upon, the shape of the specimen operated.
upon, yet the elastic limit remains constant, notwithstanding considerable variation
in the dimensions of the specimens operated upon :—
Tons per square). 5 5
4 Original Original inch 5 | 2 43
care ize of piece Area |———_——___| 99 | 8
ae Devesption in feet in feet |Elastic) Total 3 = & 8
limit | stress | © 5 n
1 |iplate . : . | JL x 0°25 0377 | 13°38 | 18°6 4:5 3
2 | 2plate . : . | 2:02 «061 1232 | 13-7 | 22:7) 10 11
3 | 6x6x1 angle. . | 1:51 x0°95 1-434 | 13-9 | 23:5 | 11 13
4 |4xibar. A .| 200 x052 1040 | 13:8 | 19°2 | 16 8
5 | 3x3xdbar . .| 75 x0-52 0910 | 13:9 | 21-7 | 20 14
6 | 5x2 bar. , . | 202 x0°76 1535 | 13°8 | 223 | 21 20
7 | 44x4ixangle .| 194 x0°70 1:358 | 13:9 | 226 | 21 17
8 33 x3ixzangle .| 2°005 x 0:62 1:243 | 13:9 | 23:5 | 22 20
9 | 3$x1 bar f | 1:25 x097 1212 | 13:7 | 22:1 | 23 19
10 | 8xlbar. 3 . | 1:505 x 1:02 1535 | 13-5 | 227 | 23 22
ll | 3}x3xZangle . | 202 x0502 | 1:014 | 13:8 | 22:2) 24 20
12 | 6x4xiitee . .| 151 x0°70 1057 | 13°8 | 22°38 | 27 22
13 | 24x bar : . | 2°51 x0:76 1907 | 13:6 | 21:7 | 30 29
14 | 2x} bar : . | 2:02 x 051 1030 | 13:7 | 21:5 | 32 26
‘15 | 6x5girder . . | 150 x 0:48 0-720 | 13:9 | 238] 32 27
16 | 21 round. . | 1:29 dia. 1:307 | 13-5 | 23:0 | 36 28
17 | lj round. A . | 1465 dia. 1685 | 13:7 | 23:1] 42 29
18 | lround . : . | 0°94 dia. 0°693 | 13:5 | 22:6 | 44 25
19 | #round . : . | O75 dia. 0-441 | 136 | 21:9 | 45 26
20. | li round . ; .| 1:13 dia. 1:000 | 13:7 | 22-7 | 55 29
21 | plate . 5 .| 1:51 x 0°62 0936 | 14:2 | 20:2 7 4
22 | 5x5xangle. . | 1:12 «0°83 0930 | 141 | 23:5 | IL 10
23 | 8xl1bar. ; - | LOL x 0:97 0-980 | 14:4 | 22-7 | 11 16
24 | 7x3bar. ; «| 1:27 x0°75 0-953 | 144 | 214] 16 10
25 | 6x5xlangle. .| 100 x0-96 0960 | 14:1 | 223 | 16 11
26 | 64x4xf angle .| 201 x0:54 1085 | 140 | 23:4 | 17 13
27 | 6x5girder . .| 150 x 054 0810 | 14:4] 218 | 19 14
98 |5xibar. . .| 1:97 x0515| 1014 | 140] 22:9] 20'| 19
29 |12x%bar . .|°201 x0575| 1155 | 142] 22:7] 21 | 18
30 |Z plate. . .| 201 x015 | 0-302 | 141] 345 | 23 | 13
31 |2ixgbar . .| 2015x066 | 1:329 | 142] 22-7] 23 | 19
32 |8plate . . .| 1:885x0-40 | 0-754 | 140| 229] 25 | 21
33 | 2x2" bar . . | 2:00 x054 | 1:080 | 14:2| 223] 25 | 23
34 | 42x4hxSangle .| 148 x060 | 0888 | 141 | 220) 28 | 20
35 |2 plate. . .| 1:25 x056 | 0-700 | 141 | 264| 32 | 26
36 |Jdround. . .| 1:26 dia. 1:247 | 144] 236] 38 | 28
37 | 2iround. . .| 1-285 dia. 1:297 | 14-4 | 228] 41 | 31
38 | 1" round. . | 41:04 dia. 0'849 | 14:11 22°81 48 26
a
TRANSACTIONS OF
SECTION G.
No. Description
39 | round .
40 | li round .
41 | $plate
42 e plate
43 | 3 plate
44 | 6x5x1 angle
45 | 4x4x angle.
46 | 9xbar.
47 | 2plate .
48 | 4x4xangle.
49 | 5x2?>x2 tee
50° | Z square .
51 | 13x 4% bar
52 | 2 plate
53. | 12 round.
54 | 4 plate
55 | 1 round
66 | li round.
57 | 2 plate
58 | 4 plate
59 8 plate
60 | ; plate
61 | 3 plate
62 | 3 plate
63 | 5x5xZangle.
64 plate
65 | ; plate
66 | 3} plate
67 | 6xlbar.
68 | 4x4xZangle.
69 plate. :
70 | 34x33~x angle
71 | 7x3ix} tee
72 | 2xibar.
73 | 4x4xZangle.
74 | 6x6xlangle.
75 | 6x2 bar
76 | 35 sheet
77 | plate
78 | plate
80 | Frouna
81 plate
82 | 3 plate
83 | 3 plate
84 | }1 plate
85 | 9x1 bar
86 | 6x6xl angle.
87 | 9xibar.
88 | 3 plate
89 | 5x5xiangle.
90 | 6x3x+ tee
91 | 12x bar
92 | & plate
93 | 2x bar.
94 | 13, round '
95 | 6x1 bar :
Tons per square)
961
sels
Original Original inch 2S |
Size of piece Area iS 3 | 38
in feet in feet | Flastic| Total | @ 5 | © °
limit | stress | &2 | w
ee # ij
0-746 dia. 0435 14:4 | 23°5 51 25
1:13 dia. 1-000 14:3 | 22:7 5T 30
2:02 x 0°62 1:252 149 | 181 2:3 2
1°885 x 0°615 1:159 14:6 | 16:2 3 2
2°00 x 0°505 1:010 14°77 | 18:3 4 3
1:00 x1:01 1:010 14:8 | 22°6 15 14
1:47 x0°72 1:058 14:9 | 22°5 16 8
1:86 x0°73 1:357 4s7 Woe 16 15
177 x0°39 0°690 14:5 | 23:3 17 11
113 x O75 0°848 14:6 | 23°7 21 17
13 x 0°39 0-714 14:8 | 21°6 22 13
0°88 x0°876 0:770 14:9 | 24-2 27 21
1°257 x 0:622 0:781 14:7 | 24:0 29 21
1-51 x 0°40 0:604 14:5 | 30:3 30 20
1°50 dia. 1:767 14:8 | 23°5 39 31
176 x0:27 0-476 14:7 | 33-4 39 20
1:02 dia. 0:817 14:8 | 24:2 40 28
1:08 dia. 0916 14:5 | 23:3 41 30
1:76 x0°39 0686 14:6 | 301 42 26
2:01 x016 0322 14:8 | 34:0 46 iyi
1:50 x0°76 1:140 14:9 | 27:2 54 28
2:00 x0:23 0:460 146 | 27:0 54 27
2°02 x 0:587 1185 15°3 | 18:0 6 3
2:00 x 0°65 1:300 15°3 | 20:4 7 4
1:45 x 0°83 1:204 15:4 | 23°6 7 7
1:90 x 0°60 1/140 150 | 19°8 8 6
2°02 x0°735 1484 15:2 | 21°6 9 9
2:00 x 048 0:960 15:1 | 21°6 14 8
1:52 x1:02 1°550 15-4 | 23:2 ily 15
2°01 x0°725 1:457 15:0 | 24:0 18 19
1:89 x 0'605 1143 15°3 | 23-1 19 17
2°015 x 0°500 1-007 15-4 | 22-7 20 12
151 x0-48 0°725 15:2 | 24:0 22 16
2°025 x 0°525 1:063 15:0 | 29:2 25 17
101 x0°74 0°747 15:1 | 24°6 25 20
1°505 x 0°928 1:396 153 | 244 26 22
1:10 x 0-48 0528 15:1 | 23°8 35 25
1:75 x0:090 0°158 15:2 | 38:0 41 9
2:00 x0°230 0:460 15:0 | 27:8 46 25
150 x0°76 1-140 154 | 264 54 29
1:24 x0°56 0-694 15-4 | 27:7 59 28
0°85 dia. 0567 15:0 | 23:3 67 30
152 x 0°62 0°942 15°6 | 20:7 4:5 6
2°02 x 07495 0:999 16:0 | 188 5 4
1:38 x 0°60 0828 15:9 | 23°6 11 10
147 x0°70 1:029 15:8] 2s:7 11 9
1:00 x 0°97 0:970 15:9 | 22:9 12 10
1:505 x 0°95 1:429 156 | 246 13 15
2:04 x0°245 0:499 15:6 | 18:6 13 5
2:02 x0:50 1:010 15:5 | 22°6 15 12
201 x0°505 1015 15:7 | 24:2 18 15
152 x0'50 0°760 15'8 | 24:9 21 20
1:99 x049 0:975 15:5 | 22:5 22 ake
2:02 x015 0°303 15°7 | 33:2 24 8
1-945 x 0°762 1°482 157 | 24:3 27 22
1:065 dia. 0°890 15:8 | 23:0 46 32
150 x1-01 1515 | 15°77 | 28:0] 55 on
962 ; REPORT—1890.
\Tonspersquare| « @ | &
Original Original inch 38 are
No. Description Size of piece JANG) ae S| BE
in feet in feet | Elastic] Total | 3S | 2°
limit | stress} & x n
96 | round . 3 . | 0°75 dia. 0-441 | 158 | 246] 56 26
97 gplate . é 4 1:00 x 0°63 0°630 16:0 | 27:9 58 29
98 | 2 round . A . | 0°550 dia. 0-238 | 15:6 | 27:4] 65 19
99 z round . 2 5 0°850 dia. 0°567 15:9 | 24:9 69 29
100 #round . A é 0'850 dia. 0:567 15:7 | 23°6 71 32
5. Measurement of Elongation in Test Samples. By J. H. WickstE£ep.
When a bar of metal is stretched with a longitudinal pull, it first extends
generally throughout the whole of its free length; after which, especially in best
iron, mild steel, and copper, it extends locally about the place of final fracture.
The ‘ general’ extension continues so long as the bar offers increasing resistance to
the pull, and from the end of that stage to final fracture the extension is local.
The general extension is unaffected by the shape or proportions of the specimen,
and may be correctly expressed in units of its own length.
The local extension bears no relation to the length of the specimen, and should,
therefore, be expressed in standard units of length.
The usual engineering practice of the present day is to measure the total exten-
sion, and to express it in percentage of the original length of specimen; but this
practice makes it difficult to draw correct comparisons of ductility between different
experiments, unless the specimens have been all made to the same pattern. It also
prevents the value of the material being discriminated as between capability for
stricture and the capability for stretching without loss of strength.
The author describes a method for separating the measurement of the general
extension from the local, and recommends a column in test reports of ‘% general
extension, leaving the present column of ‘% contraction of area’ to record the
capacity for stricture, and the present column of total extension in inches, from
which the local extension can be deduced by subtracting the recorded general
extension from the total as measured after the sample is broken.
6. On the Measurement of Strains. By A. Mattock.
7. Exhibition of a Mechanism.
By Professors Barr and W. Srrovp.
ira)
or)
wn
Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—JoHN Evans, D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc., Treas.R.8.,
Pres.S.A., F.L.S.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 4,
The following Address by the PRESIDENT was read by Mr. RuDLER :—
In the year 1870 I had the honour of presiding over what was then the
Department of Ethnology in the Biological Section of the British Association at its.
meeting in Liverpool. Since that time twenty years have elapsed, during the
greater portion of which period the subjects in which we are principally interested
have been discussed in a department of Anthropology forming part of the organi-
sation of the Biological Section; although since 1883 there has been a new Section
of the Association, that of Anthropology, which has thus been placed upon the
same level as the various other sciences represented in this great parliament of
Imowledge. This gradual advance in its position among other branches of science
proves, at all events, that, whatever may have been our actual increase in know-
ledge, Anthropology has gained and not lost in public estimation, and the interest
in all that relates to the history, physical characteristics, and progress of the
human race is even more lively and more universal than it was twenty years ago.
During those years much study has been devoted to anthropological questions by
able investigators, both in England and abroad; and there is at the present time
hardly any civilised country in the world in which there has not been founded,
under some form or another, an Anthropological Society, the publications of which
are yearly adding a greater or less quota to our knowledge. The subjects
embraced in these studies are too numerous and too vast for me to attempt
even in a cursory manner to point out in what special departments the principal
advances have been made, or to what extent views that were held as well
established twenty years ago have had either to be modified in order to place
them on a surer foundation, or have had to be absolutely abandoned. Nor could
T undertake to enumerate all the new lines of investigation which the ingenuity of
students has laid open, or the different ways in which investigations that, at first
sight might appear more curious than useful have eventually been found to have a
direct bearing upon the ordinary affairs of human life, and their results to be
susceptible of application towards the promotion of the public welfare. I may,
however, in the short space of time to which an opening address ought to be
confined, call your attention to one or two subjects, both theoretical and practical,
which are still under discussion by anthropologists, and on which as yet no generat
agreement has been arrived at by those who have most completely gone into
the questions involved.
One of these questions is—What is the antiquity of the human race, or rather
what is the antiquity of the earliest objects hitherto found which can with safety
be assigned to the handiwork of man? ‘This question is susceptible of being entirely
separated from any speculations as to the genetic descent of mankind; and even
were it satisfactorily answered to-day, new facts might to-morrow come to light
that would again throw the question entirely open. On any view of probabilities,
964 REPORT—1 890.
it is in the highest degree unlikely that we shall ever discover the exact cradle of
-our race, or be able to point to any object as the first product of the industry and
intelligence of man. We may, however, I think, hope that from time to time
fresh discoveries may be made of objects of human art, under such circumstances
and conditions that we may infer with. certainty that at some given point in the
world’s history mankind existed, and in sufficient numbers for the relics that
‘attest this existence to show a correspondence among themselves, even when
discovered at remote distances from each other.
Thirty-one years ago, at the meeting of this Association at Aberdeen, when
‘Sir Charles Lyell, in the Geological Section, called attention to the then recent
discoveries of Paleolithic implements in the Valley of the Somme, his conclusions
‘as to their antiquity were received with distrust by not a few of the geologists
present. Five years afterwards, in 1864, when Sir Charles presided over the
meeting of this Association at Bath, it was not without reason that he quoted the
‘saying of the Irish orator, that ‘they who are born to affluence cannot easily
imagine how long a time it takes to get the chill of poverty out of one’s bones.’
Nor was he wrong in saying that ‘we of the living generation, when called upon
‘to make grants of thousands of years in order to explain the events of what
is called the modern period, shrink naturally at first from making what seems
so lavish an expenditure of past time. Throughout our early education we
have been accustomed to such strict economy in all that relates to the chronology
of the earth and its inhabitants in remote ages, so fettered have we been by old
traditional beliefs, that even when our reason is convinced, and we are persuaded
that we ought to make more liberal grants of time to the geologist, we feel how
hard it is to get the chill of poverty out of our bones.’
And yet of late years how little have we heard of any scruples in accepting as
a recognised geological fact that, both on the Continent of Europe and in these
islands, which were then more closely connected with that continent, man existed
during what is known as the Quaternary Period, and was a contemporary of the
mammoth and hairy rhinoceros, and of other animals, several of which are either
entirely or locally extinct. It is true that there are still some differences of opinion
as to the exact relation in time of the beds of river gravel containing the relics of
man and the Quaternary fauna to the period of great cold which is known as the
Glacial Period. Some authors have regarded the gravels as pre-Glacial, some as
Glacial, and some as post-Glacial; but, after all, this is more of a question of terms
than of principle. Ail are agreed, for instance, that in the eastern counties of
England implements are found in beds posterior to the invasion of cold conditions
in that particular region, though there may be doubts as to how much later these
conditions may have prevailed in other parts of this country. All, too, are agreed
that since the deposit of the gravels considerable changes have taken place in the
configuration of the surface of the country, and that the time necessary for
such changes must have been very great, though those in whose bones the chill of
poverty still clings are inclined to call in influences by which the time required for
the erosion of the river valleys in which the gravels occur may be theoretically
diminished.
On the other hand, there have been not a few who, feeling that the evidence of
the existence of the human race has now been satisfactorily established for Quater-
nary times, and that there is no proof that what has been found in the ordinary
gravels belongs to anything like the first phases of the family of man, have sought
to establish his existence in far earlier Tertiary times. In the view that earlier
relics of man than those found in the river gravels may eventually be discovered,
most of those who have devoted special attention to the subject will, [ think,
concur. But such an extension of time can only be granted on conclusive evidence
of its necessity ; and before accepting the existence of Tertiary man the grounds
on which his family-tree is based require to be most carefully examined.
Let me say a few words as to the principal instances on which the believer in
Tertiary man relies. These may be classified under three heads:'—(1) the pre-
1 See A. Arcelin, L’homme tertiaire, Paris, 20 rue de la Chaise, 1889.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 965
sumed discovery of parts of the human skeleton; (2) that of animal bones said to
have been cut and worked by the hand of man ; and (8) that of flints thought to
be artificially fashioned.
On most of these I have already commented elsewhere:! Under the first head
I may mention the skull discovered by Professor Cocchi at Olmo, near Arezzo,
with which, however, distinctly Neolithic implements were associated; the
skeletons found at Castelnedolo—of which I need only say that M. Sergi, who
described the discovery, regarded them as the remains of a family party who had
suffered shipwreck in Pliocene times; and the fossil man of Denise, in the
Auvergne, mentioned by Sir Charles Lyell, who may have been buried in more
recent times under lava of Pliocene date. On these discoveries no superstructure
can be built. The Calaveras skull seeras to have better claims to a high antiquity.
It is said to have been found at a depth of 153 feet in the auriferous gravels of
California, containing remains of mastodon, and covered by five or six beds of lava
or volcanic ashes. But here again doubts enter into the case, as well-fashioned
mortars, stone hatchets, and even pottery, are said to occur in the same deposits.
In the same way the discoveries of M. Ameghino at the mouth of the Plata, in the
Argentine Republic, require much further corroboration.
The presumably worked bones which I have placed in the second category,
such as those with incisions in them from St. Prest, near Chartres, the cut bones of
cetacea in Tuscany, the fractured bones in our own crag-deposits, and numerous
other specimens of a similar character, have, by most geologists, been regarded as
bearing marks entirely due to natural agencies. It seems more probable that in
bones deposited at the bottom of Pliocene seas, cuts and marks should have been
produced by the teeth of carnivorous fish, than by men who could only have lived
on the shores of the seas, and who have left behind them no instruments by which
such cuts as those on the bones could have been produced.
As to the third category, the instruments of flint reported to have been found
in Tertiary deposits, those best known are from St. Prest and Thenay, in the
North-West of France, and Otta, in Portugal.
These three localities I have visited ; and though at the two former the beds in
which the flints were said to have been found are certainly Pliocene, there is con-
siderable doubt in some cases whether the flints have been fasliioned at all, and in
others, where they appear to have been wrought, whether they belong to the beds
in which they are reported to have been found, and have not come from the surface
of the ground. Even the suggestion that the flints of Thenay were fashioned by
the dryopithecus, one of the precursors of man, has now been retracted. At Otta
the flakes that have been found present, as a rule, only a single bulb of percussion,
and, having been found on the surface, their evidence is of small value. The exaet
geological age of the beds on which they have occurred is, moreover, somewhat
doubtful. On the whole, therefore, it appears to me that the present verdict as
to Tertiary man must be in the form of ‘ Not proven.’
When we consider the vast amount of time comprised in the Tertiary Period,
with its three great principal subdivisions of the Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene,
and when we bear in mind that of the vertebrate land animals of the Eocene no one
has survived to the present time, while of the Pliocene but one—the hippopotamus
—remains unmodified, the chances that man, as at present constituted, should also
be a survivor from that period seem remote, and against the species Homo sapiens
having existed in Miocene times almost incalculable. The @ priori improbability
of finding man unchanged, while all the other vertebrate animals around him
have, from natural causes, undergone more or less extensive modification, will
induce all careful investigators to look closely at any evidence that would carry
him back beyond Quaternary times; and though it would be unsafe to deny the
possibility of such an early origin for the human race, it would be unwise to regard
it as established except on the clearest evidence.
Another question of more general interest than that of the existence of Tertiary
1 Trans. Herts. Nat. Hist. Soc. vol. i. p. 145; ‘Address to the Anthrop. Inst.
1883’; Axnth. Jowrn. vol. xii, p. 565.
966 REPORT—-1890,
man is that of the origin and home of the Aryan family. The views upon this
subject have undergone important modification during the last twenty years. The
opinions based upon comparative philology alone have received a rude shock, and
the highlands of Central Asia are no longer accepted without question as the
cradle of the Aryan family, but it is suggested that their home is to be sought
somewhere in Northern Europe. While the Germans contend that the primitive
Aryans were the blue-eyed dolichocephalic race, of which the Scandinavians and
North-Germans are typical examples, the French are in favour of the view that .
the dark-haired brachycephalic race of Gauls, now well represented in the
Auvergne, is that of the primitive Aryans. I am not going to enter deeply
into this question, on which Canon Isaac Taylor has recently published a compre-
-hensive treatise, and Mr, Frank Jevons a translation of Dr. Schrader’s much more
extensive work, ‘The Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples.’ Looking at
the changes that all languages undergo, even when they have the advantage of
having been reduced into the written form, and bearing in mind the rapidity with
which these changes are effected ; bearing in mind, also, our extreme ignorance of the
actual forms of language in use among prehistoric races unacquainted with the art
of writing, I, for one, cannot wonder at something like a revolt having arisen against
the dogmatic assertions of those who have, in their efforts to reconstruct early
history, confined themselves simply to the comparative study of languages and
grammar. But, notwithstanding any feeling of this kind, I think that all must
admire the enormous industry and the varied critical faculties of those who haye
pursued these studies, and must acknowledge that the results to which they have
attained cannot lightly be set aside, and that, so far as language alone is concerned,
the different families, their provinces, and mutual relations have, in the main,
become fairly established. The study of ‘linguistic paleontology,’ as it has been
termed, will help, no doubt, in determining still more accurately the aflinities of
the different forms of language, and in fixing the dates at which one separated
from another, as well as the position that each should oceupy on the family-tree—
if such a tree exists. But even here there is danger of relying too much on
negative evidence ; and the absence in the presumed original Aryan language of
special words for certain objects in general use ought not to be regarded as afford-
ing absolute proof that such objects were unknown at the time when the languages
containing such words separated from the parent stock. Not only Professor
Huxley, but Broca and others have insisted that language as a test of race is as
often as not, or even more-often than not, entirely misleading. The manner in
which one form of language flourishes at the expense of another; the various
ways in which a language spreads, even otherwise than by conquest; the fact
that different races, with totally different physical characteristics, are frequently
found speaking the same language, or but slightly different dialects of it: all con-
duce to show how imperfect a guide comparative philology may be so far as
enthropological results are concerned. Of late, prehistoric archeology has been
invoked to the aid of linguistic researches; but here again there is great danger
of those who are most conversant with the one branch of knowledge being but
imperfectly acquainted with the other. The different conditions prevailing in
different countries, the degrees of intercourse with other more civilised nations,
and local circumstances which influence the methods of life, all add difficulties
to the laying down of any comprehensive scheme of archeological arrangement
which shall embrace the relics, whether sepulchral or domestic, of even so limited
an area as that of Europe. We are all naturally inclined to assume that the
record of the past is comparatively complete. But in archeology no more than
geology does this appear to be the case. The interval between the period of
the river-grayels and that of the caves, such as Kent’s Cavern, in England,
and those of the Reindeer period of the South of France, may have been but
small; but our knowledge of the transition is next to none. The gap between
the Paleolithic period and the Neolithic has, to my mind, still to be bridged over,
and those who regard the occupation of the Belgian caves as continuous from the
days of the reindeer down to late Neolithic times seem to me possessed of great
powers of faith. Even the relations in time between the kjokkenméddings of
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 967
Denmark and the remains of the Neolithic age of that country are not as yet
absolutely clear; and who can fix the exact limits of that age? Nor has the
origin and course of extension of the more recent Bronze civilisation been as yet
satisfactorily determined ; and until-more is known, both as to the geographical
and chronological development of this stage of culture, we can hardly hope to
establish any detailed succession in the history of the Neolithic civilisation that
went before it. In the meantime it will be for the benefit of our science that
speculations as to the origin and home of the Aryan family should be rife; but it
will still more effectually conduce to our eventual knowledge of this most
interesting question if it be consistently borne in mind that they are but speculations.
Turning from theoretical to practical subjects, I may call attention to the vastly
improved means of comparison and study that the ethnologists of to-day possess as
compared with those of twenty years ago. Not only have the books and periodi-
cals that treat of ethnology multiplied in all European languages, but the number
of museums that have been formed with the express purpose of illustrating the
manners and customs of the lower races of mankind has also largely increased. On
the Continent, the museums of Berlin, Paris, Copenhagen, and other capitals have
either been founded or greatly improved ; while in England our ethnological collec-
tions infinitely surpass, both in the number of objects they contain and in the
method of their arrangement, what was acccessible in 1870. The Blackmore
Museum at Salisbury was at that time already founded, but has since been con-
siderably augmented. In London also the Christy collection was already in
existence and calculated to form an admirable nucleus around which other
objects and collections might cluster; and, thanks in a great degree to the
trustees of the Christy collection, and in a far greater degree to the assiduous
attention and unbounded liberality of the keeper of the department, Mr. Franks,
the ethnological galleries at the British Museum will bear comparison with any of
those in the other European capitals. The collections of prehistoric antiquities,
enlarged by the addition of the fine series of urns and other relics from British
barrows explored by Canon Greenwell, which he has generously presented to the
nation, and by other accessions, especially from the French caverns of the Reindeer
period, is now of the highest importance. Moreover, for purposes of comparison the
collections of antiquities of the Stone and Bronze periods found in foreign countries
is of enormous value. In the Ethnological department the collections have been
materially increased by the numerous travellers and missionaries which this coun-
try is continually sending forth to assist in the exploration of the habitable world ;
and the student of the development of human civilisation has now the actual
weapons, implements, utensils, dress, and other appliances of most of the known
savage peoples ready at hand for examination, and need no longer trust to the often
imperfect representations given in books of travel. But besides the collection at
Bloomsbury there is another most important museum at Oxford, which that
University owes to the liberality of General Pitt-Rivers. It is arranged in a some-
what different manner from that in London, the main purpose being the exhibition
of the various modifications which ornaments, weapons, and instruments in common
use have undergone during the process of development. The skilful application of
the doctrine of evolution to the forms and characters of these products of human
art gives to this collection a peculiar charm, and brings out the value of applying
scientific methods to the study of all that is connected with human culture, even
though at first sight the objects brought under consideration may appear to be of
the most trivial character.
So far as the museums more intimately connected with anthropology are con-
cerned, the advance that has been made has been equally well marked. The
osteological collections both at the Royal College of Surgeons and at the Natural
History Museum have received important accessions, especially in the craniological
department ; and the notable addition of the Barnard Davis collection to that pre-
viously existing in Lincoln’s Inn Fields has placed the museum of the college in the
foremost rank, The museums at Oxford and Cambridge have also received most
important accessions: the one, of the Greenwell collection from British barrows ;
the other, of the Thurnam collection of skulls.
968 REPORT—1890,
The value of the small Handbook for Travellers, issued under the title of
‘ Anthropological Notes and Queries,’ has been proved by the necessity for a new edi-
tion, towards which the British Association has made a grant. Some delay in the
publication of the new issue has taken place, but I hope that the report of the Com-
mittee in charge of the work may give assurance of the book being now in a forward
state.
The feasibility of assigning trustworthy marks for physical qualifications in can-
didates for posts either in the military or civil departments of the State has now
for some time been attracting more or less of public attention, and the subject has
been taken up by the Council of this Association. The result of their commu-
nications on this subject with the Government has been made known in their
Report, and I need not enter into the history of the correspondence that has
passed upon the question. Whatever course may at the present time be adopted,
we may, I think, feel confident that eventually due weight will have to be attached
to physical capacity in selection for appointments in the military branch of the
public service, for which, indeed, at the present time a medical examination has to be
passed. Thanks to the ingenuity of Mr. Francis Galton and others, we have now
instruments at our command, not only for testing muscular force, breathing
capacity, and other bodily characteristics, but also for ascertaining the closeness
and rapidity of connection between the organs of seeing and hearing, and the action
of the muscles required to be brought into play. In these experiments nervousness
no doubt is to some extent a factor, but perhaps the rough and ready test of the
South American commander was for ascertaining the presence or absence of
nervousness even more effective. When promotion of some officer was about to be
made upon the field, the general caused all the possible candidates to be arranged
around him, each armed with a flint and steel and a cigarette, and he who first
was satisfactorily smoking was promoted then and there.
Connected with the question of general physical capacity is that of the proper
appreciation of colours, the absence of which is a fruitful source of danger, both by
land and at sea. It is, indeed, impossible to say how often an apparently
inexplicable accident may not have arisen from some form of colour-blindness,
such as the inability to distinguish red from green, in a person in charge of a ship,
a train, or of points on a railway. ‘True, there are some forms of examination to
be gone through, both by mariners and railway officials, with the view of testing
their powers and correctness of vision; but it is very doubtful whether the tests
employed or the manner in which the examinations are conducted can be regarded
as in all respects satisfactory. For the purpose of investigating the phenomena,
and, if possible, the physical causes of colour-blindness and allied defects of vision,
and also with the view of suggesting improvements in the methods of determining
the existence of such defects in candidates for maritime or railway employment,
the Council of the Royal Society has appointed a Special Committee. Its labours,
however, are not yet finished, and no report has hitherto been received from the
Committee. I mention the subject as one in which all anthropologists will be
interested, and the importence of which must be universally acknowledged. The
most singular feature in the case is that the subject, though carefully investigated
by several private inquirers, should have waited so long before being submitted to
some public or quasi-public body for investigation.
The subjects of an anthropological survey of the tribes and castes in our Indian
possessions, and of the continued investigation of the habits, customs, and physical
characteristics of the North-Western tribes of the Dominion of Canada, were both
recommended jor consideration to the Council of this Association by the General
Committee at the meeting at Newcastle. We have heard from the report
of the Council what has been done in the matter. The rapidity with which the
various native tribes in different parts of the world are either modified, or in some
cases exterminated, affords a strong argument for their characteristics, both
physical and mental, being investigated without delay.
There are, indeed, now but few parts of the world the inhabitants of which have
not, through the enterprise of travellers, been brought more or less completely
within our knowledge, Even the centre of the dark African continent promises to
i ai
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 969
become as well known as the interior of South America, and to the distinguished
traveller who has lately returned among us anthropologists as well as geographers
owe their warmest thanks. It is not a little remarkable to find so large a tract of
_ country still inhabited by the same diminutive race of human beings that occupied
it at the dawn of European history, and whose existence was dimly recognised by
Homer and Herodotus. The story related by the latter about the young men of
the Nasamones who made an expedition into the interior of Libya and were there
taken captive by a race of dwarfs receives curious corroboration from modern
travellers. Herodotus may, indeed, slightly err when he reports that the colour of
these pigmies was black, and when he regards the river on which their principal
town was situated as the Nile. Stanley, however, who states that there are two
varieties of these pigmies, utterly dissimilar in complexion, conformation of the
head, and facial characteristics, was not the first to rediscover this ancient race.
At the end of the sixteenth century, Andrew Battel, our countryman, who,
having been taken captive by the Portuguese, spent many years in the Congo
district, gave an account of the Matimbas, a pigmy nation of the height of
boys of twelve years old; and in later times Dr. Wolff and others have recorded
the existence of the same or similar races in Central Africa. Nor must we for-
get that for a detailed account of an Acca skeleton we are indebted to the out-
going President of this Association, Professor Flower. It is not, however, my
business here to enter into any detailed account of African exploration or anthro-
ology. I have made this incidental mention of these subjects rather from a
_ feeling that in Africa, as well as in Asia and America, native races are in danger
of losing their primitive characteristics, if not of partial or total extermination, and
that there also the anthropologist and naturalist must take the earliest possible
_ opportunities for their researches. Already the day is past when the similitude
drawn by Anaxilas between music and Africa holds good, and even Cornelius
Agrippa could no longer maintain that he ‘sayeth not amisse: By God, sayeth
he, Musicke is even like Affricke ; it yearely bringeth foorth some straunge Beaste.’ !
I have, however, said enough on what I feel are somewhat vague and general
_ topics, and will now ask you to devote your attention to the business of the
_ Section, when, no doubt, many subjects of interest will be more particularly
_ discussed. Mi
}
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Doctrine of Hereditism. By Rev. F. O. Morris,
2. Remarks on the Ethnology of British Columbia. By Horarto Hate.
[This Paper forms the introduction to the Report of the North-Western Tribes
of Canada Committee. See Reports, p. 553.]
h 8. Notes on the Religion of the Australian Aborigines. By J. W. Fawcerr.
_! The object of this short paper is to dispel an erroneous impression which exists
in the minds of many Englishmen and others, that the Australian aborigines have
_ no religion; whereas they do possess one, and that, perhaps, the most simple of all
_ religions.
, They believe in a Creator, to whom different tribes give different names; but
all such attributes signify Him to be one that is good and great. His teachings
&re preserved with great care, white persons not being allowed to hear them
mentioned. In some tribes women and children are never taught anything con-
cerning this Spirit.
. They believe in a future life, and that, as they live on earth, so will they live
hereafter, less the terrestrial discomforts; those living wicked lives await a total
‘annihilation, '
» Vanitie of Sciences, cap. 17,
1890. 83R
970 REPORT—1890.
They possess a belief in good and evil spirits, and have a dread of the Wicked One.
They have a strict sense of right and wrong, and their laws are very exact, many
deeds of guilt being punished by death. They have religious ceremonies, which
are always held in secret, in cleared portions of the scrub, called ‘ boori’ grounds,
which they hold very sacred, guarding them with great care; and when once the
foot of a white person is placed on them they lose all sanctity.
4. Notes on the Aborigines of Australia. By J. W. Fawcurr.
This paper traverses some statements made by Mr. Carl Lumholtz, at last
year’s meeting of the British Association, concerning the Australian aborigines.
‘Of a written language there is no trace.’ So says Mr. Lumholtz. The Austra-
lian aborigines communicate with each other by means of short pieces of wood, on
which certain symbols are cut. When these symbols are put together, they form
messages, just in the same manner as letters are put together to form words.
These pieces of wood are termed ‘ talking-sticks,’ and are not unfrequently sent by
the chief of one tribe to the chief of another, many miles distant. The symbols
consist chiefly of zigzag lines and long and short incisions. -[Rubbings of two of
these ‘ talking-sticks’ were exhibited. |
Mr. Lumholtz next goes on to state that the aborigines are polygamistic,
This is, however, not generally the case: a chief may, and does, but not often,
possess more than one wife ; but when such is the case, it certainly makes him no
ticher, as Mr. Lumholtz avers.
‘T found no chiefs on the Herbert River,’ says Mr. Lumholtz. This is a very
erroneous statement, for the tribes on that river, as elsewhere, do possess chiefs, and
one of them was personally known to the writer.
Mr. Lumholtz next states that ‘the Australian black cannot live under civili-
sation,’ He could never have seen them under such conditions, or he would not
have so stated. They do live, and are living, under civilisation, and, the more
they become civilised, the better they are: some of them are engaged as school-
teachers and missionaries in New South Wales, and several of them have their
names on the Parliamentary list of voters, thus having the same rights and
privileges as white people.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. On the Yourouks of Asia Minor. By J. Taxopore Ben.
Character of country inhabited by the Yourouks. Cilicia Aspera, formerly
inhabited by the Cilician pirates.
Visit to the Corycian caves on the first plateau above the sea. Temple of
Corycian Jove. Opinion of the nomads on this cave. The Olbian cave.
Nomad Yourouks employ tombs and ruins of departed Greeks as houses. The
hovels which they build, and their idea of the four seasons, Difference in the
country since the days of civilisation.
The Yourouks in their tents. Mode of life and occupations. Their wooden
implements, musical instruments, beehives, &c. The honesty of the Yourouks.
Ideas of treasure-hunting.
The flocks. Description of the sheep. The Toulon camel. Substitutes for
coffee and tobacco.
Absence of religion amongst them. Their sacred trees.
Polygamy. Betrothals and marriage festivities, Wife stealing.
Diseases. Their luxuries.
Dealings with the outer world. Contracts with rich Greeks. .The tinker,
cattle and wool merchants, &c., visit them periodically.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 971
Aniline dyes destroyed their traffic in colours,
Their condition as farmers,
2. The Present Aspect of the Jade Question. By F. W. Ruptumr, F.G.S.
Tt has long been known that implements worked in jade have occasionally been
found in ancient graves in France and Western Germany, and in certain Neolithic
stations on the Swiss lakes. Some of these implements are wrought in nephrite,
or true jade, and others in jadeite. As neither of these minerals had been found
im situ in Europe, while both were known to occur in Asia, it had been con-
jectured that the European jade implements must have had an Oriental source, and
that either the implements themselves, or the raw materials of which they were
made, had been brought to Europe in prehistoric times. But within the last few
years Herr Traube, of Breslau, has discovered nephrite in a place near Jordansmiihl,
and near Reichenstein, in Silesia. Pebbles of nephrite have also been recently
recorded, by Dr. Berwerth, from the valleys of the Mur and the Sann, two rivers in
Styria. A pebble believed to be of jadeite was found by M. Damour at Ouchy,
on the Lake of Geneva, and the same mineral has been recorded from Monte Viso,
in Piedmont.
Jade implements are found along the coast of British Columbia and Alaska,
and it has been suggested that these, or the raw jade, had been obtained from
Siberia, where the occurrence of nephrite is well known. Dr. G. M. Dawson has,
however, recorded the discovery of small boulders of jade, partially worked, in
the lower part of the Frazer River Valley; and Lieut. Stoney has obtained the
mineral zm situ at the Jade Mountains in Alaska, 150 miles from above the mouth
of the River Kowak.
The present aspect of the jade question is, therefore, quite different from that
which it presented when the late Professor H. Fischer and others strongly favoured
the view that the jade implements of Europe and America had an exotic origin.
In both these continents jade has now been found in sitw, and it seems, therefore,
probable that the material of the implements is indigenous, as maintained by Dr.
A. B. Meyer for those of the Old World, and by Dr. Dawson, Professor F. W.
Clarke, Mr. G. F, Kunz, and others, for those of the New World. If future
discoveries should confirm the indigenous view, the famous jade question will be
lifted out of the domain of anthropology,
3. On the Aryan Cradleland. By J. S. Stuart Guennie,
Introduction.—After sixty years’ discussion of exclusively Asian hypotheses,
and twenty years’ discussion of Asian and European hypotheses, the question now
is not so much as to the respective probabilities of an Asian or of a European, as
to the respective probabilities of a North German or of a South Russian Cradle-
land; and the author is disposed, on the whole, to consider the South Russian
Cradleland the more probable, and for the following reasons :—
First.—Because of the extraordinary correspondence, as lately pointed out by:
Dr. Schrader, not only between the fiora and fauna indicated by the common
words of the Aryan languages, and the flora and fauna of the South Russian
Steppes, but also between the mode and conditions of life indicated by. the
language, and the mode and conditions of life actually now to be seen on the
Steppes.
Seti Because in South Russia, between the 45th and 60th (or 55th)
parallels of latitude there were the conditions of such a racial intermixture as
might naturally have given rise to such a new variety of the white race as the
original Aryan clans. For here, from time immemorial, white Alarodians from
the south, white Turkomans from the east, and white Finns from the north have
met and mingled. And here, also, there may have been great environmental
changes caused by the draining-off of the ancient Eurasian Mediterranean.
Thirdly.—Because of such indications of hybridity in primitive Aryan speech,
aR 2
972 . REPORT— 1890.
and of connection particularly with the Finnie group of languages, as would
correspond with such a racial intermixture as would seem probably to have been
effected in this region.
Fourthly.—Because that interlinking of Aryan languages, which is inex-
plicable on the hypothesis of successive migrations from Asia, may, on the
contrary, be at once explained by a common speech in the South Russian area
indicated, and by differentiations caused by the reaction of the speech of the
Aryanised non-Aryan tribes encountered in the progress of the Aryans eastwards
and westwards.
And Fifthly.—Because westwards, in the country between the Dnieper and
the Carpathians, and eastwards in the country on the upper waters of the Jaxartes
and Oxus, there were the conditions of the passage of the Aryans from the
pastoral into the agricultural stage; and because, in moving southward from
these regions, they would come into contact with, and have their further develop-
ment fostered by, more highly civilised peoples.
Conclusion.—As will be seen from the last reason assigned in favour of
Southern Russia, the question of the Aryan Cradleland connects itself with all
these various researches which tend to limit the primitive civilisations to those of
Egypt and of Chaldea, and to derive from these civilisations, and particularly from
that of Chaldea, all the later civilisations.
4. ‘Is there a Break in Mental Evolution ?’' By The Hon, Lady WEtzsy.
Religion has been defined as ‘consisting wholly and solely in certain acts of
deference paid by the living to the ghosts of the dead.’ But how does the
savage come by the idea of ‘ghost’? If evolution consists in a gradually increasing
range of adaptation to environment, why should the correspondence between
mental evolution and environment become less complete? The introduction
of the idea of ‘ ghost ’ marks mental degeneration.
If intelligence thus ceased to adjust itself to fact, the law of elimination
should assert itself here as in all other cases. The consequences would react on
the physical welfare, and the descendants of the superstitious would, on the
whole, give way before those of the stronger-minded.
‘ No such aberration of instinct can be traced amongst the animals. We find
there no suicidal sacrifice of time, labour, or victims. Why should primitive man
be in this so far below their mental level ?
It may be urged that the imaginative or figurative power of the savage,
like that of the child, lacks a corrective which is subsequently supplied. But
why should this corrective have lapsed at all, since we find it throughout organic
dévelopment in automatic and increasingly complex form ?
Where, then, in the developing consciousness does the link with nature fail,
and the answer to stimulus go astray ?
And even if the majority of primitive men had failed to carry on the organic
tradition of adjustment, why was not the tendency preserved amongst a dominant
minority? If such a dominant minority is to be found in the early priests and
seers, how comes it that they have not left clearer traces of this really valid
knowledge? The truest ideas (however simple and even vague) of the elements
of experience ought to be the most widely transmitted. Why, then, was the
general tendency towards persistent illusion? The growing ‘ mind’ must have
lost the primordial ability to penetrate through mask of any kind to reality.
But to have thus lost touch with nature ought to lead to the non-survival of the
false thinker. Fatal waste of precious opportunity and energy as well as more
positive mischief must needs result.
And, further, the tendency to understand and utilise experience must have
been universally inherited. Why, then, should it have so generally failed when
wecome to the imaginative stage ?
If the idea of* spirit ’ had its origin in primitive man, it would have to undergo
1 See Journ. Anthrop. Inst. 1891.
|
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 973
the most primitive tests, viz., contact, odour, and flavour. Failure to meet these
would mean destruction to the idea, which could not long be supported merely by
the evidence of dreams and hallucinations, inevitably conflicting. And yet these
ideas, which seem scarcely to be a natural ‘stage in an orderly and continuous
development of mental power, are the concomitants of a brain growth which
certainly ts both orderly and continuous.
Reasoning from the analogy of evolution generally, we should surely have
expected that the human mind would have been first matter-of-fact and practical,
then imaginative, that is, pictorial, image-producing. But the ghost-theory tends
to ignore the practical stage, to turn orderly imagination into desultory and
riotous fancy—which is at once stereotyped in persistent and often harmful prac-
tice—and to restrict the accurate to modern times. But this is at variance
with at least some recent discoveries (e.g., the drawings of the Cro-Magnon cave-
men).
Finally, why should the cult of the living, which had been the very condition
of all organic advance, give place to such a monstrous paradox as the cult of the
dead?
We are left with two alternatives.
(1) To suppose an absolute break and reversal in the evolution of mind,
wherein a permanently distorted picture of the universe is created, and the real and
significant suddenly abdicates in favour of the baseless and unmeaning.
(2) To ask whether there is some reality answering to these crude conceptions,
which thus form part ofa continuous mental development, and may be described.
as faulty translation, rendered inevitable by the scantiness of primitive means of
analysis and expression.
To adopt the first alternative is to strike a blow at the doctrine of continuous
ascent in evolution. To adopt the second might lead us to conclude that what we-
want is a greater power of interpreting primitive ideas as expressed in myth and
ritual, notably in relation to recent developments and present researches in
psychology itself, and the psychological aspects of language.
5. On Reversion. By Miss Nina F. Layarp,
In considering the subject of linear evolution the great’ importance of a clear
understanding of the laws of reversion is apparent, for if it can positively be
proved that structures common to lower groups occasionally make their appear-
ance in man through this means, a strong point has been gained. It is logically
certain that there cannot be a return to a state which has not once existed.
But if, on the other hand, such appearances can be traced to an arrest during
the process of development, or to sport, the phenomenon shows no connection
between higher and lower groups. The opening sentence in Darwin’s remarks
on reversion in ‘The Descent of Man’ appears to take all force from the
argument which follows. He says :—‘ Many of the cases here given might have
been introduced under the heading “ Arrests of Development.”’
If we carefully divide positive cases of arrest of development and sports from
those which may be, strictly speaking, considered to have the true appearances of
reversion, the number diminishes enormously. Microcephalous idiots undoubtedly
belong to the former class, likewise the persistence of the divided malar-bone in
some adults, and in all probability cases in eo the mature uterus is furnished
with cornua.
The occasional occurrence of gupernumerary mamme, also of polydactylism,
were both practically withdrawn by Darwin from his list of reversions.
Perhaps the most important point to be ascertained is as to the limit of time
after which reversion to an earlier type becomes impossible. If there be no limit,
then it may be a matter of surprise that reversion is not more constant in man.
‘The proportion of blood of any one ancestor,’ we are told, ‘after twelve genera-
tions is only 1 in 2,048,’ and yet a tendency to reversion is retained; but if in
our veins there is a proportion of early ancestral blood, so considerable as to render
974 REPORT—1890.
the power of reversion possible for unlimited time, we can only wonder that
resemblances to early forms do not occur frequently, and not only in rare and
doubtful exceptions.
6. On an Unidentified People occupying parts of Britain in Pre-Roman-
British Times. By Dr. Puunt, DL.D., FSA.
The author of this paper, who has for many years been surveying the ancient
roads and routes of traflic in Europe, lately submitted to a learned society at
Oxford certain philological evidences, showing particular names and words, which
attaching persistently to the Icknield way, and other ancient roads in Britain, led
him to examine artificial constructions, roads, and other works in their vicinities.
He found that these also were distinctly local to these ways, and connected with
them; in this he was supported by a survey lately made for the Devonshire
Association.
In the present paper he showed from extensive investigations in France, Italy,
&c., that some of the most remarkable of these names continued from Britain to
the Mediterranean along ancient routes of traffic mentioned by writers of the
highest standing as Cesar, Cicero, Florus, Strabo, &c.; that these names, as in
Britain, were found only on highways of ancient commerce: and from these facts it
was inferred that the ancient routes of traffic in Britain were in communication
with those on the Continent, and that a great commercial intercourse existed be-
tween Britain and the Continent—a view of the case which the summoning by
Cesar of the concourse of merchants in trade communication with Britain supported.
Proceeding still further, it was shown from drawings, photographs, &c., made by
the author in the various localities, that works and constructions along and in
connection with the same routes were so alike as to be identical in design, and
therefore, he assumed, in purpose.
These constructors and merchants were not British, and the traffic appears
carried back long prior to the time of Cesar. As the works indicated the
direction whence the people came who constructed them, further researches, which
he was still prosecuting, might eventually show their nationality.
The same works and names were found existing in Britain at the present time,
as well as in the Mediterranean; and the place nomenclature tended to identify
them as belonging to the same people.
7. Report of the Notes and Queries Committee.
See Reports, p. 547.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Physical Development. By Dr. HamsBueroy.
The author brought the results of his investigations on consumption and chest-
types before the Association at Birmingham and Manchester. He showed in the
former papers that consumption was directly produced by the conditions that tend
to reduce the breathing capacity below a certain point in proportion to the remainder
of the body, and that it could be both prevented and completely recovered from
by the adoption of measures that were based upon that interpretation of its nature.
In the latter the author adduced evidence that proved that the size and shape of
the chest after birth solely depended upon the conditions to which it was subjected,
that there was the same relationship between the size and shape of the other parts
of the body and the conditions to which they were subjected, and that this law
obtained in the animal and vegetable kingdoms; and he referred to the immense
Ny
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 975
importance of the issues that were raised by those investigations, both from a
practical and a scientific point of view.
The author’s objects on this occasion were to call attention to the successful
practical application of that research, to give instances in which it will be of
immense public service, and to urge its general adoption.
Last year, thanks to the courteous and cordial co-operation of Mr. J. E. K.
Studd and the Polytechnic authorities, we successfully inaugurated the first
society for the protection of its members from the injurious conditions of their
surroundings and for securing their development by the application of natural
laws. The Polytechnic Physical Development Society consists of about 200
members, and the tables exhibited refer to the measurements of 100 members
who have already obtained an increase of the chest girth of one inch and upwards.
Their average increase is a little over one inch and three-quarters. It appeared to
the author to be both just and expedient to divide the members into three classes,
viz., those who had obtained an increase of the chest girth of one to two inches,
of two to three inches, and of three inches and upwards, and their corresponding
averages are: for the third class over one inch and a quarter, for the second over
two inches and one-eighth, and for the first over three inches and three-eighths.
A large number have already exceeded, obtained, or nearly obtained, Brent's
medium standard. There has also been a considerable increase in the range of
movement, and Hutchinson’s standard of vital capacity has been greatly exceeded.
In the power of inspiration and of expiration the majority of us much exceed
Hutchinson’s ‘remarkable’ and ‘very extraordinary’ classes. That increase has
taken place in small as well as in large chests, whether the men were tail or short,
under or over 21 years of age, and with or without gymnastic training. Our
members are engaged in over fifty different trades and occupations, amongst them
being clerks, compositors, printers, watchmakers, carpenters, engineers, drapers,
warehousemen, &c., and they are engaged in those occupations from eight to
twelve hours daily. Neither less instructive nor less significant are the variations
in the chest girth that have taken place during the year. Some of our members
are prominent members of the gymnasium, and as such have energetically pre-
pared for the various events that were taking place in connection therewith. The
author has frequently noted a large decrease of the chest girth on such occasions.
The girth has also decreased when the men were much engaged in extra work,
stocktaking, cycling, &c., or when they neglected to follow the directions given
them. In fact, the increase or decrease observed has been in direct relationship
with a corresponding change in the conditions of their surroundings. But it is
not only in the ordinary routine of daily life that this relationship between the
chest girth and the conditions to which it is subjected is manifested. In the
treatment of consumption the author has obtained increases of from two to three
inches and upwards. This increase of the chest girth is accompanied by a corre-
sponding increase of the range of movement and of the vital capacity, and by a
change in the type of chest from that of disease to that of health, for the author
is happy to be able to state that that treatment of the disease has been completely
and inyariably successful. In the presence of evidence of this nature, he would
offer but a word of comment. What has been experimentally obtained has been
also equally well obtained in the practical application of that research, One part _
of the investigations confirms the other, and the case as a whole is complete and
practicable. The conditions by which these results were obtained were then
referred to.
The author briefly referred to three cases in which the introduction of physical
development would render an immense public service, viz., the army, life assurance
and sick benefit societies, and the education of children.
The cases above noted urgently require the introduction of physical develop-
ment, but where shall we find in civilised countries men upon whom its adoption
would not confer a great benefit? Some time ago Sir Andrew Clark directed
public attention to the increasingly injurious effects of progressing civilisation,
and to the inability of hygiene and sanitation to counteract them. That is true,
but here we have a new and most effective means of dealing with them, for by it
976 REPORT— 1890.
we can turn these very forces themselves to our own protection and advantage.
We have the knowledge and the power to stamp out consumption, the great curse
of civilisation. Shall we not complete the investigation for the remainder of the
body, and so obtain and maintain, in the presence of further advances of civilisation,
the highest physical development of man ?
The Polytechnic Physical Development Society.
(Average increase of 100 Members 13+ 47, inches.)
Cuass I.—Average increase 33 + 5, inches.
Chest. Girth.
Tnitial, Occupation, Hours.| Age.| Height, |——-_— | Increase.
Insp. | Exp. | Insp. | Exp.
B.S Packer ) 20 5 ft. 8hin. | 35 32 38 32 3
BAS Ot | ‘Tailor 10 17 5 6h 342 | 32 38 32 31
B. W. H. Tailor 103 CDE se 364 | 323 | 40} | 33 3}
BGA INGE Clerk 10 pt Ge 2A 36+ | 334 | 39} | 34} 3
C.J... Painter 93 18 5 88 35 31 38 32 3
J. W. G. Umbrella Maker | 11 97.) 5 - 7H 322 | 30%} 353 | 303 31
asain Wharfinger 11 22 | 5 103 36% | 354] 39g | 344 3k
M. J. H. Clerk 8 16 | 5 54 324 | 30 | 353 | 314 3
Mow}. Tailor . 9 18 5 74 344 32 41 35 64
R. W. R. Compositor 94 18 45). 7 341 | 322] 374) 323 3h
8. A. H. Tron Salesman 8 24 5 8 36 34 39 33 3
S.H.G.. Dentist 8? 19! 4 a 30¢ | 29 | 348 | 333 4
8. J. ‘ Contractor 10? — 5 618 344 | 324] 37% | 324 33
‘a er Salesman 12 17 5 610 344 | 32 374 | 334 3
2. On some Archeological Remains bearing on the question of the Origin of
the Anglo-Saxons in England. By Roserr Munro, M.A., ID.
The author of the ‘ Viking Age’ maintains that the so-called Anglo-Saxons in
England are of Scandinavian origin, and this theory he attempts to substantiate by
two main lines of argument—viz. (1) by an analysis of the Sagas and other his-
torical documents of Western Europe; and (2) by a comparison of the antiquities
found in England and in Scandinavia.
In a subsequent correspondence which appeared in the ‘Times,’ M. Du
Chaillu challenged archeologists to point out any remains in any other part of
Europe so like those of the early Anglo-Saxons in England as the relics he figures
from Scandinavia. In the regions at the mouth of the Elbe and the Western
Coasts of Germany and Holland, from which, according to the generally accepted
opinion, the earlier Anglo-Saxon immigrants hailed, there do not exist, according
to him, any analogous remains at all, More recently, in a lecture delivered in
Edinburgh under the auspices of the Geographical Society of Scotland, M. Du
Chaillu stated that he gave up the historical part of his argument and now
relied chiefly on the archeological data. At the meeting of the Association
last year his theory was under discussion, and in these circumstances it may be
of interest to lay before the present meeting a short account of some remarkable
remains recently brought to light on the coasts of Holland and North Germany,
more especially in Friesland and the low-lying district northwards as far as the
River Elbe, a geographical area which strikingly coincides with the traditionary
cradle of our Anglo-Saxon forefathers.
The antiquities in question are found in flattish mounds of varied extent, some-
times covering many acres, which go under the name of Terpen in Friesland,
Warfen in the district around Emden, and Wurthen in the Dithmarschen border-
ing on the Elbe.
Dr. Munro then gave a short description of the structure and contents of these
mounds, and argued that the relics showed a remarkable similarity to Anglo-Saxon
antiquities found in England. It is unnecessary to give an abstract of this com-
dcr
Oa a . rap
i il
——Sae ee er rt—“‘_OU™
Oe
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 973
munication, as ample details of these discoveries are published in the author’s work,
‘The Lake-Dwellings of Europe, in which the subject is discussed under the
title of ‘ Ancient Marine Dwellings,’
3. Some Neolithic Details. By H. Cottey Marcu, M.D.
Ten years ago, while a scrutiny was being made of a number of tiny flakes that
had been picked up with the only thought that they proved the existence of a
veritable Neolithic floor, it was perceived that some of the fragments were, in truth,
beautifully wrought after a fixed type or pattern.
At that time these minute stone implements, from the hills about Rochdale,
were the smallest that had been found in any part of the world. Since then pre-
cisely similar tools have been met with in India, and last summer the author
discovered some in the Isle of Man.
They are of three principal types: (1) those that taper to a point; (2) those
that are semilunar ; and (3) those that are shouldered like a penknife. Some of
them do not measure more than } inch in length.
The pointed ones are unmistakably awls, and would serve to drill eyes in bone
needles, and to puncture holes in the hide through which the needle might pass.
The semilunar implement can hardly be anything else than a fine saw ; it is rather
rare, and it sometimes shades off into the shouldered form. Those that are
shouldered like a penknife are very numerous, and have this peculiarity, that when
they are placed with their flat surface downwards the hump or angle is on the
left-hand side. It has been suggested that these implements were used to con-
stitute the teeth of a harpoon. But it seems unlikely that any dwellers on the
flanks of the Pennine chain or in the caves of the Vindhya Hills of India could
have had much opportunity of using a harpoon; whilst the extraordinary delicacy
of workmanship which these tools display, their remarkable uniformity of style,
and the careful serration of their straight edge strongly suggest that they were
mounted on handles for cutting and engraving in the manufacture of implements
of bone, horn, and wood, such as needles, arrow-shafts, and possibly combs. These
minute stone tools have been made of flint, of chert, of agate, and of quartz.
It has been said that the bulb of percussion cannot be produced on quartz. The
author showed flakes of quartz, quartzite, greenstone, chert, hematite, and even
of chalk, all of which presented a well-marked bulb of percussion. They were
found on the Neolithic floor.
Pieces of chalk are often found in tumuli of the Stone Age. Some of these, as
well as fragments of graphite and of hematite that have striations on two sides,
such as would be caused by rubbing them on a slab of sandstone, were exhibited.
The substances were used as pigments.
Discarding the negative colours, black and white, and assuming it to be the
fact, as generally stated, that of the positive colours, the first used was red, the
second yellow, and the third blue, the question arises, Can any reason be assigned
for this order of choice in early decoration? ‘The modern artist’s quarrel with
Nature is a double one. He says that she is badly lighted, and that she is too
green. Now, it is certain that if we look intently at a green figure, and then cast
the eyes on a neutral surface, we see the same figure zz ved. To those who behold
only the green of Nature a red spectrum is always potentially present. Their
retina needs this complementary colour as a refreshment, and the primitive artist
employs it in unconscious obedience to a physiological law. Yellow would come
next, as the most restorative colour, and blue last.
On certain Neolithic materials shiny lines and streaks may be seen. Some
rsons think them due to blown sand, or to the friction of siliceous grasses.
r. Blackmore, of Salisbury, thinks they are caused by worms—that the stone
happened to lie in a worm-track, and that the worm, by perpetually passing and
repassing, polished it. A microscopic examination shows that in some cases the
glazed mark is produced, not by friction, but by a deposit of silica, and it is often
more apparent in the depressions of an irregular surface than on its elevations,
Examples of it on flint, chert, quartzite, and hematite were exhibited.
978 _ REPORT—1890.,
4. On Prehistoric Otter and Beaver Traps. By Rosert Munro, M.A., M.D.
In this communication the author describes some curious wooden machines which
have been discovered in various peat bogs in different parts of Europe, and of
which hitherto no satisfactory explanation has been offered. His attention was
first directed to the subject by the late Dr. Deschmann, curator of the Landes-
museum at Laibach, who had in his custody two of these objects, one being in an
excellent state of preservation. They were both found in the great Laibach moor,
in the vicinity of the famous group of lake-dwellings then being investigated in
that locality. The most perfect of the two was made of a solid piece of oak,
measuring 32 inches long, 12 broad, and 4 deep. It tapered a little at both
extremities, and contained a rectangular aperture in the middle, measuring 9
inches long by 5 broad, which was closed by two movable valves worked by pivots
projecting into corresponding holes in the framework. These valves were freely
movable when pushed upwards, but this motion was arrested just a little short of
the perpendicular by the slanting shape of their posterior edges, so that when left
to themselves they always fell down, and so closed the aperture.
These machines, not being actually found on the site of the lake-dwellings,
though at the same depth in the peat, were not at first included among the relics
from these habitations, and so they lay in the museum for several years as objects
of a sut generis character, until some German anthropologists visited the locality
and pointed out their similarity to a series of wooden objects that had been found
in North Germany. One of the objects thus referred to, and the first discovered,
is figured and described by Dr. Hildebrandt, of Tribsees, in the ‘ Zeitschrift fiir
Ethnologie’ (‘ Verhand.’ for 1878), vol. v. p. 119, who conjectures that it had been
used attached to a net for catching fish.
In the following year, Professor F. Merkel, of Rostock, in reply to Dr. Hilde-
brandt’s communication (77d. vol. vi. p. 180), figures and describes a similar object
found in the moor of Samow, and then preserved in the museum of Rostock,
which was considered by sportsmen to have been a trap for catching otters. A
few years later (1877), Dr. Friedel announced the discovery of a third example,
which had been found in a moor at Friedrichsbruca, near Flatow, in the province
of West Prussia (¢bid. vol. ix. p. 162). All these objects were buried in the peat
to a depth of 6 or7 feet.
Profiting by the suggestions thus received, and considering the character of the
fauna of the lake-dwellings at Laibach, which yielded an enormous number of the
bones of the beaver (representing at least 140 individuals) but none of the otter,
Dr. Deschmann and his assistant came to the conclusion that the Laibach machines
were beaver-traps.
Quite recently, Dr. Meschinelli, of the Geological Museum of the R.
University of Naples, published a memoir on some prehistoric remains dis-
covered at Fontega, a small valley which opens into Lake Fimon, near
Vicenza, in North Italy (‘Atti della Soc. Veneto-Trent. di Sc. Nat.’ vol.
xi.). Among the objects figured in this memoir is a wooden boat-shaped
object, 28 inches in length, containing two central valves, which Dr. Munro at
once recognised as analogous to the objects found at Laibach and in North
Germany. Dr. Meschinelli states that two more were discovered in the course of
his investigations, which, though less perfectly preserved, were, so far as he could
judge, precisely similar to the one figured in his memoir. When Dr. Meschinelli
wrote his memoir he was unaware of the discovery of similar objects elsewhere
in Europe, and he was much puzzled to account for their use, conjecturing that
they might have been models of boats. After the principal facts in regard to the
previous discoveries were laid before him, he has published a second memoir
(‘ Rend. della R. Accad. delle Sc. Fis. e Matemat. di Napoli,’ 1890), in which he
criticises and rejects all the previous explanations, so far as applicable to the Fontega
machines, but comes to the conclusion that they were used as traps for catching
wild birds, such as water-fowl.
What still further enhances the interest in this subject is the fact that, as
early as 1859, a wooden implement which evidently comes under the same category
was found in a bog in the townland of Coolnaman, County Derry, Ireland.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 979
Fortunately this machine was figured and described in the ‘Ulster Journal of
Archeology ’ (vol. vii. p. 165) as an ‘ antique wooden implement,’ but as to its use
no rational explanation has ever since been given. One thought it was a fish-trap
intended to be placed in a river ; another, that it was a kind of pump; a third, that
it was a machine for making peats; and a fourth, that it was a cheese-press. The
_ only noteworthy difference between the Ivish machine and its analogues on the Con-
tinent is that the former has its central aperture closed by one valve instead of two.
To find so many of these machines, of unknown use and so remarkably similar
in structure, in such widely separate districts as Ireland, North Germany, Styria,
and Italy, must be a matter of interest to archeologists, and no one can say that
the correct explanation of their use is to be found in any of the suggestions hitherto
offered on this point. In helping to solve this problem, Dr. Munro, in conclusion,
directed attention to an important factor—viz. that all the examples from Italy,
Laibach, and Ireland were found in bogs which in earlier times had been lakes.
This may be also true as regards those from North Germany ; but the point is not
referred to in the short notices that have appeared of them. If these machines
are really traps, they could be used only in water, where the animal could insert
its head from below; and, among amphibious animals, the otter and beaver are the
only ones to which all the conditions involved in a trap theory would apply.
5. Indications of Retrogression in Prehistoric Civilisation in the Thames
Valley.2 By H. Stoves, F.G.S.
The author exhibited seventy-four flints, consisting of forty-five celts, &c., of
a rough and rude type, that have been fashioned from polished N eolithic celts and
tools, twelve scrapers, and seventeen polishers from the same source.
Of these a few are possibly doubtful, as they are fragments, and the polished
surface existing upon them is small. Of over sixty specimens, however, there
cannot be a reasonable doubt but that they have been intentionally and deliberately
chipped to their present form. It is evident that they are not the result of
‘accident or of normal wear and use.
They all come from the Upper Thames Valley, between Oxford and Reading.
With one exception they are flint. None of them show signs of recent fracture,
and all have the peculiar white or brown surface acquired by flint under lengthened
exposure. The author has a large collection of worked flints from the Thames,
from which (and helped by Mr. W. R. Davies, M.N.S., Wallingford) the specimens
were selected.
The author suggests that the flints show that a tribe up the Thames had
attained the comparatively high degree of civilisation indicated by perfectly made
and polished tools, of which so many still exist. For some reason this more
cultured race or tribe was vanquished by a more barbarous nation from the North
or West. These ruder people could not, or would not, use the more perfect, tools
of the conquered race, as they needed more skill to make, and greater intelligence
to handle, to keep in order, and to mount. These ruder men had not the necessary
intelligence; hence they took the tools and worked them back to a form they
understood, and by so doing furnished the evidence of 1etrogression in prehistoric
civilisation.
6. On the Duggleby ‘ Howe.’* By the Rev. E. Mautx Cote, W.A., F.G.S.
In July last Sir Tatton Sykes, Bart., commenced the opening of the great
mound at Duggleby, on the Yorkshire Wolds. The work was entrusted to the
_ eare of Mr. T. R. Mortimer, the well-known antiquarian, and occupied six weeks,
; 1 For further details see Lake-dwellings of Europe and Proc. of S. A. Scot. January
12, 1891.
2 Published in extenso by the author with same title, pp. iv, 16, quarto, (Leeds:
Goodall & Suddick.) 1890.
+. % Proccedings of Yorks. Geol. Soc. vol. xi. part ili.
980 REPORT— 1890.
The diameter of the mound was found to be over 120 feet; originally tlie
height was about 30 feet, but the summit had been more or less flattened. In the
process of excavation it turned out there was an outer mound of rough chalk, of
some 15 feet or more in thickness, surrounding an inner mound, and that the
centre of the two did not exactly correspond.
The inner mound showed an unbroken covering a foot thick, of Kimeridge
clay, underneath which was a concentric layer, 43 feet thick, of tine chalk grit,
resting on a bed of clay 53 feet thick.
In the grit and lower clay were found fifty-three deposits of burnt human
bones, but without any urns. There were two graves cut out of the. solid rock:
one in the centre, 9) feet deep, containing three bodies; and a shallow one close by,
containing one body, accompanied by many flint flakes and tusks of the wild boar.
Some beautiful flint weapons, with a fine polished flint axe, were found with
the upper body in the central grave. Altogether eleven interments, doubled up in
the usual way, were met with, all below the clay mantle of the inner mound. No
pottery occurred, with the exception of a food vase at the bottom of the central
grave. No trace of bronze was seen. Fragments of broken human bones, and
especially of skulls of infants, were found scattered about in the clay and grit.
7. A probable Site of Delgovitia. By T. R. Mortmer,
Ata point in the parish of Wetwang-with-Fimber, on the Yorkshire Wolds,
where the Roman road from York to the coast crosses the Roman road from
Malton to Beverley, the writer has discovered a Romano-British graveyard: the
bodies, fourteen in number so far, orientated, with no pottery. Close by a number
of peculiar trenches were found, in form like a gridiron, in which were numerous
animal bones and fragments of Roman pottery.
The writer thinks that the trenches might have been constructed to convey
water, which would otherwise sink in the valley gravel, to a small Roman station.
The probability of this situation for the long-lost Delgovitia has already been
stated by Phillips and Akerman, the distance agreeing exactly with the itinerary,
supposing Stamford Bridge to be Derventio, and Flamborough Head, Preetorium,
8. A supposed Roman Camp at Octon. By T. R. Mortimer.
At Octon, close to a Roman road running from York to the coast, is a welt-
preserved camp, divided into two portions by a ditch and mounds. The eastern
portion measures 80 yards by 68 yards. The western is slightly larger, but less
perfect. The entrance was in the centre by the above-named subway, and the
defensive position was exceptionally strong. The rectangular corners of the camp
and the width of the ditches (73 feet) at the bottom, in addition to its position,
encourage the writer in believing that this is not a British work, but Roman.
9. A Suggestion as to the Boring of Stone Hammers. By W. Horyxe.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. Old and Modern Phrenology. By BuRNard HOLLANDER.
It is now almost a century since Francis Joseph Gall, strongly impressed by
the fact that certain formations of the head correspond to definite peculiarities of
character, began to reduce his conclusions to the system now known as Phrenology.
rr
‘
in
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 981
‘From the very outset it was opposed chiefly because the phrenological localisations
appeared to be incapable of physiological demonstration, but also, no doubt, from
_a-spirit of opposition to the extravagant claims of some of Gall’s successors. And
it is partly due to the irresponsible enthusiasm of some of these that phrenology
has fallen into low estimation.
| The work of leading physiologists of the present day has brought facts to the
_ fore, proving, if not absolutely, at any rate in a circumstantial manner, not only
the truth of the theory of localisation, but in many cases the actual correctness of
Gall’s empirical observations.
It is now finally granted that all mind manifestations ave dependent on brain-
matter; that the various elements of the mind fave distinct seats in the brain, a
few of which have been actually determined, and that recent researches in physio-
logy and pathology have, in many cases, established the physiological correlative
of psychological actions. Thus the mostintense centre for movements of the facial
rauscles have been proved to be the brain-area, in which Gall located his organ of
mimicry or imitation; the gustatory centre in the same region is the so-called
gustativeness of the phrenologists. ‘The motor area for the concentration of atten-
tion, as assumed by some physiologists, is found to correspond with the localisation
of concentrativeness; and Dr. Voisin’s theory on the centre of exaltation is in
liarmony with George Combe’s speculations. Mr. Herbert Spencer made an
apparently successful localisation of a supposed faculty of reviviscence, for which
there is much pathological evidence ; and the so-called centre for psychical blind-
ness, as localised by Munk, corresponds with Gall’s observations.
These are, of course, not all the facts which can be brought forward in support
of the broad principles of phrenology. More can be gathered in the works of men
like Broca, Hitzig, Fritsch, Ferrier, Horsley, Schafer, Wundt, Munk, Goltz,
Nothnagel, Exner, Brown-Sequard, and very many others, who occupied themselves
with the localisation of the functions of the brain, and who have created a new
system curiously similar to the old one. Brain physiology is still an obscure sub-
ject; and the coincidence in the results of modern investigations with the old
empirical observations augurs well for the establishment of Gall’s theories on a
sound scientific basis.
All that phrenology asserts is that, with the assistance of certain known ele-
ments—such as physical temperament, education, and surroundings—positive
conclusions as to psychical character can be drawn from the configuration of the
skull ; and, in the light of the present condition of physiological science, this claim
can surely be considered neither illogical nor extravagant. The theory itself pre-
sents such varied interest, and promises, if properly utilised, to be of such immense
value to education, that it must be admitted that it is at least well worth the
_ effort of serious investigation.
' 2. Stethoyraphic Tracings of Male and Female Respiratory Movements.
By Dr. WitBerrorce SMITH.
A fresh investigation of the commonly received theory that men and women
essentially differ as to their respiratory movements has at its present stage elicited
the tracings now exhibited. They have been taken from about fifty persons by
means of Burdon Sanderson’s stethograph, and more recently by a modification of
that instrument which the author has employed for greater convenience, accuracy,
and rapidity of application. Tracings have been taken from four, and in many
eases from five, different points in the mesial line of the thorax and abdomen
anteriorly. Certain general results belonging to nearly all the cases, whether of
men or women, are seen to be as follows:—Over the sternum, at the level of the’
second rib, there is ample movement, which, taken with the dress completely
loosened, is about equally free in the two sexes. Over the liver, in the mesial line
below the ensiform cartilage, there is constantly free and very regular movement
in both sexes. Just above the umbilicus the results are variable, and appear to
depend largely on the size of the liver and the degree of abdominal plethora or
_ slightness, a firmer condition of the abdominal contents serving more readily to
)
/
982 REPORT—1890.
convey the diaphragmatic movements. Midway between the umbilicus and the
pubes very variable results appear, a large proportion of cases, whether male or
female, showing that respiratory movements at this lower level are no longer con-
veyed distinctly to the surface except when the abdomen is particularly firm.
Just below the umbilicus the most characteristic results are to be noticed,
according to which the tracings have been divided into the following groups:—
1. From male cases, a group showing free movement below the umbilicus—
to this group most of the men belong. A smaller group of males, mostly with soft
abdominal walls or contents, exhibits only slight movement.
2. Of women attired and corseted in the ordinary manner, but having the dress
completely loosened during the application of the stethograph, there is a large
group which shows greatly diminished movement below the umbilicus. On the
other hand, a very small group of young women (corset-wearers) shows free
movement below the umbilicus.
3. Of women who habitually wear no corset, and who are of all ages, there is
a large group showing free movement below the umbilicus in no way less marked
than in male cases. On the other hand, a small group (two cases) with slight
soft abdominal walls and contents, but habitually wearing no corset, shows only a
trifling degree of movement just below the umbilicus.
Thus, so far as the present investigation has yet proceeded, it wholly fails to
confirm the view commonly put forth in physiological text-books, that there is a
naiural difference between the sexes in regard to respiratory movements,
3. A new Spirometer, By. W. F. Staniey, F.G.S.
This instrument is constructed upon the principle of the class of gas meters
used for testing, but as the quantity of air to be measured is very small, or about
200 cubic inches only, the construction of the instrument is made very light and
delicate, so that a pressure equal to ‘2 inch of water is sufficient to overcome the
inertia of the mechanical parts of the instrument, which consist of a balanced hand
and a short train of watch wheels. The air acts upon a set of light cellular fans,
which are placed round an axis partly placed in water. The expiration is con-
ducted by the mouthpipe to near the axis of the fans, and passes beneath the fans
on one side of the axis only. By this means the fans are consecutively floated
up by the pressure of the water on the air. The action is constant, so that
resistance to the intrusion of the breath is not greater at one time than another,
as it is with the pneumatic spirometer, and it is impossible for any air to escape
until measured. ‘The index hand becomes fixed when the muscular power of the
lungs ceases to expire air at a pressure of ‘2 water inch. The apparatus registers: —
about 10 per cent. more air expired than the -best-made Hutchinson apparatus
made upon the pneumatic principle. The hand is brought back to zero by pressing,
a button connected with a pressure spring on the front of the instrument.
A, Report of the Anthropometric Laboratory Committee.
See Reports, p. 549.
5. Diagrams for Reading-off Indices. By Dr. WiLBERFoRcE SMITH.
To ascertain easily and quickly the percentage relation between two numbers.
is the aim of the diagrammatic method described in this communication. The
method is not less applicable to other numerical records than to those of
anthropometry, but it is in regard to the latter that the author has felt and sought
to supply a need. It occurs to the subject himself of nearly every anthropometric
investigation, to inquire kow his weight, breathing capacity, &c., compare with
an average or mean standard; and when the investigator seeks to make the
best use of large numbers of records, the labour and time involved in working out
i.
——————s
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 983
percentage calculations become very considerable. It is true he may be aided by
certain existing tables for ready-reckoning, but these apply to only a limited
number of the possible combinations of figures which he has to deal with.
Indeed, if records are made in numbers of only three figures, it will readily be
perceived that the possible combinations of actual and average numbers amount to
hundreds of thousands,
The diagrammatic method which the author’s own wants have led him to
attempt, may be briefly explained by the following directions for constructing a
diagram. Take a sheet of ‘quad ’-ruled paper—that is, of paper evenly divided into
minute squares. Then on its horizontal lines mark off a scale of numbers having
any convenient range, say from 150 below to 300 aboye. Call this the
‘horizontal scale.’ Next traverse this scale by an cblique ‘percentage scale,’
whose lines may conveniently be of a different appearance—for instance, of a red
colour. To construct this percentage scale, first rule a 100 per cent., or ‘ par’
line, beginning from 150 on the left of the horizontal scale and sloping up to 300
on its right. Number it as 100 at both ends, say, in red figures, Then fill in
other oblique red lines to form the percentage scale. Construct, for instance, a
+10 per-cent. oblique line, beginning on the left of the horizontal scale at 150+ 10
per cent. (= 165), and reaching on its right to 300+ 10 per cent. (=830). Then,
if the ruling have been accurately done, it will appear that at every inter-
mediate point, this +10 per cent. (red) line has its course 10 per cent. higher than ;
any number on the 100 per-cent. line—that is, 10 per cent. above any number
between 150 and 300. Similarly construct oblique lines for all convenient pers
canes above or below the 100 per-cent. line, and so complete the percentage
scale,
The range of 150 to 300 as a 100 per-cent. line has been taken as an instance,
but the method may, by the use of several diagram sheets, be readily applied to
all numbers up to, say, 1,000 and its percentages. A leading method of employ-
ing such diagrams is (a) to find on the 100 per-cent line the position of any
average number required ; (4) to keep by means of a ‘ set-square’ the vertical line
of that number; (c) to find on the horizontal scale the actual number to be com,
pared; (d) to keep the horizontal line of that number; (e) to note the intersecting
point of such vertical and horizontal lines, and at that point to read off on the per-
centage (red) scale the percentage relation of the two numbers. Amongst other
uses may be obviously that of ascertaining the percentage relation or ‘index’ of two
diameters, for instance, of different parts of the human head, trunk, or limbs, but
particularly any diameters which do not fall within existing published tables,
6 excavation of the Wandsdyle at Woodyates.
. By General Pirt-Rivers, I’.B.S.
7. Notes on Human Remains discovered by General Pitt-Rivers at Wood-
yates, Wiltshire. By J. G. Garson, M.D., V.P. Anthrop. Inst.
The author described a series of human osteological remains discovered by
General Pitt-Rivers near Woodyates during the last two years, which, through the
kindness of General Pitt-Rivers, he had an opportunity of examining. The data
for the communication were drawn from his own observations and from the
measurements of the skulls and other bones of the skeleton, made by General Pitt-
Rivers and placed at his disposal for the purpose.
General Pitt-Rivers’s measurements of the limb bones showed the stature of the
individuals to have been greater than that of the persons who were interred in
Woodcuts and Rotherley, Romano-British villages, described by General Pitt-
Rivers in his works on these settlements.
The characters of the skulls showed a considerable range of variation in size
and proportion, indicating that they did not belong to a homogeneous race, but to
individuals of mixed race. Variation was found, not only in the facial portion,
984 REPORT—1890.
but also in the form of the brain case or calvaria, The outline of the latter ranges
from a long and narrow to a moderately broad oval. The parietal bosses are, as a
rule, not pronounced. The sutures tend to show extreme conditions, either being
very open or nearly obliterated, although the skulls are chiefly those of adults not
apparently far advanced in life. Four instances of metopism, or persistence of the
median frontal suture, occur in the seventeen skulls examined, which is a
higher percentage than usual among modern skulls. In these metopic skulls the
forehead is broad and the frontal bones well marked. In the other specimens the
forehead is receding to a greater or less extent. The muscular ridges above the
eyes and at other parts of the skull and the glabella are, as a rule, moderately
developed. When viewed from the front it is seen that the arch of the vault of
the cranium is moderately high and follows a well-proportioned curve in about
one-third of the specimens, in about a third of them it is very acute or pointed at
the apex, while in the remainder it is very flat. The cephalic index varies from
69°2 to 82°6. Two of the crania are brachycephalic, nine are mesaticephalic, five
are dolichocephalic, and one is hyper-dolichocephalic. The breadth of the calvaria
exceeds the height in all the specimens, except one in which the height is creater
than the breadth by 1 mm. The form of the face is long and narrow in some
cases, while it is short and proportionately broad in others. The nasal index
shows great diversity in the form of this part of the face, varying from 33 to 58.
Six of the specimens are leptorhine, four mesorhine, and two are platyrhine. The
shape of the orbits is very diverse, as well as the angle at which they are set.
A maxillary notch is present in some cases and not in others. The face is straight,
fo particular prominence of the alveolar part of the maxille being observable.
The chin is long and pointed in some cases, short and square-like in others.
These human remains from Woodyates present much more mixed characters
than either the Woodcuts or Rotherley series, the latter being the most homo-
geneous of the three sets. As far as the author is able to judge, the mixture is due
to crossing between the Romans and the early dolichocephalic British race. There
is no evidence of mixture arising from crossing occurring between either of these
races and the Celtic population.
aS Report of Prehistoric Inhabitants Committee—See Reports, p. 548.
9. Report of the Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor Committee.
See Reports, p. 535.
10. Report of the North-Western Tribes of Canada Committee.
See Reports, p. 553.
11. Report of the Indian Committee—Sce Reports, p. 547.
beINe DD Ee,
[An asterisk (*) signifies that no abstract of the communication is given. ]
BJECTS and rules of the Association,
XXiv.
Places and times of meeting, with names
of officers, from commencement, xxxiv.
List of former Presidents and Secretaries
of Sections, xliii.
List of evening lectures, lx.
Lectures to the Operative Classes, Lxiii.
Officers of Sections present at Leeds, lxiv.
Treasurer’s account, Ixvi.
Table showing the attendance and re-
ceipts at the annual meetings, Ixviii.
Officers and Council for 1889-90, lxx.
Report of the Council to the General
Committee at Leeds, Ixxi.
Committees appointed by the General
Committeeat Leeds: 1. receiving grants
of money, Ixxix ; 2. not receiving grants
of money, lxxxiii; other resolutions
adopted, lxxxvi; communications or-
dered to be printed in eatenso, ibd.;
resolutions referred to the Council for
consideration, and action if desirable,7d.
Synopsis of grants of money appropriated
to scientific purposes, Ixxxviii.
Places of meeting in 1891 and 1892, Ixxxix.
General statement of sums which have
been paid on account of grants for
scientific purposes, xc.
General meetings, ciii.
_ Address by the President, Sir F. A. Abel,
, C.B., D.C.L. (Oxon.), D.Sc. (Cant.),
F.R.S., P.P.C.S., Hon.M.Inst.C.E., 3.
—_———_-_
Abel (Sir F.) on the best method of esta-
blishing an international standard
for the analysis of iron and steel, 262.
Abercromby (Hon. R.) on the seasonal
variations of temperature in lakes, rivers,
and estuaries, 92; on meteorological
observations on Ben Nevis, 174.
Abrasion, a coefficient of, as an absolute
; measure of hardness, by F. T. Trouton,
: 757.
1890.
Abney (Capt.) on electrolysis in its physi-
cal and chemical bearings, 138 ; on the
best methods of recording the direct
intensity of solar radiation, 144; on
the preparation of a new series of
wave-length tables of the spectra of
the elements and compounds, 224; on
the action of light on the hydracids of
the halogens in presence of oxygen,
263; on the absorption spectra of
pure compounds, 339.
Absolute resistance of mercury, R. T.
Glazebrook on the, 136.
*___. recent determinations of the, by
R. T. Glazebrook, 731.
Absorption spectra of pure compounds,
report on the, 339. :
Adams (Prof. W. G.) on standards for use
in electrical measurements, 95; on the
best means of comparing and reducing
magnetic observations, 172.
Adamson (S. A.) on the collection, pre-
servation, and systematic registration
of photographs of geological interest
in the United Kingdom, 429.
*Adiabatic curves for ether, gas, and
liquid, at high temperatures, Prof.
W. Ramsay on the, 746.
Africa, the commercial geography of, by
J. S. Keltie, 892.
*___., the political partition of, by A. S.
White, 892.
Agricultural changes in England, the,
during the period 1450-1650, by Prof.
W. J. Ashley, 919.
Ahrens (Dr. F.) on veratrin, and on the
existence of two isomeric §-picolines,
783.
Air in public places of amusement, on
the condition of the, with special
reference to theatre hygiene, by W. H.
Collins, 773.
Air-bladder of clupeoid fishes, W. G.
Ridewood on the, 446.
Air-condensers of the British Association,
R. T. Glazebrook on the, 102.
, note on the, by Dr. Muirhead, 113.
35s
986
Aire, the River: a study in river pollu-
tion, by T. H. Easterfield and Dr. J. M.
Wilson, 780.
—-,the sources of the, Prof. S. P.
Thompson on, 821.
Alternate currents in parallel conductors
of homogeneous or heterogeneous sub-
stance, Sir W. Thomson on, 732.
Alternating versus continuous currents
in relation to the human body, by
H. N. Lawrence and Dr. A. Harries,
957.
Aluminium. bronze for artillery and small
arms, J. H. J. Dagger on, 948.
*Ampere gauge, an, by Sir W. Thomson,
956.
Ampulle in IMfiliepora murrayi (Quelch),
the meaning of the, Dr. 8. J. Hickson
on, 863.
Analysis of fats, contributions to the, by
Dr. J. Lewkowitsch, 787.
Ancient sea-beach, an, near Bridlington
Quay, final report on, 375.
Anderson (Dr. T.) and Dr. H. J. Johnston-
Lavis, the supposed volcanic eruption
of Cape Reykjanes, 810; *on a visit
to the Skaptor district of Iceland, 897.
Anderson (W.) on the investigation of
the action of waves and currents on
the beds and foreshores of estuaries
by means of working models, 512.
Androgynous cones in Pinus Thunbergii,
and some remarks on their morphology,
by I’. E. Weiss, 854.
Anglo-Saxons in England, the origin of
the, some archzological remains bear-
ing on the question of, by Dr. R.
Munro, 976.
Anguillz, notes on the spawning of the,
by Rev. J. HE. Fraser, 866.
Anthropological measurements taken at
Newcastle, 1889, report on the calcu-
lation of the, 549.
‘ Anthropological Notes and Queries,’ re-
port of the Committee for editing a
new edition of, 547.
Anthropological Section, Address by
Dr. J. Evans to the, 963.
Anti-effective copper in parallel con-
ductors or in coiled conductors for
alternate currents, Sir W. Thomson on,
736.
Antrobus (J. C.) and Dr. F. H. Hatch on
the composition and origin of Cheshire
boulders, 813.
Apogamy in Vaucheria hamata (Vauch.),
Lyngb., T. Hick on a case of, 872.
Archzological remains, some, bearing
on the question of the origin of the
Anglo-Saxons in England, Dr. R.
Munro on, 976.
Arenaria gothica (Fries), the occurrence
in Yorkshire of, Prof. 8. P. Thompson |
on, 871.
7
INDEX.
*Arithmetical functions connected with
the elliptic functions of } K, Dr. J.
W. L. Glaisher on some, 745.
Armstrong (Prof. H. E.) on electrolysis
in its physical and chemical bearings,
138; on the present methods of teach-
ing chemistry, 265; exercises illus-
trative of an elementary course of in-
struction in experimental science,
299 ; on the theory of solution, 325 ; on
the absorption spectra of pure com-
pounds, 339; on the teaching of science
in elementary schools, 489.
Arrhenius (Dr.) on the theory of solu-
tion, 523.
Aryan cradleland, J. 8. Stuart Glennie
on the, 971.
Ashanti and neighbouring regions, jour-
neys in, by R. A. Freeman, 892.
Ashley (Prof. W. J.), the agricultural
changes in England during the period
1450-1650, 919.
Asia and Northern Persia, the nomad
tribes of, report on, and on excavating
on sites of ancient occupation, 535.
*Aspirator, a double, T. Fairley on,
785.
Atom-grouping in crystals, W. Barlow
on, 754.
Australian aborigines, the, notes on, by
J. W. Fawcett, 970.
, the religion of, notes on, by J. W-
Fawcett, 969. 7
Ayrton (Prof.) on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 95,
B.A. unit standards, the value of, R. T.
Glazebrook on, 98.
Badger (E. W.) on the disappearance of
native plants from their local habitats,
465. -
Bailey (Dr. G. H.), the spectra of the
haloid salts of didymium, 773.
—— and J. C. Cain, a method of quan-
titative analysis, 772.
and A, A. Read, the behaviour of
the more stable oxides at high tem-
peratures, 773.
Balfour (Prof. B.) on the steps taken for
establishing a botanical station at
Peradeniya, Ceylon, 470.
‘ Barisal guns,’ the sounds known as the,
occurring in the Gangetic delta, T. D.
la Touche on, 800.
Barlow (W.) on atom-grouping in crys-
tals, 754. ;
Barr (Prof. A.) and Prof W. Stroud on
some new telemeters or range-finders,
499; on the use of the lantern in
class-room work, 727; *exhibition of a.
mechanism, 962.
Barrett (Prof. W. F.) on molecular pheno-
mena associated with the magnetisa~ —
INDEX.
tion of iron (phenomena occurring at
a red heat), 145.
Barrington (R. M.) on making a digest
of the observations on the So salle of
birds, 464.
Bastable (Dr.C. F.), progressive iaeations
918.
Bates (H. W.) on the nomad tribes of
Asia Minor and Northern Persia, 535.
Bauerman (H.) on the volcanic pheno-
mena of Vesuvius and its neighbour-
hood, 397.
Becker (Miss L.) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 489.
Beddoe (Dr.) on editing a new edition
of ‘Anthropological Notes and Queries,’
547.
Bell (A.) on the ‘manure’ gravels of
Wexford, 410.
Ben Nevis, meteorological observations
on, report of the Committee for co-
operating with the Scottish Meteoro-
logical Society in making, 174.
Bénier hot-air engine or motor, the, by E.
Vernon, 953.
Bent (J. T.) on the nomad tribes of Asia
Minor and Northern Persia, 535; on
exploration in North-eastern Cilicia,
893; on the Yourouks of Asia Minor,
970.
*Berberin, the alkaloid, the constitution
of, Prof. W. H. Perkin, jun., on, 785.
Berry (A.), the pure theory of distribu-
tion, 923.
Bevan (H. J.), A. G. Green, and C. F.
Cross, the action of light upon the
diazo-compounds of primuline and de-
hydrothiotoluidine: a method of pho-
tographic dyeing and printing, 781.
Bibliography of solution, fourth report on
the, 310.
Bibliography of spectroscopy, report on
the, 261.
Bidwell (S.) on electrolysis in its physical
and chemical bearings, 138.
Binnie (W.), account of experiments to
determine the variations in size of
drops with the interval between the
fall of each, 731.
_ Biological Section, Address by Prof. A.
*
é,
M. Marshall to the, 826.
*Bles (EH. J.) and Prof. A. M. Marshall on
variability in development, 861.
Bloxam (G. W.) on the nomad tribes of
Asia Minor and Northern Persia, 535 ;
on the natives of India, 547; on the
anthropological measurements taken
at Newcastle, 1889, 549; on the North-
western tribes of the Dominion of
Canada, 553.
_ Boas (Dr. F.) on the Indians of British
Columbia, 562.
Bonar (J.), the value of labour in relation
to economic theory, 917.
987
Bonney (Prof. T. G.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 55;
on the erratic blocks of England,Wales,
and Ireland, 340; on the collection,
preservation, and systematic registra-
tion of photographs of geological in-
terest in the United Kingdom, 429.
*Boring of stone hammers, a suggestion
as to the, by W. Horne, 980.
Botanical station at Peradeniya, Ceylon,
fourth report on the steps taken for
establishing a, 470.
*Botany, the “teaching of, discussion on,
853.
Bothamley (C. H.), the sulphur waters of
Yorkshire, 779.
—— and G. R. Thompson, the action of
phosphorus trichloride on organic acids
and on water, 784.
Bottomley (J. T.) on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 95; on elec-
trolysis in its physical and chemical
bearings, 138.
Boulders and glaciated rock-surfaces of
the Yorkshire coast, G. W. Lamplugh
on the, 797.
Bourne (S.) on the best methods of ascer-
taining and measuring variations in
the value of the monetary standard,
485; on the teaching of science in
elementary schools, 489; on the sta-
tistical data available for determining
the amount of the precious metals in
use as money, &c., 498.
*Bourne (W. F.), and J. Swinburne on
testing iron, 753.
Bovey (Prof. H. T.) on promoting tidal
observations in Canada, 183.
Bower (Prof.) on the steps taken for
establishing a botanical station at
Peradeniya, Ceylon, 470; *notes on
phylloglossum, 867; *on the question
of the phylogeny of ferns, ib.
Boynton (T.) on an ancient sea-beach
near Bridlington Quay, 375.
Brazil, the physical geographical features
of, in relation to their influence upon
the development, or otherwise, of the
industrial and commercial interests of
the country, by J. W. Wells, 893.
Brindley (W.) on the marbles and other
ornamental rocks of the Mediterra-
nean, 809.
British Columbia, the ethnology of, H.
Hale on, 553.
, the Indians of, Dr. F’, Boas on, 562.
Brown (Prof. Crum) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 138 ;
on meteorological observations on Ben
Nevis, 174.
Brown (J.) on electrolysis in its physical
and chemical bearings, 138.
Brown (J. T.), the orthophote, 778.
Browne (R. G. M.) as to certain altera-
382
988
tions in the surface-level of the sea
off the south coast of England, 824.
Bryan (G. H.), the buckling of plates,
742; on the pulsations of a rotating
bell, 743.
Buchan (Dr. A.) on arranging an investi-
gation of the seasonal variations of
temperature in lakes, rivers, and es-
tuaries, 92; on meteorological obser-
vations on Ben Nevis, 174.
Buchanan (J. Y.) on arranging an inves-
tigation of the seasonal variations of
temperature in lakes, rivers, and estu-
aries, 92.
Buckling of plates, the, by G. H. Bryan,
742.
Bund (J. W.) on arranging an investiga-
tion of the seasonal variations of tem-
perature in lakes, rivers, and estuaries,
92.
Bunter and Keuper formations in the
country around Liverpool, G. H. Mor-
ton on the, 819.
Butler (G. W.) on the occupation of the
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 451.
_ Cable tramways, by W. N. Colam, 950.
Cain (J. C.) and Dr. G. H. Bailey, a
method of quantitative analysis, 772.
*Camphor from turpentine, the produc-
tion of, by J. E. Marsh and R. Stock-
dale, 785.
Canada, tidal observations in, sixth re-
port of the Committee for promoting,
183,
Cannan (E.), the use of estimates of ag-
gregate capital and income as measures
of the economic welfare of nations,
929.
Carboniferous strata of Leeds and its
immediate neighbourhood, the, by B.
Holgate, 795.
Carpathians, the Eastern, on a journey
in, by Miss M. M. Dowie, 896.
Carpenter (Dr. P. H.), notes on the ana-
tomy and morphology of the Cystidea,
821.
Carpenter (W. Lant) on the best means
of comparing and reducing magnetic
observations, 172.
Carpmael (C. H.) on the best means of
comparing and reducing magnetic ob-
servations, 172; on promoting tidal
observations in Canada, 183.
Carruthers (Mr.) on the present state of
our knowledge of the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, and
on the steps taken to investigate as-
certained deficiencies in the fauna and
flora, 447; on the steps taken for
establishing a botanical station at
Peradeniya, Ceylon, 470.
INDEX.
Cash (W.) on an ancient sea-beach
near Bridlington Quay, 375.
—— and J. Lomax on Lepidophloios and
Lepidodendron, 810.
Caustic surfaces, the physical character
of, J. Larmor on, 742.
Ceratopsidz, the gigantic, (or horned di-
nosaurs) of North America, Prof. O.
C. Marsh on, 793.
Chambers (C.), Ferrel’s theory of the
winds, 745. .
Chemical Section, Address by Prof. T. E.
Thorpe to the, 761.
*Chemistry, the history of, report on re-
cent inquiries into, 771.
——, the present methods of teaching,
third report on, 265.
Cherriman (Prof. J. B.) on promoting
tidal observations in Canada, 183.
Cheshire boulders, the composition and
origin of, J. C. Antrobus and Dr. F. H.
Hatch on, 813.
Chess problem, by Lieut.-Col. A. Cun-
ningham, 745.
Christie (W. H. M.) on the best means of
comparing and reducing magnetic
observations, 172.
Chrystal (Prof. G.) on arranging an inves-
tigation of the seasonal variations of
temperature in lakes, rivers, and es-
tuaries, 92; on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 95; on the
best means of comparing and reducing
magnetic observations, 172.
Cilicia, North-eastern, exploration in, J.
T. Bent on, 893.
Circle, a remarkable, through two points
of a conic, Prof. Genese on, 745.
Clarke (W. E.) on making a digest of
the observations on the migration of
birds, 464.
Climate of England and Wales, the inland
compared with the maritime, by J.
Hopkinson, 748.
——of Halifax, Wakefield, Bradford,
Leeds, and Hull, a comparison of the,
by J. Hopkinson, 749.
—— of Scarborough, the, compared with
that of some other seaside health re-
sorts, by J. Hopkinson, 748.
Clupeoid fishes, the air-bladder of, W.
G. Ridewood on, 446.
Coal-search, suggestions on sites for, in
the south-east of England, by W.
Whitaker, 819.
Coal-tar colour industry, the develop-
ment of the, since 1882, by Dr. W. H.
Perkin, 775.
Coals of the Leeds district, some physi-
cal properties of the, by B. Holgate,
796.
Colam (W. N.), cable tramways, 950.
Cole (Rev. E. M.) on peat overlying a
lacustrine deposit at Filey, 823.
4
INDEX.
Cole (Rev. E. M.) on the Duggleby
* Howe,’ 979.
Collins (W. H.) on the condition of the
air in public places of amusement, with
special reference to theatre hygiene,
773.
Collins (Dr. W. J.), contributions to a
knowledge of the human lens, espe-
cially in reference to the changes it
undergoes with age and in cataract,
855. :
Colour vision, defective, Lord Rayleigh
on, 728.
Column-printing telegraph, by F. Hig-
gins, 959.
*Combustion of gases under pressure,
experiments on the, by Profs. Liveing
and Dewar, 776.
Commercial geography of Africa, the,
by J. S. Keltie, 892.
Compensation of alternating-current
voltmeters, the, by J. Swinburne, 753.
Competition, some aspects of, Prof. A.
Marshall’s Address to the Section of
Economic Science and Statistics, 898.
Consumption of wealth, a theory of the,
by Prof. P. Geddes, 924.
Contact electricity, an illustration of,
presented by the multicellular electro-
meter, Sir W. Thomson on, 728.
Co-operators, the ulterior aims of, by B.
Jones, 916.
Copper, the specific resistance of, T. C.
Fitzpatrick on, 120.
Copper potassium chloride and itsaqueous
solutions, the behaviour of, at different
temperatures, by J. H. van ’t Hoff,
776.
Cordeaux (J.) on making a digest of the
observations on the migration of birds,
464.
Corresponding Societies Committee, re-
port of the, 55.
Country lying between Lakes Nyassa,
Rukwa, and Tanganyika, Dr. K. Cross
on the, 891.
Crawford (Dr. J.), human footprints in
recent volcanic mud in Nicaragua, 812;
on the geology of Nicaragua, 7d.
Creak (Commr.) on the best means of
comparing and reducing magnetic ob-
servations, 172.
Cretaceous mammals of North America,
Prof. O. C. Marsh on the, 853.
Cretaceous polyzoa, report on the, 378.
*Crook (H. T.) the present state of the
Ordnance Survey and the paramount
necessity for a thorough revision, 896.
Crookes (W.) on electrolysis in its phy-
sical and chemical bearings, 138.
Cross (C. F.), A. G. Green, and E. J.
Bevan, the action of light upon the
diazo-compounds of primuline and
dehydrothiotoluidine: a method of
989
photographic dyeing and printing,
781. \
Cross (Dr. K.) on the country lying
between Lakes Nyassa, Rukwa, and
Tanganyika, 891.
Crosskey (Dr. H. W.) on the erratic
blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland,
340; on the circulation of underground
waters, 352; on the teaching of science
in elementary schools, 489.
*Cryptogamic flora and invertebrate flora
of the fresh waters of the British Isles,
report on the, 853.
Culverwell (E. P.), possibility of irrever-
sible molecular motions, 744.
Cundall (J. T.) on the influence of the
silent discharge of electricity on oxygen
and other gases, 338.
Cunningham (Lieut.-Col. A.), chess pro-
blem, 745.
Cunningham (D.) on arranging an inves-
tigation of the seasonal variations of
temperature in lakes, rivers, and es-
tuaries, 92.
Cure of infectious disease, indications
for the, by E. H. Hankin, 856.
Cynosurus eristatus (crested dog’s-tail-
grass), an overlooked variety of, by W.
Wilson, jun., 872.
Cystidea, the anatomy and morphology
of the, notes on, by Dr. P. H. Carpenter,
821.
Dagger (J. H. J.) on aluminium bronze
for artillery and small arms, 948.
Dakyns (J. R.) on the changes of the
Lower Carboniferous rocks in York-
shire, from south to north, 811.
Darwin (Prof. G. H.) on the best means
of comparing and reducing magnetic
observations, 172.
Davis (J. W.) on an ancient sea-beach
near Bridlington Quay, 375 ; on the pre-
historic inhabitants of the British
Islands, 548; on fossil fish of the West
Riding coalfield, 822.
Dawkins (Prof. W. Boyd) on the work of
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
55; on the erratic blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, 340; on the col-
lection, preservation, and systematic
registration of photographs of geologi-
cal interest in the United Kingdom,
429; on the prehistoric inhabitants of
the British Islands, 548.
Dawson (Dr.G. M.) on the North-western
tribes of the Dominion of Canada, 553.
Deacon (G. F.) on the investigation of
the action of waves and currents on the
beds and foreshores of estuaries by
means of working models, 512.
Deep-sea tow-net, for opening and
closing under water, report of the
990
Committee for improving and experi-
menting with a, 471.
Delgovitia, a probable site of, by T. R.
Mortimer, 980.
Denny (Prof. A.) *on an abnormality in
Tropeolum, with remarks on the origin
of the spur, 855; *on the tracheal oc-
clusor apparatus in insecta, 864.
De Rance (C. EH.) on the erratic blocks
of England, Wales, and Ireland, 340; on
the circulation of underground waters,
352; on the cretaceous polyzoa, 378.
Devonian rocks, the, as described in De
la Beche’s report, interpreted in accord-
ance with recent researches, by W. A.
EK. Ussher, 801.
Dewar (Prof.) on the preparation of a
new series of wave-length tables of the
spectra of the elements and compounds,
224.
*___ and Prof. Liveing, experiments on
the combustion of gases under pres-
sure, 776.
Diagrams for reading-off indices, by Dr.
Wilberforce Smith, 982.
Diazo compounds of primuline and de-
hydrothiotoluidine, the action of light
upon the: a method of photographic
dyeing and printing, by A. G. Green,
C. F. Cross, and E. J. Bevan, 781.
Diazoamido-compounds :astudyin chemi-
cal isomerism, by Prof. R. Meldola, 780.
Dibenzylketone, the condensation of, with
oxalic ether, Dr. T. Ewan on, 788.
Didymium, the spectra of the haloid
salts of, by Dr. G. H. Bailey, 773.
*Diffusion of motion, the, and propaga-
tion of disturbance in some turbulent
liquid motions, note on the relation
between, by Prof. G. F. Fitzgerald, 757.
Disappearance of native plants trom
their local habitats, second report on
the, 465.
Dispersion and refraction in certain
metals, H. HE. J. G. du Bois and H.
Rubens on, 728.
Distribution, the pure theory of, by A.
Berry, 923.
Dixon (Prof. H. B.) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 138.
._—— and J. A. Harker on the rate of
explosion of hydrogen and chlorine in
the dry and moist states, 776.
Douglass (Sir J. N.) on the investiga-
tion of the action of waves and currents
on the beds and foreshores of estuaries
by means of working models, 512.
Dowie (Miss M. M.) on a journey in the
Eastern Carpathians, 896.
*Drawbacks of modern economic pro-
gress, the, by EH. L. K. Gonner, 928.
Druce (G. C.) on the disappearance of
native plants from their local habitats,
465.
INDEX.
Du Bois (Dr. H. E. J.G.) and H. Rubens
on refraction and dispersion in certain
metals, 728.
Duggleby ‘ Howe,’ Rev. E. M. Cole, on the,
Mo:
Duncan (Dr. P. M.) on the cretaceous
polyzoa, 378.
. Dunstan (Prof. W. R.) on the present
methods of teaching chemistry, 265.
Dyes, fast and fugitive, by Prof. J. J.
Hummel, 782.
Earth-movements, the effects produced
by, on pre-Cambrian and Lower Palzo-
zoic rocks in some sections in Wales
and Shropshire, by Dr. H. Hicks, 804.
Earthquake and volcanic phenomena of
Japan, tenth report on the, 160.
East Yorkshire during the glacial period,
by G. W. Lamplugh, 798.
Easterfield (T. H.) and Dr. J. M. Wilson,
the River Aire: a study in river pollu-
tion, 780.
Ecballium elateriwm, dehiscence of fruit
of, by Prof. T. Johnson, 867.
Economic fallacies, some typical, made
by social reformers, L. L. Price on,
928.
*Economic progress, the drawbacks of
modern, by E. L. K. Gonner, 928.
Economic Science and Statistics, Address
by Prof. A. Marshall to the Section of,
898.
Edgeworth (Prof. F. Y.) on the best
methods of ascertaining and measur-
ing variations in the value of the
monetary standard, 485; on the statis-
tical data available for determining
the amount of the precious metals in
use as money, &c., 498; the element of
chance in examinations, 920.
Effect of direct and alternating pres-
sures on the human body, the, by J.
Swinburne, 758.
*Heos of birds, some of the probable
causes of variation in the, by H. B.
Hewetson, 860.
Egypt, ancient maps of, by Cope White-
house, 896.
Elbolton Cave exploration, by Rev. E.
Jones, 817.
*Klectric lighting and fire insurance
rules, W. Hartnell on, 958.
*Electric meter, a new, by Sir W. Thom-
son, 956.
Electric tramway, the Lineff, by G. Kapp,
956.
Electrical behaviour of semipermeable
membranes, Prof. Ostwald on the,
331.
Electrical measurements, report of the
Committee for constructing and issuing
practical standards for use in, 95.
—
J
F
es eee
eee, a ee
INDEX.
*Hlectrical oscillations in air, by J. Trow-
bridge, 754.
*Blectrical units, discussion on, 732.
Electricity, the influence of the silent
discharge of, on oxygen and other
gases, provisional report on, 338.
Electro-chemistry and electrolysis, re-
port on the present state of our know-
ledge in, by W. N. Shaw, 185.
Electrolysis, the action of semiperme-
able membranes in, Prof. W. Ostwald
on, 746.
Electrolysis and electro-chemistry, report
on the present state of our knowledge
in, by W. N. Shaw, 185.
Electrolysis in its physical and chemical
bearings, fifth report on, 138.
Electrolytic separation of metal at the
free surface of a salt in solution, by
Dr. J. Gubkin, 138.
Electrolytic theories, by Prof. Fitzgerald,
142.
Electro-optics, report on researches on,
144,
Electrostatic forces, the, between con-
ductors and other matters in connec-
tion with electric radiation, Prof. O.
J. Lodge on, 754.
Element of chance in examinations, the,
by Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, 920.
*Hilliptic functions of 4 K, some arith-
metical functions connected with the,
Dr. J. W. L. Glaisher on, 745.
Ellis (W.) on the best means of com-
paring and reducing magnetic obser-
vations, 172.
Elongation, measurement of, in test
samples, by J. H. Wicksteed, 962.
*Hngine-room voltmeter, an, by Sir W.
Thomson, 956.
Enoch (F.), the life history of the Hes-
sian fly, Cecidomyia destructor (Say),
864.
Episcia maculata, the floral biology of,
Prof. F. M. Oliver on, 869.
Erratic blocks of England, Wales, and
Ireland, eighteenth report on the, 340.
Estimates of aggregate capital and in-
come, the uses of, as measures of the
economic welfare of nations, by HE.
Cannan, 929.
Estuaries, the action of waves and cur-
rents on the beds and foreshores of,
report onthe investigation of, by means
of working models, 512.
Etheridge (R.) on the earthquake and
volcanic phenomena of Japan, 160;
on the best method for the registration
of all type specimens of fossils in the
British Isles, 339; on the ‘manure’
gravels of Wexford, 410; on the fossil
phyllopoda of the paleeozoic rocks, 424.
Ethnology of British Columbia, H. Hale
_ on the, 553.
991
Eucommia uimoides (Oliv.), a curious
cell-content in, F. E. Weiss on, 854.
Evans (Dr. J.) on the work of the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee, 55;
on the prehistoric inhabitants of the
British Islands, 548; Address to the
Anthropological Section by, 963.
Everett (Prof.) on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 95.
Ewan (Dr. T.) on the condensation of
dibenzylketone with oxalic ether, 788.
Ewart (Prof. C.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 449.
Ewing (Prof. J. A.), the molecular theory
of induced magnetism, 740.
Experimental science, exercises illus-
trative of an elementary course of
instruction in, by Prof. Armstrong,
299.
Experiments with drugs as a question of
science, by W. Sharp, 859.
Factories and Workshops Acts, the,
past and present, by G. H. L. Rickards,
927.
Factors of safety, by W. B. Marshall,
960.
Fairley (T.), notes on the limits of the
reactions for the detection of hydro-
gen dioxide, and the reactions for
uranium, 783; *on a double aspirator,
785.
Fast and fugitive dyes, by Prof. J. J.
Hummel, 782.
Fats, contributions to the analysis of,
by Dr. J. Lewkowitsch, 787.
Fawcett (J. W.), notes on the religion of
the Australian aborigines, 969; notes
on the aborigines of Australia, 970.
Feilden (Col.) on the present state of
our knowledge of the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, and
on the steps taken to investigate
ascertained deficiencies in the fauna
and flora, 447.
*Ferns, the question of the phylogeny
of, Prof. F. O. Bower on, 867.
Ferrel’s theory of the winds, by C.
Chambers, 745.
Festing (Gen.) on the absorption spectra
of pure compounds, 339.
*Fire insurance rules and electric light-
ing, W. Hartnell on, 958. ’
Fitzgerald (Prof. G. F.) on arranging an
investigation of the seasonal variations
of temperature in lakes, rivers, and
estuaries, 92; on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 95; on elec-
trolysis in its physical and chemical
bearings, 138; electrolytic theories,
142; on molecular phenomena associ-
ated with the magnetisation of iron
992
(phenomena occurring at a red heat),
145; on the theory of solution, 326;
note on a kinetic stability of equili-
brium with electro-magnetic forces,
753 ; on an episode in the life of J
(Hertz’s solution of Maxwell’s equa-
tions), 755; *note on the relation be-
tween the diffusion of motion and
propagation of disturbance in some
turbulent liquid motions, 757.
Fitzpatrick (T. C.) on the specific resis-
tance of copper, 120.
Fleming (Dr. J. A.) on standards for use
in electrical measurements, 95; on
electrolysis in its physical and chemi-
cal bearings, 138.
Flora of Victoria Park, Niagara Falls,
Ontario, Canada, the, by J. H. Panton,
871.
Flower (Prof.) on the occupation of a
table at the laboratory of the Marine
Biological Association at Plymouth,
444 ; on the present state of our know-
ledge of the zoology and botany of
the West India Islands, and on the
steps taken to investigate ascertained
deficiencies in the fauna and flora,
447 ; on the natives of India, 547; on
editing a new edition of ‘ Anthropo-
logical Notes and Queries,’ id.
Fluor spar, the use of, in optical instru-
ments, Prof. 8. P. Thompson on, 759.
Fluorbenzene and allied compounds,
the refraction and dispersion of, by
Dr. J. H. Gladstone and G. Gladstone,
772.
*Fly of chironomus, the development of
the head of the, Prof. L. C. Miall and
A. Hammond on, 860.
Forsyth (A. R.) *on the history of
Pfaff’s problem, 743; *on systems of
simultaneous linear differential equa-
tions, 745.
Fossil fish of the West Riding coalfield,
J. W. Davis on, 822.
Fossil phyllopoda of the palzozoic rocks,
eighth report on the, 424.
Fossils in the British Isles, report on
the best methods for the registration
of all type specimens of, 339.
Foster (Prof. G. C.) on standards for use
in electrical measurements, 95; on
electrolysis in its physical and chemi-
cal bearings, 138.
Foster (Prof. M.) on the occupation of a
table at the laboratory of the Marine
Biological Association at Plymouth,
444 ; on the occupation of a table at
the zoological station at Naples, 449;
on the steps taken for establishing
a botanical station at Peradeniya,
Ceylon, 470.
Foxwell (Prof. H. S.) on the best methods
of ascertaining and measuring varia-
INDEX.
tions in the value of the monetary
standard, 485; on the statistical data
available for determining the amount
of the precious metals in use as money,
&e., 498,
Frankland (Prof.) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 138.
Fraser (Rev. J. E.), notes on the spawn-
ing of the anguille, 866.
Freeman (R. A.), journeysin Ashanti and
neighbouring regions, 892.
Freezing-points of solutions, an appara-
tus for the determination of, P. J.
Hartog and J. A. Harker on, 779.
Fritsch (Dr. A.), restorations of the
palzozoic elasmobranch genera Pleu-
racanthus and Xenacanthus, 822.
Galton (Sir D.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee,
55; on the circulation of underground
waters, 352.
Galton (F.) on the work of the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee, 55; on
editing a new edition of ‘ Anthropo-
logical Notes and Queries,’ 547.
Garnett (Prof. W.) on standards for use
in electrical measurements, 95.
Garson (Dr. J. G.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee,
55 ; on the nomad tribes of Asia Minor,
and Northern Persia, 535 ; on editing a
new edition of ‘ Anthropological Notes
and Queries,’ 547; on the anthropo-
logical measurements taken at New-
castle, 1889, 549; notes on human
remains discovered by Gen. Pitt- Rivers
at Woodyates, Wiltshire, 983.
Geddes (Prof. P.) on the origin of thorny
plants, 870 ; a theory of the consump-
tion of wealth, 924.
Geikie (Prof. J.) on the collection, pre-
servation, and systematic registration
of photographs of geological interest
in the United Kingdom, 429.
Genese (Prof.) on a remarkable circle
through two points of a conic, 745.
Geographical Section, Address by Lieut.-
Col. Sir R. L. Playfair to the, 874.
Geographical teaching in Russia, by Dr.
H. R. Mill, 888.
Geological Section, Address by Prof.
A. H. Green to the, 789.
Geology of Nicaragua, Dr. J. Crawford on
the, 812.
Geology of the Long Mountain, on the
Welsh borders, the, by W. W. Watts,
817.
Geometrical theorems relating to the
powers of circles and spheres, Prof.
W. W. Johnson on some, 743.
Gibbs (Prof. Wolcott) on the preparation
of a new series of wave-length tables
INDEX,
of the spectra of the elements and com-
pounds, 224.
Giffen (Dr. R.) on the best methods of
ascertaining and measuring variations
in the value of the monetary standard,
485; on the statistical data available
for determining the amount of the
precious metals in use as money, &c.,
498.
Gilson (Prof. G.) on secreting cells,
861.
Glacial phenomena of the Isle of Man,
P, F. Kendall on the, 807.
Gladstone (G.) and Dr. J. H. Gladstone,
the refraction and dispersion of fluor-
benzene and allied compounds, 772.
Gladstone (Dr. J. H.) on electrolysis in
its physical and chemical bearings,
138 ; on the present methods of teach-
ing chemistry, 265; on the molecular
refraction of substances in solution,
322; on the teaching of science in
elementary schools, 489.
——-and G. Gladstone, the refraction
and dispersion of fluorbenzene and
allied compounds, 772.
Glaisher(J.) on the circulation of under-
ground waters, 352.
Glaisher (Dr. J. W. L.), Address to the
Mathematical and Physical Section by,
719; *onsome arithmetical functions,
connected with the elliptic functions
of + K, 745.
Glazebrook (R. T.) on standards for use
in electrical measurements, 95; on the
values of certain standard resistance
coils, 98; the B.A, unit standards, id. ; the
legal ohm standards, 101; onthe air-con-
densers of the British Association, 102;
on the absolute resistance of mercury,
136; on electrolysis in its physical and
chemical bearings, 138 ; on researches
on electro-optics, 144; *recent deter-
minations of the absolute resistance of
mercury, 731.
Glennie (J. S. Stuart) on the nomad
tribes of Asia Minor and Northern Per-
sia, 535; on the Aryan cradleland,
971.
Godman (F. Du C.) on the present state
of our knowledge of the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, and
on the steps taken to investigate as-
certained deficiencies in the fauna and
flora, 447.
Gold, the origin of, Prof. J. L. Lobley on,
824.
Golding (J. F.), the process of manufac-
turing netting by slitting and ex-
panded sheet metal, 949.
Goldsmid (Maj.-Gen. Sir F.) on the nomad
tribes of Asia Minor and Northern
Persia, 535; a railway through
Southern Persia, 888.
993
Gonangia, the male, of Distichipora and
Allopora, Dr. 8. J. Hickson on, 864.
*Gonner (E. L. K.) on the drawbacks of
modern economic progress, 928.
*Graciosa and Hierro, two outlying mem-
bers of the Canary Islands, notes on
the natural history of, by Rev. Canon
Tristram, 855.
Gray (Prof. T.) on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 95; on the
earthquake and volcanic phenomena of
Japan, 160.
Gray (W.) on the collection, preservation,
and systematic registration of photo-
graphs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, 429.
Green (A. G.), ©. F. Cross, and E. J.
Bevan, the action of light upon the
diazo-compounds of primuline and
dehydrothiotoluidine: a method of
photographic dyeing and printing, 781.
Green (Prof. A. H.), Address to the Geo-
logical Section by, 789.
Green (J. F.), a hydraulic steam lifeboat,
947.
*Greene (Friese), exhibition of photo-
graphs of clouds, 751.
*Greenwood (A.) on heavy lathes, 959.
Griffiths (EH. H.), a comparison of a plati-
num thermometer with some mercury
thermometers at low temperatures,
130.
Gubkin (Dr. J.), electrolytic separation
of metal at the free surface of a salt in
solution, 138.
Giinther (Dr.) on the present state of our
knowledge of the zoology and botany
of the West India Islands, and on the
steps taken to investigate ascertained
deficiencies in the fauna and flora,
447.
Haddon (Prof.) on improving and experi-
menting with a deep-sea tow-net for
opening and closing under water, 471.
Hadley (Prof. A. T.), modern forms of
industrial combination, 916.
Hale (H.) on the ethnology of British
Columbia, 553.
Haliburton (R. G.) on the North-western
tribes of the Dominion of Canada, 553.
Hambleton (Dr.), physical development,.
974.
*Hammond (A.) and Prof. L. C. Miall on
the development of the head of the fly
of chironomus, 860.
Hankin (B. H.), indications for the cure
of infectious diseases, 856.
Harcourt (A. G. Vernon) on the present
methods of teaching chemistry, 265.
Hardness, a coefficient of abrasion as an
absolute measure of, by F. T. Trouton,,
757.
994
Harker (J. A.) and Prof. H. B. Dixon
on the rate of explosion of hydrogen
and chlorine in the dry and moist
states, 776.
—— and P. J. Hartog on an apparatus
for the determination of freezing-points
of solutions, 779.
Harmer (8S. F.) on the occupation of a
table at the laboratory of the Marine
Biological Association at Plymouth,
444; on the regeneration of lost parts
in polyzoa, 862.
Harries (Dr. A.) and H. N. Lawrence,
alternating versus continuous currents
in relation to the human body, 957.
Hart (T.) on volcanic eruptions, 825.
Hartley (Prof. W. N.) on electrolysis in
its physical and chemical bearings,
138; onthe preparation of a new series
of wave-length tables of the spectra of
the elements and compounds, 224; on
the action of light on the hydracids of
the halogens in presence of oxygen,
263; on the absorption spectra of pure
compounds, 339.
*Hartnell (W.) on electric lighting and
fire insurance rules, 958.
Hartog (Prof. M. M.) on the steps taken
for establishing a botanical station at
Peradeniya, Ceylon, 470; the cytology
of the chytridian Woronina, 872; on
the acclimatisation of the tussock grass
of the Falkland Islands, 7b.
Hartog (P. J.) and J. A. Harker on an
apparatus for the determination of
freezing-points of solutions, 779.
Harvie-Brown (J.) on making a digest
of the observations on the migration
of birds, 464.
Hatch (Dr. F. H.) on some West-York-
shire mica-trap dykes, 813.
—— and J. C. Antrobus on the composi-
tion and origin of Cheshire boulders,
813.
*Haycraft (J. B.) on the structure of
muscular fibre as demonstrated by
‘castings’ taken in collodium, 860.
Herdman (Prof. W. A.) on improving
and experimenting with a deep-sea
tow-net for opening and closing under
water, 471.
*Hereditism, the doctrine of, Rev. F. O.
Morris on, 969.
Hessian fly, Cecidomyia destructor (Say),
the life-history of the, by F, Enock,
864.
*Hewetson (H. B.), some of the probable
causes of variation in the eggs of
birds, 860.
Heywood (J.) on the teaching of science
in elementary schools, 489.
Hick (T.) on a case of apogamy in Vau-
cheria hamata (Vauch.), Lyngb., 872.
Hicks (Dr. H.) on an ancient sea-beach
INDEX.
near Bridlington Quay, 375 ; on the pre-
historic inhabitants of the British
Islands, 548; on pre-Cambrian rocks
occurring as fragments in the Cambrian
conglomerates in Britain, 803; the
effects produced by earth movements
on pre-Cambrian and Lower Palzeozoic
rocks in some sections in Wales and
Shropshire, 804.
Hickson (Dr. 8. J.) on the meaning of
the ampulle in Millepora murrayt
(Quelch), 863; on the male gonangia
of Distichopora and Allopora, 864.
*Hierro and Graciosa, two outlying mem-
bers of the Canary Islands, notes on
the natural history of, by Rev. Canon
Tristram, 855.
Higgins (F.), column-printing telegraph,
959.
Higgs (G.), recent photographs of the
less refrangible portions of solar spec-
trum under different atmospheric con-
ditions, 760.
High vacua, notes on, by J. Swinburne,
727.
Hillhouse (Prof.) on the disappearance
of native plants from their local habi-
tats, 465.
Holgate (B.), the carboniferous strata of
Leeds and its immediate suburbs, 795;
some physical properties of the coals
of the Leeds district, 796.
Hollander (B.), old and modern phreno-
logy, 980.
Honduras (Spanish), by W. Pilcher, 897.
Hooper (W.), some recent changes in the
conditions governing the London
money market, 923.
Hopkinson (Dr. J.) on standards for use
in electrical measurements, 95; on
electrolysis in its physical and chemi-
cal bearings, 138.
Hopkinson (J.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 55 ;
the climate of Scarborough compared
with that of some other sea-side health
resorts, 748; the inland compared with
the maritime climate of England and
Wales, ib. ; a comparison of the climate
of Halifax, Wakefield, Bradford, Leeds,
and Hull, 749; on meteorological photo-
graphy, 751.
*Horne (W.), a suggestion as to the
boring of stone hammers, 980.
Hoyle (W. E.) on improving and experi-
menting with a deep-sea tow-net for
opening and closing under water, 471.
Hughes (Prof. T. McK.) on the erratic
blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland,
340.
Hull (Dr. E.) on the circulation of under-
ground waters, 352.
Human footprints in recent voleanic mud
in Nicaragua, by Dr. J. Crawford, 812,
a
INDEX.
Human lens, contributions to a know-
ledge of the, especially in reference to
the changes it undergoes with age and
cataract, by Dr. W. J. Collins, 855.
Human remains discovered by Gen.
Pitt-Rivers at Woodyates, Wiltshire,
notes on, by Dr. J. G. Garson, 983.
Hummel (Prof. J. J.), fast and fugitive
dyes, 782.
_ Hunt (A. BR.) on the investigation of the
action of waves and currents on the
beds and foreshores of estuaries by
means of working models, 512; on the
origin of the saline inclusions in the
crystalline rocks of Dartmoor, 815.
Hybrids and their parents, Dr. J. M.
Macfarlane on, 867.
Hydracids of the halogens, the action of
light on the, in presence of oxygen,
report on, 263.
Hydrate theory of solution, the present
position of the, by 8. U. Pickering, 311.
Hydraulic steam lifeboat, a, by J. F.
Green, 947.
Ichthyosauria, the neural arch of the
vertebree in the, Prof. H. G. Seeley
on, 809.
*Tdeal aim of the economist, Mrs. V. C.
W. Martin on the, 928.
Ignition of explosive gaseous mixtures,
Dr, G. 8. Turpin on the, 776.
Incubation of snakes’ eggs,
Sibley on the, 860.
India, the natives of, report on the habits,
customs, physical characteristics, and
religions of, 547.
Indians of British Columbia, Dr. F. Boas
on the, 562.
Indiarubber, the vulcanisation and decay
of, W. Thomson on, 785.
Industrial combination, modern forms of,
by Prof. A. T. Hadley, 916.
Infectious diseases, indications for the
cure of, by E. H. Hankin, 856.
Ingleton granite, the so-called, T. Tate
- on, 800.
*Tnitial meridian for the universal hour,
the actual state of the question of the,
_by C. Tondini de Quarenghi, 897.
Instantaneous photographs of water jets,
by Lord Rayleigh, 752.
International standard for the analysis
of iron and steel, second report on the
best method of establishing an, 262.
*Invertebrate fauna and cryptogamic
flora of the fresh waters of the British
Isles, report on the, 853.
*Tron, testing, J. Swinburne and W. F.
Bourne on, 753.
Draws
Tron and steel, the best method of esta-
_ blishing an international standard for
the analysis of, second report on, 262.
995
Tron and steel, the influence of silicon on
the properties of, fourth report on, 262.
Irreversible molecular motions, possi-
bility of, by E. P. Culverwell, 744.
Irving (Rev. A.), physical studies of an
ancient estuary, 818.
‘Is there a break in mental evolution?’
by Hon. Lady Welby, 972.
Isle of Man, the glacial phenomena of
the, P. F. Kendall on, 807.
*Tsomeric naphthalene derivatives, report
on, 775.
J, an episode in the life of (Hertz’s solu-
tion of Maxwell’s equations), Prof. G.
F. Fitzgerald on, 755.
Jade question, the present aspect of the,
by F. W. Rudler, 971.
Jeffs (O. W.) on the collection, preserva-
tion, and systematic registration of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 429.
Johnson (Prof. A.) on promoting tidal
observations in Canada, 183.
Johnson (Prof. T.), dehiscence of fruit of
Ecballium. elaterium, 867; observa-
tions on brown and on red seaweeds,
868.
Johnson (Prof. W. W.) on some geome-
trical theorems relating to the powers
of circles and spheres, 743.
Johnston-Lavis (Dr. H. J.) on the vol-
canic phenomena of Vesuvius and its
neighbourhood, 397.
— and Dr. T. Anderson, the supposed
volcanic eruption of Cape Reykjanzs,
810; *on a visit to the Skaptor dis-
trict of Iceland, 897.
Jones (B.), the ulterior aims of co-opera-
tors, 916.
Jones (Rev. E.), Elbolton Cave explora-
tion, 817.
Jones (Prof. J. V.), suggestions towards
a determination of the ohm, 732.
Jones (Prof. T. R.) on the fossil phyllo-
poda of the palzeozoic rocks, 424.
Jurassic fish-fauna, the discovery of a,
in the Hawkesbury-Wianamatta beds
of New South Wales, A. 8. Woodward
on, 822.
*Kalahari, the, by E. Wilkinson, 892.
Kapp (G.) the Lineff electric tramway,956.
Keltie (J. S.), the commercial geography
of Africa, 892.
Kendall (P. F.) on the glacial phenomena
of the Isle of Man, 807.
Kerr (Dr. J.) on researches on electro-
optics, 144.
Keuper and Bunter formations in the
country around Liverpool, G. H. Mor-
ton on the, 819.
996
Kidston (R.) on the best methods for the
registration of all type specimens of
fossils in the British Isles, 339.
Kinetic stability of equilibrium with
electro-magnetic forces, note on a, by
Prof. G. F. Fitzgerald, 753.
King (J.), the policy of exercising a dis-
crimination between the deserving and
undeserving in the giving of public
poor relief, 921. _
Knubley (Rev. E. P.) on making a
digest of the observations on the migra-
tion of birds, 464.
La Touche (T. D.) on the sounds known
as the ‘ Baris4l Guns,’ occurring in the
Gangetic delta, 800.
Labour, the mobility of, modern changes
in, by H. Ll. Smith, 927.
Labour, the probable effects on wages of
a general reduction in the hours of, by
Prof. J. E. C. Munro, 472.
——, the value of, in relation to eco-
nomic theory, by J. Bonar, 917.
Lake Moeris, ancient maps of, by Cope
Whitehouse, 896.
Lamplugh (G. W.) on an ancient sea-
beach near Bridlington Quay, 375; on
the boulders and glaciated rock-surfaces
of the Yorkshire coast, 797 ; Hast York-
shire during the glacial period, 798 ; on
the Speeton clays and their equivalents
in Lincolnshire, 808.
*Lands of the globe still available for
European settlement, the, paper by E.
G. Ravenstein, and discussion on, 893.
Langley (Prof.) on the best method of
establishing an international standard
for the analysis of iron and steel, 262.
Lankester (Prof. E. Ray) on the occupa-
tion of a table at the laboratory of the
Marine Biological Association at Ply-
mouth, 444; on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 449.
Lantern, the use of the, in class-room
work, Profs. A. Barr and W. Stroud on,
727. ,
Larmor (J.) on electrolysis in its phy-
sical and chemical bearings, 138; on
the physical character of caustic sur-
faces, 742.
*Lathes, heavy, A. Greenwood on, 959.
Lawrence (H. N.) and Dr. A. Harries,
alternating versus continuous currents
in relation to the human body, 957.
Layard (Miss N. F.) on reversion, 973.
Lebour (Prof. G. A.) on the circulation
of underground waters, 352.
Leeds (Dr. A. R.) on the bibliography of
solution, 310.
Lefroy (Gen. Sir J.H.) on the best means
of comparing and reducing magnetic
INDEX.
observations, 172; on the North-western
tribes of the Dominion of Canada, 553.
Legal ohm standards, the value of the,
R. T. Glazebrook on, 101.
Lepidodendron and Lepidophloios, W.
Cash and J. Lomax on, 816.
Lepidophloios and Lepidodendron, W.
Cash and J. Lomax on, 810.
Lewkowitsch (Dr. J.), contributions to
the analysis of fats, 787.
Liassic sections near Bridport, Dorset,
J. F. Walker on, 799.
Lifeboat, a hydraulic steam, by G. F.
Green, 947.
Light, the action of, on the hydracids
of the halogens in presence of oxygen,
report on, 263.
primuline and dehydrothiotoluidine,
by A. G. Green, C. F. Cross, and A. J.
Bevan, 781.
Lineff electric tramway, the, by G. Kapp,
956.
Liveing (Prof.) on the preparation of
a new series of wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 224.
and Prof. Dewar, experiments on
the combustion of gases under pres-
sure, 776.
Lobley (Prof. J. L.) on the origin of gold,
824.
*
Lockyer (J. N.) on the preparation of a.
new series of wave-length tables of
the spectra of the elements and com-
pounds, 224.
Lodge (Prof. O. J.) on standards for use
in electrical measurements, 95; on elec-
trolysis in its physical and chemical
bearings, 138; on the theory of solu-
tion, 330; on the electrostatic forces .
between conductors and other matters
in connection with electric radiation,
754.
Lomax (J.) and W. Cash on Lepido-
phloios and Lepidodendron, 810.
London money market, some recent
changes in the conditions governing
the, by W. Hooper, 923.
Long Mountain, the, on the Welsh bor-
ders, the geology of, by W.W. Watts,817.
Love (E. J.) on electrolysis in its physi-
cal and chemical bearings, 138.
Lower Carboniferous rocks, the changes
of the, in Yorkshire from south to
north, J. R. Dakyns on, 811.
Lubbock (Sir J.) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 489 ;
on the prehistoricZinhabitants of the
British Islands, 548.
*Lupton (Prof. A.) on the pneumatic
distribution of power, 954.
Lynch (H. F. B.), new trade routes into-
Persia, 889.
, upon the diazo-compounds of
a Dt a i eX
INDEX.
Macfarlane (Dr. J. M.) on hybrids and
their parents, 867.
‘MacGregor (Prof. J. G.) on promoting
tidal observations in Canada, 183.
McLaren (Lord) on meteorological ob-
servations on Ben Nevis, 174.
M‘Leod (Prof. H.) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 138 ;
on the bibliography of spectroscopy,
261; on the present methods of teach-
ing chemistry, 265 ; on the bibliography
of solution, 310; on the influence of the
silent discharge of electricity on oxy-
gen and other gases, 338.
Madan (H. G.) on the bibliography of
spectroscopy, 261.
*Magnetic disturbances, regional, in the
United Kingdom, Profs. A. W. Riicker
and T. E. Thorpe on, 751.
Magnetic observations, sixth report of
the Committee for considering the
best means of comparing and redu-
cing, 172.
Magnetic susceptibility of diamagnetic
and feebly magnetic solids, a method
of determining in absolute measure the,
Sir W. Thomson on, 745.
Magnétiques en France, Prof. KE. Mascart
sur les perturbations, 751.
Magnetisation of iron, report on mole-
cular phenomena associated with
the (phenomena occurring at a red
heat), 145; notes thereon by M. Os-
mond, 157.
*Mallock (A.) on the measurement of
strains, 962.
Manganese steel, the effect of oxidation
on the magnetic properties of, by L.
T. O’Shea, 753.
* Manure’ gravels of Wexford, fourth and
final report on the, 410.
“Marbles and other ornamental rocks of
the Mediterranean, W. Brindley on
the, 809.
March (Dr. H. C.), some neolithic details,
977.
Marine Biological Association, at Ply-
mouth, report of the Committee for
arranging for the occupation of a table
at the laboratory of the, 444; reports
to the Committee, by Mr. M. F. Wood-
ward, 445; by Mr. W. G. Ridewood,
446; by Mr. E. A. Minchin, 20.
Marr (J. E.) on the best methods for the
registration of all type specimens of
fossils in the British Isles, 339.
*Marsh (J. EH.) and R. Stockdale, the pro-
duction of camphor from turpentine,
785.
_ Marsh (Prof. O. C.) on the gigantic cera-
topside (or horned dinosaurs) of North
America, 793 ; on the cretaceous mam-
mals of North America, 853.
Marshall (Prof. A.) on the best methods
997
of ascertaining and measuring varia-
tions in the value of the monetary
standard, 485; on the statistical data
available for determining the amount
of the precious metals in use as money,
&c., 498; Address to the Section of
Economic Science and Statistics, 898.
Marshall (Prof. A.M.) on the occupation of
a table at the zoological ‘station at
Naples, 449; Address tothe Biological
Section by, 826.
* and E. J. Bles on variability in
development, 861.
Marshall (W. B.) *on the ‘ Serve’ tube,
950; the simplex brake, ib.; factors of
safety, 960.
Marten (E. B.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 352.
Martin (J. B.) on the best methods of
ascertaining and measuring variations
in the value of the monetary standard,
485; on the statistical data available
for determining the amount of the
precious metals in use as money, &c.,
498.
*Martin (Mrs. V. C. W.) on the ideal aim
of the economist, 928.
Mascart (Prof. E.) *sur les perturba-
tions magnétiques en France, 751; *op-
tique minéralogique — achromatisme
des franges, 752.
Maskelyne (Prof. N. S.) on the teaching
of science in elementary schools, 489.
Mathematical and Physical Section, Ad-
dress by Dr. J. W. L. Glaisher to the,
AY
*Maund (EH. A.), Zambesia, 892.
Measurement of elongation in test sam-
ples, by J. H. Wicksteed, 962.
*Measurement of strains, A. Mallock on
the, 962.
Mechanical Section, Address by Capt.
Noble to the, 930.
*Mechanism, exhibition of a, by Profs.
Barr and W. Stroud, 962,
Mediterranean, the, physical and his-
torical, Lieut.-Col. Sir R. L. Playfair’s
Address to the Geographical Section,
874. ;
Meldola (Prof. R.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee,
55; on the present methods of teach-
ing chemistry, 265; on the prehis-
toric inhabitants of the British Islands,
548 ; diazoamido-compounds: a study
in chemical isomerism, 780.
Mental evolution, is there a break in? by
Hon. Lady Welby, 972.
Mercury, the absolute resistance of, R. T.
Glazebrook on, 136, .
Meteorological observations on Ben
Nevis, report of the Committee for
co-operating with the Scottish Mete-
orological Society in making, 174.
998
Meteorological observatory recently esta-
blished on Mont Blanc, A. L. Rotch on
a, 747.
Meteorological photography, J. Hopkin-
son on, 751.
*Miall (Prof. L. C.) and A. Hammond on
the development of the head of the fly
of chironomus, 860.
Mica-trap dyes, some West-Yorkshire,
Dr. F. H. Hatch on, 813.
Migration of birds, report of the Com-
mittee for making adigest of the ob-
servations on the, 464.
Mill (Dr. H. R.) on arranging an inves-
tigation of the seasonal variations of
temperature in lakes, rivers, and es-
tuaries, 92; *the vertical relief of the
globe, 888; geographical teaching in
Russia, i).
Millepora murrayi (Quelch), the meaning
of the ampulle in, Dr. 8. J. Hickson
on, 863.
Milne (Prof. J.) on the earthquake and
volcanic phenomena of Japan, 160.
Milne-Home (Mr.) on meteorological
observations on Ben Nevis, 174.
Minchin (E. A.) on the occupation of the
table at the laboratory of the Marine
Biological Association at Plymouth,
446.
Mineral resources of New South Wales,
C. S. Wilkinson on the, 805.
Molecular phenomena associated with
the magnetisation of iron (phenomena
occurring at a red heat), report on,
145; notes thereon, by M. Osmond,
Wage
Molecular refraction of substances in so-
lution, Dr. Gladstone on, 322.
Molecular theory of induced magnetism,
the, by Prof. J. A. Ewing, 740.
Monetary standard, the, fourth report on
the best methods of ascertaining and
measuring variations in the value of,
485.
Morgan (J. B.) on the strata forming the
base of the silurian in North-east
Montgomeryshire, 816.
Morris (D.) on the present state of our
knowledge of the zoology and botany
of the West India Islands, and on the
steps taken to investigate ascertained
deficiencies in the fauna and flora, 447.
*Morris (Rev. F. 0.) on the doctrine of
hereditism, 969.
Mortimer (T. R.), a probable site of
Delgovitia, 980; a supposed Roman
camp at Octon, 2d.
Morton (G. H.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 352; on the Bunter
and Keuper formations in the country
around Liverpool, 819.
Mountains of the Moon, ancient maps of
the, by Cope Whitehouse, 896.
INDEX.
Muir (Pattison) on the present methods
of teaching chemistry, 265.
Muirhead (Dr. A.) on standards for use
in electrical measurements, 95; note
on the air-condensers of the British
Association, 113.
Muirhead (Dr. H.) on the prehistoric
inhabitants of the British Islands,
548.
*Multicellular voltmeter, the, by Sir W.
Thomson, 956.
Munro (Prof. J. E. C.), the probable
effects on wages of a general reduction
in the hours of labour, 472.
Munro (Dr. R.) on the prehistoric inha-
bitants of the British Islands, 548; on
some archeological remains bearing on
the question of the origin of the Anglo-
Saxons in England, 976; on prehistoric
otter and beaver traps, 978. :
Murphy (G. R.), the Victoria and other
torpedoes, 952.
Murray (Dr. J.) on arranging an investi-
gation of the seasonal variations of
temperature in lakes, rivers, and es-
tuaries, 92; on meteorological obser-
vations on Ben Nevis, 174.
*Muscular fibre, the structure of, as
demonstrated by ‘castings’ taken’ in
collodium, J. B. Haycraft on, 860.
Natives of India, report on the habits,
customs, physical characteristics, and
religions of the, 547.
Neolithic details, some, by Dr. H. C.
March, 977.
Netting, the process of manufacturing,
by slitting and expanded sheet metal,
by J. F. Golding, 949.
Neural arch of the vertebre in the ichthy-
osauria, Prof. H. G. Seeley on the,
809.
*New Guinea, recent explorations in,
Coutts Trotter on, 897.
New South Wales, the mineral resources
of, C. S. Wilkinson on, 805.
Newall (H. F.) on molecular phenomena
associated with the magnetisation of
iron (phenomena occurring at a red
heat), 145.
Newton (Prof. A.) on the present state of
our knowledge of the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, and
on the steps taken to investigate as-
certained deficiencies in the fauna and
flora, 447 ; on making a digest of the
observations on the migration of birds,
464; *on the ornithology of the Sand-
wich Islands, 852.
Nicaragua, the geology of, Dr. J. Craw-
ford on the, 812.
——-, human footprints in recent vol-
canic mud in, by Dr. J. Crawford, 812.
INDEX.
Nicholson (Prof. J. §8.) on the best
methods of ascertaining and mea-
suring variations in the value of the
monetary standard, 485 ; on the statis-
tical data available for determining
the amount of the precious metals in
use as money, &c., 498.
Nicol (Dr.) on the properties of solutions,
310; on the bibliography of solution, ib.
Noble (Capt.), Address to the Mechanical
Section by, 930.
Nomad tribes of Asia Minor and Northern
Persia, report on the geography and the
habits, customs, and physical characters
of the, and on excavating on sites of
ancient occupation, 535.
North-western tribes of the Dominion of
Canada, sixth report on the physical
characters, languages, and industrial
and social condition of the, 553; re-
marks on the ethnology of British
Columbia, by H. Hale, ib.; second
general report on the Indians of
British Columbia, by Dr. F. Boas, 562.
Ohm, suggestions towards a determina-
tion of the, by Prof. J. V. Jones, 732.
Oliver (Prof. F. W.) on the floral biology
of Episcia maculata, 869.
*Optique minéralogique —achromatisme
des franges, by Prof. E. Mascart, 752.
*Ordnance Survey, the present state of
the, and the paramount necessity for a
thorough revision, by H. T. Crook, 896.
*Ornithology of the Sandwich Islands,
Prof. A. Newton on the, 852.
Orthophote, the, by J. T. Brown, 778.
O’Shea (L. T.), the effect of oxidation on
the magnetic properties of manganese
‘steel, 753.
Osmond (M.), notes on the report on
molecular phenomena associated with
the magnetisation of iron (phenomena
occurring at a red heat), 157.
Ostwald (Prof. W.) on the electrical be-
haviour of semipermeable membranes,
331; on the theory of solution, 333;
on the action of semipermeable mem-
branes in electrolysis, 746.
Oxidation, the effect of, on the magnetic
properties of manganese steel, by L. T,
O’Shea, 753.
Oxides, the more stable, the behaviour of,
at high temperatures, by Dr. G. H.
Bailey and A. A. Read, 773.
Palgrave (R. H. Inglis) on the best
methods of ascertaining and measur-
ing variations in the value of the
monetary standard, 485; on the statis-
tical data available for determining
the amount of the precious metals in
use as money, &c., 498.
999
Panton (J. H.), the flora of Victoria Park
Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada, 871.
Paraguay, from, to the Pacific, by M. A.
Thouar, 893.
Peat overlying a lacustrine deposit at
Filey, Rev. EK. M. Cole on, 823.
Pengelly (W.) on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 340;
on the circulation of underground
waters, 352; on the nomad tribes of
Asia Minor and Northern Persia, 535;
on the prehistoric inhabitants of the
British Islands, 548.
Peradeniya, Ceylon, fourth report on the
steps taken for establishing a botanical
station at, 470.
Perkin (Dr. W. H.), the development of
the coal-tar colour industry since 1882,
775.
*Perkin (Prof. W. H., jun.) on the con-
stitution of the alkaloid, berberin, 785.
Perry (Prof. J.) on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 95; on the
earthquake and volcanic phenomena
of Japan, 160.
Perry (Prof. 5. J.) on the best means of
comparing and reducing magnetic ob-
servations, 172.
Persia, new trade routes into, by H. F. B.
Lynch, 889.
——, Northern, and Asia Minor, the
nomad tribes of, report on, and on ex-
excavating on sites of ancient occupa-
tion, 535.
——, Southern, a railway through, by
Major-Gen. Sir F. J. Goldsmid, 888.
*Pettersson (Dr. O.) on recent Swedish
investigations on the gases held in
solution by the sea-water of the Ska-
gerack, 779.
*Pfafl’s problem, the history of, A. R.
Forsyth on, 743.
Phené (Dr.) on an unidentified people
occupying parts of Britain in pre-
Roman-British times, 974.
Phenological phenomena, the arrange-
ments for recording, G. J. Symons on,
868.
Phillips’s Dyke, Ingleton, T. Tate on, 814.
*Phosphorous oxide, Prof. T. E. Thorpe
on, 780.
Phosphorus trichloride, the action of, on
organic acids and on water, by C. H.
Bothamley and G. R. Thompson, 784.
Photographs, instantaneous, of water
jets, by Lord Rayleigh, 752.
Photographs, recent, of the less refran-
gible portions of solar spectrum under
different atmospheric conditions, by G.
Higgs, 760.
*Photographs of clouds, exhibition of, by
Friese Greene, 751.
Photographs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, report on the collec-
1000
tion, preservation, and systematic
registration of, 429.
Photographs of the invisible, in solar
spectroscopy, by Dr. C. P. Smyth, 750.
Photometer, a new direct-reading, measur-
ing from unity to infinity, by F. H.
Varley, 759.
Phrenology, old and modern, by B. Hol-
lander, 980.
*Phylloglossum, notes on, by Prof. F, O.
Bower, 867.
Phyllopoda, the fossil, of the paleeozoic
rocks, eighth report on, 424.
*Phylogeny of ferns, the question of the,
Prof. F. O. Bower on, 867.
Physical and Mathematical Section,
Address by Dr. J. W. L. Glaisher to
the, 719.
Physical development, by Dr. Hambleton,
974.
Physical studies of an ancient estuary,
by Rey. A. Irving, 818.
Pickering (Prof. 8. U.) on the biblio-
graphy of solution, 310; the present
position of the hydrate theory of solu-
tion, 311, 337.
Pilcher (W.), Honduras (Spanish), 897.
Pinus Thunbergii, on androgynous cones
in, and some remarks on their mor-
phology, by F. E. Weiss, 854.
Pitt-Rivers (Gen.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee,
55; on editing a new edition of ‘An-
thropological Notes and Queries,’ 547 ;
on the anthropological measurements
taken at Newcastle, 1889, 549; *exca-
vation of the Wansdyke at Woodyates,
983.
Plant (J.) on the erratic blocks of Eng-
land, Wales, and Ireland, 340; on the
circulation of underground waters, 352.
Plants, native, the disappearance of, from
their local habitats, third report on,
465.
Platinum thermometer, a comparison of
a, with some mercury thermometers at
low temperatures, by E. H. Griffiths,
130.
Playfair (Lt.-Col. Sir R. L.), Address to
the Geographical Section by, 874.
Pleuracanthus and Xenacanthus, the
palzeozoic elasmobranch genera, restora-
tion of the, by Dr. A. Fritsch, 822.
*Pneumatic distribution of power, Prof.
A. Lupton on the, 954,
Policy, the, of exercising a discrimination
between the deserving and undeserving
in the giving of public poor relief, by
J. King, 921.
*Political partition of Africa, the, by A.
S. White, 892.
Polyzoa, the regeneration of lost parts in,
S. F. Harmer on, 862.
_—— the cretaceous, report on, 378.
INDEX.
Power of certain bacteria to form organic
compounds from inorganic matter, R.
Warington on the, 866.
Powers of circles and spheres, some geo-
metrical theorems relating to the, Prof.
W. W. Johnson on, 743.
Poynting (Prof.) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 138.
Pre-Cambrian rocks occurring as frag-
ments in the Cambrian conglomerates
in Britain, Dr. H. Hicks on, 803.
Precious metals, the amount of the, in
use as money in the principal countries,
the chief forms in which the money is
employed, and the amount annually
used in the arts, report as to the sta-
tistical data available for determining,
498.
Preece (W. H.) on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 95; on the
character of steel used for permanent
magnets, 752; on the form of sub-
marine cables for long-distance tele-
phony, 959.
Prehistoric civilisation, indications of
retrogression in, in the Thames valley,
by H. Stopes, 979.
Prehistoric inhabitants of the British
Islands, the localities in which evi-
dences are found of the existence of,
fourth report of the Committee for
ascertaining and recording, 548.
Prehistoric otter and beaver traps, Dr.
R. Munro on, 978. ;
Prestwich (Prof.) on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 340; on
the circulation of underground waters,
352.
Price (L. L.) on some typical economic
fallacies made by social reformers,
928.
Ptolemaic geography and Ptolemaic
maps, some points in connection with,
by Dr. Schlichter, 897.
Pulsations of a rotating bell, G. H.
Bryan on the, 743.
Quantitative analysis, a method of, by
Dr. G. H. Bailey and J. C. Cain, 772.
Radiometric record of sun-heat from
different parts of the solar disc, W. HE.
Wilson on a, 760.
Railway throngh Southern Persia, a, by
Maj.-Gen. Sir F. J. Goldsmid, 888.
Raiyan Canal, the, by Cope Whitehouse,
955.
Ramsay (Prof. W.) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 138 ;
on the action of light on the hydracids
of the halogens in presence of oxygen,
263; on the properties of solutions,
ili ie!
INDEX,
810; on the bibliography of solution,
ib.; on the theory of solution, 325; on
the influence of the silent discharge
of electricity on oxygen and other
gases, 338; *on the adiabatic curves
for ether, gas, and liquid, at high
temperatures, 746.
Range-finders, or telemeters, some new,
Profs, A. Barr and W. Stroud on,
499,
Rate of explosion, the, of hydrogen and
chlorine in the dry and moist states,
Prof. H. B. Dixon and J. A. Harker
on, 776.
*Ravenstein (E. G.) on the lands of
the globe still available for European
settlement, 893.
Rawson (Sir R.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee,
55.
Rayleigh (Lord) on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 95; on elec-
trolysis in its physical and chemical
hearings, 138; on defective colour
vision, 728; on the tension of water
surfaces, clean and contaminated, in-
vestigated by the method of ripples,
746; instantaneous photographs of
water jets, 752.
Reactions for the detection of hydrogen
dioxide, and the reactions for ura-
nium, the limits of the, T. Fairley on,
783.
Read (A. A.) and Dr. G. H. Bailey, the
behaviour of the more stable oxides at
high temperature, 773.
Refraction and dispersion in certain
metals, H. BE. J. G. du Bois and H.
Rubens on, 728.
Regeneration of lost parts in polyzoa,
S. F. Harmer on the, 862.
Reid (A. 8.) on the collection, preserva-
tion, and systematic registration of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 429.
Reid (C.) on an ancient sea-beach near
Bridlington Quay. 375.
Reinold (Prof. A. W.) on electrolysis in
its physical and chemical bearings,
138; on the bibliography of spectro-
scopy, 261.
Religion of the Australian aborigines,
notes on the, by J. W. Fawcett, 969.
Reversion, Miss N. F. Layard on, 973.
Reynolds (Prof, O.) on the investigation
of the action of waves and currents on
the beds and foreshores of estuaries
by means of working models, 512.
*Rhodes (Dr.), exhibition of maps illus-
oe the statistics of pauperism,
: 22, |
Richardson (Dr.) on the action of light
- on the hydracids of the halogens in
presence of oxygen, 263,
1890.
1001
Rickards (G. H. L.), the Factories and
Workshops Acts, past and present,
927.
Ridewood (W. G.) on the occupation of
the table at the laboratory of the
Marine Biological Laboratory at Ply-
mouth, 446; on the air-bladder of
clupeoid fishes, 7d.
Riley (E.) on the best method of esta~
blishing an international standard for
the analysis of iron and steel, 262.
Risley (Mr.) on the natives of India,
547.
Roberts (I.) onarranging an investigation
of the seasonal variations of tempera-
ture in lakes, rivers, and estuaries, 92 ;
on the circulation of underground
waters, 352.
Roberts-Austen (Prof. W. C.) on elec-
trolysis in its physical and chemical
bearings, 138; on the bibliography of
spectroscopy, 261 ; on the influence of
silicon on the properties of iron and
steel, 262; on the best method of
establishing an international standard
for the analysis of iron and steel, 2d.
Roman camp, a supposed, at Octon, by
T. R. Mortimer, 980.
Roscoe (Sir H. H.) on the best methods
of recording the direct intensity of
solar radiation, 144; on the prepara-
tion of a new series of wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements
and compounds, 224; on the present
methods of teaching chemistry, 265;
on the teaching of science in element-
ary schools, 489; *on recent legisla-
tion as facilitating the teaching of
soience, 772.
Rotary machine for composing and dis-
tributing printing type, a, by J.
Southward, 951.
Rotch (A. L.) on a meteorological ob-
servatory recently established on
Mont Blane, 747.
*Rowland (Prof. H. A.) on the spectra
of the elements and the constitution
of the sun, 751.
Rubens (H.) and H. KE. J. G. du Bois on
refraction and dispersion in certain
metals, 728. '
Riicker (Prof. A. W.) onaelectrolysis in
its physical and chemical bearings,
138; on researches on electro-optics,
144; on the best means of comparing
and reducing magnetic observations,
172.
* and Prof. T. B. Thorpe on regional
magnetic disturbances in the United
Kingdom, 751.
Rudler (F. W.) on the volcanic pheno-
mena of Vesuvius and its neighbour-
hood, 397; on the. nomad tribes of
Asia Minor and Northern ee 535 ;
z
1002
the present aspect of the jade ques-
tion, 971.
Russell (Dr. W. J.) on the action of light
on the hydracids of the halogens in pre-
sence of oxygen, 263; on the present
methods of teaching chemistry, 265.
Saline inclusions in the crystalline rocks
of Dartmoor, the origin of the, A. R.
Hunt on, 815.
*Sandwich Islands, the ornithology of
the, Prof. A. Newton on, 852.
Schlichter (Dr.), some points in connec-
tion with Ptolemaic geography and
Ptolemaic maps, 897.
Schuster (Prof.) on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 95°; on elec-
trolysis in its physical and chemical
bearings, 138; on the best methods of
recording the direct intensity of solar
radiation, 144; on the best means of
comparing and reducing magnetic
observations, 172; on the preparation
of a new series of wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 224.
Science, the teaching of, in elementary
schools, report on, 489.
—— , recent legislation as facili-
tating, Sir H. E. Roscoe on, 772.
Sclater (Dr. P. L.) on the present state
of our knowledge of the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, and
cn the steps taken to investigate as-
certained deficiencies in the fauna and
flora, 447 ; on the occupation of a table
at the zoological station at Naples, 449.
Sea-beach, an ancient, near Bridlington
Quay, final report on, 375.
Seasonal variations of temperature in
lakes, rivers, and estuaries in various
parts of the United Kingdom, third
report of the Committee for arranging
an investigation of the, in co-operation
with the local societies represented on
the Association, 92.
Seaweeds, brown and red, observations
on, by Prof. T. Johnson, 868.
Secondary cells, by W. J. S. B. Starkey,
958.
Secreting cells, Prof. G. Gilson on, 861.
Sedgwick (A.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 449.
Seeley (Prof. H. G.) on the neural arch
of the vertebra in the ichthyosauria,
809.
Semipermeable membranes, the action
of, in electrolysis, Prof. W. Ostwald on,
746.
, the electrical behaviour of, Prof.
Ostwald on, 331.
* Serve’ tube, W. B. Marshall on the, 950.
INDEX.
Sharp (Dr.) on the present state of our
knowledge of the zoology and botany
of the West India Islands, and on the
steps taken to investigate ascertained
deficiencies in the fauna and flora, 447.
Sharp (W.), experiments with drugs as a
question of science, 859.
Shaw (W. N.) on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 95; on elec-
trolysis in its physical and: chemical
bearings, 138; on the present state of
our knowledge in electrolysis and elec-
tro-chemistry, 185; on the theory of
solution, 336; on the general theory
of ventilation, with some applications,
730.
Shelford (W.) on the investigation of the
action of waves and currents on the
beds and foreshores of estuaries by
means of working models, 512.
Shenstone (W. A.) on the present
methods of teaching chemistry, 265 ;
on the influence of the silent discharge
of electricity on oxygen and other
gases, 338; *on some new vacuum
joints and taps, 729.
Sibley (Dr. W.) on the incubation of
snakes’ eggs, 860.
Sidgwick (Prof. H.) on the best methods
of ascertaining and measuring varia-
tions in the value of the monetary
standard, 485; on the statistical data
available for determining the amount
of the precious metals in use as money,
&e., 498.
Silicon, the influence of, on the properties
of iron and steel, fourth report on, 262.
Silurian in North-east Montgomeryshire,
the strata forming the base of the,
J. B. Morgan on, 816.
Simplex brake, the, by W. B. Marshall,
950.
*Simultaneous linear differential equa-
tions, A. R. Forsyth on systems of, 745,
Size of drops, account of experiments to
determine the variations in, with the
interval between the fall of each, by
W. Binnie, 731.
*Skagerack, the gases held in solution
by the sea-water of the, recent inves-
tigations on, by Dr. O. Pettersson, 779.
*Skaptor district of. Iceland, on a visit
to the, by Drs. T. Anderson and H. J.
Johnston-Lavis, 897.
Sladen (P.) on the occupation of a table
at the zoological station at Naples, 449.
Sluices for rivers, &c., the construction
of, F. G. M. Stoney on, 954.
Smith (H. Ll.), modern changes in the
mobility of labour, 927.
Smith (Dr. Wilberforce), stethographic
tracings of male and female respiratory
movements, 981 ; diagrams for reading-
off indices, 982,
i
INDEX,
Smithells (Prof.) on the present methods.
of teaching chemistry, 265.
Smyth (Dr. C. P.), photographs of the
invisible, in. solar spectroscopy, 750.
Snakes’ egegs,. the: incubation of, Dr. W.
Sibley on, 860:
Snelus (G. J.) on the: best method of
establishing an international standard
for the analysis of iron and steel, 262.
Solar radiation, sixth report on the best
methods. of recording the direct in-
tensity of, 144.
Solar spectroscopy, photographs of the
invisible, in, by Dr. C. P..Smyth, 750.
Solar spectrum, recent photographs of
the less refrangible portions of, under
different atmospheric conditions, by
G. Higgs, 760.
Solution, the bibliography of, fourth
report on,. 310.
~—, the molecular refraction of sub-
stances in,, Dr. Gladstone on, 322.
——, the present position of the hydrate
theory of, by 8. U. Pickering, 311.
——,, the theory of, discussion on: S. U.
Pickering, 311, 387; Dr. J. H. Glad-
stone, 322; Dr. Arrhenius,. 323; Dr.
Walker, 325; Prof.. Ramsay, ib.; Dr.
Armstrong, 2b. ; Prof. Fitzgerald, 326 ;
Prof. O. J. Lodge, 330; Prof. Ostwald,
Sols) Prof. van *b) Hoft, 335; W. N.
Shaw, 336.
, ——, Dr. Arrhenius on, 323.
Solutions, the freezing-points of, an appa-
ratus for the determination of, P. J.
Hartog and J. A.. Harker on, 779.
——, the properties of, fourth report on,
310.
Sorby (Dr. H. C.) on arranging an. inves-
tigation of the seasonal variations of
temperature in lakes, rivers, and estu-
aries, 92; on the cretaceous polyzoa,
378.
Southward (J.), a rotary machine for
composing and distributing printing
type, 951.
Specific resistance of copper, T. C. Fitz-
patrick on the, 120.
*Spectra of the elements, the, and the
constitution of the sun, by Prof, H. A.
Rowland, 751.
Spectra of the elements and compounds,
report on the preparation of a new
series of wave-length tables of the,
224.
Spectra of the haloid salts of didymium,
the, by Dr. G. H. Bailey, 773.
Spectroscopy, the bibliography of, report
on, 261.
Speeton clays, the, and their equivalents
in Yorkshire, G. W. Lamplugh on, 808.
Spiller (J.) on the best method of esta-
blishing an international standard for
- the analysis of iron and steel, 262,
" '
4
1003
Spirometer, a new, by W. F. Stanley, 982.
Stallard (Mr.) on the present methods of
teaching chemistry, 265,
Standard resistance coils, the values of
certain, R. T.. Glazebrook on, 98.
Stanley (W. F.), a new. spirometer, 982.
Starkey (W. J. S.. B.), secondary cells,
958.
Statistics, Economic Seience and, Address
by Prof, A. Marshall to the Section of,
898.
*Statistics of pauperism, exhibition of
maps illustrating the, by Dr. Rhodes,
922.
Steel used for permanent magnets,. the
character of, W. H. Preece on, 752.
Steel and iron,.the best method of esta-
blishing an international standard for
the analysis of, second report on, 262.
, the influence of silicon on the
properties of, fourth report on, 262
Stethographic tracings of male and
female respiratory movements, by Dr.
Wilberforce Smith, 981.
Steward (Rey. C. J.) on arranging an in-
vestigation of the seasonal variations
of temperature in lakes, rivers, and
estuaries, 92.
*Stockdale (R.) and J. E. Marsh, the pro-
duction ef camphor from turpentine,
785.
Stokes (Sir G. G.)‘on the best methods
of recording the direct intensity of
solar radiation, 144.
*Stone hammers, a suggestion as to the
boring of, by W. Horne, 980.
Stoney (F. G. M.) on the construction of
sluices for rivers, &c., 954.
Stoney (Dr. G. J.) on the best methods
of recording the direct intensity of
solar radiation, 144.
Stooke (T. S.) onthe circulation of under-
ground waters, 352.
Stopes (H.), indications of retrogression
in prehistoric civilisation in the
Thames valley, 979.
*Strains, the measurement of, A. Mallock
on, 962.
Strata forming the base of the Silurian
in North-east Montgomeryshire, J. B.
Morgan on the, 816.
Stroud (Prof. W.) and Prof. A. Barr on
some new telemeters, or range-finders,
499 ; on the use of the lantern in class-
room work, 727; *exhibition of a
mechanism, 962.
Submarine cables for long-distance tele-
phony, the form of, W. H. Preece on,
959.
Sulphur waters of Yorkshire, the, by C.
H. Bothamley, 779.
Sun-heat from different parts of the solar
disc, a radiometric record of, W. HB.
Wilson on, 760, .
1004
Surface-level of the sea off the south
coast of England, as to certain altera-
tions in the, by R. G. M. Browne, 824.
Swinburne (J.), notes on high vacua,
727 ; the compensation of alternating-
current voltmeters, 753; the effect of
direct and alternating pressures on the
human body, 758.
— and W. F. Bourne on testing iron,
753.
Symons (G. J.) on the work of the Cor-
responding Societies Committee, 55;
on the best methods of recording the
direct intensity of solar radiation, 144 ;
on the circulation of underground
waters, 352; on the arrangements for
recording phenological phenomena,
868.
Tate (T.) on the so-called Ingleton
granite, 800 ; on Phillips’s Dyke, Ingle-
ton, 814.
Taxation, progressive, by Dr. C. F. Bas-
table, 918.
Taylor (H.) on standards for use in elec-
trical measurements, 95.
Teall (J. J. H.) on the volcanic pheno-
mena of Vesuvius and its neighbour-
hood, 397.
Telemeters, or range-finders, some new,
Profs. A. Barr and W. Stroud on, 499.
Temple (Sir R.) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 489.
Tension of water surfaces, clean and con-
taminated, the, investigated by the
method of ripples, Lord Rayleigh on,
746.
*Testing iron, J. Swinburne and W. F.
Bourne on, 753.
Theory of distribution, the pure, by A.
Berry, 923.
Theory of the consumption of wealth, a,
by Prof. P. Geddes, 924.
Theatre hygiene, W. H. Collins on, 773.
Thiselton-Dyer (W. T.) on the present
state of our knowledge of the zoology
and botany of the West India Islands,
and on the steps taken to investigate
ascertained deficiencies in the fauna
and flora, 447; on the steps taken for
establishing a botanical station at
Peradeniya, Ceylon, 470.
Thompson (G. BR.) and C. H. Bothamley,
the action of phosphorus trichloride
on organic acids and on water, 784.
Thompson (Prof. 8. P.) on electrolysis in
its physical and chemical bearings,
138; on the use of fluor spar in optical
instruments, 759; on the sources of
the River Aire, 821 ; on the occurrence
in Yorkshire of Avrenaria gothica
(Fries), 871.
Thomson (Prof. J. J.) on standards for’
_ Topley (W.) on the work of the Corre-
INDEX,
use in electrical measurements, 95;
on electrolysis in its physical and
chemical bearings, 138.
Thomson (Prof. J. M.) on electrolysis in
its physical and chemical bearings, 138.
Thomson (Prof. Sir W.) on standards for
use in electrical measurements, 95; on
electrolysis in its physical and chemical
bearings, 138 ; on researches on electro-
optics, 144; on the earthquake and
volcanic phenomena of Japan, 160; on
the best means of comparing and re-
ducing magnetic observations, 172; on
an illustration of contact electricity
presented by the multicellular electro-
meter, 728; on alternate currents in
parallel conductors of homogeneous or
heterogeneous substance, 732; on
anti-effective copper in parallel con-
ductors or in coiled conductors for
alternate currents, 736; on a method
of determining in absolute measure
the magnetic susceptibility of diamag-
netic and feebly magnetic solids, 745 ;
*a new electric meter; the multicellu-
lar voltmeter; an engine-room volt-
meter; an ampére gauge; a new form
of voltapile, useful in standardising
operations, 956.
Thomson (W.) on the vulcanisation and
decay of indiarubber, 785; on the
unburned gases contained in the flue-
gases from gas-stoves and different
burners, 786.
Thorny plants, the origin of, Prof. P.
Geddes on, 870.
Thorpe (Prof. T. E.), Address to the
Chemical Section by, 761; *on phos-
phorous oxide, 780.
* and Prof. A. W. Riicker on re-
gional magnetic disturbances in the
United Kingdom, 751.
Thouar (M. A.), from Paraguay to the
Pacific, 893.
Tidal observations in Canada, sixth re-
port of the Committee for promoting,
183.
Tiddeman (R. H.) on the erratic blocks
of England, Wales, and Ireland, 340.
Tilden (Prof. W. A.) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 138;
on the influence of silicon on the pro-
perties of iron and steel, 262; on the
best method of establishing an inter-
national standard for the analysis of
iron and steel, ib.; on the properties
of solutions, 310; on the bibliography
of solution, id.
Tomlinson (H.) on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 95.
*Tondini de Quarenghi (C.), the actual
state of the question of the initial me-
ridian for the universal hour, 897.
7
———
Bincex) Pe a
INDEX.
sponding Societies Committee, 55;
on the circulation of underground
waters, 352; on the investigation of
the action of waves and currents on
the beds and foreshores of estuaries
by means of working models, 512.
Torpedoes, the Victoria and other, by G.
R. Murphy, 952.
*Tracheal occlusor apparatus in insecta,
Prof, A. Denny on the, 864.
Trimen (Dr.) on the steps taken for
establishing a botanical station at
Peradeniya, Ceylon, 470.
*Tristram (Rev. Canon), notes on the natu-
ral history of Hierro and Graciosa,
two outlying members of the Canary
Islands, 855.
*Tropeolum, on an abnormality in, with
remarks on the origin of the spur, by
Prof. A. Denny, 855.
*Trotter (Coutts) on recent explorations
in New Guinea, 897.
Trouton (F. T.) on molecular pheno-
mena associated with the magnetisa-
tion of iron (phenomena occurring at a
red heat), 145; some experiments to
determine wave velocity in certain
dielectrics, 741; a coefficient of abra-
sion as an absolute measure of hard-
ness, 757.
*Trowbridge (J.) on electrical oscillations
in air, 754,
Turner (T.) on the influence of silicon
on the properties of iron and steel,
262; on the best method of establish-
ing an international standard for the
analysis of iron and steel, id.
Turner (Sir W.) on the natives of India,
547.
Turpin (Dr. G. S.) on the ignition of ex-
plosive gaseous mixtures, 776.
Tussock grass of the Falkland Islands,
the acclimatisation of the, by Prof. M.
_ M. Hartog, 872.
Tylden-Wright (Mr.) on the circulation
of underground waters, 352.
Tylor (Dr. E. B.) on the natives of India,
547; on editing a new edition of ‘ An-
thropological Notes and Queries,’ éd. ;
on the North-western tribes of the
Dominion of Canada, 553.
Type specimens of fossils in the British
Isles, report on the best methods for
the registration of all, 339.
Ulterior aims of co-operators, the, by B.
Jones, 916.
Unburned gases contained in the flue-
gases from gas-stoves and different
burners, W. Thomson on the, 786.
Underground waters in the permeable
formations of England and Wales, the
. Circulation of, and the quantity and
1005
character of the water supplied to
various towns and districts from these
formations, sixteenth report on, 342.
Unidentified people, an, occupying parts
of Britain in pre-Roman-British times,
Dr. Phené on, 974.
*Universal hour, the actual state of the
question of the initial meridian for the,
by C. Tondini de Quarenghi, 897.
Unwin (Prof. W. C.) on the investigation
of the action of waves and currents on
the beds and foreshores of estuaries by
means of working models, 512.
Ussher (W. A. E.), the Devonian rocks,
as described in De la Beche’s report,
interpreted in accordance with recent
researches, 801.
*Vacuum joints and taps, some new, W.
A. Shenstone on, 729.
Value of labour in relation to economic
theory, the, by J. Bonar, 917.
Van ’t Hoff (J. H.) on the theory of soln-
tion, 335; behaviour of copper potas-
sium chloride and its aqueous solutions
at different temperatures, 776.
*Variability in development, Prof. A. M.
Marshall and EK. J. Bles on, 861.
*Variation in the eggs of birds, some of
the probable causes of, by H. B. Hewet-
son, 860.
Variations in size of drops, with the in-
terval between the fall of each, ac-
count of experiments to determine the,
by W. Binnie, 731.
Varley (F. H.), a new direct-reading
photometer measuring from unity to
infinity, 759.
Vaucheria hamata (Vauch.), Lyngb., a
case of apogamy in, T. Hick on, 872.
Ventilation, on the general theory of,
with some applications, by W. N. Shaw,
730.
Veratrin, Dr. F. Ahrens on, and on the
existence of two isomeric f-picolines,
783.
Vernon (H.), the Bénier hot-air engine or
motor, 953.
*Vertical relief of the globe, the, by Dr.
H. R. Mill, 888.
Vesuvius and its neighbourhood, the
volcanic phenomena of, report on, 397.
Victoria, the, and other torpedoes, by
G. R. Murphy, 952.
Vine (G. R.) on the cretaceous polyzoa,
378.
Vines (Prof.) on the occupation of a
table at the laboratory of the Marine
Biological Association at Plymouth,
444,
Volcanic and earthquake phenomena of
Japan, tenth report on the, 160.
Volcanic eruption, the supposed, of Cape
1006
Reykjanes, by Drs. T. Anderson and
H. J. Johnston-Lavis, 810.
Volcanic eruptions, T. Hart on, 825.
Volcanic phenomena of Vesuvius and its
neighbourhood, report on the, 397.
*Voltapile, a new form of, useful in
standardising operations, by Sir W.
Thomson, 956.
*Voltmeter, an engine-room, by Sir. W.
Thomson, 956.
*___, the multicellular,
Thomson, 956.
Voltmeters, alternating-current, the com-
pensation of, by J. Swinburne, 753.
by Sir W.
Wages, the probable effects on, of a
general reduction of the hours of
labour, by Prof. J. E. C. Munro, 472.
Walker (Dr. J.) on the theory of solution,
325.
Walker (J. F.) on liassic sections near
Bridport, Dorset, 799.
*Wansdyke at Woodyates, excavations of
the, by Gen. Pitt-Rivers, 983.
Ward (Prof. M.) on the steps taken
for establishing a botanical station at
Peradeniya, Ceylon, 470.
Warington (R.) on the power of certain
bacteria to form organic compounds
from inorganic matter, 866.
Watts (Dr. M.) on the preparation of a
new series of wave-length tables of
the spectra of the elements and com-
pounds, 224.
Watts (W. W.), the geology of the Long
Mountain, on the Welsh borders, 817.
Wave-length tables of the spectra of the
elements and compounds, report on the
preparation of a new series of, 224.
Wave velocity in certain dielectrics, some
experiments to determine, by F. T.
Trouton, 741.
Waves and currents, the action of,onthe
beds and foreshores of estuaries, report
on the investigation of, by means of
working models, 512.
Weiss (F. E.) on androgynous cones in
Pinus Thunbergii, and some remarks
on their morphology, 854; on a curious
cell-content in Eucommia ‘ulmoides
(Oliv.), 20.
Welby (Hon. Lady), ‘ Is there a break in
mental evolution ?’ 972.
Wells (J. W.), the physical geographical
features of Brazil, in relation to their
influence upon the development or
otherwise of the industrial and com-
mercial interests of the country, 893.
West India Islands, third report on the
present state of our knowledge of the
zoology and botany of the, and on the
steps taken to investigate ascertained
» deficiencies in the fauna and flora, 447.
INDEX.
Wethered (E.) on the circulation of un-
derground waters, 352.
Wheeler (W. H.) on the investigation of
the action of waves and currents on the
beds and foreshores of estuaries by
means of working models, 512.
Whidborne (Rey, G. F.) on the best
methods for the registration of all type
specimens of fossils in the British
Isles, 339.
Whipple (G. M.) on the best methods of
recording the direct intensity of solar
radiation, 144; on the best means of
comparing and reducing magnetic ob-
servations, 172.
Whitaker (W.) on the work of the Cor-
responding Societies Committee, 55;
on the circulation of underground
waters, 352; suggestions on sites for
coal-search in the south-east of Eng-
land, 819.
*White (A. 8.), the political partition of
Africa, 892.
Whitehouse (Cope), ancient maps of
Egypt, Lake Moeris, and the Mountains
of the Moon, 896; the Raiyan Canal,
955.
Wicksteed (J. H.), measurement of elon-
gation in test samples, 962.
Wilkinson (C. §.), on the mineral re-
sources of New South Wales, 805.
*Wilkinson (K.), the Kalahari, 892.
Williams (E. L.) on the investigation of
the action of waves and currents on
the beds and foreshores of estuaries by
means of working models, 512.
Williamson (Prof. A. W,) on the work
of the Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee, 55.
Wills (A. W.) on the disappearance of
native plants from their local habitats,
465.
Wilson (Sir D.) on the North-western
tribes of the Dominion of Canada, 553.
Wilson (Dr. J. M.) and T. H. Easterfield,
the River Aire: a study in river pollu-
tion, 780.
Wilson (W., jun.), an overlooked variety
of Cynosurus cristatus (crested dog’s-
tail-grass), 872.
Wilson (W. E.) on a radiometric record
of sun-heat from different parts of the
solar disc, 760.
Woodward (A. 8,) on the discovery of a
Jurassic fish-fauna in the Hawkesbury-
Wianamatta beds of New South Wales,
822,
Woodward (Dr. H.) on the earthquake
and volcanic phenomena of Japan,
160; on the best methods for the regis-
tration of all type specimens of fossils
in the British Isles, 339 ; on an ancient
sea-beach near Bridlington Quay, 375;
on the cretaceous polyzoa, 378 ; on the
‘manure’ gravels of Wexford, 410; on
the fossil phyllopoda of the palsozoic
rocks, 424.
Woodward (M. F.) on the occupation of
the table at the laboratory of the
Marine Biological Association at Ply-
mouth, 445.
Woronina, the chytridian, the cytology
of, by Prof. M. M. Hartog, 872.
Xenacanthus and Plewracanthus, the
palwzozoic elasmobranch genera, resto-
rations of the, by Dr. A. Fritsch, 822.
INDEX.
1007
Yorkshire, East, during the glacial period,
by G. W. Lamplugh, 798.
Young (Prof.) on the bibliography of
solution, 310.
Yourouks of Asia Minor, J. T. Bent on
the, 970.
*Zambezia, by E. A. Maund, 892.
Zoological station at Naples, report of the
Committee appointed to arrange for
the occupation of a table at the, 449 ;
report to the Committee, by Mr. G.
W. Butler, 451.
_——_—
————— a —————
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.
Life Members (since 1845), and all Annual Members who have not
intermitted their Subscription, receive gratis all Reports published after
the date of their Membership. Any other volume they require may be
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after that date, at two-thirds of the Publication Price. A few sets, from
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Associates for the Meeting in 1890 may obtain the Volume for the Year at two-thirds
of the Publication Price.
REPORT or rue FIFTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Bath, September
1888, Published at £1 4s.
CONTENTS :—Third Report of the Committee for promoting Tidal Observations in
Canada ;—Report of the Committee for considering the desirability of introducing
a Uniform Nomenclature for the Fundamental Units of Mechanics, and of co-
operating with other bodies engaged in similar work ;—Fourth Report on the best
means of Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Observations;—Fourth Report on
Standards of Light ;—Report of the Committee for co-operating with the Scottish
Meteorological Society in making Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis ;—
Second Report on the Bibliography of Solution;—Report of the Committee for
constructing and issuing Practical Standards for use in Electrical Measurements ;—
Second Report on the Influence of Silicon on the properties of Steel ;—Third Report
of the Committee for inviting designs for a good Differential Gravity Meter in super-
session of the pendulum ;—Report on the present methods of teaching Chemistry ;—
Report on the action of Light on the Hydracids of Halogens in presence of Oxygen ; —
Second Report on the Nature of Solution ;—Report of the Committee for making
arrangements for assisting the Marine Biological Association Laboratory at Plymouth ;
—Third Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives ;—Third Report on the Pre-
historic Race in the Greek Islands ;—Report on the effects of different occupations and
employments on the Physical Development of the Human Body ;—Sixteenth Report
on the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland;—Report of the Committee
for preparing a further Report upon the Provincial Museums of the United Kingdom ;
—Second Report on the ‘ Manure’ Gravels of Wexford;—-Report of the Committee
for continuing the Researches on Food-Fishes at the St. Andrews Marine Laboratory;
—Fourteenth Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters in the Permeable
Formations of England and Wales, and the Quantity and Character of the Water
supplied to various Towns and Districts from these Formations ;—Report on the
Migration of Birds ;—Report on the Flora of the Carboniferous Rocks of Lancashire
1890. 3uU
1010
and West Yorkshire ;—Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station
at Naples ;—Report on the teaching of Science in Elementary Schools ;—Sixth Report
on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks ;—Second Report on the best method
of ascertaining and measuring Variations in the Value of the Monetary Standard ;—
Report as to the Statistical Data available for determining the amount of the Precious
Metals in use as Money in the principal Countries, the chief forms in which the
Money is employed, and the amount annually used in the Arts;—Fourth Report on
the North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada ;—Report of the Corresponding
Societies Committee ;—Second Report on the Prehistoric Inhabitants of the British
Islands ;—Third Report of the Committee for drawing attention to the desirability
of prosecuting further research in the Antarctic Regions ;—Report of the Committee
for aiding in the maintenance of the establishment of a Marine Biological Station at
Granton, Scotland ;—Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius and its neigh-
bourhood ;—Report of the Committee to arrange an investigation of the Seasonal
Variations of Temperature in Lakes, Rivers, and Estuaries in various parts of the
United Kingdom, in co-operation with the local societies represented on the Associa-
tion ;—Report on an ancient Sea-beach near Bridlington Quay;—Report on the
Development of the Oviduct and connected structures in certain fresh-water
Teleostei ;—Third Report on Electrolysis in its Physical and Chemical Bearings ;—
Report on the Flora of the Bahamas ;—Second Report on the Physiology of the
Lymphatic System ;—Report on the Microscopic Structure of the Older Rocks of
Anglesey ;—Report on our present knowledge of the Flora of China ;—Second Report
of the Committee for taking steps for the establishment of a Botanical Station at
Peradeniya, Ceylon ;—Eighth Report on the Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of
Japan ;—Report on the present state of our knowledge of the Zoology and Botany of
the West India Islands, and the steps taken to investigate ascertained deficiencies
in the Fauna and Flora;—Second Report on our Experimental Knowledge of the
Properties of Matter with respect to Volume, Pressure, Temperature, and Specific
Heat ;—Report on the advisability and possibility of establishing in other parts of
the country observations upon the prevalence of Karth Tremors similar to those now
being made in Durham;—The Relations between Sliding Scales and Economic
Theory ;—Index-numbers as illustrating the Progressive Exports of British Produce
and Manutfactures;—The Friction of Metal Coils;—Sur lapplication de lanalyse
spectrale & la mécanique moléculaire et sur les spectres de l’oxygéne.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir F. J. Bramwell’s Address, and
Resolutions of the General Committee of the Association.
REPORT or tee FIFTY-NINTH MEETING, at Newcastle-upon-
Tyne, September 1889, Published at £1 4s.
CONTENTS :—Fifth Report of the Committee for promoting Tidal Observations in
Canada ;—Report on the Molecular Phenomena connected with the Magnetisation
of Iron ;—Report on the Collection and Identification of Meteoric Dust ;—Highteenth
Report on Underground Temperature ;—Fifth Report on the best methods of record-
ing the direct Intensity of Solar Radiation;—Report of the Committee for con-
structing and issuing Practical Standards for use in Electrical Measurements ;—
Second Report of the Committee to arrange an investigation of the Seasonal Varia-
tions of Temperature in Lakes, Rivers, and Estuaries in various parts of the United
Kingdom, in co-operation with the local Societies represented on the Association ;—
Report on the proposals of M. Tondini de Quarenghi relative to the Unification
of Time, and the adoption of a Universal Prime Meridian ;—Fifth Report on
the best means of Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Observations ;—Report
on the best method of establishing International Standards for the Analysis of
Iron and Steel;—Third Report on the Investigation of the Properties of Solutions ;
—Third Report on the Bibliography of Solution ;—Report (Provisional) on the
Influence of the Silent Discharge of Electricity on Oxygen and other Gases ;—Report
of the Committee appointed to confer with the Committee of the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science with a view of forming a Uniform System of
recording the results of Water Analysis ;—Report on the Action of Light on the
Hydracids of the Halogens in presence of Oxygen ;—Seventh Report on the Fossil
Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks;—Report on the Flora of the Carboniferous
Rocks of Lancashire and West Yorkshire ;—Report on an Ancient Sea-beach nea
Bridlington Quay ;—Fifteenth Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters
;
~
1011
the Permeable Formations of England and Wales, and the Quantity and Character
of the Water supplied to various Towns and Districts from these Formations ;—
Report on the Higher Eocene Beds of the Isle of Wight;—Third Report on the
‘Manure’ Gravels of Wexford ;—Second Report on the present state of our Know-
ledge of the Zoology and Botany of the West India Islands, and the steps taken to
investigate ascertained deficiencies in the Fauna and Flora ;—Second Report on the
development of the Oviduct and connected structures in certain freshwater Teleostei ;
-~—Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples ;—Report
of the Committee for improving and experimenting with a Deep-sea Tow-net, for
opening and closing under water ;—Third Report on our present Knowledge of the
Flora of China ;—Report on the steps taken for the investigation of the Natural
History of the Friendly Islands, or other groups in the Pacific, visited by H.M.S.
‘ Egeria’;—Report of the Committee for making a digest of the Observations on
the Migration of Birds;—Report of the Committee for taking steps for the establish-
ment of a Botanical Station at Peradeniya, Ceylon ;—Seventeenth Report on the
Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland ;—Third Report on the Physiology of
the Lymphatic System ;—Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools ;—
Third Report on the best methods of ascertaining and measuring Variations in the
Value of the Monetary Standard ;—Report as to the Statistical Data available for
determining the amount of the Precious Metals in use as Money in the principal
Countries, the chief forms in which the Money is employed, and the amount annually
used in the Arts;—Report on the Geography and Geology of the Atlas Ranges in
the Empire of Morocco;—Fourth Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives ;—
Report on the Habits and Customs and Physical Characteristics of the Nomad Tribes
of Asia Minor, and on the excavation of Sites of ancient occupation ;—Report on
the effects of different Occupations and Employments on the Physical Development
of the] Human Body ;—Report of the Committee for editing a new Edition of
‘Anthropological Notes and Queries ’;—Report of the Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee ;—Fourth Report on Electrolysis in its Physical and Chemical Bearings ;—
Report on the Absorption Spectra of Pure Compounds ;—Second Report on the
present methods of teaching Chemistry ;—Third Report on the Influence of Silicon
on the properties of Steel;—Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius and
its neighbourhood ;—Ninth Report on the Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of
Japan ;—Report of the Committee for co-operating with the Scottish Meteorological
Society in making Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis ;—Third Report on the
Prehistoric Inhabitants of the British Islands ;—Report on the Development of
Graphic Methods in Mechanical Science ;—Report on the investigation of the Action
of Waves and Currents on the Beds and Foreshores of Estuaries by means of Work-
ing Models ;—Report of the Committee for continuing the Bibliography of Spectro-
scopy ;—Report of the Committee for calculating the Anthropological Measurements
taken at Bath ;—Second Report on the Disappearance of Native Plants from their
Local Habitats ;—The Incidence and Effects of Import and Export Duties ;—Experi-
ments upon the Transmission of Power by Compressed Air in Paris (Popp’s System) ;
—The Comtist Criticism of Economic Science ;—On the Advisability of assigning
Marks for Bodily Efficiency in the Examination of Candidates for the Public
Services ;—On the Principle and Methods of assigning Marks for Bodily Efficiency ;—
Experiments at Eton College on the Degree of Concordance between different
Examiners in assigning Marks for Physical Qualifications,
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Professor W. H. Flower’s Address,
and Resolutions of the General Committee of the Association.
eed
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BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR
THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
ELS?
OF
OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND MEMBERS,
CORRECTED TO FEBRUARY 28, 1891,
Office of the Association:
Until May 1, 1891—22 ALBEMARLE STREET, LONDON, W
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OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1890-91.
PRESIDENT.
SIR FREDERICK AUGUSTUS ABEL, K.C.B., D.C.L., D.Sc. F.R.S., V.P.C.8.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
His Grace the DUKE or DrvonsHIRE, K.G., M.A., | The Right Hon. Sir Lyon Puayrarr, K.C.B.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Ph.D., LL.D., M.P., F.R.S., F.C.S.
The Most Hon. the Marquis or Riron, K.G., | The Right Hon. W. L. Jackson, M.P., F.R.S., F.S.S.
G.O.S.L, C.1.E., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. | The Right Worshipful the Mayor or Lrrps.
The Right Hon. the Earn Firzwimam, K.G., | Sir James Kzrson, Bart., M.Inst,C.E., F.R.G.S.
F.R.G.S Sir ANDREW FAIRBAIRN, M.A,
The Right Rev. the Lorp BisHor oF Riron, D.D.
PRESIDENT ELECT.
WILLIAM HUGGINS, Esq., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.AS.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
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of Glamorganshire. F.R.G.S.
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LL.D., Sec.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. F.R.S.E., Pres.G.S., Director-General of the
The Right Hon. Lorp TREDEGAR. Geological Survey of the United Kingdom.
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ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
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BAKER, Sir B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S, REINOLD, Professor A. W., F.\R.S.
BLANFORD, W. T., Esq., F.R.S. ROBERTS-AUSTEN, Professor W. C.,C.B., F.R.S,
Crooxss, W., Esq., F.R.S. RUcKER, Professor A. W., F.R.S.
DARWNW,, Professor G. H., F.R.S. ScHAFER, Professor E. A., F.R.S.
Dovauass, Sir J. N., F.R.S. ScuusveEr, Professor A., F.R.S.
EVANS, Dr. J., F.R.S. SIGWICcK, Professor H., M.A.
FI’ZGERALD, Professor G. F., F.R.S. THORPE, Professor T. E., F.R.S.
GRIKIE, Dr. A., F.R.S. WarD, Professor H. MARSHALL, F.R.S.
GLAZEBROOK, R. T., Esq., F.R.S, WHARTON, Captain W. J. L., R.N., F.R.S.
Jupp, Professor J. W., F.R.S. WHITAKER, W., Esq., F.R.S,
LIvEING, Professor G. D., F.R.S. Woopwakb, Dr. H., F.R.S.
Martin, J. B., Esq., F.S.S.
GENERAL’ SECRETARIES.
Capt. Sir Doveias Gatton, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 12 Chester Street, London, 8.W.
A. G, VerNon Harcourt, Esq., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Cowley Grange, Oxford,
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
G. GrirritH, Esq., M.A., F.C.S,, 22 Albemarle Strect, London, W.
GENERAL TREASURER.
, Professor A. W. WILLIAMSON, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., 17 Buckingham Street, London, W.C.
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL,
_ The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
_ Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
_ the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and Secretaries for
_ the ensuing Meeting.
. TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).
J The Right Hon. Sir Joun Luspock, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D,, F.R.S., F.L.S,
The Right Hon. Lord RAYLEIGH, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D,, Sec.R.S., F.R.A.S.
The Right Hon, Sir Lyon PLayrair, K.C,B., M.P., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S,
’
PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS,
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_ The Duke of Argyll, K.G., K.T. | Prof. Williamson, Pb.D., F.R.S. | Sir Lyon Playfair, K.C.B.
F
‘Sir Richard Owen, K.C.B., F.R.S. | Prof. Tyndall, D.C.L., F.R.S, Sir Wm. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S,
Lord Armstrong, C.B., LL.D. Sir John Hawkshaw, F'.R.S. Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir William R. Grove, F.R.3. Prof. Allman, M.D., F.R.S. Sir F, J. Bramwell, Bart., F.R.S.
Sir Joseph D. Hooker, K.C.S.1. Sir A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S. | Prof. W. H. Flower, C.B., F.R.S.
Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart., F.R.S. Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S.
GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.
_F, Galton, Esq., F.2.S, G. Griffith, Esq., M.A., F.C.S. Prof. Bonney, D.Sc., F-R.S.
Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S. Y. L. Sclater, Hsq.,Ph.D., F.R.S, | A. T, Atchison, Esq., M.A.
Dr. Michael Foster, Sec.R.S.
AUDITORS.
Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S. | W.T. Ss Aap Esq.,F.R.S.]. Prof, H, M'Leod, F.B.S,
Aa
LIST OF MEMBEKS
OF THE
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.
1891
* indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report.
§ indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Annual Report,
t indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names without any mark before them are Life Members not entitled
to the Annual Report.
Names of Members of the GENERAL COMMITTEE are printed in
SMALL CAPITALS.
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known
are in italics.
Notice of changes of residence should be sent to the Assistant
General Secretary.
Year of
Election.
1887. *Abbe, Cleveland. Weather Bureau, Army Signal Office, Washing-
ton, U.S.A.
1881. *Abbott, R. T, G. Whitley House, Malton.
1887, tAbbott,T. C. Eastleigh, Queen’s-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.
1863. *Azrt, Sir Frepertck Aveustus, K.C.B., D.C.L., D.Sc., F.R.S.,
V.P.C.S., President of the Government Committee on Explosives.
(Presipent.) 1 Adam-street, Adelphi, London, W.C.
1856. {Adercrombie, John, M.D. 39 Welbeck-street, London, W.
1886. {ABERcRomBY, The Hon. Ratpu, F.R.Met.Soc. 21 Chapel-street,
Belgrave-square, London, 8. W.
1885. *AnERDEEN, The Right Hon. the Earl of, LL.D. 87 Grosvenor-
square, London, W.
1885. tAberdeen, The Countess of. 37 Grosyenor-square, London, W.
1885. tAbernethy, David W. Ferryhill Cottage, Aberdeen.
1863. *ABERNETHY, Jamzs, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. 4 Delahay-street, West-
minster, S. W.
1885. tAbernethy, James W. 2 Rubislaw-place, Aberdeen.
1873, *Annzy, Captain W. pe W., R.E., C.B., D.O.L., F.RS., F-R.AS.,
F.C.S. Willeslie House, Wetherby-road, South Kensington,
London, S8.W. ~
6 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1886. §Abraham, Harry. 147 High-street, Southampton.
1877. {Ace, Rev. Daniel, D.D., F.R.A.S. Laughton, noar Gainsborough,
Lincolnshire.
1884, tAcheson, George. Collegiate Institute, Toronto, Canada.
1873. t{Ackroyd, Samuel. Greaves-street, Little Horton, Bradford, York-
shire.
1882. *Acland, Alfred Dyke. 38 Pont-street, Chelsea, London, S.W.
1869. tAcland, Charles T. D., M.P. Sprydoncote, Exeter.
1877. *Acland, Captain Francis E. Dyke, R.A. 22 Cheyne-gardens, Chelsea,
London, 8.W.
1873. *Acland, Rev. H. D., M.A. Nymet St. George, South Molton,
Devon.
1873. *Actanp, Sir Henry W. D., Bart., K.C.B., M.A., M.D., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S., Radclitfe Librarian and Regius Professor of
Medicine in the University of Oxford. Broad-street, Oxford.
1877, *Acland, Theodore Dyke, M.A. 7 Brook-street, London, W.
1860. {AcLaNnD, Sir Toomas Dyxn, Bart., M.A., D.C.L., M.P. Sprydon-
cote, Exeter ; and Athenzeum Club, London, S.W.
1887. {Apamt, J. G., B.A. New Museums, Cambridge.
1884, tAdams, Frank Donovan. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.
1876. {Adams, James. 9 Royal-crescent West, Glascow.
*Apams, Jonn Covcu, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director
of the Observatory and Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and
Geometry in the University of Cambridge. The Observatory,
Cambridge.
1871. §Adams, John R. 387 De Vere-gardens, Kensington, London, S.W.
1879, *Apams, Rev. THomas, M.A., D.C.L., Principal of Bishop’s College,
Lennoxville, Canada.
1877. tApams, Wittt1am. 3 Sussex-terrace, Plymouth.
1869, *Apams, Wi1LtLIAM Grytts, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.8., F.C.P.S., Pro-
fessor of Natural Philosophy and ‘Astronomy in King’s College,
London. 43 Notting Hill-square, London, W.
1879, {Adamson, Robert, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Logie and Political
Economy in Owens College, Manchester. 1 Derby-road,
Fallowfield, Manchester.
~ 1890. §Addyman, James Wilson, B.A. Belmont, Starbeck, Harrogate.
1890. §Adeney, W. E. Royal University of Ireland, Earlsford-terrace,
Dublin.
1865, *Adkins, Henry. Northfield, near Birmingham.
1885. tAdshead, Samuel. School of Science, Macclesfield.
1884. tAgnew, Cornelius R. 266 Maddison-avenue, New York, U.S.A.
1887. t{Agnew, William. Summer Hill, Pendleton, Manchester.
1884. tAikins, Dr. W. T. Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada.
1864. *Ainsworth, David. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.
1871. *Ainsworth, John Stirling. Harecroft, Cumberland.
1871. tAinsworth, William M. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.
. Arry, Sir Groner Brppett, K.0.B., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.B.5.,
F.R.A.S. The White House, Croom’s Hill, Greenwich, S.E.
1871. §Aitken, John, F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Darroch, Falkirk, N.B.
Akroyd, Edward. Bankfield, Halifax.
1884, *Alabaster, H. 22 Paternoster-row, London, E.C.
1886. *Albright,G. 8. The Elms, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1862. {Ancocx, Sir Ruruerrorp, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.G.S. The Athe-
neum Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W.
1861. *Alcock, Thomas, M.D. Oakfield, Sale, Manchester,
*Aldam, William. Frickley Hall, near Doncaster.
1887, tAlexander, B. Fernlea, Fallowfield, Manchester.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 7
Year of
Election.
1883.
1888.
1875.
1858.
1885.
1883.
1883.
1867.
1859.
1885.
1871.
1871.
1887.
1879.
1887.
1888.
1884.
1887.
1878.
1861.
1887.
1889.
1863.
1889.
1887.
1886.
1887.
1873.
1883.
1883.
1884,
1876.
1878.
1885.
1850.
1883.
1885.
1874.
1888.
1889.
1887,
1880.
1886,
1880.
1883.
1880,
1886.
1883.
1877.
tAlexander, George. Kildare-street Club, Dublin.
*Alexander, Patrick Y. 8 Portland-place, Bath.
tAlexander, Reginald, M.D. 18 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tAtexanpErR, Witr1am, M.D. Halifax.
tAlger, Miss Ethel. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South
Devon.
tAleer, W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South Devon.
tAlger, Mrs. W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South
Devon.
tAlison, George L. C. Dundee.
tAllan, Alexander. Scottish Central Railway, Perth.
tAllan, David. West Cults, near Aberdeen.
tAllan, G., M.Inst.C.H. 10 Austin Friars, London, E.C.
tAtcen, Atrrep H., F.C.8S. 67 Surrey-street, Sheffield.
*Allen, Arthur Ackland. Overbrook, Kersal, Manchester.
*Allen, Rey. A. J.C. Cava House, Barton-road, Cambridge.
*Allen, Charles Peter. Overbrook, Kersal, Manchester.
tAllen, F. J. Mason College, Birmingham.
tAllen, Rev. George. Shaw Vicarage, Oldham.
§Allen, John. Kilgrimol School, St. Anne’s-on-the-Sea, vid Preston.
tAllen, John Romilly. 5 Albert-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
N.W.
tAllen, Richard. Didsbury, near Manchester.
*Allen, Russell. 2 Parkwood, Victoria Park, Manchester.
tAllhusen, Alfred. Low Fell, Gateshead.
tAllhusen, C. Elswick Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
§Allhusen, Frank. Low Fell, Gateshead.
*ALIMAN, GrorcE J., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.L. & E., MRA. F.LS.,
Emeritus Professor of Natural History in the University of
Edinburgh. Ardmore, Parkstone, Dorset.
*Allnutt, J. W. F., M.A. 12 Chapel-row, Portsea, Hants.
tAllport, Samuel. 50 Whitall-street, Birmingham.
tAlward, G. L. 11 Hamilton-street, Grimsby, Yorkshire.
tAmbler, John. North Park-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
§Amery, John Sparke. Druid House, Ashburton, Devon.
§Amery, Peter Fabyan Sparke. Druid House, Ashburton, Devon.
tAmi, Henry. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.
t{Anderson, Alexander. 1 St. James’s-place, Hillhead, Glasgow.
tAnderson, Beresford. Saint Ville, Killiney.
tAnderson, Charles Clinton. 4 Knaresborough-place, Cromwell-
road, London, S.W.
tAnderson, Charles William. Belvedere, Harrogate.
tAnderson, Miss Constance. 17 Stonegate, York.
*Anderson, Hugh Kerr. Frognal Park, Hampstead, London, N.W.
tAnderson, John, J.P., F.G.S. Holywood, Belfast.
*Anderson, R. Bruce. 354A Great George-street, London, 8.W.
tAnderson, Robert Simpson. Elswick Collieries, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
tAnderson, Professor R. J., M.D. Queen’s College. Galway.
*ANDERSON, TrempEst, M.D., B.Sc. 17 Stonegate, York.
* ANDERSON, WILLIAM, D.C.L., M.Inst.C.E. Lesney House, Erith, Kenv.
tAndrew, Mrs. 126 Jamaica-street, Stepney, London, E.
tAndrew, Thomas, F.G.8S. 18 Southernhay, Exeter.
*Andrews, Thornton, M.Inst.C.E. Cefn Eithen, Swansea.
§Andrews, William. Gosford Lodge, Coventry.
§Anelay, Miss M. Mabel. Girton College, Cambridge.
§ANGELL, Jouy, F.C.S. 81 Ducie-grove, Oxford-street Manchester.
8
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1886.
1886.
1878.
1890,
1886.
1870.
1874.
1884.
1851.
1884.
1883.
18838.
1887.
1861.
1867.
1857.
1879.
1886.
1878.
1876,
1889.
1884.
1889,
1870.
1853.
1886.
1870.
1874,
1889.
1873.
1887.
1866.
1887.
1888.
§Annan, John. Wolverhampton.
tAnsell, Joseph. 38 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
fAnson, Frederick H. 15 Dean’s-yard, Westminster, S.W.
Antbony, John, M.D. 6 Greenfield-crescent, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.
§Antrobus, J. Coutts. Eaton Hall, Congleton.
§Arblaster, Edmund, M.A. The Grammar School, Carlisle.
tArcher, Francis. 14 Cook-street, Liverpool.
tArcher, William, F.R.S., M.R.LA. 11 South Frederick-street,
Dublin.
* Archibald, E. Douglas. Grosvenor House, Tunbridge Wells.
tAReyut, His Grace the Duke of, K.G., K.T., D.C.L., F.R.S. L. & E.,
F.G.S. Argyll Lodge, Kensington, London, W.; and Inverary,
Argyllshire.
§Arlidge, John Thomas, M.D., B.A. The High Grove, Stoke-upon-
Trent.
§Armistead, Richard. 28 Chambres-road, Southport.
*Armistead, William. 15 Rupert-street, Compton-road, Wolver-
hampton.
tArmitage, Benjamin. Chomlea, Pendleton, Manchester.
tArmitage, William. 95 Portland-street, Manchester.
*Armitstead, George. Errol Park, Errol, N.B.
*ArmstronG, The Right Hon. Lord, O.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Jesmond Dene, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Armstrong, Sir Alexander, K.C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
The Albany, London, W.
tArmstrong, George Frederick, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Regius Pro-
fessor of Engineering in the University of Edinburgh. The
University, Edinburgh.
§Armstrone, Henry E., Ph.D., F.R.S., Sec.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the City and Guilds of London Institute, Central
Institution, Exhibition-road, London, S.W. 55 Granville
Park, Lewisham, 8.E.
tArmstrong, James. Bay Ridge, Long Island, New York, U.S.A.
tArmstrong, John A. 32 Eldon-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tArmstrong, Robert B. Junior Carlton Club, Pall Mall, London,
S.W.
Armstrong, Thomas. Higher Broughton, Manchester.
jArmstrong, Thomas John. 14 Hawthorn-terrace, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
tArnott, Thomas Reid. Bramshill, Harlesden Green, London,
N.W
*Arthur, Rev. William, M.A. Clapham Common, London, S.W.
tAscough, Jesse. Patent Borax Company, Newmarket-street, Bir-
mingham.
*Ash, Dr. T. Linnington. Holsworthy, North Devon.
tAshe, Isaac, M.B. Dundrum, Co. Dublin.
§Ashley, Howard M. Ferrybridge, Normanton.
tAshton, John. Gorse Bank House, Windsor-road, Oldham.
Asuton, THomas, J.P. Ford Bank, Didsbury, Manchester.
tAshton, Thomas Gair, M.A. 386 Charlotte-street, Manchester.
tAshwell, Henry. Woodthorpe, Nottingham.
*Ashworth, Edmund. Egerton Hall, Bolton-le-Moors.
tAshworth, Mrs. Harriet. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor, near Stock-
ort.
Ashworth, Henry. Turton, near Bolton.
*Ashworth, J.J. 389 Spring-gardens, Manchester.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 9
Year of
Election.
1890,
1887.
1887.
1875.
1861.
1861.
1872.
s 1887.
1865.
ie
1884.
1865.
1861.
1858.
1881.
1881.
1865.
1884,
1886.
1860.
1865.
1881.
1888.
1877.
1884,
1863.
1883.
1887.
1887.
1881.
1877.
1883.
1883.
1888.
1870.
1887.
1878.
/ 1865.
ee eee eee
1855.
1887.
§Ashworth, J. Reginald. 20 King-street, Rochdale.
§Ashworth, John Wallwork. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor, near
Stockport.
tAspland, Arthur P. Werneth Lodge, Gee Cross, near Manchester.
*Aspland, W. Gaskell. 93 Fellows-road, London, N.W.
§Asquith, J. R. Intirmary-street, Leeds.
{Aston, Theodore. 11 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
*Artcuison, ARTHUR T., M.A. 60 Warwick-road, Earl’s Court,
London, 5. W.
§ Atkinson, Rev. C. Chetwynd, B.A. Goresfield, Ashton-on-Mersey.
*Arxrnson, Epmunp, Ph.D., FCS. Portesbery Hill, Camberley,
Surrey. ;
tAtkinson, Edward. Brookline, Massachusetts, Boston, U.S.A.
*Atiinson, G. Clayton. 21 Windsor-terrace, New castle-on- -Tyne.
tAtkinson, Rey. J. A. Longsight Rectory, near Manchester.
*Atkinson, John Hastines. 12 East Parade, Leeds.
tAtkinson, J.T. The Quay, Selby, Yorkshire.
tArxinson, Ropert Wit1iAM, F.C.S, 44 Loudoun-square, Cardiff,
*ATTFIELD, Professor J., M.A. ,Ph. D., F.R.S., F.C.S,_ 17 Bloomsbury-
square, London, W.C.
tAuchincloss, W.S8. 209 Church-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.
tAulton, A. D., M.D. Walsall.
*Austin-Gourlay, Rev. William HE. C., M.A. The Gables, Win-
chester.
*Avery, Thomas. Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmineham.
ftAxon, W. EH. A. Fern Bank, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
tAyre, Rey. J. W., M.A. 80 Green-street, Grosvenor-square,
London, W.
*Ayrton, W. E., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Physics in the City
and Guilds of London Institute, Central Institution, Exhibition-
road, London, 8. W.
*BaBrneron, CHartEs CARDALE, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Pro-
fessor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. 5 Brookside,
Cambridge.
tBaby, The Bot G. Montreal, Canada.
Backhouse, Edmund. Darlington.
{Backhouse, T. W. West Hendon House, Sunderland.
*Backhouse, W. A. St. John’s Wolsingham, near Darlington.
*Bacon, Thomas Walter. 4 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead, London,
N.W
{Baddeley, John. 1 Charlotte-street, Manchester.
{Baden-Powell, Sir George 8., K. C. MG... McA, MP.) FR.A.S.,
F.S.S. 8 St. George’s- place, Hyde Park, London, S.W.
tBadock, W. F. Badminton House, Clifton Park, Bristol,
tBagrual, P. H, St. Stephen’s Club, Westminster, S.1W.
tBaildon, Dr. 65 Manchester-road, Southport.
*Bailey, Charles, F.L.S. Ashfield, College-road, Whalley Baie,
Manchester.
{Bailey, Dr. Francis J. 51 Grove-street, Liverpool.
*Bailey, G. H., D.Sc., Ph.D. Owens College, Manchester,
{ Bailey, John. The Laurels, Wittington, near Hereford.
{Bailey, Samuel, F.G.S. Ashley House, Calthorpe-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
{Bailey, William. Horseley Fields Chemical Works, Wolver-
hampton.
tBailey, W. H. Summerfield, Eccles Old-road, Manchester.
10
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1866.
1878.
1885.
1873.
1885.
1858.
1882.
1866.
1886,
1861.
1881.
1865.
1875.
1875.
1881.
1884,
1871.
1875.
1883.
1878.
1866.
tBaillon, Andrew. British Consulate, Brest.
{Baily, Walter. 176 Haverstock-hill, London, N.W.
{Barn, AtexanpER, M.A., LL.D., Rector of the University of
Aberdeen. Ferryhill Lodge, Aberdeen.
{Bain, Sir James, 3 Park-terrace, Glasgow.
{Bain, William N. Collingwood, Pollokshields, Glasgow.
{Baines, T. Blackburn. ‘ Mercury’ Office, Leeds.
*Baxer, Sir Brensamin, K.C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E,
2 Queen Square-place, Westminster, S.W.
{Baker, Francis B. Sherwood-street, Nottingham.
{Baker, Harry. 262 Plymouth-grove, Manchester.
*Baker, John. The Gables, Buxton.
tBaker, Robert, M.D. The Retreat, York.
{Baker, William. 6 Taptonyille, Sheffield.
*Baker, W. Mills. The Holmes, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.
{Baxer, W. Procror. Brislington, Bristol.
{Baldwin, Rev. G. W. de Courey, M.A. Lord Mayor’s Walk, York.
{Balete, Professor E, Polytechnic School, Montreal, Canada.
{Balfour,G. W. Whittinghame, Prestonkirk, Scotland.
{Batrour, Isaac Baytny, D.Se., M.D., F.R.S.L. & E., F.L.S., Pro-
fessor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. Inverleith
House, Edinburgh.
{Balfour, Mrs. I. Bayley. Inverleith House, Edinburgh.
*Ball, Charles Bent, M.D. 16 Lower Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin.
*BaLL, Sir Ropert Srawett, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Andrews
Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin, and
Astronomer Royal for Ireland. The Observatory, Dunsink,
Co. Dublin.
. {Batt, Varenting, C.B., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of
the Museum of Science and Art, Dublin.
. “Ball, W. W. Rouse, M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
. §Ballantyne, J. W., M.B. 50 Queen-street, Edinburgh.
. {Bamber, Henry K., F.C.S. 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-
street, Westminster, S.W.
. §Bamford, Harry, B.Sc. The Owens College, Manchester.
. TBance, Major Edward. Limewood, The Avenue, Southampton.
. {Bantsrer, Rey. Wirr1am, B.A. St. James’s Mount, Liverpool.
. {Bannatyne, Hon. A.G. Winnipeg, Canada.
. {Barbeau, E. J. Montreal, Canada.
. {Barber, John. Long-row, Nottingham.
. {Barber, Rey. S. F. West Raynham Rectory, Swaffham, Norfolk.
. *Barber-Starkey, W. J.S. Aldenham Park, Bridgnorth, Salop.
. *Barbour, George. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Chester.
. {Barclay, Andrew. Kilmarnock, Scotland.
. {Barclay, George. 17 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.
. *Barclay, J. Gurney. 54 Lombard-street, London, E.C.
. *Barclay, Robert. High Leigh, Hoddesden, Herts.
. *Barclay, Robert. 21 Park-terrace, Glasgow.
. *Barclay, Robert. Springfield, Kersal, Manchester.
. {Barclay, Thomas. 17 Bull-street, Birmingham.
. *Barclay, W. L. 54 Lombard-street, London, E.C.
. {Barfoot, William, J.P. Whelford-place, Leicester.
. {Barford, J. D. Above Bar, Southampton.
. “Barford, James Gale, F.C.S, Wellington College, Wokingham,
Berkshire.
. {Barham, F. F. Bank of England, Birmingham.
. §Barker, Alfred, M.A. 38 Grove-road, Leeds.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS, pa
:
Election.
1860.
1879.
1882.
1879.
1865.
1870.
1889.
1886.
1873.
1889,
1883.
1878.
1883.
1885.
1873.
1861.
1881,
1889.
1868.
1884.
1886,
1881.
1890.
1859,
1885.
1883.
1860.
1872.
1883.
1887,
1874.
1874,
1885.
1881.
1866.
1886.
1886,
1886.
1886,
1858.
1862,
*Barker, Rev. Arthur Alcock, B.D. East Bridgford Rectory,
Nottingham.
tBarker, Elliott. 2 High-street, Sheffield.
*Barker, Miss J. M. Hexham House, Hexham.
*Barker, Rev. Philip C., M.A., LL.B. Boroughbridge Vicarage,
Bridgwater.
{Barker, Stephen. 30 Frederick-street, Edebaston, Birmingham.
{Barxty, Sir Heyry, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 1 Bina-
gardens, South Kensington, London, S.W.
tBarkus, Dr. B, 3 Jesmond-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
TBarling, Gilbert. 85 Edmund-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
tBarlow, Crawford, B.A. 2 Old Palace-yard, Westminster, S.W.
§Barlow, H. W. L. Holly Bank, Croftsbank-road, Urmston, near
Manchester.
tBarlow, J. J. 37 Park-street, Southport.
{Barlow, John, M.D., Professor of Physiology in Anderson's Col-
lege, Glasgow.
Barlow, John R. Greenthorne, near Bolton.
Barlow, Lieut.-Col. Maurice (14th Regt. of Foot). 5 Great George-
street, Dublin.
{Barlow, William. Hillfield, Muswell Hill, London, N.
TBartow, Witiiam Henry, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 2 Old Palace-
yard, Westminster, 8S. W.
*Barnard, Major R. Cary, F.L.S. Bartlow, Leckhampton, Chelten-
lam.
tBarnard, William, LL.B. Harlow, Essex.
tBarnes, J. W. Bank, Durham.
§Barnes, Richard H. Heatherlands, Parkstone, Dorset.
{Barnett, J. D. Port Hope, Ontario, Canada.
{Barnsley, Charles H. 382 Duchess-road, Edzbaston, Birmingham.
tBarr, Archibald, D.Se., M.Inst.C.E. The University, Glasgow.
§Barr, Frederick H. 4 South-parade, Leeds.
{Barr, Lieut.-General. Apsleytoun, Kast Grinstead, Sussex.
{Barrett, John Chalk. Errismore, Birkdale, Southport.
{Barrett, Mrs. J.C. Errismore, Birkdale, Southport.
{Barrett, T. B. 20 Victoria-terrace, Welshpool, Montgomery.
*Barrert, W. F., F.R.S.E., M.R.I.A., Professor of Physics in the
Royal College of Science, Dublin.
{Barrett, William Scott. Winton Lodge, Crosby, near Liverpool.
§Barrington, Miss Amy. Fassaroe, Bray, Co. Wicklow.
*Barrineton, R. M., M.A., LL.B., F.L.S. Fassaroe, Bray, Co.
Wicklow.
*Barrington-Ward, Mark J., M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., H.M. Inspector
of Schools. Thorneloe Lodge, Worcester.
*Barron, Frederick Cadogan, M.Inst.C.E. Nervion, Beckenham-
grove, Shortlands, Kent.
§Barron, G. B., M.D. Summerseat, Southport.
{Barron, William. Elvaston Nurseries. Borrowash, Derby.
{Barrow, George William. Baldraud, Lancaster.
}Barrow, Richard Bradbury. Lawn House, 13 Ompton-road, Edg-
baston, Birmingham.
{Barrows, Joseph. The Poplars, Yardley, near Birmingham.
{Barrows, Joseph, jun. Ferndale, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.
{Barry, Right Rev. Atrrep, D.D., D.C.L. Knapdale, Upper
Tooting, Surrey.
*Barry, CHartys. 15 Pembridge-square, London, W.
12
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1883. tBarry, Charles E. 15 Pembridge-square, London, W.
1875. tBarry, John Wolfe. 23 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W
1881. {Barry, J. W. Duncombe-place, York.
1884, *Barstow, Miss Frances. Garrow Hill, near York.
1890. *Barstow, J. J. Jackson, The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.
1890.
1858.
1858.
1884.
1878.
1884.
1852.
1887.
1882.
1876.
1876.
1888.
1866.
1889.
1869,
1871.
1889.
1883.
1873.
1868.
1889.
1864.
1884.
1851.
1881.
1836.
1865.
1867.
1868.
1875.
1876.
1887.
1887.
1883,
1886,
*Barstow, Mrs. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.
*Bartholomew, Charles. Castle Hill House, Haling, Middlesex, W.
*Bartholomew, William Hamond. Ridgeway House,Cumberland-road,
Headingley, Leeds.
{Bartlett, James Herbert. 148 Mansfield-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Bartley, George C. T., M.P. St. Margaret’s House, Victoria-street,
London, 8. W. :
{Barton, H. M. Foster-place, Dublin.
tBarton, James. Farndreg, Dundalk.
{Bartrum, John S. 13 Gay-street, Bath.
*Bashforth, Rey. Francis, B.D. Minting Vicarage, near Horncastle.
*Basine, The Right Hon, Lord, F.R.S. 74 St. George’s-square,
London, S.W.
{Bassano, Alexander. 12 Montagu-place, London, W.
{Bassano, Clement. Jesus College, Cambridge.
*Basset, A. B., M.A., F.R.S. Chapel Place Mansions, 322 Oxford-
street, London, W.
*Bassrrt, Hunry. 26 Belitha-villas, Barnsbury, London, N.
§Bastable, Professor C. F., M.A., F.S.S. 74 Kenilworth-square,
Rathgar, Co. Dublin.
{Bastard, 8.8. Summerland-place, Exeter.
{Basrran, H. Cuartron, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of
the Principles and Practice of Medicine in University College,
London, 84 Manchester-square, London, W. ?
§Batalha-Reis, J. Portuguese Consulate, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
{Bateman, A. E. Board of Trade, London, S.W.
*Bateman, Daniel. Wissahickon, Philadelphia, U.S.A.
{Bateman, Frederick, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
Bateman, James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Home House,
Worthing.
{Bates, C. J. Heddon, Wylam, Northumberland.
{tBarrs, Henry WALTER, F.R.S., F.L.S., Assist.-Sec. R.G.S. 1 Savile-
row, London, W.
{Bateson, William, B.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
{Barn anp Wetts, The Right Rev. Lord ArtHur Hervey, Lord
Bishop of, D.D. The Palace, Wells, Somerset.
*Bather, Francis Arthur, M.A., F.G.S. 207 Harrow-road, London, W.
{Batten, Edmund Chisholm. 25 Thurloe-square, London, 8.W.
§Baverman, H., F.G.S. 9 Hazlebourne-gardens, Cavendish-road,
Balham, London, 8. W.
{Baxter, Edward. Hazel Hall, Dundee.
Bayes, William, M.D. 58 Brook-street, London, W.
Bayly, John. Seven Trees, Plymouth.
*Bayly, Robert. Torr-grove, near Plymouth.
*Baynus, Ropert E., M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.
*Baynes, Mrs. R. E. 3 Church-walk, Oxford.
{Baynton, Alfred. 28 Gilda Brook Park, Eccles, Manchester.
*Bazley, Gardner. Hatherop Castle, Fairford, Gloucestershire.
Bazley, Sir Thomas Sebastian, Bart., M.A. Hatherop Castle,
Fairford, Gloucestershire.
tBeale, C. Calle Progress No. 83, Rosario de Santa Fé, Argentine
Republic.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 13
Year of
Election.
1886. {Beale, Charles G. Maple Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1860. *Bratzr, Lionet §., M.B., F.R.S., Professor of the Principles and
Practice of Medicine in King’s College, London. 61 Grosyenor-
street, London, W.
1882. §Beamish, Major A. W., R.E. 28 Grosyenor-road, London, S.W.
1884, {Beamish,G. H. M. Prison, Liverpool.
1872.
1883.
1889.
1887.
1842.
1888.
1889.
1855.
1886,
1861.
1887.
1885.
1871.
1859.
1887.
1885.
1866,
1870.
1858,
1890,
1878.
1884.
1878.
1874.
1875.
1871.
1884.
1860,
1880,
1862.
{Beanes, Edward, F.0.8. Moatlands, Paddock Wood, Brenchley,
Kent.
{Beard, Mrs. 15 South-hill-road, Toxteth Park, Liverpool.
§Beare, Professor T. Hudson, F.R.S.E. University College, London,
W.C
{Beaton, John, M.A, 219 Upper Brook-street, Chorlton-on-Medlock,
Manchester.
*Beatson, William. Ash Mount, Rotherham.
tBeatson, W. B., M.D. 11 Cavyendish-place, Bath.
{Beattie, John. 5 Summerhill-grove, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
*Beaufort, W. Morris, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.M.S., F.S.S. 18 Picea-
dilly, London, W.
{Beaugrand, M.H. Montreal.
*Beaumont, Rey. Thomas George. Oakley Lodge, Leamington.
*Beaumont, W. J. 10 Burlington-street, Bath.
§Beaumont, W. W. Melford, Palace-road, Tulse Hill, London, S.W.
*Beazley, Lieut.-Colonel George G. 74 Redcliffe-syuare, London,
8S. W
*Beck, Joseph, F.R.A.S. 68 Cornhill, London, E.C.
*Beckett, John Hampden. Wilmslow Park, Wilmslow, Manchester.
§BepparD, Frank E., M.A., F.Z.8., Prosector to the Zoological
poulety of London. Society’s Gardens, Regent’s Park, London,
Ww.
tBeddard, James. Derby-road, Nottingham.
§Berppor, Jonny, M.D., F.R.S. The Manor House, Clifton, Bristol.
§Bedford, James. Woodhouse Cliff, near Leeds.
§Bedford, James E., F.G.S. Clifton-villas, Cardigan-road, Leeds.
tBrpson, P. Puitiies, D.Se., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
College of Physical Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Beers, W.G., M.D. 54 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada.
}Behrens, Jacob. Springfield House, North-parade, Bradford, York-
shire.
tBelcher, Richard Boswell. Blockley, Worcestershire.
tBell, Asahel P. 52 St. Anne’s-street, Manchester.
§Bell, Charles B. 6 Spring-bank, Hull.
{Bell, Charles Napier. Winnipeg, Canada.
Bell, Frederick John. Woodlands, near Maldon, Essex,
{Bell, Rev. George Charles, M.A. Marlborough College, Wilts.
§Bell, Henry Oswin. 13 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth,
*BeLL, Sir Isaac Lowraran, Bart., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.Inst.C.E.
Rounton Grange, Northallerton.
. {Bell, James, C.B., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. The Laboratory,
Somerset House, London, W.C.
*Bert, J. Carter, F.C.8. Banlkfield, The Cliff, Higher Broughton,
Manchester.
*Bell, John Henry. Dalton Lees, Huddersfield.
tBell, R. Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada.
{Bell, R. Bruce, M.Inst.C.H. 203 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
*Bell, Thomas. Oakwood, Epping.
{Bell, Thomas. Belmont, Dundee.
*Pell, Walter George, M.A. Trinity Hall, Cambridge.
14
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1842.
1882.
1884,
1886,
1885.
1870.
1836.
1887.
1881.
1883.
1881.
1870.
1887.
1889.
1848,
1863.
1885.
1884.
1863.
1886.
1876.
1865.
1886.
1887.
1870.
1862.
1865.
1882,
1890.
1885.
1876.
1883.
1880,
1884.
1885.
1874.
1890,
1863,
1844,
1886.
1870,
1888.
1885,
Bellhouse, Edward Taylor. Eagle Foundry, Manchester.
Bellingham, Sir Alan. Castle Bellingham, Ireland.
{Bellingham, William. 15 Killieser-avenue, Telford Park, Streat-
ham Hill, London, 8.W.
tBemrose, Joseph. 15 Plateau-street, Montreal, Canada,
§Benger, Frederick Baden, F.LC., F.C.S. 7 Exchange-street, Man-
chester.
{BrnyAM, aes Braxtand, D.Sc. University College, Lon-
don, W.C.
{Bennerr, Atrrep W., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. 6 Park Village East,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
§Bennett, Henry. Bedminster, Bristol.
{Bennett, James M. St. Mungo Chemical Company, Ruckhill, Glasgow.
§Bennett, John R. 16 West Park, Clifton, Bristol.
*Bennett, Laurence Henry. Bedminster, Bristol.
tBennett, Rev. S. H., M.A. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Bishopshill Junior,
York.
*Bennett, William. Oak Hill Park, Old Swan, near Liverpool.
{Bennion, James A., M.A. 1 St. James’-square, Manchester.
{Benson, John G. 12 Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Benson, Starling. Gloucester-place, Swansea.
{Benson, William. Fourstones Court, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Bent, J. Theodore. 13 Great Cumberland-place, London, W.
{Bentham, William. 724 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Benriery, Roserr, F.L.S. 38 Penywern-road, Earl’s Court, London,
S.W
t{Benton, William Elijah. Littleworth House, Hednesford, Stafford-
shire.
tBergius, Walter C. 9 Loudon-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
tBerkley, C. Marley Hill, Gateshead, Durham.
{Bernard, W. Leigh. Calgary, Canada.
§Berry, William. Parklands, Bowdon, Cheshire.
{Berwick, George, M.D. 36 Fawcett-street, Sunderland.
}Besant, William Henry, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. St. John’s College,
Cambridge.
*BrssEMER, Sir Hunry, F.R.S. Denmark Hill, London, S.E.
*Bessemer, Henry, jun. Town Hill Park, West End, Southampton.
§Best, William Woodham. 31 Lyddon-terrace, Leeds.
tBetley, Ralph, F.G.S. Mining School, Wigan.
*Bettany, G. T., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S., F.R.M.S. 33 Oakhurst-grove,
East Dulwich-road, London, S.E.
{Bettany, Mrs. 53 Oakhurst-grove, East Dulwich-road, London, S.E.
*Bevan, Rey. James Oliver, M.A., F.G.S. The Vicarage, Vow-
church, Hereford.
*Beverley, Michael, M.D. 54 Prince of Wales-road, Norwich,
{Beveridge, R. Beath Villa, Ferryhill, Aberdeen.
*Bevington, James B. Merle Wood, Sevenoaks.
§Bevington, Miss Mary E. The Elms, Bickley Park, Kent,
{Bewick, Thomas John, F.G.S. Suffolk House, Laurence Pountney
Hill, London, F.C.
*Bickerdike, Rev. John, M.A. Shireshead Vicarage, Garstang.
§Bickersteth, The Very Rey. E., D.D., Dean of Lichfield. The
Deanery, Lichfield.
tBickerton, A.W., F.C.S. Christchurch, Canterbury, New Zealand.
*Bidder, George Parker. Trinity College, Cambridge.
*BIDWELL, SHELFORD, M.A., LL.B., F.R.S. Riverstone Lodge,
Southfields, Wandsworth, Surrey, 8. W.
Per
LIST OF MEMBERS, 15
Year of
Election.
1882.. §Biggs, C. H. W., F.C.S. Glebe Lodge, Champion Hill, London, S.E.
1886. {Bindloss, G.F. Carnforth, Brondesbury Park, London, N.W.
1887. *Bindloss, James B. Elm Bank, Eccles, Manchester.
1884. *Bingham, John EK. Electric Works, Sheffield.
1881. §Binnie, Alexander R., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. London County Council,
Spring-gardens, London, 8.W.
1873. {Binns, J. Arthur. Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1880. {Bird, Henry, F.C.S. South Down, near Devonport.
1866, *Birkin, Richard. Aspley Hall, near Nottingham.
1888. *Birley, Miss Caroline. Seedley-terrace, Pendleton, Manchester.
1887. *Birley, H. K. 13 Hyde-road, Ardwick, Manchester.
1871. *Biscnor, Gustav. 4 Hart-street, Bloomsbury, London, W.C.
1883. {Bishop, John le Marchant. 100 Mosley-street, Manchester.
1885. {Bissett, J. P. Wyndem, Banchory, N.B.
1886. *Bixby, Captain W. H. War Department, Washington, U.S.A.
1884. {Black, Francis, F.R.G.S. 6 North Bridge, Edinburgh,
1889. {Black, W. 1 Loyaine-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1889. §Black, William. 12 Romulus-terrace, Gateshead.
1881. tBlack, Surgeon-Major William Galt, F.R.C.S.E. Caledonian United
Service Club, Edinburgh.
1869. {Blackall, Thomas. 138 Southernhay, Exeter.
1834. Blackburn, Bewicke. Calverley Park, Tunbridge Wells.
1876. {Blackburn, Hugh, M.A. Roshven, Fort William, N.B.
1884, {Blackburn, Robert. New Edinburgh, Ontario, Canada.
Blackburne, Rey. John, jun., M.A. Rectory, Horton, near Chip-
enham.
1877. {Blackie, J. Alexander. 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.
1859. {Blackie, John 8., M.A., Emeritus Professor of Greek in the Uni-
sity of Edinburgh. 9 Douglas-crescent, Edinburgh.
1876. {Blackie, Robert. 7 Great Western-terrace, Glascow.
1855. *Brackiz, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S._ 17 Stanhope-street, Glaszow.
1884. {Blacklock, Frederick W. 25 St. Famille-street, Montreal, Canada.
1885, {Blacklock, Mrs. Sea View, Lord-street, Southport.
1884. {Blarkie, James, M.A. 14 Viewforth-place, Edinburgh.
1888. {Blaine, R.8., J.P. Summerhill Park, Bath.
1885. {Blair, Mrs. Oakshaw, Paisley.
1863. {Blake, C. Carter, D.Sc. 4 Charlton-street, Fitzroy-square, London, W.
1886. {Blake, Dr. James. San Francisco, California.
1849, *Brakr, Henry Wottasron, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 8 Devonshire-
place, Portland-place, London, W.
1883. ede es J. F., M.A., F.G.8. 40 Loudoun-road, London,
1846, *Blake, William. Bridge House, South Petherton, Somerset.
1878. {Blakeney, Rey. Canon, M.A.,D.D. The Vicarage, Sheffield.
1886, {Blakie, John. The Bridge House, Newcastle, Staffordshire.
1861. §Blakiston, Matthew, .R.G.S. Free Hills, Burledon, Hants.
1887. §Blamires, George. Cleckheaton.
1881. §Blamires, Thomas H. Close Hill, Lockwood, near Huddersfield.
1884. *Blandy, William Charles, M.A. 1 Friar-street, Reading.
1869. {Branrorn, W..T., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 72 Bedford-
gardens, Campden Hill, London, W.
1837. *Bles, A. J.S. Moor End, Kersal, Manchester,
1837. *Bles, Edward J, Moor End, Kersal, Manchester.
1887. {Bles, Marcus 8. The Beeches, Broughton Park, Manchester.
1884, *Bush, William G. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.
1869. saa one Rey. Lzonarp, M.A., F.LS., F.G.S. 19 Belmont,
ath,
16 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1880. §Bloxam, G. W., M.A., F.L.S. 3 Hanover-square, London, W.
1888. §Bloxsom, M. 73 Clarendon-road, Crumpsall, Manchester.
1883. {Blumberg, Dr. 65 Hoghton-street, Southport.
1870. {Blundell, Thomas Weld. Ince Blundell Hall, Great Crosby, Lan-
cashire.
1859. {Blunt, Sir Charles, Bart. Heathfield Park, Sussex.
1859. tBlunt, Captain Richard. Bretlands, Chertsey, Surrey.
1885. {Bryra, James, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
Anderson’s College, Glasgow.
Blyth, B. Hall. 185 George-street, Edinburgh.
1883. {Blyth, Miss Phoebe. 38 South Mansion House-road, Edinburgh.
1867. {Blyth-Martin, W. Y. Blyth House, Newport, Fife.
1887. {Blythe, William 8. 65 Mosley-street, Manchester.
1870. tBoardman, Edward. Queen-street, Norwich.
1887. *Boddington, Henry. Pownall Hall, Wilmslow, Manchester.
1889. §Bodmer, G. R., Assoc.M.Inst.C.K. 10 Westwick-gardens, West
Kensington Park, London, W.
1884, {Body, Rev. C. W. E.,M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.
1887. *Boissevain, Gideon Maria. 4 Jesselschade-straat, Amsterdam.
1881. {Bojanowski, Dr. Victor de. 27 Finsbury-circus, London, E.C.
1876. {Bolton, J.C. Carbrook, Stirling.
Bond, Henry John Hayes, M.D. Cambridge.
1883. §Bonney, Frederic, F.R.G.S. Colton House, Rugeley, Stafford-
shire.
1883. §Bonney, Miss 8. 23 Denning-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.
1871. *Bonnry, Rev. THomas Guorez, D.Sc., LL.D., F.RS., F.S.A,,
F.G.8., Professor of Geology in University College, London.
23 Denning-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.
1866, {Booker, W. H. Cromwell-terrace, Nottingham.
1888. §Boon, William, Coventry.
1890. *Booth, pe F.8.8. 2 Talbot-court, Gracechurch-street, London,
E.C.
1883. {Booth, James. Hazelhurst House, Turton.
1883. {Booth, Richard. 4 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
1876. {Booth, Rev. William H. St. Germain’s-place, Blackheath, London,
1883. {Boothroyd, Benjamin. Rawlinson-road, Southport.
1876. *Borland, William. 260 West George-street, Glasgow.
1882. §Borns, Henry, Ph.D., F.C.S. Friedheim, Springfield-road, Wimble-
don, Surrey.
1376. *Bosanquet, R. H. M., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,. FC.S., New Univer-
sity Club, St. James’s-street, London, 8. W.
*Bossey, Francis, M.D. Mayfield, Oxford-road, Redhill, Surrey.
1881. §BornamiEy, Cuartes H., ¥.0.8. Yorkshire College, Leeds,
1867. §Botly, William, F.S.A. Salisbury House, Hamlet-road, Upper
Norwood, London, 8.E.
1887. {Bott, Dr. Owens College, Manchester.
1872. {Bottle, Alexander. Dover.
1868. {Bottle, J.T. 28 Nelson-road, Great Yarmouth.
1887. iBgriomley, James, D.Sc., B.A. 220 Lower Broughton-road, Man-
chester.
1871. *Borromiry, Jamzs Tnomson, M.A,, F.R.S., F.RS.E., F.C.8. 15
University-gardens, Glasgow.
1884, *Bottomley, Mrs. 13 University-gardens, Glasgow.
1876. {Bottomley, William, jun. 6 Rokeley-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
1890. §Boulnois, Henry Percy, M.Inst.C.E. Municipal Offices, Liverpool.
1883. {Bourdas, Isaiah, Dunoon House, Clapham Common,London, 38.W.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 17
Year of
Election.
1883, {Bourns, A. G., D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in the Presidency
College, Madras.
1889. {Bourne, R. H. Fox. 41 Priory-road, Bedford Park, London, W.
1866, §Bourne, STEPHEN, F.S.8. Abberley, Wallington, Surrey.
1890. §Bousfield, OC. E. 55 Clarendon-road, Leeds.
1884. {Bovey, Henry T., M.A., Professor of Civil Engineering and
Applied Mechanics in McGill University, Montreal. Ontario-
avenue, Montreal, Canada.
1888. t{Bowden, Rey. G. New Kingswood School, Lansdown, Bath.
1870. {Bower, Anthony. Bowersdale, Seaforth, Liverpool.
1881. *Bower, F. O., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the University of
Glasgow.
1867. {Bower, Dr. John. Perth.
1856. *Bowlby, Miss F. E. 23 Lansdowne-parade, Cheltenham.
1886. {Bowlby, Rev. Canon. 101 Newhall-street, Birmingham.
1884, tBowley, Edwin. Burnt Ash Hill, Lee, Kent.
1880. {Bowly, Christopher. Cirencester.
1887. {Bowly, Mrs. Christopher. Cirencester,
1865. §Bowman, F. H., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Halifax, Yorkshire.
Bowman, Sir Wittram, Bart., M.D., LL.D., F.RS., F.R.C.S.
5 Clifford-street, London, W.
1887. §Box, Alfred M. Scissett, near Huddersfield.
1863. {Boyd, Edward Fenwick. Moor House, near Durham.
1884. *Boyd, M. A., M.D. 30 Merrion-square, Dublin.
-1887. {Boyd, Robert. Manor House, Didsbury, Manchester.
1871. tBoyd, Thomas J. 41 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
.1865. {Boyzz, The Very Rev. G. D., M.A., Dean of Salisbury. The
Deanery, Salisbury.
- 1884, *Boyle, R. Vicars, O.S.I. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., 55
Parliament-street, London, S. W.
1872. *Brasroox, FE. W., F.S.A., V.P.A.I. 28 Abingdon-street, West-
minster, S, W.
1869. *Braby, Frederick, F.G.S., F.C.S. Bushey Lodge, Teddington,
Middlesex.
1884. *Brace, W.H., M.D. 7 Queen’s Gate-terrace, London, S.W.
1857. *Brady, Cheyne, M.R.LA. Trinity Vicarage, West Bromwich.
1863. {Brapy, GrorerS., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Natural
History in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. ©
2 Mowbray-villas, Sunderland.
1880. *Brady, Rev. Nicholas, M.A. Rainham Hall, Rainham, Romford,
: Essex.
1864, {Brawam, Puri, F.C.S. Bath.
_ 1870. {Braidwood, Dr. 35 Park-road South, Birkenhead.
1888. §Braikenridge, W. J., J.P. 16 Royal-crescent, Bath.
1879. .{Bramley, Herbert. 6 Paradise-square, Sheffield.
1865. §BRamweELL, Sir FrepErick J., Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E
: 5 Great George-street, London, S.W.
1872. {Bramwell, William J. 17 Prince Albert-street, Brighton.
1867. {Brand, William. Milnefield, Dundee.
1861. *Brandreth, Rev. Henry. Dickleburgh Rectory, Scole, Norfolk.
1890. §Branson, F. W. Commercial-street, Leeds.
1885, *Bratby, W. Pott-street, Ancoats, Manchester.
- 1890. *Bray, George. Belmont, Headingley, Leeds.
1868. {Bremridge, Elias. 17 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C.
. 1877. tBrent, Francis. 19 Clarendon-place, Plymouth.
1882. *Bretherton, C. E, 1 Garden-court, Temple, London, E.C.
1881. *Brett, Alfred Thomas, M.D. Watford House, Watford.
B
18 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1866. {Brettell, Thomas (Mine Agent). Dudley.
1875. t{Briant, T. Hampton Wick, Kingston-on-Thames.
1886. {Bridge, T. W., M.A., Professor of Zoology in the Mason Science
College, Birmingham.
1884. {Bridges, C. J. Winnipeg, Canada.
1870. *Bridson, Joseph R. Sawrey, Windermere.
1887. {Brierley, John, J.P. The Clough, Whitefield, Manchester,
1870. {Brierley, Joseph. New Market-street, Blackburn.
1886. tBrierley, Leonard. Somerset-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
1879. {Brierley, Morgan. Denshaw House, Saddleworth.
1870. *Briec, Joun. Broomfield, Keighley, Yorlishire.
1889. {Brigg, T. H. The Grange, Weston, near Otley, Yorkshire.
1890. §Brigg, W. A. Kildwick Hall, near Keighley, Yorkshire,
1866. *Briges, Arthur. Cragg Royd, Rawdon, near Leeds.
1870. {Bright, H. A., M.A., F.R.G.S. Ashfield, Knotty Ash.
1868. {Brine, Captain Lindesay, F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall,
London, 8. W.
1884, {Brisette, M. H. 424 St. Paul-street, Montreal, Canada.
1879. {Brittain, Frederick. Taptonville-crescent, Sheffield.
1879. *Brirrain, W. H., J.P. Storth Oaks, Ranmoor, Sheffield.
1878. {Britten, James, F.L.S. Department of Botany, British Museum,
London, 8. W.
1884. *Brittle, John R., M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. Farad Villa, Vanbrugh Hill,
Blackheath, London, 8.E.
1859. *BropHuRst, BeRNARD Epwarpd, F.R.C.8., F.L.S. 20 Grosvenor-
street, Grosvenor-square, London, W.
1883. *Brodie, David, M.D. 12 Patten-road, Wandsworth Common,
S.W.
1865. {Bropre, Rev. Perzrr Berttincer, M.A., F.G.8. Rowington Vicar-
age, near Warwick.
1884, {Brodie, William, M.D. 64 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan,
U.S.A
1883. *Brodie-Hall, Miss W. L. The Gore, Eastbourne.
1878. *Brook, George, F.L.S. The University, Edinburgh.
1881. §Brook, Robert G. Rowen-street, St. Helens, Lancashire.
1855. tBrooke, Edward. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire.
1864, *Brooke, Ven. Archdeacon J. Ingham. The Vicarage, Halifax.
1855. {Brooke, Peter William. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire.
1888. {Brooke, Rey. Canon R. E., M.A. 14 Marlborough-buildings,
Bath.
1878. {Brooke, Sir Victor, Bart., F.L.S. Colebrook, Brookeborough, Co.
Fermanagh.
1887. §Brooks, James Howard. Green Bank, Monton, Eccles, Man- —
chester.
1863. tBrooks, John Crosse. 14 Lovaine-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1887. {Brooks, S. H. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester.
1846. *Brooks, Sir Thomas, Bart. Cranshaw Hall, Rawtenstall, Manchester,
1887. *Bros, W. Law. Sidcup, Kent.
1883. §Brotherton, E. A. Fern Cliffe, Ilkley, Leeds.
1886. §Brough, Joseph. University College, Aberystwith.
1885. *Browett, Alfred. 14 Dean-street, Birmingham.
1863. *Brown, ALEXANDER Crum, M.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.C.S., Professor
of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. 8 Belgrave-
crescent, Edinburgh.
1867. {Brown, Charles Gage, M.D., C.M.G. 88 Sloane-street, London, S.W.
1855. {Brown, Colin. 192 Hope-street, Glasgow.
1871. {Brown, David. 93 Abbey-hill, Edinburgh.j
LIST OF MEMBERS, 19
Year of
Election.
1863,
1883.
1881.
1887.
1883.
1884.
1883.
1884.
1883.
1870.
1883.
1870.
1876.
1881.
1882.
1859.
1882.
1886,
1863.
1871.
1868.
1865.
1885,
1884,
1863.
1879,
1866.
1862.
1872.
1865.
1887.
1865.
1883.
1855.
1889.
1863.
1863.
1875.
1875.
1868.
1878.
1886.
1884,
1859.
1890.
1871,
“Brown, Rey. Dixon. Unthank Hall, Haltwhistle, Carlisle,
§Brown, Mrs. Ellen F, Campbell. 27 Abercromby-square, Liverpool,
{Brown, Frederick D. 26 St. Giles’s-street, Oxford.
tBrown, George. Cadishead, near Manchester.
{Brown, George Dransfield. Henley Villa, Ealing, Middlesex, W.
{Brown, Gerald Culmer. Lachute, Quebec, Canada.
{Brown, Mrs. H. Bienz. 26 Ferryhill-place, Aberdeen.
{Brown, Harry. University College, London, W.C.
{Brown, Mrs. Helen. 52 Grange Loan, Edinburgh.
§Brown, Horace T., F.R.S., F.C.S. 47 High-street, Burton-on-Trent,
Brown, Hugh. Broadstone, Ayrshire.
{Brown, Miss Isabella Spring. 52 Grange Loan, Edinburgh.
*Brown, Professor J. CAMPBELL, D.Sc., F.C.S. University College,
Liverpool.
§Brown, John. Belair, Windsor-avenue, Belfast.
*Brown, John, M.D. 68 Bank-parade, Burnley, Lancashire.
*Brown, John. Swiss Cottage, Park-valley, Nottingham.
tBrown, Rey. John Crombie, LL.D., F.L.S. Haddington, N.B..
*Brown, Mrs. Mary. 63 Bank-parade, Burnley, Lancashire.
§Brown R., R.N. Laurel Bank, Barnhill, Perth.
tBrown, Ralph. Lambton’s Bank, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Brown, Rosert, M.A., Ph.D., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Fersley, Rydal~
road, Streatham, London, S.W.
{Brown, Samuel, M.Inst.C.E., Government Engineer. Nicosia, Cyprus. .
{Brown, William. 414 New-street, Birmingham.
tBrown, W. A. The Court House, Aberdeen.
{Brown, William George. Ivy, Albemarle Co., Virginia, U.S.A.
{Browne, Sir Benjamin Chapman, M.Inst.C.E. Westacres, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.
tBrowne, Sir J. Crichton, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E. 7 Cumber-
land-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
“Browne, Rey. J. H. Lowdham Vicarage, Nottingham,
“Browne, Robert Clayton, M.A. Sandbrook, Tullow, Co. Carlow,
Ireland.
fBrowne, R. Mackley, F.G.S. Redcot, Bradbourne, Sevenoaks,
Kent.
*Browne, William, M.D. Heath Wood, Leighton Buzzard.
{Brownell, T. W. 6 St. James’s-square, Manchester.
{Browning, John, F.R.A.S. 63 Strand, London, W.C.
}Browning, Oscar, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge.
{Brownlee, James, jun. 30 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.
§Bruce, J. Collingwood, LL.D., D.C.L., F.S.A. Framlington-place,.
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Brunel, H. M. 23 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.
tBrunel, J. 23 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.
*BRUNLEES, Sir James, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., MInst.C.E. 5 Victoria-
street, Westminster, S. W.
{Brunlees, John. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.
{Brunton, T. Lauper, M.D., D.Sc. F.R.S. 10 Stratford-place,
Oxford-street, London, W.
§Brutton, Joseph. Yeovil.
“Bryan; G. H. Trumpington-road, Cambridge.
‘{Bryce, Rev. Professor George. The College, Manitoba, Canada,
tBryson, William Gillespie. Cullen, Aberdeen.
§Bubb, Henry. Pendyttryn, near Conway, North Wales.
§Bucuan, AmxanpEer, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., See. Scottish
Meteorological Society. e Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.
B
20
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1867.
1885.
1881.
1871.
1884.
1883.
1886.
1864.
1865.
1886.
1884.
1880.
“1869.
1851.
11887.
1875.
+1883.
1871.
1881.
1883.
71865.
1886.
1842,
1875.
1869.
1881.
1884.
1888.
1883.
1876.
1885.
1877.
1884.
1883.
1887.
1881.
1883.
41860.
1888.
1888.
1866.
1889.
1887.
1878.
1884.
1884.
tBuchan, Thomas. Strawberry Bank, Dundee.
*Buchan, William Paton. Fairyknowe, Cambuslang, N.B.
Buchanan, Archibald. Catrine, Ayrshire.
Buchanan, D.C. 12 Barnard-road, Birkenhead, Cheshire.
*Buchanan, John H., M.D. Sowerby, Thirsk.
t{Bucwanan, Joun Youne, M.A., F.R.S. L.& E. 10 Moray-place,
Edinburgh,
tBuchanan, W. Frederick. Winnipeg, Canada.
t Buckland, Miss A. W. 54 Doughty-street, London, W.C.
*Buckle, Edmund W. 23 Bedford-row, London, W.C.
{Bucxrz, Rev. Georcz, M.A. Wells, Somerset.
*Buckley, Henry. The Upper Boon, Linthurst, near Bromsgrove,
Birmingham.
§Buckley, Samuel. 76 Clyde-road, Albert-park, Didsbury.
*Buckmaster, Charles Alexander, M.A., F.C.S. Science and Art
Department, South Kensington, London, 8.W.
{Buckney, Thomas, F.R.A.S. 53 Gower-street, London, W.C.
tBucknill, J.C., M.D., F.R.S. East Cliff House, Bournemouth.
*Bucxton, Gzorce Bownter, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.C.S. Weycombe,
Haslemere, Surrey.
{Budenberg, C. F., B.Sc. Buckau Villa, Demesne-road, Whalley
Range, Manchester.
{Budgett, Samuel. Kirton, Albemarle-road, Beckenham, Kent.
tBuick, Rev. George R., M.A. Cullybackey, Co. Antrim, Ireland.
{Bulloch, Matthew. 4 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.
{Bulmer, T. P. Mount-villas, York.
{Bulpit, Rev. F. W. Crossens Rectory, Southport.
tBunce, John Mackray. ‘ Journal’ Office, New-street, Birmingham.
sParbury S. H.,M.A., F.R.S. 1 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London,
*Burd, John. Glen Lodge, Knocknerea, Sligo.
{Burder, John, M.D. 7 South-parade, Bristol.
{Burdett-Coutts, Baroness. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, London, W.
{Burdett-Coutts, W. L. A. B., M.P. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly,
London, W.
*Burland, Jeffrey H. 287 University-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Burne, H. Holland. 28 Marlborough-buildings, Bath.
*Burne, Colonel Sir Owen Tudor, K.C.S.L, CIE. F.R.GS. 57
Sutherland-gardens, Maida Vale, London, W.
tBurnet, John. 14 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
*Burnett, W. Kendall, M.A. The Grove, Kemnay, Aberdeenshire.
{Burns, David. Alston, Carlisle.
§Burns, Professor James Austin. Southern Medical College, Atlanta,
Georgia, U.S.A.
tBurr, Percy J. 20 Little Britain, London, E.C.
{Burroughs, Eggleston, M.D. Snow Hill-buildings, London, E,C,
§Burroughs, S. M, Snow Hill-buildings, London, E.C.
*Burrows, Abraham. Greenhall, Atherton, near Manchester.
{Burrows, Montague, M.A., Professor of Modern History, Oxford.
{Burt, John Mowlem. 3 St. John’s-gard -ns, Kensington, London, W.
{Burt, Mrs. 8 St. John’s-gardens, Kensington, London, W.
*Burron, Frepertck M., F.G.S. Highfield, Gainsborough.
{Burton, Rev. R. Lingen. Zetland Club, Saltburn-by-the-Sea.
*Bury, Henry. Trinity College, Cambridge.
{Burcner, J.G., M.A. 22 Collingham-place, London, S.W.
*Butcher, William Deane, M.R.C.S.Eng. Clydesdale, Windsor.
{Butler, Matthew I. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 21
Year of
Election.
1888.
1884.
1872.
1870.
1883.
1887.
1868.
1881.
1883,
1872.
1854.
1885.
1852.
1883.
1875.
1889,
1863.
1863.
1876.
1861.
1875.
1886.
1868.
1857.
1887.
1854.
1884,
1876.
1857.
1884.
1870.
1884,
1874.
1883.
1876.
1862.
1882.
1890.
1888.
1880.
18838,
{Buttanshaw, Rev. John. 22 St. James’s-square, Bath.
*Butterworth, W. Greenhill, Church-lane, Harpurhey, Manchester,
t{Buxton, Charles Louis. Cromer, Norfolk.
tBuxton, David, Ph.D. 298 Reyent-street, London, W.
tBuxton, Miss F. M. Newnham College, Cambridge.
*Buxton, J. H. ‘Guardian’ Office, Manchester.
{Buxton, S. Gurney. Catton Hall, Norwich.
tBuxton, Sydney. 15 Eaton-place, London, S.W.
tBuxton, Rev. Thomas, M.A. 19 Westclitfe-road, Birkdale, South~
ort.
cect, Sir Thomas Fowell, Bart., F.R.G.S. Warlies, Waltham
Abbey, Essex.
{Byrrtey, Isaac, F.L.S. Seacombe, Cheshire.
tByres, David. 63 North Bradford, Aberdeen.
tByrne, Very Rey. James. Ergenagh Rectory, Omagh.
§Byrom, John R. Mere Bank, Fairfield, near Manchester,
tByrom, W. Ascroft, F.G.S. 31 King-street, Wigan,
§Cackett, James Thoburn. 60 Larkspur-terrace, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne. .
tCail, Richard. Beaconsfield, Gateshead.
{Caird, Edward. Finnart, Dumbartonshire.
{Caird, Edward B. 8 Scotland-street, Glasgow.
*Caird, James Key. 8 Magdalene-road, Dundee.
tCaldicott, Rev. J. W., D.D. The Rectory, Shipston-on-Stour.
*Caldwell, William Hay. Birnam, Chaucer-road, Cambridge.
{Caley, A. J. Norwich.
tCallan, Rev. N. J., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Maynooth
College.
f{Cattaway Cuartzs, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. Sandon, Wellington,
Shropshire.
tCalver, Captain E. K., R.N., F.R.S. 23 Park-place East, Sunder-
land, Durham.
t{Cameron, A®neas. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.
Cameron, Charles, M.D., LL.D., M.P. 1 Huntly-gardens, Glasgow.
{Oameron, Sir Cuartes A., M.D. 15 Pembroke-road, Dublin.
{Cameron, James C., M.D. 41 Belmont-park, Montreal, Canada.
t{Cameron, John, M.D. 17 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
{Campbell, Archibald H. Toronto, Canada.
*CAMPBELL, Sir Georer, K.C.8.1, M.P., D.C.L., F.R.GS., F.S.S.
Southwell House, Southwell-gardens, South Kensington,
London, 8S.W.; and Edenwood, Cupar, Fife.
t{Campbell, H. J. 81 Kirkstall-road, Talfourd Park, Streatham
Hill, 8. W.
Campbell, Sir Hugh P. H., Bart. 10 Hill-street, Berkeley-square,
London, W.; and Marchmont House, near Dunse, Berwick-
shire.
t{Campbell, James A., LL.D., M.P. Stracathro House, Brechin,
Campbell, John Archibald, M.D., F.R.S.E. Albyn-place, Edinburgh.
*Campion, Rey. Witt1am M., D.D. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
{Candy, F. H. 71 High-street, Southampton.
§Cannan, Edwin, M.A., F.S.S. 24 St. Giles’s, Oxford.
tCappel, Sir Albert J. L., K.C.I.E, 14 Harrington-gardens, Lon-
on, W.
tCapper, Robert. Norfolk House, Norfolk-street, Strand, London, W.C.
}Capper, em R. Norfolk House, Norfolk-street, Strand, London,
WC,
22 LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1887. {Capstick, John Walton. University College, Dundee.
1873. *Carsurr, Epwarp Hamer, M.Inst.C.E. 19 Hyde Park-gardens,
London, W.
1883. {Carey-Hobson, Mrs. 64 Doughty-street, London, W.C.
1877. {Carkeet, John. 3 St. Andrew’s-place, Plymouth.
CaRLIsLE, The Right Rev. Harvey Goopwiy, D.D., D.C.L., Lord
Bishop of. Carlisle.
1867. {Carmichael, David (Engineer). Dundee.
1867. {Carmichael, George. 11 Dudhope-terrace, Dundee.
1876. {Carmichael, Neil, M.D. 22 South Cumberland-street, Glasgow.
1884. {Carnegie, John. Peterborough, Ontario, Canada.
1887. {Carpenter, A., M.D. Duppas House, Croydon.
1884. §Carpenter, Louis G. Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colorado,
U.S.A
1871. *CarpentER, P. Herpert, D.Sc., F.R.S. Eton College, Windsor.
1854. {Carpenter, Rev. R. Lant, B.A. Bridport.
1888. *Carpmael, Alfred. 1 Copthall-buildings, London, E.C.
1884. *Carpmael, Charles. Toronto, Canada.
1889, {Carr, Cuthbert Ellison. Hedgeley, Alnwick.
1889. §Carr-Ellison, John Ralph. Hedgeley, Alnwick.
1867. {CarrurHers, WILLIAM, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. British Museum,
London, 8S. W.
1886. {CarsLake, J. Barwa. 30 Westfield-road, Birmingham.
1883. {Carson, John. 51 Royal Avenue, Belfast.
1861. *Carson, Rev. Joseph, D.D., M.R.I.A. 18 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
1868. {Carteighe, Michael, F.C.S._ 172 New Bond-street, London, W.
1866. {Carter, H. H. The Park, Nottingham.
1855, {Carter, Richard, F.G.S. Cockerham Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.
1870. {Carter, Dr. William. 78 Iodney-street, Liverpool.
1883. {Carter, W.C. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.
1883. tCarter, Mrs. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.
1878. *Cartwright, E. Henry. 1 Courtfield-gardens, London, 8.W.
1870. §Cartwright, Joshua, M.Inst.C.E., Borough Surveyor. Bury,
Lancashire.
1884, *Carver, Rey. Canon Alfred J., D.D.,F.R.G.S. Lynnhurst, Streatham
Common, London, S.W.
1884, {Carver, Mrs. Lynnhurst, Streatham Common, London, S.W.
1888. {Carver, James. Garfield House, Elm-avenue, Nottingham.
1887. {Casartelli, Rev. L. C., M.A., Ph.D. St. Bede’s College, Manchester.
1866, {Casella, L. P., F.R.A.S. The Lawns, Highgate, London, N.
1871. {Cash, Joseph. Bird-grove, Coventry.
1873. *Cash, William, F.G.S. 388 Elmfield-terrace, Saville Park, Halifax.
1888. {Cater, R. B. Avondale, Henrietta Park, Bath.
1874, {Caton, Richard, M.D., Lecturer on Physiology at the Liverpool
Medical School. Lea Hall, Gateacre, Liverpool.
1859. {Catto, Robert. 44 King-street, Aberdeen.
1887. §Cawley, George. ‘ Industries,’ 858 Strand, London, W.C.
1886. {Cay, Albert, Ashleigh, Westbourne-road, Birmingham.
1860. §Caytry, Artnur, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S.,
Sadlerian Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University
of Cambridge. Garden House, Cambridge.
Cayley, Digby. Brompton, near Scarborough.
Cayley, Edward Stillingfleet. Wydale, Malton, Yorkshire.
1871. *Cecil, Lord Sackville. Hayes Common, Beckenham, Kent.
1860. {CHapwick, Davin. The Poplars, Herne Hill, London, 8.E. .
1883. {Chadwick, James Percy. 51 Alexandra-road, Southport.
1859, {Chadwick, Robert. Highbank, Manchester.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 28
Election.
. tChalk, William. 24 Gloucester-road, Birkdale, Southport.
. Chalmers, John Inglis. Aldbar, Aberdeen.
. {Chamberlain, George, J.P. Helensholme, Birkdale Park, South-
port,
. {Chamberlain, Montague. St. John, New Brunswick, Canada.
. {CHaAmMBERS, CHARLES, F.R.S. Colaba Observatory, Bombay.
. {Chambers, Mrs. Colaba Observatory, Bombay.
. {Chambers, Charles, jun., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Colaba Observatory,
Bombay.
Chambers, George. High Green, Sheffield.
. tChambers, W.O. Lowestoft, Suffolk.
*Champney, Henry Nelson. 4 New-street, York.
. *Champney, John E. Woodlands, Halifax.
. {Chance, A.M. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. *Chance, James T. 61 Prince’s-gate, London, S.W.
. *Chance, John Horner. 40 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. {Chance, Robert Lucas. Chad Hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. {Chandler, S. Whitty, B.A. Sherborne, Dorset.
. *Chapman, Edward, M.A., F.1.S., F.C.S. Hill End, Mottram, Man-
chester.
. {Chapman, L. H. 147 Park-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
. {Chapman, Professor. University College, Toronto, Canada.
. §Chapman, T. Algernon, M,D. Burghill, Hereford.
. [Charles, John James, M.A., M.D. 11 Fisherwick-place, Belfast.
CHARLESWORTH, Epwarp, F.G.S. 277 Strand, London, W.C.
; tCharley, William. Seymour Hill, Dunmurry, Ireland.
. {CmuaRNock, Ricnarp SrepHeEN, Ph.D., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. Junior
Garrick Club, Adelphi-terrace, London, W.C.
. tChate, Robert W. Southfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. {Chater, Rev. John. Part-street, Southport.
. *Chatterton, George, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. 46 Queen Anne’s-gate, Lon-
don, S.W.
. §Chattock, A. P. 15 Lancaster-road, Belsize Park, London, N.W.
. *Chatwood, Samuel, F.R.G.S. Irwell House, Drinkwater Park,
Prestwich.
. [CHauveEav, The Hon. Dr. Montreal, Canada.
. {Chawner, W., M.A. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
. }Cueapiz, W.B., M.A., M.D., F.R.G.S. 2 Hyde Park-place, Cum-
berland-gate, London, S.W.
. §Cheetham, F. W. Limefield House, Hyde.
- {Cheetham, John. Limefield House, Hyde.
. “Chermside, Lieut.-Colonel H. C., R.E., 0.B. Care of Messrs. Cox &
Co., Craig’s-court, Charing Cross, London, 8. W.
. tCherriman, Professor J. B. Ottawa, Canada.
. *Chesterman, W. Clarkehouse-road, Sheffield.
Cuicuxster, The Right Rev. Rrcwarp Durnrorp, D.D., Lord
Bishop of. Chichester.
. *Child, Gilbert W., M.A., M.D., F.L.S. Cowley House, Oxford.
. §Chinery, Edward F. Monmouth House, Lymington.
. {Chipman, W. W. L. 6 Place d’Armes, Ontario, Canada.
. §Chirney, J. W. Morpeth.
- *Chiswell, Thomas. 17 Lincoln-grove, Plymouth-grove, Manchester.
. [Cholmeley, Rey. C. H. The Rectory, Beaconsfield R.8.0., Bucks.
. Chorley, George. Midhurst, Sussex.
- {Chorlton, J. Clayton. New Holme, Withington, Manchester.
. [Christie, Professor R. C., M.A. 7 St. James’s-square, Manchester.
. *Christie, William. 29 Queen’s Park, Toronto, Canada.
24 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1875. *Christopher, George, F.C.S. 6 Barrow-road, Streatham Common,
London, ; /
1876. *Curystat, GrorcE, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Mathematics
in the University of Edinburgh. 5 Belgrave-crescent, Edin-
burgh.
1870. §CauRcH, A. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry to the
Royal Academy of Arts, London. Shelsley, Ennerdale-road,
Kew, Surrey.
1860. {Church, William Selby, M.A. St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, London,
E.C
1881, {CHURCHILL, Lord Atrrep Spencer. 16 Rutland-gate, London,
S.W,
1857. {Churchill, F.. M.D. Ardtrea Rectory, Stewartstown, Oo, Tyrone.
1857. es Frederick Villiers. 1 Belvidere-place, Mountjoy-square,
Dublin.
1876. {Clark, David R., M.A. 31 Waterloo-street, Glasgow.
1890. §Clark, E. K. 81 Caledonian-road, Leeds.
1877, *Clark, F. J. Street, Somerset.
Clark, George T. 44 Berkeley-square, London, W.
1876. {Clark, George W. 31 Waterloo-street, Glasgow.
1876. {Clark, Dr. John. 138 Bath-street, Glasgow.
1881. {Clark, J. Edmund, B.A., B.Se., F.G.S. 20 Bootham, York.
1861. {Clark, Latimer, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 11 Victoria-street, London,
Saw.
1855. {Olark, Rev. William, M.A. Barrhead, near Glasgow.
1883. {Clarke, Rev. Canon, D.D. 59 Hoghton-street, Southport.
1887. §Clarke, C. Goddard. Folkestone Villa, Elm-grove, Peckham, S.E.
1865. {Clarke, Rey. Charles. Charlotte-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1875. {Clarke, Charles S. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
1886, {Clarke, David. Langley-road, Small Heath, Birmingham.
1886. §Clarke, Rev. H. J. Great Barr Vicarage, Birmingham.
1872. *CLaARKE, HypE. 32 St. George’s-square, Pimlico, London, 8. W.
1875. {CiarKke, Jonn Henry. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
1861. *Clarke, John Hope. 62 Nelson-street, Chorlton-on-Medlock, Man-
chester.
1877. {Clarke, Professor John W. University of Chicago, MIlinois, U.S.A.
1851. {Ciarxs, Josuvua, F.L.S. Fairycroft, Saffron Walden.
Clarke, Thomas, M.A. Knedlington Manor, Howden, Yorkshire.
1883. {Clarke, W. P., J.P. 15 Hesketh-street, Southport.
1884, {Claxton, T. James. 461 St. Urbain-street, Montreal, Canada.
1861. {Clay, Charles, M.D. 101 Piccadilly, Manchester.
*Clay, Joseph Travis, F.G.S. Rastrick, near Brighouse, Yorkshire.
1889. §Clayden, A. W. Warleigh, Palace-road, Tulse Hill Park, London,
S.W
1866. {Clayden, P. W. 13 Tavistock-square, London, W.C.
1890, *Clayton, William Wikely. Outwood Villa, Spencer-place, Leeds.
1850. {CLecHorN, Hueu, M.D., F.L.S. Stravithie, St. Andrews, Scot-
land.
1859, {Cleghorn, John. Wick.
1875, {Clegram, T. W. B. Saul Lodge, near Stonehouse, Gloucestershire.
1861. §Ctzranp, Joun, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Glasgow. 2 College, Glasgow.
1873. {Cliff, John, F.G.S. Nesbit Hall, Fulneck, Leeds.
1886. {Clifford, Arthur. Beechcroft, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1883. Clift, Frederic, LL.D. Norwood, Surrey.
1888, {Cxrrton, The Right Rev. the Bishop of, D.D. Bishop’s House,
Clifton, Bristol.
——————
LIST OF MEMBERS, 26
Year of
Election.
1861, *Ox1rron, R. Bettany, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Portland
Lodge, Park Town, Oxford.
Clonbrock, Lord Robert. Clonbrock, Galway.
1878. §Close, Rev. Maxwell H., F.G.S. 40 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.
1873. tClough, John. Bracken Bank, Keighley, Yorkshire.
1883. *Crowes, Frank, D.Sc., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in Univer-
sity College, Nottingham. University College, Nottingham.
1863. *Clutterbuck, Thomas. Warkworth, Acklington.
1881. *Clutton, William James. The Mount, York.
1885. {Clyne James. Rubislaw Den South, Aberdeen.
1868, {Coaks, J. B. Thorpe, Norwich.
Cobb, Edward. Falkland House, St. Ann’s, Lewes.
1884, §Cobb, John. 29 Clarendon-road, Leeds.
1889. §Cochrane, Cecil A. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1864, *Cochrane, James Henry. Elm Lodge, Prestbury, Cheltenham.
1889. {Cochrane, William. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1883. {Cockshott, J. J. 24 Queen’s-road, Southport.
1861. *Coe, Rey. Charles C., F.R.G.S. Fairfield, Heaton, Bolton.
1881. *Oorrin, Watrer Harris, F.C.S. 94 Cornwall-gardens, South
Kensington, London, S.W.
1865. tCoghill, H. Newcastle-under-Lyme.
1884, *Cohen, B. L. 80 Hyde Park-gardens, London, W.
1887. §Cohen, Julius B. Hawkesmoor, Wilbraham-road, Fallowfield,
Manchester.
1887. {Cohen, Sigismund. 111 Portland-street, Manchester.
1853. {Colchester, William, F.G.S. Burwell, Cambridge.
1868. {Colchester W. P. Bassingbourn, Royston.
1879. {Cole, Skelton. 887 Glossop-road, Sheffield.
1878. {Coles, John, Curator of the Map Collection R.G.S. 1 Savile-row,
London, W.
1854. *Colfox, William, B.A. Westmead, Bridport, Dorsetshire.
1857. tColles, William, M.D. 21 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
1887. {Collie, Norman. University College, Gower-street, London, W.C.
1887. {Collier, Thomas. Ashfield, Alderley Edge, Manchester.
1869. {Collier, W. F. Woodtown, Horrabridge, South Devon.
1854. tCollingwood, Cuthbert, M.A., M.B., F.L.S. 69 Great Russell-
street, London, W.C.
1861. *Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. 96 Great Portland-street,
London, W.
1865. *Collins, James Tertius. Churchfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1876, {Cortins, J. H., F.G.S. 4 Clark-terrace, Dulwich Rise, London,
S.E
1876. {Collins, Sir William. 3 Park-terrace East, Glasgow.
1884, §Collins, William J., M.D., B.Sc. Albert-terrace, Regent’s Park,
London, N.W.
1868, *Corman, J. J., M.P. Carrow House, Norwich; and 108 Cannon-
: street, London, E.C. ;
1882. Colmer, Joseph G.,C.M.G. Office of the High Commissioner for
Canada, 9 Victoria-chambers, London, 8.W.
1884, tColomb, Sir J. C. R., M.P., F.R.G.S. Dromquinna, Kenmare,
Kerry, Ireland; and Junior United Service Club, London, 8. W.
1888. {Commans, R. D. Macaulay-buildings, Bath.
1884. {Common, A. A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 68 Eaton-rise, Ealing, Middle-
sex, W.
1884. §Conklin, Dr. William A. Central Park, New York, U.S.A.
1852, tConnal, Sir Michael, 16 Lynedoch-terrace, Glasgow.
26 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election. :
1890. §Connon, J W. Park-row, Leeds,
1871. *Connor, Charles C. Notting Hill House, Belfast.
1881. {Conroy, Sir Jonn, Bart. Balliol College, Oxford.
1876. {Cook, James. 162 North-street, Glasgow.
1882. {Cooxr, Major-General A. C., R.E., O.B., F.R.G.S. Palace-chambers,
Ryder-street, London, S.W.
1876, *Cooxr, ConraD W. 2 Victoria-mansions, Victoria-street, London,
S.W.
1881. {Cooke, F. Bishopshill, York.
1868. {Cooke, Rev. George H. Wanstead Vicarage, near Norwich.
1868. {Cooxs, M. C., M.A. 2 Grosvenor-villas, Upper Holloway, London, N.
1884. {Cooke, R. P. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.
1878. tCooke, Samuel, M.A., F.G.S. Poona, Bombay.
1881. tCooke, Thomas. Bishopshill, York.
1859. *Cooke, His Honour Judge, M.A., F.S.A. 42 Wimpole-street,
London, W.; and Rainthorpe Hall, Long Stratton.
1883. {Cooke-Taylor, R. Whateley. Frenchwood House, Preston.
1883. tCooke-Taylor, Mrs. Frenchwood House, Preston.
1865. {Cooksey, Joseph. West Bromwich, Birmingham.
1888. §Cooley, George Parkin. Cavendish Hill, Sherwood, Nottingham.
1883. {Coomer, John. Willaston, near Nantwich.
1884, {Coon, John 8. 604 Main-street, Cambridge Pt., Massachusetts,
U.S.A.
1883. {Cooper, George B. 67 Great Russell-street, London, W.C.
1850. {Coopsr, Sir Henry, M.D. 7 Charlotte-street, Hull.
1838. Cooper, James. 58 Pembridge-villas, Bayswater, London, W.
1884. {Cooper, Mrs. M.A. West Tower, Marple, Cheshire.
1868. {Cooper, W. J. The Old Palace, Richmond, Surrey.
1846. tCooper, Wilkam White, F.R.C.S. 19 Berkeley-square, London, W.
1889. {Coote, Arthur. The Minories, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1884, {Cope, E. D. Philadelphia, U.S.A.
1878. {Cope, Rev. S. W. Bramley, Leeds.
1871. {Copeland, Ralph, Ph.D., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal for Scotland
and Professor of Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh.
1885. {Copland, W., M.A. ‘Tortorston, Peterhead, N.B.
1881. {Copperthwaite, H. Holgate Villa, Holgate-lane, York.
1863. {Coppin, John. North Shields.
1842. Corbett, Edward. Grange-avenue, Levenshulme, Manchester.
1887. *Corcoran, Bryan. 381 Mark-lane, London, E.C.
1881. §Cordeaux, John. Great Cotes, Ulceby, Lincolnshire.
1883. *Core, Thomas H. Fallowfield, Manchester.
1870. *CorrreLD, W. H., M.A., M.D., F.C.8., F.G.S., Professor of Hygiene
and Public Health in University College. 19 Savile-row,
London, W.
1889. {Cornish, Vaughan. Ivy Cottage, Newcastle, Staffordshire.
1884. *Cornwallis, F. 8. W. Linton Park, Maidstone.
1885. {Corry, John. Rosenheim, Parkhill-road, Croydon.
1888. §Corser, Rev. Richard K. 12 Beaufort-buildings East, Bath.
1883. {Costelloe, B. F. C., M.A., B.Sc. 83 Chancery-lane, London, W.C.
Cottam, George. 2 Winsley-street, London, W.
1857. {Cottam, Samuel. King-street, Manchester.
1874,
1864
1869
1879
. *Correritt, J. H., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mechanics.
Royal Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.
. {Corron, General FrepErick C., R.E., C.S.I. 13 Longridge-road,
Earl’s Court-road, London, 8. W.
. {Corron, Wirt1am. Pennsylvania, Exeter.
. {Cottrill, Gilbert I. Shepton Mallett, Somerset.
es
LIST OF MEMBERS. 27
Year of
Election. :
1876. {Couper, James. City Glass Works, Glasgow.
1876, {Couper, James, jun. City Glass Works, Glasgow.
1874. {Courtauld, John M. Bocking Bridge, Braintree, Essex.
1889,
1890.
fCourtney, F.S. 77 Redcliffe-square, South Kensington, London,
S.W.
§Cousins, John James. Allerton Park, Chapel Allerton, Leeds.
Cowan, John. Valleyfield, Pennycuick, Edinburgh.
. [Cowan, John A. Blaydon Burn, Durham.
. {Cowan, Joseph, jun. Blaydon, Durham.
. {Cowan, J. B.,M.D. 4 Eglinton-crescent, Edinburgh.
. *Cowan, Thomas William, F.G.S. Comptons Lea, Horsham.
. §Cowen, Mrs. G. R. 9 The Ropewalk, Nottingham.
Cowie, The Very Rey. Benjamin Morgan, M.A., D.D., Dean of
Exeter. The Deanery, Exeter.
+ {Cowper, C. E. 6 Great George-street, Westminster, S.W.
. }Cowper, Edward Alfred, M.Inst.C.E. 6 Great George-street,
Westminster, S.W.
. *Cox, Edward. Lyndhurst, Dundee.
*Cox, George Addison. Beechwood, Dundee.
. [Cox, Thomas A., District Engineer of the S., P., and D. Railway.
Lahore, Punjab. Care of Messrs, Grindlay & Co., Parliament-
street, London, S.W.
*Cox, Thomas Hunter. Duncarse, Dundee.
. {Cox, Thomas W. B. The Chestnuts, Lansdown, Bath.
- {Cox, William. Foggley, Lochee, by Dundee.
» §Crabtree, William, M.Inst.C.E. Manchester-road, Southport.
. §Cradock, George. Wakefield.
» §CratciE, Major P. G., F.S.S.. 6 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead,
London, N.W.
. {Cramb, John. Larch Villa, Helensburgh, N.B.
- [Cranage, Edward, Ph.D. The Old Hall, Wellington, Shropshire.
. tCrathern, James. Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
§Craven, John. Smedley Lodge, Cheetham, Manchester.
- “Craven, Thomas, J.P. Woodheyes Park, Ashton-upon-Mersey,
Cheshire.
- *Crawford, William Caldwell, M.A. 1 Lockharton-gardens, Slate-
ford, Edinburgh.
. *CRAWFORD AND Batcarres, The Right Hon. the Earl of, LL.D.
F.R.S., F.R.A.S. The Observatory, Dun Echt, Aberdeen.
. §Crawshaw, Charles B. Bank-terrace, Dewsbury.
. *Crawshaw, Edward, F.R.G.S. 25 Tollington-park, London, N.
. *Crawshay, Mrs. Robert. Cathedine, Bwlch, Breconshire.
. §Creak, Staff Commander E. W., R.N., F.R.S. Richmond Lodge,
Blackheath, London, S.E.
. {Creswick, Nathaniel. Chantry Grange, near Sheffield.
- *Crewdson, Rev. George. St. George’s Vicarage, Kendal.
- *Crewdson, Theodore. Norcliffe Hall, Handforth, Manchester.
. *Orisp, Frank, B.A., LL.B., F.L.S. 5 Lansdowne-road, Notting Hill,
London, W.
. “Croft, W. Winchester College, Hampshire.
» [Croke, John O'Byrne, M.A. 12 Plevna-terrace, St. Mary's-road,
Dublin.
- [Croll, A. A. 10 Coleman-street, London, E.C.
. TCrolly, Rev. George. Maynooth College, Ireland.
. tCrombie, Charles W. 41 Carden-place, Aberdeen.
. {Crombie, John. 129 Union-street, Aberdeen.
. {Crombie, John, jun. Daveston, Aberdeen.
28
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1885. {Cromarz, J. W., M.A. Balgownie Lodge, Aberdeen.
1885. {Crombie, Theodore. 18 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
1887. {Crompton, A. 1 St. James’s-square, Manchester.
1886. {Crompton, Dickinson W. 40 Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
1887
1870.
1865
1879
1870,
1870
1890
1887
1861.
mingham.
. §Crook, Henry T. 9 Albert-square, Manchester.
. [Crookes, Joseph. Marlborough House, Brook Green, Hammersmith,
London, W.
. §Crooxes, WitLiAM, F.R.S., F.C.S. 7 Kensington Park-gardens,
London, W.
. {Crookes, Mrs. 7 Kensington Park-gardens, London, W.
. {Crosfield, C. J. Holmfield, Aigburth, Liverpool.
. *Crosfield, William. Annesley, Aigburth, Liverpool.
. §Cross, EK. Richard, LL.B. Harwood House, New Parks-crescent
Scarborough,
. §Cross, John. Beancliffe, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
1Cross, Rev. John Edward, M.A. Appleby Vicarage, near Brigg.
1883. {Cross, Rev. Prebendary, LL.B. Part-street, Southport.
1868. {Crosse, Thomas William. St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
1886
. {Crosskey, Cecil. 117 Gough-road, Birmingham.
1867. §CrosskEy, Rev. H. W., LL.D., F.G.S. 117 Gough-road, Birmingham.
1853.
1870.
1871.
1866.
1887.
1883.
1882.
1890.
1883.
1863.
1885.
1888.
1873.
1883.
1883.
1878.
1883.
1859.
1874.
1861.
1861.
1882.
1887.
1877.
1852.
1885.
1869.
1883.
1850.
tCrosskill, William. Beverley, Yorkshire.
*Crossley, Edward, M.P., F.R.A.S. Bemerside, Halifax.
tCrossley, Herbert. Ferney Green, Bowness, Ambleside.
*Crossley, Louis J., F.R.M.S. Moorside Observatory, near Halifax.
*Crossley, William J. Glenfield, Bowdon, Cheshire.
tCrowder, Robert. Stanwix, Carlisle.
§Crowley, Frederick. Ashdell, Alton, Hampshire.
*Crowley, Ralph Henry. Bramley Oaks, Croydon.
tCrowther, Elon. Cambridge-road, Hudderstield.
tCruddas, George. Elswick Engine Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tCruickshank, Alexander, LL.D. 20 Rose-street, Aberdeen.
tCrummack, William J. London and Brazilian Bank, Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil.
tCrust, Walter. Hall-street, Spalding.
*Cryer, Major J. H. The Grove, Manchester-road, Southport.
Culley, Robert. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.
*Culverwell, Edward P. 40 Trinity College, Dublin.
{Culverwell, Joseph Pope. St. Lawrence Lodge, Sutton, Dublin.
tCulverwell, T. J. H. Litfield House, Clifton, Bristol.
tCumming, Sir A. P. Gordon, Bart. Altyre.
tCumming, Professor. 33 Wellington-place, Belfast.
*Cunliffe, Edward Thomas. The Parsonage, Handforth, Manchester.
*Cunliffe, Peter Gibson. Dunedin, Handforth, Manchester,
*OuNNINGHAM, Lieut.-Colonel ALLAN, R.E., A.I.C.E. C.R.E.’s Office,
Camp, Shorncliffe, Kent.
tCunningham, David, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E., F.S.S. Harbour-chambers,
Dundee ; and Viewbank, Newport, Fife, Scotland.
*CunnineHAM, D, J., M.D., Professor of Anatomy in Trinity College,
Dublin.
Cunningham, John. Macedon, near Belfast.
tCunninenam, J..T., B.A., F.R.S.E. Scottish Marine Station,
Granton, Edinburgh.
}CunnineHam, Rozsert O., M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Natural His-
tory in Queen's College, Belfast.
*Cunningham, Rev. William, D.D., D.Sc. Trinity College, Cambridge.
tCunningham, Rey. William Bruce. Prestonpans, Scotland.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 29
Year of
Election.
1885
1867
1857.
1878.
1884.
1883.
1881.
1889.
1854.
1883.
1889,
1887.
1863.
1865.
1867.
1870.
1862.
1876.
1849,
1861.
1883.
1876.
1884.
1882.
1881.
1878.
1882.
1888.
1872.
1880.
1884.
1870.
1885.
1890.
1875.
1870.
1887.
1842.
1887.
1873.
1870.
1864,
1884.
{Curphey, William S. 268 Renfrew-street, Glasgow.
{Currier, John McNab. Newport, Vermont, U.S.A.
*Cursetjee, Manockjee, F.R.G.S., Judge of Bombay. Villa-Byculla,
Bombay.
{Curtis, ArrHuR Hitt, LL.D. 1 Hume-street, Dublin.
{Curtis, William. Caramore, Sutton, Co. Dublin.
tCushing, Frank Hamilton. Washington, U.S.A.
{Oushing, Mrs. M. Croydon, Surrey.
§Cushing, Thomas, F.R.A.S. India Store Depét, Belvyedere-road,
Lambeth, London, S.W.
§Dagger, John H., F.I.C., F.C.S. Endon, Staffordshire.
{Daglish, Robert, M.Inst.C.E. Orrell Cottage, near Wigan.
{Dihne, F. W., Consul of the German Empire. 18 Somerset-place,
Swansea.
*Dale, Miss Elizabeth. Girton College, Cambridge.
{Dale, Henry F., F.R.M.S.,FZ.S. Royal London Yacht Club, 2
Savile-row, London, W.
t{Dale, J. B. South Shields.
{Dale, Rev. R. W. 12 Calthorpe-street, Birmingham.
tDalgleish, W. Dundee.
{DatrincER, Rev. W. H., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. Ingleside, New-
stead-road, Lee, London, S.E.
Dalton, Edward, LL.D., F.S.A. Dunkirk House, Nailsworth,
EDA, ie M.A., F.G.S. 1 Westbourne-terrace-road, Lon-
on, W.
{Dansken, John. 4 Eldon-terrace, Partickhill, Glasgow.
*Danson, Joseph, F.C.S. Montreal, Canada.
*DaRBISHIRE, RoBeRT DUKINFIELD, B.A.,F.G.S, 26 George-street,
Manchester.
{Darbishire, S. D., M.D. 60 High-street, Oxford.
{Darling, G. Erskine. 247 West George-street, Glasgow.
{Darling, Thomas. 99 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.
tDarwin, Francis, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Wychfield, Hun-
tingdon-road, Cambridge.
*Darwiy, GroreE Howarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Plumian
Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy in the
University of Cambridge. Newnham Grange, Cambridge,
*Darwin, Horace. The Orchard, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.
tDarwin, W. E., F.G.S. Bassett, Southampton.
TDaubeny, William M. Stratton House, Park-lane, Bath.
}Davenport, John T. 64 Marine Parade, Brighton.
*Davey, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 3 Prince’s-street, Westminster,
Ww
pei A. fs B.A., LL.B. 4 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, Lon-
on, E.C.
{Davidson, Alexander, M.D. 2 Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.
{Davidson, Charles B. Roundhay, Fonthill-road, Aberdeen.
§Davies, Arthur, East Brow Cottage, near Whitby.
{Davies, David. 2 Queen’s-square, Bristol.
{Davies, Edward, F.C.S. Royal Institution, Liverpool.
*Davies, H. Rees. Treborth, Bangor, North Wales.
Davies-Colley, Dr. Thomas. Newton, near Chester.
tDavies-Colley, T. 0. Hopedene, Kersal, Manchester.
*Davis, Alfred. 2 St. Ermin’s Mansions, London, S.W. =
*Davis, A. S. . Vittoria House, Cheltenham. val
}Davis, Cuartes E., F.S.A. 55 Pulteney-street, Bath.
30
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1887.
1842.
1881.
1882.
1873.
1883.
1883.
1885.
1886.
1886.
1864.
1857.
1869,
1869,
1860.
1864,
1886.
1885.
1884.
1855.
1859.
1871.
1870.
1861.
1887.
1861.
1870,
1884,
1866.
1884,
1887.
1878.
1879.
1884.
1887.
1870.
1889,
1873.
1884,
1889.
1870.
1874,
§Davis, David. 55 Berkley-street, Liverpool.
Davis, Rev. David, B.A. Almswood, Evesham.
{Davis, George E. The Willows, Fallowfield, Manchester.
§Davis, Henry C. Berry Pomeroy, Springfield-road, Brighton,
*Davis, James W., F.G.8., F.S.A. Chevinedge, near Halifax.
{Davis, Joseph, J.P. Park-road, Southport.
{Davis, Robert Frederick, M.A. Larlsfield, Wandsworth Common,
London, 8.W.
*Davis, Rudolf. Almswood, Evesham.
t{Davis, W. H. WHazeldean, Pershore-road, Birmingham.
{Davison, Charles, M.A. 38 Charlotte-road, Birmingham.
*Davison, Richard. Beverley-road, Great Drithield, Yorkshire,
{Davy, Epwunp W., M.D. Kimmage Lodge, Roundtown, near
Dublin.
{Daw, John. Mount Radford, Exeter.
{Daw, R. R. M. Bedtord-circus, Exeter.
*Dawes, John T., F.G.S. Cefn Mawr Hall, Mold, North Wales.
tDawxkiys, W. Boyp, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., Professor of
Geology and Paleontology in the Victoria University, Owens
College, Manchester. Woodhurst, Fallowfield, Manchester.
{Dawson, Bernard. The Laurels, Malvern Link.
*Dawson, Major H. P., R.A. Sheerness,
{Dawson, Samuel. 258 University-street, Montreal, Canada.
§Dawson, Sir Witiam, C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
Principal of McGill University. McGill University, Montreal,
Canada.
*Dawson, Captain William G. Plumstead Common, Kent.
tDay, St. John Vincent, MInst.C.E., F.RS.E. 166 Buchanan-
street, Glusgow.
*Dracon, G. F., M.Inst.C.E. Municipal Offices, Liverpool.
{Deacon, Henry. Appleton House, near Warrington.
{Deakin, H. T. Egremont House, Belmont, near Bolton.
tDean, Henry. Colne, Lancashire.
*Deane, Rev. George, B.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. 38 Wellington-road,
Birmingham.
*Debenham, Frank, F.S.S. 26 Upper Hamilton-terrace, London,
N.W
{Desvus, Henyricu, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry
at Guy’s Hospital, London, 8.E.
§Deck, Arthur, F.C.S. 9 King’s-parade, Cambridge.
§Dehn, R. Olga Villa, Victoria Park, Manchester.
{Delany, Rev. William. St. Stanislaus College, Tullamore.
{De la Sala, Colonel. Sevilla House, Navarino-road, London,
N.W
*De Laune, C. De L. F. Sharsted Court, Sittingbourne.
{De Meschin, Miss Hannah Constance. Sandycove Castle, Kingstown,
Ireland.
§De Meschin, Thomas, B.A., LL.D. Sandycove Castle, Kingstown,
Ireland.
tDendy, Frederick Walter. 3 Mardale-parade, Gateshead.
tDenham, Thomas, J.P. Huddersfield.
t{Denman, Thomas W. Lamb’s-buildings, Temple, London, E.C,
§Denny, ALFRED, F.L.S., Professor of Biology in the Firth College,
Sheffield.
Dent, William Yerbury. Royal Arsenal, Woolwich.
*Denton, J. Bailey. Orchard Court, Stevenage.
§Dr Rance, Cuartes E., F.G.S, 28 Jermyn-street, London, 8.W.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 31
Year of
Election.
1856, *Dersy, The Right Hon, the Earl of, K.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S, St. James’s-square, London, S.W.; and Knowsley,
near Liverpool.
1874, *Derham, Walter, M.A., LL.M.,F.G.S. 76 Lancaster-gate, London, W.
1878. {De Rinzy, James Harward. Khelat Survey, Sukkur, India.
1868. {Dessé, Etheldred, M.B., F.R.C.S. 43 Kensington Gardens-square,
Bayswater, London, W.
De Tastzy, Lord Grorcz, F.Z.S. Tabley House, Knutsford,
Cheshire.
*“DrvonsHIrE, His Grace the Duke of, K.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Chancellor of the University of Cambridge.
Devonshire House, Piccadilly, London, W.; and Chatsworth
Derbyshire.
1868. {Drewar, Jauus, M.A., F.R.S.L. & E., F.C.S., Fullerian Professor of
Chemistry in the Royal Institution, London, and Jacksonian
Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy in the Uni-
versity of Cambridge. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.
1881. {Dewar, Mrs. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.
1883. {Dewar, James, M.D., F.R.C.S.E. Drylaw House, Davidson’s Mains,
Midlothian, N.B.
1884, *Dewar, William, M.A. Rugby School, Rugby.
1872. {Dewick, Rev. E. S., M.A., F.G.S. 26 Oxford-square, London, W.
1887. {Dr Winton, Colonel Sir F., K.C.M.G., C.B., D.C.L., Sec. R.G.S.
United Service Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W.
1884. {De Wolf, 0. C., M.D. Chicago, U.S.A.
1873. *Dew-Smiru, A. G., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
1889. {Dickinson, A. H. Portland House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1863. {Dickinson,G. T. Claremont-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1887. {Dickinson, Joseph, F.G.S. South Bank, Pendleton.
1884, {Dickson, Charles R., M.D. Wolfe Island, Ontario, Canada.
1881. {Dickson, Edmund. West Cliff, Preston.
1887, {Dickson, H. N. 38 York-place, Edinburgh.
1885. {Dickson, Patrick. Laurencekirk, Aberdeen,
1883. {Dickson, T. A. West Cliff, Preston.
1862. *Diixe, The Right Hon. Sir Coartes WrntwortH, Bart., F.R.G.S.
76 Sloane-street, London, S.W.
1877. {Dillon, James, M.Inst.C.E. 36 Dawson-street, Dublin.
1848. {Drmtwyy, Lewis Lizwetyn, M.P., F.LS., F.G.S. Parkweme,
near Swansea,
1869. {Dingle, Edward. 19 King-street, Tavistock.
1889. {Dinning, William. 41 Eldon-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1876, {Ditchfield, Arthur. 12 Taviton-street, Gordon-square, London, W.C.
1868, {Dittmar, William, LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical
College, 11 Hillhead-street, Glasgow.
1884, {Dix, John William H. Bristol.
1874, *Dixon, A. E. Dunowen, Cliftonville, Belfast.
1883. {Dixon, Miss E. 2 Cliff-terrace, Kendal.
1888. §Dixon, E. T. Messrs. Lloyds, Barnetts, & Bosanquets’ Bank, 54
St. James’s-street, London, 8. W.
1886. {Dixon, George. 42 Aucustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1879. *Dixon, Hanoxp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
the Owens College, Manchester. Birch Hall, Rusholme, Man-
chester.
1885. {Dixon, John Henry. Inveran, Poolewe, Ross-shire, N.B.
1887. {Dixon, Thomas. Buttershaw, near Bradford, Yorkshire.
1885, {Doak, Rev. A. 15 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.
?
32
LIST OF MEMBERS
Year of
Election.
1890.
1885.
1860.
1878.
1864.
1875.
1870.
1876.
1889.
1885.
1882,
1869.
1877.
1889.
1861.
1887.
1887.
1881.
1889.
1867.
1871.
1863.
1876.
1877.
1884.
1890.
1883.
1884,
1884.
1884.
1876.
1884.
1878.
1857.
1865.
1881,
1887.
1883.
1868.
1873.
1890
1887.
1889.
1870.
1889,
§Dobbie, James J. University College, Bangor, North Wales.
§Dobbin, Leonard. The University, Edinburch.
*Dobbs, Archibald Edward, M.A. 84 Westbourne Park, Lon-
don, W.
*Doxson, G. E., M.A., M.B.,F.R.S.,F.L.S. Adrigole, Spring Grove,
Isleworth.
*Dobson, William. Oakwood, Bathwick Hill, Bath.
*Docwra, George, jun. 32 Union-street, Coventry.
*Dodd, John. Nunthorpe-avenue, York.
tDodds, J. M. St. Peter’s College, Cambridge.
§Dodson, George, B.A. Downing College, Cambridge.
Dolphin, John. Delves House, Berry Edge, near Gateshead.
tDonaldson, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Senior Principal of
the Univ ersity of St. Andrews, N.B.
{Donaldson, John. Tower House, Chiswick, Middlesex.
tDonisthorpe,G. T. St. David’s Hill, Exeter.
*Donkin, Bryan, jun. May’s Hill, Shortlands, Kent.
{Donkin, R. S., M.P. Campville, North Shields.
{Donnelly, Colonel, R.E., C.B. South Kensington Museum, London,
S.W.
tDonner, Edward, B.A. 4 Anson-road, Victoria Park, Manchester.
tDorning, Elias, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 41 John Dalton-street, Man-
chester.
{Dorrington, John Edward. Lypiatt Park, Stroud.
tDorsey, E. B. International Club, Trafalgar-square, London, S.W.
tDougall, Andrew Maitland, R.N. Scotscraig, Tayport, Fifeshire.
Dougall, John, M.D. 2 Cecil-place, Paisley-road, Glasgow.
*Doughty, Charles Montagu. Care of H. M. Doughty, Ksq., 5 Stone-
court, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
*Douglas, Rev. G. C. M. 118 Royal-crescent West, Glasgow.
*Doverass, Sir James N., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Trinity House, Lon-
don, EC.
tDouglass, William Alexander. Freehold Loan and Savings Com-
pany, Church-street, Toronto, Canada.
{Dovaston, John. West Felton, Oswestry.
tDove, Arthur. Crown Cottage, York.
{Dove, Miss Frances. St. Leonard’s, St. Andrews, N.B.
}Dove, P. Edward, F.R.A.S., Sec.R.Hist.Soc. 23 Old-buildings,
Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
tDowe, John Melnotte. 69 Seventh-avenue, New York, U.S.A.
tDowie, Mrs. Muir. Golland, by Kinross, N.B.
*Dowling, D. J. Bromley, Kent.
{Dowling Thomas. Claireville House, Terenure, Dublin.
tDownine, S., LL.D. 4 The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
*Dowson, E. Theodore, F.R.M.S. Geldeston, near Beccles, Suffolk.
*Dowson, Joseph Emerson, M.Inst.C.K. 3 Great Queen-street, Lon-
don, S.W.
§Doxey, R. A. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester.
{Draper, William. De Grey House, St. Leonard’s, York.
{DressEr, Henry E., F.Z.S. 110 Cannon-street, London, E.C.
§Drew, FRepERIC, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Eton Colleze, Windsor.
§Drew, John. 12 Haringay Park, Crouch End, Middlesex, N.
{Dreyfus, Dr Daisy Mount, Victoria Park, Manchester.
f{Drummond, Dr. 6 Saville- -place, Neweastle- upon-Tyne.
tDrysdale, J. J.. M.D. 864 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
Du Chaillu, Paul B. Care of John Murray, Esq., 504 Albemarle-
street, London, W.
Year
Electi
1856
1870
1867
1852
1877.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 33
of
on.
. “Duciz, The Right. Hon. Henry Joun Reynorps Moreton, Earl
of, F.R.S.,F.G.S. 16 Portman-square, London, W. ; and Tort-
worth Court, Wotton-under-Edge.
. {Duckworth, Henry, F.L.S., F.G.8. Christchurch Vicarage, Chester.
. “Durr, The Right Hon. Sir Mounrsrvarr ELPHINSTONE GRANT-,
G.C.S.L., F.R.S., Pres.R.G.8S. York House, Twickenham.
. {Dufferin and Ava, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.P., G.C.B.,
G.C.M.G., G.C.S.L, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S, Clande-
boye, near Belfast, Ireland.
{Duffey, George F.. M.D. 30F itzwilliam-place, Dublin.
1875. {Duflin, W. E. L’Estrange. Waterford.
1890.
§Dufton, 8. F. Trinity College, Cambridge.
1884, §Dugdale, James H. 9 Hyde Park-gardens, London, W.
1883.
1859.
1866,
1867,
1880.
1881,
1881.
1865.
1882,
1883.
1876.
1878.
1884.
1859,
1890,
1886.
1866.
1869,
1860.
1887.
1887.
1884.
1885.
1869,
1868.
1861,
1883,
1877.
1888,
1874,
§Duke, Frederic. Conservative Club, Hastings.
“Duncan, Alexander. 7 Prince’s-cate, London, S.W.
“Duncan, James. 9 Mincing-lane, London, E.C.
Duncan, J. F., M.D. 8 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin,
{ Duncan, Perer Martin, M.B.,F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology
in King’s College, London. 6 Grosyenor-road, Gunnersbury,
London, W.
tDunean, William S. 143 Queen’s-road, Bayswater, London, W.
{Duncombe, The Hon. Cecil. Nawton Grange, York,
{Dunhill, Charles H. Gray’s-court, York.
{Dunn, David. Annet House, Skelmorlie, by Greenock, N.B.
§Dunn, J. T., M.Sc., F.C.8. High School ‘for Boys, Gateshead-on-
Tyne.
tDunn, Mrs. Denton Grange, Gateshead-on-Tyne.
tDunnachie, James. 2 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
tDunne, D. B., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Logie in the Catholic Uni-
versity of Ireland. 4 Clanwilliam-place, Dublin.
§Dunnington, F. P. University of Virginia, Albemarle Co., Vir-
ginia, U.S.A.
{Duns, Rev. John, D.D., F.R.S.E. New College, Edinburgh.
§Dunsford, Follett. Rougemont Villa, Headingley, Leeds,
“Dunstan, WynpHam R., M.A., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry to
the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, 17 Bloomsbury-
square, London, W.C.
{Duprey, Perry. Woodberry Down, Stoke Newington, London, N.
{D’Urban, W. S. M., F.L.S. 4 Queen-terrace, Mount Radford,
Tixeter.
fDurnam, Arruur Epwarp, F.B.CS., F.L.S., Demonstrator of
Anatomy, Guy’s Hospital. 82 Brook-street, Grosyenor-square,
London, W.
tDurham, William. Seaforth House, Portobello, Scotland.
fDyason, John Sanford, F.R.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. Boscobel-gardens,
London, N. W.
t{Dyck, Professor Walter. The University, Munich.
“Dyer, Henry, M.A. 8 Highburgh-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
“Dymond, Edward E. Oaklands, Aspley Guise, Woburn.
tEade, Peter, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
{£adson, Richard. 13 Hyde-road, Manchester.
{Eagar, Rey. Thomas. The Rectory, Ashton-under-Lyne,
{Earle, Ven. Archdeacon, M.A. West Alvington, Devon.
tEarson, H. W.P. 11 Alexandra-road, Clifton, Bristol.
{Eason, Charles, 80 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, Dublin.
c
34
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1871.
1863.
1876.
1883.
1887.
1884,
1861.
1858.
1870.
1887.
1884.
*Easton, Epwarp, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 11 Delahay-street, West<
minster, S.W.
{Easton, James. Nest House, near Gateshead, Durham.
JEaston, John. Durie House, Abercromby-street, Helensburgh,
N.B
{Eastwood, Miss, Littleover Grange, Derby.
§Eccles, Mrs. S. White Coppice, Chorley, Lancashire.
{Eckersley, W. T. Standish Hall, Wigan, Lancashire.
tEcroyd, William Farrer. Spring Cottage, near Burnley,
*Eddison, Francis. Syward Lodge, Dorchester.
*Eddison, John Edwin, M.D., M.R.C.S. 29 Park-square, Leeds.
*Eddy, James Ray, F.G.S. The Grange, Carleton, Skipton.
§Ede, Francis J. Silchar, Cachar, India.
Eden, Thomas. Talbot-road, Oxton.
*Idgell, R. Arnold, M.A., F.C.S. 58 Abingdon-yillas, Kensington,
London, W.
. §EpcrewortH, F. Y., M.A., D.C.L., F.S.S., Professor of Political
Economy in the University of Oxford. Athengeum Club, Pall
Mall, London, 8.W.
. *Edmonds, F. B. 6 Furnival’s Inn, London, E.C,
83. {Edmonds, William. Wiscombe Park, Honiton, Devon.
. *Edmunds, Henry. Rhodehurst, Streatham, London, S.W.
. *Edmunds, James, M.D. 8 Grafton-street, Piccadilly, London, W.
; S Papas, Lewis, D.Sc., LL.B. 60 Park-street, Park-lane, London,
. *Edward, Allan. Farington Hall, Dundee.
. t Edward, Charles. Chambers, 8 Bank-street, Dundee.
. *Epwarps, Professor J. Baxer, Ph.D., D.C.L. Montreal, Canada.
. {Edwards, W. F. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.
. *Egerton of Tatton, The Right Hon. Lord. Tatton Park, Knuts-
ford.
76. tElder, Mrs. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.
. §Elford, Perey. Christ Church, Oxford.
. *Elgar, Francis, LL.D., F.R.S.E., Director of H.M. Dockyards.
The Admiralty, London, S.W.
. tElger, Thomas Gwyn Empy, F.R.A.S. Manor Cottage, Kempston,
Bedford.
. tEllenberger, J. L. Worksop.
. {Ellingham, Frank. Thorpe St. Andrew, Norwich.
. {Ellington, Edward Bayzand, M.Inst.C.E. Palace-chambers, Bridge-
street, Westminster, S. W.
. TElliott, E. B. Washington, U.S.A.
. *Etxiorr, Epwin Barter, M.A. Queen’s College, Oxford.
Elliott, John Fogg. Elvet Hill, Durham.
79, Elliott, Joseph W. Post Office, Bury, Lancashire.
. §Elliott, Thomas Henry, F.S.S. Local Government Board, White-
hall, London, 8. W.
. tEllis, Arthur Devonshire. School of Mines, Jermyn-street, London,
S.W.; and Thurnscoe Hall, Rotherham, Yorkshire.
. *Ellis, H. D. 6 Westbourne-terrace, Hyde Park, London, W.
. Ellis, John. 17 Church-street, Southport.
. “Ettis, Joun Henry. New Close, Cambridge-road, Southport.
. *Ellis, Joseph. Hampton Lodge, Brighton.
. tEllis, J. Walter. High House, Thornwaite, Ripley, Yorkshire.
. tEllis, W. Hodgson. Toronto, Canada.
. {Etris, Wrrr1AM Horton. Hartwell House, Exeter.
Ellman, Rey. KE. B. Berwick Rectory, near Lewes, Sussex.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 35
Year of
Election.
1887.
1862.
1883.
1887.
1870.
1863.
1884,
1863.
1886.
1858.
1890.
1866,
1884,
1853.
1869.
1883.
1869.
1844,
1864.
1885.
1862.
1878.
1887.
1887.
1869,
1888.
1883.
1881.
1889.
1887.
1870.
1865.
1889.
1884,
1861.
1883.
1883.
1881.
1876.
1885,
tEImy, Ben. Eaton Hall, Congleton, Manchester.
}Elphinstone, H. W., M.A., F.L.S. 2 Stone-buildings, Lincoln's Inn,
London, W.C.
{Elwes, George Robert. Bossington, Bournemouth.
§Elworthy, Frederick T. Foxdown, Weilington, Somerset.
*Ety, The Right Rev. Lord Atwynr Compton, D.D., Lord Bishop
of. The Palace, Ely, Cambridgeshire.
tEmbleton, Dennis, M.D. 19 Claremont-place, Newcastle-upon-
ne.
Piety. Albert H. Stamford, Connecticut, U.S.A.
{Emery, The Ven. Archdeacon, B.D. Ely, Cambridgeshire.
tEmmons, Hamilton. Mount Vernon Lodge, Leamington.
tEmpson, Christopher. Bramhope Hall, Leeds.
§Emsley, Alderman W. Richmond House, Richmond-road, Head-
ingley, Leeds.
tEnfield, Richard. Low Pavement, Nottingham.
tEngland, Luther M. Knowlton, Quebec, Canada.
{English, Edgar Wilkins. Yorkshire Banking Company, Lowgate
Hull.
tEnglish, J.T. Wayfield House, Stratford-on-A yon.
{Entwistle, James P. Beachfield, 2 Westclyfle-road, Southport.
*Enys, John Davis. Care of F. G. Enys, Esq., Enys, Penryn,
Cornwall.
tErichsen, John Eric, LL.D.; F.R.S., F.R.C.S., President of, and
Emeritus Professor of Surgery in, University College, London,
6 Cavendish-place, London, W.
*Eskrigge, R. A., F.G.S. 18 Hackins-hey, Liverpool.
tEsselmont, Peter, M.P. 54 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
*Esson, WintraM, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.R.A.S. Merton College,
and 13 Bradmore-road, Oxford.
}Esteourt, Charles, F.C.S. 8 St. James’s-square, John Dalton-street,
Manchester.
*Estcourt, Charles. Vyrnieu House, Talbot-road, Old Trafford,
Manchester.
*Estcourt, P. A. Vyrnieu House, Talbot-road, Old Trafford, Man-
chester.
Estcourt, Rev. W. J. B. Long Newton, Tetbury.
tEruerines, Roserr, F.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S., Assistant Keeper (Geo-
logical and Palzontological Department) Natural History
Museum (British Museum). 14 Carlyle-square, London, S.W.
tEtheridge, Mrs. 14 Carlyle-square, London, 8. W.
§Eunson, Henry J. Morvi, Kathiawar, Bombay Presidency,
t£vans, Alfred. Exeter College, Oxford.
*Evans, A. H. 9 Harvey-road, Cambridge.
*Evans, Mrs. Alfred W. A. Hillside, New Mills, near Stockport,
Derbyshire.
*Evans, Arthur John, F.S.A. 33 Holywell, Oxford.
*Evans, Rey. Cuartus, M.A. The Rectory, Solihull, Birmingham.
§Evans, Henry Jones. Greenhill, Whitchurch, Cardiff.
tEvans, Horace L. Moreton House, Tyndall’s Park, Bristol.
*Evans, Joun, D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc., Treas.R.S., F.S.A., F.L.S.,
F.G.8. Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.
*Evans, J.C. Albany-buildings, Lord-street, Southport.
*Evans, Mrs. J.C. Albany-buildings, Lord-street, Southport.
tEvans, Lewis. Llanfyrnach R.S.O., Pembrokeshire.
t£vans, Mortimer, MInst.CE. 97 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
*Evans, Percy Bagnall. The Spring, Kenilworth.
c 2
36
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year at
Election. 4
1865.
1875.
1865.
1886,
1871.
1868,
1863.
1886.
1885.
1881.
1874.
1859.
1876.
1885.
1871.
1884,
1882.
1890.
1884.
1865.
1870.
1886.
1864,
1886.
1883.
1877.
1887.
1886.
1879.
1882.
1883.
1885.
1859.
1885.
1866,
1883.
1857.
1869.
1885.
1887.
1890.
1886.
1864,
1852.
t£vans, Sebastian, M.A., LL.D. Heathfield, Alleyne Park, Lower
Norwood, Surrey, SL.
tEvans, Sparke. 38 Apsley-road, Clifton, Bristol.
*Evans, William. The Spring, Kenilworth.
tEve, A.S. Marlborough College, Wilts.
tEve, H. Weston, M.A. University College, London, W.C.
*Evererr, J. D., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.L. & E., Professor of
Natural Philosophy in Queen’s College, Belfast. 5 Princess-
gardens, Belfast.
*Everitt, George Allen, F.R.G.S. Knowle Hall, Warwickshire.
{Everitt, Wiliam E. F install Park, Bromsgrove.
jEves, Miss Florence. Uxbridge.
tEwarrt, J. Cossar, M.D., Professor of Natural History in the
University of Edinburgh.
{tEwart, Sir W. Quartus, Bart. Glenmachan, Belfast.
*Ewing, Sir Archibald Orr, Bart., M.P. Ballikinrain Castle, Killearn,
Stirlingshire.
*Ewine, JamEs Atrrep, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of
Mechanism and Applied Mathematics in the University of
Cambridge.
{Ewing, James L. 52 North Bridge, Edinburgh.
*Exley, John T., M.A. 1 Cotham-road, Bristol.
*Eyerman, John. Easton, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. ~
tEyre, G. E. Briscoe. Warrens, near Lyndhurst, Hants.
Eyton, Charles. Hendred House, Abingdon.
§Fanrer, EpMunp Broxerr. Straylea, Harrogate.
{Fairbairn, Dr. A. M. Airedale College, Bradford, Yorkshire.
*Farriey, Tomas, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 8 Newton-grove, Leeds.
{ Fairlie, Robert. Woodlands, Clapham Common, London, S.W.
{Fairley, William. Beau Desert, Rugeley, Staffordshire,
tFalkner, F. H. Lyncombe, Bath.
{ Fallon, T. P., Consul General. Australia.
{Fallon, Rev. W.S. 1 St. Alban’s-terrace, Cheltenham.
§Farapay, F. J., F.LS., F.8.S. College-chambers, 17 Brazenose-
street, Manchester.
{Farmer, Sir James. Hope House, Eccles Old-road, Manchester.
§Farncombe, Joseph, J.P. Lewes.
*Farnworth, Ernest. Clarence Villa, Penn Fields, Wolverhampton.
{Farnworth, Walter. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn.
{Farnworth, William. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn,
{Farquhar, Admiral. Carlogie, Aberdeen.
tFarquharson, Robert F.O. Haughton, Aberdeen.
{Farquharson, Mrs. R. F.O. Haughton, Aberdeen.
*FARRAR, Ven. FRepERIC WittiAm, M.A., D.D., F.R.S., Arch-
deacon of Westminster. 17 Dean’s-yard Westminster, S.W.
tFarrell, John Arthur. Moynalty, Kells, North Ireland.
{Farrelly Rev. Thomas. Royal College, Maynooth.
*Faulding, Joseph. Ebor Villa, Godwin-road, Clive-vale, Hastings.
§Faulding, Mrs. Ebor Villa, Godwin-road, Cive-vale, Hastings.
§Faulkner, John. 13 Great Ducie-street, Strangeways, Manchester.
*Faweett, F. B. Torfels, Weston-super-Mare.
§Felkin, Robert W., M.D., F.R.G.S. 20 Alva-street, Edinburgh.
Fell, John B. Spark’s Bridge, Ulverstone, Lancashire.
*Fettows, Frank P., K.S.J.J., F.S.A., F.S.S. 8 The Green, Hamp-
stead, London, N. W.
tFenton,S.Greame. 9 College-square; and Keswick, near Belfast. -
LIST OF MEMBERS. ' 37
Year of
Election.
1883. {Fenwick, E. H. 29 Harley-street, London, W.
1890. §Fenwick, T. Chapel Allerton, Leeds.
1876. {Ferguson, Alexander A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow.
1883, {Ferguson, Mrs. A. A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow.
1859. {Ferguson, John. Cove, Nigg, Inverness.
1871. *Ferauson, Jonn, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.S.A., F.C.S., Professor
of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow.
1867. {Ferguson, Robert M., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. 8 Queen-street, Edinburgh.
1867. *Fergusson, H. B. 15 Airlie-place, Dundee.
1883. {Fernald, H. P. Alma House, Cheltenham.
1883. *Fernie John. Box No.2, Hutchinson, Kansas, U.S.A.
1862. {Ferrers, Rev. Norman Macrexop, D.D., F.R.S. Caius College
Lodge, Cambridge.
1873. {Ferrier, David, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Neuro-
Pathology in King’s College. 34 Cavendish-square, London, W.
1882. §Fewings, James, B.A., B.Sc. The Grammar School, Southampton.
1887. §Fiddes, Thomas, M.D. Penwood, Urmston, near Manchester.
1875. {Fiddes, Walter. Clapton Villa, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton, Bristol.
1868. {Field, Edward. Norwich.
1886. {Field, H.C. 4 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1869, *Frecp, Roerrs, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. 4 Westminster-chambers, West-
minster, S.W.
1887. {Fielden, John C. 145 Upper Brook-street, Manchester.
1882. {Filliter, Freeland. St. Martin’s House, Wareham, Dorset.
1883. *Finch, Gerard B., M.A. 1 St. Peter’s-terrace, Cambridge.
Finch, John, Bridge Work, Chepstow.
1885. {Frnpriater, Jonn. 60 Union-street, Aberdeen.
1878. *Findlater, William. 22 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.
1885. {Findlay, George, M.A. 50 Victoria-street, Aberdeen.
1884, {Finlay, Samuel. Montreal, Canada.
1887. {Finnemore, Rev. J., F.G.S. Aston-road, Birmingham.
1881. {Firth, Colonel Sir Charles. Heckmondwike.
Firth, Thomas. Northwich.
1863. *Firth, William. Burley Wood, near Leeds.
1858. {Fishbourne, Admiral E. G., R.N. 26 Hogarth-road, Earls Court-
road, London, S.W.
1884. *Fisher, L. C. Galveston, Texas, U.S.A.
1869. {FisHer, Rev. Osuonp, M.A., F.G.S. Harlton Rectory, . near
Cambridge.
1873. {Fisher, William. Maes Fron, near Welshpool, Montgomeryshire.
1879. {Fisher, William. Norton Grange, near Sheffield.
1875. *Fisher, W. W., M.A., F.C.S. 5 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford.
1858. {Fishwick, Henry. Carr-hill, Rochdale.
1887, *Fison, Alfred H., D.Sc. University College, London, W.C.
1885. {Fison, E. Herbert. Stoke House, Ipswich.
1871. *Fison, Freperick W., M.A., F.C.S. Greenholme, Burley-in-
Wharfedale, near Leeds.
1871. {Frrcu, J. G., M.A., LL.D. 5 Lancaster-terrace, Regent's Park,
London, N. W.
1883. {Fitch, Rev. J. J. Ivyholme, Southport.
1868. {Fitch, Robert, F.G.S., F.S.A. Norwich.
1878. {Fitzgerald, CO. E., M.D. 27 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.
1878. §FirzcEratp, GroreEr Francis, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Natural
and Experimental Philosophy, Trinity College, Dublin.
1885. *Fitzgerald, Professor Maurice, B.A. 37 Botanic-avenue, Belfast.
1857. {Fitzpatrick, Thomas, M.D. 31 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.
1888, *Fitzpatrick, Thoma C. Christ’s College, Cambridge.
38
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1865.
1881.
1876.
1876.
1867.
1870.
1890.
1886.
1869.
1888.
1862.
{Fleetwood, D. J. 45 George-street, St. Paul’s, Birmingham.
tFleming, Rev. Canon James, B.D. Tha Residence, York.
tFleming, James Brown. Beaconsfield, Kelvinside, near Glasgow.
{Fleming, Sandford. Ottawa, Canada.
§FrercuEer, Atrrep H., F.C.S. 57 Gordon-square, London, W.C.
{Fletcher, B. Edgington. Norwich.
§Fletcher, B. Morley. 57 Gordon-square, London, W.C.
{Fletcher, Frank M. 57 Gordon-square, London, W.C.
{FLercuer, Lavineron E., M.Inst.C.E. Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
*FLETcHER, Lazarus, ) M. A., F.RS., F.G.S., F.C.S., Keeper of
Minerals, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-road,
London, SW.
§FLowEr, WILtiam Heyry, C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.LS.,
F.G.S., F.R.C.S., Dir ector of the Natural History Departments,
British Museum, South Kensington, London. 26 Stanhope-
gardens, London, 8.W.
. §Flower, Mrs. 26 Stanhope- gardens, London, S.W.
. *Floyer, Ernest A., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Helwan, Egypt.
. §Flux, A. W., B.A. St. John’s College, Cambridze.
. tFoale, William 3 Meadfoot-terrace, Mannamead, Plymouth.
. {Foale, Mrs. AW lan; 3 Meadfoot-terrace, Mannamead, Plymouth,
. {Foljambe, Cecil G. S., M.P. 2 Carlton House-terrace, Pall Mall,
London, 8.W.
. {Foote, Charles Newth, M.D. 3 Albion-place, Sunderland.
. {Foote, R. Bruce. Care of Messrs. H. 8. King & Co., 65 Cornhill,
London, E.C.
73. *FoRBEs, GuoraE, M.A., F.R.S. L.-& E., M.Inst.C.E. 34 Great
George-street, London, S.W.
. {Forbes, Henry O., ¥.Z.S., Director of the Canterbury Museum,
Christchurch, New Zealand.
. {Forbes, The R ight Hon. Lord. Castle Forbes, Aberdeenshire.
. §Forp, J. Rawiryson. Quarry Dene, Weetwood-lane, Leeds.
. *Forpuam, H. Grorer, F.G.S. L’Aurore, Lausanne, Switzerland.
: §Formby, R. Formby, near Liverpool.
. {Forrest, Joun, C.M. G. ., F.R.G.S. Perth, Western Australia.
. {Forster, ‘Anthony. Finlay House, St. Reonande: -on-Sea.
: 3, tForsyth, A. R., M.A., F.RS. Trinity College, Cambridge.
. Fort, George H. Lakefield, Ontario, Canada.
: {Forrescvn, The Right Hon. the Earl. Castle Hill, North Devon.
2. §Forward, Henry. 2St. Agnes-terrace, ‘Victoria Park-road, London,F.
. {Forwood, Sir William B. Hopeton House, Seaforth, Liverpool.
. {Foster, A. Le Neve. 51 Cadogan-square, London, 8. Ww.
. {Foster, Balthazar, M.D. , Professor of Medicine in Queen’s College,
Birmingham. 16 ‘Temple- row, Birmingham.
. “Foster, Crement Le NEeveE, B.A., D.Sc. ©. G. S., Professor of Mining
in the Royal College of Science, London, S.W.
3. {Foster, Mrs. C. Le Neve. Llandudno.
. *FostEr, Grorcr Carry, B.A., F.RS., F.C.S., Professor of
Physics in University Colleze, London. 18 Daleham-gardens,
Hampstead, London, N.W.
77. §Foster, Joseph B. 6 James-street, Plymouth.
59. *Fosrer, Micnant, M.A., M.D., LL.D., Sec. R.S., F.L.S., F.C.S.,
Professor of Physiology in the University of Cambridge. Trinity
College, and Great Shelford, near Cambridge.
. {Foster, Robert. 30 Rye-hill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
. Fowler, George, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Basford Hall, near Nottingham.
. {Fowler, G. G. Gunton Hall, Lowestoft, Suffolk.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 39
Year of
Election.
1888. §Fowler, Gilbert J. Dalton Hall, Manchester.
1876. *Fowler, John. 4 Kelvin Bank-terrace, Sandyford, Glasgow.
1882. {Fowzer, Sir Jon, Bart., K.C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E., F.G. S. 2 Queen
1870.
1884.
1883.
1888.
1860.
1883,
1847.
1860.
1876.
1888.
1886.
1881.
1889,
1866.
1884.
1846.
1887.
1889.
1882,
1885,
1859.
1865.
1871.
1859.
1871.
1884,
1884,
1847.
1877.
1865.
1841.
1884,
1869.
1886.
1886.
1887.
Square-place, Westminster, 5.W.
*Fowler, Sir Robert Nicholas, Bart), MOAy aire BR Gas:
137 Harley-street, London, W.
{Fox, Miss A.M. Penjerrick, Falmouth.
*Fox, Charles. The Cedars, Warlingham, Surrey.
§Fox, Sir Charles Douglas, M.Inst.C.E. 5 Delahay-street, Westmin-
ster, S.W.
*Fox, Rev. Edward, M.A. Silverdale, Hassocks, Sussex.
{Fox, Howard, F.G.S. Falmouth.
*Fox, Joseph Hoyland. The Cleve, Wellington, Somerset.
{Pox, Joseph John. Lordship-terrace, Stoke Newin gton, London, NV.
tFow, St. G. Lane. 9 Sussex-place, ame, SW.
§Fox, Thomas. Court, Wellington, Somerset.
{Foxwell, Arthur, M. Ae M.B. 17 Temple-row, Birmingham.
ied th OXWELL, Hersert 8. M. A., F'.S.S., Professor ‘of Political Economy
in University College, London. St. John’ s College, Cambridge.
{Frain, Joseph, M.D. Grosvenor- place, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-
yHe
*Francis, G. B. Inglesby, North-road, Hertford.
{Francis, James B. Lowell, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Francis, WizL1Am, Ph.D., PLS. ,F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Red Lion-court,
Fleet-street, London, H.C.; and Menor House, Richmond,
Surrey.
{FRANKLAND, Epwarp, M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
The Yews, Reigate Hill, Surrey.
*Frankland, Perey ¥., Ph. - BSc., Professor of Chemistry in
University College, Dundee.
{Franklin, Rey. Canon. Clayton-street West, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
tFraser, Alexander, M.B. Royal College of Surgeons, Dublin.
{Fraser, Aneus, M.A., M.D., F.C.S8. 232 Union-street, Aberdeen.
{Fraser, George B. 3 Airlie-place, Dundee.
Fraser, James William. 84 Kensington Palace-gardens, London, W.
*FrasER, JoHN, M.A., M.D. Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton.
tFraser, THomas R., M.D., F.R.S.L.& E., Professor of Materia
Medica and Clinical Medicine in the University of Edinburgh.
13 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.
*Frazer, Daniel. 127 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.
{Frazer, Evan L. R. Brunswick-terrace, Spring Bank, Hull.
*Frazer, Persifor, M.A., D.Se., Professor of Chemistry in the
Franklin Institute of Pennsylvania. Room 1042, Drexel Build-
ings, Fifth and Chestnut-streets, Philadelphia, U.S.A.
*Fream, W., LL.D., BSc., FE.L.S., F.G.S., F.S8.S., Professor of
Natural History in the College of Agriculture, Downton,
Salisbury.
*Freeland, Humphrey William, F.G.S. West-street, Chichester.
§Freeman, Francis Ford. 8 Leigham-terrace, Ply mouth.
{Freeman, James. 15 Francis-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Freeth, Major-General S. 30 Roy al-crescent, No ‘stings Hill, London, W,
“Fremantle, The Hon. Sir C. W., K.C.B. Roy al Mint, London, BE.
{Frere, Rev. William Edward. The Rectory, Bitton, near Bristol.
tFreshfield, Douglas W., Sec.R.G.S. 1 Sav ile-r ow, London saws
{Freund, Miss Ida. Eyre Cottage, Upper Sydenham, S.E.
{Fries, Harold H., Ph.D. 92 Reade- street, New York, U.S.A.
40
LIST OF MEMBERS.
f
Election.
1857. *Frith, Richard Hastings, MR.LA., FR.GSLIL 48 Summer-hil,
Dublin.
1887. {Froehlich, The Chevalier. Grosvenor-terrace, Withington, Man-
chester.
1882.
1885.
1887.
1875.
1875.
1884.
1872.
1859.
1869.
1884.
1881.
1887.
1836.
1857.
1863.
1876
1860.
1869.
1887.
1870.
1889.
1870.
1888.
1877.
1868.
1889.
1883.
1887.
1882.
1882.
1884,
§Frost, Edward P., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire.
{Frost, Major H. =a .P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire.
*Frost, Robert, B. Sc. St. James’s- chambers, Duke-street, London, S. W..
tFry, F.J. 104 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.
*Fry, Joseph Storrs. 2 Charlotte-street, Bristol.
§Fryer, Joseph, J.P. Smelt House, Howden-le-Wear, Co. Durham.
*Fuller, Rev. A. Pallant, Chichester.
{Fourtter, Freperick, M.A. 9 Palace-road, Surbiton.
{Futter, Guorer, M.Inst.C.E. 71 Lexham-gardens, Kensington,
London, W.
§Fuller, William. Oswestry.
tGabb, Rev. James, M.A. Bulmer Rectory, Welburn, Yorkshire.
tGaddum, G. H. Adria House, Toy-lane, Withington, Manchester.
*Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A. well Castle, Surrey.
{tGacus, ArpHonsr, M.R.I.A. Museum of Irish Industry, Dublin.
*Gainsford, W. D. Southwell.
. tGairdner, Charles. Broom, Newton Mearns, Renfrewshire.
1850.
1876.
1863.
1885.
1888.
1888.
1861.
1861.
1889.
1875.
1887.
1860.
tGairdner, Professor W. T., M.D. 2265 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
tGale, James M. 23 Miller-street, Glasgow.
tGale, Samuel, F.C.S. 225 Oxford-street, London, W.
*Gallaway, Alexander. Dirgarve, Aberfeldy, N.B.
tGallenga, Mrs. Anna. The Falls, Chepstow.
{Gallenga, Mrs. A. A. R. The Falls, Chepstow.
{Galloway, Charles John. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester.
tGalloway, John, jun. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester.
§Galloway, Walter. ichton Banks, Gateshead.
tGattoway, W. Cardiff.
*Galloway, W. The Cottage, Seymour-grove, Old Trafford, Man-
chester.
*Gatron, Sir Dovetas, K.C.B., D.C.L., LLD., F.RBS., F.L.S.,
F.G.8., F.R.G.S. (Grnerat Secrerary.) 12 Chester-street,
Grosvenor- place, London, 5. W.
*Gatron, Francis, M.A., F. R. S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 42 Rutland-
vate, Knichtsbridge, London, S.W.
tGarron, Jonn C., M.A., F.L.S. 40 Great Marlborough-street,
London, W.
*Galton, Miss Laura Gwendolen Douglas. 12 Chester-street, Gros-
venor-place, London, 8.W.
§Gamble, Lieut.-Colonel D. St. Helens, Lancashire.
§Gamble, David, jun. St. Helens, Lancashire.
tGamble, J. C. St. Helens, Laneashire.
*Gamble, J. Sykes, M.A., F.L.8. Surbiton.
tGamble, William. St. Helens, Lancashire.
tGamgee, Arthur, M.D., F.R.S. 17 Great Cumberland-place, Lon-
don, W.
{tGamgee, John. 6 Linefield-road, Wimbledon, Surrey.
+Gant, Major John Castle. St. Leonards.
{GARDINER Watrer, M.A.,F.R.S., F.L.S. Clare College, Cambridge.
*Gardner, H. Dent, F.R.G. 8. 25 Nor thbrook-road, Lee, Kent.
tGarpypr, JoHN STARKIB, F.G.S. 7 Damer-terrace, Chelsea, Lon-
don, S.W.
t¢Garman, Samuel. Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
-~" a
Fae «
LIST OF MEMBERS. 41
Year of
Election.
1862.
1865.
1888.
1887.
1882,
1873.
1883.
1874.
1882.
1889.
1870.
1870.
1862.
1890.
1875.
1875.
1871.
1883.
1885.
1887.
1867.
1871.
1882,
1875.
1885.
1884,
1870.
1884,
1865.
1889.
1874.
1876.
1884.
1885.
1889,
1887.
1888.
1884,
1842.
1883.
1857.
1884.
TGarneER, Rosert, F.L.S. Stoke-upon-Trent.
tGarner, Mrs. Robert. Stoke-upon-Trent.
§Garnett, Frederick Brooksbank,C.B.. 4 Argyll-road, Campden Hill,
London, W.
*Garnett, Jeremiah. The Grange, near Bolton, Lancashire.
fGarnett, William, D.C.L., Principal of the College of Physical
Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tGarnham, John. Hazelwood, Crescent-road, St. John’s, Brockley,
Kent, S.E.
§Garson, J. G., M.D. 14 Suffolk-street, Pall Mall, London, S.W.
*Garstin, John Ribton, M.A., LL.B. M.R.LA., F.S.A. Bragans-
town, Castlebellincham, Ireland.
tGarton, William. Woolston, Southampton.
tGarwood, E. J. 14 St. Mary’s-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tGaskell, Holbrook. Woolton Wood, Liverpool.
*Gaskell, Holbrook, jun. Clayton Lodge, Aigburth, Liverpool.
*Gatty, Charles Henry, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. Felbridge Place, East
Grinstead, Sussex.
§Gaunt, Sir Edwin. Carlton Lodge, Leeds.
tGavey, J. 43 -Stacey-road, Routh, Cardiff.
tGaye, Henry 8., M.D. Newton Abbot, Devon.
{Geddes, John. 9 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.
{Geddes, John. 88 Portland-street, Southport.
§Geddes, Professor Patrick. 6 James-court, Edinburgh.
tGee, W. W. Haldane. Owens College, Manchester.
tGeErkiz, ARCHIBALD, LL.D., For.Sec.R.S., F.R.S.E., Pres.G.S., Di-
rector-General of the Geological Survey of the United King-
dom. Geological Survey Office, Jermyn-street, London, S.W.
tGxrrxtz, James, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S., Murchison
Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of
Edinburgh. 31 Merchiston-avenue, Edinburgh.
*GunusE, R. W., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University Col-
lege, Aberystwith.
*George, Rey. Hereford B., M.A., F.R.G.S. New College, Oxford.
{Gerard, Robert. Blair-Devenick, Cults, Aberdeen.
*Gerrans, Henry T., M.A. Worcester College, Oxford.
*Gervis, Walter S., M.D., F.G.S. Ashburton, Devonshire.
tGibb, Charles. Abbotsford, Quebec, Canada,
TGibbins, William. Battery Works, Digbeth, Birmingham,
tGibson, Charles, M.D. 8 Eldon-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tGibson, The Right Hon. Edward, Q.C. 23 Fitzwilliam-square,
Dublin.
*Gibson, George Alexander, M.D., D.Se., F.R.S.E., Secretary to the
Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. 17 Alva-street,
Edinbureh.
tGibson, Rey. James J. 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Canada,
tGibson, John, Ph.D. The University, Edinburgh.
*Gibson, T.G. 2 Eslington-read, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tGirren, Rozgert, LL.D., V.P.S.S8. 44 Pembroke-road, London, S.W.
*Gifferd, H. J, Bute Arms, Pontydown, South Wales.
tGilbert, E. E. 245 St. Antoine-street, Montreal, Canada.
GILBERT, JosrpH Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.8., Professor
of Rural Economy in the University of Oxford. Harpenden,
near St. Albans.
tGilbert, Mrs. Harpenden, near St. Albans.
tGilbert, J. T., M.R.I.A. Villa Nova, Blackrock, Dublin.
*Gilbert, Philip H. 456 St. Urbain-street, Montreal, Canada.
42 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1883. {Gilbert, Thomas. Derby-road, Southport.
Gilderdale, Rey. John, M.A. Walthamstow, Essex.
1882. {Giles, Alfred, M.P., M.Inst.C.E. 26 Great George-street, London,
S.W.
1878. {Giles, Oliver. Crescent Villas, Bromsgrove.
Giles, Rev. William. Netherleigh House, near Chester.
1878. {Gill, Rev. A. W. H. 44 Eaton-square, London, S.W.
1871. *Grit, Davin, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Roysl Observatory, Cape
Town.
1888. §Gill, John Frederick. Douglas, Isle of Man.
1868. tGill, Joseph. Palermo, Sicily. (Care of W. H. Gill, Esq., General
Post Office, St. Martin’s-le~Grand, E.C.)
1864, {Gitt, Tuomas. 4 Sydney-place, Bath.
1887. {Gillett, Charles Edwin. Wood Green, Banbury, Oxford.
1888. {Gilliland,K.T. 259 West Seventy-fourth-street, New York, U.S.A.
1884. {Gillman, Henry. 79 Kast Columbia-street, Detroit, Michigan, U. S.A.
1861. *Gilroy, George. Woodlands, Parbold, near Southport.
1867. {Gilroy, Robert. Craigie, by Dundee.
1887. *Gimingham, Charles H. Stamford House, Northumberland Park,
Tottenham, Middlesex.
1867. {Ginspure, Rey. C. D., D.C.L., LL.D. Holmlea, Virginia Water
Station, Chertsey.
1884, {Girdwood, Dr. G. P. 28 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada.
1874. *Girdwood, James Kennedy. Old Park, Belfast.
1884. {Gisborne, Frederick Newton. Ottawa, Canada.
1886. *Gisborne, Hartley. Qu’Appelle Station, Assa, N.W.T., Canada.
1883. *Gladstone, Miss. 17 Pembridge-square, London, W.
1883. *Gladstone, Miss EK. A. 17 Pembridge-square, London, W.
1850. *Gladstone, George, F.C.S., F.R.G.8. 384 Denmark-villas, Hove,
Brighton,
1849. *Guapsronr, Jonn Harr, Ph.D., F.RS., F.C.S. 17 Pembridge-
square, London, W.
1890. *Gladstone, Miss Margaret E. 17 Pembridge-square, London, W.
1861. *GuaisHEerR, JAmus, I'.R.S., FLR.A.S. 1 Dartmouth-place, Blacl-
heath, London, 8.E.
1871. *GLAISHER, WV ’M. A., D.Se., FR. S., F.R.A.S. Trinity College,
Cambridge,
1883. {Glasson, L. T. 2 Roper-street, Penrith. 5
1881. *GuazEBRoox, R. T., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity Collere, Cambridge.
1887. §Glazier, Walter H., F.C.S. Courtlands, Kast Molesey, Surrey.
1881. *Gleadow, Frederic. 84 Kensington Park-road, London, W.
1870. §Glen, David Corse, F.G.S. 14 “Annfield- -place, Glasgow.
1859, Glennie, J. Ss. Stuart, M.A. The Shealing, Wimbledon Common,
Surrey.
1867. {Gloag, John A. L. 10 Inverleith-place, Edinburgh.
Glover, George. Ranelagh-road, Pimlico, London, 8. W.
1874. {Glover, George T. 30 Donegall-place, Belfast.
Glover, Thomas. 124 Manchester-road, Southport.
1887. {Glover, Walter T. Moorhurst, Kersal, Manchester.
1870. {Glynn, Thomas R., M.D. 62 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
1889. §Goddard, F. R. 19 Victoria-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1872. +Gopparp, RicHARD. 16 Booth-street, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1886. {Godlee, Arthur. 3 Greenfield-crescent, Edebaston, Birmingham.
1887. {Godlee, Francis. 51 Portland-street, Manchester.
1878. *Godlee, J. Lister. 3 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
1880. {Gopman, I’. Du Cann, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 10 Chendopseet,
Cavendish-square, London, W.
Year of
Election.
1883.
1852,
1879.
1876.
1886.
1881.
1873.
1890.
1884,
1878.
1852.
1878.
1884,
1886.
1885.
1865.
1869.
1884.
1584.
1885.
1885.
1885.
1885.
1871.
1884.
1857.
1885.
1887.
1865.
1875.
1873.
1849.
1857.
1881.
1868.
1888.
1873.
1867.
1876.
1885,
1873.
1886.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 43
{Godson, Dr. Alfred. Cheadle, Cheshire.
tGodwin, John. Wood House, Rostrevor, Belfast.
§Gopwin-Avsren, Lieut.-Colonel H. H., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.GS.,
F.Z.8. Shalford House, Guildford.
{Goff, Bruce, M.D. Bothwell, Lanarkshire.
{Gotpsmip, Major-General Sir F. J., C.B., K.C.S.1., F.R.G.S.
Godfrey House, Hollingbourne.
{tGoldschmidt, Edward. Nottingham.
{tGoldthorp, Miss R. F.C. Oleckheaton, Bradford, Yorkshire.
*Gonner, H. C. K., M.A., Professor of Political Economy in Univer-
sity College, Liverpool.
tGood, Charles EK. 102 St. Francois Xavier-street, Montreal,
Canada.
tGood, Rev. Thomas, B.D. 51 Wellington-road, Dublin.
tGoodhody, Jonathan, Clare, King’s County, Ireland.
{tGoodhbody, Jonathan, jun. 50 Dame-street, Dublin.
tGoodbody, Robert. Fairy Hill, Blackrock, Co, Dublin.
tGoodman, F. B. 46 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tGoopmay, J. D., J.P. Peachfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tGoodman, J. D. Minories, Birmingham.
{Goodman, Neville, M.A. Peterhouse, Cambridge.
*Goodridge, Richard KE. W. Oak Bank, Manitoba, Canada.
{Goodwin, Professor W.L. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario,
Canada.
tGoouch, B., B.A. 2 Oxford-road, Birkdale, Southport.
{tGordon, General the Hon. Sir Alexander Hamilton, 50 Queen’s
Gate-gardens, London, 8. W.
tGordon, Rev. Cosmo, D.D., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Chetwynd Rectory,
Newport, Salop.
tGordon, Rev. George, LL.D. Birnie, by Elgin, N.B.
*Gordon, Joseph Gordon, F.C.S. Queen Anne’s Mansions, West-
minster, S.W.
*Gordon, Robert, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.G.S. Fernhill, Henbury, near
Bristol.
{Gordon, Samuel, M.D. 11 Hume-street, Dublin.
tGordon, Rev. William. Braemar, N.B.
§Gordon, William John. 3 Lavender-gardens, London, S.W.
tGore, George, LL.D., F.R.S. 50 Islington-row, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.
*Gotch, Francis, B.A., B.Sc. Holywell Cottage, Oxford.
*Gotch, Thomas Henry. Kettering.
tGott, Charles, M-Inst.C.E. Parktield-road, Manningham, Bradford,
Yorkshire.
tGough, The Hon. Frederick. Perry Hall, Birmingham.
t{Gough, The Right Hon. George 8., Viscount, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.
St. Helen’s, Booterstown, Dublin.
tGough, Thomas, B.Sc., F.C.S. Elmfield College, York.
tGould, Rey. George. Unthank-road, Norwich.
t{Gouraud, Colonel. Little Menlo, Norwood, Surrey.
{Gourlay, J. McMillan. 21 St. Andrew’s-place, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Gourley, Henry (Engineer). Dundee.
t{Gow, Robert. Cairndowan, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
§Gow, Mrs. Cairndowan, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
Gowland, James. London-wall, London, H.C.
§Goyder, Dr. D. Marley House, 88 Great Horton-road, Bradford,
Yorkshire.
tGrabham, Michael C., M.D. Madeira.
44
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1861.
1867.
1875.
1852.
1870.
1855.
1854,
1864.
1887.
1881.
1887.
1881.
1890.
1864.
1865.
1876.
1881.
1859,
1887.
1887.
1886.
1881.
1873.
1883.
1883.
1886.
1883.
1866.
1887.
1869.
1872.
1872.
1879.
1889.
1888.
1887.
1887.
1858.
1882.
1881.
1884,
1884.
{Grafton, Frederick W. Park-road, Whalley Range, Manchester.
*GRAHAM, Sir Cynrit C., Bart., C.M.G., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Travellers’
Club, Pall Mall, London, S. W.
{GRAHAME, JAMES. 12 St. Vincent-street, Glascow.
*GRAINGER, Rey. Canon Jonny, D.D.,M.R.J.A. Skerry and Rathcavan
Rectory, Broughshane, near Ballymena, Co. Antrim.
{Grant, Colonel James A., C.B., CS.L, F.RS., F.LS., F.R.G.S.
19 Upper Grosvenor-street, London, W.
*Grant, Rosert, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Reoius Professor of
Astronomy in the University of Glasgow. The Observatory,
Glasgow.
{GrantHam, Ricwarp B., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Northumberland-
chambers, Northumberland-avenue, London, W.C.
{Grantham, Richard F. Northumberland-chambers, Northumberland-
avenue, London, W.C.
§Gratrix, Samuel. Alport Town, Manchester.
tGraves, HK. 22 Trebovir-road, Earl’s Court-road, London, 8.W.
tGraves, John. Broomhurst, Eccles Old-road, Manchester.
tGray, Alan, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.
§Gray, Professor Andrew, M.A., F.R.S.E, University College,
Bangor.
*Gray, Rev. Charles. The Vicarage, Blyth, Rotherham.
tGray, Charles. Swan Bank, Bilston.
tGray, Dr. Newton-terrace, Glasgow.
{tGray, Edwin, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.
tGray, Rev. J. H. Bolsover Castle, Derbushire.
§Gray, Joseph W., F.G.S. Spring Hill, Wellington-road South,
Stockport.
tGray, M. H., F.G.S. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.
*Gray, Robert Kaye. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.
tGray, Thomas, Professor of Engineering in the Rane Technical In-
stitute, Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A.
tGray, William, M.R.I.A. 8 Mount Charles, Belfast.
*Gray, Colonel Witttam. Farley Hall, near Reading.
tGray, William Lewis. 36 Gutter-lane, London, E.C.
tGray, Mrs. W. L. 36 Gutter-lane, London, E.C.
tGreaney, Rey. William. Bishop’s House, Bath-street, Birmingham.
{Greathead, J. H. 8 Victoria-chambers, London, S.W.
§Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 101 Friar-gate, Derby. |
tGreaves, H. R. The Orchards, Mill End, Stockport.
tGreaves, William. Station-street, Nottingham.
tGreaves, William. 3 South-square, Gray’s Inn, London, W.C.
*Grece, Clair J.. LL.D. Redhill, Surrey.
tGreen, A. F. 15 Ashwood-villas, Headingley, Leeds.
§Green, A. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the
University of Oxford. 137 Woodstock-road, Oxford.
§GremEn, JosePH R., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany to the
Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. 17 Bloomsbury-
square, London, W.C.
tGreene, Friese. 162 Sloane-street, London, S.W.
tGreenhalgh, Richard. 1 Temple-gardens, The Temple, London, E.C.
*Greenhalgh, Thomas. Thornydikes, Sharples, near Bolton-le-Moors.
{GreEnNHILL, A. G., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the
Royal Artillery Colleze, Woolwich. 3 Staple Inn, London, W.C.
§Greenhough, Edward. Matlock Bath, Derbyshire.
TGreenish, Thomas, F.C.S. 20 New-street, Dorset-square, London, N. W.
tGreenshields, E. B. Montreal, Canada.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 45
Year of
Election.
1884, {Greenshields, Samuel. Montreal, Canada.
1887. tGreenwell, G. C., jun. Poynton, Cheshire.
1863. {Greenwell, G. E. Poynton, Cheshire.
1889. {Greenwell, T. G. Woodside, Sunderland.
1890. §Greenwood, Arthur. Cavendish-road, Leeds.
1875. {Greenwood, Frederick. School of Medicne, Leeds.
1877. {Greenwood, Holmes. 78 King-street, Accrington.
1883. {Greenwoop, J.G., LL.D. 34 Furness-road, Eastbourne.
1849. {Greenwood, William. Stones, Todmorden.
1887. §Greenwood, Professor W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Firth College, Sheftield.
1887. *Greg, Arthur. Eagley, near Bolton, Larcashire.
1861. *Grec, Rosert Partirs, F.G.8., F.R.A.S. Coles Park, Bunting-
ford, Herts.
1833. Grege, T. H. 12 Alexandra-road, Finsbury Park, London, N.
1860. t{Grucor, Rev. Watrsr, M.A. Pitsligo, Rosehearty, Aberdeenshire.
1868. {Gregory, Sir Charles Hutton, K.C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E. 2 Delahay-
street, Westminster, S.W.
1883. {Gregson, Edward, Ribble View, Preston.
1883. tGregson, G. E. Ribble View, Preston.
1881. {Gregson, William. Baldersby, Thirsk.
1875. Grenfell, J. Granville, B.A., F.G.S. 55 West Cromwell-road,
London, S.W.
1859. t{Grrrson, Tuomas Bortz, M.D. Thornhill, Dumfries-shire.
1870. tGrieve, John, M.D. Care of W. L. Buchanan, Esq., 212 St. Vin-
cent-street, Glasgow.
1878. {Griffin, Robert, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin.
1859. *Grrrrizu, Grores, M.A., F.C.S. (Assistant GENERAL SECRETARY.)
Druries, Harrow.
1870. {Griffith, Rev. Henry, F.G.S. Brooklands, Isleworth, Middlesex.
1884. tGriffiths, E. 1H. 12 Park-side, Cambridge.
1884. {Griffiths, Mrs. 12 Park-side, Cambridge.
1847. {Griffiths, Thomas. Bradford-street, Birmingham.
1879. {Griffiths, Thomas, F.0.S., F.S.S. Heidelberg House, King’s-road,
Clapham Park, London, S.W.
1870. tGrimsdale, T. F., M.D. 29 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
1888. *Grimshaw, James Walter. Australian Club, Sydney, New South
Wales.
1884, tGrinnell, Frederick. Providence, Rhode Island, U.S.A.
1881. {Gripper, Edward. ‘Nottingham.
1864. t{Groom-Narrer, Cuartus Orrrzy. 18 Elgin-road, St. Peter's
Park, London, N.W.
Grove, The Hon. Sir Witr1am Rozert, Knt., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S. 115 Harley-street, London, W.
1863. *Groves, Toomas B., F.C.S. 80 St. Mary-street, Weymouth.
1869. {Grups, Sir Howarp, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 51 Kenilworth-square,
Rathgar, Dublin.
1886. §Grundy, John. Park Drive, Nottingham.
1867. {Guild, John. Bayfield, West Ferry, Dundee.
1887. {Guittemarp, F.H. H. Eltham, Kent.
Guinness, Henry. 17 College-green, Dublin.
1842. Ghninness, Richard Seymour. 17 College-green, Dublin.
1885. {Gunn, John. Dale, Halkirk, Caithness.
1877. tGunn, William, F.G.S. Office of the Geological Survey of Scot-
’ Jand, Sheriff’s Court House, Edinburgh.
1866. {Ginrner, Arserr OC. L. G., M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., Keeper of
the Zoological Collections in the British Museum. British
Museum, South Kensington, London, 8. W.
46
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1880.
1876.
1885.
1857.
1876.
1884.
1887.
1865.
1884.
1881.
1842.
1888.
1870.
1879.
1875.
1887.
1883.
1872.
1879.
1885.
1881.
1854,
1887.
1872.
1885.
1884.
1866,
1873.
1868.
1888.
1886.
1858,
1885.
1885.
1869,
1888.
1851.
1881.
1878.
1878.
1875.
1861.
1857.
1876.
1890.
§Guppy, John J. Ivy-place, High-street, Swansea.
{Guthrie, Francis. Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope.
tGuthrie, Malcolm. 2 Parkfield-road, Liverpool.
tGwynne, Rey. John. Tullyagnish, Letterkenny, Strabane, Ireland.
¢Gwytuer, R. F., M.A. Owens College, Manchester.
tHaanel, E., Ph.D. Cobourg, Ontario, Canada.
{Hackett, Henry Eugene. Hyde-road, Gorton, Manchester.
tHackney, William. 9 Victoria-chambers, Victoria-street, London,
S.W
{Hadden, Captain C. F., R.A. Woolwich.
*Happon, ALFRED Cort, B.A., F.Z.S., Professor of Zoology in the
Royal College of Science, Dublin.
Haden, G. N. Trowbridge, Wiltshire.
Hadfield, George. Victoria-park, Manchester.
*Hadfield, R. A. Hecla Works, Sheffield.
tHaich, George. Waterloo, Liverpool.
tHaxn, H. Witson, Ph.D., F.C.S. Queenwood College, Hants.
tHale, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Eton College, Windsor.
tHale, The Hon. E. J. 9 Mount-street, Manchester.
{ Aaliburton, Robert Grant. National Club, Whitehall, London, S.W.
{ Hall, Dr. Alfred. 8 Mownt Ephraim, Tunbridge Wells.
*Hall, Ebenezer. Abbéydale Park, near Sheffield.
*Hall, Miss Emily. Burlington House, Spring Grove, Isleworth,
Middlesex.
{Hall, Frederick Thomas, F.R.A.S. 15 Gray’s Inn-square, London,
W.C.
*Hart, Huen Ferrer, F.G.S. Fau-y-Bryn, Llandudno.
{Hall, John. Springbank, Leftwich, Northwich.
*Hall, Captain Marshall, F.G.S. St. John’s, Bovey Tracey, South
Devon.
§Hall, Samuel. 19 Aberdeen Park, Highbury, London, N.
tHall, Thomas Proctor. School of Practical Science, Toronto,
Canada.
*Hatt, TownsuEend M.,F.G.S. Orchard House, Pilton, Barnstaple.
*Hatterr, T.G. P., M.A. Claverton Lodge, Bath.
*Hatrerr, WitttAM Henry, F.L.8. Buckingham House, Marine
Parade, Brighton.
§Halliburton, W. D., M.D. 25 Maitland Park-villas, London, N.W.
Halsall, Edward. 4 Somerset-street, Kingsdown, Bristol.
§Hambleton, G. W. 54a York-street, Portman-square, London, W.
*Hambly, Charles Hambly Burbridge, F.G.S. Holmeside, Hazelwood,
Derby.
*Hamel, Egbert D. de. Middleton Hall, Tamworth.
tHamilton, David James. 14 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
tHamilton, Rowland. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London, W.
*Hammonpd, Antuony, J.P. Bath.
tHammond, C. C. Lower Brook-street, Ipswich.
*Hammond, Robert. Hilldrop, Highgate, London, N.
tHanagan, Anthony. Luckington, Dalkey.
§Hance, Edward M., LL.B. 15 Pelham-grove, Sefton Park, Liverpool.
tHancock, C. F., M.A. 125 Queen’s-gate, London, 8. W.
Hancock, og 10 Upper Chadwell-street, Pentonville, Lon-
don, E.C.
tHancock, William J. 23 Synnot-place, Dublin.
tHancock, Mrs. W. Neilson. 64 Upper Gardiner-street, Dublin.
§Hankin, Ernest Hanbury. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
LIST OF MEMBERS. | 47
Year of
Election.
1882. {Hankinson, R. C. Bassett, Southampton.
1884. §Hannaford, EK. C. 1591 Catherine-street, Montreal, Canada,
1859, {Hannay, John. Montcoffer House, Aberdeen,
1886.
1859.
1890.
1886.
1884.
1865.
1869.
1877.
1869.
1886.
1880.
1858,
1858.
1883.
1883.
1890.
1881.
1890.
1876.
1887.
1878.
1871.
1875.
1877.
1883.
1862.
1883.
1862.
1868.
1881.
1882.
1872.
1884,
1872.
1888.
1871.
1842,
1889.
1884.
1888,
§Hansford, Charles, 3 Alexandra-terrace, Dorchester.
*Harcourr, A. G. Vernon, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., ORS., ECS:
(GENERAL SECRETARY.) Cowley Grange, Oxford.
eee L. F. Vernon, M.Inst.C.E. 6 Queen Anne’s-gate, London,
ae
*Hardcastle, Basil W., F.S.S. Beechenden, Hampstead, London, N.W.
*Hardeastle, Norman C., M.A., LL.D. Downing College, Cambridge.
tHarding, Charles. Harborne Heath, Birmingham.
{Harding, Joseph. Millbrook House, Exeter.
{Harding, Stephen. Bower Ashton, Clifton, Bristol.
{Harding, William D. Islington Lodge, King’s Lynn, Norfolk.
tHardman, John B. St. John’s, Hunter’s-lane, Birmingham,
tHardy, John. 118 Embden-street, Manchester.
*HArE, CHARLES Jonny, M.D. Berkeley House, 15 Manchester-
square, London, W.
{Hargrave, James. Burley, near Leeds.
{Hargreaves, Miss H. M. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.
{Hargreaves, Thomas. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.
§Hargrove, Rev. Charles. 10 De Grey-terrace, Leeds.
{Hargrove, William Wallace. St. Mary’s, Bootham, York,
§Harker, Alfred. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
tHarker, Allen, F.L.S., Professor of Natural History in the Royal
Agricultural College, Cirencester.
{Harker, T. H. Brook House, Fallowfield, Manchester.
*Harlmess, H. W. California Academy of Sciences, San F rancisco,
California, U.S.A.
tHarkness, William, F.C.S. Laboratory, Somerset House, London,
W.C
“Harland, Rey. Albert Augustus, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S.,F.S.4. The
Vicarage, Harefield, Middlesex.
*Harland, Henry Seaton. 8 Arundel-terrace, Brighton, Sussex.
*Harley, Miss Clara. 4 Wellington-square, Oxford.
“Hartey, Grorer, M.D., F.RS., F.0.8. 25 Harley-street, Lon-
don, W.
*Harley, Harold. 14 Chapel-street, Bedford-row, London, W.C.
“Harter, Rev. Rosert, M.A.,F.RS., F.RAS. 4 Wellington-
square, Oxford.
*Harmer, F. W., F.G.S. Oakland House, Cringleford, Norwich,
“Harmer, Srpney F., M.A., B.Sc. King’s College, Cambridge.
{Harper, G@. T. Bryn Hyfrydd, Portswood, Southampton.
tHarpley, Rey. William, M.A. Clayhanger Rectory, Tiverton.
fHarrington, B. J., B.A., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry and
Mineralogy in McGill University, Montreal. W. allbrac-place,
Montreal, Canada.
*Harris, Alfred. Lunefield, Kirkby Lonsdale, Westmoreland.
tHarris, C.T. 4 Kilburn Priory, London, N.W.
tHarris, GzorGE, F.S.A. Iselipps Manor, Northolt, Southall, Mid-
dlesex.
*Harris, G. W., M.Inst.C.E. Mount Gambier, South Australia.
§Harris, H. Grawam, M.Inst.C.E. 5 Great George-street, West-
minster, S.W. :
{Harris, Miss Katherine EH. 73 Albert Hall-mansions, Kensington-
gore, London, S.W.
{Harrison, Charles, 20 Lennox-gardens, London, S.W.
48
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1860.
1864.
1874.
1858.
1889.
1870.
1855.
1883.
1886.
1886.
1885.
1876.
1881.
1875.
1871.
1890.
1886.
1887.
1870.
1885.
1885.
1862.
1884.
1882.
1875.
1889.
1857.
1887.
1872.
1864.
1868.
1884,
1889,
1887.
1887.
1886.
1863.
1890.
1877.
1861.
1867.
1885,
tHarrison, Rev. Francis, M.A. North Wraxall, Chippenham.
{Harrison, George. Barnsley, Yorkshire.
tHarrison, G. D. B. 3 Beaufort-road, Clifton, Bristol.
*Harrison, JAMES Park, M.A. 22 Connaught-street, Hyde Park,
London, W.
§Harrison, J. C. Oxford House, Castle-road, Scarborough.
tHarrison, Ruainarp, F.R.C.S. 6 Lower Berkeley-street, Port-
man-square, London, W.
tHarrison, Robert. 56 George-street, Hull.
{ Harrison, Thomas. 384 Ash-street, Southport.
§Harrison, William. The Horsehills, Wolverhampton.
tHarrison, W. Jerome, F.G.S. 865 Lodge-road, Hockley, Birmingham.
{Harz, Cuartes J. 10 Calthorpe-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Hart, Thomas. Brooklands, Blackburn.
§Hart, Thomas, F.G.S. Yewbarrow, Grange-over-Sands, Carnforth.
tHart, W. E. Walderry, near Londonderry.
Hartley, James. Sunderland.
tHartitry, Water Nost, F.R.S.L.& E., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the Royal College of Science, Dublin.
*Hartnell, Wilson. 8 Blenheim-terrace, Leeds.
*HartoG, Professor M. M., D.Sc. Queen’s College, Cork.
§Hartog, P. J., B.Sc. 6 Greville-road, London, N.W.
tHarvey, Enoch. Riversdale-road, Aigburth, Liverpool.
tHarvey, Surgeon-Major Robert, M.D. Calcutta.
§Harvie-Brown, J. A. Dunipace, Larbert, N.B.
*Harwood, John, jun. Woodside Mills, Bolton-ie-~-Moors.
{Haslam, Rev. George, M.A. Trinity Collece, Toronto, Canada.
tHaslam, George James, M.D. Owens College, Manchester,
*Hastines, G. W., M.P. Barnard’s Green House, Malvern.
§Hatch, Dr. ¥. H., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, 8.W.
tHaveuron, Rev. Samvuzt, M.A., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
M.R.LA., F.G.S., Senior Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin.
Trinity College, Dublin.
*Hawkins, William. 11 Fountain-street, Manchester.
*Hawkshaw, Henry Paul. 58 Jermyn-street, St. James’s, London,
S.W.
*HawksHaw, Sir Jonny, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.
Hollycombe, Liphook, Petersfield; and 33 Great George-street,
London, S. W.
*THawxsHaw, Joun Crarxe, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8. 50 Harring-
ton-gardens, South Kensington, 8.W.; and 33 Great George-
street London, 8. W.
tHawxstey, Tuomas, M.Inst.C.E.,F.R.S., F.G.S. 30 Great George-
street, London, S.W.
*Haworth, Abraham. MHilston House, Altrincham.
§Haworth, George C. Ordsal-lane, Salford.
*Haworth, Jesse. Woodside, Bowdon, Cheshire.
tHaworth, S. E. Warsley-road, Swinton, Manchester.
{Haworth, Rev. T. J. Albert Cottage, Saltley, Birmingham.
tHawthorn, William. The Cottage, Benwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
§Hawtin, J. N. Sturdie House, Roundhay-road, Leeds.
tHay, Arthur J. Lerwick, Shetland.
*Hay, Admiral the Right Hon. Sir Jonn C. D., Bart., K.O.B.,
D.C.L., F.R.S. 108 St. George’s-square, London, 8. W.
tHay, William. 21 Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee.
*Haycraft, Professor Jobn Berry, M.B., B.Se., F.R.S.E, Physiological
Laboratory, The University, Edinburgh.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 49
Yeur of
Election.
1875.
1869.
1858.
1888.
1879.
1851.
1869.
1885.
1883.
1883.
1871.
1885.
1856,
*Hayes, Rev. William A., M.A. Dromore, Co. Down, Ireland.
tHayward, J. High-street, Nxeter.
*HAYwarp, Ropert Batpwiy, M.A., F.R.S. Harrow.
{Hazard, Rowland R. Little Mulgrave House, Hurlingham.
* Hazlehurst, George S. Rhyl, North Wales.
§Hrap, Jnremran, M.Inst.C.F., F.C.S. Middlesbrough, Yorkshire.
{Head, Rk. T. The Briars, Alphington, Eveter.
{Headley, Frederick Halcombe. Manor House, Petersham, S.W.
tHeadley, Mrs. Marian. Manor House, Petersham, S.W.
§Headley, Rev. Tanfield George. Manor House, Petersham, S.W.
§Healey, George. Brantfield, Bowness, Windermere.
*Heap, Ralph, jun. 1 Brick-court, Temple, London, E.C.
. *Heape, Benjamin. Northwood, Prestwich, Manchester.
. tHeape, Charles. Tovrak, Oxton, Cheshire.
. {Heape, Joseph R. 96 Tweedale-street, Rochdale.
. *Heape, Walter, M.A. Northwood, Prestwich, Manchester.
. {Hearder, Henry Pollington. Westwell-street, Plymouth.
{Hearder, William Keep, F.S.A. 195 Union-street, Plymouth.
. t{Heath, Dr. 46 Hoghton-street, Southport.
. tHeath, Dr. Westgate-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
. {Heath, Rev. D. J. Esher, Surrey.
. {Heath, G. Y., M.D. Westgate-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
. }Heath, Thomas, B.A. Royal Observatory, Calton Hill, Edinburch,
. {Hearurrenp, W. E., F.CS., F.RGS., F.R.S.E. 1 Powis-grove,
Brighton; and Arthur’s Club, St. James’s, London, S.W.
. tHeaton, Charles. Marlborough House, Hesketh Park, Southport.
. tHeaton, C. W. 44 Woodstock-road, Bedford Park, London, W.
. tHeaton, Miss Ellen, Woodhouse-square, Leeds.
. }Heaton, Harry. Harborne House, Harborne, near Birmingham.
. “Heaviside, Arthur West. 7 Grafton-road, Whitley, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
. §Heaviside, Rev. George, B.A., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S. The Hollies,
Stoke, Coventry.
. {Huavisipz, Rey. Canon J. W. L., M.A. The Close, Norwich.
. *Heawood, Edward, B.A., F.G.8. 41 Old Elvet, Durham.
. *Heawood, Percy Y., Lecturer in Mathematics at Durham University,
Al Old Elvet, Durham.
. {Hxcror, Sir James, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.GS.,
Director of the Geological Survey of New Zealand. Wellington,
New Zealand. ;
. {Heddle, M. Forster, M.D., F.R.S.E. St. Andrews, N.B.
. }Hedgeland, Rev. W. J. 21 Mount Radford, Exeter,
. tHedger, Philip. Cumberland-place, Southampton.
*Hedges, Killingworth, M.Inst.C.E. 25 Queen Anne’s-gate, London,
S.W.
{Hedley, Thomas. Cox Lodge, near Neweastle-upon-Tyne.
. §Hembry, Frederick William, F.R.M.S. Sussex Lodge, Sidcup, Kent.
. Henderson, Alexander. Dundee.
. “Henderson, A. L. 277 Lewisham High-road, London, 8.E.
. tHenderson, Mrs. A. L. 277 Lewisham High-road, London, S.E.
. *Henderson, Captain W. H., R.N. 21 Albert Hall Mansions,
London, 8. W.
. *Henderson, William. Williamfield, Irvine, N.B.
. t{Henderson, William. Devanha House, Aberdeen.
{Heynessy, Henry G., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Professor of Applied
Mathematics and Mechanics in the Royal College of Science
for Ireland. Brookvale, Donnybrook, Co. Dublin.
D
50
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1857.
1873.
1873.
tHennessy, Sir John Pope, K.C.M.G., M.P. House of Commons,
London, 8.W.
*Heyrticr, Oravs M. F. E., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Mechanics
and Mathematics in the City and Guilds of London Institute.
Central Institution, Exhibition-road, London, 8. W.
Henry, Franklin. Portland-street, Manchester.
Henry, J. Snowdon. East Dene, Bonchurch, Isle of Wight.
Henry, Mitchell. Stratheden House, Hyde Park, London, W.
*Henry, WILLIAM Cuarins, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.C.S.
Haffield, near Ledbury, Herefordshire.
. {Henshaw, George H. 48 Victoria-street, Montreal, Canada.
. {Henty, Wilkam. 12 Medina-villas, Brighton.
. *Hepburn, J. Gotch, LL.B., F.C.S. Dartford, Kent.
. {Hepburn, Robert. 9 Portland-place, London, W.
. §Hepper, J. 43 Cardigan-road, Headingley, Leeds.
. §Hepworth, Joseph. 25 Wellington-street, Leeds.
. *Herpman, Wittiam A., D.Se., Professor of Natural History in
University College, Liverpool.
. *HerscHeL, ALEXANDER S., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Honorary
Professor of Physics and Experimental Philosophy in the Uni-
versity of Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Observatory House, Slough, Bucks.
. §Herscurt, Colonel Jonny, R.E., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Observatory
House, Slough, Bucks.
. §Hewetson, H. Bendelack, M.R.C.S., F.L.S. 11 Hanover-square,
Leeds.
. §Hewett, George Edwin. Cotswold House, St. John’s Wood Park,
London, N.W.
. tHewson, Thomas. Care of J. C. C. Payne, Esq., Botanic-avenue,
The Plains, Belfast.
. {Hley, Rev. William Croser, M.A. Clifton, York.
. {Heycock, Charles T., B.A. Kine’s Colleze, Cambridge.
. §Heyes, Rev. John Frederick, M.A., F.C.8., F.R.G.S. 9 King-street,
Oxford.
. *Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinchamshire.
. {Heywood, A. Percival. Duffield Bank, Derby.
. “Heywood, Arthur Henry. Hlleray, Windermere,
. §Heywood, Henry. Cardiff.
*Huywoop, James, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. 26 Ken-
sington Palace-gardens, London, W.
. *Hnywoop, Ottver, J.P., D.L. Claremont, Manchester,
. [Heywood, Robert. Mayfield, Victoria Park, Manchester.
Heywood, Thomas Percival. Claremont, Manchester.
. §Hichens, James Harvey, M.A., F.G.S. The College, Cheltenham.
. §Hicx, Tomas, B.A., B.Sc. Brighton Grove, Rusholme, Man-
chester.
. {Hicxs, Henry, M.D., F.R.S., Sec.G.S. Hendon Grove, Hendon,
Middlesex, N. W.
. §Hicxs, Professor W. M., M.A., F.R.S., Principal of Firth College,
Sheffield. Firth College, Sheffield.
. {Hicks, Mrs. W. M. Duvheved, Endcliffe-crescent, Sheffield.
. {Hickson, Joseph. 272 Mountain-street, Montreal, Canada,
. *Hicxson, Sypyey J., M.A., D.Sc. 16 Elsworthy-road, Primrose
Hill, London, N.W.
*Hinrn, W. P., M.A. Castle House, Barnstaple.
tHiggins, Charles Hayes, M.D., M.R.C.P., F.R.C.S., F.R.S.E. Alfred
House, Birkenhead,
——-
LIST OF MEMBERS. 51
Year of
Election,
1871. {Hicerns, Crument, B.A., F.C.S. 103 Holland-road, Kensington,
London, W.
1854. {Hicerns, Rev. Henry H., M.A. 29 Falkner-square, Liverpool.
Hildyard, Rey. James, B.D., F.C.P.S. Ingoldsby, near Grantham,
Lincolnshire.
1885. *Hill, Alexander, M.A., M.D. Downing College, Cambridge.
Hill, Arthur. Bruce Castle, Tottenham, Middlesex.
1883. {Hill, Berkeley, M.B., Professor of Clinical Surgery in University
College, London. 66 Wimpole-street, London, W.
1872. §Hill, Charles, F.S.A. Rockhurst, West Hoathley, East Grinstead.
1881. §Hr11, Rey. Epwin, M.A., F.G.S. The Rectory, Cockfield R.8.0.,
Suffolk.
1887. {Hill,G. H. Albert-chambers, Albert-square, Manchester.
1884. {Hill, Rev. James Edgar, M.A., B.D. 2488 St. Catherine-street,
Montreal, Canada.
1857. §Hill, John, M.Inst.C.E., M.R.LA., F.R.G.S.1. County Surveyor’s
Office, Ennis, Jreland.
1886, {Hill, M. J. M., D.Se., Professor of Pure Mathematics in University
College, London. 16 Pembury-road, Lower Clapton, London, E.
1881. {Hill, Pearson. 50 Belsize Park, London, N.W.
1872. *Hill, Rey. Canon, M.A., F.G.S. Sheering Rectory, Harlow.
1885, *Hill, Sidney. Langford House, Langford, Bristol.
1888. {Hill, William. Hitchin, Herts.
1876. {Hill, William H. Barlanark, Shettleston, N.B.
1885. *HittHovse, Wiir1aM, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Mason
Science College, Birmingham. 95 Harborne-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
1886. §Hillier, Rev. E. J. Cardington Vicarage, Bedford.
1865. {Hills, F.C. Chemical Works, Deptford, Kent, S.E.
1871. *Hills, Thomas Hyde. 225 Oxford-street, London, W.
1887. {Hilton, Edwin. Oak Bank, Fallowfield, Manchester.
1858. {Hincns, Rev. Tuomas, B.A., F.R.S. Stokeleigh, Leigh Woods,
L Clifton, Bristol.
1870. {Hivpr, G. J., Ph.D., F.G.S. Avondale-road, Croydon, Surrey.
1885. *Hindle, James Henry. 8 Cobham-street, Accrington.
1888. *Hindmarsh, William Thomas, F.L.S. Alnbank, Alnwick.
1886. {Hingley, Benjamin, M.P. Hatherton Lodge, Cradley, Worcester-
shire.
1881. {Hingston, J.T. Clifton, York.
1884. {Hineston, Wittiam Hates, M.D., D.C.L. 87 Union-avenue
Montreal, Canada.
1884. tHirschfilder,C. A. Toronto, Canada.
1890. *Hirst, James Andus. Adel Tower, Leeds.
1858. {Hirst, John, jun. Dobcross, near Manchester.
1861. *Hirst, T. Arcutr, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 7 Oxford and Cam-
bridge Mansions, Marylebone-road, London, N.W.
1884, {Hoadrey, John Chipman. Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Hoare, J. Gurney. Hampstead, London, N.W.
1881. §Hobbes, Robert George. Livingstone House, 374 Wandsworth-road,
London, 8. W.
1864. {Hobhouse, Arthur Fane. 24 Cadogan-place, London, 8.1.
1864, {Hobhouse, Charles Parry. 24 Cadogan-place, London, S.W.
1864, {Hobhouse, Henry William. 24 Cadogan-place, London, S.W.
1879. §Hobkirk, Charles P., F.L.S. West Riding Union Bank, Dewsbury.
1887. *Hobson, Bernard, B.Sc. Tapton Elms, Sheffield.
1883. {Hobson, Rey. E. W. 55 Albert-road, Southport.
1877. {Hockin, Edward. Poughill, Stratton, Cornwall.
D2
52
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1888.
1877.
1876.
1852.
1865.
1887.
1880.
1873.
1884,
1865.
1863.
1889.
1865.
tHocking, Rey. Silas K. 21 Scarisbrick New-road, Southport.
{tHodge, Rey. John Mackey, M.A. 388 Tavistock-place, Plymouth.
tHodges, Frederick W. Queen’s College, Belfast.
tHodces, John F., M.D., F.C.S., Professor of Agriculture in Queen’s
College, Belfast.
*Hopexin,THomas, B.A.,D.C.L. Benwell Dene, Newcastle-upon-Tyne..
*Hodgkinson, Alexander. 18 St. John-street, Manchester.
§Hodgkinson, W. R. Eaton, Ph.D., F.R.8.E., Professor of Chemistry
and Physics in the Royal Artillery College, Woolwich. 75.
Vanbrugh Park, Blackheath, London, S.E.
*Hodgson, George. Thornton-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Hodeson, Jonathan. Montreal, Canada.
tHodgson, Robert. Whitburn, Sunderland.
tHodgson, R. W. 7 Sandhill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tHoey, D.G. 8 Gordon-street, Glasgow.
*Hormany, Aveust WitueErm, M.D., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S:
10 Dorotheen-strasse, Berlin.
. *Holeroft,George. Tyddyn-Gwladis, Ganllwyd, near Dolgelly, Nortl:
Wales.
{Holden, Edward. Laurel Mount, Shipley, Yorkshire.
*Holden, Isaac, M.P. Oakworth House, near Keighley, Yorkshire.
. tHolden, James. 12 Park-avenue, Southport.
{Holden, John J, 25 Duke-street, Southport.
tHolden, Mrs. Mary E. Dunham Ladies’ College, Quebec, Canada.
. “Holder, Henry William, M.A. Owens College, Manchester.
. *Holdsworth, C.J. Oxenholme, Westmoreland.
. Holland, Calvert Bernard. Ebbw Vale, South Wales.
*Holland, Philip H. 38 Heath-rise, Willow-road, Hampstead, Lon—
don, N.W.
§Hollander, Bernard. Unionist Club, 68 Pall Mall, London, 8.W.
tHolliday, J. R. 101 Harborne-road, Birmingham.
tHolliday, William. New-street, Birmingham.
tHollingsworth, Dr. T. 8. Elford Lodge, Spring Grove, Isleworth,
Middlesex.
*Holmes, Mrs. Basil. 5 Freeland-road, Ealing, Middlesex, W.
*Holmes, Charles. 59 London-road, Derby.
tHolmes, J. R. Southbrook Lodge, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tHolmes, Ralph, B.A. Hulme Grammar School, Manchester.
*Holmes, Thomas Vincent, F.G.S. 28 Croom’s-hill, Greenwich, S.E..
§Holt, Thomas. Atlas Iron Works, Molesworth-street, Rochdale,
*Hood, Archibald, M.Inst.C.E. 42 Newport-road, Cardiff.
*Hood, John. Chesterton, Cirencester,
tHooxer, Sir JoserH Darron, K.C.S.1, C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,
E.RB.S., F.L.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S. The Camp, Sunningdale.
*Hooper, John P. Coventry Park, Streatham, London, 8. W.
*Hooper, Rey. Samuel F., M.A. The Vicarage, Blackheath Hill,
Greenwich, S8.E.
tHooton, Jonathan. 116 Great Ducie-street, Manchester.
Hope, Thomas Arthur. 14 Airlie-gardens, Campden Hill, London, W..
*Hopkins, Edward M. 38 Upper Berkeley-street, Portman-square,
London, W.
tHopkins, J.8. Jesmond Grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*HopxkInson, CHARLES. 29 Princess-street, Manchester.
*Hopkinson, Edward, D.Sc. Irveton Bank, Platt-lane, Rusholme,
Manchester.
*Horxinson, Joun, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Holmwood, Wimbledon,
Surrey.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 53
Year of
Election.
1871.
1858.
1886,
1885.
1876.
1875.
1884.
1887.
1884.
1868.
1859.
1886.
1887.
1858.
1884.
1883.
1879.
1883.
1886,
1887.
~ 1882.
1883.
1886.
1876,
1885.
1889,
1857.
1887.
- 1868.
1886,
1884,
1884.
1865,
1863.
1885.
1883,
1887.
1888.
1888.
1867.
1858,
*Horxinson, Joun, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. 95 New Bond-
street, London, W.; and The Grange, St. Albans.
tHopkinson, Joseph, jun. Britannia Works, Huddersfield.
Hornby, Hugh. Sandown, Liverpool.
tHorne, Edward H. Innisfail, Beulah Hill, Norwood, 8.E.
tHorne, John, F.R.S.E., F.G.8. 41 Southside-road, Inverness.
*Horne, Robert R. 150 Hope-street, Glasgow.
*Horniman, F. J., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Surrey Mount, Forest Hill,
London, 8.E.
*Horsfall, Richard. Stoodley House, Halifax.
tHorsfall, T. ©. Swanscoe Park, near Macclesfield.
*Hotblach, G.S. Prince of Wales-road, Norwich.
t{Hotson, W. ©. Upper King-street, Norwich.
tHough, Joseph, M.A., F.R.A.S. Codsall Wood, Wolverhampton.
tHoughton, F. T. S., M.A. 119 Gough-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.
{Houldsworth, Sir W. H., Bart., M.P. Norbury Booths, Knutsford.
{Hounsfield, James. Hemsworth, Pontefract.
tHouston, William. Legislative Library, Toronto, Canada.
*Hovenden, Frederick, F.L.S., F.G.S. Glenlea, Thurlow Park-road,
West Dulwich, Surrey, 8.E.
Hoyenden, W. F., M.A. Bath.
*Howard, D. 60 Belsize Park, London, N.W.
tHoward, James Fielden, M.D., M.R.C.S. Sandycroft, Shaw.
§Howard, James L., D.Sc. 20 Oxford-road, Waterloo, near Liver-
ool,
*Howard, S. 8. Llanishen Rise, near Cardiff.
t{Howard, William Frederick, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 13 Cavendish-
street, Chesterfield, Derbyshire.
tHowarth, Richard. York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
tHowatt, David. 3 Birmingham-road, Dudley.
tHowatt, James. 146 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.
tHowden, James C., M.D. Sunnyside, Montrose, N.B.
§Howden, Robert, M.B. Durham College of Medicine, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.
tHowell, Henry H., F.G.S., Director of the Geological Survey of
Scotland. Geological Survey Office, Victoria-street, Edinburgh.
tHowell, J. A. Edward-street, Werneth, Oldham.
tHowett, Rev. Canon Hixps. Drayton Rectory, near Norwich.
§Howss, Professor G. B., F.L.S. Royal College of Science, South
Kensington, London, 8. W.
tHowland, Edward P.,M.D. 211 414-street, Washington, U.S.A.
tHowland, Oliver Aiken. - Toronto, Canada.
*Howtert, Rey. Freprricr, F.R.A.S. East Tisted Rectory, Alton,
Hants.
tHoworrn, H. H., M.P., F.S.A. Bentcliffe, Eccles, Manchester.
tHoworth, John, J.P. Springbank, Burnley, Lancashire.
tHoyle, James. Blackburn.
§Hoyrz, WittraM E., M.A. Owens College, Manchester.
§Hudd, Alfred E., F.S.A. 94 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.
tHudson, C. T., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. 6 Royal York-crescent,
Clifton, Bristol.
*Hupsoy, Wiirram H. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in King’s
College, London. 15 Altenberg-gardens, Clapham Common,
London, 8. W.
*Hueerxs, Wittram, D.C.L. Oxon., LL.D. Camb., F.R.S., FR.AS.
(PresipEent Erscr). 90 Upper Tulse Hill, Brixton, London, S.W.
54
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1887.
1883.
1871.
1887.
1870.
1876.
1868.
1865.
1883.
1867.
1887.
1890.
1884,
1878.
1880.
1856.
1862.
1877.
1886.
1865.
1884,
1864.
1875.
1881.
1889.
1881,
1884,
1869.
1879.
1885.
1863.
1885.
1869.
1882.
1861.
1870.
1887.
1882.
1876.
1868.
tHughes, E.G. 4 Roman-place, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
tHughes, Miss E. P. Newnham College, Cambridge.
ce George Pringle, J.P. Middleton Hall, Wooler, Northum-
erland.
tHughes, John Taylor. Thorleymoor, Ashley-road, Altrincham.
*Hughes, Lewis. Fenwick-court, Liverpool.
*Hughes, Rev. Thomas Edward. Wallfield House, Reigate.
§Hueuns, T. M‘K., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Woodwardian Professor of
Geology in the University of Cambridge.
tHughes, W. R., F.L.S., Treasurer of the Borough of Birmingham.
Birmingham.
{Hourks, Jomn Wuirarer, F.RS., F.R.C.S., F.G.S. 10 Old Bur-
lington-street, London, W.
§Huti, Epwarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology
in the Royal College of Science. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
*Hulse, Sir Edward, Bart., D.C.L. 47 Portland-place, London, W. ;
and Breamore House, Salisbury.
*Hummel, Professor J. J. Yorkshire College, Leeds.
§Humphrey, Frank W. 65 Prince’s-gate, London, 8. W.
*Humphreys, A. W. 45 William-street, New York, U.S.A.
tHumphreys, H. Castle-square, Carnarvon.
tHumphreys, Noel A., F.S.8, Ravenhurst, Hook, Kingston-on-
Thames.
tHumphries, David James. 1 Keynsham-parade, Cheltenham.
*Humpury, Sir Grorcr Murray, M.I)., F.R.S., Professor of Surgery
in the University of Cambridge. Grove Lodge, Cambridge.
*Hount, ArntHuR Roopr, M.A., F.G.8. Southwood, Torquay.
tHunt, Charles. The Gas Works, Windsor-street, Birmincham.
{Hunt, J. P. Gospel Oak Works, Tipton.
{Hount, T. Srerry, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. Park Avenue Hotel,
New York, U.S.A.
tHunt, W. Folkestone.
*Hunt, William. Northcote, Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol.
tHunter, F. W. Newhbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.
tHunter, Mrs. F. W. Newbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.
{Hunter, Rey. John. University-gardens, Glasgow.
*Hunter, Michael, jun. Greystones, Sheffield.
*Hunter, Rev. Robert. LL.D., F.G.S. Forest Retreat, Staples-road,
Loughton, Essex.
{Hountineron, A. K., F.C.S., Professor of Metallurgy in King’s College,
London. King’s College, London, W.C.
{Huntly, The Most Hon. the Marquis of. Aboyne Castle, Aber-
deenshire.
{tHuntsman, Benjamin. West Retford Hall, Retford.
*Hurst, Charles Herbert. Owens College, Manchester.
tHurst, George. Bedford.
tHurst, Walter, B.Sc. West Lodge, Todmorden.
*Hurst, AS John. Drumaness Mills, Ballynahinch, Lisburn,
Ireland.
tHurter, Dr. Ferdinand. Appleton, Widnes, near Warrington.
Husband, William Dalla. The Roost, Miles-road, Clifton, Bristol.
tHusband, W. #. 56 Bury New-road, Manchester.
}Hussey, Captain EK. R., R.E. 24 Waterloo-place, Southampton.
tHutchinson, John. 22 Hamilton Parl-terrace, Glasgow.
*Hutchison, Robert, F.R.S.E. University Club, Princes-street, Edin-
burgh.
Hutton, Crompton. Harescombe Grange, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
| LIST OF MEMBERS, 55
- Year of
Election.
1864, oe pamnten. 14 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
1857.
1887.
1861.
1852,
1883,
1871.
1882.
1884.
1885.
1888.
1858.
1871.
1876.
1852.
1885.
1886.
1882.
1888.
1883.
1881.
1887.
1886.
1859.
1884,
1876.
1883.
1879.
1883,
1883.
1883.
1883.
1874.
1886.
1887,
1885.
1866.
1869,
1863.
1887.
tHutton, Henry D. 17 Palmerston-road, Dublin.
*Hutton, J. Arthur. 29 Dale-street, Manchester.
*Hourton, T. Maxwett. Summerhill, Dublin.
tHuxtey, THomas Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.LS.,
F.G.S., Professor of Biology in the Royal College of Science,
London. Hodeslea, Eastbourne.
Hyde, Edward. Dukinfield, near Manchester,
tHyde, George H. 235 Arbour-street, Southport.
*Hyett, Francis A. Painswick House, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
*T’Anson, James, F.G.S. Fairfield House, Darlington.
Thne, William, Ph.D. Heidelberg.
§les, George. 7 Brunswick-street, Montreal, Canada,
fim-Thurn, Everard F. British Guiana.
*Ince, Surgeon-Major John, M.D. Montague House, Swanley, Kent.
tIngham, Henry. Wortley, near Leeds.
tiyerts, The Right Hon. Jomy, D.C.L., LL.D., Lord Justice-General
of Scotland, Edinburgh.
fInglis, John, jun. Prince’s-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
fIneram, J. K., LL.D., M.R.LA., Librarian to the University of
Dublin. 2 Wellington-road, Dublin.
tIngram, William, M.A. Gamrie, Banff.
tInnes, John. The Limes, Alcester-road, Moseley, Birmingham.
§Irnvine, Rey. A., B.A., D.Se., F.G.S. Wellington College, Woking-
ham, Berks,
§Isaac, J. F. V. Freshford House, Freshford, Bath.
{Isherwood, James. 18 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
tIshiguro, Isoji. Care of the Japanese Legation, 9 Cavendish-square,
London, W.
§Ito, Tokutaro. 83 Hichikenchio Nichémé, Nagoya, Aichiken, Japan.
fIzod, William, Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tJack, John, M.A. Belhelvie-by-Whitecairns, Aberdeenshire.
tJack, Peter. People’s Bank, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.
*Jack, William, LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Glasgow. 10 The College, Glasgow.
*Jackson, Professor A. H., B.Se., F.C.5. Care of Messrs. Wm.
Bowen & Co., Collins-street, Melbourne, Australia.
tJackson, Arthur, F.R.C.S8. Wilkinson-street, Sheffield.
{Jackson, Mrs. Esther. 16 Hast Park-terrace, Southampton.
tJackson, Frank. 11 Park-crescent, Southport.
*Jackson, F. J. 1 Morley-road, Southport.
tJackson, Mrs. F. J. 1 Morley-road, Southport.
*Jackson, Frederick Arthur. Belmont, Lyme Regis, Dorset.
§Jackson, George. Clareen, Higher Warberry, Torquay.
*Jackson, George. 53 Elizabeth-street, Cheetham, Manchester.
{Jackson, Henry. 19 Golden-square, Aberdeen,
{Jackson, H. W., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 67 Upgate, Louth, Lincoln-
shire.
§Jackson, Moses. Lansdowne House, Tonbridge.
*Jackson-Gwilt, Mrs. H. Moonbeam Villa, The Grove, New Wim-
bledon, Surrey.
§Jacobson, Nathaniel. Olive Mount, Cheetham Hill-road, Man-
chester.
56
Year of
Election
1874.
1865.
1891.
1891.
1872.
1860.
1886.
1886.
18638.
1858.
1884.
1881.
1887.
1885.
1885.
1859.
1889.
1855.
1870.
1886.
1856,
1855.
1885.
1867.
1885.
1887.
1881.
1864.
1875.
1880.
1852.
i872.
1878.
1889.
1884.
1884,
1884,
1883.
1883,
1871.
1881.
1883.
1865.
1888,
1875,
1872.
1870,
LIST OF MEMBERS.
*Jaffe, John. Edenvale, Strandtown, near Belfast.
*Jaffray, John. Park-grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*James, Charles Henry. 8 Courtland-terrace, Merthyr Tydfil.
*James, Charles Russell. Courtland House, Merthyr Tydfil.
tJames, Christopher. 8 Laurence Pountney-hill, London, F.C.
tJames, Edward H. Woodside, Plymouth.
tJames, Frank. Portland House, Aldridge, near Walsall.
*James, Harry Berkeley, F.R.G.S. 16 Ashburn-place, London, 8. W.
*Jamus, Sir Watrer, Bart., F.G.S. 6 Whitehall-gardens, London,
S.W.
tJames, William C. Woodside, Plymouth.
f{Jameson, W.C. 48 Baker-street, Portman-square, London, W.
tJamieson, Andrew, Principal of the College of Science and Arts,
Glasgow.
§Jamieson, G. Auldjo. 6 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.
{Jamieson, Patrick. Peterhead, N.B.
{Jamieson, Thomas. 175 Union-street, Aberdeen.
*Jamieson, Thomas F., F.G.S. Ellon, Aberdeenshire.
*Japr, F. R., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Aberdeen.
*Jarratt, Rey. Canon J., M.A. North Cave, near Brough, Yorkshire.
tJarrold, John James. London-street, Norwich.
§Jeffcock, Rev. John Thomas. The Rectory, Wolverhampton.
§Jerrrry, Henry M., M.A., F.R.S. 9 Dunstanville-terrace, Fal-
mouth.
*Jeflray, John. Winton House, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
tJeffreys, Miss Gwyn. 1 The Terrace, Kensington, London, W.
tJetireys, Howel, M.A., F.R.A.S. Pump-court, Temple, London, E.0.
§Jeflreys, Dr. Richard Parker. Eastwood House, Chesterfield.
§Jurrs, Osmunp W. 12 Queen’s-road, Rock Ferry, Cheshire.
{Jmtxicon, C. W. A. Southampton.
tJelly, Dr. W. Aveleanas, 11, Valencia, Spain.
§Jenkins, Major-General J. J. 16 St. James’s-square, London, 8. W.
*JENKINS, Sir Jonn Jones. The Grange, Swansea.
tJennings, Francis M., F.G.S., M.R.I.A. Brown-street, Cork.
jJennings, W. 15 Victoria-street, London, 8.W.
{Jephson, Henry L. Chief Secretary's Office, The Castle, Dublin.
Jessop, William, jun. Overton Hall, Ashover, Chesterfield.
tJevons, F. B., M.A. The Castle, Durham.
fJewell, Lieutenant Theo. F. Torpedo Station, Newport, Rhode
Island, U.S.A.
{Johns, Thomas W. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.
§Johnson, Alexander, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in
McGill University, Montreal. 5 Prince of Wales-terrace, Mont-
real, Canada.
tJohnson, Miss Alice. Llandaff House, Cambridge,
tJohnson, Ben. Mickleeate, York.
*Johnson, David, F.C.S., F.G.S. West View, 19 Beulah-hill, Upper
Norwood, London, 8.E.
tJohnson, Colonel E. Cecil. United Service Club, Pall Mall, Lon-
don, 8.W.
{Johnson, Edmund Litler. 73 Albert-road, Southport.
*Johnson, G. J. 386 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
§Johnson, J. G. Southwood Court, Highgate, London, N.
{Johnson, James Henry, F.G.S. 78 Albert-road, Southport.
tJohnson, J. T. 27 Dale-street, Manchester.
{Johnson, Richard C., F.R.A.S. 46 Jermyn-street, Liverpool.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 57
Year of
Election.
1865.
1881.
1890,
1887.
1883.
1883.
1861.
1883.
1859.
1864,
1884.
188?,
1884.
1884.
1885.
1886,
1864.
1876.
1864,
1871.
1888.
1888.
1881.
1849,
1887.
1890.
1887.
1883.
1884.
1877.
1881.
1873.
1880,
1860.
1883.
1875.
1884.
1875.
1847.
1879.
1890,
1872,
1848.
1883.
1886.
1848,
jJohnson, R. 8. Hanwell, Fence Houses, Durham.
tJohnson, Samuel George. Municipal Offices, Nottingham.
*Johnson, Thomas, B.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.
tJohnson, W. H. Woodleigh, Altrincham, Cheshire.
tJohnson, W. H. F. Llandaff House, Cambridge.
tJohnson, William. Harewood, Roe-lane, Southport.
TJohnson, William Beckett. Woodlands Bank, near Altrincham,
Cheshire.
tJohnston, H. H. Tudor House, Champion Hill, London, 8.E.
{Johnston, James. Newmill, Elein, N.B.
fJohnston. James. Manor House, Northend, Hampstead, London,
N.W.
tJohnston, John L. 27 St. Peter-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Johnston, Thomas. BGroomsleigh, Seal, Sevenoalks.
tJohnston, Walter R. Fort Qu’Appelle, N.W. Territory, Canada,
*Johnston, W. H. 6 Latham-street, Preston, Lancashire.
tJounston-Lavis, H.J., M.D., F'.G.8, Palazzo Caramanico, Chiato-
mone, Naples,
tJohnstone, G. H. Northampton-street, Birmingham.
*Johnstone, James. Alva House, Alva, by Stirling, N.B,
fJohnstone, William. 5 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.
tJolly, Thomas. Park View-villas, Bath.
fJonty, Wit11aM, F.RS.E., F.G.S., H.M. Inspector of Schools.
St. Andrew’s-road, Pollokshields, Glasgow.
tJolly, W.C. Home Lea, Lansdowne, Bath.
tJoly, John. 89 Waterloo-road, Dublin.
tJones, Alfred Orlando, M.D. Cardigan Villa, Harrogate.
tJones, Baynham. Walmer House, Cheltenham.
{Jones, D. E., B.Sc. University College, Aberystwith.
§Jones, Rey. Edward. Rockville, Embsay, near Skipton.
tJones, Francis. Beaufort House, Alexandra Park, Manchester.
*Jones, George Oliver, M.A. 5 Cook-street, Liverpool.
tJones, Rey. Harry, M.A. 8 York-cate, Regent’s Park, London,
N.W
tJones, Henry C., F.C.S. Normal School of Science, South Kensing-
ton, London, S.W.
*Jonzs, J. Vrrtamv, M.A., B.Sc., Principal of the University College
of South Wales and Monmouthshire. Cardiff.
{Jones, Theodore B. 1 Finsbury-circus, London, E.C.
tJones, Thomas. 15 Gower-street, Swansea.
{Jonzs, Tuomas Rupyrt, F.R.S., F.G.S. 10 Uverdale-road, King’s-
road, Chelsea, London, 8. W.
tJones, William. Elsinore, Birkdale, Southport.
*Jose, J. HE. | 11 Oressington Park, Liverpool.
tJoseph, J. H. 738 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada,
*Joule, Benjamin St. John B., J.P. Rothesay, N.B.
tJowert, Rev. B., M.A., Regius Professor of Greek in the University
of Oxford. Balliol College, Oxford.
tJowitt, A. Hawthorn Lodge, Clarkehouse-road Sheffield.
§Jowitt, Benson R. Elmhurst, Newton-road, Leeds.
tJoy, Algernon. Junior United Service Club, St. James's, London,
S.W
*Joy, Rev. Charles Ashfield. West Hanney, Wantage, Berkshire.
tJoyce, Rev. A. G., BA. St. John’s Croft, Winchester,
tJoyce, The Hon. Mrs. St. John’s Croft, Winchester.
*Jubb, Abraham. Halifax.
58 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1870, {Jupp, Joun Wester, F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the
Royal College of Science, London. 31 Ennerdale-road, Kew.
1883. {Justice, Philip M. 14 Southampton-buildings, Chancery-lane,
London, W.C.
1868, *Kaines, Joseph, M.A., D.Sc. 8 Osborne-road, Stroud Green-road,
London, N.
1888. §Kapp, [isbert. Erba, Wimbledon Park, Surrey.
1887. {Kay, Miss. Hamerlaund, Broughton Park, Manchester.
1859, {Kay, David, F.R.G-S. 19 Upper Phillimore-place, Kensington,
London, W. >, :
Kay, John Ounliff. Fairtleld Hall, near Skipton.
1883. {Kearne, John H. Westeliif2-road, Birkdale, Southport.
1884, tKeefer, Samuel. Brockville, Cntario, Canada. _
1884. §Keefer, Thomas Alexander. Port Arthur, Ontario, Canada.
1875. {Keeling, George William. Tuthill, Lydney. Cine
1886. {Keen, Arthur, J.P. Sandyford, Augistus-road, Birmingham.
1878. *Kelland, William Henry. Grettans, Bot, North Devon.
1887. {Kellas-Johnstone, J. F. 35 Crescent, Saiford.
1884. {Kelloge, J. H., MD. Battle Creek, Michigan, U.S.A.
1864, *Kelly, W. M., M.D. 11 The Crescent, Taunt©, Somerset.
1885. §Keltie, J. Scott, Librarian R.G.S. 1 Savile-tgw, London, W.
1887. §Kemp, Harry. 254 Stretford-road, Manchester: ae ‘
1884, {Kemper, Andrew ©., A.M., M.D. 101 Broadway, Cincinnati,
U.S.A.
1890. §Kempson, Aucustus. Bank House, Northampton: ;
1875, {Kunnupy, Arpxanper B. W., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E), Emeritus Pro-
fessor of Engineering in University College, Jvondon, Lawn
House, Hampstead-square, London, N.W. pee
1884, {Kennedy, George L., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and
Geology in King’s College, Windsor, Nova Scotia, Canada.
1876. {Kennedy, Hugh. Redclytte, Partickhill, Glasgow. ,
1884, {Kennedy, John. 113 University-street, Montreal, Canadi-
1884. {Kennedy, William. Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. :
1886, {Kenrick, George Hamilton. Whetstone, Somerset-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham. ;
Kent, J.C. Levant Lodge, Earl’s Croome, Worcester.
1886. §Kenward, James, F.S.A. 280 Hagley-road, Birmingham, '
1857. *Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland.
1876. {Ker, William. 1 Windsor-terrace West, Glasgow.
1881. {Kermode, Philip M. C. Ramsay, Isle of Man.
1884, {Kerr, James, M.D. Winnipeg, Canada.
1887. {Kerr, James. Dunkenhalgh, Accrington.
1883. {Kerr, Dr. John. Garscadden House, near Kilpatrick, Glasgo +
1889. {Kerry, W. H. R. Manor House, Liscard, Cheshire.
1887. {Kershaw, James. Holly House, Bury New-road, Manchester.
1869. *Kesselmeyer, Charles A. Villa ‘Mon Repos,’ Altrincham,
Cheshire. }
1869. *Kesselmeyer, William Johannes. Villa ‘Mon Repos,’ Altrincham,
Cheshire.
1888. *Keynes, J. N., M.A., B.Se., F.S.S. 6 Harvey-road, Cambridg,®
1876. {Kidston, J. B. 50 West Regent-street, Glasgow. {
1886. §Kipston, Ropert, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 24 Victoria-place, Stirl-28-
1885. *Kilgour, Alexander. Loirston House, Cove, near Aberdeen.
1890. §Kimmins, C. W., M.A., D.Sc. Downing College, Cambridge.:
1865, *Kinahan, Sir Edward Hudson, Bart., M.R.L.A. 11 Merrion-Square
North, Dublin.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 59
Year of
Election.
1878.
1860.
1875.
1888.
1888.
1885.
1875.
1871.
1855.
1883.
1870.
1885.
1860.
1875.
1888.
1870.
1889.
1869.
1876.
1875.
1867.
1870.
1860.
1875.
1883.
1870.
1890.
1886.
1869.
1886.
1885.
1888.
1872.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1873.
1872.
1870.
1874.
1885.
18853.
1876.
1875.
1888.
1890.
1888.
1881.
{Kinahan, Edward Hudson, jun. 11 Merrion-square North, Dublin,
FEN; G. erg M.R.LA. Geological Survey of Iveland, 14
ume-street, Dublin.
*Kincu, Epwarp, F.C.S. Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester,
{King, Austin J. Winsley Hill, Limpley Stoke, Bath.
*King, E. Powell. Wainsford, Lymington, Hants.
*King, Francis. Alabama, Penrith.
*Kine, F. Ambrose. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.
*King, Rey. Herbert Poole. The Rectory, Stourton, Bath.
{King, James. Levernholme, Hurlet, Glasgow.
*Kine, John Godwin. Wainsford, Lymington, Hants.
{King, John Thomson. 4 Clayton-square, Liverpool.
a4 ae Welford House, Greenhill, Hampstead, London,
*King, Joseph,jun. 44 Well-walk, Hampstead, London, N.W.
*Kine, Mervyn Kersteman. 1 Vittoria-square, Clifton, Bristol.
*Kine, Percy L. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.
{King, Richard. Grosvenor Lodge, Bath.
{King, William. 5 Beach Lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool.
§King, Sir William. Lynwood, Waverley-rvad, Southsea.
{Kinedon, K. Taddiford, Exeter.
§Kingston, Thomas. The Limes, Clewer, near Windsor.
§Kinezerr, Coartns T., F.C.S. Trevena, Amhurst Park, London, N.
tKinloch, Colonel. Kirriemuir, Logie, Scotland.
{Kinsman, William R. Branch Bank of England, Liverpool.
tKrrrman, Rey. Tuomas P., M.A., F.R.S. Croft Rectory, near
Warrington. .
{Kirsop, John. 6 Queen’s-crescent, Glasgow.
{Kirsop, Mrs. 6 Queen’s-crescent, Glasgow.
{Kitchener, Frank E. Newcastle, Staffordshire.
*Kitson, Sir James, Bart. Gledhow Hall, Leeds.
{Klein, Rev. L. Martial. University College, Dublin.
{Knapman, Edward. The Vineyard, Castle-street, Exeter.
§Knight, J. M. Bushwood, Wanstead, Essex.
{Knicht, J. R. 32 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, London, W.C.
{Knott, Cargill G., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Tokio, Japan.
*Knott, George, LL.B., F.R.A.S. Knowles Lodge, Cuclfield, Hay-
ward's Heath, Sussex.
*Knott, Herbert. Wharf Street Mills, Ashton-under-Lyne.
*Knott, John F. Staveleigh, Stalybridge, Cheshire.
{Knott, Mrs. Staveleigh, Stalybridge, Cheshire.
§Knott, T. B. Ellerslie, Cheadle Hulme, Cheshire.
*Knowles, George. Moorhead, Shipley, Yorkshire.
{Knowles, James. The Hollies, Clapham Common, S.W,
{Knowles, Rev. J. L. 103 Larl’s Court-road, Kensington, London, W.
t{Knowles, William James. Flixton-place, Ballymena, Co, Antrim.
{Knowlys, Rev. C. Hesketh. The Rectory, Roe-lane, Southport.
{Knowlys, Mrs. C. Hesketh. The Rectory, Roe-lane, Southport.
{Knox, David N., M.A., M.B. 24 Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow.
*Knox, George James. 29 Portland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
*Knubley, Rev. E. P., M.A. Staveley Rectory, Leeds.
tKnubley, Mrs. Staveley Rectory, Leeds.
*Krauss, John Samuel. Whitecot, Wilmslow, Cheshire.
*Kunz,G. F. Care of Messrs. Tiffany & Co., Union-square, New
York City, U.S.A.
tKurobe, Hiroo. Legation of Japan, 9 Cavendish-square, London, W,
60
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1870.
1865.
1858.
1884.
1885.
1870.
1870.
1882.
1877.
1859.
1889.
1887.
1887.
1883,
1885.
1884.
1890.
1884,
1871.
1886.
1877.
1885.
1859.
1886.
1870.
1865.
1880.
1884.
1878.
1886.
1885.
1887.
1881,
1883,
1870.
1870.
1888.
1885.
1870.
1878.
1862.
1884,
1870,
{Kynaston, Josiah W., F.C.S. Kensington, Liverpool.
tKynnersley, J. C.S. The Leveretts, Handsworth, Birmingham.
tLace, Francis John. Stone Gapp, Cross-hill, Leeds.
tLaflamme, Rey. Professor J. C. K. Laval University, Quebec,
Canada. :
*Laing, J. Gerard. 1 Elm-court, Temple, London, E.C.
{Laird, H.H. Birkenhead.
§Laird, John. Grosyenor-road, Claughton, Birkenhead.
{Lake, G. A. K., M.D. East Park-terrace, Southampton,
tLake, W.C., M.D. Teignmouth.
tLalor, John Joseph, M.R.I.A. City Hall, Cork Hill, Dublin.
*Lamb, Edmund., M.A. Union Club, Trafalgar-square, London, S.W.
tLamb, Horace, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics in the
Owens College, Manchester. Burton-road, Didsbury, Manchester.
tLamb, James. Kenwood, Bowdon, Cheshire.
f{Lamb, W. J. 11 Gloucester-road, Birkdale, Southport.
{LamBeRt, Rey. Brooxe, LL.B. The Vicarage, Greenwich, Kent, S.E.
{Lamborn, Robert H. Montreal, Canada.
§Lamport, Edward Parke. Greenfield Well, Lancaster.
tLancaster, Alfred. Fern Bank, Burnley, Lancashire.
tLancaster, Edward. JKaresforth Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.
fLancaster, W. J., F.G.S. Colmore-row, Birmingham.
fLandon, Frederic George, M.A., F.R.A.S. 59 Tresillian-road, St.
John’s, 8.E.
tLang, Rey. Gavin. Inverness.
fLang, Rey. John Marshall, D.D. Barony, Glasgow.
*Lana.Ey, J. N., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.
{Langton, Charles. Barkhill, Aigburth, Liverpool.
tLanxesrer, E. Ray, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Linacre Professor of
Human and Comparative Anatomy in the University of Oxford.
42 Half Moon-street, Piccadilly, London, W.
*LANSDELL, Rev. Henry, D.D., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. Care of Mr.
Wheldon, 58 Great Queen-street, Lincoln’s Inn-fields, London,
W.C.
tLanza, Professor G. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston,
tLapper, E., M.D. 61 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
tLaprack, W. 9 Malfort-road, Denmark Hill, London, S.E.
{Lapworra, Cuarzes, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology
and Mineralogy in the Mason Science College, Birmingham. 13
Duchess-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tLarmor, Alexander. Clare College, Cambridge. :
tLarmor, Joseph, M.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
§Lascelles, B. P. Harrow.
*Laryam, Batpwin, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S.. 7 Westminster-chambers,
Westminster, 8S. W,
{Laventon, Joun Kwox, M.A., F.R.G.S. 180 Sinclair-road, West
Kensington Park, London, W.
tLavein, Colonel R. P., C.B., M.P. 35 Eaton-place, London, 8. W.
tLaurie, Major-General. Oakfield, Nova Scotia.
*Law, Channell. Isham Dene, Torquay.
tLaw, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-chambers, London, 8. W.
tLaw, Rey. James Edmund,.M.A. Little Shelford, Cambridgeshire.
§Law, Robert. 11 Cromwell-terrace, West Hill Park, Halifax,
Yorkshire.
tLawrence, Edward. Aigburth, Liverpool.
LIST OF MEMBERS. Gl
Year of
Election.
1881. {Lawrence, Rey. F., B.A. The Vicarage, Westow, York.
1889. §Laws, W. G. 5 Winchester-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
1875, t{Lawson, George, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Chemistry ‘and Botany..
Halifax, Nova Scotia.
1885. {Lawson, James. 8 Church-street, Huntly, N.B.
1868. *Lawson, M. Alexander, M.A., F.L.S. Ooticamund, Bombay.
1853. {Lawton, William. 5 Victoria-terrace, Derringham, Hull.
1888. §Layard, Miss Nina F. 11 Museum-street, Ipswich.
1856. tLea, Henry. 38 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.
1883. *Leach, Charles Catterall. Seghill, Northumberland,
1883. §Leach, John. Haverhill House, Bolton.
1875. {Leach, Colonel R. E. Mountjoy, Pheenix Park, Dublin.
1870. *Leaf, Charles John, F.L.S.,F.G.8., F.S.A. 6 Sussex-place, Regent’s
Park, London, N.W.
1884, *Leahy, John White, J.P. South Hill, Killarney, Ireland.
1884. {Learmont, Joseph B. 120 Mackay-street, Montreal, Canada.
1847, *Leatnam, Epwarp Atpam, M.P. Whitley Hall, Huddersfield
and 46 Haton-square, London, 8. W.
1863. {Leavers, J. W. The Park, Nottingham.
1884, *Leavitt, Erasmus Darwin. 604 Main-street, Cambridgeport, Mas-
sachusetts, U.S.A.
1872. {Lepour, G. A., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Col-
lege of Physical Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1884, tLeckie, R.G. Springhill, Cumberland County, Nova Scotia.
1883. tLee, Daniel W. Halton Bank, Pendleton, near Manchester.
1861. tLee, Henry, M.P. Sedgeley Park, Manchester.
1883. {Lee, J. H. Warburton. Rossall, Fleetwood.
1887. *Lee, Sir Joseph Cooksey. Park Gate, Altrincham.
1884. *Leech, Bosdin T. Oak Mount, Timperley, Cheshire.
1887. tLeech, D. J., M.D., Professor of Materia Medica in the Owens
College, Manchester. Elm House, Whalley Range, Manchester.
1886. *Lees, Lawrence W. Claregate, Tettenhall, Wolverhampton.
1882. {Lees, R. W. Moira-place, Southampton.
1859. {Lees, William, M.A.St. Leonard’s, Morningside-place, Edinburgh.
1883, *Leese, Miss H. K. Fylde-road Mills, Preston, Lancashire.
*Leese, Joseph. Fylde-road Mills, Preston, Lancashire.
1883. tLeese, Mrs. Hazeldene, Fallowfield, Manchester.
1889. *Leeson, John Rudd, M.D., F.G.S. Clifden House, Twickenham,
Middlesex.
1881. {Le Feuverr, J. E. Southampton.
1872. {Lurrvre, The Right Hon. G. Saw, M.P., F.R.G.S. 18 Bryan-
ston square, London, W.
*Legh, Lieut.-Colonel George Cornwall. High Legh Hall, Cheshire.
1869. {Le Grice, A. J. Trereife, Penzance.
1868. {Lxtcesrrr, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.G. Holkham, Nor-
folk
olk.
1856. {Luteu, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L. 37 Portman-square,
London, W.; and Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth,
1861. *Leigh, Henry. Moorfield, Swinton, near Manchester.
1890. §Leigh, Marshall. 22 Goldsmid-row, Brighton.
1886. §Leipner, Adolph, Professor of Botany in University College, Bristol.
47 Hampton Park, Bristol.
1867. {Leishman, James. Gateacre Hall, Liverpool.
1859. {Leith, Alexander. Glenkindie, Inverkindie, N.B.
1882. {Lemon, James, M.Inst.C.E. 11 The Avenue, Southampton,
1867. tLeng, John. ‘Advertiser’ Office, Dundee.
1878, {Lennon, Rey. Francis. The College, Maynooth, Ireland.
62
Year of
Election
1887.
1874.
i884.
1871.
1890.
1885.
1880.
1887.
1887.
1890.
1879.
1870.
1884,
1853.
1860,
1887.
1876.
1887.
1862.
1887.
1878.
1881.
1871.
1876.
1885.
1885.
1882.
1888.
1876,
1881.
1861.
1876,
1864.
1880.
1889.
1842.
1865.
1865.
1886.
1886.
1865.
1854,
LIST OF MEMBERS.
*Leon, John T. 38 Portland-place, London, W.
tLepper, Charles W. Laurel Lodge, Belfast.
tLesage, Louis. City Hall, Montreal, Canada.
tLeslie, Alexander, M.Inst.C.E. 72 George-street, Edinburgh.
*Lester, Joseph Henry. Fir Bank, Penrith.
§Lester, Thomas. Fir Bank, Penrith.
t{Lercuer, R. J. Lansdowne-terrace, Walters-road, Swansea,
tLeverkus, Otto. The Downs, Prestwich, Manchester.
*Levinstein, Ivan. Villa Newberg, Victoria Park, Manchester.
§Levy, J. H. Florence, 12 Abbeville-road South, Clapham Park,
London, 8. W.
f{Lewin, Colonel, F.R.G.S. Garden Corner House, Chelsea Embank-
ment, London, 8. W.
t{Lewis, Atrrep Lionrt. 54 Highbury-hill, London, N.
*Lewis, Sir W. T. The Mardy, Aberdare.
tLiddell, George William Moore. Sutton House, near Hull.
t{Lippett, The Very Rey. H. G., D.D., Dean of Christ Church,
Oxford.
tLiebermann, L. 54 Portland-street, Manchester.
tLietke, J.O. 380 Gordon-street, Glasgow.
*Lichtbown, Henry. Weaste Hall, Pendleton, Manchester.
t{Lrzrorp, The Richt Hon. Lord, F.L.S. Lilford Hall, Oundle, North-
amptonshire.
*Luverick, The Right Rev. CuartEes Graves, Lord Bishop of, D.D.,
F.R.S., M.R.I.A. The Palace, Henry-street, Limerick.
{Limpach, Dr. Crumpsall Vale Chemical Works, Manchester.
tLincolne, William. Ely, Cambridgeshire.
*Lindley, William, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 74 Shooters Hill-road, Black-
heath, London, 8.E.
tLindsay, Rev. T. M., M.A., D.D. Free Church College, Glasgow.
tLinn, James. Geological Survey Office, India-buildings, Edin-
burgh.
§Lipscomh, Mrs. Lancelot C. @A. 95 Elgin-crescent, London, W.
tLisle, H. Claud. Nantwich.
*Lister, Rev. Henry, M.A. Hawridge Rectory, Berkhampstead.
tLister, J. J. Leytonstone, Essex, E.
tLittle, Thomas Evelyn. 42 Brunswick-street, Dublin.
{ Littlewood, Rev. B. C., M.A. Holmdale, Cheltenham.
*Lrveine, G. D., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Cambridge. Newnham, Cambridge.
*Liversidge, Archibald, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S., Professor
of Chemistry and Mineralogy in the University of Sydney,
N.S.W. Care of Messrs. Triibner & Co., Ludgate Hill, Lon-
don, E.C.
§Livesay, J. G. Cromartie House, Ventnor, Isle of Wight.
{LLEWELYN, Sir Joun T. D., Bart. Penllegare, Swansea.
Lloyd, Rey. A. R. Hengold, near Oswestry.
fLloyd, Rev. Canon. The Vicarage, Rye Hill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Lloyd, Edward. King-street, Manchester.
tLloyd, G. B., J.P. Edgbaston-grove, Birmingham.
tLloyd, John. Queen’s College, Birmingham.
{Lloyd, John Henry. Ferndale, Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.
tLloyd, Samuel, Farm, Sparkbrook, Birmingham.
*Lloyd, Wilson, F.R.G.S. Myvod House, Wednesbury.
*Losiey, James Loaan, F.G.8., F.R.G.8. City of London College,
Moorgate-street, London, E.C.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 63
Year of
Election.
1867.
1863.
1886.
1889.
1876.
1871.
1851.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1866.
1888.
1883.
1875.
1871.
1872.
1881.
1883.
1861.
1889.
1863.
1883.
1887.
1886.
1876,
1883.
1875.
1889.
1867.
1885.
1885,
1861.
1884.
1886.
1850.
1881.
1853.
1881.
1870.
1889.
1878.
1889.
1875,
188],
*Locke, John. Whitehall Club, London, 8.W.
{Locxryer, J. Norman, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Royal College of Science,
South Kensington, London, S.W.
*Lodge, Alfred, M.A., Professor of Pure Mathematics in the Royal
Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper's Hill, Staines.
. *“Lopss, Ortver J., D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in
University College, Liverpool. 21 Waverley-road, Sefton Park,
Liverpool.
tLogan, William. Langley Park, Durham.
tLong, H. A. Charlotte-street, Glasgow.
*Long, John Jex. 11 Doune-terrace, Kelvinside, Glaszow.
tLong, William, F.G.S. Hurts Hall, Saxmundham, Suffolk.
*Long, William. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.
{Long, Mrs. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.
tLong, Miss. Thelwall Heys,near Warrington.
{Longden, Frederick. Osmaston-road, Derby.
tLonge, Francis D. Coddenham Lodge, Cheltenham.
{Longmaid, William Henry. 4 Rawlinson-road, Southport.
*Longstaff, George Blundell, M.A., M.B., F.C.S., F.S.8. Highlands,
Putney Heath, S.W.
§Longstaff, George Dixon, M.D.,F.C.S. Butterknowle, Wandsworth,
S.W.
*Longstaff, Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S. Ridgelands, Wimbledon,
Surrey.
*Longstatf, Mrs. Ll. W. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, Surrey.
*Longton, E. J., M.D. Lord-street, Southport.
*Lord, Edward. Adamroyd, Todmorden.
fLord, Riley. Highfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tLosh, W.S. Wreay Syke, Carlisle.
*Louis, D. A., F.C.S. 77 Shirland-gardens, London, W.
*Love, A. E. H. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
*Love, EK. F. J..M.A. The University, Melbourne, Australia.
*Love, James, F.R.A.S., F.G.S., F.Z.8. 11 Notting Hill-square, Lon-
don, W.
§Love, James Allen. 8 Easthourne-road West, Southport.
*Lovett, W. Jesse, F.I.C. 154 Eccles New-road, Salford.
tLow, Charles W. 84 Westhourne-terrace, London, W.
*Low, James F. Monifieth, by Dundee.
§Lowdell, Sydney Poole. Baldwyn’s Hill, East Grinstead, Sussex.
*Lowe, Arthur C. W. Gosfield Hall, Halstead, Essex.
*LowE, Epwarp JosEru, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.LS., F.G.S., FR.MS.
Shirenewton Hall, near Chepstow.
tLowe, F. J. Elm-court, Temple, London, E.C.
*Lowe, John Landor, M.Inst.C.E. Engineer’s Office, Midland Rail-
way, Derby.
tLowe, William Henry, M.D., F.R.S.E. Balgreen, Slateford, Edin-
burgh.
tLubbock, Arthur Rolfe. High Elms, Hayes, Kent.
*Luszock, The Right Hon. Sir Jonn, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D.,
E.RB.S., F.L.S., F.G.8S. Down, Farnborough, Kent.
{Lubbock, John B. High Elms, Hayes, Kent.
tLubbock, Montague, M.D. 19 Grosvenor-street, London, W.
tLucas, John. 1 Carlton-terrace, Low Fell, Gateshead,
tLucas, Joseph. Tooting Graveney, London, S.W.
tLuckley, George. 7 Victoria-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Lucy, W. C., F.G.S. The Winstones, Brookthorpe, Gloucester.
tLuden, C.M. 4 Bootham-terrace, York.
64
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1878.
1885.
1866.
1875.
1850.
1853,
1883.
1874.
1864.
1871.
1884.
1884.
1884.
1874.
1885.
1857.
1878.
1862.
1852.
1854.
1876.
1868.
1878.
1879.
1885.
1888.
1866.
1884.
1884.
1834.
1840.
1884,
1855.
1886.
1887.
1884.
1884.
1876.
1868.
1872.
1874.
1878.
1858.
1883.
1876.
tLumley, J. Hope Villa, Thornbury, near Bradford, Yorkshire.
tLumsden, Robert. Ferryhill House, Aberdeen.
*Lund, Charles. Ilkley, Yorkshire.
tLund, Joseph. Dkley, Yorkshire.
*Lundie, Cornelius. 321 Newport-road, Cardiff.
t{Lunn, William Joseph, M.D. 23 Charlotte-street, Hull.
*Lupton, Arnold, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S., Professor of Mining Engineer-
ing in Yorkshire College. 6 De Grey-road, Leeds.
*Lupron, Sypypy, M.A. Grove Cottage, Roundhay, near Leeds,
*Lutley, John. Brockhampton Park, Worcester.
tLyell, Leonard, F.G.S. 92 Onslow-gardens, London, 8.W.
t{Lyman, A. Clarence. 84 Victoria-street, Montreal, Canada.
tLyman, H. H. 74 McTavish-street, Montreal, Canada.
tLyman, Roswell C. 74 McTavish-street, Montreal, Canada,
tLynam, James. Ballinasloe, Ireland.
§Lyon, Alexander, jun. 52 Carden-place, Aberdeen.
tLyons, Robert D., M.B., M.R.ILA. 8 Merrion-square West, Dublin.
tLyte, Cecil Maxwell. Cotford, Oakhill-road, Putney, S.W.
*Lyte, F. Maxwett, F.C.S. 60 Finborough-road, London, 8. W.
{McAdam, Robert. 18 College-square East, Belfast.
*Macapam, Stevenson, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Lecturer on
Chemistry. Surgeons’ Hall, Hdinburgh; and Brighton House,
Portobello, by Edinburgh.
*Macapam, Writiam Ivison. Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh.
t}Macaristpr, ALEXANDER, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in
the University of Cambridge. Torrisdale, Cambridge.
tMacAnistur, Donatp, M.A.,M.D., B.Sc. St. John’s College, Cam-
bridge.
§MacAndrew, James J. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.
§MacAndrew, Mrs. J. J. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.
§MacAndrew, William. Westwood House, near Colchester.
*M‘Arthur, Alexander, M.P., F.R.G.S. 79 Holland Park, London,
W.
{Macarthur, Alexander. Winnipeg, Canada.
tMacarthur, D. Winnipeg, Canada.
Macautay, James, A.M., M.D. 25 Carlton-road, Maida Vale,
London, N.W.
*MacBrayne, Robert. 65 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
t{McCabe, T., Chief Examiner of Patents. Patent Office, Ottawa,
Canada.
t{M‘Cann, Rev. James, D.D., F.GS. The Lawn, Lower Norwood,
Surrey, SE.
tMacCarthy, Rev. E. F. M., M.A. 93 Hagley-road, Birmingham.
*McCarthy, James. Bangkok, Siam.
*McCarthy, J. J., M.D. 83 Wellington-road, Dublin.
tMcCausland, Orr. Belfast.
*M‘Crevtand, A.S. 4 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
{M‘Crinrock, Admiral Sir Francis L., R.N., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
United Service Club, Pall Mall, London, 8S. W.
*MClure, J. H., F.R.GS. Chavoire Annecy, Haute Savoie, France.
tM‘Clure, Sir Thomas, Bart. Belmont, Belfast.
*M‘Comas, Henry. Homestead, Dundrum, Co. Dublin.
t+M‘Connell, J. E. Wood]ands, Great Missenden.
tMcCrossan, James. 92 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
tM‘Culloch, Richard. 109 Douglus-street, Blythswood-square,
Glasgow. :
Tr
LIST OF MEMBERS. 65
Year of
Election.
1884, {Macponaxp, The Right Hon. Sir Jonny ALexanper, GOB, BOL
1886.
1884.
1884.
1878.
1884.
1883.
1878.
1884.
1884.
1881.
1871.
1885.
1879.
1884.
1854,
1867.
1855.
1888.
1884.
1884,
1873.
1885.
1884,
1886.
1885.
1876.
1867.
1884.
1883.
1884,
1885.
1873.
1883.
1880.
1884,
1884.
1883.
1865.
1872.
1867.
1884.
1887.
1867.
LL.D. Ottawa, Canada. i
{McDonald, John Allen. Hillsboro’ House, Derby.
tMacDonald, Kenneth. Town Hall, Inverness.
*McDonald, W. C. 891 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada,
tMcDonnell, Alexander. St. John’s, Island Bridge, Dublin.
{MacDonnell, Mrs. F. H. 1433 St. Catherine-street, Montreal, Canada.
MacDonnell, Hercules H. G. 2 Kildare-place, Dublin.
oa Rey. Canon J. C., D.D. Misterton Rectory, Lutter-
worth.
tMcDonnell, James. 82 Upper Fitzwiliiam-street, Dublin,
tMacdougall, Alan. Toronto, Canada.
tMcDougall, John. 35 St. Francois Xavier-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Macfarlane, Alexander, D.Sc., F'.R.S.E., Professor of Physics in the
University of Texas. Austin, Texas, U.S.A. ‘
{M‘Farlane, Donald. The College Laboratory, Glasgow.
{Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 15 Scotland-street, Edinburgh.
{Macfarlane, Walter, jun. 12 Lynedoch-crescent, Glasgow.
tMacfie, K. N., B.A., B.C.L. Winnipeg, Canada.
*Mactie, Robert Andrew. Dreghorn, Colinton, Edinburgh,
*M‘Gavin, Robert. Ballumbie, Dundee.
{MacGeorge, Andrew, jun. 21 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.
§MacGeorge, James. 67 Marloes-road, Kensington, London, W.
tMacGillivray, James, 42 Cathcart-street, Montreal, Canada.
tMacGoun, Archibald, jun., B.A., B.C.L. 19 Place d’Armes, Mont-
real, Canada.
f{McGowen, William Thomas. Oak-avenue, Oak Mount, Bradford,
Yorkshire.
{Macgregor, Alexander, M.D. 256 Union-street, Aberdeen.
*MacGrecor, JamEs Gorpon, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Physics in Dalhousie College, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.
tMcGregor, William. Kohima Lodge, Bedford.
{tM‘Gregor-Robertson, J.. M.A., M.B. 400 Great Western-road,
Glasgow.
{M‘Grigor, Alexander B., LL.D. 19 Woodside-terrace, Glasrow.
*M‘Intosu, W. C., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.L.S., Professor
of Natural History in the University of St. Andrews. 2 Abbots-
ford-crescent, St. Andrews, N.B.
McIntyre, John, M.D. Odiham, Hants.
Mack, Isaac A. Trinity-road, Bootle.
tMackay, Alexander Howard, B.A., B.Sc. The Acaderay, Pictoii,
Nova Scotia, Canada.
§Macxay, Joun Yutn, M.D. The University, Glasgow.
{McKznpricx, Jonny G., M.D., F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of Phy-
siology in the University of Glasgow. The University,
Glasgow.
{McKendrick, Mrs. The University, Glasgow.
*Mackenzie, Colin. Junior Athenzeum Club, Piccadilly, London, W.
tMcKenzie, Stephen, M.D. 26 Finsbury-cireus, London, E.C.
McKenzie, Thomas, B.A. School of Science, Toronto, Canada.
{Mackeson, Henry. Hythe, Kent.
tMackeson, Henry B., F.G.S. Hythe, Kent.
*Mackey, J. A. 1 Westbourne-terrace, Hyde Park, London, W.
tMacxnre, Samurt JosrrpH. 17 Howley-place, London, W.
{McKilligan, John B. 387 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada.
§Mackinder, H. J., M.A., F.R.G.S. Christ Church, Oxford.
*Mackinlay, David. 6 Great Western-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
66 -
Year of
Election
1889.
1884,
1850.
1867.
1872.
t++++++t++ *
LIST OF MEMBERS.
§McKinley, Rev. D. 33 Milton-street, West Hartlepool.
*Mackintosh, James B. Consolidated Gas Company, 21st-street, and
Avenue A, New York City, U.S.A.
tMacknight, Alexander. 20 Albany-street, Edinburgh.
{Mackson, H. G. 25 Cliffroad, Woodhouse, Leeds.
*McLacuzan, Ropert, F.R.S., F.L.S. West View, Clarendon-road,
Lewisham, S.E.
. {McLandsborough, John, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Manning-
ham, Bradford, Yorkshire.
. *M‘Laren, The Right Hon. Lord, F.R.S.E. 46 Moray-place, Edin-
burgh.
. {Maclaren, Archibald. Summertown, Oxfordshire.
. {MacLaren, Walter 8S. B. Newington Ilouse, Edinburgh.
. {Maclean, Inspector-General,C.B. 1 Rockstone-terrace, Southampton.
. {McLennan, Frank. 317 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.
. (McLennan, Hugh. 317 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.
. ¢{McLennan, John. Lancaster, Ontario, Canada.
, {Macleod, Henry Dunning. 17 Gloucester-terrace, Campden Hill-road,
London, W.
. §M‘Leop, Hersert, F.R.S., F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry in the
Royal Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper's Hill, Staines.
. tMacliver, D. 1 Broad-street, Bristol.
. tMacliver, P.S. 1 Broad-street, Bristol.
. *Maclure, John William, M.P., F.R.G.S., F.S.S8. Whalley Range,
Manchester.
. *McMahon, Major-General C.A. 20 Nevern-square, South Kensing-
ton, London, S.W.
. {MacMahon, Captain P. A., R.A., F.R.S., Instructor in Mathematics
at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich.
M‘Master, George, M.A., J.P. Donnybrook, Iveland.
Macmillan, Alexander. Streatham-lane, Upper Tooting, Surrey, S.W.
McMillan, Rokert. 20 Aubrey-street, Liverpool.
MacMordie, Hans, M.A. 8 Donegall-street, Belfast.
M‘Neill, John. Balhousie House, Perth.
MeNicoll, Dr. E. D. 15 Manchester-road, Southport.
. {Macnie, George. 59 Bolton-street, Dublin.
. {Maconochie, Archibald White. Care of Messrs. Maconochie Bros.,
Lowestoft.
. {Macpherson, J. 44 Frederick-street, Edinburgh.
. {Macpherson, Lieut.-Colonel J. C., R.E. Ordnance Survey Office,
Southampton.
. §McRae, Charles, M.A. Science and Art Department, South Ken-
sington, London, S.W.
*Macrory, Epmunp, M.A. 2 Ilchester-gardens, Prince’s-square,
London, W.
McWhirter, William, 170 Kent-road, Glasgow.
Macy, Jesse. Grinnell, Iowa, U.S.A.
"
-f
. {Madden, W.H. Marlborough College, Wilts.
}
Maggs, Thomas Charles, F.GS. Culver Lodge, Acton Vale, Middle-
sex, W.
Magnay, F. A. Drayton, near Norwich.
. *Magnus, Sir Philip, B.Sc. 45 Gloucester-place, Portman-square,
London, W.
. {Mahony, W. A. 34 College-green, Dublin.
. [Main, Robert. The Admiralty, Whitehall, London, S.W.
. {Mainprice, W. 8. Longeroft, Altrincham, Cheshire.
. *Maitland, Sir James R. G., Bart. Stirling, N.B.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 67
Year of
Election.
1883, §Maitland, P.C. 136 Great Portland-street, London, W.
*Malcolm, Frederick. Morden College, Blackheath, London, 8.E.
1881. {Malcolm, Lieut.-Colonel, R.E. 72 Nunthorpe-road, York.
1874. {Malcolmson, A. B. Friends’ Institute, Belfast.
1889, {Maling, C. T. 14 Ellison-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
1857. {Mallet, John William, Ph.D., M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Virginia, Albemarle Co., U.S.A.
1887. {Mancuesrer, The Right Rey. the Lord Bishop of, D.D. Bishop's
Court, Manchester.
1870, {Manifold, W. H.,M.D. 45 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
1885. {Mann, George. 72 Bon Accord-street, Aberdeen.
1888. {Mann, W. J. Rodney House, Trowbridge.
Manning, His Eminence Cardinal. Archbishop’s House, West-
minster, S. W.
1878. §Manning, Robert. 4 Upper Ely-place, Dublin.
1864. {Mansel-Pleydell, J.C. Whatcombe, Blandford.
1888. {Mansergh, James, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Westminster-chambers, Lon-
don, 8.W
1889. {Manville, E. 8 Prince’s-mansions, Victoria-street, London, S.W.
1887. *March, Henry Colley, M.D. 2 West-street, Rochdale.
1870. {Marcoartu, His Excellency Don Arturo de. Madrid.
1887. {Margetson, J. Charles. The Rocks, Limpley, Stoke.
++ ++
1883. {Marginson, James Fleetwood. ‘The Mount, Fleetwood, Lancashire.
1887. §Markham, Christopher A., F.R.Met.Soc. Sedgebrook, North-
ampton.
1864. Seis iar, Crements R., C.B., F.R.S., F.LS., F.B.G.S., F.S.A,
21 Eccleston-square, London, 8. W.
1863. tMarley, John. Mining Office, Darlington.
1888. {Marling, W. J. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
1888. {Marling, Lady. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
1881. *Marr, John Edward, M.A., F.G.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1888. §Marriott, A.S. Manor Lawn, Dewsbury.
1857. {Marriott, William, F.0.S. 8 Belgrave-terrace, Huddersfield.
1887. {Marsden, Benjamin. Westleigh, Heaton Mersey, Manchester.
1887. {Marsden, Joseph. Ardenlea, Heaton, near Bolton.
1884. *Marsden, Samuel. St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A.
1883. *Marsh, Henry. Cressy House, Woodsley-road, Leeds.
1887. §Marsh, J. E., B.A. The Museum, Oxford.
1864, {Marsh, Thomas Edward Miller. 37 Grosvenor-place, Bath.
i889, *Marswatt, ALFRED, M.A., Professor of Political Economy in the
University of Cambridge. Balliol Croft, Madingley-road,
Cambridge.
1882. *Marswatt, A. Mrines, M.A., M.D., D.Se., F.R.S., Professor of
Zoology in Owens College, Manchester.
1889. {Marshall, Frank, B.A. 31 Grosvenor-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, _
1881. *Marshall, John, F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Church Institute, Leeds.
1890. §Marshall, John. Derwent Island, Keswick.
1881. {Marshall, John Ingham Fearby. 28 St. Saviourgate, York.
1876. {Marshall, Peter. 6 Parkgrove-terrace, Glasgow.
1858. {Marshall, Reginald Dykes. Adel, near Leeds.
1889. *Marshall, Miss Sophie Elise, B.Sc. 38 Percy-gardens, Tynemouth.
1887. §Marshall, William. Thorncliffe, Dukinfield.
1886. *Marshall, William Bayley, M.Inst.C.E. Richmond Hill, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
1849, *Marswatt, Witriam P., M.Inst.C.E. Richmond Hill, Edgbaston,
Birmingham,
1865, §Marren, Epwarp Brypon. Pedmore, near Stourbridge,
E2
68
Year of
Election
1885.
1887.
1891.
1848.
1878.
1883.
1884.
1889.
1890.
1865.
1865.
1886.
1883.
1878.
1847.
1886.
1879.
1876.
1885.
1888.
1887.
1890.
1865.
1889.
1861.
1881.
1883.
1865.
1858.
1885.
1885.
18653.
1890.
1865.
1876.
1864,
1887.
1883.
1883.
1884,
LIST OF MEMBERS.
{Marten, Henry John. 4 Storey’s-gate, London, S.W.
*Martin, Rev. H. A. Laxton Vicarage, Newark. y
*Martin, Edward P., J.P. Dowlais, Glamorgan.
{Martin, Henry D. 4 Imperial-circus, Cheltenham.
tMarrin, H. Newerc, M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of
Biology in Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, U.S.A.
*Marrin, Joon Bropureg, M.A., F.S.S. 17 Hyde Park-gate, London,
S.W.
§Martin, N. H., F.L.S. 85 Osborne-road, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
*Martin, Thomas Henry, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Lyon House, New
Barnet, Herts.
§Martindale, William. 19 Devonshire-street, Portland-place, Lon-
don, W.
*Martineau, Rey. James, LL.D., D.D. 85 Gordon-square, London,
W.C.
{Martineau, R. F. 18 Highfield-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Martineau, Thomas. 7 Cannon-street, Birmingham.
{Marrrnuat, Sir Toomas, J.P. West Hill, Augustus-road, Edg-
baston, Birmingham.
{Marwick, James, LL.D. Killermont, Maryhill, Glasgow.
tMasaki, Taiso. Japanese Consulate, 84 Bishopsgate-street Within,
London, E.C.
{Masxetyne, Navin Story, M.A., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of
Mineralogy in the University of Oxford. Salthrop, Wroughton,
Wiltshize.
{Mason, Hon. J. E. Fiji.
{Mason, James, M.D. Montgomery House, Sheffield.
{Mason, Robert. 6 Albion-crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
Massey, Lord Hugh. Hermitage, Castleconnel, Co. Limerick.
{Masson, Orme, D.Sc. 58 Great King-street, Edinburgh.
{Mather, Robert V. Birkdale Lodge, Birkdale, Southport.
*Mather, William, M.P., M.Inst.C.E. Salford Iron Works, Man-
chester.
§Mathers, J.S. 1 Hanover-square, Leeds.
*Mathews, G.S. 32 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
§Mathews, John Hitchcock. 1 Queen’s-gardens, Hyde Park, London,
W
*Marnews, WrtirAm, M.A., F.G.S. 60 Harborne-road, Birmingham.
{Mathwin, Henry, B.A. Bickerton House, Southport.
tMathwin, Mrs. 40 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
{Matthews, C. E. Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
{Matthews, F.C. Mandre Works, Driffield, Yorkshire.
{Marruews, James. Springhill, Aberdeen.
{Matthews, J. Duncan. Springhill, Aberdeen.
tMaughan, Rey. W. Benwell Parsonage, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
§Maund, E. A. 294 Regent-street, London, W.
*Maw, Grore®, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. Kenley, Surrey.
{Maxton, John. 6 Belgrave-terrace, Glasgow.
*Maxwell, Francis. 4 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
tMaxwell, James. 29 Princess-street, Manchester.
*Maxwell, Robert Perceval. Finnebrogue, Downpatrick.
§May, William, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Northfield, St. Mary Cray, .
Kent.
tMayall, George. Clairville, Birkdale, Southport.
*Maybury, A. C., D.Sc. 19 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C,
1878. *Mayne, Thomas, M.P. 353 Castle-street, Dublin.
I
LIST OF MEMBERS. 69
Year of
Election.
1890. §Mays-Robson, A. W., F.R.C.S. Hilary-place, Leeds.
1863. {Mease, George D. Lydney, Gloucestershire.
1878. {Meath, The Right Rey. C. P. Reichel, D.D., Bishop of. Dundrum
Castle, Dublin.
1884. {Mecham, Arthur. 11 Newton-terrace, Glasgow.
1871. {Meikie, James, F.S.S. 6 St. Andrew’s-square, Edinburgh.
1879.
1887.
1881.
1867.
1883.
1879.
1866.
1885.
1881.
1887.
1847.
1863.
1877.
1862.
§Meiklejohn, John W.8., M.D. 105 Holland-road, London, W.
§Meischke-Smith, W. Rivala Lumpore, Salengore, Straits Settle-
ments.
*MeELpora, Rapwatt, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S., F.LC., Professor of
Chemistry in the Finsbury Technical College, City and Guilds
of London Institute. 6 Brunswick-square, London, W.C.
{Mxrtprvum, Cuartzs, C.M.G., LLD., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Port Louis,
Mauritius.
tMellis, Rey. James. 23 Park-street, Southport.
*Mellish, Henry. Hodsock Priory, Worksop.
t{Metto, Rev. J. M., M.A., F.G.S. Mapperley Vicarage, Derby.
§Mello, Mrs. J. M. Mapperley Vicarage, Derby.
§Melrose, James. Clifton, York.
tMelvill, J. Cosmo, M.A. Kersal Cottage, Prestwich, Manchester.
{Melville, Professor Alexander Gordon, M.D. Queen’s College, Gal-
way.
tMelvin, Alexander. 42 Buccleuch-place, Edinburgh.
*Menabrea, General Count, LL.D. 14 Rue de 1’Elysée, Paris.
§MENNELL, Henry T. St. Dunstan’s-buildings, Great Tower-street,
London, E.C.
§Merrivate, Joun Herman, M.A., Professor of Mining in the College
of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Merivale, Walter. Indian Midland Railway, Sangor.
{Merrifield, John, Ph.D., F.R.A.S. Gascoigne-place, Plymouth.
{Merry, Alfred 8. Bryn Heulog, Sketty, near Swansea.
*Merz, John Theodore. The Quarries, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tMessent, P. T. 4 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth.
{Mraxt, Lovts C., F.L.S., F.G:S., Professor of Biology in Yorkshire
College, Leeds.
t{Middlemore, Thomas. Holloway Head, Birmingham.
{Middlemore, William. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Middlesbrough, The Right Rev. Richard Lacy, D.D., Bishop of,
Middlesbrough.
tMiddleton, Henry. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
Middleton, R. Morton, F.L.S., F.Z.S. South Pittsburg, Tennessee.
Middleton, Robert T. 197 West George-street, Glasgow.
Miles, Charles Albert. Buenos Ayres.
Mites, Morris. Warbourne, Hill-lane, Southampton. pind:
§Mill, Hugh Robert, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Braid-road, Morningside,
Edinburgh.
t{Millar, John, J.P. Lisburn, Ireland.
*Millar, Robert Cockburn. 56 George-street, Edinburgh.
Millar, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E, Perth.
{Millar, William. Highfield House, Dennistoun, Glasgow.
{Millar, W. J. 145 Hill-street, Garnethill, Glasgow.
t
*
. §Milburn, John D. Queen-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
it
§
. {Miller, A. J. 12 Cumberland-place, Southampton.
. {Miller, George. Brentry, near Bristol.
{Miller, Mrs. Hugh. 51 Lauriston-place, Edinburgh.
{Miller, J. Bruce. Rubislaw Den North, Aberdeen.
{Miller, John. 9 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.
70
Year of
Election
1886,
1861.
1876,
1884.
1876.
1868.
1880.
1885.
1882.
1885.
1885.
1887.
1882.
1888.
1880.
1855.
1859.
1876.
1883,
1883.
1865,
1875.
1885.
1870.
1868.
1885.
1862,
1879.
1884.
1885.
1864.
1885.
1883.
1878.
1877.
1884,
1887,
1853.
1882.
1872.
1872.
1884,
1881.
1890,
LIST OF MEMBERS.
§Miller, Rey. John. The College, Weymouth.
*Miller, Robert. Cranage Hall, Holmes Chapel, Cheshire.
*Miller, Robert. 1 Lily Bank-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
}Miller, T. F., B.Ap.Sc. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.
{Miller, Thomas Paterson. Cairns, Cambuslang, N.B.
*Mitis, Epmunp J., D.Sc., F-R.S., F.C.S., Young Professor of
Technical Chemistry in the Glasgow and West of Scotland
Technical College, Glasgow. 60 John-street, Glasgow.
{Mills, Mansfeldt H. Old Hall, Mansfield Woodhouse, Mansfield.
{Milne, Alexander D. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
*Mitye, Jonny, F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Mining and Geology in
the Imperial College of Engineering, Tokio, Japan. Ingleside,
Birdhirst Rise, South Croydon, Surrey.
tMilne, J.D. 14 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.
{Milne, William. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
{Milne-Redhead, R., F.L.S. Holden Clough, Clitheroe.
tMilnes, Alfred, M.A., F.S.S. 380 Almeric-road, London, 8S. W.
{Milsom, Charles. 69 Pulteney-street, Bath.
{Minchin, G. M., M.A. Royal Indian Engineering College, Cooper’s
Hill, Surrey.
{Mirrlees, James Buchanan, 45 Scotland-street, Glasgow.
{Mitchell, Alexander, M.D. Old Rain, Aberdeen.
tMitchell, Andrew. 20 Woodside-place, Glasgow.
{Mitchell, Charles T., M.A. 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington,
London, W.
fMitchell, Mrs. Charles T, 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington,
London, W.
{Mitchell, C. Walker. Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Mitehell, Henry. Parktield House, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Mitchell, Rey. J. Mitford, B.A. 6 Queen’s-terrace, Aberdeen,
tMitchell, John, J.P. York House, Clitheroe, Lancashire.
tMitchell, John, jun. Pole Park House, Dundee.
tMitchell, P. Chalmers. Christ Church, Oxford.
*Mitchell, W. Stephen, M.A., LL.B. Kenyon Mansions, Lough-
borough Park, London, S.W.
}Mrvarz, St. GEoreE, Ph.D., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S. THurst-
cote, Chilworth, Surrey.
{Moat, Robert. Spring Grove, Bewdley.
§Moffat, William. 7 Queen’s-gardens, Aberdeen.
tMogg, John Rees. High Littleton House, near Bristol.
tMoir, James. 25 Carden-place, Aberdeen.
{Mollison, W.L., M.A. Clare College, Cambridge.
tMolloy, Constantine, Q.C. 65 Lower Leeson-street, Dublin.
*
{
Molloy, Rey. Gerald, D.D. 86 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
Monaghan, Patrick. Halifax (Box 317), Nova Scotia, Canada.
*Mond, Ludwig, F.C.S. 20 Avenue-road, Regent’s Park, London,
N.W.
tMonroe, Henry, M.D. 10 North-street, Sculeoates, Hull.
*Montagu, Samuel, M.P. 12 Kensington Palace-gardens, London, W.
t{Montgomery, R. Mortimer. 3 Porchester-place, Edgware-road,
London, W.
tMoon, W., LL.D. 104 Queen’s-road, Brighton.
tMoore, George Frederick. 25 Marlborough-road, Tue Brook,
Liverpool.
§Moore, Henry. Collingham, Maresfield-gardens, Fitzjohn’s-ayenue,
London, N.W.
§Moore, Major. School of Military Engineering, Chatham.
LIST OF MEMBERS. el
Year of
Election.
*Moors, Jonn Carricx, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. 113 Eaton-square,
London, 8. W. ; and Corswall, Wictonshire.
. {Moorn, Tuomas Joun, Cor. M.Z.8. Free Public Museum, Liver~
pool.
*Moore, Rey. William Prior. The Royal School, Cavan, Ireland.
77. {Moore, William Vanderkemp. 15 Princess-square, Plymeuth.
{Morg, ALEXANDER G., F.L.8., M.R.I.A. 74 Leinster-road, Dublin.
tMorean, Atrrep. 50 West Bay-street, Jacksonville, Florida,
U.S.A.
. {Morgan, Edward Delmar, F..G.S. 15 Roland-gardens, Londen,
5.W.
{Morgan, John. 57 Thomson-street, Aberdeen.
{Morgan, John Gray. 38 Lloyd-street, Manchester.
§Morgan, Thomas. Cross House, Southampton.
{Morean, Witrram, Ph.D., F.C.S. Swansea.
§Morison, J. Rutherford, M.D. 14 Saville-row, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
Morison, William R. Dundee.
*Morley, Henry Forster, M.A., D.Sc., F.0.S. 29 Kylemore-road,
West Hampstead, London, N.W.
{Mortry, The Right Hon. Jonny, LL.D., M.P. 95 Elm Park-
gardens, London, 8. W.
{Morrell, W. W. York City and County Bank, York.
{Morris, Alfred Arthur Vennor. Wernolau, Cross Inn R.S.0., Car-
marthenshire.
tMorris, ©. S. Millbrook Iron Works, Landore, South Wales.
*Morris, Rev. Francis Orpen, B.A. Nunburnholme Rectory, Hayton,
York.
tMorris, George Lockwood. Millbrook Iron Works, Swansea.
§Morris, James. 6 Windsov-street, Uplands, Swansea.
tMorris, John. 40 Wellesley-road, Liverpool.
tMorris, J. W., F.L.S. The Woodlands, Bathwick Hill, Bath.
tMorris, M. I. E. The Lodge, Penclawdd, near Swansea.
Morris, Samuel, M.R.D.S. YT ortview, Clontarf, near Dublin.
tMorris, Rev. 8S. S.0., M.A., R.N., F.C.S. H.M.S. ‘Garnet,’
S. Coast of America.
tMorrison, G. J., M.Inst.C.E. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster,
S.W.
§ Morrison, Sir George W. Municipal Buildings, Leeds.
. *Morrison, James Darsie. 27 Grange-road, Edinburgh.
. {Morrison, John T. Scottish Marine Station, Granton, N.B.
{Mortimer, J. R. St. John’s-villas, Driffield.
{Mortimer, William. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
. §Morton, GroreE H., F.G.S. 209 Edge-lane, Liverpool.
*Morron, Henry JosrpH. 2 Westbourne-villas, Scarborough.
{Morton, Hugh. Belvedere House, Trinity, Edinburgh.
§Morton, Percy, M.A. Illtyd House, Brecon, South Wales.
*Morton, P. F. 22 Granard-road, Wandsworth Common, Surrey, 8. W.
t{Moserey, H. N., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. Firwood, Clevedon,
Somerset.
tMoseiey, Mrs. Stretton Court, Parkstone, Dorset.
Mosley, Sir Oswald, Bart., D.C.L. Rolleston Hall, Burton-upon-
‘frent, Staffordshire. Soke
*Moss, Joun Francis, F.R.G.S. Beechwood, Brincliffe, Sheffield.
§Moss, Ricuarp Jackson, F'.0.S., MR.LA. St. Aubin’s, Bally-
brack, Co, Dublin.
*Mosse, J. R. Conservative Club, London, 8. W.
72 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1873. {Mossman, William. Ovenden, Halifax.
1869. §Morr, Arbert J., F.G.S. Detmore, Charlton Kings, Cheltenham.
1865. { Mott, Charles Grey. The Park, Birkenhead.
1866. §Morr, Freprrick T., F.R.G.S. Birstall Hill, Leicester.
1862. *Movar, Freperick Joun, M.D., Local Government Inspector. 12
Durham-villas, Campden Hill, London, W.
1856. {Mould, Rey. J.G.,B.D. Fulmodeston Rectory, Dereham, Norfolk.
1878. *Moulton, J. Fletcher, M.A., Q.C., F.R.S. 57 Onslow-square, Lon-
don, 8. W.
1863. tMounsey, Edward. Sunderland.
1861. *Mountcastle, William Robert. Bridge Farm, Ellenbrook, near —
Manchester.
1877. {Mount-Epecumsr, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.C.L. Mouut-
Edgcumbe, Devonport.
Mowbray, James. Combus, Clackmannan, Scotland,
1850. {Mowbray, John T. 15 Albany-street, Edinburgh.
1887. {Moxon, Thomas B. County Bank, Manchester.
1888. {Moyle, R. E., B.A., F.C.S. The College, Bath.
1886. *Moyles, Mrs. Thomas. The Beeches, Ladywood-road, Edgbaston, _
Birmingham. 2
1884. {Moyse, C. E., B.A., Professor of English Language and Literature
in McGill College, Montreal. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal,
Canada.
1884. {Moyse, Charles E. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
1876. *Muir, John. 6 Park-gardens, Glasgow.
1874. {Murr, M. M. Parison, M.A., E.R. S.E. Caius College, Cambridge.
1876. {Muir, Thomas, M.A. aL. D. FE. R.S.E. Beechcroft, Bothwell, Glasgow.
1884. *Muir, William Ker. Detroit, Michigan, U.S.A.
1872. {Muirhead, Alexander, D.Sc., F.C.S. Cowley-street, Westminster,
S.W.
1876. *Muishend, Robert Franklin, M.A., B.Sc. Lochwinnoch, Renfrew-
shire.
1884. *Muirhead-Paterson, Miss Mary. Laurieville, Queen’s Drive, Cross-
hill, Glasgow.
1883. §MutHatt, MicnarL G. Fancourt, Balbrigean, Co. Dublin.
1883. {Mulhall, Mrs. Marion. Fancourt, Balbrigzan, Co. Dublin.
1884. *Mtrier, Hveo, Ph.D., F.RS., F.C.S. 15 Park-square East,
Regent’s Park, London BIN, W.
1880. {Muiler, Hugo M. 1] Griinanger-gasse, Vienna.
Munby, Arthur Joseph. 6 Fig-tree-court, Temple, London, E.C.
1866. {Munperua, The Right Hon. A. J., M.P., F.RS., F.RGS. 16
Kivaston-place, London, S.W.
1876. {Munro, Donald, F.C.S. The University, Glasgow.
1885. {Munro, J. E. Crawford, LL.D., Professor of Political Economy in
Owens College, Manchester.
1883. *Munro, Robert, M.A., M.D. 48 Manor-place, Edinburgh.
1872. *Munster, H. Sillwood Lodge, Brighton.
1864. {Murcu, Jerom. Cranwells, Bath.
1859. *Murchison, J. H. 25-35 New Broad-street, London, E.C.
1864. *Murchison, K. R. Brockhurst, East Grinstead.
1855. {Murdoch, James B. Hamilton-place, Langside, Glasgow.
1890. §Murphy, A. J. Preston House, Leeds.
1889. {Murphy, James, M.A., M.D. Holly House, Sunderland.
1852. {Murphy, Joseph Johr. Old Forge, Dunnurry, Co, Antrir.
1884, §Murphy, Patrick. Newry, Ireland,
1887. {Murray, A. Hazeldean, Kersal, Manchester.
. t{Murray, Adam. 78 Manor Road, Brockley, S.E.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
“I
Go
Election.
1859.
1884.
1884.
1872.
1865.
1883,
1874.
. 1870.
1890.
1886.
1890.
1876.
1872.
1887.
1886.
1887.
1885.
1887.
1887.
1855.
1876.
1888.
1886.
1868.
1866.
1889.
1857.
1869,
1842.
1889.
1886.
1842.
1889.
Murray, John, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 50 Albemarle-street, London, W. ;
and Newsted, Wimbledon, Surrey.
{Murray, John, M. D. Forres, Scotland.
oo . Joun, F.R.S.E. ‘Challenger’ Expedition Office, Edin-
urge’
{Murray, J. Clark, LL.D., Professor of Logic and Mental and Moral
Philosophy in McGill Univ ersity, } Montreal. 111 McKay-street,
Montreal, Canada.
{Murray, J. Jardine, F.R.C.S.E. 99 Montpellier-road, Brighton.
{Murray, William, M.D. 34 Clayton-street, Newcastle- -on-Tyne.
tMurray, W. Vv aughan. 4 Westbourne-crescent, Hyde Park,
London, W.
§Muserave, James, J.P. Drumglass House, Belfast.
*Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool.
*Myres, John L. Swanbourne, Winslow, Buckinghamshire.
§Nagel, D. H., M.A. Trinity College, Oxford.
§Nalder, Francis Henry. 16 Red Lion-street, Clerkenwell, London,
E.C
{Napier, James 8. 9 Woodside-place, Glascow. .
{Nares, Admiral Sir G. S., K.C.B., R.N., F.BS., F.R.G.S. St.
Bernard’s, Maple-road, Surbiton.
tNason, Professor Henry B., Ph.D., F.C.S. Troy, New York,
U.S.A.
§Neale, K. Vansittart. 14 City-buildings, Corporation-street, Man-
chester.
§Neild, Charles, 19 Chapel Walks, Manchester.
*Neild, Theodore, B.A. Dalton Hall, Manchester.
{Neill, Joseph 8. Claremont, Broughton Park, Manchester.
{Neill, Robert, jun. Beech Mount, Higher Broughton, ] Manchester.
tNeilson, Walter. 172 West George-street, Glasgow.
tNelson, D. M. 11 Bothwell-street, Glascow.
{Nelson, The Right Rey. the Bishop of, D.D. Nelson, New Zealand.
{Nettlefold, Edward. 51 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tNevill, Rev. H. R. The Close, Norwich.
*Nevill, The Right Rev. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.S., Bishop of
Dunedin, New Zealand.
§Neville, F. H. Sidney College, Cambridge.
{Neville, John, M.R.ILA. Roden-place, Dundalk, Ireland.
{Nevins, John Birkbeck, M.D. 3 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
New, Herbert. Evesham, Worcestershire.
*Newall, H. Frank. Trumpington, Cambridge.
tNewbolt, F. G. Idenhurst, Addlestone, Surrey.
*Newman, Professor Francis Wittr1am. 15 Arundel-crescent,
‘Weston-super-Mare.
§Newstead, A. H. L. Roseacre, Epping.
. *Newron, ALFRED, M.A., F.R. S., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology and
Comparative ‘Anatomy i in the University of Cambridge. Mag-
dalene College, Cambridge.
. {Newton, A. W. Ta Westeliffe-road, Birkdale, Southport.
. t{Newton, Rev. J. 125 Eastern-road, Brighton.
. {Nias, Miss Isabel. 56 Montagu-square, London, W.
. tNias, J. B., B.A. 56 Montagu-square, London, W.
. {Nicholl, Thomas. Dundee.
. {Nicholls, J. F. City Library, Bristol.
. {NicHorson, Sir Cuartzs, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.GS.,
ERGs. The Grange, Totteridge, Herts.
74
Year of
~ LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1867.
1887.
1884.
1885.
1887.
1881.
1887.
1885.
1878.
1886.
1877.
1874.
1884.
1863.
1880.
1879.
1886.
1887.
1870.
1882.
1865.
1886.
1868.
1861.
1883.
1887.
1883.
1882.
1888.
1878.
1885.
{NicHotson, Henry Attprnz, M.D., D.Sc., F.G.S., Professor of
Natural History in the University of Aberdeen.
*Nicholson, John Carr. Ashfield, Headingley, Leeds.
§Nicholson, Joseph 8., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Political Economy in
the University of Edinburgh. Eden Lodge, Newbattle-terrace,
Edinburgh,
tNicholson, Richard, J.P. Whinfield, Hesketh Park, Southport.
§Nicholson, Robert H. Bourchier. 21 Albion-street, Hull.
{Nicholson, William R. Clifton, York. :
tNickson, William. Shelton, Sibson-road, Sale, Manchester.
§Nicol, W. W. J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Mason Science College,
Birmingham.
{Niven, Charles, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Natural
Philosophy in the University of Aberdeen. 6G Chanonry, Aber-
deen.
{Niven George. LErkinzholme, Coolhurst-road, London, N.
tNiven, James, M.A. King’s College, Aberdeen.
{Nixon, Randal C.J., M.A. Royal Academical Institution, Belfast.
{Nixon, T. Alcock. 383 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
*NosLe, Captain AnDREW, C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.8. Elswick
Works, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
t Noble, John. Rossenstein, Thornhill-road, Croydon, Surrey.
{Noble, T. S., F.G.S. Lendal, York.
§Nock, J. B. Mayfield, Chester-road, Sutton Coldfield.
tNodal, John H. The Grange, Heaton Moor, near Stockport.
tNolan, Joseph, M.R.I.A. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
§Norfolk, F. 16 Carlton-road, Southampton.
tNorman, Rev. Canon Atrrep Murte, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.LS.
Burnmoor Rectory, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.
. TNorman, George. 12 Brock-street, Bath.
Norreys, Sir Denham Jephson, Bart. Mallow Castle, Co. Cork.
. {Norris, Rrcuarp, M.D. 2 Walsall-road, Birchfield, Birmingham.
. {Norris, Thomas George. Gorphwysfa, Llanrwst, North Wales.
. *Norris, William G. Coalbrookdale, Shropshire.
. §North, Samuel William, M.R.C.S., F.G.S. 84 Micklegate, York.
. [North, Wilkam, B.A, F.C.S. 28 Regent's Park-road, London,
N.W.
*Norruwick, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A. 7 Park-street, Grosvenor-
square, London, W.
Norton, The Right Hon. Lord, K.C.M.G. 35 Eaton-place, London,
S.W.; and Hamshall, Birmingham.
fNorton, Lady. 385 Haton-place, London, 8.W.; and Hamshall,
Birmingham.
{Norwich, The Hon. and Right Rev. J.T. Pelham, D.D., Lord Bishop
of. Norwich.
{Noton, Thomas. Priory House, Oldham.
Nowell, John. Farnley Wood, near Huddersfield.
{Nunnerley, John. 46 Alexandra-road, Southport.
§Nursey, Perry Fairfax. 161 Fleet-street, London, E.C.
*Nutt, Miss Lilian. Rosendale Hall, West Dulwich, London, 8.E.
§Obach, Eugene, Ph.D. 2 Victoria-road, Old Charlton, Kent.
O'Callaghan, George. Tallas, Co. Clare.
tO'Connell, Major-General P, 2 College-road, Lansdowne, Bath.
tO’Conor Don, The. Clonalis, Castlerea, Ireland.
fOdgers, William Blake, M.A., LL.D. 4 Elm-court, Temple,
London, E.C.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 75
Election.
1858.
1884.
1857.
1877.
1885.
1876.
1885.
1859.
1884.
1881.
1887.
1853.
1885.
1863.
1887.
1885.
1883.
1889.
1882.
1880.
1887.
1872.
1883.
1867.
1883.
1883.
1880.
1861.
1858.
1883.
1884,
1884.
1838.
1875.
1887.
1865.
1869.
1884.
1884.
1882.
1881.
*Optine, WitrAm, M.B., F.R.S., .C.S., Waynflete Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Oxford. 15 Norham-gardens,
Oxford.
tOdlum, Edward, M.A. Pembroke, Ontario, Canada.
{O’Donnavan, William John. 54 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, Dublin.
{Ogden, Joseph. 13 Hythe-villas, Limes-road, Croydon.
fOgilvie, Alexander, LL.D. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen.
fOgilvie, Campbell P. Sizewell House, Leiston, Suffoll.
TOgilvie, F. Grant, M.A., B.Sc. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen.
TOgilvy, Rey. C. W. Norman. Baldovan House, Dundee.
*Ogle, William, M.D., M.A. The Elms, Derby.
{O’Halloran, J. S., F.R.G.S. Royal Colonial Institute, Northum-
berland-ayenue, London, W.C.
{Oldfield, Joseph. Lendal, York.
{Oldham, Charles. Syrian House, Sale, near Manchester.
tOrpHaM, James, M.Inst.C.E. Cottingham, near Hull.
fOldham, John. River Plate Telegraph Company, Monte Video.
fOliver, Daniel, F.R.S., F.L.S., Emeritus Professor of Botany in
University College, London. Royal Gardens, Kew, Surrey.
§Oliver, F. W., D.Sc. 10 Kew Gardens-road, Kew, Surrey.
{Oliver, J. A. Westwood. The Liberal Club, Glasgow.
§Oliver, Samuel A. Bellingham House, Wigan, Lancashire.
§Oliver, Professor T., M.D. Eldon-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
§Olsen, O. T., F.R.AS., F.R.G.S. 116 St. Andrew’s-terrace, Grimsby.
*Ommanney, Admiral Sir Erasmus, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.RAAS.,
F.R.G.S. 29 Connaught-square, Hyde Park, London, W.
*Ommamney, Rey. E. A. 123 Vassal-road, Brixton, London, 8.W.
§O’Neill, Charles. Glen Allan, Manley-road, Alexandra Park, Man-
chester.
qpaslow; D. Robert. New University Club, St. James’s, London,
3. W.
tOppert, Gustav, Professor of Sanskrit. Madras.
tOrchar, James G. 9 William-street, Forebank, Dundee.
tOrd, Miss Maria, Fern Lea, Park-crescent, Southport.
tOrd, Miss Sarah. Fern Lea, Park-crescent, Southport.
{O’Reilly, J. P., Professor of Mining and Mineralogy in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.
tOrmerod, Henry Mere. Clarence-street, Manchester; and 11 Wood-
land-terrace, Cheetham Hill, Manchester.
fOrmerod, T. T. Brighouse, near Halifax.
tOrpen, Miss. 58 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
*Orpen, Major R.T., R.E. Gibraltar.
*Orpen, Rey. T. H., M.A. Binnbrooke, Cambridge.
Orr, Alexander Smith. 57 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin.
tOshorn, George. 47 Kingscross-street, Halifax.
§O’Shea, L. J., B.Sc. Firth College, Sheffield.
*Ostpr, A. Foutert, F.R.S. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.
*Osler, Henry F. Coppy Hill, Linthurst, near Bromsgrove,
Birmingham.
*Osler, Sidney F. Chesham Lodge, Lower Norwood, Surrey, S.E.
tOsler, William, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine in
McGill University, Montreal, Canada.
{O’Sullivan, James, F.C.S. 71 Spring Terrace-road, Burton-on-
Trent.
*Oswald, T. R. Castle Hall, Milford Haven.
*Ottewell, Alfred D. 83 Siddals-road, Derby.
76
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1882.
1889
1888.
1877.
1889.
1883.
1883.
1872.
1884.
1875.
1870.
1883.
1889.
1873.
1878.
1887.
1866,
Owen, Rev. C. M., M.A. St. George’s, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Owen, Alderman H.C. Compton, Wolverhampton.
Owen, Sir Rrcwarp, K.C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.LS.,
F.G.8., Hon. F.R.S.E. Sheen Lodge, Mortlake, Surrey, S.W.
*Owen, Thomas. 8 Alfred-street, Bath.
fOxland, Dr. Robert, F.C.S. 8 Portland-square, Plymouth.
tPage, Dr. F. 1 Saville-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tPage, George W. Fakenham, Norfolk.
{Page, Joseph Edward. 12 Saunders-street, Southport.
*Paget, Joseph. Stuffynwood Hall, Mansfield, Nottingham.
tPaine, Cyrus F. Rochester, New York, U.S.A.
tPaine, William Henry, M.D., F.G.S. Stroud, Gloucestershire.
*PaLeRAVE, R. H. Ineuis, F.R.S., F.S.S. Belton, Great Yar-
mouth.
{Palgrave, Mrs. R. H. Inglis. Belton, Great Yarmouth.
}Patmer, Sir Cuartes Marx, Bart.,M.P. Grinkle Park, Yorkshire.
{Palmer, George, M.P. The Acacias, Reading, Berks.
*Palmer, Joseph Edward. Lyons Mills, Straffan Station, Dublin.
*Palmer, Miss Mary Kate. Kilburn House, Sherwood, Notts.
§Palmer, William. Kilbourne House, Cavendish Hill, Sherwood,
Nottinghamshire.
. *Palmer, W. R. 1 The Cloisters, Temple, E.C.
Palmes, Rey. William Lindsay, M.A. Naburn Hall, York.
. §Pankhurst, R. M., LL.D. 8 Russell-square, London, W.C.
. §Pant, F. J. van der. Clifton Lodge, Kingston-on-Thames.
. {Panton, George A., F.R.S.E. 73 Westfield-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
. §Panton, Professor J. Hoyes, M.A., F.G.S. Ontario Agricultural
College, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
. {Park, Henry. Wigan.
. {Park, Mrs. Wigan.
. *Parke, George Henry, F.L.S., F.G.8. College-grove, Wakefield,
Yorkshire.
. {Parker, Henry. Low Elswick, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
. {Parker, Rey. Henry. Idlerton Rectory, Low Elswick, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.
. }Parker, Henry R., LL.D. Methodist College, Belfast.
Parker, Richard. Dunscombe, Cork.
. {Parker, Lawley. Chad Lodge, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. {Parker, William. Thornton-le-Moor, Lincolnshire.
. *Parkes, Samuel Hickling, F.L.S. 6 St. Mary’s-row, Birmingham.
. ¢Parkes, William. 23 Abingdon-street, Westminster, S.W.
. §Parkin, William, F.S.S. The Mount, Sheffield.
. §Parkinson, James. Station-road, Turton, Bolton.
. {Parkinson, Robert, Ph.D. Yewbarrow House, Grange-over-Sands.
Parnell, Edward A., F.C.S. Ashley Villa, Swansea.
. *Parnell, John, M.A. 1 The Common, Upper Clapton, London, E.
. {Parson, T. Cooke, M.R.C.S. Atherston House, Clifton, Bristol.
. {Parson, T. Edecumbe. 36 Torrington-place, Plymouth.
. *Parsons, Charles Thomas. Norfolk-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.
. {Parsons, Hon. C. A. Elvaston Hall, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
. {Parsons, Hon. and Rev. R. C. 10 Connaught-place, London, W.
. }Part, Isabella. Rudleth, Watford, Herts.
. {Pass, Alfred C. Rushmere House, Durdham Down, Bristol.
- §Patchitt, Edward Cheshire. 128 Derby-road, Nottingham.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 77
Year of
Election.
1884. *Paton, David. Johnstone, Scotland.
1883. *Paton, Henry, M.A. 15 Myrtle-terrace, Edinburgh.
1884. *Paton, Hugh. 992 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada,
1883. {Paton, Rey. William. The Ferns, Parkside, Nottingham.
1887. {Paterson, A. M., M.D. Owens College, Manchester.
1871. *Patterson, A. Henry. 8 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
1884, {Patterson, Edward Mortimer. Fredericton, New Brunswick. Canada.
1876. §Patterson,T. L. Belmont, Marearet-street, Greenock.
1874. {Patterson, W. H., M.R.ILA. 26 High-street, Belfast.
1889. {Pattinson, H. L.,jun. Felling Chemical Works, Felling-upon-Tyne.
1863. {Parrinson, Jonny, F.C.S. 75 The Side, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1863. {Pattinson, William. Felling, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1867. §Pattison, Samuel Rowles, F.G.S. 11 Queen Victoria-street, London,
E.C
1864. {Pattison, Dr. T. H. London-street, Edinburgh.
1879. *Patzer, F. R. Stoke-on-Trent.
1868. {Pauvt, Bensamin H., Ph.D. 1 Victoria-street, Westminster, 8S. W.
1883. {Paul, G., F.GS. Filey, Yorkshire.
1863. {Pavy, Freperick Wuttram, M.D., F.R.S. 35 Grosvenor-street,
London, W.
1887. {Paxman, James. Hill House, Colchester.
1887. *Payne, Miss Edith Annie. Hatchlands, Cuckfield, Hayward’s Heath.
1881. {Payne, J. Buxton. 15 Mosley-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1877. *Payne, J. C. Charles. Botanic-avenue, The Plains, Belfast.
1881. {Payne, Mrs. Botanic-avenue, The Plains, Belfast.
1866, {Payne, Dr. Joseph F. 78 Wimpole-street, London, W.
1888. *Paynter, J.B. Hendford Manor House, Yeovil.
1886. {Payton, Henry. Eversleigh, Somerset-road, Birmingham.
1876. {Peace,G. H. Monton Grange, Eccles, near Manchester.
1879. {Peace, William K. Moor Lodge, Sheffield.
1885. re e N., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Edin-
ureh.
1883. {Peacock, eae 8 Mandeville-place, Manchester-square, Lon-
don, W.
1875. age Thomas Francis. 12 South-square, Gray’s Inn, London,
1881. ‘lean Horacs, F.R.A.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. The Limes, Stour-
ridge.
1886. *Pearce, Mrs. Horace. The Limes, Stourbridge.
1888. §Pearce, Rev. R. J., D.C.L., Professor of Mathematics in the Univer-
sity of Durham. St. Giles’s Vicarage, Durham.
1884. {Pearce, William. Winnipeg, Canada.
1886. {Pearsall, Howard D. 3 Cursitor-street, London, E.C.
1887. {Pearse, J. Walter. Brussels.
1881. {Pearse, Richard Seward. Southampton.
1883. {Pearson, Arthur A. Colonial Office, London, 8. W.
1883. {Pearson, Miss Helen E. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.
1881. {Pearson, John. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.
1883. {Pearson, Mrs. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.
1872. *Pearson, Joseph. Grove Farm, Merlin, Raleigh, Ontario, Canada.
1881. {Pearson, Richard. 23 Bootham, York.
1870. {Pearson, Rev. Samuel, M.A. Highbury-quadrant, London, N.
1883. *Pearson, Thomas H. Redclyfie, Newton-le- Willows, Lancashire.
1863. §Pease, H. F. Brinkburn, Darlington.
1889. {Pease, Howard. Enfield Lodge, Benwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1863. {Pease, Sir Joseph W., Bart., M.P. Hutton Hall, near Guisborough.
1863. tPease, J. W. Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
78 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Llection.
1883. {Peck, John Henry. 52 Hoghton-street, Southport.
Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire.
1855. *Peckover, Alexander, F.S.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Bank House,
Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.
1888. {Peckover, Miss Alexandrina. Bank House, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.
*Peckover, Algernon, F.L.S. Sibald’s Holme, Wisbech, Cam-
bridgeshire.
1885. {Peddie, W. Spring Valley Villa, Morningside-road, Edinburgh.
1884. {Peebles, W. E. 9 North Frederick-street, Dublin.
1883. {Peek, C. E. Conservative Club, London, 8. W.
1878. *Peek, William. 16 Belgrave-place, Brighton.
1881. {Peges, J. Wallace. 21 Queen Anne’s-gate, London, 8. W.
1884. {Pegler, Alfred. Elmfield, Southampton.
1861. *Peile, George, jun. Shotley Bridge, Co. Durham.
1878. {Pemberton, Charles Seaton. 44 Lincoln's Inn-fields, London,
W.C.
1865. {Pemberton, Oliver. 18 Temple-row, Birmingham.
1861. *Pender, Sir John, K.C.M.G. 18 Avlineton-street, London, S.W.
1887. §Pendlebury, William H. 6 Gladstone-terrace, Priory Hill, Dover.
1856, §PrnGELLY, WILLIAM, F.R.S., F.G.S. Lamorna, Torquay,
1881. ¢Penty, W. G. Melbourne-street, York.
1875. {Perceval, Rev. Canon John, M.A., LL.D. Rugby.
1889. §Percival, Archibald Stanley, M.A., M.B. 6 Lovaine-crescent, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.
*Perigal, Frederick. Cambridge Cottage, Kingswood, Reigate.
1886. {Perkin, T. Dix. Greenford Green, Harrow, Middlesex.
1868. *Perxin, Wittram Henry, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.. The Chestnuts,
Sudbury, Harrow, Middlesex.
1884, {Perkin, William Henry, jun., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the Heriot Watt College, Edinburgh.
1877. {Perkins, Loftus. Seaford-street, Regent-square, London, W.C.
1864. *Perkins, V. R. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.
1885. §Perrin, Miss Emily. 381 St John’s Wood Park, London, N.W.
1886. {Perrin, Henry 8. 31 St. John’s Wood Park, London, N.W.
1886. {Perrin, Mrs. 23 Holland Villas-road, Kensington, London, W.
Perry, The Right Rev. Charles, M.A., D.D. 82 Avenue-road,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
1879. {Perry, James. Roscommon.
1874. *Perry, Joun, M.E., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Engineering and
Applied Mathematics in the Technical College, Finsbury. 31
Brunswick-square, London, W.C.
1883. {Perry, Ottley L., F.R.G.S. Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire.
1883. {Perry, Russell R. 34 Duke-street, Brighton.
1886. {Perry, William. Hanbury Villa, Stourbridge.
1883. {Petrie, Miss Isabella. Stone Hill, Rochdale.
1871. *Peyton, John E. H., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 5 Fourth-avenue, Brighton.
1882. {Pfoundes, Charles. Spring Gardens, London, 8.W.
1886. {Phelps, Colonel A. 23 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1884. {Phelps, Charles Edgar. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham.
1884. {Phelps, Mrs, Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham.
1886. {Phelps, Hon. E.J. American Legation, Members’ Mansions, Victoria-
street, London, 8. W.
1886. {Phelps, Mrs. Hamshall, Birmingham.
1863. *Prenf, Jonn Samu, LL.D.,F.S.A., F.G.8S., F.R.G.S. 5 Carlton-
terrace, Oakley-street, London, 8. W.
1870, {Philip, T. D. 51 South Castle-street, Liverpool.
1853, *Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 79
Election.
1853.
1877.
1868.
1889.
1883.
1862.
1887.
1880.
1885.
1890.
1885,
1881.
1868.
1884.
1885.
1885.
1884.
1888.
1871.
i884.
1865.
1875.
1857.
1883.
1877.
1868.
1876.
1884.
1887.
1875.
1883.
1864.
1885.
1868.
1872.
1869.
1886.
1842.
1867.
1884.
1883.
*Philips, Herbert. The Oak House, Macclesfield.
§Philips, T. Wishart. Dunedin, Wanstead, Essex.
¢Philipson, Dr. 7 Eldon-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Philipson, John. 9 Victoria-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Phillips, Arthur G. 20 Canning-street, Liverpool.
{Phillips, Rev. George, D.D. Queen's College, Cambridge.
{Phillips, H. Harcourt, F.C.S. 18 Exchange-street, Manchester.
§Phillips, John H., Hon. Sec. Philosophical and Archeological
Society, Scarborough.
+ Phillips, Mrs. Leah R. 1 East Park-terrace, Southampton.
§Phillips, R. W., M.A., Professor of Biology in University College,
Bangor.
{Phillips, S. Rees. Wonford House, Exeter.
{Phillips, William. 9 Bootham-terrace, York.
Purtrort, Right Rev. Huyry, D.D. The Elms, Cambridge.
+r eon, T. L., Ph.D., F.C.S. 4 The Cedars, Putney, Swrey,
S.W.
*Pickard, Rey. H. Adair, M.A. 5 Canterbury-road, Oxford.
*Pickard, Joseph William. Lindow Cottage, Lancaster.
*PrcKERING, SPENCER U., M.A., F.R.S. 48 Bryanston-square, Lon-
don, W.
Seater Thomas E., M.D. Maysville, Mason County, Kentucky,
S.A.
*Pidgeon, W. R. 42 Porchester-square, London, W.
{Pigot, Thomas F.,M.R.LA. Royal College of Science, Dublin.
tPike, L. G., M.A., F.Z.S. 4 The Grove, Highgate, London, N.
{Pree, L.Owrn. 201 Maida-vale, London, W.
tPike, W. H. University College, Toronto, Canada.
Pilkington, Henry M., LL.D., Q.C. 45 Upper Mount-street,
Dublin.
{Pilling, R. C._ The Robin’s Nest, Blackburn.
Pim, George, M.R.I.A. Brenanstown, Cabinteely, Co. Dublin.
{Pim, Joseph T. Greenbank, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
{Pinder, T. R. St. Andrew’s, Norwich.
{Pirte, Rey. G., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Aberdeen. 33 College Bounds, Old Aberdeen,
tPirz, Anthony. Long Island, New York, U.S.A.
{Pitkin, James. 56 Red Lion-street, Clerkenwell, London, E.C.
{Pitman, John. Redcliff Hill, Bristol.
{Pitt, George Newton, M.A., M.D. 34 Ashburn-place, South
Kensington, London, S.W.
{Pitt, R. 5 Widcomb-terrace, Bath.
§Pitt, Sydney. 34 Ashburn-place, South Kensington, London, 8.W.
+Prrr-Rivers, Lieut.-General A. H. L., D.C:L., ERS. G83;
F.S.A. 4 Grosyenor-gardens, London, 8.W.
{Plant, Mrs. H. W. 28 Evington-street, Leicester.
{Prant, James, F.G.S. 40 West-terrace, West-street, Leicester. .
tPlayer, J. H. 5 Prince of Wales-terrace, Kensington, London, W.
PrayFatr, The Right Hon. Sir Lyon, K.C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., MP;
ERS. L. & E., F.C.S. 68 Onslow-gardens, South Kensington,
London, 8. W.
{Prayrar, Lieut.-Colonel Sir R. L., K.C.M.G., H.M. Consul, Algeria.
(Messrs. King & Co., Pall Mall, London, 8. W.)
*Playfair, W. S., M.D., LL.D., Professor of Midwifery in King’s
College, London. 31 George-street, Hanover-square, London, W.
*Plimpton, R.T., M.D, 23 Lansdowne-road, Clapham-road, London,
S.W
80
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election. *
1857.
1861.
1881.
1888.
1846,
{Plunkett, Thomas. Ballybrophy House, Borris-in-Ossory, Ireland.
*Pocuin, Heyry Davis, F.C.S. Bodnant Hall, near Conway.
§Pocklington, Henry. 20 Park-row, Leeds.
tPocock, Rev. Francis. 4 Brunswick-place, Bath.
{Porz, Wror1aM, Mus.Doc., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Atheneum Club,
Pall Mall, London, S.W.
*Pollexfen, Rev. John Hutton, M.A. Middleton Tyas Vicarage,
Richmond, Yorkshire.
. *Polwhele, Thomas Roxburgh, M.A., F.G.S. Polwhele, Truro,
Cornwall.
. {Porrat, WynpHAM S. Malshanger, Basingstoke.
. *Porter, Rey. C. T., LL.D. Brechin Lodge, Cambridge-road, South-
port.
. {Porter, Paxton. Birmingham and Midland Institute, Birming-
ham.
. {Porter, Robert. Highfield, Long Eaton, Nottingham.
. { Porter, Robert. Westfield House, Bloomfield-road, Bath.
. [Postgate, Professor J. P., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
. {Potter, D. M. Cramlington, near Newcastle-on-Tyne.
. {Potter, Edmund P. Hollinhurst, Bolton.
. {Potter, M. C., M.A., F.L.S. St. Peter’s College, Cambridge.
. §Potts, John. 33 Chester-road, Macclesfield.
. *Poutton, Epwarp B., M.A., F.RS., F.L.S. Wykeham House,
Oxford.
. *Powell, Francis 8., M.P., F.R.G.S. Horton Old Hall, Yorkshire ;
and 1 Cambridge-square, London, W.
. *Powell, Horatio Gibbs. Wood Villa, Tettenhall Wood, Wolver-
hampton.
. {Powell, John. Waunarlwydd House, near Swansea.
. tPowell, William Augustus Frederick. Norland House, Clifton,
Bristol.
. §Pownall, George H. Manchester and Salford Bank, Mosley-street,
Manchester.
. [Powrie, James. Reswallie, Forfar.
. “Poynter, John E, Clyde Neuk, Uddingston, Scotland.
. {Poyntine, J. H., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the Mason
College, Birmingham. 11 St. Augustine’s-road, Birmingham.
. §Prance, Courtenay C. Hatherley Court, Cheltenham.
. *Prankerd, A. A., D.C... Brazenose College, Oxford.
. *Preece, WitttamM Henry, F.R.S8., M.Inst.C.E. Gothic Lodge,
Wimbledon Common, Surrey.
. *Preece, W. L. St. James’s-terrace, London-road, Derby.
. *Premio-Real, His Excellency the Count of. Quebec, Canada.
. §Preston, Alfred Eley. 14 The xchange, Bradford, Yorkshire.
*PrestwicH, JosppH, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.8., F.C.S. Shore-
ham, near Sevenoaks.
. *Prevost, Major L. de T. 2nd Battalion Argyll and Sutherland
Highlanders.
. *Prick, Rev. Bartrnotomrw, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Sedleian
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford.
11 St. Giles’s, Oxford.
. {Price, John E., F.S.A. 27 Bedford-place, Russell-square, Lon-
don, W.C.
Price, J. T. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire.
. §Price, L. L. F. R., M.A., F.S.S. Oriel College, Oxford.
. §Price, Peter. 12 Windsor-place, Cardiff.
. *Price, Rees, 163 Bath-street, Glasgow.
LIST OF MEMBERS, &1
Year of
Election.
1875.
1876.
1875.
1883.
1864,
1846.
1889.
1876.
1888.
1881.
1863.
1885.
1863.
1884.
1879.
1855.
1888,
*Price, William Philip. Tibberton Court, Gloucester.
{Priestley, John. 174 Lloyd-street, Greenheys, Manchester.
{Prince, Thomas. 6 Marlborough-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Prince, Thomas. Horsham-road, Dorking.
aang i C. A., M.D. 48 York-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
N.W.
*PRITCHARD, Rev. CHartzs, D.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Professor
of Astronomy in the University of Oxford. 8 Keble-terrace,
Oxford.
*Pritchard, Eric Law. 12 Alwyne-place, Canonbury, London, N.
*PRITCHARD, URBAN, M.D., F.R.C.S. 3 George-street, Hanover-
square, London, W.
{Probyn, Leslie C. Onslow-square, London, 8. W.
§Procter, John William. Ashcroft, Nunthorpe, York.
{Proctor, R. 8. Summerhill-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Proctor, William. Elmhurst, Higher Erith-road, Torquay.
}Profeit, Dr. Balmoral, N.B.
tProud, Joseph. South Hetton, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Proudfoot, Alexander, M.D. 2 Phillips-place, Montreal, Canada.
*Prouse, Oswald Milton, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Alvington, Slade-road,
Ilfracombe.
. tProwse, Albert P. Whitchurch Villa, Mannamead, Plymouth.
. “Pryor, M. Robert. Weston Manor, Stevenage, Herts.
. *Puckle, Thomas John. 42 Cadogan-place, London, S.W.
{Pullan, Lawrence. Bridge of Allan, N.B.
. *Pullar, Robert, F.R.S.E. Tayside, Perth.
. *Pullar, Rufus D., F.C.8. Tayside, Perth.
. *Pumphrey, Charles. Southfield, King’s Norton, near Birmingham.
. §PumpHrey, Witttam. Lyncombe, Bath.
. §Purdie, Thomas, B.Sc., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the Uni-
versity of St. Andrews. St. Andrews, N.B.
. {Purdon, Thomas Henry, M.D. Belfast.
. {Purey-Cust, Very Rey. Arthur Percival, M.A., Dean of York. The
Deanery, York.
. {Purrott, Charles. West End, near Southampton.
. {PursER, Freprrick, M.A. Rathmines, Dublin.
. {PursErR, Professor Jonny, M.A., M.R.I.A. Queen’s College, Belfast.
. {Purser, John Mallet. 8 Wilton-terrace, Dublin.
. *Purves, W. Laidlaw. 20 Stafford-place, Oxford-street, London, W.
. *Pusey, S. E. B. Bouverie. Pusey House, Faringdon.
. §Pye-Smith, Arnold. 16 Fairfield-road, Croydon.
. §Pye-Smith, Mrs. 16 Fairfield-road, Croydon.
. {Pyz-Suirn, P. H., M.D., F.R.S. 54 Harley-street, W.; and Guy's
Hospital, London, 8.1.
. §Pye-Smith, R. J. 350 Glossop-road, Sheffield.
. *Pyne, Joseph John. The Willows, Albert-road, Southport.
{Quin, J. A., J.P. 14 South-parade, Bath.
. {Rabbits, W. T. Forest Hill, London, 8.E. cae
. §Rabone, John. Penderell House, Hamstead-road, Birmingham.
. t{Radcliffe, D. R. Phoenix Safe Works, Windsor, Liverpool.
. {Radford, George D. Mannamead, Plymouth.
. tRadford, R. Heber. Wood Bank, Pitsmoor, Sheffield.
*Radford, William, M.D. Sidmount, Sidmouth.
*Radstock, The Right Hon. Lord. 70 Portland-place, London, W.
Radway, C. W. 9 Bath-street, Bath.
F
82 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1878. {Raz, Jonny, M.D., LL.D., F.BS., F.R.G.S. 4 Addison-gardens,
Kensington, London, W.
1887. *Ragdale, John Rowland. Derby-place, Whitefield, Manchester.
1864. {Rainey, James T. St. George’s Lodge, Bath. :
Rake, Joseph. Charlotte-street, Bristol.
1885. tRamsay, Major. Straloch, N.B.
1863. {Ramsay, ALEXANDER, I’.G.S. 2 Cowper-road, Acton, Middlesex, W.
1845. {Ramsay, Sir AnpRew Cromarz, LL.D. F.RS., F.GS. 7
Victoria-terrace, Beaumaris.
1884, {Ramsay, George G., LL.D., Professor of Humanity in the University
of Glasgow. 6 The College, Glasgow.
1884. {Ramsay, Mrs. G. G. 6 The College, Glasgow.
1861. {Ramsay, John. Kildalton, Argyllshire.
1889. {Ramsay, Major R.G. W. Bonnyrige, Edinburgh.
1867. *Ramsay, W. F., M.D. 109 Sinclair-road, West Kensington Park,
London, W.
1876. *Ramsay, WILLIAM, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
University College, London, W.C.
1883. {Ramsay, Mrs. 12 Arundel-gardens, London, W.
1887. tRamsbottom, John. Fernhill, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
1873. *Ramsden, William. Bracken Hall, Great Horton, Bradford,
Yorkshire.
1835. *Rance, Henry. 6 Ormonde-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
1869. *Rance, H. W. Henniker, LL.D. 10 Castletawn-road, West Ken-
sington, London, 8. W.
1865. {Randel, J. 50 Vittoria-street, Birmingham.
1868. *Ransom, Edwin, F.R.G.S.. Ashburnham-road, Bedford.
1863. §Ransom, William Henry, M.D.,F.R.S. The Pavement, Nottingham.
1861. {Ransome, Arthur, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. Devisdale, Bowdon,
Manchester.
Ransome, Thomas. Hest Bank, near Lancaster.
1872. *Ranyard, Arthur Cowper, F.R.A.S. 11 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s
Inn, London, W.C.
1889. §Rapkin, J. B. Sidcup, Kent.
Ree a Jonathan. 3 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
1864. tRate, Rev. John, M.A. Lapley Vicarage, Penkridge, Staffordshire.
1870. {Rathbone, Benson. Exchange-buildings, Liverpool.
1870. {Rathbone, Philip H. Greenbank Cottage, Wavertree, Liverpool.
1870. {Rathbone, R. R. Beechwood House, Liverpool.
1874. spear gee E.G., F.R.G.8., F.S.S. 91 Upper Tulse-hill, London,
NE
Rawdon, William Frederick, M.D. Bootham, York.
1889. {Rawlings, Edward. Richmond THouse, Wimbledon Common,
Surrey.
1870. {Rawlins, G. W. The Hollies, Rainhill, Liverpool.
1866, *Rawtinson, Rey. Canon Guorer, M.A. The Oaks, Precincts,
Canterbury.
1855. *Rawxrnson, Major-General Sir Huyry C., Bart., G.C.B., LL.D.,
F.R.S.,F.R.G.S. 21 Charles-street, Berkeley-square, London, W.
1887. {Rawson, Harry. Earlswood, Ellesmere Park, Eccles, Manchester.
1875. §Rawson, Sir Rawson W., K.C.M.G., C.B., F.R.G.S. 68 Corn-
wall-gardens, Queen’s-gate, London, S.W.
1886. {Rawson, W. Stepney, M.A., F.C.S. 68 Cornwall-gardens, Queen’s-
gate, London, 8. W.
1883. {Ray, Miss Catherine. Mount Cottage, Flask-walk, Hampstead,
London, N.W.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 83
Year of
Election.
1868.
1883.
1870.
1884.
1852.
1863.
1889.
1889.
1888.
1861.
1889.
1888.
1875.
1881,
1883.
1889.
1876.
1884,
1887.
1850.
1881.
1875.
1865.
1885.
1889.
1867.
1883.
1871.
1870.
1858.
1887.
1883.
1890.
1858.
1877.
1888.
1884.
1877.
1889.
1888.
1863.
1861.
*RayiercH, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec.R.S.,
E.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the
Royal Institution, London. Terling Place, Witham, Essex,
*Rayne, Charles A., M.D., M.R.C.S. Queen-street, Lancaster.
*Read, W. H. Rudston, M.A., F.L.S. 12 Blake-street, Yor.
{tRerape, THomas Metiarp, F.G.8S. Blundellsands, Liverpool.
§Readman, J. B., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 9 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
*REDFERN, Professor Prrer, M.D. 4 Lower-crescent, Belfast.
tRedmayne, Giles. 20 New Bond-street, London, W.
TRedmayne, J. M. Harewood, Gateshead.
{Redmayne, Norman. 26 Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tRednall, Miss Edith EK. Ashfield House, Neston, near Chester.
Redwood, Isaac. Cae Wern, near Neath, South Wales.
tRexp, Su Epwarp J., K.C.B., M.P., F.R.S. 75 Harrington-
eardens, London, 8. W.
TReed; Rey. George. Bellingham Vicarage, Bardon Mill.
tRees, W. L. 11 North-crescent, Bedford-square, London, W.C.
tRees-Moge, W. Wooldridge. Cholwell House, near Bristol.
§Reid, Arthur S., B.A., F.G.S. Trinity College, Glenalmond, N.B.
*Rerp, Crement, F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.
tReid, George, Belgian Consul. Leazes House, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
tReid, James. 10 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.
TReid, Rev. James, B.A. Bay City, Michigan, U.S.A.
*Reid, Walter Francis. Fieldside, Addlestone, Surrey.
tReid, William, M.D. Cruivie, Cupar Fife.
tReid, William. 19} Blake-street, York.
§Rumvorp, A. W., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physical Science in the
Royal Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.
{Renats, E. ‘Nottingham Express’ Office, Nottingham.
TRennett, Dr. 12 Golden-square, Aberdeen.
*Rennie, George B. Hooley Lodge, Redhill.
tRenny, W. W. 8 Douglas-terrace, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
*Reynolds, A. H. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.
{Rrywnotps, James Emurson, M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.R.LA., Pro-
fessor of Chemistry in the University of Dublin. The Laboratory,
Trinity College, Dublin.
*Reynoips, Ossorne, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor
of Engineering in Owens College, Manchester. 23 Lady Barn-
road, Fallowfield, Manchester.
§Rzyrnoxps, Ricwarp, F.C.S. 13 Briggate, Leeds.
tRhodes, George W. The Cottage, Victoria Park, Manchester.
{Rhodes, Dr. James; 25 Victoria-street, Glossop.
§Rhodes, J. M., M.D. Ivy Lodge, Didsbury.
*Rhodes, John. 18 Albion-street, Leeds. ‘
*Rhodes, John. 360 Blackburn-road, Accrington, Lancashire.
§Rhodes, John George. Warwick House, 46 St. George’s-road,
London, 8.W.
tRhodes, Lieut.-Colonel William. Quebec, Canada. ; ;
*Riccardi, Dr. Paul, Secretary of the Society of Naturalists. Via
Stimmate, 15, Modena, Italy. i
tRichards, Professor T. W., Ph.D. Cambridge, Massachusetts,
U.S.A. \
*Ricwarpson, ARtuvR, M.D. University College, Bristol.
tRicwarpsoy, Brysamin Warp, M.A., M.D., LL.D. F.RS. 25
Manchester-square, London, W. ,
{Richardson, Charles. 10 Berkeley-square, Bristol.
FZ
&4 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1869. *Richardson, Charles. 4 Northumberland-avenue, Putney, S.W.
1887, *Richardson, Miss Emma. Conway House, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim.
1882. §Richardson, Rev. George, M.A. The College, Winchester.
1884, *Richardson, George Straker. Isthmian Club, 150 Piccadilly,
London, W.
1889. §Richardson, Hugh. Sedbergh School, Sedbergh R.S.0., York-
shire.
1884, *Richardson, J. Clarke. Derwen Fawr, Swansea.
1870. tRichardson, Ralph, F.R.S.E. 10 Magdala-place, Edinburgh.
1889, {Richardson, Thomas, J.P. 7 Windsor-terrace, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
1881. sEechaviaet W.B. Elm Bank, York.
1861. ¢Richardson, William. 4 Edward-street, Werneth, Oldham.
1876, §Richardson, William Haden. City Glass Works, Glasgow.
1886. §Richmond, Robert. Leighton Buzzard.
1863. {Richter, Otto, Ph.D. 407 St. Vinceut-street, Glasgow.
1868. tRickerrs, Cuartzs, M.D.,F.G.8. 18 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead.
1877. TRicketts, James, M.D. St. Helens, Lancashire.
*Rippext, Major-General Cuarzes J. Bucuanan, C.B., R.A, PRS.
Oaklands, Chudleigh, Devon.
1883. *Rideal, Samuel. 161 Devonshire-road, Forest Hill, Kent, 8.E.
1862. t{Ridgway, Henry Ackroyd, B.A. Bank Field, Halifax.
1861. {Ridley, John. 19 Belsize-park, Hampstead, London, N.W.
1889. §Ridley, Thomas D. Coatham, Redcar.
1884, {Ridout, Thomas. Ottawa, Canada.
1863. *Rigby, Samuel. Fern Bank, Liverpool-road, Chester.
1881. *Rige, Arthur. 71 Warrington-crescent, London, W.
1883. *Riec, Epwarp, M.A. Royal Mint, London, E.
1883, {Rige, F. F., M.A. 382 Queen’s-road, Southport.
1883. *Rigge, Samuel Taylor, F.S.A. Balmoral-place, Halifax.
1873. {Ripley, Sir Edward, Bart. Acacia, Apperley, near Leeds.
*Rrvon, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.G.,G.C.S.1., C.LE., D.C.L.,
F.RS., F.LS., F.R.G.S. 9 Chelsea Embankment, London,
S.W.
1867. {Ritchie, John. Fleuchar Craig, Dundee.
1867. {Ritchie, William. Emslea, Dundee.
1889. tRitson, U. A. 1 Jesmond-gardens, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1869. *Rivington, John. Babbicombe, near Torquay.
1888. tRobb, W. J. Firth College, Sheffield.
1854. tRobberds, Rev. John, B.A. Battledown Tower, Cheltenham.
1869. *Ropsins, Joun, F.C.S. 57 Warrington-crescent, Maida Vale,
London, W.
1878. tRoberts, Charles, F.R.C.S. 2 Bolton-row, London, W.
1887. *Roberts, Evan. 3 Laurel-bank, Alexandra-road, Manchester.
1859. tRoberts, George Christopher. Hull.
1870. *Roperts, Isaac, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Crowborough, Sussex.
1883. tRoberts, Ralph A. 4 Colville Mansions, Powis-terrace, London, W.
1881. tRoberts, R. D., M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. Clare College, Cambridge.
1879. {Roberts, Samuel. The Towers, Sheffield.
1879. {Roberts, Samuel, jun. The Towers, Sheffield.
1883. {Roprrts, Sir Wim, M.D., F.R.S. 8 Manchester-square,
London, W.
1868, *Roperts-Austen, W. CuanprEr, C.B., F.R.S., F.C.S., Chemist to
the Royal Mint, and Professor of Metallurgy in the Royal Col-
lege of Science, London. Royal Mint, London, E.
1883. tRobertson, Alexander. Montreal, Canada.
1859. tRobertson, Dr. Andrew. Indego, Aberdeen.
LIST OF MEMBERS. &5
Year of
Election.
1884.
1871.
1883.
1883.
1876.
1888.
1886,
1886.
1861.
1852.
1887.
1887.
1861.
1888.
1863.
1878.
1876.
1887.
1881.
1875.
1884.
1863.
1888.
1870.
1876.
1872.
1885.
1885.
1872.
1866.
1867.
1890.
1883.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1886.
1889.
1876.
1876.
1869,
1872.
1881.
1855.
1883.
tRobertson, E. Stanley, M.A. 43 Waterloo-road, Dublin.
a eae George, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. 47 Albany-street, Edin-
ureh.
tRobertson, George H. The Nook, Gateacre, near Liverpool.
tRobertson, Mrs. George H. The Nook, Gateacre, near Liverpool.
tRobertson, R. A. Newthorn, Ayton-road, Pollokshields, Glasgow.
*Robins, Edward Cookworthy, IF.S.A. 46 Berners-street, Oxford-
street, London, W.
*Robinson, C. R. 27 Elvetham-road, Birmingham.
{Robinson, Edward E. 56 Dovey-street, Liverpool.
tRobinson, Enoch. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.
{Robinson, Rev. George. Beech Hill, Armagh.
tRobinson, Henry. 7 Westminster-chambers, London, 8.W.
tRobinson, James. Akroydon Villa, Halifax, Yorkshire.
{Roxrnson, Jonny, M.Inst.C.E. Atlas Works, Manchester.
§Robinson, John. Engineer's Office, Barry Dock, Cardiff.
{Robinson, J. H. 6 Montallo-terrace, Barnard Castle.
tRobinson, John L. 198 Great Brunswick-street, Dublin.
tRobinson, M. E. 6 Park-circus, Glasgow.
§Robinson, Richard. Bellfield Mill, Rochdale.
tRobinson, Richard Atkinson. 195 Brompton-road, London, S.W.
*Robinson, Robert, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Beechwood, Darlington.
tRobinson, Stillman. Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A.
tRobinson, T. W. U. Houghton-le-Spring, Durham.
§Robottom, Arthur. 38 St. Alban’s-villas, Highgate-road, London,
N.W
*Robson, E.R. Palace Chambers, 9 Bridge-street, Westminster, S.W.
tRobson, Hazleton R. 14 Royal-crescent West, Glasgow.
*Robson, William, Marchholm, Gillsland-road, Merchiston, Edin-
burgh.
§Rodger, Edward. 1 Claremont-gardens, Glasgow.
*Rodriguez, Epifanio. 12 John-street, Adelphi, London, W.C.
tRopwett, Grorce F., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. Marlborough College,
Wiltshire.
tRoe, Thomas. Grove-villas, Sitchurch.
tRogers, James S. Rosemill, by Dundee.
*Rogers, L. J., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in Yorkshire College,
Leeds. 13 Beech Grove-terrace, Leeds.
tRogers, Major R. Alma House, Cheltenham.
§ Rogers, Rev. Saltren, M.A. Gwennap, Redruth, Cornwall.
+ Rogers, Thomas Stanley, LL.B. 77 Albert-road, Southport.
*Rogers, Walter M. Lamowa, Falmouth. i
tRogers, W. Woodbourne. Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.
{Rogerson, John. Croxdale Hall, Durham.
tRorriz, Sir A. K., M.P., B.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.A.S., Hon.
Fellow K.C.L. Thwaite House, Cottiagham, East Yorkshire.
{Romanrs, Grorcs Jonny, M.A., LL.D., FE.R.S.,F.L.S. St. Aldate’s,
Oxford.
{Roper, C. H. Magdalen-street, Exeter.
*Roper, Freeman Clarke Samuel, F.L.S., F.G.S. Palgrave House,
Eastbourne.
*Roper, W.O. Eadenbreck, Lancaster.
*Roscon, Sir Hunry Enrrerp, B.A., Ph.D., TED.) DICT ME,
BRIS O15: = 10 Bramham-gardens, London, S.W.
*Rose, J. Holland, M.A. Aboyne, Bedford Hill-road, Balham,
London, S.W.
86
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1885.
1874.
1857.
1887.
1880.
1872.
1859.
1880.
1869,
1865.
1876.
1884.
186].
1881.
1861.
1885.
1887.
1881.
1865.
1877.
1890.
1855,
1881.
1881.
1862.
1876.
1885.
1885.
1888.
1861.
1875.
1869.
1882.
1884.
1887,
1847,
1889.
1875.
1884.
1890.
1883.
1852,
1876.
1886,
tRoss, Alexander. Riverfield, Inverness.
tRoss, Alexander Milton, M.A., M.D., F.G.S. Toronto, Canada.
tRoss, David, LL.D. 32 Nelson-street, Dublin.
tRoss, Edward. Marple, Cheshire.
tRoss, Captain G. E. A., F.R.G.S. 8 Collingham-gardens, Cromwell-
road, London, S.W.
tRoss, James, M.D. Tenterfield House, Waterfoot, near Manchester.
*Ross, Rey. James Coulman. Baldon Vicarage, Oxford.
{tRoss, Major William Alexander. Acton House, Acton, London, W.
*RossE, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.P., B.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.A.S., M.R.I.A. Birr Castle, Parsonstown, Ireland.
*Rothera, George Bell. 17 Waverley-street, Nottingham.
tRottenburgh, Paul. 13 Albion-crescent, Glasgow.
*Rouse, M. L. 343 Church-street, Toronto, Canada.
}Rovurn, Epwarp J., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.R.AS., F.G.S. St.
Peter’s College, Cambridge.
{Routh, Rev. Wilham, M.A. Clifton Green, York.
tRowan, David. Elliot-street, Glascow.
fRowan, Frederick John. 134 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
tRowe, Rey. Alfred W., M.A., F.G.S. Felstead, Essex.
tRowe, Rey. G. Lord Mayor's Walk, York.
tRowe, Rey. John. 13 Hampton-road, Forest Gate, Essex.
tRowg, J. Brooxrne, F.L.S., F.S.A. 16 Lockyer-street, Plymouth.
§Rowley, Walter, F.S.A. Alderhill, Meanwood, Leeds.
*Rowney, Tromas H., Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
Queen’s College, Galway. Salerno, Salthill, Galway.
*Rowntree, Joseph. 37 St. Mary’s, York.
*Rowntree, J. 8. The Mount, York.
tRowsell, Rev. Evan Edward, M.A. Hambledon Rectory, Godal-
ming.
{Roxburgh, John. 7 Royal Bank-terrace, Glasgow.
tRoy, Charles 8., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathology in the Uni-
versity of Cambridge. Trinity College, Cambridge.
tRoy, John. 33 Belvidere-street, Aberdeen.
tRoy, Parbati Churn, B.A. Calcutta, Bengal, India.
*Royle, Peter, M.D., L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S. 27 Lever-street, Man-
chester.
tRickrr, A. W., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the Royal
College of Science, London. Ezrington, Clapham Park, Lon-
don, 8S. W.
§Ruprer, £. W., F.G.8. The Museum, Jermyn-street, London,
S.W.
{Rumball, Thomas, M-Inst.C.E. 8 Queen Anne’s-eate, London, 8.W.
§Runtz, John. Linton Lodge, Lordship-road, Stoke Newington,
London, N.
§Ruscoe, John, F.G.S. Ferndale, Gee Cross, near Manchester.
tRusxin, Jomy, M.A., F.G.S8. Brantwood, Coniston, Ambleside.
§Russell, The Right Hon. Earl. Teddineton, Middlesex.
*Russell, The Hon. F, A. R. Pembroke Lodge, Richmond Park,
Surrey.
t Russell, Geer! Hoe Park: House, Plymouth.
§Russell, J. A., M.B. Woodville, Canaan-lane, Edinburgh.
*Russell, J. W. Merton Colleze, Oxford.
Russell, John. 39 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.
*Russell, Norman Scott. Arts Club, Hanover-square, London, W.
§Russell, R., F.G.S. 1 Sea View, St. Bees, Carnforth.
}Russell, Thomas H. 38 Newhall-street, Birmincham.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 87
Year of
Election.
1862.
1852.
1886.
1883.
1889.
1871.
1887.
1879.
1875.
1889.
1886.
1865.
1861.
1883.
1883.
1871,
1885.
1866.
1886.
1887.
1881.
1857.
1885.
1873.
1883.
1872.
1887.
1861.
1861.
1883.
1878.
1883.
1884.
1872.
1885.
1872.
1883.
1886.
1886.
1886.
§Russett, W. H. L., B.A., F.R.S. 50 South-grove, Highgate,
London, N.
*RussELL, WILLIAM J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry
in St. Bartholomew’s Medical College. 384 Upper Hamilton-
terrace, St. John’s Wood, London, N.W.
§Rust, Arthur. LEversleigh, Leicester.
*Ruston, Joseph, M.P. Monk’s Manor, Lincoln.
tRutherford, Rev. Dr. 6 Eldon-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
§RuTHERFORD, Witt1AM, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of the
Institutes of Medicine in the University of Edinburgh.
fRutherford, William. 7 Vine-grove, Chapman-street, Hulme, Man-
chester.
Rutson, William. Newby Wiske, Northallerton, Yorkshire.
tRuxton, Vice-Admiral Fitzherbert, R.N., F.R.G.S. 41 Cromwell-
eardens, London, 8.W.
{Ryalls, Charles Wager, LL.D. 8 Brick-court, Temple, London, F.C,
§Ryder, W. J. H. 52 Jesmond-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Ryland, F. Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Ryland, Thomas. ‘The Redlands, Erdington, Birmingham.
*Ryzanps, ToomAs GuazEsroox, F.LS.,F.G.8. Highfields, Thel-
wall, near Warrington.
* Sabine, Robert. 3 Great Winchester-street-buildings, London, E.C.
{Sadler, Robert. 7 Lulworth-road, Birkdale, Southport.
Sadler, Samuel Champernowne. Purton Court, Purton,near Swindon,
Wiltshire.
§Saint, W. Johnston. 11 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.
*St. Albans, His Grace the Duke of. Bestwood Lodge, Arnold, near
Nottingham.
§St. Clair, George, F.G.S. 127 Bristol-road, Birmingham.
*Satrorp, the Right Rev. the Bishop of. Bishop’s House, Salford.
{Salkeld, William. 4 Paradise-terrace, Darlington.
{Saraton, Rev. Goren, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Provost of
Trinity College, Dublin.
tSalmond, Robert G. The Nook, Kingswood-road, Upper Norwood,
S.E.
*Salomons, Sir David, Bart. Broomhill, Tunbridge Wells.
{Salt, Shirley H., M.A. 73 Queensborough-terrace, London, W.
{Satviy, Ospert, M.A., F.R.S., F.LS. Hawksfold, Haslemere.
{Samson, ©. L. Carmona, Kersal, Manchester.
*Samson, Henry. 6 St. Peter’s-square, Manchester.
*Sandeman, Archibald, M.A. Garry Cottage, Perth.
{Sandeman, E. 53 Newton-street, Greenock. E
{Sanders, Alfred, F.L.S. 2 Clarence-place, Gravesend, Kent.
*Sanders, Charles J. B. Pennsylvania, Exeter.
{Sanders, Henry. 185 James-street, Montreal, Canada.
tSanders, Mrs. 8 Powis-square, Brighton. | :
tSanderson, Surgeon Alfred. ast India United Service Club, St.
James’s-square, London, S.W.
tSanpzrson, J. S. Burpon, M.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Professor
of Physiology in the University of Oxford. 64 Banbury-road,
Oxford.
+Sanderson, Mrs. Burdon. 64 Banbury-road, Oxford.
Sandes, Thomas, A.B. Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co. Kerry.
§Sankey, Percy 5. Lyndhurst, St. Peter's, Kent.
tSauborn, John Wentworth. Albion, New York, U.S.A.
{Saundby, Robert, M.D. 834 Edmund-street, Birmingham.
88
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1868.
1886.
1881.
1885.
1846.
1884.
1884.
1887.
1871.
1888.
1885.
1872.
1887.
1884.
1883.
1883.
1884,
1868.
1879.
1883.
1888.
1880.
1842.
1887.
1883.
1885.
1888.
1887.
1873.
1861.
1887.
1847.
1883.
1867.
1881.
1882,
1878.
1881.
1889.
1885.
tSaunders, A., M.Inst.C.E. King’s Lynn.
tSaunders, C. T. Temple-row, Birmingham.
{Saunpers, Howarp, F.L.S., F.Z.S. 7 Radnor-place, London, W,
{Saunders, Rey. J.C. Cambridge.
{Saunpers, TRreLAwNEY W., F.R.G.S. 3 Elmfield on the Knowles,
Newton Abbot, Devon.
{Saunders, William. Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada.
{Saunderson, C. E. 26 St. Famille-street, Montreal, Canada.
§Savage, Rev. E. B., M.A. St. Thomas’ Parsonage, Douglas, Isle of
Man.
§Savage, W. D. Ellerslie House, Brighton.
{Savage, W. W. 109 St. James’s-street, Brighton.
tSavery,G. M., M.A. The College, Harrogate.
*Sawyer, George David, F.R.M.S. 55 Buckingham-place, Brighton.
§Sayce, Rey. A. H., M.A., D.D. Queen’s College, Oxford.
{Sayre, Robert H. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
*Scarborough, George. Holly Bank, Halifax, Yorkshire.
tScarisbrick, Charles. 5 Palace-gate, Kensington, London, W.
{Scarth, William Bain. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
§Schacht, G. F. 1 Windsor-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
*ScHArer, KE. A., F.R.S., M.R.C.S., Professor of Physiology in Uni-
versity College, London. Croxley Green, Rickmansworth,
{Schiifer, Mrs. Croxley Green, Rickmansworth.
§Scoarrr, Ropert F., Ph.D., B.Sc. Science and Art Museum,
Dublin.
*Schemmann, Louis Carl. Hamburg. (Care of Messrs. Allen Everitt
& Sons, Birmingham.)
Schofield, Joseph. Stubley Hall, Littleborough, Lancashire.
tSchofield, T. Thornfield, Talbot-road, Old Trafford, Manchester.
{Schofield, William. Alma-road, Birkdale, Southport.
§Scholes, L. Holly Bank, 19 Cleveland-road, Higher Crumpsall, near
Manchester.
{Scholey, J. Cranefield. 30 Sussex-villas, Kensington, London, W.
tSchorlemmer, Carl, LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Organic Chemistry
in the Owens College, Manchester. Victoria Park, Man-
chester.
Scuunck, Epwarp, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Oaklands, Kersal Moor,
Manchester.
*ScousrEeR, ARTHUR, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Physics
in the Owens College, Manchester.
*Schwabe, Edmund Salis. Ryecroft House, Cheetham Hill, Man-
chester.
tSchwabe, Colonel G. Salis. Portland House, Higher Crumpsall,
Manchester.
*Sctater, Purp Lourtey, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
E.R.G.S., Sec.Z.8: 3 Tanover-square, London, W.
*Scrarpr, WiL~rAmM Lurtry, B.A., F.Z.S. 8 Hanover-square, Lon-
don, W.
{Scorr, ALEXANDER. Clydesdale Bank, Dundee.
*Scott, Alexander, M.A., D.Sc. 4 North Bailey, Durham.
{Scott, Colonel A. de C., R.E. Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton.
*Scott, Arthur William, M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Natural
Science in St. David’s College, Lampeter.
{Scott, Miss Charlotte Angus. Lancashire College, Whalley Range,
Manchester,
§Scorr, D. H., M.A., Ph.D., F.L.S. The Laurels, Bickley, Kent.
{Scott, George Jamieson. Bayview House, Aberdeen.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 89
Year of
Election.
1886.
1857.
1861.
1884.
1869.
1885
1881
1883.
1890.
1859
1880
1861
1855
1879
188
1870.
1883.
1875.
1868.
1888.
1883.
1871.
1867.
1881.
1869,
1878,
1886,
1883.
1870.
1865.
1881.
1887.
1870.
1887.
1883.
1883.
1880.
1885.
1887.
1873,
1888.
1858.
. *Sennett, Alfred R., A.M.Inst.C.E. Temple-chambers, Victoria
{Scott, Robert. 161 Queen Victoria-street, London, E.C.
*Scorr, Roserr H., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.S., Secretary to
the Council of the Meteorological Office. 6 Elm Park-gardens,
London, 8. W.
§Scott, Rev. Robert Selkirk, D.D. 16 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill,
Glasgow.
*Scott, Sydney C. 15 Queen-street, Cheapside, London, E.C.
tScott, William Bower. Chudleigh, Devon.
tScott-Monerief, W. G. The Castle, Banff.
*Scrivener, A. P. Haglis House, Wendover.
tScrivener, Mrs. Haglis House, Wendover.
§Searle, G. F.C., B.A. Peterhouse, Cambridge.
tSeaton, John Love. The Park, Hull.
jSepewrck, Apam, M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.
{Szepoum, Henry, F.R.G.S., F.LS., F.Z.5. 22 Courtfield-gardens,
London, 8.W.
*Srrtpy, Harry Govisr, F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.8., F.RG.S., F.Z.S.,
Professor of Geography in King’s College, London. 25 Palace
Gardens-terrace, Kensington, London, W.
{Seligman, H. L. 27 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.
§Selim, Adolphus. 21 Mincing-lane, London, E.C.
§Semple, Dr. United Service Club, Edinburgh.
§Semple, James C.,M.R.I.A. 64 Grosvenor-road, Rathmines, Dublin.
tSemple, R. H., M.D. 8 Torrington-square, London, W.C.
§Senier, Alfred, M.D., Ph.D., F.C.8. Thornfield, Harold-road,
London, 8.E.
*Senior, George, F.S.8. Old Whittington, Chesterfield.
Embankment, London, E.C.
*Sephton, Rey. J. 90 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
{Seville, Miss M.A. Blythe House, Southport.
{Seville, Thomas. Blythe House, Southport.
tSewell, Philip E. Catton, Norwich.
§Shackles, Charles F. Hornsea, near Hull.
tShadwell, John Lancelot. 17 St. Charles-square, Ladbroke Grove-
road, London, W.
*Shand, James. Parkholme, Elm Park-gardens, London, S.W.
tShanks, James. Dens Iron Works, Arbroath, N.B.
{Shann, George, M.D. Petergate, York.
*Shapter, Dr. Lewis, LL.D. 1 Barnfield-crescent, Exeter.
tSuarp, Davy, M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Museum of Zoology, Cam-
bridge.
Sharp, Rev. John, B.A. Horbury, Waketield.
{Sharp, T. B. French Walls, Birmingham.
*Sharp, William, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Horton House, Rugby.
Sharp, Rey. William, B.A. Mareham Rectory, near Boston, Lincoln-
shire.
tSharples, Charles H., '.C.S. 7 Fishergate, Preston.
{Shaw, Duncan. Cordova, Spain.
{Shaw, George. Cannon-street, Birmingham. f
*Suaw, H. S. Hers, M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in Univer-
sity College, Liverpool.
*Shaw, James B. Holly Bank, Cornbrook, Manchester.
tShaw, John. 21 St. James’s-road, Liverpool.
§Shaw, Saville. College of Science, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.
*Suaw, W.N., M.A. Emmanuel House, Cambridge.
tShaw, Mrs. W. N. Emmanuel House, Cambridge.
90
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
18838.
1884.
1878.
1865.
1881.
1885.
1863,
1885.
1890.
1883.
1883.
1885.
1883.
1888.
1886.
1883.
1867.
1887.
1889.
1885.
1885.
1870.
1888.
1888,
1875.
1882.
1881.
1889.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1877.
1885.
1873.
1878.
1859.
1871.
1862.
1874,
1876.
1887.
1847,
1866.
tSheard, J. 42 Hoghton-street, Southport.
{Sheldon, Professor J. P. Downton College, near Salisbury.
§Shelford, William, M.Inst.C.E. 35a Great George-street, West-
minster, S. W.
{Shenstone, Frederick S. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes.
{Smenstonn, W. A. Clifton College, Bristol.
{Shepherd; Rev. Alexander. Keclesmechen, Uphall, Edinburgh.
{Shepherd, A. L. 17 Great Cumberland-place, Hyde Park, London, W.
{Shepherd, Charles. 1 Wellington-street, Aberdeen.
§Shepherd, J. Care of J. Redmayne, Esq., Grove House, Heading-
ley, Leeds.
{Shepherd, James. Birkdale, Southport.
§Sherlock, David. Lower Leeson-street, Dublin.
§Sherlock, Mrs. David. Lower Leeson-street, Dublin.
{Sherlock, Rey. Edgar. Bentham Rectory, vid Lancaster.
*Shickle, Rev. C. W., M.A. Langridge Rectory, Bath.
{Shield, Arthur H. 35a Great George-street, London, S.W.
*Shillitoe, Buxton, F.R.C.S. 2 Frederick-place, Old Jewry, Lon-
don, E.C.
tShinn, William C. 389 Varden’s-road, Clapham Junction, Surrey, S.W.
*Surpitey, ARTHUR E., M.A. Christ’s College, Cambridge.
tShipley, J. A. D. Saltwell Park, Gateshead.
{Shirras, G. F. 16 Carden-place, Aberdeen.
{Shone, Isaac. Pentrefelin House, Wrexham.
*SHOOLBRED, JAMES N., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 1 Westminster-chambers,
London, 8. W.
§Shoppee, C. H. 22 John-street, Bedford-row, London, W.C.
Senos G. A., M.A., LL.D. 61 Doughty-street, London,
WwW
{Suorr, THomas W., F.C.S., F.G.S. Hartley Institution, South-
ampton.
{SHorg, T. W., M.D., B.Sc., Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy at
St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. Sunny Bank, Church-lane,
Hornsey, London, N.
{Shuter, James L. 9 Steele’s-road, Haverstock Hill, London, N.W.
§Sibley, Walter K., B.A., M.B. 7 Harley-street, London, W.
{Sibly, Miss Martha Agnes. Flook House, Taunton.
*Sidebotham, Edward John. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.
*Sidebotham, James Nasmyth. Parkfield, Altrincham, Cheshire.
*Sidebotham, Joseph Watson. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.
*Srpewicn, Henry, M.A., Litt.D., D.C.L., Professor of Moral Philo-
sophy in the University of Cambridge. Hillside, Chesterton-
road, Cambridge.
Sidney, M. J. F. Cowpen, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Siemens, Alexander. 7 Airlie-cardens, Campden Hill, London, W.
{Srenrson, Professor Groren, M.D., F.L.S., M.R.LA. 38 Clare-
street, Dublin.
{Sim, John. Hardgate, Aberdeen.
{Sime, James. Craigmount House, Grange, Edinburgh.
{Simms, James. 138 Fleet-street, London, E.C.
{Simms, William. The Linen Hall, Belfast.
{Simon, Frederick. 24 Sutherland-cardens, London, W.
*Simon, Henry. Darwin House, Didsbury, near Manchester.
tSimon, Sir John, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.C.S., Consulting
Surgeon to St. Thomas’s Hospital. 40 Kensington-square,
London, W.
fSimons, George. The Park, Nottingham.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 91
Year of
Election.
1871.
1885.
1887.
1867.
1859.
1863.
1857.
1883.
1887.
1874.
1870.
1864.
1865.
1879.
1883.
1885.
1888.
1870.
1873.
1889.
1884,
1877.
1884.
1849.
1860.
1867.
1887.
1887.
1881.
1885.
1889.
1858.
1876.
1877.
1890.
1876.
1876.
1867.
1857.
1872.
1874.
1887.
1873.
1887.
1889,
1865.
1886,
*Smrpson, ALEXANDER R., M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh.
tSimpson, Byron R. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
{Simpson, F. Estacion Central, Buenos Ayres.
{Simpson, G. B. Seafield, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
tSimpson, John, Maylirk, Kincardineshire.
{Simpson, J. B., F.G.8. Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne.
{Smreson, Maxwett, M.D., LL.D., F.RS., F.C.8., Professor of
Chemistry in Queen’s College, Cork.
{Simpson, Walter M. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
Simpson, William. Bradmore House, Hammersmith, London, W.
{Sinclair, Dr. 268 Oxford-street, Manchester.
tSinclair, Thomas. Dunedin, Belfast.
*Sinclair, W. P.,M.P. Rivelyn, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.
*Sircar, The Hon. Mahendra Lal, M.D., C.1.E. 51 Sankaritola, Cal-
cutta.
tSissons, William. 92 Park-street, Hull.
tSkertchly, Sydney B. J.,F.G.S. 3 Loughborough-terrace, Carshal-
ton, Surrey.
{Skillicorne, W. N. 9 Queen’s-parade, Cheltenham.
{Skinner, Provost. Inverurie, N.B.
{Sxring, H. D., J.P., D.L. Claverton Manor, Bath.
§StapEn, Watrer Percy, F.G.8., F.L.S. Orsett House, Ewell,
Surrey.
{Slater, Clayton, Barnoldswick, near Leeds.
§Slater, Matthew B., F.L.S. Malton, Yorkshire.
{Slattery, James W. 9 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
{Sleeman, Rey. Philip, L.Th., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Clifton, Bristol.
tSlooten, William Venn. Nova Scotia, Canada.
{Sloper, George Elgar. Devizes.
{Sloper, 8S. Elgar. Winterton, near Hythe, Southampton.
{Small, David. Gray House, Dundee.
§Small, E. W. 1] Arthur-street, Nottingham.
§Small, William. Cavendish-crescent North, The Park, Nottingham,
{Smallshan, John. 81 Manchester-road, Southport.
§Smart, James. Valley Works, Brechin, N.B.
*Smart, William. Nunholme, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
{Smeeton, G. H. Commercial-street, Leeds.
§Smellie, Thomas D. 213 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
{Smelt, Rev. Maurice Allen, M.A., F.R.A.S. Heath Lodge, Chel-
tenham.
§Smethurst, Charles. Palace House, Harpurhey, Manchester.
{Smieton, James. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
{Smieton, John G. 38-Polworth-road, Coventry Park, Streatham,
London, S.W.
{Smieton, Thomas A. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee. ©
{Smith, Aquilla, M.D., M.R.I.A. 121 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.
*Smith, Basil Woodd, F.R.A.S. Branch Hill Lodge, Hampstead
Heath, London, N.W.
*Smith, Benjamin Leigh, F.R.G.S. Oxford and Cambridge Club,
Pall Mall, London, S.W.
{Smith, Bryce. Rye Bank, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Manchester,
tSmith, C. Sidney College, Cambridge.
*Smith, Charles. 789 Rochdale-road, Manchester.
*Smith, C. Michie, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., F-R.A.S. Madras,
{Saarn, Davin, F.R.A.S. 40 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.
{Smith, Edwin. 33 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
92 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1886. {Smith, E. Fisher, J.P. The Priory, Dudley.
1886. {Smith, E.O. Council House, Birmingham.
1866. *Smith, F.C. Bank, Nottingham.
1887. §Smith, Rey. F. J., M.A. Trinity College, Oxford.
1855. {Smith, George. Port Dundas, Glasgow.
1885, {Smith, Rev. G. A., M.A. 91 Fountainhall-road, Aberdeen.
1860. *Smith, Heywood, M.A.,M.D. 18 Harley-street, Cavendish-square,
London, W.
1870. {Smith, H. lL. Crabwall Hall, Cheshire.
1889. *Smith, H. Llewellyn, B.A., B.Sc., F.S.S. 49 Beaumont-square,
London, E.
1888. {Smith, H. W. Owens College, Manchester.
1885. {Smith, Rev. James, B.D. Manse of Newhills, N.B.
1876. *Smith, J. Guthrie. 54 West Nile-street, Glasgow.
1874. {Smith, John Haigh. 77 Southbank-road, Southport.
Smith, John Peter George. Sweyney Cliff, Coalport, Iron Bridge,
Shropshire.
1871. {Smith, J. William Robertson, M.A., Lord Almoner’s Professor of
Arabic in the University of Cambridge.
1883. {Smith, M. Holroyd. Fern Hill, Halifax.
1886, *Smith, Mrs. Hencotes House, Hexham.
1837. Smith, Richard Bryan. Villa Nova, Shrewsbury.
1885. {Smirn, Roserr H., M-.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in the
Mason Science College, Birmingham.
1870. {Smith, Samuel. Bank of Liverpool, Liverpool.
1866, {Smith, Samuel. 33 Compton-street, Goswell-road, London, E.C,
1873. {Smith, Swire. Lowfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.
1867. {Smith, Thomas. Dundee.
1867. {Smith, Thomas. Poole Park Works, Dundee.
1859. {Smith, Thomas James, F.G.S., F.C.S. Hornsea Burton, East York-
shire.
1884. tSmith, Vernon. 127 Metcalfe-street, Ottawa, Canada.
1885, *Smith, Watson. University College, London, W.C.
1887. §Smith, Dr. Wilberforce. 14 Stratford-place, London, W.
1852. {Smith, William. Eglinton Engine Works, Glasgow.
1875. *Smith, William. Sundon House, Clifton, Bristol.
1876. {Smith, William. 12 Woodside-place, Glasgow.
1883. {SMITHELLs, ARTHUR, B.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in the Yorkshire
College, Leeds.
1883. {Smithson, Edward Walter. 13 Lendal, York.
1883. {Smithson, Mrs. 13 Lendal, York.
1878. {Smithson, Joseph 8S. Balnagowan, Rathmines, Co. Dublin.
1882. §Smithson, T. Spencer. Facit, Rochdale.
1874. {Smoothy, Frederick. Bocking, Essex.
1850. *Smyru, Cuartzs Prazzt, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. Clova, Ripon.
1883. {Smyth, Rev. Christopher. The Vicarage, Bussage, Stroud.
1874, {Smyth, Henry. Downpatrick, Ireland.
1878. §Smyth, Mrs. Isabella. Wigmore Lodge, Cullenswood-avenue,
Dublin.
1857. *Suyra, Jonn, jun., M.A., F.C.S., F.R.MS., M.Inst.C.E.I, Milltown,
Banbridge, Ireland.
1888. *Snare, H. Luoyp, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
University College, Aberystwith.
1888. {Snell, Albion T. Messrs. Immisch & Co., London.
. {Snell, Rev. Bernard J., M.A. 5 Park-place, Broughton, Manchester.
. {Snell, H. Saxon. 22 Southampton-buildings, London, W.C.
- PSnell, W. H. Lamorna, Oxford-road, Putney, S.W.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 92
Year of
Election.
1879. *Sottas, W. J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of
Geology in the University of Dublin. Trinity College, Dublin.
Sorbey, Alfred. The Rookery, Ashford, Bakewell.
1859. *Sorsy, H. Cuirron, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.G.S. Broomfield, Sheffield.
1879. *Sorby, Thomas W. Storthfield, Sheffield.
1888. {Sorley, Professor W. R. University College, Cardiff.
1886. {Southall, Alfred. Carrick House, Richmond Hill-road, Birmingham.
1865. *Southall, John Tertius. Parkfields, Ross, Herefordshire.
1859. tSouthall, Norman. 44 Cannon-street West, London, E.C.
1887. §Sowerbutts, Eli, F.R.G.S. Market-place, Manchester,
1888. {Spanton, William Dunnett, F.R.C.S. Chatterley House, Hanley,
Staffordshire.
1890. §Spark, F. R. 29 Hyde-terrace, Leeds,
1863. *Spark, H. King, F.G.S. Startforth House, Barnard Castle.
1889. {Spence, Faraday. 67 Grey-street, Hexham,
1869. *Spence, J. Berger. 31 Lombard-street, London, E.C,
1887. §Spencer, F. M. Fernhill, Knutsford.
1881. {Spencer, Herbert E. Lord Mayor's Walk, York.
1884, §Spencer, John, M.Inst.M.E. Globe Tube Works, Wednesbury.
1889. *Spencer, John. Newburn, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1861. {Spencer, John Frederick, 28 Great George-street, London, S.W.
1861. *Spencer, Joseph. Springbank, Old Trafford, Manchester.
1891. *Spencer, Richard Evans. 6 Working-street, Cardiff.
1863, *Spencer, Thomas. The Grove, Ryton, Blaydon-on-Tyne, Co.
Durham.
1875. {Spencer, W. H. Richmond Hill, Clifton, Bristol.
1864, *Spicer, Henry, B.A., F.L.S., F.G.8, 14 Aberdeen Park, High-
bury, London, N.
1864, *SprniEr, Jonny, F.C.S. 2 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, London, N.
1878. §Spottiswoode, George Andrew. 3 Cadogan-square, London, S.W.
1864. pera an de, W. Hugh, F.C.8. 41 Grosvenor-place, London,
W
1854, *Spracur, THomas Bonn, M.A., F.R.S.E. 26 St. Andrew-square,
Edinburgh.
1883. {Spratling, W. J., B.Sc., F.G.S. Maythorpe, 74 Wickham-road,
Brockley, 8.E.
1853. {Spratt, Joseph James. West-parude, Hull.
1888. {Spreat, John Henry. Care of Messrs. Vines & Froom, 75 Alders-
gate-street, London, H.C.
1884, *Spruce, Samuel. Beech House, Tamworth.
Square, Joseph Elliot. 147 Maida Vale, London, W.
1877. {Squarz, Wit11aM, F.R.C.S., F.R.G.S. 4 Portland-square, Plymouth.
*Squire, Lovell. 6 Heathfield-terrace, Chiswick, Middlesex.
1890. §Stables, James. Lane Ends, Horsham.
1888. *Stacy, J. Sargeant. 7 and 8 Paternoster-row, London, E.C.
1858. *Srarnton, Henry T., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. Mountsfield, Lewis-
ham, 8.E.
1884. {Stancoffe, Frederick. Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.
1883. *Stanford, Edward, jun., F.R.G.S. Thornbury, Bromley, Kent.
1865, {Sranrorp, Epwarp C. C., F.C.8. Glenwood, Dalmuir, N.B.
1881. *Stanley, William Ford, F.G.S. Cumberlow, South Norwood,
Surrey, 8.E.
1883. {Stanley, Mrs. Cumberlow, South Norwood, Surrey, 8.E.
Stapleton, M. H., M.B., M.R.I.A. 1 Mountjoy-place, Dublin,
1883. {Stapley, Alfred M. Marion-terrace, Crewe.
1876. {Starling, John Henry, F.0.S. The Avenue, Erith, Kent.
Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire.
94
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Hlection.
1873.
1881.
1881.
1884.
1875.
1887.
1887.
1884,
1884,
1884.
1879.
1870.
1880.
1886.
1878.
1865.
1889.
1882.
1890,
1885.
1864,
1885.
1886.
1887.
*Stead, Charles. Saltaire, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Stead. W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, London, E.
{Stead, Mrs. W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, London, E.
{Stearns, Sergeant P. U.S. Consul-General, Montreal, Canada.
{Steinthal,G. A. 15 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire,
{Steinthal, Rey. S. Alfred. 81 Nelson-street, Manchester.
{Stelfox, John L. 6 Hilton-street, Oldham, Manchester.
{Stephen, George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Stephen, Mrs. George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreai, Canada.
*Stephens, W. Hudson: Lowville (P.O.), State of New York, U.S.A.
*SrEPHENSON, Sir Henry, J.P. _ Glen, Sheffield. ;
*Stevens, Miss Anna Mera. 3 Elm Grove-terrace, London-road,
Salisbury.
*Stevens, J. Edward. 16 Woodlands-terrace, Swansea.
{Stevens, Marshall. Highfield House, Urmston, near Manchester, :
{ Stevenson, Rev. James, M.A. 21 Garville-avenue, Rathgar, Dublin.
*STEVENSON, JAMES C., M.P., F.C.S. Westoe, South Shields,
{Stevenson, T. Shannon. Westoe, South Shields.
TSteward, Rev. C. L., M.A. The Polygon, Southampton.
*Steward, Rey. Charles J., F.R.M.S. Somerleyton Rectory, Lowes-
toft. ‘
*Stewart, Rev. Alexander, M.D., LL.D. Heathcot, Aberdeen.
{Srewart, Cuarwes, M.A., F.L.S. St. Thomas’s Hospital, London,
S.E.
{Stewart, David. Banchory Tlouse, Aberdeen.
*Stewart, Duncan. 12 Montgomerie-crescent, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
{Stewart, George N. Physiological Laborator: 'y, Owens College, | Man-
chester.
*Stewart, James, B.A., F.R.C.P.Ed. Dunmurry, Sneyd Park, near
Clifton, Gloucestershire.
. {Stewart, William. Violet Grove House, St. George’s-road, Glasgow.
. {Stirling, Dr. D. Perth.
: {Srmei1Ne, Wit11aM, M.D., D.Se., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiolory
in the Owens College, Manchester.
5 “Stirrup, Mark, F.G.S. Stamford-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.
*Stock, Joseph’ S. St. Mildred’s, Walmer.
E §Stockdale, R. The Grammar School, Leeds.
. *Stocxrr, W. R. Cooper's Hill, Staines.
. {Stoess, Le Chevalier Ch. de W. ’ (Bavarian Consul). Liverpool.
. *Sroxns, Sir GroreE GABRIEL, Bart., M.P., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,
DSe. Pe heh) Lucasian Professor of Mathematics. in the
University of Cambridge. Lensfield Cottage, Cambridge.
. {Stone, E. D., F.C.S. The Depleach, Cheadle, Cheshire.
2. {SToNE, Epwarp James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of the
Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford,
. {Stone, J. B. The Grange, Erdington, Birmingham.
. {Stone, J. H. Grosyenor-road, Handsworth, Birmingham,
. IStone, J. Harris, M.A., F.LS., FOS. 11 Sheffield-gardens, Ken-
sington, London, W.
. {Sronn, Jonny. 15 Royal-crescent, Bath.
76. Stone, Octavius C., F.R.GS. Springfield, Nuneaton.
. {Stone, Thomas William. 189 Goldhawk-road, Shepherd’s Bush,
London,
. {Szonn, Dr. Wirtram H. 14 Dean’s-yard, Westminster, S. W.
. {Sronry, Bryvon B., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., M.R.LA., Engineer
of the Port of Dublin. 14 Elgin-road, Dublin,
. *Stoney, G. Gerald. 9 Palmerston Park, Dublin.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 95
Year of
Election.
1861. *Stonny, GrorcEr Jonnstone, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., MR.LA. 9 Pal-
merston Park, Dublin.
1876. §Stopes, Henry, F.G.S. Kenwyn, Cintra Park, Upper Norwood, S.E.
1888. §Stopes, Mrs. Kenwyn, Cintra Park, Upper Norwood, S.E,
1887. {Storer, Edwin. Woodlands, Crumpsall, Manchester.
1887.
1873.
1884,
1859.
1888.
1888.
1874.
1871.
1881.
1876.
1863.
1889.
1882.
1881.
1889.
1879.
1884,
1859,
1888.
1867.
1887.
1887.
1876.
1878.
1876.
1872.
1886.
1884.
1888.
1885.
1879.
1883,
1884,
1887.
1888.
1885.
1873.
1873.
1863.
1862.
1886,
*Storey, H. L. Caton, near Lancaster.
{Storr, William. The ‘Times’ Office, Printing-house-square, Lon-
don, E.C.
§Storrs, George H. Fern Bank, Stalybridge.
§Story, Captain James Hamilton. 17 Bryanston-square, London, W.
{Sroruert, J. L., M.Inst.C.E. Audley, Park-gardens, Bath.
*Stothert, Percy K. Audley, Park-gardens, Bath.
{Stott, William. Scar Bottom, Greetland, near Halifax, Yorkshire.
*SrracHEy, Lieut.-General Ricwarp, R.E., C.8.1., F.RS., F.R.GS.,
F.LS., F.G.S. 69 Lancaster-gate, Hyde Park, London, W.
{Strahan, Aubrey, M.A., I.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-
street, London, S.W.
{Strain, John, 145 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
tStraker, John. Wellington House, Durham.
§Straker, Captain Joseph. Dilston House, Riding Mill-on-Tyne.
{Strange, Rev. Cresswell, M.A. Edgbaston Vicarage, Birmingham.
{Strangways, C. Fox, F.G.8. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
London, S.W.
egy a H. 8. The Limes, Leigham Court-road, Streatham,
W.
*Strickland, Charles. 21 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
{Strickland, Sir Charles W., K.C.B. Hildenley-road, Malton.
{Stringham, Irving. The University, Berkeley, California, U.S.A,
{Stronach, William, R.E. Ardmellie, Banff.
§Strong, Henry J.. M.D. Whitgift House, Croydon.
{Stronner, D. 14 Princess-street, Dundee.
*Stroud, Professor H., M.A., D.Sc., College of Science, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.
*Stroud, William, D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the Yorkshire Col-
lege, Leeds.
*StrurHeErs, JoHN, M.D., LL.D. Aberdeen.
{Strype, W.G. Wicklow. c
*Stuart, Charles Maddock. High School, Newcastle, Staffordshire.
*Stuart, Rev. Edward A., M.A. 116 Grosyenor-road, Highbury New
Park, London, N.
{Stuart, G. Morton, M.A. East Harptree, near Bristol.
{Stuart, Dr. W. Theophilus. 183 Spadina-ayenue, Toronto, Canada.
*Stubbs, Rev. Elias T., M.A. 4 Springfield-place, Bath.
§Stump, Edward C. 26 Parkfield-street, Moss-lane Kast, Manchester,
*Styring, Robert. 3 Hartshead, Sheffield.
Sulivan, H. N., F.R.G.S. King-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Summers, William, M.P. Sunnyside, Ashton-under-Lyne.
tSumner, George. 107 Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Sumpner, W. KE. 37 Pennyfields, Poplar, London, E.
{Sunderland, John E. Bark House, Hatherlow, Stockport.
{Sutcliffe, J. S., J.P. Beech House, Bacup.
{Sutcliffe, J. W. Sprink Bank, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Sutcliffe, Robert. Idle, near Leeds.
tSutherland, Benjamin John. Thurso House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*SUTHERLAND, GEORGE GRANVILLE WILLIAM, Duke of, K.G.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Stafford House, London, 8, W.
{Sutherland, Hugh. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
96 LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1884. {Sutherland, J.C. Richmond, Quebec, Canada.
1863. {Surron, Francis, F.C.S._ Bank Plain, Norwich.
1881.
1889.
1881.
tSutton, William. Town Hall, Southport.
tSutton, William. Esbank, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Swales, William. Ashville, Holgate Hill, York.
1876. {Swan, David, jun. Braeside, Maryhill, Glasgow.
1881,
1861.
1862.
1879.
1883.
1887.
1870.
1885.
1887.
1873.
1890.
1889.
1883.
1873.
1887.
1890.
1862.
1887.
1870.
1885.
1881
{Swan, Joseph Wilson, M.A. Lauriston, Bromley, Kent.
*Swan, Patrick Don 8. Kirkcaldy, N.B.
*Swan, Wittram, LL.D., F.R.S.E., Emeritus Professor of Natural
Philosophy in the University of St. Andrews. Ardchapel,
Helensburgh, N.B.
t{Swanwick, Frederick. Whittington, Chesterfield.
{Sweeting, Rey. T. E. 50 Roe-lane, Southport.
§Swinburne, James. 49 Queen’s-road, Wimbledon, Surrey.
*Swinburne, Sir John, Bart., M.P. Capheaton, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Swindells, Miss. Springfield House, Ilkley, Yorkshire.
*Swindells, Rupert, F.R.G.S. Wilton Villa, The Firs, Bowdon,
Cheshire.
*Swinglehurst, Henry. Hincaster House, near Milnthorpe.
§Swinhoe, Colonel C. Avenue House, Oxford.
§Sworn, Sidney A., B.A., F.C.S. 152 Railton-road, Herne Hill,
London, 8.E.
{Sykes, Alfred. Highfield, Huddersfield.
§Sykes, Benjamin Clifford, M.D. St. John’s House, Cleckheaton.
*Sykes, George H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.S.A, 12 Albert-square,
Clapham, London, 8.W.
§Sykes, Joseph. 113 Beeston-hill, Leeds.
tSykes, Thomas. Cleckheaton.
*Sykes, T. H. Cheadle, Cheshire.
Sytvester, JAmMes Josep, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Savilian
Professor of Geometry in the University of Oxford. Oxford.
t{Symes, Rrcwarp Gurascorr, B.A., F.G.8., Geological Survey of
Treland. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
{Symington, Johnson, M.D. 2 Greenhill Park, Edinburgh.
. *Symington, Thomas. Wardie House, Edinburgh.
1859. §Symons, G. J., F.R.S., Sec.R.Met.Soc. 62 Camden-square, London,
1883
N.W.
. [Symons, Simon. Belfast House, Farquhar-road, Norwood, S.E.
1855. *Symons, Witttam, F’.C.S. Dragon House, Bilbrook, near Taunton.
1886. §Symons, W. H., F.LC., F.R.M.S. 180 Fellowes-road, Hampstead,
1872
1865
1877
1871
1867
1890
1890
1883
1878
1861
London, N.W.
. {Synge, Major-General Millington, R.E., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. United
Service Club, Pall Mall, London, 8. W.
. {Tailyour, Colonel Renny, R.E. Newmanswalls, Montrose, N.B.
. *Tarr, Lawson, F.R.C.S. The Crescent, Birmingham.
. {Tarr, Perer Gururie, F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the University of Edinburgh. George-square, Edinburgh.
. {Tait, P. M., F.R.G.S., F.S.8S. Hardwicke House, Hardwicke-road,
Eastbourne.
. §Talbot, Rev. E.S, The Vicarage, Leeds.
. §Tanner, H. W. Lion, M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Astro-
nomy in University College, Cardiff.
. §Tapscott, R. L., F.G.S. 62 Croxteth-road, Liverpool.
. {Tarpzy, Huen. Dublin.
. *Tarratt, Henry W. Moseley, Owl’s-road, Boscombe, Bournemouth.’
1857. *Tate, Alexander. Longwood, Whitehouse, Belfast.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 97
Year of
Electio .
1870. {Tate, A. Norman, F.C.S. 9 Hackins Hey, Liverpool.
1890. §Tate, Thomas, F.G.S. 5 Eldon-mount, Woodhouse-lane, Leeds.
1858. *Tatham, George, J.P. Springtield Mount, Leeds.
1886. {Taunton, Richard. Brook Vale, Witton.
1878. *Taylor, A. Claude. North Circus-street, Nottingham.
1884. *Taylor, Rev. Charles, D.D. St. John’s Lolge, Cambridge.
Taylor, Frederick, Laurel Cottage, Rainhill, near Prescot, Lan-
cashire.
1887. §Taylor,G. H. Holly House, 235 Eccles New-road, Salford.
1874. {Taylor,G. P. Students’ Chambers, Belfast.
1887. §Taylor, George Spratt, F.C.S. 13 Queen’s-terrace, St. John’s
Wood, London, N. W.
1881. *Taylor, H. A. 25 Collingham-road, South Kensington, London,
S.W
1884. *Taylor, H. M., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
1882. *Taylor, Herbert Owen, M.D. 17 Castlegate, Nottingham.
1887. {Taytor, Rev. Canon Isaac, D.D. Settrington Rectory, York.
1879. {Taylor, John. Broomhall-place, Sheffield.
1861. *Taylor, John, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8. 29 Portman-square, London, W.
1873. {Taytor, Joun Extor, Ph.D. F.LS., F.G.S. The Mount,
Ipswich.
1881. *Taylor, John Francis. Holly Bank House, York.
1865. {Taylor, Joseph. 99 Constitution-hill, Birmingham.
1883. {Taylor, Michael W., M.D. Hatton Hall, Penrith.
1876. Taylor, Robert. 70 Bath-street, Glaszow.
1878. {Taylor, Robert, J.P., LL.D. Corballis, Drogheda.
1884, *Taylor, Miss S. Oak House, Shaw, near Oldham.
1881. {Taylor, Rev. S. B., M.A. Whixley Hall, York.
1883. {Taylor, S. Leigh. Birklands, Westcliffe-road, Birkdale, Southport..
1870. {Taylor, Thomas. Aston Rowant, Tetsworth, Oxon.
1887. {Taylor, Tom. Grove House, Sale, Manchester.
1883. tTaylor, William, M.D. 21 Crockherbtown, Cardiff.
1884, {Taylor-Whitehead, Samuel, J.P. Burton Closes, Bakewell,
1858. {Teale, Thomas Pridgin, M.A., F.R.S. 38 Cookridge-street, Leeds.
1885, {Teall, J. J. H., M.A., F.RS., F.G.S. 23 Jermyn-street, London, .
S.W.
1869. { Teesdale, C.S.M. Whyke House, Chichester.
1879. {Temple, Lieutenant George T., R.N., F.R.G.S. The Nash, near
Worcester.
1880. §Temprz, Sir Ricwarp, Bart., G.C.S.I., C.LE., D.O.L., (LL,D.,_
M.P., F.R.G.S. Athenzeum Club, London, 8. W.
1863. {Tennant, Henry. Saltwell, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1889. §Tennant, James. Dartmoor Lodge, Gateshead.
1882. §Terrill, William. 42 St. George’s-terrace, Swansea,
1881. {Terry, Mr. Alderman. Mount-villas, York.
1883. {Tetley,C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.
1883. {Tetley, Mrs.C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.
1887. {Tetlow, T. 273 Stamford-street, Ashton-under-Lyne,
1882. *Thane, George Dancer, Professor of Anatomy in University College,.
Gower-street, London, W.C.
1885. {Thin, Dr. George, 22 Queen Anne-street, London, W.
1871. {Thin, James. 7 Rillbank-terrace, Edinburgh.
1871. {Tuisetron-Dyer, W. T., C.M.G., M.A., B.Se.,° F.RS., F.LS..
Royal Gardens, Kew.
1835. Thom, John. Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire.
1870. {Thom, Robert Wilson. Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire.
1871. ¢{Thomas, Ascanius William Nevill. Chudleigh, Devon,
@
98
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1875.
1883.
1884.
1875.
1869.
1881.
1869,
1880.
1883.
1883.
1883,
1886,
1886.
1875.
1887.
1883.
1882.
1888.
1885.
1883
1859.
1870.
1889.
1883.
1883.
1861.
1873.
1876.
1883.
1874.
1876.
1884.
1883.
1863.
1867.
1850.
1889.
1868.
1876.
1890.
1883.
1871.
1886.
*THoMAS, CHRISTOPHER JAMES. Drayton Lodge, Redland, Bristol.
tThomas, Ernest C.,B.A. 18 South-square, Gray’s Inn, London, W.C.
{THomas, F. Wotrerstan. Molson’s Bank, Montreal, Canada.
Thomas, George. Brislington, Bristol.
{Thomas, Herbert. Ivor House, Redland, Bristol.
{Thomas, H. D. Fore-street, Exeter.
§THomAs, J. Brount. Southampton.
{Thomas, J. Henwood, F.R.G.S. Custom House, London, E.C.
*Thomas, Joseph William, F.C.S. The Laboratory, West Wharf,
Cardiff.
t{Thomas, P. Bossley. 4 Bold-street, Southport.
§Thomas, Thomas H. 45 The Walk, Cardilf.
{Thomas, William. Lan, Swansea.
{Thomas, William. 109 Tettenhall-road, Wolverhampton.
§Thomasson, Yeoville. 9 Observatory-gardens, Kensington, Lon-
don, W.
{Thompson, Arthur. 12 St. Nicholas-street, Hereford.
§Thompson, C. 15 Patshull-road, Kentish Town, London, N.W.
{Thompson, Miss C. E. Heald Bank, Bowdon, Manchester.
tThompson, Charles O. Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A.
*Thompson, Claude M., M.A., Professor of Chemistry in University
College, Cardiff.
t{Thompson, D’Arcy W., B.A., Professor of Physiology in University
College, Dundee. _ University College, Dundee. ;
*Thompson, Francis. Lynton, Haling Park-road, Croydon.
{tThompson, George, jun. Pitmedden, Aberdeen.
Thompson, Harry Stephen. Kirby Hall, Great Ouseburn, Yorkshire.
{THompson, Sir Henry. 35 Wimpole-street, London, W.
{Thompson, Henry. 2 Eslington-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Thompson, Henry G., M.D. 8 Addiscombe-villas, Croydon.
Thompson, Henry Stafford. Fairfield, near York.
*THompson, Isaac Cooxrs, F.L.S., F.R.M.S. Woodstock, Waverley-
road, Liverpool.
*THOMPSON, JOSEPH. Riversdale, Wilmslow, Manchester,
{Thompson, Sir M. W., Bart. Guiseley, Yorkshire.
*Thompson, Richard. Hob Moor, York.
{Thompson, Richard. Bramley Mead, Whalley, Lancashire.
tThompson, Robert. “Walton, Fortwilliam Park, Belfast.
{THompson, Sttvanus Purzirs, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.A.S., Professor
of Physics in the City and Guilds of London Institute, Finsbury
Technical Institute, E.C. .
+ Thompson, Sydney de Courcy. 16 Canonbury-park South, London, N.
*Thompson, T. H. Heald Bank, Bowdon, Manchester.
t¢ Thompson, William. 11 North-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Thoms, William. Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee. pes.
*TnHomson, JAMES, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. L. & E.. 2 Florentine-
gardens, Hillhead-street, Glasgow. 8g
*Thomson, James, jun, M.A. 2 Florentine-gardens, Hillhead-
street, Glasgow.
§THomson, James, F.G.8. 26 Leven-street, Pollokshields, Glasgow.
{Thomson, James R. Mount Blow, Dalmuir, Glasgow.
§Thomson, J. Arthur. 30 Royal-circus, Edinburgh.
t{THomson, J. J., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Experimental Physics in —
the University of Cambridge. Trinity College, Cambridge. —
*THomson, Joun Mrxxar, F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in King’s
College, London. 53 Prince’s-square, London, W.
{Thomson, Joseph. Thornhill, Dumfries-shire.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 99
Year of
Election.
1863.
1847.
1877.
1874.
1880.
1871.
1852.
1886.
1887.
1867.
1883.
1845.
1881.
1871.
1881.
1864.
1871.
1883.
1883.
1868.
1889.
1870.
1873.
1885.
1874.
1873.
1883.
1883.
1865.
1876.
1889.
1887.
1857.
1888,
1864,
1887.
1887.
1865.
1865.
1873.
1887.
1861.
1872,
1886.
tThomson, Murray. 44 Victoria-road, Gipsy Hill, London, S.E.
*THomson, Sir Witt1aAm, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., Pres.R.S., F.R.S.E.,
F.R.A.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of
Glasgow. The University, Glasgow.
*Thomson, Lady. The University, Glasgow.
§Taomson, WILLIAM, F.R.S.E.,F.C.S. Royal Institution, Manchester.
§Thomson, William J. Ghyllbank, St. Helens,
tThornburn, Rey. David, M.A. 1 John’s-place, Leith.
f{Thornburn, Rey. William Reid, M.A. Starkies, Bury, Lancashire.
§Thornley, J. KE, Lyndon, Bickenhill, near Birmingham.
{Thornton, John. 3 Park-street, Bolton.
{Thornton, Thomas. Dundee.
§Thorowgood, Samuel. Castle-square, Brighton.
{Thorp, Dr. Disney. Lypiatt Lodge, Suffolk Lawn, Cheltenham.
{Thorp, Fielden. Blossom-street, York.
tThorp, Henry. Briarleigh, Sale, near Manchester.
*Thorp, Josiah. 86 Canning-street, Liverpool. )
*Thorp, William, B.Sc., F.C.S. 24 Crouch Hall-road, Crouch End,
London, N.
t{Tuorpr, T. E., Ph.D., F.R.S.L.& E., F.C.S., Professor of Che-
mistry in the Royal College of Science, South Kensington,
London, 8. W.
§Threlfall, Henry Singleton. 12 London-street, Southport.
{Thresh, John C., D.Sc. The Willows, Buxton.
{Tuurtrer, General Sir H. E. L., R.A., C.S.1, F.R.S., F.R.G.S,
Tudor House, Richmond Green, Surrey.
tThys, Captain Albert. 9 Rue Briderode, Brussels.
{Tichborne, Charles R. C., LL.D., F.C.S., M.R.I.A. Apothecaries’
Hall of Ireland, Dublin.
*TropEMan, R. H., M.A.,F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.
§Tipy, Cuartrs Meymort, M.D. 3 Mandeville-place, Cavendish-
square, London, W.
{Tipen, Wittram A., D.Sc., F.B.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry
and Metallurgy in the Mason Science College, Birmingham.
tTilghman, B. C. Philadelphia, U.S.A.
tTillyard, A. I.,M.A. Fordfield, Cambridge.
tTillyard, Mrs. Fordfield, Cambridge.
tTimmins, Samuel, J.P., F.S.A. Hill Cottage, Fillongley, Coventry.
tTodd, Rev. Dr. Tudor Hall, Forest Hill, London, S.E,
§Toll, John M. Monkton Lodge, Anfield, Liverpool.
tTolmé, Mrs. Melrose House, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
tTombe, Rev. Canon. Glenealy, Co. Wicklow.
tTomkins, Rev. Henry George. Park Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.
*Towminson, Onar.es, F.R.S., F.C.S. 7 North-road, Highgate, ©
London, N.
tTonge, Rev. Canon. Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Manchester.
tTonge, James. Woodbine House, West Houghton, Bolton,
tTonks, Edmund, B.C.L. Packwood Grange, Knowle, Warwickshire.
*Tonks, William Henry. The Rookery, Sutton Coldfield.
*Tookey, Charles, F.C.S. Royal School of Mines, Jermyn-street,
London, 8S. W.
tTopham, F. 15 Great George-street, London, S.W.
*Topham, John, A.I.C.E. High Elms, 265 Mare-street, Hackney,
London, E.
*Toriey, WizuaM, F.RS., F.G.S., A.LC.E. Geological Survey
Office, Jermyn-street, London, 8. W.
tTopley, Mrs. W. ee ae Elgin-road, Croydon.
G
100
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1875. §Torr, Charles Hawley. St. Alban’s Tower, Mansfield-road, Sher-
1886.
1884.
1884,
1873.
1875.
1883.
1861.
1877.
1876,
1883.
1870.
1875.
1868.
1884.
1868.
1883,
1884.
1884,
1879.
1877.
1871.
1860.
1884.
1885.
1887.
1869.
1885.
1847.
1888.
1871.
1887.
1883.
1855.
wood, Nottingham.
{Torr, Charles Walker. Cambridge-street Works, Birmingham.
tTorrance, John F. Folly Lake, Nova Scctia, Canada.
*Torrance, Rev. Robert, D.D. Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
Towgood, Edward. St. Neot’s, Huntingdonshire.
Townend, W. H. Heaton Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire.
t{Townsend, Charles. Avenue House, Cotham Park, Bristol.
t{ Townsend, Francis Edward. 19 Aughton-road, Birkdale, Southport.
{Townsend, William. Attleborough Hall, near Nuneaton.
{Tozer, Henry. Ashburton.
*TrarL, Professor J. W. H., M.A., M.D., F.L.S. University of Aber-
deen, Old Aberdeen.
t{Trart, A., M.D., LL.D. Ballylough, Bushmills, Ireland.
{Traizt, Witriam <A. Giant’s Causeway Electric Tramway,
Portrush, Ireland.
tTrapnell, Caleb. Severnleigh, Stoke Bishop.
{TRAqvaiR, Ramsay H., M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the Natural
History Collections, Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh.
{Trechmann, Charles O., Ph.D., F.G.S. Hartlepool.
{Trehane, John. Exe View Lawn, Exeter.
Trench, F, A. Newlands House, Clondalkin, Ireland.
{Trendell, Edwin James, J.P. Abbey House, Abingdon, Berks.
{Trenham, Norman W. 18 St. Alexis-street, Montreal, Canada.
§Tribe, Paul C. M. 44 West Oneida-street, Oswego, New York, U.S.A.
{Trickett, F. W. 12 Old Haymarket, Sheffield.
{Trrmun, Henry, M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Peradeniya, Ceylon.
{Trien, Rotanp, F.RS., F.LS., F.Z.S. Colonial Secretary’s:
Office, Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope.
§TristRAM, Rey. Henry Barer, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Canon,
of Durham. The College, Durham.
*Trotter, Alexander Pelham. 53 Addison-mansions, Blythe-road,
West Kensington, London, W.
§Trorrer, Oovrrs, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 17 Charlotte-square, Edin—
burgh.
*T Satin, Riecionay T. Trinity College, Dublin.
{Troyte,C. A. W. Huntsham Oourt, Bampton, Devon.
*Tubby, A. H. Guy’s Hospital, London, 8.E.
*Tuckett, Francis Fox. Frenchay, Bristol.
{Tuckett, William Fothergill, M.D. 18 Daniel-street, Bath.
Tuke, James H. Bancroft, Hitchin.
tTuke, J. Batty, M.D. Cupar, Fifeshire.
{Tuke, W.C. 29 Princess-strect, Manchester.
{Tupprr, The Hon. Sir Cuarzzs, Bart., G.C.M.G., C.B., High Com-
’ missioner for Canada. 9 Victoria-chambers, London, 8. W.
{Turnbull, John. 37 West George-street, Glasgow.
1871. {Turnbull, William, F.R.S.E. Menslaws, Jedburgh, N.B.
1882.
1888.
1888.
1886.
1863.
tTurner, G. S, 9 Carlton-crescent, Southampton.
{Turner, Mrs, G. 8. 9 Carlton-crescent, Southampton.
{Turner, J.S., J.P. Granville, Lansdowne, Bath.
*Turner, THomas, A.R.S.M., F.C.S., F.1.C. Mason Science College,
Birmingham.
. *Turner, Sir Wittram, M.B., LL.D., D:C.L., F.R.S. L. & E., Pro-
fessor of Anatomy in the University of Edinburgh. 6 Eton-
terrace, Edinburgh.
1890. §Turpin, G.8., B.A. 2 St. James’s-terrace, Nottingham.
1883.
{Turrell, Miss 8.8. High School, Redland-groye, Bristol.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 101
Year of
Election.
1884.
1884,
1886.
1847.
1888.
1882,
1865.
1858.
1883.
1861.
1884,
1888.
1886,
1885.
1883.
1883.
1876.
1887.
1872.
1876.
1859.
1866.
1880,
1885.
1887.
1888.
1884.
1883.
1886.
1868.
1865.
1870.
1869.
1884.
1875.
1883.
1881.
1878.
1883.
1883.
1864.
1890.
*Tutin, Thomas. The Orchard, Chellaston, Derby.
*Tweddell, Ralph Hart. Meopham Court, Gravesend, Kent.
*Twige, G. H. Church-road, Moseley, Birmingham.
{Twiss, Sir Travers, Q.C., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 3 Paper-
buildings, Temple, London, E.C.
§Tyack, Llewellyn Newton. University College, Bristol.
rend. Horneck, Fitzjohn’s-avenue, Hampstead, London,
§Tyxor, Epwarp Burnett, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Keeper of the
University Museum, Oxford.
*TynpDaLL, JouN, D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Hon. Pro-
fessor of Natural Philosophy in the Royal Institution, London.
Hind Head House, Haslemere, Surrey.
{Tyrer, Thomas, F.C.S. Garden-wharf, Battersea, London, S.W.
*Tysoe, John. 23 Heald-road, Bowdon, near Manchester.
*Underhill, G. E., M.A. “ Magdalen College, Oxford.
{Underhill, H. M. 7 High-street, Oxford.
{Underhill, Thomas, M.D. West Bromwich:
§Unwin, Howard. Newton-grove, Bedford Park, Chiswick, London.
§Unwin, John. Park-crescent, Southport.
§Unwin, William Andrews. The Briars, Freshfield, near Liverpool.
*Unwin, W. C., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering at
the Central Institute, City and Guilds of London. 7 Palace-
gate Mansions, Kensington, London, W.
{Upton, Francis R. Orange, New Jersey, U.S.A.
tUpward, Alfred. 11 Great Queen-street, Westminster, London, S.W.
tUre, John F. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.
tUrquhart, W. Pollard. Craigston Castle, N.B.; and Castlepollard,
Ireland.
tUrquhart, William W. Rosebay, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
tUssuzr, W. A. E., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.
tVachell, Charles Tanfield, M.D. Cardiff.
*Valentine, Miss Anne. The Elms, Hale, near Altrincham.
{Vallentin, Rupert. 18 Kimberley-road, Falmouth.
{Van Horne, W. C. Dorchester-street West, Montreal, Canada.
*VanSittart, ‘he Hon. Mrs. A. A. 11 Lypiatt-terrace, Cheltenham.
{Varpy, Rev. A,R., M.A. King Edward’s School, Birmingham.
tVarley, eee ee ae eeey Park Works, Mildmay-
avenue, Stoke Newington, London, N.
*VARLEY, 8. ALFRED. 2 Hamilton-road, Highbur Park, London, N.
: y
awe ba ae ctemanererec Highbury Park, London, N
arwell, P. phington-street, Exeter.
{Vasey, Charles. 112 Cambridge-gardens, London, W.
TVaughan, Miss. Burlton Hall, Shrewsbury.
{Vaughan, William. 42 Sussex-road, Southport.
§Vetry, V. H., M.A., F.C.S. University College, Oxford.
*VerRney, Captain Epmunp H., R.N., F.R.G.S. Rhianva, Bangor,
North Wales.
*Verney, Mrs. Rhianva, Bangor, North Wales.
Verney, Sir Harry. Bart., M.P. Lower Claydon, Buckinghamshire.
Vernon, George John, Lord. Sudbury Hall, Derbyshire.
{Vernon, H.H.,M.D. York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
*Vicary, Witt1aM, F.G.S. The Priory, Colleton-crescent, Exeter.
*Villamil, Major R. de, R.E. : Care of Messrs. Cox & Co., 16 Char-
ing Cross, London, S.W.
102 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1868. {Vincent, Rev. William. Postwick Rectory, near Norwich.
1883. *Vines, Sydney Howard, M.A., D.S8c., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of
Botany in the University of Oxford. Headington Hill, Oxford.
1856, { Vivian, Epwarp, M.A. Woodfield, Torquay.
*Vivian, Sir H. Husszy, Bart., M.P., F.G.S. Park Wern,
Swansea; and 27 Belgrave-square, London, 8. W.
1886. *Wackrill, Samuel Thomas, J.P. Leamington.
1860. {Waddingham, John. Guiting Grange, Winchcombe, Gloucestershire.
1890. § Wadsworth, George Henry. 3 Southfield-square, Bradford, York-
shire.
1888. {Wadworth, H. A. Devizes, Wiltshire.
1890. §Wager, Harold W. T. 18 Consort-terrace, St. John’s-road, Leeds.
1884. { Wait, Charles E., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Ten-
nessee. Knoxville, Tennessee, U.S.A.
1886. tWaite, J. W. The Cedars, Bestcot, Walsall.
1879. *Wake, Bernard. Abbeyfield, Sheffield.
1870. {Waxke, CHARLES STanrLaAND. Welton, near Brough, East Yorkshire.
1884, {Waldstein, Charles, M.A., Ph.D. Cambridge.
1873. {Wales, James. 4 Mount Royd, Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1882, *Wallkden, Samuel. The Thorne, Bexhill, near Hastings, Sussex.
1890. § Walker, A. T. Headingley, Leeds.
1885. { Walker, Mr. Baillie. 52 Victoria-street, Aberdeen.
1890. § Walker, Benjamin. Moor Allerton, Leeds.
1885, § Walker, Charles Clement, F.R.A.S. Lillieshall Old Hall, Newport,
Shropshire.
1883. {Walker, Mrs. Emma. 14 Bootham-terrace, York.
1883. { Walker, E. R. Pagefield Ironworks, Wigan.
Walker, Frederick John. The Priory, Bathwick, Bath.
1883. {Walker, George. 11 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead, Liverpool.
1866. { Walker, H. Westwood, Newport, by Dundee.
1890. § Walker, Dr. James. 8 Windsor-terrace, Dundee,
1885. tWatxerr, General J. T., CB, RE, LLD., F.RS., F.R.GS.
13 Cromwell-road, London, 8. W.
1866, *WatrxeEr, Jonn Francis, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.L.8. 45 Bootham,.
York.
1855. {Watxker, Joun James, M.A., F.R.S. 12 Denning-road, Hamp-
stead, London, N.W.
1881. {Walker, John Sydenham. 83 Bootham, York.
1867. *Walker, Peter G. 2 Airlie-place, Dundee.
1886. *Walker, Major Philip Billingsley. Sydney, New South Wales.
1866. {Walker, 8. D. 388 Hampden-street, Nottingham.
1884. { Walker, Samuel. Woodbury, Sydenham Hill, London, 8.E.
1888. § Walker, Sydney F. 195 Severn-road, Cardiff.
1887. {Walker, T. A. 15 Great George-street, London, 8. W.
1883. {Walker, Thomas A. 66 Leyland-road, Southport.
Walker, William. 47 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.
1881. *Walker, William. 14 Bootham-terrace, York.
1883. {Wall, Henry. 14 Park-road, Southport.
1863. {Wattacr, Atrrep Rousset, D.C.L., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Corfe View,
Parkstone, Dorset.
1883. *Wallace, George J. Hawthornbank, Dunfermline.
1887. *Waller, Augustus, M.D. Weston Lodge, 16 Grove End-road, Lon-
don, N.W.
1862. {Wallich, George Charles, M.D., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 26 Addison-road
North, Notting Hill, London, W.
1886. {Walliker, Samuel. Grandale, Westfield-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 108
Year of
Election.
1889.
1883.
1884.
1886,
1885.
1887.
1883.
1862.
1863.
1881.
1865.
1884,
1887.
1874.
1881.
1879.
1890.
1874.
1887.
1857.
1880.
1884,
1885.
1887.
1882.
1867.
1858.
1884,
1887.
1878.
1882.
1884.
1875.
1887.
1856.
1875.
1870.
1875.
1881.
1887.
1884.
1886.
1883,
1885.
1882.
1887.
1884.
*Wallis, Arnold J.,M.A. 4 Belvoir-terrace, Cambridge.
Wallis, Rev. Frederick. Caius College, Cambridge,
{ Wallis, Herbert. Redpath-street, Montreal, Canada.
Wallis, Whitworth. Westfield, Westfield-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.
{Walmesley, Oswald. Shevington Hall, near Wigan.
{Walmsley, J. Winton, Patricroft, Manchester.
tWalmsley, T. M. Clevelands, Chorley-road, Heaton, Bolton.
tWatrore, The Right Hon. Spencer Horatio, M.A., D.C.L.,
F.R.S. Ealing, Middlesex, W.
Walters, Robert. Eldon-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Walton, Thomas, M.A. Oliver's Mount School, Scarborough.
}Wanklyn, James Alfred. 7 Westminster-chambers, London, 8.W.
t{Wanless, John, M.D. 88 Union-avenue, Montreal, Canada.
} Ward, A. W., M.A., Litt.D., Principal of Owens College, Manchester.
§ Ward, F. D., J.P., M.R.I.A. Clonaver, Strandtown, Co. Down.
§Ward, George, F.C.S. Buckingham-terrace, Headingley, Leeds.
fWaxp, H. MarswHatr, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in
the Royal Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper’s Hill,
Egham.
§ Ward, Alderman John. Moor Allerton House, Leeds,
§Ward, John, F.S.A. Lenoxvale, Belfast.
§ Warp, Joun, F.G.S. 23 Stafford-street, Longton, Staffordshire.
{Ward, John S. Prospect Hill, Lisburn, Ireland.
*Ward, J. Wesney. Red House, Ravensbourne Park, Catford,
S.E.
*Ward, John William. Newstead, Halifax.
f}Ward, Thomas, F.C.S. Arnold House, Blackpool.
{Ward, Thomas. Brookfield House, Northwich.
}Ward, William. Cleveland Cottage, Hill-lane, Southampton.
}Warden, Alexander J. 23 Panmure-street, Dundee,
tWardle, Thomas. Leek Brook, Leek, Staffordshire.
§ Wardwell, George J. Rutland, Vermont, U.S.A.
*Waring, Richard 8. Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
§Warineron, Roper, F.R.S., F.C.S. Harpenden, St. Albans, Herts,
{Warner, F. W., F.L.S. 20 Hyde-street, Winchester.
*Warner, James D. 199 Baltic-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A.
t{Warren, Algernon. 6 Windsor-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
tWarreN, Major-General Sir Cartes, R.E., K.C.B., G.C.M.G.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Athenzeum Club, London, 8.W.
t{ Washbourne, Buchanan, M.D. Gloucester.
*Waterhouse, Lieut.-Colonel J. 40 Hamilton-terrace, London,
N.W.
Waters, A. T. H., M.D. 20 Hope-street, Liverpool.
{Watherston, Rev. Alexander Law, M.A., F.R.A.S. The Grammar
School, Hinckley, Leicestershire.
§Watherston, KE. J. 12 Pall Mall East, London, 8. W.
{Watkin, F. W. 46 Auriol-road, West Kensington, London, W.
t{Watson, A. G., D.C.L. The School, Harrow, Middlesex.
*Watson, C. J. 34 Smallbrook-street, Birmingham.
{Watson, C. Knight, M.A. Society of Antiquaries, Burlington House,
London, W.
{Watson, Deputy Surgeon-General G. A. Hendre, Overton Park,
Cheltenham.
tWarson, Rev. H. W., D.Sc., F.R.S. Berkeswell Rectory, Coventry.
{ Watson, J. Beauchamp. Gilt Hall, Carlisle.
{Watson, John. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.
104
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1889.
1859.
1863.
1863.
1867.
1879.
1882.
1884.
1869.
1888.
1875.
1884.
1870.
1878.
1883.
1859.
1869,
1883.
1871.
1890.
1866.
1886.
1859.
1834,
1882.
1889.
1884.
1889.
1890.
1886.
1865.
1876.
1880.
1881.
1879.
1881.
1883.
1887.
1850.
1881.
tWatson, John, F.I.C. 19 Bloomfield-terrace, Gateshead.
{Warson, Joun Forszs, M.A., M.D., F.L.S. India Museum, Ex-
hibition-road, London, S. W.
{ Watson, Joseph. Bensham-grove, Gateshead.
tWatson, R. Spence, LL.D., F.R.G.S. Bensham-grove, Gateshead.
Sad Thomas Donald. 23 Cross-street, Finsbury, London,
E.
*Wartson, WittIAM Henry, F.C.S., F.G.S. Analytical Laboratory,
The Folds, Bolton.
tWatt, Alexander. 89 Hartington-road, Sefton Park, Liverpool.
{Watt, D. A. P. 284 Upper Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada.
{ Watt, Robert B. E., F.R.G.S. Ashley-avenue, Belfast.
tWarts, B. H. 10 Rivers-street, Bath.
*Warrts, JoHN, B.A., D.Sc. Merton College, Oxford.
*Watts, Rey. Robert R. Stourpaine Vicarage, Blandford.
§Watts, William, F.G.S. Oldham Corporation Waterworks, Pie-
thorn, near Rochdale.
Oe W. Marswatt, D.Sc. Giggleswick Grammar School, near
ettle. i
§Watts, W. W., M.A., F.G.S. Broseley, Shropshire.
{Waugh, Edwin. New Brighton, near Liverpool.
tWay, Samuel James. Adelaide, South Australia.
tWebb, George. 5 Tenterden-street, Bury, Lancashire.
{tWebb, Richard M. 72 Grand-parade, Brighton.
§Webb, Sidney. 4 Park-village East, London, N.W.
*“Wess, WILLIAM FREDERICK, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Newstead Abbey,
near Nottingham.
§Webber, Major-General C. E., C.B. 17 Egerton-gardens, Lon-
don, S. W.
tWebster, John. Edgehill, Aberdeen.
Pree, Richard, F.R.A.S. 6 Queen Victoria-street, London,
EC.
*Webster, Sir Richard Everard, Q.C., M.P. Hornton Lodge,
Hornton-street, Kensington, London, S.W.
*Webster, William, F.C.S. 50 Lee Park, Lee, Kent.
*Wedekind, Dr. Ludwig, Professor of Mathematics at Karlsruhe.
Karlsruhe.
tWeeks, John G. Bedlington.
§ Weiss, F. Ernest, B.Sc., F.L.S. Birch Bank, Christchurch-road,
Hampstead, London, N. W.
{Weiss, Henry. Westbourne-road, Birmingham.
fWelch, Christopher, M.A. United University Club, Pall Mall
East, London, 8. W.
*Wetpon, W. F. R., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Comparative Ana-
tomy and Zoology in University College, London.
*Weldon, Mrs. 1 Hoe-villas, Elliot-street, Plymouth.
FWeTinon Henry §.. First Avenue Hotel, Holborn, London,
WwW
§ We Ls, Cuartes A., A.ILE.E. Bridge House, Lewes.
§ Wells, Rev. Edward, B.A. West Dean Rectory, Salisbury.
t{ Welsh, Miss. Girton College, Cambridge.
*Welton, T. A. Rectory House-grove, Clapham, London, 8. W.
t Wemyss, Alexander Watson, M.D. St. Andrews, N.B.
*Wenlock, The Right Hon. Lord. 8 Great Cumberland-place, Lon-
don, W.; and Escrick Park, Yorkshire.
Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon. Wentworth Castle, near
Barnsley, Yorkshire.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 105
Year of
Election.
1864.
1886.
1865.
1853.
1853.
1853.
1882.
1882.
1863.
1875.
1860.
1882.
1884.
1885.
1888.
1853.
1866.
1884.
1883.
1878.
1888.
1883.
1888.
1888,
1879.
1878.
1884,
1887,
1874.
1883.
1859.
1886,
1886.
1876.
1886.
1883.
1882.
1885.
1873.
1859.
1883.
1865.
1869.
1884.
1859.
*Were, Anthony Berwick. Hensingham, Whitehaven, Cumberland.
{ Wertheimer, J., B.A., B.Sc., F.C.8. Merchant Venturers’ School,
Bristol.
tWesley, William Henry. Royal Astronomical Society, Burlington
ouse, London, W.
}West, Alfred. Holderness-road, Hull.
{West, Leonard. Summergangs Cottage, Hull.
tWest, Stephen. Hessle Grange, near Hull.
§ Westlake, Ernest, F.G.S8. Fordingbridge, Hants.
tWestlake, Richard. Portswood, Southampton.
tWestmacott, Percy. Whickham, Gateshead, Durham.
= ton, Sir Joseph D. Dorset House, Clifton Down, Bristol.
tWestwoop, Joun O., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in the
University of Oxford. Oxford.
§WETHERED, Epwarp, F.G.8. 4 Berkeley-place, Cheltenham.
tWharton, EK. R., M.A. 4 Broad-street, Oxford.
*Wuarton, Captain W. J. L., R.N., F.RS., F.R.G.S. Florys,
Prince’s-road, Wimbledon Park, Surrey.
t{Wheatcroft, William G. 6 Widcombe-terrace, Bath.
{ Wheatley, E. B. Cote Wall, Mirfield, Yorkshire.
eileen Charles C. 19 Park-crescent, Regent’s Park, London,
t{Wheeler, Claude L. 123 Metcalfe-street, Montreal, Canada.
*Wheeler, George Brash. Elm Lodge, Wickham-road, Beckenham,
Kent.
*Wheeler, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Boston, Lincolnshire.
§Whelen, John Leman. 73 Fellows-road, London, N.W.
{Whelpton, Miss K. Newnham College, Cambridge.
*Whidborne, Miss Alice Maria. Charanté, Torquay.
*Whidborne, Miss Constance Mary. Charanté, Torquay.
*Wuipporne, Rey. Gzrorce Ferris, M.A., F.G.8. St. George's
Vicarage, Battersea Park-road, London, S.W.
tWhipple, George Matthew, B.Sc., F.R.A.S. Kew Observatory,
Richmond, Surrey.
tWhischer, Arthur Henry. Dominion Lands Office, Winnipeg,
Canada.
t Whitaker, E. J. Burnley, Lancashire.
t{Whitaker, Henry,M.D. 33 High-street, Belfast.
*Whitaker, T. Saville Heath, Halifax.
*Waitaker, Wituiam, B.A., F.RS., F.G.S. Geological Survey
Office, Jermyn-street, London, S.W.; and 383 East Park-
terrace, Southampton.
t{Whitcombe, E. B. Borough Asylum, Winson Green, Birmingham.
tWhite, Alderman, J.P. Sir Harry’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
TWhite, Angus. Easdale, Argyllshire.
t{White, A. Silva, F.R.G.S., Secretary to the Roya] Scottish Geo-
graphical Society, Edinburgh.
t{White, Charles. 23 Alexandra-road, Southport.
{White, Rev. George Cecil, M.A. Nutshalling Rectory, Southampton.
*White, J. Martin. Spring Grove, Dundee.
tWhite, John. Medina Docks, Cowes, Isle of Wight.
{Wuire, Jouw Forses. 311 Union-street, Aberdeen.
{White, John Reed. Rossall School, near Fleetwood.
tWhite, Joseph. Regent’s-street, Nottingham.
t White, Laban. Blandford, Dorset.
tWhite, R. ‘Gazette’ Office, Montreal, Canada.
tWhite, Thomas Henry. ‘Tandragee, Ireland.
‘
106
LIST OF MEMBERS.
lection.
1877. *White, William. 9 The Paragon, Blackheath, London, 8.E.
1883. *White, Mrs. 9 The Paragon, Blackheath, London, S.E.
1886. § White, William. The Ruskin Museum, Sheffield.
1861. *Whitehead, John B. Ashday Lea, Rawtenstall, Manchester.
1861.
1885.
1855.
1871.
1884,
1881.
1866.
1852.
1857.
1887.
1874.
1883.
1870.
1888.
1865.
1886.
1885.
1883.
1881.
1878,
1883.
1889.
1881.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1890.
1857.
1886,
1879.
1887.
1872.
1869.
1890.
1859.
1872.
1861.
1887.
1883.
1861.
1875.
*Whitehead, Peter Ormerod. 99 New John-street West, Birming-
ham.
Whitehead, P. J. 6 Cross-street, Southport.
*Whitehouse, Wildeman W. O. 18 Salisbury-road, West Brighton.
tWhitelaw, Alexander. 1 Oakley-terrace, Glasgow.
t{Whiteley, Joseph. Huddersfield.
t Whitfield, John, F.C.S. 113 Westborough, Scarborough.
Whitfield, Samuel. Eversfield, Eastnor-grove, Leamington.
tWhitla, Valentine. Beneden, Belfast.
Whitley, Rev. Canon C. T., M.A., F.R.A.S. Bedlington Vicarage,
Northumberland.
*Wuirty, Rev. Joun Irwiyp, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. 40 Kingswood-
road, Penge, London, 8.E.
{Whitwell, William. Overdene, Saltburn-by-the-Sea.
*Whitwill, Mark. Redland House, Bristol.
Whitworth, James. 88 Portland-street, Southport.
}WuirwortH, Rey. W. Atten, M.A. Glenthorne-road, Hammer-
smith, London, W.
tWickham, Rev. F. D. ©. Horsington Rectory, Bath.
} Wiggin, Henry, M.P. Metchley Grange, Harborne, Birmingham.
t{Wiggin, Henry A. The Lea, Harborne, Birmingham.
t Wigglesworth, Alfred. Gordondale House, Aberdeen.
{ Wigglesworth, Mrs. New Parks House, Falsgrave, Scarborough.
*Wigglesworth, Robert. Beckwith Knowle, near Harrogate.
}Wigham, John R. Albany House, Monkstown, Dublin.
t{ Wigner, G. W. Plough-court, 37 Lombard-street, London, E.C.
*Wilberforce, L. R., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
t{Wiserrorcr, W. W. Fishergate, York.
tWild, George. Bardsley Colliery, Ashton-under-Lyne.
*Wilde, Henry, F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley Edge, Manchester.
tWilkinson, C. H. Slaithwaite, near Huddersfield.
§ Wilkinson, C. 8., F.G.S., F.L.S., Government Geologist. Sydney,
New South Wales.
Wilkinson, George. Temple Hill, Killiney, Co. Dublin.
*Wilkinson, J. H. Corporation-street, Birmingham.
{ Wilkinson, Joseph. York.
*Wilkinson, Thomas Read. The Polygon, Ardwick, Manchester.
{ Wilkinson, William. 168 North-street, Brighton.
§ Wilks, George Augustus Frederick, M.D. Stanbury, Torquay.
§Willans, J. W. Kirkstall, Leeds.
}Willet, John, M.Inst.C.E. 35 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
{Wuterr, Heyry, F.G.S. Arnold House, Brighton.
*Williams, Charles Theodore, M.A., M.B. 2 Upper Brook-street,
Grosvenor-square, London, W.
{tWilliams, E. Leader, M.Inst.C.E. The Oaks, Altrincham.
*Williams, Edward Starbuck. Ty-ar-y-graig, Swansea.
*Williams, Harry Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S. 1 Gorse-lane, Swansea.
*Williams, Rev. Herbert A., M.A. S.P.G. College, Trichinopoly,
India.
1883. {Williams, Rev. H. A. The Ridgeway, Wimbledon, Surrey.
1857.
1888
1887
tWilliams, Rey. James. Llanfairinghornwy, Holyhead.
. { Williams, James. Bladud Villa, Entryhill, Bath.
. }Williams, J. Francis, Ph.D. Salem, New York, U.S.A.
Year
LIST OF MEMBERS, 107
of
Election.
1888.
1875.
1879.
1886.
1883.
1883.
ON ean a Katherine. Llandaff House, Pembroke-vale, Clifton,
ristol.
*Williams, M. B. Killay House, near Swansea.
¢Wut11aMs, Marruyew W., F.C.S. Queenwood College, Stock+
bridge, Hants.
Williams, Richard, J.P. Brunswick House, Wednesbury.
f{Williams, R. Price. North Brow, Primrose Hill, London, N.W.
§ Williams, T. H. 2 Chapel-walk, South Castle-street, Liverpool.
1883. § Williams, T. Howell. 58 Lady Margaret-road, London, N.W.
1888, {Williams, W. Cloud House, Stapleford, Nottinghamshire.
1877.
1865.
*Wittiams, W. Carzteron, F.C.S. Firth College, Shettield.
tWilliams, W. M. Stonebridge Park, Willesden.
1883, {Williamson, Miss. Sunnybank, Ripon, Yorkshire.
1850.
*WILLIAMSON, ALEXANDER WitiaM, Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.C.S., Corresponding Member of the French Academy. (GENE-
RAL TREASURER.) 17 Buckingham-street, London, W.C.
1857. {Wittramson, BensaMin, M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Dublin.
1876, { Williamson, Rev. F.J. Ballantrae, Girvan, N.B.
1863. {Williamson, John. South Shields.
1889.
1883.
1882.
1859.
1886.
1886.
1885.
1878.
1859,
1876.
1874.
1850.
1876.
Witiiamson, Wittiam C., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Botany
in Owens College, Manchester. 4 Egerton-road, Fallowfield,
Manchester.
{Willis, James. 14 Portland-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{ Willis, T. W. 51 Stanley-street, Southport.
f{ Willmore, Charles. Queenwood College, near Stockbridge, Hants.
*Wills, The Hon. Sir Alfred. Clive House, Esher, Surrey.
f{Wills, A. W. Wylde Green, Erdington, Birmingham.
f{Wilson, Alexander B. Holywood, Belfast.
Wilson, Alexander H. 2 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
}Wilson, Professor Alexander 8., M.A., B.Sc. 124 Bothwell-street,
Glasgow.
t Wilson, “Alexander Stephen. North Kinmundy, Summerhill, by
Aberdeen.
t Wilson, Dr. Andrew. 118 Gilmore-place, Edinburgh.
{Witson, Colonel Sir C. W., R.E., K.C.B., K.C.M.G., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton.
{ Wilson, Sir Daniel. Toronto, Canada.
tWilson, David. 124 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.
1890. § Wilson, Edmund. Denison Hall, Leeds.
1863.
1847.
{ Wilson, Frederic R. Alnwick, Northumberland.
*Wilson, Frederick. 73 Newman-street, Oxford-street, London, W.
1885. § Wilson, Brigade-Surgeon G. A. 4 St. Margaret’s-terrace, Chelten-
1875.
1874.
1863.
1883.
1879.
1885.
1886.
1890.
1865.
1884,
1858.
1879.
am.
{Wilson, George Fergusson, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.L.S. Heatherbank,
Weybridge Heath, Surrey.
*Wilson, George Orr. Dunardagh, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
}Wilson, George W. Heron Hill, Hawick, N.B.
*Wilson, Henry, M.A. Eastnor, Malvern Link, Worcestershire.
{Wilson, Henry J. 255 Pitsmoor-road, Sheffield.
tWilson, J. Dove, LL.D. 17 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.
tWilson, J. E. B. Woodslee, Wimbledon, Surrey.
§ Wilson, J. Mitchell, M.D. Hall Gate, Doncaster.
tWusoy, Rev. James M., M.A., F.G.S. Clifton College, Bristol. -
tWilson, James S. Grant. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court-
buildings, Edinburgh.
*Wilson, John. Seacroft Hall, near Leeds.
¢ Wilson, John Wycliffe. Eastbourne, East Bank-road, Sheffield.
108
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1876.
1847.
1883.
1861.
1887.
1871.
1861.
1877.
1886.
1887.
1886,
1863,
1888.
1883.
1884.
1881.
1883.
1863.
1861.
1883.
1875.
1878.
1883.
1881.
1883.
1886.
1883.
1864.
1890.
1871.
1850.
1865.
1872.
1863.
1884.
1883.
1884.
1884.
1850.
1888.
1888.
1872.
1883.
Wilson, R. W. R. St. Stephen’s Club, Westminster, S. W.
*Wilson, Rey. Sumner. Preston Candover Vicarage, Basingstoke.
tWilson, T. Rivers Lodge, Harpenden, Hertfordshire.
Wilson, Thos. Bright. 4 Hope View, Fallowfield, Manchester.
§ Wilson, W., jun. Hillock, Terpersie, by Alford, Aberdeenshire.
*Wilson, William E. Daramona House, Rathowen, Ireland.
*WILTsHIRE, Rev. THomas, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.R.A.S., Assistant
Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in King’s College, London.
25 Granyille-park, Lewisham, London, 8.E.
tWindeatt, T. W. Dart View, Totnes.
§ Wing, Berrram C.A., M.A., M.D., Professor of Anatomy in
Queen’s College, Birmingham.
Windsor, William Tessimond. Sandiway, Ashton-on-Mersey.
{ Winter, George W. 55 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Winwoop, Rey. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. 11 Cavendish-crescent,
Bath.
{Wopenotvse, E. R., M.P. 56 Chester-square, London, S.W.
tWolfenden, Samuel. Cowley Hill, St. Helens, Lancashire.
tWomack, Frederick, Lecturer on Physics and Applied Mathematics
at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. 68 Abbey-road, London, N.W.
*Wood, Alfred John. 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey.
§Wood, Mrs. A. J. 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey.
*Wood, Collingwood L. Freeland, Forgandenny, N.B.
*Wood, Edward T. Blackhurst, Brinscall, Chorley, Lancashire.
t Wood, Miss Emily F. Egerton Lodge, near Bolton, Lancashire.
*Wood, George William Rayner. Singleton, Manchester.
§Woop, Sir H. Trurman, M.A. Society of Arts, John-street,
Adelphi, London, W.C.
*Woop, James, LL.D. Grove House, Scarisbrick-street, Southport.
§Wood, John, B.A., F.R.A.S. Wharfedale College, Boston Spa,
Yorkshire.
*Wood, J. H. Woodbine Lodge, Scarisbrick New-road, Southport.
tWood, Rey. Joseph. Carpenter-road, Birmingham.
tWood, Mrs. Mary. Ellison-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tWood, Richard, M.D. Driffield, Yorkshire.
*Wood, Robert H., M.Inst.M.E. 15 Bainbrigge-road, Headingley,
Leeds.
{tWood, Provost T. Barleyfield, Portobello, Edinburgh,
tWood, Rey. Walter. Elie, Fife.
*Wood, William, M.D. 99 Harley-street, London, W.
§ Wood, William Robert. Carlisle House, Brighton.
*Wood, Rey. William Spicer, M.A., D.D. Higham, Rochester. ;
*WoopaLt, Jonn Woopatt, M.A., F.G.S. St. Nicholas House,
Scarborough.
tWoodbury, C. J. H. 31 Devonshire-street, Boston, U.S.A.
t Woodcock, Herbert 8. The Elms, Wigan.
tWoodcock, T.,M.A. 150 Cromwell-road, London, 8.W.
tWoodd, Arthur B. Woodlands, Hampstead, London, N.W.
*Woodd, Charles H. L., F.G.S. Roslyn House, Hampstead, London,
N.W.
*Woodiwiss, Alfred. Belair, Trafalgar-road, Birkdale, Southport.
*Woodiwiss, Mrs. Alfred. Belair, Trafalgar-road, Birkdale, Southport.
tWoodman, James. 26 Albany-villas, Hove, Sussex.
*Woops, Epwarp, M.Inst.C.k. 63 Victoria-street, Westminster,
London, 8. W.
tWoods, Dr. G. A., F.R.S.E., F.R.M.S. Carlton House, 57 Hoghton-
street, Southport.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 109
Year of
Election.
1888.
1887.
1886.
1866.
1870.
1881.
1884,
1890,
1877.
1883.
1856.
1874.
1878.
1863.
1855.
1856.
1884,
1879.
1883.
1883.
1890,
1871.
1861.
1857.
1886.
1884,
1876.
1874.
1865.
1884,
1876.
1871.
1887.
1876.
1867.
Be SamurL, 1 Drapers’-gardens, Throgmorton-street, London,
E
}Woodthorpe, Colonel. Messrs. King & Co., 45 Pall Mall, Lon-
don, S. W.
*WoopwarD, ARTHUR SmrtH, F.G.S., F.L.S. 1838 Kine’s-road,
Chelsea, London, 8. W.
*WoopwaRrp, C. J., B.Sc. 97 Harborne-road, Birmingham.
{ Woodward, Harry Page, F.G.S. 129 Beaufort-street, London, S.W.
}Woopwarp, Henry, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the Depart-
ment of Geology, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-
road, London, 8.W.
}Woopwarp, Horace B., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
London, 8. W.
tWooler, W. A. Sadberge Hall, Darlington.
*Woolcock, Henry. Rickerby House, St. Bees.
§Woollcombe, Robert Lloyd, LL.D., F.S.S., M.R.L.A. 14 Waterloo
road, Dublin.
tWoollecombe, Surgeon-Major Robert W. 14 Acre-place, Stoke,
Devonport.
*Woolley, George Stephen. 69 Market-street, Manchester.
tWoolley, Thomas Smith, jun. South Collingham, Newark.
t Workman, Charles. Ceara, Windsor, Belfast.
tWormell, Richard, M.A., D.Sc. Roydon, near Ware, Hertford-
shire.
*Worsley, Philip J. Rodney Lodge, Clifton, Bristol.
*Worthington, Rev. Alfred William, B.A. Stourbridge, Worcester-
shire.
Worthington, James. Sale Hall, Ashton-on-Mersey.
}Worthy, George 8. 2 Arlington-terrace, Mornington-crescent,
Hampstead-road, London, N.W.
t{Wragge, Edmund. 109 Wellesley-street, Toronto, Canada.
fou Francis. 34 Holland Villas-road, Kensington, London,
*Wricht, Rev. Arthur, M.A. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
*Wright, Rev. Benjamin, M.A. Sandon Rectory, Chelmsford.
§ Wright, Dr. OC. J. Virginia-road, Leeds.
§Wrieut, C. R. A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry
in St. Mary’s Hospital Medical School, Paddington, London, W.
*Wright, E. Abbot. Oastle Park, Frodsham, Cheshire.
}Werreut, E. Percevat, M.A., M.D., F.LS., M.R.LA., Professor
of Botany and Director of the Museum, Dublin University.
5 Trinity College, Dublin.
t Wright, Frederick William. 4 Full-street, Derby.
{Wright, Harrison. Wilkes’ Barré, Pennsylvania, U.S.A,
Wright, James, 114.John-street, Glasgow.
t Wright, Joseph. Cliftonville, Belfast.
{Wright, J.S. 168 Brearley-street West, Birmingham,
tWright, Professor R. Ramsay, M.A., B.Sc. University College,
Toronto, Canada.
Wrisut, T. G., M.D. Milnes House, Wakefield.
{Wright, William. 31 Queen Mary-avenue, Glasgow.
tWrientson, THomas, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Norton Hall, Stockton-
on-Tees.
tWrigley, Rev. Dr., M.A., M.D., F.R.A.S, 15 Gauden-road, Lon-
don, 8.
tWonscn, Epwarp Atrrep,F.G.S. Carharrack, Scorrier, Cornwall.
Wylie, Andrew. Prinlaws, Fifeshire.
110 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1883, {Wyllie, Andrew. 10 Park-road, Southport.
1885. {Wyness, James D., M.D. 53 School-hill, Aberdeen.
1871. { Wynn, Mrs. Williams. Cefn, St. Asaph.
1862. {Wrnnz, AntHuR Beevor, F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 14
Hume-street, Dublin.
1875. {Yabbicom, Thomas Henry. 37 White Ladies-road, Clifton, Bristol.
*Yarborough, George Cook. Camp’s Mount, Doncaster.
1865. {Yates, Edwin. Stonebury, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1883. §Yates, James. Public Library, Leeds.
1867. {Yeaman, James. Dundee.
1887. tYeats, Dr. Chepstow.
1884. tYee, Fung. Care of R. E. C. Fittock, Esq., Shanghai, China.
1877. {Yonge, Rev. Duke. Puslinch, Yealmpton, Devon. :
1884. {York, Frederick. 87 Lancaster-road, Notting Hill, London, W.
1886. *Youne, A. H., M.B., F.R.C.S., Professor of Anatomy in Owens
College, Manchester.
1884. { Young, Frederick. 5 Queensberry-place, London, S.W.
1884, { Young, Professor George Paxton. 121 Bloor-street, Toronto, Canada.
1876. {Youne, Joun, M.D., Professor of Natural History in the University
of Glasgow. 38 Cecil-street, Hillhead, Glasgow.
1885. {Young, R. Bruce. 8 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
1886, §Young, R. Fisher. New Barnet, Herts.
1883. *Youne Sypner, D.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in University College,
Bristol.
1887. §Young, Sydney. 29 Mark-lane, London, E.C.
1890. § Young, T. Graham, F.R.S.E. Westfield, West Calder, Scotland.
1868. {Youngs, John. Richmond Hill, Norwich.
1876. { Yuille, Andrew. 7 Sardinia-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
1886. {Zair, George. Arden Grange, Solihull, Birmingham.
1886, {Zair, John, Merle Lodge, Moseley, Birmingham.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 111
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1871.
1887.
1881.
1870.
1887.
1880.
1887.
1887.
1884,
1890.
1884.
1887.
1887.
1887,
1887.
1861.
1887.
1855.
1881.
1873.
1880.
1870.
1876.
1889.
1862.
1864.
1872.
1890.
1870.
1876.
1874.
1886.
1887.
1872.
HIS IMPERIAL MAJESTY raz EMPEROR or raz BRAZILS,
Cleveland Abbe. Weather Bureau of the Army Signal Office, Wash-
ington, United States.
Professor G. F. Barker. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
United States.
Professor Van Beneden, LL.D. Louvain, Belgium.
Professor A. Bernthsen, Ph.D. Mannheim, L 14, 4, Germany.
Professor Ludwig Boltzmann. Halbirtgasse, 1, Gratz, Austria.
His Excellency R. Bonghi.. Rome.
Professor Lewis Boss. Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York,
United States.
Professor H. P. Bowditch, M.D. © Boston, Massachusetts, United
States.
Professor Brentano. Leipzig.
are George J. Brush. Yale College, New Haven, United
States.
Professor J. W, Bruhl. Freiburg.
Professor G. Capellini. Royal University of Bologna.
Professor J. B. Carnoy. Louvain.
H. Caro. Mannheim.
Dr. Carus. Leipzig.
F, W. Clarke. United States Geological Survey, Washington,
United States.
Dr. Ferdinand Cohn. Breslau, Prussia.
Professor Josiah P, Cooke. Harvard University, United States.
Professor Guido Cora. 74 Corso Vittorio Emanuele, Turin.
Professor Cornu. L’Ecole Polytechnique, Paris.
J. M. Crafts, M.D. L’Ecole des Mines, Paris.
Professor Luigi Cremona. The University, Rome.
W.H. Dall. United States Geological Survey, Washington, United
States.
Wilhelm Delffs, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Heidel-
bere.
M. Des Cloizeaux. Rue Monsieur, 13, Paris.
Professor G. Dewalque. Liége, Belgium.
Professor V. Dwelshauvers-Dery. Liége.
Dr. Anton Dohrn. Naples.
Professor Alberto Eccher. Florence.
Dr. W. Feddersen. Leipzig.
Dr. Otto Finsch. Bremen.
Professor R. Fittig. Strasburg.
W. de Fonvielle. 50 Rue des Abbesses, Paris.
112
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1856.
1887.
1881.
1866.
1861.
1884,
1884,
1889.
1870.
1889.
1889.
1876.
1884.
1862.
1876.
1889.
1881.
1872.
1889,
1887.
1877.
1872.
1887.
1887.
1881.
1887.
1884,
1867.
1876.
1881.
1887.
1876.
1877.
1862.
1884.
1873.
1874.
1856.
1887.
1887.
1877.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1882.
Professor E. Frémy. L’Institut, Paris.
Dr. Anton Fritsch. Prague.
¢. M. Gariel, Secretary of the French Association for the Advance-
ment of 8 Science. 4 Rue Antoine Dubois, Paris.
Dr. Gaudry. Paris.
Dr. Geinitz, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology. Dresden.
Professor J. Willard Gibbs, Yale College, “New Haven, United
States.
Professor Wolcott Gibbs. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, United States.
G. K. Gilbert. United States Geological Survey, Washington, United
States,
William Gilpin. Denver, Colorado, United States.
Professor Gustave Gilson. Louvain.
A. Gobert. 214 Chaussée de Charleroi, Brussels.
Dr. Benjamin A. Gould. Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States.
Major A. W. Greely. Washington, United States.
Dr. D. Bierens de Haan, Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences,
Amsterdam. Leiden, Holland.
Professor Ernst Haeckel. Jena.
Horatio Hale. Clinton, Ontario, Canada.
Dr. Edwin H. Hall. Baltimore, United States.
Professor James Hall. Albany, State of New York.
Dr. Max von Hantken. Budapesth.
Fr. yon Hefner-Alteneck. Berlin.
Professor H. L. F. von Helmholtz. Berlin.
J. E. Hilgard, Assist.-Supt. U.S. Coast Survey. Washington, United
States.
Professor W. His. Leipzig.
S. Dana Horton. New York.
Professor A. A. W. Hubrecht, LL.D., C.M.Z.S. Utrecht.
Dr. Oliver W. Huntington. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, United States.
Professor C. Loring Jackson. Harvard University, Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts, United States.
Dr. Janssen, LL.D. The Observatory, Meudon, Seine-et-Oise.
Dr. W. J. Janssen. Villa Frisia, Aroza, Graubunden, Switzerland.
W. Woolsey Johnson, Professor of Mathematics in.the United States
Naval Academy. Annapolis, United States.
Professor C. Julin. Liége.
Dr. Giuseppe Jung. 7 Via Principe Umberto, Milan.
M. Akin Karoly. 92 Rue Richelieu, Paris.
Aug. Kekulé, Professor of Chemistry. Bonn.
Professor Dairoku Kikuchi, M.A. Imperial University, Tokio, Japan.
Dr. Felix Klein. The University, Leipzig.
Dr. Knoblauch. Halle, Germany.
Professor A. Kélliker. Wurzburg, Bavaria.
ie Dr. Arthur Kénig. Physiological {Institute, University,
Berlin.
Professor Krause. Gottingen.
Dr. Hugo Kronecker, Professor of Physiology. The University, Bern,
Switzerland.
Lieutenant R. Kund. German African Society, Berlin.
Professor A. Ladenburg. Kiel.
Professor J. W. Langley. Michigan, United States.
Professor S. P. Langley, LL.D. , Secretary of the Smithsonian inate
tution. Washington, United States:
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 115
Year of
Election.
1887.
1887.
1872.
1887.
1883.
1877.
1887.
1887.
1871.
1871.
1887.
1867.
1881.
1867.
1887.
1890.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1884.
1848.
1887.
1877.
1864.
1887.
1889.
1866.
1864.
1884.
1869.
1887.
1890.
1889,
1890.
1887.
1890.
1857.
1870.
1884.
1887,
1887.
1886.
1887.
1868,
1886.
Professor Count von Laubach. Géttingen.
Dr. Leeds, Professor of Chemistry at the Stevens Institute, Hoboken,
New Jersey, United States. j
M. Georges Lemoine. 76 Rue d’Assas, Paris.
Professor A. Lieben. Vienna.
Dr. F. Lindemann, Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Konigsberg.
Dr. M. Lindemann, Hon. Sec. of the Bremen Geographical Society.
Bremen.
Professor G. Lippmann. Paris.
Dr. Georg Lunge. Zurich.
Professor Jacob Liiroth. The University, Freiburg, Germany.
Dr. Liitken. Copenhagen.
Dr. Henry C. McCook. Philadelphia, United States.
Professor Mannheim. Rue de la Pompe, 11, Passy, Paris.
Professor O. C. Marsh. Yale College, New Haven, United States.
Professor Ch. Martins, Director of the Jardin des Plantes. Montpellier,
France.
Dr. C. A. Martius. Berlin.
Professor E. Mascart, Membre de l'Institut. ~ Paris.
Professor D. Mendeléef. St. Petersburg.
Professor N. Menschutkin. St. Petersburg.
Professor Lothar Meyer. ‘Tiibingen.
Albert A. Michelson. Cleveland, Ohio, United States.
Professor J. Milne-Edwards. Paris.
Dr. Charles Sedgwick Minot. Boston, Massachusetts, United States.
Professor V. L. Moissenet. L’Ecole des Mines, Paris.
Dr. Arnold Moritz. The University, Dorpat, Russia.
HK. 8. Morse. Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Massachusetts,
United States.
Dr. F. Nansen. Christiania.
Chevalier C. Negri, President of the Italian Geographical Society.
Turm, Italy.
Herr Neumayer. Deutsche Seewarte, Hamburg.
Professor Simon Newcomb. Washington, United States.
Professor H. A. Newton. Yale College, New Haven, United
States.
Professor Noelting. Miihlhausen, Elsass.
Professor W. Ostwald. Leipzig.
Professor A. S. Packard. Brown University, Providence, Rhode
Island, United States.
Maffeo Pantaleoni, Director of the Royal Superior School of Com-
merce. Bari.
Dr. Pauli. Héchst-on-Main, Germany.
Professor Otto Pettersson. Stockholm.
Gustave Plarr, D.Sc. 22 Hadlow-road, Tuabridge, Kent.
Professor Felix Plateau. 64 Boulevard du Jardin Zoologique, Gand.
Major J. W. Powell, Director of the Geological Survey of the
United States. Washington, United States.
Professor W. Preyer. The University, Berlin.
N. Pringsheim. Berlin.
Professor Putnam, Secretary of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science. Harvard University, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, United States.
Professor G. Quincke. Heidelberg.
L. Radlkofer, Professor of Botany in the University of Munich
Rey. A. Renard. Royai Museum, Brussels.
gz
114
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1872.
1873.
1887.
1866.
1890.
1881.
1887.
1857.
1883.
1874.
1846,
1872.
1873.
1861.
1849,
1876,
1887.
1888.
1866,
1889,
1881.
1881.
1871.
1870.
1884.
1864,
1887,
1887.
1890.
13889.
1887.
1886.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1881.
1874.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1876.
1887.
1887.
Professor Victor von Richter. Victoria-strasse, 9, Breslau.
Baron von Richthofen, The University, Leipzig. -
Dr. C. V. Riley. Washington, United States.
F, Romer, Ph.D., Professor of Geology and Paleontology in the
University of Breslau. Breslau, Prussia.
A. Lawrence Rotch. Boston, Massachusetts, United States.
Professor Henry A. Rowland. Baltimore, United States.
M. le Marquis de Saporta. Aix-en-Provence, Bouches du Rhone.
Baron Herman de Schlagintweit-Sakiinliinski. Jaegersberg Castle,
near Forchheim, Bavaria.
Dr. Ernst Schréder. Karlsruhe, Baden.
Dr. G. Schweinfurth. Cairo.
Baron de Selys-Longchamps. Liége, Belgium.
Professor Carl Semper. Wurzburg, Bavaria.
Dr. A. Shafarik. Prague.
Dr, Werner von Siemens. Berlin.
Dr. Siljestrém. Stockholm,
Professor R. D. Silva. L’Ecole Centrale, Paris.
Ernest Solvay. Brussels.
Dr. Alfred Springer. Cincinnati, Ohio, United States.
Professor Steenstrup. Copenhagen.
Professor G. Stefanescu. Bucharest.
Dr. Cyparissos Stephanos. ‘he University, Athens.
Professor Sturm. Miinster, Westphalia.
Dr. Joseph Szab6. Pesth, Hungary.
Professor Tchebichef, Membre de l’Académie de St. Pétersbourg.
Professor Robert H. Thurston. Sibley College, Cornell University,
Ithaca, New York, United States.
Dr. Otto Torell, Professor of Geology in the University of Lund,
Sweden.
Dr. T. M. Treub. Java.
Professor John Trowbridge. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, United States.
Arminius Vambéry, Professor of Oriental Languages in the University
of Pesth, Hungary.
Professor J. H. Van’t Hoff. Amsterdam.
Wladimir Vernadsky, Keeper of the Mineralogical Museum, University
of St. Petersburg.
Professor John Vilanova. Madrid.
M. Jules Vuylsteke. 80 Rue de Lille, Menin, Belgium.
Professor H. F. Weber. Zurich.
Professor L. Weber. Breslau.
Professor August Weismann, Freiburg.
Dr. H. C, White. Athens, Georgia, United States.
Professor H. M. Whitney. Beloit College, Wisconsin, United
States.
Professor G. Wiedemann. Leipzig.
Professor KE. Wiedemann. Leipzig.
Professor R. Wiedersheim. Freiburg.
Professor J. Wislicenus. Leipzig.
Dr. Otto N. Witt. 33 Lindenallée, Westend-Charlottenburg, Berlin.
Dr. Ludwig H. Wolf. Leipzig.
Professor Adolph Wiillner. Aix-la-Chapelle,
Professor C. A. Young. Princeton College, United States.
Professor F. Zirkel. Leipzig.
115
LIST OF SOCIETIES AND
PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS
TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED.
GREAT BRITAIN
Admiralty, Library of the.
Anthropological Institute.
Arts, Society of.
Asiatic Society (Royal).
Astronomical Society (Royal).
Belfast, Queen’s College.
Birmingham, Midland Institute.
Brighton Public Library.
Bristol Philosophical Institution.
Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Cardiff, University College of South
Wales.
Chemical Society.
Civil Engineers, Institution of.
Cornwall, Royal Geological So-
ciety of.
Dublin, Royal College of Surgeons in
Treland.
, Royal Geological Society of |
Treland.
, Royal Irish Academy.
, Royal Society of.
Dundee, University College.
East India Library.
Edinburgh, Royal Society of.
——, Royal Medical Society of.
——., Scottish Society of Arts.
Exeter, Albert Memorial Museum.
Geographical Society (Royal).
Geological Society.
Geology, Museum of Practical.
Glasgow Philosophical Society.
, Institution of Engineersand Ship-
builders in Scotland.
Greenwich, Royal Observatory.
Kew Observatory.
Leeds, Mechanics’ Institute.
AND IRELAND.
Leeds, Philosophical and Literary So-
’ elety of.
Linnean Society.
Liverpool, Free Public Library and
Museum.
, Royal Institution.
London Institution.
Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society.
——, Mechanics’ Institute.
Mechanical Engineers, Institution of.
Meteorological Office.
Meteorological Society (Royal).
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Literary and
Philosophical Society.
, Public Library.
| Norwich, The Free Library.
Nottingham, The Free Library.
Oxford, Ashmolean Society.
——, Radcliffe Observatory.
Physicians, Royal College of.
Plymouth Institution.
Royal Engineers’ Institute, Chatham.
Royal Institution.
Royal Society.
Royal Statistical Society.
Salford, Royal Museum and Library.
Sheffield, Firth College.
Southampton, Hartley Institution.
Stonyhurst College Observatory.
Surgeons, Royal College of.
United Service Institution.
University College.
Wales (South), Royal Institution.
War Office, Library of the.
Yorkshire Philosophical Society.
Zoological Society.
EUROPE.
PSTN .......00.4. Die Kaiserlichee Aka- | Dorpat, Russia...University Library,
demie der Wissen- | Dresden ......... Konigliche 6ffentliche
schaften. Bibliothek.
neste een eees Royal Academy of | Frankfort ...... Natural History So-
Sciences. ciety.
| Sivas Spapeegaeeas University Library. Geneva.......,0000 Natural History So-
Brussels ......... Royal Academy of ciety.
Sciences. Gottingen ...... University Library.
Charkow ......... University Library. | Halle ............ Leopoldinisch-
Coimbra ......... Meteorological Ob- | Carolinische
servatory. Akademie.
Copenhagen ...Royal Society of | Harlem ......... Société Hollandaise
Sciences.
des Sciences.
Heidelberg ...... University Library. | Paris ............ Geological Society.
Helsingfors...... University Library. | —— ............ Royal Academy of
Kasan, Russia ... University Library. Sciences.
GC Ri .-....Royal Observatory, | —— ........0.0 School of Mines.
ESB W oo eed. eee University Library. Pultovya, ....0c+00 Imperial Observatory.
Lausanne...:..... The Academy. Rome! .....5...050 Accademia dei Lincei.
Leyden ......... University Library. $< reesecvceeee Collegio Romano.
LOE ges aap University Library. eee eee es Italian Geographical
TASDON css sc seceee Academia Real des Society.
Sciences. —veeeeeeeeees Italian Society of
NEAT ve coeseaeoe The Institute. Sciences.
Modena ......... Royal Academy. St. Petersburg . University Library.
Moscow ......... Society of Naturalists, | —— ............ Imperial Observatory.
Peas x ts te sabe University Library. Stockholm ......Royal Academy,
Mianichey cece. University Library. MUTI i scseacaciers Royal Academy of
Waples:....,..2..c03 Royal Academy of Sciences.
Sciences. Utrecht ......... University Library.
Nicolaieff......... University Library. Wienna...< ons. as The Imperial Library.
Paris: 0.520325 a Association Frangaise | —— ............ Central Anstalt fiir
pour l’Avancement Meteorologie und
des Sciences. Erdmagnetismus.
cae Uatiens Fes Geographical Society. | Zurich............ General Swiss Society.
ASIA.
OVAL site ec. csece The College. | Caleuttar’...i0.0 Presidency College.
Bombay, -7.ccsi Elphinstone Institu- | —— ............ Hooghly College.
tion. | oie Medical College.
a reclncslen ced Grant Medical Col- | Madyas............ The Observatory.
lege. | —<—="." -.. Bdevaeite University Library.
Calcutta ......... Asiatic Society.
AFRICA.
Cape of Good Hope . The Royal Observatory.
AMERICA.
AMAT osu. cceee The Institute. Philadelphia... American Medical As-
Boston........ .... American Academy of sociation.
Arts and Sciences. | —— ............ American Philosophical
California ...... The University. Society.
Cambridge ...... Harvard University | ——............ Franklin Institute.
Library. ROTOUtO cera. The Observatory.
Manitoba ......... Historical and Scien- | Washington...The Naval Observa-
tific Society. tory.
Montreal ......... McGill College. ae BEDALE Smithsonian Institution.
Basan eect ace Council of Arts and | ——............United States Geolo-
Manufactures. gical Survey of the
New York .:.... Lyceum of Natural Territories.
History.
AUSTRALIA.
Adelaide . . The Colonial Government.
Brisbane . . Queensland Museum.
Victoria . The Colonial Government.
NEW ZEALAND.
Canterbury Museum.
Spottiswoode J Co. Printers, New-s Cel
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