s.r A.r^.
REPORT
OP THE
SIXTIETH MEETING
OF THE
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE
HELD AT
LEEDS IN SEPTEMBER 1890.
LONDON :
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1891.
PRISTED BV
BPOTTISWOODE AXD CO., KEW-STRKET SQUARE
LONDON"
CONTENTS.
Page
Objects and Rules of the Association xxiv
Places and Times of Meeting and Officers from commencement xxxiv
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from com-
mencement jl j j J
List of Evening Lectures Jt-
Lectures to the Operative Classes Ixiii
Officers of Sectional Committees present at the Leeds Meeting Ixiv
Treasurer's Account j^^. j
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at the Annual Meetings Ixviii
Oifi-ersand Coimcil, 1890-91 Ixx
Report of the Council to the General Committee Ixxi
Committees appointed by the General Committee at the Leeds Meetino- in
September 1890 ° l^^j^
Other Resolutions adopted by the General Committee Ixxxvi
Communicatinns ordered to be printed in extenso in the Annual Report of
the Association Ixxxvl
Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and action if
^^^^''■^^^1° Ixxxvi
Synopsis of Grants of Money Ixxxviii
'laces of Meeting in 1891 and 1892 Ixsxix
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of Grants
for Scientitic Purposes ^.^
General Meetings pjjj
Address by the President, Sir Febdeuick Augustos Abel, C.B., D.C.L.
(Oxon.), D.Sc. (Cant.), F.R.S., P.P.C.S., IIon.M.Inst.C.E 3
A 2
iV CONTENTS.
\
REPOETS ON THE STATE OF SCTENCl
Page
Beport of the Correspondinff Societies Committee, consisting of Mr. Francis
Galtox (Chairman), Professor A. VV. Willtamsok, Sir Douglas Galton,
Professor Botd Dawkins, Sir Rawsox Rawson, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
John Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinsox, Professor R. Mbldola (Secretary), Pro-
fessor T. G. BoNNBY, Mr. W. Whitakee, Mr. G. J. Stmons, General Pitt-
Rivers, and Mr. W. Topley 55
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of the Hon. Ralph Abeeceomby,
Dr A. BucHAN, Mr. J. Y. Buchanan, Mr. J. Willis Bund, Professor
Cheystal, Mr. D. Cunningham, Professor Fitzgerald, Dr. II. R. Mill
(Secretary), Dr. John Mueeay (Chairman), Mr. Isaac Roberts, Dr. H. C.
SoEBY, and the Rev. C. J. Steward, appointed to arrange an investigation
of the Seasonal Variations of Temperature in Lakes, Rivers, and Estuaries
in various parts of the United Kingdom in co-operation with the local
societies represented on the Association 92
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor G. Caret Foster, Sir
William Thomson, Professor Ayrton, Professor J. Peert. Professor W.
G. Adams, Lord Rayleigh, Dr. O. J. Lodge, Dr. John Hopkinson, Dr.
A. MuiRHEAD, Mr. W. H. Preece, !SIr. Herbert Taylor, Professor Everett,
Professor Schuster, Dr. J. A. Fleming, Professor G. F. Fitzgerald,
Mr. R. T. Glazebeook (Secretary), Professor Chrystal, Mr. H. Tomlin-
soN, Professor W. Gaenett, Professor J. J. Thomson, Mr. W. N. Shaw,
Mr. J. T. BoTTOMLET, and Mr. T. Gray, appointed for the purpose of
constructing and issuing Practical Standards for use in Electrical Measure-
ments 95
Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors Fitzgerald (Chair-
man), Aemsteong and O. J. Lodge (Secretaries), Sir William Thomson,
Lord Rayleigh, J. J. Tkojison, Schuster, Poynting, Ceum Beoavn,
Ramsay, Frankland, Tilden, Hartley, S. P. Thompson, McLeod,
Roberts-Austen, Ruceer, Reinold, Carey Foster, H. B. Dixon, and
John M. Thomson, Captain Abnet, Drs. Gladstone, Hopkinson, and
Fleming, and Messrs. Ckookes, Sheleord Bi dwell, W. N. Shaw, J.
Lakmor, J. T. Botxomley, R. T. Glazebeook, J. Brown, and E. J. Love,
appointed for the purpose of considering the subject of Electrolysis in its
Physical and Chemical Bearings 138
Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir G. G. Stokes (Chairman),
Mr. G. J. Symons (Secretary), Professor Schuster, Dr. O. Johnstone
Stoney. Sir H. E. Rosgoe, Captain Abney. and Mr. Whipple, appointed
for the purpose of considering the best methods of recording the direct
Intensity of Solar Radiation 144
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. John Kerr (Chairman), Sir
William Thomson, Professor Rucker, and Mr. R. T. GLAZUBitooK (Seere-
tar\ ), appointed to co-operate with Dr. Kerr in his researches on Electro-
optics 144
Report of the Committee on Molecular Phenomena associated with the Mag-
netisation of Iron. (Phenomena occurring at a red heat.) Professor G. F.
FiJZGEEALD ((;hairman), H, F. Newall, F, Teouton, and Professor W. F.
> liAKREXT (Secretary) ; 145
CONTENTS. ▼
Page
Tenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir William Thomson, Mr. R,
Etheridge, Professor John Perry, Dr. Henry Woodward, Professor
Thomas Gray, and Professor John Milne (Secretary), appointed for the
Surpose of investigating the Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of
apan. (Drawn up by the Secretary) 160
Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. Grylls Adams
(Chairman and Secretary), Sir William Thomson, Sir J. H. Lefroy,
Professors G. H. Darwin, G. Chrystal, and S. J. Perry, Mr. C. H.
Oarpmael, Professor Schuster, Professor Rijcker, Commander Creak,
the Astronomer Royal, Mr. William Ellis, Mr. W. Lant Carpenter,
and Mr. G. M. Whipple, appointed for the purpose of considering the best
means of Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Observations 172
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Crum Brown (Secretary),
Mr. MiLNE-HoME, Dr. John Murray, Lord McLaren, Dr. Buchan,
and the Hon. Ralph Abercromby (Chairman), appointed for the purpose
of co-operating with the Scottish Meteorological Society in making Meteoro-
logical Observations on Ben Nevis 174
Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors A. Johnson (Secre-
tary), J. G. MacGregor, J. B. Cherriman, and H. T. Bovey and Mr. C.
Oarpmael, appointed for the purpose of promoting Tidal Observations in
Canada 183
Report on the Present State of our Knowledge in Electrolysis and Electro-
chemistry. By W. N. Shaw, M.A 185
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. E. Roscoe, Mr. J. N. Lockyer,
Professors Dewar, Wolcott Gibbs, Liveing, Schuster, and W. N.
Hartley, Captain Abney, and Dr. Marshall Watts (Secretary),
appointed to prepare a new series of Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of
the Elements and Compounds 224
Rep'U't of the Committee, consisting of Messrs. A. W. Reinold, H. G. Madan,
W. C. Roberts-Austen, and Herbert M'Leod, on the Bibliography of
Spectroscopy 261
Fom-th Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor AV. A. Tilden
(Chairman), Professor Roberts-Austen, and Mr. Thomas Turner (Secre-
tary), appointed to consider the Influence of Silicon on the Properties of
Iron and Steel. (Drawn up by the Secretary) 262
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Roberts- Austen
(Chairman), Sir F. Abel, Messrs. E. Riley and J. Spillbr, Professor
Langley, Mr. G. J. Snelus, Professor Tilden, and Mr. Thomas Turner
(Secretary), appointed to consider the best method of establishing an Inter-
national Standard for the Analysis of Iron and Steel. (Drawn up by the
Secretary) 262
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Russell, Captain Abney,
Professor Hartley, Professor Ramsay, and Dr. Richardson (Secretary),
appointed for the investigation of the Action of Light on the Hydracids
of the Halogens in presence of Oxygen. (Drawn up by Dr. Richard-
son) 263
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor H. E. Armstrong,
Professor W. R. Dunstan (Secretary), Dr. J. H. Gladstone, Mr. A. G.
Vernon Harcourt, Professor H. M'Leod, Professor Meldola, Mr. Patti-
SON MuiB, Sir Henry E. Roscoe, Dr. W. J. Russell (Chairman), Mr.
W. 4- Shenstone, Professor Smtthells, and Mr. Stallard, appointed
for the purpose of inquiring into and reporting upon the present Methods of
Teaching Chemistry. (Drawn up by Professor Dunstan.) To which is
appended a paper by Professor Armstrong on ' Exercises in Elementary
Experimental Science ' 265
><
'f
vi CONTENTS.
Page
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors Tilden and
Ramsay and Dr. NrcoL (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of inves-
tigating the Properties of Solutions 310
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors Tilben, M'Leod,
Pickering, Ramsay, and Young and Drs. A. R. Leeds and Nicol
(Secretary), appointed for the purpose of reporting on the Bibliography of
Solution 310
Discussion on the Theory of Solution. The present Position of the Hydrate
Theory of Solution. By Spencee UMfREviLLE Pickering, M.A., F.R.S. 311
Provisional Report of a Committee, consisting of Professors H. M'Leod and
W. Ramsay and Messrs. J. T. Cuis^dall and W. A. Shenstone (Secretary),
appointed to investigate the Influence of the Silent Discharge of Electricity
on Oxygen and other Gases 338
Report of the Committee, consisting of General Festing (Chairman), Dr.
H. E. Armstrong (Secretary), Captain Abney, and Professor AV. N.
Hartley, on the Absorption Spectra of Pure Compounds 339
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. H. "VVood'waed, Mr. R.
Etheeidge, Mr. R. KirsTON, the Rev. G. F. Whidborne, and Mr. J. E.
Maer (Secretary), appointed for considering the best methods for the
Registration of all Type Specimens of Fossils iu the British Isles, and
reporting on the same 339
Eighteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Prestwioh, Dr.
H. W. Ceosskey, Professors W. Boyd Dawkins, T. McKenny Hughes,
and T. G. Bonney, and Messrs. C. E. De Range, W. Pexgelly, J. Plant,
and R. H. Tiddeman, appointed for the purpose of recording the Position,
Height above the Sea, Lithological Characters, Size, and Origin of the Erratic
Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland, reporting other matters of interest
coonected with the same, and taking measures for their preservation.
(Drawn up by Dr. Crosskey, Secretary) .340
Sixteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Drs. E. Hull and
H. AV. Crosskey, Sir Douglas Galton, Professor G. A. Lebour, and
Messrs. James Glatshee, E. B. Marten, G. H. Morton, W. Pengelly,
James Plant, J. Prestwich, I. Roberts, T. S. Stooke, G. J.
Symons, W. Topley, Tyld en-Weight, E. Wetheeed, W. A\'hitaker,
and C. E. De Range (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of investigating
the Circulation of Underground Waters in the Permeable Formations of
England and Wales, and the Quantity and Character of the Water supplied
to various Towns and Districts from these Formations. (Drawn up by
C. E. De Range, Reporter) 352
Final Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. J. W. Davis, Mr. W. Cash,
Dr. H. Hicks, Mr. G. W. Lamplugh, Mr. C. Reid, Dr. H. Woodward,
and Mr. T. Boynton, appointed for the purpose of investigating an Ancient
Sea-beach near Bridlington .Quay. (Drawn up by G. AV. Lamplugh,
Secretary ) 375
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. II. AVoodward, Air. G. R. A^ine
(^Secretary), Drs. P. AI. Duncan and H. 0. Soeby, and Mr. C. E. De Range,
appointed to prepare a report on the Cretaceous Polvzoa. (Drawn up by
Air. G. R. A'ine) ' 378
Report of the Committee, consisting of Air. H. Bauerman, Air. F. W. Rudler,
Mr. J. J. II. Teall, and Dr. H. J. Johnston-Lavis, appointed for the in-
vestigation of the Volcanic Phenomena of A'esuvius and its neighbourhood.
(Drawn up by Dr. H. J. Johnston-Lavis, F.G.S., Secretary) 397
Fourth and final Report of the Committee, consisting of Air. R. Etheeidge,
Dr. H. Woodward, and Air. A. Bell (Secretary), appointed for the purpose
CONTENTS. Vll
Page
of reporting upon the ' Manure ' Gravels of Wexford. (Drawn up by Mr.
A. Bell) 410
Eighth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. Etheribge, Dr. IT.
Woodward, and Professor T. Rupert Jones (Secretary), on the Fossil
Phyllopoda of the Palisozoic Rocks 424
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor James Geikie (Chairman),
Mr. S. A. Adamson, Professor T. G. Bonnet, Professor W. Boyd Daweins,
Mr. Wm. Gray, Mr. Aethtjr S. Reid, and Mr. Osmxtnd W. Jeffs (Secre-
tary), to arrange for the collection, preservation, and systematic registration
of Photographs of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom. (Drawn up
ijy the Secretary) , 429
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Flower (Chairman), Pro-
fessor M. Foster, Professor Rat Lankester, Professor Vines, and Mr. S. F.
Harmer (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of arranging for the occupa-
tion of a Table at the Laboratory of the Marine Biological Association at
Plymouth 444
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Flower (Chairman),
Mr. D. Morris (Secretary). Mr. Carruthers, Dr. Sclater, Mr. Thiselton-
Dter, Dr. Sharp, Mr. F. Bv Cane Godman, Professor Newton, Dr.
GiJNTHER, and Colonel Feilden, appointed for the purpose of reporting
on the present state of our knowledge of the Zoology and Botany of the
West India Islands, and taking steps to investigate ascertained deficiencies
in the Fauna and Flora 447
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. P. L. Sclater, Professor Rat
Lankester, Professor Cossar Ewart, Professor M. Foster, Mr. A.
Sedgwick, Professor A. M. Marshall, and Mr. Peect Sladen (Secre-
tary), appointed for the purpose of arranging for the occupation of a Table
at the Zoological Station at Naples 449
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Newton, Mr. John Coe-
DEAUX (Secretai'y), Mr. J. A. Harvie-Brown, Mr. R. M. Barrinston,
Mr. W. Eagle Clarke, and the Rev. E. P. Kneblet, appointed to make a
digest of the observations on Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and Light-
vessels which have been carried on from 1879 to 1887 inclusive by the
Migrations Committee of the British Association (with the consent of the
Master and Elder Brethren of the Trinity House and the Commissioners of
Northern and Irish Lights), and to report upon the same 464
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. A. W. Wills (Chairman),
Mr. E. W. Badger, Mr. G. Claridge DRtrcE, and Professor Hillhouse,
for the purpose of collecting information as to the Disappearance of Native
Plants from their Local Habitats. (Drawn up by Professor Hillhouse,
Secretary) 465
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Foster, Professor
Batlet Balfour, Mr. Thiselton-Dter, Dr. Tbimen, Professor Marshall
Ward, Mr. Carruthers, Professor Hartog, and Professor Bower (Secre-
tary), appointed for tbe purpose of taking steps for the establishment of a
Botanical Station at Peradeniya, Ceylon 470
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Haddon, Mr. W. E. IIoyle
(Secretary), and Professor W. A. Heedman, appointed for improving and
experimenting with a Deep-sea Tow-net, for opening and closing under
water 471
The probable Efl'ects on Wages of a general Reduction in the Hours of Labour.
By Professor J. E. C. Muuro, LL.D 472
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Giffen (Chairman), Pro-
fessor F. y. Edgeworth (Secretary), Mr. S. Bourne, Professor H. S.
Viii CONTENTS.
Page
FoxwELL, Professor Alfked Marshall, Mr. J. B. Maetin, Professor J. S.
Nicholson, Mr. R. H. Inglis Palgrave, and Professor II. Sidgwick,
aijpointed for the purpose of investigating the best methods of ascertaining
and measuring Variations in the Value of the Monetary Standard 485
lleport of the Committee, consisting of Dr. J. H. Gladstone (Chairman),
I'rofefssor Armstrong (Secretary), Mr. Stephen Bourne, Miss Ltdia
Becker, Sir John Lubbock, Bart., Dr. H. W. Ceosskey, Sir Richard
Temple, Bart., Sir Henry E. Roscoe, Mr. James Heywood, and Professor
N. Story Maskelyne, appointed for the purpose of continuing the inquiries
relating to the teaching of Science in Elementary Schools 489
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. S. Bourne, Professor F. Y.
Edgeworth (Secretary), Professor H. S. Foxwell, Mr. Robert Giffen,
Prolessor Alfred Marshall, Mr. J. B. Martin, Professor J. S. Nicholson,
Mr. R. II Inglis Palgrate, and Professor H. Sidgwick, appointed for the
purpose of inquiring and reporting as to the Statistical Data available for
determining the amount of the Precious Metals in use as Money in the
principal (Jountries, the chief Forms in which the Money is employed, and
the amount annually used in the Arts 493
On some New Telemeters, or Range-finders. By Professors Archibald
Barr, D.Sc, M.Inst.C.E., and William Stroud, B.A., D.Sc 499
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir J. N. Douglass, Professor
, VV. C. Unwin, Professor Osborne Reynolds, and Messrs. W. Topley,
E. Leader Williams, W. Shelfoed, G. F. Deacon, A. R. Hunt, W. H.
AVheeler, and W. Anderson, appointed to investigate the Action of
Waves and Currents on the Beds and Foreshores of Estuaries by means of
Working Models ." 512
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Garson (Chairman), Mr. J. Theodore
Bent (Secretary), Messrs. H. W. Bates, Bloxam, and J. Stuart Glbnnie,
Sir Frederic Goldsmid, and Messrs. Pengelly and Rudler, appointed
for the purpose of investigating the Geography and the Habits, (Customs,
and Physical Characters of the Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor and Northern
Persia, and to excavate on sites of ancient occupation 535
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir William Turner, Mr. Bloxam,
Professor Flower, Dr. E. B. Tylor, and Mr. Risley, appointed to
investigate the Habits, Customs, Physical Characteristics, and Religions of
the Natives of India 547
Report of the Committee, consisting of General Pitt-Rivers (Chairman),
Dr. Garson (Secretary), Dr. Beddoe, Professor Flower, Mr. Francis
Galton, and Dr. E. B. Tylor, appointed for the purpose of editing a new
Edition of ' Anthropological Notes and Queries' 547
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir John Lubbock, Dr. John
Evans, Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Dr. R. Munro, Mr. W. Pengelly, Dr.
Henry Hicks, Professor Meldola, Dr. Muirhead, and Mr. James W.
Davis, appointed for the purpose of ascertaining and recording the localities
in the Britisli Islands in which evidences of the existence of Prehistoric
Inhabitants of the country are found. (Drawn up by Mr. James W. Davis) 548
Report of the Committee, consisting of General Pitt-Rtvees, Dr. Garson,
and Mr. Bloxam, appointed for the purpose of Calculating the Anthropo-
logical Measurements taken at the Newcastle Meeting of the Association
in 1889. (Drawn up by Dr. Gaeson, Secretary) 549
Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. E. B. Tylor, Mr. G. W.
Bloxam, Sir Daniel Wilson, Dr. G. M. Dawson, General Sir H."
Lefroy, and Mr. R. G. Halibueton, appointed to investigate the plivsical
characters, languages, and industrial and social condition of tlie North-
Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada 553
CONTENTS. IX
TEANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
Section A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
Page
Address by J. W. L. Glaisher, Sc.D., F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S., President of the ^
Section 719
1. Report of the Committee on Electro-optics 727
2. Notes on High Vacua. By J. Swixbtirne 727
3. On the Use of the Lantern in Class-room Work. By Professor Arch.
Barr, DSc, and Professor W. Strotjd, D.Sc 727
4. On Refraction and Pispersion in certain Metals. By H. E. J. G. bit Bois
and H. Rubens 728
5. On an Illustration of Contact Electricity presented by the Multicellular
Electrometer. By Sir William Thomson, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S 728
6. On Defective Colour Vision. By Lord Ratlei&h, Sec.R.S 728
7. On some new Vacuum Joints and Taps. By W. A. Shenstone 729
8. On the General Theory of Ventilation, with some Applications. By
W. N. Shaw, M.A .". 730
9. Account of Experiments to determine the Variations in Size of Drops
with the Interval between the Fall of each. By W. Binnib, B.A 731
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 5,
1. Recent Determinations of the Absolute Resistance of Mercury. By R. T.
Glazebrook, M.A., F.R.S 731
2. Suggestions towards a Determination of the Ohm. By Professor J.
ViRiAMTJ Jones, M.A 732
3. On Alternate Currents in Parallel Conductors of Homogeneous or
Heterogeneous Substance. By Sir William Thomson, D.C.L., I^L.D.,
F.R.S 732
4. On Anti-Efl'eotive Copper in Parallel Conductors or in Coiled Conductors
for Alternate Currents. By Sir William Thomson, D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S 736
5. The Molecular Theory of Induced Magnetism (with exhibition of a
Model). By Professor J. A. Ewing, F.R.S 740
6. Some Experiments to determine Wave Velocity in certain Dielectrics.
By Eked. T. Trouton 741
*
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
Department I. — Mathematics.
; 1. On the Physical Character of Caustic Surfaces. By J. L\rmor 742
2, The Buckling of Plates. By G. H. Bktan 74a
X CONTENTS,
Page
3. On the Pulsations of a Eotating Bell. By G. H. Betan 743
4. On the History of Pfaffs Problem. By A. R. Foesyth, F.R.S 743
5. On some Geometrical Theorems relating to the Powers of Circles and
Spheres. By Professor William Woolsey Johnson 743
6. Possibility of Irreversible Molecular Motions. By E. P. Culveeatell,
M.A 744
7. On some Arithmetical Functions connected with the Elliptic Functions of
A K. By Dr. J. W. L. Glaishee, F.R.S 745
8. On Systems of Simultaneous Linear Differential Equations. Bv A. R.
Forsyth, F.R.S .' 745
9. Chess Problem. By Lieut.-Col. Allan Cunningham, R.E 745
10. On a Remarkable Circle thi-ough two Points of a Conic. By Professor
Genese, M.A 745
11. Ferrel's Theory of the Winds. By Chaeles Chambers, F.R.S 745
Department II. — General Physics and Electrolysis.
1. On a Method of Determining in Absolute Measure the Magnetic Suscepti-
bility of Diamaguetic and Feebly Magnetic Solids. By Sir William
Thomson, D.O.L., LLD., F.R.S 745
2. On the Tension of W^ater Surfaces, Clean and Contaminated, investigated
by the Method of Ripples. By Lord Raxleigh, Sec.R.S 746
3. On the Adiabatic Curves for Ether, Gas, and Liquid, at High Tempera-
tures. By Professor W. Ramsay, F.R.S 746
4. Report of the Committee on Electrolysis 746
5. Report on the State of our Knowledge of Electrolysis and Electro-
Cheojistry. By W. N. Shaw 746
6. On the Action of Semipermeable Membranes in Electrolysis. By Pro-
fessor W. Ostwald ' 746
JiJO.YDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
1. Report of the Committee on the Ben Nevis Observatory 747
2. Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations in Canada 747
3. Report of the Committee for Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Obser-
vations 747
4. Report of the Committee for determining the Seasonal Variation in the
Temperatures of Lakes, Rivers, and Estuaries 747
5. Report of the Committee on Solar Radiation 747
6. Report of the Committee on the Volcanic and Seismological Phenomena
of Japan 747
7. On a Meteorological Observatory recently established on Mont Blanc. By
A. Lawrence Roich, S.B., F.R.Met.Soc. of Boston, U.S.A 747
8. The Climate of Scarborough compared with that of some other Seaside
Health Resorts. By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. ... 748
9. The Inland compared wilh the Maritime Climate of England and Wales.
By John Hopeinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc 748
10. A Comparison of the Chmate of Halifax, Wnkefield, Bradford, Leeds,
and Hull. By John liopKiNtON, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc 749
CONTENTS. XI
Page
11. Photographs of the Invisible, in Solar Spectroscopy. By C. PiAzzi
Smyth, LL.D 750
12. On Meteorological Photography. By John HopKiNSOif, F.L.S., F.G.S.,
F.R.Met.Soc 751
13. On the Spectra of the Elements and the Constitution of the Sun. By
Professor II. A. Rowland .". 751
.4. On Regional Magnetic Disturbances in the United Kingdom. By Pro-
fessors A. W. RtJcKEB, F.R.S., and T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S 75L
15. Sur les perturbations magnetiques en France. By Professor E. Mascart 751
16. Exhibition of Photographs of Clouds. By Fkibse Greene 751
lUUSBAT, SEPTEMBER 9.
1. Optique mineralogique. — Achromatisme des Franges. By Professor E.
Mascarx 762
2. Instantaneous Photographs of Water Jets. By Lord Rayleigh, Sec.
R.S ■. 752
3. Report of the Committee on Electrical Standards 752
4. On Variations in some Standard Resistance Coils. By R. T. Glazebrook,
F.R.S 752
5. On some Standard Air Condensers. By R. T. Glazexeook, F.R.S., and
Dr. A. MuiRHEAD 752
G. On the Specific Resistance of Copper. By T. C. Fitzpatrick 752
7. A Comparison of a Platinum Thermometer with some Mercuiy Thermo-
meters. By E. H. GmPFrrHS 752
8. On the Character of Steel used for Permanent Magnets. By W. H.
Preece, F.R.S 753
9. The Effect of Oxidation on the Magnetic Properties of Manganese Steel.
By L. T. O'Shea, B.Sc 753
10. On Testing Iron. By J. Swinburne and W. F. Botjrxe 753
11. The Compensation of Alternating-Current Voltmeters. By. J.
Swinburne 753
12. Note on a Kinetic Stability of Equilibrium with Electro-magnetic
Forces. By Professor G. F. Fitzgerald, F.R.S 753
13. On Electrical Oscillations in Air. By J. Trowbridge 754
14. On the Electrostatic Forces between Conductors and other matters in
connection with Electric Radiation. Bj- Professor Oliver J. Lodge,
F.R.S 754
WEBNESBsAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
1. On Atom-grouping in Crystals (with exhibition of a Model). By W.
Barlow 754
2. On an Episode in the Life of J (Hertz's Solution of Maxwell's Equations).
By Professor G. F. Fitzgerald, F.R.S 755
3. Report of the Committee on Molecular Phenomena attending the Mag-
netisation of Iron 757
4. Note on the Relation between the Diffusion of Motion and Propagation of
Disturbance in some turbulent Liquid Motions. By Professor G. F.
Fitzgerald, F.R.S 757
Xii CONTENTS.
Page
6. A Coefficient of Abrasion as an Absolute Measure of Hardness. By
F. T. Trouton 757
6. The Effect of Direct and Alternating Pressures on the Human Body. By
J. Swinburne 758
7. On the Use of Fluor Spar in Optical Instruments. By Professor Silvanus
P. Thompson, D.Sc '. 769
8. A new Direct-reading Photometer measuring from Unity to Infinity. By
Fkedbeick H. Vaklet 759
9. On a Radiometric Record of Sun-heat from different parts of the Solar
Disc. By W. E. Wilson 760
10. Recent Photographs of the less refrangible portions of Solar Spectrum
under diil'erent Atmospheric Conditions. By George Higgs 760
Section B.— CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
THUBSDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
Address by Professor T. E. Thorpe, B.Sc, Ph.D., F.R.S., Treas.C.S., Presi-
dent of the Section 761
1. Report of the Committee on recent Inquiries into the History of
Chemistry 771
2. Report of the Committee on the Silent Discharge of Electricity in Gases 772
3. Report of the Committee on the present Methods of Teaching Chemistry 772
4. On Recent Tjegislation as Facilitating the Teaching of Science. By Sir
Henry Roscoe, M.P., F.R.S 772
5. The Refraction and Dispersion of Fluorbenzene and Allied Compounds.
By J. H. Gladstone, Ph.D., F.R.S. , and George Gladstone 772
6. A Method of Quantitative Analysis. By Q. H. Bailey, D.Sc, Ph.D.,
and J. C. Cain 772
7. The Behaviour of the more Stable Oxides at High Temperatures. By
G. H. Bailey, D.Sc, Ph.D., and A. A. Read 773
8. The Spectra of the Haloid Salts of Didymium. ByG. H. Bailey, D.Sc,
PliD 773
9. On the Condition of the Air in Public Places of Amusement, with special
reference to Theatre Hygiene. By W. Hepworth Collins, F.C.S.,
F.iLM.S ; ; 773
FRIBA T, SEPTEMBER 5.
1. Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives 775
2. The Development of the Coal-tar Colour Industry since 1882. By
W. H. Perkin, Ph.D., F.R.S 775
3. Behaviour of Copper Potassium Chloride and its Aqueous Solutions at
diti'erent Temperatures. By J. H. van 'x Hope 776
4. Report of the Committee on the Action of Light on the Hydracids of the
Halogens in presence of O.xygen 776
5. Experiments on the Combustion of Gases under Pressure. By Professor
LivEiNG, F.R.S., and Professor Dewak, F.R.S 776
COJSTENXS. Xlll
Page
6. On the Rate of Explosion of Hydrogen and Chlorine in the Pry and
Moist States. By Professor H. B. Dixon, F.R.S., and J. A. Barker ... 776
7. On the Ignition of Explosive Gaseous Mixtures. By G. S. Turpin, B.A.,
D.Sc , 776
8. The Orthophote. By James T. Bkown 778
MONDAY, SBPTE3IBER 8.
1. Report of the Committee on an International Standard for the Anal3'si8
of Iron and Steel 778
2. Report of the Committee on the Influence of Silicon on the Properties of
Steel... 778
3. Report of the Committee on the Properties of Solutions 778
4. Report of the Committee on the Bibliography of Solution 778
5. On recent Swedish Investigations on the Gases held in Solution hy the
Sea-water of the Skagerack. By Dr. 0. Pbtteesson 779
6. Joint Discussion with Section A on the Nature of Solution and its Con-
nection with Osmotic Pressure, opened by S. U. Pickering, F.R.S., in a
Paper on the present Position of the Hydrate Theory of Solution 779
7. The Molecular Refraction of Substances in Solution. By J. 11. Glad-
stone, Ph.D., F.U.S 779
8. On an Apparatus for the Determination of Freezing-points of Solutions.
By .P. J. Hartog, B.Sc, and J. A. Harkbk 779
9. The Sulphur Waters of Yorkshire. By C. H. Bothamlet, F.I.C, F.C.S. 779
10. The River Aire: a Study in River Pollution. By T. H. Easxerfield,
B.A., F.C.S., and J. Mitchell Wilson, M.D 780
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
1. Provisional Report of the Committee on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy 780
2. Report of the Committee for preparing a new Series of Wave-length
Tables of the Spectra of the Elements 780
3. Report of the Committee on the Absorption-Spectra of Pure Compounds 780
4. On Phosphorous Oxide. By Professor T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S 780
5. Diazoamido-Compounds : a Study in Chemical Isomerism. By Professor
Raphael Meldola, F.R.S 780
6. The Action of Light upon the Diazo-CoApounds of Primuline and Dehy-
drothiotoluidine: a Method of Photographic Dyeing and Printing. By
Arthur G. Green, Charles F. Cross, and Edward J. Bevan 781
7. Fast and Fugitive Dyes. By Professor J. J. Hummel 782
8. Notes on the Limits of the Reactions for the Detection of Hydrogen
Dioxide, and the Reactions for Uranium. By T. Fairley, F.R.S.E. ...78-3
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
1. On Veratrin, and on the Existence of Two Isomeric /3-Picolines. By Dr.
F. Ahrbns 783
2. The Action of Phosphorus Trichloride on Organic Acids and on Water.
By 0. H. Bothamley, F.C.S., and G. R. Thompson 784
Xiv CONTENTS.
Page
3. On the Constitution of tlie Alkaloid, Berberiu. By Professor W. H.
Perkin, Jun., F.R.S 785
4. The Production of Camphor from Turpentine. By J. E. Marsh and R- ^ ^
Stockdale 785
5. On a Double Aspirator. By T. Fairlet, F.R.S. E 785
6. On the Vulcanisation and Decay of Indiarubber. By W. Thomson,
F.R.S.E., F.CS 785
7. On the Unhurned Gases contained in the Flue-p:ases from Gas Stoves and
different Burners. By William Thomson, F.R.S. E., F.CS 786
8. Contributions to the Analysis of Fats. By J. Lewkowitsch, Ph.D.,
F.I.C., F.CS 787
9. On the Condensation of Dibenzylketone with 0.\;alic Ether. By Thos.
EwAN, Ph.D., B.Sc 738
Section C— GEOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
Address by Professor A. H. Green, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., President of the
Section 789
1. On the Gio:antic Ceratopsidee (or Horned Dinosaurs) of North America.
By Professor 0. C. Marsh 793
2. The Carboniferous Strata of Leeds and its immediate suburbs. By
Benjamin Holqate, F.G.S 795
3. Some Physical Properties of the Coals of the Leeds District. By Benja-
min HoLGATE, F.G.S 796
4. On the Boulders and Glaciated Rock-surfaces of the Yorkshire Coast.
By G. W. LAMPLuaH, F.G.S 797
5. East Yorkshire during the Glacial Period. By G. W. Lamplugh, F.G.S. 798
6. Final Report on an Ancient Sea Beach near Bridlington .'. 799
7. On Liassic Sections near Bridport, Dorset. By John Francis Wale;er,
M.A., F.G.S 799
8. On the Sounds known as the ' Barisal Guns,' occurring in the Gangetic
Delta. By T. D. la Totiche 800
9. On the so-called Ingleton Granite. By Thomas Tate, F.G.S 800
FRIDA Y, SEPTEMBER 5.
1. The Devonian Rocks, as described in De la Beche's Report, interpreted in
accordance with Recent Researches. By W. A. E. Ussher, F.G.S 801
2. On Pre-Cambrian Rocks occurring as Fragments in the Cambrian Con-
glomerates in Britain. ByllBNRT Hicks, MD., F.R.S., F.G.S 803
3. The Effects produced by Earth-movements on Pre-Oambriau and Lower
PaliEozoic Rocks in some Sections in Wales and Shropshire. By Henry
Hicks, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S 804
4. On the INIineral Resources of New South Wales. By C. S. Wilkinson,
F.G.S ; 805
5. Eighteenth Report on the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland 807
CONTENTS. XV
Page
6. On the Glacial Phenomena of the Isle of Man. By P. F. Kendall 807
7. On the Speeton Clavs and their Equivalents in Lincolnshire. By G. W.
Lamplugh, F.G.S.". ." 803
8. Ou the Neural Arch of the Vertebrse in the Ichthyosauria. By Professor
H. G. Seeley, F.E.S 809
9. On the Marbles and other Ornamental Rocks of the Mediterranean. By
W. Beindlet, F.G S., F.R.M.S 809
10. The supposed Volcanic Eruption of Cape Reylsjanses. By Tempest Ander-
son, M.D., B.Sc, and H. J. Johnston-Lavis", M.D 810
11. On Lepidophloios and Lepidodendron. By Wm. Cash, F.G.S., F.L.S.,
F.R.M.S., and Jas. Lomax 810
12. Ou the Changes of the Lower Carboniferous Rocks in Yorkshire from
South to North. By J. R. Dakyns 811
13. Human Footprints in recent Volcanic Mud in Nicaragua. By Dr. J.
Crawford 812
14. On the Geology of Nicaragua. By Dr. J. Crawford 812
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
1. Preliminary Note on the Composition and Origin of Cheshire Boulders.
By J. CoiTTTS Antrobus, M.A.,and Frederick H. Hatch, Ph.D ,F.G.S. 813
2. On some West -Yorkshire Mica-trap Dykes. By Frederick H. Hatch,
Ph.D., F.G. S 813
3. Note on Phillips's Dyke, Ingleton. By Thomas Tate, F.G.S 814
4. Sixth Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius 814
5. On the Origin of the Saline Inclusions in the Crystalline Rocks of Dart-
moor. By A. R. Hunt, M.A., F.G.S 815
6. On the Strata forming the Base of the Silurian in North-East Montgomery-
shire. By J. BiCKERTON Morgan, F.G.S 816
7. The Geology of the Long Mountain, on the Welsh Borders. By W. W.
Watts, M.'A., F.G.S 817
8. Elbolton Cave Exploration. By the Rev. Edward Jones 817
9. Physical Studies of an Ancient Estuary. By the Rev. A. Irving, D.Sc,
F.G.S 818
10. Sixteenth Report on the Circulation of Un(Jerground Waters 819
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
1. Eighth Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Palaeozoic Rocks 819
2. Report on the Cretaceous Polyzoa 819
3. Suggestions on Sites for Coal-.search in the South-East of England. By
W. Whitaker, F.R.S., F.G.S 819
4. Notes on the Bunter and Keuper Formation in the Country around Liver-
pool. By G. H. Morton, F.G.S 819
5. Notes on the ISIorphology of the Cystidea. By P. Herbert Carpenter,
D.Sc, F.R.S ■. 821
6. On the Sources of the River Aire. By Professor Silvantts P. Thompson,
D.Sc 821
Xvi CONTENTS.
Page
7. Report on the Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of
Photographs of Geological Interest 82i
8. On the Discovery of a Jurassic Fish-Fauna in the Hawkeshury-Wiana-
niatta Beds of New South Wales. By A. Smith Woodward, F.G.S.... 82-2
9. Restorations of the Palaeozoic Elasmobranch Genera Tleuracantlms and
Xenacanthus. By Dr. Anton Feitsch 822
10. On Fossil Fish of the West Riding Coal-field. By J. W. Davis, F.G.S. 822
11. Fourth Report on the 'Manure' Gravels of Wexford 823
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
1. Report on the Registration of Type Specimens 823
2. On Peat overlying a Lacustrine Deposit at Filey. By the Rev. E. Matjle
Cole, M.A., F.G.S 823
y. On the Origin of Gold. By Professor J. Logan Lobley, F.G.S 824
4. As to certain Alterations in the Surface-level of the Sea oiF the South
Coast of England. By R. G. M. Browne, F.G.S 824
5. Notes on Volcanic Explosions. By Thomas Hart, F.G.S 825
Section D.— BIOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
Address by Professor A. Milnes Marshall, M.A., M.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.,
President of the Section 826
1. On the Ornithology of the Sandwich Islands. By Professor A. NeWton,
F.R.S 852
2. Report of the Committee to Improve and Experiment with a Deep-Sea
Tow-Net 852
3. Report of the Committee on the Naples Zoological Station 852
4. Third Report of the Committee on the Flora and Fauna of the West
India Islands 852
5. Third Report of the Committee on the Disappearance of Native Plants
from their Local Habitats 852
6. Fourth Report of the Committee for establishing a Botanical Station at
Paradeniy a, Ceylon 852
7. Report of the Committee on the Migration of Birds 852
8. Report of the Committee appointed to arrange for the Occupation of
Table at the Marine Biological Laboratory, Plymouth 853
9. Report of the Committee on the Invertebrate Fauna and Cryptogamic
Flora of the Fresh Waters of the British Isles 853
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
1. Discussion on the Teaching of Botany, opened by Professors Marshall
W^ARD, F. Oliver, and F. O. Bower 853
2. On the Cretaceous Mammals of North America. By Professor O, C, Mausii 853
CONTENTS. XV 11
Page
3. On Androgynous Cones in Finns Thunhergii, and some remarks on their
Morphology. By F. Ernest Weiss 854
4. On a curious Cell-content in Eucommia ulmoides (Oliv.). By F. Ernest
Weiss 854
5. On an Abnormality in Tropceolum, with Remarks on the Origin of the
Spur. By Professor A. Denxt 855
6. Notes on the Natural History of flierro and Graciosa, two outlying
members of the Canary Islands. By the Rev. Canon Tiustraji, F.R.S. 855
7. Contributions to a Knowledge of the Composition of the Human Lens,
especially in reference to the changes it undergoes with age and in
cataract. By William Jor, Collins, M.D., M.S., B.Sc, F.R.C.S 855
8. Indications for the Cure of Infectious Diseases. By E. H. Hanein, B.A. 656
9. Experiments with Drugs as a Question of Science. By William Sharp,
F.R.S 859
10. On the Incubation of Snakes' Eggs. By Dr. Walter Sibley 860
11. Some of the probable causes of Variation in the Eggs of Birds. By H. B.
Hewetson 860
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
1 . On the Development of the Head of the Fly of Chironomus. By Pro-
fessor L. C. MiALL, F.L.S., and A. Hammond 860
2. On the Structure of Muscular Fibre as demonstrated by ' Castings ' taken
in Collodium. By J. B. Haycraft 8G0
3. Notes on the Anatomy and Morphology of the Cystidea. By P. H.
Carpenter, F.R.S 860
4. On Variability in Development. By Professor A. Milnes Marshall,
F.R.S., and E. J. Bles 861
5. On Secreting Cells. By Professor G. Gilson 861
6. On the Regeneration of Lost Parts in Polyzoa. By Sidney F. Harmer,
M.A., B.Sc 862
7. On the Meaning of the Ampullse in MillejMirc murrayi (Quelch). By
S. J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc 863
8. On the male Gonangia of Distichopora and Allortora. By S. J. Hickson,
M.A.,D.Sc .'. 864
9. On the Tracheal Occlusor Apparatus in Insecta. By Professor A. Denny 864
10. The Life-History of the Hessian Fly, Cecidomyia Destructor (Say). By
F. Enock 864
11. Notes on the Spawning of the Anguillse. By the Rev. J. E. Eraser 866
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
1. On the Power of certain Bacteria to form Organic Compounds from
Inorganic Matter. By R. Warington, F.R.S 866
2. Notes on Phylloglossum. By Professor F. 0. Bower 867
3. On the Question of the Phylogeny of Ferns. By Professor F. 0. Bower 867
4. On Hybrids and their Parents. By Dr. J. M. Macfarlane 867
5. Dehiscence of Fruit of Ecballium elaterium. By Professor T. Johnson,
B.Sc.,F.L.S 867
1890. a
'
xviii CONTENTS.
Page
6. Observations on Brown and on Ked Seaweeds. By Professor T. JoHir-
sox, B.Sc, F.L.S B68
7. On the Arrangements for recording Phenological Phenomena. By G. J.
SiMoxs, F.R.S 868
8. On the Floral Biology of Episda maculata. By Professor F. W. Oliver 869
9. On the Origin of Thorny Plants. By Professor P. Geddes 870
10. Note on the Occurrence in Yorkshire of Arenaria gothica (Fries). By
Professor SiLTAXCs P. THOJiPSOisr, D.Sc 871
11. The Flora of Victoria Park, Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada. By J.
IIoTES Panton, M.A., F.G.S 871
12. The Cytology of the Chytridian Woronina. By Professor Maectxs M.
IIaetog, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S 872
13. On the Acclimatisation of the Tussock Grass of the Falkland Islands.
By Professor Maecus M. Haktog, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S 872
14. On a Case of Apogamy in Vancheria hamata (Yauch.), Lyngb. Bv
Thomas Hick, B.A., B.Sc '.. 872
15. An o^•erlooked Yariety of Cynosurus cristatus (Crested Dog's-tail-grass).
By W. Wilson, Jun 872.
Section E.— GEOGRAPHY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
Address bv Lieutenant-Colonel Sir R. Lamgeet Plax'faik, K.C.M.G.,
F.ii.G'.S., President of the Section ...; 874
1. The Vertical Relief of the Globe. By H. R. Mill, D.Sc, F.R.S.E 888
2. Geographical Teaching in Russia. By H. R. Mill, D.Sc, F.R.S.E 888
3. A Railway through Southern Persia. By Major-General Sir F. J. Gold-
S3IIB, C.B., K.C.S.I., F.R.G.S 888
4. New Trade Routes into Persia. By H. F. B. Lynch 889
FRIBAT, SEPTEMBER 5.
1. Notes on the Country lying between Lakes Nyassa, Rukwa, and Tangan-
yika. By Dr. Keee Ceoss 891
2. Journeys in Ashanti and Neighbouring Regions. By R. Austin Feee-
JCAN, M.R.C.S .' 892
3. Zambezia. By E. A. Maitnd 892
4. The Commercial Geography of Africa. By J. Scott Keltie 892
.5. The Political Partition of Africa. By A. Silv a White, F.R.S.E 892
6. The Kalahari. By E. Wilkinson 892
MONBAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
1. Joint Meeting with Section F to consider the subject of the Lands of the
Globe still available for European Settlement. Introduced in a Paper by
E. G. Ravenstein, F.R.G.S 893
2. On Exploration in North-Eastern Cilicia. By J. Theodoee Bent 893
CONTENTS. xix
Page
3. Report of the Committee for the Exploration of Oilicia 893
4. The Physical Geographical Features of Brazil, in relation to their Influ-
ence upon the Development, or otherwise, of the Industrial and Commer-
cial Interests of the Country. By James W. Wells, M.Inst.C.E.,
F.R.G.S : : .'893
5. From Paraguay to the Pacilic. By .M. A. Thouae 893
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 0.
1. Notes on a Journey in the Eastern Carpathians. By Miss Mexe Mueiel
Bowie ■; 89G
2. The Present State of the Ordnance Suryey and the Paramount Necessity
for a Thorough Reyision. By Hexry T. Crook, C.E 89G
3. Ancient Maps of Egypt, Lake IMoeris, and the Mountains of the Moon.
By CorE Whitehouse 896
4. Some Points in connection with Ptolemaic Geography and Ptolemaic
Maps. By Dr. Schlichter , 897
5. The actual State of the Question of the Initial Meridian for the Universal
Hour. By C. TONDLCfl DE QUAEEXGHI 897
C. On recent Explorations in New Guinea. By Coutts Trotter, F.R.G.S. 897
7. Honduras (Spanish). By William Pilcher, F.R.G.S 897
8. On a Visit to the Skaptor District of Iceland. By Dr. Tempest Ander-
son and Dr. Johnston-Lavis 897
Section F.— ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
Address by Professor Alfred Marsjiall, M.A., F.S.S., President of the
Section 898
1. Modern Forms of Industrial Combination. By Professor A. T. IIadlet 91G
2. The Ulterior Aims of Co-operators. By Benjamin Jones 910
3. The Value of Labour in relation to Economic Theory. By .Tames Bonar 017
4. Progressive Taxation. By C. F. Bastable, LL.D 918
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
1. The probable Effects on Wages of a general Reduction in the Hours of
Labour. By Professor J. E. C. Muneo 919
2. The Agricultural Changes in England during the Period 1450-lGoO. By
Professor W. J. Ashley 919
3. The Element of Chance in Examinations. By Professor F. Y. Edge-
worth, D.C.L 920
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
1. The Policy of exercising a Discrimination between the Deserving and Un-
deserving in the giving of Public Poor Relief. By John King 921
2. Exhibition of Maps illustrating the Statistics of Pauperism. By Dr.
Rhodes 900
a2
XX CONTENTS.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
Page
1. Joint Discussion with Section E (Geography) on Lands still available for
European Settlement 9^-
2. Some recent Changes in the Conditions governing the London Money
Market. By Wynnaed Hooper 923
3. The pure Theory of Distribution. By Arthur Berry, M.A 923
4. A Theory of the Consumption of Wealth. By Professor P. Gkddes 924
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
J. The Factories and Workshops Acts— Past and Present. By G. II. L.
ElCKARDS 92 7
2. Modern Changes in the Mobility of Labour. By II. Llewellyx Smith 927
3. Eeport of the Committee on the Teaching of Science in Elementary
Schools 928
4. Report of the Committee on the Standard of Value 928
5 Report of the Committee on the Statistics of the Use of tlie Precious
Metals 928
6. On the Ideal Aim of the Economist. By Mrs. Victoria C. Woodiiull
Martin 9-^
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
1. On the Drawbacks of Modern Economic Progress. ByE. L. K. Go:s^ner 928
2. On some Typical Economic Fallacies made by Social Reformers. By
L. L. Price, M.A 928
3. The Use of Estimates of Aggregate Capital and Income as Measures of
the Economic Welfare of Nations. By Edwin Cannan, M.A 920
Section G.— MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
Address by Captain Noble, C.B,, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.O.S., M.Inst.C.E., Presi-
dent of the Section 930
1. A Hydraulic Steam Lifeboat. By J. F. Green 947
2. On Aluminium Bronze for Artillery and Small Arms. ]>v J. II. J.
Dagger, F.C.S., F.I.C .' 948
3. Some new Telemeters or Range Finders. By Professors A. IUrr and
W. Stroud 940
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
1. Report of the Estuaries Committee 949
2. Report of the Graphic Methods Committee 949
3. The Process of manufacturing Netting by slitting and expanded Sheet
Metal. By J. F. GoLDiNG 940
4. Cable Tramways. By W. Newby Colam 950
CONTENTS. XXI
Page
0. On the ' Serve ' Tube. By W. Batlet Maeshall, M.Inst.C.E 950
(j. The Simplex Brake. By W. Batley Maeshall, M.Inst.C.E 950
7. A Rotary Machine for Composing and Distributing Printing Type. By
John Solthwaed 951
8. The Victoria and other Torpedoes. By G. Read Mxtephy 952
9. The Benier IIot-Air Engine or Motor. By E. Vernon 953
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
1. On the Pneumatic Distribution of Power. By Professor A. Lttpton 954
'2. On the Construction of Sluices for Rivers, &c. By F. G. M. Stoney,
M.Inst.C.E 954
3. The Raiyfin Canal. By Cope Whixehoitse 955
2I0NDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
1. A new Electric Meter. The Multicellular Voltmeter. An Engine-room
Voltmeter. An Ampere Gauge. A new Form of Voltapile, useful in
Standardising Operations. By Sir William Thomson, D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S 956
-'. The Linelf Electric Tramway. By Gisbeet Kapp 956
•J. Alternating versus Continuous Currents in relation to the Human Body.
By H. Newman Laweence, M.I.E.E., and Arthur Haeeies, M.D. ... 957
4. On Electric Lighting and Fire Insurance Rules. By Wilson Haetnell 958
5. Secondary Cells. By W. J. S. Baebee Sxarket 958
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
1. On the Form of Submarine Cables for Long-distance Telephony. By
W. H. Peeece, F.R.S. ". 959
1'. Column-Printing Telegraph. By F. IIiggins 959
o. On Heavy Lathes. By A. Greenwood 959
4. Factors of Safety. By "VV. Bayley Maeshall, M.Inst.C.E 960
5. Measurement of Elongation in Test Samples. By J. H. Wicksteed 962
[6. On the Measurement of Strains. By A. Mallock 962
7. Exhibition of a Mechanism. By Professors Baer and "\V. SiRorD 962
Section H.— ANTHROPOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
Address by John Evans, D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc, Treas.R.S., Pres.S.A., F.L.S ,
President of the Section 963
1. On the Doctrine of Ilereditism. By the Rev. F. 0. Moeeis 969
2. Remarks on the Ethnology of British Columbia. By Hoeatio Hale ... 969
3. Notes on the Religion of the Australian Aborigines. By J. "W. Fawcett 969
4. Notes on the Aborigines of Australia. By J. W. Fawcett 970
Xxii CONTKNTS.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 5.
Page-
1. On the Youroulfs of Asia Minor. By J. Theodore Bent 970
2. The Present Aspect of the Jade Question. By F. W. Rudler, F.G.S.... 971
3. On the Aryan Cradleland. By J. S. Stuaet Giennie 971
4. ' Is there a Break in Mental Evolution ? ' By the Hon. Lady Welbt... 972
6. OnReversion. By Miss Nina F. L.vtaed 973
6. On an Unidentified People occupying parts of Britain in Pre-Roman-
British Times. By Dr. Phene, LL.D., F.S.A 974
7. Report ofthe Notes and Queries Committee 974
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
1. Physical Development. By Dr. Hamdleton 974
2. On some Archaeological Remains bearing on the question of the Origin of
the Anglo-Saxons in England. By Robert Muneo, M.A., M.D 976
3. Some Neolithic Details. By H. Coi.ley March, M.D 977
4. On Prehistoric Otter and Beaver Traps. By Robert Munro, M.A., M.D. 978
5 Indications of Retrogression in Prehistoric Civilisation in the Thames
Valley. By H. Stores, F.G.S 979
6. On the Duggleby ' Howe.' By the Rev. I'L Matjle Cole, M.A., F.G.S. 979
7. A probable Site of Delgovitia. By T. R. Mortimer 980
8. A supposed Roman Camp at Octon. By T. R. Mortiicer 980
9. A Suggestion as to the Boring of Stone Hammers. By W. Horne 980
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
1. Old and Modern Phrenology. By Bernard Hollander 980
2. Stethographic Tracings of Male and Female Respiratory Movements. By
Dr. WiLBERFOECE Smith 981
3. A new Spirometer. By W. F. Stanley, F.G.S 982
4. Report ofthe Anthropometric Laboratory Committee 982
5. Diagrams for Reading-ofF Indices. By Dr. Wilberforce Smith 982
6. Excavation of the Wandsdyke at Woodvates. Bv General Pitt-Riyees,
F.R.S ; ": 983
7. Notes on Human Remains discovered by General Pitt-Rivers at Wood-
yates, Wiltshire. By J. G. Gaeson, M.D., V.P. Anthrop. Inst 983
8. Report of the Prehistoric Inhabitants Committee 984
9. Report ofthe Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor Committee 984
10. Report ofthe North- Western Tribes of Canada Committee 984
11. Report of the Indian Committee 984
Index 985
XXlll
LIST OF PLATES.
PLATES I.— XVIII.
Illustrating the Eeport of the Committee appointed to investigate the Action of
Waves and Currents on the Beds and Foreshores of Estuaries by means of
Working Models.
PLATE XIX.
Map illustrating the Sixth Report of the Committee appointed to investigate the
physical characters, languages, and industrial and social condition of the
North- Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada.
OBJECTS AND RULES
OF
THE ASSOCIATION.
OBJECTS.
The Association contemplates no interference with the ground occupied
by other institutions. Its objects are : — To give a stronger impulse and
a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry, — to promote the inter-
course of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British
Empire, with one another and with foreign philosophers, — to obtain a
more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any
disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress.
EULES.
Admission of Members and Associates.
All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled
to become Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation
to conform to its Rales.
The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical
Societies publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled,
in like manner, to become Members of the Association.
The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees,
of Philosophical Institutious shall be entitled, in like mannei', to become
Members of the Association.
All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Coun-
cil or Managing Committee shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.
Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the
General Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Asso-
ciation, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the
approval of a General Meeting.
Compositions, Subscriptions, and Privileges.
Life Members shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be
published after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the
offices of the Association.
Annual Subscribers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive
I
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXV
gratvitousJij the Reports of tlie Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay witliout vntermissicn their
Annnal Subscription. By omitting to pay this subscription in any par-
ticular year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and
all future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association
gratis : but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any
subsequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the
sum of One Pound. They are eligible to all the Offices of the Association.
Associates for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.
The Association consists of the following classes : —
1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.
2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on
admission Ten Pounds as a composition.
3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to
the payment of One Pound annnally. [May resume their Membership after
intermission of Annual Payment.]
4. Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the
payment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each
following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of
Annual Payment.]
5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.
6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.
And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members')
price, according to the following specification, viz. : —
1. Oralis. — Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further
sura of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845,
a further sum of Five Pounds.
New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a composition.
Annual Members ivlio have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.
2. At reduced or Members' Price, viz., two-thirds of the Publication Price.
— Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annnal Payments, but no further sum as a Book
Subscription.
Annual jMembers who have intermitted their Annual Subscription.
Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for
that year only.]
3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any
of the volumes of the Reports of the Association up to 1874,
of which more than 15 copies remain, at 2s. 6d. per volume.'
Application to be made at the Office of the Association.
Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can
only be issued by direction of the Council.
Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.
' A few complete sets, 1831 to 1874, are on sale, at £10 the set.
XXvi RULES OF THK ASSOCIATION.
Meetings.
The Association stall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The
place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee two
years in advance ; and the arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the
Officers of the Association.
General Co'inmittee.
The General Committee shall sit dm-ing the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons : —
Class A. Permanent Members.
1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association, and Presi-
dents of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of
Reports in the Transactions of the Association.
2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers have fur-
thered the advancement of those subjects which are taken into considera-
tion at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. With a view of sub-
omtting new claims under tJiis Rule to the decision of the Council, they viust
he sent to the Secretary/ at least one month before the Meeting of the Associa-
tion. The decision of the Council on the claims of any Member of the Associa-
tion to be placed on the list of the General Goviniittee to be final.
Class B. Tempokary Members.'
1. Delegates nominated by the Corresponding Societies under the
conditions hereinafter explained. Claims under this Rule to be sent to the
Secretary before the opening of the Meeting.
2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not ex-
ceeding three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place of
Meeting. Claims under this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries
before the opening of the Meeting.
3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and
who are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by
the President and General Secretaries.
4. Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections.
Organising Sectional Committees.^
The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretai-ies of the several Sec-
tions are nominated by the Council, and have power to act until their
names are submitted to the General Committee for election.
From the time of their nomination they constitute Organising Com-
mittees for the purpose of obtaining information upon the Memoirs and
Reports likely to be submitted to the Sections,^ and of preparing Reports
■ Eevised by the General Committee, 1884.
* Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871.
=" Notice to Cmitributors of Mennrirs. — Authors are reminded that, under an
arrangement dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which
they are to be read, are now as far as possible determined by Organising Committees
for the several Sections befo7-e the heginning of the Meeting. It has therefore become
necessary, in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXVll
thereon, and on the order in which it is desirable that they should be
read, to be presented to the Committees of the Sections at their first
meeting. The Sectional Presidents of former years are ex officio members
of the Organising Sectional Committees.'
An Organising Committee may also hold such preliminary meetings as
the President of the Committee thinks expedient, but shall, under any
circumstances, meet on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting, at
11 A.M., to nominate the first members of the Sectional Committee, if
they shall consider it expedient to do so, and to settle the terms of their
report to the General Committee, after which their functions as an
Organising Committee shall cease. ^
Constitution of the Sectional Committees.^
On the first day of the Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presi-
dents, and Secretaries of each Section having been appointed by the
General Committee, these Officers, and those previous Presidents and
Vice-Presidents of the Section who may desire to attend, are to meet, at
2 P.M., in their Committee Rooms, and enlarge the Sectional Committees
by selecting individuals from among the Members (not Associates) present
at the Meeting whose assistance they may particularly desire. The Sec-
tional Committees thus constituted shall have power to add to their
number from day to day.
The List thus formed is to be entered daily in the Sectional Minute.
Book, and a copy forwarded without delay to the Printer, who is charged
with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on the next day in the Journal of
the Sectional Proceedings.
■'o'-
Business of the Sectional Committees.
Committee Meetings are to be held on the Wednesday at 2 p.m., on the
following Thursday, Friday, Saturday,'* Monday, and Tuesday, from 10 to
11 A.M., punctually, for the objects stated in the Rules of the Association,
and specified below.
The business is to be conducted in the foUowiufj manner : —
o
I
1. The President shall call on the Secretary to read the minutes of
the previous Meeting of the Committee.
2. No paper shall be read until it has been formally accepted by the
several Communications, that each author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir
of a length suitable for insertion in the published Transactions of the Association,
and that he should send it, together with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or
before , addressed to the General Secretaries, at the office of
the Association. 'For Section ' If it should be inconvenient to the Author
that his paper should be read on any particular days, he is requested to send in-
formation thereof to the Secretaries in a separate note. Authors who send in their
MSS. three complete weeks before the Meeting, and whose papers are accepted,
■will be fumislicd, before the Meeting, with printed copies of their Reports and
abstracts. No Report, Paper, or Abstract can be inserted in the Annual Volume
unless it is handed either to the Recorder of the Section or to the Secretary, before
the conclusion of the Meeting.
' Added by the General Committee, Sheffield, 1879.
'^ Revised by the General Committee, Swansea, 1880.
' Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871.
* The meeting on Saturday was made optional by the General Committee at
Southport, 1883.
XXViii RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Committee of the Section, and entered on the minutes accord-
ingly.
3. Papers which have been reported on unfavourably by the Organis-
ino- Committees shall not be brougrht before the Sectional
Committees.'
At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of
last year's proceedings, as recorded in the Minnte-Book, and the Synopsis
of Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association
and printed in the last volume of the Report. He will next proceed to
read the Report of the Organising Committee.^ The list of Communi-
cations to be read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general
distribution of business throughout the week shall be provisionally ap-
pointed. At the close of the Committee Meeting the Secretaries shall
forward to the Printer a List of the Papers appointed to be read. The
Printer is charged with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on Thursday
in the Journal.
On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days,
the Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers
which have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed
to be read on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early
in the day as possible to the Printer, who is charged with printing the
same before 8 a.m. next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one
of the Secretaries of each Section (generally the Recorder) should call
at the Printing Office and revise the proof each evening.
Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily
in the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of
the Committee.
Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts
of Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the
Sectional Meetings, to the Secretary.
The Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ex officio
temporary Members of the General Committee {vide p. xxvi), and will
receive, on application to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets
entitling: them to attend its Meetings.
The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may
be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are
specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association, and the com-
munications made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of
selecting definite points of research to which individual or combined
exertion may be usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the
state and progress of which Reports are wanted ; to name individuals or
Committees for the execution of such Reports or researches ; and to state
whether, and to what degree, these objects may be usefully advanced by
the appropriation of the funds of the Association, by application to
Government, Philosophical Institutions, or Local Authorities.
In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science,
it is expedient that all Members of the Committee should be named, and
• These rules were adopted by the General Committee, Plj-mouth, 1877.
2 This and the following sentence were added by the General Committee, Edin-
■bxirgh, 1871.
KULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXIX
one of them appointed to act as Chairman, ivho shall have notified per-
sonally or in writing his willingness to accept the office, the Chairman to have
the responsibility of receiving and disbursing the grant (ifajiy has been made)
and securing the presentation of the Report in due time ; and further, it is
expedient that one of the members should be appointed to act as Secretary, for
ensuring attention to business.
That it is desirable that the number of Members appointed to serve on a
Committee should be as small as is consistent with its efficient luorking.
That a tabular list of the Conunittees appointed on the recommendation
of each Section shoidd be sent each year to the liecorders of the several Sec-
tions, to enable them to fill in the statement ichether the several Committees
appointed on the recommendation of their respective Sections had presented
their reports.
That on the proposal to recommend the appointment of a Committee for a
special object of science having been adopted by the Sectional Committee, the
number of Members of such Committee be then fixed, but that the Members to
serve on such Committee be nominated and selected by the Sectional Com-
mittee at a subsequent meeting.^
Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assist-
ance they may require.
The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to
be registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of
each is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Secretary for presentation
to the Committee of Kecommendations. Unless this be done, the Recom-
mendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association.
N.B. — Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sections
must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they can
be referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by the
General Committee.
The Committees of the Sections shall ascertain whether a Report has-
been made by every Committee appointed at the previous Meeting to whom
a sum of money has been granted, and shall report to the Committee of
Recommendations in every case where no such Report has been received.^
Notices regarding Grants of Money.
Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money have been
entrusted by the Association for the prosecution of particular researches
in science, are required to present to each following Meeting of the
Association a Report of the pi-ogress which has been made ; and th&
Chairman of a Committee to whom a money grant has been made must
(previously to the next Meeting of the Association) forward to the General
Secretaries or Treasurer a statement of the sums which have been ex-
pended, and the balance which remains disposable on each grant.
Grants of money sanctioned at any one Meeting of the Association
expire a week before the opening of the ensuing Meeting ; nor is the
Treasurer authorised, after that date, to allow any claims on account of
such grants, unless they be renewed in the original or a modified form by
the General Committee.
No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices,
of the British Association without special j)ermission from the General
' Revised by the General Committee, Batli, 1888.
^ Passed by the General Committee at Sheffield, 1879.
XXX RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Committee to do so ; and no money so raised shall be expended except in
accordance with the rules of the Association.
In each Committee, the Chairman is the only person entitled
to call on the Treasurer, Professor A. W. Williamson, 17 Buckingham
Street, London, W.C, for such portion of the sums granted as may from
time to time be required.
In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contem-
plate the payment of personal expenses to the members.
In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the con-
tinuation of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named is
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, whatever balance may remain
unpaid on the former grant for the same object.
All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Associa-
tion are to be deposited at the Office of the Association, when not
employed in carrying on scientific inquiries for the Association.
Business of the Sections.
The Meeting Eoom of each Section is opened for conversation from
10 to 11 daily. The Section Eoo7ns and approaches thereto can he used for
no notices, exhibitiovs, or other purp>oses than those of the Association.
At 11 precisely the Chair will be taken,* and the reading of communi-
cations, in the order previously made public, commenced. At 3 p.m. the
Sections will close.
Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications
delivered in may render such divisions desirable.
A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which
orio-inally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of
the Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author.
Duties of the Doorkeepers.
1. To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are
appointed during the whole time for which they are engaged.
2. To" require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the ex-
hibition of a Member's, Associate's, or Lady's Ticket, or Reporter's
Ticket, signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the
Secretary.
3. Persons unprovided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted
to any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room.
No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the
Association whose names are printed in the programme, p. 1.
Duties of the Messengers.
To remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed dur-
ing the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed on
messages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms.
• The sectional meetings on Saturday and on Wednesday may begin at any time
which may be fixed by the Committee, not earlier than 10 or later than 1 1. Passed by
the General Committee at Bath, 1888.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXI
Committee of Recommendations.
The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee,
which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional
Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which
they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science.
Presidents of the Association in former years are ex officio members of
the Committee of Recommendations.'
All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the
Committee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the
General Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of
Recommendations .
All proposals for establishing new Sections, or altering the titles of
Sections, or for any other change in the constitutional forms and funda-
mental rules of the Association, shall be referred to the Committee of
Recommendations for a report.-
Gorresponding Societies?
1. Any Society is eligible to be placed on the List of Correspondiug
Societies of the Association which undertakes local scientific investiga-
tions, and publishes notices of the results.
2. Application may be made by any Society to be placed on the
List of Corresponding Societies. Applications must be addressed to the
Seci-etary on or before the 1st of June. preceding the Annual Meeting at
which it is intended they should be considered, and must be accompanied
by specimens of the publications of the results of the local scientific
investigations recently undertaken by the Society.
3. A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be annually nomi-
nated by the Council and appointed by the General Committee for the
purpose of considering these applications, as well as for that of keeping
themselves generally informed of the annual work of the Corresponding
Societies, and of superintending the preparation of a list of the papers
published by them. This Committee shall make an annual report to the
General Committee, and shall suggest such additions or changes in the
List of Corresponding Societies as they may think desirable.
4. Every Corresponding Society shall return each year, on or before the
1st of June, to the Secretary of the Association, a schedule, properly filled
np, which will be issued by the Secretary of the Association, and which will
contain a request for such particulars with regard to the Society as may
be required for the information of the Corresponding Societies Committee.
5. There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the Association
a list, in an abbreviated form, of the papers published by the Corre-
sponding Societies during the past twelve months which contain the
results of the local scientific work conducted by them ; those papers only
being included which refer to subjects coming under the cognisance of
one or other of the various Sections of the Association.
6. A Corresponding Society shall have the right to nominate any
' Passed by the General Committee at Newcastle, 1863.
- Passed by the General Committee at Birmingham, 1865.
* Passed by the General Committee, 1884.
Xxxii BDLES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
one of its members, who is also a Member of the Association, as its dele-
gate to the Annual Meeting of the Association, who shall be for the time
a Member of the General Committee.
Conference of Delegates of Corresjponding Societies.
7. The Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies is em-
powered to send recommendations to the Committee of Recommen-
dations for their consideration, and for report to the General Committee.
8. The Delegates of the various Corresponding Societies shall con-
stitute a Conference, of which the Chairman, Vice-Chairmen, and Secre-
taries shall be annually nominated by the Council, and appointed by the
General Committee, and of which the members of the Corresponding
Societies Committee shall be ex officio members.
9. The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by the Secretaries
to hold one or more meetings during each Annual Meeting of the Associa-
tion, and shall be empowered to invite any Member or Associate to take
part in the meetings.
10. The Secretai'ies of each Section shall be instructed to transmit to
the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates copies of any recommen-
dations forwarded by the Presidents of Sections to the Committee of
Recommendations bearing upon matters in which the co-operation of
Corresponding Societies is desired ; and the Secretaries of the Conference
of Delegates shall invite the authors of these recommendations to attend
the meetings of the Conference and give verbal explanations of their
objects and of the precise way in which they would desire to have them
carried into eflect.
11. It will be the duty of the Delegates to make themselves familiar
with the purport of the several recommendations brought before the Confer-
ence, in order that they and others who take part in the meetings may be
able to bring those recommendations clearly and favourably before their
respective Societies. The Conference may also discuss propositions bear-
ing on the promotion of more systematic observation and plans of opera-
tion, and of greater uniformity in the mode of publishing results.
Local Committees.
Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association
to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.
Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers
those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.
Officers.
A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries,
and a Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.
Council.
In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall
be. managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The
Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week
of the Meeting.
KULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXlll
(1) The Council shall consist of
1. The Trustees.
2. The past Presidents.
S. The President and Vice-Presidents for the time being.
4. The President and Vice-Presidents elect.
5. The past and present General Treasurers, General and
Assistant General Secretaries.
6. The Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the ensuing
Meeting.
7. Ordinary Members.
{2) The Ordinaiy Members shall be elected annually from the
General Committee.
{3) There shall be not more than twenty-five Ordinary Members, ot
whom not more than twenty shall have served on the Council,
as Ordinary Members, in the previous year.
(4) In order to carry out the foregoing rule, the following Ordinary
Members of the outgoing' Council shall at each annual election
be ineligible for nomination : — 1st, those who have served on
the Council for the greatest number of consecutive years ; and,
2nd, those who, being resident in or near London, have
attended the fewest number of Meetings during the year
— observing (as nearly as possible) the proportion of three by
seniority to two by least attendance.
(5) The Council shall submit to the General Committee in their
Annual Report the names of the Members of General Com-
mittee whom they recommend for election as Members of
Council.
(G) The Election shall take place at the same time as that of the
Officers of the Association.
Pajpevs and Communications.
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to
reserve his right of property therein.
Accounts.
The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the General Committee.
' Passed by the General Committee, Belfast, 1874.
1890.
I
00
O
O
CO
CO
a
CO
BQ
&2
o
00
!a>
o
CO
xA <
« gS^
» ^ o a g S
3 2 >3
c I -^ I s a
11"^'
. . ^ . .
: : of"i :
: : p-« :
: : ^:;!^ :
l:!'^ ;
! 1 -0*3! .
: : ^-"^ :
. . '^ - .
■ • Wa ■
■ • . <n •
: : ^H :
: : rtg :
: : -oW :
. . C - .
. . ao :
: : §^ :
: : m ;
• ■ CO . ■
: ; figs
: : -fep
: tJ :
'■i ^^- o
'r'<
:p3 :
■m :
•K. ':
* S I
Km ■
dg :
at;
= a;
»
•3^- -5.
g 3 g
■SS.S
.S a -^
u ^ .
Phis'
[fa =H
-2 ^ flj
CO
o
CO
C-1
H
a
P3
pai-i
C5
"
H
H
CO
fe
ti
!2i
t^
<1
'A
«
■^.
feri^
R
P5
O
- 00
cf-t-T
§3
S a =^
S o SH
CO
P5
p4
rt 30
si
f-- „ tj OS r. "^
§JS°a
•id
3S
.00
o t,
3a
rH t) tfi =-- O
c; ■■-• rt w «
w> go S
O) CJ O 'o
w!S5
« n
Beg
XP
g a"
1%
il
1-1 B
sii
H.^
>5
9
o
O
1^
M
^^
t-!
i-l
o
y.
■3
tfO
1— (
o
>^
s-^
3
%
•-5
a
-**
K
p
O
Ih
g
w
O
P3
' '
Od^
Pi
UH
CO
r5
to
H
O
K 5
■M
>
w
p3
o
^ to
Wii
t-' oj c >-'
«■" . 3
32 ,'5
■< .« o
MM
li
o •
b2
5^.3
So s
►Jo
o
o
« o ^ H §
.- <u t» t> ^
M cc H H -"l
oo;
>^-^
oc^n
.•M. :.p ,£1
wo
w
O p
is
«
O
1^
d
• •
CO
to o
.W S
■S oW
A-
r ;co
: :c3
: :p^
■Cm .
C5 rS
:p5
n«.
:.3
1J
"Qui
'*1 S ^ O - CJ fij
og^ ■« See's
•a
•t-H -t-*
• - f«
:« a
o a^
.5H
~-?.'^
^ ? T^ .S'.os ^
^ i^ s — ■■;
H CH H C/l' «j t-i ^^ »-=
p ta
g o B g r
(» i. t. > t»
o oj aj (IJ GJ
Gj a) oj Gj oj
j=i,a j= ja
a.
(T^
P3
■^
f^
3
btl
3
P
<
P
H
hJ
i'.
«
H
o
o
C5
3
:2;
r"
o
<
K
O
H
^
r/;
Ed
i^-
;<
K
■<
^
PS
H-
SO
•a*
o
o
q .S
r Km
CM .
2 ^S
tfi H o
• GO
re °1
£! O
^ '3 -*:> ^
O 0)
•c hS
:w
<S
tc .
- CO
C*J <acc
•" &j
CO _
pi TO
TO ^ M
•— . TO
H HBHHH^-Ji^
d
M a>
«
I— I
to
t-
z
111
9
w
Ul
K
o.
0; peq ^
^ ^. 0) >it* '^ ^ ; "
^ tr 7; 'p kJ «5 f^
J^ o o C5 0) ..^
agaca't.-d'gw
o o o o o S o-- .
to tcTt' to ti to "to ^ —
K g g 5 S Ph 5 3 ^.
J j= J J ja ^ ^ v-^ .
cd •
6 '■
CO «
p^* o g
^•— p.
'.5°;
Wo tc
-o o
PhO S
o
o
CCii^K . S P.3
.2 .2; ^ J O o Si J3
a c h .
O O ^ l-H
"to tog «
H H CO oj c/2 in
o;Si
Oh
o
kJ
a
cs :
M :
w" •
o :
t3 :
w -
►J •
o :
o •
P :.-•
•^ .UO
O "^
; *-<
pq * -Q
M :§
fi : o,
:co
w : H
W :«
CO
p
s
coE-i a-
•-3
H
03
P3
(a
hi
d
R
n
a
loo
CO
QO
o*
fH
D3
H
pf
•i
■|
<
w
a
P
in
O
i-s
«■
t^
hJ
d
p'
Wo
W2
O o
ii
P3
o
D2
to
o
«
»
P^
o
CQ
O
M
P<
i : SP --0=3
i : aO'^p .
i • S W ."O ^
3 -3:=: S- pi
s -c -C ii a i< n
• Uj o ^( d o o
1 hi TJ c5 cr to w
K S s ;^ ph
R
!zi
o
. .
m
53
- oo
O
• '"'
w
• ■?*
H
. +a
IS
. bO
->!
3
t-1
P
• —
^
. O
V
^^^
s^ a
o
^■-^
rfi
OJ
O
«
Ph
a OPgJ.2
o w oj o -S *~* !^
^j i« ,1, ^, ij "l^ ?^
ri M O 0) ►"• o. ^
1^!
«2
o
www°-g
G) V QJ OJ Qj
X ja ^ j3 .
^ :
Ph ;
g : .
< :K
i-) : -
P3
H
P
w
-♦^ -*J ^ G o
c = « W (S
WW >^ 1^
HE-iaiHH
03
P?
: n
. a
■ o
n
O r
R
1-3
^-"
R<!
p««
o
(XI
P^
O
pj
p
n«
M
rf
0)
^
S
V
&
■§
oo
-^
s
w
1-1
a
J3
; ;
:i/J : :
; ;
:ts : :
■0}
:« : :
:«■
[f^ '■ ;
;[=;
. -^
•r/i ' •
:^
•K : :
:g
.p^ . .
:P
'.R : :
•d
:i-j : :
■ pec •
4i
.s«
:5oi :
o .
gw
■dfifi
o
:&Pof
CO (3
cp":-
MS-
- S"p3
o w t:_ ■
HE-iE-iaRtS^
pi
d."
^\
en J
MP
WM
iz5
W
o
cc
Cs
P3
,
PC4
S" ,
i
WK
cs
f5
a; .
SR
fi
i-jl-j
o>
M
S-
'^.'^.•3
S
S2
C3
'a
n"'
■<
CQ fl
IP
S '3 '3
|p
: .-H :
p:r^. :
V-; rcctn
-^P*^^
fl
^.ISjr'cc;
• « T- S )J &j -
«E5l - - -"^
b»43 oj Sf2ii_4
3 bs'SHp; to
?- O r^ to to to "^
T^ L^ ■-■ to 1/1 ""
to 2i . o o
■^ ^ ^ t-i l-i %i c'
W H rc fM P ^ 1-5
•02
:«'
■aj
. :a5 : :
^ :p5 : t
a .p; : :
g<s " . -
■§ - -py
rt to ^ v
B a-2^ u
WW o p g
4J -t> SrrT. a
m
6
(0
ui
<
I-
lU
q:
o
lU
-I
t
o
e
z a
111 -mO
a.
I
ui
o
>
oCJ o o
M to " OT
(t-l 'J <^^
o a,a o
jH ca o i^
•CO •
?fi
Jo"
<d3
i»
o ^ s
<B 2 0)
J3 Si:
•? > oJ
.SP g « '
2 0^ M 01 o
5W .C5
CO
H
Z
lU
o
cs
UI
IK
0.
< ■
od3
CO
K
hq
kJ
3fe
co'
1^;
(B
OM of
o ■
pm :
to •
hJ -
■^ :
CO -
« :
d '
coco
4S
- 2 t> tH ' .
g s -^ s "^ fe
o W ft) "-' aj i^^
(D 15 QJ O* |< bB
i) ■+^ -M .t: ^ -^
u^ j=! t; t^ f^
03 tie tn,P5 O O
►C^ r^ r^ t*. ^^ ^
w :
•3 :
ij \
CO •
P3 •
►J • 05
^. :«
o io-
^ • =1
< :£?
S =^
iJ . -
i-:ico o
Chn'' «
« JCD
CCt-i
P4
CU
d
Pm
J3
- Ml
•§
^4
1-3
o
.CO
'CB
:c!3
:e-i
^ : -hj
d '^ ■
a (i; fe R
'fti-i
Cl-rt
w
'cb
(US ■ W ^M
trl"o.=;> ^•s3
^ CO ;f "
■S o . ^5 '-=
Ms § is a
flj O OJ ^ h-1 Cl3
P S H K" >4 1-,"
pi a?';3
f^ b 2
rmPn
1-1 .a a
•^ o 3
"S "
PS So-
rt a
SI'S
all
pjO-g
CO-- >>
a •=■
HO
.-go
Of^a
•CO
:pi
~=3
RfHoSq'-lKf^co
Sa^a'l.^ilTiQ'^J
c'cc
■Ed;
H r
^^- •
§Q -to t, .
"^ ."a fij i^ >-;
da
OtpH
2 CO
.CO
:d
•72
.- co' .-
t.J5
-CM
ft; a
•si-^'3'artg'^ rT [SSr^'^o
^3§rt
.5 d ^ *< t; "'- -S „■■ 3
CSP;p3>W'£o-S
(c a> o « ^'o'^.S'o
:=i-;^
-V5 S
-c2S-3 =
2 a "'• c
. S - K-
. Gj .s eg
C -*J CO
ps :
a >>
SO j- 3
s' g:
CO
O
d
a :s
M :|
!ato
CO
PS
CO
CO Q
^a
.2 §13
•-5 OH
; CO ; * *^
• p^ • • .^
• &: § '-Z
. "^ o . ^
ct r3 -'a
6fi « •& :
QJ k4 '-' en .S
g|2p5^cQ
. « -^ fe -^ ^
ppad .'S^
^"ItSRoc^^
r^SS
■3(23
^I«^Ir
S cs(>
o Ti d R j4
•c .'^ M iJ '^
-*^ . fi -p?
^ -^ • "o .
K^co . Phi
S-- PS a S g
1 ■ ■
- m *
(«.H •
psH •
& a •
" 0) •
.J3 ;
fi;§ :
►J^ :
iJ o -co
f-t . 00
" S • 00
►jp^ :-
*^ o ? «
^j wj .^ a
"l^r i
■^ ^ a i=^
ij 02 ^ rr
H r > o
-<CO~cQ
PPj*j
W> a
CO
d
q
Q
a; V u)
1-5 PJO
o
o
p
e
3
t3 ™ g tB in
■ ^ ^ h
•la
3S
1^
:fR :
.- :fe
•CO
1-1.23
^•?
+J »—
S g to r
J a -5
3s^
ifc. !2h3>^ •
R
3^^
■o^llSa^
so
.. o
S O o o SJ r.- o :,
. • . - . c •*'
-fcS -tJ +3 -fc3 +3 l_H ^-^
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ f^i t-
to be t)jO tH t£ w o
&^^:
A!
'-IS
°3 §■
■ 2j to
; = 5.&
''<coP -
- "i^ .5 c ^^
1^ s ^ z,3
•=-;:oo«
:d
•H
•»5
■«
•02
;^
•Q
•►4
■=55SK«>2
oj CO a; <u oj o "o
hhhhhhS
S to to J _; "
5 to CO <! 3 rK
O " ""
*i +^ 4J
-^ — .c
tfi tc H
•— "o ^ ;*;
S o o
cj c) cy
-t; -e V 'S g
TiTo.o -r S
'^ o O Zi
C_i rLj -.^
2-^
i; O o
mSP4
5 Ut (W
2 O <1^
5 > H
h54
d9
<=>'3 -
a ~?
S a" 3
^•2|«
.o
a
p.
CI
^o5
tn.t:
O
o
a:
O
«
.33
fad
Ul
o
UJ
(0
<
u
o
-I
d
CK
O
p:-
-
<
?3
P
o
4)
g
in
rd
rC
o
A^W
a.h;
»ri
^
a>
O)
O-CU
-^"
•O r-T .— .-r"
"i. COM
S S-K^<<
P3t; p o
1-M£'?hPh
1-^
CO M
z &
Ul g
LI t3
' "^
Ul o
O O
W
<u
.a
a
o
W
"Ho
S
m
02
5<.j! 2 .= ^ ". "5 o i-" CT
: ^ c !>• ^ fe , cj g ^ g
. C^ 1—,
- o . --
• " " s
,— * .Co
<0
I-
z
UJ
Q
0)
Ul
Q.
d
R
i-T
hi
w
-^
m
Q
s
WW
Pd
»-»
:P
:r
■. s"
:q
P>-1 >
^R :i'
SlJSo";R9
^SpSpi-
R'S-^^ = ^.l5
0) S +3 -O +^ -^^ 4^
O O GJ O O O
■- .= .s a a .= —
K HHHHHH
P °.2
d«5
^- Cj CQ H
.9- - oFh
► 'i^ .s a .a . ^ r.
5.° 3 S
v: ■
J
• • - M •
c •
d
: : :pj :
fH ;
R
'. : :^ '.
t/- :
^
': '■ :R :
p :
; ; if'i ;
f^ ■
O
......
,
'• : :p :
R
►-^
: ■ :i4 :
vi
cc
:»• :^ :
t-i
d
. ^i . - •
d
■.'A :r :
<!
:(ad^ :
3
ci
:^.o^- :
r
W
•d '-'M ■
a
■MtP. :
o"
s
:.2-S-s :
s^
o
*. '^ o ir- '
p
r/5
■ 5^.2 :
'^
t:.2PH •
5-
mSm^ :
^-^
C3
c^'5'2 2. :
o
1
ww^^ :
fii o a, •-■ ;
R
cc^-^ . •
o
■ c
R5£g :
^ :y
;S
f^tdpsW •
oC
M .a J= .a CO
gp
^a
. • ^ /v* ^ ,
Pj
art.
d
ad
R H
o o o
CJ o *
-a J3 .^ .^
B H cc CO
P3oo<w .-'
gaol :-S
^ r/T ^ • ;^.
tsj'
S2S -o
So^ : H
P3 f^' I - ^
Pi
►J :
o ;
o :
pa :
d :
o
~n
u •
rH
g'^
CO
<;'-'
OJ
a
f>
Sa
r,
R r.-
:/:'
O O
«
Rn
h
■«t .
\4"i
a
C3-'
S"^
H"^
O :
rjCO
CJK
^^W
03
xliii
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OP SCIENCES, I. MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS.
1832. Oxford
1833. Cambridge
1834. Edinburgh
Davies Gilbert, D.C.L.,F.K.S.
Sir D. Brewster, F.E.S
Rev. W. Wliewell, F.E.S.
Rev. H. Coddington.
Prof. Forbes.
Piof . Forbes, Prof. Lloyd.
1835.
1836.
1837.
1838.
1839.
1840.
1841.
1842.
1843.
1844.
1845.
1846.
1847.
1848.
1849,
1850.
1851.
1852.
1853.
Dublin
Bristol
Liverpool. . .
Newcastle
Birmingham
Glasgow ...
I
Plymouth j
Manchester
SECTION A. — MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS
Rev. Dr. Robinson
Rev. William WHiewell, F.E.S
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S
Cork
York
Cambridge
Southamp-
ton.
Oxford
Swansea ...
Birmingham
Edinburgh
Ipswich ...
Belfast
Hull
Sir J. F. W. Hcrschel, Bart.,
F.E.S.
Rev. Prof . ■\Miewell, F.E.S....
Prof. Forbes, F.E.S
Eev. Prof. Lloyd, F.E.S
Very Eev. G. Peacock, D.D.,
F.E.S.
Prof. M'Culloch, M.E.LA. ...
The Earl of Eosse, F.R.S. ...
The Very Eev. the Dean of
Ely.
Sir John F. W. Herschel,
Bart., F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Powell, M.A.,
F.E.S.
Lord Wrottesle.T, F.E.S
William Hopkins, F.E.S
Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S.,
Sec. E.S.E.
Eev. W. Wliewell, D.D.,
F.E.S.
Prof. W. Thomson, M.A.,
F.E.S. L. & E.
The Very Rev. the Dean of
Ely, F.R.S.
Prof. Sir W. E. Hamilton, Prof.
Wheatstone.
Prof. Forbes, AV. S. Harris, F. W.
Jerrard.
W. S. Harris, Eev. Prof. Powell,
Prof. Stevelly.
Eev. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine,
Prof. Stevelly.
J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof.
Stevelly.
Eev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly,
Arch. Smith.
Prof. Stevellv.
Prof. M'Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Eev.
W. Scoresby.
J. Nott, Prof.' Stevelly.
Eev. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly.
Eev. H. Goodwin, Prof. Stevelly,
G. G. Stokes.
John Drew, Dr. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.
Eev. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.
Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Stevelly, G, G. Stokes, W.
Eidout Wills.
W. J.Macquorn Eankine,Prof .Smyth,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
S. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Eankine,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Dixon, W. J. Macquorn Ean-
kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall.
B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt,
Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh.
xliv
KEPOET — 1890.
Date and Place
1854. Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham
1857. Dublin
1858. Leeds
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee ...
1868. Norwich ...
1869. Exeter
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton...
1873. Bradford...
1874. Belfast
1875. Bristol
1876. Glasgow ...
1877. Plymouth...
. 1878. Dublin ,
, 1879. Sheffield ..
Presidents
Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec.
R.S.
Rev. Prof. Kelland, M.A.,
F.R.S. L. & E.
Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S.
Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.,
F.R.S., M.R.I.A.
Rev. W. Whewell, D.D.,
V.P.R.S.
The Earl of Rosse, M.A., K.P.,
F.R.S.
Rev. B. Price, M.A., F.R.S....
G. B. Airj^ M.A., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Pi-of .W. J. MacquornRankine,
C.E., F.R.S.
Prof. Caylej', M.A., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.
W. Spottiswoode,M.A.,F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.
Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Prof. Sir W.Thomson, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D.,
F.R.S.
Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D.,
F.R.S.
J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. P. G. Tait, F.R.S.E. ...
W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S
Prof. H. J. S. Smith, F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett, M.A..
M.R.I.A.
Prof. Balfour Stewart, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof.G. C. Foster, B.A.,F.R.S.,
Pres. Phj'sical Soc.
Rev. Prof. Salmon, D.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
George Johnstone Stoney,
M.A., F.R.S.
Secretaries
J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof.
Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh.
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D.Gray, Prof.
Tyndall.
C. i5rookc. Rev. T. A. Southwood,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull.
Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A.
Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. S. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy,
Prof. Stevelly, H. J. S. Smith, Prof.
Tyndall,
J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H.
J. S. Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. G. C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison,
Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. R. B. Cliflon, Prof. H. J. S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. N. Ferrers, Prof. Fuller, F.
Jenkin, Prof. Stevelly, Rev. C. T.
Whitley.
Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G.
Buckle, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G.
S. Mathews, Prof. H. J. S. Smith,
J. M. Wilson.
Fleeming Jenkin, Prof. H. J.S.Smith,
Rev. S. N. Swann.
Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster,
Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan.
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley,
R. B. Hayward.
Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,
W. K. Clifford.
Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford,
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen
Whitworth.
Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D.
Everett, Rev. R. Harley.
Prof. W. K. Clifford, J. W. L. Glaisher,
Prof. A. S. Herschel , G. F. Rodwell.
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J.
W.L. Glaisher, Prof. A. S. Herschel.
J. W. L. Glaisher, Prof. Herschel,
Randal Nixon, J. Perry, G. F.
Rodwell.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. W.L. Glaisher,
C. T. Hudson, G. F. Rodwell.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. G. Forbes, J. W. L. Glaisher,
T. iMuir.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
J. AV. L. Glaisher, F. G. Landon.
Prof. J. Casej', G. F. Fitzgerald, J.
W. L. Glaisher, Dr. 0. J. Lodge.
A. H. Allen, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr.
1 O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
TRESIDENTS AND SECEETAEIES OP THE SECTIONS.
xlv
Date and Place
1880.
Swansea ...
1881.
York
1882.
Southamp-
ton.
1883.
Southport
1881.
Montreal ...
1885.
Aberdeen. . .
1886.
Birmingham
1887.
Manchester
1888.
Bath
1889.
Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
1890. Leeds
Presidents
Secretaries
Prof. W. Grylls Adams, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. Prof. Lord Rayleigh,
M.A., F.R.S.
Prof.O.Henrici, Ph.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.SJ
Prof. G. Chrystal, M.A.,
F.R.S.B.
Prof. G. H. Darwin, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Sir R. S. Ball, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. G. F. Fitzgerald, M.A.,
Ti^ R S
Capt. W. de W. Abney, C.B.,
R.E., F.R.S.
J. W. L. Glaisher, Sc.D.,
F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S.
W. E. Ayrton, J. W. L. Glaisher,
Dr. p. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, Prof. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Rev. W. Routh.
W. M. Hicks, Prof. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Rev. G. Richard-
son.
W. M. Hicks, Prof. 0. J. Lodge,
D. jMacAlister, Prof. R. C. Rowe.
C. Carpmael, W. M. Hicks, Prof. A.
Johnson, Prof. 0. J. Lodge, Dr. D.
MacAlister.
R. E. Ba3'nes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
W. M. Hicks, Prof. W. Ingram.
R. E. Bavnes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
J. H. Poynting, W. N. Shaw.
R. E. Baynes, R.^T. Glazebrook, Prof.
H. Lamb, W. N. Shaw.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A.
Lodge, W. N. Shaw.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
A. Lodge, W. N. Shaw, Prof. H.
Stroud.
R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. A. Lodge,
W. N. Shaw, Prof. W. Stroud.
CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, II. — CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGT.
1832. Oxford
1833. Cambrid-e
183L Edinburs<h
John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Dr. Hope
James F. W. Johnston.
Prof. Miller.
Mr. Johnston, Dr. Christison.
SECTION B. — CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.
183,5. Dublin.
1836. Bristol.
1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...
1841. Plymouth...
1842. Manchester
1843. Cork
1844. York
1845. Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
ton.
Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S IDr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston.
Rev. Prof. Gumming ■ Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, \V. Hera-
I path.
Michael Faraday, F.R.S I Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr.
I Reynolds.
Rev. William WhewelljF.R.S. Prof. Miller, H. L. Pattinson, Thomas
Richardson.
Prof. T.Graham, F.R.S Dr. Goldine Bird, Dr. J. B. Melson.
Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.S. Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. T. Clark,
I Dr. L. Playfair.
Dr. Daubenj', F.R.S 'j. Prideaux, Robert Hunt, W. M,
I Tweedy.
John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham.
Prof. Apjohn, M.R.LA !r. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.
Prof. T. Graliam, F.R.S. ..
Rev. Prof. Cummingr
Michael Faraday, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Dr. L. Playfair, E. Solly, T. H. Barker.
R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof. Miller,
E. Solly.
Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall.
xlvi
KEPORT — 1890.
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
1847. Oxford.
1848. Swansea ,
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich ..
1852. Belfast
1853. Hull
1854. Liverpool
Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,
F.E.S.
Prof.W. A.Miller, M.D.,F.E.S.
1855. Glasgow ... Dr. Lyon Playfair,C.B., F.E.S.
1856. Cheltenham Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.E.S. ...
Eev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A., i B. C. Brodie, K. Hunt, Prof. Solly.
F.E.S. I
Eichard Phillips, F.E.S T. H. Henry, E. Hunt, T. Williams.
John Percy, M.D., F.E.S E. Hunt, G. Shaw.
Dr. Christison, V.P.E.S.E. Dr. Anderson, E. Hunt, Dr. Wilson.
Prof. Thomas Graham, F.E.S. T. J. Pearsall, W. S. Ward.
Thomas Andrews,M.D.,F.E.S. [ Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof.
Eonalds.
H. S. Blnndell, Prof. E. Hunt, T. J.
Pearsall.
Dr. Edwards, Dr. Gladstone, Dr.
Price.
Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Eoscoe.
J. Horslcy, P. J. Worsley, Prof.
I ! Voelcker.
1857. Dublin Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.E.S., Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul-
I M E.I.A. livan.
1858. Leeds Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, E. Eey-
I D.C.L. I nolds.
1859. Aberdeen... lDr.LyonPlayfair,C.B., F.E.S. J. S. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D.
j I Liveing, Dr. Odling.
1860. Oxford [Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.E.S ' A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing,
I i A. B. Northcote.
1861. Manchester I Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D.jF.E.S. A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing,
1862. Cambridge Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D.,F.E.S. H. W. Elphinstone, \V. Odling, Prof.
Eoscoe
Dr. Alex. W.' Williamson,
F.E.S.
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1807. Dundee ...
1868. Norwich ...
1869. Exeter
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton...
1873. Bradford...
Prof. T. Anderson, M.D.,
F.E.S.E.
Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C.
Stevenson.
W. Odling, M.B., F.E.S., A. V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing, E.
F.C.S. I Biggs.
Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D.,'a. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof.
V.P.E.S. Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills.
H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.E.S. J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J.
Eussell, J. White.
A. Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing,
W. J. Eussell.
Prof. E. Frankland, F.E.S., Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Eus-
F.C.S. 1 sell, F. Sutton.
Dr. H. Debus, F.E.S., F.C.S. Prof. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J.
I Eussell, Dr. Atkinson.
Prof. H. E. Eoscoe, B.A., Prof. A. Crum Brown. A. E. Fletcher,
F.E.S., F.C.S. I Dr. W. J. Eussell.
Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.E.S. I J. T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T.
I E Thorpe.
Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.E.S.... j Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Eoberts, Dr.
W. J. Eussell. Dr. T. Wood.
Prof. W. J. Eussell, F.E.S. ... i Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chand-
ler Eoberts, Dr. Thorpe.
1874. Belfast Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D., Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand-
F.E.S.E., F.C.S. I lev Roberts, Prof. Thorpe.
1875. Bristol I A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A., Dr 11. E. Armstrong, W. Chandler
187G. Glasgow .
1877. Plymouth.
1878. Dublin....
1879. Sheffield .
F.R.S., F.C.S.
W. H. Perkin, F.E.S
F. A. Abel, F.E.S., F.C.S. ...
Prof. Maxwell Simpson, M.D.,
F.R.S., F.C.S.
Prof. Dewar, M.A., F.E.S.
Eoberts, W. A. Tilden.
W. Dittmar, W. Chandler Eoberts,
J. M. Thomson, W. A. Tilden.
Dr. Oxland, W. Chandler Eoberts,
J. M. Thomson.
W. Chandler Eoberts, J. M. Thom-
son, Dr. C. E. Tichborne, T. Wills.
H. S. Bell, W. Chandler Eoberts, J.
M. Thomson.
TRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
xlvii
Date and Place
1880. Swansea ..
1881. York.
1882. Soiithamp-
ton.
1883. Southport
1884. Montreal ...
1S8.J. Aberdeen...
1886. Birmingham
1887. Manchester
Presidents
Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D.,
F.R.S.
Prof . A. W. Williamson, Ph.D.,
F.Pi.S.
Prof. G. D. Livcing, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S...
Prof. Sir H. E. Roscoe, Ph.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. H. E. Armstrong, Ph.D.,
F.R.S., Sec. C.S.
W. Crookcs, F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
Dr. E. Schunck, F.R.S., F.C.S.
1888. Bath Prof. W. A. Tildon, D.Sc,
F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
1889. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
]S',)0. Leeds
Sir T. Lpwthiim Bell, Bart.,
D.C.L., F.R.S., F.C.S.
Prof. T. E. Thoriie, B.Sc,
Ph.D., F.R.S., Treas. C.S.
Secretaries
P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon, Dr.
W. R. Eaton Hodgkinson, J. M.
Thomson.
P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
T. Gou<;h.
P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
J. L. Notter.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morlej'.
Prof. 1'. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
T. McFarlane, Prof. W. H. Pike.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
H.ForsterMorley,Dr. W.J. Simpson.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley, W. W.
J. Nicol, C. J. Woodward.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. Forster
Morlev, W. Thomson.
Prof. H.'b. Dixon, Dr. H. Forster
Morlev, R. E. Moyle, Dr. W. W
J. Nicol.
Dr. H. Forster Morley, D. H. Nagel,
Dr. W. W. J. Nicol, H. L. Pattin-
son, jiin.
C. H. Bothamley, Dr. H. Forster
Morley, D. H. Nagel, Dr. W. W.
J. Nicol.
GEOLOGICAL (and, until 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE.
COJIMITTEK OP SCIENCES, III. — GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
1832. Oxford |B. I. Murch!.sou, F.R.S.
1833. Cambridge,
1834. Edinburgh.
G. B. Greenough, F.R.S
Prof. Jameson
John Taylor.
W. Lonsdale, John Phillips.
Prof. Pliillips, T. Jameson Torrie,
Rev. J. Yates.
SECTION C. — GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
18.3.-.
18.36.
Dublin .
Bristol .
1837. Livei-pool..
1838.
1839.
1340.
1811.
Newcastle...
Birmingham
Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
R. J. Griffith
Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—
Gcoqrapliy, R. I. Murchison,
F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.—
6'w/7?'<7f^/(y,G.B.Greenough,
F.R.S.
C. Lyell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.—
Gcoqraphii, Lord Prudhoe.
Rev. Dr. Biickland, F.R.S.—
Gengrajjliy, G.B. Greenough,
F.R.S.
Charles Lyell, F.R.S.— <?eo-
qraphy, G. B. Greenough,
F.R.S.
H. T. Dc la Beche, F.R.S. ...
Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie.
William Sanders, S. Stutchbury,
T. J. Torrie.
Captain Portlock, R. Hunter. — Geih.
graphy, Captain H. M. Denhara,
R.N.
W. C. Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.—
Gco'iriiphy, Capt. Washington.
George Lloyd, M.D., H. E. Strick-
land, Charles Darwin.
W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugli
Murray, H. E. Strickland, John
Secular, M.D.
W. J. Hamilton,Edward Moore, M.D.,
R. Button.
xlviii
BEPORT — 1890.
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
1S42. Manchester
R. I. Murchison, F.E.S
E. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. E.
Lloyd, H. E. Strickland.
1813 Cork
Richard E. Griffith, F.R.S.,
M.R.I.A.
Francis M. Jennings, H. E. Strick-
land.
1844. York
Henry Warburton, M.P.,Pres.
Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury.
Geol. See.
1845. Cambridge.
Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A.,
Rev. J. C. Gumming, A. C. Ramsay,
F.R.S.
Rev. W. Thorp.
1846. Sontliamp-
Leonard Horner,F.R.S. — Geo-
Robert A. Austen, Dr. J. H. Norton,
ton.
qrnpJiy, G. B. Greenough,
Prof. Oldham. — Geoqraxjliy, Dr. C.
F.R.S.
T. Beke.
1847. Oxford
Very Rev.Dr.Buckland,F.R.S.
Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C.
Ramsay, J. Ruskin.
1848. Swansea ...
Sir H. T. Do la Beche, C.B.,
Starling Benson, Prof. Oldham,
F.R.S.
Prof. Ramsay.
1849.Birminoham
Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S.,
J. Beete Jukes, Prof. Oldham, Prof.
F.G.S.
A. C. Ramsay.
1850. Edinburgh'
Sir Roderick I. Murchison,
A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller,
F.R.S.
Prof. Nicol.
1851. Ipswich
1852. Belfast..
1853.- Hull
1854. Liverpool . .
1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham
SECTION c {contitiued). — geologt.
WilliamHopkins,M.A.,F.R.S.
1857. Dublin...
1858. Leeds
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
Lieut.-Col. Portlock, R.E.,
F.R.S.
Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S
Prof. Edward Forbes, F.R.S.
Sir E. I. Murchison, F.R.S....
Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.E.S... .
The Lord Talbot de Malahide
WilliamHopkins,M.A.,LL.D.,
F.E.S.
Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D.^
D.C.L., F.E.S.
Eev. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D..
F.E.S., F.G.S.
Sir E. L Murchison, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.E.S.
J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. Waringtcn W. Smyth,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart.,
K.C.B.
Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D.,
F.R.S.
C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod,
Searles Wood.
James Bryce, James JlacAdam,
Prof. M'Coy, Prof. Nicol.
Prof. Ilarkness, William Lawton.
John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness,
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.
James Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof.
Nicol.
Rev. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hep-
worth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall,
T. Wright.
Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders,
Robert H. Scott.
Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W.
Shaw.
Prof. Harkness, Rev. J. Longmuir,
H. C. Sorby.
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, Capt.
D. C. L. Woodall.
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T,
Rupert Jones, G. W. Ormerod.
Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert
Jones, H. C. Sorby.
E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C.
Sorby, Thomas Sopwith.
W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C.
Sorby, W. Pengelly.
Rev. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Eev. E.
Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly.
R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil-
son, G. H. Wright,
' At a meeting of the General Committee held in 1850, it was resolved ' That
the subject of Geography be separated from Geology and combined with Ethnology,
to constitute a separate Section, under the title of the "Geographical and Ethno-
logical Section,'" for Presidents and Secretaries of which see page liv.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
xlix
Date and Place
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.
J875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
Dundee ...
Norwich ...
Exeter
Liverpool...
Edinburgh
Brighton ...
Bradford ...
Belfast
Bristol
Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
Dublin
Sheffield ...
Swansea ...
York
Southamp-
ton.
Southport
Montreal ...
Aberdeen . . .
Birmingham
Manchester
Bath
Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds
Presidents
Archibald Geikie, F.K.S.,
F.G.S.
E. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. R. Harkness, B\R.S.,
F.G.S.
Sir Philip de M.Grey Egerton
Bart., M.P., F.R.S.
Prof. A. Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S.
R. A. 0. Godwin-Austen
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. J. Phillips, D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. Hull, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
Dr. Thomas Wright, F.R.S.E.,
F.G.S.
Prof. John Young, M.D. ...
W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.G.S.
John Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.S.A., F.G.S.
Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
H. C. Sorby, LL.D., P.R.S.,
F.G.S.
A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
E. Etheridge, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. W. C. Williamson,
LL.D., F.R.S.
W. T. Blanford, F.R S., Sec.
G.S.
Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., Sec.
G.S.
Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Henry Woodward, LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. W Boyd Dawkins, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. J. Geikie, LL D., D.C.L..
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. A. H. Green, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Secretaries
Edward Hull, W. Pengelly, Henry
Woodward.
Rev. 0. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W.
Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins,
Rev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood,
W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton.
R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, T. McKenny
Hughes, L. C. Miall.
L. C. Miall, George Scott, William
Topley, Henry Woodward.
L. C. Miall, R. H. Tiddeman, W.
Topley.
F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes,
R. H. Tiddeman.
L. C. Miall, E. B. Tawney, W. Top-
ley.
J. Armstrong, F. W. Rudler, W.
Topley.
Dr. Le Neve Foster, R. H. Tidde-
man, W. Topley.
E. T. Hardmau, Prof. J. O'Reilly,
R. H. Tiddeman.
W. Topley, G. Blake Walker.
W. Topley, W. Whitaker.
J. E. Clark, W. Keeping, W. Topley,
W. Whitaker.
T. W. Shore, W. Topley, E. West-
lake, W. Whitaker.
R. Betley, C. E. De Ranee, W. Top-
ley, W. Whitaker.
F. Adam,s, Prof. E. W. Claypole, W.
Topley, W. Whitaker.
C. E. De Ranee, J. Home, J. J. H.
Teall, W. Topley.
W. J. Harrison, J. J. H. Teall, W.
Topley, W. W. Watts.
J. E. Marr, J. J. H. Teall, W. Top-
ley, W. W. Watts.
Prof. G. A. Lebour, W. Topley, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.
Prof. G. A. Lebour, J. E. Marr, W.
W. Watts. H. B. Woodward.
J. E. Bedford, Dr. F. H. Hatch, J.
E. Marr, W. W. Watts.
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV. — ZOOLOGT, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY.
1832. Oxford [Rev. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. ... Rev. Prof. J. S. Henslow.
1833. Cambridge' Rev. W. L. P. Garnons, F.L.S. C. C. Babington, D. Don.
1834. Edinburgh. I Prof. Graham W. Yarrell. Prof. Burnett.
' At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee,
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. liii.
1890. e
REPORT 1890.
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
1835. Dublin.
1836. Bristol,
1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle
] 839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...
1841. Plymouth...
1842. Manchester
1843. Cork.
1844. York.
1845. Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
ton.
1847. Oxford
SECTION D. — ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.
Dr. Allman J. Curtis, Dr. Litton.
Rev. Proi. Henslow J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Eiley, S.
1 Eootsey.
C. C. Babingtou, Rev. L. Jenyns, W.
Swaiuson.
J. E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen,
Dr. Richardson.
E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson.
Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat-
terson.
J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson.
Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A.
Turner.
William Thompson, F.L.S....iG. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, E.
i Patterson.
Very Rev. the Dean of Man- 1 Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King,
Chester. , Dr. Lankester.
Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S.... Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston.
W. S. MacLeay
Sir.W. Jardine, Bart
Prof. Owen, F.R.S
Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D
John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.
Hon. and Very Rev. W. Her-
bert, LL.D., F.L.S
Sir J. Richardson, M.D.
F.R.S.
H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S.
Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H.
Wooldridgc.
Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V.
Wollaston.
SECTION D (continued). — zoology and botany, including physiology.
[For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Subsec-
tions and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. liii.]
1848. Swansea ...iL. W. Dillwyn, F.R.S.
1849
1850.
1851.
1852.
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1S63.
Birmingham
Edinburgh
Ipswich . . .
Belfast
William Spence, F.R.S
Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L.&E.
Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A.,
F.R.S.
W. Ogilby
Hull
Liverpool...
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham
Dublin
Leeds
Aberdeen...
Oxford
Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle
C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....
Rev. Dr. Fleemiug, F.R.S.E.
Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres.L.S.
Prof. W. H. Harvey, M.D.,
F.R.S.
C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.
Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E.
Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S... .
Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S.
Prof. Huxley, F.R.S
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....
Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen-
frey. Dr. Lankester.
Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell.
Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan.
Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E.
Lankester.
Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr.
Edwin Lankester.
Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester.
Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.
William Keddie, Dr. Lankester.
Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman,
Dr. Lankester.
Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester,
Robert Patterson, Dr. W. E. Steele.
Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E.
Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester,
Dr. Ogilvy.
j W. S. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P.
L. Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
jDr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr.
P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
■Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H,
' B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
Date and Place
1864, Bath
1 865. Birmingham
Presidents
Dr. John E, Gray, F.R.S.
T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S,
Secretaries
H. B, Brady, C. E. Broom, H, T,
Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Dr. J. Anthony, Rev, C. Clarke, Rev,
1 H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. AVright.
SECTION D {continued'). — biology,*
1866, Nottingham
1867.
1868.
Dundee ,,.
Norwich ...
1861t, Exeter,
1870, Liverpool,.,
1871, Edinburgh.
1872. Brighton ,,,
1873, Bradford ...
1874, Belfast.
k
87.5. Bristol
I
Prof, Huxley, LL,D., F.R.S.
— Physioloqical Dcj>., Prof,
Humphry," M.D„ F,R,S.—
Anthropological Bep., Alf.
R. Wallace, F.R,G,S.
Prof, Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.
— Dej). of Zool. and Bat.,
George Busk, M.D., F.R.S.
Rev. M, J. Berkeley, P.L.S.
— Bep. of Physiology, W.
H. Flower, F.R.S.
George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S.
— Bep. of Bot. and Zool.,
C, Spence Bate, F.R.S.—
Bep. of FAhno., E. B. Tylor,
Prof, G, Rolleston, M.A., M.D.,
F.R.S,, Y.\j.'&. — Bep. of
Anat. and Physiol.,Fiof.M.
Foster, M.D., F.L.S.— Bep.
of Ethno., J. Evans, F.R.S.
Prof. Allen Thomson, M.D.,
F.R.S.— -Ot^A of Bot. and
,2yoZ.,Prof.WyvilleThomson,
F.R.S. — Bej). of Anthropol.,
Prof. W, Turner, M.D.
Sir J. Lubbock, Bart.,Ii'.R.S.—
Bep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Dr. Burdon Sanderson,
F.n.S.— Bep. of Anthropol.,
Col, A. Lane Fox, F.G.S.
Prof. AUman, F.R.S.— Z>^'^. of
Anat.and Physiol.,Froi. Ru-
therford, M.i).—Bep. ofAn-
thropoWDv. Beddoe, F.R.S
Prof. Redfern, U.D.—Bep. of
Zool. and Bot., Dr. Hooker,
C.B.,Pres.R.S.— i>(;/;.o/^«-
throp.,^\x W.R.Wilde, M.D.
P, L, Sclater, F.R.S.— Z'e^.o/
Anat.and Physiol.,FTof.C\e-
land, M.D., F.'R.S.—Bep. of
Anthropol., Prof. Rolleston,
M.D,, F.R.S,
Dr. J. Beddard, W, Felkin, Rev, H,
B, Tristram, W. Turner, E, B.
Tylor, Dr. E. P, Wright,
C, Spence Bate, Dr. S. Cobbold, Dr.
M. Foster, H, T. Stainton, Rev.
H. B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.
Dr. T. S. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr.
M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H. T.
Stainton, Rev. Dr. H. B. Tristram,
Dr. E. P. Wright.
Dr. T, S. Cobbold, Prof. M, Foster,
E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H, T. Stainton, Rev, H, B, Tris-
tram,
Dr, T, S, Cobbold, Sebastian Evans,
Prof, Lawson, Thos, J. Moore, H.
T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram,
C. Staniland Wake, E. Ray Lan-
kester.
Dr. T. R. Eraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee,
E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T, Stainton, C. Staniland Wake,
Dr, W, Rutherford, Dr, Kelburne
King,
Prof, Thiselton-Dyer, H. T. Stainton,
Prof, Lawson, F, W. Rudler, J. H,
Lamprey, Dr, Gamgee, E, Ray
Lankester, Dr, Pye-Smith,
Prof, Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson,
R. M'Lachlan, Dr, Pye-Smith, E.
Ray Lankester, F, W. Rudler, J,
H. Lamprey,
W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, R, O. Cunning-
ham, Dr. J. ,J, Charles, Dr, P, H.
Pye-Smith, J, J, MurjDhy, F. W,
Rudler,
E, R, Alston, Dr, McKendrick, Prof.
W, R. M'Nab, Dr, Martyn, F. W.
Rudler, Dr, P, H. Pye-Smith, Dr.
W, Spencer.
' At a meeting of the General Committee in 1865, it was resolved: — 'That the
title of Section D be changed to Biology;' and 'That for the word "Subsection,"
in the rules for conducting the business of the Sections, the word "Department."'
bo substituted,'
c 2
Ui
REPORT — 1890.
Date and Place
1876. Glasgow
1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin
1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
1881. York.
1682.
Southamp-
ton.
1883. Southport'
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
Montreal -
Aberdeen . . .
Birmingham
Manchester
Presidents
A. Kussel Wallace, F.E.G.S.,
p.L.S. — Dcp. of Zool. and
Bot., Prof. A. Newton, M.A.,
F.K.S. — Dep. of Anat. and
Physiol, Dr. J. G. McKen-
dri'ck, F.R.S.E.
J.GwynJeffreys,LL.D.,F.R.S.,
F.L.S. — Bep. of Anat. and
Phi/siol., Prof. Macalister,
M.D. — Btp. of Anthropol.,
Francis Gal ton, M.A.,F.R.S.
Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.—
Bip. of Anthropol., Prof.
Huxley, Sec. R.S.— Z>g;.
of Anat. and Physiol., R.
McDonnell, M.D., F.R.S.
Prof. St. George Mivart,
F.R.S.— 2>e/;. of Anthrojwl.,
E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S.
— Bep. of Anat. and Phy-
siol., Dr. Pj-e-Smith.
A. C. L. Gunther, M.D., F.R.S.
— Bi-p. of Anat. and Phy-
siol., F. M. Balfour, M.A.,
F.R.S. — Bep. of Anthropol.,
F. W. Rudler.'F.G.S.
Richard Owen, C.B., M.D.,
F.R.S. — Bep. of Anthropol.,
Prof. W. H. Flower, LL.D.,
F.R.S. — Bep. of Anat. and
Physiol., Prof. J. S. Burdon
Sanderson, M.D., F.R.S.
Prof. A. Gamgee, M.D., F.R.S.
- Bej). of Zool. and Bot.,
Prof. M. A. Lawson, M.A.,
F.L.S. — Bep. of Anthropol.,
Prof. W. Bo)-d Dawkins,
M.A., F.R.S. '
Prof. E. RayLankester, M.A.,
F.K.S. — Bep. of Anthropol.,
W. Pengelly, F.R.S.
Prof. H. N. Moseley, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Prof. W. C. Mcintosh, M.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S. L. & B.
W. Carruthers, Pres. L.S.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. A. Newton, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.L.S., V.P.Z.S.
Secretaries
E. R. Alston, Hyde Clarke, Dr.
Knox, Prof. W. R. M'Nab, Dr.
Muirhead, Prof. Morrison Wat-
.son.
E. R. Alston, F. Brent, Dr. D. J.
Cunningham, Dr. C. A. Hingston,
Prof. W. R. M'Nab, J. B. Rowe,
F. W. Rudler.
Dr. R. J. Harvey, Dr. T. Hayden,
Prof. W. R. M'Nab, Prof. J. M.
Purser, J. B . Rowe, F. W. Rudler.
Arthur Jackson, Prof. W. R. M'Nab,
J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler, Prof.
Scliafer.
G. W. Bloxam, John Priestley,
Howard Saunders, Adam Sedg-
wick.
G. W. Bloxam, W. A. Forbes, Rev.
W. C. Hej% Prof. W. R. M'Nab,
W. North, John Priestley, Howard
Saunders, H. E. Spencer.
G. W. Bloxam, W. Heape, J. B.
Nia.s, Howard Saunders, A. Sedg-
wick, T. W. Shore, jun.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. G. J. Haslam,
W. Heape, W. Hurst, Prof. A. M.
Marshall, Howard Saunders, Dr.
G. A. Woods.
Prof. W. Osier, Howard Saunders, A.
Sedgwick, Prof. R. R. Wright.
W. Heape, J. McGregor-Robertson,
J. Duncan Matthews, Howard
Saunders, H. Marshall Ward.
Prof. T. W. Bridge, W. Heape, Prof.
W. Hillhouse. W. L. Sclater, Prof.
H. Marshall Ward.
C. Bailey, F. B. Beddard, S. F. Har-
nier, W. Heape, W. L. Sclater,
Prof. H. Marshall Ward.
' By direction of the General Committee at Southampton (1882) the Departments
of Zoology and Botany and of Anatomy and Physiology were amalgamated.
* By authority of the General Committee, Anthropology was made a separate
Section, for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. lix.
PRESIDENTS ANP SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
liii
Date and Place
1888. Bath.
1889. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
1890. Leeds
Presidents
W. T. Thiselton-Dver, C.M.G.,
F.R.S., F.L.S.
Prof. J. S. Burdon Sanderson,
M.A., M.D., F.Il.S.
Prof. A. Milnes Marshall,
M.A., M.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.
Secretaries
F. E. Beddard, S. F. Harmer, Prof.
H. Marshall Ward, W. Gardiner,
Prof. W. D. Halliburton.
C. Bailev, F. E. Beddard, S. F. Har-
mer, Prof. T. Oliver, Prof. H. Mar-
shall Ward.
S. F. Harmer, Prof. W. A. Herdman,
Dr. S. J. Hickson, Prof. F. W.
Oliver, H. Wager, Prof. H. Mar-
shall Ward.
ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V. — ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.
1833. Cambridge IDr. Haviland Dr. Bond, Mr. Paget.
1834. Edinburgh IDr. Abercrombie Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson.
SECTION E (until 1847). — ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.
1835. Dublin
1836. Bristol
1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...
Dr. Pritchard
Dr. Roget, F.R.S
Prof. W. Clark, BI.D
T. E. Headlam, M.D
John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S.
James Watson, M.D
Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart.
Dr. Symonds.
Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long,
Dr. J. R. W. Vose.
T. M. Greenbow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose.
Dr. G. 0. Rees, F. Ryland.
Dr. J. Brown, Prof. Couper, Prof.
Reid.
1841. Plymouth...
1 842. Manchester
184.3. Cork
1844. York
1845. Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
ton.
1847. Oxford' ...
SECTION E. PHYSIOLOGY,
P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S. i Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. R. S.
I Sargent.
Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S.jDr. Chaytor, Dr. R. S. Sargent.
Sir James Pit cairn, M.D. ... j Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. S. Sargent.
I. Erichsen, Dr. R. S. Sargent.
Dr. R. S. Sargent, Dr. Webster.
C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sar-
gent.
Dr. Thomas K. Chambers, W. P.
Ormerod.
J. C. Pritchard, M.D.
Prof. J. Haviland, M.D.
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S
Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S.
1850. Edinburgh
1855. Glasgow ...
1857. Dublin
1858. Leeds
PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
Prof. Bennett, M.D.,F.R.S.E. I
Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S. Prof. J. H. Corbett.Dr. J. Struthers.
Prof. R. Harrison, M.D Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern.
Sir Beniamin Brodie, Bart., C. G. Wheelhouse.
F.R.S. I
' By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were
incorporated under the name of ' Section D — Zoology and Botany, including Phy-
siology ' (see p. 1.).' Section E, being then vacant, was assigned in 1851 to
Geography.
liv
KEPOItT 1890.
Date and Place
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath
1865. Birming-
ham.'
Presidents
Secretaries
Prof. Sharper, M.D.. Sec.K.S.
Prot'.G.Rol]eston,M.D.,F.L.S.
Dr. John Davy, F.E.S. L.& E.
G. E. Paget, M.D
Prof. Eollestou, M.D., F.R.S.
Dr. Edward Smith, LL.D.,
F.E.S.
Prof. Acland, M.D.. LL.D.,
F.R.S.
Prof. Bennett, Prof. Eedfern.
Dr. E. M'Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith.
Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith.
G. P. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith.
Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner.
J. S. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner.
Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop,
Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner.
GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
[For Presidents and Secretaries for Geograpliy previous to 1851, see Section C,
p. xlvii.]
ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
1846. Southampton
1847. Oxford
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
Dr. Pritchard
Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A.
Dr. King.
Prof. Buckley.
G. Grant Francis.
Dr. E. G. Latham.
Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm! Daniel Wilson.
SECTION E. — GEOGKAPHT AND ETHNOLOGY,
1851.
1852.
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863,
1864.
Ipswich
Belfast...
Hull
Liverpool
Glasgow
Cheltenham
Dublin
Leeds
Aberdeen...
Oxford
Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle
Bath
Sir R. L Murchison, F.R.S.,
Pres. R.G.S.
(Jol. Chesney, R.A., D.C.L.,
F.E.S.
U. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S.
Sir E. L Murchison, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,
F.E.S.
Col. Sir H. C. Eawlinson,
K.C.B.
Rev. Dr. J. Henthorn Todd,
Pres. R.I.A.
Sir R.L Murchison, G.C.St. S.,
F.E.S.
Rear - Admiral Sir James
Clerk Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir E. I. Murchison, D.C.L..
F.R.S.
John Crawfurd, F.E.S
Francis Galton, F.E.S
Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B. .
F.R.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
F.R.S.
R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr.
Norton Shaw.
11. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton
Shaw.
LI. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr.
NTorton Shaw.
Richard Cull, Eev. H. Higgins, Dr.
Ihne, Dr. Norton Shaw.
Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr.
Norton Shaw.
R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H.
Rumsey, Dr. Norton Shaw.
R. Cull, S. Ferguson, Dr. R. E.
Madden, Dr. Norton Shaw.
R. Cull, Francis Galton, P. O'Cal-
laghan. Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas
Wright.
Eichard Cull, Prof . Geddes, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw.
Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C.
Lemprifere, Dr. Norton Shaw.
Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode.
J.W.Clarke, Rev. J. Glover, Dr. Hunt,
Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.
C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield,
C. R. Markham, R. S. Watson.
H. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt,
R. M. JIurchison, T. Wright.
Vide note on page li.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
Iv
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
1865. Birmingham
Major-General Sir H. Raw-
H. W. Bates, S. Evans, G. Jabet,
linson, M.P., K.C.B., F.E.S.
C. R. Markham, Thomas Wright.
1866. Nottingham
Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,
H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, R.
LL.D.
H. ]\rajor, Clements R. Markham,
D. W. Nash, T. Wright.
1867. Diuidee ...
Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S.
H. W.Bates, Cyril Graham, Clements
R. IMarkham, S. J. Mackie, R.
Stiirrock.
1868. Norwich ...
Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N.,
T. Baines, H. W. Bates, Clements R.
F.R.S.
Markham, T. Wright.
SECTION E (continued). — geography.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
Exeter
Liverpool...
Edinburgh
Brighton . . ,
Bradford . . .
Belfast
Bristol
Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
Dublin
Sheffield ...
Swansea ...
York
Southamp-
ton.
Southport
Montreal ...
Aberdeen...
Birmingham
Manchester
Bath
Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds
Sir Bartle Frere, K.C.B.,
LL.D., F.R.G.S.
Sir R. I.Murchison, Bt.,K.C.B.,
LL.D.,D.C.L.,F.R.S.,F.G.S.
Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S.
Francis Galton, F.R.S
Sir Rutherford Alcock, K. C.B.
Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S.,
■ F.R.G.S.
Lieut. - General Strachey,
R.E.,C.S.L,F.R.S.,F.R.G.S.,
F.L.S., F.G.S.
Capt. Evans, C.B., F.R.S
Adm. Sir E. Ommanney, C.B.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S.
Prof. Sir C. Wyville Thom-
son, LL.D., F.R.S. L.&E .
Clements R. Markham, C.B.,
F.R.S., Sec. R.G.S.
Lieut.-Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy,
C.B., K.C.M.G., R.A., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S.
Sir J. D. Hooker, K.C.S.I.,
rt T> T? "R S
Sir R. Tompie, Bart., G.C.S.I.,
F.R.G.S.
Licut.-Col. H. H. Godwin-
Austen, F.R.S.
Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy, C.B.,
K.C.M.G.. F.R.S.,V.r.R.G.S.
Gen. J. T. Walker, C.B., R.E.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Maj.-Gen. Sir. F. .L Goldsmid,
K.C.S.L, C.B., F.R.G.S.
Col. Sir C. Warren, R.E.,
G.C.M.G., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
Col. Sir C. W. Wilson, R.E.,
K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
Col. Sir F. de Winton,
j K.C.M G., C.B., F.R.G.S.
Lieut.-Col. Sir R. Lambert
I Playfair,K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S.
H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham,
J. H. Thomas.
H.W.Bates, David Buxton, Albert J.
Mott, Clements R. Markham.
A. Buchan, A. Keith Johnston, Cle-
ments R. Markham, J. H. Thomas.
H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Rev. J. Newton, J. H. Thomas.
H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Clements R. jMarkham.
E. G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye, J. H.
Thomas.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, P. F.
Tuckett.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, R. Oliphant
Wood.
H. W. Bates, F. E. Fox, E. C. Rye.
John Coles, E. C. Rye.
H. W. Bates, C. E. D. Black, E. C.
Rye.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye.
J. W. Barry, H. W. Bates.
E. G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye.
John Coles, E. G. Ravenstein, E. C.
Rye.
Rev.AbbeLaflamme, J.S. O'Halloran,
E. G. Ravenstein, J. F. Torrance.
J. S. Keltie, J. S. O'Halloi-an, E. G.
Ravenstein, Rev. G. A. Smith.
F. T. S. Houghton, J. S. Keltie,
E. G. Ravenstein.
Rev. L. C. Casartelli, J. S. Keltie,
H. J. Mackinder, E. G. Ravenstein.
J. S. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, E. G.
Ravenstein.
J. S. Keltic, H. J. Mackinder, R.
Snlivan, A. Silva White.
A. Barker, John Coles, J. S. Keltie,
A. Silva White.
Ivi-
REPORT 1890.
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI. — STATISTICS.
1833. Cambridge! Prof. Babbage, F.E.S | J. E. Drinkwater.
1834. Edinburgh I Sir Charles Lemon, Bart i Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean.
SECTION F. — STATISTICS.
18.36. Dublin
1836. Bristol
1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...
1841. Plymouth...
1842. Manchester
1843. Cork
1844. York
1845. Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
ton.
1847. Oxford
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich ...
1852. Belfast
1853. Hull
1854. Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...
Charles Babbage, F.R.S
Sir Chas. Lemon, Bart., F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon
Colonel Sykes, F.R.S
Henry Hallam, F.R.S
Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon, M.P.,
F.R.S.
Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S
G. W.Wood, M.P., F.L.S. ...
Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ...
Lieut. - Col. Sykes, F.R.S.,
F.L.S.
Rt.Hon. tlie Earl Fitzwilliam
G. R. Porter, F.R.S
Travers Twiss, D.C.L.. F.R.S.
J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.R.S. ...
Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton
Very Rev. Dr. John Lee,
V.P.R.S.E.
Sir John P. Boileau, Bart. ...
His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin.
James Hey wood, M.P., F.R.S.
Thomas Tooke, F.R.S
R. Monckton Milnes, M.P. ...
W. Greg, Prof. Longfield.
Rev. j"; E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp,
James Heywood.
W. R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.
W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W.R.Wood.
F. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.
C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W.
Rawson.
Rev. Dr. Bjrrth, Rev. R. Luney, R.
W. Rawson.
Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod. Dr.
W. C. Tayler.
Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Lay-
cock.
J. Fletcher, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Nelson, Dr. W.
C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott.
Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G.
P. Nelson.
J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede.
Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F. G. P.
Neison.
Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J.
Stark.
J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock.
Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James
MacAdam, jun.
Edward Cheshire, W. Newmarch.
E. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H.
Duncan, W. Newmarch.
J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-
march, Prof. R. H. Walsh.
SECTION F (continued). — economic science and STATISTICS.
1856.
Cheltenham
1857.
Dublin
1858.
Leeds
Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P. |Rev. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr.
W. N. Hancock, W. Newmarch, W.
M. Tartt.
Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W.
Newmarch.
Edward Baincs T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, S. Brown,
Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang.
His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin, M.R.I.A
PRESIDENTS AND 8ECIIETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
iVll
Date and Place
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862,
1863.
1864.
1865.
1866.
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
Presidents
Aberdeen . . .
Oxford
Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle .
Bath
Birmingham
Nottingham
Dundee
Norwich ....
Exeter
Liverpool...
Edinburgh
Brighton ...
Bradford ...
Belfast
Col. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S
Nassau W. Senior, M.A
William Newmarch, F.R.S... .
Edwin Chadwick, C.B
William Tite, M.P., F.R.S. ...
William Farr, M.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Ut. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,
M.P.
Prof. J. E. T. Rogers
M. E. Grant-DufiF, M.P
Samuel Brown, Pres. Instit.
Actuaries.
Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-
cote, Bart., C.B., M.P.
Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A.
Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves
Prof. Henry Fawcett, M.P
Rt. Hon. W. E. Forster, M.P.
Lord O'Hagan
Bristol James Heywood, M.A. , F.R.S
Pres. S.S
Glasgow ... SirGeorge Campbell, K.C.S.L,
M.P,
Plymouth... Rt. Hon. the Earl Fortescue
Dublin Prof. J. K. Ingram, LL.D.,
I M.R.LA.
Sheffield ...'g. Shaw Lefevre, M.P., Pres.
I S.S.
Swansea ...G. W. Hastino.s, M.P
York.
Southamp-
ton.
Southport
Montreal ...
Aberdeen...
Birmingham
Manchester
Bath
Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Rt. Hon. M. E. Grant-Duff,
M.A., F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. G. Sclater-Booth,
M.P., F.R.S.
R. H. Liglis Palgrave, F.R.S.
Sir Richard Temple, Bart.,
G.C.S.L, CLE., F.R.G.S.
Prof. H. Sidgwick, LL.D.,
Litt.D.
J. B. Martin, M.A., F.S.S.
Robert Qiffen, LL.D.,V.P.S.S.
Rt. Hon. Lord Bramwell,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. F. Y. Edge worth, M.A.,
F.S.S.
Secretaries
Prof. Cairn.s, Edmund Macrory, A. M.
Smith, Dr. John Strang.
Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch,
Rev. Prof. J. E." T. Rogers.
David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie,
E. Macrory, Rev. Prof. J. E. T.
Rogers
H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory.
T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory,
Frederick Purdy, James Potts.
E. Macrory, E. T. Payne. F. Purdy.
G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston,
E. Macrory.
R. Birkin, jun.. Prof. Leone Levi, E.
Macrory.
Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J.
Warden.
Rev. W. C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi.
E. Macrory, F. Purdy, C. T. D.
Acland.
Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, E. Macrory,
J. Miles Moss.
J. G. Fitch, James Meikle.
J. G. Fitcli, Barclay Phillips.
J. G. Fitch, Swire Smith.
Prof. Donnell, F. P. Fellows, Hans
MacMordie.
F. P. Fellows, T. G. P. Hallett, E.
Macrory.
A. M'Neel Caird, T. G. P. Hallett, Dr.
W. Neilson Hancock, Dr. W. Jack.
W. F. Collier, P. Hallett, J. T. Pirn.
W. J. Hancock, C. Molloy, J. T. Pirn.
Prof. Adamson, R. E. Leader, C.
Molloy.
N. A. Humphreys, C. Molloy.
C. Molloy, W. W. Morrell, J. F.
Moss.
G. Baden-Powell, Prof. H. S. Fox-
well, A. Milnes, C. Molloy.
Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. S.
Foxwell, J. N. Keynes, C. Molloy.
Prof. H. S. Foxwell, J. S. McLennan,
Prof. J. Watson.
Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. S.
Foxwell, C. McCombie, J. F. Moss.
F. F. Barham, Rev. W. Cunningham,
Prof. H. S. Foxwell, J. F. Moss.
Rev. W. Cunningham, F. Y. Edge-
worth, T. H. Elliott, C. Hughes,
Prof. J. E. C. Munro, G. H. Sar-
gant.
Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, T. H. Elliott.
Prof. H. S. Foxwell, L. L. F. R.
Price.
Rev. Dr. Cunningham, T. H. Elliott,
F. B. Jevons, L. L. F. R. Price.
Iviii
llEPORT — 1890.
Date and Place
1890. Leeds ...
Presidents
Secretaries
Prof. A. Marshall, M.A.,P.S.S.' W. A. Brigg, Rev. Dr. Cunningham,
I T. H. Elliott, Prof. J. E. C. Mnnro,
■ L. L. F. R. Price.
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
SECTION G. — MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
1836. Bristol
1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ....
1841. Plymouth
1842. Manchester
1843. Cork
1844. York
1845. Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
ton.
1847. Oxford
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich
1852. Belfast
1853. Hull
1854. Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham
1857. Dublin
1858. Leeds
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath
1865. Birmingham
1 866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee
Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Rev. Dr. Robinson
Charles Babbage, F.R.S
Prof. Willis, F.R.S., and Robt.
Stephenson.
Sir John Robinson
John Taylor, F.R.S
Rev. Prof. Willis, F.R.S
Prof. J. Macueill, M.R.LA....
.John Taylor, F.R.S
George Rennie, F.R.S
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.
Rev. Prof .Walker, M.A.,F.R.S.
Rev. Prof .Walker, M.A..F.R.S.
Robt. Stephenson, M.P., F.R.S.
Rev. R. Robinson
William Cubitt, F.R.S
John Walker, C.E., LL.D.,
F.R.S.
William Fairbairn, C.E.,
F.R.S.
John Scott Russell, F.R.S. ...
W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
C.E., F.R.S.
George Eennie, F.R.S
Rt. Hon. the Earl of Rosse,
F.R.S.
William Fairbairn, F.R.S. ...
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof . W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S....
Wm. Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Willis, M. A., F.R.S.
J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S
Sir W. G. Armstrong, LL.D.,
F.R.S.
Thomas Hawksley, V.P.Inst.
C.E., F.G.S.
Prof .W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West.
Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
R. Hawthorn, C. Vignoles, T.
Webster.
W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, T.
Webster.
J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod,
C. Vignoles.
Henry Chattield, Thomas Webster.
J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J.
Thom.son, Charles Vignoles.
James Thomson, Robert Mallet.
Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
Rev. W. T. Kingsley.
William Betts, jun., Charles Manby.
J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier.
Pi. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struve.
Cliavlcs Manby, W. P. Marshall.
D]-. Lees, David Stephenson.
John Head, Charles Manby.
John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock,
Charles Manby, James Thomson.
James Oldham, J. Thomson, W.
Sykes Ward.
John Grantham, J. Oldham, J.
Tliomson.
L. Hill, jun., William Ramsay, .J.
Thomson.
C. Atherton, B. Jones, jun., H. M.
Jcffery.
Prof. Downing, W.T. Doyne, A. Tate,
James Thomson, Henry Wright.
J. C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright.
R. Abernetliy, P. Le Neve Foster, H.
Wright.
P. Le Neve Foster, Rev. F. Harrison,
Henry Wright.
P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson,
H. Wright.
W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster.
P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott,
J. F. Spencer.
P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt.
P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea,
W. P. Marshall, Walter May.
P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M.
O. Tarbotton.
P. Le Neve Foster, John P. Smith,
W. W. Urquhart.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
lix
Date and Place
Presidents
1868. Norwich
1869. Exeter
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ...
1873. Bradford ...
1874. Belfast
1875. Bristol
1876. Glasgow ...
1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin
1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
1881. York
1882. Southamp-
ton.
1883. Southport
1884. Montreal...
1885. Aberdeen...
1886. Birmingham
1887. Manchester
1888. Bath
1889. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
1890. Leeds
G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.K.G.S.
C. W. Siemens, F.K.S
Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., F.R.S.
Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S.
F. J. Bramwell, C.E
W. H. Barlow, F.R.S
Prof. James Thomson, LL.D.,
C.E., F.R.S.E.
W. Froude, C.E., M.A., F.R.S.
C. AV. Merrifield, F.R.S
Edward Woods, C.E
Edward Easton, C.E
J. Robinson, Pres. Inst. Mech.
Eng.
James Abernethy, V.P. Inst.
C.E., F.R.S.E.
Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
John Fowler, C.E., F.G.S. ...
James Brunlees, F.U.S.E.,
Pres.In.st.C.E.
Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S.,
V.P.Inst.C.E.
B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E
Sir J. N. Douglass, M.Inst.
C.E.
Prof. Osborne Reynolds, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
W. H. Preece, F.R.S.,
M.Inst.C.E.
W. Anderson, M.Inst.C.E. ...
Capt. A. Noble, C.B., F.R.S.,
F.K.A.S.
Secretaries
P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, C.
Manby, W. Smith.
P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.
H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Poster, T.
King, J. N. Shoolbred.
H. Bauerman, Alexander Leslie,
J. P. Smith.
H. M. Brunei, P. Le Neve Foster,
J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
Crawford Barlow, H. Bauerman,
E. H. Carbutt, J. C. Hawkshaw,
J. N. Shoolbred.
A. T. Atchison, J. N. Shoolbred, John
Smyth, jun.
W. R. Browne, H. M. Brunei, J. G.
Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
W. Bottomley, jun., W. J. Millar,
J. N. Shoolbred, J. P. Smith.
A. T. Atchison, Dr. Merrifield, J. N.
Shoolbred.
A. T. Atchison, R. G. Sj-mes, H. T.
Wood.
A. T. Atchison, Emerson Bainbridge,
H. T. Wood.
A. T. .\tchison, H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, J. F. Stephenson,
H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, F. Churton, H. T.
Wood.
A. T. Atchison, E. Rigg, H. T.Wood.
A. T. Atchison, W. B. Dawson, J.
Kennedy, H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, F. G. Ogilvie, E.
Rigg, J. N. Shoolbred.
C. W. Cooke, J. Kenward, W. B.
Marshall, E. Rigg.
C. F. Budenberg, W. B. Marshall,
E. Rigg.
C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, B.
Rigg, P. K. Stothert.
C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, Hon.
C. A. Parsons, E. Rigg.
E. K. Clark, C. W. Cooke, W. B.
Marshall, E. Rigg.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE.
SECTION H. ANTHROPOLOGY.
1884. Montreal ... i B. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S. ... I G. W. Bloxam, W. Hurst.
1885. Aberdeen... Francis Galton, M.A., F.R.S. [G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.
I 1 Hurst. Dr. A. Macgregor.
1886. Birmingham Sir G. Campbell, K.C.S.I., I G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.
M.P., D.C.L., F.R.G.S. ' Hurst, Dr. R. Saundby.
Ix
REPORT 1890.
Date and Place
1887. Manchester
1888. Bath
1889. Newcastle-
npon-Tyne
1890. Leeds
Presidents
Prof. A. H. Saj-ce, M.A
Lieut. -General Pitt-Rivers,
D.C.L, F.R.S.
Prof. Sir W. Turner, M.B.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Dr. J. Evans, Treas.R.S,,
F.S.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.
Secretaries
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
A. M. Paterson.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, J.
Harris Stone.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
R. Morison, Dr. R. Howden.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. G. M. Chadwick,
Dr. J. G. Garson.
LIST OF EVENING LECTURES.
Date and Place
1842. Manchester
1843. Cork ,
1844. York
1845. Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
ton.
1847. Oxford.
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich ...
1852. Belfast
Lecturer
Charles Vignoles, F.R.S
Sir M. I. Brunei
R. I. Murchison
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S
Prof. E. Forbes, F.R.S
Dr. Robinson
Charles Lyell, F.R.S
Dr. Falconer. F.R.S
G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron.Royal
R. L Murchi.son. F.R.S
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...
Charles Lvell, F.R.S
W. R. Grove, F.R.S
Rev. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S.
Prof. M. Faraday, F.R.S
Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.S... .
John Percy, M.D., F.R.S
W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S....
Dr. Faraday. F.R.S
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D.,
F.R.S.E.
Dr. Mantell, F.R.S
Prof. R. Owon. M.D., F.R.S.
G.B.Airv,F.R.S.,Astron. Royal
Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.
Subject of Discourse
The Principles and Construction of
Atmospheric Railways.
The Thames Tunnel.
The Geology of Russia.
The Dinornis of New Zealand.
The Distribution of Animal Life in
the Mgeaxi Sea.
The Earl of Rosses Telescope.
Geology of North America.
The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik
Hills in India.
Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.
Geology of Russia.
Fossil Mammalia of the British Isles.
Valley and Delta of the Mississippi.
Propertiesof the Explosive substance
discovered by Dr. Schonbein ; also
some Researches of his own on the
Decomposition of Water by Heat.
Shooting Stars.
Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno-
mena.
The Dodo (ZHdus ineptus).
Metallurgical Operations of Swansea
and its neighbourhood.
Recent Microscopical Discoveries.
Mr. Gassiot's Battery.
Transit of different Weights with'
varying Velocities on Railways.
Passage of the Blood through the
minute vessels of Animals in con-
nection with Nutrition.
Extinct Birds of New Zealand.
Distinction between Plants and Ani-
mals, and their changes of Form.
Total Solar Eclipse of July 28, 1851.
Recent Discoveries in the properties
of Light.
Recent Discovery of Rock-salt at
Carrickf ergus, and geological and
practical considerations connected
with it.
LIST OK EVENING LECTURES.
ixi
Date and Place
1854.
1855.
. 1856.
Hull.
Liverpool...
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham
1857.
Dublin
1858.
Leeds
1859.
1
Aberdeen...
1860.
Oxford
1861.
Manchester
1862.
Cambridge
1863.
Newcastle
1864.
1865.
1866.
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
Bath
Birmingham
Nottingham
Dundee
Norwich . . .
Exeter
Liverpool . . .
Edinburgh
Lecturer
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R. S.
F.G.S.
Robert Hunt, F.R.S
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
Col. E. Sabine, V.P.R.S
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.
Lieut. -Col. H. Rawlinson ..,
Col. Sir H. Rawlinson
W. R. Grove, F.R.S
Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.S. ...
Rev. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L.
Prof. J. PhiIlips,LL.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L... .
Rev. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. ...
Rev. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ...
Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N.
Prof . W. A. Miller, M.A .. F.R.S.
G. B. Airy, F.R.S,, Astron.
Royal.
Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Odling, F.R.S
Prof. Williamson, F.R.S
James Glaisher, F.R.S
Prof. RosBcoe, F.R.S
Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S. ...
J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S
William Huggins, F.R.S. ...
Dr. J. D.Hooker, F.R.S
.Archibald Geikie, F.R.S
Alexander Herschel, F.R. A.S.
J. Fergusson, F.R.S
Dr. W. Odling, F.R.S
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.
J. Norman Lockyer F.R.S. ..
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof . W. J. JTacquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
F. A. Abel, F.R.S
E. B. Tylor, F.R.S
Subject of Discourse
Some peculiar Phenomena in the
Geology and Physical Geography
of Yorkshire.
The present state of Photography.
Anthropomorphous Apes.
Progress of researches in Terrestrial
Magnetism.
Characters of Species.
Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities
and Ethnology.
Recent Discoveries in Assyria and
Babylonia, with the results of
Ciineiform research up to the
present time.
Correlation of Physical Forces.
The Atlantic Telegraph.
Recent Discoveries in Africa.
The Ironstones of Yorkshire.
The Fossil Mammalia of Australia.
Geology of the Northern Highlands.
Electrical Discliarges in highly
rarefied Media.
Physical Constitution of the Sun.
Arctic Discovery.
Spectrum Analysis.
The late Eclipse of the Sun.
The Forms and Action of Water.
Organic Chemistry.
The Chemistry of the Galvanic Bat-
tery considered in relation to
Dynamics.
The Balloon Ascents made for the
British Association.
The Cliemical Action of Light.
Recent Travels in Africa.
Probabilities as to the position and
extent of the Coal-measures be-
neath the red rocks of the Mid-
land Counties.
The results of Spectrum Analysis
applied to Heavenly Bodies.
Insiilar Floras.
The Geological Origin of the present
Scenery of Scotland.
The present state of Knowledge re-
garding Meteors and Meteorites.
Arch:eology of the early Buddhist
Monuments.
Reverse Chemical Actions.
Vesuvius.
The Physical Constitution of the
Stars and Nebulas.
Scientific Use of the Imagination.
Stream-lines and Waves, in connec-
tion with Naval Architecture.
Some recent Investigations and Ap-
plications of Explosive Agents.
Tlie Relation of Primitive to Modern
Civilisation.
Ixii
REPORT 1890.
Date and Place
Lecturer
Subject of Discourse
1872.
Brighton ...
Prof. P. Martin Duncan, 5I.B.,
F.R.t^.
Insect Metamorphosis.
Prof. W. K. Clifford
The Aims and Instruments of Scien-
tific Thought.
1873.
Bradford ...
Prof. W. C.Williamson.F.R.S.
Coal and Coal Plants.
Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S.
Molecules.
1874.
Belfast
Sir John Lubbock,Bart.,M.P.,
Common Wild Flowers considered
F.E.S.
in relation to Insects.
Prof. Huxley, F.E.S
The Hjfpotliesis that Animals are
Automata, and its History.
1875.
Bristol
W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.
The Colours of Polarised Light.
F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S
Railway Safety Appliances.
1876.
Glasgow . . .
Prof. Tait, F.E.S.E
Force.
SirWyville Thomson, F.R.S.
The CliaUcwjcr Expedition.
1877.
Plymouth...
W. Warington Smyth, M.A.,
The Physical Phenomena connected
F.R.S.
with the Mines of Cornwall and
Devon.
Prof. Odling, F.R.S
The new Element, Gallium.
1878.
Dublin
G. J. Romanes. F.L.S
Animal Intelligence.
Prof. Dewar, F.R.S
Dissociation, or Modern Ideas of
Chemical Action.
1879.
Sheffield ...
W. Crookes. F.R.S
Radiant Blatter.
Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S.
Degeneration.
1880.
Swansea ...
Prof. W.Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.
Primeval Man.
Francis Galton, F.R.S
Mental Imagery.
1881.
York
Prof. Huxley, Sec. R.S
The Rise and Progress of Palseon.
tology.
W. Spottiswoode, Pres. R.S.
The Electric Discharge, its Forms^
and its Functions.
1882.
Southamp-
Prof. Sir Win. Thomson, F.R.S.
Tides.
ton.
Prof. H. N. Moseley, F.R.S.
Pelagic Life.
1883.
Southport
Prof. E. S. Ball, F.R.S
Recent Researches on the Distance
of the Sun.
Prof. J. G. McKendrick,
F.R.S.E.
Prof. 0. J. Lodge, D.Sc
Galvani and Animal Electricity.
1884.
Montreal ...
Dust.
Rev. W. H. Dallinger, F.R.S.
The Modern Microscope in Re-
searches on the Least and Lowest
Forms of Life.
1885.
Aberdeen...
Prof. W. G. Adams, F.R.S. ...
The Electric Light and Atmospheric
Absorption.
John Murray, F.R.S.E
The Great Ocean Basins.
1886. Birmingham
A. W. Riicker, M.A., F.R.S.
Soap Bubbles.
Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D. ...
The Sense of Hearing.
1887.
Manchester
Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.E.S. ...
The Rate of Explosions in Gases.
Col. Sir F. de Winton,
Explorations in Central Africa.
K.C.M.G.
1888.
Bath
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S. ...
The Electrical Transmission of
Power.
Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc,
The Foundation Stones of the Earth's-
F.R.S.
Crust.
1889.
Newcastle-
Prof. W. C. Roberts- Austen,
The Hardenino- and Tempering of
upon-Tyne
F.E.S.
Steel.
Walter Gardiner, M.A
How rljiiif','^ Tinnivii'ain 'HiPTn**(^lvp'ii in
the Struggle for Existence.
1890.
Leeds
E. B. Poulton, M.A., F.R.S....
Mimicry.
Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.
Quartz Fibres and their Applications.
LECTURE-S TO THE OrEEATIVE CLASSES.
Ixiii
LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES.
Date and Place
Lecturer
1867.
1868.
1860.
Dundee..
Norwich
Exeter ..
1870. Liverpool ,
1872.
1873.
1874.
187.5.
1876.
1877.
1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
188.5.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1 890.
Brig-hton .
Bradford .
Belfast....
Bristol ....
Glasgow .
Plymouth .
Sheffield .
Swansea .
York
Southamp-
ton.
Southpori:
Montreal ...
Aberdeen ...
Birmingham
Manchester
Bath
Kewcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds
Prof. J. Tyndall. LL.D., F.K.S,
Prof. Huxler. LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Miller, M.D., F.R.S. ...
Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,M.P.,
F.R.S.
"W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.
C.W. Siemens. D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. Odling. F.R.S
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.
Commander Cameron, C.B.,
R.N.
W. H. Preece
W. E. Ayrton
H. Seebohm, F.Z.S
Prof. Osborne Reynolds,
F.R.S.
John Evans, D.C.L.,Treas.R.S.
Subject of Discourse
Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S. ...
Prof. R. S. Ball, F.R.S
H. B. Dixon, M.A
Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
F.R.S.
Prof. G. Forbes, F.R.S
Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P.,
F.R.S.
B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E
Prof. J. Perry, D.Sc, F.R.S.
Matter and Force.
A Piece of Chalk.
Experimental illustrations of the
modes of detecting the Composi-
tion of the Sun and other Heavenly
Bodies by the Spectrum.
Savages.
Sunshine, Sea, and Sky.
Fiiel.
The Discovery of Oxygen.
A Piece of Limestone.
A Journey through Africa.
Telegraphy and the Telephone.
Electricity as a Motive Power.
The North-East Passage.
Raindrops, Hailstones, and Snow-
flakes.
Unwritten Histoiy, and how to
read it.
Talking by Electricity — Telephones.
Comets.
The Nature of Explosions.
The Colours of Metals and their
Alloys.
Electric Lighting.
The Customs of Savage Races.
The Forth Bridge.
Spinning Tops.
Ixiv REPORT— 1890.
OFFICERS OP SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE
LEEDS MEETING.
SECTION A. — MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
President— J. W. L, Glaisher, D.Sc, F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S. ,
Vice-Presidents. — Professor Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S.; Professor B. Mas-
carfc; Lord Ravleigh, Sec. R.S. ; Professor H. A. Rowland, F.R.S.;
Professor A. W. Rucker, F.R.S. ; Sir Wm. Thomson, F.R.S.
Secretaries. — R. T. Glazebrook, F.R.S.; Professor A. Lodge, M.A. ; W.
N. Shaw, M.A. (Recorder) ; Professor W. Stroud, D.Sc.
SECTION B. — CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
Presirfe^i^.— Professor T. E. Thorpe, B.Sc, Ph.D., P.R.S., Treas. C.S.
Vice-Presidents. — Professor P. Phillips Bedson, D.Sc. ; Sir I. Lowthian
Bell, Bart., F.R.S. ; Professor H. B. Dixon, F.R.S.. Dr. J. H.
Gladstone, F.R.S. ; Professor G. D. Liveing, F.R.S. ; Dr. W. H.
Perkin, F.R.S. ; Sir H. E. Roscoe, F.R.S. ; Dr. E. Schunck, F.R.S. ;
Professor A. Siuitbells, B.Sc.
Secretaries.— C. H. Bothamley, F.C.S. ; H. Forster Morley, D.Sc.
{Recorder) ; D. H. Nagel, M.A. ; Dr. W. W. J. Nicol, M.A.
SECTION C. — GEOLOGY.
President.— Professor A. H. Green, M.A., F.R.S., P.G.S.
Vice-Presidents. — Professor T. G. Bonney, F.R.S. ; James W. Davis,
F.G.S. ; Professor T M'K. Hughes, F.R.S. ; Professor O. C. Marsh;
R. H. Tiddeman, M.A. ; W. Topley, F.R.S.; Dr. H. Woodward,
F.R.S.
Secretaries.— J. E. Bedford; F. H. Hatch, Ph.D. ; J. E. Marr, M.A. ; W.
W Watts, M.A. (Recorder).
SECTION D. — BIOLOGY.
President.— Professor A. Milnes Marshall, M.A., M.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents. — Professor F. O. Bower, F.R.S. E. ; Francis Darwin,
F.R.S. ; Professor L. C. Miall, F.L.S. ; Professor A. Newton, F.R.S. ;
Professor D. H. Scott, Ph.D. ; Professor W. C. Williamson, F.R.S.
Secretaries.— S. P. Harmer, M.A. ; Professor W. A. Herdman, D.Sc. ;
Sydney J. Hickson, D.Sc. ; Professor F. W. Oliver, D.Sc. ; Harold
Wager; Professor H. Marshall Ward, F.R.S. (Recorder).
OFFICEES OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. Ixv
SECTION E. — GEOGEAPHT.
Prmt^en^.— Lieut.-Colonel Sir R. Lambert Playfair, K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S.
Vice-Presidents. — Sir F. J. Goldsmid, K. C.S.I. ; Admiral Sir E. Omman-
ney, C.B., F.R.S. ; E. G. Ravenstein, F.R.G.S.
Secretaries. — A. Barker, M.A. ; John Coles, F.R.G.S. ; J. Scott Keltie,
F.R.G.S, {Becorder) ; A. Silva White, F.R.S. E.
SECTION F. — ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
President. — Professor Alfred Marshall, M.A., F.S.S.
Vice-Presidents. — Charles Booth, F.S.S. ; Professor I'. T. Edgeworth,
D.C.L. ; Professor H. S. Foxwell, F.S.S. ; J. B. Martin, F.S.S. ;
Professor Sidgwick, F.S.S.
Secretaries. — W. A. Brigg, M.A. ; Rev. W. Cunningham, D.D. ; T. H.
Elliott, F.S.S. {Becorder) ; Professor J. E. C. Munro, LL.D. ; L. L.
F. R. Price, M.A.
SECTION G. — MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
President. — Captain Andrew Noble, C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Vice-Presidents. — G. F. Deacon, M.Inst.C.E. ; Professor V. Dwelshauvers-
Dery ; Arthur Greenwood ; L. F. Vernon Harcourt, M.Inst.C.E. ;
Sir James Kitson, Bart. ; Benjamin "Walker, M.Inst.C.E.
Secretaries.— 'E. K. Clark, B.A. ; C. W. Cooke; W. Bayley Marshall,
M.Inst.C.E.; Edward Rigg, M.A. (Becorder).
SECTION n. — ANTHROPOLOGT.
President.— John Evans, D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc, Treas. R.S., Pres. S.A.,
F.L.S., F.G.S.'
Vice-Presidents. — Professor D. J. Cunningham, M.D. ; F. W. Rudler,
»F.G.S. ; Professor Flower, C.B., F.R.S. ; Sir Rawson Rawson,
K.C.M.G.
Secretaries. — G, W. Bloxam, M.A. {Becorder) ; Dr. C. M. Chadwick,
M.A. ; Dr. J. G. Garson.
' Dr. Evans was unable to attend the meeting.
1890.
Ixvi KEPOBT — 1890.
THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR
j)r. THE GENERAL TREASURER'S ACCOUNT
1889-90. EECEIPTS.
£
Balance of account rendered at Newcastle Meeting 1052
By Life Compositions 300
„ New Annual Members 244
„ Subscriptions of Old Annual Members 065
„ Associates' Tickets at Newcastle Meeting 1021
„ Ladies' Tickets at Newcastle Meeting 579
,, Sale of Publications 62
„ Sale of Reports, by Mr. Murray, 1889-90 112
„ Rent received from Mathematical Society, for year ended
September 29, 1889 12
„ Interest on Exchequer Bills 28
„ Dividends on Consols 227
„ Dividends on India 3 i3er cents 105
„ Sale of Exchequer Bills (£1000) 999
„ Unexpended balance of Grant for Electrolysis 14
s.
d.
5
9
6
16
15
7
18
4
6
10
4
£5423 15 3
InvestmeuU Account : Septemher 1890.
New Consols 8500
India 3 per cents 3600
Exchequer Bills ' 500
s.
d.
BALANCE SHEET, 1889-90. Ixvii
P
THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
2
6
1
a
10
5
3
(not including receipts at the Leeds Meeting). Cr.
1889-90. PAYMENTS.
& s.
To Expenses of Newcastle Meeting, including Printing and
I Advertising, &c 249
„ Salaries, one year (1889-90) G75
\ „ Rent of Ofiice, 22 Albemarle Street, W. (1889-90) 117
„ Spottiswoode & Co., for Printing Account (1888-89) 1089
(1889-90) 1089
„ Purchase of Exchequer Bills (£1000) 1005
Grants.
£ .«. (7.
Experiments with a Tow-net 4 3 9
Volcanic Plienomeua of Japan 75
Cretaceous Polyzoa 10 o
i Naples Zoological Station 100 o
Calculating Jlatliematical Tables 25
Zoology and Botany of West Inilia Islands 100
Graphic Methods in Meclianical Science 11 U
Anthropometric Committee 5
Jfomad Tribes of Asia Minor 25
Properties of Solutions 10
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius 20
Electro-optics 50 U
Corresponding Societies 20
J Waves and Currents in Estuaries 100
Analysis of Iron and Steel 10 o
.Electrical Standards 12 17
Excavations .at Oldbury Hill 15
, Recording' Results of Water Analysis 4 1
Methods of Teaching Chemistry 10 O
Oxidation of Hydracids in Sunlight 15
Circulation of Underground Waters 5
I'ossil Phyllopoda 10
Botanical Station at Peradeuiya 25
Silent Discharge of Electricity 5
Pellian Equation Tables 15 o
Marine Biological Association 30
West India Islands (2) 100
Waves and Currents in Estuaries (2) .50
Lias Beds of Northamptonsliire 25
Electrolysis 5
Geological Photographs 7 14 11
— 899 IG 8
By Balance at Bank of England, "Western Branch 297 7 1
In hands of Assistant to General Treasurer 1 8 11
£542.3 15 3
Alex. W. Williamson, General Treasurer.
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts
Date of Meeting
Where held
Presidents
1
Old]
Life New Life
Mem
jers Members
1831, Sept. 27 ...
1832, June 19 ...
1833, June 25 ...
1834, Sept. 8 ...
1835, Aug. 10 ...
1836, Aug. 22 ...
1837, Sept. 11 ...
1838, Aug. 10 ...
York
The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L.
The Kev. W. Buckland, F.E.S.
The Rev. A. Sedgwick, F.K.S.
■•
...
Oxford
r3ambri(io"C
Kdinburo-h
Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L
Dublin
The Rev. Provost Lloj'd, LL.D.
The Marquis of Lansdowne ...
The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S.
••
• >•
Bristol
Liverpool
Newcastle-on-Tyne
The Duke of Northumberland
..•
1839, Aug. 26 ...
1840, Sept. 17 ...
1841, July 20 ...
Birmingham
The Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt
,,
...
(xlaso'ow
The Marquis of Breadalbane...
The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.
Plymouth
16
9 65
1842, June 23 ...
Manchester
The Lord Francis Egerton
30
3 169
1843, Aug. 17 ...
Cork
The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S
10
9 28
1844, Sept. 26 ...
York
The Rev. G. Peacock, D.D. ...
22
S 150
1845, June 19 ...
Cambridge
Sir Jolm F. W. Herschel, Bart.
31
3 36
1846, Sept. 10 ...
S ut hampton
Sir Roderick I. Murchison,Bart.
24
1 10
1847, June 23 ...
Oxford
Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart
31
4 18
1848, Aug. 9 ...
1849, Sept. 12 ...
1850, July 21 ...
Swansea
The Marquis of Northampton
The Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.
Sir David Brewster, K.H
14
d 3
Birmingham
22
23
7 12
5 9
Edinburgh
1851, July 2 ...
Ipswich
G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal
17
2 8
1852, Sept. 1 ...
Belfast
Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S.
16
I 10
185.3, Sept. 3 ...
1854, Sept. 20 ...
Hull
William Hopkins, F.R.S
The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S.
14
23
L 13
3 23
Liverpool
1855, Sept. 12 ...
1856, Aug. 6 ...
1857, Auff. 26 ...
Glasgovsr
The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. ...
Prof. C. G. B. Daubeuy, M.D.
The Rev.Humphi-ey Lloyd, D.D.
Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L....
H R.H. the Prince Consort ...
The Lord Wrottesley, M.A. ...
19
18
23
i 33
2 14
S 15
Cheltenham
Dublin
1858, Sept. 22 ...
1859, Sept. 14 ...
1860, June 27 ...
Leeds
22
18
28
2 42
4 27
5 21
Aberdeen
Oxford
1861, Sept. 4 ...
1862, Oct. 1 ...
1863, Aug. 26 ...
Manchester
WilliamFairbairn,LL.D.,F.R.S.
The Rev. Professor Willis, M.A.
Sir AVilliam G.Armstrong, C.B.
32
23
20
1 113
9 15
i 36
Cambridge
Newcastle-on-Tyne
1864, Sept. 13 ...
Bath
Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A.
28
7 40
1865, Sept. 6 ...
Birmingham
Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D.
29
2 44
1866, Aug. 22 ...
Nottingham
William R. Grove, Q.C., F.R.S.
20
7 31
1867, Sept. 4 ...
1868, Aug. 19 ...
1869, Aug. 18 ...
Dundee
The Duke of Buccleuch,K.C.B.
Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S.
Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L
16
7 25
Norwich
19
20
5 18
4 21
Exeter
1870, Sept. 14 ...
Liverpool
Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D
31
4 39
1871, Aug. 2 ...
Edinburgh
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D.
24
5 28
1872, Aug. 14 ...
Brighton
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. ...
24
5 36
1873, Sept. 17 ...
Bradford
Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S.
21
2 27
1874, Aug. 19 ...
Belfast
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
16
2 13
1875, Aug. 25 ...
Bristol
Sir John Hawkshaw,C.E.,F.R.S.
23
9 36
1876, Sept. 6 ...
Glasgow
Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S.
22
1 35
1877, Aug, 15 ...
1878, Aug. 14 ...
1879, Aug. 20 ...
1880, Aug. 25 ...
1881, Aug. 31 ...
Plymouth
Prof. A. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S.
W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof.G. J. Allman, M.D., F.R.S.
A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S....
Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S.
Dr. C. W. Siemens, F.R.S
17
20
18
14
27
3 19
1 18
4 16
4 11
2 28
Dublin
Sheffield
Swansea
York
1882, Aug. 23 ...
Southampton
17
8 17
1883, Sept. 19...
Southport
Prof. A. Cayley, D.C.L., F.R.S.
20
3 60
1884, Aug. 27 ...
Montreal
Prof. Lord Rayleigh, F R.S. ...
23
5 20
1885, Sept. 9 ...
Aberdeen
SirLvonPlayfair,K.C.B.,F.R.S.
22
5 18
1886, Sept. 1 ...
1887, Aug. 31 ...
Birmingham
Sir J.W. Dawson, C.M.G.,F.R.S.
Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L.,F.R.S.
31
42
4 25
8 86
Manchester
1888, Sept. 5 ...
Bath
Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S
26
S 36
1889, Sept. 11 ...
Newcastle-on-Tyne
Prof. W.H. Flower, C.B., F.R.S.
27
7 20
1890, Sept. 3 ...
Leeds
Sir F. A.Abel. C.B., F.R.S. ...
25
9 21
* Ladies were not ixdmitted by purchased Tickets until 1843.
t Tickets of Admission to Sections only.
at Annual Meetings of the Association.
Atteudeil by
OW Annual New Annual
Members | Members
46
75
71
45
94
65
197
54
93
128
61
63
56
121
142
104
156
111
125
177
184
160
154
182
215
218
193
226
229
303
311
280
237
232
307
331
238
290
239
171
313
253
330
317
332
428
510
399
412
368
817
376
185
190
22
39
40
25
33
42
47
60
57
121
101
48
120
91
179
59
125
57
209
103
149
105
118
117
107
195
127
80
99
85
93
185
59
93
74
41
176
79
323
219
122
179
244
100
113
92
Asso-
ciates
Ladies
...
1100*
...
60*
33t
331*
.
160
9t
260
407
172
270
196
495
203
376
197
447
237
510
273
244
141
510
292
367
236
765
524
1094
543
412
346
900
569
710
509
1206
821
636
463
1589
791
433
242
1704
1004
1119
1058
766
508
960
771
1163
771
720
682
678
600
1103
910
976
754
937
912
796
601
817
630
884
672
1265
712
446
283
1285
674
529
349
389
147
1230
514
516
189
952
841
826
74 !
1053
447
1067
429
1985
493
639
509
1024
579
680
334 1
Foreigners
34
40
28
35
36
53
15
22
44
37
9
6
10
26
9
26
13
22
47
15
25
25
13
23
11
7
45t
17
14
21
43
11
12
17
25
11
17
13
12
24
21
5
26&60H.
6
11
92
35
12
21
Total
353
900
1298
1350
1840
2400
1438
1353
891
1315
1079
857
1320
819
1071
1241
710
1108
876
1802
2133
1115
2022
1698
2564
1689
3138
1161
3335
2802
1997
2303
2444
2004
1856
2878
2463
2533
1983
1951
2248
2774
1229
2578
1404
915
2557
1253
2714
1777
2203
2453
3838
1984
2437
1775
Amount
received
during tlie
Meeting
£707
963
1085
620
1085
903
1882
2311
1098
2015
1931
2782
1604
3944
1089
3640
2965
2227
2469
2613
2042
1931
3096
2575
2649
2120
1979
2.397
3023
1268
2615
1425
899
2689
1286
3369
1538
2256
2532
4336
2107
2441
1776
Sums paid
on
Accnunt c
if
Grants for S(
ien-
tific Purposes
1831
1832
1833
1834
£20
167
1835
435
1836
922 12
6
1837
932 2
2
1838
1595 11
1839
1546 16
4
1840
1235 10
11
1841
1449 17
8
1842
1565 10
2
1843
981 12
8
1844
831 9
9
1845
685 16
1846
208 5
4
1847
275 1
8
1848
159 19
6
1849
345 18
1850
391 9
7
1851
304 6
7
1852
205
1853
380 19
7
1854
480 16
4
1855
734 13
9
1856
507 15
4
1857
618 18
2
1858
684 11
1
1859
766 19
6
1860
1111 5
10
1861
1293 16
6
1862
1608 3
10
1863
1289 15
8
1864
1591 7
10
1865
1750 13
4
1866
1739 4
1867
1940
1868
1622
1869
1572
1870
1472 2
6
1871
1285
1872
1685
1873
1151 16
1874
960
1875
1092 4
2
1876
1128 9
7
1877
725 16
6
1878
1080 11
11
1879
731 7
7
1880
476 3
1
1881
1126 1
11
1882
1083 3
3
1883
1173 4
1884
1385
1885
995
6
1886
1186 18
1887
1511
5
1888
1417
11
1889
789 16
8
1890
I Including Ladies.
J Fellows of the American Association were admitted as Hon. Members for this Meeting.
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1890-91.
PRESIDENT.
SIR FREDERICK AUGUSTUS ABEL, K.C.B., D.C.L., D.Sc, F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
His Grace the Ditke op DEVONSHmE, E.G., M.A.,
LL.D., P.R.S., F.a.S., F.B.G.S.
The Most Hpn. the Marquis of Ripon, K.G.,
G.C.S.I., C.I.E., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S.
The Right Hon. the Eakl Fitzwilliam, K.G.,
F.R.G.S.
The Right Rev. the Lord BisHor of Ripon, D.D.
The Right Hon. Sir Lyon PLATFAiR,K.C.B.,Ph.D.,
LL.D., M.P., F.R.S., F.C.S.
The )Ught Hon. W. L. Jacksox,M.P.,F.R.S.,F.S.S.
The Riglit Worshipful the Mayor op Leeds.
Sir Ja.mf.s Kitson, Bart., M.Iiist.C.E., F.R.G.S.
Sir Andrew Fairbairn, M.A.
PRESIDENT ELECT.
WILLIAM HUGGINS, Esq., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
The Right Hon. Lord Windsor, Lord-Lieutenant
of Glamorgansliire.
The Most Hon. the Marquis of Bun;, K.T.
The Right Hon. Lord Raylhioh, M.A., D.C.L.,
LL.D., Sec. R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S.
The Right Hon. Lord Tredkuar.
The Right Hon. Lord Arerdare, G.O.B., F.R.S,,
F.R.G.S.
Sir J. T. D. Llf.wklyn. Bart., F.Z.S.
ARCHIBALD Gkikk, Esq., LL.D., For. Sec. R.S.,
F.R.S.E., Pres. G.S., Director-General of the
Geological Survey of the United Kingdom.
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT CARDIFF.
R. W. Atkin-son, Esq., F.C.S., B.Sc. | Professor H. W. Lloyd Tanner, M.A., F.R.A.S.
LOCAL TREASURERS FOR THE MEETING AT CARDIFF.
T. FORSTER Bro\yn, Esq., M.Iust.C.E. | Hicnry Heywood, Esq., P.C.S.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF
Atrton, Professor W. E., F.R.S.
Baker, Sir B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S.
Bl.\nford, W. T., Esq., F.R.S.
Crookes, W., Esq., F.R.S.
Darwin, Professor G. H., F.R.S.
Douglass, Sir J. N., F.R.S.
Evans, Dr. J., F.R.S.
Fitzgerald, Professor G. F., F.R.S.
Geikie, Dr. A., F.R.S.
Glazebrook, R. T., Esq.. F.R.S.
Judd, Professor J. W., F.R.S.
LIVEING, Professor G. D., F.R.S.
Martin, J. B., Esq., F.S.S.
THE COUNCIL.
Preece, W. H., Esq., F.R.S.
Rkinold, Professor A. W., F.R.S.
RoBERTS-AusTEN, Professor W. C, C.B., F.R.S.
Ri;cKER, Professor A. W., F.R.S.
SCHAPER, Professor E. A., F.R.S.
Schuster, Professor A., F.R.S.
Sidgwick, Professor H., M.A.
Thorpe, Professor T. E., F.R.S.
Ward, Professor H. Marshall, F.R.S.
Wharton, Captain W. J. L., R.N., F.R.S.
Whitaker, W., Esq., F.R.S.
Woodward, Dr. H., F.R.S.
GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Capt. Sir Douglas Galtox, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 12 Chester Street, London, S.W.
A. G. Vernon Harcouut, Esq., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Cowley Grange, Cxford.
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
G. Griffith, Esq., MjI., F.C.S., Harrow, Middlesex.
GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor A. W. Willi.wison, Pli.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., 17 Buckingham Street, London, W.C.
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, tlie President and President Elect, tlie PresMents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Llect. the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years ,
the deneral Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and Secretaries for
the ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).
The Right Hon. Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., P.R.S., F.L.S.
The Right Hon. Lord R.<vyleigh, M.A., D.C.L.. LL.D., Sec. R.S., F.R.A.S.
The Right Hon. Sir Lyon Pl.vyfair, K.C.B., M.P., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
The Duke of Devonshire, E.G.
Sir G. B. Airy, K.C.B., F.R.S.
The Duke of Argyll, E.G., K.T.
Sir Richard Owen, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Lord Armstrong, C.B., LL.D.
Sir William R. Grove, F.R.S.
Sir Joseph D. Hooker, K.C.S.I.
Sir G. G. Stokes, B.irt., F.R.S.
PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.
Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson, Pres.R.S.
Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Tyndall, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir John Hawkshaw, F.R.S.
Prof. AUman, M.D., F.R.S.
Sir A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S.
Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S.
Prof. Cayley, LL.D., F.R.S.
Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., Sec. R.S.
Sir Lyon Playfair, K.O.B.
Sir Wm. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S.
Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir F. J. Bramwell, Bart., F.R.S.
Prof. W. H. Flower, C.B., F.R.S.
F. Galton, Esq., F.R.S.
Dr.T. A. Hirst, F.R.S.
Dr. Michael Foster, Sec. R.S.
Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S.
GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.
GeorgeGrifflth,Esq.,M.A., F.C.S. [ Prof. Bounev, D.Sc, F.R.S.
P. L. Sclator, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S. I A. T. Atchison, Esq., M.A.
AUDITORS.
I W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, Esq., F.R.S.
Prof. H. M'Leod, F.R.S.
Ixxi
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.
Report of the Council for the year 1889-90, presented to the General
Committee at Leeds, on Wednesday, September 3, 1890.
The Council liave received reports during the past year from the
General Treasurer, and his account for the year will be laid before the
General Committee this day.
Since the Meeting at Newcastle-upon-Tyne the Council have elected
the following Foreign Men of Science Corresponding Members of the
Association : —
Gobert, M. A., Brussels. I Nansen, Dr. F., Christiania.
Gilson, Prof. G., Louvain. I Packard, Prof. A. S., Providence, K.I.
The Council have nominated the Right Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam,
the Right Hon. Sir Ijyon Playfair, the Right Hon. W. L. Jackson,
Vice-Presidents for the Meeting at Leeds.
The Council had also resolved to nominate the late Sir Edward Baines
to the same oflBce, and heard with regret of his death in the early part of
the present year.
An invitation for the year 1892 has been received from the city of
Edinburgh.
The Council much regret that the state of Mr. Atchison's health has
made it necessary for him to reside abroad since November. He has,
however, been able to correct the proofs and to edit the Report. The
General Officers have received assistance in carrying on the business of
the Association during the past year from Professor Bonney and Mr.
Griffith.
The Council appointed a Committee, consisting of the President and
General Officers, the President Elect, and the past Presidents and Gene-
ral Officers, to consider the steps to 'be taken in connection with the
appointment of Assistant General Secretary. Mr. Griffith having at the
request of this Committee expressed his willingness to resume the office,
it was proposed by the Committee that he should be iuvited to do so ;
the Council concur in the proposal of the Committee, and recommend
accordingly that Mr. Griffith be appointed Assistant General Secretary.^
Resolution refen-ed to the Council for consideration and action if
desirable : —
(A) ' That the two following papers be printed in e.vfenso in the Eeport of the
Association:— (1) Professor C.F. Bastable : "The Incidence and Effects of Import
and Export Duties." (2) Rev. Dr. Cunningham : " The Comtist Criticism of Econo-
mic Science." '
The Council resolved that these papers should be printed in extenso.
Ixxii REPORT — 1890.
(B) ' That the Council be recommended to urge upon the Government of India —
' (a) The desirability of procuring anthropometric measurements of a repre-
sentative series of tribes and castes in the Punjab, Bombay, Madras, the
Central Provinces, and Assam, it being understood that trained observers
are already available.
'(&) Also that in the Enumerators' Schedule of the Census of 1891 provision
should be made for recording not only the caste to which a man belongs,
but also the endogamous and exogamous groups within the caste of which
he is a member, it being believed that this was actually done in the last
Census of the Punjab, that it will not add to the cost of the census, and
that it will materially enhance its accuracy and scientific value.'
The Council having considered this question resolved to send the
following letter to the Secretary of State for India in Council : —
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
22 Albemarle Street, London, W.
February 1890.
To the Secretary of State for India wj Council.
My Lord, — The Council of the British Association beg leave to state for your
Lordship's information that, at the recent Meeting of the Association at Newcastle-
upon-Tyne, attention was drawn to the ethnographic and anthropometric researches
undertaken in Northern India during the last five years, under the orders of the
Government of Bengal. It is understood that an ethnographic survey, based upon
the statistics collected in the census of 1881, of the traditions, customs, religion, and
social relations of the various castes and tribes inhabiting the territories administered
by the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, has been conducted on the lines laid down in
1874 by a committee of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland.
At the same time anthropometric inquiries, on the system of measurement prescribed
by Dr. Paul Topinard, of the School of Anthropology at Paris, have been made into
the physical characteristics of nearly 6,000 persons, representing eighty-nine of the
chief castes and tribes of Bengal, the North- West Provinces, Oudh, and the Punjab.
The data collected in the course of these researches seem to the Council to possess
considerable scientific interest, and they venture to submit for your Lordship's con-
sideration their views as to tlie advantage of further inquiry of the same kind in
other parts of India, and on the question in what manner and to what extent the
Government of India can properly be asked to assist in furthering such researches.
2. Without some help from the Government it is clear that no private agency can
hope to attain any considerable measure of success. The field is too large, and the
variety of custom and language too great, for isolated unofficial workers to produce
much impression. Such inquiries, moreover, in order to yield really valuable results,
iQust apply to a series of castes and tribes numerous enough to allow of the compara-
tive and statistical methods of investigation being applied on a tolerably large scale.
It is_ only by following a peculiar custom through the various forms which it assumes
in different social aggregates that a trustworthy conclusion can be arrived at con-
cerning its probable origin. The complete executive organisation which the Govern-
ment of India has at its disposal is admirably adapted, in respect of knowledge of
the people, their languages, and their modes of thought, to observe and record facts
which may prove to be of the highest scientific value, while the experience gained in
Bengal seems to show that this can be done at comparatively trifling expense.
3. Among the various kinds of information collected in the course of the inquiries
set on foot by the Bengal Government, special interest attaches to two classes of
data : first, the physical measurements already referred to, and secondly, the lists of
the exogamous and endogamous subdivisions ' which are met with within the
different tribes and castes. Physical characters are held by the highest anthropo-
logical authorities to be the best, if not the only true, tests of race affinity ; while
the character of the internal structure of tribes and castes has an important bearing
' By the term ' exogamous subdivision ' is meant a group from within which its
male members cannot take their wives ; by that of ' endogamous subdivision,' a
group from outside of which its male members cannot take th'eir wives.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. Ixxiii
on those studies in the early history of the family and the growth of society which
are associated with the names of McLennan, Morgan, Maine, and Lubbock. Owing
to the influence of the caste system, which by restricting intermarriage tends to
preserve distinctions of type, India offers a peculiarlj' favourable field for anthropo-
metric research. The division of the people into a large number of separate social
aggi-egates, each maintaining its own peculiar customs, seems to lead to the trans-
mission of early usage in a comparatively unaltered form.
4. While fully recognising the value of the anthropometric inquiries already
undertaken, the Council observe that they cover only a portion of Northern India,
while provinces which promise to yield results of special interest remain at present
wholly untouched. In order to obtain data upon which final conclusions might be
based, it would be desirable to collect similar measurements for selected castes and
tribes in Madras, Bombay, the Central Provinces, and Assam, and at the same time
to undertake in the Punjab a larger series of observations than have hitherto been
made. The Council understand that the services of the trained measurers who took
the Bengal observations might, under similar conditions, be again available ; and
they are advised that the cost of employing them for the period necessary to com-
plete the work would not exceed 10,000 rupees. Mr. Risley, who conducted the
Bengal inquiries, is willing to direct and supervise the operations in India, and to
prepare the results for publication in any form that maj' be thought suitable. The
Council accordingly express a hope that your Lordship may be moved to commend
this proposal to the favourable consideration of the Government of India.
5. As regards the exogamous and endogamous subdivisions of tribes and castes,
the Council venture to suggest that the approaching census of India offers an admi-
rable opportunity for collecting lists of these without incurring unreasonable expen-
diture. It is understood that the enumerator's schedule will in any case contain a
column in which the caste of every individual is entered, and it would appear that
the addition of columns showing the exogamous and endogamous groups would not
add materially to the cost of the operations. The information thus obtained would
have great scientific value, while it would further tend to enhance the accuracy of
the census itself. The Council are informed that in the last census of Bengal a
large number of persons when asked for their caste-name gave instead the name of
the exogamous or endogamous group to which they belonged, and that in most cases
it was found impossible to assign these persons to any particular caste. By extend-
ing the range of inquiry in the manner suggested, this source of error would be
eliminated.
6. In conclusion, if it should not be considered advisable to make a complete
religious census, the Council would suggest that in the course of the house-census
which precedes the actual enumeration it should be ascertained by what sect each of
the existing temples is used. Statistics illustrating this point would throw much
light on the development of the various forms of Brahminism, and would be a valu-
able contribution to the history of religion in the East.
We have the honour to be,
Your Lordship's most obedient Servants,
W. H. Flower, President.
Douglas Galton, 1 „ , „ ^ .
A. Vernon Harcoukt, } ^''"''"'^ Secretarxez.
To tliis letter the following reply has been received : —
India Office, Whitehall, S.W,
March 31, 1890.
Sir, — I am directed by the Secretary of State for India in Council to acknowledge
the receipt of your letter of the 26th ultimo, in which, with reference to the valuable
ethnographical researches of Mr. H. H. Eisley in Bengal, it is suggested that similar
anthropometric data should be collected in other parts of India, and that advantage
should also be taken of the approaching census to ascertain the exogamous and
endogamous groups to which the members of the different tribes and castes of the
people of India belong.
In reply, I am to inform you that his Lordship in Council has been much inter-
ested in the proposals made by you on behalf of the British Association, which are
of great value as indicating the course ethnographical investigations should take in
India, and a copy of your letter has been forwarded to the Government of India.
Ixxiv REPORT — 1890.
I am to add that Viscount Cross has read with satisfaction the testimony your
letter bears to the scientific character and importance of Mr. Kisley's work in
Northern India.
I am, Sir, your obedient Servant,
A. GODLEY.
Professor W. H. Floweh, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., &c., &c.,
President, British Association for the Advancement of Science,
22 Albemarle Street, W.
India Office, Whitehall, S.W.
August 15, 1890.
Sir, — In continuation of my letter of March 31 last (R. & S. 264/90) I am directed
by the Secretary of State for India in Council to forward herewith a copy of a letter,
with its inclosure, from the Government of India on tlie subject of the proposals
made by you on behalf of the British Association, that the ethnographic and anthro-
pometric researches recently undertaken in Northern India should be extended to
other parts of India, and that advantage should be taken of the approaching census
of India for recording the exogamous and endogamous groups into which the
diiferent castes and tribes are divided.
I am, Sir, your obedient Servant,
A. GODLET.
Professor W. H. Flowee, C.B., D.C.L., F.E.S.,
President, British Association for the Advancement of Science,
22 Albemarle Street, W.
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA— HOME DEPARTMENT.
To the Right Honourable Viscount Cross, G.C.B.,
Her Majesty's tiecrclary of State for India.
Simla, July 15, 1890.
My Lord, — AVe have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your Lordship's
Despatch No. 31 (Statistics), dated April 3, 1890, forwarding a copy of a letter from
the President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, in which,
with reference to the ethnographic researches undertaken by Mr. H. H. Risley in
Bengal, it is suggested that similar anthropometric data should be collected in other
parts of India, and that advantage should be taken of the approaching census to-
ascertain the exogamous and endogamous groups to which the members of the
different tribes and castes of the population belong.
2. We need not assure your Lordship that any proposals upon these subjects to
which the British Association has lent the weight of its authority will receive our
very careful consideration. We observe that the Council considers that the data
collected by Mr. Risley possess considerable .scientitic interest, but we have our-
selves not yet been able to form an opinion as to the merits of his work, as we have
not yet received from him the volumes recording the results of his researches.
These we do not expect to receive till after Mr. Risley's return from furlough in
England at the end of November next. We shall then consider the question whether
his investigations can usefully be supplemented in other parts of India.
3. We are of opinion that it would be quite impracticable for the enumerators
who will be employed in filling in the census returns to undertake the task of
collecting data as to endogamy and exogamy. The work involved in the prepara-
tion of the schedule which we have sanctioned will sufficiently tax the energy and
intelligence of the enumerators, who, it must be remembered, will for the most part
be men of little education, and any addition to it would greatly increase the risk of
inaccuracy in the statistics generally. We think, however, that it will be possible,
after the different castes and subdivisions of castes have been fully enumerated, to-
ascertain by local inquiry their relations as regards endogamy and exogamy. Such
an inquiry can be undertaken at leisure, either when the census results are being
compiled for each Province, or later, when the Local Govermnent or Administration
is able to provide some specially qualified agency for the purpose.
Your Lordship will observe from the form of "schedule prescribed for the enume-
rators at the census that we have already determined to make a complete religious
census as far as possible, but we do not think that the results of ascertaining, as pro-
I
EEPOET OF THK COUNCIL. IxxV
posed by the British Association, what sect uses each of the existing temples would
be of much scientific value, as vast numbers of Hindoos are eclectic and worship in
numerous temples of difiFerent gods indifiEerently.
We have the honour to be, my Lord,
Your Lordship's most obedient, humble Servants,
Lansdowne. a. R. Scoble.
F. S. Roberts. C. A. Elliott.
G. Chesxey. p. p. Hutchins.
D. Barbour.
The Schedule Contains Appendix A.
A. Standard Schedule. B. Standard Enumerator's Abstract.
C. Standard Block List. D. Instructions to Enumerators.
(C) ' That the Council of the Association be requested to consider the foUowing-
' Resolutions of the Committee of Section H, and, if approved, to bring them under
the notice of H.M. Civil Service Commissioners and of the chief authorities of the
Army, Navy, and Indian Civil Service Department : —
« (a) That the Committee concur in the opinion of H.M. Civil Service Com-
missioners (Report xxxiii. p. 15) that there is no especial difficulty in
assigning marks for physical qualifications with adequate precision.
' (b) They urge that it is reasonable to include marks for physical qualifica-
tions among those by which the-place of a candidate is determined in
competitive examinations for posts where high physical efiBciency is
advantageous.'
The Council considered this question and resolved to address the
following letter to the Civil Service Commissioners, the Secretaries of
State for India and for War, and the Lords of the Admiralty : —
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OP SCIENCE.
22 Albemarle Street, London, W.
March 1890.
The Council of the British Association for the Advancement of Science desire to
submit the opinion expressed by the Anthropological Section of the Association last
year, and subsequently confirmed by a Committee appointed by the Council, of the
feasibility of assigning trustworthy marks for physical qualifications, and briefly to-
state some of the reasons foi' that opinion.
They feel it to be unnecessary to dwell on the desirability of including such
marks in the examinations for entrance into services where high physical powers-
are important, but would merely allude to the fact that it was fully recognised by
the War Office in 1878, at which, time a Joint Committee of the War Office and of
the Civil Service Commissioners was appointed to inquire into the question ' whether
the present literary- examinations for the army should be supplemented by physical
competition.' Also that it was agreed to almost unanimously bj- the various
speakers in the House of Lords in connection with that report, on May 31 and June
7, 1878, and on February 28, 1879. (See ' Hansard ' for those dates, pp. 352, 1328,
1941.) The report was presented June 28, 1878.
The recommendations of the Joint Committee referred almost wholly to marks
to be assigned fur athletic performance. Objections to this method of examination
were, however, pointed out by some of the witnesses ; they were appreciated by the
responsible authorities, and were strongly insisted upon by them in the concluding
debate. These objections applied principally to the costliness of the necessary pre-
paration, to the difficulty of conducting the tests, to the additional strain they would
impose on the already severely taxed energies of the candidates, and to the inter-
ference of physical training with due preparation for the literary examinations.
The consequence was that the recommendations of the Committee were not adopted
bj- the responsible authorities, and the subject was laid aside.
The Council of the British Association now desire to point out that, in the opinion
of anthropologists, athletic performance is b)' no means the only basis upon which
trustworthy marks for physical qualifications may be assigned.
This opinion is confirmed by some experiments made at Eton College, of which
IxXVi REPORT 1890.
an account was submitted to the British Association. Thirty-two youths, most of
whom were candidates for the army, were inspected and marked by two medical
men, sitting in separate rooms. The medical men had previously received the same
general instructions, but otherwise acted independently. The marks they severally
assigned to the youths were afterwards found to agree with considerable precision.
Then, nineteen of these youths were set to write an English essay, and their per-
formances in that respect were submitted to two examiners in turn, to be marked
independently by them. The marks given by these examiners agreed together only
one-half as closely as those given by the medical men. No one disputes the sub-
stantial trustworthiness of such literary examinations as these, however much they
may be thought capable of improvement. But this experiment (so far as it goes)
proves that the trustworthiness of physical examinations would be still greater.
The difficulty of formulating a system for the use of inspectors, according to
which marks should be assigned on a common and easily understood principle, is
greatly lessened by the use of anthropometric tests. Much experience testifies to
the quickness and adequate precision with which the chief elements of physical
efficiency admit of being measured. These are the breathing capacity and the
strength, both of them to be regarded with reference to the stature and to the
weight ; the rapidity of muscular action ; the quickness of response to a signal made
either to the eye or to the ear ; the keenness of eyesight, and that of hearing, and
whether the colour-sense is normal or not.
An experiment made at Marlborough College, which has just been published,
shows how small may be the differences between the class-places determined by
these measures and those determined partly, in some cases, by the phj-sical aspect,
but principally by proficiency in the various school games, or, in other words, by
athletic competition. Seventeen youths were measured by such apparatus as was
then available at the College, and copies of their measures were distributed among
the masters, to be marked by them on whatever principle they severally thought
best. The individual results proved to be very discordant, but their averages, which
express the result of the aggregate common sense of all the masters, ranked the boys
in closely the same order as that independently assigned to them according to their
proficiency in the various school games and to their apparent phj^sique. It will be
observed that if the masters had previously conferred and come to a mutual under-
standing on the principle according to which the marks should be assigned, they
must necessarily have arrived at identical results, as they had definite and identical
data to work upon. There happened to be one case of failure, which was instructive.
This was due to the absence of any test at the College for rapidity of muscular
action, or of promptness of response to a signal. The consequence was that an agile
youth was rated too low.
The Council would point out that the experience gained by the measurement of
about 2,000 students at Cambridge conclusively proves that success in literary
examinations is in no manner connected with stature, weight, strength, or breathing
capacity, and but slightly with keenness of eyesight. Such differences as there
appear to be in these respects between the men who obtain high honours and those
who take an ordinary degree are small, and can be accounted for. Successful
literary men have probably great nervous energy, perseverance, and great power of
concentrating their efforts, which would cause them to utilise such physical powers
iis they possessed with much effect, but they are shown to be neither superior nor
inferior in the above-mentioned particulars to those who fail.
The Council of the British Association have noted with pleasure the opinion
expressed by the Civil Service Commissioners in their Eeport of 1889 (xxxiii. p. 15),
to the effect that they anticipate no greater difficulty in ranking candidates accord-
ing to their physical than according to their literary qualifications. The Council there-
upon beg to express the views at which they themselves have arrived as follow : —
It seems to them that the paucity of available data makes it scarcely possible at '
the present moment to elaborate as complete a system of assigning marks for physi-
cal qualifications as is desirable, and as, in their opinion, would be otherwise feasible.
They therefore think it very important that suitable steps should be taken to obtain
these data. For instance, if a temporary system of marks were tried, with the
avowed determination of reconsidering the subject after some experience had been
gained, the desired information would rapidly accumulate in the hands of the
inspectors; the attention of schoolmasters would be strongly aroused, and it is
probable that they would attempt a variety of experiments analogous to those
KEPORT OF THE COUNCIL. Ixxvii
alliuled to at Eton and Marlborough, but on a much larger scale. In a very few
years it might then become feasible to arrange a system that should be generally
acceptable.
In furtherance of these views the Council of the British Association beg to submit
the following recommendations : —
(1) That an inquiry should be held as to the best system of assigning marks for
physical qualifications, on the double basis of inspection and anthropometry, with a
view to its early establishment as a temporary and tentative system.
(2) That the marks to be given under this temporary system should be small, so
as to affect the success of those candidates only who would be ranked by the present
examinations very near to the dividing line between success and failure, and whose
intellectual performances would consequently be nearly on a par, though they would
differ widely in their physical qualifications.
(3) That determination should be expressed to reconsider the entire question
after the experience of a few years.
The following replies have been received : —
^ Civil Service Commission, Westminster.
March 28, 1890.
Sir, — I am directed by the Civil Service Commissioners to acknowledge the receipt
of your letter of the 25th instant transmitting a statement in regard to the feasi-
bility of assigning marks for physical qualifications in the examinations for entrance
into service where physical powers are important ; and, in reply, I am to request that
you will be good enough to convey to the Council of the British Association the
thanks of the Commissioners for the communication, and to state that the Commis-
sioners have the matter under consideration.
I have the honour to be. Sir, your obedient Servant,
The Pbesident, E. Humphreys.
British Association for the Advancement of Science.
India Office, Whitehall, S.W.
April 19, 1890.
Sir, — I am directed by the Secretary of State for India in Council to acknow-
ledge the receipt of the letter signed by you and by the General Secretaries of the
British Assoc ation for the Advancement of Science, dated the 25th ultimo, enclosing
a statement in regard to the feasibility of assigning marks for physical qualifica-
tions in the examinations for entrance into services where physical powers are
important.
In reply I am desired to state that Viscount Cross is already in communication
with the Civil Service Commissioners with reference to the question of making
physical qualifications an element in the competitions for the Civil Service of India.
I am. Sir, your obedient Servant,
John E. Goest.
Professor W. H. Flower, C.B.,
President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
22 Albemarle Street, W.
War Office, April 24. 1890.
Sir,— I am directed by the Secretary of State for War to acknowledge the receipt
of your letter of the 25th ultimo enclosing a statement in regard to the feasibility
of assigning marks for physical qualifications in the examinations for entrance into
services where physical powers are important.
The subject has received the consideration of His Royal Highness the Commander-
in-Chief, and of the Secretary of State for War, who concur in the opinion that, with
regard to the army, it is not desirable to depart from the existing system, which
exacts from all candidates a certain standard of general health and physical fitness,
leaving the competitive result to be determined by educational tests.
I have the honour to be. Sir, your obedient Servant,
The President, Ralph Thompson.
British Association for the Advancement of Science.
The Council have been informed that a proposal to reappoint the
Committee on a Uniform Nomenclature for the Fundamental Units of
Ixxviii REPORT — 1890.
Mechanics -was intended to have been brouglit before the General Com-
mittee at Newcastle, and have resolved to recommend tbat the Report
-which has been drawn np by the members of the proposed Committee be
received and published among the Reports.'
The report of the Corresponding Societies Committee has been re-
ceived, and is now presented to the General Committee.
The Cori'esponding Societies Committee, consisting of Mr. Francis
Oalton, Professor R. Meldola (Secretary), Professor A. W. William-
son, Sir Douglas Gallon, Professor Boyd Dawkins, Sir Rawson
Rawson, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr. J. Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Mr. W.
Whitaker, Mr. G. J. Symons, General Pitt-Rivers, Mr. W. Topley, and
Professor T. G. Bonney, is hereby nominated for reappointment by the
■General Committee.
The Council nominate Mr. G. J. Symons, F.R.S., Chairman, Professor
T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., Vice- Chairman, and Professor R. Meldola, F.R.S.,
Secretai'y to the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies to
be held during the meeting at Leeds.
At the request of the Council of the Australasian Association for the
Advancement of Science papers relating to the meeting of this Associa-
tion, which is appointed to take place at Christchnrch, New Zealand,
commencing on January 15, 1891, have been placed in the Reception
Room. Members of the British Association are invited to attend the
meeting at Christchnrch, and the facilities offered by Shi])ping Com-
panies and by the Railway Commissioners in New Zealand are described
in detail in the papers.
The lease of the office of the Association, 22 Albemarle Street,
London, W., will expire next year, and the Council, havinsr ascertained
that certain rooms in Burlington House were unoccupied, made an
application to the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury for
the use of these rooms. The Council are glad to report tlni t ( lie request
has been granted under favourable conditions. The Council luHeve that
a sum not exceeding 150Z. will suffice for fitting and furnishing i he rooms.
In accordance with the regulations the five retiring Members of the
Council will be : —
Prof. H. M'Leod.
Admiral Sir E. Onii'iinney.
Sir K. S. Ball.
Dr. A. Gamgee.
Prof. Kay Lankester.
The Council recommend the re-election of the other ordinary Members
of Council, with the addition of the gentlemen whose names are distin-
guished by an asterisk in the following list : —
Ayrtou, Prof. W. E., F.E.S.
Baker, Sir B.,K.C.M.G., F.R.S.
Blanford, W. T., Esq., F.E.S.
Crookes, W., Esq., F.R.S.
Darwin, Prof. G. H., F.R.S.
Douglass, Sir J. N., F.R.S.
Evans, Dr. J., F.R.S.
Fitzgerald, Prof. G. F., F.R.S.
Geikie, Dr. A., F.R.S.
»Glazebrook, R. T., Esq., F.R.S.
Judd, Prof. J. W., F.R.S.
Liveing, Prof. G.D., F.R.S.
Martin'^ J. B., Esq., F.S.S.
Preece, W. H., Esq.. F.R.S.
*Reinold, Prof. A. W., F.li.S.
Roberts- Austen, Prof. W. C, C.B., F.R.S.
Riicker, Prof. A. W., F.R.S.
Schiifer, Prof. E. A., F.K.8.
Schuster, Prof. A., F.R.S.
Sidgwick, Prof. H., M.A.
Thorpe, Prof. T. E., F.R.S.
*Ward, Prof. Marshall, F.R.S.
♦Wharton, Gapt. W. J. L., R.X., F.R.S.
♦Whitaker, W., Esq., F.R.S.
Woodward, Dr. H., F.R.S.
The Committee was finally unable to agree to a Repori.
Ixxix
I
Committees appointed by the Geneeal Committee at the
Leeds Meeting. in September 1890.
1. Receiving Grants of Money.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
The Yolcaxiic and Seismological
Phenomena of Japan.
Making Experiments for improv-
ing the Construction of Practical
Standards for use in Electrical
Measurements.
Cooperating with the Scottish Me-
teorological Society in making
Meteorological Observations on
Ben Nevis.
Considering the subject of Elec-
trolysis in its Physical and
Chemical Bearings.
Members of the Committee
Chairman. — Sir W. Thomson.
Secretary. — Professor J. Milne.
Professor W. G. Adams, Mr. J. T.
Bottomley, and Professor A. H.
Green.
Chairman. — Professor Carey Foster.
Secretary. — Mr. R. T. Glazebrook.
Sir William Thomson, Professors
Ayrton, J. Perry, W. G. Adams,
and Lord Eayleigh, Drs. O. J.
Lodge, John Hopkinson, and A.
Muii-head, Messrs. W. H. Preece
and Herbert Taylor, Professors
Everett and Schuster, Dr. J. A.
Fleming, Professors G. F. Fitz-
gerald and Chrystal, Mr. H. Tom-
linson. Professors W. Garnett and
J. J. Thomson, Messrs. W. N.
Shaw, J. T. Bottomley, and T. C.
Fitzpatrick, and Professor J.
Viriamu Jones.
Chairman. — Lord McLaren.
Secretary. — Professor Crnm Brown.
Messrs. Milne-Home, John Murray,
and Buchan, and Hon. K. Aber-
cromby.
CJiaimian. — Professor Fitzgerald .
Secretaries. — Professors Armstrong
and 0. J. Lodge.
Professors Sir William Thomson,
Lord Ra3'leigh, J. J. Thomson,
Schuster, Poynting, Crum Brown,
Eamsay, Frankland, Tilden, Hart-
ley, S. P. Thompson, M'Leod,
Koberts- Austen, Riicker, Reinold,
Carey Foster, and H. B. Dixon,
Captain Abney, Drs. Gladstone,
Hopkinson, and Fleming, and
Messrs. Crookes, Shelford Bidwell,
W. N. Shaw, J. Larmor, J. T.
Bottomley, R. T. Glazebrook, J,
Brown, E. J. Love, and John M.
Thomson.
100
50
Ixxx
KEPOET 1890.
1. Receiving Grants of Money — continued.
Subject for lnvestif,'ation or Purpose
The Application of Photography
to the Ehicidation of Meteoro-
logical Phenomena.
To investigate the Phenomena ac-
companying the Discharge of
Electricity from Points.
To cooperate with Dr.Piazzi Smyth
in his Researches on the Ultra
Violet Rays of the Solar Spec-
trum.
Seasonal Yariations in the Tempe-
ratures of Lakes, Rivers, and
Estuaries in various parts of the
United Kingdom in cooperation
with the Local Societies repre-
sented on the Association.
To consider the best Method of
establishing an International
Standard for the Analysis of
Iron and Steel.
Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives
The Investigation of the direct
Formation of Haloid Salts from
pure Materials.
The Action of Light upon dyed
Colours.
Recording the Position, Height
above the Sea, Lithological Cha-
racters, Size, and Origin of
the Erratic Blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, reporting
other matters of interest con-
nected with the same, and tak-
ing measures for their preserva-
tion.
Members of the Committee
Clmirnian. — Mr. G. J. Symons.
liecreiary. — Mr. Clayden.
Professor Meldola and Mr. John Hop-
kinson.
Chairman. — Professor O. J. Lodge.
Secretary. — Mr. A. P. Chattock.
Professor Carey Foster.
Chaivman. — Professor Liveing.
Secretary. — Dr. Piazzi Smyth.
Professors Dewar and Schuster.
Chairman.— Mr. John Murray.
Secretary. —Dr. H. R. Mill.
Professor Chrystal, Dr. A. Buchan,
the Rev. C. J. Steward, the Hon.
R. Abercromby, Mr. J. Y. Bu-
chanan, Mr. David Cunningham,
Mr. Isaac Roberts, Professor Fitz-
gerald, Dr. Sorby, and Mr. Willis
Bund.
Chairman. — Professor Roberts-Aus-
ten.
Secretary. — Mr. Thomas Turner.
Sir F. Abel, Messrs. E. Riley and
J. Spiller, Professor Langley, Mr.
G. J. Snelus, and Professor Tilden.
Chairman. — Professor W. A. Tilden.
Secretary. — Professor H. E. Arm-
strong.
Chairman. — Professor H. E. Arm-
strong.
Secretarij. — Mr. W. A. Shenstone.
Professor W. R. Dunstan and Mr.
C. H. Bothamley.
Chairman. — Professor Thorpe.
Secretary.— Vroiessor J. J. Hummel.
Dr. Perkin, Professor Russell, Captain
Abney, and Professor Stroud.
Chairman. — Professor J. Prestwich.
Secretary. — Dr. H. W. CrosskeJ^
Professors W.Boyd Dawkins,T. McK.
Hughes, and T. G. Bonney and
Messrs. C. E. De Ranee, W. Pen-
gelly, J. Plant, and R. H. Tidde-
man.
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENEEAL COMMITTEE.
1. Receiving Grants of Money — continued.
Ixxxi
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
The Descrii)tion and Illustration
of the Fossil Phyllopoda of the
Palaeozoic Rocks.
Carrying on the
Kecord.'
' Geological
The Collection, Preservation, and
Systematic Registration of
Photographs of Geological in-
terest.
To work the very fossiliferous
Transition Bed between the
Middle and UpperLias in North-
amptonshire, in order to obtain
a full series of Upper Liassic
Gasteropods and fix the hori-
zon of a tine collection of Liassic
Fish.
To consider the best Methods for
the Registration of all Type
Specimens of Fossils in the
British Isles, and to report on
the same.
The Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
vius and its neighbourhood.
The Circulation of the Under-
ground Waters in the Permeable
Formations of England, and
the Qualit}' and Quantity of
the Waters supplied to various
Towns and Districts from these
Formations.
To complete the Investigation of
the Cave at Elbolton, near Skip-
ton, in order to ascertain whether
the remains of Palaeolithic Man
occur in the Lower Cave Earth.
1890.
Members of the Committee
Cliairman. — Mr. R. Etheridge.
Secretary, — Professor T. R. Jones.
Dr. H. Woodward.
Cliairman. — Mr. W. Whitaker.
Secretaries. — Messrs. W. Topley and
C. Davies Sherborne.
Dr. G. J. Hinde, Messrs. E. T. New-
ton, R. B. Newton, F. W. Rudler,
and J. J. H. Teall, and Professor
Green.
Cliairman. — Professor J. Geikie.
Secretary.— '^iT. 0. W. Jeflfs.
Professors Bonnej^, Boyd Dawkins,
and V. Ball, Dr. T. Anderson, and
Messrs. A. S. Reid, W. Gray, H. B.
Woodward, J. E. Bedford, R. Kid-
ston, VV. W. Watts, J. W. Davis,
and R. H. Tiddeman.
Chairman. — Dr. H. Woodward.
Secretary. — Mr. Beeby Thompson.
Messrs. W. D. Crick, T. G. George,
W. Hull, E. A. Walford, E. Wil-
son, and H. B. Woodward.
Chairman. — Dr. H. Woodward.
Secretary. — Mr. A. Smith Woodward.
Messrs. R. Etheridge, the Rev. G. F.
Whidborne, R. Kidston, J. E. Marr,
and C. Davies Sherborne.
Chairman. — Mr. H. Bauerman.
Secretary. — Dr. H. J. Johnston- Lavis.
Messrs. F. W. Rudler and J. J. H.
Teall.
Cliairman. — Professor E. Hull.
Secretary. — Mr. C. E. De Ranee.
Dr. H. W. Crosskey, Sir D. Galton,
Professors G. A. Lebour and J.
Prestwich, and Messrs. J. Glai-
sher, E. B. Marten, G. H. Morton,
J. Parker, W. Pengelly, J. Plant,
I. Roberts, C. Fox - Strangways,
T. S. Stooke, G. J. Symons,
W. Topley, Tylden- Wright, E.
Wethered, and W. Whitaker.
Chairman. — Mr. J. W. Davis.
Secretary. — Rev. E. Jones.
Drs. J. Evans and J. G. Garson and
Messrs. W. Pengelly, R. H, Tidde-
man, and J. J. Wilkinson.
100
10
25
10
10
25
Ixxxii
REPORT — 1890.
1. Receiving Grants of Money — continued.
Subject of Investigation or Purpose
To arrange for the Occupation of
a Table at the Laboratory of the
Marine Biological Association
at Plymouth.
For taking steps to establish a
Botanical Station at Peradeniya,
Ceylon.
For improving and experimenting
with a Deep-sea Tow-net for
opening and closing under water.
Disappearance of Native Plants
from their Local Habitats.
To report on the present state of
our Knowledge of the Zoology
of the Sandwich Islands, and to
take steps to investigate ascer-
tained deficiencies in the Fauna.
To report on the present state of
our Knowledge of the Zoology
and Botany of the West India
Islands, and to take steps to in-
vestigate ascertained deficien-
cies in the Fauna and Flora.
The Geography and the Habits,
Customs, and Physical Charac-
ters of the Nomad Tribes of Asia
Minor and Northern Persia, and
to excnvate on sites of Ancient
Occupation.
The Action of Waves and Currents
on the Beds and Foreshores of
Estuaries by means of Working
Models.
Editing a new Edition of ' Anthro-
pological Notes and Queries.'
Members of the Committee
Chairman. — Professor Flower.
Secretary. — Mr. S. F. Harmer.
Professors M. Foster, E. Ray Lan-
kester, and S. H. Vines.
Chairman. — Professor M. Foster.
Sceretary. — Professor F. 0. Bower.
Professor Bayley Balfour, Mr. Thisel-
ton-Dyer, Dr. Trimen, Professor
Marshall Ward, Mr. Carruthers,
Professor Hartog, and jMr. W.
Gardiner.
Cliuirm/in. — Professor A. C. Haddon.
Secretary. — Mr. W. E. Hoyle.
Professor W. A. Herdman.
CJuiirman. — Mr. A. W. Wills.
Secretary. — Professor W. Hillhouse.
Messrs. E. W. Badger and George
Claridge Druce.
Chairman. — Professor Flower.
Secretary. — Dr. David Sharp.
Dr. Blanford, Dr. Hickson, Pro-
fessor Newton, Mr. Salvin, and
Dr. Sclater.
ChairmMi. — Professor Flower.
Secretary. — Mr. D. Morris.
Mr. Carruthers, Drs. Giinther and
Sclater, Mr. Thiselton- Dyer, Dr
Sharp, Mr. F. Du Cane Godman,
Professor Newton, and Colonel
Feilden.
Chairman. — Dr. Garson.
Secretary. — Mr. Bent.
Messrs. H. W. Bates, Bloxam, and
J. Stuart Glennie, Sir Frederic
Goldsmid, and Messrs. Pengelly
and Rudler.
Chairman. — Sir J. N. Douglass.
Secretary. — Professor Osborne Rey-
nolds.
Professor tinwin and Messrs. W.
Topley, E. Leader Williams,
W. Shelford, G F. D.-acon, A. E.
Hunt, W. H. Wheeler, \\ . Ander-
son, and H. Bamford.
Chairman. — Professor Flower.
Secretary. — Dr Garson.
Dr. Bedcioe, General Pitt- Rivers, Mr.
Francis Galton,and Dr. E. B. Tylor.
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Ixxxiii
1. Receiring Grants of Money — continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
For caxiying on the Work of the
Anthropometric Laboratory.
The Physical Characters, Lan-
guages, and Industrial and So-
cial Condition of the North-
western Tribes of the Dominion
of Canada.
The Habits, Customs, Physical
Characteristics, and Religions
of the Natives of India.
Con-esponding Societies Com-
mittee.
Members of the Committee
Chairman. — Professor Flower.
Secretary. — Dr. Garson.
Mr. Bloxam and Dr. Wilberforce
Smith.
Chairman. — Dr. E. B. Tylor.
Secretary. — Mr. Bloxam.
Sir Daniel Wilson, Dr. G. M. Daw-
son, and Mr. K. G. Haliburton.
Chairman. — Sir William Turner.
Secretary. — Mr. Bloxam. ,
Professor Flower, Drs. Garson and |
E. B. Tylor, and Mr. H. H. Risley. I
Chairman. — Mr. Francis Galton.
Secretary. — Professor R. Meldola.
Professor A. W. Williamson, Sir
Douglas Galton, Profes.sor Boyd
Dawkins, Sir Rawson Rawson, Dr.
J. G. Garson, Dr. John Evans, Mr.
J. Hopkinson, Mr. W. Whitaker,
Mr. G. J. Symons, General Pitt-
Rivers, Mr. W. Topley, and Pro-
fessor Bonney.
Grants
£
10
200
10
25
2. Not receiving Grants of Money.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
The Collection and Identification of
Meteoric Dust.
The Rate of Increase of Underground
Temperature downwards in various
Localities of dry Land and under
Water.
Members of the Committee
CJuiirman. — Mr. John Murra}\
Secretary. — Mr. John Jlurray.
Professor Schuster, Sir William Thom-
•son, tlie Abbe Renard, Mr. A. Buchan,
the Hon. R. Abercromby, and Dr. M.
Grabham.
Chairiiitin . — Professor Everett.
Secretary. — Professor Everett.
Professor Sir William Thomson, Mr. G.
J. Symons, Sir A. C. Ramsay, Dr. A.
Geikie, Mr. J. Glaisher, Mr. Pengelly,
Professor Edward Hull, Professor
Prestwich, Dr. C. Le Neve Foster, Pro-
fessor A. S. Herschol, Professor G. A.
Lebour, Mr. A. B. Wynne, Mr. Gallo-
way, Mr. Joseph Dickinson, Mr. G. F.
Deacon, Mr. B. Wethered, Jlr. A. Stra-
han, and Professor Michie Smith.
e2
Ixxxiv
KEPOET 1890.
2. Not receiving Grants of Money — continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Comparing: and Keducing Magnetic Ob-
servations.
Considering tlie best Methods of Ke-
cording the Direct Intensity of Solar
Kadiation.
To cooperate with Dr. Kerr in his
researches on Electro-optics.
For Calculating Tables of certain Ma-
thematical Functions, and, if neces-
sary, for taking steps to carry out the
Calculations, and to publish the re-
sults in an accessible form.
Carrying on the Tables connected with
the Pellian Equation from the point
where the work was left by Degen
in 1817.
The various Phenomena connected with
the recalescent Points in Iron and
other Metals.
Reporting on the Bibliography of Solu-
tion.
To report on recent Inquiries into the
History of Chemistry.
The Continuation of the Bibliography
of Spectroscopy.
Preparing a new Series of Wave-length
Tables of the Spectra of the Elements.
Members of the Committee
Chairvian. — Professor TV. G. Adams.
Secretary. — Professor W. G. Adams.
Sir W. Thomson, Professors G. H. Dar-
win and G. Chrystal, Mr. C. H. Car^D-
mael. Professor Schuster, Mr. G. M.
Whipple, Captain Creak, tlic Astro-
nomer Koyal, Mr. William Ellis, Mr.
W. Lant Carpenter, and Professor
A. W. Rucker.
Chairman. — Sir G. G. Stokes.
Secretary. — Mr. G. J. Symons.
Professor Schuster, Mr. G. Johnstone
Stonej', Sir H. E. Roscoe, Captain
Abney, Mr. Whipple, and Professor
M'Leod.
Chairman. — Dr. John Kerr.
Secretary. — Mr. E. T. Glazebrook.
Sir W. Thomson and Professor Riicker.
Chairman. — Lord Rayleigh.
Secretary. — Professor A. Lodge.
Sir William Thomson, Professor Cayley,
Professor B. Price, and Messrs. J. W. L.
Glaisher, A. G. Greenhill, and AV. M.
Hicks.
Chairman. — Professor Cayley.
Secretary. — Professor A. Lodge.
Professor Sylvester and Mr. A. R. Forsji;h.
Chairman. — Professor Fitzgerald.
Secretary. — Professor Barrett.
Dr. John Hopkinson, Mr. R. A. Hadfield,
Mr. Trouton, Professor Roberts-Austen,
and Mr. H. F. Newall.
Chairman. — Professor W. A. Tilden.
Secretary. — Dr. W. W. J. Kicol.
Professors M'Leod, Pickering, Ramsay,
and Young and Dr. A. R. Leeds.
Chairman. — Professor H. E. Armstrong.
Secretary. — I'rofessor John Ferguson.
Chairman.— Troiessov H. M'Leod.
Secretary. — Professor Roberts- Austen.
Professor Reinold and Mr. H. G. Madan.
Chairman. — Sir H. E. Roscoe.
Secretary. — Dr. Jlarshall Watts.
Mr. Lockyer, Professors Dewar, Liveing,
Schuster, W. N. Hartley, and Wolcott
Gibbs, and Captain Abney.
COMMITTEES aTpPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.
2. Not receiving Grants of Money — continued.
Ixxxv
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
The Properties of Solutions
The Influence of the Silent Discharge
of Electricity on Oxygen and other
Gases.
The Action of Light on the Hydracids
of the Halogens in presence of
Oxygen.
Absorption Spectra of Pure Compounds.
The Rate of Erosion of the Sea-coasts of
England and Wales, and the Influence
of the Artificial Abstraction of
Shingle or other material in that
action.
To carry on Excavations at Oldburj'
Hill, near Ightham, in order to ascer-
tain the existence or otherwise of
Rock Shelters at that spot.
Considering the advisability and possi-
bility of establishing in other parts
of the country Observations upon the
Prevalence of Earth Tremors similar
to those now being made in Durham
in connection with coal-mine explo-
sions.
To undertake the Investigation of the
Sources of the River Aire, and also to
test the value of Uranin and other
Dyes in investigating the Courses of
Underground Streams.
The Invertebrate Fauna and Cryptoga-
mic Flora of the Fresh Waters of the
British Isles.
Members of the Committee
Chairman. — Professor W. A. Tilden.
Secretary.— Dr. W. W. J. Nicol.
Professor Ramsay.
Chairman. — Professor H. M'Leod.
Secretary. — Mr. W. A. Shenstone.
Professor Ramsay and Mr. J. T. Cundall.
Chairman. — Dr. Russell.
Secretary. — Dr. A. Richardson.
Captain Abney and Professors Noel
Hartley and W. Ramsay.
Chairman. — General Festing.
Secretary. — Dr. H. E. Armstrong.
Captain Abney.
Chairman. — Mr. R. B. Grantham.
Secretaries. — Messrs. C. E. De Ranee and
W. Topley.
Messrs. J. B. Redman, W. Wliitaker, and
J.W.Woodall, Maj.-Gen. Sir A. Clarke,
Admiral Sir E. Ommanney, Sir J.N.
Douglass, Capt. Sir G. Nares, Capt.
.T. Parsons, Capt. W. J. L. Wharton,
Professor J. Prestwich, and Messrs. E.
Easton, J. S. Valentine, and L. F.
Vernon Harcourt.
Chairmaii. — Dr. J. Evans.
Secretary. — Mr. B. Harrison.
Professors Prestwich and H. G. Seeley.
Chairman. — Mr. G. J. S3'mons.
Secretary. — Mr. C. Davison.
Sir F. J. Bramwell, Mr. E. A. Cowper,
Professor G. H. Darwin, Professor
Ewing, Mr. Isaac Roberts, Mr. Thomas
Gray, Dr. John Evans, Professors Prest-
wich, Hull, Lebour, Meldola, and Judd,
Mr. M. Walton Brown, and Mr. J.
Glaisher.
Chairman. — Professor R. Jleldola.
Secretary. — Professor Silvanus P. Thomp-
son.
Mr. J. Birbeck, Mr. Walter Morrison,
M.P., Rev. Dr. Styles, and Mr. Thomas
Tate.
Chairman. — Professor Bayley Balfour.
Secretary. — Professor J. C. Ewart.
Canon A. M. Norman, Professors J.
Geikie, A. C. Haddon, T. Johnston,
W. J. Sollas, and Lapwortb, Dr. H.
Scott, and Mr. F. E. Beddard.
Ixxxvi
KEPOKT — 1 890. *
2. Kot receiving Grants of Money — continued.
Subject for InTestigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
To make a Digest of the Observations on
the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses
and Light-vessels, which have been
carried on by the Migration Commit-
tee of the British Association.
The Teaching of Science in Elementary
Schools.
Ascertaining and recording the Localities
in the British Islands in which evi-
dences of the existence of Prehistoric
Inhabitants of the country are found.
Cluiirman. — Professor Newton.
Secretary. — Mr. John Cordeaux.
Messrs. John A. Harvie-Brown, E. M.
Barrington, and W. E. Clarke and the
Kev. E. P. Knubley.
Chairman. — Dr. J. H, Gladstone.
Secretary. — Professor H. E. Armstrong.
Mr. S. Bourne, Dr. Crosskey, Mr. George
Gladstone, Mr. J. Heywood, Sir J.
Lubbock, Sir Philip Magnus, Professor
N. Story Maskelyne, Sir H. E. Roscoe,
Sir R. Temple, and Professor Silvanus P.
Thompson.
Chairman. — Sir John Lubbock.
Sec7-etary.—MT. J. W. Davis.
Dr. J. Evans, Professor Boyd Dawkins,
Dr. R. Munro, Messrs. Pengelly and
Hicks, Prof essor Meldola,and Dr. Muir-
head.
Other Resolutions adopted by the General Committee.
That Mr. W. N. Shaw be requested to continue his Report on the present state of
our Knowledge in Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry.
That in the event of the President of a Section being unable to attend a meeting
of the Committee of Recommendations, the Sectional Committee shall be authorised
to appoint a Vice-President, or, failing a Vice-President, some other member of the
Committee, to attend in his place ; due notice of the appointment being sent to the
Assistant General Secretary.
That Professor H. S. Hele Shaw, who has hitherto served as Secretary of the
Committee appointed to report on the Development of Graphic Methods in Me-
chanical Science, be appointed to complete the Report and present it at next year's
meeting of the Association.
Communications ordered to he printed in extenso in the Annual Report
of the Association.
(1) Reports of the discussion on Electrolysis and of the discussion on Solution
prepared by Dr. Thorpe.
(2) The paper by Professor J. E. C. Munro, LL.D., entitled 'The probable* Effects
on Wages of a general Reduction in the Hours of Labour.'
(3) The paper by Professors Barr and Stroud on 'New Telemeters and Range
Finders,' with the necessary drawings.
Besolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and action
if desirable.
That the Council consider and report whether grants should be made from the
funds of the Association for other than specilic researches by specified individuals.
RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENEKAL COMMITTEE. Ixxxvii
That the Council be requested to consider the question of watching the operation
of Acts relating to Scientific and Technical Education, and to take such steps as
may seem desirable for furthering the objects of those Acts.
That the Council be requested to consider whether it is not desirable to make
special provision for the comprehensive consideration by the Association of questions
relating to Scientific and Technical Education.
That the Council urge upon Government to take steps to hasten the completion
of the Ordnance Survey and to afford the public greater facilities for the purchase of
the Survey Maps.
That it is desirable that the question of publishing the papers more fully and
expeditiously and of adding reports of discussions be considered by the Council.
That in the arrangement of the Journal it is desirable, in the interests of clearness
and of ease of reference, to return to the old practice of printing first the papers to
be read in the various sections, then the papers read on the previous day in those
sections, and lastly, the list of sectional officers and of the committees.
That the Council be requested, if possible, to fix the date of each Meeting two
years before it is held, and to bear in mind that the middle or latter part of September
is the time most convenient to many Members of the Association.
That a General Index to the Reports of the Committees of the Association and of
all papers ordered to be printed in extenso be published, and that the Council be
authorised to expend such sums as may be necessary for the purpose.
That the hours at which the Sections and Committees meet be again considered
by the Council.
That the paper by Mr. J. F, Green, on ' Steam Life Boats,' be printed in extenso
with the necessary drawings.
Ixxxviii REPOHT — 1890.
Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Pur-
poses by the General Committee at the Leeds Meeting^ in
September 1890. The Names of the Members entitled to call
on the General Treasurer for the respective Grants are prefixed.
Mathematics and Physics.
£
♦Thomson, Sir W. — Seismological Phenomena of Japan 10
*Foster, Professor Carey. — Electrical Standards 100
*McLaren, Lord. — Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis 50
*Fitzgerald, Professor. — Electrolysis 5
Symons, Mr. G. J. — -Photographs of Meteorological Phenomena 5
Lodge, Professor O. J. — Discharge of Electricity from Points 10
Liveing, Professor. — Ultra Violet Rays of Solar Spectrum ... 50
*Murray, Mr. John. — Seasonal Variations of Temperature ... 20
Chemistry.
*Roberts- Austen, Profes.sor. — Analysis of Iron and Steel 10
*Tilden, Professor. — Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives 25
Armstrong, Professor H. E. — Formation of Haloid Salts 25
Thorpe, Dr. — Action of Light upon Dyes 20
Geology.
*Prestwich, Professor. — Erratic Blocks 10
*Etheridge, Mr. R.— Fossil Phyllopoda 10
*Whitaker, Mr. W.— Geological Record 100
*Geikie, Professor J. — Photographs of Geological Interest ... 10
*Woodward, Dr. H. — Lias Beds in Northamptonshire 25
*Woodward, Dr. H.— Registration of Type Specimens of
British Fossils 10
*Bauerman, Mr. H. — Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius 10
*Hull, Professor E. — Underground Waters 5
*Davis, Mr. J. W.— Investigation of Elbolton Cave 25
Biology.
*Flower, Professor W. H.— Marine Biological Association at
Plymouth 30
*Foster, Professor Michael.— Botanical Station at Peradeniya 50
Carried forward £615
* Reappointed.
s.
d.
SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY. Ixxxix
£ s. d.
Brought forward 6] 5
♦Haddon, Professor A. C— Improving Deep-sea Tow-net ... 40
*Wills, Mr. A. W. — Disappearance of Native Plants 6
Flower, Professor W. H. — Zoology of the Sandwich Islands 100
•Flower, Professor W. H. — Zoology and Botany of the West
Indialslands 100
Geography.
*Garson, Dr.— Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor and Northern
Persia 30
Mechanical Science.
^Douglass, Sir J. — Action of Waves and Currents in
Estuaries 150
Anthropology.
*Flower, Professor. — New Edition of ' Anthropological Notes
and Queries' 50
*Flower, Professor. — Anthropometric Laboratory 10
*Tylor, Dr. E. B.— North- Western Tribes of Canada 200
*Turner, Sir W.— Habits of Natives of India 10
*Symons, Mr. G. J. — Corresponding Societies 25
£1,335
* Keappointed.
The Annual Meeting in 1891.
The Meeting at Cardiff will commence on Wednesday, August 19,
Place of Meeting in 1892.
The Annual Meeting of the Association will be held at Edinburgh.
xc
BEPOET — 1890.
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of
Grants for Scientific Purposes.
£ s. d.
183i.
Tide Discussious 20
1835.
Tide Discussions fi-
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 10')
i'167 U
1836.
Tide Discussions 1<>3
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 10.")
Thermometric Observations,
&c 50
Experiments on long-con-
tinued Heat 17 1
Eain-Gauges 13
Kefraction Experiments 15
Lunar Nutation 60
Thermometers 15 6
±■435
1837.
Tide Discussions 281 1
Chemical Constants 24 13 6
Lunar Nutation 70
Observations on Waves 100 12
Tides at Bristol l.jO
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature 03 3
Vitrification Experiments ... l.")0
Heart Experiments 8 4 6
Barometric Observations 30
Barometers 11 18 6
i'922 12 6
1838.
Tide Discussions
British Fossil Fishes
Meteorological Observations
and Anemometer (construc-
tion)
Cast Iron ( Strength of)
Animal and Vegetable Sub-
stances (Preservation of) ...
Eailway Constants
Bristol Tides
Growth of Plants
Mud in Rivers
Education Committee
Heart Experiments
Land and Sea Level
Steam- vessels
Meteorological Committee ...
20
100
100
CO
19 1 10
41 12 10
50
75
3 6 6
50
5 3
2C.7 8 7
100
31 9 5
i'932 2 2
1839.
Fossil Ichthyology 110
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth, &c 63 10
Mechanism of Waves .144
Bristol Tides 35
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature 21
Vitrification Experiments ... 9
Cast-Iron Experiments 103
Eailway Constants 28
Land and Sea Level 274
Steam- vessels' Engines 100
Stars in Histoire Celeste 171
Stars in Lacaille 11
Stars in E.A.S. Catalogue ... 166
Animal Secretions 10
Steam Engines in Cornwall... 50
Atmospheric Air 16
Cast and Wrought Iron 40
Heat on Organic Bodies 3
Gases on Solar Spectrum 22
Hourly Meteorological Ob-
servations, Inverness and
Kingussie 49
FossirReptiles 118
Mining Statistics 50
«. d.
2 a
18 6
11
4 7
7 2
1 4r
18 6
16 6
10
1
0'
7 8
2 9
£1595 11
1840.
Bristol Tides 100 0-
Subterranean Temperature ... 13 13 6
Heart Experiments 18 19
Lungs Experiments 8 13
Tide Discussions 50
Land and Sea Level 6 11 1
Stars (Histoire Celeste) 242 10
Stars (Lacaille) 4 15
Stars (Catalogue) 264
Atmospheric Air 15 15 0-
Water on Iron 10
Heat on Organic Bodies 7 0-
Meteorological Observations . 52 17 6
Foreign Scientific Memoirs .. . 112 1 6
Working Population 100
School Statistics 50
Forms of Vessels 184 7 0'
Chemical and Electrical Phe-
nomena 40
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth 80
Magnetical Observations 185 13 9
£1546 16 4
1841.
Observations on Waves ...
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperatm-e 8
Actinometers 10
Earthquake Shocks 17
Acrid Poisons 6
Veins and Absorbents 3
JIud in Eivers 5
30
8
7
GENERAL STATEMENT.
XCl
£
Marine Zoologj' 15
Skeleton Maps 20
Mountain Barometers 6
Stars (Histoire Celeste) 185
Stars (Lacaille) 79
Stars (Nomenclature of) 17
Stars (Catalogue of) -10
Water onlron 50
Meteorological Observations
at Inverness 20
Meteorological Observations
(reduction of) 25
Fossil Keptiles 50
Foreign Memoirs 62
Railway Sections 38
Forms of Vessels 193
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth 55
Magnetical Observations 61
Fishes of the Old Ked Sand-
stone 100
Tides at Leith 50
Anemometer at Edinburgh ... 69
Tabulating Observations 9
Eaces of Men 5
Eadiate Animals .^ 2^
£1235
s.
a.
12
8
18
6
5
19
6
6
1
12
18
8
1
10
6
3
10 11
1842.
Dynamometric Instruments . . 113
Anoplura Britannife 52
Tides at Bristol 59
Gases on Light 30
Chronometers 26
Marine Zoology 1
British Fossil Mammalia 1 00
Statistics of Education 20
Marine Steam-vessels' En-
gines 28
Stars (Histoire Celeste) 59
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of) ... 110
Eail-way Sections 161
British Belemnites 50
Fossil Keptiles (publication
of Report) 210
Forms of Vessels 180
Galvanic Experiments on
Rocks 5
Meteorological Experiments
at Plymouth 68
Constant Indicator and Dyna-
mometric Instruments 90
I Force of Wind 10
{Light on Growth of Seeds ,., 8
[Vital Statistics 50
[Vegetative Power of Seeds ... 8
iQuestions on Human Race ... 7
£1449
11
2
12
8
14
7
17
6
5
10
8 6
1 11
9
17 8
1843.
\ Revision of the Nomenclature
of Stars
2
£ s. d.
Reduction of Stars, British
Association Catalogue 25
Anomalous Tides, Frith of
Forth 120
Hourly Meteorological Obser-
vations at Kingussie and
Inverness 77 12 8
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth 55
Whewell's Meteorological Ane-
mometer at Plymouth 10
Meteorological Observations,
Osier's Anemometer at Ply-
mouth 20
Reduction of Meteorological
Observations 30
Meteorological Instruments
and Gratuities 39 6
Construction of Anemometer
at Inverness 66 12 2
Magnetic Co-operation 10 8 10
Meteorological Recorder for
Kew Observatory 50
Action of Gases on Light 18 16 1
Establishment at Kew Ob-
servatory, Wages, Repairs,
Furniture, and Sundries ... 133 4 7
Experiments by Captive Bal-
loons 81 8
Oxidation of the Rails of
Railways 20
Publication of Report on
Fossil Reptiles 40
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
way Sections 147 18 3
Registration of Earthquake
Shocks 30
Report on Zoological Nomen-
clature 10
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester 4 4 &
Vegetative Power of Seeds ... 6 3 8
Marine Testacea (Habits of) . 10
Marine Zoology 10
Marine Zoology 2 14 11
Preparation of Report on Bri-
tish Fossil Mammalia 100
Physiological Operations of
Medicinal Agents 20
Vital Statistics 36 5 8
Additional Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels 70
Additional Experiments on
the forms of Vessels 100
Reduction of Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels 100
Morin's Instrument and Con-
stant Indicator 69 14 10
Experiments on the Strength
of Materials ■■• 60 »
£1565 10 2
XCll
EEPORT 1890.
£ s. d.
1844.
Meteorological Observations
at Kingussie and Inverness 12
Completing Observations at
Plymouth 35
Magnetic and Sleteorological
Co-operation 25 8 4
Publication of the British
Association Catalogue of
Stars 35
Observations on Tides on the
East Coast of Scotland ... 100
Kevision of the Nomenclature
of Stars 1842 2 9 6
Maintaining the Establish-
ment in Kew Observa-
tory 117 17 3
Instruments for Kew Obser-
vatory 56 7 3
Iniiuence of Light on Plants 10
Subterraneous Temperature
in Ireland 5
Coloured Drawings of Kail-
way Sections 15 17 6
Investigation of Fossil Fishes
ofthe Lower Tertiary Strata 100
Kegistering the Shocks of
Earthquakes 1842 23 11 10
Structure of Fossil Shells ... 20
Kadiata and Mollusca of the
Mge&n and Red Seas 1842 100
Geographical Distributions of
Marine Zoology 1842 10
Marine Zoology of Devon and
Cornwall 10
Marine Zoology of Corfu 10
Experiments on the Vitality
of Seeds 9
Experiments on the Vitality
of Seeds 1842 8 7 3
Exotic Anoplura 15 o
Strength of Materials 100
Completing Experiments on
the Forms of Ships 100
Inquiries into Asphyxia 10
Investigations on the Internal
Constitution of Metals 50
Constant Indicator and Mo-
rin's Instrmnent 1842 10
£981 12 8
1845.
Publication of the British As-
sociation Catalogue of Stars 351 14
Meteorological Observations
at Inverness 30 18
Magnetic and Meteorological
Co-operation 16 16
Meteorological Instruments
at Edinburgh 18 il
Reduction of Anemometrical
Observations at Plymouth 25
6
11
8
9
£ 8. d.
Electrical Experiments at
Kew Observatory 43 17 8
Maintaining tlie Establish-
ment in Kew Observatory 149
For Kreil's Barometrograph 25
Gases from Iron Furnaces... 50
The Actinograph 15
Microscopic Structure of
Shells 20
Exotic Anbplm-a 1843 10
Vitality of Seeds 1 843 2
Vitality of Seeds 1844 7
Marine Zoology of Cornwall . 1
Physiological Action of Medi-
cines 20
Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York 20
Earthquake Shocks 1 843 15
■"£831 9 9
15
7
4
8
1846.
British Association Cataloo-ue
of Stars 1844 211 15
Fossil Fishes of the London
Clay 100
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1829 5
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 146
Strength of Materials 60
Researches in Asphyxia 6
Examination of Fossil Shells 10
Vitality of Seeds 1844 2
Vitality of Seeds 1845 7
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10
Marine Zoology of Britain ... 10
Exotic Anoplura 1 8 44 25
Expenses attending Anemo-
meters 11
Anemometers' Repairs 2
Atmospheric Waves 3
Captive Balloons 1844 8 19 8
Varieties of the Human Race
1844 7 6 3
Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York 12
£685 16
16
7
16
2
15
10
12
3
7
6
3
6
3
3
1847.
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1829 .50
Habits of Marine Animals ... 10
Physiological Action of Medi-
cines 20
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10
Atmospheric Waves 6
Vitality of Seeds 4
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 107
~£208~
9
3
7
7
8 6
5 4
GENERAL STATEMENT.
XClll
£ s.
1848.
Maintainiuc: the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 171 15
Atmosplieric Waves i5 10
Vitality of Seeds 9 15
Completion of Catalogue of
Stars 70
On Colouring Matters 5
On Growth of Plants 15
^¥f5 1
d.
11
9
" 8
1849.
Electrical Observations at
Kew Observatory 50
Maintaining: the Establish-
ment at ditto 76 2
Vitality of Seeds 5 8
On Growth of Plants 5
Kegistration of Periodical
Phenomena 10
Bill on Account of Anemo-
metrical Observations l.S 9
£159 19^
1850.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 253 18
Transit of Earthquake Waves 50
Periodical Phenomena 15
Meteorological Instruments,
Azores 25
£345 18
1852.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(including balance of grant
for 1850) 233
Experiments on the Conduc-
tion of Heat 5
Influence of Solar Radiations 20
Geological Map of Ireland ... 15
Researches on the British An-
nelida 10
Vitality of Seeds 10
Strength of Boiler Plates.. ..j^. 10
''£ioi'
17 8
2
9
6
2
6
7
1851.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(includes part of grant in
1849) 309 2 i
Theory of Heat 20 1 1 !
Periodical Phenomena of Ani-
mals and Plants 5
Vitality of Seeds 5 6 4
Influence of Solar Radiation 30
Ethnological Inquiries 12
Researches on Annelida 10
£391 9 7
£ s. d.
1853.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 165
Experiments on the Influence
of Solar Radiation 15
Researches on the British
Annelida 10
Dredging on the East Coast
of Scotland 10
Ethnological Queries 5
£205
1854.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(including balance of
former grant) 330 15 4
Investigations on Flax 11
Effects of Temperature on
Wrought Iron 10
Registration of Periodical
Phenomena 10
British Annelida 10
Vitality of Seeds 5 2 3
Conduction of Heat 4 2
£380 19 7
1855.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 425
Earthquake Movements 10
Physical Aspect of the Moon 11 8
Vitality of Seeds 10 7
Map of the World 15
Etlinological Queries 5
Dredging, near Belfast 4
£480T6
5
11
4
575
1856.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observa-
tory :—
1854 £ 75 0\
1855 £500 0/
Strickland's Ornithological
Synonyms 100
Dredging and Dredging
Forms 9 13
Chemical Action of Light ... 20
Strength of Iron Plates 10
Registration of Periodical
Phenomena 10
Propagation of Salmon 10
£734 13 9
1857.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 350
Earthquake Wave Experi-
ments 40
Dredging near Belfast 10
Dredging on the West Coast
of Scotland 10
XCIV
REPORT — 1890.
£ s. d.
Investigations into the Mol-
lusca of California 10
Experiments on Flax 5
Natural History of Mada-
gascar 20
Kesearches on British Anne-
lida 25
Eeport on Natural Products
imported into Liverpool ... 10
Artificial Propagation of Sal-
mon 10
Temperature of Mines 7 8
Thermometers for Subterra-
nean Observations....
Life-boats
5 7
4
... 5
£.507 15
4
1858.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500
Earthquake Wave Experi-
ments 25
Dredging on the West Coast
of Scotland 10
Dredging near Dublin 5
Vitality of Seeds 5 5
Dredging near Belfast 18 13 2
Eeport on the British Anne-
lida 25
Experiments on the produc-
tion of Heat by Motion in
Fluids 20
Eeport on the Natural Pro-
ducts imported into Scot-
land 10
£«18 18 2
1859.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500
Dredging near Dublin 15
Osteology of Birds 50
Irish Tunicata 5
Manure Experiments 20
British Medusidfe 5
Dredging Committee 5
Steam-vessels'Performance... 5
Marine Fauna of South and
West of Ireland 10
Photographic Chemistry 10
Lanarkshire Fossils 20 1
Balloon Ascents 39 11
^684~lF 1
1860.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500
Dredging near Belfast 10 6
Dredging in Dublin Bay 15 Q
Inquiry into the Performance
of Steam -vessels ]24
Explorations in the Yellow
Sandstone of Dura Den ... 20
Chemico-mechanical Analysis
of Eocks and Minerals 25
Researches on the Growth of
Plants 10
Eesearches on the Solubility
of Salts 30
Eesearches on the Constituents
of Manures 25
Balance of Captive Balloon
Accounts 1
"J766"
s. i,
13 6
19 6
186L
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory. . 500
Earthquake Experiments 25
Dredging North and East
Coasts of Scotland 23
Dredging Committee : —
1860 £50 \
1861 £22 J
Excavations at Dura Den 20
Solubility of Salts 20
Steam- vessel Performance ... 150
Fossils of Lesmahagow 15
Explorations at Uriconium ... 20
Chemical Alloys 20
Classified Index to the Trans-
actions 100
Dredging in the Mersey and
Dee 5
Dip Circle 30
Photoheliographic Observa-
tions 50
Prison Diet 20
Gauging of Water 10
Alpine Ascents 6
Constituents of Manures 25
72
1862.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory
Patent Laws
]\Iolluscaof N.-W. of America
Natural History by Mercantile
Marine
Tidal Observations
Photoheliometer at Kew
Photographic Pictures of the
Sun
Rocks of Donegal
Dredging Durham and North-
umberland
Connection of Storms
Dredging North-east Coast
of Scotland
Ravages of Teredo
Standards of Electrical Re-
sistance
Railway Accidents
Balloon Committee
Dredging Dublin Bay
500
21
10
40
1.50
25
25
20
6
3
50
10
200
10
5
10
£1111 5 10
6
9 «
11
GENERAL STATEMENT.
XCV
£ s. d.
Dredging the Mersey 5
Prison Diet 20
Gauging of Water 12 10
Steamships' Performance 150
Thermo-Electric Currents ... 5
£1293 16 6
1863.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory... 600
Balloon Committee deficiency 70
Balloon Ascents (other ex-
penses) 25
Entozoa 25
Coal Fossils 20
Herrings 20
Granites of Donegal 5
Prison Diet 20
Vertical Atmospheric Move-
ments 13
Dredging Shetland 50
Dredging North-east coast of
Scotland 25
Dredging Northumberland
and Durham 17
Dredging Committee superin-
tendence 10
Steamship Performance 100
Balloon Committee 200
Carbon under pressure 10
Volcanic Temperature 100
Bromide of Ammonium 8
Electrical Standards 100
Electrical Construction and
Distribution 40
Luminous Meteors 17
Kew Additional Buildings for
Photoheliograph 100
Thermo-Electricity 15
Analysis of Rocks 8
Hydroida 10
£1608
10
3 10
1864.
! Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatorj'.. 600
Coal Fossils 20
Vertical Atmospheric Move-
ments 20
I Dredging Shetland 75
Dredging Northumberland ... 25
[Balloon Committee 200
Carbon under pressure 10
[Standards of Electric Ke-
sistancc 100
[Analysis of llocks 10
JHydroida 10
jAskham's Gift 50
[Nitrite of Amyle 10
I Nomenclature Committee ... 5
Rain-Gauges ]0 ]5 8
[Ca.st-Iron Investigation 20
£ s. (I.
Tidal Observations in the
Humber 50
Spectral Rays 45
Luminous Meteors 20
£1 289 15 8
1865.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600
Balloon Committee 100
Hydroida 13
Rain-Gauges 30
Tidal Observations in the
Humber 6 8
Hexylic Compounds 20
Amyl Compounds 20
Irish Flora 25
American Mollusca 3 9
Organic Acids 20
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 10
Emvpterus 50
Electrical Standards 100
Malta Caves Researches 30
Oyster Breeding 25
Gibraltar Caves Researches... 150
Kent's Hole Excavations 100
Moon's Surface Observations 35
Marine Fauna 25
Dredging Aberdeenshire 25
Dredging Channel Islands ... 50
Zoological Nomenclature 5
Resistance of Floating Bodies
in Water 100
Bath Waters Analj'ssis 8 10 10
Luminous Meteors 40
£1 591 7T0
1866.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observator}'. . 600
Lunar Committee 64 13 4
Balloon Committee 50
Metrical Committee .50
British Rainfall 50 O
Kilkenny Coal Fields 16
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf -Bed ... 15
Luminous Meteors 50
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 20
Chemical Constitu1i(in of
Cast Iron 50
Amyl Compounds 25
Electrical Standards 100
Malta Caves Exploration 30
Kent's Hole Exploration 200 O
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon
and Cornwall 25
Dredging .\ber(leenshire Coast 25
Dredging Hebrides Coast ... 50 O
Dredging the Mersej' 5
Resistance of Floating Bodies
in Waler " 50
Polycyauidesof Organic Radi-
cals " 29
XCVl
REPORT 1890.
£
Rigor Mortis 10
Irish Annelida 15
Catalogue of Crania 50
Didine Birds of Mascai-ene
Islands 50
Typical Crania Researches ... 30
Palestine Exploration Fiind..._100_
£1760
1867.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. GOO
Meteorological Instruments,
Palestine 50
Lunar Committee 120
Metrical Committee 30
Kent's Hole Explorations ... 100
Palestine Explorations 50
Insect Fauna, Palestine 30
British Kainfall 50
Kilkenny Coal Fields 25
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed ... 25
Luminous Meteors 50
Bournemouth, &c., Leaf-Beds 30
Dredging Shetland 75
Steamship Eeports Condensa-
tion 100
Electrical Standards 100
Ethyl and Methyl series 25
Fossil Crustacea 25
Sound under Water 24
North Greenland Fauna 75
Do. Plant Beds 100
Iron and Steel Manufacture. . . 25
Patent Laws 30
£1739]
18GS.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. GOO
Lunar Committee ]20
Metrical Committee 50
Zoological Record 100
Kent's Hole Explorations ... 150
Steamship Performances 100
British Rainfall 50
Luminous Meteors 50
Organic Acids 60
Fossil Crustacea 25
Methyl Series 25
Mercury and Bile 25
Organic Remains in Lime-
stone Rocks 25
Scottish Earthquakes 20
Fauna, Devon and Cornwall.. .30
British Fossil Corals 50
Bagshot Leaf -Beds 50
Greenland Explorations 100
Fossil Flora 25
Tidal Observations 100
Underground Temperature ... 50
Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances 5
s.
d.
3
4
4
4
£ s. d.
Secondary Reptiles, &c 30
British Marine Invertebrate
Fauna -. 100
£i!J40
1869.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory. . 600
Lunar Committee 50
Metrical Committee 25
Zoological Record 100
Committee on Gases in Deep-
well Water 25
British Rainfall 50
Thermal Conductivity of Iron,
&c 30
Kent's Hole Explorations 150
Steamship Performances 30
Chemical Constitution of
Cast Iron 80
Iron and Steel Manufacture 100
Methyl Series 30
Organic Remains in Lime-
stoneRocks 10
Earthquakes in Scotland 10
British Fossil Corals 50
Bagshot Leaf-Beds 30
Fossil Flora 25
Tidal Observations 100
Underground Temperatiu-e ... 30
Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances 5
Organic Acids 12
Kiltorcan Fossils 20
Chemical Constitution and
Physiological Action Rela-
tions 15
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25
Utilisation of Sewage 10
Products of Digestion 10
£1622
1870.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatorj' 600
Metrical Committee 25
Zoological Record 100
Committee on Marine Fauna 20
Ears in Fishes 10
Chemical Nature of Cast Iron 80
Luminous Meteors 30
Heat in the Blood 15
British Rainfall 100
Thermal Conductivity of
Iron, &:c 20
British Fossil Corals 50
Kent's Hole Explorations ... 150
Scottish Earthquakes 4
Bagshot Leaf-Beds 15
Fossil Flora 25
Tidal Observations 100
Underground Temperature ... 50
Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils ... 20
GENERAL STATEMENT.
XCTll
£
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25
Utilisation of Sewage 50
Organic Chemical Compounds 30
Onny River Sediment 3
Mechanical Equivalent of
Heat
t.
d.
... 50
n
£1572
1871,
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory 600
Monthly Reports of Progi'ess
in Chemistry 100
Metrical Committee 25
Zoological Record 100
Thermal Equivalents of the
Oxides of Chlorine 10
Tidal Observations 100
Fossil Flora 25
Luminous Meteors 30
British Fossil Corals 25
Heat in the Blood 7 2 6
British Rainfall 50
Kent's Hole Explorations ... 150
Fossil Crustacea 25
Methyl Compoimds 25
Lunar Objects 20
Fossil Coral Sections, for
Photographing 20
Bagshot Leaf-Beds 20
Moab Explorations 100
Gaussian Constants 40
£1472 2 6
1872.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory 300
Metrical Committee 75
Zoological Record 100
Tidal Committee 200
Carboniferous Corals 25
Organic Chemical Compounds 25
Exploration of Moab 100
Terato-Embryological Inqui-
ries 10
Kent's Cavern Exploration.. 100
Luminous Meteors 20
Heat in the Blood 15
Fossil Crustacea 25
Fossil Elephants of Malta ... 25
Lunar Objects 20
Inverse Wave- Lengths 20
British Rainfall 100
Poisonous Substances Antago-
nism 10
Essential Oils, Chemical Con-
stitution, &c 40
Mathematical Tables 60
Thermal Conductivity of Me-
tals 25
£1285 O"
1890.
£ «. d.
1873.
Zoological Record 100
Chemistry Record 200
Tidal Committee 400
Sewage Committee 100
Kent's Cavern Exploration... 150
Carboniferous Corals 25
Fossil Elephants 25
Wave-Lengths 150
British Rainfall 100
Essential Oils 30
Mathematical Tables 100
Gaussian Constants 10
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25
Underground Temperature ... 150
Settle Cave Exploration 50
Fossil Flora, Ireland 20
Timber Denudation and Rain-
fall 20
Luminous Meteors 30
£1685
1874.
Zoological Record 100
Chemistry Record 100
Mathematical Tables 100
Elliptic Functions 100
Lightning Conductors 10
Thermal Conductivity of
Rocks 10
Anthropological Instructions,
&c 50
Kent's Cavern Exploration... 150
Luminous Meteors 30
Intestinal Secretions 15
British Rainfall 100
Essential Oils 10
Sub-Wealden Explorations ... 25
Settle Cave Exploration 50
Mauritius Meteorological Re-
search 100
Magnetisation of Iron 20
Marine Organisms 30
Fossils, North- West of Scot-
land 2 10
Physiological Action of Light 20
Trades Unions 25
Blountain Limestone-Corals 25
Erratic Blocks 10
Dredging, Durham and York-
shire Coasts 28 6
High Temperature of Bodies 30
Siemens's Pyrometer 3 6
Labyrinthodonts of Coal-
Measures 7 15
£1151 16
1875. '
Elliptic Functions 100
Magnetisation of Iron 20
British Rainfall 120
Luminous Meteors 3^ o
Chemistry Record 100
f
XCVlll
fefiPORT— 18^0.
£
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid 10
Isometric Cresols 20
Sub-Wealden E:cplorations... 100
Kent's Cavern Exploration... 100
Settle Cave Exploration 50
Earthquakes in Scotland 15
Underground Waters 10
Development of Myxinoid
Fishes 20
Zoological Kecord 100
Instructions for Travellers ... 20
Intestinal Secretions 20
Palestine Exploration ■•• 100
£960
s.
d.
1876.
Printing Mathematical Tables 159 4 2
British Eainfall 100
Ohm's Law 9 15
Tide Calculating Machine ... 200
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25
Isomeric Cresols 10
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-
rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-
acetate 5
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid 13
Exploration of Victoria Cave,
Settle 100
Geological Kecord 100
Kent's Cavern Exploration... 100
Thermal Conductivities of
Kocks 10
Underground Waters 10
Earthquakes in Scotland 1 10
Zoological Kecord 100
Close Time 5
Physiological Action of Sound 25
Zoological Station 75
Intestinal Secretions 15
Physical Characters of Inha-
bitants of British Isles 13 15
Measuring Speed of Ships ... 10
Effect of Propeller on turning
of Steam Vessels 5
£1092 4 2
1877.
Liquid Carbonic Acids in
Minerals 20
Elliptic Functions 250
Thermal Conductivity of
Kocks 9 11 7
Zoological Record 100
Kent's Cavern 100
Zoological Station at Naples 75
Luminous Meteors 30
Elasticity of Wires 100
Dipterocarpae, Keport on 20
^ s. d.
Mechanical Equivalent of
Heat 35
Double Compounds of Cobalt
and Nickel 8
Underground Temperatures 50
Settle Cave Exploration 100
Underground Waters in New
Red Sandstone 10
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-
rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-
acetate 10
British Earthworks 25
Atmospheric Elasticity in
India 16
Development of Light from
Coal-gas 20
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid 1
Geological Record 100
Anthropometric Committee 34
Physiological Action of Phos-
phoric Acid, &c 15
£1128 9 7
8
1878.
Exploration of Settle Caves 100
Geological Record 100
Investigation of Pulse Pheno-
mena by means of Syphon
Recorder 10
Zoological Station at Naples 75
Investigation of Underground
Waters 15
Transmission of Electrical
Impulses through Nerve
Structure 30
Calculation of Factor Table
of Fourth Million 100
Anthropometric Committee... 66
Chemical Composition and
Structure of less known
Alkaloids 25
Exploration of Kent's Cavern 50
Zoological Record 100
Fermanagh Caves Exploration 15
Thermal Conductivity of
Rocks 4 16 6
Luminous Meteors 10
Ancient Earthworks 25
£725 16 6
1879.
Table at the Zoological
Station, Naples 75
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of the North of Ireland ... 20
Illustrations for a Monograph
on the Mammoth 17
Record of Zoological Litera-
ture 100
Composition and Structure of
less-known Alkaloids 25
GENERAL STATEMENT.
XCIX
£ s. d.
Exploration of Caves in
Borneo 50
Kent's Cavern Exploration . . . 100
Record of the Progress of
Geology 100
Fermanagh Caves Exploration 5
Electrolysis of Metallic Solu-
tions and Solutions of
Compound Salts 25
Anthropometric Committee... 50
Natural History of Socotra ... 100
Calculation of Factor Tables
for 5th and 6th Millions ... 150
Circulation of Underground
Waters 10
Steering of Screw Steamers... 10
Improvements in Astrono-
mical Clocks 30
Marine Zoology of South
Devon 20
Determination of Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat 12 15 6
Specific Inductive Capacity
of Sprengel Vacuum 40
Tables of Sun-heat Co-
efficients 30
Datum Level of the Ordnance
Survey 10
Tables of Fundamental In-
variants of Algebraic Forms 36 14 9
Atmospheric Electricity Ob-
servations in Madeira 15
Instrument for Detecting
Fire-damp in Mines 22
Instruments for Measuring
the Speed of Ships 17 1 8
Tidal Observations in the
English Channel 10
£1080 11 11
1880.
New Form of High Insulation
Key 10
Underground Temperature ... 10
Determination of the Me-
chanical Equivalent cf
Heat 8 5
Elasticity of Wires 50
Luminous Meteors 30 (I
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 3()
Fundamental Invariants 8 5
Laws of Water Friction 20
Specific Inductive Capacity
of Sprengel Vacumn 20
Completion of Tables of Sun-
heat Coefficients 50
Instrument for Detection of
Fire-damp in Mines 10
Inductive Capacity of Crystals
and Paraffines 4 17 7
Report on Carboniferous
Polyzoa 10
£ s. d.
Caves of South Ireland 10
Viviparous Nature of Ichthyo-
saurus 10
Kent's Cavern Exploration... 50
Geological Record 100
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of North Ireland 15
Underground Waters of Per-
mian Formations 5
Record of Zoological Litera-
ture 100
Table at Zoological Station
at Naples 75
Investigation of the Geology
and Zoology of Mexico 50
Anthropometry 60
Patent Laws 6
£731 7 7
1881.
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30
Underground Temperati;re ... 20
Electrical Standards 25
High Insulation Key 5
Tidal Observations 10
Specific Refractions 7 3 1
Fossil Polyzoa 10
Underground Waters 10
Earthquakes in Japan 25
Tertiary Flora 20
Scottish Zoological Station ... 50
Naples Zoological Station ... 75
Natural History of Socotra ... 50
Anthropological Notes and
Queries 9
Zoological Record 100
Weights and Heights of
Human Beings 30
£476 3 1
1882.
Exploration of Central Africa 100
Fundamental Invariants of
Algebraical Forms 76
Standards for Electrical
Measurements 100
Calibration of Blercurial Ther-
mometers 20
Wave-length Tables of Spec-
tra of Elements 50
Photographing Ultra- Violet
Spark Spectra 25
Geological Record 100
Earthquake Phenomena of
Japan 25
Conversion of Sedimentary
Materials into Metamorphic
Rocks 10
Fossil Plants of Halifax 15
Geological Map of Europe ... 25
Circulation of Underground
Waters 15
1
11
EEPORT — 1890.
£ s. d.
Tertiary Flora of North of
Ireland 20
British Polyzoa 10
Exploration of Caves of South
of Ireland 10
Exploration of Kaygill Fis-
sile 20
Naples Zoological Station ... SO
Albuminoid Substances of
Serum 10
Elimination of Nitrogen by-
Bodily Exercise 50
Migration of Birds 15
Natural History of Socotra... 100
Natural History of Timor-laut 100
Record of Zoological Litera-
ture 100
Anthropometric Committee... 60
£1126 1 11
3
3
1883.
Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis 50
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
vatives 15
Earthquake Phenomena of
Japan 50
Fossil Plants of Halifax 20
British Fossil Polyzoa 10
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palseo-
zoic Rocks 25
Erosion of Sea-coast of Eng-
land and Wales 10
Circulation of Underground
Waters 15
Geological Record 50
Exploration of Caves in South
of Ireland ,.. 10
Zoological Literature Record 100
Migration of Birds 20
Zoological Station at Naples 80
Scottish Zoological Station... 25
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise 38
Exploration of Mount Kili-
ma-njaro 500
Investigation of Loughton
Camp 10
Natural History of Timor-laut 50
Screw Gauges 5
£1083 8 3
1884.
Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis 50
Collecting and Investigating
Meteoric Dust 20
Meteorological Observatory at
Chepstow 25
Tidal Observations 10
Ultra- Violet Spark Spectra ... 8 4
£ s. d.
Earthquake Phenomena of
Japan 75
Fossil Plants of Halifax 15
Fossil Polyzoa 10
Erratic Blocks o£ England ... 10
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palaso-
zoic Rocks 15
Circulation of Underground
Waters 5
International Geological Map 20
Bibliography of Groups of
Invertebrata 50
Natural History of Timor-laut 50
Naples Zoological Station ... 80
Exploration of Mount Kili-
ma-njaro, East Africa 500
Migration of Birds 20
Coagulation of Blood 100
Zoological Literature Record 100
Anthropometric Committee... 10
£1173 4
1885.
Synoptic Chart of Indian
Ocean 50
Reduction of Tidal Observa-
tions 10
Calculating Tables in Theory
of Numbers 100
Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis 50
Meteoric Dust 70
Vapour Pressures, &c., of Salt
Solutions 25
Physical Constants of Solu-
tions 20
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
vius 25
Raygill Fissure 15
Earthquake Phenomena of
Japan 70
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palasozoic
Rocks 25
Fossil Plants of British Ter-
tiary and Secondary Beds . 50
Geological Record 50
Circulation of Underground
Waters 10
Naples Zoological Station ... 100
Zoological Literature Record. 100
Migration of Birds 30
Exploration of Mount Kilima-
njaro 25
Recent Polyzoa 10
Marine Biological Station at
Granton 100
Bioloe:ical Stations on Coasts
of United Kingdom 150
Exploration of New Guinea... 200
Exploration of Mount Roraima 100
£1385
QENEBAL STATEMENT.
01
£ t. d.
1886.
Electrical Standards 40
Solar Radiation 9 10 6
Tidal Observations 50
Magnetic Observations 10 10
Jleteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis 100
Physical and Chemical Bear-
ings of Electrolysis 20
Chemical Nomenclature 5
Fossil Plants of British Ter-
tiary and Secondary Beds,.. 20
Exploration of Caves in North
Wales 25
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
vius 30
Geological Record 100
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palaeozoic
Rocks 15
Zoological Literature Record . 100
Marine Biological Station at
Granton 75
Naples Zoological Station 50
Researches in Food- Fishes and
Invertebrata at St. Andrews 75
Migration of Birds 30
Secretion of Urine 10
Exploration of New Guinea. . . 150
Regulation of Wages under
Sliding Scales 10
Prehistoric Race in Greek
Islands 20
North-Westem Tribes of Ca-
nada 50
£995 6
1887.
Solar Radiation 18 10
Electrolysis 30
Ben Nevis Observatorv 75
Standards of Light (1886
grant) 20
Standards of Light (1887
grant) 10
Harmonic Analysis of Tidal
Observations 15
Magnetic Observations 26 2
Electrical Standards 50
SilentDischarge of Electricity 20
Absorption Spectra 40
Nature of Solution 20
Influence of Silicon on Steel 30
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
vius 20
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
(1886 grant) 50
\'Qlcanic Phenomena of Japan
(1887 grant) 50
Exploration of Cae Gwyn
Cave, North Wales 20
Erratic Blocks 10
Fossil Phyllopoda 20
Coal Plants of Halifax 25
£ i. d.
Microscopic Structure of the
Rocks of Anglesey 10
Exploration of the Eocene
Bedsof the Isle of Wight... 20
Circulation of Underground
Waters 5
' Manure ' Gravels of Wexford 10
Provincial Museum Reports 5
Investigation of Lymphatic
System 25
Naples Biological Station ... 100
Plymouth Biological Station 50
Granton Biological Station ... 75
Zoological Record 100
Flora of China 75
Flora and Fauna of the
Cameroons 75
Migration of Birds 30
Bathy-hypsographical Map of
British Isles 7 6
Regulation of Wages 10
Prehistoric Race of Greek
Islands 20
Racial Photographs, Egyptian 20
£1186 18
1888.
Ben Nevis Observatory 150
Electrical Standards 2 6 4
Magnetic Observations 15
Standards of Light 79 2 3
Electrolysis 30
Uniform Nomenclature in
Mechanics 10
Silent Discharge of Elec-
tricity 9 11 10
Properties of Solutions 25
Influence of Silicon on Steel 20
Methods of Teaching Chemis-
try 10
Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva-
tives 25
Action of Light on Hydracids 20
Sea Beach near Bridlington... 20
Geological Record 50
Manure Gravels of Wexford... 10
Erosion of Sea Coasts 10
Circulation of Underground
Waters 5
Palffiontographical Society ... 50
Pliocene Fauna of St. Erth... 50
Carboniferous Flora of Lan-
cashire and West Yorkshire 25
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
vius 20
Zoology and Botany of West
Indies 100
Flora of Bahamas 100
Development of Fishes — St.
Andrews 50
Marine Laboratory, Plymouth 100
Migration of Birds 30
Flora of China 75
Cll
EEPOET — 1890.
£ i. d.
Naples Zoological Station ... 100
Lymphatic System 25
Biological Station at Granton 50
Peradeniya Botanical Sta-
tion 50
Development of Teleostei ... 15
Depth of Frozen Soil in Polar
Regions 5
Precious Metals in Circula-
tion 20
Value of Monetary Standard 10
Effect of Occupations on Phy-
sical Development 25
North- Western Tribes of
Canada 100
Prehistoric Race in Greek
Islands 20
£1511 6
1889.
Ben Nevis Observatory 50
Electrical Standards 75
Electrolysis 20
Observations on SurfaceWater
Temperature 30
Silent Discharge of Electricity
on Oxygen 6 4 8
Methods of teaching Chemis-
try 10
Action of Light on Hydracids 10
Geological Record 80
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan 25
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
vius 20
Fossil Phyllopoda of Paljeo-
zoic Rocks 20
Higher Eocene Beds of Isle of
Wight 15
West Indian Explorations ... 100
Flora of China 25
Naples Zoological Station ... 100
Physiology of Lymphatic
System 25_
Experiments with a Tow-net 5 16 3
Natural History of Friendly
Islands 100
Geology and Geography of
Atlas Range 100
Action of Waves and Currents
in Estuaries by means of
Working Models 100
North- Western Tribes of Ca-
nada 150
Characteristics of Nomad
Tribes of Asia Minor 30
£ 8. d.
Corresponding Societies 20
Marine Biological Association 200
Bath ' Baths Committee ' for
further Researches 100
£1417 11
1890. ~~~^~~
Electrical Standards 12 17
Electrolysis 6
Electro- optics 50
Calculating Mathematical
Tables 25
Volcanic and Seismological
Phenomena of Japan 75
Pellian Equation Tables 15
Properties of Solutions 10
International Standard for
the Analysis of Iron and
Steel 10
Influence of the Silent Dis-
charge of Electricity on
Oxygen 5
Methods of teaching Chemis-
try 10
Recording Results of Water
Analysis 4 1
Oxidation of Hydracids in
Sunlight 15
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
vius 20
Fossil Phyllopoda of the Pa-
Iffiozoic Rocks 10
Circulation of Underground
Waters 5
Excavations at Oldbury Hill 15
Cretaceous Polyzoa 10
Geological Photographs 7 14 11
Lias Beds of Northampton-
shire 25
Botanical Station at Perade-
niya 25
Experiments with a Tow-net 4 3 9
Naples Zoological Station ... 100
Zoology and Botany of the
West India Islands 100
Marine Biological Association 30
Action of Waves and Currents
in Estuaries 150
Graphic Methods in Blechani-
cal Science 11
Anthropometric Calculations 5
Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor 25
Corresponding Societies 20
£799 16 8
cm
General Meetings.
On Wednesday, September 3, at 8 p.m., in the Coliseum, Professor
W. H. Flower, O.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.S., Pres. Z.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
resigned the office of President to Sir Frederick Abel, C.B., D.O.L.,
D.Sc, F.R.S., V.P.O.S., who took the Chair, and delivered an Address,
for which see page 1.
On Thursday, September 4, at 8 P.M., a Soiree took place in the
Municipal Buildings.
On Friday, September 6, at 8.30 p.m., in the Coliseum, E. B. Poulton,
Esq., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., delivered a discourse on 'Mimicry.'
On Monday, September 8, at 8.30 p.m., in the Coliseum, Professor
C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S. , delivered a discourse on * Quartz Fibres and
their Applications.'
On Tuesday, September 9, at 8 p.m., a Soiree took place in the
Municipal Buildings.
On Wednesday, September 10, at 2.30 p.m., in the Philosophical
Hall, the concluding General Meeting took place, when the Proceedings
of the General Committee and the Grants of Money for Scientific Purposes
were explained to the Members.
The Meeting was then adjouimed to Cardiff. [The Meeting is appointed
to commence on Wednesday, August 19, 1891.]
PEESIDENT'S ADDEESS.
1890.
ADDEESS
BY
SIR FEEDERICK AUGUSTUS ABEL,
C.B., D.C.L. (Oxon.), DSc. (Cant.), F.R.S., P.P.C.S., Hou.M.Inst.C.E ,
PRESIDENT.
Many wbo had the pleasure of listening last year, at Newcastle, to the
interesting and instructive Address of the President to whom I am a most
unworthy successor, could not fail, both by the chief subject of his dis-
course and by the circumstance of the ofRcial position which he occupies
with so much benefit to science and the public, to have their thoughts
directed to the illustrious naturalist whose philosophical Address delighted
the members of the Association and the people of Leeds thirty-two years
ago.
More than one-half the period of existence of this Association has
passed since Richai'd Owen presided over its meeting in this town. Alas !
what gaps have been created in the ranks of those who at that time were
prominent for activity in advancing its work: the then General Secretary,
Sir Edward Sabine ; the all-popular Assistant-general Secretary, John
Phillips; the Treasurer, John Taylor, now live with ns only through
their works and the enduring esteem which they inspired. But very few
of those Avho held other prominent positions at that meeting have survived
to see the Association reassemble in this town. Whewell, Herschel, Hop-
kins, the elder Brodie, Murchison, William Fairbairn, all Presidents of
Sections in 1858, have long since been removed from among us ; and the
then President of Section F, Edward Baines, a mnch-honoured and highly-
talented son of the 'Franklin of Leeds,' whom we had hoped to count
among those Vice-Presidents representing the city on this occasion, has
recently passed away, in his ninetieth year, after a most honourable and
useful career, during which he especially distinguished himself by his
successful exertions in the advancement of the great educational move-
ments of his time.
B 2
4 ' EEPOKT — 1890.
The illustrions President of onr last meeting here, concerning whose
health the gravest apprehensions were not long since entertained, is
happily still preserved to us ; still intellectually bright at the ripe age
of eighty-six, and still, with the keen pleasure of his early life, following
the progress of those branches of scientific research which have coustitated
the favourite occnpations and the arena of many intellectual triumphs
of a long career of ardent and successful devotion to the advancement of
science.
To not a few of those who have flocked to Leeds to attend the annual
gathering of this Association, our present meeting-place is doubtless
known chiefly by its proud position as one of the most thriving manufac-
turing towns of the United Kingdom; of ancient renown, especially in
connection with one of the chief industries identified with Great Britain
in years past. But this good town of Leeds, whose cloth market was
described by Daniel Defoe, one hundred and sixty odd years ago, as 'a
prodigy of its kind, and not to be equalled in the world,' and whose pre-
sent position in connection with divers of our great industries would have
equally excited the enthusiasm of that graphic writer, is famous for other
things than its prominent association with manufactures and commerce.
Not many of our great industrial centres can boast of so goodly au
array, upon the scroll of their past history, of names of men eminent in
the Sciences, the Arts and Manufactures, in Divinity and Letters, and in
heroic achievements, such as are identified with Leeds and its immediate
vicinity : Thomas, Lord Fairfax, one of the most prominent heroes of
the Commonwealth ; Smeaton, an intellectual giant among engineers ;
William Hirst and John Marshall, illustrious examples of the men who
by their genius, energy, aud perseverance placed Great Britain upon the
pinnacle of industrial and commercial greatness which she so long occu-
pied unassailed ; Richard Bentley, the eminent classic and divine ; John
Nicholson, the Airedale poet ; John Fowler and Peter Fairbairn, worthy
followers in the footsteps of Smeaton ; Isaac Milner, weaver and mathe-
matician, afterwards Senior Wrangler, Smith's prizeman, Jacksouian
Professor, President of Queens' College, Vice- Chancellor of Cambridge
University, Dean of Carlisle, and a most illustrious Fellow of the Royal
Society ; Thoresby, antiquarian and topographer ; Benjamin Wilson,
painter, and industrious contributor to the development of electrical
science ; William Hey, the eminent surgeon, and friend and counsellor of
Priestley ; Sadler, political economist and philanthropist ; the brothers
Sheepshanks — Richard, the astronomer, and John, the accomplished patron
of the arts, and munificent contributor to our national art treasures ;
Edward Baines, whose conspicuous talents and energy developed a small
provincial journal into one of the most powerful public organs of the
country ; his talented sons, of whom not the least conspicuous and highly
respected was the late Sir Edward Baines. I might swell this voluminous
list by reference to illustrious members of such families as those of Denison,
ADDRESS. 5
of Beckett, of Lowtlicr, bat tlie men I have referred to fitly illustrate the
remarkable array of wortliies whoso careers have shed lustre upon the
town in or near which they were born. Yet that illustration would be
altogether incomplete if I failed to speak of one whose career and works
alone would suffice to place Leeds in the foremost rank of those English
towns which can claim as their own men whose course of life and whose
achievements have secured their pre-eminence among our illustrious
countrymen. Needless to say that I refer to Joseph Priestley, born within
six miles of Leeds, whose name holds rank among the foremost of success-
ful workers in science ; who, by brilliant powers of experimental investi-
gation, rapidly achieved a series of discoveries which helped largely to
dispel the shroud of mystery surrounding the art of alchemy, and to lay
the foundation of true chemical science. An ardent student of the classics,
of Eastern languages, and of divinity, a zealous exponent of theological
doctrines which marred his career as divine and instructor, he early
displayed conspicuous talents for the cultivation of experimental science,
which he pursued with ardour under formidable difficulties. His acquaint-
ance with Franklin probably developed the taste for the study of electric
science which led him to labour successfully iu this direction ; and the
publication, in 1767, of his valuable work on 'The History and Present
State of Electricity, with Original Experiments,' secured for him a pro-
minent position among the working Fellows of the Royal Society. His
connection with Mill Hill Chapel, in 1768, appears to have given rise
accidentally to his first embracing the experimental pursuit of what
formerly was termed pneumatic chemistry, the foundation of which had
been laid by Cavendish's memorable contribution, in 1766, to the ' Philo-
sophical Transactions,' on carbonic acid and hydrogen. Priestley's first
publication in pneumatic chemistry, on ' Lnpregnating Water with Fixed
Air' (carbonic acid), attracted great attention ; it was at once translated
into French, and the College of Physicians addressed the Lords of the
Treasury thereon, pointing out the advantages which might result from
the employment, by men at sea, of water impregnated with carbonic acid
gas, as a protective against, or cure for, scurvy.
Six years later Priestley investigated the chemical effects produced
on the air by the burning of candles and the respiration of animals,
and, having demonstrated that it was thereby diminished in volume and
deteriorated, he showed that living plants possessed the power of
rendering air, which had been thus deteriorated, once more capable
of supporting the combustion of a candle. At about this time
Priestley received very advantageous proposals to accompany Captain
Cook upon his second expedition to the South Seas; but when
about to prepare for his departure he learned from Sir Joseph Banks
that objections against his appointment, on account of tho great latitude
of his religious principles, had been successfully urged by some ecclesiastic
member of the Board of Longitude. In 1773 the Royal Society awarded
6 EEPORT 1890.
Priestley the Copley Medal for a remarkable paper entitled ' Observations
on Different Kinds of Air,' and in that year he became librarian and
literary companion to the Earl of Shelbourne (afterwards Marquis of
Lansdowne), and thereby secured special advantages in the pursuit of
Lis scientific researches.
With respect to his departure from Leeds, he expressed himself as
having been very happy there ' with a liberal, friendly, and harmonious
congregation, to whom my services (of which I was not sparing) were
very acceptable. Here I had no unreasonable prejudices to contend with,
60 that I had full scope for every kind of exertion ; and I can truly say
that I always considered the office of a Christian minister as the most
honourable of any upon earth, and in the studies proper to it I always
took the greatest pleasure.' During the next five years he published as
many volumes describing the results of important experiments on air.
After investigating the properties of nitric oxide, and applying it to the
analysis of air, Priestley, in 1774, discovered and carefully studied oxy-
gen, -which he obtained by the action of heat upon the red oxide of mer-
cury. He wns the first to prepare and study sulphurous acid, carbonic
oxide, nitrous oxide, hydrochloric acid {marine acid air), and the fluoride
of silicon, and carried out important researches on the properties of hydro-
gen, and of other gases previously but little known. His great quickness
of perception and power of experiment led him to the achievement of
many novel and important results. But one cannot hel^s contrasting his
somewhat random search after new discoveries with the close logical
reasoning and philosophic spirit which guided and pervaded the remark-
able researches of him whose departure from amongst us since the last
gathering of this Association is so universally deplored — of the great dis-
coverer of the universal law of the conservation of energy, James Prescott
Joule. I could not add to the judicious and graceful reference to his work
■which Sir Henry Roscoe was privileged to make, in the last year of that
philosopher's valuable life, when presiding over the recent meeting of
the Association in the town which gloried in numbering Joule among its
citizens ; but I may, perhaps, be permitted to express the sanguine hope
that the desire of the scientific world to secure the establishment of an
international memorial fitly commemorative of his great life-work may be
realised in the most ample manner.
The wide scope of the admirable discourse delivered by Owen in this
town thirty-two years ago affords an interesting illustration of the delight
■which men whose best energies are devoted to the cultivation of one
particular branch of science take in the results of the labours of their
fellow-workers in other departments, and in their achievements in con-
tributing to the general advancement of our knowledge of Nature's laws
and of their operations. It is to this bond of intimate union between
all workers in pui-e science that we owe the instructive reviews of the
ADDRESS. . 7
progress made in different departments of science, with whica we have
often been presented at our annual gatherings. On the other hand, those
men, from time to time selected to fill the distinguished office of President,
whose lives have been mainly devoted to the practical utilisation of the
results of scientific research, and to the extension in particular directions
of the consequent resources of civilisation, seize with keen pleasure the
opportunity aSbrded them of directing attention to the triumphs achieved
in the application, to the purposes of daily life, of the great scientific
truths established by such illustrious labourers in the fields of pure science
as Newton, Dalton, Faraday, and Joule. The wide and constantly-ex-
tending domain of applied science presents, even to the superficial observer,
a continually varied scene ; not a year passes but some great prize falls
to the lot of one or other of its explorers, and some apparently insignifi-
cant vein of treasure, struck upon but a few years back, is rapidly opened
out by cunning explorers, until it leads to a mine of vast wealth, from
which branch out in many directions new sources of power and might.
Among the branches of science in the practical applications of which
the greatest strides have been made since the Association met at Leeds
in 1858 is electricity. That year witnessed the accomplishment of the
first great step towards the establishment of electrical communication
between Europe and America, by the laying of a telegraph-cable con-
necting Newfoundland with Valencia. Through this cable a message of
thirty-one words was shortly afterwards transmitted in.thirty -fi ve minutes ;
an achievement which, though exciting great enthusiasm at the time,
scarcely afforded promise of the succession of triumphs in ocean tele-
graphy which have since surpassed the wildest dreams of the pioneers in
the realms of applied electricity.
The development of the electric telegraph constitutes a never-failing
subject of the liveliest interest. The experiments made by Stephen
Gray, in 1727, of transmitting electrical impulses through a wire 700
feet long; by Watson, twenty years afterwards, of transmitting frictional
electricity through many thousand feet of wire, supported by a line of
poles, on Shooter's Hill, in Kent ; and by Franklin, who carried out a
similar experiment at Philadelphia, — although they were followed by many
other interesting and philosophical applications of frictional electricity to
the transmission of signals — were not productive of really practical results.
The work of Galvani and of Volta was more fruitful of an approach to
practical telegraphy in the hands of Sommering and of Coxe, while the
researches of Oersted, of Ampere, of Sturgeon, and of Ohm, and espe-
cially the discoveries of volta-electric induction and magneto-electricity
by Faraday, paved the way for the development of the electric telegraph
as a practical reality by Cooke and Wheatstone in 1837. How remarkable
the strides have been in the resources and powers of the telegraphist since
that time is demonstrated by a few such facts as these : the first needle-
instrument of Cooke and Wheatstone transmitted messages at the rate of
8 REPOLT— 1890.
'foUf tvords per minute, requiring five wires for that purpose ; six messages
•'ai'e how conveyed by one single wire, at Icn times that speed, and news
is despatched at the rate of 600 words per minute. Duplex working,
which more than doubled the transmitting power of a submarine cable,
was soon eclipsed by the application of Edison's quadruplex working,
"■"wtich has in its turn been surpassed by the multiplex system, whereby
six messages may be sent independently, in either direction, on one wire.
When last the British Association met in Leeds, submarine telegraphy
Iiad but just started into existence; thirty years later, the accomplished
President of the Mechanical Section informed us, at our meeting at Bath,
■that 110,000 miles of cable had been laid by British ships, and that a
fleet of nearly forty ships was occupied in various oceans in maintain-
ing existing cables and laying new ones.
The important practical achievements by which most formidable
difficulties have been surmounted, step by step, in the successive attainment
of the marvellous results of our day, have exerted an influence upon the
advancement, not merely of electrical science, but also of science generally
and of its applications, fully equal to thut which they have exercised upon
the development of commerce and of the intercourse between the nations
of the earth.
Thus, the laying of the earliest submai-ine cables, between lSr>l and
1855, led Sir W.Thomson, in conference with Sir George Stokes, to work
out the theory of signalling in such cables, by utilising the mathematical
results arrived at by Fourier in his investigation of the propagation of
heat-waves. The failure of the first Atlantic cable led to the survey of the
bottom of the Atlantic, which was the forerunner of deep-sea explorations,
culminating in the woi'k of the ' Challenger ' Expedition, and opening up
new treasures of knowledge scarcely dreamt of when last the British
Association met at Leeds. To the difiicultics connected with the early
attempts at submarine telegraphy, and the determination with Avhich
Thomson drove home the lessons learned, we owe the systematic in-
vestigations into the causes of the variations in resistance of copper
- conductors, and the consequent improvements in the metallurgy of copper,
"swhich led to the realisation of the high standard of purity of metal
^eseeutial for the eflicient working of telegrajohic systems, and also to
ithe extensive utilisation of electricity in the production of pure copper.
The rare combination of originality in powers of research and perspicuity
in mathematical reasoning, with inventive and constructive genius, for
which Thomson has so long been pre-eminent, has placed at the disposal
of the investigator of electric science, and of the practical electrician,
instruments of measurement and record which have been of incalculable
value, and which owe their origin to the theoretical conclusions arrived at
by him in his researches into the conditions to be fulfilled for the attain-
ment of practical success in the construction and employment of sub-
marine cables. The mirror galvanometer, the quadrant electrometer, the
ADDRESS. 9
syplion-recorder, and the divided-ring electrometer, are illustrations of
the valuable outcome of Thomson's labours ; the combination of the last-
named instrument with sliding resistance coils has rendered possible the
accurate subdivision of a potential difference into 10,000 equal parts.
The general use of condensers in connection with cable signalling, due to
Varley's application of them for signalling throiigh submerged cables
with induced short waves, was instrumental in establishing the fact
that all electro-static phenomena are simply the result of starting an
electric current of known short duration round a closed circuit. The
practical application of the Wheatstone Bridge led to numerous im-
portant mathematical investigations, and induced Clerk Maxwell to devise
a new mode of applying determinants to the solution of the complicated
electrical problems connected with networks of conductors. The neces-
sity for the universal recognition of an electrical unit of resistance led
to the establishment, in 18G0, of the Electrical Standards Committee of
the British Association, whose long succession of important annual reports
was instrumental in most important developments of theoretical elec-
tricity, and, indeed, served to open up the whole science of electrical
measurement. Matthiessen's important investigations of the electrical
behaviour of metals and their alloys, and the preparation and properties
of pure iron, were the outcome of the commercial demand for a practically
useful standard of electrical resistance, while Latimer Clark's practical
standard of electro-motive force, the mercnrous sulphate cell, became in-
valuable to the worker in pure electrical reseai'ch. The unit of resistance
established by the British Association Committee received, in 1866, most
important scientific appb'cation at the hands of Joule, who, by measuring
the rate of development of heat in a wire of known resistance by the passage
of a known current, obtained a new value of the mechanical equivalent of
heat. This value differed by about 1'3 per cent, from the most accurate
results arrived at by his experiments on mechanical friction, a difference
which eventually proved to be exactly the error in the British Association
unit of resistance ; so that the true value of the unit of resistance, or Ohm,
was determined by Joule fifteen years before this result was achieved by
electricians. Clerk Maxwell's remarkable electro -magnetic theory of
light was put to the test, through the aid of the British Association unit
of resistance, by Thomson, in determining the ratio of electro-magnetic
unit to the electro-static unit of qiiantity. Many other most interesting
illustrations might be given of the invaluable aid afforded to purely
scientific research by the practical results of the development of electrical
science, and of the constant co-operation between the science student and
the practical worker. No one could, more fitly than the late Sir William
Siemens, have maintained, as he did in his admirable Address at our
meeting in Southampton in 1882 that we owe most of the rapid progress
of recent times to the man of science who partly devotes his energies to
the solution of practical problems, and to the practitioner who finds relaxa-
10 EEroRT— 1890.
tlon in the prosecution of purely scientific inquiries. Most assuredly, both
these classes of the world's benefactors may with equal right lay claim to
rank the name of Siemens among those whom they count most illustrious !
In that highly interesting and valuable Address, delivered little more
than a year before his sudden untimely removal from among us, the
numerous important subjects discussed by him included not a few which
he had made peculiarly his own in the wide range embraced by hia
enviable power of combining scientific research with practical work.
Prominent among these were the applications of electric energy to
lighting and heating purposes, and to the transmission of power, to the
subsequent development of which his personal labours very greatly con-
tributed.
Siemens referred to the passing of the first Electric Lighting Bill, in the
year of his Presidency, as being designed to facilitate the establishment of
electric installations in towns ; but the anxiety of the Government of that
day to protect the interests of the public through local authorities led to the
assignment, of such power to these over the property of lighting companies,
that the utilisation of electric lighting was actually delayed for a time by
those legislative measures. There can now be no doubt, however, that this
delay has really been in the interests of intending suppliers and of users
of the electric light, as having afforded time for the further development
of practical details, connected with generation and distribution, which
was vital to the attainment of a fair measure of initial success. The sub-
sequent important modification of legislation on the subject of electric
lighting, together with the practical realisation of comparatively
economical methods of distribution, the establishment of fairly equi-
table arrangements between the public and the lighting companies,
and the apportionment, so far as the metropolis is concerned, of distinct
areas of operation to different competing companies, have combined to
place electric lighting in this country at length upon some approach
to a really sound footing, and to give the required impetus to its exten-
sive development. Nine companies either are now, or will very shortly
he, actually at work supplying, from central stations, districts of London
comprising almost the entire western and north-western portions of
the metropolis. As regards other parts of England, there are already
twenty-seven lighting stations actually at work in different towns, besides
others in course of establishment, and many more projected. The town
of Leeds has not failed to give serious attention to the subject of utilising
the electric light, and, although no general scheme has yet been adopted,
the electricians who now visit this town will rejoice to see many of its
public buildings provided with efficient electric illumination.
While the prediction made by Siemens, eight years ago, that electric
lighting must take its place with us as a public illuminant, has thus been
already, in a measure, fulfilled, important progress is being continuously
made by the practical electrician in developing and perfecting the arrange-
ADDRESS. 11
ments for the generation of the supply, its efiBcient distribution from
centres, and its delivery to the consumer in a form in which it can be
safely and conveniently dealt with and applied at an outlay which, even
now, does not preclude a considerable section of the public from enjoying
the decided advantages presented by electric lighting over illumination
by coal-gas. Yet our recent progress in this direction, encouraging
though it has been, is insignificant as compared with the strides made
in the application of electric lighting in the United States, as may be
gauged by the fact that, while in America the number of arc lamps
in use, in April of this year, was 235,000, and of glow-lamps about
three millions, there are at present about one-tenth the number of the
latter, and one hundredth the number of arc lamps, in operation in
England.
In some important directions we may, however, lay claim to rank
foremost in the application of the electric light ; thus, our large passenger-
ships and our warships are provided with efficient electrical illumination ;
to the active operations of our Navy the electric light has become an in-
dispensable adjunct ; and our system of coast defence, by artillery and
submarine mines, is equally dependent, for its thorough efficiency, upon
the applications of electricity in connection with range-finding, with the
arrangement and expinium-alloys are now produced by adding to
copper itself definite proportions of copper-alloy very rich in aluminium,
the product of the electric furnace. The rapid production in large
quantities of ferro-aluminium — which presents the aluminium in a form
suitable for addition in definite proportions to fluid cast iron and steel
— is another useful outcome of the practical development of the electric
furnace by Messrs. Cowles.
The electric process of producing aluminium-alloys has, however,
to compete commercially with their manufacture by adding to metals,
or alloys, pure aluminium produced by processes based upon the
method originally indicated by Oersted in 1824, successfully carried out
by "Wohler three years later, and developed into a practical process by
H. St. Claire Deville in 1854 — namely, by eliminating aluminium from
the double chloride of sodium and aluminium in the presence of a
fluoride, through the agency of sodium. An analogous process, indicated
in the first instance by H. Rose — namely, the corresponding action of
Bodium upon the mineral cryolite, a double fluoride of aluminium and
sodium — has also been recently elaborated at Newcastle, where the first
of these methods was applied, upon a somewhat considerable scale, in
18G0, by Sir Lowihian Bell, but did not then become a commercial
ADDRESS. 1 7
success, maiuly owing to tlio costliness of the requisite sodium. As
the cost of this metal chiefly determines the price of the aluminium,
technical chemists have devoted their best energies to the perfection and
simplification of methods for its production, and the success wliicli has
culminated in the admirable Castner process constitutes one of the most
interesting of recent illustrations of the progress made in technical che-
mistry, consequent upon the happy blending of chemical with mechanical
science, through the labours of the chemical engineer.
Those Avho, like myself, remember how, between forty and fifty years
ago, a few grains of sodium and potassium wei-e treasured up by the
chemist, and used with parsimonious care in an occasional lecture-
experiment, cannot tire of feasting their eyes on the stores of sodium-
ingots to be seen at Oldbnry as the results of a rapidly and dexterously
executed sei'ies of chemical and mechanical operations.
The reduction which has been effected in the cost of production of
aluminium through this and other processes, and which has certainly
not yet reached its limit, can scarcely fail to lead to applications of the
valuable chemical and physical properties of this metal so widespread
as to render it as indispensable in industries and the jiurposes of daily
life as those well-known metals which may be termed domestic, even
although, and, indeed, for the very reason that, its association with many
of these, in small proportion only, may suffice to enhance their valuable
properties or to impart to them novel characteristics.
The Swedish metallurgist, Wittenstrom, appears to have been the first
to observe that the addition of small quantities of aluminium to fused
steel and malleable iron had the effect of rendering them more fluid,
and, by thus facilitating the escape of entangled gases, of ensuring the
production of sound castings without any prejudicial effect upon the
quality of the metal. The excellence of the so-called Mitis castings,
produced in this way, appears thoroughly established, and the results
of recent important experiments seem to be opening up a field for
the extensive employment of aluminium in this direction, provided its
cost becomes sufficiently reduced. The valuable scientific and practical
experiments of W. J. Keep, James Riley, R. Hadfield, Stead, and other
talented workers in this country and the United States, are rapidly
extending our knowledge in regard to the real effects of aluminium upon
steel, and their causes. Thus, it appears to be already established that
the modifications in some of the physical properties of steel resulting
from the addition of that metal, are not merely ascribable to its actual
entrance into the composition of the steel, but are due, in part, to the
de-oxidation by aluminium of some proportion of iron-oxide which exists
distributed through the metal, and ijrejudicially aff"ects its fluidity
when melted. In the latter respect, therefore, the influence exerted by
aluminium, when introduced in small proportions into malleable iron and
steel, appears to be quite analogous to that of phosphorus, silicium, or lead
18'J0. c
18 EEPORT — 1890,
when these are added in small proportions to copper and certain of its
alloys, the de-oxidation of which, through the agency of those substances,
results in the prodnction of sound castings of increased strength and
uniformity. It is only when present in small proportion in the finished
steel that aluminium increases the breaking strain and elastic limit of
the product.
The influence of aluminium, when used in small proportion, upon the
properties of grey and white cast iron is also of considerable interest,
especially its effect in promoting the production of sound castings, and
of modifying the character of white iron in a similar manner to silicium,
causing the carbon to be separated in the graphitic form ; with this
difference — that the carbon appears to be held in solution until the
moment of setting of the liquid metal, when it is instantaneously liberated,
with the result that the structure of the cast metal and distribution of
the graphite are perfectly uniform throughout.
The probable beneficial connection of aluminium with the industries
of iron and steel naturally directs attention to the great practical im-
portance, in the same direction, which is already possessed, and pro-
mises to be in increasing measure attained, by certain other metals
which, for long periods succeeding their discovery, have either been only
of purely scientific interest and importance, or have acquired practical
value in regard to their positions in a few directions quite unconnected
with metallurgy. Thus, great interest attaches to the influence of the
metals manganese, chromium, and tungsten upon the physical pi'operties
of steel and iron.
The name of Mushet is most prominently associated with the his-
tory of manganese in its relations to iron and steel. Half a century
ago David Mushet carried out very instructive experiments on the in-
fluence exerted upon the properties of steel by the presence of man-
ganese ; and to Robert Mushet we owe the invaluable experiments
leading to his suggestion to use manganese in the production of steel
by the Bessemer process, which at once smoothed the path to the
marvellously rapid and extensive development of the applications of steel
produced by that classic method, and subsequently by the open-hearth or
Siemens-Martin process — a development which has recently received its
crowning illustration in the completion of one of the grandest of existing
triumphs of engineering science and constructive skill — the Forth.
Bridge.
Robert Hadfield has recently contributed importantly to our knowledge
of the relations of manganese to iron. His systematic study of the subject
has revealed some very remarkable variations in the physical properties of
eo-called manganese-steel, according to the proportions of manganese
which it contains. Thus, while the existence in steel of proportions
ranging from O'l up to about 275 per cent, improves its strength and
malleability, it becomes brittle if that limit is exceeded, the extreme of
ADDIJESS. IS
brittleness being obtained with between 4 and 5 per cent, of manganese ;
if, however, the percentage is increased to not less than 7, and up to 20,
alloys of remarkable strength and toughness are obtained. Castiufg of
high manganese-steel, such as wheel-tyres, combine remarkable hardness
Avith toughness. Even if the proportion of manganese is as high as 20 per
cent, in a steel containing 2 per cent, of carbon, it can be forged ; whereas
it is very difficult to forge a steel of ordinary composition containing as
much as 2-75 per cent, of carbon. Another remarkable peculiarity of the
high manganese-steel is its behaviour when quenched in water. Instead
of the heated metal being hardened and rendered brittle by the sudden
cooling, like carbon-steel, its tensile strength and its toughness are in-
creased ; so that water-quenching is really a toughening process, as
applied to the manganese-alloy ; and an interesting feature connected
with this is that, the colder the bath into which the highly-heated
metal is plunged, the tougher is the product. The curious effect of
manganese in reducing, and even destroying, the magnetic properties
of iron was already noticed by Rinman nearly 120 years ago, and
was examined by Bottomley in 1885 ; one result of Hadfield's impor-
tant labours has been to place in the hands of such eminent physicists
as Thomson, Barrett, John Hopkinson, and Reinold, materials for the
attainment of most interesting information respecting the electrical
and other physical characteristics of manganese-steel. Hopkinson, from
experiments with a sample of steel containing 12 per cent, of manganese,
estimated that not more than 9 out of the 86 per cent, of the iron com-
posing the mass was magnetic, and he considered that the manganese
entered into that which must, for magnetic purposes, be regarded as the
molecule of iron, completely changing its properties, a fact which must
have great significance in any theory regarding the nature of magneti-
sation. The great hardness of manganese-steel, and the consequent diffi-
culty of dealing with it by means of cutting- tools, constitute at present the
chief impediments to its technical applications in many directions ; but
where great accuracy of dimensions is not required, and where o-reat
strength is an essential, it is already put to valuable uses.
The importance of manganese in connection with the metallurgy of
iron and steel is in a fair way of finding its rival in that of the metal
chromium, the employment of which, as an alloy with steel, was first
made the subject of experiment in 1821, by Berthier. He was led by the
important experiments of Faraday and Stoddart, then just published, to
endeavour to alloy chromium with steel, and obtained good results by fusing
steel together with a rich alloy of chromium and iron, so as to introduce
about 15 per cent, of the former into the metal. Further small experi-
ments were made the year following, by Faraday and Stoddart, in the
same direction; but chrome-steel appears to have been first produced
commercially at Brooklyn, N.Y., sixteen years ago. Ten years later
its manufacture had become developed in France, and the varieties of
c 2
20 BEroRT — 1890.
chrome-steel produced in the Loire district now receive important and
continually-extending applications, because they combine comparative
hardness and high tenacity with but little loss in ductility, and acquire
great closeness of structure when tempered.
The influence of chromium upon the character of steel differs in
several marked respects from that exercised by manganese ; thus,
chrome-steels weld badly, or not at all, whereas manganese-steels weld
very readily, and work under the hammer better than ordinary carbon-
steel. Ao-ain, the remarkable influence of manganese upon the magnetic
properties of steel and iron is not shared by chromium. Chrome-steel has
for some time been a formidable rival of the very highest qualities of
carbon-steel produced for cutting-tools, and of the valuable tungsten-
steel which we owe to Robert Mushct. The great hardness, high
tenacity, and exceeding closeness of structure possessed by suitably-
tempered steel containing not more than from 1 to 1'5 per cent, of
chromiam, and from 0'8 to 1 per cent, of carbon, renders this material
invaluable for war purposes : cast projectiles, when suitably tempered,
have penetrated compound steel- and-iron plates over 9 inches in thickness,
such as are used upon armoured ships of war, without even sus-
taining any important change of form. The proper tempering of these
projectiles necessitates their being produced hollow; their cavities or
chambers are only of small capacity, but the charge of violent explosive
vs'hich they can contain, and which can be set into action without the
intervention of fuse or detonating appliance, suffices to tear these formi-
dable punching-tools into fragments as they force their way irresistibly
through the armoured side of a ship, and to violently project those frag-
ments in all directions, with fearfully destructive effects. The employ-
ment of chromium as a constituent of steel plates used for the protection
of ships of war is already being entered upon, and the influence exerted by
the presence of that metal in small quantities in steel employed in the
construction of guns is also at present a subject of investigation. At
Crewe, Mr. F. Webb has for some time past used chromium, with con-
siderable advantage, in the production of high-quality steels for railway
requirements.
The practical results attained by the introduction of copper and of
nickel as components of steel have also recently attracted much attention.
At the celebrated French Steel Works of M. Schneider, at Creuzot, the
addition of a small percentage of copper to steel used for armour-plates
and projectiles is practised, with the object of impai'ting hardness to
the metal without prejudice to its toughness. James Riley has found
that the presence of aluminium in very small quantities facilitates the
union of steel with a small proportion of copper, and that the latter in-
creases the strength but does not improve the working qualities of steel.
With nickel, Riley has obtained products analogous in many important
reepecta to manganese steel ; the remarkable differences in the physical
ADDKESS. 21
properties of the manganese alloys, according to their ricliness in that
metal, are also shared by the nickel alloys, some of wbicli possess
very valuable properties ; thus, it has been shown by Riley that a
particular variety of nickel-steel presents to the engineer the means
of nearly doubling boiler-pressures, without increasing weight or dimen-
sions. He has, moreovei*, found the co-existence of manganese in small
quantity with nickel in the alloy to contribute importantly to the deve-
lopment of valuable characteristics.
The careful study of the alloys of aluminium, chromium, manganese,
tungsten, copper, and nickel, with iron and with steel, so far as it has
been carried, with especial reference to the influence which they respec-
tively exercise upon the salient physical properties of those materials,
even when present in them in only very small proportions, has demon-
strated the importance of a more searching or complete application of
chemical analysis, than hitherto practised, to the determination of tho
composition of the varieties of steel v.'hich practical experience has shown
to be peculiarly adapted to particular uses. It appears, indeed, not im-
probable that certain properties of these, hitherto ascribed to slight
variations in the proportion or the condition of the constituent carbon, or in
the amounts of siliciura, phosphorus, and manganese which they contain,
may sometimes ha\-e been due to the presence in minute quantities of
one or other of such metals as those named, and to their influence,
either direct or indirect, in modifying or counteracting the effects of
the normal constituents of steel. The important part now played by
manganese in steel manufacture is an illustration of the comparatively
recent results of research, and of practical work based on research,
in these directions, and the eSects of the presence in steel of only very-
small quantities of some of the other metals named are already, as I
have pointed out, being similarly understood and utilised.
Such systematic researches as those upon which Osmond, Roberts-
Austen, and many other workers have been for some time past engaged,
may make us acquainted with the laws which govern the modifica-
tions effected in the physical characteristics of metals by alloying these
with small proportions of other metals. The suggestion of Roberts-
Austen, that such modifications may have direct connection with the
periodic law of Mendeleefl", explaining the causes of specific variations
in the properties of iron and steel, has been followed up energetically
by Osmond, who has experimentally investigated the thermal influence
upon iron of the elements phosphorus, sulphur, arsenic, boron, silicium,
nickel, manganese, chromium, copper, and tungsten. He regards his
results as being quite confirmatory of the soundness of Roberts-Austen's
suggestion, as they demonstrate that foreign elements having atomic
volumes lower than iron tend to make it assume or preserve the particular
molecular form in which it has itself the lowest atomic volume, while the
converse is the case for the foreign elements of high atomic volume.
22 EEPORX — 18'JO.
An analogous influence was found to be exei'ted by those two groups
of elements upon the permanent magnetisation of steel.
Captivating as such deductions are, those who have devoted much
attention to the practical investigation of iron, steel, and other metals,
cannot but feel that much caution has to be exercised in drawing broad
conclusions from the results of such researches as these. Like the in-
vestigations recently made with the object of ascertaining the condition
in which carbon exists in steel, and the part played by it in determining
the modifications in the properties developed in that material by the
influences of temperature and of work done upon it, they are surrounded
by formidable difiiculties, arising from the practical impossibility of
altogether eliminatiug the disturbing influences of minute quantities of
foreign elementary bodies, co-existing, in the metal operated upon, with
those whose effects we desire to study. Certain it is, however, that by
acquiring an accurate acquaintance with the composition of varieties of
iron and steel exhibiting characteristic properties ; by persevering in the
all-important work of systematic practical examination of the mechanical
and physical peculiarities developed in iron and steel of known composi-
tion by their association with one or more of the rarer metals in varied
proportions, and by the further prosecution of chemical and physical
research in such directions as those which have already been fruitful of
most instructive results, such talented labourers as Chernoff, Osmond,
Roberts-Austen, Barus and Stroudal, Hadfield, Keep, James Riley, Stead,
Turner, and others, cannot fail to contribute continually to the develop-
ment of improvements equalling in importance those already attained in
the production, treatment, and methods of applying cast iron, malleable
iron, and steel, or alloys equivalent to steel in their qualities.
The causes of the variations in the physical properties of steel pro-
duced by the so-called hardening, annealing, and tempering processes
were for very many years a fruitful subject of experimental inquiry, as
well as of theoretical speculation with regard to the condition in
which the carbon is distributed in steel, according to whether the metal
is hardened or annealed, or in an intermediate, tempered state. Recent
researches have made our knowledge in the latter direction fairly pre-
cise ; as yet, however, we are only on the track of definite information
respecting the nature and extent of connection between the physical
peculiarities of steel in those different conditions and the established
differences in the form and manner in which the carbon is disseminated
through it.
The careful systematic study of the modifications developed in certain
physical properties of iron and steel by gradual changes of temperature
between fusion of the metal and the normal temperature, has shown
those modifications to be governed by a constant law, and that at cer-
tain critical temperatures special phenomena present themselves. This
important subject, which was so clearly brought before the Association
ADDRESS. 23
last year in the interesting lecture of Roberts- Austen, has been,
and is still being, pursued by accouiplished workers, among whom the
most prominent is F. Osmond. The phenomenon of recalescence, or
the re-glowing of, or liberation of heat in, iron and steel at certain
stages during the cooling process, first examined into by Barrett, appears
to be the result of actual chemical combination between the metal and its
contained carbon at the particular temperature attained at the time;
while the absorption of heat, demonstrated by the arrest in rise of
temperature during its continuous apjjlication to the metal, is ascribed
to the elimination, within the mass, of carbon as an iron-carbide per-
fectly stable at low temperatures. The pursuit of a well-devised system
of experimental inquiry into this subject has led Osmond to propound
theories of the hardening and tempering of steel, which are at present
receiving the careful study of physicists and chemists, and cannot fail
to lead to further important advancement of our knowledge of the true
nature of the influence of carbon upon the properties of iron.
Another important subject connected with the treatment of masses of
steel, and with the influence exercised npon their physical characteristics
by the processes of hardening and tempering, and by submitting them to
oft-repeated concussions or vibrations, or to frequent or long-continued
strains, is the development and maintenance, or gradual disappearance,
of internal stresses in the masses — one of the many important subjects to
which attention was directed by Dr. Anderson, the Director-General of Ord-
nance Factories, in his very suggestive Address to the Mechanical Section
last year. This question is one of especial interest to the constructor
of steel guns, as the powers of endurance of these do not simply depend
upon the quality of the material composing them, but are very largely
influenced by the treatment which it receives at the hands of the gun-
maker. Indeed, the highest importance attaches to the processes which
are applied to the preliminary preparation of the individual parts used
in constructing the gun, and to the putting together of these so as
to ensure their being and remaining in the physical condition best cal-
culated to assist each other in securing for the structure the power of so
successfully resisting the heavy strains to which it has to be subjected, as
to suffer little alteration other than that due to the superficial action of
the highly-heated products of explosion of the charges fired in the gun.
The development of internal strains in objects of steel, especially by the
hardening and tempering processes, or by their exposure to conditions
favourable to unequal cooling of different parts of the mass, has long been
a subject of much trouble and of experimental inquiry m connection
with many applications of steel. Systematic experiments of the kind
commenced, about eighteen years ago, by the lafe Russian general Kala-
koutsky, are now being pursued at Woolwich, with the objects of deter-
mining the nature and cause.=i of internal stresses in steel gun-hoops and
-tubes, and in shells, and of thereby establishing the proper course to be
24 KEPOET- -1890.
adopted for avoiding, lessening, or counteracting injuiions stresses, on the
cue liand, and for setting up stresses beneficial to the powers of endurance
of guns, on the other. One method of experiment pursued, with parts
or guns, is to cut narrow hoops off the forgings, after a particular treat-
ment, which are then cut right across at one place, it being observed
whether, and to what extent, the resulting gaps open or close. This im-
portant subject has also been similarly investigated by my talented old
friend and fellow- worker, the President this year of the Mechanical Sec-
tion, Captain Andi'cw Noble, whose name in connection with the science
and practice of artillery is familiar to us as household words.
The Crimean War taught Nations many lessons of gravest import, to
some of which Sir Richard Owen took occasion to call attention most
impressively in the Address delivered here, before the miseries of that
war had become past history. The development of sanitary science, to
which he especially referred, and which sprang from the bitter experience
of that sad epoch, has had its parallel in the development of the science of
artillery ; but it would indeed be difficult to establish any parallelism be-
tween the benefits which even the soldier and the sailor have reaped fi'om.
the great strides made by both these sciences. The acquisition of know-
ledge of the causes of the then hopelessness of gallant struggles which
medical skill and self-sacrificing devotion made against the suflPerirgs of
the victims of battles and of fell diseases, as deadly as the cruellest
implements of war ; the application of that knowledge to the provision of
the blessings of antiseptic treatment of wounds and to the intelligent
utilisation of disinfectants and of other valuable preventive measures,
to the supply of wholesome water, of wholesome food in campaigning, of
sensible clothing, and of wholesome air in hospitals, barracks, and ships — :
these are some few of the benefits which the soldier and the sailor have
derived from the development of sanitary science, which was so powerfully
stimulated by the terrible lessons learned during the long-drawn-out siege
of Sebastopol ; and it is indeed pleasant to reflect that there has been, for
years past, most wholesome competition between Nations in the enlarge-
ment of those benefits, and their dissemination among the men whose
vocation it is to slay and be slain. The periodical International Con-
gresses on Hygiene and Demography, of which we shall cordially welcome
next year's assemblage in London, and whose members will deplore the
absence from among them of the veteran Nestor in the science and prac-
tice of hygiene, Sir Edwin Chadwick, have afforded conclusive demon-
stration of the heartiness with which Nations are now co-operating with
a view to utilise the invaluable results attained by the successful labourers
in sanitary science.
What, on the other hand, shall we say of the benefits which sailors and
soldiers, in the pursuit of their calling, derive from the ceaseless costly
competition amongst Nations for supremacy in the possession of for-
ADDRESS. 25
midable artillery, violent explosives, quick-firing arms of deadly accuracy,
and fearful engines wliich, unseen, can work wholesale destruction in a,
fleet ? And what can we say of the benefits acquired by individual
Countries in return for their continuous, and sometimes ruinous, expendi-
ture in endeavouring to maintain themselves upon an equality with their
neighbours in man-killing power ? The conditions under which engage-
ments by sea or land will in the future be fought have certainly become
greatly modified from those of thirty-five years ago, and the duration of
warfare, even between Nations in conflict who are on a fair equality of
resoui'ces, must become reduced ; but, as regards the results of a trial of
strength between contending forces, similarly equipped, as they now will
be, with the latest of modern appliances only varying in detail, these
must, after all, depend, as of old, partly upon accident, favoured, perhaps,
by a temporary superiority in equipment, partly upon the skill and mili-
tary genius of individuals, and very much upon the characteristics of the
men who fight the battles.
What really can be said in favour of the advances made in the
appliances of war — and this is, perhaps, the view which in such a town as
Leeds we should keep before our eyes to the exclusion of the dark side of
the picture — is, that by continuous competition in the development of their
magnitude, diversity, and perfection, the resources of the manufacturer,
the chemist, the engineer, the electrician, are taxed to the uttermost,
with the very important, although incidental, results, that industries are
created or expanded and perfected, trades maintained and developed,
and new achievements accomplished in applied science, which in time
beneficially affect the advance of peaceful arts and manufactures. In
these ways the expenditure of a large proportion of a country's resources
upon material which is destroyed in creating destruction does substantially
benefit communities, and tends t;o the accomplishment of such material
progress by a Country as goes far to compensate its people for the sacri-
fices which they are called upon to incur for the maintenance of their
dignity among Nations.
From this point of view, at any rate, it may interest members of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science, and for the promotion
of its applications to the welfare and happiness of mankind, to hear some-
thing of recent advances in one of the several branches of science in its
applications to naval and military requirements with which, during a long
and arduous official career, now approaching its close, I laave become in
some measure identified.
Since the Meeting of the Association in this town in 1858, the progress
which has been made in the regulation of the explosive force of gun-
powder, so as to adapt it to the safe development of very high energy in
guns presenting great deferences in regard to size and to the work wuich
they have to perform, has been most important. The different forms of
gunpowder which were applied to war- purposes in this and other countries.
26 REPORT — 1890,
until within tlie last few years, presented comparatively few differences in
composition and methods of manufacture from each other, and from the
gunpowder of our ancestors. The replacement of smooth-bore guns by
rifled artillery, which followed the Crimean War, and the great increase in
the size and power of guns necessitated by the application of armour to
ships and forts, soon called, however, for the pursuit of investigations
having for their object the attainment of means for variously modifying
the action of fired gunpowder, so as to render it suitable for artillery of
different calibres whose power could not be effectively, or, in some in-
stances, safely, developed by the use of the only kind of gunpowder then
employed in English artillery of all calibres.
The means resorted to in the earlier of these investigations, and
adhered to for many years, for controlling the violence of explosion of
gunpowder, consisted exclusively in modifying the size and form, density
and hardness, of the individual masses composing a charge, with the
object of varying the rate of burning of those masses in a gun ; it
being considered that, as the proportions of ingredients generally em-
ployed very nearly correspond to those required for the development
of the greatest chemical energy by the thoroughly-incorporated materials,
the attainment of the desired results should be, if possible, effected
rather by modifications of the physical and mechanical characters of gun-
powder, than by variations of the proportions and chemical characters
of its ingredients.
The varieties of powder from time to time introduced into artillery-
service, as the outcome of investigations in this direction, were of two
distinct types : the first of these consisted of further developments of the
old granulated or corned powder, being produced by breaking up more or
less highly-pressed slabs of the material into grains, pebbles, or boulders
of approximately uniform size and shape. Gunpowders of this class,
ranging in size from about 1,000 pieces to the ounce to about 6 pieces to
the pound, have performed efiicient service, and certain of them are still
employed. The character of the other type is based upon the theoretical
view that uniformity in the action of a particular gunpowder, when em-
ployed under like conditions, demands not merely identity in regard to
composition, but also identity in form, size, density, and structure of the
individual masses of which a charge consists. To approach the practical
realisation of this view, equal quantities of one and the same mixture of
ingredients, presented in the form of powder of uniform fineness and
dryness, must be submitted to a particular pressure, for a fixed period,
in moulds of uniform size, the surrounding conditions and subsequent
manufacturing processes being as nearly as possible alike. Practical
experience has, however, shown that uniformity in the ballistic properties
of black powder can be even more readily secured by the thorough blend-
ing or mixing together of different products of manufacture, presenting
some variationB in regard to size, density, hardness, or other features, than
ADDnESS. 27
by aiming at an approach to identity in the characters of the individual
grains or masses.
When our attention was fii'st actively directed to the modification of
the ballistic properties of powder, the subject had already been to some
extent dealt Avith, in the United States, by Rodman and Doremus, and the
latter had proposed the employment, in heavy guns, of charges consisting
of large pellets of prismatic form. While this prismatic powder, which
was first used in Russia, was being perfected, and extensively applied
there as well as in Germany and England, the pi'oduction of powder-
masses more suitable, by the comparatively gradual nature of their ex-
plosion, for the very large charges required for the heavy artillery of the
present day, was actively pursued in Italy, and by our own Government
Committee on Explosives, the outcome of exhaustive pi-actical investi-
gations being the very efficient Fossano powder, or poudre progressif
of the Italians, and the boulder- and large cylindrical-powders produced
at Waltham Abbey.
Researches carried out by Captain Noble and myself, some years ago,
with a series of gunpowders presenting considerable differences in com-
position, indicated that decided advantages might be secured, for heavy
guns especially, by the employment of such a powder as would furnish a
comparatively very lai-ge volume of gas, its explosion being at the same
time attended by the development of much less heat than in the case of
ordinary black powder. In the course of these researches much light
was thrown upon the causes of the wearing or erosive action of powder-
explosions upon the inner surface of the gun, an action which, especially
in the larger calibres of artillery, produces so serious a deterioration of the
arm that the velocity of projection and accuracy of shooting suffer consider-
ably, the wear being most considerable where the products of explosion,
while under the maximum pressure, can escape betv^een the projectile and
the bore. The great velocity with which the very highly-heated gaseous
and liquid (fused solid) products of explosion sweep over the heated sur-
face of the metal, gives rise to a displacement of the particles composing
the surface of the bore, which increases in extent as the latter becomes
roughened, and thus opposes increased resistance ; at the same time, the
high temperature to which the surface is raised reduces the rigidity of
the metal, and its consequent power of resisting the force of the gaseous
torrent ; and, lastly, some amount of chemical action upon the metal, by
certain of the highly-heated, non-gaseous products of explosion, contri-
butes towards an increase in the erosive effects. Experiments made upon
a large scale by Captain Noble with powders of different composition,
and with other explosives, have afforded decisive evidence that the explo-
sive agent which furnishes the largest proportion of gaseous products,
and the explosion of which is attended by the development of the smallest
amount of heat, exerts least erosive action.
Some eminent German gunpowder-manufacturers, who were at this
28 REPORT — 1890.
time actively engaged upon the production of a suitable powder for heavy
guns, directed their attention, not merely to an alteration of the propor-
tions of the ingredients, but also to a modification in the character of char-
coal employed ; the eventual result was the production of a new pris-
matic powder, composed of saltpetre in somewhat higher proportion than
in normal black powder, and of a very slightly-burned charcoal of reddish-
brown colour, quite similar to the charhon roux which Violette produced
about forty years ago for use in sporting-powder, by the action of super-
heated steam upon wood or other vegetable matter. This brown prismatic
powder (or ' cocoa powder ') differs from black powder not merely in
colour : it burns very slowly in the open air, and in guns its action is com-
paratively gradual and long-sustained. The products of its explosion are
simple ; as the powder contains saltpetre in large proportion relatively to
the sulphur and charcoal, these become fully oxidised, and a relatively very
large amount of water-vapour is produced, partly because of the com-
paratively high proportion of water in the finished powder, and partly
from the large amount of hydrogen in the slightly-charred wood or
straw used. The smoke from a charge of brown powder differs but little
in volume from that of black powder, but it disperses much more rapidly,
owing to the speedy absorption of the finely-divided potassium salts,
forming the smoke, by the large proportion of water- vapour through
which they are distributed.
This kind of powder has been substituted, with considerable advan-
tage, for black powder in guns of comparatively large calibre, but it soon
became desirable to attain even more gradual action in the case of the
very large charges required for guns of the heaviest calibres, such as
the 110-ton gun, from which shot of about 1,800 lb. weight are propelled
by a powder-charge of 960 lb. Brown powder has therefore been modi-
fied in composition to suit these conditions ; while, on the other hand, a
powder intermediate in rapidity of action between black powder and the
brown prism powder has been found more suitable than the former for
use in guns of moderately large calibre.
The importance which machine-guns and comparatively large, quick-
firing guns have assumed in the armament of ships, has made it very
desirable to provide a powder for them which will produce comparatively
little or no smoke, as their efficient employment becomes greatly limited
■when, after a very few rounds rapidly fired, with black powder, the objects,
against which it is desired to direct the fire are more or less completely
hidden by the interposed smoke. Hence much attention has of late been
directed to the production of smokeless, or nearly smokeless, powders for
naval use. At the same time, the views of many military authorities
regarding the importance of dispensing with smoke in engagements on
land, have also created a demand for smokeless powders suitable for field-
artillery and for small-arms.
The properties of ammoniiim-nitrate of which the products of decom-
I
I
ADDKESS. 29
position by heat are, in addition to water-vapour, entirely gaseous, bav©
rendered it a tempting material to those %Yho have striven to produce a
smokeless powder ; but its deliquescent character has been a formidable
obstacle to its application as a component of a useful explosive agent. By
incorporating charcoal and saltpetre in j^articular proportions with am-
monium-nitrate, F. Gaus recently claimed to have produced an explosive
material free from the hygi'oscopic character common to other ammonium-
nitrate mixtures, and furnishing only permanently gaseous and volatile,
or smokeless, products of explosion. These anticipations were not real-
ised, but they led the talented German powder-maker, Mr. Heide-
mann, to produce an ammonium-nitrate powder possessing remarkable
ballistic properties, and producing comparatively little smoke, which
speedily disperses. It yields a very much larger volume of gas and
water- vapour than either black or brown powder, and is considerably
slower in action than the latter ; the charge required to produce equal
ballistic results is less, while the chamber-pressure developed is lower^
and the pressures along the chase of the gun are higher, than with brown,
powder. No great tendency is exhibited by it to absorb moisture from
an ordinarily dry, or even somewhat moist, atmosphere, but it rapidly
absorbs water when the hygroscopic condition of the air approaches
saturation, and this greatly restricts its use.
About five years ago reports began to reach us from France of the
attainment of remarkable results with a smokeless powder employed with
the repeating or magazine rifle then in course of adoption for military ser-
vice, and of marvellous velocities obtained by the use of this powder, in
specially constructed artilleiy of great length. As in the case of the explo-
sive agent called Melinite, the fabulously-destructive effects of which were
much vaunted at about the same time, the secret of the nature of this smoke-
less powder was well preserved by the French anthorities ; it is now
known, however, that more than one smokeless explosive has succeeded
the original, and that the material at present in use with the Lebel
repeating rifle belongs to a class of nitro-cellulose or nitro-cotton pre-
parations, of which several have been made the subject of patents in
England, and of which varieties are also being used in Germany and
other countries.
A comparison between the chemical changes attending the burning
or explosion of gunpowder, and of the class of nitro-compounds repre-
sented by gun-cotton, at once explains the cause of the production of
smoke by the former, and of the smokelessness of the latter. Whilst
the products of explosion of the nitro-compounds consist exclusively of
gases and of water- vapour, gunpowder, being composed of a large propor-
tion of saltpetre, or other metallic niti-ate, mixed with charred vege-
table matter and variable quantities of sulphur, furnishes products of
which over 50 per cent, are not gaseous, even at high temperatures, and
which are in part deposited as a fused solid — which constitutes the
30 EEPORT — 1890.
fouling in a firearm — and in part distribnted in an extremely fine state
of division througli the gases and vapours developed by the explosion,
thus giving to these the appearance of smoke as they escape into the air.
So far as smokelessness is concerned, no material can surpass gtm-
coiton (or other varieties of nitro-cellulose) ; but, even if the rate of
combustion of the fibrous explosive in a firearm could be controlled with
certainty and uniformity, its application as a safe propulsive agent is
attended by so many difficulties that the non-success of the numerous
eai'ly attempts to apply it to that purpose is not surprising. Those attempts,
commencing soon after the discovery of gun-cotton in 1846, and continued
many years later in Austria, consisted entirely in varying the density and
mechanical condition of employment of the gun-cotton fibre. No diffi-
culty "was experienced in thus exercising complete control over the
rapidity of burning in the open air ; but when the material was strongly
confined, as in the bore of a gun, such methods of regulating its explosive
force were quite unreliable, as some slight unforeseen variation in its com-
pactness or in the amount and disposition of the air-spaces in the mass,
would develop very violent action. Much more promising results were
subsequently obtained by me by reducing the fibre to a pulp, as in the
ordinary process of making paper, and converting this into highly-com-
pressed, homogeneous masses of the desired form and size. Some favour-
able results were obtained at Woolwich, in 1867-8, in field-guns, with
cartridges built up of compressed gun-cotton variously formed and
arranged, with the object of regulating the rapidity of explosion of the
charge. But although comparatively small charges often gave high
velocities of projection, without any indications of injury to the gun, the
uniform fulfilment of the conditions essential to safety proved to be beyond
absolute control, even in guns of small calibre ; and military authorities
not being, in those days, alive to the advantages which might accrue from
the employment of an entirely smokeless explosive in artillery, experi-
ments in this direction were not persevered in. At the same time, '
considerable success attended the production of gun-cotton cartridges
for sporting purposes, the rapidity of its explosion being controlled
by various methods ; very promising results were also attained with
the Martini-Henry rifle and a lightly-compressed pulped gun-cotton
charge, of pellet-form, the uniform action of which was secured by simple
means.
A nearly smokeless sporting-powder had, in the meantime, been pro-
duced by Colonel Schultze, of the Prussian Artillery, from finely-
divided wood, converted after purification into a mildly explosive form
of nitro-cellulose, and impregnated with a small portion of an oxidising
agent. Subsequently this powder was produced in a granular form, and
rendered considerably more uniform in character, and less hygroscopic ;
it then closely resembled the well-known E.G. sporting powder, which
consists of a nitro-cotton reduced to pulp, incorporated with the nitrates
ADDRESS. 3 1
of potassium and barium, and converted into grains through the agency
of a solvent and a binding material. Both these povrders produce very-
little smoke compared with black powder, but they do not compete with
the latter in regard to accuracy of shooting, when used in military arms.
In past years both camphor and liquid solvents have been applied to the
hardening of the surfaces of granulated or compressed masses of gun-cotton
and of this class of its preparations, with a view to render them non-porous,
lu some smokeless powders of French, German, Belgian, and English
manufacture, acetic ether and acetone have been also used, not merely to
harden the granules or tablets of the explosive, but also to convert the
nitre-cellulose, in the first instance, into a more or less gelatinous con-
dition, so that it can readily be incorporated witli other components and
rolled, or spread into sheets, or pressed into moulds, or squirted into
wires, rods, or tubes, while still in a plastic state. When the solvent
has afterwards been removed, the hardened, horn-like, or somewhat
plastic product is cut up into tablets, or into strips or pieces of suitable
dimensions, for conversion into charges or cartridges.
Another class of smokeless powder, similar in physical characteristics
to these nitro-cellulose powders, but containing nitro-glycerine as an im-
portant component, has been originated by Mr. Alfred Nobel, the well-
known inventor of dynamite, and bears resemblance in its physical charac-
teristics to another of his inventions, called blasting-gelatine, one of the
most interesting of known violent explosive agents. When one of the
lower products of nitration of cellulose is impregnated with the liquid
explosive, nitro-glycerine, it gradually loses its fibrous nature, becoming
gelatinised while assimilating the liquid ; and the resulting product
almost possesses the characters of a compound. This preparation, and
certain modifications of it, have acquired high importance as blasting-
agents more powerful than dynamite, and are possessed of the valuable
property that their prolonged immersion in water does not separate
from them any appreciable proportion of nitro-glycerine. The nitro-
glycerine powder first produced by Mr. Nobel was almost perfectly
smokeless, and developed very high energy, accompanied by moderate
pressures at the seat of the charge; but it possessed certain practical
defects, which led to the development of several modifications of that
explosive and various improvements in manufacture. The relative
merits of this class of smokeless powder, and of various kinds of
nitro-cellulose powder, are now under careful investigation in this and
other countries, and several more or less formidable difficulties have been
met with in their application, in small-arms especially ; these arise in part
from the comparatively great heat they develop, which increases the
erosive effects of the products of explosion, and in part from the moro
or less complete absence of solid products. The surfaces of the barrel
and of the projectile being left clean, after the firing, are in a con-
dition favourable to their close adhesion while the ballet is propelled
32 EEPORT — 1890.
alonf^ the bore, with tlie consequence tliat very greatly increased friction
is esTablislied. The latter difficulty lias been surmounted by more than
one expedient, but always at the cost of absolute smokelessness.
Our knowledo-e of the results obtained in France and Germany
with the use of smokeless powders in the new rifles and in artillery
is somewhat limited ; our own experiments have demonstrated that
satisfactory results are attainable with more than one variety of them,
not only in the new repeating-arm of our infantry, but also with our
machine-guns, with field-artillery, and with the quick-firing guns of
laro-er calibre which constitute an important feature in the armament
of our Navy. The importance of ensuring that the powder shall not
be liable to undergo chemical change detrimental to its efficiency or
safety, when stored in difTerent localities where it may be subject to
considerable variations of temperature (a condition especially essential
in connection with our own Naval and Military service in all parts of
the world), necessitates qualities not very easily secured in an explosive
ao-ent consistino- mainly of the comparatively sensitive nitro-compounds
to which the chemist is limited in the production of a smokeless powder.
It is possible, therefore, that the extent of use of such a material in our
ships, or in our tropical possessions, may have to be limited by the practica-
bility of fulfilling certain special conditions essential to its storage without
dan O'er of possible deterioration. If, however, great advantages are likely
to attend the employment of a smokeless explosive, at any rate for certain
Services, it will be well worth while to adopt such special arrangements
as may be required for securing these without incurring special dangers ;
this may prove to be especially necessary in our ships of war, where
temperatures so high as to be prejudicial even to ordinary black powder
sometimes prevail in the magazines, consequent mainly upon the positions
assio-ned to them in the ships, but which may be guarded against by
measures not difficult of application.
The Press accounts of the wonderful performances of the first smoke-
less powder adopted by the French — which, it should be added, were
in some respects confirmed by official reports of officers who had wit-
nessed experiments at a considerable distance — engendered a belief that
a very great revolution in the conduct of campaigns must result from the
introduction of such powders. It was even reported very positively that
noiselessness was one of the important attributes of a smokeless powder, and
hio-hly-coloured comparisons have in consequence been drawn in Service-
periodicals, and even by some military authorities, between the battles of
the past and those of the future : the terrific din caused by the firing
of the many guns and the roar of infantry-fire, in heavy engagements,
beino- supposed to be reduced to noise so slight that distant troops would
fail to know in what direction their comrades were engaged, and that
sentries and outposts would no longer be able to warn their comrades of
the approaching foe by the discharge of their rifles. Military journals of
ADDRESS. 33
renown, misled by such legendary accounts, chiefly emanating from France,
referred to the absence of noise and smoke in battles as greatly enhancing
the demands for skill and courage, and as surrounding a fight with mystery.
The absence of recoil when a rifle was fired with smokeless powder was
another of the marvels reported to attend the use of these new agents
of warfare. It need scarcely be said that a closer acquaintance with
them has dispelled the credit given to such of the accounts of their sup-
posed qualities as were mythical, and a belief in which could only be
ascribable to a phenomenal combination of credulity with ignorance of the
most elementary scientific knowledge.
The extensive use which has been made in Germany of smokeless or
nearly smokeless powder in one or two special military displays has,
however, aSbrded interesting indications of the actual changes likely
to be wrought in the conditions under which engagements on land will be
fought in the future, provided these new explosives thoroughly establish
and maintain their positions as safe and reliable propelling agents.
Although the powder adopted in Germany is not actually smokeless,
the almost transparent film of smoke produced by independent rifle-
firing with it is not visible at a distance of about 300 yards ; at shorter
distances it presents the appearance of a puff from a cigar. The most
rapid salvo-firing by a large number of men does not have the effect of
obscuring them from distant observers. When machine-guns and field-
artillery are fired with the almost absolutely smokeless powder which we
are employing, their position is not readily revealed to distant observers
by the momentary vivid flash of flame and slight cloud of dust produced.
There now appears little doubt that in future warfare belligerents on
both sides will alike be users of these new powders ; the screening or
obscuring eS"ect of smoke will therefore be practically absent during
engagements between contending forces, and while, on the one hand, the
very important protection of smoke, and its sometimes equally important
assistance in manoeuvres, will thus be abolished, both combatants will,
on the other hand, secure the advantages of accuracy of shooting and of
the use of individual fire, through the medium of cover, with comparative
immunity from detection. Such results as these cannot fail to afiect, more
or less radically, the principles and conditions under which battles have
hitherto been fought. With respect to the Naval Service, it is especially for
the quick-firing guns, so important for defensive purposes, that a smoke-
less powder has been anxiously looked for ; by the adoption of such a
powder as has during the past year been elaborated for our artillery,
should experience establish its reliability under all Service conditions and
its power to fulfil all reasonable requirements in regard to stability, these
guns will not only be used by our ships under conditions most favour-
able to their efliciency, but their power will also be very importantly
increased.
The ready and safe attainment of very high velocities of projection
1890. D
34 REPORT— 18G0.
through the agency of these new varieties of explosive agents, employed in
guns of suitable construction, would appear at first sight to promise a very im-
portant advance in the power of artillery ; the practical difficulties attending
the utilisation of these results are, however, sufficiently formidable to place,
at any rate at present, comparatively narrow limits upon our powers of
availing ourselves of the advantages in ballistics which they may present.
The strength of the gun-carriages and the character of the arrangements
used for absorbing the force of recoil of the gun need considerable modi-
fications, not easy of application in some instances ; greater strength and
perfection of manufacture are imperative in the case of the hollow pro-
jectiles or shells to be used with charges of a propelling agent, by the
firing of which in the gun they may be submitted to comparatively
very severe concussions ; the increased friction to which portions of the
explosive contents of the shell are exposed by the more violent setting
back of the mass may increase the jjossibility of their accidental ignition
before the shell has been projected from the gun ; the increase of con-
cussion to which the fuse in the shell is exposed may give rise to a
similar risk consequent upon an increased liability to a failure of the
mechanical devices employed for preventing the igniting arrangement,
designed to come into operation only upon the impact or graze of the
projected shells, from being set into action prematurely by the shock
of the discharge ; lastly, the circumstance, that the rate of burning
of the time-fuse which determines the efficiency of a projected shrapnel
shell is materially altered by an increase in the velocity of flight of the
shell, also presents a source of difficulty.
The fallibility of even the most simple forms of fuse, manufactured in
very large numbers, although it may be remote, must always engender a
feeling of insecurity, when shells are employed containing an explosive
agent of the class which, in recent years, it has been sought, by every
resource of ingenuity, combined with intimate knowledge of the pro-
perties of these explosives, to apply as substitutes for gunpowder in shells,
on account of their comparatively great destructive power.
One of the first uses, for purposes of warfare, to which it was attempted
to apply gun-cotton, was as a charge for shells. But even when this was
highly compressed, and accurately fitted the shell-chamber, with the in-
tervention only of a soft packing between the surfaces of explosive and
of metal, to guard against friction between the two upon the shock of the
discharge, no security was attaiaable against the ignition of the compara-
tively sensitive explosive by friction established within its mass at the
moment when the shell ia first set in motion. By the premature explosion
of a shell charged with gunpowder, no important injury is inflicted upon
the gun, but a similar accidental ignition of a gun-cotton charge must
almost inevitably burst the arm. The earlier attempts to apply gun-
cotton as a bursting-charge for shells were several times attended by very
disastrous accidents of this kind ; but the fact, afterwards discovered,
ADDEESS. 35
that wet compressed gau-cotton, even when containing safEcient water to
render it quite uninflammable, can be detonated through the agency of a
sufficiently powerful charge of fulminate of mercury, or of a small quantity
of dry gun-cotton imbedded within it, has led to the perfectly safe appli-
cation of gun-cotton in shells, provided the fase, through the agency of
which the initiative detonating agent in the shell comes into operation,
is secure against any liability to premature ignition when the gun is
fired. Many successful experiments have been made with shells thus
charged with wet gun-cotton, which is now recognised as a formidable
destructive agent applicable in shells with much less risk of casualty than
attends the use of many other of the violent explosive bodies which it
has become fashionable, in professional parlance, to designate as ' hio-h
explosives.'
Many devices and arrangements, more or less ingenious and compli-
cated, have been schemed, especially in the United States, for applying
preparations of the very sensitive liquid, nitro-glycerine, such as
dynamite and blasting-gelatine, as charges for shells. Some of these
consist in subdividing the charge by more or less elaborate methods ;
in others the shell is also lined with some soft elastic packing-mate-
rial, and paddings of similar material are applied in the head and the
base of the shell-chamber, with the object of reducing the friction and
concussion to which the explosive is exposed when the projectile is first
set in motion. Such arrangements obviously diminish the space available
for the charge in the shell, and the best of them fail to render these ex-
plosives as safe to employ as wet gun-cotton. In order to avoid exjjosin"-
shells loaded with such explosives to the concussion produced when pro-
pelling them by a powder-charge, compressed air has been applied as the
propelling agent, and guns of special construction and very large dimen-
sions, from which shells containing as much as 500 lb. of gun-cotton or
dynamite are projected through the agency of compressed air, have
recently been elaborated in the United States, where great expectations
ai'e entertained of the value, for war-purposes, of these so-called pneumatic
guns.
A highly ingenious device for utilising a class of very powerful
explosives in shells, without any risk of accident to the gun, was not long
since brought forward by Mr. Griisen, the well-known armour-plate and
projectile manufacturer of Magdeburg. It consisted of a thoroughly
efficient arrangement for applying the fact, first demonstrated by Dr.
Sprengel, that mixtures of nitric acid of high specific gravity with solid
or liquid hydrocarbons, or with the nitro- compounds of these, are sus-
ceptible of detonation, with development of very high energy. The two
agents, of themselves non-explosive — nitric acid and the hydro-carbon, or
its nitro-product — are separately confined in the shell ; when it is first set
in motion by the firing of the gun, the fracture of the receptacle containing
the liquid nitric acid is determined by a very simple device ; the two
36 REPORT — 1890.
substances are then free to come into contact, and their very rapid mixture
is promoted by the rotation of the shell, so that, almost by the time that it
is projected from the gun, its contents, at first quite harmless, have become
converted into a powerfully explosive mixture, ready^to come into opera-
tion through the action of the fuse. Although safety appears assured by
this system, the comparatively complicated nature of the contrivance, and
the loss of space in the shell thereby entailed, place it at a disadvantage,
especially since some other very violent explosive agents have come to
be applied with comparative safety in shells.
Between four and five years ago intelligence first reached us of
marvellously destructive effects produced by shells charged with an
explosive agent which the French Government was^ elaborating. The
reported results surpassed any previously recorded in regard to violently
destructive effects and great velocity of projection of the fragments of
exploded shells, and it was asserted that the employment of this new
material, Melinite, was unattended by the usual dangers incident to this
particular application of violent explosive agents, an assertion scarcely
consistent with accounts which soon reached us of several terrible calami-
ties due to the accidental explosion of shells loaded with Melinite.
Although the secret of the precise nature of Melinite has been
extremely well preserved, it transpired ere long that extensive purchases
■wei-e made in England, by or for the French authorities, of one of the
many coal-tar derivatives which for some years past has been extensively
manufactui-ed for tinctorial purposes, but which, although not itself classed
among explosive bodies until quite lately, had long before been known
to furnish, with some metals, more or less highly explosive combinations,
some of which bad been applied to the production of preparations sug-
gested as substitutes for gunpowder.
The product of destructive distillation of coal from which, by oxida-
tion, this material is now manufactured, is the important and universally-
known antiseptic and disinfectant, carbolic acid, or phenol. Originally
designated carbazotic acid, the substance now known as picric acid was
first obtained in small quantities as a chemical curiosity by the oxidation
of silk, aloes, &c., and of the well-known blue dye indigo, which thus
yielded another dye of a brilliant yellow colour. To the many who may
regard this interesting phenol-derivative as a material concerning the
stability and other properties of which we have little knowledge, it will
be interesting to learn that it has been known to chemists for more than a
century. It was first manufactured in England for tinctorial purposes by
the oxidation of a yellow resin (Xanthorrhcea hastilis), known as Botany
Bay gum. Its production from carbolic acid was developed in Manchester
in 1862, and its application as a dye gradually extended, until, in 1886,
nearly 100 tons were produced in England and Wales.
Although picric acid compounds were long since experimented with as
explosive agents, it was not until a very serious accident occurred, in 1887,
ADDBESS. 37
at some works near Maucliester where the djo had been for some time
manufactured, that pubhc attention was directed in England to the power-
fully explosive nature of this substance itself. The French authorities
appear, however, to have been at that time already engaged upon its
application as an explosive for shells. It is now produced in very large
quantities at several works in Great Britain, and it has been extensively
exported during the last four years, evidently for other than the usual
commercial purposes. Large supplies of phenol, or carbolic acid, have, at
the same time, been purchased in England for France, and lately for
Germany, doubtless for the manufacture of picric acid, very extensive
works having been established for its production in both those countries.
It has been made the subject of experiment by our military authorities,
and its position has been well established as a thoroughly stable explosive
agent, easily manufactured, comparatively safe to deal with, and very
destructive when the conditions essential for its detonation are fulfilled.
The precise nature of Melinite appears to be still only known to the
French authorities : it is asserted to be a mixture of picric acid with some
material imparting to it greater power ; but accounts of accidents which have
occurred even quite recently in the handling of shells charged with that
material appear to show that, in point of safety or stability, it is decidedly
inferior to simple picric acid. Reliable as the latter is, in this respect, its
employment is, however, not unattended with the difficulties and risks
which have to be encountered in the use, in shells, of other especially
violent explosives. Future experience in actual warfare can alone determine
decisively the relative value of violent explosive agents, like picric acid
or wet gun-cotton, and of the comparatively slow explosive, gunpowder,
for use in shells; it is certain, however, that the latter still presents
distinct advantages in some directions, and that there is no present pro-
spect of its being more than very partially superseded as an explosive
for shells.
With regard to submarine mines and locomotive torpedoes, such as
those marvels of ingenuity and constructive skill, the Whitehead and
Brennan torpedoes, the important progress recently made in the prac-
tical development of explosive agents has not resulted in the provision
of a material which equals wet compressed gun-cotton in combining with
great destructive power the all-important essential of safety to those
who have to deal with these formidable weapons and to man the small
vessels destined to perform the very hazardous service of attacking ships
of war at short distances by means of locomotive torpedoes.
Although the subject of the development of explosive force for purposes
of war has of late received from workers in applied science, from seekers
of patentable inventions, and even from the public generally, a somewhat
predominating shai-e of attention, considering that we congratulate our-
selves upon the enjoyment of a period of profound peace, yet the produc-
38 REroRT — 1890.
tion of new explosive agents for mining and quarrying purposes, which
present or lay claim to points of superiority over the well-established
blasting-agents, has been by no means at a standstill. For many years
the main object sought to be achieved in this direction was to surpass,
in power or adaptability to particular classes of work, the well-known
preparations of nitro-glycerine and gun-cotton, which, during the past
twenty years, have been formidable competitors and, in many directions,
absolutely successful rivals of black powder. It is both interesting and
satisfactory to note, however, that this object has of late, and especially
since the publication of the results of labours of English and foreign
Commissions on the causes of mine-accidents, been prominently associated
with endeavours to solve the important problems of combining, in an
explosive agent, efiBcicncy in point of power with comparative non-
sensitiveness to explosion by friction or percussion, and of securing
its effective operation with little or no accompaniment of i^rojected flame.
Safety-dynamites, flameless explosives, water- cartridges, and other classes
of materials and devices connected with the getting of coal, the quarry-
ing of rock, or the blasting of minerals, have claimed the attention of
those who guide the miner's work ; in some of these directions the
practical results obtained have been beyond question important, and,
indeed, conclusive as regards the great diminution of risks to which
men need be exposed in those coal-mines where the ordinary use of
explosives, although not altogether inadmissible, may at times be attended
with dano-er. It is to be feared that those results are still far from
receiving the amount of application which might reasonably be hoped
for ; but, at any rate, there are, among the extensive mining districts
where the employment of explosives in connection with the getting of coal
cannot be dispensed with, several of importance where the use of gun-
powder has almost entirely given place to the adoption of blasting-agents
or methods of blasting, the employment of which is either not, or only
very exceptionally, attended by the projection of flame or incandescent
matter into the air where the shot is fired.
The mining public is especially indebted to German workers for much
of the success which has been obtained in this direction, and also to the emi-
nent French authorities, Mallard and Le Chatelier, for their thorough theo-
retical and practical investigations bearing upon the prevention of acci-
dental ignition of fire-damp during blasting operations. Having arrived at
the conclusion that fire-damp- and air-mixtures are not ignited by the firing
of explosive preparations which develop by their detonation temperatures
lower than 2220° C, they found that ammonium-nitrate, although in
itself susceptible of detonation, does not develop a higher temperature than
1180° C, while the temperature of detonation of nitro-glvcerine and gun-
cotton are, respectively, 3170° and 2036°. Hence the admixture of that
salt with nitro-glycerine or gun-cotton in suflBcient proportion to reduce
the temperature of detonation to within safe limits should allow of the
I
ADDRESS. 39
employment of those explosive agents in the presence of fire-damp mixtures
without risk of accident, and the pi'actical verification of this conclusion
has led to the effective use of such mixtures as safe blasting-agents in coal.
Those who have been content to labour long and arduously with the
objects steadily in view of advancing our knowledge of the causes of
mine-accidents and of developing resources and measures for removing
or combating those causes, can cherish the conviction that recent legis-
lation in connection with coal-mines, based upon the results of those
labours, has been already productive of decided benefits to the miner,
even although it has fallen short of what might reasonably have been
hoped for as an outcome of the very definite results and conclusions
arrived at by the late Royal Commission on Accidents in Mines (in the
recent much-lamented death of whose universally respected chairman, my
late esteemed friend and colleague. Sir Warington Smyth, the scientific
world has sustained the loss of an ardent worker, and the miner, of an
invaluable friend).
The fearful dangers arising from the accumulation of inflammable dust
in coal-mines, and the equality of mine-dust with fire-damp in its direful
power of propagating explosions, which may sometimes even be, in the first
instance, established chiefly or entirely through its agency, have now been
long recognised as beyond dispute ; audit is satisfactory to know that permis-
sion to fire shots in mine-workings which are dry and dusty has, by recent
legislation, been made conditional upon the previous laying of the dust
by effective watering. In some mining districts, moreover, the purely
voluntary pi'actice has been extensively adopted, by mine-owners, of
periodically watering the main roads in dry and dusty mines, or of
frequently discharging water-spray into the air in such roads, which must
tend greatly to reduce the possible magnitude of the disastrous results
of a fire-damp- or dust-explosion in any part of the mine-workings.
The encouragement given to the application of the combined resources
of ingenuity, mechanical skill, and knowledge of scientific principles,
through the elaborate, but thoroughly practical, comparative trials to
which almost every variety of safety-lamp has, during the last few
years, been submitted by competent and conscientious experimenters,
has resulted in the provision of lamps to the hand of the miner which
jcombine the essential qualities of safety, under the most exceptionally
iBevere conditions, with good illuminating power, simplicity of construc-
tion, lightness, and moderate cost. Very important progress has also
jeen made, since the first appointment of the late Accidents in Mines
[Commission, towards the provision of thoroughly serviceable and safe
aortable electric lamps for use in mines. Of those which have already
been in the hands of the miners, several have fairly fulfilled his require-
ments as regards size, weight, and good illuminating power of suSicient
Iduration ; but much still remains to be accomplished with respect to
lurability, simplicity, thorough portability, and cost, before the self-
40 REPOET — 1890.
contained electric lamp can be expected to compete successfally with the
greatly imjrjroved miners' lamps which are now in use, or available.
The recent legislation in connection with mines is certainly deficient
in any snfBciently decisive measure for excluding from mine-workings
certain forms of lamps which, while fairly safe in the old days of sluggish
ventilation, are unsafe in the rapid air-currents now frequently met with
in mines ; it is, however, very satisfactory to know that the strong repre-
sentations on this siibject made by the late Commission, combined with
force of example and with the conclusive demonstration, by exhaustive ex-
periments, of the superiority of other lamps, have led within the last two
years to the very general abandonment of the unprotected Davy, Clanny,
and Stephenson lamps in favour, either of simple, safe modifications of
these, or of other safe and efficient lamps, and that one possible element
of danger to the miner has thus been eliminated, at any rate in many
districts. In one imjjortant respect recent improved legislation has failed
to effect a most desirable change, namely, in the substitution of safety-
lamps for naked lights in workings where small local accumulations of
fire-damp are discovered from time to time. There appears little doubt
that one of the three fearful explosions which have occurred within the last
twelve months — the catastrophe at Llanerch Colliery, near Pontypool —
was caused by the continued employment of naked lights in a mine where
inspection constantly revealed the presence of fire-damp. This explosion,
and two other terrible disasters, at Mossfield Colliery, in Staffordshire,
and at Morfa Colliery, near Swansea, which have occurred since the last
meeting of the Association, may have seemed to weaken the belief that
the operation of the recent Mines Regulation Act, which was based upon
some of the results of seven years' arduous labour of the late Mines
Commission, must have resulted in very substantial improvement in
the management of mines and in the conduct of work by the men.
Happily, however, there is a consensus of opinion among those most
competent to judge — i.e. the Government Mine Inspectors — that very
decided benefits have already accrued from the operation of the new Act.
Although far from embodying all that the experienced mine-owners,
miners, and scientific workers upon that Commission, as well as practical
authorities in Parliament, concurred in regarding as reasonably adaptable,
from the results of observation and experiment, to the furtherance of the
safer working of mines, this Act does include measures, precautionary
and preventive, of undeniable utiHty, well calculated to lessen the dangers
which surround the miner, and to add to his personal comfort underground.
We may hope, moreover, that the operation of the Act is paving the way to
more comprehensive legislation in the near future ; for it can scarcely be
doubted, by the light of recent sad experience, that there are directions in
which both masters and men still hesitate to adopt, of their own free will,
measures or regulations, methods of working or appliances and precau-
tions, which are calculated to be important additional safeguards against
ADDRESS. 41
mine-accidents, and which are either left untouched, or only hesitatingly
and imperfectly dealt with in the recent enactments.
My labours upon the late Mines Commission represent only one of
sevei'al subjects in connection with which it has been my good fortune to
have opportunities of rendering some slight public service in directions
contrasting with one of the main functions of my career, by endeavouring
to apply the results of scientific research to a diminution of the risks to
which particular classes of the community, or the public at large, are
exposed — of being sufferers by explosions, the results of accidents or other
causes.
During the pursuit of bread- winning vocations, and even in ordinary
domestic life, the conditions, as well as the materials, requisite for deter-
mining more or less disastrous explosions are often ready to hand, and
their activity may be evoked at any moment through individual heedless-
ness or through pure accident. Steam, or gases confined under pressure,
volatile inflammable liquids, combustible gases, or finely-divided inflam-
mable solids, are now all well recognised as capable of assuming the
character of formidable explosive agents ; but with respect to the three
last-named, it is only of late that material progress has been made towards
a popular comprehension and appreciation of the conditions conducive to
danger, and of those by the fulfilment of which danger may be avoided.
Thus, the causes of explosions in coal-laden ships, together with
the occurrence of spontaneous ignition in coal-cargoes, another fruitful
source of disaster, were made the subject of careful inquiry some
years ago by a Royal Commission, upon which I had the pleasure of
working with the late Dr. Percy, whose invaluable labours for the
advancement of metallurgic science will always be gratefully remembered.
The light thrown by that inquiry upon the causes of those disasters, and
upon the conditions to be fulfilled for guarding against the accumulations
of fire-damp, gradually escaping from occlusion in coal, and of heat,
developed by chemical changes occurring in coal-cargoes, has unquestion-
ably led to an important reduction of the risks to which coal-laden ships
are exposed. Subsequent official inquiries and experimental investigations,
in which I took part with the late Sir Warington Smyth and some eminent
naval officers, consequent upon the loss of H.M.S. ' Doterel ' through the
accidental ignition of an explosive mixture of petroleum spirit-vapour
and air (and other calamities in warships originating with the gradual
emission of fire-damp fi'om coal), have resulted in the adoption of efficient
arrangements for ventilating all spaces occupied by, and contiguous to,
the large supplies of fuel which these vessels have to carry.
The thorough investigation, by Rankine and others, of the causes of
explosions in flour-mills, which in years past were so frequent and disas-
trous, has secured the adoption of efficient measures for diminishing
the production, and the dissemination through channels and other spaces
42 EEPORT — 1890.
in the mills, of explosive mixtures of flour-dust and air, and for guarding
ao-ainst their accidental ignition. The numerous terrible accidents caused
by the formation and accidental ignition of explosive mixtures of inflam-
mable vapour and air in ships carrying cargoes of petroleum stored in
barrels or in tanks, have, by the investigations to which they have given
rise, led to the indication of effective precautionary measm^es for guard-
inf acrainst their recurrence. Again, the many distressing accidents,
frequently fatal, which have attended the domestic use of those valuable
illuminants, petroleum and mineral oils of kindred character, have been
made the subject of exhaustive investigations, which have demonstrated
that these disasters may readily be prevented by the employment of
lamps of proper construction, and by the observance of very simple pre-
cautions by the users of them ; and a recent official inquiry which I have
conducted with Mr. Boverton Eedwood has furnished most gratifying
proof that very substantial progress has been made within the last few
years by lamp-manufacturers in the voluntary adoption of such principles
of construction as we had experimentally demonstrated to be essential for
secui'ing the safe use of mineral oils in lamps for lighting and heating
purposes, the employment of which has, within a brief period, received
enormous extension in this and other countries.
The creation and rapid developnient of the petroleum industry has,
indeed, furnished one of the most remarkable illustrations which can be
cited of industrial progress during the period which has elapsed since the
British Association last met in Leeds. One year after that meeting, viz.,
on August 28, 1859, the first well, drilled in the United States with the
object of obtaining petroleum, was successfully completed, and the rate
of increase in production in the Pennsylvania oil-fields during the suc-
ceeding years is shown by the following figures : —
In 1859, 6,000 barrels (of forty-two American gallons) were produced.
In the following year the production increased to 500,000 barrels ; while
in the next year (18G1) it exceeded 2,000,000 barrels, at which figure it
remained, with slight fluctuations, until 18G5. The supply then continued
to increase gradually, until, in 1870, it reached nearly 6,000,000 barrels ;
while in 1874 it amounted to nearly 11,000,000 barrels. In 1880 it
amounted to over 26,000,000 barrels, and in 1882 it reached 31,000,000.
Since then the stipply furnished by the United States has fallen some-
what, and last year it amounted to 21,500,000 barrels. The production
of crude petroleum in the Pennsylvanian fields, large as it has been,
has not, however, kept pace with the consumption, for we find that the
accumulated stocks, which on December 31, 1888, amounted to over
18,000,000 barrels, had become reduced to about 11,000,000 barrels
at the close of last year. At this rate the surplus stock above
ground will have vanished by the end of the current year. In addi-
tion to the petroleum raised in Pennsylvania, there is now a very
large production in the State of Ohio ; but this has not as yet been em-
ADDEESS. 43
ployed as a source of lamp-oil ; it is, however, transported by pipe line in
great quantities to Chicago, for use as liquid fuel in industrial opera-
tions.
A few years after the development of the United States petroleum-
industry, the production of crude petroleum in Russia also began to extend
very rapidly. For more than 2,500 years Baku, on the borders of
the Caspian Sea, has been celebrated for its naphtha springs and for the
perpetual flames of the Fire "Worsliippers, fed by tlie marvellous subter-
ranean supplies of natural gas. To a limited extent neighbouring nations
appear to have availed themselves of the vast supplies of mineral oil at Baku
during the past one thousand years. By the thirteenth century the
export of the crude oil had already become somewhat extensive, but the
production of petroleum from it by distillation is of comparatively recent
date. In 1863 the supplies of petroleum from the Baku district amounted
to 5,018 tons ; they increased to somewhat more than double during the
succeeding five years. In 1869 and following three years the production
reached about 27,000 tons annually, and in 1873 it was about 64,000
tons; three years later, 153,000 tons w^ere produced, and in the follow-
ing five years there was a steady annual increase, until, in 1882, the
pi'oduction amounted to 677,269 tons; in 1884 it considerably exceeded
1,000,000 tons, and last year it amounted to about 3,300,000 tons. The
consumption of crude petroleum as fuel for locomotive purposes has,
moreover, now assumed very large proportions in Russia, and many
millions of gallons are annually consumed in Avorking the vast system of
railways on botli sides of the Caspian Sea.
The imported refined petroleum used in this country in lamps for
lighting, heating, and cooking, was exclusively American until within the
last few years, but a very large proportion of present supplies comes
from Russia. The imports of kerosene into London and the chief ports
of the United Kingdom during 1889 amounted to 1,116,205 barrels of
United States oil, and 771,227 bai'rels of Russian oil. During the same
period the out-turn of mineral oil for use in lamps by the Scottish Shale
Oil Companies probably amounted to about 500,000 barrels.
Another important feature connected with the development of the
petroleum industry is the great extent to which the less volatile products
of its distillation have replaced vegetable and animal oils and fats for
lubricating purposes in this and other countries. The value of petroleum
as a liquid fuel and as a source of gas for illuminating purposes has,
moreover, been long since recognised, and it is probable that one outcome
of the attention which is now being given to the hitherto unworked
deposits of petroleum in the East and West Indies, South America, and else-
where, will be a very large increase in its application to these purposes.
In the East Indies there are vast tracts of oil-fields in Burmah, Baluchis-
tan, Assam, and the Punjab. The native Rangoon oil industry is one
of great antiquity, although the oil -was only used in the crude condition
44 KEroKT— 1890.
until about thirty-five years ago, at which time Dr. Hugo Miiller, with
the late Warren De la Rue, whose many-sided labours and generous bene-
factions have so importantly contributed to the advancement of science,
made valuable researches on the products furnished by crude oil imported
from Rangoon. The resources of the oil-fields of Upper Burmah, especi-
ally of the district of Yenangyoung (or creek of stinldng water), have since
then been developed b}^ British enterprise, and have attained to consider-
able importance since our annexation of Upper Burmah.
The great extension of the petroleum trade is gradually leading to
very important improvements in the system of transjjort of the material
over water and on land. Until recently this has been carried out entirely in
barrels and tin cases ; the consequent great loss from leakage and evapora-
tion, accompanied by risk of accident, is now becoming much reduced by
the rapidly- increasing employment of tank-steamers, which transport the
oil in bulk. Tank railway-wagons have for some time past been in use in
Russia, and thei'c is pi'ospect of these and of tank-barges being adopted
here for the distribution of the oil ; while in London, the practice is
already spreading gradually of distributing supplies to tradesmen from
tank road- wagons. Some considerable doubt as to whether the risk of
accident has not rather been altered in character than actually reduced
by the new system of transport, has not unnaturally been engendered in
the public mind by the occurrence within a comparatively short period of
several serious disasters during the discharge of cargoes from tank- vessels.
The memorable explosion which took place in October 1888, on board
the ' Ville de Calais,' in Calais Harbour, with widespread destructive
effects, was followed by a similarly serious explosion in the ' Fergusons,'
at Rouen last December, and, more recently, by a fire of somewhat
destructive character at Sunderland, resulting from the discharge into
the river of petroleum-residues from a ship's tanks. In all these cases
the petroleum was of a nature to allow inflammable vapour to escape
readily from the liquid, so that an explosive mixture could be rapidly
formed by its copious diffusion through the air. No similar casualty has
been brought to notice as having happened to tank-ships carrying petro-
leum oil of which the volatility is in accordance with our legal require-
ments, and this points to the prudence of restricting the application of
the tank system to the transport and distribution of such petroleum as
complies with well-established conditions of safety.
Another most remarkable feature connected with the development of
the petroleum industry is presented by the utilisation, within the last few
years, of the vast supplies of natural inflammable gas furnished by the
oil-fields.
In America this remarkable gas-supply was for a long time only
used locally, but before the close of 1885 its conveyance to a distance
by pipes, for illuminating and heating purposes, had assumed large
proportions, one of the companies in Pittsburgh having alone laid 335
ADDRESS. 40
miles of pipes of varions sizes, through which gas was supplied equivalent
in heating value to 3,650,000 tons of coal per annum. Since then the
consumption in and around Pittsburgh has probably been at least
tripled. At the close of 1886 six different companies were conveying-
natural gas by pipes to Pittsburgh from 107 wells ; 500 miles of pipe^
ranging in diameter from 30 inches to 3 inches, were nsed by these
companies, 232 miles of which were laid within Pittsburgh itself. The-
Philadeljihia Company, the raost important of these associations, then
owned the gas supply from 54,000 acres of land situated on all the anti-
clinals around Pittsburgh, but drew its supplies only from Tarentum
and the Murraysville field. It supplied, in 1886, 470 factories and about
5,000 dwellings within the city, besides many factories and dwellings in
Alleghany and in numerous neighbouring villages. The average gas-
pressure at the wells, when the escape is shut off, is about 500 lb. per
square inch, and in the case of new wells this pressure is very greatly ex-
ceeded. In order to minimise the danger from leakage, the gas-pressure
in the city is reduced to a maximum of 13 lb., and is regulated by valves
at a number of stations under the control of a central station. The usual
pressure in the larger lines is from 6 to 8 lb., while in the low-pressure
lines it does not exceed 4 to 5 ounces.
The effect of the change from coal gas to natural gas upon the atmo-
sphere over Pittsburgh has been most marked: formerly the sky wa&
constantly obscured by a canopy of dense smoke ; now the air is clear,
and even white paint may with impunity be employed for the house
fronts.
The very rapid development of the employment of natural gas is not
confined to the neighbourhood of Pittsburgh ; it is used for heating-
purposes in the cities of Buffalo, Erie, Jamestown, Warren, Olean, Brad-
ford, Oil City, Titusville, Meadville, Toungstown, and perhaps twenty
more towns and villages in Pennsylvania and North-western New York.
In North-western Ohio, the cities of Toledo and Sandusky, the towns of
Pindlay, Lima, TifiQn, Fostoria, and others in that section are also supplied
with natural gas ; a pipe line has moreover been recently laid to Detroit,
Mich., and it is estimated that in these localities 36,131,669,000 cubic
feet of the gas were consumed during last year, superseding 1,802,500 tona
of coal. To the south-west of Pittsburgh there are many smaller places
which consume natural gas ; it also occurs in considerable quantity, and
is being utilised, in Indiana (whence an account has recently reached us
of a terrific subterranean explosion of the gas) ; and it is at the present
time contemplated to carry a natural gas-supply to Chicago.
The utilisation of the natural gas of the Russian oil-fields, although
of very ancient date, has hitherto not been extensive, neither does the
magnitude of the supply appear to bear comparison with that of the
Pennsylvanian district.
A form of gaseous fv>«l which has long boon known to technical
46 REPORT— 1890.
chemists and metallurgists, bat which hag of late attracted considerable
attention, especially in connection with the recent interesting work relat-
ing to its applications pursued by Mr. Samson Fox, of Leeds, has become,
within the last four years, a competitor, in the United States, both of the
natural gas of Pennsylvania and of coal-gas. Since Felix Fontana first
produced so-called water gas in 1780, by passing vapour of water over
highly-heated fuel, many methods, differing chiefly in small details, have
been proposed for carrying out the operation, with a view to the ready
and cheap production of the resulting mixture of hydrogen and carbonic
oxide, and numerous technical applications of water-gas have been sug-
gested from time to time, with no very important results, excepting as
regards its use for lighting-purposes. Being of itself non-lnminous, its
utilisation in this direction is accomplished, either by mixing it with a
highly luminous gas, or by causing a hydrocarbon vapour to be diffused
through it ; or the non-luminous flame, produced by burning it in the air,
is made to raise to incandescence some suitably prepared solid substance,
such as magnesia, lime, a zirconium salt, or platinum, whereby bright
light is emitted. The objection to its employment as an illuminant for
use in buildings, to which great weight is attached by us, and rightly,
as sad experience has shown — viz., that, as it consists, to the extent of
about one-half its volume, of the highly poisonous gas carbonic oxide, the
atmosphere in a confined space may be rendered irrespirable by a small
accidental contamination with water-gas, by leakage or otherwise, not
detectable by any odour — appears to constitute no great impediment to
its employment in the United States, as it is now manufactured for
illuminating and heating purposes by a large proportion of their gas-
works, being in some places employed in admixture with a highly luminous
coal-gas, in others rendered luminous by the alternative methods men-
tioned. It is stated that about three-fourths of the illuminating gas now
supplied to the cities of New York, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Jersey, St.
Paul, and Minneapolis, is carburetted water-gas ; in Chicago the entire
supply now consists of this gas, and Boston will also soon be supplied
exclusively with it. The use of water-gas for metallurgic work does not
appear to be contemplated in the United States, but it is esijecially to
such applications of the gas that much attention has been devoted here
in Leeds ; and although some eminent experts are sceptical regarding the
attainment of advantages, especially from an economical point of view,
by the employment of this form of gaseous fuel, especially after practical
experience in the same direction acquired in Germany, the technical world
must feel grateful to Mr. Fox for his work in this direction, affording, as it
does, an interesting illustration of the qualities of perseverance and energy
which, when combined with sound knowledge, oftenachieve success in direc-
tions that have long appeared most unpromising ; qualities which have
been characteristic of many pioneers in industrial progress in this country.
Leeds has been especially fortunate in the possession of such pioneers,
ADDRESS. 47
wbo, when competition brought about great changes in the particular trade
through which, for many generations, this city chiefly enjoyed prosperity
and high renown, developed its power and resources in new directions,
from which success soon flowed in continually increasing measure. The
rapid rise of Leeds to its present high position in industrial prosperity
and national importance most probably dales from the period when its
chief staple industry began to experience serious rivalry, in its own
peculiar achievements, on the part of other districts of the kingdom and of
other countries. From early days a flourishing Centre of one of the pro-
vinces of Great Britain most richly endowed with some of JSTatui-e's best
treasures, Leeds could scarcely have failed, through the energy, acute intel-
ligence, and powerful self-reliance especially characteristic of the men of
Yorkshire, to rapidly acquire fresh renown in connection with industries
which either were new to the town and disti-ict, or had been pursued in
comparatively modest fashion, and which have combined to place the Leeds
of to-day upon a higher pinnacle of commercial prosperity, power, and
influence than her patriotic citizens of old could ever have dreamt of.
An examination into the present educational resources of Leeds places
beyond any doubt the fact that her present prosperity in commerce and
industries is in no small degree ascribable to the paramount import-
ance long since attached here to the liberal provision of facilities for the
difi:usion of knowledge among the artisan and industrial classes, and
especially for the acquisition of a sound acquaintance with the principles of
the sciences and their applications to technical purposes, with particular
reference to the prominent local industries, by all grades of those who
pursue or intend to pursue them. There is, probably, no town in the
kingdom more amply provided with efficient elementary and advanced
schools for both sexes, while the special requirements of the artisan are
efficiently met by the prosperous School of Science and Technology. The
resources of the Yorkshire College provide, in addition, a combination of
thorough scientific education with, really practical training in the more
important local industries ; indeed, during the sixteen years of its con-
tinually-progressive work, this institution has acquired so widespread
a reputation that students come from abroad to reap the advantages
afforded by the unrivalled textile and dyeing departments of the Leeds
College. The keen competition now existing between these departments
and the corresponding branches of the much younger but most vigorous
sister College at Bradford, can only conduce to the further development
of both, and to their thorough maintenance up to the requirements of
the day.
The very important pecuniary aid afforded to these establishments,
and to a number of other technical schools in Yorkshire, by one of
the most important of the ancient companies of the City of London, the
Clothworkers, affords an interesting illustration of the good work in the
cause of education performed by those Guilds and, especially of late years,
48 REPORT — 1890.
by means of tlieir flourlsliing Institute for the advancement of tecbnical
education, wliich, througb its two great instructional establishments in
London, and through the operation of its system of examinations through,
out the country, extending now even to the Colonies, has aflForded very
important aid towards eradicating the one great blot upon our national
educational organisation. To have been first in the field in practically
developing a far-reaching scheme for the advancement of technical educa-
tion in this country must continue to be a source of pride to the City of
London and its ancient Guilds in time to come, when the operation of
efficient legislation, supported and extended by patriotic munificence and
by the hearty co-operation of associations of earnest and competent
workers in the cause, shall have placed the machinery and resources for
the technical instruction of the people upon a footing commensurate with
our position among Nations.
The remarkable Address delivered by Owen here in 1858, wherein
the condition, at that time, of those branches of natural science
which he had made particularly his own was most comprehensively
reviewed, included some especially interesting observations on the
importance to the cultivation and progress of the natural sciences, and
to the advancement of education of the masses in this country,
of providing adequate space and resources for the proper develop-
ment of our National Museum of Natural History ; and it cannot
but be a source of great satisfaction and pride to him to have lived to
witness the thoroughly successful realisation of the objects of his own
indefatigable strivings and powerful advocacy in that direction. Com-
prehensive as were the views adopted by Owen regarding the scope and
possible extension of that museum, it may, however, be doubted whether
they ever embraced so extensive a field as was presented for our contem-
plation by his successor last year, when he told us that a natural history
museum should, in its widest and truest sense, represent, so far as they can
be illustrated by museum-specimens, a,ll the sciences which deal with
natural phenomena, and that the diSiculties of fitly illustrating them have
probably alone excluded such subjects as astronomy, physics, chemistry,
and physiology, from occupying departments in our National Museum of
Natural History.
The application, in its broadest signification, of the title. Natural
History Museum, may doubtless be considered to include, not only illustra-
tions and examples of the marvellous works of the Creator and of the
results of man's labours in tracing their intimate history and their relations
to each other, but also illustrations of the means employed, and of the
results attained, by man in his strivings to fathom and unravel the laws
by which the domains of Nature are governed. But the reason why
representative collections, illustrative of the physical sciences, do not form
part of our National Natural History Museum, has, I venture to think.
ADDRESS. 49
scarcely been correctly ascribable to any difficulty of organising fit
illustrations of methods of investigation, of the attendant appliances,
and of the results attained by experimental research ; it appears rather,
to exist in the fact that physical science has hitherto had no share in such
a combination of circumstances as has been favourable to the good fortunes
and advancement of the natural sciences, and as is analogous to those which,
from time to time, give rise to the provision of increased accommodation
for our Xational Art Treasures. Our present National Science Collection,
which has, indeed, had a struggle for existence, does not owe the de-
velopment it has hitherto experienced to any such moral pressure as
has been several times exercised in the case of our art collections, by
the munificence of individuals, with the result of securing substantial
aid from national resources ; its gradual increase in importance has
been due to the untiring perseverance of men of science, and of a few
prominent influential and public-spirited authorities, in keeping before
the public the lessons taught by careful inquiries, such as those en-
trusted to the Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction, into the
opportunities afforded for the cultivation of science and the development
of its applications, in other Countries, as compared with those provided
here.
The success of tte efforts made in 1875 by a committee thoroughly
representative of every branch of experimental science, to bring together
in London an international loan collection of scientific apparatus, and the
widespread interest excited by that collection, led the President of the
Royal Society, in union with many distinguished representatives of science,
to lay before our Department of Education a proposal to establish a national
museum of pure and applied science, including the Museum of Inven-
tions, which had already existed since 1860 as a imcleus of a science-
museum, the establishment whereof had formed part of the original
scheme of the Science and Art Department. The Loan Collection of
1876 did, in fact, and in consequence of the urgent representations then
made, first put into practical shape the long-cherished desire of men of
science to see an Institution arise in England similar to the Conservatoire
des Arts et Metiei's of France, and it became the starting-point of the
National Collection, representative of the several branches of experimental
science, which has been undergoing slow but steady development since
that time, patiently awaiting the provision of a suitable home for its
contents. This collection, which illustrates not only the means whereby
the triumphs of experimental research have been and are achieved, but
also the methods by which these departments of science are taught,
yields, small as it is, to none of our national museum treasures in interest
and importance.
In yet another way did that Loan Collection become illustrious : one
of the most interesting features connected with it was the organisation of
a series of important conferences and explanatory lectures, serving to
189U. E
50 ijEroRT— 1890.
illustrate, and also greatly to enhance, its value, and affording tlie best
exempliflcation of tlie way in which such collections must exercise direct
influence upon the advancement of science and upon the diffusion
of scientific knowledge. These lectures and conferences demonstrated
the wisdom of the suggestion made by the illustrious representative
of associated Science in Leeds eighteen years previously, that public
access to museums should be combined with the delivery of lectures
emphasising and amplifying the information afforded by tlieir contents.
The example then set of thoroughly utilising for instructional purposes,
and for the advancement of science, a collection illastrative of the
physical sciences, has since been followed by the Science and Art
Department ; illustrative lectures connected with the existing nucleus of
a national science-collection have been delivered from time to time, and
the objerts in the collection are constantly utilised in the courses of
instruction at the adjoining Normal School of Science.
Although the national importance of thoroughly representative and
continuously-maintained science collections has long been manifest, not
only to all workers in science, but also to all who have cared to inquire,
even superficially, into the influence of the cultivation of science upon the
industrial and commercial prosperity of the country, the labours of a
Royal Commission, and of successive Committees, in demonstrating the
necessity for the provision of adequate accommodation for such collections,
and for their support upon the basis of that afforded to the natural
history collections, have been very long in bearing fruit. However,
lovers of science, and those who have the prosperity of the country near
at heart, have at length cause for rejoicing at the acquisition by the
Nation of a site in all respects suitable and adequate for the accommoda-
tion of the science collections, which, as soon as appropriate buildings are
provided for their reception, will not fail, in comprehensiveness and com-
pleteness, to become worthy of a Country which has been the birthplace
of many of the most important discoveries in science, and of a People who
have led the van among all Nations in making the achievements of
science subservient to the advancement of industries and commerce.
The site selected as the permanent home of our National Science
Collections is immediately in rear of the Natural History Museum, and faces
the stately edifice, now rapidly progressing towards completion, for the
erection of which, as an Imperial memorial of the Queen's Jubilee, funds
were provided by voluntary contributions from every portion of the Empire
and every class in the Empire's Nations. The Imperial ■ Institute, the
conception of which we owe to His Royal Highness the Prince of
Wales, occupies a central position among buildings devoted to the
illustration and cultivation of pure and applied Science and of the
Arts — i.e. the Normal School of Science, the Technical College of the
City and Guilds of London, the National Schools of Art, the Science
Museum, the South Kensington Museum, and the Royal College
ADD?.ESS. 51
of Music ; to which list we may ere long see added a iSTational Gallery
of representative British Art. A more fitting location could scarcely
be conceived for this pre-eminently National Institution, which has for its
main objects the comprehensive and continuously progressive illustra-
tion—of the practical applications of the vast resources presented by the
Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Kingdoms to Industries and the Arts ; of
the extent, and the progressive opening up, of those resources in all parts
of the Empire ; of the practical achievements emanating from the results
of scientific research ; and of the utilisation of the Arts for the purposes of
daily life. With the attainment of these objects it will be the function
of the Imperial Institute to combine the continuous elaboration of
systematic measures tending to stimulate progress in trades and handi-
crafts, and to foster a spirit of emulation among the artisan and industrial
classes. Another branch of the Institute's work, upon which it is already
cno-ao-ed, is the systematic collection of data relating to the natural
history, commercial geography, and resources of every part of the Empire,
for wide dissemination together with all current information, bearing upon
the commerce and industries of the Empire and of other Countries, which
can be comprised under the head of Commercial Intelligence. The
achievement of these objects should obviously tend to maintain intimate
intercourse, relationship, and co-operation between the great Home and
Colonial centres of Commerce, Industries, and Education, and to enhance
importantly our power of competing successfully in the great struggle, in
which Nations are continuously engaged, for supremacy in commercial
and industrial enterprise and prosperity.
To the elaboration of the practical details of a system of operation
calculated to secure the objects I have indicated, eminent public-spirited
men are now devoting their best energies, with the sanguine expectation
of realising the hope cherished by the Royal Founder of the Imperial
Institute, that this memorial of the completion, by our beloved Sovereign,
of fifty years of a wise and prosperous reign, is destined to be one of the
most important bulwarks of this Country, its Colonies and Dependencies,
by becoming a great centre of operations, ceaselessly active in fostering the
unity, and developing the resources, and thus maintaining and increasing
the powir and prosperity, of our Empire.
B 2
EEPORTS
ox THE
STATE OF SCIENCE,
EEPOETS
ox THE
STATE OF SCIENCE,
Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee, consisting of Mr.
Francis Galtox {Chairman), Professor A. W. Williamson, Sir
Douglas Galton, Professor Boyd Dawkins, Sir Eawson Rawson,
Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr. John Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Professor
E. Meldola {Secretary), Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. W.
Whitaker, Mr. G. J. Symons, General Pitt-Eivers, and Mr. W.
TOPLEY.
The Corresponding Societies Committee of the British Association beg to
report to the General Committee that the two meetings of the Conference
of Delegates were held on Thursday, Sejjtember 12, and Tuesday, Sep-
tember 17, 1889, at 3 p.m., in the Committee Room of Section C, at
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
The following Delegates were nominated for the Newcastle Meet-
Rev. H. H. Winwood, M.A., F.G.S.
Mr. William Graj-, iI.E.I.A. .
Mr. John Drown . . . .
Mr. Charles Pumpliroy .
Prof. B. C. A. Windlc, M.D. .
Mr. Alfred E. Hudd, F.S.A. .
Mr. Peter Price ....
Mr. W. P. J. Fawcus, C.E. .
Mr. W. F. Howard, Assoc.M.Tnst.
C.E.
Mr. Thomas Gushing, F.Pv.A.S.
Mr. J. Goodchild, F.G.S.
Mr. A. S. Reid, M.A., F.G.S. .
Mr. Robert Brown, R.N.
Mr. William White, F.K.S. .
Mr. D. Corse Glen, F.G.S. .
Prof. F. O. Bower, M.A., D.Sc.
Bath Natm-al History and Antiquarian
Field Club.
Belfast Naturalists' Field Club.
Belfast Natural History and Philosophi-
cal Society.
Birmingham Natural History and Micro-
scopical Society.
Birmingham Philosophical Society.
Bristol JIuseum and Library.
Cardiff Naturalist.s' SocietJ^
Chester Society of Natural Science.
Chesterfield and Midland Counties Insti-
tution of Engineers.
Croydon Microscopical and Natural His-
tory Club.
Cumberland and Westmorland Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Literature
and Science.
East Kent Natural History Society.
East of Scotland Union of Naturalists'
Societies.
Essex Field Club.
Geological Society of Glasgow.
Natural History Society of Glasgow.
56 KEPOET — 1890.
Mr. "\V. C. Crawford, M.A. . . Philosophical Societj' of Glasgow.
Kev. A. G. Jnj'ce .... Hampshire Field Club.
Dr. John Evans, Treas.K.S. . . Hertfordshire Natural History Society
and Field Club.
His Honour Deemster Gill . . Isle of Man Natural History and Anti-
quarian Society.
Mr. S. A. Adamson, F.G.S. . . Leeds Geological Association.
Mr. G. H. Morton, F.G.S. . . Liverpool Geological Society.
Mr. I. C. Thompson, F.L.S. . . Liverpool Microscopical Society.
Mr. M. B. Slater, F.L.S. . . Malton Field Naturalists' and Scientific
Society.
Mr. Eli Sowerbutts . . . Manchester Geographical Society.
Mr. Mark Stirrup, F.G.S. . . Manchester Geological Society.
Prof. G. A. Labour, M.A., F.G.S. . Northof England Institute of Mining and
Mechanical Engineers.
Dr. J. T. Arlidge, A.M. . . . North Staffordshire Naturalists' Field
Club.
Mr. C, A. Markliam, F.E.Met.Soc. Northamptonshire Natural History So-
ciety.
Mr. Robert Brown, R.N. . . Perthshire Society of Natural Science.
Mr. H. R. Mill, D.Sc. . . . Royal Scottish Geographical Society.
Mr. W. Andrews .... Warwickshire Naturalists' and Archfeolo-
gists' Field Club.
Rev. J. 0. Bevan, M.A. . . . Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club.
Mr. J. W. Davis, F.G.S. . . Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic
Societ.v.
Rev. E. P. Knubley, M.A. . . Yorkshire Naturalists' Union.
By the sanction of the Council, the Lisbon Geographical Society was
represented by Professor Batalha-Reis.
At the first Conference the chair was taken by Mr. Francis Galton,
the Correspondinof Societies Committee being also represented by Dr.
John Evans, Mr. W. Whitaker, and Mr. W. Topley.
The Chairman proposed that the Report of the Corresponding Socie-
ties Committee to the General Committee, printed copies of which had
been distributed among the Delegates, should be taken as read in order
to save time. The proposal was put to the meeting and cacrried. The
Chairman theii invited the Delegates to make any statements respecting
the work done by Committees appointed last year, or in connection with
other subjects referred to in the Report. He suggested that the various
Sections should be taken in alphabetical order.
No statements were made respecting Sections A and B.
Section C.
Erralic Boulders, c^-c— The Rev. E. P. Knubley called attention to
the fact that the Yorkshire Naturalists' Union, working in harmony with
the British Association, were endeavouring to form a Boulder Committee.
They had done very good work for about three years, and they had this
year submitted a number of reports to the British Association Committee,
all of which had been accepted. They had also added a Yorkshire Fossil
Flora Committee, which was working on the same lines as that proposed
by the British Association. No report had been presented as yet, but a
great deal of matter had been collected, and an interim report was to bo
presented in November, when the York.shire Naturalists' Union held their
annnal meeting. They had also appointed a Coast-Erosion Committee,
wLicu was working in connection with the British Association, and a
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 57
j^farine Zoological Committee, •which had had one dredging excursion this
year.
Geolorji'cal Photography. — Mr. Knubley next referred to the subject of
geological photography, which had been brought forward in 1888. It
■was then felt that the proposal was too vague to bring in any definite
form before the different Societies, but the matter had become more
definite in the course of the year, and he thought that the time had
arrived for proposing that a Committee should be formed to arrange the
collection of photogra,phic views illustrating the geological features of
each county of the United Kingdom.
A discussion ensued as to the mode of procedure to be adopted in
order to give practical effect to the conclusions already arrived at by those
members cf the Corresponding Societies who had been working at the
subject during the year.
Mr. 0. W. Jeffs, having been called upon by the Chairman, stated
that the matter had been brought before the Delegates at Bath in 1888,
and had been discussed on that occasion. The proposal had then been
left in an informal condition, and he undertook to communicate Avith the
Delegates of the different geological societies of the kingdom. He had
done this in an unofficial and private circular, and now had a list of
what each had obtained, as well as a large collection of photogi'aphs, some of
which were very interesting. He added that he had received letters from
a large number of Delegates highly approving of the scheme, and offering
suggestions. These letters would be placed at the disposal of Section C
or of anyone taking the matter up.
No formal recommendation with respect to the subject was passed at
the Conference, as the matter was to be brought before the Committee of
Section C the following day.
Earth Tremors. — Professor Lebour said he had very little to say on
this subject except that the work in his district had been suspended as
the result of the recommendation of the Earth Tremor Committee of the
British Association, which considered that the spot selected for the
instruments was too near the sea, and rocks containing great cavities, and
therefore unsuitable for the experiments. A good deal of time had been
taken up last year in having a new set of instruments made and placed
in another position. They were now ready for work, but no observations
had been taken owing to the change of position.
The Geological Hecord. — Mr. Topley called attention to a circular
which had been distributed among the Delegates, in which it was pointed
out that the publication of this Record of geological literature could
not be continued unless the number of subscribers was increased, and he
urged upon those present to assist the cause of science by giving their
own and getting others to give their support. Mi". Whitaker also spo\e
on behalf of the Record.
No subjects coming within the province of Sections D, E, F, or G
were brought forwai-d.
Section H.
Catalogues of Ancient Bemains. — Mr. "William Gray said that a Com-
mittee of the British Association had been appointed for this purpose,
and the Society which he represented had made a commencement m
58 REPORT— 1890.
Ireland, taking the two counties Antrim and Down. They had prepared
a list and maps, plotting on the latter the sites of monuments and ancient
settlements in accordance with the regulation code of signals adopted by
the International Congress on Archa3ology some years ago. He had the
maps with him, but had not been able to send the communication to the
Secretary of the Committee (Mr. J. W. Davis) in time for that year's
Report. The list as at present prepared was simply a catalogue in which
it had not been thonght desirable to give any great amount of detail
beyond references to such authorities as could furnish further information.
The list was to be regarded simply as tentative, and he now submitted it
to the Conference in order to see whether a right start had been made,
and whether any amendments could be suggested. The one-inch Ordnance
sheets had been used as a basis, and these had been plotted in accordance
with the scheme referred to, but they had also tried to avoid a difficulty
(genei'ally met with in catalogues of this kind), and that was the difficulty
of indicating to a stranger the exact position of any given object. They
had adopted a method which he hoped would meet with the approval of
the Conference. Instead of stating the latitude and longitude, or the
relative position from any stated town, they had adopted the simple plan
of stating the sheet on which the object occurred and its distance in
inches from north and west on that sheet. Thus if a certain place A was
said to be six miles from B, no one would get much idea of the position,
but if it was recorded that the place was on sheet 26, six inches irom the
top (north) and eight inches from the west, the exact position of the
monument could be at once entered on any other copy of the map, and
then the catalogue reference would give details of any published infor-
mation concerniun- that monument.
Mr. Gray then exhibited one of the maps (Antrim), and explained
that, instead of making the signs in the same way as that adopted by
the International Congress, which rendered them somewhat indistinct, he
had punched out small pieces of red paper and gummed these on to the
map. In addition to this a concise tabular form had been prepared
giving much information on the subject, a list of the ancient settlements
or sites and the monuments found, their characters and relative numbers,
&c. A list of the standing stones had also been commenced, this list
containing some of the more important ones, and it was hoped to complete
it by degrees so as to comprise all. There was also a list of stone circles,
tumuli, and other sepulchral monuments, castles and stone forts of
Irelaud, caves, artificial and natural, &c.
Dr. John Evans said ^.hat the Delegates might like to know that the
Society of Antiquaries bad undertaken an archaeological survey of
England. The principle on which that survey was being carried on was
in the main that adopted by Mr. Gray, but for ordinary publication maps
could not be employed on so large a scale. They entered not only the
prehistoric, but the Roman and Saxon remains and earthworks. Each,
county would be accompanied by a list which would be classified under
different heads and indexed, so as to show the discoveries which had been
made. It seemed to the Society of Antiquaries that a survey of this
sort would be of great use throughout the kingdom, and they were
appealing to the members of differeut archaeological societies to assist in
carrying it out. Some of the Societies represented, in addition to looking
after the natural history of their districts, were also concerned with their
antiquities. A congress of Delegates had been held in the rooms of the
CORItESrOMUING SOCIETIES. 59
Society of Antiquaries, and it was hoped that tliis would become an.
annual gathering. They did not intend to compete with the Correspond-
ing Societies Meeting in this matter ; they rather looked upon the
Societies meeting here as representing the biological side of all the
questions brought forward, whereas the Society of Antiquaries repre-
sented the purely archa3ological side. The survey of Kent had been pub-
lished, others were io hand. The scale was only eight miles to the inch,
but that scale would be found of sufficient size to note all the dis-
coveries, and by means of the index he thought it would prove a most
useful addition to the archaeological publications of the country.
In concluding the business of the first meeting the Chairman ex-
pressed their indebtedness to Professor Meldola, who had acted as
Secretary to the Corresponding Societies Committee throughout the
year, and to Professor Lebour, who had consented to act as Secretary to
the present Conference.
At the second Conference the chair was taken by Mr. Wm. Topley,
F.R.S., the Corresponding Societies Committee being also represented
by Dr. Garson. The Secretary having read the minutes of the first Con-
ference, the Chairman suggested that it would be convenient to follow
the usual course, and before going to miscellaneous business to take up
the suggestions and recommendations from the various Sections.
&&"■
Section A.
Temperature Variation in LaJics, Rivers, and Estuaries. — Dr. Mill
stated that the report of the Committee appointed last year had been
adopted by Section A with a recommendation for its reappointment with
a grant. The object of the Committee was to accumulate as great a number
of data with regard to the temperature of the surface of lakes, rivers, and
estuaries, and the sea near the shore, as could possibly be obtained, in
order to discuss these in connection with the meteorology of the country.
It was a problem of some difficulty, and the object sought to be obtained
in bringing it before the Corresponding Societies was to spread the work
over a very wide tract of country, so as to get such diverse conditions as
it was impossible to obtain by a few isolated workers. As a result of the
circulars sent to the Corresponding Societies last year, they had obtained
twenty-four sets of observations on the rivers and some estuaries in Eng-
land, twenty-one in Scotland, eleven in Ireland, and one in the Isle of
Man. Pie did not think it necessary to read the names of the rivers,
but he would merely say that he would be very pleased if the Delegates
present, representing Societies which had not yet seen their way to take
up this work, should, on their return, be able to find out some members
able and willing to make these daily observations on exposed water in
their own neighbourhood. He would be very pleased if they would
communicate with him, or any other member of the Committee, and
instructions would be immediately sent for setting the observations going.
He had a report recently from the Manchester Geological Society
showing the observations made there on the reservoirs of the Oldham
Waterworks — observations of great interest, and evidently, from the
record published in the Transactions of the Manchester Geological Society,
carried out with great detail and in a thoroughly satisfactory and trust-
worthy manner. The success of the research depended entirely on the
60 REPORT— 1890.
extent and fulness with whicli the different observers cai-ried out their
"work.
Mr. John Brown said he had brought the matter before the Belfast
Natural History and Philosophical Society. Professor Everett, one of the
members, was strongly of opinion that it was not the business of the local
Societies, but should rather be given to the observers of rainfall, who
were accustomed to making observations of a similar kind, and to a
certain extent were better organised for getting the information than
their own Society.
_ Mr. A. S. Reid said the East Kent Natural History Society had taken
this matter up since the last meeting, and were now carrying it on, having
two observers on the river Stour. They had not yet published an actual
report in their Transactions, but simply an interim report ; a fuller
report was being prepared. The Committee was doing work, and he
believed good work, and was certainly taking a great deal of interest in
the matter, and it had been the means of giving the local Societies some-
thing to do, and also of helping them to affiliate with other Societies round
them. He expressed the opinion that the indication of lines of useful
investigation of this kind had done a great deal of good in bringing
together the Societies in his district.
Dr. Mill, in answer to the remarks made, said that this work which
had been taken up by the Committee, and in which the help of the
Corresponding Societies was wanted, did not in the least degree clash
with any other organisation or the carrying on of any other work. If
all the meteorological observers were willing and able to carry on addi-
tional experiments, it would add a very great deal to the fulness and
completeness of their meteorological reports ; but, in point of fact, those
observers had their hands suiBciently full as a rule in taking their daily
observations, and might not care to add to their work. Professor Fitz-
gerald, however, had taken the matter up in Ireland and had obtained
the services of a number of observers, many of whom were rain-gauge
observers — in fact, he thought almost all.
No communication with respect to Section B was brought forward.
Section C.
The Chairman announced that Mr. De Ranee had been nominated by
the Committee of Section C to represent that Section at the Conference.
Mr. De Ranee said that the Committees in which Section C was more
particularly interested, and in which the Corresponding Societies could
be — and, indeed, were — of great value were —
The Underground Waters Committee, of which he happened to be
Secretary. It was appointed some fifteen years ago in the town of Belfast
to inquire into the water of the New Red Sandstone and Permian for-
mations as concerned with the water supply of the town and district.
At subsequent meetings of the Association the scope of its inquiry had
been enlarged until at the present time it comprised the whole of the
porous or permeable formations of this country. The Committee of the
British Association which had been doing this work had done it by
means of forms of inquiry as to the nature of the sections passed through
in wells and borings for water, the effect of faults upon the water-
siipplj> the character and quality of the water obtained, and the varying
CORRESrONDING SOCIETIES. 61
beiglits at which the water was found to stand, when the works were
first commenced and after long pumping. The questions were drawn up
with considerable care, and had been added to from time to time, and
he thought they now practically grasped the whole subject. The Secre-
tary of the Committee would have great pleasure in giving either a
number of these forms, or a sample copy, to any Secretary of the Corre-
sponding Societies throughout the country who might be desirous of
being supplied with the same. The Committee in their present report
(the fifteenth) laid before Section C comment on the fact that no less
than three Societies have printed valuable information on this subject on
the lines which had been adopted by the Committee of the British Asso-
ciation, and the more important of their sections and details had been
printed in this fifteenth report.
Then there was the Committee of Inquiry into the position and
character of —
Erratic Boulders. Dr. Crosskey, its indefatigable Secretary, intended
in the future to get a series of maps on which the position of the more
important boulders should be entered, and he (Mr. De Ranee) believed
it was intended to take the one-inch Ordnance maps and to place upon
them the actual position of the boulders which had been recorded ; as
far as possible, the character and point of origin of those boulders are also
being determined. Dr. Crosskey had presented his last report — the seven-
teenth — before Section C, and he (Mr. De Ranee) believed that already
the bringing of this work before the Corresponding Societies had borne
fruit. He had received, independently of the British Association, a
circular from the Liverpool and some other area in which evidently an
endeavour had been made to form a committee to go into the subject
on the lines of the original inquiry which had been carried out with so
much success by Dr. Crosskey, who, he knew, was most anxious to give to
the Secretaries of the Societies represented by Delegates copies of the
pi-inted forms of inqnixy as to the position of boulders, their nature and
character, and to ascertain from them whether steps should be taken to
preserve them as memorials of the past.
Another Committee was the —
Coast-Erosion Commiitee, which had been taken up by his colleague,
Mr. Topley, who had drawn up all the. valuable reports on coast erosion
already published by the British Association. That Committee required
the rate of ei-osion of the sea on the coast of this country, and inquired
as to how far that regular erosion had been artificially increased by the
operations of man, by the cutting away of stone upon the sea-cliffs for
economic and building purposes, and by the building of sea-walls in posi-
tions and under conditions which were unadvisable, and by breakwaters
not leading the water in the right waj', which in many cases increased
the coast erosion. Already much valuable information had been put to-
gether by Mr. Topley in the reports which had been published ; but these
only covered a portion of the country, and erosion was gradually and
steadily going on all round the coast. The Corresponding Societies which
happened to be on the seaboard had great facilities for studying this
question : first, in seeing the actual rate of erosion going on at the
present time, and, secondly, in regard to looking up old plans, docu-
ments, and deeds, which might show the position of the land in times
gone by.
Geological Photography. — Mr. De Ranee said that all would admit
62 REroiiT— 1890.
the great importance of the subject. Mr. Jeffs had already recorded a
number of photographs, and this was a suitable matter for the local
societies, for there were many local circumstances to be dealt with, and
the best mode of photographing, the best time, and so forth, could only
be dealt with by people living on the spot. All the Delegates would feel
that this was a subject they could represent to their Societies as one
which should be carried out.
Mr. Gray said there were erratic blocks in Ireland, particularly in the
north ; he did not know whether these blocks had been recorded, but if
such a catalogue would be of any assistance to Mr. De Ranee he would
be glad to undertake its preparation for Antrim, Down, and Derry.
Mr. Topley said there should certainly be a record of the boulders of
Ireland, but he was afraid the present Committee only referred to the erratic
blocks of England and Wales ; it would, however, be very easy to extend it
next year if Mr. Gray would forward the information to Dr. Crosskey,
and if that gentleman were not prepared to take charge of it another
Committee could be formed.
Mr. De Ranee stated, with resjiect to the question of erratic blocks,
that as Dr. Crosskey was not pi'esent, and as he had had some con-
versation with that gentleman on the question of including Ireland, he
would venture to suggest that it was first of all exceedingly important
and necessary that the boulders of Ireland should be recorded in the
same manner as in England ; secondly, as it was too late this year to
include the Irish with the already existing English Committee, a Com-
mittee could easily be formed by Mr. Gray himself, or by others in Ireland
who would undertake the inquiry. It should follow the lines, and the
questions should be put in the same way as that adopted by the English
Committee on Erratic Boulders. At the meeting at Leeds the Irish Com-
mittee could, he thought, be amalgamated with the English one ; it would
then be a general Boulder Committee, and the reports might be taken to-
gether or separately, and the facts collected during the year would make
the first report.
Professor Lebour, referring to the subject of Geological Photography,
said that, as Mr. De Ranee had already mentioned. Section C, since the
first Conference, had had this matter referred to them for consideration,
and he might say there was the greatest possible unanimity when it was
brought up. The subject was one which all geologists would agree was
a most useful one. Mr. Jeffs, as a member of Section C, explained the
system which he and Mr. Adamson had so far adopted ; that method was
regarded as no doubt a good one, but the whole question of detail was left
to the Committee to report upon. He might say that it had been passed
on to the Committee of Recommendations that same day. The members
of the Committee were Professor Geikie (Chairman), Professor Bonney,
Mr. A. S. Reid, Mr. S. A. Adamson, Professor Boyd Dawkins, Mr. W. Gray,
and Mr. Jeffs as Secretary. He thought they would see that the Com-
mittee was chosen with some thought as representing different parts of the
country, so that a considerable area would be covered, and the different
features of the various districts would not be overlooked. The Committee
was not only appointed to do the work of collecting, preserving, and regis-
tering in a systematic way the photographs of places of geological interest,
geological sections, and so on, but he thought in the first instance it was
chiefly for the purpose of seeing how the work could best be carried on in
the future, and one of the most important points they would have to con-
CORKESrONBING SOCIETIES. 03
sider was where the photographs, when once obtained, were to bo lodged
and preserved in safety for consultation. That was left, however, to the
Committee to report npon, but tliere was no reason why the Conference
should not express its views as to what would be a good i)1aco. He
thought the best thing would be to communicate to the Secretary of the
Committee any suggestions the Conference might discuss.
Mr. Topley said he would like to say a few words about the Coast-
Erosion Committee. The importance of local observation in this subject
was much impressed on him lately when he paid a visit to Selsea. He
was sure the loss of land at various places (comparing it with the large
six-inch Ordnance Survey maps made, he thought, sixteen years before)
Avas very large ; he did not know the coast well pi-eviously, and could not
tell the annual wear, nor whether it went on evenly. He spoke to Mr.
Clement Reid about it, and he said it was lost during the years since the
maps were made, but the average did not represent the annual loss, as of
late the rate of erosion had been very rapid. It was impossible for any
but local observers to record such an important fact as that. Local ob-
servers wei'e wanted to take measurements from certain known positions
— the corner of a house, a hedge, or any other fixed object — to make notes
and compare them, and by such means to accui-ately record what was
going on, and at the same time it would be seen whether the loss was
greater at one place or at one time than at another. It would be a most
desirable thing for local Societies to take up. The Yorkshire Naturalists
Union, as Mr. Knubley told them at the last meeting, had already done
BO. He had hoped that the Isle of Man Society would also have taken
it up ; they had applied for forms, and perhaps Deemster Gill would see
to the matter. From East Kent they had most valuable information from
Mr. Dowker, a member of the East Kent Natural History Society.
Section D.
Mr, Knubley said that he had been asked to repi'esent Section D and
to bring before the Conference two matters : —
Disappearance of Native Plants. — They would remember that Professor
Hillhouse came last year prepared with a report and found no Committee
existing ; that Committee was, however, revived, and during the course of
the year it had appai-ently done a considerable amount of work. In this
report, which he held in his hand, they treat of the disappearance, or par-
tial disappearance, of fifty-five different kinds of plants in Scotland, their
attention being confined entirely to Scotland for the present; they
attribute most of the disappearances to the action of dealers and collectors ;
they would be very glad if local naturahsts' societies would take the
matter up and try to chronicle the disappearance of plants as far as they
can. Professor Hillhouse suggests the use of the eighth edition of the
' London Catalogue ' as a basis for their observations. He calls attention
particularly to the disappearance of certain plants, and shows the way in
which they might disappear — for instance, Hypericum quadrangulum dis-
appeared, having been eaten by cattle or trodden down. In another case
Sedum reflexum has disappeared from a wall owing to repairs. Various
other ways are mentioned, and amongst these drainage seemed to have
been a great cause of the disappearance of native plants'.'
' See lii-jmis, 1889, p. 435.
64 EEroKT— 1890.
Investujalion of the Invertebrate Fauna and Cnjptogamic Flora of the
British Isles. — The other matter he was commissioned to bring before the
Conference was the Committee appointed that day for the above piirpose.
The Committee had Canon Norman for its chairman and Professor
Ewart as secretary ; three members for Ii-eland — Professor A. C. Haddon,
Professor W. R. M'Nab, and Professor W. J. SoUas ; three for England
— Professor Lapwortb, Mr. F. E. Beddard, and Dr. H. Scott ; and three
for Scotland — Professor Bayley Balfour, Professor J. C. Ewart, and Pro-
fessor J. Geikie. The object of that Committee is to make a systematic
investigation of the rivers and lakes, and it is hoped that the microscopists
will undertake definite scientific work : they are exhorted, if they take up
this investigation, to take note of the physical features of the stream or
the lake which they study (of course including the geological features),
and of the temperature at different periods of the year, and, in the case of
lakes, at different depths, so that they would be working in conjunction
with the Committee Dr. Mill referred to.
Local Museums. — JNIr. John Brown said it was generally admitted that
the casual visitor to local museums finds a want of interest in the latter
through not knowing what to look at. Of course a scientific person
wishing to look at a particular object goes to that department in which
he is interested. Ih occurred to some of them in Belfast to give gratis a
visitors' guide, pointing out objects of interest, so that they could see
them at ouce without going through the whole museum. The idea was
to make it as concise as possible, so as to draw attention to the objects of
interest by putting them in heavy type, and therefore enabling the
visitors to find out at once what was to be seen in each department. He
had with him a few copies if any Delegate desired to see them.
Mr. Topley said there was a Committee of the British Association
concerning local museums, but it had lapsed ; it might be reappointed,
and if so, it would be a very good thing to bring that matter before them
as well. It was quite right to mention it at this Conference, but he
thought there had been a Committee specially concerned with these
matters.
Life Histories of Native Hants. — Mr. Knubley, in reply to the Chair-
man, said that he was not asked to say anything about this subject, but it
seemed to him an admirable sns:a:estion, and one which their Committee
should take up.
Mr. Topley asked if anything with respect to Professor Balfour's
valuable paper, submitted to the Conference last year, had been done in
Section D. Mr. Knubley replied in the negative.
Mr. Gray said that he brought the matter before the Society he
represented, and he knew that a friend of his, Avho was very well
acquainted with the collection and cultivation of ferns, had undertaken a
series of experiments outside his ordinary work with a view of endeavour-
ing to promote Professor Balfour's objects.
Mr. Topley suggested that it would be well to bear the subject in mind
and bring it before Section D next year.
Section E.
The Chairman said that he was not aware whether there was present
any gentleman representing Section E, but they were in the interesting
position this year of having a representative of a foreign Society, Professor
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 65
J. Batalha-Reis, as a Vice-President of that Section. By the sanction
of the Council that gentleraan represented at the Conference the Lisbon
Geographical Society. If he had anything to tell them as to the way in
which local Societies could do geographical work they would be glad to
hear him.
The Geographical Society of Lisbon. — Professor Batalha-Reis said that,
having been sent by the Geographical Society of Lisbon as a Delegate, he
should be very glad if his presence on the present occasion led to some good
scientific result. He saw the good work which local Societies were doing
in England in connection with the British Association, and that led him to
the belief that perhaps foreign Societies connected with the Association
might do something useful if they could work systematically under apian.
He called attention to the capabilities of work of his Society and expressed
the hope that the Geographical Society of Lisbon might perhaps help the
"work prosecuted by the British Association in some way. To begin with,
the limits of geography as a science were rather vague, that is to say,
geography was more or less in connection with all other sciences repre-
sented by the different Sections of the British Association. Thus the natural
features of a district, its animals, minerals, and plants were strictly
geographical, and at the same time had relationship with the biological,
geological, and other sciences. Then, as they were aware, his country
had in Africa, by the peculiar situation of their colonies, a large field where
experiments and researches could be prosecuted. At that moment they
had six expeditions working in Central Africa, and not only the leaders of
.those expeditions, but, he was pretty sure, all the naturalists connected with
Ithem, were members of the Geographical Society of Lisbon, most of them
Iworking under the instruction of that Society. Then, too, their colonies
iwere in a very intimate connection with the English colonies in Africa,
po that, if they could establish a joint plan of exploration, say from the
[Cape of Good Hope to the furthermost Portuguese settlement, valuable
scientific results ought to be achieved.
No communications or recommendations from Section F were brought
forward.
Section G.
Committee on Flameless Explosives. — Professor Lebour said the North
lof England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers had one Com-
littee which was mentioned last year (that on explosives) in full working
order at the present time. When mentioned last year it was only about
jto be appointed ; now it had begun its work, which was not simply that of
examining the properties of all the so-called flameless explosives ; the main
object was a philanthropic one, so that an explosive which a dealer liked to
call flameless, and which was not really flameless, might not be used
inwarily by miners in positions where the use of an explosive carrying a
lame under certain circumstances might be exceedingly dangerous. Now
that they had a good deal more knowledge than formerly of such things as
jal-dust explosions, it became very important indeed to avoid as far as
could be any possibility of having a flame projected by a blown-out shot
or any other currents of that kind in an atmosphere laden with particles of
dust. It was a disputed question as to whether coal-dust itself was
dangerous. If coal-dust did not cause an explosion itself it certainly
conducted it. The explosion might be there before the coal-dust had any-
1890. F
66 REPORT— 1890.
thing to do with it, bat if the coal-dust were pi-esent it carried the ex-
plosion farther than it would otherwise have gone, and changed what
might be a harmless, or comparatively harmless, accident into sometimes
a catastrophe of a very destructive character.
Committee on Fan-ventilation. — There was another Committee men-
tioned, he thought, last year — a joint Committee of three of the Mining
Institutes of England- — the Midland, South Wales, and North of Eng-
land Institutes — ajjpointed to carry out experiments on fans, especially
with a view of observing the working where circumstances were such as
to allow of two kinds of fans working in the same pit, and he had no
doabt the result would be valuable to mining men. They must not
forget that this Conference was one of the local scientific Societies, using
the word in its wide sense, and not only of geological, natural history,
and microsco2:)ic clubs, and he thought the report of this joint Committee
would be of very great value to engineers connected with mines and with
such other works as requii-ed artificial ventilation. As they had repre-
sentatives from other engineering Societies he would like to say that the
North of England Institute and the others he had mentioned as being
jointly on the Committee would be exceedingly glad to receive any hints
or any information which would tend to the carrying out in the best
possible manner the objects referred to.
Mr. Howard, referring to the combination of the Mining Institutes
which was about to take place, said that if this federation succeeded it
might be a good hint to other local Societies to combine and have some-
thing in the way of joint publication. That was the principal thing the
Mining Institutes were aiming at at present without at all destroying their
individuality. He thought it was likely to prove successful, and whether
it succeeded or not it was worthy the consideration of other Societies,
concerned in difi"erent matters, to see whether they could not similarly
combine, as it would be of great mutual advantage and economy.
Section H.
Committee of Aid. — Dr. Garson said he had to bring forward a matter
of importance from Section H in which the local Societies could assist very
materially. The Anthropological Institute during the preceding year had
had under its consideration the fact that a large number of barrows and
other antiquarian remains were year by year destroyed, not willingly but
by injudicious exploration. They took into consideration whether there
was any possibility of having the explorations of old barrows made on
some definite plan, and for that purpose a Committee of Aid was foi'med,
consisting of General Pitt-Rivers, Professor Flower (the President of the
Association), Mr. Read (of the British Museum), Mr. Hilton Price, Mr.
Lewis (Treasurer of the Anthropological Institute), and himself. This
Committee was elected by the Council of the Anthropological Institute to
draw up a series of directions for those who desire to explore barrows and
other ancient remains. Special directions might be wanted in certain
cases, and they would be extremely glad if anyone who was desirous of
exploring a barrow would communicate with the Secretary of this
Committee of Aid. The Committee was not formed for the purpose of
exploring barrows, but to give advice to those who were about to under-
take such exploration. They wished it distinctly understood that they did
Dot want to interfere in any way with or to take the credit for any work under-
CORKESPONDING SOCIETIES. 67
taken. They only ^slied to have the work performed to the best advantage.
It was not uncommon for a certain investigator, who was interested in.
pottery, to dig up one of those ancient structui'es and extract all the
pottery. There might be other relics of great im^iortance — there might
be skulls or bones of various animals, all of which were important in
fixing the date of the barrow or the habits of the people, and these things
were all lost. In like manner people who were searching for human
remains only were likely to overlook all the other things, such as works
of art and other objects, which yield very valuable information. What
they wanted made known as widely as possible was that the Committee was
anxious to have communications sent to it and to know of all the work
that was going on, and he thought they would see that that was a matter
in which local Societies could materially assist. He had no doubt that if
the explorations were carried on on a distinct system, such as that which
the Committee would be able to suggest, very valuable results would be
obtained where now a great deal of information was lost. He therefore
commended this subject very specially to their attention. In local
museums they had placed a printed card giving the address of the
Secretary at the Anthropological Institute, 3 Hanover Square, London,
where all communications regarding finds or explorations about to be
made should be sent.
Prehistoric Remains Committee. — In reply to a question put by the
Chairman, Dr. Garson said that this Committee, of which Mr. J. W.
Davis was the Secretary, had through an oversight been allowed to lapse
last year. They had, however, presented a very excellent report this year,
and had applied for reappointment.'
At the conclusion of the scientific business a discussion took place
respecting the placing of Delegates on the Sectional Committees. The
following resolution was finally put to the meeting and carried : — •
' That the relations of Delegates to the Sectional Committees as at
present existing are unsatisfactory, and that the matter be referred to the
Corresponding Societies Committee for their consideration.'
With reference to this resolution the Committee have to report that,
after giving the matter careful consideration, they have come to the
conclusion that they possess no power under the present rules of the
Association of attaching Delegates to the Sectional Committees.
The Committee beg to recommend that the General Committee should
sanction the retention of all the Corresponding Societies now enrolled,
and that the Leeds Naturalists' Club and Scientific Association should be
added to the list.
' The Committee, consisting of Sir John Lubbock (Chairman), Mr. J. W. Davis
(Secretarj'), Dr. J. Evans, Professor Boyd Dawkius, Dr. K. JIunro, Messrs. Pengelly
and Hicks, Professor Meldola, and Dr. Muirhead, was appointed.
F 2
68
"REPORT — 1890.
o
tn
y
fli
P
01
^
(i<
r-l
<M
c
rt
ffi
3
<U (U
o o
o p
Ah fM
b; c ^ c2
9 - ° a
&S §■§
S CI
;S !
? Ah
3 C
O M
& 03
PJ t- O)
>** flj I— '
S H
a
tn ^^
l»2
, w) fl a
c >■- txi s 3
c :=; = a -3
^ ^ - a
?; = Si c »
£ s u ® ^
K
3
•O ^
S '-■'
r; 2 s "1 2 -5 «;
T'.m
•-A % "A
•a 'A
^ 'A
cs s s
o o o
12; |iq !z;
o s
— < C^
C.2
2<1
C3 (U
■SO
CD
W
■g -a t. S 2
K O 03 03 pi
00
'5 m
„'£ ^ ■§ ^ Ti
■3^
K-3
b." C
S ca
rt
OB
- be
^.= g
§ i a} X-
o a .2 '^
a a
03 ."
J3 — l~
So a =3
.:: 2" o
gm g
'bo J
Coo.
rto-s
ort
m ^1 C
'^ S 2
O
rt
6
r-5 /I t-
•3 Si °
ca <y to
O c>"
-fj p-l
g 5 'SI o 5
? k: 3 fe -2
rt
t^ 'to
teg
^ a
SO
o
1^ a;
d
a ort
U^
M
lis
a>KO
CS
0- ^^ " O
rt 1-;
.o -
.■2 o
to o
& °
P s
CO 45
.M
13
M rt M
^ o w
'^ W !^'
.■a
,a
rt
W
.S !?; -< .43 -.3
to . 2 tn
F ■a, ^ <S .2
^ *3 fx3 ^ 113
t3 c3 o aj o
rt M pa M pp
M
a
o
r/3
w
_-;
;z;
rt
s
g
w
w
e3
!z;
»5
•a
a
«
o
W
•a j3
& I
V4 a
o o
13
a
<)
■a
a
^ 4.^ tao
.Si a " -
W . CO ^ ca
&". § o
tn o rC e o
■S -Sa-g«i
fe; a rt i W
4? ^ to c3
•^ H i =
h2 W
■43 CSC rC:
to r-i ^
Til
43 *- +3
• ^ L, i- S 43 - 43
r; s C:; c3 rt a. ^
iS o" ^, At. to -^
"S o-'j^
rt W
<'-'3
rt «
^ "-' 2
^grt
s'sa
CS O CC
.a o j3
a £ a
rt O
c: .-H oj
So o
43 c/3 ,9
iz; S »
0!
2 I2 § Is
O
O CO
r-l "^
I'i
H
■0,43
■"a
ta a
-t^ to
to a
O
a 43
3 .2
b£.=0!3
BS-4
"
rt
XJ
r!
.2
s
s
P^
03
1
-t-3
d
cc
cu
u
s
hH
c
*c
^
3
§0
U
2to C
c»^
oTa
O (S 4(»
S >>C30
i » o '''
■" £«3
i:! b ^
Sag
3l3'g
O ®
V ^^ 'a 43
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
69
.2 S -3
"^ :1 1
i? = ~ ^ u. >.
bo
eg
a
■3
H (!< H
'd
>.
g
w
a
c
a
a
C3
03
Art
a
s
a
n
S)
O.
cS
^
c:
TJ
T)
^
cu
a
aj
C3
5
rt
5
O
'-3
o
g
oT
•A S
H Ph Ph P^
g a|§
ti OJ CJ
w a> o eft
a o e; a
c3 O R rt
It »N *^ t-
H Ph H
c >.a 2
5^5
2 g
H H
a> a;
o o
PhUi
rs 2
i? = *
c O OJ
c o >
a o «
4^ en 4:r
^ a ^
o o °
a-- a
S 1»3 g I.
— 3
rt P5 H
^- ^o^ .
. o a c CO
w a a* 4) .
i> " H a 'o
t; --? to _,
c; -t-» W5 >-
Ji a o cj
O 2
^ .2 ;5 ::: ;::5
a w
iz; ;z;
o
S iz;
^2; a 1^ ^
QJ «J CJ "C
a a a «
o o o ,•
^' « ^
<M •-»
o =
"2 &
« o
a
a
J3
ghton
iex
elrlg,
teel, 2
h Strec
u
2
H^<!
Kn
1, Es
Cap
oa .J
►'§
H°C
Cole, 7
urst Hil
urdoch,
Q3
>
San
kcal
11,5
a bco
.o
■3
am D.
t, Kir
. Cade
^
t»
p
'5
SS^
B
S5W
3
^
^ W
is >r;
fi ^
p.
e
c3
o
^ H
•^ to t-
a u
*- -3 O
P3
02-2 "3
s; . oTfo
a t c^4 3 ;?
2flo5f^
% H
r • a^ a -a
tain oi tc 3
pi "-I
SjH'SS a
a" a :S -S 2 .-S
o o u cc 3 ■*;
3 a a^ a3
€ aS.5
•t; o cj ^ ..
a P.O ^- a
S S . 52
O .fc a |§ a
o -^
Cfl-
teisgs^g
2k!
QJ '^ :?,
oas cgi^.
! . rt oJO oJ c3
Q C5 Ph2^
)-3 bo «i .ri '^
-3 a a y
t- c3 c3 a a
2m ^(K 2
" 2
0)
^
«
fa
Si
d3
1
;a
.a
a
3
0.
3
1
a
nd
Pi
-*3
be
5
li^.
tt
rn
?^ H
<
B
O
S
a
O
.0
a
■3 G =■
i5 S " c
i5 -rt
o D a -2
Ph . " a
^ ^ 1^ "S
HHMOCboWWWMPJcQi-tH)
45 - "
5 -ri ".
^
h
^^11
a. p.
W
S3
CO M W
•2 a ^
p.
V
3
a ^•
a a
■|
CO
o
.3
m
? c
PS
^ a
U^
a
•a C3
= X a
U 7>1 «3
I'^^^a
Poo hX
a^
00 do
a 00 o
eS a* «
^ -*^ C5
W3 O M
M P4
02
o
DO
5
.a
Ph
o J=
CO a
2 E?
■a ».-
a o
W O
2 a": S » 3
re ^ O ^ •-" es
O O H
3— «
=5—3
'^ "^ 03
« a 08
*« a^o
t- . (ft
2 S'S
■P.2 a
0) u o
w w
>, .2 .3
o be
■■skS
2 ■* O
0) bO
C3 -t; o
S a.i: "1
.^ "^
'^ i-s .2 o
=3 tfi
000 ^ -c
rfi - t- CO a>
■K 3 c! » a
- """ gt2.t;>^a
- ■- ^ 1^, W
t-l M M
5S'
'7 - o a 9
>-; iJ >3
.2^
o
o-a
tt! a
O -»-> ^
rh. t-J *a
009
p. a.M
t* > o
3:3
-U Ql
QJ S
QQ
S -e
^^'
:^ S
S a
0)
W30 03
*"• .2 C/2
« iPa, «
-"^ a 2 2 -2
M OS O S' O
^ .« 03 a
8^§S 2
cfl « O* aj cj
cj '"' '.^j -a '« ^
S a 5 ax a
■•-» OS'S ««■-• rt
:^ 15 a
(0
REPORT — 1890.
d
3
C
^
^
Mh&<
^
o
d
CJ
-tJ
a £>
B «
I" a 3
o a
23
■a . ^
^ = C
'ri «
=5^2
« o
h: C ">
O ^ fl
a, o! £
« H
t%
M
t>»i>
^
.^
::^ r^^
a
s
rt >.
t>»
>»
t^
^ 9
en
-^
d
rt
= s
^^
;^
P
fl
fl
c3
-*^
S o
tuT^ «
rt
c3
.a
= S
^.3 S a
do
o
to
C 3
o a
i~ io
a|
J3
1)
Soda
o
o
o
i
s
-^-2
P^
Bt^
H
Ph
h*
fe
-- >^
Tf— ^ C-J
w
o
o
o
O)
c
a
o
O
K
izi;^;^^
CO
i'-
-p
;>j
>-<
o
>i
y
CO
o
c3
i
tc
d
cp
'A
ffi
O
O
'^ -A
a
o
J3
m
is rt to
^h^i a J «
5-< . .ci ^ **
^ Ph
H3
P3
ill
■so =
I* Sea o
Ph
i w
p flj .
P a
ess
O H
a \A
CJ
o
ill
. .n
t» o
: -j= o
^ S?^ .9
O OJ o -
i 2 ii,_3 ^
tooK
C- CJ
3 .t,
CO
o O
-a;
CJ o ^ 13
CJ rt-2 5
P=* O CJ
CJ C3 .22
r^ .-^ Cb oT CJ *- i?-
;^
J 2 9 o'
1-3
^ ^
p ^
« 3
^.5
ajf^cj
CJ
■go o
rt O « >>
W.iS •"Si
^ d u] CJ
(U CJ 'C >•
boa S ^
CJ, .|-icQ
<
•P. a
a a s
.2 k5
to
!?5
o
id
m
tL( pj PL, p; p; Pi
o
»-]
^
o
<D
^
c5
O
f;^
Pb
<
;?
o
^ ^ >^
o ■-
O 1Z|
i; Cd .i
7- .2
" - !-.
1 ■§ 2
'^ Sq 5
s sio
o
5'Si
•- a
to
■scio '
"5 1 a K
jd *J '- '-*
S a o^-- S
"S o ° _ •-
o £ C = '3
a ~ c ^ -2
fl3 c: +J ™ t/1
a a a
5
a
w
T3
tM
o
hn
■f^
■^ cq
.a tf^
s
a:i:
^
"S.Si
•^ ho
ee o
3°
CJ
■a'O
Si
K co(/2
^ . QO
b ^- "-0
'*^ ^ .^
»- CJ -^
r^ <u rt ,aJ SP
Ph
■^ vij c; "iJ ^
5 2 's S 's 5 S
a 1
-M CO
*a O CO cci
O t-"- CJ
i s"? s
a " -r I/J
CJ f-t
CO
Ci *t/J
>. I
CJ t^ a
<! a
§§2
Q '.a
° S
Ph
Ph Ph Pi P^
"3 +^ -"»
C3 CJ «i
■2-3^
O CO o
ca 00
ri •-<
C3
a '^
■S-- >^
3 O c5
CO ^
2^"S
S 3_
2"
Ph 3
SlcJ
£ o.
— O CO
CJO^
o
CJ
-t-»
»*>
"o
p<
=3 .2
C5-g2;
£og
.3 0-3
j=oQ.a
3 a 3
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
o
be
c
a
c
o
a
.2
O .
,^ O
a>
c
fH
rt
rt
a<
^
o
o
n
;;
a
w
OJ
a
g
01
o
>
o
hi
a
•*->
o
O
ni
Ti
■s
CM
o
a
o
a
'S
c
o
<u
o
H
*
^1
o
O C5
o o
Z> 35
00
•s «s n
.S5 OO
O 00 ,
.
35 00 „ « „
^
<»
"" •* "
•OO QD
OO CO "
•
X) 00 - - -
'•
•
"
1— (
f— 1 1— <
1— 1 •— *
-^ T^
CO
3S
a>
o
tJD
>o
>o o o
1^ OO lO
t- « u':
-( — 1 00 --H —
M
cc
•^
(2
O:
■M C^ C><
CM
c^ cc o
O •* IM
1
>) 5-1 O CO ^
O
?)
o
C^
GO
C3
<U <u
OO
>
b> CO ^
H >" ^'
1
00 .
-o ^^> '
s
> o
o
o
o
•
«j
. . .
. . .
•
•
•
p
,
.I? .
.
, . ,
.
•
,
,
3
'^
s
. 5 .
■Si
8 . .
o
eo
.•g^
»-•
t^
<o ao
=:
^ g s
■a S o
5*
tt
o
H
l«
t
S « ? « ;
"
•*
O
•
o
■ • •
. . .
•
•
•
m
Cm
cc
o
o
m
6
o
<
a
o S c5
en
C
1—1
CO • • . .
« .6
6
o
CO
c5
o
P4
0)
O tfl o
bo c3 bo
CO tin CO
o^3
Hi
P5 6S
>>
£1
5
-<
.3
<1
a
E cD.tl
- 5 ^- d ^
£
a
s
bD
ca
3
H
t4-l
.
* -4J
• • 73
• • 00 '
,
t«
-=;
O
-4-3
00 ;z;
CO o
■1^
^<
%
CJ
to
CJ
«
o
O cS
o
•
3 "« C
rm
QJ
ft
QJ
1-3
3
QJ
^
o
-B &
to . .>
3 _o
2 • "S
m O
00
OD
a
8
QJ
.— 1
o
O
OJ
o
.s
CO
w
CO -H
S V
.^ 00 -^ o
"o G 3 O
CU QC
M S3
«l -1
e o '^
■ ■ ■ s_g^ J
. c C O OM O
•^ -^J -S U .5 t;^
^ > > OT o) r-j r'
S I-. i^ -»^ e =^ S
& o o g,s iS o
00
00
tn
s
QJ
>>
O
.2
Is
>
M
CJ
A
O
-4^
O
'S
00 ra
°^ r:;
00 cd
^^
3 'r
CS t.
QJ
a bD
-a
S-5
V
o S c
be- o
^ fi.S=S
-^
rrl
C3 O Q cu oj
be h c: ■" be
br
»-H
2W
3 ca
o ^
m
•ti .2 ^ «
.o
O
'fir
c
'bn
j= a
"bjcj
K ri o *-
"^ rH ^ 5
—
o
o -t^ rt d o
3
r,
d c
2:s 3j
•^ s» pa t!
TO CL Q
J3 O «
Ha2«
-^ g o
a.S a-2
HHO
O
^
"o p a> a o "o
O O -Jn 'ou o
" « S j3 Q ij
o
.a
5
.^ o
QJ QJ
'd 'o
<
•
fe
Ui !^
. . .
<i
•pj • • •
•
•
•
o
Q
6 ^d
^^
>
d^H§
d
3
<
<!!
1-5
c^>
^ "^
o
'
1-5
3
P3
»r^s3
li§ .
-2
>
S
«5
c
o
•Si
QJ
a
■r bt^ M .
? 'O o a, -
J
to
n
!<5
' \
c S =
3 S «
Qj O O
a>
QJ o o o
=3
<
<5:iM
«OP
COO
ffiSffiffiK
W
iJ
REPORT — 1890.
to
«
P-(
> s
O
P.
3
E
a
OS
00
00
Sj m to t:~ 00 t^
T" S^ "-1 '- i-i OO
•^ OoDCT. -*<oo o>n t--H
CO 1— iio 0^1— I T-H.-I cqcM
*« b " t^ >'
oo '^^
>
00
00
00
00
X
o
S
Is
=s
....
•
• . ■
d
• •
• •
8
■5 CO
XI
<
w"
'A
d
2
lasgow Phil. Soc.
umb. West. Assoc
iv'pool E. Soc.
. Scot. Geog, Soc.
d
o
a
ristol Nat. Soc.
lasgow Phil. Soc.
. Scot. Geog. Soc.
o .
-1
6 .
o o
CO o
P
o o
CO a
CO
B
W
(-1
i^
coiJW
n
nc5P5
Qa
MO
WS
tt
o >
1—1 o
CO
CO
• «w
M
CO r- y^ ^
o '
o
M
o
"bo
o
c
ce
2
a^
O QJ
«
00
00
oo
1— (
ho
a
bD p^
d o
g C QJ
^-S
UJ
-2 o
O cu P
"c3 P =*:<
bcH
C
o o
.- fe >
bo'" ^^
.5 H b o
o o
IK
y-" 1_» _3
|.i
IP cl
o
~" ° ^ <D
QJ ^ O ^
feH - "1^ O
S OPHCO<tJ
<" 1:
•^ °
o y '^3
<D be o3
o o
o g
0) a
H a
^ H
So
w
13 -t^
o & 2
f-t en ^
oj r; <u
C
CO-- o
■ > ■
c^
01
o ^
o
a
c C a>
o o H
CD g.G
«o
b Si)
bie
o _ ,
Pi W
-^ oo
+J CO
o3 00
M
o
=* =* • .• td
•K
O
'a
PQ u;
p
be
c
Ph CBOJ
|Q a^j
d I W ^ oT
S-S 3 > 9
CO to CO H
H^ ^
o
iz;
o
CO
S
n
o
o
CJ
o
o
oo
. ,C5
00
CO
- -00
t-H
*-H
r—i
o
C-l
O « CO
w
Ci
lO 05 'Jt
H- 1
eo
.
. . .
S
«
E5
•
. . .
-W
«
,
•
t
e^ . 6^
5i
s «;i *
1
1
« ? «
o
o
CO
^1
o
• S
m
.a
u
o
CO
o
■ t/2
s«1
11^
pq
c3
CM
O
"S ^
S oi
"boo a
> ::: .2 -a
: a> E? c
.33 =3=2
■^ a
a o ■-'•
5 a Ma>
ola|
n a-g*^
cs C3 O --J
, O r-- 0)
.2'-' S O
§ Or- =
X3 2 <^ -2
b 'm S^ . -
^^ a '^
O O l-H
•-3
c
O
g
<! P5
i-5"c.;<!
cif-2
OK-?
COREESPONDINO SOCIETIES.
73
00 w to
"^ C4 ^H O
» eo — ci
'►-. >
o
. a
o
O
'O
o
o
CO
>>■
•T^
o
^
o
hJ
o
a
u
o
ft
B
0)
H
5U3
3
o
CD
(-•
o
1 ft a> v^
J* J- O
O
C
3
o
O 05
G-. 00
00 00
o
CO
oo .
00 -
O C5
-en 00
"CO 00
o
00
Oi O
00 -m
00 '00
w C5 m
1-1 1-1 (M
.-1 CC (M
I-H O -H
o
O M C5 C5 ei •*
t^ C^ CC CC CO -^
^ (N <M --i CO C3
05
OO
OO
o
fa
o
OO
o
fa
M
f^/
M
-y.
•;2
<;
e;?;!^ ^
^ OB
<^
I*
N
"^
S o
<5
r.
-tJ
O
CS
CJ
■A
75
m
r^;
-M
flJ
0)
O
hJ>^
^^fa
•—1 /H
c
o
Kg
§2
"'TOW *-• -rH
S S ^ £ S
d
fa
:; X
'Si
ryi
O
o
o
O
o
c3
o
o
o
o
t/2
o
ft
'o
0)
C5
o
o
•CQ
o
ft
fa- -^
a ^
ft
O
><
O
fa
g
o
.O
o
"A
be
bo
c
o
C
CS
K O '
o -*
o
»< o
c 2
o o-
'^^^
C -S
ft <\
ft
ft
CC rl +^
.2 S a
o
• • ft
c c o
ft c«^
I !- g O
' =« S
;o.s £
o o e
: S £ qj
«2ft J
:s 3 1
o ■
<i>
'P o
a ft
S3
C
"o "o
OO
cS c«
ftft
O 0)
o
o S ■^
ftr; tf-i
0) o
*-> 1:! -S
b >,^
C <5 "
i^ O "
so p;
0) ^ !-
o o _d
tn r. "3
^;^5
-^1^
>
I— «
C3
O
M O
o
fa §
--a
?■€
o
=^§
c
o
CS IK
O S _
■c '3 'S
C3 ft-^
o 5) '^
a^
> ^
0)
M
ca
"A
a
o
"cs
cS
O
C 12 Q
a -2 a;
c .2 >-. =^
^ iH o o >
t« >:; a^ X 0) 1^
■g <J = »: -^ /3 5
bc^ O ^ H S S
- ^- Ofa
o g S S
O r 3 bo
g^M .s
•;:;<—( oa
If^ o
^ §3
a^.2 t^
.r-. +^ r-)
«fa a
=4-1 „ P
yj Of'*-'
C) 3 «:■
•Sffi.S
ci
g 05
^ QO
^3 gT
3 S bD
C3 -H 3
3
/3 m • -^
ftt^fa
o ° S
^ H t^
ft
I— I ^^
c o 'd
> ■r' 1>
£ bCj3
O oin
-5 0g^
cs o y
■7^ 12 en
^atS
3
CO
o
c
o
eft
g
5
ft
d >;
- . >
^'^"^
"^ .£
"3 t3 ^3
ftPft
o
O
&^
"ft 't-
ci -3
OO
o
K
o
O
fa
>
a)
o
O
W
c
o «
« Q
74
EEPORT — 1890.
Pub-
lished
CJ o
a
(-,
C5
o
C5
o
a o
CTJ
o
00 Ci
-co » -
^
c^
,oo
05 -
OO
^
o .
00 35
00
^
Ci
00 03
-00 " -
•■
' CO
'OO
00 "
00
"•
00 -
OO OO
00
•
OO
1-H T— (
1— 1
f-H
1— t
I—"
1—1
i-H »-H
1— 1
-^
a)
Ol,
^^ (M
T— I O O 1— 1 CO
00
o -^
^ (M
O 00
CO
o
■JS o
1^ ^
t^
r~
CO
o o
O 00 00 C-1
o
cc ^
CO ^
rH •— '
t-
00
>-< O
o c-1
o
t~
0-1
OS la
(M (M 1-1
I— 1
(M
"
CO
(M t-l
C5
05 O
0) ^
■-J0
OO 05
1^
•
,
OO .
t— (
OO 00
,
^P.^ '' ^
1— i
CO
'>
o
X
>p1
o o
h- 1
j;
fn
fepiH
3
■•&,■■■■ i; ;S I
^ ^* -
..«....« to ?S
?e "S?.:;;; <3 as jg sa S ? «- «>I _3;
i-i o
-1- OO • • •
S K- 6 6
^.^' ° °
O o CO 6 «:
. P-i _: o ^•
r:; . o M o
PO Q) O ^ O
a> w o . o
CO
5 o
^ te-^
o
o
C/3
ri O «
> 1-. >
^ w
5>HiJlpqH^ Ph
• CD
; o
O
- o
'>
■ O
O
03
S O
o o;
•go
^«
■A-J
o >
02 g
• o
HO
o
a
o
!z;
o
p
ti .
p _>j
Uj O
"o o
O O
7} en
a
o
'S
P
1^
o
o
o
!»
o
O
d
>
o
• Q
•3 a
m
■ o o
t3"
•^ ^- .(D M
.^ r-' ii P
|g
<P m
J3 CS
■*^ <U
p.
<4-l Q
o T
ca
Ph
hjo'ts
a o
•so
P O
<U ■=!
m O
OO
-. tl-1 "^
«H S■^^r-
- ■ '.g a
a
o
Cnfq
> a a
-a
o
a)
o «J b/jH
a; >• o
O
,a
o
o
ij
a
o
a ^
0^£
^ O in
a 9
(D O
rQ ^ 0) a b
2 aZ- ^S
o bc^ o a
s I ^ ^ 'a
o a ^^ t^
:2;Phh w
!^
a^
.t3 1-1 rO
a
H a 3'
-^ be o
rr, O '^
•OJ.S O
O '/J e4_,
•'aS °
2 a a
■ g« fl
in o iS
•„ow
° a> a,
o
O
OO
00
OO
Q a ^ -^
a
o
o w
^a^
. O O m
7:>
S *- -►^
rt -a
O T- •
CD o m
C5
-"■;=; a
C3 *-! O
o a ™
i- a "^
Pm w t5
S o
(U cU rrt
a J5 ^
OH
• o
'S .;:: «
o o
. S 2 >>
o §.1 8
■-a Afd .^
wO H
S 1^ -
-a -3 ^ cp o
-4J ^
Ol
a P!
0.2
2 5
'^'^^
E — tu
p bCO
S| g
o r pq
,a <u
HP-i
a
«1
bc^ o ,
o ^
^ •" 05
ri 1^ 9
a t^ cs
S.2^
bii_cs
c«r3
-tj a
a ^
o 2
a o -M
o
e3
o
r!
o
m
PT-
WH
1-1
o
rt
tfH
<4-i
l>^
O
<P
0)
m
a
n
a
OJ
CD
4^
I'
-I'
°s
o o
o a
o ;
7} T'
O c^
o.S'
"E ^
cs a
d
■ • •'C
a
- . > W a
Ph -;=!
n n o ^
<u Ol .y " o
PPP «
& H
o 3
P&u
&
o o
3 H
r^ 9
o o
KB
<1
a
a
o
a
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
75
-00
-00
I : I
o
55 -
>-<
CO -ti t~
oo — —
rt O) Tl
05
oo
o
CO -
05 O 05
.00 05 QO
"OO 00 00
o
C5
b- t— coco ^oH 10050300 »o
1-i o ocoi I— iro t^tococo cfi
CO <M (M <N -H 1-1
oo
00
o
-*
'O f— I ^H — «
1^
>r-
X :^'
oo
00
o
:f^
■^.
M
■:§
^1
'.s
o
"o
9. "
9 °
■i CO
'^^■
r22 S
<u .
o
O
W
o
o
o
■ o
o
02
-3 o^z;
a ^ i
o
5 <=
o
o
. o
o Ph
o .
^ (D
;z; .
o o
o
o
. . X
d .-■ ^
O tfi (Tl
.to .
■M
fa
w
-^
P3
o
o
o
CO
Cm
O
fa
o
o
en
fa
o
. O
id
0) o
cS
oc
cSfa
S <H "^ rr> --r"
O CO
o
3 go
> O c3
•-^ o o
£S
CO
O X O 0) ,
S ==
^^'
> OJ oJ
■ O ,-:• ♦^ -7^
M "3 O «|H g
.S fa o ^ P
c3 -
O <u
CQ (D
.■seq
.i ^ to
P5 ri >ir-'
o3 C cS
O
o
CO
,^ 2 S-9
o
=1 o
i3 O '^
c o ^
CD •-:<
a) ■
0)
a
•3 °
a M
r— ( (H
O rt )_i
tc 3 I— I
S< o ,. 'C
-+-3 CO m o ^^ '^ H
OJD p <i> ^
ci S
■§^-2 5
O.S'3
0) -flj
cS
OJ
'^3'^ -Sr?!
^3
cS
t-. o
fl 7! <P &:, -^
w
O " o
a; 'S I— I
c cs la o _, ^
. „co CS o 2 S_
cs o — i^s -^ .- o
-i- cS
3 a>
0)
5 ^i <D 0) M
■*2 p-l
„ o
o
a
cS
^ a
a s
o«
CO
a> o
M ;
Q <
^ H 'O ,. . „
tH •• M (n ~>
Ph g g-^ S
^ S SPh'«
*^ i_l u_l "« S~
tM i^i O O S
i3 o S -*^ c) d;
'-■ c ts a) ^ in
rijz; P5HO
O Ph > M *J
^fa
a
^ cS a> cS _ ^ ^
'i' /1% t- ^^ (~1
3 P^ a -t:. ni
a
o
c3 tn
-tj O •!>
ip a
bD O
ni "" '^
8a^
(0
r^ ja ^ n -a o
Sh H O Hfa
is '3 a O
i 3 C^^^ § a _
faO OmOO
3 a a
y o
CO
-. w„ la ^ a i-j ^ a> .a o
8> |ofa oo^.S-s;5
o H o ;z;
fa
>
cS
fa
fa
a:
' 1-5
O
hP^
PS '^'
o a '^ a
DO O
1-5^ 1-5
a
o
1-5
S S
O
fa -^
'^ bo
a' 5
3 &,
ct^ cS
p O
03 O C3
o a ij
a
cS
n
o
cS
a
76
REPORT — 1890.
O
o
m
O
^
^
O
05 O
Ci
o
05
o
05
-1
05
CO O » * 00 ., ,.
.05
CO
.05 . .
.00
> 1
CO
CO 00 * '00 " -
'CO
00
-00 • "
'CO
• 1
^^
»— ^H
(—4
■-H
l-H
^"
f— 4
1
5Ph
> o
eg
CI •-- 00 t^ IS
m lo <N t~ CO
1-1 ":t< .-I
1-1 C5 O
o: o
00
C5
CO
(MO PJ
00 CO —
r-. CO
00 lO CO
OS .— I I—
■-I IM
o
CO
o
Oi
00
o
cr.
00
■* 03
>, CO hh" I-; =g
o
fa
w [^
•
■to
•
•
•
.
•
«
to
•1
.1
. . .
•
.
•
.
1
^
s
S
^
'?
c
1-* I
o
^
=c
■g
. *5 .
CC
«
S 1 .;
(U
s; '^
it:
«- 5
«i S '^
8
^
5^
g
H
mil
? « ?
1
'- 1 ^
"
«^
s'l
-^
O
^ 02 fu
^-1 (-< ^i/ i_^ t-.
o
o
! CO
o c '
. . o
4^ HH (U
— '^ S
t" (-, '.
pa KhJ
o
CO
"o
(U
O
B
pa
o
o
o
02
= fe
, t
o
0)
!zi
O
(U
f— 1
o
^
o
o
o
C3
4)
o
o
CO
d
c3
O
o
CO
"o
o
&
W h^
CO
0)
=4
^
?
fL.
^
cl
en
J!|
rt
o
^
Ph ifH ^
o
^ CO '-'
a
(H
w
>
o
u
o
a
a
o
be
CI ^
o
o
bo
o
be
o
a
o
O 1— I
<D
o p;
«^'
O /3 5J
Q,4^ C
oT o tj
o -if W H -^
O -^ +^ J-,
=„ tc :t; « "S
o _^ i; ,a
^J3 O
o
!P
fcr,
— < Ch cS
O M^
a.S ^^
t7 C ■
a> a: •
> ?^ ^
O Sh c« .2
9 e -H cs
-I ca
II
go
II
o -J^
o
■ 'C
Cl
E2 CO
§§30,'
a s SJ a J?
s *-■
«<1oqOS
b£i-a o
o +- Jz
■ Cl .
(p o 3
O to ^
c; -k^ ^
,a o =!
•ti 0) 5 g
"m S
o
CO
<u ci c!
Iz; Eg MO
a> £i ^ S
-*^ t; C4 o
<1
ll
/-I *>
CL'
a
c ■
o
en *
CO
n!
m
IZi
8 £ t> " a
^.. p> [/i O M
1 ^
CO
S bo^rt
03 m 3 ^
■tj +- ,t^ "^
d ci =* C
OO O
O CO c
o 2 o
'^ S
rj O tn O
c
cj
fe-
es
01
o
ra o ^ ^
o ^ fl t-
CO a g<«
^ 01
oi2
op
C5
I
00
CO
CO
o
(U
o
CO
c3
OC
a
W
•—I
o
o
-^
<1> ,
bo
C8
>
<D '
-a
H
3
B
a
pa
c3 ee :^ .t; o
^H krl *— ( «^ trH
p=! ^ rP ^ <P
2 "^
o o o
o
1-5
2":§
[3 W -g
d
P-i
P3
bo
0)
p:5
a
■3
§
cS
pi
CORRESPONDING SOCIKTIES.
77
O CS O 05
o
OS
O OJ
O
05 O C5
o
Oi o
o
03 CO C5 OO
o
00
05 OO
K
^
C5
00 03 .a>
o
K ■•
.^
00 en
00 .
00 00 00 00
00
00
00 OO
*
''
CO
OO OO 'CO
00
A K
•■
CO OO
OO -
-^ i-H rH ^
T— 1
.— t
^^ ^H
^^
^H »— ( i-H
"-"
T~l >-H
^H
1-( »o ^^ »^
00
m
■~o CO
-t<
CI
o
«5 1-H — 1 to
IN
■^ -a
o
CO ^
^ ^ 513
•>»l 00
n
o
CI ^
C5
^-i
-tl
o -H c^ to
00
lO CO
o
O '-O
m =^.00
-J IM
<M
CO
-*l
-*l
M (M
1— t
""
!M
CO -*<
t-H -* CJ
O
o
O ^,
OO
00 •*
00 .
I— 1
^4 •—!
O
;;
7i
.J '—1 .'— '
1— 1
s ::
::
1—1 '
fa
&^
"g • . . . . . . . ■ • ■«
§ s
■§ • • • •... . .. . ,^.^g
Hi-
o
O
«
o
O
C5
O
c5 ■
o .
4^
C/-0
(t!
Sq
"Sa^
;zi •
o
^ s
O t4
n
IziM
o
o
CO
O
o
a
C4
• o „■ cc
< PL, O .
"S :»■ & g
ii s f^ >
o o o .S
W'
o
CO
o
3
§1
o a
o
o
32
a
o
a
- a
oj o
g .1
fti o
a CO
C3 -"ri
O
fa
tH
o
a) o t)
o fa >^ d
^-sl °
on -^ ■" ^ 4?
a>
CO
o
. o
03
tiC-g
IS =^
0)
a
eS o g •"-«=* 'S c«
u -^ ;S bc-^ o o ^ 'Tj
re « ca '-' ^ o ,g
■8°a.s^-SMgj-'2SS
cac^ o c a^ja^
OOPco O O Hi-i
w
o
a i^
a o
o "
o a
bfl a
a 03
^§
t/3
m
c
>^ o
bjjMQ
a 5
o S 'I' r-
^ C3 el ^
-, o o a
o o "S
i2 a '^
OT
P a J= o
■ fta o 2
gfa oji:
■ 'S "3 'S
=^ g 2
cS cS M ^
Pi ;i^ bc.3
a (^
bD
c5
O d 71
o s a i= t*'
--^ ce a o
>
03
O
be
O cS
M CO t>, (u
" a S P-i
a rr!
a =2 =*
oi t;
'^ -S t: Ph Ph
a 2
1^ o3
S a
•So
o c
(V) O
ifa'
as o
rt r- 3 -^
ci o
a^
o t.
O 3
(a
M
^ 03
^ a -e.
o o
5
POO
o
_, _ o
£ a a "
S 0) oj >^
■ — , o >3 '3 cBh *:; t; 1-m i-; = 6 .'K bo
fct.S S o o ^ Q 2
aa3a3^3«>t.a'S
^o^o^'-'-Sat'=f^S^-^aa^o2
H>-i;^!zi !z; ;z;-ij fa OO !z;h
S a a
• K
S02 O
O fa
".S Tl (u -w
■V
a
3
cS
V3
a
a"H^^
a -^' '^
a o -* a
O) CO CC
CO
1-5
>'
«
r=i . X
<D
^-H^.a
«
o
>^ --T a
03 m ^ 3
.^
.^
O
o
-S 03 0) .a
a
toHHH
H
>
<1 •
r-" a"
o ^
0!
78
EEPOET — 1890.
o
o
H
C5
<o
c5
C5
00
00
o
05
00
CO
O C5
cn oo
00 QO
o
Ci
00
p-(
-H
*+i -H
"c
-f o
t^ -J
c-i to
I':
t^
T— t
O
1— 1 1^
o
•^ -^
r-l to
-r c>l
-ti
Ol
o
<M
-^
n
f— I
(M -f
»— 1
r^
II
1— I
5H
J
t— 1 -
J. J
i:;?'^'
l-H
>
CO
1— 1
fis
K<1
y.^^
h-t
r-^f^
>-
C
3
t^
§1
c
?;
^
H !>,
o
r^
,
-S o
C3 O
m
o
^
A
^
:5
.
<:
y
, c
pq
w
o
o
ri CO
■ o fa
bo .
o^ «
o
o
O
r-3 (D
a: c^
o ^
c3
^ -
a ^ -
to ^ «
O
o g p
lis H
1 §
-Sip-
o
_o
in
(U
P=5
o
• =^
bo
• o^
2 'o
C ^K
VI
o
. o
C3
OS o
o=g
o
C3
"<1
o
O Ci GJ
«> Eg
■- "> §
CO
a ;
-Ti o
. o
° bo
£ t j: o
bo 5 t^ "!^
S . o e
^ o o o
««!> c5
S o.o o
O ^ ^ -*J
y a .2 M
CD ^^ I
w
« g
O
S -u
C3
" S ^ -
bO.2 bO'/2 i^^
o o 3 -2 -is <i3 ^
- .a Jlz; SO
5^
a
o
^
bo
> y-
^a'
<:o
?5
a
cs a
. o
CO- -i
-a !> x; s
CO
W
>'
K
o f=
a hH o
o
o
►J
o
I
O OS
03 00
00 CO
•* la
»- to
-H -*<
CI
CO rt
i-H 1—1
CO
cc
a
<=> 1
00
OS 1
CO
00 1
^co.
r-(
o
o
fa
fa
I
o
•;:: a
*a) o
o t-.
C3
0.
hf)
a
r>
a
0)
4->
o
O
pa
m
(«
o
m
O
m
Ph
0)
bD
o
o
To
a
o
^ ^!^
a
o
o
a
o
N
o
=3 a
■• . o
o o a
:<1
I -I
5 la -^S c 2 .S
^ ' — ' a
^5 Sf^a
a
^ a cs o
tw <u ►> c
+-■ ~ ja p .a
a a -t-- s -a
■ c3 c3 „ gm
S oo
t-" s
bo c3
<:p5
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 79
005© oi OC5 2S
. . .05 .CO - .05 . 00 ..05^. ;; jO OO .
'--00 -CO- -00 - OO --CO CO- ---00 CO
■a in
CC05t^CO CO -h" ceo 1^ 1^ COO -*^ (Mt^ 05'^'NQO -^^ CO
c<toc<i-H rt -.- — OO o — . ci?4 -- t-o '"JS-'S '-; '
2j ^_
O "l cr. C5
-s CO CO . 5B
• ■oo^_;co. .00 . ..i-H^' kJtj i_;SS
o " S P
^a
§<:.«
0)
o
o
o
O o . . . "-' . . . .>-J . . . 6
fe:v os^o 9 T;i o ofcj 60S, CI
i 1 II J g I sJ sj - -i IJ s Is ||o i i
O Ph pkOk-i pa ISO Wo W i-:i P= o S P5 R cspQh-. pa >h
T) — -t^ O .^ •; I^ .-• ^ 'Vj ° ^ S
O § • ■ m • "ci -O ca" .0 cs'^ "-^^S c9^
O ..!-. om.'P^ turn CI.3 gi; OP^ 'o.c:~
§* -§ o " .= § e ""^ aS 2 ti =c o g g-S^
^ 8 g W^ -^- ^ Uf ^^ -S" -KoiSS S 05 -!z;,5
S*^ -^ ii3 g'S?^ Ss I0 p° i3^^/S •. -Sl^g fl*.
° .!? o ^ > o ^ .2 ■« e ° ., .2 ^ _ a S -S ri -" r, .22 P f^ J5 g -51 9
o S §.2-" ^?^-o ,,--=«^ aJ £ -alol -^ sl^^ .§^
at "«ioS 0-sS=«.^=^«^Si:.5j2"S 2S-So -^^-5 ■= t> r2 •- tS S 2 '-^ tb
Bl llii lii!1Piiti|i:i^l^ili ^sil 111!
"lifi^so :ill|-|«s-i:^^=2t^2 2i:.^! I|sg o|(3E
f" < HHl^icC IB PhO oqO Ph O Hfn O H I^i <! O H W 02 H
I I S S-sS.S-^ ^ ? S 2 2 2 §-3 S si® s-^S S S
80
KEPORT — 1890.
1 13
05
CO
CO
O 05
- CO 00
o
o
CO
05 O
UO ,05
CO '00
05
00
CO
O C5
,=-.00
'00 CO
o
00
OS
00
00
o en
.05 'JO
-CO CO
bO
9h
«--
ctp
CO
C5
CO
05
o
CO
U3 O O M
c. c/:)
CO
-H c-i t- ;^ o cc -
00 -i< .-( - 1 O -^ ■
CO
<>l
05
O
C<3
IS
.HO-
>. o
CO
CO
o
X
■^
5H
o
o
M
^ >.
o
o
'd
03
o
o
CO
o
fa
o
a
CD
> '^
M u
O
fa
o
00
■ o
fa
=iij r'
o
CO
O
fa
era
CO
o
fa
o
C5
00
o
fa
03
00
■ OO
l-l ^ !
'^ (
I— I u
o
fa
^
?; e;
s
K
Si
e
^
S3
& ►^«;?^
s
^
8
o 2
p-l
O
O
r3
Iz;
CO
O
o
fa'
fa
d
O
5 §d
W *^ -^'
rJ O «
o w i!;
CJ
d
C5
o
CO
.2 o
o
. d o
C/J
fn
'^uj
o
U1 '-^
fa
en
d
c --^
w
c3
C3
o
O
a
■
t3
w
o
-4^
:z;
O d
^
fe
fa .
o
bo
M O
.4^ O
5
d X!
WW
o
d
d
.d
o
fa
bD
d
o _5
3
Q
o
o
d
o
P
bo
d
rt
02
O
m o
^ M -s
(D a> rt
.d o s:
-4^ H .d
m ■'^ fa
"S 't-' rr-
d O ^
0) d
o« §
^ d^
S S 2
H H
g « 1
f£5 mt3 d
o
o
.2d a
• • (U
strict
tal Fungi o
of the Spe
Collecting-
Essex
es from the
f 1889
..3
rt x!
be to
P ?^. d 2 =S . o °
Clapbam, and
he Hymenomy
with a Catalog
aggestions on t
Minute Fungi
rnithological N
in the Autumn
|g^
otato Di
utrefacti
rt of the
PhPlh O
dd^
H M O
OOP5
a .2
o a
bo
d
o
fa
\t4
"S rt
SB
M d
fa.
'd .U
cr'.d
rt 3
^2
o
d
o
I — I
C5
d
rt
c
a) if
2 -^
'fS d a
to M
a> a rt
if 3 fl
a ga
iz;
f:^
^
ri"i
<;.>
p^
-i-j
<4-4
(H
O
w
O
O
'15
d
-n
aj
OpH
o;z;
ryj t4_i
.M o
0) rt
^°
o fa
d*
S o
o .. .3
O 05 OJ .d
p o oi d
^ §-? 3
.2~ ^^-
o -* t: rt
!zi ^^ d >.
■^ :> I— I o
e4_4 ^ (— (
O Cl -4^ .3
m c a> K*
o
d
rt
S KP
.d
&
rt
bD
O
o
H
Ph •4-1
ec;
• .i-
§
.d
fa
p
ro
o
.*-.
!-i
o
d
0)
J2
Q-
.1^
%^
nl
n
.^
J3
o
r/1
P-OO
ho 53
■^ d rd
d S *= I
rt Ctj SM
o » w
0, o »
H:;fa<
rt ^
r e4-J
fa o
». a; ~
fa
bo
a
o
O
o
o
d
n
o
0) -<
bc'^
■fa
>1— ' -^
n ^ d
OPP
W
C5 -K
o
'O
o
0)
o
p
PP
d d
rt c8
o o
d d
PP
-° d
a c i-i
o c
2 rt !C
.3 O :::5
fa 5
bo
d
fa
"^ to I
> is
a> cQ
P5-5
>-> rt
Wfa
COREESPONDINQ SOCIETIES.
81
O Cft o cs
O Oi
O Ci
O Oi
O C5
•s
•■
^Ci CO C^ CO
-c: 00
-Oi 00
^
-C5 00
• O^ 00
•■
"
-00 oo
•^00 CO
•^
*00 00
' 00 00
•.•.».
» K
*.
•-H I— (
rH .—1
1— t ^H
1—1 1—1
C! r-l CO -* >-l
— lO IQ 00
C-l CO rH
C3 :
t>. iO C3
to "*l CO
I— ( OJ C5 -*<
o ■ — V in
r- t- c: ^ C5 t^
CO 00 CO ■* l~
O —I
O CO
C5
oo
.^ r-l CO
CO >
o
X
o
C5
I-" tc I— I
10 I--
o
SHE^fiil K
IS
8
O
• 00 ^ i;^
1-1 '^ .id ^ -t>
O CO »^
s ~» s ? >« s
I
oo
CO
CO
o
■«
i.
o
R^
■I
2
o
o
• • cc
a ■
.2 W
o
o
w
o
• o
•^^ . a
■3 -c &
H
. O
CO p
O m (^
Jh O M
03
o
o
00
o
. «2
. "a
CO w
I-
c3 o
(Z2 CO
a •
>
C .
O ^
M a
. a
wo
o
o
W
o
. o
t)
o
a:
5^^
^
c ^
-4J
i4^
CfH
■ !h
QJ
sm
cq
rt
^
o
-4^
X
-t-1
W
.
a
rr
,__,
M
01
03
<t-i
a
rr
0>
c
(1>
n
-4-J
>>
^
!z;
r/)
0)
13
1
•c
a
w ^
rc g
-P-l
■a =*
o o
g cj a
o '^
d ^ o
23.2
bJD m -4^
'=^ o S
rrt o 0)
ti ci "
•- .S J3
«i-^0
a
csf^
ft a
rS 2
a) o J — -
JO
'T3
(D
0) CO o
a
o
QJ
• a
. M
o
CO
CO
_ w
d
,a p
-w IrH
O o
CO
=1
o _
-2 S?.'=«
.^ b
O CO
O -^ =1-1
§ ^°
; >-. o a
' h tt) 3
3.2op^
j _a a> o
S H H
^- SC CO
<i> ;=; a
ra c^ O
r^ =^ ^ CO
Oi , P ID
a S c3 g
P-sJO
1 ft ,
1 >^ ai 4J
o a
a
S ^. "
1^ fil r3
O
a
o
4:: CO
a3 CQ CD
CD CD ^
• 03
a
d
<D c^
a> " .
tl ® .
• <D m
< a =»-
;-c o
^S =
>^d
_ I*
" g
i5 <"
ii ?
■'CO .
.fci a
ft^ o
a 2w
w -^ CO
W a P
o a>
l-H >
kj >- 00
, =55 CD 00
1-1 O CO
03 CO
CO O O) Q>
co^ j: ^
I c/3 pL| >-
ol'P
'*-'-—. (D
o
•o
S*H
■S M ;3
ft >.„W
H c SX) ,^
= ft'2 3
^ 2 o s s
cj » o Th o
^-1 ID ft O O
O J <D •" O
01
ID
a
hr
03
.
a
fe
CO
CD
a
C13
a
fM
oi
bf
0)
u
0)
«
•
CD
-a
ii
03
g
,
n
(1)
ft
H
rn
-M
n>
CO
a
d
CD
H
03
CS
r,
is
T)
>—<
0)
n
rC
JS
^
CS
C/3
H
1— 1
>
otd
diJ
-g Hi • •
ca a t4 65
" bcQ 1-; .
rS i-i c a
±: ^ cT f£: M m a
sR ^ S -c 'e; -rJ
S .H S 1^ c g S
feOO OOO KHrt
."g^ftja
R
M
o
O
<D
^ ^•
o
o
fe C4
en S
§ O
cS
a
a
OS
to
g
T-i
en
^
J<J
«
a
OS
£
S
,3
d
ft
a
ID
cj
W?5
o
o
ft
03
1890."
" a"
>
03
1-5
F-i
^
I a"
1—1
W
i-:i
ft
a
<J
>-.
H c
s
a
>;o
03 -
§fc
t-.
CD
^
>
P3
" *-44
'fO
Fh
V
a ^'
0]
a
K
WffirtK
m
w
1-3
'->
M
w
82
EEPOBT — 1890.
•§■
O C2
<T. CO
00 oo
o
'OO
00
00
o
00
CI O C5
,30 05 00
'00 OO 00
O >^ Oi
t* t^ i.O
m ^1
1(5 00 O
-t< C5 ".O
CO C-l i-l
CO
1^
o
-* <M CO 00 h-
(N 00 <N 04
I —
-H in
o .-I
00 C'l "O >o -*< t^ r— o
IS
C5
CO
CO
o
C5
O
5-
o
C3
o
o
3
S o
■SCO
^
J
<:
to «
-5 (1.
.^
►§
5-( e-i
^
8
o
o
<
.2 M
5^ &
• o
l-H >H C
C3
o
O
o
:; bJD >i
Q
'A
.2
t3
o
o
CI
_o
"a
C4
'■2 ^ -a
o 3 o
>-t Ch >H
s
. o
ci c3 o
"-^ J<! •
.2 1- 'C
c
fin
_ c
•5^
&5
• -» p
CO c ^
^'^^
CO .- c«
--I X 'd
^ W3 t-
o c g
O .5
f^lj -
O O
o Q o o
CM
o
o
H >> OS
o c -2
P a =^
o
:z;
a
o
O'
o
- a
o
in o
•-3
fl
(-•
■ a
a> s
"> o
c
,0
.ii'd
tn .5 -^ a:
.fl -" ' 5 o
"■S b:;'fl -S fl '
« ^ ^ .2 S •
QJ CU GJ ^ -^^ L
-fl j:: X3 o '
S'
3Q
GJ to
!«
§ (U O
' c o
rn ^^
o .S
o
S
fl a> 3
- ^5
■^ 9 c^
a^ c S
fl 3
o ^ fl
^2i
c3 -— o;
'^ .t: cu j3
cl ^Ph -^
CO -; a «-i
00 <! .S o
'^=«'^ S
coi; 2
-2^ " §
fl M,2 t:
o
.'A
05
i t^ .
H o
i tu.l:
I -fl -S
; fl-a
;•" o
< 2 fl
I &. o
fl
• ^
) Ih
. (D
a
3
O
2 O
Sn3
S fl
<= O
^ a
*^ o p
Q O
o
a; <D
fl <4-l
O O
tn M
S fl
o 2
o
fl
C3
o
«
c
O)
03
.a
H-sJ HH
3
ct-t
O
Ph'
O
a
f^
t sT bo
f« o
S c >
iS cS oj
P3
o
tP3
3
c
U-l
o
o
bo
O
fl
o
Ph .
<1Ph
'-'C'3
^' S «
- S -S <u
- C t. '-«
:« c« n!
IS S P^
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
83
o as
=5 00 -
00 03 "
O C5 o
C5 00 C5
00 OO 00
C5
CO
00
o
- -00
C5
00
00
O
"00
00
00
O 00 to ira n
I- -^ rH (M C>1
CO h- 00 O ^-
50 ■* Oi
CO
O
CO CO
—I (M
(M 1-1
C5
00 ■— I . =^
lJ '00 r»-J^^ u^ 00 , :
00
CO
00 !_;
> 5
=8 :
CO
X
g
1 s
•1^ •
S3
9 &
•" S g
s 'a
"S
v,^ <; -i^ to
Is*-'*
tf=: 'S -S-
tx n ?-(
IS
53
e
s;
o
o
o
'A
■ o
_ o e -'
: oj C3 «
ci
ra ^ up (u
a.
c
. o
0>H
a
o
o
CO
w
w
.2 dd
.2 6
a • o
t* 2
o
o
- Oh
o
'S
o
w
CI
o
Q
o
as
o
O
a
s>
■ a
H
lb o
'- w
lio "^
IB c«
J5 m
a §
0)
a
^ G 1-1
ew O
o-S ,.
tf^ C (D
go. 2
p C o
Si P »
03
> »
eft tu
OOh
1 o —
!0°
5Rr»T«
• o a
I o
=2 a
. CO s
Sa
^ -a
a -^
i 55
rH i-i
a
o
o
3
=y
Tj
.— >•, tn . ^
a=P5
'W5
a
S 3
o -a
O CD
||
o 5
^03
a)
a
"o
O ^ ^
•^ o S g
*j S 1^ M a fl <u
o a ,^ a; -IS g a;
^ 2i^ 2« -gs
/= tS
cars-
!» a
3
• o
o
o
M
o
6
rt o
.2 a
» °
S.2
CD Cli*^
a s-f
go &
113
. o
a
o
,a >>
a.
<3S
o
= >>bo
^ CI
rr- -^ ^
S< "> rt O
03 OJ a tM
-; O 03 ^
03 03
.S 03 H
03
^ a;
•^ c«
f?^
a .5
<u a
pi"'
cS g O
cfl '-^ ^
• -M
a<*i a
03 a s
03 03 O
O go
■ X!
bo
3
p
o
Q
03
bo
5 e
a
o
a
m 03
&■ -^
^^
O >^
■^ 03
^ 2
OS
a o ^^
Ph 5: .03 c«
03 •-
a-i 03 yj
o >
- bX)
a °
73 03
3 OJ .§ tS
^ bc5
P-i 2
03 Qi J3
3h
Co
O ^
o
03
a
.s
s
CM
O
o S
03 JS ■
o,^
cc g bo
-as
° 2a
.2 03 g
' a a -^-
._. a, *
9'o.a:
£«3 §
C 1—1
Q) ^ O O O
|1h
C3
03
2 ^ o a
,3 03 03 o
w
a . 3
rt^.:0
13
O
>^ < ■
03 ^ .>
03 a
be. I:
a j: a ^ ^s 3
J- rt a3 03 -C
O P..PHPHtl4
fcla •*
o o o
K-5
P5
03
bo
03
o •-
a3
tf
a
o
«
o
03
Si
o
o 2
84
EEPORT — 1890.
-«
cs
c
o
CO
a;
.S
P.
3
O
V
ci
00
C3
O Ci
Ci 00 -
QO CO •
O 02
>CV CO . >
■ CO CO •• "
I— ( C5 — ' 3; CS — ^ lo
to C5 !M -1< CC -* CO
^ .-H O] -M C'S
lo c^ »n c<i
CC O CM (M
CC rt (M
1.-5 -n
^ C<3
lO 00 05 to -^ <M CO
C<l •— ■* OS 00 ■* 00
CO I— I IM rt
CI
o
O C5
Oi OO
<» • 00
-*
o
Ph «
'1—; CO
^ ^ :: ^ -^ s
o
00
00
to m
o
o
o
)_; »-H I— ' 1—3 '
w ^ •> ^ '
O I''
00
00
o
M
o
fa
s
s
^■>^
tj S
a; 5^
.,• S ? r
S
o
o
OB
O
t3
c8
en
O
C3
O
CO
P4
O o
o ■
fa
1-] ^
^2;
M J5
^ t^fa'
o s -^
fatH ^ HOW W
o
o o
•§6
O i^ •
.-2d'"'
- M a m
pa«c5
O
O
fa'
W
o
P
o
o
02
Plh
• 73
3
a,
'C Ph
^=«
O O
Eg
5 o
^
■ o
q-(
S O i
d S 2
J3 n:
0) m
■ S a
1^
o a
•|«
!-< 'fl
(U CO fj
*^ Ee] .3
oj a ^
• 1°^
1 ^^ l^ O
go
n
CO OO
CO CO
OO CO
■ ili CO 0)
Si
I
bB
o
o
d
o
o
o
eS
fa
IB
O
■ 05 05 • OJ
pS CO -d
o w
-^?!
o d
TO
0) ;
o o
•r* -(^
P o
8
^3
►1 I '«
^ t 1^ oj
) OO CO
I 00 CO
£> d
+j Q.
u-i OJ .
be d
c o
O '13
bO<5
ri: .
■*i *-■
d OJ
■73
C
cS
"d f3
"S ■ • a
_i^ « o
>- o "^
fa 2
VX!
l^'?
^ o.
^o
1 ^H I— t t— ( f— +J Q
C3'
-d a;
o ■;::
!>ipa
PH_g •--
bo's 2
Co tn
■g ^ S^ O
g !(H .d Jt
S o 0,0
fa O ^ Oj
«, o ' "-I
1> r^ Q) t^
-d ^ O CS
-^ gPP«
3 O ■
^ d &
-£ bccStH
2 'o M
Oi c (u o
0) ^ (P J3
Ph can
-i 3
I — ' R
50
J? 'I'
d _ -t^
g ciu-,
c3 tH o
• -H g OT
> c; S
<10 tu
tc O ti
'd m 0) I
Af
-A '^
_ d
31-3
d o
<1H
fa^
o
^ en
0.2
O o
m S
en o
CD ^
b>- ■"
^.2
0) h^
*^ ,a
d "S '^
^1 .r-T en
l-l So-?!
eg s
§fa>^
^ o ^
% enW
g- 2
s d«>
-) e<.2 !«
— » ^ ^ w
0'5'C S
=^ s«
— I ™ oj d
l«-2 £ 2
d S5 9
pe
Ph d^
<P O en O
r2 °P o en
d m 3
d -r; 2 bo
O ep d H
-u ^^ 3
g g-gfa
Q
d .
O ^
tj 3
oj ,::
o o
P?P:3
d -^
o o
P5«
P3
fa
>^
I — I
o
Pi
O 3
O
, »
d
o
w
1-5 W'
tn . •
CO ^
Spi
f— ■ -^^
Si <A
„ - >> >
r^ r-T +^ t^
o d
^
>
-13
,is c a o o
cS
3
02
PU
d"
COURESrOKDINQ SOCIETIES. 85
o
33
o
C5 O
Oi
O 05
o
C3
o
33
o
cr.
00
OJ
00 * J3
00
.03
x> .
. .33
. .00
C3 .
oo
, . .C3
oo
00
"
00
00 -00
00
-CO
CO -
- -00
- - CO
00 -
CO
- - -00
f-H
w—t
—-1 ^-t
^^
^^
-^
^^
'^
^^
"*
f-4
«
M
CO
CS 00 05 «0 — <
CO
IM CI
«: si
s; 00 » t- «5 -H
c -o
d
00 33 -J <M
00
(N
»— 1
■^ CO »o o
OJ
(M -^
-I s
_ -H -»< -*l IQ -X)
iC -^
-t<
— • (N t^ -r
1— *
t— 1
'""'
era c<i
K
M
1— t ^^
(M
05 C< I^
OS
00
C3
o
o
C3
OS
00
00
00
1— 1
i-t
00
C5
c;
00
00 .
hH
00
o
- 1— t
o
o
00 i-(
i,
^
fe
fe
fc
En
.
.
.
.
. . .
.
. .
. . .
. . .
. •
.
• " * aa
s
tS
^
to
a
1
.
.
.
5^
.<
.«
. .
.
g
?2
^
;*
*^
- g
* ' S
g-S
^
,
^3
.«
. -^ to ^
<S V
k'S
-K>
,^
e^e-t-
1
=
1
?i '^ ^ ST
=
8
•
•
'
• • ■
'
* •
• •
•
•
'
•
....
<
o
o
02
6
o
i.%
d
S,'^
■ o
CO
6
o
6.2^
!zi
<i
o
■ o c
. C£ -^- 13
K^
o d
- - •
sg
o
o
m
o s o
S
w
E
o
o
(^""S 1S
d
^8
^.i,
o
^5
O o
he o
^
CM
o
<0
3
lasgow
ristol N
orks. N
- O tn
G o
a
H-l
M
O
H
om?H
Pd
CK
KPh
ca>^
s
O W
n
Z>HO
*^ .a <uoJS >-r ino ••a^ S^ •r"^ S-3
^ Sg go ^|f^5rc ^ 2^ 12S"| "l^-g.^ ^^-a^g
^ b
: ^ «^'^|l-2g°8==g'S§|§^d^g;S5l&^^s|ogg'S°.«
J-^-^ d^l-^s-gt|s^>^lill2ll|ai^2|5^5-l|||:a
/^rh m 1-5 . . .— . . .,• "^ . .?" . " • .(n ••>
^
124
a i
•2 fe r* a H -^ hp; = two °o •" tj & •^ :■- •« : -5 K J2 c J r o o S
86
EEPOUT 1890.
K
a-
■<
Pi
o
o
w
Ci3
el
CQ
z"^
o
n
o
c;
c
o:
o
C50
o;
*. •«
fc •»
en
, ,0:
,
Cf)
Gi
^
CO
. ,a:
•I •■ »
- OO Ci
CO
•. *.
r, r.
m
' -co
no
00
'
CO
- -co
— — -
-00 00
P-«;=
r—t
r—l
l-H
'^
^^
^^
.-H rH
1^
U)
o
o rv
CO t^
rr.,
CO 00 >o
M
-H 00 >n
■*
•*"
05
a: 'O 'O
a CO <~-
CO t~ OO
CO
«C -H
^ OD
fM
CD ^ <N
l~
<M
05
(— t
CO
O
rt CI s^
O -ti
CO C^l I-
Ph
T-H
I— 1 I— «
I— 1 ^H
CO CC (M
(-H
.— (
CO
<N
00
o
CO CO
CO CO
o
Oi
oo
O -u
G ^
V— t
= a
ro
^.'^
> ^^
O
00
oo
L'^
=
>
j>-o =
!> S
1-
o
•
• •
• •
•
• • -
•
■s
•
•
•
■
■ • ■•
- • • •
. . .
J'
53
8.
IS
s s s
^
. *■<>
§ S "
:^ S--
^s
;^^
o
o
CO
= 6b
o
o
O
a
o
o
bb
o
a
o
§1
vV bb I
be o
is
|8 ::
o
o
. 32
d r3 d
o ^ o
CO (1, CO
bbifi bb
o W o
<i> . »
0!z;0
o ca o
ca (3; ca
o
o
K
bb
o
O
o
o
o
02
: bb
o
a>
O
-*^
. o
- o
d4
Ibb
-; o
^
g (U ti
fcV-^ a>
c rt •-'
O ^ r-
T! te S
g £ ca
b -2
00 oj tn
O (U
gel
g "^
'C r; ^ ca
PQo;
Pi
ca c
j2 O
P =>
<J CQ
o "^
d
. u
bO
O
ID
to c
c8
1)
I-
<t3 o
-■>
cS o
OJ &-
ca bo
o s
ca .
Ph ca
O c "11
a Ts -^
S =8 o
H CO
a; ca
. >H
S 4)
.2 o
ca Q
ca ° a
ca o J=
< .
. a>
a ^
o .s
Ph "^
£3 ca
> a
ca ca
o be
t%
o <u
-EM
w S
o m
P3H
o
MM,
p-l
ca
g o
caM
S '^
^ CS M
-S-
.a a
bpSg
8 ?
o
a
o
o
^ ^ £f -3
< om
.P5
<-^ -^ ^ g (u 0) -c
-3 ^ '^ -o <" .S =
pqc5 oPCQ
. - be 2
_D ^ •«-! •" iJh
n; o t, 3 "
0C50 O
P
w
- a,
ca
. be
- >
o
13
• Ph ci
1-5 C
o o
03 O
. 02
l-H
r5 be
- o
. o
= 02
ca bo
S§
SO
Si-
Co
o S
2(2
!-■ ca
ca -^j ca
'gP^Jp-i
cS o o
OHH
^■*^ T3 -i ,- ■
ilJ *^ r^
;Whq
o c:
51
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 87
a>
o cs
O C5
O 05
O
o o
o c
a c
a-.
O C-.
00
05 OO
C5 .00 .
OT 00
..
^
-05
00 Ci
OO Ci
00 C-.
00
cr. 00 .
^
00
00 00
CO - CO -
OCj OO
••
"
-00
00 OO
00 00
00 oc
OO
00 00 -
"
— <— 1
•— < l-H
^- f-H
'^
t— ' rH
^H »-<
,-H .—
»— t
^^ ^-^
c"
C5
O <M
ei CO lo o
OS to
CO
1— 1 O ^H
lO C5
o —
—1 t~
e\t
^ OO 5 o
O
ta
:o O
00 CO M cc
(M O
03
7A
I- o
-r O
b- O
^M
CO
cc n
f-l CO o
I-. ■*
CO
-!f< CO
(N r^
CO CO
o
-H -o c o
CO
OS
OO
.
00
>*
'>
^iat>-o
'>^
lO
>o
r- O
l>
u-> r
OO
t— (
o
El,
•
- •
....
• •
•
•
• •
• •
• •
• •
. . .
«i
•
• •
....
• •
•
•
■ •
• •
• •
• •
•
• • •
'«
«j
«
«>
<;j
"C
V
5u
«
»^
oT; «
a
vt
«
c::
T, *
's'r;
•*i
=r
. o
? « ?
s
a;
«
• S;
's ?
*
? "3
&■
s
■|
■l
=
9s
1
=1
'1
^1
^1
1
a
o
o
o
-J2
o
o
0.
C5
O
^
o
o
^ o
c
'XI
a
s
«
OrSo ° ° -9 OOO V'°T?,°-? -3
Cd "^ M .-'^ U2 -^ JJl V^UU ''- X! ^^ cr^ -'^ 53
s bb i^ W) " g) s U) . §3 " to d 60 ^'■- bb ^' bb ^'■- - ti
Oaj° S SS 9-co So g oft- W
-Co.^ ,o .-^o .-S P.^' 'o.a'o.sc "m
,ooo lo So_o lu b£i-j OO o OO rt
^.c3 . cS cB^es c3 c3 71
ca ^ /q
o 2 ii 5 ^ 2 " X >^ o o s
g ^-2 I o n o>.|>>|| -Oh -g ^ |.2g
=* 2-o-i •'o 2 ^S^SgS =5 2 2, c.Sf^-
■r; *^
d
=*-. o
< ^
'J"*
CO '^
W5
n
•a «
OC cS
^ ^ 5-3°^ ...^.g S-Sl's •iaIsS.S 2P.5 I'^S f^l
1 .s SIP lii!isil?s£:-! :|!gS!i«2siiiil
be
■■ .So i3°<o S.SaOJrSSoS CC -5 -do I/-. 1^^ C.^S>/2n-,fl»<y
a p^i 2 ^ s :? ° 6c^ S ^ s a ■=£ « ^ s « £ '^ . 2
(4 Oco Hi^H^ fi^O <J CLipL,*- ir^\r* OO OH Szj MHO <J
4(52 ~oo o3 § b-'S rtS^ c 5 <u-r 2 2 2-= o
S SS 2S2 S3 "-A 0(i;CL, P« «X. ^cc H HH^ ^
88
BEPOBT — 1890.
4
I T3
^ a?
Ph.2
e s
C
CO
m o 05 o C5
- CO o:" 00 oi 00
"GO 00 OC CO 00
CO
CO
C5 CO
Tt< r— ( -^
CO -H to
CO O j^
C>4
CO
CO
LO I— li-ICi.-(lCCO-*l .O
<M o t^ 00 <M — ( 00 P^^
>f< CO 1-H cs CO fij
X
X
X X '^X
H XI ^H
X
X
o
o
CO
00
o
fa
o
'-'^X X '-' X
^a;
o s
^
g
I
s
s
^Bh
^
"(^
o
,
.
,
,
0)
c3
o
03
1l
■T3
S3
c3
6
o
r3 a>
«-3
d
2^
2
.2 c/;
s;
^s
?:
&
^^
o
o
&
o
CO o
f/;
o
^
M
. W)
bJJ
<
=1
1^1
M
O ooO
CS
o
o
02
03
4-*
o
OS
o
o
o
o
02
o
o
03
.23
o
02 O
o
o
CO
43
o
CI
'C 6
c o
. <u •
1— I cS
o M
o .
. o
ci " 8
y o o
^ bJo"
o o .rj
ri: J3 o
o o bx)
S G ^^
rt cS =3
OS
o
CO
o
02
"J3
P-.
o
C3
S3
Ph
• r-t
o
S3
o
0:1
H
o
•T;
W
T3
i3
S3
=i
o
Q
Pi
.5 s S
n >- °
c« EL
a
. o
— c«
p a
i5 P
n
o
2 0) S3
13 t« I— I
-- O J3 03
o u
bc«
-4-3 r-! ^
<P g 05 .S H^ « V,
c £ ^ "^ a 2 S
t; (U +^ « S3 ^
on I— ' r
>> M
p^3
.^2
O
o
0)
C5
<1 o
) ^ <
C3
C5
^ 2
bj3^
<1
,o
(P o
O CJ 03
"o o <u c;i
m O^ O =3
O "^ o
^.'*-i M S3
a o
03
^ 3
be - a
c a "
r< O ,=*
§i
O 03
ni r- «^ tJ_i "— ^ ' '
0)
tf-i
a
0) 03 r^ »-H 7j « "^
^ P5 *3 tn O 0)
— ^ e+_| O ^ -
03
CO
a^
OH
^ o Ph o 'iS
03 a
03
Cfj '03
0J3 -
pH^a
*^ be
t4_i C
o«
03
.^ 03
e4H +^
o
a§
o
'■S «
c^ o
c3 g
^ *^ a
a
o
03 rt
•- !h
CO
a
o .2
2 o--;3
03 03
> a
03 03 i
'-!^ > .
2 03;
H
O • •
P • •
5^ . . a oi . , o . ^
'"' 03 H =« -S
g ^^ § Pd g 2
-^ -gSS -a-l^
•J 2 ^ ~ .s .ti !^ a „ a
o2 o J O £ -2 O S H S
k;
a
^
£
^
03
fe'
3
(fl
a
x:
Wo
o
SCI
o
a
o
^
fa
W O
03'
•Mp3,
o
03
C6
a
fe
a
'O
O
a
P3
^
03
03
fa
O
O
PC
> fa
ci ,r^
W S^''^ a^-
:2-Ca'3'3ooM3g
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
89
o
c; o C5
O O O Ci
05 .
CO cr: CO
oo -
oo oo 00
" PS
00 00 30 CO
l-H
I— 1 »— ( 1— t
lO U3
CI
I— ' t^ CO ^^ U3
00 W CD O
05 CO CI
1— I to b- t—
"*i 1^ O 1^
o
o
I
00 "O
>-<
o
03 •
t^ t^ oo ►(<)
o
o
' o
bb
o
-Cx
iH^
o ■ ;
5 ^- 3 ^' g
6 ■ 6 ^ ^
M '^ 03 O '^
• d . tiJ^ _:
•« H -w 22 3
K t; cS _2 t<
5S X 5S
o
■ ^ <i X ^•
3 i^"
Oh
o
U)
E3
In
O
O
o
bXj "
u '3 ,9 tM
■!Z =t fl O o
■w K O Q,->-
1-1 ra K " S^
a ? 6f 'C -w
o fc t^P-i a
S P 3 " o
o ,^ o
« o
o 5
q; O
.2 C3
C3
^ O
I .2
00 rt
y c3 CO a
CO
6D^
aj o,
■3 =^ -a
H §
OH
a o
S 2,
^ _"« Pw t^'
_ o O
<u oi a
HH>-;
■ u
. o
' E
."a
li O
si
ei^
- C3
u5 c; . 3 H
3^<
a
02
rg a §§1^1
H
m
i:^
05
C5
c»
•^
«.
(.
fc
OS
00
^
^
^
05
00
00
"*
•*
"
"
00
00
•*
■>
»>
00
00
l-H
f-H
l-H
1— (
1^ l»
~t< t— coc-1— im o on
LO rt 05 -^ OS ■>!< o
i-H ^ CO
M>^- :^ ^; « ^ -^■
■IS
I
Pi
o
o
X
l-H
o
o
_&
a
o
O
J3
O
f>
'V'
-x
n
W
1
, ,
en
a,
- >
o
o
X!
"o
ID
a
.d
o
a
OX
cc" 5
5
cTj ca
, o -tJ
J Xi S O
C4 '
CI
o
Qi
•tir
cS +^
O
o
p
o
P -S
<J 'C
C3
X
0)
bjO
7,=P
O
^ •_-
-<J en
c» C -*J
o bj; >-. Q^-'
"•S ^ X -i^ ^
« -C cu g >
« c =«
; r-i XX
o ^
fS-S
bo
c
X H
CO o
'E X
> £
bD°
-S o
■= 5
a> o
'H en
S4H
da
'S'd
o -
2 o
P3pg
.<ti
II
c
o
• &a
Ch ■
i^ s-e 2
-t? rt i: is
o ■-■ " cS
o 00 i.
o
o
X
-a
ClH
o
be
S o
a
o
a
.2
O a>
m d:
oi-i
2 5>
H
C5
Hi
o in
90
EEroET — 1890.
^.2
M
3
H
O
!a
(-<
o
o
t-l
iz;
■<
a
o
w
05
«
c?
05 O Ci
00 Ol CO
CO 00 00
C5i— l-*CC-H O t— OO^OOO
CO 1— I — ' CO M
^
s
« S t, 5i
g c ? - s
ft*S;=^ fin
c
^
o
o
d :d ^ CO d
S S ts d £
> «-i I'H i-' t.
£ '-' _ P^ I*
007^ o
60-" ° ^ he
3 3 a S 5
o
o
"o
o
to-'
CI
a
•-SH 2
o o
sot:
o
d • ■ H '-S
? ^
o
ci
•Or-
i o a
, (U
O J3
in
oi 1^ K
o
CS
•2;
o -^:
«w ■
1 ■*?
o r7^ - -
o 2
O r
c
0(
l> o
jr <u 03 <5
X a
^ S o =* '^
^== a58
Pm
o
bo o ° sv,
«-< t.-^
O ^ u
no's
• r; 13
^-1 CD a;
^r' -^ -^
fefe
t-o ■ h-. .• s
i o -s =
,-(=
c
cj
. 1-5 «
2 !2 fl3
c2h^^^
o
o
o
c-
o
w
H
is
<1
C5 O
00 C5
00 00
cs
CO
00
o
.05
o
CO o
CO o>
CO
CO
X
CO t
^ !
8
(^ ^ e;
to e ^
o
d
o
o
GO
W
O
CO
p-l
fc o :
^ o ■
C o
. o
c
O
ca
n
o
"S S <"
<1 OC 3
g >PS
15^ 5
f-i c _
O iH g
o o o
O q-i en
•S ^ Q
O o o
EC O
m
.2
"5
a bo
< a
o oc-i
>* a M
8 '^'2
J *,^ ^
OS
00
00
to CO O CO !>.
00 •* t— CO c;
1—11—1 (M
^
pq-i^ t^a:
o
o
^ bo
wo
s
be
s
C tH
So
w^
o 5
r— I ce
3 a
!2iC
0)
a
<
u
o
1—1
C3
PPQ
a
ca
° g
"3 S
5- S ■"
_ S c3 a)
P 00
.1-5
- o
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 91
SS 2222 2 '2 °° " - S^ g So55 = g = §g g gg
I2-2S --2 " ^«i I ^- ^ "^" -- -g ?^ 2
-1-; -5 ■
L— ^ l-H 00 I — I
'^ " — I CO -H
05 0-.
00 00
00
, 00
„.^3 2« ' «2 "^ ^PS '^ "^^ ^" «
S
•0^ • -^ '. u . . ?.§« . .(5 . . . .J
'S
P ,
o
o
||l|5 =-= I lis ^1 I li^- s^ 44 *
c a
««HO^ ^ WWW g(S g ^fSw Wm gg M «
I -IW-^ • .-J" :§ o.c^s-a cq | - 1 .§ S ^ 3 . • "S « g<
c c . ■" g S 2 o » 2 .H S ^ .?'« § ^ I i § S > ^ ^ S -t^ -^ .c^, .^ ^
«^2-?°'5:g ^Jg ^ ^-o flea's g^'g.iW^S'gw oT^ a^ ;S
o ■ ■ ■ pq ■ H
s-lj #is| i .- . 1 |o s = 11 I III 1^- If I 5
92 REPOKT— 18yO.
Third Report of the Committee^ consisting of the Hon. Ealph
Abercromby, Dr. A. Buchan, Mr. J. Y. Buchanan, Mr. J.
Willis Bund, Professor Chrystal, Mr. D. Cunningham, Pro-
fessor Fitzgerald, Dr. H. R. Mill {Secretary), Dr. John
Murray {Chairman), Mr. Isaac Egberts, Dr. H. C. Sorby,
and the Eev. C. J. Steward, appointed to arrange an
investigation of the Seasonal Variations of Temperature in
Lakes, Rivers, and Estuaries in various parts of the United
Kingdom in co-operation loith the local societies represented on
the Association.
As in previous years, the work of this Committee was carried on by cor-
respondence and by occasional informal meetings of a few of the members.
The Committee was reappointed at the Newcastle meeting of the Asso-
ciation in 1889 without a grant, and its work has been carried on at the
expense of the Secretary. Four new observing stations were instituted,
and regular observations have been carried on at thirty, at least, of the
stations existing at the date of last report.
Most of the original observers for the Committee have, for various
reasons, been obliged to cease observing, and many of them, on account of
their other duties, have only been able to keep occasional recoi'ds of tem-
perature. Mr. G. Taylor, gardener to His Grace the Duke of Argyll, at
Inveraray, and Mr. J. Paterson, Almond Bank, commenced the daily
observation of temperature in rivers at the beginning of January 1888,
and are prepared to carry on the work. Thanks to the interest taken in
the subject by many of the Corresponding Societies of the Association, a
number of very valuable records are now being obtained, with a continuity
and completeness which could not be expected from unattached observers.
The Dumfries and Galloway Natural History Society, through the Rev.
Wm. Andson, an enthusiastic meteorologist, has accumulated many data
regarding the rivers Nith and Dee and their estuaries in the Sol way Fii'th.
Mr. Andson has discussed and summarised the earlier observations in a
very interesting paper presented to his Society. The Bristol Channel,
analogous in many respects to the Solway, has received attention from
the Bristol Naturalists' Society and the Cardiff Naturalists' Society, each
of which employs several observers, the former having the English and
Welsh Grounds Lightship and the latter the Breaksea Lightship as
observing stations. The East Kent Natural History Society maintains
observations on the Stour and the Medway, and Colonel W. H. Horseley,
R.E., who takes a keen interest in the subject, has sent in a valuable sum-
mary of the results already obtained to the Committee. The Manchester
Geological Society has printed the complete series of observations made
under its auspices by Mr. W. Watts, P.G.S., on the Denshaw and Piethorn
reservoirs, near Oldham. Mr. J. Reginald Ashworth, of the Rochdale
Literary and Scientific Society, has made similar observations on the
reservoirs at Cowm, Clay Lane, and Springmill, and Mr. Eunson has
made an admirable comparison of the temperature of the Northampton
reservoir and the river Nene, under the auspices of the Northampton
Natural History Society. Mr. H. Preston, for the Grantham Scientific
Society, and Mr. F. E. Lott, for the Burton-ou-Trent Natural History
Society, are investigating the conditions of their neighbouring rivers.
The Marlborough College Natural History Society has also undertaken
ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE.
93
similar work. To all of these Societies, to their secretaries, and espe-
cially to their observers, the Committee has to record deep obligations.
The object which the Committee has in view is to investigate the
changes in the temperature of exposed water-surfaces with the seasons,
and the modifying influences of situation, rapidity of flow, and other con-
ditions. The rivers in which observations have now been made differ
widely in geographical and climatic condition, the cool, equable climate of
Caithness and the great range of temperature experienced in Kent being
extreme types. In addition to the observations detailed in the accom-
panying tables, the Committee will have access to a good deal of previously
printed but undiscussed observations, and to an immense mass of unpub-
lished observations in the keeping of the Scottish Meteorological Society.
It is also hoped that the observations of the Fishery Board for Scotland,
the Tweed River Commission, the Severn Fishery Board, and other
public bodies which have been induced by various members of this Com-
znittee to undertake observations will become available for discussion.
Impressed with a sense of the importance of this research to the science
of Meteorology, and incidentally to many practical matters, the Committee
appeals to the British Association for assistance in discussing these obser-
vations, asking to be reappointed, with a grant of 60Z., for the purpose of
drawing np a complete report.
Statement
of Observations Collected hy
the Committee.
Eiver, &c.
Observers
Period of Observations
I.— In England.
Lugg
Mr. A. Ward, Aymestrey
Apl. 25, 1880- Sept. 27, 1889
Avon (Warwick) .
Mr. G. Duke, Hill Wooton .
—
Severn .
Mr. E. Cohens, Stourport
Mar. 25, 1889-May 31, 1890
'TafE
Mr. Pettigrew, Cardiff .
Feb. 17, 1889 (in progress)
' Breaksea Lightship
Mr. Walters ....
Mar. 1, 1889 „
- Avon
Mr. S. W. Sutcliffe, Clifton .
—
- English and Welsh
Messrs. Pain and Bartlett
Feb. 6, 1889 (in progress)
Grounds Lightship
' Kennet .
Messrs. W. B. and H. G.
Maurice, Marlborough
Dec. 9, 1888 (in progress)
■' Stour .
Mr. H. Dean, Canterbury
Dec. 13, 1888 „
' Medway .
Sergeant-Major Bolton, New
Brompton
Mar. 25, 1889 „ „
Nidd . ■ .
Mr. G. Paul, Knaresborough .
Mar. 16, 1889 „
Dove
Mr. H. H. Brindiey, Uttoxeter
Mar. 17, 1889-Nov. 27, 1889
^ Trent .
Mr. F. E. Lott, Burton .
Jan. 7, 1889 (in progress)
" Nene and reservoir .
Mr. Eunson, Northampton .
Jan. 1, 1889 „
• Witham .
Mr. H. Preston, Grantham .
Apl. 2, 1889 „
" Denshaw and Pie-
Mr. W. Watts, F.G.S., Old-
Jan. 1, 1889 „
thorn Eeservoirs
ham
' Under
- Under
^ Under
* Under
Col. W. H.
* Under
" Under
" Under
" Under
Secretary.
the care of the Cardiff Naturalists' Society; Mr. R. W. Atkinson, Secretary.
the care of the Bristol Naturalists' Society ; Mr. A. Leipner, Secretary.
the care of the Marlborough College Natural Histor}' Society.
the care of the East Kent Natural History Society ; special oversight of
Horseley, R.E.
the care of the Burton-on-Trent Natural History Society.
the care of the Northampton Natural History Society.
the care of the Grantham Scientific Societ3^
the care of the Manchester Geological Society; Mr. Mark Stirrup, F.G.S.,
94 REPORT — 1890.
Statement of Observations Collected by the Committee (^continued).
River, &c.
Observers
Period o'f Observations i
In England (^continued'). \
' Cowm, Clay Lane,
Mr. J. Reginald Ashworth,
Mar. 1, 18!>0 (in progress) i
and Spi-ingmill
Rochdale
Reservoirs
Sea at Dover .
Capt. J. Gordon McDakiu
II.— In Scotland.
Feb. 7, 1889 „
Docharfc, Lochay,
Messrs. P. Macnair and J.
Jan. 4, 1888- June <J, 1888 j
and Loch Tay
McRae
Tummel .
Mr. J. Kennedy, Ballinling .
Jan. 25. 1888- July 21, 1888
Tay and Braan
Mr. C. Macintosh, Dunkeld .
Mar. 17, 1889- June 20, 1890
Almond .
Mr. J. Paterson, Almond Bank
Jan. 4, 1888 (in progress)
Tay at Perth .
Messrs. Dow, Wilson, and
Mechie
Dec. 4, 1886-May 13, 1888
Earn
Mr. J. Ellis, Bridge of Earn .
Jan. 18, 1888-June 9, 1888
Thurso at Lochmore,
Messrs. J. Gunn, A. Harper,
Oct. 15, 1885-Dec. 17, 1888
Dale and Thurso
J. B. Johnstone, D. Gunn,
D. Campbell, and others
Forss
Mr. W. Smith, Forss, Caith-
ness
Aug. 2, 18S8-Dec. 11, 1888
Wick .
Sergeant McKay, Watten
Jan. 16, 1888-April 16, 1888
»» • • •
Mr. Simpson, Wick
Jan. 28, 18S8-April 16, 1888
Glass .
Rev. C. C. McKenzie, Strath-
glass
Nov. 24, 1888-Mar. 16, 1889
Dee
Mr. J. McKav, Kincardine
O'Neill
Eden
Mr. F. Peddie, Cupar-Fife .
Nov. 30, 1888-JaD. 12, 1889 ,
Aray
Mr. G. Taylor, Inveraray
Jan. 4, 1888 (in progress)
Lochrutton (Kirk-
Mr. Lindsay ....
Sept. 13, 1888-Aug. 19, 1889 ;
cudbright)
1
2Nith
Rev. W. Andson, Dumfries .
Apl. 15, 1889 (in progress) \
-Nith Estuary .
Mr. Lewis, Kingholm Quay .
June 25, 1889-May 31, 1890 \
2 Dee(Kirkcudbright)
Rev. W. Ireland Gordon,
Tongland
Sept. 9, 1889 (in progress)
2 Dee Estuary .
Mr. Neil McDonald, Little
Ross Lighthouse
Aug. 1, 1889-July 31, 1890
Sea at Scrabster
Mr. J. Watson Kerr
Feb. 22, 1888-Mar. 22, 1890
(Caithness)
III. — In Ireland.
i
Belvedere Lake
Mr. Bayliss, MuUingar .
Jan. 1, 1889-Dec. 31, 1889
Sea at Moville
Mr. Lowry ....
Jan. 14, 1889-June 22, 1890
The periods of observation given above are merely the dates of the
first and last observation ; in some cases the work was not continuous.
' Under the care of the Rochdale Literary and Scientific Society.
« Under the care of the Dumfries and Galloway Natural History Society.
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS.
95
Report of the Committee, consisting of Profes.sor G. Carey Foster,
Sir William Thomson, Professor Ayrton, Professor J. Perry,
Professor W. Gr. Adams, Lord Eayleigh, Dr. 0. J. Lodge, Dr.
John Hopkinson, Dr. A. Muirhead, Mr. W. H. Preece, Mr.
Herbert Taylor, Professor Everett, Professor Schuster, Dr.
J. A. Fleming, Professor Gr. F. Fitzgerald, Mr. E. T. Glaze-
brook (Secretary), Professor Chrystal, Mr. H. Tomlinson, Pro-
fessor W. Garnett, Professor J. J. Thomson, Mr. W. N. Shaw,
Mr. J. T. Bottomley, and Mr. T. Gray, appointed for the
purpose of constructing and issuing Practical Standards for
use in Electrical Measurements.
The work of testing resistance coils has been contiuued at the Cavendisb
Laboratory. A table of values found for the coils is appended : —
Legal (
Ohms.
No. of Coil
Resistance in Legal Ohms
Temperature
j Nalder, 1.577 .
. ^^ No. 189
•99981
16°-9
i Nalder, 1578 .
. ^ No. 190
1-00089
16°-9
Nalder, 1579 .
. ^ No. 191
1-00041
i6°-y
Edison Swan, 16
. ;^ No. 192
•99846
13°-9
Elliott, 229
. ^ No. 193
1-00028
16°-9
Elliott, 230
. "^^ No. 194
1-00021
16°-9
Simmons .
• ^ No. 195
•99992
16°-8
Nalder, 1626 .
. ^^ No. 196
1'00045
15°-;i
Nalder, 1627 .
. ^ No. 197
100056
lo°-3
Nalder, 1628 .
. ^ No. 198
1-00058
14°^8
Nalder, 1580 .
i
. 1^ No. 199
1-00072
15°'3
It -would be of considerable advantage in the testing if all the coils
■were made of a nuiform size. The original standards of the Association
measure G| inches from the bottom of the case to the underside of the
horizontal portion of the copper connecting-rods, -while the vertical portion
of these rods is 8 inches in length. These dimensions should be adopted
in all coils sent to be tested. If this be done, the bath.s, &c., made to hold
the standards hold the coils equally -well, and the additional convenience
in testing is very great.
The original standards of the Association have again been several
times compared among themselves.
The results of the comparisons appear to show that while the coils A,
B, C, D, E, and Flat have remained constant relative to each other; the
three platinum silver coils F, G, and H have changed.
96
REPORT 1890.
The change in F was referred to at the end of the Report in 1888, and
is now very large. The coil has increased in resistance by abont "0006
B.A. unit; G, on the other hand, has fallen by about '0002 B.A. unit,
and H by about -0001 unit. The evidence for these various statements is
given in an appendix to the Report by the Secretary.
It is perhaps worth remark that in each case the change either took
place during the time that the coil was immersed in ice or was found to
have happened when the coil was next measured after its removal from
the ice.
The legal ohm coils have not varied relative to Flat.
The investigations into the resistance of copper have been continued
by Mr. Fitzpatrick. The Committee desire again to thank the gentlemen
who have rendered him assistance.
Mr. Fitzpatrick has examined various specimens of copper supplied
him as wire. He has also examined copper prepared for him as pure by
Messrs. Sutton, as well as some which he prepared himself electrolytically
from carefully purified copper sulphate. These last two specimens lead
to practically the same value as that obtained by Matthiessen for the
specific resistance of copper — viz., 1767x10-^ B.A. units at 18°; the
specific gravity of these specimens is about 890. Two wires supplied to
him have, however, a distinctly lower resistance : the value for one being
1731 X 10~^, and for the other 1724 x 10"^ ; a difference in the one case of
2 and in the other of 24 per cent. The specific gravity of the first of
these wires is 8"940 and of the other 8'946, and Mr. Fitzpatrick assigns
the increased conductivity to increased density rather than to greater
purity.
Matthiessen gives his results for the resistance of copper at 0°. The
observations were, however, made mostly at a temperature of 18° or 20°,
and reduced to 0° by the use of a temperature coefficient ; so that the
value at 18° found from that at 0° by the same coefiicient will probably
represent the result of Matthiessen's work more accurately than the one
he gives himself. Various other points of importance are discussed in
Mr. Fitzpatrick's appendix. He hopes to be able to give the results for
some copper prepared by chemical
means by Mr. Skinner and himself.
He has also made a number of mea-
surements on silver, but these are not
yet complete.
Dr. Muirhead and the Secretary
have both been working indepen-
dently at the constriiction and mea-
surement of a standard air condenser.
Two such condensers have been
made for the Committee by the Cam-
bridge Scientific Instrument Com-
pany, on a plan suggested by Dr.
Muirhead, and mentioned in the last
report. The capacity of each of these
is about '02 microfarad. Some slight
alterations are required to one of
these, the other is completely satis-
factory. Its capacity has been repeatedly found, and remains constant
to at least within 1 in 2,000, which is about the limit of accuracy
Fig. 1.
ZJ
«o
00
.V-.
ON STANDARDS FOK USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUKEMENTS. 97
o
attained. Its insulation resisfance is good, the loss by leakage beiii^
about 1 in 1,000 of the total charge per 1 minute. It has bet-u found
possible to compare readily with this standard various mica condensers
having capacities of 1, '5, "1, and '05 microfarad. The accuracy of these
determinations is about 1 in 2,000. A full account of the construction of
the condensers and of the method of making the various tests is given iu
an appendix by the Secretary, while Dr. Muirhead has contributed some
notes on his own condensers and tests.
Another appendi.'t contains an account of a very carefnl and interest-
ing comparison between the standard mercury thermometers of the Asso-
ciation and a platinum resistance thermometer constructed by Mr. E. H.
Griffiths. The resistance thermometer was graduated by means of
Regnault's numbers for the vapour pressure of water at various tempera-
tures between 0° and 100°.
The curve of corrections obtained in this way is exactly parallel to that
given by the Kew comparisons ; there is throughout the range a constant
difference of 0°-02 between them. This amount is within the limits of
error on the mercury thermometer.
The question of the best value to adopt for the dimensions of a
mercury column having a resistance of 1 ohm has been raised by some
members of the Committee during the year. There is no doubt that the
column of 106 centimetres adopted by the Paris Conference in 1884
is too short.
After a discussion of the results of the most recent observations, the
following resolutions were adopted by the Committee : —
1. The Committee recommend for adoption as a standard of resistance
sufficiently near to the absolute ohm for practical purposes the resistance
of a column of mercury 1063 era. in lengtli 1 square mm. in section at a
temperature of 0° C.
2. That for the purpose of issuing practical standards of resistance
the number •9866 be adopted as the ratio of the B.A. unit to the ohm.
Thus the new unit ma}- be obtained from the B.A. unit by increasing
it in the ratio unity to -9866 ; or, to put it diffei-ently, the specific resist-
ance of mercury, in B.A. units is taken as "DSSS X 10"'', and the lengtli of
a column of mercury which has a resistance of 1 B.A. unit as 104:-87 cm.
The specific resistance of mercury in ohms is "9407 xlO"'', while the ohm
is 1-0136 B.A. units.
In conclusion, the Committee wish to ask for reappointment, to enable
them to continue the work of constructing and issuing standard instru-
ments. Of the grant of 50/. made at Newcastle only 12/. 17s. has been
drawn. In order to check any further change in the values of the B.A.
units and to render it less necessary to employ the original standards in
all the comparisons which are made, it is desirable that the Committee
should possess three or four copies of the B.A. unit ; while, to enable
comparisons to be made between the new air condensers and condensers
of capacity comparable with a microfarad, a resistance bos going up to
several hundred thousand ohms is required.
The Committee are of opinion that they should be in a position to
purchase these resistances ; they therefore recommend that they be reap-
pointed, with a grant of 100/., that Professor Carey Foster be the Chair-
man and Mr. R.T. Glazebrook the Secretary.
1800. n
98
REPORT — 1890.
APPENDIX I.
On the Values of certain Standard Resistance Coils.
By R. T. Glazebrook, F.B.8.
The B.A. Unit Standards.
The Standard B.A. units of tlie Association have during the year
been several times compared together both by the Secretary and by Mr.
Fitzpatrick. Table I. gives the results of two sets of comparisons made
in August 1890 ; the differences between the various coils and the
platinum silver standard Flat are given in the third column in bridge-
wire divisions. One bridge-wire division is very nearly '00005 B.A.
unit.
Table 1.— Resistance of the B.A. Standards, August 1890.
Difference between eacli coil
and Flat in bridge-wire
Change of
Coil
Tempera-
ture
divisions
Difference
observed —
resistance
per 1° in
calculated
Observed
From chart
b.w.d.
Aug. 15, 1890
1888
A
17-2
27-8
33-0
- 5-2
28-6
B
17-4
30-5
30-5
00
28-8
C
17-6
22-2
23-0
- 0-8
14-2
D
17-25
61-2
63-5
- 2-3
61-7
E
17-3
79-2
79-5
- 0-3
60-7
F
17-3
3-2
- 9-5
12-7
6-7
G
17-5
- 220
- 18-0
- 40
6-5
H
17-4
- 170
August 19.
- 150
- 2
5-6
A
18'8
67-5
69-5
- 2-0
28-6
B
17-8
60-6
62-0
- 1-4
28-8
C
19-2
31-6
36-0
44
14-2
D
18-8
145-7
151
5-3
Gl-7
E
190
170-6
17-3
2-4
60-7
F
18-9
2-9
- 9-5
12-4
5-7
G
190
- 21-8
- 180
_ 3-8
5-5
H
190
- 17-7
- 15-0
- 2-7
5-6
In the fourth column are given the corresponding differences
obtained from the chart made in 1888. In the next column will be found
the differences between the observed values and those given by the chart,
while the sixth column gives the change in resistance for 1° C. for the
various coils. It will be seen that for the first five coils the differences
between observation and the chart are such as would be readily
accounted for by a small error in the temperature, and we may say that
there is no evidence of a change in the resistance of these coils relative
to Flat. This conclusion is borne out by the results of a series of obser-
vations made in January and February by Mr. I'itzpatrick. But when
we come to the three platinum silver standards, F, G, H, the results are
at once seen to be quite different. Thus F would appear to have risen
relatively to Flat by about 12-5 bridge- wire divisions, while G and H have
fallen by 4 and 2-5 divisions respectively.
Since these are the most important standards, their temperature
coefficients being all very small, it was necessary to examine their history
ON STANPAUDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS.
99
■with some care. A cliange in F li.ad been noted in a postscript to the
Report for 1888. The general conclusions of that Report were that up
to the summer of 1888 there had been no change in the value of the coils.
It was shown that all the original platinum silver coils examined then —
those of Messrs. Elliott, H. A. Taylor, and others, as well as those belong-
ing to the Committee — had apparently fallen in value relatively to the
mean B.A. unit by about '0007 B.A.U. since 1867, but evidence was
adduced to show that the fall was only apparent, due to an error in the
temjjerature coefficient used at that date. A single observation of
Chrystal in 1876 pointed to the possibility of a change in F, but that
change was not confirmed by other evidence ; while so far as the platinum
silver coils were concerned, the observations of Dr. Fleming in 1881, and
myself in 1888, agreed closely.
Since 1888, however, changes have shown themselves.
These are evidenced by the three following tables II., III., and IV.,
which give the differences Flat — F, Flat — G and Flat — H respectively.
Table U.— Value of Flat— F.
Date
Temperature Value |
Chart 1888 . . . <^
100
15-0
20-0
10-5
9-5
8-5
May IG, 1888
Julv 2, „
July 3, „
July 13, „
July 13, „
Jufy 14, „
July 28, „
Jan. 1890
May
Aug.
Aug.
14-8
0-0
14-8
14-2
14G
14-7
16-7
10-0
144
16-9
16-7
90
30
3-8
4-2
3-3
3-3
4-2
-4-0
-3-5
-3-2
-30
Table III.— Value of Flat—G.
Date
Temperature
Value
Chart 1888 . . . -j
100
150
20-0
17-5
18-0
18-5
July 1888
Jan. 27, 1890
Jan. 29, „
Feb. 4. „
May 31, „
June 10, „
June 11, „
June 12, ,,
June 13, „
Aug. 9, „
Aug. 15, „
Aug. 29, „
Aug. 29, „
14-6
10-0
4-5
6-0
14-4
16-0
16-0
1(50
160
190
170
lG-5
16'5
16-6
16-9
16-7
16-C
21-5
21-4
22-2
22-2
22-2
21-8
22-3
22-6
22-5
100
REPORT — 1890.
Table
I
v.— Value of Flat—R.
Date
Temper.ature
Value
Chart 1888 . . . -^
100
155
15-0
loo
20
15-5
July 1888 ....
14-6
141
Jan. 27, 1890
10-0
17-6
Jan. 29, „
4-.5
17-5
Feb, 4, „
60
16-5
May .SI, „
141
18-3
June 10, „
160
18-1
June 11, ,,
16-0
17-7
June 12, „
16-0
ia-4
June 13, „
160
16-8
Aug. 9, „
190
17-7
Aug. 15, „
17-4
170
Aug. 28, „
170
17-8
Aug. 29, „
16-4
18-2
The first th
ree 1
ines
in e
ac
;h table sixe the differ
ences. at the temrjera-
ture shown, taken from the cliart drawn in 1888 ; the remaining Hnes give
the differences actually observed, with the dates and temperatures. Thus,
taking the various coils, it is clear that while up to May 1888 the difference
between Flat and F remained the same as shown by the chart and obser-
vations up to that date, a change took place during the low-tempera-
ture observations in July 1888, while by the time the coils were again
examined in January 1890 a further change had manifested itself. This
continues up to the present date, so that now at temperature of about
15° the coil F has increased in resistance relatively to Flat by about
12-7 bridge-wire divisions. This, assuming the whole change to be in F,
will correspond to a rise of resistance of -00063 B. A., unit, or in other
words the temperature at which the coil is right has fallen by about 2°-3.
In January 18'J0 the coils were again exposed to a low temperature, and
it seems probable that the changes took place when the coils were in ice.
From the values in Table III., which gives the values of Flat — G, we
see there is no evidence of change till May 1890. The observations in
July 1888 and January and February 1890 are quite in accordance with
the chart, but in May 1890 it is clear that G has fallen relativelv to Flat.
The value of the difference at a temperature of 16° is 22T'b.v7.d. as
against IS'l given by the chart. Thus G has fallen relatively to Flat by
4 b.w.d., or -0002 B.A. units. This change was first observed after the
coils had been exposed to a low temperature.
Witli regard to H the change first showed itself during the low-
temperature observations in January and February 1890, and Table IV.
indicates that the difference between Flat and H is now 17o divisions as
against IS'S in 1888, or in other words, that G has fallen by 0001 B.A.
unit. Also since Flat-F changed in 1888, while Flat-G and Flat-H
did not, we infer that the change at that date was in F, not in Flat;
while since Flat — H changed in January 1890 without a change in
Flat-G, it appears that the change was in H, not in Flat; and finally,
Irom the observations in May 1890, which show a change in Flat-G,
but never in Flat — H and Flat — P\ we infer a chano'e in G.
ON STAXDAHDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASDEEMENTS
101
As to the cause of tbese changes, we can say but little. AVe hope to
investigate them more completely by the aid of the coils lent by Mr.
H. A. Ta^'lor and others, and referred to in the 1888 Report ; but it
seems possible that they are due to strains set up in the wire by the
great contractions and expansions produced by cooling and heating in
the paraffin in which the coils are embedded. The coil Flat is of a
different shape from the others, and little or no paraffin has been used in its
construction. The other coils, F, G, H, are embedded in paraffin in the
usual way. On cooling down to 0°, this shrinks greatly, and it is quite
conceivable that this shrinkage may have strained the coils and so caused
the change. We hope to test this by having coils made free from paraffin
and investigating with them the effects of repeated heating and cooling.
The fall of H and G would be accounted for by a loss of insulation
causing a slight leak either from the ^\u■e to the case or across the surface
of the paraffin. The insulation resistance for F, G, H, was therefore
tested and found in each case to be several thousand megohms, while the
surface of the paraffin which had become dirty with time was scraped,
but without producing any change in the resistance. A leak, of course,
would not produce the rise found in F.
Observations of the coils at 0° have always been unsatisfactory and
attended with considerable difficulty. This is mainly due, 1 believe, to
the fact that the temperature of the room in Avhich the observations have
been made has usually been above zero, and that heat is conducted into
the coils by the thick copper connecting-rods. It would seem possible,
however, that part of the difficulty (See Report of the Committee for
1888, Table VII.) may have been due to real changes in the resistance
arising from strains set up by the cooling.
The Legal Ohji Standards.
The results of observations on the legal ohm standards of the Associa-
tion ai-e given in the Report for 1886. Experiments made on these
between July 188l! and January 1886 showed that while one coil, ^ 100,
had retained its value unchanged, the other, ^ 101, had varied. These
observations have been continued, and the results are shown in the
following tables, which give the value of each coil as found by direct
comparison with the standard B.A. units, and its value as given by the
chart in 1880.
Table V .— Eesidts for '^ 100.
Date
Standard used iu
coniiiari-ou
Tem-
pcvntiire
Value
Value on
Chart
Difference
Feb. 1887
F
1(5-3
1-00009
1-00008
-00001
Nov. 1889
G
1.5-8
■99997
■99996
•00001
14-8
-99971
•99908
-oooo;^
l(i-0
-99998
1-00000
-00002
Dec. 1889
Flat
14 -l
-99902
-99959
-0000:5
14-8
•999G9
-99908
-00001
l.S-2
•99925
•99924
-0000 1
li-2
-99744
•997:15
-00009
—
—
5-7
-99729
-99720
•00009
102
REPOET — 1890.
Table YL— Results for ^ 101.
Standard used in
Tem-
A'alue
Value on Chart
Difference
Date
comparison
perature
found
in 1S85, 1886
Feb. 1887
F
lG-3
•99970
•99930
•00040
Nov. 1889
G
15-9
•99955
•99920
•00035
15-1
•99932
•99899
•00033
l(5-()
•99955
•99922
•00033
Dec.'lSSO
Flat
14-i
■99909
•99880
•00029
150
•99925
•99897
•00028
13-3
•99879
•99850
•00029
"
.
7-6
•99725
•99695
•00030
—
—
66
•99701
•99668
•00033
These tables show three facts conclusively : (1) That up to December
1889 no appreciable change had taken place in the relative values of
^ 100 — the Legal Ohm Standard — and Flat or G ; (2) that between
J anuary 1886 and February 1887 ^ 101, which had varied pre-
viously, changed by about •0004 ohm ; and (3) that the greater part of
that change has remained permanent up to December 1889. At present
the difference between ^ 100 and !^ 101 is about -0004; in 18SG it
was about "0008. The agreement between the obseivations in November
and December 1889 — in one set of which Flat was the standard of com-
parison, while in the other G was used — show that the relative change in
G and Flat took place after this date.
APPENDIX II.
On the Air Condensers of the British Association. By R. T. Glazebeooe
(with a Note hij Dr. A. Muirhead).
The question of issuing certificates of capacity has from time to time
been discussed by the Committee. The following paper gives an account
of some experiments that have been in progress during the past two
years with this object in view.
In the Report for 1887 the Committee express the opinion that it is
desirable to proceed with the construction of an air condenser. In con-
formity with this opinion a meeting was held in London, at which Dr. A.
Muirhead exhibited an air condenser consisting of a series of concentric
brass cylinders insulated by glass rods, which appeared to the Committee
to possess great merits ; and it was decided that the Secretary should
test this and two similar condensers which Dr. Muirhead offered to lend,
before proceeding further with the construction of condensers for the
Association. The tests were carried out with satisfactory results.
The capacity of each condenser was determined repeatedly, using the
method of a vibrating commutator, due to Maxwell, already employed by
J. J. Thomson, 'Phil. Trans.,' 1883, and Glazebrook, 'Phil. Mag.,''
August 1884. The values found were : —
Ci = -0030514 microfarad.
C2 = -0031258
C3 = -0033288
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 103
Ifc was found tliat the capacities remained constant from day to day,
and that the accuracy of a single determination was about 1 in 1,000,
although the capacity to be measured was so small.
Some mica condensers belonging to the Cavendish Laboratory were
compared with these — details of the method will be given shortly — and it
was found that when comparing a condenser of 1 microfarad with the
three air condensers combined, having thus a capacity of -009506 micro-
farad, so that the ratio of the two was about 100 to 1, an accuracy of
about 1 in 1,000 was attained. It was also shown that the capacity of
the mica condensers as thus found differed by nearly 2 per cent, from their
values as determined by the rapid commutator, thns proving that the
commutator method was unsuitable for a condenser showing absorption.
Thns for three mica condensers the following values were found : —
With commutator
By slow method of comparison
•9690
•4934
•09543
•9868
•4994
•09644
These results make the necessity for an air standard all the more
apparent. A report on the experiments made up to that date was laid
before the Committee at a meeting in London in April 1889. It was
then decided to adopt Dr. Muirhead's form of condenser, and to have
two made on the same pattern for the Association. These have been
constructed by the Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company, following
Dr. Muirhead's plan, but on an enlarged scale. Bach has a capacity of
about •02 microfarad, or about six times that of one of the original
condensers.
Fig. 2 shows the arrangement.
The condensers consist of twenty- four concentric tubes ; the outer tube
is about 2 feet 9 inches high and G 'inches in diameter. Each succeeding
tube diminishes in diameter by half an inch ; the tubes are about ■515-
inch in thickness, and the air space between the inside of one tube and
the outside of the next is about -f^ inch, but it was found impossible
to get all the tubes of exactly the same thickness, so that in some cases
the distance between the tubes is less than the above. These tubes are
carried by two conical brass castings ; the outside surface of each casting
forms a series of twelve steps, over which the successive tubes fit. Each
tube is held in position by screws. The upper cone is supported by the
outside casing of the condenser, and twelve of the tubes hang vertically
from it. The lower cone is carried by three ebonite pillars, about 3 inches
in height ; the twelve tubes which are attached to it come respectively
between those which are suspended from the upper cone. Thus the
insulation depends on the ebonite pillars, assuming there is no leakage
across the air from the edges of the tubes. There is an opening in the
outer casing, closed by a door, by means of Avhich the ebonite can be
cleaned ; the whole is dried by placing inside a small vessel of sulphuric
acid. In the centre of the upper cone there is a hole through which a
rod passes. The rod is connected with the lower cone, and forms the
electrode for the insulated cylinders. An ebonite plug, fitting tightly
round the rod, can be pushed down so as to close the hole and prevent
the ingress of dust when the condensers are not in use ; when they are
being used the plug is removed.
104
EEPORT — 1890.
Fig. 2.
The condensers are placed in the testing room at the Cavendish
Laboratory and covered by a wood and canvas case to protect them from
dust. It is not intended that they should be movable.
After this description of the condensers we will proceed to an account
of the tests to which they have been
subject. The first test was for
leakage.
One set of cylinders was put to
the earth while the other was con-
nected with a gold-leaf electroscope.
An attempt was then made to charge
them with an ulectrophorus or a
small electrical machine, but this
failed entirely. The electricity
either sparked across at places
where the tubes were very close
together, or, before the potential
rose sufficiently to affect the electro-
scope, small fibres or dust particles
which adhered to the tubes formed
leaks across ; it was clear that the
condenser could not be charged to
the potential of the machine. Tests
were then applied for leakage when
the potential was lower. One set
of tubes was connected to one pole
of a battery — about thirty-six
storage cells were generally em-
ployed, having an E.M.F. of 75
volts — the other set being in con-
nection with an insulated key ; the
second pole of the battery was con-
nected through a galvanometer to
the key and the condenser charged.
After an interval, usually about
five minutes, contact was again
made at the key; the deflection of
the galvanometer needle — assuming
the E.M.F. of the battery not to
have changed — was a measure of
the quantity of electricity which
the condensers in
had leaked from
the five minutes.
The amount
of leakagfe was
very difierent in the two condensers
and depended greatly on the dry-
ness of the air and ebonite pillars.
Thus on March 11, when strong
acid had been enclosed for some
time, for condenser I. the leak per
cent, of the whole charge, while
1 minute amounted to about •! per
with condenser 11. it was about ten times as oreat
The sulphuric acid was removed during the Easter vacation and re>
ON STANDARDS FOR L'SE TN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS.
105
placed by calcium chloride, and after this the leak in I. rose to about
1 per cent, per minute or ten times its former value, while that in II.
■was from 3 to 4 per cent, of the charge. "With the calcium chloride inside
the leak was never reduced to less than about '8 per cent, per minute.
In August, the condensers having been closed since June with calcium
chloride, there was a leak in I. of about 3 per cent, per minute, while in
the same time II. lost about 8 per cent, of its charge.
On August 14, immediately after this test, the calcium chloride was
replaced by sulphuric acid, and the leak was quickly reduced to about
1 per cent, per minute for I. For II. no improvement showed itself at
once. The next day the leak in I. was about '4 per cent, per minute ;
that in II. had not been greatly reduced. On August 16 the ebonite
was therefore well cleaned, and air was blown through the tubes of II.
and the whole closed for about two hours ; the leak had then fallen to
about 2 per cent, per minute. By August 18 the leaks were still more
reduced, that in I. being '2 per cent, per minute, while that in II. was
'G per cent, per minute.
By the afternoon of this day, the upper parts of the condensers having
been open to the air of the laboratory for some six hours during other
tests, the leaks had appreciably increased, but they had fallen again tbe
next day when the condensers were left closed during the night.
Thus, during the observations in August, with the exception of those
on August 14, the condenser I. was losing its charge at the rate of about
5^^^ part per one minute, while the leakage in II. was some five or six
times as great, being about -p'rTT P^^'t of the charge per one minute.
As will be seen later, several mica condensers were compared with I.
and II. ; the leaks in them were all small, and did not exceed -gi^ per
minute.
We come now to the experiments for determining the capacities of
the tAvo condensers. Of these, three independent series were made, viz.
in December 1889, May and June 1890, and August 1890.
The method already referred to was used.
Fig.
o gives a diagram
Fig. 4.
of the method; in fig. 4 the connections actually employed are shown.
With the notation employed ' Phil. Mag.,' August 1884, we have, if c
be the capacity of the condenser, n the number of times it ia charged per
one second,
106 KEPOET — 1890.
Jl- "^ 1
a
n c=
,r, ab 1/iT ^9 \
I c(a+b + d)i I "^cZ(a + c + ^)J
In most of tlie experiments about to be described, we had the following
values in legal ohms : —
a = 10 d= 1,000
6 = 18 ^ = 17,600,
while c, which was the adjustable arm, varied from 6,000 to 15,000.
With these values, the only correction which need be included is the
last factor in the denominator, and we may write
a
n c=
cdl 1 +
ag \
d (a+c + g) i
The resistances were taken from a legal ohm box belonging to the
laboratory ; the various coils in this box were carefully compared with
each other by Mr. Searle, and found to be consistent with each other, at
any rate to within 1 in 10,000. The coils were also compared with the
standards of the Association, and it was found that at 16° they were
greater than legal ohms in the ratio of I'OOll to 1. The standard tem-
peratare adojoted in the experiments was 17", and since the coefficient of
increase of resistance of the box is about "0003 per 1° C, the resistances
require to be multiplied by 1-0014, to reduce them to legal ohms. In
some cases, in the value of c, coils from a B.A. unit box, containing coils
of ten, twenty, thirty, and foi'ty thousand, B.A. units were employed.
The values found for these coils by myself in terms of the legal ohm
box showed that they were very consistent with each other, and that the
nominal 10,000 B.A.IJ. was equal to 9,880 legal ohms as measured by
the legal ohm box.
In the comparisons of two condensers certain coils from a megohm
box were used ; the value of each of these was also determined. They
were as follows : —
1
2
3
4
9
10
98,731 Lefjal ohms of standard box.
-o
98,625
98,698 „
28,735
98,725
98,776
In the experiments on Dr. Muirhead's condensers, the vibrating com-
mutator described in Professor Thomson's paper, ' Phil. Trans.,' 1883, or
in my paper, 'Phil. Mag.,' 1884, v/as used, and that with complete suc-
cess. In the experiments about to be described, this was replaced by a
rotating commutator which had been fitted up by Professor Thomson
and Mr. Searle for their experiments on the other value of ' v,' and which
possesses certain advantages over the other form. Dr. Muirhead and
Dr. Fleming have also used a somewhat similar arrangement of appa-
ratus. Fig. 5 shows the arrangement. The split ring commutator is
carried on the axle H k, which is driven by a water motor. Two wire
springs, Q, B, ai-e in contact with the two halves of the commutator
respectively, and as it rotates the brush p, made of very fine brass wire,
ON STANDARDS FOB USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS.
107
is brought into communication alternately -with Q and R. The disc l m
■was of iron, and its mass helped to steady the motion. On one face of
the disc a series of circles were drawn forming a number of annnli. The
Fig. 5.
successive annuli were divided each into a different number of divisions
by radial marks. Thus in the innermost annulus there were four, on the
next five, and so on. The disc as it rotated was watched in the usual
stroboscopic manner through two slits on two pieces of thin metal
carried by the prongs of a tuning-fork, which made about 64 vibrations
per second.
Wheu the frequencies of the disc and of the fork were in certain
simple ratios to each other, the corresponding pattern on the disc was
seen in a steady position. The driving pulley of the motor carried a
second baud, which passed over an idle pulley near the observer at the
tuning-fork, and the speed of the motor, and hence of the disc, was ad-
justed partly by varying the flow of water, partly by friction on this band,
until the desired pattern was seen in the steady position. This position
was easily maintained by varying the friction on the string. The tuning-
fork drove a second fork an octave above itself in frequency. This fork
was mounted near the standard fork of the laboratory, and the beats
between the two were coimted. The frequency of the standard fork was
determined by Professor Thomson and Mr. Searle for their experiments
on ' i',' recently communicated to the Royal Society. They found that it
had changed slightly since it was determined by Lord Rayleigh, and give
as the result of their experiments
Frequency at temperature r=128-105{l-(i;-16)-00011} .
The driven fork was always adjusted to a slightly lower frequency than
that of the standard, so that there were about 20 beats to the minute
between the two. During each sei'ies of observations the beats were
repeatedly counted, but they rarely varied during the series sufficiently
to affect the result. Tlie commutator was designed and partly constructed
by Mr. Searle, who observed at the tuning-fork throughout. A little
attention was required to secure good contact between the springs Q, R and
the rotating parts, and also to adjust the brush p, but with moderate care
in the adjustments the apparatus worked perfectly.
108
EEPOET — 1890.
The galvanometer was one constracted in the laboratory ; it had a
resistance of 17,600 ohms, with a long silk fibre suspension — a quartz
fibre would have been an improvement.
Its sensitiveness was such that 1 scale division corresponded to
•83x10-'° C.G.S. units of current ; the time of swing was 7'2 seconds,
so that the sudden discharge through the galvanometer of 10"'° C.G.S.
units of electricity produced a throw of 1 division ; or, in other words, the
quantity which, when discharged suddenly through, gave a throw of y
divisions was yxl0-'°. This was determined by discharging through
the galvanometer a condenser of capacity •! microfarad ; when charged to
1 volt, the throw observed was 100 divisions, while the steady current
due to an E.M.F. of '001 volt produced a deflection of 72 divisions.
The observations were made by varying c. There was a commutator
in the battery circuit. In each position of this commutator two values
of c were taken and the corresponding resting points of the spot on the
scale observed. From these the value of c, which corresponded to the
zero position of the spot, was obtained by interpolation.
These observations were made twice for each position of the commu-
tator, and the mean taken.
We will give one series as an example : —
August 27, 1890.— Temperature of standard fork, 18°-8.
» J, Beats „ „ 20 in 65-4 seconds.
» J. ,, „ „ 20 in 65-2 „
Condenser No. 1 .
Frequency, 80 approximately.
Position of Com-
mutator
Zero Reading
Resistance
Resting Point
/
\
/
\
48
48
48
49
f5890
\5880
/5880
\5890
/5890
1.5880
/5880
15890
47
61
46
49
48
51
46
50
Temperature of coils, 17°-5. Beats, 20 in 64-8 sees, at 19°-3.
It will be seen that between the third and fourth series the galvano-
meter zero has shifted slightly.
From these we get as the four values of c the following : —
5887-5
5886-6
5888-3
5887-5
Mean, 5887-5 at 17-5
Correction to 17°, -9
Value of c= 5888-4 at 17°,
while the beats are 20 in 65 seconds at 19°, or -307 per 1 second ; at 19°
the frequency of the standard is 128-066 ; thus the frequency of the driven
fork is 128-066 --307, i.e., 127-759. Thus for the driving fork we have
the octave below this, or 63-879, Avhile the frequency of the commutator
is 5/4 of this.
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS.
109
Hence in this series :
«= 79-849,
c=5888-4.
The accuracy attained in this series is a fair specimen of the whole.
With these explanations we proceed to give the results in tabular form,
showing the date, the values of n and c, and the resulting value of c. The
wire by which the condenser was connected to the commutator, together
with the commutator itself, had a certain capacity which was determined
in the same way, merely disconnecting the wire from the condenser. In
the observations in December and June we found —
a=10 cZ=98730 c=28460 n=QZ-9,
whence the capacity of the wires is -0000625 microfarad, while in August,
after the ajjparatus had been set up afresh in a different position with new
connecting wires, the value of c was 22,200 and the capacity -0000799
microfarad ; for the wires the values of o could be determined to about
1 per cent.
In the table the value of c has been corrected for the capacity of the
wires.
Table I. — Condenser I.
Date
Value of c
Value of n
c, in micro-
farads
Mean of
Series
14762-5
31-95
-021025 N
December 31, 1889 .
7372-3
03-90
-021016 [
•021020
5894-3
79-875
•021019)
(
14772-9
31-93
-021023 ^
May 20, 1890 .
7376-5
03-86
•021017 ■
-021022
I
5896-4
79-825
■021025'
June 16, 1890 .
7375-0
03-86
-021022
•021022
August 27, 1890 . . \
14745-9
31-939
•021038 ,
7364-8
63-879
•021027
-021032
'■
5888-4
79-849
•021030 i
Mean of the whole, -021024 microfarad.
Table II. — Condenser II.
Date
Value of c
Value of n
C, in micro-
farads
Mean of
Series
December 31, 1889 .
13957-4
6963-6
5575-1
31^95
63^90
79-875
•022238 ^
•022249
•022225 J
•022237
May 20, 1890 . . .1
13945-3
6957-4
5568-2
31-93
03-80
79-825
•022271 X
•022283 ■
•022266)
•022273
June 16, 1890 .
6953-4
6386
•022296
•022290
August 27, 1890 . . '
13774-G
6878-6
5500-4
31-939
63-879
79-849
•022523 >
•022515 \
•022518 )
•022519
August 28, 1890
6878-0
63-881
•022515
•022515
110
REPORT — 1890.
Table III. — Giving the Capacity of two Mica Condensers for various
Frequencies of Charge.
Frequency
June 12
June 14
June 16
Mean
Condenses A,
21
32
64
80
•04885
•04883
•04868
■04886
•04884
•04868
•04859
•04864
•04886
•04884
•04867
■04859
Condenser B.
21
32
64
—
•09642
•09642
•09634
•09642
•09642
•09642
•09638
Taking the air condensers first, the tables show that, at any rate for
frequencies between 32 and 80 per second, the time of charging has no
effect on the capacity, while the individual observations in each series are
within 1 in 2,000 of each other.
For condenser I. the observations at frequency 64 are in all the series
the least, but this is not the case with condenser II.
The capacity of condenser I. shows no change between December 1889
and June 1890. The observations in August 1890 are all rather greater
than those in the earlier series, but the increase, about 1 in 2,000, is almost
within the error of the experiments. With regard to condenser IL there is
an indication of a rise in its capacity all through. It will be remembered
that we have already shown that the insulation resistance of II. is con-
siderably less than that of I., but it is easy to see that this leak was not
sufficient to account for the change, for if R be the resistance of the leak
then our approximate formula becomes
wc + -=— , instead of wc=— .
R cd cd
Now, the current through the condenser when leaking most was about
•0002 E c, where e is the E.M.F. to which it is charged and c the capacity
of the condenser.
Thus the resistance of the leak is ,^^^ , or -25 x 10-' C.G.S. units,
■0002 xc
since the value of C is '02 X 10-^^. This resistance is 250,000 megohms.
Hence the correction to the capacity =l/wR=^0002 xc/w, and this is
far too small to affect the result.
There is no doubt, then, that the capacity of II. altered during the
experiments by about 1 per cent., and it will be necessary to take it to
pieces and set it up again.
It will be remembered that in the early part of August the leak in II.
was very great, and it seems probable that the steps taken to discover
the cause of the leak have produced a change in capacity. The experi-
ments on II., then, serve merely to show that the capacity can be found
by the rotating commutator method to a high degree of accuracy, while
those on I. prove that an air condenser, of "02 microfarad capacity, has
been constructed which has retained its capacity unaltered for the eight
months between December 1889 and August 1890.
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS.
Ill
The values of c are given in terms of the coils of the legal ohm box
at 17°. Hence the capacity found needs to be divided by 1'0014; to reduce
it to legal microfarads, and it then becomes •020995.
Moreover, since 1 legal ohm=l-01124 B.A.U., and 1 B.A.U. = -98GG
X 10^ cm. per sec, we have
1 legal ohm = •9977 x 10^ cm. per 1 sec.
And the absolute electro-magnetic measure of the capacity of the con-
denser I. is
•021043 X 10-
'^ sec.^ cm. ^
I
The effect of the leak in condenser II. was still further investigated
on August 28. The plates of II. were connected by a resistance of 30
megohms. Hence the correction to c, which is
-— becomes -^000520 xlQ-i^ when 7i=64.
TIE
The value of c found with the leak in was -023813 x lO-i^.
Hence making the correction c^ '02249 microfarad, which is suffi-
ciently close to the value found without the artificial leak.
Table III. shows that with mica condensers not very much greater in
separate capacity than the air condensers a change in the frequency of
the charge from 21 to 80 produces an appreciable change in the capacity.
This, of course, is in consequence of the absorption. With large con-
densers, as we have already seen, the effect is more marked.
It remains, then, to give an account of the experiments undertaken
for the purpose of comparing mica or paraffin condensers as ordinarily
used with the air condensers, and of investigating some of the effects of
absorption.
The two well-known methods of De Sauty and Sir "William Thomson
have both been employed.
The arrangements are shown in Figs. 6 and 7.
Fig. 6,
The first of these is not really suitable for use in cases in which therf
is absorption, though, with care, a fairly accurate measure of the instar
112
EEroHT— 1890.
taneous capacity can be foand. The resistances Ri Ej can always bo
ju-ranged so that the effect of the charge rushing into the air condenser
shows itself as a shai-p kick of the spot of light— to the left, say — followed
Fig.' 7.
by a slower deflection in the other direction, due to the absorption cbarge
soaking into the mica or paraffin. The resistance for which this sharp
kick practically disappears is fairly definite, and from it the instantaneous
capacity can be found, while an observation of the resulting kick due to
the absorption enables us to calculate the increase of capacity which,
arises from that cause. This can be done in various ways. The simplest,
perhaps, is to disconnect the condensers from the circuit, and, replacing
the mica condenser by a variable condenser of small capacity, observe the
kick this produces in the galvanometer when charged with the same
battery. From this the capacity to which the absorption is equivalent
can be approximately calculated.
Thus a condenser of about "1 microfarad was compared with Dr,
Muirhead's three condensers combined. Taking C2, K2 to refer to the air
condenser, we had
€.,=•009506
E2=8986.50obms;
and with Rj =89300 there was a slight tremor to the left and a movement
of three divisions to the right. On changing Rj by 100 ohms the change
in the motion of the spot was marked.
This gives for the instantaneous capacity Ci=09550; the value found
by the commutator at frequency 64 was "09543 microfarad.
To evaluate the five divisions the air condenser was disconnected and
the mica condenser replaced by one of capacity '001 microfarad ; the
kick observed was 48 divisions, while with •002 microfarad it was 9
divisions. Thus a kick of 5 divisions corresponds to about "0011 microfarad
capacity. Hence the capacity of the mica condenser, including the full
eff'ect of absorption, is '0966 microfarad.
The second method, about to be described, in which the absorption
effect is included, gave ^0965 microfarad.
Let us now consider the second method. The current from a battery
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS.
113
flows through B, p b., (Fig. 7), a large resistance of araoant R, + r_,. One
plate of each condenser is in contact with b, and B., respectively; let V],
¥-2 be the potentials at these points. The other plates A,, i, are insulated
and connected together and to the galvanometer G ; the other pole of the
galvanometer can be connected to p thi-ough the insulated key K,. The
galvanometer can be replaced by an electrometer. Let Kj be the resistance
p b, ; R.2 the resistance p Bo. Suppose the point pbe put to earth, the rest
of the circuit being insulated ; then if Cj C2 be the capacities, it is easy to
see that there will be no current through the galvanometer on making the
key Ki, if Ci Ri = C2 R2.
Now, in the case of a mica or paraffin condenser the capacity is a
function of the immediate past history of the condenser, and diffei'ent
values will be found for the resistances R,, R2, according to the time the
charging has lasted. Dr. Muirhead, however, who uses the method
largely, has shown how to obtain the instantaneous capacity from the
observations. His method is described in the following extract from a
letter to myself. ' In the method as described one pole of the battery is
to earth instead of the point p of Fig. 7.
Dr. Muirhead writes : ' I have "05 microfarad nearly in air condensers,
and a series of mica condensers of "1, '2, -3, -331 (original 1/3), and '498
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9.
-1 ! E
^/nrTTTTTrrnnnrA.
:/.
|E orG
S,
(original "5) mf. capacity, all enclosed in a double air-tight box, to keep^
the temperature as uniform as possible. The capacity of these standards,
is determined periodically by both the tuning-fork method (using a,
revolving commutator instead of the tuning-fork) and by the ballistic
galvanometer method. One can make comparisons of these condensers
among themselves, and with other condensers by the method I adopt, to an
accuracy of 4 in 10,000. The temperature coefficient of shellacked mica
condensers is about "018 per degree Centigrade, and of paraffined mica
•034 per cent.
* Let Si be the capacity of the air condensers ;
„ S2 ,, „ condenser to be compared with air
condensers.
' After making battery contact, supposing the charging of the con-
densers to be instantaneous and the absorption nil, then we have
1S90.
V s, = (v — ti) s<>
Sec also Electrician, Sepleruber n, 1890.
114 EEPOET 1890.
-where v is the potential of the junction of the two condensers. Should
there be any delay in obtaining the balance, the position of v on the
slides will vary — say to t'l ; then the charges on the two condensers will
be
Vi Si and (y — Vi) (82 + 0")
respectively, where o- is the apparent increase of capacity of S2 due to
absorption or soaking in of charge. On disconnecting the armature of S2
from the slides and putting it to earth, the potential falls from V to 0,
and immediately afterwards the potential of the junction of the two
condensers becomes, say, Vo, so that
Hence
Si V1 + S2 (-yi—^) = (81 + 82) ^2
Vi (Si + S2)-V S2=(Si + S2) V2
or
V,—Vo
Y-iv^—V^)
V and V] are known, and Vo is indicated at once on an electrometer ; or
when a galvanometer is used it can be measured quickly thus : — As soon
as Vi has been observed, break the galvanometer contact and move the
index of the slides down to ; then directly after bringing the armature
of 82 from the full potential of the slides to zero, close the galvanometer
circuit and observe the throw, a, which is a measure of V2, the potential
of the junction of the two condensers.'
In my own experiments, which were made after consultation with
Dr. Muirhead, I adopted a method practically the same as his ; but
before describing it, it will be better to consider rather more the effects
of absorption. Let us suppose, at first, that the leakage from either
condenser is inappreciable. If there be no absorption, each condenser is
charged to its full potential practically instantaneously ; and it does not
matter when or in what order the keys, Ei, K2, are put down, the position
of P on the slide is not affected.
Suppose now that C] shows absorption, the capacity increases with
the time of charging. We can get the instantaneous capacity by depress-
ing, first, the key Ki and then Kg, but in this case we are troubled with
the effect of the slow after charging as in the other method. Still the
resistance, for which the kick due to the initial charging is zero, is,
with the condensers I employed, fairly marked, and a value for the
instantaneous capacity can be thus fairly accurately obtained.
If, now, K2 be made for 1 second and then K'l depressed, a different
position will be found for p. With this interval of charge the apparent
capacity differs appreciably from its instantaneous value, and the after-
effects of the absorption can still be observed. The same is true for
intervals of 2, 3, or 4 seconds — the value obtained for the capacity in-
creases, and the after-effect is still noticeable ; but with the condensers
and battery I used, if the time of charging was prolonged to 5 seconds,
the after-effect was inappreciable, and the position of P on the slide, and
hence the apparent value of the capacity, was hardly affected by further
increasing the time of charge. In the experiments on a cable recorded
in Dr. Muirhead's paper already referred to, the absorption effects con-
tinue much longer. In the observations recorded below, then, unless the
ON STANDAUDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 115
contrary is stated, the key K^ was held down for 5 seconds, and then, K,
being depressed, the position of p determined, for which the galvanometer
remained unaffected. The value of the capacity deduced then is the full
capacity for the potential to which the condenser is charged. It is of
coarse possible, though further experiments would be wanted to prove it,
that the full eflect of absorption is not merely to increase by a definite
amount, independent of the jaotential, the ajjparent instantaneous capacity,
but that the increase may depend on the potential to which in each case
the condenser is being charged. It will of course depend on the purposes
for which the condenser is to be used whether the instantaneous capacity
or the full capacity is required, and it probably will be best, when issuin-T
certificates, to state both the instantaneous capacity and the maximum
increase due to absorption — mentioning at the same time the diS'erence
of potential used in the experiments for determining this cori'ection, and
also the time of charging in which this maximum increase is practically
attained.
The method I employed in determining the correction due to absorp-
tion was the following:— Suppose the plates, A,, A2, to be at potential
zero and uncharged. Make the battery key, Ko, and after keeping it
made for some little time break it again. It; there be no absorption Aj
and A, will still be at zero potential and uncharged ; but let there be
absorption in one of the two, A^, and let Bi be the positive pole of the
battery, then, while the batteiy is on, negative electricity is being
absorbed by the dielectric near Aj, and positive electricity is left free over
the plates, A,, A,, and the wires connecting them. When the battery is
broken the negative electricity begins to soak out, but the process takes
time. Hence, if immediately on breaking the battery key, K.,, the
galvanometer key, K\, is made for an instant, there is a throw of the
galvanometer needle indicating the passage to the earth of the positive
set free by the absorption. If, after a time, the galvanometer key be
again depressed, there is an equal throw in the opposite direction, caused
by the passage of the negative electricity which has again soaked out of
the condenser. The required correction is obtained from either of these
throws.
For, let I be the current between Bj and B.j ; let c, be the instantaneous
capacity of the one condenser and Cj of the other; and let q be the
quantity of electricity absorbed. Then the quantity of negative elec-
tricity on the plate A, is C, R, i+Q, and the quantity of positive electricity
on the plate A2 is C2 Ro h if we assume the potential of these plates to be
still zero.
Therefore,
Cj El i + Q=:C2 R2 i
C2 Ri C2 Ri i
Then, neglecting the battery resistance, if e be the E.M.F. of the battery,
E
Kl -I- R2
C2 Kl Co E\
I 2
116 REPORT — 1890.
Now, we have seen that with the galvanometer as I used it, if y is the
throw produced by the passage of a quantity Q, then Q=7 X 10"'".
The battery consisted of 36 small storage cells, which, when fully-
charged, had an E.M.F. of about 75 volts, so that
E = 75xl0s.
_^lso, C2='021 microfarad
= 21xl0-'s.
Hence, with these numbers,
C2 E, 1575V ^^1/
or, writing it as a correction to c,,
c,=^i^^_Xfi+52Aio-i8.
Examples of the method of applying this correction will be given
shortly.
It will be noticed that a leak in one of the condensers may be cor-
rected for in the same way. For, suppose the mica condenser to leak,
then a quantity q' of positive electricity passes through to the plate a,,
while the battery current is on, and the condition that the galvano-
meter should not be deflected is,
Cj E2 i — Ci K] i:=Q'
the same equation as previously.
There will, however, be this difference : on depressing the key K after
breaking the battery circuit, a positive charge will in both cases pass
from A to B through the galvanometer ; if this charge be due to absorp-
tion, there will, when the key is again depressed after an interval, be a
current through the galvanometer in the opposite direction ; while if the
first charge be due entirely to a leak, there will be no effect when the key
is the second time depressed. In practice, the leak and the absorption,
may exist together either ia the same or different condensers. In the
second case the leak will tend to produce opposite effects to those caused
by the absorption ; the quantity Q', however, increases nearly in the
ratio of the time of charging, while Q increases for the first few seconds,
but soon reaches a maximum and then I'emains constant.
These considerations are illustrated by some experiments in which the
condensers I. and II. were compared with various mica condensers. The
battery key was in each case made for 30 seconds ; it was then broken,
and the galvanometer key was made for an instant. The resulting throw-
was the sum of those due to (1) the leak in the mica condenser, (y), say ;
(2) the absorption in that condenser, (a), say; and (3) the leak in the.
air condenser, which produces an effect in the opposite direction
(-y).say.
After about 30 seconds more the key was again depressed ; the
resulting throw is due to the absorbed electricity which has again leaked
out, and will give us —a.
The following table gives the results ; each observation entered is the
itean of three or four.
ON STANDARDS lOU USE I.V IXKCTUICAL MEASUREMKNTS.
117
ComloM.ser
coniparecl with
—
I.
II.
Standard
•05
A + a-A'
23
-7-3
— a
-3
-2^6
•1
A. + a-\'
2-2
-9
— a
-3
-3
•1
A + a-A.'
2-2
-7
— o
-2-2
-35
•5
A+a-A'
3 3
-4
— a
-33
-2-5
■1
A + a — A'
4
-3-2
— a
-5
-5-7
If we take the comparisons with condenser I. first, it appears that
throughout A. — A.' is small. For the 'Oo and 'l microfarad it may be
about —"5 division, while a is about 3 divisions; for the "5 microfarad,
a is rather larger, being about 3"3, and A— A' is zero, while for the
1 microfarad a the absorption effect is distinctly larger, being 5 divisions,
and A — A' is about — 1. All this is, of course, quite consistent with the
fact that condenser I. and the mica condensers insulate well while there
is absorption by the mica.
When, however, we come to the condenser II. the results are quite
different. While the absorption effects are comparable, as of course they
■ought to be, with those obtained in the comparison with I., the leakage
effects are very large.
The values of A— A' in order are as follows : —9, —12, — lO'o, — 6"5,
— 8. Now, we know that the mica condenser shows very little leak effect ;
the above leaks are therefore almost entirely in the air condenser II. If
we suppose the total leak to be proportional to the time, then for the 5
second charges used in the experiments the corresponding values of y in
the corrections to be introduced for leakage will be one-sixth of the above,
and thus we get the following results : —
Condensers
1 Correction for tlie
Value of •/ 1 Leak to Capacity
in Microfarads
Condensers
Value of y
Correction for the
Leak to Capacity
in Microfarads
•05
•1
1-5
2
•00007
•00016
•5
1^5
1
1
•0003
•0007
It is clear that the corrections are in all cases small, being not much
over 1 in 1,000, but they serve to illustrate the method. The above cor-
rections are only those for the leak ; the correction for absorption could
be found in the same way.
With a view to testing the method in a case in which a leak only
existed without absorption, a number of comparisons of I. and II.
were made.
In these experiments the resistance with I. was 296,240. The
resistances with II., and the deflections due to the leak obtained by
breaking the buttery and then making the galvanometer, are given below,
together with the ratio of the two capacities corrected for the leak.
118
REPOKT 1890.
Interval between
Battery and
Galvanometer
Contacts
Resistance
Leak in
Scale
Divisions
^'1
1'2
Correction
seconds
275,980
1-0734
1-0734
5 „
275,180
2-5
1-0765
- -0032
1073;;
30 „
271 380
14-5
1-091 G
--0184
10732
60 „
267,180
22-5
1-1088
-•0286
10802
5 „
91,370
5
4-3223
-0168
4-3391
30 „
92,670
22
4-2617
-0743
4-33G0
60 „
94,170
42
4-1938
-1415
4-3353
The last three lines of the table give the results of a series of com-
parisons between II., -which had a leak, and a condenser of '1 microfarad,
which showed absorption. The resistance with II. was 394,930 ohms.
In the first four lines the corrections ai'e negative, for the capacity of
the leaky condenser is being found in terms of the standard. In the next
three lines they are positive, for the ratio of the mica condenser to the
leaky standard II. is being found.
A comparison of the fourth and sixth columns shows the results of
the correction. In the fourth line it is clear that the correction is not
large enough. This probably arises from the diHlculty of making contact
with the galvanometer circuit sufficiently soon after the battery is broken
to insure that the whole of the charge accumulated by the leak should
pass through the galvanometer.
The leak correction was also tested with similar results by putting an
artificial leak in I.
We will now give some specimens of the observations made to com-
pare I. with a mica condenser in order to show the accuracy attained.
Condenser I. compai-ed with •! microfarad ; resistance with I., 493,560
ohms ; resistance with -1 microfarad, 105,800 + a variable resistance
given below.
In the table in which the effect of the galvanometer is shown by the
letters R, L, in the last column, R means there was a deflection to the
right, L to the left.
Interval between Galvano-
meter and Battery Contact
Variable Resistance to be
added above
Effect on Galvanometer
5 seconds
2 „
„
(700
400
'500
(400
J700
Uoo
(1200
1300
U400
B
L
very small E
L
B
L
L
Tremor L, then swing to E
E
Thus in this case the eff'^ct of n.n alteration of 100 in the resistance,
■^•^- ttjVo o^ ^'be whole, is very marKed, and we may take the following
values for R ; —
5 seconds interval
o
105,800 + 500
105,800 + 650
105,800 + 1300
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS.
119
Other series of observations showed that the resistance for 10 seconds'
interval was the same as for 5 seconds' ; if the interval was prolonged to
30 seconds a very small increase in capacity was noticeable. Thus the
effect of absorption is to increase the capacity of the "1 microfarad by
about 8 in 1,0LI0, or -008 of the whole ; of this -0065 shows itself in the
first 2 seconds of charging and -0015 afterwards, the increase after 5
seconds, if any, being extremely small.
When comparing I. with -5 micn'ofarad the resistances iised were
592,290 and 21,900 respectively. In this case an alteration in the latter
resistance of 10 ohms, or 75-^, was easily seen. The following are the
results : — ■
Interval
Resistance
1 Interval
Resistance
10 seconds
5 „
24,900
24,900
2 seconds
„
24,930
25,060
These again show that the absorption effect disappears after 5 seconds,
and that the effect of absorption in 2 seconds is about 0052, and in
5 seconds about •006-i of the whole capacity.
When comparing with 1 microfiirad, the resistances were 592,290 and
12,580, the last number being accurate to about 5 ohms, or about the
same proportion as before.
The results of the various observations are given in the following
table ; the observations made with II. have been corrected for the leak, as
already explained.
Table giving the Capacities of certain lEica Condensers as compared with
the Air Condensers.
Date
Value from I.
V.ilue from II.
Value found by
Commutator
at frequency (il
August 19 .
„ 23 . .
June 17 .
August 14 .
., 18 . .
„ 21 . .
August 18 (M) .
„ 18 (A) .
„ 21 . .
August 18 .
'>1
•04934
•04934
•09772
•09751
•09773
•09773
•5005
•5007
•5006
•9910
•9913
•04938
•04936
•09780
•09786
•09781
•5008
•5009
•5010
•9912
•9912
•04867
•09638
It will be noticed that, for either condenser I. or II., the results are in
very close accordance ; with the exception of one observation, on August
14, the differences are barely as great as 1 in 5,000, and the method is
clearly capable of giving the value of a mica condenser, in terms of the
air condenser, to this accuracy.
The reason for the low result on August 14 is to be found in the fact
that on that day the leak was considerable, being, as we have seen, over
1 per cent, per minute. Full observations for the correction were not
120 EEroRT— 1890.
taken ; it would, however, amonnt to about '0002, judged by the correc-
tion required to observations on II., when leaking at a similar rate.
The results from II. are equally consistent among themselves, but all
slightly greater than those from I. This would indicate that the correc-
tion applied for the leak in II. is rather too large.
The capacities given in the table are those found with a 5 seconds'
interval, by which time, as we have seen, the absorption on the mica
condensers used is practically complete. We have already discussed the
method of determining the instantaneous capacity, and a table of the
corresponding values could easily be given.
For our present purpose it is hardly necessary to do this, and indeed
for many purposes for which condensers are employed a knowledge of
the full capacity is more useful than one of the instantaneous one. In
the last column the values of the capacities found by the commutator
method are given ; the differences in both cases amount to about 1"3 per
cent, of the capacity.
During the forthcoming year condenser II. will be again set up and
tested, and the permanent arrangements for rapidly comparing condensers
and for issuing certificates will, I hope, be completed.
APPENDIX III.
On the Specific Resistance of Copper. By T. C. Fitzpatricit.
All the values given in tables for the specific resistance of the metals
are directly or indirectly obtained from the values given by Matthiessen
in his series of papers published in the ' Transactions of the Royal
Society ' for the years 1860-1864, and in the Reports of the British Asso-
ciation for the same years.
In the ' Transactions ' ' for the year 1860 is a paper by Matthiessen
on the conductivity of pure copper, and on the effects of impurities on it ;
no alloy of copper having as high a conductivity as the pure metal. His
results are expressed in terms of the conductivity of a hard-drawn silver
wire (100 at 0°). He gives the following values for samples of copper
carefully prepared by himself : —
Giving a mean value of
93-08 at 18°-9 as the
conductivity of pure
copper.
Numbers are given showing the effect on the conductivity of small
quantities of oxide, and he states that he found it necessary to pass
hydrogen through the molten metal for some time for entire reduction.
In the ' Transactions ' for 1862 Dr. Matthiessen has a paper on the
influence of temperature on the conductivity of metals. He again
expresses his results in terms of a hard-drawn silver wire. On page 8
of that paper will be found the results of his experiments on copper :
the lowest temperature at which measurements were made was 12° or
' Phil. Trans. IS'JO, p. 85.
(1)
93-00 at 18°
•6
(2)
93-46
,,20°
■2
(3)
93-02
,,18°
•4
(4)
92-76
„ 19°
•3
(5)
92-99
„ 17°
-5
ON STANDARDS FOR USK IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 121
10° ; he there shows bow the results for pnro copper measured at 18°
may be reduced to 0° C; but no measurement was actually made at 0°
for any of the metals experimented with.
He expresses the influence of temperature on a Lard-drawn copper
wire, the mean result of a number of determinations, by the equation
X=100--38701< + -0009009^2
where 100 is the conductivity of copper at 0° C, so that a hard-drawn
silver and copper wire have the same conductivity at 0° C.
The values obtained by comparison with a hard-drawn silver wire are
then largely the source of the tables of specific resistances ; but at the
end of his appendix to the Report of the Electrical Standards Committee
for 1864, Matthiessen gives values for hard-drawn silver and copper
wires in terms of the new B.A. unit, expressed as the resistance of a wire
one metre long, weighing one gramme.
These values are : —
Copper ...... "1469
Silver ...... "1682
The same table of values is given in the ' Philosophical Magazine ' for
1805, where also is given a table of specific resistances for wires one metre
long and one millimetre diameter, expressed in terms of the B.A. unit,
and calculated from the value of the known conducting power of gold-
silver alloy in terms of hard-drawn silver, and also in terms of the B.A.
unit.
The values thus obtained do not agree at all well with the results
calculated for the resistances of the gramme metre by the specific gravi-
ties of the elements furnished by tables.
Thus :—
Calcul.itcd Observed
Silver . . -02048 . . -02103
Copper . . -02090 . . -02104
Matthiessen states that he omitted to determine the specific gravity
of the copper used in his experiments; he probably would not have
obtained any very accurate results, as the weight of copper he used
varied from 1-5 to 4 grammes.
The accuracy of Matthiessen's results seems to depend, therefore, on
the accuracy of his determination of the resistance in terms of the B.A.
unit of a hard-drawn silver wire ; in considering, therefore, the question
of the pi-eparation of samples of copper of higher conductivities than
Matthiessen obtained, it may be suggested that the cause of the difference
is not explained by the fact that Matthiessen didnot prepare pure copper,
but by an error in the value of the standard with which the comparison
was made.
I have, therefore, made a series of experiments on the resistance of
pure silver wires ; and, as a general result, have obtained a value iden-
tical with that of Matthiessen ; the difi'erence is not due, therefore, to an
error in the standard employed, as far as my experiments go.
Matthiessen does not give anywhere the details of his measurements
of the specific resistances of the metals in tei'ms of the B.A. unit; in the
B.A. Report he simply mentions that an ap^^roximate table is subjoined,
not even stating the fact that the values are for a temperature of 0° C.
I conclude, therefore, that these values are calculated out from the former,
122 BEPORT — 1890.
of wliicli an account is given in the same B.A. Report, and which were
performed at a temperature of 20° C.
I have, therefore, on this account, as well as for other reasons stated
later, made my measurements at the temperature of the air, and believe
that as his values were reduced by a temperature coefficient to values at
0° C, I shall, by using the same temperature coefficient, obtain results
directly comparable with my own measurements.
For the measurement of the resistance of the specimens of wire a
Wheatstone's bridge arrangement was employed. Two of the arms of the
bridge were formed by a 10 and 1 standard B.A. unit, namely, 66 and G ;
these were so nearly 10 to 1, that they were taken to 'be in that ratio.
The third arm was ^ of a B.A. unit, and in the fourth arm
was the wire to be measured ; this was stretched on a flat board, and
soldered at the ends to copper plates, to which connecting wires were
also soldered ; the length of wire used was generally a little less than
two metres, and the wires were, approximately, No. 18 B.W.G. The
board had scales screwed to it at the two ends. The board and wire were
placed in a long bath made of zinc, and filled with parafiln. Wires which
were left in the bath for some days, and, in more than one case, several
weeks, were not found to have been acted on by the oil.
One end of the wire, Po, Q2, was connected by a binding screw, through
an adjustable resistance, r (^ metre of copper wire), to the mercury cup,
Qi, in which was one of the legs of the ^ coil, and also to a revers-
ing key in the battery circuit. The ^ and the 10 ohm coils were con-
nected up together through an adjustable resistance, Pj Mi ; one leg of
each of the coils 10 and 1 was in the same mercury cup, l ; and the
other end of the 1 B.A. unit was connected with the other end of the
wire, P2 Q2.
A single Leclanche cell was connected with the reversing key, and
the fourth point of this key was connected with the mercury cup L, into
which the legs of 10 and 1 dipped. In this circuit there was also a
touch key. The galvanometer circuit was always made, and thus there
was no thermo-electric effect in the galvanometer circuit. To each of
the mercury cups Qj, P], M,, M2 were connected two thick wires with sepa-
rate binding screws: one of these wires was welded to the copper plate
at the bottom of the mercury cup. Each of these latter wires was con-
nected with two way-keys ; those in Pj and Qj to the key ki ; those in M,
to the key K, ; those in Mo to the key K2.
The base points of the keys Kj and Ko were connected with a delicate
reflecting galvanometer, that employed for the comparison of the stan-
dards on the Fleming bridge. The base of the key A-j was connected
with the third point on the key Ko, and the third point, on the key K,,
was connected to the base point of a fourth key, A-o, the two other points
on this key being connected with riders, with which contact could be made
with two points on the wire Vo Qo ; the riders had straight edges, and
thus their position on the scales could be easily determined. In perform-
ing an experiment, the keys k, and Kj were so connected that the mer-
cury cups, and so the ends of the coils 10 and 1, were in circuit with the
galvanometer. The resistance, Pj Mi, was then varied till, on making
the battery circuit, no deflection resulted. The ends of the 10 and 1
were then at the same potential, and as the other ends of these coils were
connected with the same pole of the battery, there was the same fall of
potential on the two lines.
ON STANDARDS FOK USE IX ELECTRICAL MEASDRE.MENTS.
123
The keys k, and Kg were then reversed, and by the keys A-, and lc.2
one end of the ^ coil and one point on the wire P2 Q2 were connected
through the galvanometer, and afterwards the two other ends. The
riders were adjusted till there was no deflection of the galvanometer.
The length of wire between the two riders had then a resistance of -^^
that of the ^ B.A. unit coil.
Fig. 10.
By means of the series of keys it was easy to repeat the observations,
and to connect either end of the ^ coil with the wire. The resistance
Pi Ml did not often change during the experiments, as the room was at
a constant temperature ; any change in it only caused a shifting of the
position of the riders. In each experiment, after all the adjustments,
the bath was well stirred, and everything left for half an hour. It was
generally found that the riders did not require any readjustment. The
battery was reversed, and all the coils moved. The latter never caused
any effect ; sometimes the reversal of the battery caused a shifting of the
two riders a millimetre or two in the same direction. Another reading
was taken three or four hours after.
The coils, ^, 10, and 1, were in water baths, and their temperature
remained the same for hours together. The temperatui-e of the paraffin
bath was not so constant ; it was kept well stirred, and a thermometer
divided to 0°'2 C. never showed any difference in the temperature at the
different ends of the bath when the readings were taken. The thermo-
meter employed was Kew-corrected ; and the corrections given were
verified by recent comparison with a platinum thermometer by Mr.
Griffiths.
Since the two standard coils employed were accurately in the ratio of
10 to 1, the accuracy of the resistance measurement depended entirely
ou the value of the ^ B.A. unit. This was first made as nearly as possible
^, but it was found that for the size of the wires measured (18
B.W.G.) this was too high a resistance ; it had therefore to be reduced.
For the determination of its value there was cut out in a block of paraffin
12i REroET— 1890.
wax a large central mercury cup, and outside this a circular channel ;
thick copper plates were cut to fit them, and both plates were well
amalgamated. By means of this cup arrangement the three B.A. units
(H., G., and Flat) were connected in multiple arc, and bj means of
stout copper rods the multiple-arc arrangement was connected with the
mercury cups on the Fleming's bridge, and so compared with the ^
B.A. unit. The following observations were taken : —
July 12, 1889 : ^(18°-4) + 986-6(b.w.d.)=M.A. + 24-6(b.w.d.)
July 22, 1889: ^(17°-4) + 986 (b.w.d.)=M.A. + 24-l(b.w.d.)
August 26, 1890: A(i6°-8) + 986-l(b.w.d.)=M.A. + 23-9(b.w.d.)
The value of a bridge wire division (b.w.d.) is '0000498 B.A. unit at
15°, and the wire has a temperature coefficient of -OOMS.
It is evident from these series of values that the ^ has not changed
in resistance during the period of the experiments.
This comparison, however, introduced a possible error, as the tem-
perature of the bridge wire at the time of experiment Avas not accui'ately
known, and this is important when nearly the whole of the bridge wire
is employed. To eliminate this possible error the ^ was compared
with four B.A. units in multiple arc. In this case a large number of
bridge wire divisions had to be subtracted from the A'alue of the ^, and
the whole number of bridge wire divisions entering into the calculation
for the values of the ^ was largely reduced. The four coils in multiple
arc were (F, G, H, and Flat) : —
Aug. 25, 1S90 : ^, 16°-8 + 157 (b.w.d.) = M.A. + 852-05 (b.w.d.).
Aug. 26, 1890 : i, 16°-8 + 157-5 (b.w.d.)=M.A. +851-9 (b.w.d.).
All the four coils were at the same temperature (16°'8). Their values
are taken from the - B.A. Report,' 1888 : —
Flat 1-000448
F 1-0C0028
G -99955
H -99969
They give for the two multiple-arc arrangements the values -33330
and -24998. The connecting-rods have a resistance of -00042, and the
value of the ^ at 16°-8 is -28537 B.A. unit. Its temperature co-
efficient is -0001 per 1° C.
To measure the lengths of the wires two microscopes with scales and
verniers reading to '] of a millimetre were set up and firmly clamped in
position ; the distance between them was determined by means of a
beam compass and the aid of a third microscope : the distance between
this and the other two being directly read off on the beam compass for
set positions of the verniers. The wires were cut with a fine fret-saw
at the jioints corresponding to the position of the riders in the resistance
measurements. Before weighing the wires were carefully cleaned with
methylated spirit. The balance employed was the one used by Mr. Glaze-
brook for our determination of the specific resistance of mercury ; the
weights were balanced against one another, and in all cases double
weighings were taken.
The specific gravity of most of the wires was determined ; for this pur-
pose distilled water was boiled and cooled rapidly, the coil of wire
immersed, and the beaker and its contents placed under the receiver of
ON STANDARDS FOU USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS.
125
an air-pump, which was connected with a water-pump ; this was left
running for two or three hours till all air-bubbles liad disappeared ; the
weight of the wire in water was determined, and a second reading taken
some hours later. As the weight of wire used was from 16 to 20 grammes,,
fairly accurate values for the specific gravity of the several wires were ob-
tained, and thus the value for each wire in terms of the B.A. unit for the
resistance to conduction between the opposite faces of a cube of the material
was found.
Resistance of Various Specimens of Wire.
Wire
Date
Resistance of a wire
sucli that 1 metre
■weighs 1 gramme
at 18° C. in B.A. iinits
Specific
gravity
Specific resistance per
cc. at 18° C. in
B.A. units x 10-9
Hard-drawn
Annealed
Hard-drawn
Annealed
I.
July 22, 1889
Nov. 6, 1889
z
1549
1550
8-86
8-87
—
1743
1745
II.
July 22, 1889
Dec. 2, 1889
—
1545
1546
8-88
8-89
—
1741
1742
III.
Dec. 3, 1889
—
1713
8-87
—
1922
IV.
July 10, 1889
Aug. 1, 1889
1578
1578
—
8-89
8-89
1776
1776
—
IV.'
Nov. 1, 1889
—
1511
8-885
— ■
1724
V.
July 31, 1889
Oct. 30, 1889
1573
1572
8-89
889
1770
1770
—
V.'
July 20, 1889
Aug. 2, 1889
Aug. 8, 1889
^^
1526
1526
1527
8-89
8-89
8-89
—
1712
1713
1716
VI.
Aug. 10, 1889
Oct. 18, 1889
July 10, 1890
July 14, 1890
1545
1549
1549
1548
—
8-94
8-94
8-94
not obsrvd.
1730
1732
1731
—
VI.'
Aug. 8, 1889
Oct. 11, 1889
—
1508
1509
8-94
8-94
—
1688
1688
VII.
Nov. 4, 1889
July 15, 1890
1543
1543
8-946
1724
—
VIII.
Oct. 23, 1889
Oct. 28, 1889
1700
1702
-
8-95
1903
—
IX.
Aug. 5, 1890
Aug. 18, 1890
1572
1572
—
8-90
8-90
1766
1766
—
X.
Aug. 5, 1890
Aug. 26, 1890
1573
1569
z
8-91
8-92
1767
1751
—
XI.
Aug. 27, 1890
1569
—
8-93
1750
—
Matthies
ducecl
his ow
sen's value re- 1
to 18°, using \
n coefficient J
1571
—
not given
1766-6 -i
As calcu-
lated by
Fleeming
Jenkin and
Fitz-
patricli
The first obiect of these experiments was to test directly iu com-
parison with the B.A. standards samples of copper wire of high con-
126 EEPORT— 1890.
dactivities, with the view of comparing them with Matthiessen's
standard. Application was therefore made to several firms for high-
conductivity copper wires. My thanks are due to those who sent
samples.
A table of results for all the specimens tested is given, and it shows
the variation in resistance of high-conductivity wires.
IV. and IV.' are the same copper, but iV. is hard drawn, IV.' is
annealed ; they were measured just as they were sent from the manu-
facturers • the same is true of V. and V.', VI. and VI.'
It will be noticed that VI. and VI.', which are of considerably less
resistance than the other wires, are of higher specific gravity : the firm
that sent them thus wrote of them : ' It is only occasionally we come
across copper as high as this or high enough to be called the highest (in
conductivity) we can produce. This copper has been produced electro-
lytically by our ordinary process.' How this copper was treated after
electro-deposition I do not know. I am inclined to think from my own
experience that this difference in density is due rather to the condition of
the copper than to its relative purity. Matthiessen found that very
small quantities of impurities reduced the conductivity 20 or 30 per cent.,
and a sufficient amount of impurities to cause this decrease in density
from 8'94 to 8'90 must make a larger increase in the resistance of the
copper.
The temperature coefficient is stated to be different for various
specimens of metal, according to their purity. Matthiessen himself seems
to have been of this opinion ; but the mere difference in density of the
metal might be expected to affect the alteration of conductivity with the
same chano-e in temperature. I have not been able to find any experi-
ments bearino" on this question. It is quite easy to obtain samples of
wire of different density by varying the process of drawing, and the
temperature coefficients of such wires might be found to be different.
Comparing V. and V.' with VI. and VI.' it is seen that with this in-
crease of density there is a distinct diminution in the effect of annealing.
IV. - IV.' = -00677 )
V. - V.' = -00577 [
VI. - VI.' = -004 )
I thought it might be possible that VI.' was not completely annealed,
so for a direct comparison, two specimens of VI., which had been
measured hard drawn on July 10 and 14, 1890, were annealed ; for this
purpose a flat copper vessel was made of about 2 cm. height and 18 in
diameter, with a closely fitting lid ; the wire was packed in this between
sheet asbestos, which had been previously heated ; the vessel was filled up
with lampblack, and heated over a big bunsen burner and gradually
cooled ; the process generally took about twenty-four hours ; the wire
was found not to be oxidised after the process was over.
Wire
Hard-drawn
Annealed
Difference
I.
1549
1510
•0039
11.
1648
1509
•0039
The difference Matthiessen obtained was -0038.
The above method of annealing was found very effective. Silver
wires which on annealing decrease 10 per cent, in resistance, gave the
same value after a second annealing as they did on the first occasion.
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 127
Wire VII. was a wire sent me by Mr. H. A. Taylor, and had to be
drawn down before it could be measured ; another piece of the same wire
drawn down on a different occasion gave the same valae ; this wire has
the lowest resistance of any I have obtained ; it has, too, the highest
specific gravity. Mr. Taylor says of it ' that it has a higher tempera-
ture coefficient than that given by Matthiessen.'
VIII. was a sample of wire obtained from Germany, and said to be
electrolytically prepared ; its high resistance is, I think, due to the
presence of oxide, as I fused some of it in hydrogen, and when measured
partially annealed it gave the value "1566 at 18° for the wire, 1 metre
weighing 1 gramme.
IX., X., and XI. are wires of my own preparation. Pure copper was
prepared electrolytically by Messrs. Sutton, of Norwich, and supplied
me in thin sheet, and this was fused in a porcelain tube 18 centimetres
in length and 1 centimetre in diameter ; the tube was fitted up in a
small furnace ruade of sheet iron, and lined with ganister ; this was
heated rapidly in a blast flame led in at the bottom. Some difficulty was
experienced in obtaining the copper in a solid cylinder. In the early
experiments hydrogen was passed into the tube while the copper was
being fused, and was made to bubble through the molten copper ; on
breaking the tube the copper was found to be full of small holes ; the
copper had absorbed the hydrogen at the high temperature and given it
oft' again on cooling ; on another occasion the copper was fused down in
hydrogen, and the tube was connected with a water-pump and exhausted
and the copper allowed to cool in a vacuum ; this gave a more continuous
cylinder. It was found best to fuse the copper under boras, after pre-
vious reduction ; a good cylinder of the metal was thus obtained.
I was unfortunately not able to draw down the copper for myself;
this was very kindly done for me by Messrs. Smith, of Halifax, and
Messrs. Johnson & Matthey. The porcelain tubes had been prepared
of such a size that the cylinder of copper could be drawn without
further heating ; the copper, therefore, was not fused after it left my
hands.
Two sheets of the electrolytically prepared copper were fused on
different days, and one cylinder was sent to Messrs. Smith to be drawn,
and the other to Messrs. Johnson & Matthey.
Wires IX. were drawn by Messrs. Smith, wires X. by Messrs, Johnson
& Matthey.
Wire XI. was drawn by Messrs. Johnson & Matthey from a sample of
copper which I prepared by electrolysis from a pure solution of copper
sulphate ; the copper was deposited on a plate of copper, which had had
its surface rubbed over with graphite ; by this means the deposited copper
was easily stripped oflf the plate ; the other plate was of platinum. After
a time the solution was changed ; the deposition was very slow, as it was
thought that there would be less likelihood of copper sulphate getting in
between the layers of copper. The deposit was boiled with dilute sul-
phuric acid and then in water, and was afterwards fused as above
described.
Wires IX. were measured as received ; this accounts for the close
agreement between the two determinations. Wires X. and XI. I had to
draw down further to measure them on my bridge.
Wires X. (2) and XI. were drawn down with great care and not so
much as X. (1).
128
KEPORT — 1890.
Below is a table of the measurements made for the determination of
their specific resistances : —
Wire
Value of
1/3
Temp.
Weight
of
wire
Length of
■wire for
determina-
tion of re-
sistance.
Length cut
and
•vreighed
Resistance of
gramme per
metre
IX. (1)
„ (2)
X.(l)
„ (2)
XL
•28547
•28541
•28550
•28536
•28535
17°-9
170.4
18°-2
]6°-8
16°-7
20-388
20153
19-708
20-252
20-262
192-1
192-4
189-3
192-39
192-11
192-5
190-45
188-8
192-34
192-51
1574
1569
1C77
1561
1563
18°-3
17°-5
18°-6
17°-1
17°-2
These values reduced to a common temperature of 18°
IX. (1) . . -1572
are
IX.
X.
X.
XL
(2)
(1)
(2)
1572
Mean value
1573
•1571
1569
B.A. unit.
1569
Thus ^1571 B.A.. unit is the resistance at 18° of a metre of hard-
dra-wn copper ■wire weighing 1 gramme.
Matthiessen in the B.A. Report ' gives as the resistance of a gramme
metre at 0° -1469 B.A. unit.
I have calculated fi'om this the value at 18°, using the temperature
coefficient that he gives in his paper on the influence of temperature on
the conducting power of metals. I have taken no account of the terms
in t"^ as they practically cancel one another.
R. 18° = R° (1 -I- -00387010.
R. 18° = -1571.
This is the value that I have obtained as the mean of my own
observations.
All my observations were taken at the temperature of the room, and
in the table above the values for the different wires are given at the
observed temperature, and then all reduced to a common temperature of
18° 0. Most observations of this character are taken at the temperature
of 0° C, but on the whole it seemed more satisfactory to work at the
temperature of the room. In the comparison of the B.A. units I have
found that with a difference of temperature between coils which are
connected by thick pieces of copper there is always conduction of heat,
and it is impossible to tell accurately what is the real temperature of the
coils.
My observations were made in the B.A. room at the Cavendish
Laboratory, which has a north aspect, and often the temperature did
not alter more than a few tenths of a degree, whilst the temperature of
the coil baths often remained perfectly steady for several consecutive days.
I cannot find any observations of Matthiessen's at 0° C. ; certainly his
observations on copper were made at 18°, and, consequently, if the value
given by him at 0° C. has been obtained by the use of a temperature co-
efficient, my value might be expected to agree with his at 18°, the tem-
B.A. TepoH, 1864, or PkU. Mag. 1865.
I
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 129
perature of his observation, supposing the samples of copper of the same
character.
Matthiessen's results are given in terms of a gramme per metre, and
for wires of metre length and 1 mm. in diameter.
In a paper in the ' Philosophical Magazine,' Matthiessen gives the
value fur hard-drawn copper in these terms as — ■
•02104 B.A.
From his value for the gramme metre, using the specific gravity 8'95
given by tables, the same quantity was calculated, but gave the result
•0209 ; in a note added he states that had he used the specific gravity 8'91
his results would have been more nearly alike ; but a specific gravity 8 90,
I find, would give an identical value.
This would show, then, that Matthiessen's own table, calculated for
values obtained by comparison with hard-drawn silver, is accurate. I
have tested silver wires, but have not had time to draw up the results in
tabular form ; and I obtained an almost identical value for hard-drawn
silver wire, as supplied me from Messrs. Johnson & Matthey, as is given
by Matthiessen for the resistance of a gramme per metre.
It will be observed that wires IX. have the specific gravity 8"90, and
give a value in terms of B.A. units for a cubic centimetre of the material
identical with Matthiessen's value ; this value is not given directly by
Matthiessen, but is calculated from his results by Fleeming Jenkin, and
given in his table in his book ' Electricity and Magnetism ' : it is 1'6.52
microhms. I have calculated it from Matthiessen's value, given in the
' Philosophical Magazine,' and get the number 1'653. Using the same
temperature coefficient as before, the resistance at 18° C. of a cubic
centimetre of hard-drawn copper is 1766'6 xlO"^ B.A. units.
On comparing the values for wires IX., X., and XI. in these terms,
the results do not agree so well together as when expi-essed in terms of
the gramme metre ; there is a corresponding difference in the values of
the specific gravities ; these latter have been very carefully determined,
and the experiments repeated with the results given.
Wires, therefore, of the same resistance expressed for grammes per
metre, may give a very different result, when expressed as per cubic
centimetre : attention has been drawn to this fact in the discussion on
the Elmore copper in the ' Electrician.' • M. Roux, of Paris, in a letter
gives the following table for high-conductivity wire from a paper of
M. Hospitalier in ' L'Electricien,' 1887 ; this paper I have unfortu-
nately not been able to see.
Density ....
8-897
9-32
9-6
Conductivity, equal volume
102-4
106-7
110-8
Conductivity, equal weight
101-7
101-2
101-6
What is 100 in the conductivity units is not expressed. M. Roux
thinks that the former, /.e.,for equal volume, is the more rational method
of expressing the result.
Matthiessen expressed all his results in terms of equal weight, justify-
ing it by the greater accuracy obtainable when woi-king with small weights
of wires. Small errors in the value of the specific gravity are easily
made, and cause a similar error in the result for equal volumes of
' Electrician, Decemy^er 7, 18SS.
1890. K
130 KEPORT— 1890.
different wires ; unless working with long lengths of thick wire the
weight of the wire is small. The weight of the water displaced cannot
be determined within -5 to 1 milligramme, and that only with care : this
error in '5 of a gramme means only an accuracy of 1 in 500. The values
given in my table are probably correct to 1 in 1,500 or 1 in 2,000, as the
weight of water displaced was in all cases over 2 grammes. Results,
therefore, for resistances of wires of equal weight are the most trust-
worthy, and, I think, also the most satisfactory if used to express the
resistance of a material and not of any given wire.
Wires X. (1) and X. (2) are of the same copper, but drawn down
separately: X. (1) was beginning to fray, and another specimen of the
same copper drawn down still further had on this account to be re-
iected ; this has affected the resistance value expressed in both ways.
Thus :—
X. (1) . . . -1573 . . 1767
X. (2) . . . -1569 . . 1751
but much more so when expressed for equal volumes. In both the
copper is of the same quality.
It will be noticed that with increase of specific gravity there is a
decrease of resistance, even when the results are expi'essed for wires of
equal weight. The resistance diminishes, therefore, more rapidly than
the density increases. Wires of the same quality may, in consequence
of a difference in drawing, have a different density, and so the results
expressed in terms of equal volume will differ considerably, while those
for equal weight are the same, or approximately so.
The values obtained for IX., X., and XL are so nearly identical that
it is not unfair to conclude that they are samples of pure copper ; their
value is identical with that obtained by Matthiessen at, I believe, the
same temperature. The greater difference obtained at 0° C. between
Matthiessen 's value and samples of copper tested now at that tempera-
ture is probably due to the fact that Matthiessen's value was not
determined at 0°, but reduced in value for that temperature from observa-
tions, as stated above, at about 20° C.
The higher conductivity or less resistance for the two samples given
in the table is due, not to increased purity in the preparation of the
copper, but to the difference iu the process of preparation, whereby a
sample of greater density is obtained than results from the working up
of small quantities of copper in the laboratory.
A sample of copper has been prepared by chemical means with the
help of my friend Mr. Skinner, but has not yet been measured.
APPENDIX IV.
A Comparison of a Platinum Thermometer with some Mercury Thermometers
at Low Temperatures. By E. H. Griffiths, M.A., Sidney College,
Cambridge.
The following communication describes the mode of constructing
an air-tight platinum thermometer for use at low temperatui'es. The
thermometer was graduated by means of the freezing and boiling points
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 131
of water, and as regards intermediate points Regnault's determinations
of the temperature and pressure of aqueous vapour were adopted. The
precautions observed in the construction of the apparatus, and in the
method of observation, are described. The thermometer was tested by-
comparison with a number of thermometers standardised at Kew. The
•curves, showing the result of these determinations, are in remarkably
■close agreement, and when the observations were sufficiently numerous
dt appeared possible to calibrate the bore as accurately as by the usual
more laborious process. The further advantage of this method is that
thermometers can be compared under the conditions in wbicb they are
to be used.
In a communication to the Royal Society read on June 19, 1890,
I described a method of constructing and graduating platinum ther-
raometers, and gave a table of boiling and freezing points for various
substances lying between 100° and 500°, determined by means of these
instruments.
Subsequent observations indicate that a slight change appears to be
taking place in the readings of these thermometers. I attribute this (1)
to alterations in the glass, (2) to presence of moisture in the tube — the
asbestos roll on which the spiral was wound being highly hygroscopic. I
therefore decided to construct a thermometer in which there should be
tio contact between the glass and the platinum, and which should be
thoroughly dry and hermetically sealed.
I was unable to discover any suitable non-conductor capable of resist-
ing high temperatures ; but in anthracene (melting-point 213°) I found a
substance suitable in every respect for use at low temperatures. I sub-
jected a sample to severe tests, and, up to a temperature of about 130°,
found it to be a better insulator than paraffin.
The leads to the coil were constructed of silver, the inner one a rod
and the outer a tube. The resistance of these leads was about -001 ohm,
and therefore any change in the external resistance, caused by change of
temperature, might be disregarded. The silver leads approached to within
about 1 inch of the spiral, and were connected to it by moderately thick
platinum wires ; thus a flow of heat from the spiral to the silver was
•diminished. The wire forming the coil was about 56 inches in leno-th,
and had a diameter of -005 inch. The spiral was about 2 inches long,
having a resistance of about 135 ohms at 0° C, and the external diameter
•of the covering tube was about -3 inch. The ends of the asbestos roll
'were made of greater diameter than the portion on which the spiral was
^vound, and thus there was no glass contact. The tube and contents were
'heated up to a temperature of several hundred degrees, and dried air
passed through for some hours. It was then exhausted and the open
•end placed under the surface of melted anthracene, which was allowed to
rise until nearly in contact with the coil. When cool, the whole of the
thermometer from the spiral to the upper end (about 13 inches) was a
solid mass, while the spiral and asbestos roll were perfectly dry and in an
almost vacuous space. I have taken nearly 600 observations with this
thermometer and cannot detect any signs of change. "When the lower
part was undergoing rapid changes in temperature, thermo-electric effects
showed themselves, but by reversing the battery and galvanometer
connectioiiftj^luring each reading these effects were eliminated. A low-
resistance galvanometer was used, and the current which passed through
ithe thermometer when determining its resistance did not exceed one
132
REPOBT —1890.
Lundredth of an ami^ere. To illustrate the closeness of the agreement
in tbe results obtained at different times I give the following determi-
nations of the resistance at a temperature of 100° determined in the
usual manner by means of a hypsometer -with manometer attached.
Full corrections were made in the barometric reading, and the results
reduced to lat. 45°.
Date
Temperature
Resistance (after corr. for
temp, of coils)
July 26 . . .
27 . . .
August 12 . • •
„ 13 . . .
100°C.
100°C.
100°C.
100°C.
18-2029
18-2034
18-2025
18-2031
Mean 182030
The expression for the platinum temperature by this thermometer was
R— 13-5219
4-G811
-tiino
X 100, again -J-°=l-3462,
almost exactly agreeing with the coefficient of the wire in Mr. Callendar's
air thermometer ('Phil. Trans.' A. 1887).
Mr. G. M. Clark, B.A. (Sidney Coll., Cambridge), now joined me m
the investigation, and as we proposed to use this thermometer for the
calibration and graduation of mercury thermometers between 0° and 100°,
we decided to obtain intermediate temperatures by means of Regnanlt's
numbers connecting the temperature and pressure of aqueous vapour.
For this purpose we constructed a large iron tank with two plate-glass
sides, holding about 16 gallons of water, and through two holes bored in
the bottom inserted two barometer tubes, the upper 16 inches of each
being within the tank. One of these was used as a standard barometer,
and was prepared with great care, the distilled mercury with which it
was filled having been boiled in the tube for more than six hours. The
internal diameter of the tube was 14 mm., and the absence of any menis-
cus was very marked. If the level of the surface of the water in the
tank was below the top of the barometer, and the water warmed, the
sublimation of mercury in the vacuous space was observable. The second
barometer was made from the same length of tubing as the first, and
communicated at its upper extremity with a small flask (A), in which was
placed the platinum thermometer.
Distilled water was boiled in vacuo for some hours, to expel all traces
The flask and barometer tube were then exhausted by means of
air.
of ..--
an air-pump, and the lower end of the tube placed in a flask (B) contain-
ing the previously boiled water, which rushed up, filling the tube and
flask (A). ' . . n ^ ;,
The water remaining in B was then boiled until this flask and a
bent tube passing fi-om it into a basin of mercury, 30 inches beneath,
were completely filled with steam, and, on coohng, the height of mercury
in the tube enabled us to determine that the pressure on its surface was
that of aqueous vapour only. The water in the upper flask was then
boiled for many hours, and only allowed to cool occasionally to permit of
the water in the lower flask being boiled away. To prevent access of air j
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASOREMENTS.
133
Fig. 11.
the steam was driven off througli the mercury. "When the water in flask
A was reduced to about a tablespoonful, the boiling was stopped, and
the level of the mercury was raised until it flowed back first into flask
B and thence into the barometer tube, as flask A cooled.
The open end of the barometer tube was then sealed, the flask B
replaced by a small cup of dry mercury, and the end of the tube opened
below the surface. The water remaining on the top of
the column was driven back into the flask by ponring
hot water over the tube.
During our experiments, water occasionally collected
on the mercury, bat by means of a concave miiTor it
was driven back into the flask ; the mirror was of course
removed some time before an observation was taken.
The tank, filled with water, was maintained at any
required temperature by means of a gas regulator. The
lower parts of the barometer tubes were screened by
sheets of asbestos, and the two cups were connected by
a small siphon. The glass sides of the tank were covered
with white paper to prevent radiation ; openings were
left for observations, daring which the water in the
tank was kept in a continual state of agitation by the
oscillation of a large paddle driven by a water motor.
The paddle, fixed in one corner of the lid, swept across
"the tank, driving the water before it, and lifting it at
-be same time. We have tried several forms of stirrers,
-and we believe this to be a more effective form than a
screw or a plunger.
The difference in the height of the mercury in the
two barometer tubes was ascertained by the katheto-
meter G. 33, in the Cavendish Laborator}^ and by
means of it readings could be taken to '50 mm. Care
was taken to bring both levels horizontal before each
observation.
As the coeflBcient of expansion of the kathetometer scale was unknown
and the temperature of the room usually about 20°C., we decided to
compare it with the standard scale R, whose coefficient of expansion and
scale errors had been determined by the Standards Department of the
Board of Trade.'
Twenty-one comparisons were made (greatest divergence from the
mean '10 mm.), and the result was as follows : — 300-35 mm. on katheto-
meter scale at 20°=300-35489 of Board of Trade Standard (S.S.) at 0°.
Thus no scale correction was necessary.
The difference (D) of the mercury columns was corrected for tempera-
ture, pressure of mercury vapour and latitude, and the resulting length
denoted by Dq : the temperature corresponding to Dq was deduced from
the very full table given in Part 3 of Carnelley's ' Melting and Boiling
Point Tables.'
The extremities of the curve (at 0" and 100°) having been determined,
it was only necessary to get points between 30° and 80°.
Ninety observations were taken, and although occasional divergences
presented themselves, the mean path gives a curve which W3 believe to be
' Standard metre, verified June 1882, designated R in Mr. Chaney's report.
134
EEPOBT — 1890.
within less than '02° of the true path at all points. It agrees closely
with the carve obtained by Mr. Callendar from the parabola
looj'
1-57
[(looj ]
by measuring one- tenth of the ordinate along the abscissa.'
The following equation, however, represents its path more accurately.
y=-018795<— -OOOlOgiiH-OOOOOOlllSil^. The curve itself is shown
in Chart A, fig. 12.
Fig. 12.
We proceeded to test our conclusions by comparison with thermo-
meters standardised at Kew ; for this purpose a rotating annular ring,
through the centre of which the platinum thermometer passed, was
inserted in the lid of the tank, in such a manner that the mercury ther-
mometers, fixed in holes bored near its circumference, could successively
be brought into the field of view of the kathetometer without any re-
adjustment of the telescope ; the thermometers were then read by one
observer, whilst the platinum resistances were taken by the other. The
freezing-points were not, however, determined by this method, but by
direct immersion in powdered ice, adopting the precautions recommended
by Guillaume in his ' Thermometrie de Precision.'
The following curves were then drawn, which indicate the result of
the comparison of our platinum thermometer with those standardised at
Kew.
Curve
Thermometer, Kew No.
Standardised
B
C
D
E
75148
75149
43762
8394
October 1888.
October 1888.
May 1885.
December 1880, January 1882, April 1888.
' It must be remembered that Callendar's difference curve gives the connection
between platinum and air thermometer temperatures, whilst Regnault used a mercury
thermometer (M.A.S. XXL), and thus curve A gives the relation between platinum.
and mercury thermometer temperature.
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS.
135
All these thermometers were made by Hicks ; the first three were
kindly placed at our disposal by Mr. R. T. Glazebrook ; the last is one of
those referred to by Mr. W. N. Shaw in a communication to the B.A.
2
S
136 KKPORT — 1890.
during the Bath Meeting^, the successive curves of which, theu exhibited
by him, he has kindly allowed us to copy.
In these diagrams the abscissae represent the temperature — in the
strong curves, that obtained by us, and in the faint, that obtained at
Kew : the ordinates in each case being the divergence of the
actual readings from these results. Where crosses occur at almost
identical temperatures they indicate observations separated by a consider-
able interval of time ; in no case did less than 20 minutes elapse, whilst in
some several days.
Three only of our observations are unrecorded on these charts, and
in each case, owing to imperfect light, interruptions, &c., these experi-
ments were regarded as doubtful before their results were deduced.
The gradual rise of the zero point is clearly indicated ; apparent
discrepancies are probably due to the fact that the Kew determinations
ai-e less frequent than ours, and as a consequence many of the smaller
deviations have escaped notice.
The results show : —
1. That thermometers whose range does not include 0° and 100° may
have certain fixed points determined by this method.
2. That an actual calibration of a mercury thermometer can also be
readily accomplished.
3. That the platinum thermometer, properly constructed, may serve
as a standard by which to trace the changes which ma.y take place in
mercury thermometers.
4. That since the readings of the platinum thermometer are indepen-
dent of the extent of the stem-immersion, it can be conveniently employed
for the graduation of thermometers partially immersed, as in ordinary
use.
We have since calibrated about twenty thermometers by this method,
and we believe the results to be satisfactoiy in all cases.
APPENDIX V.
On the Absolute Besiatance of Mercunj. Bi/ B.. T. Glazebeook, F.B.S.
Th^ following table gives the results of expei'iments made since 1882
on the absolute resistance of mercury. The first eight lines relate to
experiments in which the resistance of a wire has been found absolutely
\ :' ^d then expressed in terms of the resistance of mercury by direct obser-
vation. In the next four lines the results of comparisons between certain
colls of wire and the resistance of mercury ai'e given. It will be noticed
that the value found by Lord Rayleigh for the resistance of 100 cm. of ^
mercury in B.A. units is considerably in excess of the results of other^
experimenters. If in obtaining from his value of the B.A. unit expressea
in ohms the value of the ohm in mercury we use '96'io instead of •9541,
Lord Rayleigh's values 106-24 and 106'21 become 106-30 and 106-27, and
the mean result 106-28 is hereby raised to 106-30.
The observers whose results are given in the last seven lines, with the
exception of Lorenz, did not themselves directly compare the results of
their absolute determinations with the resistance of mercury, but with
coils usually of german silver, the value of which in mercury units was
certified either by Siemens or Strecker.
ON STANDARDS FOB USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 137
a ^ u.
o § =
-»< — CS TO O^l (M cs w
CI c-1 -T" X rp JO <>i N
i -i -i i tb ti i «b
oooooooo
(M © CO O
CO CO CO CO
00
to to «S -JS
o o o o
to
o
t- to C5 00 -*< CO CO
CO 'H oD c; C'l o ^
ira tb lb lb tb <b lb
o o o o o c o
c 3P3
M
-c rs 00 ?1 ic
1 i^ -rr CO 10 o
-" 1
CO CO CO CO CO
lO '
' 10 »0 lO 10 lO
Ji
c-. ~. c: a a
-K C-l <M 'rH
lO
CO lO CO lO
UO
CO CO CO CO
CO
lO lO lO lO
>c
Oi a ^ CI
C3
X
o
6
P5 5
"SO
^ t- — 4 -j- o >o ts
lO t^ I ^^ -« to o oo
to to t: to ^ o ■-=
X' CO ' 00 00 CO 00 CO
Ci O^ C^ Ci Ci C2 c^
(U .-I
■~ o
c; c:*
C QJ O
C P O
£■-§
g ^ a
« S 2
g gas
£ S ^
o
fq
to
B
S
s
^ ^ S
5c i;
. - ^-■35 =
5 o g 5; = ?i
Q> o :3
- b;3 "
.3 N .2 <" ° — a)
o c o '^ ^ ^ '3
n
-^
-^
10
;n
00
C2
•
a
QJ
<u
>
■
■^
a
(U
a;
fT\
n!
^
fl
X
H
0)
S
0)
c
^
rt,
r^
.a
<1
tM
a
3
O
o
o
U "o
6 " -
rr-i t**^
^ o <^
c d
,
bC to
cj cS
a a
Ti
(« 03
(D
be he a
CO
a a c
a a
rt rc
r
OC
CO
CO
OlCO-f-^t'^t^r— O
00 00 a;' c/D cc CO ;^ ~j
cCQCccaoooco irco
1— l^-»^f— (I— I-— ' ^»-H
0-T
CO
00 1
10 CO O
00 GO C2
CO OD CO
^
10 e: CO is»
CO
OCi
OCi CO X' CO
00
1 00
oC' 00 00 CO
^ J3 5
be bo cs
'^
^ o a
K 03 .2 S § S ^ q
^fi«-»<iO'-it-ao
05 O -< «
to t- 00 05
138 REPORT— 1890.
The value given by Salvioni in his paper (' Rendiconti della R. Ac-
cademia dei Lincei,' vol. v. fasc. 7) is •95404. Owing to a mistake in cal-
culation, in consequence of which a correction was applied with the
wrong sign, the value sent to him from Cambridge for his B.A. standard
was in error by '0005. When this is corrected his value becomes '95354,
thus agreeing very closely with the others. Salvioni's value in line 11 is
obtained through a coil of Strecker's.
Fifth Report of the. Committee, consisting of Professors Fitzgerald
(Ghaii-man), Armstrong and 0. J. Lodge (^Secretaries), Sir
William Thomson, Lord Eayleigh, J. J. Thomson, Schuster,
PoYNTiNG, Crum Brown, Eamsay, Frankland, Tilden, Hartley,
S. P. Thompson, McLeod, Roberts-Austen, EiJCKER, Eeinold,
Carey Foster, H. B. Dixon, and John M. Thomson, Captain
Abney, Drs. Gladstone, Hopkinson, and Fleming, and Messrs.
Crookes, Shelford Bidwell, W, N. Shaw, J. Larmor, J. T.
BoTTOMLEY, E. T. GrLAZEBROOK, J. Brown, and E. J. Love, 02:^-
jpointed for the purpose of considering the subject of Electrolysis
in its Physical and Chemical Bearings.
During the past year the following communications bearing on the
subject of electrolysis have been published by members of the Com-
mittee : —
Mr. W. N. Shaw : ' On the Relation between Viscosity and Conduc-
tivity of Electrolytes.' (' Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc' November 1889.)
In this communication Mr. Shaw criticises the observations and con-
clusions of Wiedemann concerning the intimate connection between
electric resistance and ordinary viscosity in liquids, and of the independ-
ence between ionic migration and electric endosmose. He quotes an
observation of Kohlrausch, showing that when fused silver iodide solidi-
fies there is no discontinuous change of conductivity at the melting-point.
He further examines how far the precise ionic velocity, calculated by
Kohlrausch and verified by Lodge, can be reconciled with the view of
electro-decomposition by help of complex molecular aggregates, as
opposed to the simple view of free or dissociated atoms ; and concludes
that the molecular-aggregate theory may turn out capable of explaining
all the known facts.
Mr. A. P. Chattock has kindly translated for the Committee an
abstract by Dr. J. Gubkin, from Professor Warburg's laboratory (Wiede-
mann's Annalen, 32, page 114), ' On the Electrolytic Separation of Metal
at the free surface of a Salt in solution.' The translation is printed
below.
Electrolytic Separation of Metal at the free Surface of a Salt in Solution.
By Dr. J. Gubkin.
1. When a current of electricity passes from the sohition of a salt into a vapour
or a gas, electrolytic separation of the metal must occur at the surface of the liquid.
At the suggestion of Herr Warburg I have made one or two experiments to determine
how the separation of metal takes place in such a case.
ON ELECTROLYSIS IN ITS PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL BEARINGS. 139
2. It is best to render the space above the liquid free of air. For this purpose the
apparatus shown in Fig. 1 was used. It consisted of a glass vessel in which twO'
platinum wires, B and c, were sealed, B being plated electrolytically with tlie metal
to be separated from the solution. The latter was introduced to the level d' e' and
boiled for about ten minutes, until its surface had sunk 4 or .5 mm. below the point
of the wire c. While the vapour was still escaping the vessel was closed at F with
shellac ; and, after cooling, the neck was melted off at A. The apparatus thea
appeared sufficiently free from air.
In order to reduce the vapour-pressure, the lower part of the vessel was placed in
ice, the upper part being freed by warming from any liquid that still clung to it.
A battery of 1,000 Plante accumulators was then connected, the positive pole
with B, the negative with C ; upon which there appeared at C the well-known nega-
tive glow.
3. When the vessel contained nitrate of silver the following was observed : Soon
after putting on the current a small round disc of bright silver was formed just
underneath C. As the disc increased in diameter it darkened at the centre, and there
was formed upon it a series of light and dark concentric rings, which were sometimes
coloured — some of these showing radial markings, which gave them the appearance
of divided circles. The disc did not sink, provided the apparatus was kept from
shaking.
4. With a solution of zinc sulphate there was no separation of metal to be seen ;
but on looking at the surface D E from below, white flocculent masses of zinc oxide
were visible slowly sinking through the liquid. The zinc on separation by the current
was thus immediately oxidised.
5. For experiments with a solution of platinum chloride the apparatus i,n Fig. 2
was used. In this the chlorine was collected over b.
FiP. 2.
Fig. S.
-f
One-third natural size.
+
One-thiril natural size.
One-third natural size.
A short time after closing the circuit there was visible just opposite c a small
lump of dead black platinum. On stopping the current this floated to the side of
the vessel, but returned to its original position just opposite C when the current was
again started, thus preventing the formation of a fresh lump. Very probably this
phenomenon was due to electric forces.
6. These experiments may also be carried out in air by means of an induction
coil. The liquid is contained in a funnel, as in Fig. .3, and tlie discharge at ' break '
furnishes the necessary current, the spark gaps between the solution and the cathode
being arranged to prevent a discharge at ' make ' from taking place. In this manner
experiments with silver, zinc, and copper solution.s were carried out, with results-
substantially the same as those described above, except that here the space flowed
through by the current, and consequentl)- the diameter of the silver disc was;
140 REPORT— 1890.
.smaller than before. The concentric rings were, however, clearl}- visible. (' Phys.
Inst, der Univ. Freiburg, i. B.")
In connection with tliis deposition of metal obtained on the upper
surface of a liquid, Professor Ostvfald's discovery of the deposition of
copper at the boundaiy of a semi-pernaeable partition may also be called
attention to, (See below.)
Mr. J. Brown has communicated a paper, which appeared in the
" Phil. Mag.' for July 1890, ' On the Electrification of the Effluvia from
•Chemical or from Voltaic Reactions,' wherein he discusses and extends
the observations of Mr. Enright on the electrification detected above a
vessel in which chemical ebullition is occurring. He considers that the
electrification is not due to friction or any contact effects, but that it has
a voltaic or electrolytic significaiice. If so, the observations of Mr.
Enright ('Phil. Mag.' January 1890, page 56) have more importance
than'a criticism by Lodge (' Phil. Mag.' March 1890, page 292) was dis-
posed to concede to them. It is to be hoped that Mr. Enright will pursue
the subject, and obtain definite evidence as to how the spray-matter
receives its charge.
Mr. Brown's summary of conclusions is as follows : —
Wlien gas is evolved in a chemical or voltaic reaction, the effluvium Qie. this gas
■or something carried up with it) is usually, as shown by Mr. Enright, electrically
charged. So far as these present exi^eriments show, no electrification is produced by
simple effervescence unaccompanied by chemical changes.
The sign of the electrification is influenced by the kind of chemical or voltaic
action taking place, and is apparently not due to any contact effect.
When the effluvium is tliat given off from zinc dissolving in HCl (taken as a typical
experiment), and consists of hydrogen accompanied by foggy matter, it is not decided
whether the charge is given originally to the gas or the fog particles, though the
balance of evidence inclines perhaps towards the latter view. The fog in question is
formed apparently at, or nearly at, the same place as the gas ; and the nature of its
charge (if any) is tlierefore possibly influenced by the voltaic condition there
present.
The gas, or effluvium, fiom the decomposition of a liquid by a current from the
poles of a separate battery immersed in it (voltameter) appears also to be elec-
trified.
Concerning the verification of Ohm's law in electrolytes which has
been carried out by members of the Committee, or rather concerning the
wider question of the validity of the Maxwell- Chrystal method in general,
the Committee have been favoured with a letter from Professor Chrystal,
which is reproduced with a sufliicient introduction here.
Verification of Ohm's Law.
In one of the circulars issued to the Electrolysis Committee of the British Asso-
■ ciation, viz. that dated June 24, 1886, Professor Fitzgerald suggested an objection to
the complete validity of the theory of the experimental method of verifying Ohm's
.law with twelve-figure accuracy, devised by Clerk Maxwell and carried out bj' Mr.
Chrystal ; doing so in the following words : —
' There is an objection to this method that I have not seen noticed. Maxwell
assumes that you can expand in powers of — . Now, if the law were the positive
(C\"
- 1 , where n differs very slightly from unity, the method would fail, for
the current would vanish both in the numerator and in the denominator of Maxwell's
•-expansion.'
ON ELECTROLYSIS IN ITS PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL BEARINGS. 141
Maxweir.s theory is given in the Glasgow vohime of the British Association for
187G. " ' , . .
Recently Dr. Fison seems to have promnlg-ateil the same objection, and conse-
quently Professor Fitzgerald wrote to Professor Chrystal about it. In reply he
received a very interesting letter, which he has passed on to me, and from which I
extract the portion referring to this subject.
Oliver J. Lodge,
Letter from Professor Chrystal to Professor Fitzgerald.
. The problem which I set myself in the Ohm's law experiment was to show-
that when a Wheatstone's bridge is balanced for any electromotive force in the
battery circuit, it is balanced for every, or, to put it safely, for widely varying,
electromotive force.
The theoretical part of the paper, for which JLixwell was responsible, I do not
remember ever having examined from a scep-
tical or logical point of view. Fio. 4.
It now appears to me that we ought to reason
as follows : —
In order to find the necessary condition
upon the resistance-function E/C, let us make
matters as simple as possible by considering a
bridge in which two arms, K, R, are of equal
resistance, of the same metal, and alih^ in every
respect. Let the two other resistances S and T
be made of two different metals, say of Cu and
Fe. Let the length and section of S be Z and o ;
and the length and section of T be V and a;'.
The specific resistance must in each case be a
function of the current intensity (current per
unit of section). Temperature is supposed kept
constant, of course. Let the whole current
flowing through S and T when there is a balance be i, the specific resistances of
S and T will be <f) (i/a») and i/ (//a.') respectively.
The condition for balance will therefore be
(z/<«)«(i/a.)=(/7o') '!'('■>') (^);
and this equation must, by the result of the experiment, hold for all rallies of'i.'
Let us suppose that we alter the length of the iron wire S to I", then there will'
be a corresponding section, c", for which there will again be a balance : so that we
must have
(/":»")<;> ('■/«") = (^'K)'K'7<"') • • • (2);
and this again must hold for all values of ;.
Combining (1) and (2), we get ,
(z/a))<|)(;H = (r/c« ")<?)('' <«") .... (3).
From ttiis equation we can readily determine the form of the function <t>.
If we put |n = «"/£«, A = r'(oi7w", a' =;/&)", we get
<f)(/z,r) = A()>(.r);
whence, putting x = fi x, we get
<t> (/uV) = A <|) (> .1') = y-<p (x) ;
<f>{n„x)= \"<t (a;").
and, in general.
Hence, putting x = \, we get
^(ja")= A"4>(1).
Now ;u is unrestricted, therefore we may put
z=ti", ?(. = log5/log^.
142 KEPOET — 1890.
Whence, finally,
^(,) = ;,10g./10gM^(,)
^^logX/logM^(l)
The general form for <p (i) is therefore
where A and B are constants, the physical meanings of which are obvious from what
precedes.
We see from equation (1) that the like holds for the specific resistance of every
metal which has the property indicated by the experiment.
Moreover, as you have pointed out, such a law of specific resistance is suflicient
to secure the result of the experiment.
We conclude, therefore, that what the experiment really proves is that the spe-
cific resistance of metals varies as a power of the current intensity, which 'porveT in
the same for all metals. This is a good deal, but not quite so much as is concluded
in the paper in which the experiment was originally described. The deviation spoken
of in the paper must therefore be regarded as deviations not from absolutely constant
resistance, but from the resistance calculated according to the above siinple law.
To establish that the constant B is zero will not be quite so simple a matter.
Many ways might be suggested, and will, doubtless, occur to you. The most direct
and satisfactory would be to get the resistance for different current-intensities, in
Joule's way, by measuring the heat evolved.
Should the above sophistry be right, it is curious that you and Dr. Fison should
each have suggested not««w/, but the only 2}ossiMe n-ay, in which the resistance may
vary with the current, and Wheatstone's bridge still remain the ideal instrument that
«lectricians have always considered it to be.
Q. Chrystal.
An important contribution to the theory of vacuum-tube discharges
by Professor J. J. Thomson appears iu the ' Phil. Mag.' for August this
year. After showing experimentally that the velocity of electric trans-
mission through electrolytes and through vacuum tubes is at least roughly
the same as it is along wires, viz. the speed of light, he proceeds to
consider how this is reconcilable with the doctrine of convection by mov-
ing molecules, without supposing the molecules themselves to be affected
with any such extravagant velocity. He conjectures that the gas conducts
by a series of Grotthus chains, of a length depending on the time of recom-
bination of molecules ; that each chain propels its own current like a series
of boys on stepping-stones; and that the junctions of the chains constitute
the well-known striae.
The Committee are glad to record the appearance in English of
Professor Ostwald's work, ' Outlines of General Chemistry,' wherein is
given an account of the work and views of Professor van 't Hoff on solu-
tion, and the theory of electrolysis held by Dr. Arrhenius is developed
into a large number of consequences. They likewise cordially welcome
Professors van 't Hoff and Ostwald to England, and regret that Dr.
Arrhenius has been unable to be present also.
In preparation for a discussion on the extreme dissociation theory of
solution supported by these recent investigations, as opposed to the more
customary view held by chemists, and having reference also to Dr. Arm-
strong's views of residual affinity, Professor Fitzgerald has written the
following article : —
Electrolytic Theories. By Professor Fitzgerald.
Electrolysis has been explained on two different theories by Grotthus and Clausius.
As generally received they differ. Grotthus' theory, as generally given, assumes that
the molecules in an electrolyte are both polarised and moved by the electric forces
ON ELECTKOLTSIS IN ITS PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL BEARINGS. 143
-within the liquid. This seems so far untenable that it would appear that double the
electric force would double both the polarisation and the naotion of the molecules
and so should produce four times the electrolysis. The objection, however, assumes
that we know the causes resisting the motion, and with proper, and not very impro-
bable assumptions as to the resistance to motion depending on it and on the polarisa-
tion, a linear relation between current and electromotive force, i.e. obedience to
Ohm's law, seems possible. A modification of Grotthus' hypothesis in the direction
of Clausius' is, however, possible. Suppose that when polarised the molecules drew
4yne another apart at a rate proportional to the polarisation. This at once makes the
relation between electric force and the decomposition a linear one, and so satisfied
Ohm's law in the case of small currents. It also so far agrees with Clausius' hypothesis
that it explains electrolysis and double decomposition as properties of the same kind.
The molecules in a liquid will occasionally be arranged by accident in the proper
polarised condition in a closed circuit for drawing one another apart ; and if the
circuit includes molecules of different kinds, there will result double decomposition.
There seem to be very serious difficulties in supposing that uncombined atoms are
for any finite time free in the liquid ; and the supposition that it is a particular
arrangement that is required before exchanges take place, and that with this arrange-
ment exchanges take place of their own accord, seems to explain electrolysis and
double decomposition without supposing free atoms to exist within the liquid. I
have not assumed Professor Armstrong's suggestion that the proper arrangement for
double decomposition is a double molecule ; but it seems a likely hypothesis, and one
that should be investigated from the chemical rather than the physical side.
There are some other phenomena that have been explained upon the supposition
that free atoms are gadding about in a liquid. Such are the lowering of the boiling
and freezing points by solutions of salts, and their effect on osmotic pressure. If
dissociated atoms are going about in a liquid as in a gas, it seems impossible but that
they must diffuse at different rates ; and that this is not observed seems conclusive
against the hypothesis, no matter what else the hypothesis may explain. Consider
solution simply. \Vliy does chloride of .sodium dissolve in water ? There must be
some strong aflSnity between the two of a chemical or semi-chemical nature to break
up the cohesion of the crystal ; and it seems reasonable to assume that this same
affinity keeps the molecules of NaCl moving about among the water molecules, so
that they diffuse about. Now if the forces drawing them "about be independent of
the nature of the molecule, most of the phenomena explained by gaseous laws
are explained. Pressure of a gas depends, at any temperature, on the number of
molecules, and not on their kind. This is Avogadro's law, by which molecular weights
are calculated; and if the forces drawing a molecule about in a liquid are independent
of the kind of molecule, the very same law of pressure would hold, the pressure for-
ward of molecules of different kinds would depend on their number only, and in the
same way as Avogadro's law would enable molecular weights to be calculated. In
this connection it is well to state that some bodies may be much better able to pro-
duce pressiure than others, because of their being more easily polarised, i.e. turned
into an effective direction. A molecule which could be easily turned into an effective
direction would be about twice as effective as a molecule which went about in a
higgledj-.piggledy way; and one would consequently expect electrolytes to produce
more, nearly double, the osmotic pressure that other bodies did. As to the changes
of boiling and freezing points, they seem explicable by exactly the same hypothesis.
The reduction of vapour pressure by molecular affinity of dissolved salt would depend
only on the number of molecules of salt if all salts have the same molecular affinity
for water ; and the .same would apply to the change in freezing point. Hence all
these phenomena are explained without assuming free atoms, and they are all
explained by what can hardly avoid being a rem caum, namely, whatever affinities
they are that cause solution, which latter is an unexplained phenomenon on the
dissociation hypothesis. That it is rea.sonable to think that the forces keeping the
molecules of salt moving about in the water are independent of the nature of the
salt apf)ears from various considerations. In the first place, these forces are in all
probability due to the residual affinities of the non-metallic elements. These same
forces arc jirobably the cause of crystalhsation. These are old suggestions. That
these residual affinities should be nearly the same for different combinations does not
seem at all unlikely. If a rather shaky argument in favour of its likelihood on
mechanical grounds is desired, the following may deserve attention.
Suppose a molecule of NaCl, for instance, at rest, or nearly so, in a crystal,
bubject It to this affinity. Its velocity, after it has gone a distance, s, will be given
144 KEPORT — 1890.
by some such relation asfs = h m ■>■-. Now, for the sake of temperature equilibriura,.
with molecules of somewhat similar structure, ^ m v- must be the same in all. It
seems likely that, at least approximately, the kinetic energy of motion is proportional
to the total energy, and that this is the same for each molecular group ; if so, the-
kinetic energy must be approximately the same for diflferent groups. Now, with very
dilute solutions « must be nearly the same for different molecules, and if so we get
that for temperature equilibrium / must be independent of the nature of the mole-
cule. How this equalisation of / for different kinds of molecules comes about may
be as follows. Molecules in a liquid move about among one another, but are well
within the sphere of another's attraction, as is evidenced by superficial tension and
by the tension to which a liquid can be subject. A very small change in the distance-
apart of the molecules means, however, a very great change in the forces between
them, as otherwise they would be extensible and compressible like gases. It seems
likely, then, that when a salt dissolves in a liquid it requires for temperature equili-
brium that the distances of the molecules should change by the verysmaU arnount
required in order that/ may become the same for all substances. This very minute
change in distance would not visibly affect s.
The Committee request Mr. Sliaw to continue his report on Electro-
lysis, with the co-operation of Mr. Fitzpatrick ; and they ask for reappoint-
ment, with a grant of 51. to cover printing and postage expenses.
Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir G-. G-. Stokes
(Chairman), Mr. G. J. Stmons (Secretary), Yroiessov ScumTEH,
Dr. Gr. Johnstone Stonet, Sir H. E. Eoscoe, Captain Abnet,
and Mr. Whipple, appointed for the purpose of considering the
best methods of recording the direct Intensity of Solar Radia-
tion.
Owing to the death of Professor Balfonr Stewart and the mimerons avo-
cations of Professor Schuster, the instrument constructed by this Com-
mittee has not yet been tried. The Committee have now traced all parts
of the apparatus and of the correspondence relating to it, and they are
glad to state that Professor McLeod has agreed to join the Committee
and to conduct a series of experiments with the apparatus.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. John Kerr (Chairman),
Sir William Thomson, Professor Eucker, and Mr. R. T. GtLAZE-
BROOK (Secretary), appointed to co-operate luith Dr. Kerr in his
researches on Electro-optics.
Some progress in the experiments for the conduction of which the
Committee were appointed has been made by Dr. Kerr, but the Com-
mittee regret to have to report that they are still only in the preliminary
stage. The first trials were made last winter at some length, but were
without effect. The difficulty arose from some unexpected and serious
defects in the new plate cell, which are now being remedied.
The Committee hope that the apparatus may be in working order
shortly, and look forward to being able to make a full report next year.
They ask for reappointment.
ON IIOLECULAR PHENOMENA IN MAGNETISED IRON. 145
Report of the Covimittee on Molecular Phenomena associated
with the Magnetisation of Iron. {Phenomena occurring at a red
heat.) Professor G. F. Fitzgerald {Chairman), H. F. Newall,
F. Trouton, and Professor W. F. Barrett {Secretary).
In the interim report presented last year it was stated that this Com-
mittee, which was appointed some time ago to enquire into tlie various
molecular changes connected with the magnetisation of iron, proposed to
•confine itself, as we believe was the original intention on the appointment
■of the Committee, to those remarkable physical phenomena which are
found to occur in iron and steel, about the temperature of a red heat
when iron ceases to be a magnetic metal.
The suddenness with which iron loses its magnetic susceptibility at a
red heat has often been noticed by different observers. Professor Row-
land ' was the first to point out that for small magnetising forces, the
susceptibility of ii'on increases as the temperature rises, reaches a maxi-
mum at a red heat, and then falls suddenly to zero, but that the suscepti-
iDility diminishes as the temperature rises when large magnetising forces
are used. Bauer ^ subsequently established the same fact. Later, one of
us (H. F. Newall ^) has experimented with small spheres of iron and
steel enclosed between closely fitting hemispherical caps of brass, so that
the iron sphere was held by and heated in the brass, and thus allowed to
Ineat and cool slowly, the susceptibility being tested by means of a mirror
■magnetometer. It was found that during cooling from a white heat the
reappearance of magnetic susceptibility was much more leisurely in steel
than in soft iron, the rate of return to the magnetic state corresponding
with the rate of recalescence ; where recalescence was absent the suscep-
fibility suddenly returned ; where the reglow was pronounced the return
to the magnetic state was slow. This is to be expected, for the rise of
temperature during recalescence is more than sufficient to carry the iron
■out of the magnetic condition it had just entered upon by cooling ; hence
there will be a sudden oscillation at this critical temperature. Ledeboer "*
was, we believe, the first to assign the exact temperature of the loss of
susceptibility. By means of a thermo-electric couple formed of wires of
platinum and an alloy of platinum with 10 per cent, of rhodium, he found
the susceptibility of iron to disappear at a temperature ranging from 750°
to 770° C. Hopkinson ^ more recently, in his well-known paper, has
investigated the effect of different magnetising forces on the loss of per-
meability of iron and steel with increasing temperature, more especially
■near the critical temperature. Measuring the resistance of copper wire
(exposed to the same temperature) from its known temperature coefficient,
Hopkinson estimated the temperature, and found that with very low
magnetising forces, less than 1 C.G.S. unit, the permeability of iron gradu-
ally rose up to a temperature of 785° C, when it almost suddenly dropped
down to nnity ; in like manner mild steel at first rose and then suddenly
fell at a temperature of 735° C. : hard steel behaved similarly, falliuo- off
at a temperature of G80° C. °
' Phil Maff., Nov. 1874. « Wicd. Ann., si. (1880).
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc, vol. vi., Part 4 (1888).
* La Lumiirc Elcctrique, t. sxvii., No. 2. , » Phil. Trans., May 1889.
1890. L
146 EEPORT — 1890.
Professor J. A. Ewing has shown recently,' in Ms beautiful experi-
mental model representing molecular magnets, how a state of magnetic
instability may occur in the magnetic metals as a certain critical tempera-
ture is approached, the chief facts of permeability and retentiveness, and
what Ewing terms hysteresis, being explicable by supposing that a mag-
netised bar is made up, as in "Weber's hypothesis, of molecular magnets,
but ' constrained by no other forces than those due to their own mutual
attractions and repulsions ; ' increase of permeability due to rise of te7n-
perature, for magnetising forces far short of saturation, being caused by
the expansion and separation of molecular centres creating a reduction of
stability. And as regards the sudden loss of susceptibility at the critical
temperature, Ewing conjectures that the violence of the oscillation of
the molecular magnets at this temperature may cause a state of rotation
to be developed, wherein, of course, all magnetic polarity would disappear.
Professor Ewing's suggestive paper shows us that we may well expect
other remarkable phenomena, — and abrupt changes in the physical proper-
ties of the magnetic metals are found to take place, — at this critical
temperature. The Committee have been engaged in investigating some
of these.
I. We will first take the sudden anomalous expansion observed when
steel and some specimens of iron wire cool from a white heat first noticed
by Gore in 1870, and the corresponding anomalous contraction on heating
first noticed by one of us in 1873.- The observation of these effects is
extremely easy. It is only necessary rigidly to fix one end of an iron or
eteel wire and attach the other end to a multiplying lever, or observe
through a reading microscope a mark on the free end, when on heating
the wire either by a gas flame or an electric current the following
phenomena are observed. The wire steadily expands as the temperature
rises till a low red heat is reached, when a halt occurs, then a sudden
momentary retraction of the wire takes place, after which expansion
continues to the fusing point. On cooling, the wire regularly contracts
till a temperature a little lower than that at the jerk on heating is reached,
when a sudden momentary elongation of the wii'e occurs, and then con-
traction ensues till it is cold. If the wire be vertical or horizontal,
with or without tension, the effect is equally present. To perceive the
jerk on cooHng, it is, however, absolutely essential that the temperature
of the wire should be raised above that at which the jerk on heating
occurs, otherwise no anomalous effect is observed. In the experiments
made by one of us in 1875 but not hitherto published, Barrett found that
in some specimens of steel wire tivo anomalous contractions on heating
and expansions on cooling were noticed, the feebler one taking place at a
lower temperature. Further, that in some specimens of iron no anomalous
expansion or contraction was noticeable, whilst moi-e generally in other
specimens the effect on cooling only was noticed, and that usually this
etfect could be wiped out by a few successive heatings and coolings. But
in steel the jerk in cooling was always present and was not wiped out,
though at first slightly reduced, by repeated incandescence and cooling.
Further, judging by the amount of the expansion of the wire, the effect
on heating took place, as stated above, at a slightly higher temperature
than the jerk on cooling.
A series of unpublished experiments were long since made by the
» PMl. Mag., Sept. 18110. « Barrett, Phil. Mag., Jan. 1874.
ON MOLECULAR PHENOMENA IN MAGNETISED IRON. 147
Secretary on the effect (a) of the diameter of tlie wire, and (h) of tlio
tension on the wire, the effects observed being represented by a curve
where expansion is plotted against the time in seconds taken in heating
and cooling. A smooth curve is, of course, formed for the non-maguctic
metals. A slight break is found in the up side of the curve for fine iron
wire, and a sharp break on the down side, whereas for steel-wire a sharp
break on the up side, and a much more marked break on the down side,
was always observed. Up to Nos. 14 or 15 B.W.G. steel-wire, i.e. up to
a diameter of about yi^ of an inch, there is, at the critical temperature,
decided retraction on heating, but at this diameter a halt, with just per-
ceptible retraction, occurs, and as the diameter increases the halt becomes
more and more prolonged, until when No. 3 wire is reached (a rod of
^-inch diameter) at the critical temperature a halt of six seconds takes
jilace in the exj^ansion of the wire during heating, and a halt of twelve
seconds in the contraction of the wire during cooling : the wire in all
cases being unenclosed, and therefore freely cooling in the open air. Even
with the thickest wire of a quarter of an inch diameter a slight expansion
accompanies the prolonged halt in the contraction during cooling when
the critical temperature is reached. Several observations, giving con-
cordant results, were made with each wire.
Next, as regards the effect of tension on the wire. As might be
expected, tension has the effect of diminishing the anomalous retraction
on heating and increasing the anomalous expansion on cooling. In fact,
with a soft iron wire 20 centims. long (No. 19 B.W.G.) under a tension of
500 grams no halt is observed on heating, and at the fourth heating only
a halt and no expansion on cooling ; at the eighth heating the halt
vanished, but a double tension, viz, 1,000 grams, caused an elongation
amounting to tttott ^^ ^^^^ whole length of the wire to reappear. In a
No. 23 hard steel wire, up to a tension of 500 grams, an anomalous retrac-
tion on heating and expansion on cooling is exhibited, but additional
tension destroys the retraction on heating and increases the expansion on
cooling. After, however, thirty re-heatings of this wire the jerk on
heating had disappeared, even under the reduced tension of 300 grams,
nor did sudden quenching in cold water restore it, but it reappeared in a
feeble way under a tension of 50 grams; after the fiftieth re-heating all
that could be observed was a momentary halt on heating, but the expan-
sion on cooling was as marked as ever. So that even in steel the
anomalous contraction on heating appears to wear out in thin wires, but
not the anomalous expansion on cooling. In thicker wires of hard steel,
Nos. 12, 10, 8, 7. 6, and 3, B.W.G-., under tensions varying fi-om 50 to
3,000 grams, continued heating and cooling appeared to make but little
difference.' Here, however, the tension in grams per sq. centimetre was
not so great as in the thin wire. We shall discuss later the cause of this
curious wiping out of the jerk by annealing or repeated heating and
cooling, and are continuing the investigation with samples of steel of
known composition.
The exact amount of the retraction on heating and expansion on
cooling was measured by means of a microscope with micrometer eye-
' It was noticed that when a flat strip of steel of the same volume as one of the
thicker wires was tried, tlie jerk on heatings vanished on repeated heating, only a
momentary halt remaining, the jerk on cooling being as strong as ever ; but further
experiments are being made to determine how far the composition of the steel, or
the effect of wire-drawing, was influential iu these cufces.
I, 2
148
REPORT — 1890.
piece. A sample of iron-wire was taken, which was found to behave very
like soft steel in the greater permanence of the effects it exhibited, and
except that it could not be hardened or tempered might have been mistaken
for steel ; the wire was suspended vertically and heated by an electric
current, a weight of 50 grams being hung from the free end. The wire
was No. 20 B.W.G. (09 mm. diam.) and 29 centims. long. On heating it
expanded from 290 mm. to 293-5 mm., or 1-2 per cent, of its length ; then
it retracted to 29.3-3 mm., a retraction of 0-07 per cent., yJ^^ of its
original length ; then expanded again till white hot, when its length was
Fi3. 1.
-Anomalous contraction of Iron Wire upon cooling from a bright red licat.
Wire 0-9 mm. diam.
290 mm.
500 mm. .
Extension CO
in tenths
grams. 90 grams.
-
590 grams. . Load ou wire.
of mm.
Expt.
1. Expt
2. Expt. 3.
A
V
\
-
\1D
1^
>- 5
-^ \
^ ,5
20 li
i
K
<5
Sv
30
:f »"
-■- --j^
-Si
""s^
;-|
► ^ \
^
kt^
- i£
-1 -- -,
'
'■C
^ '1
O
^
i
\
40 5
i-Q
JO
: 3>:
1
ri
<
1
- 2 -
~t T
£0
, .
'^"A
V
A
•70
L J
80
294 mm. On breaking contact and allowing the wire to cool freely, it
contracted till its length was 2Vo mm. or 1-034 per cent, of its length;
then it expanded to 293-4 mm., an expansion of 0-14 per cent., ^^ of its
length, after which it contracted till it was cold, when a permanent
elongation of 0-3 mm. remained. These amounts were diminished on the
second heating, but the permanent elongation, even nnder the small load
of 50 grams, was the same each time, namely, O'S mm., or a little over
ON MOLECULAR PIIENOMKNA Ii\ MAGNETISED IRON. 149
ToVo of its length. Earlier experiments were made witli the wire hori-
zontal, the tension being applied by means of a pulley ; the same results
were obtained, but the vertical method is obviously the best. A length
of 50 centims. of the same wire gave similar results, the amount of the
anomalous retraction and expansion being proportional to the length of
the wire. When the load was increased to 590 grams with the same wire,
the retraction on heating vanished, and the sudden elongation on (tooling
had increased to no less than -j^ of tlie original length of the wire, or
0"32 per cent. : the permanent elongation being 3'5 mm. at each heating,
or upwards of yl-jj of the length of the wire. The diagram. Fig. 1,
shows the actual chanjje in the dimensions of the wire. It will be
observed that a load of 90 grams will cause the jerk on heating to vanish,
with this wire, and that the jerk on cooling grows less as the experiment
is repeated ; at each experiment the microscope was adjnsted to zero so
that the total permanent elongation is the sum of that in each experi-
ment.
II. The permanent stretching of the wire under these loads occurs
only when the critical temperature is reached. At this temperature an
abrupt and remarkable softening or plasticity of the iron or steel occurs
which renders it extraordinarily ductile. A comparative experiment was
made with copper wire heated to the same temperature. The copper
wire used was 50 centims. long and rather thinner, 0"76 mm. diameter.
When heated it would only bear a load of 510 grams without rupture;
on heating to redness no jerk or stoppage of the expansion, and on cooling
no stop in the contraction was noticed, the permanent elongation being
0"8 mm. or ^^y of the length of the wire. With the iron wire, which
was considerably stouter (0'9 mm. diameter), of the same length and
under the same load of 510 grams, the permanent stretching was 1'8 mm.,
or about ^^^ of its length, so that the iron appears to be far more ductile
and plastic than copper when both are at a red heat.
Mr. H. Tomlinson ' has, in fact, already published some interesting
experiments on the enormous loss of rigidity which occurs in iron at
the critical temperature. A torsioually vibrating iron wire has a
logarithmic decrement at about 1,000° C, ten times greater than that of
a tin wire at the temperature of the air, though tin has the highest
internal friction of any metal yet examined at ordinary temperatures.
Mr. Tomlinson finds two temperatures, one about 550° C. and the other
about 1,000° C, when there is a sudden rise in the internal friction of
iron. In a series of interesting papers communicated to the Physical
Society, Mr. Tomlinson has added much to our knowledge of the j^hysical
changes which occur in iron at the critical temperature. Mr. Tomlinson
places near 1,000° C. the remarkable alterations he has observed in an
iron wire under stress or strain. At this temperature ' when stretched
by a slight weight it suddenly unstretches, when under a slight bending
stress it suddenly unbends, when under a slight twisting stress it suddenly
untwists, whilst on the contrary, if it has been previously bent or twisted
permanently and then released from stress, it suddenly bends moi'e or
twists more as the case may be.' ^ Opposite changes occur in cooling.
One of us ^ has suggested that the probable explanation of the effects
observed by Mr. Tomlinson is due to the difference in the rate of heating
and cooling between the interior and exterior of the wire. Such is
' Phil. Mag., Feb. 1888. ^ p/,,7, j,/-„^^ ggp^, igST.
• Newall : Phil. Mag., Nov. 1887.
150 EEPOBT— 1890.
doubtless the case even in thin wires, and this being so the strains in
the wire will no longer be balanced if the inner and outer portion of the
wire be at different temperatures. For when the wire is twisted or bent
permanently, it has been submitted to a greater twisting or bending than
that which it retains ; a strain has been given which is larger than that
which remains when the stress is removed. Now when the wire is raised .
to the critical temperature, the existence of this original strain reveals
itself, owing to the greater plasticity of the molecules of the iron which
have reached the higher temperature, and hence the additional twisting
or bending which Mr. Tomlinson has observed. By keeping the wire at
the critical temperature for some time, it is rendered free from strains
and the effect disappears.
It is probable that the anomalous contraction and expansion in iron
which we have been studying is an effect due to the longitudinal strains
in the wire produced by wire-drawing, and which are destroyed by fre-
quent heating ; the non-existence or rapid subsidence of the effect in
some specimens of very soft iron follows from this explanation, together
with the more pronounced and enduring effects noticed in steel. Never-
theless, some other cause appears to exist in hard steel where the effect
appears to be more or less permanent. We hope to throw more light on
this point next yeai', as our experiments are being continued.^
During the momentary elongation of the wire at the critical tempera-
ture in cooling, a singular creaking sound is also to be observed. The
sound resembles that produced by bending tin ; in thick wires it more
resembles a strip of tin struck on the edge by a piece of wood ; it is a
succession of short sounds or ticking, lasting during the anomalous
change. This crepitation is evidently similar to that noticed by M. Le
Chatelier at a lower temperature. It reminds one of the crepitation
heard on magnetisation first noticed by Page in 1837.
III. We now come to the reglow or Becalescence of iron and steel at
the critical temperature first noticed by Barrett (' Phil. Mag.,' 1873), and
which Mons. Osmond has made the starting-point of his admirable
investigations.
What is observed by the eye is as follows : The wire heated either by
a current or gas flame gradually becomes luminous, then as a certain
temperature is reached the glowing of the wire ceases to increase, and
1 In a paper published in the Comptes Ecndus for July 8, 1889, M. Andre Le
Chatelier has shown that in the heating of iron three most remarkable phases in its
mechanical properties are to be observ'ed. In this respect it behaves differently from
all other metals he has examined. From 15° to 80° C. the breaking strain, slowly
applied, decreases with an increase of temperature like other metals. But from
100° to 2-40° C. the breaking strain is sensibly constant, and the elongation at rupture
is much diminished. From 240° C. to 300° C. the breaking strain suddenly increases
and the elongation also increases. From this point onwards the breaking strain
decreases, but at 300° C. iron possesses its maximum strength to a steady strain,
though it is then weakest as regards a sudden shock. It may here be worth noting
that the temperature of 285° to 300° C. (as Mr. Tomlinson has recently observed)
has a special significance in connection with the so-called Villari critical point, that
is, the value of the magnetising force for which the permeability is not altered by
alteration of stress on the experimental wire. This point varies both with the value
of the load and the temperature of the wire. M. Le Chatelier, so far as we are
aware, has not carried his investigation above 500° C, where still more interesting
results may be expected. M. Le Chatelier finds that the elongation of iron under
stress at about 150° C. is accompanied by a crackling sound, the lengthening not
taking place continuously but in a series of jerks, a fact which he observed in up-
wards of 200 experiments and in all the alloys of iron.
1
ON MOLECULAR PHENOMENA IN MAGNETISED IRON. 151
even in some specimens a sudden darkening occurs. At this moment
the anomalous contraction takes place. Heating now continues regularly
till the wire reaches the melting-point. On cooling the luminosity de-
creases until the moment when the anomalous expansion takes place, then
a sudden flash runs through the wire, first beginning at the cooler parts
and suffusing the whole with a bright glow. This phenomenon of
jRecalescence is most beautifully observed by heating to whiteness with a
blow-pipe flame the centre of a thin steel plate ; a concentric ring of
darkening will be seen to spread outward and in like manner a beautiful
incandescent circle runs inward during cooling.^ It is needless to refer
to our experiments made long since, which showed that recalescence was
not a mere surface effect but a rise of temperature throughout the wire,
and that it occurred equally when the steel was enclosed in tubes con-
taining pure nitrogen as well as in other gases. In some specimens of
iron recalescence could not be seen, but it was present in all specimens
of steel and was found whenever the jerk occurred in cooling. Numerous
diagrams were also made of the duration of the after-glow in steel wires
of various thicknesses.
It was noticed by one of us ^ soon after the discovery of recalescence
that a faint second glow could be seen ; the first and far stronger after-
glow being exactly coincident with the sudden elongation of the steel
wire during cooling. Thus in a No. 17 B.W.Gr. soft steel wire, cooling
from a white heat unprotected in the air, five seconds elapsed before the
first after-glow was seen and thirteen seconds before the second glow ; no
jerk or anomalous expansion being noticed with the second glow, but an
expansion of 02 mm. in a wire 20 ceatims. long being noticed at the first
glow. The same result was found with different tensions. In thicker rods
of soft steel, three glows were noticed, but it is difficult to discriminate
the subjective and misleading effects produced by expectant attention in
the faint glows, thermometric methods alone being rehable. This has
since been accomplished by Osmond, who was the first to determine the
exact temperatures of recalescence in iron and steel. Continuing the
early experiments, an attempt was made in 1875 by Barrett to measure
the temperature of recalescence by observing the amount of expansion
that occurred in the steel raised from the temperature of the air to the
critical point. Assuming that the known rate of increase of the coefficient
of expansion in steel with rise of temperature continued regularly, it was
found that 830° 0. was approximately the temperature of the critical
point. The uncertainty of the data on whicli this estimate was founded
and the difficulty of measuring these high temperatures then with any
approach to accuracy, prevented the publication of a result which turns
out now to be not very wide of the mark. M. Le Chatelier has lately
found the coefficient of expansion for iron at 1,000° C. to be 0-0000145 for
1°C.; but measurements exactly at the critical point appear to be wanting.
We now come to M. Osmond's valuable investigations, which com-
menced in 1880.^ By means of a pyrometer similar to tliat used by
' Newall : Camh. Phil. Soc, January 1888.
' Barrett, unpublished laboratory notes, 1 875.
' ' Transformations du Fer et du Carbone dans les Fers, les Aciers et les Fontes
Blanches,' par F. Osmond, Mcmoircs de VArtillerie de la Marine. A summary of
M. Osmond's work is given in his paper read before the Iron and Steel Institute of
Great Britain in the early part of the present year. M. Osmond has kindly lent us
the specimens he has employed, and we hope to repeat some of liis determinations
ehort'y.
152 . REPORT— 1890.
M. Ledeboer, devised by M. H. Le Chatelier, and consisting- of a thermo-
electric conple of platinum and platinum rhodium alloy, associated
with a dead beat galvanometer, Osmond has made a careful study of the
recalescence in iron and steel.
Osmond finds three critical points to exist in mild steel when, during
cooling, the temperature remains stationary for a sensible interval of
time. These three points he designates a, , a^, and 03 ; 0| being that
at the lowest temperature about 660° C, a^ about 730° C, and 03 about
850° C. In hard steel a, only is present, but is much more pronounced,
and occurs somewhat higher, about 700° C. In electrolytic iron, which,
however, contained 0'08 per cent, of carbon, u^ and a^ only are present,
occurring at about 720° 0. and 860° C. respectively. The temperature
of these critical points he finds, just as we found with the anomalous ex-
pansion and contraction, to be higher during the heating than daring the
cooling of tbe same specimen. Osmond, however, has not noticed any
sudden rise of temperature at recalescence, only a longer or shorter halt
in the cooling. But this difference probably arises from his mode of ex-
perimenting; one of us has pointed out the necessity of precaution in this
respect.' We have recently repeated our experiments, using a thermo-
■couple similar to that employed by Osmond, and find that there is not
the least difficulty in observing and measuring the sudden large increase
of temperature that occurs daring recalescence. It is only necessary to
use somewhat fine wires for the thermo-couple, to bind them to the steel
wire under experiment, and wrap the part round with asbestos to prevent
too rapid cooling in the air.
The temperature of the critical point Osmond finds, as occurred with
the jerk on heating or cooling, to be higher on the up side of the curve
(that is, during heating) than on the down side of the curve. Like our-
selves, he finds the critical point higher in iron than in steel, and that on
re-heating the same sample the point of recalescence is lowered somewhat.
Experiments we have recently made show that after the first two or three
heatings stable conditions appear to be reached ; recalescence then occurs
at the same temperature and to the same amount on subsequent heatings
and coolings. This is assuming the metal to be raised to the same tem-
perature before cooling each time; if the temperature before cooling be
not so great Osmond finds that the critical point is raised. Our experi-
ments point rather the other way, bnt they need repeating. When the
cooling of iron or steel is slow recalescence begins at a somewhat higher
temperature, and lasts longer than when the cooling is very rapid.
Osmond finds that when the cooling is very rapid, by quenching the
-white-hot metal in water, recalescence is entirely absent. The steel is
thus hardened, and Osmond concludes that the latent heat of the change
•which takes place in the metal at recalescence is still in the steel, and he
terms it the latent heat of hardening.
IV. The difference in the temperature at which recalescence occurs on
the up and down side of the curve of heating, has led two of our Com-
mittee independently to suggest the explanation of the remarkable thermo-
electric current which is produced in iron and steel by a moving source of
heat.^ If an iron or steel wire be heated to redness at any one point of
' Newall, Phil Mag., June ]888.
2 TroutoD, Proa. Royal Dublin Soc, 1887. Newall, Phil. Mag., June 1888. Mr.
Trouton has found a similar but entirely transient E.M.F., caused by a moving tiame
I
ON MOLECULAR PHENOMENA IN MAGNETISED IRON. 153
its length, and the source of heat, such as a Bnnseu flame, be moved
along, an electric current is set up in the direction in which the flame
travels. By means of clockwork the flame can be caused to move con-
tinuously, and hence a continuous circuit is thereby obtained. There
are, however, no signs of E.M.F. in the circuit until the recalescent
point is passed ; then I'eglow takes place behind the moving flame and the
cooling efiect in front. This thermal diSerence is, we believe, the cause
of the resultant E.M.F., for it ceases when the flame ceases to move,
and is absent in those metals where recalescence does not occur.
V. The thermo-electric position of iron undergoes a sudden change at
the critical temperature. This was first noticed by one of us in 1875;
twisting a platinum wire round the iron or steel wire under experiment,
and connecting the free end of the platinum and one end of the steel wire
to a galvanometer, a thermo-electric current was of course observed on
heating the wire, but directly the jerk occurred in heating a sudden move-
ment of the galvanometer needle simultaneously occurred, and similarly
in cooling the thermo-current changed along with the anomalous expan-
sion, and a moment after the iron regained its magnetic susceptibility.
Hot iron is thermo-electrically negative to cold iron, but at the critical
point a large increase in the E.M.F. is suddenly developed. Mr. H.
Tomlinson • has shown that iron at a bright red heat in contact with iron
at the tempei'atnre of the air develops an E.M.F. of about one-twentieth
of a volt, or upwards of twice that between a bismuth and antimony
couple with a temperature difi"ei'ence of 100° C. between their junctions.
Gumming was the first to notice long ago that the thermo-electric
properties of iron changed at a red heat, but to Professor Tait's classical
papers on thermo-electricity we owe the first exact investigation of the
changes that heat j^roduces in the thermo-electric properties of iron. In
his Rede lecture, delivered on May 23, 1873, Professor Tait remarks that
when various pairs of metals were tried up to a red heat the thermo-
electric diagram representing the relation of E.M.F. and temperature,
always exhibited an anomaly when iron was one of the metals ; at some
temperature near a low red heat a change occurred, the ' Thomson eff'ect '
being negative in iron at ordinary temperatures, became positive at a red'
heat, and remained so until a much higher temperature was reached,
when another change of sign appeared to be indicated. ' Iron,' Professor
Tait remarks, ' becomes as it were a different metal on being raised above
a red heat ; this may have some connection with the ferricnm and fer
rosum of the chemists, with the change of magnetic properties and of
electric resistance at high temperatures.' ^
VI. The electric resistance of iron at this tempei'ature also changes ;
Smith, Knott, Macfarlane,^ and more recently Hopkinson ■* and Lo
Chatelier,'' have published investigations on this point. Hopkinson finds
a change in the temperature coefficient of the iron wire he used at 855° C,
and of hard steel wire at a somewhat lower temperature. These tempera-
te occur in other unannealed wires. This is an effect due to annealing by th&
flame, and disappears immediately, whereas the effect in steel is persistent.
' Proc. Phys. Society, vol. ix. p. 105 (Nov. 1887). See also on this point a paper by
one of us (Newall, Camh. Phil. Soc, Jan. 1888.)
' Nature, June 12, 1873. Trans. R.S.E., Dec. 1873.
' Proc. Royal Society of Edin., Fob. 1875.
* Phil. Trans. Roy. Society of London, May 1889.
» Comptet Rendus, Feb. 10, 1890.
154
REPORT 1890.
tares he found practically coincident with the sudden loss of magnetic
susceptibility of the metaln. Le Chatelier finds mild and hard steel show
two changes of curvatare in their electric resistance, one at 850° C. and
the other at 710° C, whereas manganese steel, in which we find re-
calescence to be absent,^ shows no such change, the curve of increased
resistance with temperature being perfectly regular. Le Chatelier also
finds that pure nickel undergoes a sudden change in its electric resist-
ance, the temperature coefficient altering at 340° C, which corresponds
to the temperature of other changes in its physical jDroperties.
Fig. 2. — Electric Kesistance in ohms of Wires of the Metals named. 1 metre long
and 1 mm. diam. heated from 0° to 1,000° C, in pure dry hydrogen (Le Chatelier).
OJans
Z
i.8
'■6
14
i.Z
I*
i
0.8
€.6
0.4
C-2
.0
" ' 1" ■■■
— -J- \-^ _J_
-_| — .-a-
! _~; ^ ^ -^'^■"'^ «--'""' -t'
^ '-' ^ M :7%"£i!::^-^^ '1^^?"*""T^
: :::::_ : ^:::::;p^:?=-?!p::::::::;^^z:::: :::::::-:
i — «^£ y: \ ^ — ^-A-\
^^1 ^ ^^-^r^
,-■' 4 ^' ^i: J J
^-'=' i,m^ ,^^ ±.'x.j. J
^^s^ j^z.1. __iU2_ :2 ^
__3- ---t^^ --^-^ -g^__ !. _ _.
.,^}:l- ^'^^'^ '21.ZL.^
-L.iCtI'' Jwi-*' X ^"^ ^^"
, ^.£1 ' ' 1 i>''^^ , <,fii>' ^^
[jlltp^'ll11^l]llj}[M^
^^^1 ''^^ 1 Jt'^^T^J-*^ —t^ "* "^^
r'",^-r|''jjj,<^,.-p^ , y^^^-.--
'\;^J^'Z^'^['i^'z:===f^^^~\~\
^ <di,»»*^ """ 1
^^T"
1 , 1 . -,^-_._.r,„™ .,--
■200'
500'
800'
WOO' &
VII. Some recent experiments made by Dr. B. Ball ^ appear to indicate
that there is a still higher critical point than those observed by Osmond
and ourselves. Dr. E. Ball has measured the tensile strength and
roughly the magnetic state of iron and steel suddenly cooled down fi-om
different high temperatures. He finds that there are three critical points
when a change in the tensile strength and magnetic character of iron and
steel occur with sudden quenching ; two of these points agree with
Osmond's oj and ag, but the third point is higher than either of these ; he
estimates it approximately as 1,300° C. More exact means of measuring
the temperature and magnetic susceptibility are, however, necessary.
VIII. This higher temperature is near that at which M. Pionchon^
has found a change in the specific heat of iron. Pionchon's results show
that the specific heat of iron changes suddenly between 660° and 720° C,
• Barrett, Proc. R. Soc, BuUi7i, Dec. 188fi.
" Proc. Iron and Steel Institute of Great Britain, 1890.
' Pionchon, Comptes Rendus, June 1886.
ON MOLECULAR PHENOMENA IN MAGNETISED IRON. 155
and again between 1,000° and 1,050° C, considerable absorption of heat
taking place at these temperatures. The lower of these temperatures
corresponds with the recalescent point and loss of magnetic susceptibiHtj
in steel. Mr. H. Tomlinson, as already noticed, has also observed two
critical points in iron, one about 550° 0. and the other at 1,000° C.,' when
a sudden change occurs in the viscosity of this metal. No doubt these
are the same points as those observed by Pionchon, for the variable com-
position of the iron also, and errors in determination of these high tempe-
ratures are probably sufficient to account for the differences observed.
The amount of heat given out during recalescence we have estimated
from the observed expansion of the metal that occurs during recalescence.
Taking Pioncbon's determination of the specific heat of iron at a red
heat, the heat liberated in the recalescence of a specimen of iron would
thus appear to be somewhat over 100 times as much as would raise
the same mass of iron 1° C. Dr. Hopkinson,^ from the length of the
break in the time curve of cooling, has estimated that the heat liberated
in the recalescence of hard steel is equal to 173 times that liberated
■when the same material falls 1° C. The amount of recalescence in hard
steel, as already stated, is considerably greater than that in iron.
IX. Here it may be mentioned that the hardening of steel by sudden
quenching in water cannot be produced unless the metal be raised to the
temperature of recalescence.^ Brinnell's researches have shown that the
carbon in steel is in two different conditions above and below the reca-
lescence, and by sudden quenching the so-called ' hardening carbon ' is
preserved in the condition in which it exists at a high temperature. At
a high temperature it appears to be simply free carbon mixed with or
dissolved in the iron ; at the temperature of the air the researches of
Miiller, Abel, and Osmond and Werth, have shown that in ordinary steel
carbon is combined with the iron in the form of a compound, having the
definite composition FcaC.
X. We must now consider the general cause of these phenomena.
The secretary of this Committee long since suggested it was probably to
be found in the carbon present in the iron, as recalescence was most
marked in those specimens of iron and steel whicb contained larger per-
centages of carbon, and this cause Osmond has now, we think, satisfac-
torily established.
Recalescence in steel Osmond attributes to the chemical combination
of the iron with the carbon present in a free state, and which has been
liberated by heat. Thus the point of recalescence is that at which iron
carbide, FcsC, forms ; a body which is stable at ordinary temperatures
but decomposed, with absorption of heat (producing the chilling efiect
observed on heating) at a red heat. Now the heat of combination we
find to be about 3,000 calories per gram of carbon present in the iron, as
deduced from Hopkinson's estimate of the amount of heat liberated
during recalescence ; further experiments on this part of the subject are
necessary, and we hope to make them shortly.
Recalescence in iron Osmond attributes to an allotropic change
which he believes iron to undergo at a temperature of about 750° C.
Below this temperature iron exists in one molecular state, which Osmond
' P/iil. Mag., February 1888.
^ Phil. Trans., May 1889.
' J. H. Brinnell, Jernhontoret's Annaleii, 1885, and StaJil und Ehen, Nov. 1885.
Indepeudently observed by one of us, Newall, Camh. Phil. Soc, Jan. 1888.
156 REPOET— 1890.
designates a iron ; between 750° and 850° the change is in process, and
above 850° C. he asserts that iron enters the other molecnlar state, wliich
he designates fi iron. It is, then, to the latent beat of allotropy that
Osmond attributes the rccalescence observed in iron, heat being absorbed
to produce this change at the critical point during heating, and liberated
during cooling at a somewhat lower temperature. Iron, according to
this hypothesis, is a polymorphous element like sulphur, phosphorus,
&c. Sadden cooling from a white heat, when the change into /? iron
has occurred, should tend to preserve the iron in this allotropic state ;
but this is not the case, except to a small extent, and hence Osnnond
maintains that it is the presence of carbon in the iron which keeps the
iron in the /3 condition when suddenly cooled. Hardened steel would
thus owe its properties principally to the presence of /3 iron, which is
hard and brittle at ordinary temperature: ' both the iron and the cai-bon
in hardened steel preserving more or less completely in the cold the con-
dition which they possessed at a high temperature.'
We think, however, that the evidence adduced by Osmond on behalf
of his theory of recalescence in iron is as yet insufficient. No doubt iron
does exist in an allotropic niodi6cation at a high temperature, but the
electrolytic iron with which Osmond experimented contained 008 per
cent, of carbon, very nearly as much as some of the pure steels with
which we have experimented, which contained O'l per cent, of carbon.
It is to the influence of this small amount of carbon present in Osmond's
electrolytic iron that we are inclined to attribute the feeble recalescence
which he observed in his specimen. The effect, («) of this residual
carbon, and (&) of the mechanical treatment the specimen has received,
such as hammering and wire-drawing, have yet to bo investigated, and
this we hope to undertake during the next year. If it be possible to
keep iron in the fi condition when cold, it should not only be hard and
brittle but non-magnetic, and this has not yet been proved. "We have
made some experiments on this point by suddenly' quenching at a white
heat fine iron wires in cold mercury, and here will merely state that
their magnetic susceptibility was not destroyed. Manganese steel, it is
true, is practically non-magnetic, and this Osmond attributes to the part
played by manganese in fixing the iron in the f3 condition, and Hopkin-
son has shown that whatever slight magnetic susceptibility is found in
manganese steel could be accounted for by a few little bits of pure iron
distributed through the mass.'
We believe that the difference in the temperature position of recalescence
(and also of the jerk) on the up and on the down side of the curve of heat-
ing or cooling is analogous to what is found in the heating of water. In
a clean vessel water may be raised above the boiling-point ; suddenly at
some one point steam is formed, and the whole rapidly passes into steam,
the change of state being accompanied by a fall of temperature and large
absorption of heat. Similarly steam in cooling down may be lowered
below the normal point of condensation, when from some cause, such as
the presence of solid particles, condensation begins and rapidly proceads,
accompanied by a rise of temperature.^ The retardation of this change
Mr. Tomlinson ^ considers to be due to the great internal friction which
exists in iron at a red heat ; in consequence of this the change takes place
' Phil. Tram., April 1885. " Newall, Camh. Phil. Soc, Jan. 1888.
• Phil. Mag., Feb. 1888.
ON MOLECnLAR PHENOMENA IN MAGNETISED IRON. 157
at a lower temperature tLan it otherwise wonld, until at last a sort of
explosive action occurs, and the change rapidly runs throughout the
whole mass, analogous to what takes place in supersaturated solutions.
This is what we may expect to occur in the magnetic metals which
exhibit the phenomena of hysteresis when under stress.' The recent
paper of Professor Ewing's on the Molecular Theory of Induced Magne-
tism,'- to which we have already referred, throws remarkable light on the
various phenomena we have been studying. By means of his beautiful
experimental model, Professor Ewing has shown that the intermolecular
magnetic forces alone are sufficient to account for the known facts of
magnetisation, and that magnetic hysteresis is not due to anything in the
nature of frictional resistance to the rotation of the molecular magnets,
but simply to the molecular instability which results from these inter-
molecular magnetic actions. And, further, that the same cause explains
why there is ' in magnetic metals hysteresis in physical quality generally
with respect to stress, apart from the existence of magnetisation.' We
shall probably have occasion in our next report to deal more fully with
Ewing's exjjlanation, and here can only congratulate the author on the
value and beauty of his suggestive expeinments.
Connected with this part of the inquiry, we may refer to the inter-
esting results Hopkinson has obtained with an alloy of iron and nickel.
This alloy Hopkinson finds to have two stable conditions, one being
magnetic and the other non-magnetic ; a high temperature destroys the
magnetic state, which can only be resumed by lowering the temperature
considerably below the freezing-point; the remarkable fact, now expli-
cable by Ewing's experiments, being that this iron-nickel alloy may be
either magnetic or non-magnetic at the ordinary temperature, its23revious
history determining the state in which it remains.^
Here we must leave the subject at present ; we are well aware that
many matters of interest have necessarily been omitted, and that we have
inadequately dealt with those that have come under consideration. So
many issues of importance, both to the chemist and metallurgist, as well
as the physicist, have been opened up by this inquiry that we trust the
Committee, which will be enlarged, may next year present a fuller report.
APPENDIX.
A proof of the foregoing report having been forwarded by us to Mons.
Osmond he has sent us the accompanying notes, which we have thought
desirable to add to the report : —
Page 145. — II ne parait pas possible que la recalescence fasse remonter
la temperature au-dessus de a,, 12.3, c'est-a-dire an-dessus dn point
reciproque pendant le chauffage ; car, aussitot qu'on atteint ce point
reciproque, il se produit une absorption de chaleur qui doit limiter la
' In a paper by one of us (Newall), we pointed out some time ago that the pheno-
mena observed in recalescence ' were really signs of something of the nature of what
Professor Ewing calls hysteresis.'
= Phil Mar/., Sept. 1890.
' The electric resistance of this alloy at different temperatures is shown in the
top curve of Fig. 2. When heated in a dry atmosphere of liydrogen the resistance
regularly increases ; when heated in an undried atmosphere a singular difference is
observed during cooling as shown in the ' modified ' curve.
158 EEPORT — 1890,
recalescence. Autrement, on aurait une sorte de mouvement pevpetuel.
Si le retour a I'etat magnetique est plus lent dans I'acier que dans le fer,
c'est parceque la transformation moleculaire du fer ne se produit qu'au
fur et a mesure de la combinaison du carbone, au moins dans un acier
tres dur.
p. 145. — Dans les experiences de Ledeboer, le couple etait place a
I'exterieur du barreau et separe de celui-ci par une lame de mica. Comme
le refroidissement etait rapide, je pense que le chiffre trouve par Ledeboer
(750°-770°) pour le fer est un peu bas. Hopkinson, Le Chatelier et moi
sommes bien d'accord pour 850° environ. D'ailleurs, la vitesse du re-
froidissement pent faire varier la position du point critique de plus de
100°, comme je I'ai trouve dans des experiences ineditcs.
P. 146 {en has). — La disparition de certains effets apres un petit
nombre de recbauffagjes me parait un phenomene curieux etqui demande
a etre etudie completement. II s'agit peut-etre de la destruction de
Taction d'un ecrouissage anterieur ?
p. 14,7. — J'ai fait des experiences pour determiner le role de la ten-
sion dans la position des points critiques. Dans ma pensee, il est liors
de doute que la traction ou la compression doivent deplacer les points
critiques, comme cela a ete prouve experimentalement pour I'iodure
d'argent par Mallard et H. Le Chatelier. Cependant, les resultats de mes
experiences sont restes douteux et je ne les ai pas publics ; mais, comme
j'operais par traction et qu'une tige de fer au rouge ne pent supporter
qu'une charge extremement faible, il n'est pas etonnant que I'effet dii a
la tension soit reste dans la limite dos erreurs d'experience. J'ai I'intention
de reprendre ces experiences si je puis le faire dans de meilleuros condi-
tions.
p. 149.— Les temperatures de 1,000° et de 550° donnees par Mr. Tom-
linson ne sont guere d'accord avec I'ensemble des autres observations.
II y aurait lieu de reprendre ces experiences de fa^on a pouvoir rattacher
les phenomenes observes par Tomlinson a d'autres phenomenes dont la
position soit bien connue. Vers 1,000°, ou a une temperature superieure,
il se produit un maximum d'acceleration dans la transformation du grain
et il peut en resulter un changement correspondant dans la rigidite. A
mon avis, ces phenomenes se rattachent au point de fusion de la fonte
blanche, une fusion locale pouvant alors se prodnire aux points les plus
carbures. Mais, avant de discuter, il faudrait d'abord etre siir que les
temperatures donnees par Tomlinson sont bien exactes. Celle de 550°
surtout ne repond a rien de connu, a moins qu'il ne s'agisse d'acier au
tnngstene.
P. 150. — Les effets de contraction et de dilatation anormales observes
sont dus en partie a I'elevation de temperature pendant le refroidissement
et au phenomene inverse pendant le chauffage. Ces effets sont done per-
manents pour I'acier, quelqiae soit la nombre des chauffages successifs,
pourvu que la perte de carbone ne soit pas trop forte. Dans le fer
doux, au contraire, cette cause de contraction ou de dilatation est moindre,
puisque la recalescence proprement dite est faible on nulle. On comprend
alors que I'effet disparaisse par les chauffages repetes, s'il est dii en partie
a I'ecrouissage anterieur. {Confer Norris.) Le fer ecroui est moins dense
que le fer recuit ; il est done naturel que, au point critique pendant le
chauffage, le fil se raccourcisse la premiere fois qu'on le ch.auife et que
ce phenomene ne se reproduise plus ulterieurement. Dans I'acier^ il y a
plusieurs phenomenes superposes.
ON MOLECULAK PHENOMENA IN MAGNETISED IRON. 159
P. 152. — J'ai observe tres souvent I'elevation de temperature qui cor-
respond a la recalescence. Je ne nie pas d'aillenrs rinfluence de la
grosseur des fila ; mais, en dehors de cela, puisque j'operais toujours avec
Jes memes tils, il y a tantot elevation de temperature, tantot simple station
pour le metne metal au gre de causes encore obscures. Je ne crois pas
qu'il J ait lieu d'attacher beaucoup d'importanee a cette differeuce.
P. 152. — Dans certaines de mea experiences. I'influence de la tempera-
ture initiale du refroidissement a pu se confondre avec celle des refroidisse-
ments snccessifs ; il y aurait lieu de faire separement la part des deux
influences. Je suis d'accord avec la commission pour dire que, apres deux
on trois chauffages, gencralement des le second chaffauge, la position des
points ci-itiques tend a devenir sensiblement fixe. II est possible que j'aie
attribue a tort a la temperature initiale dn refroidissement I'abaissemenfc
qui etait dii aux rechanffages successifs ; cependant, Hopkinson sio-nale
le merae fait. Cest a vci'ifier.
P. 152, IV. — L'explication est en effet tres satisfaisante et merae
certaine. H. Le Chatelier a fait une pile sur le meme principe en em-
ployant I'acier-nickel pour lequei I'ecart est beaucoup plus grand entre
les points reciproques pendant le chauffage et le refroidissement.
P. 154, VII. — Voir mes observations a propos de la communication
de Ball, 'Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute,' annee 1890, p. 102.
Pp. 154, 155, VIII. — L 'absorption de chaleur signalee par Pionchon
entre 1,000° et 1,050° n'existe pas dans cette rec^ion, mais bien, selon moi,
a 860°, temperature qui pent s'elever jusqu'a 900° environ selon la vitesse
du chauffage et la composition du metal ; la methode de Pionchon presente
de grandes difiBcultes d'application qui n'existent pas dans la methode du
refroidissement ; s'il y avait une evolution de chaleur notable entre 1,000°
efc 1,050"^, mes courbes le montreraient indubitablement. II convient
toutefois d'observer que I'absorption pendant le chauffage parait etre
beaucoup plus progressive que le degagenient inverse pendant le refroi-
dissement : il resulte de la que les limites du phenomene manquent de
nettete.
P. 155, VIII. — Je crois quo Hopkinson a estime trop baut la quan-
tite de chaleur degagee en a^ ^ parcequ'il etait trop pres du point mort
entre le chauffage et le refroidissement, c'est-a-dire dans une periode ou
le refroidissement n'avaitpas encore pris son allure reguliere.
P. 155, X. — Je suis tres heureux de voir mes conclusions sur ce point
acceptees par la commission. On peut se faire une idee de la quantite de
chaleur degagee par la combinaison de 1 gr. de cai'bone avec le fer en par-
tant de mes experiences calorimetriques. (' Theorie cellulaire,' p. 36 et
suiv.) Ces experiences condniraient a un chiffre tres notablement supe-
rieur a 3,000 Unites, et qui pourrait atteindre 8,000 Unites au maximum,
chiffre analogue a celui de la combinaison du carbone avec I'oxygene, Je
ne puis d'aillenrs donner un chiffre exact, ne possedant qu'uue seule
equation pour determiner plusieurs inconnues.
P. 156. — Je compte publier prochainement quelques observations
nouvelles a I'appui de ma theorie et discuter a ce point de vue I'objection
de Howe, qui me parait, en realite, etre plutot favorable que contraire a
mes idees. Si le fer doux trempe reste magnetique, c'est qu'il est theo-
riquement et pratiquement impossible de maintenir la totalite du fer a
I'etat 13 pendant le refroidissement brusque. Mais il serait facile de con-
stater, sur le fer le plus doux, que la trempe dimiiiue le magnetisme total
a saturation et augmente la force coercitive. C'est la tout ce que Ton
160
EEroRT — 1890.
peut obtenir, mais ce sera suffisaut. SI rapide que soit le refroidissement,
le far reste dans la region oil la transformation moleculaire est possible
pendant iin temps qui n'est jamais nul.
P. 156 (en has). — Ces considerations et celles de Mr. Tomlinson sont
analogues a celles que j'ai rapidement indiqaees de mon coteet me parais-
sent jnstes.
Tenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir William Thomson,
Mr. K. Etheridge, Professor John Perry, Dr. Henry Wood-
ward, Professor Thomas Gray, and Professor John Milne
(Secretary), appointed for the purpose of investigating the
Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of Japan. {Drawn up
by the Secretary.)
In consequence of the Secretary's absence from Japan during the greater
portion of the past year, the opportunities for original investigation have
uot been so great as in previous years.
The Geat-Milnb Seismogkaph.
The first of the Gray-Milne seismographs constructed in 1883, partly
•at the expense of the British Association, still continues to be used as the
•standard instrument. The earthquakes which it has recorded since
March 4 of last year are given in the following list.
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at the Meteorological Ohnervatory, Toldo, hetiveen
March 18, 1889, and, Apnl 27, 1890, hy the Gray-Milne Seismograph.
No.
Montli
Date
Time
Duration
Directiou
Period in
seconds
Double
Amplitude
in mm.
905
906
907
908
909
910
911
91-2
913
914
915
91G
917
918
919
920
921
922
III.
18
,^
21
J,
26
))
28
)»
>»
31
IV.
3
)1
6
"
S
U
17
1)
18
J'
)l
1889.
n. M. s.
M. S.
6 41 12 A.M.
—
N.-S.
6 9 33 r.Iit.
—
—
2 41 48 r.M.
—
—
1 20 40 A.M.
1 30
E.S.E.-W.N.W
vertical
motion
10 22 55 A.M.
1 15
S.E.-N.W.
vertical
motion
9 18 23 A.M.
20
E.-W.
6 42 15 A.M.
4
S.S.E.-N.W.
vertical
motion
8 13 3 A.M.
—
—
5 59 42 r.M.
2
S.W.-N.E.
vertical
motion
4 27 21 r.M.
1 30
S.E.-K.W.
vertical
motion
4 40 51 P.M.
—
—
7 40 13 A.M.
50
S.W.-N.E.
vertical
motion
48 P.M.
—
—
fi 22 54 A.M.
—
—
9 41 43 P.M.
—
—
2 7 42 P.M.
—
E.S.E.-W.N.W
vertical
motion
2 54 11 P.M.
—
—
3 39 8 P.M.
—
S.E.-N.W.
4 1 P.M.
—
—
0-6
0-5
0-5
0-4
0-2
2-5
0-6
0-7
0^7
0-3
0-5
very
very
1-0
0-7
very
very
very
very
very
09
very
slight
1
slight
4-1
0-S
0-5
0-1
0-2
3-8
1-2
1-2
slight
slight
slight
slight
slight
1-5
0-2
0-3
0-8
0-2
slight
very si'ght
0-3
ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 161
No.
Month
Date
Time
Duration
Direction
Period in
seconds
Double
Amplitude
in mm.
924
IV.
1!)
18 46 A.M.
__
_
very slight
925
»>
„
2 29 19 .\.\u
—
—
very slight
92«
ty
29
3 27 I'.M.
50
S.W.-N.E.
0-6 0-2
927
J)
11
5 50 39 I'.ll.
1 30
E.-W.
0-fi 0-2
928
)>
10 53 55 I'.M.
—
—
very slight
929
tJ
20
4 50 33 I'.M.
—
—
veryjslight
930
»
28
3 7 43 A.M.
30
vertical
E.-W.
.motion
sli ght
tli ght
931
»»
29
1 56 28 A.M.
20
vertica
1 E.-W.
motion
sli gilt
very slight
932
V.
6
11 41 41 P.M.
1 1 S.S.\V.-N.N.E.
vertical motion
0-5 0-4
very sliglit
933
n
8
6 5 34 A.M.
30 1 S.-N.
sli ght
vertical
motion
sli gilt
934
„
t»
24 7 I'.M.
—
—
very slight
935
»)
12
10 4'2 11 A.M.
2
S.S.E.-X.N.W.
2-0 0-6
936
fi
17
6 39 15 A.M.
—
—
very slight
937
»i
„
8 34 25 A.M.
—
—
verylslight
938
11
„
9 20 35 A.M.
—
—
very
slight
939
i>
»»
9 39 37 A.M.
—
—
very
slight
940
It
1 46 32 P.M.
30
—
sli
ght
941
»)
20
23 30 I'..M.
—
—
very
slight
942
I*
27
6 22 56 P.M.
12
E.-W.
very
slight
943
II
28
5 26 22 A.M.
15
E.-W.
sli
ght
944
30
10 27 22 A.M.
2
S.E.-N.W.
0-8
0-4
915
v'i.
1
6 15 21 A.M.
25
E.-W.
0-5
0-2
946
}*
3
1 51 30 P.M.
—
sli
ght
947
})
14
26 41 P.M.
tli
ght
948
15
10 1(1 2 A.M.
50
—
sh
ght
949
»»
16
2 31 24 P.M.
30
S.E.-N.W.
Bli
ght
950
20
9 51 10 P.M.
1 30
S.E.-N.W.
0-6
0-5
951
„
27
7 9 17 A.M.
1
E.-W.
2-5
0-5
952
VII.
2
6 39 58 A.M.
40
E.-W.
0-5
0-3
vertical
motion
very slight
963
)»
6
6 22 31 P.M.
—
—
very.slieht
954
)»
j^
8 57 9 P.M.
—
very, sli ght
955
it
18
10 33 18 P.M.
3-5
S.-N.
sli'ght
956
»■
30
2 3 40 A.M.
10
E.-W.
Bli
ght
957
VXII.
2
10 21 6 A.M.
1 30
S.E.-N.W.
0-5
1-3
vertical
motion
0-3
0-4
958
„
4
2 36 12 P.M.
—
—
very
slight
959
»>
5
7 4 56 A.M.
4 20
E.S.E.-W.N.W.
11
1-7
960
15
6 21 P.M.
— .
sli
ght
961
)*
20
5 20 23 P.M.
50
N.-S.
0'8
0-3
962
»»
21
1 7 44 P.M.
—
—
Bli ght 1
9G3
iy
26
3 27 13 P.M.
1
E.-W.
0'6
1-4
vertical
motion
0-4
0-2
964
^,
30
3 6 22 P.M.
3 30
E.S.E.-W.N.W.
1-0
0-4
965
IX.
11
7 14 3 P.M.
—
—
sli ght
966
)»
15
2 34 6 A.M.
—
__
sli, ght
967
>»
16
6 37 30 A.M.
1 30
vertical
W.S.W.-E.N.E.
motion
0-7 1-3
sli 'ght
968
i»
17
2 4 28 a.m.
—
—
veryjslight
969
j»
20
10 27 1 A.M.
—
shght
970
»»
22
1 56 33 A.M.
verylslight
971
30
7 41 27 A.M.
—
very, slight
972
X.
1
6 7 20 A.M.
—
__
very slight
973
M
7
7 41 18 P.M.
very slight
974
ii
10
6 47 27 A.M.
—
sli ght
975
tt
13
10 50 24 P.M.
2
S.E.-N.W.
2-0
2-2
vertical
notion
0-6
0-4
976
>»
14
11 8 10 P.M.
1
E.-W.
0-4
0-2
977
i»
16
4 10 48 P.M.
_
—
very slight
978
it
25
11 16 3 A.M.
—
—
veryjslight
979
It
28
2 16 52 A.M.
2
veitical
S.E.-N.W.
motion
0-9 1-2
sli 'ght
930
XI.
14
30 50 P.M.
— ,
— ,
very slight
»-l
1*
15
8 48 40 P.M.
— .
—
sli ght
9«2
**
17
1 57 66 P.M.
.
.sli gilt
983
»»
18
8 31 39 ».M.
— .
sli ght
984
»
^,
1 35 1 P.M.
— .
—
very slight
985
})
20
56 34 A.M.
50
N.-*.
0-9 0-2
986
»
21
2 6 32 A.M.
30
S.E.-N.W.
0-6 0-2
987
yy
»»
1 50 5 P.M.
2 30
sli ght
988
25
2 34 8 A.M.
16
N.E.-S.W.
0-5 \ 0-3
989
SII.
9
3 14 P.M.
15
—
sli ght
990
j»
11
6 14 17 A.M.
—
—
very s
light 1
1890.
162
EEPOKT — 1890.
Ko.
991
992
99:<
9D4
995
996
997
998
999
1,000
1,001
1,002
1,003
1,004
i,no5
1,006
1,007
1.008
1,009
1,010
1,011
1.012
1,013
1,014
1,015
1,016
1,017
1,018
1,019
1,020
1,021
1,022
1,023
1,024
1,025
Mouth
XII.
Date
26
28
29
31
I.
7
12
29
^,
30
II.
13
»1
18
»J
21
24
III.
7
>)
11
JI
18
^^
26
28
IV.
5
„
11
16
9>
17
)»
»)
))
)»
S5
3)
18
»»
»)
19
27
Time
8 14 11 r.M.
lu 17 68 r.M.
11 10 19 a.m.
1 6 13 P.M.
7 47
3 43
4 15
11 28
8 35
9 48
5 31
9 50
2 44
47
4 21
37 A.M.
25 P..M.
33 A.M.
3 r.M.
31a.m.
16 r.ji.
10 A.M.
6 A.M.
13 A.M.
2 A.M.
42 A.M.
2 A.M.
49 P.M.
4 P.M.
55 A.M.
37 P.M.
P.M.
2 A.M.
47 P.M.
11 40 3 P.M.
4 56 45 A.M.
5 11 3 A.M.
6 42 36 A.M.
3 31 38 P.M.
10 25 15 P.M.
6 38 37 P.M.
7 15 57 P.M.
11 3 P.M.
9 45 52 A.M.
1 7 37 P.M.
8 36 48 P.M.
Duration
1 5
5 20
Direction
vertical motion
E.-W.
E.S.E.-W.N.W.
Period In
seconds
1890.
40
5
57
30
40
30
20
30
1
20
1 5
7
vertical
8
vertical
6 30
3 30
S.-X.
S.E.-N.W.
E.-W.
E.-\X.
E.-W.
S.E.-N.W.
E.-W.
E.S.E.-W.N.W.
E.-W.
S.E.-N.W.
motion
S.E.-N.W.
motion
S.E.-N.W.
S.E.-N.W.
Double
Amplitude
in mm.
very sliglit
0-3 I O-o
sli ght
2-8 i 2-1
sli ght
3-0
0-7
0-2
sli ght
very
slight
2-0
t
0-3
0-8
0'4
0-2
0-9
2-9
0-6
3-8
3i
2-5
very slight
sli ght
sUjght
sii'ght
0-2
slight
sli gilt
sii'ght
sll|glit
sii'ght
0-2
0-2
0-4
sli ght
slight
sli gilt
sli ght
slight
sli ght
sliight
slijght
slight
slight
0-4
2-2-4
0-2
7-8
3-3
1-2
In the preceding list the most remarkable earthquakes which I had
the opportunity of observing were the series commencing on April 16, 1 800,
at 9h. 34m. 47s. p.m. This disturbance was felt along the eastern coast
of Japan from lat. o8°]Sr to the bay of Owari in the south— a distance of
about 300 miles. It estended inland across the backbone of the country
as far as Nagano. The land area shaken was 4,743 square ri (1 sq.
ri = 5'9 sq. miles). The origin appears to have been to the west of
Miyakijima, where about 70 shocks were felt and buildings damaged,
about 100 miles S.S.W. from Tokio in the Pacific Ocean. The period of
the large waves was nearly 3 seconds and the duration 7 minutes. After
sensible motion had ceased, which lasted from 2 to 3 minutes, I was
standing watching one of my seismographs, which every few seconds gave
fitful movements, some of which were large enough to swing tlie pointers
off the recording surface. These movements were far too slow to sup-
pose them to be in any way connected with the inertia of the heavy
masses constituting the bobs of the horizontal pendulums. In my opinion
the movements were not due to sudden horizontal impulses, but to gentle
and irregular tiltings of the instrument. It was in fact as if we were on
a huge raft, beneath whicli waves of a very long period were passing.
No movement could be felt.
The earthquake at 4h. 56m. 45s. a.m. next morning lasted eight minutes,
ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 163
and had a period of nearly 4 seconds. It shook 3,533 square ri, but only-
extended to lat. 37°N.
The one at Gh. 42m. 36s. a.m., which lasted Gh minutes, and had a
period of 3-4 seconds, extended to lat. 3f)°N., and "shook 2,23G square ri.
All these disturbances extended southwards to Owari.
The Kumamoto Earthqualce,
Daring my absence in Europe, on July 28, 1889, at llh. 40m. p.m.,
the whole of Kiushiu, a portion of Shikoku, and the main island were
disturbed by an earthquake of unusual severity. The land area shaken
was G,520 squ.are ri, the most violent motion being on the western flanks
of the volcano Mount Aso, which has a well-formed ring crater 7 to 12
miles in diameter, with a smoking cone in the centre.
Altogether some 114 shocks were felt, and subterranean roarings were
heard 87 times. These disturbances occurred between July 28 and
August 13. The damage may be summed up as follows : —
Houses ruined . . . 200
Houses shattered . . 200
Persons killed ... 20
At Oita, some 60 miles north of the district of greatest disturbance, a
seismograph gave the following records : —
Persons injured . . 7-1
Bridges destroyed . . ]9
Bridges broken , .21
I
Duration 70 sees.
Direction S.S.W.-N.N.E.
Maximum horizontal motion 12-4 mm.
I'eriod 2-7 sees.
The movement was gentle.
&^
■ Earthquakes in 1887.
In my fourth report to the British Association, I gave an account of
387 earthquakes which had occurred in North Japan between October
1881, and October 1883. In consequence of this work, the expenses of
which were partly defrayed by this Association, Mr. Arai Ikunosake,
director of the ]\Ieteorological Department, established some 600 post-
card stations throughout the empire with a view of making similar but
more extended observations. The results of these observations for 1886
were given in my eighth report, and the following is an epitome of the
results obtained for 1887. For pui'poses of comparison these latter have
been combined with the results for 1885 and 1886.
Frequency of Earthquakes.
During the years 1885, 1886, and 1887, the numbers of earthquakes
recorded in Japan were 482, 472, and 483, the numbers representing the
daily average of shocks per day being 1-32, 1-29, and 1-32. The greatest
number of shakings in 1887 occurred near Tokio, where 80 distinct
shocks were recorded, and some 30 or 40 miles to the north of Tokio, in
Shilachi, where 50 disturbances were noted.
Distribution of Seismic Energy.
Speaking generally, the areas which are most frequently shaken are
the Same in successive years, the eastern side of the country being veiy
K 2
164
EEPOET — 1890.
mucli more disturbed than the western side. If we take a map of Japan,
and commence at the north-eastern end of Yezo, and proceed southwards
along the Pacific Coast, the districts most disturbed are, with but three
exceptions, the extremities of all the peninsulas jutting out into the ocean
— a fact which, when we remember that many of these peninsulas repre-
sent earth-foldings which may be continued, or are being continued,
beneath the ocean, is of considerable significance. The exceptions
referred to are the earthquakes of the alluvial plain round, and to the
north of Tokio — where at least 80 shocks were recorded — the earthquakes
on the alluvial plain at the head of the Bay of Ovvari, and the earth-
quakes round the flat shores of the Bay of Tosa, on the south side of
Shikoku.
During 1887 the Shinano earthquakes, which in 1886 were 19 in
number, decreased to 5, whilst the Echigo disturbances decreased from
31 to 10. These localities are inland, and are respectively at distances of
60 miles JST.E. of Tokio and 100 miles north of Tokio.
As in previous years, in Central Japan, where there are many earth-
quakes and many volcanoes, the earthquakes, or at least the majority of
them, did not come from the volcanoes. In the Kii peninsula, where
there are no volcanoes, there have been many earthquakes ; but there are
also districts, as for example the southern extremity of Kiushiu, where
there have been a fair number of earthquakes, where it is possible that
such disturbances may be directly connected with the proximity of vol-
canoes. On the whole, however, there is no reason to consider that the
majority of earthquakes are in any way connected with volcanoes. The
approximate origin of shocks which have been recorded in 1886 and
1887 is given in the following table, from which we see, at least for 1887,
that the greater number of earthquakes, especially those of any extent,
have chiefly originated along the coast or beneath the sea.
Tahle of distribution of earthquake origins relative to sea and land.
Total
Large
Moderate
Small
Earthquakes which occurred be-
neath the sea or along the coast.
1886
1887
228
302
15
36
50
76
163
190
Earthquakes which occuiTecT in-
land
1886
1887
244
181
11
14
70
34
103
133
Total number ...
1886
1887
472
483
26
50
120
110
326
323
Le?sV-VM-188r . . .
+
-hll
-t-24
-10
-3
Areas Shaken by Eaethquakes.
Probably the best method we have at our command for measuring
the seismic activity of any region, rather than considering it proportional
to the number of disturbances which occur, is to measure it by the area
of land which has been shaken. As has been pointed out in the Report
for 1888, this method of measuring intensity is only approximate, but
still it is very much better than methods used by previous investigatore.
The unit is one square ri or 5'95 square miles.
ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 165
o
lO ^ IM
Ci 00
l.O
tc
(M !>• O
-*l -*
o
a
<Z> ^ r-*
C5 CO
00
<D
t— 1 l-^ f-H
C5 Ci
t-H
>
<
r— t t-H
+
o o o
-H lO
>o
O »o :o
C3 t-
iO
_S
CC O 00
CO r-l
CO
o
C-l S^ CO
c:3 CI
H
CO as c<5
r-i -H
CI
I— t »— 1
^^
+
o o o
^-0
o
>
O «= 03
f-i CO
Tt<
O)
t~ CC CC
oo o
CO
Q
rH (30 Oi
o: O
1
I— 1
t-H
o oo
CO o
o
t'
CI 00 O
00 o
lO
o
.-H -:*( 05
^ CO
CD
l-^
T« 05 ^
CD CO
CO
1—1
-1-
o o o
CO o
o
-^ CO L<0
03 O
C)
4^
CO CO y?
CI CO
C3
o
^ CO <M
C5 CI
o
<N
.—1
1
O O O
CO lO
-*
t- O CO
CO CO
-tl
D.
lo u3 >n
oo o
lO
W
-*l 03 -*1
O CI
C)
1— 1 f— )
»— t 1—1
+
-1^
o o o
CO O
o
3
CJD (M (M
CO ^
CI
O 00 OO
d -*l
CO
CO O l-
00 CO
1
<J
»— 1
o o o
CO o
o
>-,
t^ rs C5
oo CO
CO
— ■*! <M
C5 00
-H^
1-3
02 O CO
O OS
CO
r-t r-1
'"'
+
OOO
CO lO
o
C3 CO C-l
CO 00
CO
a
00 O 05
CS 'J"
»o
>-»
lo >a »o
00 o
rH
i-H
T-H
1
OOO
cc o
o
t»~v
oo CO (M
03 oo
-CM
03
CO CO <M
C-. 00
CO
S
O "O CO
C) C]
+
i-H 1— 1 1— 1
1—t -H
OOO
t- lO
»o
.'^
lO 00 -H
-*< —1
era
»-•
t^ ■* CO
00 CO
CO
<»!
^ (N IM
C5 00
CO
f-H ^H
+
OOO
O lO
in
M ^ o
O CO
CO
^
CO CO (M
■-1 o
00
y
t-^TjJ'co'"
lO CO
Cm
1
OOO
CO 1.0
l.O
00 lO t^
CO CO
o
^
05 O <M
05 CI
o
&<
to lO to
O rt
lO
l-H 1-1
I-H r-t
+
OOO
CO o
o
O) -* O
lO CO
ti
C CI CN
^ CO
lO
rt
o CO CO
CI CO
CO
f-i <C)
rH
f-H
+
t- CO
K."t; P
00 oo
S- s?
00 oo
co-g g
rH »-H
B g
lOO
arf as for
er ( + ) or s
than the a
1885, 188C
1
lO -o t^
CO' 00 CO
CO CO 00
CO 00
CO 00
r— 1 r— t
r-i -^ f— t
aj o
60 bo
<U d)
"a ^ 1 !;
«
o---
5-
O
Cj*
00
00
CO
00
■X)
00
CM
CO
C:3
1-3
OOO
o in
o
C5 O t-
CI -^
t~
M O rH
d CI
1
.
OOO
I- o
uo
o
00 -H -t<
t- 05
-H
l-H CO
I-H
CI
+
OOO
I- o
o
M CI m
lO CJ
03
o
»0 "-H l-H
CI CO
*-H
1
.
OOO
t^ «5
m
^
CI CO -t<
0-. I^
CO
CO d CO
d d
+
-iH
3
OOO
o o
.-H CO CI
d CI
1
O CI CI
d d
1
<
OOO
o o
o
Ci C3 »0
^ C3
CO
1-5
CI CI CO
CO d
+
OOO
CO o
o
a
t^ t- CO
CO t-
I-H
s
CO l-H rt
CI CI
I-H
"-5
1
>-i
OOO
t^ o
o
03
O CO C)
d CO
I-H
S
Odd
CI d
1
^_,
OOO
CO o
o
P.
CO CO d
03 CO
en
t-H CO -^
d d
<
+
^
OOO
t- o
o
F-I
O O t-H
CO i."^
m
cs
d tH t-H
s
1
OOO
o o
lO
O tH oo
t~ CO
I-H
fc^
CO r-t d
CI CI
+
p
OOO
o o
lO
— oo t-
CI 05
l^
1-5
co lO
CO I-H
CO
+
t^
■^ 3
CO
+ •"
oo
^a
t-4
b bo
CD CO
txS
OO oo
s ^
oo 00
I-H t-4
lo CO t^
^ a
1
CO 00 00
10 IQ
oo J
1
CO oo oo
CO GO
t-H I-H rH
00 00
r-H I-H
= 1
O <I>
^-5
be bo
a X
c: a
V o
bc:= -
> >
2 § 5
<<
<
1G6
kepout — 1890.
Table of the Eartliqualies for each month of the years 188">, 1886, 1887. Arranged
according to the area of shaken districts. (1 ar/. ri = 5-95 sq. vtiles.)
Square Ri
Tear
Jan.
Feb.
Mar
1
1
Apl.'
1
1
1
1
1
2
May
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
Jne.l
Jiy.
1
Aug
Sep.
Oct.
Nov
Dec.
Total
Avrge
Above 7,000 . . -
6,000 to 7,000 . . ■
5,000 to G,000 .
4,000 to 5,000 . . .
3,000 to 4,000 .
2,000 to 3,000 . . ■
1,000 to 2,000 . . ■
1885
18S6
1887
1885
1886
1887
1885
1886
1887
1885
1886
1887
1885
1S8S
1887
1885
1886
1887
I- 85
1886
1887
1
1
1
3
2
1
1
2
1
1
4
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
3
1
3
3
1
1
1
4
1
1
4
2
1
1
1
2
1
2
]
2
1
4
C
3
13
5
7
9
9
23
•08
•16
•08
•16
■ns
•3
•5
•25
M
■i
•6
•8
s-
1^9
Total
Average ,
Total
No.inl887above( + )
or belnw ( — ) the
average for 1885-86
1885-86
1885-86
1887
1
7
+ 7
5
2
5
+ 3
1
4
2
3
+ 1
6
3
-1
5
o
1
-1
4
2
4
+ 2
3
1
3
+2
8
4
4
7
3
-3
1
5
+ 5
4
2
3
+ 1
49
21
37
+16
4-1
1-7
3-1
+ 1^4
750 to 1,000 . . -
500 to 700 . . j
300 to 500 . . J
200 to 300 . , ■
100 to 200 , . .
1885
1886
1887
1885
1886
1887
1885
1886
1887
1885
1886
1887
1885
1886
1887
2
1
5
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
5
3
1
1
1
4
1
2
1
2
4
1
2
6
3
1
1
2
1
1
2
4
2
4
5
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
I
1
1
6
3
3
2
1
6
4
3
1
1
4
2
16
4
4
2
1
1
1
1
1
4
3
4
2
2
7
4
2
1
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
4
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
4
2
2
2
5
2
2
1
2
1
3
1
1
2
4
4
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
2
1
3
2
3
1
1
9
2
5
1
1
2
2
4
2
4
1
2
2
2
4
5
4
2
12
12
9
17
13
18
24
20
25
27
20
21
63
39
24
!•
!•
•8
1^4
1-1
1-5
2-
rr
2^1
2^2
1^7
1^7
5-2
3^2
2"
Total
Average .
Total
No.inl887above( + ) )
or below (— ) the \
averagefor 1885-86 I
1885-86
1885-86
1887
22
11
8
-3
20
10
10
19
9
7
-2
18
9
6
-3
34
17
14
-3
26
13
9
-i
27
18
28
11
5
7
+ 2
23
30
27
21
10
4
-6
15
7
10
+ 3
18
9
6
-3
17
8
6
-2
26
13
10
-3
247
121
97
-24
.20^5
10-1
8-1
-2-
Below 100 . . ■
1885
1886
1887
19
28
26
27
31
43
27
23
26
27
20
28
41
44
19
33
28
33
30
29
24
25
14
32
19
24
24
28
43
309
349
349
25^7
29-1
29-1
Total
Average .
No.in]887above( + )
or below ( — ) the ■
average for 1885-86
1885-86
1885-86
47
23
+ 3
58
29
+ 14
66
33
-10
86
43
53
26
-C
75
37
69
34
+ 10
109
54
45
22
+ 6
76
38
38
53
26
+ 1
68
34
38
52
26
+ 2
7G
63
31
-2
86
49
24
-10
74
61
25
-1
69
52
26
+ 17
82
658
325
+ 24
54^8
27^1
+ 2^
Total No. . . 1885-86
70
35
83
41
954 79-5
Average No.
1885-86
38
35
43
43
37
34
41
475
39^6
Total No. .
1887
41
58
30
29
60
20
35
56
483
40-2
No.inl887above( + )]
or below ( — ) tlie '■
average tor 1885-86 )
—
+ 6
+ 17
-13
-8
+ 6
—
+ 4
-3
—
-17
+ 1
+ 16
+ 8
10-7
ON THE EAKTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 167
From the above tables -we learn that in 1885, 1880, and 1887, land
areas -were shaken -which were respectively 5-4, 3-8, and 5-5 times the
area of the "whole empire.
Distrihution of EarthquaJces in Time.
The following table gives the number of earthquakes for 1885, 1886,
1SS7, arranged according to months : —
Jan.
Feb. Mar.
Apr. May
June
July
Aug.
Sep.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Total
Aver.
1885
32
44
37
37
51
46
32
30
45
41
47
40
482
40-2
1886
38
39
49
38
58
30
36
46
41
33
22
42
472
39-3
1887
41
58
30
29
50
38
38
35
43
20
35
56
483
40-2
Average ^
1885,1886,
37-0
47-0
38-7
34-7
56-3
38-0
35-3
37-0
43-0
31-3
.34-7
46-0
479-0
39-92
1887
Average
1885, 1886'
35
41
43
37
54
38
34
38
43
37
34
41
475
39-6
Xo. of Earth- \
([Uiikcs in
1887 above
( + ) or be- 1
lo\v( -)tlie
+ 6
-t-17
-13
-8 +6
—
+ 4
-3
—
-17
+ 1
+ 15
+ 8
+ 0-7
avci-iiye for
1885, 1886 /
The number of earthquakes for 1885, 1886, 1887, arranged according
to the four seasons, is as follows : —
Spring
Summer
Autumn
Winter
Total
Average
1885
1886
1887
125
145
119
108
112
111
133
96
98
116
119
165
482
472
483
120-5
118-
120-7
Average 1885, 1886, 1887
„ 1885, 1886
129-7
135
110-3
110
109
114
130
117
479
476
119-75
11-9
No. Earthquakes in 1887")
above ( + ) or below [
( — ) the average for (
1885, 1886 J
-16
+ 1
-16
+ .38
+ 7
+ 17
The next table gives the number of earthquakes in 1885, 1886, 1887,
arranged according to two seasons, warm and cold :-
—
Warm
Cold
Total
Average
1885
1886
1887
241
249
243
241
223
240
482
472
483
241
236
241-5
Average 1885, 1886, 1887
,, 1885, 1886
244-3
245
234-7
232
479
477
2.39-5
238-5
No. Earthquakes in 1887 ]
above ( + ) or belo-w
( — ) the average for (
1885, 1886 J
-2
+ 8
+ 6
+ 3
168
REPORT — 1890.
The distribution of earthquakes of 1885, 1886, 1887, arranged
according to the hours of the day at which they occurred, is as follows : —
—
c
■-5
*»-.
cu
-^
a
s
1-5
<
O
o
■s
—
A.M.
12-1
3
8
2
4
5
8
4
3
—
2
6
5
50
1-2
7
10
3
2
2
7
6
1
6
6
2
6
58
\
2-3
8
5
7
6
10
5
6
13
11
1
4
6
82
3-4
5
5
5
5
12
1
5
7
6
4
5
5
65
4-5
3
7
—
3
12
4
3
3
6
1
1
2
45
5-6
4
4
8
2
16
2
6
5
3
7
4
1
62
-697
6-7
4
5
5
3
6
2
5
3
10
4
2
8
57
7-8
4
2
4
6
7
5
3
3
1
6
6
4
51
8-9
5
5
5
6
8
5
6
4
10
1
3
5
63
9-10
5
6
6
5
6
10
2
4
7
6
2
3
62
10-11
10
1
3
7
1
2
2
2
3
2
2
6
41
11-13
4
5
4
5
8
7
5
2
4
3
4
10
61
/
P.M.
12-1
2
3
2
2
5
3
4
3
7
3
8
6
48
1-2
2
10
5
6
13
7
4
7
5
6
5
5
75
\
2-3
7
2
9
7
11
5
7
4
4
3
7
5
71
3-4
2
7
1
7
6
1
7
6
7
2
6
3
55
4-5
3
3
6
2
8
4
2
5
8
1
2
2
46
5-6
4
9
5
2
4
7
4
4
2
1
1
43
■740
6-7
4
4
6
6
4
5
8
5
8
6
5
6
61
7-8
6
7
3
4
2
4
5
4
2
5
3
5
50
8-9
1
6
6
5
7
3
6
5
6
6
11
11
71
9-10
2
6
6
2
5
5
8
6
9
5
6
10
69
10-11
10
11
12
6
6
6
1
6
—
6
5
13
81
11-12
6
10
4
3
5
6
2
10
111
3
6
5
104
10
70
Monthly-
totals
111
141
116
104
169
114
106
129
94
138
1,437
Severe Earthquakes.
The most severe earthquakes which occurred in 1887 were as follows :
July 22 in Echigo ; January 15 near Tokio and Yokohama ; September
5 in Slumosa ; and February 2 in Owari.
The earthquake of January 15, which destroyed a number of houses
and opened fissures in the ground, was briefly described in the Report
for 1887. The diagram of the motion of this earthquake, together with
diagrams of other large disturbances taken at the Imperial Meteorological
Observatory in Tokio, are forwarded for inspection.
The earthquake of July 22 was at least as severe as that of January
15, cracking walls and opening many fissures in the ground.
Earthquakes in connection with Magnetic and Electric Phenomena.
1. Magnetic Phenomena.
Amongst seismological records we find many accounts where magnets
and magnetometers have been affected at or about the time of earth-
quakes. On November 14, 1799, after the earthquake of Cumana, Hum-
boldt observed a diminution in dip of 48 minutes, and also a change in
declination. In 1822 Arago and Biot simultaneously observed move-
ments in magnetometers at Paris at the time of slight shocks in Switzer-
ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC rnENOJIENA OF JAPAN. 169
land and South France. Professor M. S. di Rossi gives several interesting
examples where magnets have dropped armatures or iron filings, or there
have been sudden changes in magnetic elements at the time of earth-
quakes. Amongst the observers of these phenomena we find Sarti,
Count Malvasia, Palmieri, Secchi, Bertelli, Mascart, Lament, and others.
In Tokio I have often observed disturbances due to mechanical shaking,
and one of the first seismoscopes I constructed about fourteen years ago
consisted of a small magnetic needle held in a position of iinstable
equilibrium by the attraction of a piece of iron. On being shaken the
needle flew to the iron, where it remained as evidence of a disturbance
in every probability mechanical. The observations, however, of the
greatest interest are those where the instruments which have been
disturbed have been situated well outside any area of perceptible shaking,
as, for instance, when magnetographs at Perpignan, Paris, Lyons, Kew,
and other observatories were simultaneously disturbed at the time of the
Riviera Earthquake on February 26, 1887 (see ' Nature,' March 3, 1887).
The magnetic disturbance following the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883
progressed westwards and northwards at rates of from 761 to 939 miles
per hour, which is apparently a rate very quick even for a dust cloud to
travel.
At the Magnetical Observatory in Tokio, where magnetic elements
have been recorded photographically for the last few years there do
not appear to have been any disturbances at or about the time of earth-
quakes excepting those which may be accounted for as being due to
mechanically produced movements.
The irregularities which exist are most noticeable in the lines indi-
cating changes in declination. They are occasionally visible in the
record for horizontal force, but hardly ever in the record for dip.
All the records respecting magnetic disturbances at or about the time
of earthquakes which I have been able to collect are being published in
vol. XV. of the * Trans. Seis. Soc. of Japan.'
2. Electric Phenomena.
At or about the time of earthquakes, electrical phenomena appear to
be more frequent and more pronounced than magnetic phenomena, and
the records of such phenomena are found in the description of many
large earthquakes. The earthquakes in Catania 1693, at Lisbon 1755,
in New England 1727, at Manchester 1777, in Ohio 1812, were all
accompanied by electrical phenomena. Humboldt observed that during
the earthquake of Cumaua the electroscope quickly showed the presence
of electricity in the atmosphere.
Telegraphic land lines and submarine cables have often been disturbed
by earth-currents at the time of earthquakes. In my second report to
this Association, in 1881, I gave an account of earth-currents produced
by the shaking of the gi'ound at the time of an explosion of dynamite,
and suggested that their origin might be due to the shaking, creating
difierencea in contact between the earth and an earth plate resulting
in varying degrees of chemical action.
In Italy Professor Demenico Ragona observed that at the time of an
earthquake there was a current passing through a galvanometer to a
lightning rod-like conductor in the atmosphere. This observation led
me to examine the photographic records of atmospheric electricity taken
170 EEPOET— 1890.
at the Meteorological Observatory in Tokio. In the instrument which is
there used, which is Mascart's, the needle of the electrometer, which has
a bifilar suspension, is kept at the potential of the atmosphere by connec-
tion with a water dropper, while the quadrants of the electrometer are
kept at a constant potential by connection with 50 water Daniells.
Through the kindness of the director of the observatory I was enabled to
examine records extending over a period of twelve months. These
records have been compared not only with the records of earthquakes
observed in Tokio, of which there were 99, but also with the records of
earthquakes felt in other parts of the empire, of which there were between
four and five hundred. The results of these comparisons are as follows :
1. In electrical disturbances which apparently accompany certain
earthquakes the air almost invariably becomes electro-nega-
tive. The change in potential is sudden, sometimes rising as
much as 30 volts. It often takes several hours before the
electrometer needle returns to its original position.
2. At the time of earthquakes which have not reached Tokio,
electrical disturbances have not been recorded.
3. When Tokio has been at the S.W. extremity of a disturbance
shaking an elliptically formed area, the centre of which dis-
turbance may have been 15 or 20 miles N.B. from Tokio,
there have been three cases of electrical disturbance, and
twelve cases without such disturbances.
4. When the centre of a disturbance has been 50 or 60 miles N.W.
of Tokio, there have been two cases of electrical disturbance,
and eleven cases without such disturbances.
5. When an earthquake has shaken a narrow band extending
from Tokio 30 miles northwards, there have been three cases
of electrical disturbance, and no case of no disturbance.
6. When the centre of a disturbance has been 20 to 30 miles E. of
Tokio, there has been one case of electrical disturbance, and
six cases with no disturbances.
7. When the centre of a disturbance has been from 20 to 100 miles
west of Tokio, there have been three instances of electrical dis-
turbance, and three instances when there was no disturbance.
8. If there is a feeble disturbance only felt in Tokio, such disturb-
ances have been 13 times accompanied by electrical disturb-
ances, and 31 times without.
9. If there is a strong disturbance with Tokio near the centre, and
shaking an area GO or more miles in diameter, there have been
ten cases of strong electrical disturbance, and only one case where
there was no disturbance. Those earthquakes which are the
most pronounced in relation to electrical phenomena have not
always been accompanied by vertical motion, and they have
occurred at different hours.
Comparison of Tokio and Yokohama Earthquakes.
In Yokohama, which is situated about 18 miles S.S.W. from Tokio,
it has always been supposed that earthquakes are more frequent and
more severe than in Tokio. The only lists of Yokohama earthquakes
which I have been able to obtain extend from January 22, 1878, to
December 31, 1881, and from March 8, 1885, to December 31, 1889.
I
ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND YOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 171
These lists Lave been compiled without the assistance of instruments,
and therefore are not so complete as they might have been had the
records been founded on indications given lay seismographs. The latter
list was made by my friend Mr. J. B. Pereira, of Yokohama. Altogether
I find for Yokohama notes relating to 285 shocks, and of these 189 were
felt in Tokio, or, in other words, 33 per cent, of the Yokohama disturb-
ances do not reach Tokio. Similarly there may be disturbances peculiar
to Tokio which do not reach Yokohama.
VELOCixr OF Earthquake Propagation.
In the seventh report to this Association (1885), as the result of a
long series of experiments upon disturbances produced by the explosion
of dynamite, and by other means, ic was stated that velocity of transit
decreases as a disturbance radiates, that it increases with the intensity of
the initial disturbances, and that in soft ground the author had recorded
velocities of from 200 to 630 feet per second, &c. In the same report
there is a brief account of the simultaneous observation of earthquakes
at several stations in electrical connection. As one pendulum sent time
to all these stations, which were 800 or 900 feet apart, on the assumption
that at a given station, which we will call A, a particular wave, which
we will call a, could be again recognised at stations B, C, &c., we had
here the best possible means of determining velocity.
As a matter of fact, out of 50 sets of diagrams representing 50 diffe-
rent earthquakes, it was only in five instances that the same wave could
be identified at several different stations. The result of these identifica-
tions led to the calculations of velocities of 5,860, 4,270, 5,984, 2,850,
and 1,644 feet per second.
These determinations, however, cannot be accepted without reserve,
because I find that waves may spread out as they pass from station to
station, their period may alter, a given wave at one station may split up
into two waves by the time it reaches the next station, &c.
Thus on December 16, 1884, I found at station A two waves a and h
separated by an interval of 1"139 seconds, whilst at station B what
appear to be the same two waves are 1'277 seconds apart. Hence a
Telocity calculated from the transit of a would be different from the
velocity of the same earthquake calculated from h. This sort of obser-
vation is not uncommon : thus on March 20, 1885, I found at A a wave
a 1'99 seconds, and a wave h 4'11 seconds, from the <!ommencement of
the time ticks. At J these same waves are respectively 303 and 5"26
seconds from the first time tick. From this we must conclude that in
travelling from A to J the wave a took 1'04 seconds, whilst the wave h
took 1*15 seconds.
These observations led to the conclusion that satisfactory results
could only be expected by timing the arrival of disturbances at points on
an area of considerable extent, and with this end in view, at the request
of the Seismological Society, I entered into communication with the
telegraph department of this country to obtain their assistance in observ-
ing the velocity of earthquake transit.
Such assistance they have given for two years, and Mr. W. B. Mason
of Tokio is now publishing a list of the observations which have been
made. The stations selected are from 20 to 200 miles apart, and the
clocks from which the observations are made by personal observation are
172 EEPOET~1890.
corrected every day by a time signal sent from Tokio. Altbongh the
hearty thanks of the Society are due to the Telegraph Bureau for the
manner in which they have rendered assistance, I regret to report that
although the observations have thrown some light on the distriljution of
seismic energy in North Japan, records which are of value in determining
the velocity of earthquake transmission have not yet been obtained.
One or two of the observations, which have extended over a period of
two years, suggest that at least sometimes a given earthquake may be
felt simultaneously over an area of considerable extent. This was the
case with the disturbance of Augusts, 1889, which was noted at several
places about 100 miles apart at exactly the same time.
At present we have reliable observations on the propagation of earth-
waves varying between 200 and 6,000 meters per second, whilst at other
times it appears as if a large area received an impulse in all its parts at
the same moment.
Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. Grtlls
Adams (Chairman and Secretary), Sir William Thomson, Sir
J. H. Lefroy, Professors Gr. H. Darwin, Gt. Chrtstal, and S. J.
Perry, Mr. C. H. Carpmael, Professor Schuster, Professor Pucker,
Commander Creak, the Astronomer Koyal, Mr. William Ellis,
Mr. W. Lant Carpenter, and Mr. Gr. M. Whipple, appointed
for the purpose of considering the best means of Comparing
and Reducing Magnetic Observations.
An attempt has been made during the year to organise and bring into
form the recommendation of this Committee, made in their report of last
year, that it would be desirable to publish annually the curves of the
three magnetic elements for different Magnetic Observatories for certain
selected days.
This matter has been under the consideration of the Kew Committee
of the Royal Society, and a Sub-Committee of that body has been appointed
to take charge of it, the Sub-Committee consisting of Professor W. Grylls
Adams, Professor Riicker, Commander Creak, with Mr. Whipple as their
Secretary (all of whom are members of this Committee).
It seemed of some importance to decide how many days in each month
would be required in order to give accurately the mean diurnal range
without requiring the elaborate measurements and methods in use at
Greenwich, which would be impracticable in observatories where only a
small staff is employed.
With this object it was proposed by Professor Riicker to employ the
method proposed by Dr. Wild • to reduce the mean diurnal range of
declination at Kew for two or three years previous to 1888, taking only
five quiet days in each month. The years selected were 1883, 1886, and
1887, the first being chosen as being a year of maximum sun-spots. The
calculations were undertaken by Messrs. Robson and Smith (two of Pro-
fessor Rilcker's advanced students at the Normal School of Science), and
their results, brought before the Physical Society,^ show a remai-kably
close agreement with the corresponding Greenwich results. The greatesb
discrepancy between any curve in which these differences are plotted
' See £rit. Assae. Hejjort, 1885, p. 78. " Fkil. Mag., August 1890, p. 140.
ON MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 173
down and tbe mean curve deduced from all the six years ■which have been
investigated is 0'*4. They conclude that ' it would seem possible, know-
ing one sot of values for any particular year — Greenwich or Kew — to
determine the otlier set, correct to within four-tenths of a minute.' This
close agreement strongly supports the views of Dr. Wild, and at the same
time makes it possible to deal practically with the observations from
many diHerent observatories, and to obtain trustworthy results. These
results completely confirmed those of Mr. Whipple, who made a com-
parison of the methods of Wild and Sabine with that in use at Greenwicli
for the years 1870-72 (see 'British Association Report' 1886, p. 71), as
to the nature of the difference between the diurnal variations at Green-
wich and Kew as given by the two methods of reduction. The Astrono-
mer Royal has not only undertaken to select the five quiet days of each
month and communicate them to the other observatories as soon as pos-
sible after the end of each year, but he has also offered to reduce the
Greenwich results by Wild's method as well as by that now in use at
Greenwich.
The following list of quiet days has been prepared by the Astronomer
Royal from the Greenwich records as suitable for discussion in the year
1889 :—
January 3, 6, 13, 24, 27.
February 4, 10, 13, 22, 2.5.
March 3, 10, 19, 21, 24.
April 5, 11, 16, 17, 19.
Way 3, 9, 16, 21, 25.
June 5, 8, 12, 24, 27.
July 4, 9, 15, 22, 25.
August 3, 5. 14, 24, 30.
JSeptember 4, 7, 15, 20, 29.
October 4,11,16,23,27,
November 5,1.3,15,19,21.
December . 4, 10, 18, 19, 25.
The Committee of the Falmouth Observatory and the Rev. W. Sid-
greaves of Stonyhurst have expressed their willingness to accept the
same series of days for discussion, and M. Mascart of Paris and M. Mou-
reaux of Pare St. Maur will also select and use for discussion the same
tj-pical days. Dr. Wild has published in the Bulletin of the Imperial
Academy of Science of St. Petersburg a paper on the normal variation
and the disturbances of the declination, in which he recommends the
adoption of his method, and shows that during the last fifteen years there
have been on an average seventy-two days per annum suitable for dis-
cussion as undisturbed days. Dr. F. Schmidt of Gotha has discussed the
daily variation of terrestrial magnetic force for Vienna for every month of
the years 1879-88, and has represented them as numbers of a periodic series.
In consequence of the expression of their opinion in their reports of
last year, ' that the establishment of a Magnetic Observatory at the Cape
of Good Hope would materially contribute to our knowledge of terrestrial
magnetism,' this Committee has received a letter from Mr. David Gill,
the Director of the Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope, offering eveiy
facility in his power to forward the objects of the Committee. Mr. Gill
reports that there is ample room for the establishment of the necessary
buildings, and that he is prepared with hearty good-will to nndertake tbe
direction, administration, and control of the work, bnt that an additional
observer will be required to carry out the magnetic work under his direction.
174 EEPOET— 1890.
The Committee greatly regret that they have to record the deaths of
Sir J. H. Lefroy and of Professor S. J. Perry, who have done very valu-
able work for this Committee, and who have greatly advanced our
knowledge of the subject of terrestrial magnetism.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Crum Brown
(Secreiary),Mr. Milne-Home, Dr. John Murray, Lord McLaren,
Dr. BucHAN, and the Hon. Ralph Abercromby ( Chairman), ap-
pointed for the purpjose of co-operating with the Scottish
Meteorological Society in maJcing Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis.
During the past year the hourly observations, by night as well as by
day, at the Ben Nevis Observatory, have been made by Mr. Omoud and
the assistants without interruption ; and the five daily observations at the
sea-level station at Fort William have been also made by Mr. Livingstone
with the greatest regularity.
Again the state of the health of the observers, owing to the circum-
stance that active exercise in the open air is practically precluded during
most of the year, rendered it necessary to give them relief during the
winter and spring months. This relief the directors of the observatory
were the better able to give through tlie courtesy of the following gentle-
men, who gave their services as observers for periods varying from four
to six weeks: — Mr. Alexander Drysdale, M.A., B.Sc, Mr. Charles E.
Gray, Mr. James McDonald, M.A., Mr. R. C. Mossman, and Mr. Robert
Tnrnbull, B.Sc. During the time Messrs. Omond and Rankin were in
Edinburgh they gave much valuable help in the discussion of the Ben
Nevis observations, and otherwise assisted in the work of the office of the
Scottish Meteorological Society.
Mr. Omond has completed an important investigation of the tempera-
ture of Ben Nevis. From the six years' observations he has calculated
the mean temperature of each day of the year for the observatory at the
top and for the low-level station at the foot of the mountain, and made a
comparison of the two series of temperatures. The paper is in type, and
will appear in the forthcoming ' Journal of the Scottish Meteorological
Society.' He has also re-examined the estimations of wnid force and their
equivalents in miles per hour from all the observations now available for
the purpose, and the results are ready for publication in the same journal.
Mr. Rankin has carried on, as the time at his disposal from his
regular duties at the observatory permits, the work of photographing
clouds and other meteorological phenomena.
In the autumn of last year a grant of oOZ. was obtained from the
Government Research Fund for carrying on an investigation into the
numbers of dust particles in the atmosphere, by means of two sets of
apparatus invented by Mr. Aitken, one being permanently fixed in the
tower of the observatory, the other being a portable form of the instru-
ment. Mr. Aitken superintended the construction of both instruments,
and the placing of them with the necessary precautions at the top of the
mountain. Reference will be made further on to the remarkable results
obtained by the observations Mr. Rankin has already made.
Messrs. Omond and Rankin are still engaged with the laboriona
ON METEOKOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS.
175
inqairy into the directions of the winds observed at the top, with the
winds observed at low-level stations at the same hoars, and their relations
to the weather of North-Western Europe. The comparative frequency
with which the winds at the observatory blow, not with, but against, the
isobarics of low-level stations, and indicate a force widely diflerent from
the barometric gradients of the weather maps of the Meteorological
Office, are striking elements in the meteorology of Ben Nevis.
The ' Report for the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh '
on the Ben Nevis and Fort William observations is in type, and will
appear shortly. An early copy of the volume is submitted with this
report to the British Association.
For the year 1889 the following were the monthly mean pressures and
temperatures, hours of sunshine, amounts of rainfall, and number of fair
days at the observatory; the mean pressures at Fort William beino-
reduced to 32° and sea-level, those at the Observatory to 32° only : —
Table
1.
Jan. Feb.
March
April
May June
July 1 Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Year
Mean Pressure in. Indies.
Ben Nevis Ob-
servatory
Fort William
Difference .
25-390
30-014
4-624
2.3-202
29-857
4-655
25-2S0 25-153 25-301 25-545
29-909 29-745 29-785 30-050
4-629 4-592 4-484 4-505
25-406
29-903
4-497
25-267 25-465 25-134
29-746 29-994 29-668
4-479 4-529 4-534
25-463
30-066
4-603
25-339 25-329
29-953 29-891
4-614 4-562
Mea7i Temjjeratiires.
Ben Nevis Ob-
servaton*
Fort William
Difference
o
27-5
41-0
13-5
o
21-4
37-4
16-0
o
24-4
41-2
16-8
25-9
44-3
18-4
o
38-1
55-9
17-8
o
43-1
57-8
14-7
40-8
57-6
16-8
o
38-7
5.5-9
17-2
o
37-7
53-4
15-7
30-3
46-0
15-7
o
30-3
44-6
14-3
26-8
41-0
14-3
32-1
48-0
15-9
Extremes of Temperature.
W-.ix. Temp.
Mill. Temp.
Difference .
o
39-2
lfi-9
22-3
SC-3
6-4
29-9
o
40-7
11-2
29-5
o
43-7
15-2
28-5
50-7
27-7
23-0
o
6u-0
28-0
32-0
61-8
29-1
32-7
48-1 54-4
30-1 21-1
18-0 33-3
3H-3
21-8
16-5
o
44-1
12-5
Sl-6
o
3K-0
13-2
24-8
o
61-8
6-4
55-4
liainfall in Indies.
Ben Nevis Ob-
servatory
Days of uo
Rain
Fort William
17-69
6
10-31
14-86
2
8-77
12-11
6
6-25
3-89
9
3-12
4-34
10
2-73
1-94
15
0-84
4-09
9
1-35
18-32
2
7-58
7-28
10
3-88
6-62
8
4-72
11-48
3
4-91
18-04
5
10-90
120-06
85
65-36
Hours of SunsJdne at Ben Nevis Observatory.
No. of Hours 1
Possible Hours
23 27 27 62 74 213 97 9 4G 44
231 264 363 426 608 529 528 467 3S1 319
11
242
11 1 634
210 [4,470
At Fort William the mean temperature was 0°-8 nnder the average,
the greatest defect from the means being l°-8 in February, and the
greatest excess 5°-6 in Llay — indeed, the outstanding feature of the
meteorology of the year being the all but nnprecedentediy high tempera-
ture of^j\Iay, a temperatui-e, as regards Scotland, only once exceeded
since ITG-i, or during the past 126 years. At the top of the Ben the
excess above the mean was greater, amounting to 7°-7, as happens durino-
all unusually high summer temperatures when anticyclones prevail.
The minimum temperature on Ben Nevis was 6°-4, which occurred at
7 A.M. of February 10. This is absolutely the lowest temperature which
has been recorded since the opening of the observatory in December
176 EEPORT— 1890.
18fi3, The maximum was 61°'8 on July 4. Thus the extreme range
of temperature for the year was 55°-4.
The registrations of the sunshine-recorder showed 634 hours of sun=
shine as against 970 hours of the previous year, the latter year thus
showing a half more hours. The largest number, 213, was recorded in
June, and the lowest, 9, in August, being the lowest that has occurred
hitherto in any summer month. As the highest possible hours for the
whole is 4,470, sunshine prevailed on the top of the Ben during only one
hour in seven in 1889.
The amount of the rainfall during the year was 120' 66 inches, being
about ten inches less than the average, the least rainfall being 1 '94 inch
in June, and the greatest 18 04 inches in December, and 17 69 inches in
January. The number of days on which the precipitation was either nil
or less than O'Ol inch, was 86, or 15 days fewer than the avei'age ;
the least being 2 in February and August, and the greatest 15 in June.
On the other hand, the number of days on which 1 inch of rain or
more fell was 37, or nearly one day in 10, being a little less frequent
than in previous years. The highest fall for any day was 2'93 inches on
August 28 ; and from March 23 to 25 there fell 5'83 inches. No rain
fell from June 16 to 27 ; on the other hand, from 3 p.m. of December 7
to 1 A.M. of the 11th, there was only one hour without rain.
Atmospheric pressure at Fort William was 29'891 inches, or 0*063
inch above the average pressure. In November it was 0'255 inch above
the mean, and in October 0"183 inch below it. June was not only the
month of greatest pressure, but it was also the month of highest mean
temperature, being about 5 per cent, in excess of its average. This
conjunction of high temperature with high pressure during the summer
months is a noteworthy feature in the meteorology of the Ben, these
occurring during the times when anticy clonic weather prevails over this
part of Europe. It will also be observed that during the time the tem-
perature difi'erence between the high and low level stations was only
14°*7, or about two degrees less than the average of June. In June
1887, when the anticyclonic systems were more pronounced than in
1889, the difference fell as low as 12°'9. At these times the air is
markedly dry as well as warm, pointing for the explanation to the
descending currents of the anticyclones, and not to ascending currents
from the superheated lower grounds. It may be remarked here that the
observations of the wind on the top of the mountain show conclusively
that the outflowing winds from cyclonic to anticyclonic regions set in
sooner and at greatly lower levels than had previously been supposed.
Observations have now been made on Ben Nevis for upwards of six
years, or since the observatory was opened in the end of 1883, and, if
the observations by Mr. Wragge be added, for nine years during the
warmer months from June to October ; and during the same time
observations have been made near sea-level at Fort William.
As these form a unique double series of observations in meteorology,
and as they furnish the observational data necessary in all investigations in
atmospheric physics into which height in the atmosphere enters, it is
thought to be useful to embody in this Report, in Table 11., the more
prominent of the results derived from the observations of the two
stations. The times from which the data have been deduced are six
years from January to May, nine years from June to October, and seven
ON METEOKOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS.
177
years for November and December. The times are strictly the same for
the two stations. The barometric observations at Fort William are
reduced to sea-level, those for Ben Nevis only to 32°.
Table IL— Means from 1881 to 1889.
Jan. Feb. [March] April May I June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. I Dec. Year
Mean Pressures in Inches.
Ben Nevis Ob-
25-193
25-24-1
25-24C
25-259 25-322
25-460
25-356 25-3G3' 25-384
25-299
servatory
1
! 1
Fort William
29-823
29-S76
29-873
29-850 29-8G6
29-970
29-841 29-8501 29-887
29-840
DifEerencc .
4-G30
4-6a2
4-627
4-59ll 4-544
4-510
4-485. 4-487| 4-502
4-541
3/eaH Tempcratm'eit.
Ben Nevis Ob-
servatory
Fort William
Difference .
Ben Nevis Ob-
servatory
Fort William
Difference .
I 25-2131 25-201 1 25-29
29-797 -^9-804 29-8.56
4-584 4-6031 4-5G1
30-i
o
25-1
o
22-8
23-0
o
26-3
35-1
38-6
40-3
39-7
o
37-5
o
31-8
27-8
c
24-9
39-0
13-9
38-1
15-3
39-6
16-6
44-8
18-5
48-8
17-7
55-1
16-5
56-7
16-4
56-1
16-4
52-7
15-2
47-2
15-4
42-0
14-2
39-1
14-2
46-7
15-9
Highest Mean Temjyeratures.
o
28-8
O
27-3
o
24-6
o
27-4
38-1
o
45-6
o
12-3
42-3
40-0
350
30-4
28-2
41-5
12-7
41-1
13-8
42-1
17-5
46-3
lS-9
55-8
17-7
58-9
13-3
58-5
16-2
59-0
16-7
55-2
15-2
■W-l
15-1
44-8
14-4
43-0
14-8
15-5
Lowest Mean Temperatures.
o
o
o
o
O
o
O
C
Ben Nevis Ob-
20-0
20-8
2u-4
25-4
26-8
35-6
38-6
37-1
34-8
28-5
26-2
2U-2
b■ervator^■
Fort William
35-8
350
37-1
43-2
45-7
53-3
54-9
53-2
51-1
42-4
40-2
34-5
Difference .
15-8
14-2
16-7
17-8
18-9
17-7
163
161
16-3
13-9
14-0
14-3
Mean Hainfall in Inches.
Ben Nevis Ob-
servatory
Fort William
Difference .
14-36
11-35
8-84
5-55
7-lG
6-75
9-76
11-34
10-70
12-06
14-09
18-00
9-27
5-09
8-09
3-26
4-98
3-86
4-02
1-53
3-81
3-35
3-20
3-55
5-51
4-25
5-46
5-SS
5-41
5-35
6-80
6-26
8-37
5-72
9.82
8-18
Greatest Monthly
liab
fall.
Ben Nevis Ob-
17-80
16-94
12-82
9-53 12-87
12-31
15-19
18-32 20-87
20-24
20-60 25-29 (
servatory
Fort William
12-73
12-45
6-25
4-98 6-39
G-25
10-88
7-58 11-71
13-77
13-55
13-SG
Difference .
5-07
4-49
6-57
2-53 1 6-48
6-06
4-31
10-74 9-16
6-47
7-05
11-43
Leant Monthly Haivfall.
Ben Nevis Ob- <
servatorv
Fort William
Difference .
Fair Days
Maximum
Minimum
7-53 1 2-84
5-63
1-9G
1-06
0-22
5-90
3-49
2-41
!-89
3-12
0-77
39-;
18-6
2-11
1-94
0-84
1-10
4-091 7-56
1-.35
2-74 I
3-02
4-54
6-09
1-97
4-12
6-41 1 8-99
Fair Bays at Ben Xeris Observatory.
8
7
10
12
10
12
5
8
9
12
13
14
15
17
18
13
20
16
1
2
3
7
4
7
2
2
4-04
2-37
6
11
2
4-91
4-08
7
13
3
10-98
7-09
3-89
C,
10
3
Sunshine in Ifours at Ben Xevis Ohserratory.
in
Sunshine
Hours
Maximum
Minimum
I'ussible Hours
33
44
47
70
89
149
80
58
68
33
23
19
70
73
74
120
129
250
J02
116
121
44
51
28
15
18
27
52
31
55
47
9
25
16
8
11
231
264
365
426
608
529
528
467
3bl
319
242
210
16-0
130-02
74-74
55-28
6-70
2-49
ino
172
36
719
970
576
4470
The horizontal distance between the two stations being only about
four miles, the monthly variation in the difTerenco of the atmospheric
1800. N
178
EEPOBT — 1890.
pressures at the two stations is virtually a temperature effect. As tbe
temperature falls to the annual minimum in winter, the air contracts,
and a portion of it consequently falls below the level of the barometer at
the top, thus reducing the readings there, and increasing the differences
between the two barometers. The difference then reaches 4'632 inches,
the maximum for the year. On the other hand, as temperature rises, a
portion of the atmosphere is raised above the level of the higher baro-
meter, thus increasing the pressure there, and lessening the difference to
4*485 inches in July, the minimum of the year. The difference between
the maximum and minimum is thus 0'147 inch. For these months the
mean temperatures of the stratum of air between the top and bottom of
the mountain are respectively 30°'5 and 48°"5. Hence the vertical dis-
placement of the mass of the atmosphere for a temperature difference of
18°'0 is represented by a barometric difference of 0'147 inch. The sea-
level pressures in these months are, however, respectively 29"876 inches
in February, and 29'841 inches in July. If, then, we assume the sea-
level pressure of July to be the same as that of February, viz. 29'876
inches, the difference between the top and bottom pressures would be not
4'485, but 4"490 inches. From this it follows that the vertical displace-
ment for a temperature difference of 18° '0, and at the same sea-level
pressure, is 0'142 inch.
Anuual curve of the differences of barometric readings for high and low level stations
(Ben Nevis and Fort William).
In order to determine the curve of the table of the barometric differ-
ences, it is convenient that these should be reckoned from the mean point,
or say 4' 560. When so treated, the differences are : —
May- -016
June --050
July --075
August — '073
September— -057
October- -019
November + •024
December + -043
January + -070
February + -072
March + "067
April + -031
These quantities being laid down as vertical ordinates, with Time as
the horizontal ordinate, it was evident to the eye that the curve was a
projection of the curve of sines. The difference between the extreme
and mean values in xttoit parts of an inch is 75. Hence, if a be the time
expressed in arc, and 8/3 the differences in the preceding table, we have
•Jg- SyS^siu a.
ON JIETEOKOLOGICAL OBSEKVATIONS ON BEX NEVIS. 179
The above diagram represents the curve of this equation, and the points
numbered from 1 to 12 are the twelve tabular places, beginnin"- with
May and ending with April. The curve evidently satisfies the observations.
The relative mean readings of the thermometer are approximately
represented by
■^ T=sin a;
but the deviations from the true curve are greater than in the first case.
Comparing the two expressions, the barometric difierences are seen to be
proportional to the increments of tlie mean temperature of the two
stations. Accordingly, when the places of the table of barometric
difierences are laid down as co-ordinates to the places of the temperature
table, the points are found to lie in approximately straight lines. One
would have expected a less simple relation between the quantities in the
two tables.
In consideration of the successful arrangements which have been
made to minimise the eflfects of solar and terrestrial radiation at both
the high and the low level observatories, and their close proximity to
each other, the above result may be regarded as the most important
datum hitherto contributed by meteorology for the discussion of inquiries
deahng with the relations of height to pressure and temperature in the
free atmosphere. The same consideration gives also a peculiar value to
the table of corrections, empirically determined from the observations,
for the reduction to sea-level of the barometrical observations at the top'
calculated for every tenth of an inch of the sea-level pressure, and every
two degrees of mean temperature of stratum of air, 4,407 feet thick
between the two observatories.
The mean annual differences of temperature of the top and bottom of
the mountain, calculated from (1) the mean monthly temperatures, (2)
the highest mean monthly temperatures, and (3) the lowest mean
monthly temperatures, are respectively 15°-9, 15°-5, and 16°0. The
smaller difference obtained from the highest monthly temperatures was
entirely caused by the unusually high temperatures at the top of the
mountam during the anticyclonic weather that prevailed in the Junes of
1887 and 1889, in which from the prevailing strong sunshine the whole
mountain was in a sense superheated.
_ During these years the mean annual rainfall at the top is 130-02
inches, and at Fort William 74-74 inches. At the top the maximum
monthly mean is 18-00 inches in December, and the minimum 5-55 inches
?" ^P.^'^ ' ^^^'^^*^ ''^^ ^^^^ William there are 9-82 inches in December and
^•20 inches in June. The monthly differences are very strikino-, beino-
only 1-53 inch in April, but 8-18 inches in December. As holds gene°
rally in the north-west of Scotland, the rainfall shows a steady droop
to the minimum in June, but on the top of the Ben the minimum is
reacheu m April, and by midsummer has risen considerably above it,
uue, in all probability, to a more copious precipitation from the ascendino-
I currents of the warmer months of the year. °
I The mean monthly differences for the year between the rainf\xll at the
top and bottom of the mountain, calculated (1) from the mean monthly
rainfall, (' ) the greatest monthly fall, and (3) the least monthly fall, are
: respectively 4G1, 6-9G, and 249 inches. The first of these means is
approximately the mean of the other two, giving thus the curious result
taat in exceptionally wet months the difference between the rain-gauges
N 2
180 EEPORT— 1890.
rises just as much above the normal difference as it falls below the same
difference in exceptionally dry months.
At the observatory at the top the annual number of fair days, or days
when the rainfall is less than the hundredth of an inch, on the mean of
the six years 1884-&9, is 100, the monthly mean rising to the maximum
of 12 days in April and June, and falling to the minimum of 5 days in
July. For any separate month the greatest number of dry days was 20
in August 1885, whereas in July 1880 no dry day occurred at all.
The sunshine record extends from March 1884 to the end of 1889,
The results show an annual mean of 719 hours' sunshine against a possible
4,470 hours. Thus, during these six years, the hours of sunshine shown
by the Campbell-Stokes sunshine-recorder have been nearly one-sixth of
the number possible. The mean monthly maximum is 149 in June, ajui
minimum 19 in December. In December the number has been persis-
tently low, even the highest being only 28 hours in 1887. On the other
hand, in June the number has exceeded 200 in each of the last three
yeai'S, rising to 250 hours in 1888 ; whereas the highest number for any
of the other eleven months was only 162 hours in July 1885. As will be
seen from Table II. the differences between the maximum and the mini-
mum numbers of the months are very great. For each of the five years
of complete observations the number of houis were 680, 576, 808, 970,
and 634 — thus also showing enormous differences among the separate
years.
As regards diurnal phenomena, the hourly variation for each month
has been calculated for temperature, pressure, humidity, cloud, rainfall,
wind-velocity, and sunshine. Results of great value have been arrived
at, for which, however, we must, in this brief report, refer to the volume
herewith oubmitted to the Association.
In addition to the usual routine work of a first-order meteorological
observatory, other observations have been carried on, mostly of a novel
character, for which the observatory affords exceptional facilities.
The rapid formation of snow crystals, in certain states of weather,
from fog, on the observatory and every object exposed to these drifting
fogs, has been carefully observed and investigated by Mr. Omond. With
these rapid accretions, the cups of Robinson's .anemometer are no longer
hemispheres, but irregular hollow bodies, bristling all over with pointed
crystals, and the arms increased to many times their original thickness,
and thus the whole instrument soon becomes a mass of immovable snow,
and further observation is rendered impossible. The thermometer box,
with its louvre boards, similarly becomes serrated with rows of teeth,
which quickly coalesce into a solid, and the instruments are no longer in
contact with the free atmosphere. In these circumstances a fresh box
is put out. It is thus that at observatories such as Ben Nevis, owing to
these accretions of ice on the thermometers, the continuous or hourly
registrations of the temperature of the air must be for ever impossible.
In truth, such observations must always be eye observations, where the
observer personally sees that, previously to the recording of each observa-
tion, the thermometer is in contact with the free atmosphere, and is not
sheltered from it by a coating of ice. The importance of thermometric
observations is emphasised by the circumstance that without them the
barometric observations are of comparatively small value. Ben ISTevis is ,
the only observatory that has hitherto coped, and that successfully, with
this all-important department of the work of a high-level observatory;
ON METEOKOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 181
and ono cannot sufficiently admire the heroic endarance with which the
observers have made the hourly observations by night and by day, during
summer and during winter.
The direction of the winds indicates a well-marked diurnal variation.
From 3 to 8 a.m. northerly winds of about 2^ miles an houi-, and from
11 A.M. to 2 P.M. southerly winds of about 3 miles an hour pi-evail.
From three years' observations, ending May 1887, it appears that the
mean temperatures of the different winds are, S., o2°-6 ; S.W., o2°5 ;
W., 31°'4; KW. and S.E., 30°-2 ; E., 27°-8; K, 27°-6, and N.E., 26°-5.
The wai'mest point in the windrose oscillates from S.W. in winter, passing
through S. to S.E. in summer. The annual temperature range of easterly
winds is 20°"7, but westerly only 15°'6.
Observations of the rainband were begun iTi June 1885. The ob-
served higher values are accompanied, or soon followed, by a heavy rain-
fall, which tends to become less heavy in the next twelve hours. The
lower values, on the other hand, though they may be neither accompanied
nor followed in the next three hours by any rain, are followed by a con-
siderable rainfall before the twelve hours are run. With the same rain-
band value precipitation is less with a higher and greater with a lower
temperature. If the tempei'ature immediately falls the rainfall is greatly
increased, but if it rises it is less than it would have been if the tempera-
ture remained constant. The highest values, with accompanying very
heavy rains, are part and parcel of the cyclones which come to us from
the Atlantic laden with moisture and warmth. The rainband is not
affected during heavy rains, the result of moisture-laden air ascending
from lower levels ; and during the states of the air attending the rapid
deposition of snow crystals no rain falls, though at the time the rainband
values are high.
As respects forecasting the weatlier, the most important observations
are those showing a decreasing rainband from hour to hour. A compari-
son of these observations with the daily weather-charts and subsequent
observations show that the decreasing rainband indicates that the moist
air aloft is slipping away or sinking below the level of the summit, and
that the air taking its place is comparatively dry. Now this state of
things appears to be the earliest indication we at present have that an
anticyclone is beginning to form and settle over this part of Europe.
St. Elmo's Fire is not an infrequent occurrence on Ben Nevis. The
observed cases have occurred during the night and during the winter
months from September to February. A careful discussion of the cases
shows that tiie weather which precedes, accompanies, and follows has
quite peculiar characteristics not only on Ben Nevis but also over the
West of Europe generally — indeed, so well marked is the type of weather
and so notorious is it for its stormy character, that it is familiarly known
at the observatory as ' St. Elmo's weather.' It is further observed that in
almost every case another cyclone, with its spell of bad weather, follows
the particular cyclone in which St. Elmo's Fire is observed.
The winter thunderstorms occur under the identical weather condi-
tions under which St. Elmo's Fire occurs. They invariably occur on the
south-east side of the cyclone's centre, with the easterlj^ passage of which
they appear to be intimately connected. The thunderstorms and cases of
sheet-lightning of Ben Nevis are essentially autumn and winter occun-ences,
70 per cent, of the whole having occurred from September to February.
Tihey are rare in summer, only eight having occurred from May to August,
182 REPORT— 1890.
liaviug an annual period just the reverse of what obtains in the eastern
districts of Scotland. During the summer they are twice as frequent
at Fort William as at the observatory, thus suggesting that a consider-
able number must be below the summit, or in the aerial stratum between
the high and low level observatories. All the summer thunderstorms
have occurred when the sun was above the horizon ; but of the thirty-
seven cases in autumn and winter thirty-two took place when the sun
was below the horizon. These results are of great value in their relation
to the distribution of thunderstorms and other electrical displays over the
land and the water surfaces of the globe.
An elaborate series of hygroraetric observations have been made at
the observatory vi'ith the view of inquiring how far Glaisher's factors can
be safely used. For the conduct of such an inquiry, the low-temperatiire
humidities and remarkably dry states of the air which form so prominent
a feature in the climatology of Ben Nevis, the observatory offers unique
facilities. The observations were made with the ordinary dry and wet
bulb hygrometer and Professor Chrystal's direct hygrometer, with the
result that a specially constructed set of tables is required for the extremely
low humidities of Ben Nevis, these being considerably lower than Mr.
Glaisher had had an opportunity of observing.
Professor C. Michie Smith has shown that on the edge of a dissolving
mist the potential is lower than the normal, but higher on the edge of a
condensing mist. Now, almost always when the top of Ben Nevis be-
comes clear for a short time, a strong current comes up the telegraph cable,
while as soon as the summit is again enveloped the current is reversed. The
connection between the moisture of the atmosjjhere and the earth currents
is still further shown by the rainfall. During a fall of rain or snow the
current nearly alwaj^s passes down the cable ; and in the case of a sudden
shower the current has sometimes driven the mirror of the galvanometer
violently off the scale. A cessation of the rain or snow generally has an
exactly opposite effect. If it be assumed that the summit of Ben Nevis
takes the potential of the masses of vapour covering it, aiid if we consider
the earth-plate at the base as the earth, or zero of potential, it is obvious
that these results confirm the theory advanced by Professor Michie Smith,
a conclusive proof of which would be of the greatest importance in inves-
tigations connected with thunderstorms.
Observations on the numbers of dust particles with the apparatus in-
vented by Mr. Aitken have recently been undertaken at the observatory.
Already noteworthy results have been obtained. On March 31, at 4.30 P.M.,
the sun)mit was clear, and the number of particles per cubic centimetre
was 2,785; but shortly thereafter a thickness was observed approaching
from south-west, which by 6 p.m. reached the observatory, and the num-
ber of particles rose to 12,862, being the maximum yet observed. On
June 15 many observations were made during the day, when the number
of particles fell from 937 at midnight to 50 at 10.30 and 11.42 a.m. Still
more remarkable were the observations of July 20-21. Till 10 P.M. of
the 20th the wind at the top of tlie mountain was about the direction as
at sea-level, viz., south-west to west-south-west ; but at that hour it went
suddenly round to north, increasing at the same time to 40 miles an hour,
and temperature rose from 41°0 to 47°0, and soon after to 49°'2. At the
low-level observatory temperature remained exceptionally constant at
55°-0 from 9 p.m. till 4 a.m. of the 21st. At the high-level observatory
ten observations made between 2 and 3 a.m. gave the extraordinary low
ON METEOROLOGICAL OBSEEVATIOXS ON BEN NEVIS. 183
mean of only two dust particles to tbe cubic centimetre. During this
time the high-saturated, high-temperatured north wind was blowing out
of the cyclone which lay to northward, whilst the sea-level winds were
south-west, or were blowing in upon the same cyclone. The observations
already point to a daily maximum dui'ing the time of the afternoon mini-
mum barometer, and a minimum number during the morning minimum
barometer, or during the times of the great diurnal ascending and descend-
inof currents of the atmosphere. It is evident that in these observations
■we have indications of intimate relations subsisting between the numbers
of dust particles and the cyclones and anticyclones over North- Western
Europe at the time. It is also made clear that the dust particles vary
enormously during the presence of mist or fog without being accompanied
■with any difference in the appa,rent density of the fog.
It is unnecessary to dwell at length on the prime importance of these
observations and investigations conducted at the Ben Nevis observatories
in their relations to cyclones and anticyclones on which our weather
depends, and the bearing of the ■whole matter on the framing of weather
forecasts. To this subject it is arranged that Dr. Buchan's time will be
■wholly given during next year. In carrying out this intricate and labo-
rious investigation, the Meteorological Council send Mr. Omond three
copies of their 'Daily and Weekly Weather Maps,' on which are to be
entered certain of the meteorological data from the high and low level
observatories, and comparisons of those data, together with occasional
remai'ks that may from time to time be made as bearing more or less
closely on forecasting weather. One of these sets will be sent to the
Scottish Meteorological Society, and another to the Meteorological Coun-
cil, while the third will be retained by Mr. Omond at Fort William.
The low-level observatory has been equipped by the Meteorological
Council with a complete set of self-recording instruments, and the regu-
lar observing ■work began on July 14. The directors are thus no'w in the
best possible position for extending the scientific and practical inquiries
they have taken in hand by the unique facilities offered by these two
■well-equipped observatories.
Sixth Report of the Uommittee, consisting of Professors A.
Johnson {Secretary), J. Gr. MacG-regor, J. B. Cherriman, and
H. T. BovEY and Mr. C. Carpmael, appointed for the purpose
of pjromoting Tidal Observations in Canada.
Your Committee is happy to be able to report that the Canadian Govern-
ment has at length undertaken to establish stations for systematic tidal
observations, and that the calculations for the tide-tables will be made
according to the method recommended by the Association. It is under-
stood that the construction of the tables ■v\'ill be entrusted to Mr. Roberts,
of the Nautical Almanac Office. That the efforts of the Committee were
not successful earlier is possibly due to the fact that there have been three
Ministers of Marine in succession since the Committee was appointed, and
that the Committee had, in each case, to begin Jo novo to present the
facts to the Minister in office in order to convince him personally of the
need of the observations for the purposes of practical navigation. The
184 KEPOET— 1890.
character of the British Association as scientific was, to a certain extent,
a positive obstacle to the efforts of the Committee, instead of an aid. Not-
withstanding the courtesy with which deputations from your Committee
were invariably received by the Minister or the Cabinet on the occasions
of an interview, it was obvious that there was always lurking in the
background a suspicion that the Committee might, not unnaturally, take
an exaggerated view of the practical value of the observations in their
appreciation of the scientific interest of their results, and this notwith-
standing the fact that there is not at the present moment a single ofBcial
tide-table, giving the rise and fall of tide, for any of the ports of the
Dominion, and that ocean steamers run aground in places Avliere they
ought not if sufficient information were supplied them. Nor is information
as to the tidal currents obtainable, though the want of it is the cause of
numerous wrecks and great consequent loss of life and property, as shown
by the annual wreck lists for years past.
The Committee has been earnest in pressing both of these needs of
navigation on the attention of the Government, and has been most effec-
tively supported in its efforts by a committee of the Royal Society of
Canada, of which Dr. Sandford Fleming, C.M.G., President of the Society,
was chairman. Sir William Dawson, C.M.G., former President of the
British Association, has on every occasion this year, as heretofore, given
his valuable assistance and taken part in the efforts of your Committee.
A petition to Parliament from nearly 400 masters and officers of ships
asking for survey of the tidal currents (involving, of course, observations
at fixed stations on the rise and fall) was circulated during the last
session, and a petition to the same effect was presented also by the ' Ship-
ping Interest ' of Montreal. This latter body obtained an interview with
the Cabinet to discuss the question, at which were present, besides their
own deputation headed by their chairman (Mr. Andrew Allan, of the Allan
Line), the Chairman of the Board of Trade of Montreal (Mr. Cleghorn),
and members of both committees, including those members above named.
Subsequent to the interview the Minister of Marine (the Hon. C.
H. Tupper) continued the inquiries which he had been making of the
Committee. These were so thorough and searching that the Committee
has the satisfaction of feeling that any extra labour thereby caused them
is well repaid by the fulness of the proofs of the great practical value of
the observations of both kinds presented to the Minister ; proofs to which
the Minister himself added by his independent inquiries from others,
including the Hydrographer of the Admiralty and the Superintendent of
the Coast and Geodetic Survey of the United States.
The only matter of regret is that the grant for the present year is not
sufiicient to establish at the moment more than three or four stations.
An anticipatory grant for next year to establish others was, it is under-
stood, not presented to Parliament in consequence of the absence of the
Minister at Washington in connection with the negotiations going on
with the United States ; but it will, no doubt, be made next session.
Observations of such importance to the commercial interests of Canada,
having been once begun by the Government, must necessarily be con-
tinued to be of any service.
The Committee considers that it has thus brought to a successful
conclusion the work for which it was appointed, and therefore begs to be
discharged.
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CUEMISTRT. 185
RepoH on the Present State of our Knoiuledge in Electrolysis and
Electro-chemistry. By W. N. Shaw, M.A.
The scientific aim of the theory of electrolysis has been stated by F.
Kotilrausch to consist in the reference of electro-chemical phenomena to
mechanical processes and mechanical or electro-meclianical laws. It is
the purpose of this report to enable its readers to form for themselves,
by a comprehensive survey of work done in furtherance of that aim, an
opinion as to the real steps that have been taken towards itsacliieveraent,
the causes which have stood in the way of its more complete fulfilment,
and, if possible, to get some idea as to probable directions of future pro-
gress. It is hardly necessary to say that the aim in question has not
yet been fully attained. JMultitudes of experiments have been described
in scientific jjublications ; some generalisations and laws have been esta-
blished, and various forms of electro-mechanical theory of electrolysis are
at present under discussion ; but they are not yet fully developed, nor,
indeed, have rival theories been stated in such clear forms as to lead to
the suggestion of crucial experiments.
A very concise yet complete summary of the facts and theories relating
to electrolysis and electro-chemistry up to the end of 1882 has been com-
piled by Professor G. Wiedemann, and is the more valuable as its author
is himself so successful a worker in that field. Ths summary is contained
in Wiedemann's ' Electricitiit,' mainly in the second volume. The whole
of the account of electrolysis and allied subjects occupies few, if any,
less than a thousand of Wiedemann's ample pages. No student of elec-
trolysis can fail to owe a debt of gratitude to the author of this large
collection of facts and theories. Since its publication, however, the atten-
tion of many scientific men has been directed towards electro-chemistry.
Von Helmholtz in his Faraday Lecture (April 5, 1881) ' pointed out the
importance of the subject ; and the Electrolysis Committee of the British
Association, appointed jointly by Sections A and B, after the discussion of
the subject at Aberdeen in 1885 opened by Dr. 0. J. Lodge, has, under
his able direction, maintained the interest in it. A great deal of work
has been done, especially towards comparing the numerical values of
electrolytic conductivity of a compound with those of its other physical
properties ; moreover, Svante Arrhenius, in a memoir presented to the
Academy of Sciences of Sweden in 1883, has based the numerical calcu-
lation of a number of chemical actions upon the numbers expressing the
electrolytic conductivity of the interacting substances. The application
by Von Helmholtz of the second law of thermodynamics to chemical and
electro-chemical processes in 1877 and 1882 has led to extensive researches
in the thermodynamics of electrolysis. The years since the close of 1882
have accordingly witnessed a very remarkable activity in the development
of electrolytic subjects. Apart from memoirs on special sections iu
current scientific literature, a general survey of the field by Lodge in
1885, forming the opening address in the discussion at Aberdeen, is
printed in the British Association report of that year, in which, perhaps,
the foreshortening of the subject, natural to the point of view of a leader
' Jour. Chem. Soc. 39, p. 277.
186 REPOET — 1890.
of discussion, is somewhat conspicuous. There is, moreover, a short but
very interesting sketch of the subject in 1887 by one of the founders of
its new development, published in the' Electrotechnische Zeitschrift,' June
1887, under the title of ' Die gegenwartigen Anschauungen liber die
Electrolyse von Losungen,' by F. Kohlrausch, and a brief statement ot
the ])roblems in the subject was given by G. Wiedemann at the meeting
of the British Association at Manchester in 1887 (' Report,' p. 347).
The order of arrangement of this report will be : —
(1.) A general statement of the actions, physical and chemical, pro-
duced by the passage of electricity through a typical electi'olytic cell.
This is introduced for the purpose of securing definiteness in the con-
ceptions and language, and to set forth the phenomena which any theory
of electrolysis must primarily be able to explain. It will also serve as a
guide to the classification of the experimental data available for testing
or illustrating electrolytic theories.
(II.) A statement of those generalisations and laws which are accepted
by all workers in the subject. References will be given to the original
sources of the evidence upon which these laws are based, but a detailed
historical account of the establishment of the laws will not be attempted,
although some of them may only have been accepted after prolonged
discussion.
(III.) A short statement of the hypotheses and of the partial or
general theories of electrolysis which have been proposed and are still
under discussion, and the experiments relating to them, including especially
the following questions : —
(a) What is an electrolyte ?
(h) What are the ions in any given electrolytic decomposition,
including the cases of mixed electrolytes ?
(c) The Williamson-Clausius theory of dissociation.
(d) Electro-chemical thermodynamics, including thermo-electric
effects.
(e) The theory of electric endosmose.
(/) The theory of the migration of ions and of specific ionic
velocities.
(^) The numerical relations of electrical conductivity with other
physical and chemical properties of the electrolytic sub-
stances.
(IV.) A discussion of the experimental methods and the apparatus
used in the determination of numerical values used in the previous
section.
(V.) An account of electro-chemical phenomena which ai'e not generally
included in the term ' electrolytic,' but which may be used to elucidate
the electrolytic theories. In this section will be included certain pheno-
mena connected with the passage of electricity through solids and gases,
and the conductivity of flame.
(VI.) Electrolytic or electro-chemical phenomena which are not re-
garded as having a direct bearing upon electrolytic theories, viz. secondary
actions, electro-capillary phenomena, irreciprocal conduction, electro-
striction, and transition resistance.
1
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRT. 187
Part I.
General EledroJytic Phenomena.
In order to analyse the actions taking place in electrolysis, wc may
imagine the electrolyte in the cell divided into three jjortions by two
parallel partitions of porous non-conduoting substance ; the two end
portions, the anode and the cathode vessels, contain the positive and
negative electrodes respectively ; the middle portion, while it allows the
transmission of electricity through it, may be imagined protected from
any change of composition which, in the absence of partitions, might be
effected by diffusion, or mechanical transfusion, or convection currents of
liquid. How far such an ideal partition is realisable in practice will
appear later. The electrodes may be any electrical conductors, solid or
fluid, alike or different. For a typical specimen we cannot regard an elec-
trolytic liquid otherwise than as a mixture of solutions of chemical com-
pounds, though the amount of all but one of the constituents of the
mixture may be so small as to be regarded merely as impurities, which it
•would not even be possible to detect by ordinary chemical means. The
remarkable sensitiveness of electrolytic properties to change, in conse-
quence of the admixture of very minute portions of impurity, renders this
necessary.
Thus Von Helmholtz has already said in his Faraday Lecture that he
has detected the polarisation corresponding to the decomposition of a
quantity of water of the order 1 xlO"" gramme. And Gore • has
shown that the effect of chlorine upon the E.M.F. of a Pt-Mg voltaic
couple in distilled water is such that the presence of one part of chlorine
in seventeen thousand million parts of water could be detected thereby.
The neglect of considerations of this kind finds very remarkable illustra-
tion in the history of electrolysis. It is now generally known that the
experiments upon very pure water, especially those of "Kohlrausch,^ have
so far changed the views upon the matter that, whereas at one time water
was regarded as the conducting part of a solution, pure water is now looked
upon as probably not conducting at all. Kohlrausch obtained water the
ratioof whose conductivity to that of mercury was 071 xlO ~" at 21-5° C,
and its sensitiveness for small quantities of impurity approximated to that
of the sense of smell, since when exposed in a room containing tobacco-
smoke its conductivity doubled in three hours. The simplification that
would be introduced by regarding the typical electrolytic cell as contain-
ing a perfectly pure chemical compound liquid cannot therefore be
realised in practice, and any part of a theory Avhich depends for its sup-
port on such an assumption must, for the present at any rate, be held in
suspense.
When an electromotive force is made to act between the electrodes of
such a cell as that described above, so that a current is shown in a gal-
vanometer included in the circuit, the following actions take place : —
{a.) A part of the electrolyte is decomposed, the products of the de-
composition are deposited at theelectrodes, and these either (i.) are visibly
set free, (ii.) unite with the electrodes, or (iii.) unite chemically with the
solution in the anode or cathode vessel as the case may be, and in the
' Proc. Soy. Soc. June 14, 1888, vol. 44, p. 301
' Pogg. Ann. Ergz. B. 8, 187G, p. 1 : Wied. Elec.
188 EEPOET— 1890.
last two cases give rise to ' secondary ' chemical products. These second-
ary actions are quite independent of the direct effect of electrolysis.
If we consider this chemical action more in detail, we may regard the
electrolytic liquid as composed of a number of molecules, and the action
will then be the separation of a number of these molecules each into two
constituent parts or ions : these ions are deposited at the electrodes only.
Considering a single molecule, the one part is deposited at the cathode, and
is called the cation ; the other part (or the corresponding part of a similar
molecule) at the anode, and is called the anion. The terminology of the
subject was introduced by Faraday ('Exp. Kes.' Ser. VII. 1834)'. What
is precisely to be understood by the ' molecule ' which is decomposed is
not yet clear. Even if we suppose the electrolyte a solution of a salt so
pui'e that the decomposition of impurity could not in any case be
detected, we cannot now say that all the molecules decomposed are
similar. To take a definite instance, in a solution of sodium chloride the
molecule decomposed may be the simple chemical molecule NaCl, or it
may be a molecular aggregate of sodium chloride [^(NaCl)], or an aggre-
gate of salt and water [?i(]SraCl), 9»(HoO)], or some molecules of one
kind and some of another may be decomposed. The primary results of
the separation of the molecules, each into two parts, are the true ions,
and are deposited at the electrodes. But, however complicated may be
the molecules of the electrolyte which are regarded as individually
decomposed, in cases in which there is visible deposit on the electrodes,
or direct combination with the electrodes, the deposit or combination
could have been produced by the decomposition of the simple molecules
[NaCl] of salt in the solution.
(h.) The volume of the liquid in the cathode vessel increases ; that in
anode vessel diminishes. This phenomenon, which is known as electric
endosmose, is attributed to the action of the porous diaphragms, and is
regarded as independent of the more strictly electrolytic phenomena.
(c.) The percentage comjjosition of the solution in the anode and cathode
vessels is altered, generally nnequally in the two, while that in the inter-
mediate vessel remains unaltered. This phenomenon is usually attributed
to the migration of the ions with unequal velocities through the solution,
and is equivalent, if the ions be the result of decomposition of simple
molecules, to a transfer of those molecules, which in the end are left in
combination, through the body of the solution, in one direction or the
other,
(fZ.) There is a rise in temperature of the liquid owing to the develop-
ment of heat by the current, just as there would be in the case of a
metallic conductor.
(e.) The deposit of ions upon the electrodes causes an electromotive
force opposed in direction to the decomposing electromotive force applied.
This B.M.F. of polarisation is in some cases sufficiently great to balance
the latter and prevent the further flow of current.
The current may also be considerably reduced by the resistance of
a layer of non-conducting material produced by the action of the ions
on the electrodes.
(/.) Thermo-electric effects are produced at the junctions of the
different substances in the circuit, including the junctions of metal and
liquid.
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 189
Part II.
Laws and Principles i/eneralhj Accepted.
(n.) The electro-mag^ietic action of the current passing throrujh an electro-
hjte is the same as if the elecfroli/te ivere replaced by a metallic conductor of
the same size and shape, and of such resistance that it coidd be substituted for
the electrolyte luiihout altering the current in the rest of the circuit. — This
merely expresses the idea that the flow of electricity may be regarded as
analogous to that of an incompressible fluid, even when an electrolyte
forms part of the circuit, being either the fluid conductor of a battery cell
or of a voltameter cell. The refei-ences quoted by Wiedemann (vol. i.
p. 321) for this statement are: Wiedemann, ' Galvanismus,' I. Aufl. 18G1,
p. 97 ; Schiller and Colley, Pogg. ' Ann.' 155, 1875, p. 467 ; Cooke, ' Chem.
News,' 40, 1879, p. 22; 'Beibl.' 3, p. G32 ; R. Kohlrausch, 'Pogg. Ann.'
97, 1856, p. 401.
The current may for some purposes be regarded as the flowing of
positive electricity like an incompressible fluid round the circuit in the
direction from anode to cathode, the quantity which crosses any section
in unit of time measuring the current. For the body of the electrolyte,
however, the language of the two-fluid hypothesis is considered by Von
Helmholtz as more convenient, and it is usual to regard the current in
the electrolyte as made up of the independent flow of equal quantities of
positive and negative electricities in opposite directions. It will appear
later that it is possible to form an estimate of the absolute rates at which
the positive and negative quantities respectively flow, and that the ab-
solute rates may be unequal ; in that case the measures of the current at any
section due to the flow in the two directions respectively will not be equal.
But minute considerations of the disposal of the positive and negative
electricity may lead to confusion (see Wiedemann, 2, § 1043) ; and
evidently if we regard the current as a convective discharge, by redistri-
bution of parts, along a single line of molecules with oppositely electrified
sides, the current at any given section between two molecules will be
due entirely either to the motion of positive electricity in one direction
or of negative in the other, according to the position of the section ; and
in that case the quantities of positive and negative electricity actually
engaged will be double of those requii-ed, if one is allowed to suppose that
-they pass each other instead of meeting each other.
It is not clear that we are justified in regai'ding the positive and negative
electricities each as separate incompressible fluids continuous throughout
the whole circuit, as suggested by Lodge ('B.A. Rep.' 1885); but this
point may be more completely discussed in considering the theory of
unequal migration of ions (Part III. § e).
(i.) There are electrolytes in u-hich conduction of electricity from the elec-
trode to the electrolyte, and again from the electrolyte to the electrode, is entirely
' convective,' in the sense that no electricity can pass into an electrolyte or
out of it again without causing a deposit of a certain number of con-
stituent ions where the current enters, and of an equal number of the
remainders of the decomposed molecules (opposite ions) where it leaves the
electrolyte, the weight of electrolyte decomposed bemg proportional to
the quantity of electricity transmitted. This is included in Faraday's
law, and is equivalent to saying that in certain electrolytes there is no
190 BEPORT— 1890.
conduction without chemical decomposition ; and it may be expressed by
the formula
W = K.E,
where W is the weight of electrolyte decomposed by the passage of the
quantity E of electricity, and K a constant depending on the nature of
the electrolyte.
I have worded the statement of this proposition in a carefully
guarded manner ; it certainly holds for a very large number of electro-
lytes, possibly for all. The proposition has been gi'adually evolved as the
result of a large number of observations. Faraday (Exp. Res. ser. 8,
§ 970, P84, 1834) allowed a slight amount of conduction without chemical
decomposition ; and since that time the question has been much dis-
cussed, and the causes of the apparent metallic conduction traced. An
account of the discussion is given in Wiedemann, vol. 2, p. 488, which is
summed up as follows : ' According to all these experiments we must
now accept that if once the conduction of currents through electrolytes
is associated with their simultaneous decomposition, then, besides this
electrolytic conduction, which follows strictly the electrolytic [Faraday's]
law, no second metallic conduction of apart of the electricity takes jilace
therein.' Yon Helmholtz in Part III. of his ' Thermodynamics of Chemical
Processes ' (Phys. Soc. Translation, p. 79) says : ' If the two electrodes
of a voltameter be charged and maintained at different potentials, electric
forces corresponding to the slope of potential act within the fluid, driving
+ E to the cathode, — E to the anode. This movement of electricity never
takes place, so far as we kcow, without a simultaneous motion of the ions
of the electrolyte to which the + E and — E set in motion are attached ' ;
and in the next page, ' I have myself succeeded in following out the pro-
portionality between the electromotive force and the amount of condensed
charge .... down to electromotive forces of O'OOOl Daniell.'
Von Helmholtz also expressed the same view in the Faraday Lecture, in
which he announced that with an air-free cell therein described he had
detected the polarisation produced during a few seconds by a current
which would only decompose a milligramme of water in a century; and
he went on to say : ' But even if the appearance of galvanic polarisation
should not be acknowledged by opponents as a sufficient indication of
previous decomposition, it is not difficult at present to reduce the indica-
tions of a good galvanometer to absolute measures and to calculate the
amount of decomposition which ought to be expected according to
Faraday's law, and to verify that in all the cases in which no products of
electrolysis can be discovered their amount is too small for chemical
analysis.'
Bouty (quoted by Lodge, ' B.A. Report,' 1886, p. 348), referring in par-
ticular to acidulated water, asserts, ' A liquid has only a single way of
conducting electricity, whatever may be going on at the electrodes.
The expressions "metallic conductivity" and " electrolytic conductivity"
ought to disappear from science.'
Experiments on the decomposition produced in acidulated water by
the induction of electrostatic charges are described by Wiedemann (2, §
544) and by Ostwald and Nernst (' Electrician,' 23, p. 300, 1889), who
observed a bubble of hydrogen which would correspond to the decom-
position of 4 X 10-'° gramme of water. Eouvet (' C. R.' 87, p. 1068)
has found that the quantity of electricity necessary for decomposing a
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTKO-CnEMISTRY. 191
given quantity of water is independent of the pressure up to 200 atmo-
Bphcres.
Thufi it may fairly be allowed that acidulated water is one of the
electrolytes for which this proposition is true.
It is also regarded as true for solutions of salts of silver, for which,
according to Lord Rayleigh and Mrs. Sidgwick (' Phil. Trans.' 1884 (2),
p. 411), every gramme of silver deposited upon an electrode corresponds
to the passage of 84'82 C.G.S. electro-magnetic units of electricity ; ac-
cording to F. and W. Kohlrausch (Wied. 'Ann.' 27, 1886, p. 1), 84-53
such units. The proposition is probably equally true for all salt solu-
tions, but the inference that it is true for all electrolytes is not j^et
substantiated, though evidence continues to accumulate in its favour.
Thus Faraday ('Exp. Res.' 414, 691, 692, 1340) considered that fused
Hglj, PbF,, and HgCl2, conducted without any chemical decomposition,
but Beetz (Pogg. ' Ann.' 92, 1854, p. 461) has shown that PbFj conducts
in a normal electrolytic way ; and J. W. Clark (' Phil. Mag.' 20, 1885, p.
37) showed that there was chemical decomposition in the conduction by
the other two fused salts.
But Gladstone and Hibbert ('B.A. Report,' 1888, p. 347), in com-
municating to the Electrolysis Committee the results of experiments on
alloys and solid sulphides, still make use of phrases such as ' the conduction
was accompanied by considerable electrolysis ' ; ' the conduction was
almost entii-ely non-electrolytic ' ; which would seem to imply that the
practice of distinguishing between metallic and other conduction in the
same substance is not yet entirely abandoned.
[See an extract of a paper by Barus ' ('Electrician,' Dec. 21, 1888, p.
199) on supposed transition from metallic conduction to electrolytic con-
duction in gases, on passing through the critical point of the metal; also
Lodge, ' B.A. Report,' 1885, p. 767.]
If it be allowed that the conduction of electricity into and out of an
electrolyte is oonvective in the sense already explained, there will be no
difficulty in accepting the next stage in the development of the idea, namely,
that the conduction from point to point of the liquid is similarly convec-
tive ; and, in fact, we arrive at the general statement that the redistribution
of electrification, which constitutes an electric current through, or statical
chai'ge npon the surface of, an electrolyte, is accompanied by, and indeed
consists in, the redistribution of ions carrying electric charges.
We may here also briefly consider the second part of Faraday's law,
namely, that the same quantity of electricity produces in different electro-
lytes the separation of chemically equivalent amounts of ions. There is
no doubt about the truth of the statement ; it has been experimentally
tested for some cases where it has a definite meaning, and has been shown
to be true for fused and dissolved electrolytes, within the limits of error
of determination of chemical equivalents or atomic weights,^ and is, indeed,
recognised as in some cases an accurate method of finding the ratio of
chemical equivalents.^ But there is attaching to it whatever uncertainty
attaches to the meaning of the term ' chemical equivalent.' Everyone would
' -imeriran Joiiriialof iScioirc, Dec. ISSS.
" Faradav, L'j-j). JRcs. 3, § 377; 7, § 783 (1833). Matteucci (Ann. de CJdm. 58,
183.5, p. 75).' Becquerel (Ann. de Chim. 6G, 1837, p. 91). Soret (Ann. de C/iim. [3]
42, 18.';4, p. 257). Renault, Ann. de Chim. [4] 11, p. 137. Gray, Phil. Mag. 22, 1886,
p. 389.
' For silver and copper, Shaw, B.A. Bej). 1886, p. 318. For zinc, Gladstone and
Hibbert Journ. Chcm. t;oc. July 4, 18S9, p. 443.
192 EEPORT— 1890.
admit that if there are two electrolytic cells in series containing electrolytes
AB, A' B', A and A' being cations, B and B' anions, the amounts of
A and A' or of B and B' deposited by the same quantity of electricity
are chemically equivalent ; but for a given electrolyte, the specification of
the ions into which it will be decomposed by the current is not always
known, or even ascertainable ; moreover, there are cases in which the
elements have more than one chemical equivalent, so that it is not prac-
ticable to state this part of Faraday's law in more definite terms than
tliose given above. The recent work on the subject will be considered
in the answer to the question ' What are the ions ? ' in Part III. § 6.
But there is no question of doubt when the electrolytes are fused or
dissolved compounds of monad elements only, and there are many other
cases of dyad and triad compounds in which the chemical equivalence of
the ions is well recognised, and in all these cases Faraday's law in its
complete form may be applied with confidence; and the final result is that
with every monad atomic ion there is associated in electrolysis a certain
definite quantity of electricity, positive or negative ' ; with every dyad
atomic ion twice that amount, with every triad three times, and so on.
And in all true electrolytes, the distribution of electricity is the distribution
of these ions carrying their specific charges.
(c.) The conduction of electric currents through electrolytes folJoivs Ohm's
law. — It must be remembered that for metallic conductors it has been
shown by Chrystal and Saunder that if the relation between electromotive
force e and current i be represented by
e = ir (1 — hi^)
then h is less than 10"^^ showing that for these Ohm's law is true
with extreme accuracy. There are certain physical laws which, although
originally discovered empirically, express as numerical relations necessai-y
consequences of the nature of the physical quantities referred to in the
laws. Thus Snell's law of refraction (expressing, as is now known, the
ratio of velocities of transmission in two media) is not a law in which
one expects further experimental investigation to detect a deviation from
accuracy. Faraday's law is another illustrative example. The inverse
square laws, which perhaps merely express the property of transmission
in straight lines, are also laws which seem to be strictly true, and not
empirical approximations. There is a difference in character between
these and such as the gaseous laws, in which more refined ajjparatus and
methods detect divergences from the apparent simplicity. Now Ohm's
law for metals, being the most accurately verified of all laws, would seem to
belong to the former class, and to be a necessary consequence of the nature-
of conduction itself. J. Hopkinson ^ suggests that the law asserts the
principle of the superposition of the effects of electromotive forces in bodies
in which, the conduction is not complicated by residual charge, and it may
therefore be regarded as a special case of the more general principle of
superposition.^ He divides the continuous effect of electromotive force on
glass into four successive stages, and thinks that the same might hold if
"we could experiment fast enough for an electrolyte, the principle of super-
position probably applying to all the continuously connected successive
events.
' For the calculation of the amount of electricitj' on a monad atom see Lodge.
B.A. Hep. 1885; Budde, Wied. Ann. 25, p. 5G2, 1885. " \
' Phil. Trans. 167, 1877, p. 614. ^ B.A. Rei). 1885, p. 309.
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CnEMISTRT. 193
The detection of any deyiation from Ohm's law in an electrolyte
would be of great interest, for it would probably indicate an important
change in the nature of the conduction. From what has been said about
Faraday's law we have concluded that the conduction in an electrolyte ia
of the same nature for different electromotive forces, and therefore no
deviation from Ohm's law is likely to be detected. But if the nature of
the ions changed with increase of current w-e should expect the fact might
be indicated by a deviation from Ohm's law; and, conversely; if it be pos-
sible to increase the current to such a limit that Ohm's law no longer
holds, some change in the nature of the conduction should be looked for.
Besides gases there are some bodies which do not follow Ohm's law. I
am under the impression that a lead-pencil mark on ground glass does not.
According to Braun,' psilomelane, iron pyrites, and copper pyrites do not,
and, according to Quincke,^ some of the liquids of high resistance — ether,
CSo, turpentine oil, rock oil, and benzene — are disobedient for electromotive
forces of, say, 30,000 volts and upwards. When the divergence shows itself
there are indications of electrolytic decomposition. Quincke also refers to
observations on departure from Ohm's law in thin layers of gutta-percha,
sulphur, paraffin, and shellac for small electromotive forces by Schulze-
Berge,^ and to anomalous conduction observed by himself.'*
The direct verification of Ohm's law for copper sulphate has been pushed
by Fitzgerald and Trouton^ to the extent of determining, by Chrystal's
method, that, for this salt, h (in the formula p. 192) is less than 3 xlO"^.
The maximum current employed was 10 amperes per square centimetre.
The previous verifications are by Beetz ^ for ziuc vitriol solution, by
F. Kohlrausch^ for dilute H2SO4, for E.M.F.s from y^, to \ Grove cell
for zinc vitriol solution, by Reinold * and Rilcker for thin liquid films,
and by E. Cohn '■* for H2SO4 and CuSO^ solution (in reply to a paper by
Overbeck '"), using currents with periods of alternation between lOO and
25000 per second.
Some additional evidence in favour of the application of Ohm's law
to conduction in electrolytes is derived from the very numerous measure-
ments of the resistance of electrolytes. I am not aware that any of the
many observers in this or other departments have suggested a vai'iation
of resistance with current, as an explanation of differences in the numerical
values obtained for the specific resistance of the same solution, with the
•exception of Kopp " in some experiments on Joule's law.
The one point that remains to be settled is whether any experimental
evidence can be found for the deduction from Maxwell's ' Theory of
Light ' that electrolytes, being transparent, should behave as dielectrics
for rapidly alternating electromotive forces. There are two ways of
approaching the question : (1) to find the length of the light-wave for
which electrolytes are opaque ; (2) to find the rapidity of electrical
vibration for which the electrolytes cease to conduct. Nothing seems to
have been done in No. (1 ) ; as to No. (2) Prof. J. J. Thomson '^ has found
' Pogg. Ann. \m, 1874, p. 556 ; AVicd. Ann. 1, 1877, p. 95 ; 19, 1883, p. 3i0.
^ Wied. Ann. 2,S, 1886, p. 542.
^ Verhandl. dcr Phys. Gcs. zu Berlin, 14, 1, 1886, p. 90.
' Wied. Ann. 10, 1880, p. 551.
* B.A. Itcp. 18S8, p. 341; 1886, p. .•U2 ; 1887, p. 345.
• PoKg. Ann. 125, 1865, p. 126 ; 117, 1867, p. 15.
' JUd. 138, 186!), pp. 280, 370. « Proe. Roy. Soc. 31, 1881, p. 524.
» AVied. Ann. 21, 1884, p. 646. '» Wied. Ann. 6, 1879, p. 210.
" Bcihl. 10, 1886, p. 714. '= Proc. Roy. Soc. 45, p. 288.
1890.
194 HEPOiiT— 1890.
tliat electrolytes still conduct when tlie rapidity of alternation is two
hundred miUions per second.
If there should be evidence to show that there is no rapidity of alter-
nation for which electrolytes behave as dielectrics and no waves so long-
that electrolytes are opaque, we might take up Lodge's ' third suggestion,,
that the number of molecules actually taking part in the conduction is-
too small to affect the properties of the substance in bulk, bat this would
have important bearings on the theory of conduction.
(fL) The only imntediate effect of the passage of the current upon the hodij
of a liomogeneous electrolyte is to alter its tem.perature, and the alteration
of temperature takes place in accordance with Joule's law.
There are two statements involved in this proposition. First, the
chemical effects take place entirely at the electrodes : although the
electricity is conveyed convectively through the electrolyte there is no
change in the physical or chemical properties of the fluid in the inter-
mediate vessel of the cell described in Part I. The electrolyte betwecD
the anode and cathode vessel produces the electro-magnetic effect corre-
sponding to the current, but it gives no other evidence that a current is
passing ; it is the same fluid in the same condition as if no current were
passing. This amounts to asserting a negative, and by it I do not intend
to deny the possibility of some evidence of changed condition being
ultimately discovered. Reinold and Riicker found no evidence of change
of state in their films. Lord Rayleigh - has looked for an effect upon the
power of transmitting light, but the result of his experiments is to show
that in dilute sulphuric acid a current of one ampere per square centi-
metre does not alter the velocity of light by one part in thirteen millions,,
or fifteen metres per second. I have thought it possible that there might
be a change in the absorption spectrum of the liquid during the passage
of the current ; but the spectrum is a complicated phenomenon, and no
difference is visible in the cases I have tried. It is much to be desired
that the change, if any, in the condition of the conducting fluid should
be speedily brought to light, as the question has an important bearing on
the dissociation theory. Secondly, Joule's law applies equally to electro-
lytes and metallic conductors. With the acceptance of Ohm's law, this
does not seem really to imply more than is included in the first statement
above. For if there is no change in the condition of the electrolyte, the
only expenditure of energy upon it is that required to maintain the
current, and the resistance is the amount of work required to maintain
unit current ; so Joule's law follows if the resistance is constant. If there
were any chemical cling, as Lodge calls it, of the atoms in the molecules,
the law could not be true ; so if it be true we must give up the idea of
polarisation in the interior of an electrolyte, and the idea of a finite
electric force being required to separate a molecule into ions. A number
of direct experimental verifications of Joule's law for electrolytes have
been attempted by Joule,^ by E. Becquerel,'' by Jahn ^ for Cu'SO4 + 200
11,0 and CuSOj + loOHcO (current between '106 and '162 ampere) and
for ZnSO4 + 200B[2O and ZnSO4-H300H2O (current strength between
•037 and -05 ampere), and by Kopp** for ZnS04. In no case has any
deviation from the law been detected.
' B.A. Hep. 1885, p. 768. "- Hid. 1888, p. 341.
' Phil. Mafl. 19, 1841, p. 274.
* Ann. de 'CMm. [3] 9, 1843, p. 54; see Wied. Eke. 2, § 482-486.
' Wied. Ann. 25, 1885, p. 49 « Beill. 10, 1886, p. 714.
(
ON ELECTEOLTSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 195
The only apparent evidence against the apphcation of Jonle's law to
electrolytes is the ' innere Polai-isation ' observed by Du Bois-Reymoud.' '
This phenomenon is, however, only exhibited in heterogeneous conductoi's,
snch as filter-paper and other porous bodies when moistened with a
bad conductor like water. It is not shown when HqSOj, KI, or IvHO is
used, unless the porous body is a good conductor, as cliarcoal or cylinders
of stiff' glue containing brass filings. It may be explained by the division
of the current between the fluid and the matrix, in the same waj as the
decomposition of AgNO-^ in a crack in a glass partition, observed by
Grotthuss.''^
For the theory of the relation between E.M.F. and difference of con-
centration of an electrolyte, see Von Helmholtz, 'Wissensch. Abh.' vol. 1,
p. 840.
It is clear from what has been said above that the conduction of
electricity through the electrolyte inay be considered quite separately
from the actions taking place at the electrodes. We are accordingly led
to notice two main and almost independent divisions of the subject. The
first of these relates to the transformations of energy incidental to, and
represented by, the sepai'ation of ions, the secondary actions, the thermo-
electric effects, the electromotive forces of polarisation at the electrodes.
This part may be called the thermodynamics of electrolysis, while the second
deals with the conduction of the current throngh the liquid, the mecha-
nism of conduction or of resistance, and its relation to other physical
properties. In this no transformation of energy takes place but the
frictional generation of heat. The secondary actions may in time affect
the nature of the electrolyte, and the other effects at the electrode alter
the magnitude of the current ; but jirimarily the two parts of the subject
are independent.
Part III.
§ a. — What is an Electrolyte ?
The complete answer to this question would imply the complete solu-
tion of the problem of electrolysis, just as in the theory of light the
complete solution is the answer to the question. What is common light ?
Putting the question more definitely — What must be the physical
state and chemical constitution of a substance in order that the conduc-
tion of electricity throngh it may be attended with the decomposition of
the substance into ions appearing only at the electrodes?
In order to show that a particular substance is an electrolyte, the
chemical decomposition produced by the current must be demonstrated
either by the separation and exhibition of the products, or by the E.M.F.
of polarisation. On account of the sensitiveness of electrical instruments,
the latter is the more delicate method ; but the analogy between an
electrolyte of high resistance and a leaky condenser is so close that the
distinction between a dielectric and an electrolyte may sometimes be
difficult to draw.
The liquids whose conduction is undoubtedly electrolytic vary very
greatly in conductivity. To give an idea of the extent of the variation, I
have compiled a rough table of conductivities of a number of liquids,
conductors and non-conductors (the numbers taken mainly from Wiede-
mann's ' Electricitat ').
• Wied. Elec. 2, p. 780. = Wied. Elec. 2, p. 783.
o2
196
iiEroRT — 1890.
Table I. — Conductivities of Liquids referred to that of Mercury xlO~^ at
0° G.
[Numbers marked with an asterisk are not to be regarded as final numerical
results ; they are introduced to indicate the order of magnitude of the quantities.]
Conductivity re-
Tempera-
Liquid
ferred to Mercury
at 0°xl0-8
ture co-
efficient
Observer
Eemarks
PbCl, (fused)
25,000-*
F. Braun
AgCl" „
24,000-
—
W. Kohlrausch
at 600°C.
NaNO, „
11,500-*
—
F. Braun
HNOj in water
7,330-
•014
solution of maxi-
mum conduc-
tivity at 18°C.
HCI
7,174-
-0155
,,
H,SO, „
6,914-
-0162
)>
Kon
5,095-
-0225
j»
KI
4,100-
-0140
VFrom Wiede-
mann
sp. gr. 1-70
NH.CI „
3,980-
•0155
„ 1-078
AgNO, „
2,100-
-0211
„ 2-18
NaCl
2,016-
-0234
„ 1-201
KHCO3 „
1,100-
-0199
„ 1-15
CuSO, „
440-
-0241
„ 1-208
C4HfiOj „
94-
-0192
/
solution of maxi-
mum conduc-
tivity at 18° C.
ZnCL fused
8G-*
F. Braun
CaCL in alcohol
83-
-0102
Fitzpatrick
C.H,Oo in water
15-2
-0174
From Wiede-
mann
solution of maxi-
mum conduc-
tivity at 18° C.
HgCl, „
3-91
-0249
Grotrian
5 per cent, solu-
tion
HgBr, „
•24
•032
)»
-422 per cent, so-
lution
Alcohol
•018
-018
Pfeiffer
Ether
j-008*)
1 -0025 )
—
/ Kohlrausch
Water at 2° 5 F.
•0071
„ at 14°C.
-0065
-035
Pfeiffer
Benzene
-002*
—
W. i. p. 565
SnClj
? -0000001*
—
The electrolyte of highest conductivity is fused lead chloride, and by
taking solutions more and more dilute, we obtain without any breach of
continuity electrolytes of less and less conductivity down to that of pare
water or pure alcohol, and the resistance of these is of the same order as
that of benzene, and even for these and other nearly insulating liquids, '
as ether and oil of turpentine, evidence of polarisation has been shown. ^
It is clear, therefore, that the question of what constitutes an electro-
lyte must be considered quite apart from the specific resistance of the
substances.
As to the physical properties of electrolytes, the majority of them are
liquids, but there are certainly solids in which conduction is attended
with decomposition. I may refer to a diagram by W. Kohlrausch (Wied.
' Ann.' vol. 17, p. 642), showing his observations on the salts of silver,
' Picker quoted by Von Hebnholtz, Faraday Lecture, Jour. Chem. Soc. 39, p. 291.
ON ELECTllOLTSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEJIISTEY. 197
in which the continuity of the numerical value of the conductivity of
Agl and the mixture AgCl + AgI through their fusing points is very
striking. The point of transition of Agl ' from the amorphous to the
ci-ystalline state is also interesting, and is marked on the diagram. The
conduction of these bodies below the fusing point is attended with
chemical decomposition, but whether it is wholly or only partially of
that nature is not demonstrated. The diagram also shows the results of
Hittorf's observations on AgoS, which is decomposed by the current
when solid ; this body fuses at a red heat. Solid CU2S was likewise shown
by Hittorf - to conduct electrolytically.
Plumbic chloride, bromide, iodide^ also conduct, and glass'' even at
low temperature. Warburg and Tegetmeier ^ have shown that sodium
penetrates quartz electrolytically.
But all solid compound bodies do not conduct electrolytically ; those
in the following table conduct metallically : —
Table II. — Compound Bodies which conduct like Metals.
Substance
Olisen-er
Cuprous selenide, Cu„Se
Hittorf
Cupric sulphide, CuS
)j
Stannic sulphide, SnS„
)»
Argentic selenide, Ag.,Se
))
Lead peroxide, PbO„
Manganese dioxide, MnO.,
Argentic oxide, Ag.,0
Magnetite
S. P. Thompson
Hematite
91
There is also an increasing body of experimental evidence of electro-
lytic action on the passage of electricity through gases, particularly in
the neighbourhood of electric discharge. These phenomena will be con-
sidered in Part V.
There are, however, no liquids, other than pure metals and alloys,
which conduct electricity with the same facility as fused or dissolved
electrolytes without electrolytic conduction. Faraday ^ considered that
fused Hgia, HgClo, and PbF2 were liquids which were capable only of
metallic conduction, but fused PbF2 has been shown to conduct electro-
lytically by Beetz,'' and electrolytic action has been proved to exist also in
the other two cases by J. W. Clark,* but it is not yet clear whether the
conduction in these cases is entirely electrolytic. If it should prove to
be so, conduction in liquids may prove to be, as J. J. Thomson ^ suggests,
of identical nature in metals and electrolytes.
While, therefore, it would be unwise to say that whatever conduction
there may be through liquids of very high resistance is not electrolytic,
the difference in the condition and constitution of substances from which
' See also a paper by Lehmann, Wied. Ann. 38, p. 396.
^ Hittorf, Fogg. Ann. 84, p. 5, 1851.
' llclmholtz, Faraday Lecture. Gross, Monatsher. der Berl. Acad. 1877, p. 500.
■■ Wiedemann, Elec. i. p. 5.58.
» Nachr. v. d. K. Ges. d. Wiss. Gottingen, May 30, 1888.
« Exp. Res. vol. 1, pp. C91, ()92, 1340, and 1341.
' Fogg. Ann. vol. 92, p. 452, 1854. » Phil. Mag. July 1885, p. 37.
' Aj)jj!ication of Dynamics to Phijdcs, p. 297.
Faraday
Confirmed by Hittorf (I.e.)
■\
-Bleekrode, I.e., Tables G and 7
198 EEPOET— 1890.
arise the phenomena that one conducts freely with chemical decomposi-
tion while another is neai'ly a perfect insulator, still remains to be classified
and, if possible, explained. The following is a list of some liquids which
are practically insulators of electricity ' : —
Table III.
Stannic chloride, SnCl^ .... —
Fused zinc iodide, ZnL .... (Faraday)
Pure water (probably) .... (Kohlrausch)
Fused anhydrous chromic peroxide, CrOj . (Hittorf, Wied. ' Ann.' 4, p. 37-1,1878)
Sulphurous anhydride, SO^
Sulphuric anhydride, SO3 .
Carbonic anhydride, C0„ .
Boracic anhydride, BO3
Arsenic anhydride, AsO^ .
Nitrogen peroxide, N^O^ .... —
?Osmic peroxide, OsO^ .... —
?Vanadic anhydride Hittorf I.e.
Bromic iodide, BrI „
Metallo-organic compounds . , . Bleekrode,Wied. 'Ann.' vol. 3, p. 178,
Table 5.
C.,N„
CS„'
CCl^
c:ci,
CCl^
Hydrocarbons
Haloid compounds of the alcohol radicles .
HCl 1 „
HBr \ ^°^^
TTj J Bleekrode, I.e., Table 1
tt" [ Bleekrode, I.e.
PCI3 ■.;;■..':;: -
Anhydrous HF Moissan, 'Beibl.'x., p. 715.
SCI3 —
SbCL. —
SnI, —
Sb^Oa fused —
Antimony oxychloride .... —
On the other hand the following are electrolytic conductors : —
Fused M0O3 Hittorf (I.e.)
Liquid NH3 Bleekrode (Wied. 'Ann.' 3,p.l61,1878)
(ijrobably impure, Hittorf, I.e.)
„ HON
Fused urea Dewar
Sulphides of alcohol i-adicles, chlorides,
bromides, iodides of the organic acid
radicles and their chlorine and bromine
substitution derivatives . . . . Bartoli, ' Beibl.' 11, p. IGO
The eS'ect of physical state upon the insulators does not seem to affect
their conductivity. SnClj does not conduct at its boiling-point at ordinary
pressure. According to Bartoli, benzene insulates up to the critical
temperature ; methyl alcohol conducts better and better up to the same
and from thenceforward the gas insulates.
A cursory survey of Table I. will show that the temperature co-
' See also Bartoli {BeiU. vol. 11, p. 159) on the conductivity of solutions of the
alcohols in benzene, &c.
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTHO-CnEMISTRT. 199
efficients of all the electrolytes are of the same sign and of the same order
of magnitude. Probably all electrolytes have temperature coefficients of
the same sign, and this may have to be explained, but it does not help
towards classification, for some alloys ' have a positive coefficient. More-
over, according to Arrhenius, the sign of the temperature coefhcient may
be reversed at higher temperatures for a number of electrolytes of low
conductivity (see p. 223).
According to Kohlrausch,^ electrolytes must be mixtures. This is
supported by the observations upon the effect of mixing two non-con-
ductors as H.,0 and HCl, which together form good conductors. And,
perhaps, we should be justified in regarding whatever conducting power
there may be in any pure sample of a single liquid as being due to the
presence of impurity. The conductivity of mixtures of water and alcohol
have been carefully investigated by Pfeiffer,'' and from his curve it
is clear that certain percentages of mixture have higher conductivity
than either water or alcohol.
If this is to be regarded as a satisfactory definition of an electrolyte,
the converse proposition, that a liquid will conduct if it be a mixture,
should also hold. That is to say, in order to make one of the liquids
given in Table III. conduct, all that is necessary is to mix it with some
other substance. Mr. W. Coldridge "* has examined from this point of
view the effect of mixing various substances with SnClj, and haw found
that whereas the absorption of a small quantity of dry HCl gas produces
a liquid which has very slight conducting power and shows galvanic
polarisation, platinum chloride or chloroform can be mixed with the
tin chloride without producing any conducting power. Moreover, the
tin chloride absorbs considerable quantity of dry HgS gas, which gives a
yellow liquid insulating apparently as completely as the tin chloride
itself, and at the same time no precipitation of SnS2 occurs ; but the
addition of a minute quantity of water or alcohol to the mixture deter-
mines at once the precipitation of the tin sulphide and at the same time
the conduction through the liquid. There seems to be a wide field for
useful experiments in tbis direction, with the primary object of determining
what is the nature of the special kind of mixture Avhich causes con-
ductivity and what are the ions when such a conducting mixture is pro-
duced. The fact that mixture alone is not sufficient to account for
electrolytic action may be to some extent inferred from the fact that no
evidence of decomposition can be observed in the conduction of electricity
through alloys."^
Hittorf,* in his valuable survey of the history of electrolysis, maintains
the proposition ' Electrolytes are salts ' ; but, p. 401, he says, ' As from
chemical phenomena no sharp distinction can be drawn between salts
and non-salts, so it is with the distinction between electrolytes and insu-
lators.' Hittorf's definition of a salt ^ is a compound which by double
affinity exchanges its constituents with those of another recognised
electrolyte, the ions of the respective compounds being those constituent
parts which take part in the double exchange. Upon this definition
Professor G. Wiedemann remarked at the B.A. Meeting, 1887 (' Report,'
' "Von Aubel, Proc. Plnl. Soo. vol. 9, p. 13:].
- (rci/e/iiffirtir/c Anschaiiuiio, pp. 10 and 17 ; PdgS- -^nn. 150, p. 271, 1S7G.
' Wied. Ann. 25, p. 232, 1885. ' I'liil. Ma;/, vol. 2'.t, p. 38:;, 1890.
* See Ji.A. Report, 18.'<7, p. 341. « Wied. Ann. 4, p. 374, 1878.
' Pogg. Ann. lOG, p. 501, § 65.
200 REPOBT— 1890.
p. 347), ' This is not generally true. First, we have certain bodies -wLicb
seem not to be decomposed by the current, though they exchange their
elements with those of other compounds which are electrolytes. Take,
for instance, anhydrous hydrochloric acid. It does not conduct. Never-
theless, as Dr. Gore has shown, if you put it upon carbonate of lime the
carbonic acid is chased away and chloride of calcium is formed. And,
to give another example, the chloride of propyle is a non-conductor;
nevertheless, when you treat it with bromide or iodide of silver the
chloride gets changed into bromide or iodide. With just reason you.
may object that this is no proof, for perhaps the chloride of propyle is
only a very bad conductor, therefore the current does not pass in a sensible
way and we cannot observe the decomposition. In this respect we may
refer to the researches of Mr. Bleekrode in Holland, and Mr. Bartoli in
Italy.
' But, on the other side, we find well-known electrolytes exchanging
their ions with elements of other compounds which, without any doubt,
are not their ions. So, for instance, chlor-acetic acid (CH2CICOOH) or
the ethylic ether of this acid, and iodide of potassium exchange between
each other the chlorine and iodine, though assuredly the ions of chlor-
acetic acid are not 01 and CH,COOH, but CH,C1C00 and H.' (See
also Wiedemann, 'Elec' vol. 2, p. 926, and Lodge, 'B.A. Report,' 1885.)
If we adopt the dissociation hypothesis we may say that an electrolyte
is a substance part of which is in a state of dissociation, each dissociated
molecule being resolved into two parts, which form the ions in electrolysis.
It remains to be considered whether there is any means of finding out
(otherwise than by conductivity) whether there is any such dissociation.
The processes of chemical reaction are, however, brought by the
dissociation theory into close connection with electrolytic action, so that
Hittorf's classification can only be distinguished from the definition based
on dissociation by the consideration that the latter goes a step further
and explains and accounts for Hittorf's empirical generalisation. The
case of chlor-acetic acid and others similar are considered by Ostwald, and
cause him to extend the dissociation hypothesis in order to include them
(see below, p. 220).
There remains, therefore, the definition forming the fundamental
hypothesis of the dissociation theory, viz., that an electrolyte is a substance
which contains some compound in a state of partial or complete dissocia-
tion. It is upon this hypothesis that a great deal of recent work in
electrolysis has been based, and nearly all the observed phenomena of
electrolysis have been deduced from it. What the precise nature of the
dissociation is may not be clear. The provisional hypothesis regards the
dissociation of a compound in an aqueous solution as the resolution oi
the molecules of the compound into atoms or their chemical representa-
tives which form the ions in electrolysis. Large strides have been made
towards the formation of a mechanical theory of the electrolysis of solu-
tions on this basis, some account of which will be given below. What
is still wanting for the completion of the theory, besides the explanation
of small numerical differences between calculated and observed results
and the development of its extension to include the exceptional cases
mentioned above, is the investigation of the mode in which the solvent
acts in producing the necessary dissociation without itself being appre-
ciably resolved. That may no doubt be forthcoming when the actions of
different solvents have been observed ; in the meantime it is interesting
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTKT. 201
lo note that the definition of the electrolytic property by the dissociation
of the electrolyte seems applicable not only to liquids but also to solids *
and gases, ■^
§ b. — WJiat are the ions in any Electrolytic Decomposition ?
In Part II., Section &, we have seen that the process of conduction
through an electrolyte consists in the motion of ions in opposite directions,
each carrying a definite charge of electricity. It is a matter of great
interest to identify the ions in any particular case, and in the years fol-
lowing Faraday's researches in electrolysis attempts to identify ions by
the methods of chemical analysis were very numerous, and the interest
in them was increased by the fact that the results arrived at were entirely
opposed to the Berzelius theory of salts. This department of the subject
is most conspicuously represented by a series of well-known papers by
Hittorf, Pogg. 'Ann.' ?9 p. 177, 98 p. 1, 103 p. 1, 106 p. 337, and
p. 513 (185-i-59).
The ions are deposited at the electrodes, where they are either set free
or take part in secondary actions, and the first step towards the identifica-
tion of the ions is to determine the primary chemical result of electrolysis
from the final results which are due to secondary actions. Thus when a
solution of KBLO is electrolysed the obvious products set free are H and
O, but the analysis of the liquid shows that both these products are
secondary, and are due to the action of the primary products, K and HO
respectively, upon water.
In order to determine the primary results of electrolysis from the
secondary products, the division of the cell ideally represented in Part I.
has been adopted, but the simple divisions there mentioned as used by
Daniell and Miller do not serve the purpose of ideal separation ; the
arrangements necessary for this purpose are described in Wiedemann's
' Electricitiit,' 2, § 549. Hittorf's arrangements are described in the
same volume, § 550, and an apparatus used recently by Loeb and Nernst
is figured and described in p. 950 of vol. 2 of the ' Zeitschrift fiir phys.
Chem.'
It might be supposed that the results of the analj^sis of the liquid
contained in the anode and cathode vessel respectively would give the
amount and nature of the decomposed compound, and the amount and
nature of each of the products, and hence that the ions would be statistically
determinate ; that is, without giving any information as to whether all the
ions were of the same kind or not, a result would be obtained which
would strictly represent the average process. According to the general
view, however, chemical analysis fails to give this conclusive evidence,
the original electrolytic process being complicated by electric endosmose,
and the unequal dilution in solutions, mentioned in Part I. (6) (c), as
the following example will show : —
In the electrolysis of a solution of copper sulphate containing
3"793 grammes of copper in 100 c.c. of solution, while one gramme
equivalent (^ Cu) of copper is being deposited in the cathode, the total
gain of copper in the cathode vessel, taking account both of the
deposited and the still dissolved metal, is '75 of an equivalent, and
' Van 't HoflE, ' Ueber feste Losungen und !Moleculargewichtsbestimmung an
festen Kijrpcrn,' Xcitschr.fiir ph. Chem. 5, p. 322, 1890.
* J. J. Thomson, Phil. Mag. 358, 1890.
202 REPORT — 1890.
the volume of the liquid in the cathode vessel increases by 11'09 X 37 c.c.,^
so that the amount of water transferred isll'09 x37 x "9/18 gramme mole-
cules. If we trust to the results of the chemical analysis solely to
identify the ions we must assume that the molecule decomposed is of a
complex nature, so that the decomposition takes place according to the
following scheme : —
Cum(CuS0i)n(H.20) ; SO4 m' (CUSO4) n' (B.fi).
If now we assume that of the molecules decomposed equal numbers are
taken from the anode and cathode vessels, we can arrange the gains and
losses as follows : —
Cathode vessel (1 gramme equivalent of copper deposited).
Loss. 3 gramme molecule decomposed.
i.e., ^ n (l + 77^ + 1)l')Cu
and \ {n + n'yR^O.
Gain. \ gramme molecule of the cation.
i.e.; i Cu m (CUSO4) n (HgO)
i.e., ^ (m + ])Cu
hn H2O.
Hence the net gain of Cu is —
Hl + «i-»OCu=-75xlCu, . . . (1)
whence
m — m'=:'5
and the net gain of water
=i(w-H/)H20=^/^x37H20 . . . (2)
n-7i' =2-2x37.
Even on this supposition, therefore, the chemical analysis would not
completely determine the average composition of the molecules decom-
posed ; only the differences (m — m') and (?i — n') are determinable. We
can, however, assign a formula to the simplest molecule that would give
the observed result by assuming that the lesser of the two m, in! and of
11, 11' respectively are zero ; thus in the case above, assuming that m'=0
and n'=^0, we get m=-5 and ?i;=81"4.
The average molecule in this case would be approximately ^
Cu,i(CuS04), ^H20/S04
or getting rid of fractions
Cu2(CuS04)163H20/(S04)2.
This indicates the extent to which the inferences from chemical analysis
could be pushed. It is evident on reference to the table given in Wiede-
mann, 2, p. 592, that the average molecule would be different for different
degrees of dilubion which would alter the numbers on the right-hand side
of equations (1) and (2). It appears from the table referred to, that if
' Wied. Elec. 2, p. 592.
" In a paper in the Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. (Nov. 18S9) the complex molecule is
erroneously calculated in consequence of my having misunderstood Wiedemann's
data.
ox ELECTllOLTSIS AND KLECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 203
tlxe alteration duo to the increass of volnmcs in the cathode vessel be
separately allowed for, the decomposed molecules for different strengths of
solution would come out very nearly the same, and hence a great simplifi-
cation would result. This view, to some extent on the ground of the
probable identity of ions in solutions of different strengths, is in fact
adopted, and the change of volumes regarded as a separate phenomenon
due to tlie diaphragm and called electric endosmose. Separating this we
get for the decomposed molecule
CuaCCuSOJ/CSOJs;
in other words, the complex molecule decomposed consists of an aggre-
gate of CUSO4 molecules of which the electrolysis separates a portion only
of the constituent atoms.
But further, the nature of the decomposed molecule would still be
somewhat different for different degrees of dilution, for the dilution of the
liquid round the cathode only becomes constant when the degree of dilu-
tion passes a certain limit. However, this also can be explained on the
assumption of the simplest possible molecular decomposition, that of
CnS04 into Cu and SO4, by attributing the alteration with the concentra-
tion of solution to the migration of molecules of salt through the solution
produced by the motion of the ions with unequal velocities. A separate
section is devoted to this theory, so that it will suffice here to point out
that its introduction reduces the electrolysis to the simplest possible form,
namely, the resolution of a single molecule (CUSO4) into atoms or their
equivalents, viz., Cu and SO4. As this is the hypothesis upon which the
dissociation theory is based, but little objection arises on that score, but it
should be borne in mind that although this resolution into atoms or
atomic equivalents is the simplest possible, and has not met any facts that
it is definitely incompetent to explain, yet it is only one of many more com-
plex arrangements that might be suggested, and it is not yet clear by any
crucial experiment whether simplicity or complexity is the rule observed
by nature in the process of electrolysis. The following paragraph suggests
one reason in favour of complexity.
The phenomena that are exhibited in a battery cell, consisting of
electrodes of different nature in a liquid or in two liquids, are paralleled
by corresponding phenomena exhibited with two similar electrodes in
solutions of different strengths. The electromotive force of polarisation
in the first case is represented in the second by an electromotive force
resisting or promoting the alteration of strength of solution ; and the
heat of chemical action at the electrodes, part of which goes to produce
the electi'omotive force, is represented by the heating effect of dilution of
the solution.' There seems, on the ground here mentioned, reason for
thinking that, in solutions which are not infinitely dilute at any rate, the
migration of the ions may be a part of the primary electrolytic process,
and indicate a corresponding complexity of the ions.
It may further be remarked that Bouty classifies salts into normal and
abnormal ones. Those of the former class tend to closer equality of
molecular conductivity in extreme dilution, and they are characterised by
having a migration constant equal to '5 for each ion, that is to say, they
produce no alteration of concentration in the two vessels, or the decom-
posed molecule as directly determined by chemical analysis is a simple
' See papers by Moser, Wicd. Ann. ?>, p. 21G, 1878.
204 EEPORT— 1890.
one, or at least the same number of molecules of tbe salt are attached to
the anion and cation respectively.
There is a certain amount of evidence for the existence of molecular
aggregates in electrolytic solutions. Dr. E. Wiedemann ('B.A. Report/
1887, p. 346) has examined the conductivity of copper-cbloi'ide solution
dt different temperatures from this point of view. The solution is
specially interesting, because it changes colour with temperature, and tbe
colour change is probably due to a change in the state of hydration. The
conductivity increases nearly at a constant rate up to 60^, and beyond this
point the rate rapidly diminishes, and therefore indicates that the con-
ductivity of salts varies with their degree of hydration.
Helmholtz (Faraday Lecture, p. 289) says that it is possible that the
majority of molecules in SO4H2 may be divided into SO4 and Hg, some of
them on the other hand into SO4H and H. This would account for an
alteration in the apparent velocity of hydrogen at different concentra-
tions, for in the latter case some of the hydrogen would be carried
backwards.
Bouty,' also discussing the conduction of H2SO4, says, 'One does not
see how to explain a variation of this kind except by a change in the
nature of the electrolyte {i.e. of the dissolved hydrate).' By making the
hypothesis v/hich Bourgoin made, that the hydrate really decomposed by
the current was S2O66H2O, Bouty considei's that the anomaly of electro-
lysis, as expressed by Hittorf 's values of n, and also that of conductivity, is
explained. Hydrochloric acid is in much the same condition as sul-
phuric acid ; it conducts as if its molecules contained three equivalents
of basic hydrogen. Other remarks of a similar bearing might also be
quoted.^
The electrolysis of strong solutions of Cdig in alcohol has been ac-
cepted on all sides as involving the decomposition of complex molecules.
Moreover, Arrhenius, in a letter to Lodge (May 17, 1886), ' British
Association Ueport,' 1886, p. 311, suggests the formation of double mole-
cules and treble molecules in concentrated solutions.
Crorapton ^ has sought to prove the relation between hydrates existing
in sulphuric acid and the conductivity of solutions by plotting the second
differentials of the conductivity-concentration curves, and obtaining the
result as a series of straight lines. The line of argument is that taken by
Mendeleef in discussing the hydrates of alcohol and sulphuric acid by
plotting the first differential of the density- concentration curves, but it
is pushed a stage further. The method, however, is a somewhat uncertain
one, and has been called in question. See Pickering ' Zeitschr. fiir phys.
Chem.' vol. vi. p. 10, also ' Chem. Soc. Journ.' 1890, p. 64. It is liable
to represent in a foreshortened way small irregularities of the original
curves, which may, indeed, have a corresponding experimental basis ;
they may also depend merely upon errors of plotting of the oi-iginal
curve.
Whatever evidence there may be for the existence of aggregates in
comparatively strong solutions affecting the conductivity, it must be re-
membered that it is not clear that the electricity is carried by the aggre-
gates. It is possible that the solution may contain a number of dissociated
1 Ann. de Chim. [6] 3, p. 481, 1884.
"^ See for instance Bouty, C.R. 104, p. 1789, 1887; and especially for the electro-
lysis of cadmium salts, see Werschoven, Zeiisclir.f. j)h. Chem. vol. 5, p. 481.
^Joiir. Chem. Soc. 53, p. 116, 1888.
ON ELECTEOLYSIS AND ELECTEO-CUEMISTRY. 205
molecules as well as molecular aggregates, and that while the colour of the
solution and a number of other properties depend upon the latter, the
electricity may be conveyed by the former alone. It might even be sug-
gested that if the tempei'ature coefficient of absorption of a coloured
solution were determined, it would be found to be closely related to the
temperature coefficient of conductivity, and when allowance was made
for the change of viscosity it might furnish the temperature coefficient
of dissociation.
An interesting point in connection with the determination of the
ions is the question whether the ions are all of one kind in an electrolytic
solution ; in other words, whether the water conducts, or all the current
is carried by the molecules of the dissolved salt. If an electrolyte be a
mixture, as of HCl and HoO, do both compounds take a share in the
conduction, or one only? Lodge ('Brit. Assoc. Rep.' 1885) argued
strongly in favour of a division of the conductivity between salt and
solvent, and founded a theory of migration on that hypothesis ; but the
experimental evidence seems to have left the subject in the following
state.' It is possible to obtain water with a \evy high degree of insulat-
ing power, but, when it is pushed to the extreme limit, it is impossible
to tell whether the conduction is due to water molecules or undetected
impurity. In dilute solutions the increase of conductivity which is con-
ferred upon the water by the addition of a small quantity of salt is due to
the added salt alone, and the conductivity of a dilute solution containing
the added salt may be deduced from the observed conductivity of the
solution by subtracting the conductivity of the water of which the solu-
tion was made ; in other words, conductivity by water molecules forms
no part of the added conductivity due to the salt.^ Thus water is
regarded as a body of a special kind, which dissociates other salts and
makes them conduct, but itself carries the current to no appreciable
extent.
The resulting chemical products are certainly different for different
values of the current density. If a dilute solution of copper sulphate be
subjected to electrolysis under the effect of a very high electromotive
force, bubbles of hydrogen speedily make their appearance at the cathode,
and it has been supposed that there is a limiting value of the current
density beyond which the current ceases to traverse the salt solely, and
an appreciable amount passes through the water. C. L. Weber, ' Zeitschr.
fiir phys. Chem.' vol. 4, p. 182, 1889, has employed this phenomenon to
determine the absolute velocity of the ions. It may, however, be explained
by the continued impoverishment of the solution in the neighbourhood
of the cathode ; and, in fact, if the electrolysis be continued for some
time between platinum electrodes, the whole of the copper may be
abstracted from the solution.
I have tried myself to ascertain whether the water took part in the
conduction, by interposing a very dilute solution of copper sulphate
between two much stronger ones, so that, if the water conducted, a layer
of copper hydrate would be formed at the junction between the strong
' The discussion has been somewhat lengthy. Finally Kohlrausch has admitted
that an experiment of Farada}''s may possibly be explained satisfactorily by attri-
buting a minute conductivity to the solvent. See Wied. Elec. 2, § 583 ; Kohlrausch,
AVicd. Ann. 26, p. IGl; Arrhenius, Brit. Assoc. Hajf. 188C, p. 311; Hermann, Ikibl,
si. p. 831.
- F. Kohlrausch, Wied. Ann. 2G, p. 190.
206 EEPORT— 1890.
anode solution and tlie dilute solution. But I found that with the electro-
motive force at my disposal (50 volts) I was unable to determine any
such layer of hydrate. The experiments were, however, not conclusive,
for the hydi'ate is to a certain extent soluble in copper sulphate ; over-
looking this defect, the dilution seemed so to diminish the current as to
make it weak enough for the sulphate molecules to carry it.
The roujjh agreement of Weber's results with the values of ionic
velocities deduced by other methods is inconclusive, for the impoverish-
ment of the solution would be itself dependent upon the ionic velocities,
and hence the results deduced from the limit of current density would
depend on the velocities — directly, upon the one hypothesis, and indirectly,
upon the other.
Summing up the results of this section, so far as regards a fused
electrolyte or the solution of a single salt, we may say that tlie ions have
hitherto been determined from the results of the chemical analysis of the
liquid in the anode and cathode vessel, with the tacit understanding that
the electrolysis shall be regarded as that due to the resolution of single
molecules into ions which are atoms, or their chemical icpresentative
radicles, unless the observations are such as to make such a view entirely
untenable, even when the dilution is referred to unequal motion of the
ions and not to complex molecular decomposition. Thus every chemical
determination of the ions should imjily a determination of the constant of
migration; and when the dilution at one electrode is so rapid that to
apply the hypothesis of unequal ionic motion successfully would require
us to assume the velocity of one ion to be negative, that is, that the ion
would have to be moved against the electrical forces acting upon it,' then
the decomposed molecule may be regarded as compound ; one ion is
assumed to have associated with it one or more molecules, as may be
necessary, of undecomposed salt. Thus a critical consideration of the
ions in electrolysis leads us to the question of the migration of ions.
There are, however, cases in which the ions corresponding to the simple
molecular decomposition can be comparatively easily inferred. The
results of a number of determinations of ions are given in the table on
the next page (Table IV.).
A confirmation of the results obtained may be derived from the
electrolysis of solutions in series, in which case the anion of one solution
combines with the cation of the adjacent one. The results exhibited in
the table show the amounts of the respective ions corresponding to the
deposition of one equivalent of hydrogen in a voltameter, so that they
may be also regarded as showing the application of the second part of
Faraday's law.
One warning must be given about such determinations. In order to
determine both the ions, both the anode and cathode vessel must be
separately analysed. The analysis of one alone is not sufficient. For a
salt such as ]Sra3P04 may be decomposed by solution into NaH2P04 and
Na2HP04, and the electrolysis be different from what it would be if the
deposition of Na were established, and the second ion inferred from the
composition of the original salt. I do not think that all the results
quoted in the table have been subjected to minute criticism from the
' The force upon an atom or group of atoms carrying a charge + e would be
«^— , when ^ is the slope of potential per unit of length from anode to cathode, in
the direction towards the cathode.
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CnEMISTRT.
207
Table IV. — lonsas deduced from the Results of Ghemical Analysis, referred,
if possible, to the Resolution of a simple Molecule into Atoms or their
Ghemical Representatives.
Electrolyte
Solvent
Auion
Cation
Authority
KHO
Fused
HO
K
Janeczek, ' Wied.'
{5 580
SiO..
5J
—
Si
§ 581
As.,S,
»>
S
As
§581
Cu.,ci.,
)>
CI
Cu
Buff, 'Vvied.'g 582
AloCl„ + NaCl
»
AlCl^+Cl
Na
Buff and Hittorf,
' Wied.' § 582
JIoO,
9)
MoO.,
—
K..Cr.,6,
J»
CrO, + |0
K
—
H.SO^
K«o,)
H
'Wied.'§ 608; Gee
& Holden, 'Proc.
Phys. Soc.' May
20, 1888
HgL
Fused
I
KHgJ.)?
Clark, 'Phil. Mag.'
July 1885, p. 37
HNa.,POi
In water
iHPO,
Na?
Daniell & Miller,
Hittorf, 'Wied.'
p. 532
NasPO,
»>
iPO.,
Na?
J> »»
Naj',0,
ij
jPP,
Na?
? See Ostwald,
* Zeitschr. filr
phys. Cliem.'
NaH.,PO,
ty
H„PO^
Na?
Daniell and Miller
KH,.PO^
?>
h:po^
K?
j» )>
H,Na,NHj,POj
)»
HNH.PO^
Na
»> j»
H.,KAsOj
>>
HjAsOj
K
j» j>
kSCN
>J
SON
K
)> »»
KsFeCCN),
J»
—
K
)j ))
NaNH^C,H,0„
>»
—
Na
}> 9)
(UO.,)C]..
99
CI
Kuo.,)
n )»
KAg(CNJ.,
J>
Ag(CN)..
K
J» iy
Na,PtCl/
»)
KPtClJ
Na
Hittorf, Wied.
'Ann.'vol.4,p.374.
K^Cdl^
»>
Cdl,
K
—
H,S
>»
is
H
Berthelot, 'Wied.'
p. 540
KHO
)>
HO
K
' Wied.' p. 542
Morphin
»)
CI
H + C3,H,„N0„
' Wied.' p. 925
H,C,0,
>»
i (CO J (not
CO..)
H
)» )»
SnCl^
t9
Cl"
iSn
Becquerel, Wied.
Elec' § 601
AgCl
In NH3 solutn.
—
Ag
>> J>
FeCI^
In water
. — .
iFe
)> )>
Cu.,Cl2
luHCl
—
Cu
I* )f
SbCI,
»
—
iSb
»» JJ
SbCl,
Fused
—
iSb
»> >»
CujO
In NH3 solutn.
—
Ca
1) 9)
CuO
»»
—
iCu
1> 9»
Cu,S,03
In water
—
Cu
1» 19
CuN,0„
It
—
^Cu
»» l»
2PbNO3H20
»i
—
Pb
J» »»
4PbNO„8PbH20
*>
—
l-75Pb
» *>
208 EEroRT— 1890.
point of vie.w here indicated. The table is, in faci, merely a summaiy ot
results as quoted by Wiedemann (' Eleo.' vol. 2), and represents the ions
as indicated by the older experiments in electrolysis. The subject has
not been specifically dealt with recently, but the modern work bearing
on it will be brought under review in the section on the migration of
ions.
It must further be remembered ' that in the case of acids (where one
of the ions is hydrogen) it is not possible by quantitative analysis to draw
a distinction between the resultant effect of the motion of the positive ion
and the deposition on the electrode. The whole result of the electrolysis,
as far as the cathode vessel is concerned, is to develop a certain amount
of hydrogen, and possibly increase or diminish the amount of free acid.
Hence the distinction between primary and secondary development of the
hydrogen fails.
Some light might be thrown on the problem of the identification of
the ions by the consideration of the heat- equivalents of the chemical
action at the electrodes which should, if thoroughly understood, furnish
evidence of distinction between the primary results of electrolysis and the
secondary effects at the electrodes. I have already alluded to one case,
namely, that of the representation of the heat- equivalent of the dilu-
tion of a solution as an electromotive force, being possibly evidence of
the complexity of the ions; but taking the evidence that I have been able
to consult and arrange, it does not appear that the thermodynamic theory
of electromotive force is sufficiently far advanced for it to be used with
confidence as a means of determining the ions in electrolysis.
We pass on now to the consideration of the ions in mixed solutions. lu
this case the substances set free at the electrodes are more liable to be
due to secondary actions than in the case of a solution of a single salt, so
that for some time it was supposed that the ions depended on the current
density. An account of the earlier observations on this subject is given
in Wiedemann, 'Elec' 2, p. 593, from which it appears that at all current
densities the current is divided between the two dissolved salts, but the
ions due to one of them react upon the solution, and thus is explained the
actual appearance of only one set of ions.
Of recent work we may refer to S. P. Thompson's paper on the Elec-
tro-Deposition of Alloys (' Proc. Roy. Soc' 1887, p. 387), and to a paper
by Arrhenius on Isohydric Solutions (Wied. ' Ann.' vol. 30, p. 51, 1887,
and 'British Association Rep.' 1886, p. 315).
By this latter paper we may infer (from the fact that the conductivities
of certain mixtures are the sum of what would be the conductivity of
each if the other were removed) that the presence of the one salt in solu-
tion does not affect the partial conductivity of another salt in the same
solvent, provided that the concentrations are of certain values, and hence
that the two salts are resolved into ions independently. Salt solutions
which are of such concentration that, when mixed, the conductivities may
be regarded as the algebraic sum of the conductivities of each salt
separately, are called by Arrhenius isohydric solutions. And the general
law is established that solutions which are isohydric with the same solu-
tion are isohydric with each other, and thus a table of isohydric solutions
formed. Bender, in two papers, Wied. 'Ann.' 22, p. 179, 1884, and
Wied. ' Ann.' 31, p. 872, 1887, publishes the results of a number of
' Hittorf, Wied. Ann. 4, p. 410, 1878.
ON ELECTHOLTSIS AND ELECTnO-CHEMISTRY. 209
observations on mixed solutions, but the results are not arranged in the
same form as those of Arrhenius, and the isohydric law is at any rate not
apparent. (See also Evving and Macgregror for resistances of mixtures of
ZnSO, and CuSO, solutions, 'Trans. R.S.B.' 27, p. 51, 1873, and Bouty,
' C.R.' 104, p. 1G99, 1887, ' Beibl.' 11, p. C50.) Bouchotte, Paalzow, and
Klein are also referred to by Arrhenius.
§ c. — The Williamson- Olausias Hi/potJiesis.
We have seen in Part II. h (p. 189) that the transfer of electricity
through an electrolyte is convective. If we consider, on the well-known
hypothesis of Grotthuss, a chain of molecules of the electrolyte connecting
the anode and cathode, the separation of an ion of each kind at the two
electrodes respectively is associated with the simultaneous interchange
of partners throughout the whole length of the chain. This assumption
is sufficiently natural, for if the molecule at one end of the chain, at the
anode suppose, be the one decomposed by the current, the anion remains
at the anode, but the other part of the molecule, the cation, has to appear
at the cathode, so far as we know, simultaneously. Now, on the assump-
tion mentioned above, the time required for the transfer will be the same
for long chains as for short ones (since every pair of ions into which the
molecules are resolved will be under the action of equal separating
forces), and is merely the time required for the separated ions to pass
over the distance intervening between a single pair of molecules, and may
well therefore be too small for measurement.
The interchange of ions between molecules has indeed long been an
accepted notion in electrolysis, and requires no defence. And from the-
fact that the smallest electromotive force produces a current through an
electrolyte, and that the physical properties of the liquid are, so far as we-
know, identical in every respect, when conducting the current and when-
not, it also seems natural to suppose that the interchange of ions between
the molecules of an electrolyte is constantly going on whether a current
is flowing or not, but that the direction of the interchange is fortuitous.
The idea of the dissociation and reformation of molecules constitutiner a
dynamical equilibrium of a chemical compound was originally suggested
by Williamson ' to account for etherification, and the explanation of
electrolytic action by the same idea is due to Clausius,^ who suggested
that the effect of electromotive force was to determine the direction of'
the average motion of the respective ions, and not itself to produce the
dissociation and recombination.
It would follow that the work required to produce electrolytic decom-
position is wholly spent in setting free the ions at the electrodes.
Whatever representation may be made of the state of the molecules-
of an electrolyte when no current is passing, it must be so arranged as to
take account of the fact that when a current passes the dissociation and
recombination are attended with the development of a quantity of heat in
accordance with Joule's law ; whereas when no current passes no heat is
developed ; and the mere irregularity of direction of motion would not
dispose of the heat production because that is independent of the direction
of current and depends merely on the magnitude. Professor Fitzgerald
' Liebig's Aimalen, d. Ckem. u. Pharm. vol. 1, p. 37, 1851.
" Pogg. Ann. 101, p. 338, 1857.
1890. p
210 EEPORT— 1890.
has remarked that the motion under an E.M.F. is constrained, whereas the
motion without E.M.F. is free ; and the diSerence of the two cases with
respect to the energy required is thus explained.
Many of the observed phenomena of electrolysis are most easily
explained on the assumption of a permanent dissociation of at least a
portion of the electrolyte into component parts which become ' ions ' (i.e.
move with the positive and negative electricity respectively) when an
electromotive force acts upon the electrolyte. If we may picture to our-
selves the whole number of molecules taking part in dissociation and
frictionless recombination, being combined molecules for a certain fraction
of every instant and dissociated ' ions ' ' for the remainder, the average re-
sult for the whole electrolyte will be the same as if the same fraction of
the whole number of molecules were permanently combined, the remainder
being permanently dissociated. There does not seem to be any experi-
mental method of distinguishing between these two alternatives, and in
default of experimental evidence for the one or other we may provision-
ally adopt whichever we please. But it- may be well to accentuate here
what Arrhenius (' Zeitschr. f . phys. Chemie,' i. p. 638) has already men-
tioned, namely, that the term ' dissociation,' as here used, is liable to be
misunderstood and confounded with the same term as applied, for instance,
to the resolution of an ammonium salt into two separate bodies at a high
temperature. As referring to electrolysis, dissociation means the separa-
tion of a molecule into atoms or their equivalents, and would only corre-
spond to ordinary dissociation if atoms of the same kind were collected
and set free from the liquid. Thus one need not expect a solution of KCl,
even though all the salt were dissociated into K and CI atoms, to smell
of chlorine until one has done the work necessary to accumulate the
electrified chlorine atoms and produce molecular chlorine ; in other
words, until the solution has been electrolysed. Free chlorine and dis-
sociated chlorine ions are not by any means to be regarded as identical
in physical state. In the electrolytic sense the conception of dissociation
is new to science, and the numerical results obtained from its use are the
more startling, as those compounds which we have been accustomed to
regard as most capable of resisting dissociation in the ordinary sense are
precisely those which are electrolytically most completely dissociated. ^
Qnite recently the dissociation theory has been put in such a form as
renders it possible to express numerically the fraction of the whole
number of molecules which are dissociated in the formation of an electro-
lyte by solution of a salt in water. The first development of the theory
is mainly due to Arrhenius. In Part II. of a memoir ^ presented to the
Academy of Sciences of Sweden, June 6, 1883, on the ' Chemical Theory
of Electrolytes,' he explains the action of a very large number of chemical
changes in solutions on the assumption of a coefficient of activity for
each acid or base, representing the ratio of the number of active or dis-
sociated molecules to the whole number of molecules of salt in the
solution, the action of the solvent being assumed to be merely to dissociate
the salt to a greater or less extent. This ratio is taken to be identical
' Mr. J. Brown takes exception to the use of the word in this sense. It avoids
circumlocution, however, and stands for ' those parts of a molecule which would
become ions if an E.M.F. acted.' A new name might be found for them if necessary.
' See Armstrong, Electrician, Aug. 2G, 1887, and on the other side Ostwald,
Zeitschr. fur jihys. Cliem. ii. p. 270 (1888).
^ See B.A. Report, 1886, p. 357.
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 211
with, or numerically expressed by, the ratio of the molecular condnctivity
of the solution to the molecular conductivity of an infinitely dilute solution
of the same compound, in which all molecules are probably dissociated.
The explanation of chemical phenomena thus given is sufficiently well
■established to indicate some relation, at any rate, between conductivity
and chemical activity, but a more direct comparison may be made between
conductivity and dissociation as measured indirectly on the basis of
Van 't Hoff's theory of the effects of osmotic pressure.' On Van 't HofE's
theory the osmotic pressure of a salt in solution at a given temperature
depends upon the number of molecules contained in a given volume
irrespective of the weight of the individual molecules ; so that if the
osmotic pressure be regarded as corresponding to gaseous pressure,
Avogadro's law holds for salts in solution as well as gases. Van't Hoff
verified this law for a number of bodies, leaving, however, a number of
exceptions, and Arrhenius has shown that the exceptions may in general
be quite satisfactorily explained by supposing that the effective number
of the molecules is increased by the dissociation of some into ions, and
the fraction of the whole number that must be supposed dissociated in
order to account for the exceptional osmotic pressure is, within very small
limits of difference, the same as the dissociation ratio — that is, the frac-
tion of the whole number required to be dissociated in order to account
for the conductivity on the dissociation hypothesis ; or, to express the
fraction free from hypothesis, it is the fraction represented by the ratio of
the molecular conductivity of a given salt-solution to the limiting value of
the molecular conductivity of the salt when the dilution is indefinitely
great. Let a represent this ' dissociation ratio,' or coefficient of activity,
as it is termed by Arrhenius, Avhich can be determined from measure-
ments of conductivity at different degrees of dilution.- Let m be the
number of inactive, or undissociated, molecules in unit volume of solution,
n the number of active molecules, each of which we may suppose dis-
sociated into h ions (e.ij., for KCl, ]c=2; for BaCl2, or K.2SO4, A;:=3, and
so on) ; then, assuming that each separate ion is as effective as regards
osmotic pressure as each combined molecule, the osmotic pressure will be
the same as if the whole number of molecules were vi + Jcii; the ratio i of
this number to the whole number of original molecules is {m + kn)/(m + n),
whereas a=n/(m Til). Whence i=l + (Z;— l)a. On the other hand, the
osmotic pressure, and consequently the number of effective molecules in
unit volume, can be determined on Van 't Hoff's theory by observing the
depressions of the freezing-point of water, as Raoult has done in many
cases, produced by the solution of one gramme-molecule of salt in a litre.
Thus the normal ^ depression of the freezing-])oint for one gramme-mole-
cule of salt when there is no dissociation is 1'85° C, so that if t be an
observed depression of the freezing-point for a gramme-molecule of
' Van 't Hoff, Zeitschr. jdr ph. Ch. i. p. 481, 1837. 'Trans.' by Eamsay, in Phil.
Mag. ser. 5, 26, p. 81, 1888. Arrhenius, Zeitschr. fur ph. Ch. i. p. 631, 1887. B.A.
Mcp. 1887.
" The molecular condnctivity for infinite dilution may be arrived at by plotting a
curve with the number of gramme-molecules per litre of solutions of different con-
centration as absci.ssEe and the molecular conductivities (i.e. conductivity -^ number
•of gramme-molecules per litre; as ordi nates, and continuing the curve until it meets
the line of no concentration. (See Kohlrausch, Wied. Ann. vol. 26.)
' For an account of the application of the depression of the freezing-point to the
examination of the molecular constitution of dilute solutions, see also Planck,
Zeitschr. farphys. Chem. i. p. 577 (1887) ; Wied. Ann. vol. 32, p. 499.
P 2
212
EEPOET 1890.
electrolyte, ^/1'85 is the ratio of the number of molecules in unit volume
of electrolyte to what would be the number in unit volume if there were
no dissociation. Hence i=tjl'85.
These molecular depressions of the freezing-point have been deter-
mined by Raoult by observing the effect of the dissolution of one gramme
of the salt in one litre of water. Hence, if the conductivity of the solu-
tion of the same strength be known, we have two independent methods of
determining i, one of which conies from conductivity measurements and
the other from thermal measurements, based on the assumption of dis-
sociation. The results are given in a table ('Zeitschr.' vol. 1, p. 634).
The numbers in the column based on conductivities are calculated from
Ostwald for acids and bases, from Kohlrausch for most salts, but some
also from Long, Grotrian, Klein, and Ostwald. For the better conduct-
ing salts the figures may be 10 or 15 per cent, in error, interpolation and
extrapolation having to be used. For worse conducting salts the possible
error is smaller, and for acids and bases at the most 5 per cent. ' Off
the accuracy of Raoult's numbers I am not sure ; an error of 5 or 10 per
cent, seems likely.'' The conductivity was measured at 18° C, or 25° C,
and the lowering of the freezing-point at about 0° C. Considering all
this, the numbers seem fairly accordant with certain exceptions,^ of
' Arrhenius, 'B.A. Electrolysis Committee Sixth Circular,' Zeitschr. 1, p. 636.
' - In a subsequent communication to Zeitschr. f. ph. Chen. ii. p. 491, Arrhenius
returns to the consideration of the comparison of tlie numbers and determines the
freezing-point depressions, and so redetermines the values of i. Tlie results are
contained in the following table : —
Table V. — Table of Comparisons of ohserved and calculated Values of Freezing-
point Depression in Aqxieous Solutions.
(From Arrhenius, ' Zeitschr. fiir ph. Chem.' vol. 2.)
Substance Dissolved
A. — NON-CONDUCTOES
1. Methylalcohol.
CH,OH 1
2. Ethylalcohol
C^H^OH
3. Propylalcohol
CJHjOH
4. Isopropylalcohol
5. Isobutylalcohol
C.HjOH
a
5-
I CO
a c-
O o
0319
0-638
1-51
3-00
0-575
1-44
2-85
5-70
0-61
1-53
3-83
6-37
0-61
1-52
3-79
6-32
0-91
2-28
5-71
9-52
0-100
0-200
0-485
0-97
0-125
0-313
0-62
1-24
0-102
0-255
0-638
1-06
0-102
0-253
0-631
1-053
0-123
0-308
0-771
1-29
Depression of
Freezing-point
d
Molecular De-
pression S
= d/g
i Observed
1-89
I Calculated from
Conductivities
l + (A-l)<i
i
i'
.2-
Or
o
a
1 1
» J*
!l
a
a
o
--IS
_g
*3
0-184
1-84
0-97
0-356
1-78
0-94
0-886
1-82
0-96
t»
1-831
1-89
1-00
^
0-229
1-83
0-97
O
0-591
1-89
1-00
•c^
1-183
1-91
1-01
-C
2-456
1-98
1-05
03
■73
0-196
1-93
103
0-479
1-88
100
>1
M
1-202
1-89
1-00
a
2-065
1-95
1-03
0-193
1-90
100
o
0-476
1-88
1-00
.13
1-212
1-92
1-01
-4^
*>
2095
1-99
1-05
ts
0-249
2-02
1-07
.1
0-591
1-92
1-02
*-*3
a
1-484
1-92
1-02
2-60
202
1-07
,
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.
213
whicli two are from older observations by Riidorff. The behaviour of
one of the exceptions — HoSiFg — is explicable by its partial dissocia-
Table of CoMFAUiso'sa—conUnued.
■o2
i2
Si-!
.2 "i"^
Substance Dissolved
Ik
a a
IR-
IS
o3
a) .5
— - a>
at (D
fc^ *o JO
i '
t
i'
a "
■3 .2
v .3
o o
^ g
Non-conductors— cy»#.
/
0-87
0-118
0-22
1-87
099 ^
\
G. Ethylether
1-74
0-235
0-42
1-79
0-95
(,CM,).p 1
2-87
0-388
0-73
1-88
1-00
5-74
0-776
1-51
1-95
1-03
/
0-952
0-101
0-183
1-81
0-96
7. Phenol C.H^OH -
2029
3-381
0-216
0-36
0-392
0-639
1-82
1-78
0-96
0-94
5-244
0-558
0-967
1-75
0-93
8. Aniline C^H^NH^ j
1-016
2-54
0-109
0-273
0-210
0-499
1-92
1-83
1-02
•97
9. Boracic acid J
B(0H)3 1
0-41
1-024
0066
0-165
0-129
0318
1-95
1-93
1-03
1-02
1-706
0-274
0-532
1-93
1-02
/
0-702
0-119
0-233
1-96
1-04
10. Acetamide 1
1-756
0-297
0-568
1-91
1-01
CHjCONHj 1
4-39
0-744
1-423
1-91
1-01
13
I.
732
1-240
2-422
1-95
103
>
/
0-622
0-104
0-209
2-02
1-07
O
11. CO(NH,),
1-555
0-259
0-493
1-90
101
3-887
0-648
1-219
1-88
0-99
•f*
.
6-478
1-080
2-018
1-87
0-99
^
12. Chloral hvdrate J
1-759
0-106
0-218
2-05
108
•T3
4-397
0-266
0-525
1-98
1-05
C3
o
C.,Cl3H(bH)2 j
10-99
0-664
1-355
2-04
1-08
1
,a
18-32
1-107
2-378
2-15
1-13
a
3
13 Bromal hvdrate
2-14
0-0716
0-137
1-91
1-01
5-34
0-179
0-335
1-87
0-99
aBr,H(bH).,
13-36
0-447
0-829
1-86
0-98
.a
22-26
0-745
1-377
1-85
0-98
.4-3
1-346
0-146
0-287
1-96
104
s
14. Glycerine
C3H,(OH)3
2-34
4-80
0-254
0-522
0-492
1-061
1-93
2-03
1-02
1-07
Is
7-603
0-826
1-725
2-09
1-11
.
11-16
1-213
2-612
2-15
1-14
f
2-93
0-161
0-333
2-07
1-09
13. Mannite CsH,,Oa j
7-33
0-403
0-835
2-07
1-10
12-21
0-671
1-420
2-12
1-12
16. Dextrose CjH,„Oj •
1-2U
00673
0-132
1-96
1-04
3-028
0-168
0-340
2-02
1-07
7-57
0-421
0-845
2-01
1-06
12-62
0-701
1-460
2-08
1-10
1-523
0-0445
0-091
2-04
1-08
3-246
0-0947
0-200
2-11
111
17. Cane sugar
CijHjjO,,
5-629
0-165
0-337
2 05
1-08
10-797
0-316
0-670
2-12
1-12
16-88
0-494
1-113
2-25
1-19
27-65
0-809
2-057
2-54
1-34
34-56
1-010
274
, 2-71
1-43 1
/
214
EEPORT — 1890.
tion into Si02 and 6HF.' The results are somewLat startling. That,
■when dissolved in a hundred times its -weight of water, KHO should be
Tablk of Comparisons — continued.
Substance Dissolved
B. — Electrolytes.
18. Lithium hydrate
LiOH
19. Acetic acid
CH3COOH
20. Butyric acid
CJHjCOOH
21. Phosphoric acid
H3PO,
22. Sulphurous acid
H,.SO,
23. Iodic acid HIO.,
2i. Phosphorous acid
P(0H)3 [
25. Osalic acid
(COOH)2-i-2H20 \
26. Sodium chloride
NaCl
27. Lithium chloride J
LiCl
28. Silver nitrate I
AgN03 1
29. Potassium sulphate J
30. Sodium sulphate
Na^SOj + lOHp I
Grammes of Sub-
stance per 100 CO.
Gramme-mole-
cules per Litre
9
Depression of
Freezing-point
d
Molecular De-
pression S
i Observed
i' Calculated from
Conductivities
Coefficient of Dis-
1 1
II
C
_o
C3
■§
0-304
0-127
0-474
3-74
1-98
1-90
1-04
90
0-7C0
0-317
1-131
3-57
1-89
1-86
1-02
86
0-81
0-135
0-268
1-98
1-05
l-Ol
1-04
01
2-02
0-337
0-655
1-96
1-04
1-01
103
01
5-05
0-842
1-61
1-91
1-01
1-00
1-01
00
8-42
1-403
2-68
1-91
1-01
1-00
1-01
00
1-23
0-140
0-276
1-97
1-04
1-01
1-03
01
3-07
0-349
0-G60
1-89
1-00
1-01
0-99
01
7-67
0-872
1-.589
1-82
096
1-00
0-96
00
0-755
0-077
0-201
2-61
1-.S8
1-32
1-05
11
1-430
0-146
0-350
2-40
1-27
125
1-01
08
3-125
0-319
0-734
2-30
1-22
1-20
1-01
07
0-747
0-091
0-259
2-85
1-51
1-.34
1-12
16
1-31
0-159
0-410
2-58
1-36
1-25
1-09
12
2-28
0-279
0-690
2-47
1-31
1-22
1-07
11
3-82
0-466
1-16
2-49
1-32
—
—
—
6-73
0-820
2-01
2-45
1-30
—
—
—
2-009
0-114
0.35
3-05
1-61
1-70
0-95
70
4-007
0-228
0-69
3-02
1-60
1-61
0-99
61
6-01
0-285
0-85
2-97
1-57
1-58
0-99
58
0-611
0-074
0-227
3-07
1-62
1-59
1-02
20
1-018
0-124
0-342
2-76
1-46
1-51
0-97
17
2-036
0-248
0-654
2-64
1-36
1-43
0-95
14
0-867
0-0688
0-211
3-07
1-62
1-55
1-05
27
1-651
0-131
0-375
2-86
1-51
1-47
1-03
23
3-106
0-247
0-650
2-64
1-40
1-38
1-01
19
0-273
0-0467
0-117
3-07
2-00
1-88
1-07
88
0-682
0-117
0-424
3-64
1-93
1-84
1-05
84
1-136
0-194
0-687
3-54
1-87
182
103
82
1-893
0-324
1-135
3-51
1-86
1-79
1-04
79
3-155
0-539
1-894
3-50
1-85
1-74
1-06
74
0-419
0-099
0-363
3-67
1-94
1-80
1-08
80
0-698
0-165
0-606
3-67
1-94
1-78
109
78
1-167
0-275
1-019
3-71
1-95
1-75
1-12
75
1-945
0-458
1-729
3-78
2-00
1-70
1-18
70
0-952
0-056
0-214
3-82
2-02
1-86
1-09
86
2-381
0-140
0-501
3-58
1-90
1-81
1-05
81
5-932
0-341
1-143
3-35
1-77
1-73
1-02
73
0-633
0-0364
0-184
5-06
2-68
2-45
1-09
72
1-583
0-091
0-405
4-45
2-35
2-33
1-01
66
3-957
0-227
0-95
4-18
2-21
2-18
1-01
59
7-914
0-455
1-755
3-86
2-04
2-06
0-99
53
0-903
00280
0-141
5-03
2-66
2-47
1-07
73
2-258
0-0701
0-326
4-65
2-46
2-33
1-06
60
3-763
0-117
0-515
4-41
2-33
2-29
1-02
63
6-21
0-195
0-817
419
2-21
2-17
1-02
58
' For suggestions in explanation of some of the exceptions, see ZdUchr . fiir j>h.
Chem. i. p. 639.
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTHY.
215
dissociated to the extent of 90 per cent., BaHjOj 94 per cent., HCl 90 per
cent., KCl 8G per cent., while the dissociation of MgS04 reaches only 40
Table of
C0MPARIS0N6
—continued.
Substance Dissolved
Grammes of Sub-
stance per 100 cc.
1 Gramme-mole-
cules per Litre
9
Depression of
Freezing-point
d
Molecular De-
pression fi
5 "
{'Calculated from
Conductivities
l-f(*-l)a
I
i'
Coifficient of Dis-
sociation a = V^
k — 1
Electeolttes— cy«#.
31. Calcium chloride J
0-530
0-0476
0-248
5-17
2-74
2-32
1-09
-76
1-224
0119
0-594
4-95
2-62
2-42
1-09
-71
CaCI. j
2-206
0-199
0-993
5-01
2-66
2-34
1-13
•67
I
3-677
0-331
1-706
5-16
2-73
2-24
122
-62
32. Strontium chloride
0-664
0-043
0-231
5-37
2-84
2-54
112
•77
1-686
0-107
0-523
4-89
2-59
2-45
106
-72
SrCL 1
3-372
0-214
1-053
4-92
2-60
2-32
1-12
-60
5-62
0-356
1-791
5-03
2-66
2-22
1-20
-61
1055
0-0643
0-304
4-72
2-50
2-35
106
•67
33. Calcium nitrate j
1-759
0-1073
0-496
4-62
2-45
2-23
110
-61
CaCNO,), '(
2-931
0-179
0-819
4-58
2-42
2-08
1-16
•54
(■
0-49
0-0532
0-223
,5-13
2-71
2-43
112
•71
34. Magnesium chlo- J
1-224
0133
0-667
5-02
2-66
2-38
1-12
■69
ride MgCL j
306
0-322
1-716
5-33
2-82
2-19
1-29
■59
5-10
0-537
306
5-70
3-02
2 09
1-44
•54
/
0-641
00377
0-193
5-12
2-71
2-53
1-07
•76
35. Cupric chloride
1-603
0-094
0-455
4-83
2-56
2-41
1-06
•70
CuCl.,-h2H.,0 'i
4-008
0-235
1-127
4-79
2-53
2-19
116
•59
■ ■ I
6-68
0-393
1-917
4-86
2-57
204
1-26
■52
36. Cadmium iodide 1
1-991
0-0544
0-161
2-96
1-57
1-53
1-02
■26
4-978
0-136
0-320
2-35
1-24
1-39
0-90
■19
Cdlj
12-517
0-342
0-7 J 5
2-09
1-11
1-31
0-84
■15
25-03
0-684
1-523
2-19
1-16
1-25
0-91
•12
37. Magnesium sul-
phate
MgS04 + 7H.,0
1-566
0-0638
0-164
2-59
1-37
1-44
0-95
•44
3-915
0-159
0-366
2-30
1-22
1-38
0-88
•38
9-787
16-311
0-.398
0-663
0-802
1-303
2-02
1-97
1-07
104
1-28
1-24
0-83
0-85
•28
•24
38. Zinc sulphate 1
1-976
0-0689
0-169
2-45
1-30
1-39
0-93
•39
4-941
0-172
0-337
2-13
113
1-35
0-83
•35
ZnSO^ + 7H,0
12-35
0-430
0-799
1-86
0-98
1-25
0-78
•25
20-59
0-718
1-296
1-81
0-96
1-22
0-78
•22
0-979
0-0393
0-099
2-52
1-33
1-41
0-95
•41
2-80
0-112
0-244
2-17
115
1-34
0-85
■34
39. Copper sulphate
6-326
0-254
0-493
1-94
1-03
1-27
0-81
■27
CuSO^-t-oII.p
13-04
0-523
0-92(i
1-77
0-94
1-22
0-77
■22
24-25
0-973
1-687
1-73
0-92
1-18
0-78
•18
/
1-067
0-0417
0-108
2-59
1-37
1-39
0-99
•39
2-667
0-104
0237
2-28
1-21
1-31
0-92
■31
40. Cadmium sulphatej
5-006
0-196
0-420
2-15
1-14
1-27
090
•27
CdSO^-t-8/3H.,0"
12-52
0-489
0-938
1-92
1-02
1-21
0-84
•21
20-86
0-815
1-535
1-88
0-99
1-19
0-84
■19
^
34-77
1-.36
2-68
1-97
104
113
0-92
■13
For the discussion of those cases in which the ratio i/i' differs from unity, see
Zcitschr.fiir 2)h. Clwm. ii. p. 497, 1888. The measurements for LiCl, KCl, NH,C1, CaClj,
SrClj, MgCl.., CuCl..., MgSO,, Ca(N03)„, FeCy^K, have been repeated, and the results
confirmed by Van'tHoff and Reicher {iknUchr. fiir ph. Chem. iii. p. 198). MgSO, and
the chlorides remain intractable, possibly in the former case on account of the for-
216 REPOKT — 1890.
per cent., and that of acetic acid only 1 per cent., HgCl2 only 3 per cent.,
is not what one would expect a priori ; but the general agreement of the
results is so close that it can hardly be explained away. The theory is
further supported in Arrhenius's original paper by the consideration of a
number of properties which are additive in dilute solutions; that is to say,
the numerical values of these properties can be regarded as the sums of
the values corresponding to separate parts, namely, the solvent, and the
component ions into which the molecules of the salt are separated. A
well-known example is that of electric conductivity,' which, for a very
dilute solution, can be numerically regarded as made up of numbers
corresponding respectively to the solvent and the several ions.
The other properties of dilute solutions which Arrhenius mentions in
this connection are the heats of neutralisation, ^ specific gravity and spe-
cific volume,^ specific refractive power,^ depression of the freezing-point ''
and other properties connected with it, diminution of vapour pressure,
osmotic pressure, and isotonic coefficient.^ These additive properties
have of themselves suggested the more or less complete dissociation of
salts.'' Perhaps the most striking corroboration of Arrhenius's theory is
that the cases in which the additive law is not satisfactorily made out,
are precisely the cases in which the dissociation ratios deduced from the
resistance measurements are considerably less than unity, even in dilute
solutions.
Against this formidable array of reasons in favour of the dissociation
hypothesis, Armstrong^ has urged a number of considerations, among
which are the following : There are difficulties from the chemist's point
of view, which dispose him to reject the idea that electrolysis is primarily
an affair of atoms ; ' peculiarities and relationships which are patent to the
chemist,' but which ' it is impossible at present to quantify.' Moreover,
it seems to be difficult to accept the idea that an electrolyte can be decom-
posed by an infinitesimal electromotive force unless further proof is forth-
coming ; * and, again, there are anomalies that the dissociation theory
does not explain, as, for instance, the conductivity of fused silver iodide in
face of the non-conductivity of water and of pure hydrochloric acid, the dis-
sociation of hydrochloric acid by water without a corresponding dissocia-
tion of the water, and the more complete dissociation of what have always
been regarded as the more stable compounds. The parallelism of diffu-
mation of double molecules, even in dilute solutions, and in the case of CaCL on
account of the formation of CaC'l (Van 't HoflE and Keicher).
i'
Those cases in which the ratio — is considerably less than 1 in strong solution
can be explained by ascertaining the foimation of double molecules in the stronger
solutions,
' Kohlrausch, Wied. Ann. 6, p. 167 (1879) ; 26, pp. 215, 216 (1885) ; Ostwald,
Zaitschr. far 2)h. Cheiii. 1, pp. 74 and 97 (1887).
- Ostwald, Lehrhuch der allgemeinen Cliemie, p. 1250; Arrhenius, I.e. p. 61.3.
3 Valson, C.R. 73, p. 441 (1871); Ostwald, Lehrhuch, i. p. 384.
" Raoult, Ann. d. Ch. et d. Phys. [6] 4, p. 401 (1885).
^ De Vries, Pringsheim's Jahrhiicher fiir wisg. Bot. 14, p. 519 (1883).
« Valson, C.R. 73, p. 441 (1871) ; 74, p. 103 (1872), 75, p. 1330 (1872); Eaoult,
Ann. de CJiim. [6] 4,401, 426.
' Proc.Roy. Soc. 1886, p. 268 ; Electrician, Aug. 26, 1887.
" See a paper by Ostwald and Nernst, Zeitsehr. fdri)li. Chem. 3, p. 120, 1889, ' On
Free Ions,' in which it is shown, on the assumption that the energy developed by the
discharge of a conductor in a liquid is proportional to the square of the loss of elec-
tricity, that no work is done by the electromotive force in separating the molecules
into ions.
ON ELECTUOLYSIS AND KLKCTUO-CHEMISTUT. 217
sive power and conductivity is said to be almost conclusive evidence against
the theory. Armstrong suggests instead a theory of electrolysis based
upon the formation and decomposition of molecular aggregates under the
influence of residual affinity, and he has in his favour, so far as it goes,
the evidence given on p. 204 for the existence of definite hydrates in
solution. But, as he himself says, his objections to the dissociation theory
cannot be regarded as definite experimental reasons which make the
theory untenable, but rather as suggesting knotty points which those in
favour of the theory have to deal with. Arrhenius bas replied to the
objections,' and has to a certain extent met that based on the constants of
diffusion ; the others can only be definitely decided upon by the sub-
sequent development of the theory.^
Some considerable advance has already been made. Ostwald
('Zeitschr. f. phys. Chem.' vol. 2, p. 270) explains that the theory ac-
counts satisfactorily for the following six relations, which were previously
accepted as empirical generalisations of the results of observation : —
1. The molecular conductivity of all electrolytes increases with in-
creasing dilution, and approaches asymptotically a maximum value.
2. These maximum values on the one hand for acids, secondly for
bases, and thirdly for salts (referred to equivalent quantities) are of the
same order of magnitude, but not strictly equal.
3. The maximum values can be represented as the sum of two magni-
tudes, of which the one depends only on the positive, tbe other only on the
negative ion (Kohlrausch's law).
4. For electrolytes of higher concentrations as well as for weak acids
and bases the previous statement does not hold ; an approximation thereto
is apparent when one compares groups of salts whose ions are of equal
valency.
5. Electrolytes of low conductivity, such as weak acids and bases,
have their molecular conductivity very rapidly increased with increasing
dilution. With monobasic acids and normal bases the conductivity
increases in proportion to the square root of the volume of solvent.
6. The increase of molecular conductivity takes place with all mono-
basic acids and monovalent bases, according to the same law. If one com-
pares such electrolytes, for dilutions at which these conductivities are
equal fractions of the maximum, the degrees of dilution (or volumes
corresponding to one gramme-molecule) are in constant ratio.
In order to prove these statements from the dissociation theory,
Ostwald pushes the analogy between the state of the molecules in a solu-
tion and the state of gaseous molecules a step further. Adopting, from
the theory of dissociation of gases (Ostwald's ' Lehrbuch,' 2, p. 723),
the formula R log -^ = J?-l-const., where « is the pressure of the undisso-
ciated part, jj] and p2 ^''i^ partial pressures of the dissociated constituents,
and assuming the temperature to be constant and the two sets of ions to be
equally numerous, he obtains an equation ^/p,2=c, which, on the assump-
tion of identity or strict analogy of molecular constitution in solutions, ap-
plies to the dissociation of a salt in a solvent. Transforming this equation
in terms of molecular conductivities, on the assumption that these depend
' Electrician, Sept, 7, 1888.
- Tlie theory is also criticised by E. Wiedemann, Zdtichr. fiir ph. Chem. vol. 2,
p. 211, 1888.
218
KEPOKT 1890.
on the number of molecules dissociated, and that the dissociation is com-
plete in infinite dilution, we get (p. 277)
^Jf^o,—f^.^
I^v
-v=c .
where ju,x is the limiting maximum of molecular conductivity, fx^ the
molecular conductivity at volume v per gramme-molecule, and c' is con-
stant at constant temperature.
From this formula the above six statements may be immediately
deduced. It also furnishes a new basis of comparison ; for writing
m for fJi^/iMa, we get the following new relation between molecular con-
ductivities at different dilutions :
.2
m^
=7.-.
{l — in)v
Ostwald gives a number of values of the constant Ic for acetic acid,
angelica acid, a-chlorisocrotonic acid, o-oxysalicylic acid, and the num-
bers agree quite satisfactorily ; according to Ostwald, more nearly than
the corresponding numbers for the formula as applied to gaseous disso-
ciation. ^
We give one table referring to butyric acid :
C (corrected for high
V
M
k
pressures and changes
of viscosity)
2
1-726
0-1152
0-1538
4
2-648
0-1359
0-1554
8
3-870
0-1475
0-1549
16
5-554
0-1509
01557
32
7-874
0-1530
0-1551
U
1116
0-1545
0-1560
128
1567
0-1541
0-1550
256
22-67
0-1560
0-1560
512
30-73
0-1558
0-1558
1,024
42-40
0-1535
0-1535
The column headed h should give the same values throughout ; the
earlier values are evidently too small, but the differences are accounted
for on the hypotheses (1) that at high concentrations the osmotic pressure
is very high, viz. 24 atmospheres in a noi-mal solution (1 gm. -molecule in
1 litre) ; at these high pressures the gaseous laws do not hold, and a cor-
rection term must be introduced, as in the case of gases by Van der
Waals, which alters the formula to the form -^'?^ = C(y -6). (2) The
1 — in
conductivity depends not only on the dissociation but also on the fluidity
of the solution ; hence, in order to compare the conductivities for the
purpose of this formula, which takes account of the dissociation alone,
the observed conductivity must be reduced to a theoretical conductivity
' In three papers in vol. iii. of the Zeitschr. fur 'pli. Clicm. pp. 170, 241, 360,
Ostwald has determined the value of the constant 1i in the above formula for a large
number of organic acids. The values tabulated are those of K = 100Z!'(p. 174). An
index of the acids thus investigated is given I.e., p. 418. The physical meaning of
the constant is tliat at concentration 2h half of the acid is dissociated.
ON ELECTROLTSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTKY. 219
in a liquid of normal fluidity by multiplying by the coefficient of viscoRity
referred to pure water. The numbers as corrected in the way thus in-
dicated are given in the fourth column headed C (y being taken at
•1 litre). The improvement of the agreement throughout the range of
numbers is sufficiently apparent.
The application of Ostwald's formula is confirmed by observations of
Van 't Hoff and Reich er.'
Arrhenius has further applied the dissociation hypothesis to account
for the observed results obtained for the conductivity of mixtures, and
has also recast his theory of chemistry to comply with the more recent
development of the dissociation theory without interfering with its
appositeness to the explanation of chemical observations, and he has
deduced the effect of neutral salts upon the reaction velocities of weak
bases and acids in saponification, and compared the results with observa-
tion, and found a satisfactory agreement.
De Tries, in a paper on osmotic experiments with living membranes,^
has compared the values of isotonic coefficients ^ as calculated from the
molecular conductivities and observed with membranes, and found a
satisfactory agreement.*
In an interesting paper •' on the effect of the dissociation theory upon
the general ideas of chemistry, Ostwald explains the thermal effects of
reactions in dilute solutions. If, for instance, solutions of KHO and
HCl are mixed, a quantity of heat, 137K,*^ is produced, and this heat has
hitherto been regarded as the heat of formation of KCl. But on the
dissociation theory the KCl remains dissociated in the solution to the
extent, at any rate, of 90 per cent. At the same time an equivalent of
water is formed by the union of the H of the HCl and the HO of the
KHO ; the heat set free by this may be taken to be 135K, and it consti-
tutes nearly the whole amount of the heat developed. On this view, for
all those reactions in which an easily dissociated salt is formed, together
with a molecule of water, the heat of formation will be that of the mole-
cule of water merely, and will not depend on the other reacting bodies.
This is amply borne out by the data supplied by Thomsen for the heat of
neutralisation of a number of acids by soda solution. When two mole-
cules of water are formed (with dibasic acids) the heat of neutralisation
is doubled. The differences are accounted for by the incompleteness of
the dissociation of the acid and bases, so that the heat of neutralisation
of an equivalent of acid may in general be represented by a formula
Q=1.35 + a + &.
The theory is also extended to the explanation of the thermo-neutrality
of solutions — that is, to the absence of heating effect when neutral salts
are mixed, and the exceptional cases — e.g. the chloride of mercury — are
those cases in which the dissociation of the salts is not neai'ly complete.
It is interesting to note how far the dissociation is supposed to be
carried. For Arrhenius's table, an electrolytic molecule may be resolved
' Zcitschr.fUrph. Clievi. 2, p. 777, 18S8. ^ IMd. p. 415, 1888.
' Solutions whicli have equal osmotic pressure are called isotonic, and the corre-
sponding concentrations isotonic concentrations. The reciprocal of the isotonic
concentration in molecular quantities is called the ' isotonic coefficient,' which is
therefore the number of litres per gramme-molecule required to give a certain
osmotic pressure.
< L.c. p. 430. ' Zeitschr. fiir 2)h. Cliem. 3, p. 588, 1889.
• K represents 100 gramme Centigrade thermal units.
220 REPORT— 1890.
into a number of ions, thus into two in the case of KCl, into three in the
cases BaC]2 and K2SO4 ; the dissociation detaches but preserves intact
a multivalent complex ion from a number of monovalent ones, and also
separates the monovalent ones one from another. Ostwald, in his for-
mula, refers only to binary compounds, each molecule of which is resolved
into two ions; but in considering the application of the dissociation hypo-
thesis to chemistry in the paper already referred to,' he touches upon an
interesting point. He lays down the principle that chemical reactions
consist in the exchange of ions, and therefore take place exclusively
between ions. Thus a number of chlorine compounds give no reaction
"with silver because the chlorine does not appear as an ion. This prin-
ciple enables one to distinguish between salts of composite acids (as, for
instance, NaoPtClg and K4Fe(CN)g, which show such reactions as are
compatible with splitting up into ions Na and PtClg and K and re(CN)f,
respectively) and true double salts, as the alums, which in solation are
resolved, and do not exist as double salts.
These hypotheses can be verified by the depression of the freezing-
point in the solutions, for the number of the ions is different in the two
cases. Thus the double salt 8K2C204-|-Cr2(C204)3 would form fourteen
ions, whereas if it were really 2K3,CrC{,Oj2 only eight ions would be
formed from the same molecule.
But perhaps the most interesting, as being the least evident sugges-
tion, is that which, based on reactions similar to the slow precipitation of
•silver chloride with separation of glycolic acid from monochlor-acetate
solution, is thus expressed (p. 598) : ' In oi'der to express this consideration
in general terms we must say that an electrolyte may ultimately split up
in different directions. Usually one definite direction is far away the most
prominent, and the corresponding reactions are completed in immeasur-
ably short time ; to the other directions correspond processes which pro-
ceed slowly. Since the oi'ganic compounds in particular, in so far as
they are not salts, belong entirely to the class of non-electrolytes in the
ordinary sense, and are therefore not split into ions to an appreciable
extent, we obtain on these grounds an explanation of the slowness of the
march of the processes so characteristic of this department. It is very
probable that tho effect of the accelerators, of the hydrogen- chloride in
the formation of ethers, the ferric chloride in chlorination, the acetic
•ether in the action of sodium, and so on, consists in nothing else than the
formation of composite electrolytes.'
In the July number of the ' Zeltschrift fiir physikalische Chemie,'
1889 (p. 96), Arrhenius has given some interesting developments of the
dissociation theory. He fix'st of all gives the molecular conductivities of
a number of salts at 18° C. and 52° C. and the temperature coefficients
deduced therefrom, for a number of solutions of different concentration,
having in view the effects which may be due to the alteration of the dis-
sociation ratio with temperature. Then taking, as Ostwald had done
(p. 217), the equation of gaseous dissociation ^^=l:T and also the
•equation
°' P _AW
dt K T2
' Zcitschr. 3, p. 596.
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.
221
deduced from the dynamical theory of heat as applicable to the osmotic
phenomena of solutions, where T is the absolute temperature, P is the
partial pressure of the combined molecules, PiPo the partial pressures of
the dissociated ions, A the dynamical equivalent of heat, W the heat of
formation of the molecules from the ions, he obtains the equation
2-35 ^hSl^ + ^-=-^ ^
dt
T RT'^
Whence, substituting values of A and R in meter-gramme units
(424'-i/0'981 and 84o'05 respectively), we get
W=l-945x2-35 T^ ^ ^"g'" ^ +1-945 T,
(It
■where W is expressed in gramme-calories ; k can be determined from the
conductivity measurements, and hence d log k/dt approximately deter-
mined which is denoted by /?, and hence the value of W determined for
the mean temperatures 35° C. (between 18° and 52°) and21°-5 (between
18° and 25°). The results are as follows :—
A. — Weak Acids.
At 35°
At 21-5°
^^35-^21-5
Xauie
W55
W01.5
CH3COOH
C..H5COOH
CjHjCOOH
CjH^(COOH%
CHCLCOOH"
H3PO: .
HOPOH., .
HF(at 33°)
+ 220
+ 50
-320
+ 1040
-2240
-1820
-3030
-2960
+ 600
+ 390
+ 150
+ 1690
-2390
-1530
-3180
-380
-340
-470
-650
+ 150
-290
-450
B. — Strongly dissociated Bodies at 35° (from Observations in decinormal
Solutions).
Name
W35
Name
W35
KBr ...
+ 180
NaCHjCOO .
+ 210
KI
-300
NaCoHjCOO .
+ 690
KCl .
+ 250
NaCaHjCOO .
+ 1140
KNO3 .
+ 470
NaHC^H/COO)^
+ 1110
NaCl .
+ 140
NaCHCl,COO
-190
LiCl .
+ 210
NaOPOH., .
+ 410
iBaCl^
|MrC1,
+ 300
NaHjPO^
+ 220
-40
HCl
-460
ICaSO,
,
-940
HNO3 .
-740
NaF .
+ 530
HBr .
-990
NaOH .
-670
The table shows that heat is sometimes developed and sometimes
absorbed by the separation of a molecule into ions.
The values thus obtained are next applied to calculate the heat of
neutralisation of the salts investigated. Taking Ostwald's suggestion
of the process taking place in neutralisation and setting fZ,, rfj, d^ for
222
KEPORT — 1890.
the dissociation ratio of the components in the original solutions and
the products (exclusive of the water) in the mixture respectively, Wi,
W2, W3, the heats of dissociation, the amounts of heat necessary to com-
plete the dissociation of each part would be W,(l — d^), WiQ^ — d.^), and
W3(l — CZ3) respectively. Hence, there being no work done, the heat
developed in mixing would be
N= -(l-d,)W,-(l-d,)W, + x + il-d,)W,,
where x is the heat of formation of the water, deduced from the change
of heat of neutralisation of HCl with temperature as 12950 cal.'
In this way the following heats of neutralisation of acids were deter-
mined and compared with the known values observed experimentally : —
Heat of Neutralisation (with NaOH) at 21°-5
Js ame
Calculated
Observed
Difference
HCl .
HBr.
HNO3
CH.COOH
CHjCOOH
Cs'HjCOOH
C,.H/COOH).,
CHC1.,C00H
H3PO, .
HOPOH, .
HF . ' .
13700
13700
13810
13070
13400
13750
12240
14980
14910
15460
16120
13740
13750
13680
13400
13480
13800
12400
148.30
14830
15160
16270
+ 40
-10
-130
+ 330
+ 80
+ .50
+ 160
-150
-80
-300
+ 150
The table shows, among other things, that the explanation of the fact
that some weak acids, as HF, HOPOH2, H3PO4, have higher heat of
neutralisation than the strong acids, is to be found in the development
of heat in dissociation shown by the table of p. 221.
Another deduction from the principles mentioned above is that the
conductivity of an electrolyte may have a negative temperature co-
efficient, if the temperature be sufficiently raised. The resistance of an
electrolyte depends upon (1) the friction of the moving ions, (2) their
number or the dissociation ratio, and both of these vary with the tem-
perature. According to Ostwald's dissociation formula, if 8 be the dis-
sociation ratio,
and
{l—8)v
dlogjc^l AW
dT T
RT
'2
Assuming, for the sake of simplicity, that the right-hand side does not
vary with the temperature, and further, supposing that the electrolyte
is only slightly dissociated, so that 8 is small compared with unity, and
V being constant, we get
2d loge S
»« -= const.
dt
-26 dt.
Whence
» '>2U2 + Oy.
= 2HjO + 27040 cal.
8,=Ae-'".
or H,H,H,H + 0,0, = 2HjO + 27040 cal.
i
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.
223
The friction of the ions may be taken to be the same for most acids,
since the motion is due mainly to the hydrogen, so that this may be put
equal to a constant multiplied by (1 + a/), where a is the temperature
coefEcient of the fluidity.'
Whence ^
R,=A,e-'"(l + aO.
This function assumes a maximum value when
{]. + at)h=a or a^= -.
b a
There are obviously many rough-and-ready approximations in the
course of this proof, but the remarkable fact remains that this behaviour
of electrolytes of low conductivity was actually verified in the case of
hypophosphoric acid and phosphoric acid, which gave maxima of con-
ductivity at 54° and 74° respectively. A rough calculation of the tem-
peratures at which the conductivity would reach its maximum value for
other electrolytes gives the following results
: —
Name
Concentia-
tiou
a
$
Temperature of
Maximum
Conductivity
CHC1..C00H .
0-2
0-0162
0-0083
81°
HF .
02
0-0162
0-0117
56°
C.H.COOH
0-2
0-0162
0-0042
195°
HNO3
0-5
0-0157
0-0014
668°
NaOH
0-5
0-0213
0-0011
882°
iCuSO^ .
0-5
00256
0-0058
151°
KI .
0-5
0-0231
0-0024
391°
NaCl .
0-5
00253
0-0012
808°
It will be seen from the foregoing sketch that the various numerical
relations between widely different properties of solutions and the agree-
ment of calculated with observed results are so striking that the further
development of the theory will be looked for with great interest. The
part which the solvent plays is still unexplained, though it is becoming
more and more clearly defined.
§ d. — Electro-Chemical Thermodynamics ;
§ e. — Electric Endosmose ;
§ f. — TJie Theory of Migration and Ionic Velocities; and
§ g. — Numerical Belations
are reserved for the present.
' According to Arrhenius, it is the temperature coefEcient of molecular conductivity
in infinite dilution.
'' A formula identical -with this was suggested to me by a consideration of the
numerical results for temperature variation of fluidity and conductivity of certain
electrolytes. {Proc. Cavih. Phil. Soc. vol. 7, p. 21, 1889.)
224
KEPOET 1890.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. E. Eoscoe, Mr. J. N.
LocKYER, Professors Dewar, Wolcott Gibbs, Liveing, Schuster,
and W. N. Hartley, Captain Abney, and Dr. Marshall Watts
{Secretary), appointed to prepare a new series of Wave-length
Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds.
The ' Table of Corrections ' given herewith has been obtained by a careful
comparison of Professor Rowland's photographic map of the solar
spectrum with the maps of Angstrom and Cornn, upon which the tables
already given in these Reports are based.
Table of Corrections to he applied to reduce Angstroin's and Cornu's
Numhers to the Standard of Rowland's Map.
Wave-length
Correction
Wave-length
Correction
Above 6930
+ 1-7
From 4970 to 4935
+ 1-0
From 6930 to 6880
-1-1-6
„ 4935 to 4865
+ 09
„ 6880 to 6820
+ 1-5
„ 4865 to 4740
+ 1'0
6820 to 6800
+ 1-4
„ 4740 to 4650
+ 0'9
„ 6800 to 6765
+ 1-3
„ 4650 to 4470
+ 0-8
„ 6765 to 6720
+ 1-2
„ 4470 to 4380
+ 0-7
6720 to 6660
+ 11
„ 4380 to 4170
+ 0-6
6660 to 6230
+ 1-0
„ 4170 to 4130
+ 0-7
„ 6230 to 6180
+ 0-9
„ 4130 to 4100
+ 0-8
„ 6180 to 6155
+ 1-0
„ 4100 to 4060
+ 0-7
„ 6155 to 6135
+ 1-1
„ 4060 to 4040
+ 0-6
6135 to 6130
+ 1-0
„ 4040 to 3850
+ 0-7
„ 6130 to 6110
H-0-9
„ 3850 to 3730
+ 0-6
„ 6110 to 6080
+ 1-0
„ 3730 to 3720
+ 0-5
„ 6080 to 6060
+ 1-1
„ 3720 to 3660
+ 0-4
„ 6060 to 6000
+ 1-0
„ 3660 to 3640
+ 0-8
„ 6000 to 5970
+ 0-9
„ 3640 to 3620
+ 0-6
„ 5970 to 5810
+ 10
„ 3620 to 3530
-fO-8
„ 5810 to 5780
+ 0-9
., 3530 to 3480
+ 06
5780 to 5610
+ 1-0
„ 3480 to 3470
+ 0-8
„ 5610 to 5540
+ 1-1
„ 3470 to 3440
+ 0-7
5540 to 5485
+ 1-0
„ 3440 to 3420
+ 1-1
„ 5485 to 5435
+ 0-9
„ 3420 to 3360
+ 1-7
„ 5435 to 5350
+ 10
„ 3360 to 3330
+ 2-5
„ 5350 to 5335
+ 0-9
„ 3330 to 3290
+ 2-2
„ 5335 to 5325
+ 1-0
„ 3290 to 3280
+ 2-0
„ 5325 to 5300
+ 0-9
„ 3280 to 3240
+ 1-9
„ 5300 to 5175
+ 1-0
., 3240 to 3220
+ 1-8
„ 5175 to 5150
+ 0-9
„ 3220 to 3190
+ 0-8
„ 5150 to 4990
+ 0-8
„ 3190 to 3160
+ 0-4
„ 4990 to 4970
+ 0-9
The spectra of cobalt and nickel now given are upon Angstrom's scale,
but the absorption spectrum of iodine rests upon the numbers of the Pots-
dam catalogue of 300 solar lines, the numbers of which agree very closely
indeed with those of Rowland, as is seen in the following comparison : —
Potsdam Catalogue Rowland's Map
C (Hydrogen) .... 6563-14 .... 6563042
Di(Sodiuin)
Do(Sodium)
E,'(Iron) .
E,,(Iron) .
b| (Magnesium)
b3(Iron)
5896-25
5890-23
5270-55
5269-90
5183-93
5169-33
5896-156
5890188
5270-497
5269-720
5183-798
5169-155
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 225
Cobalt.'
A number printed in italics signifies tliat the wave-length was directly measured by
means of a grating. The numbers given under ' Oscillation Frequency ' are
in vacuo.
• Double, t With cobalt cliloride in oxyhyrlrogen flame. X Also a nickel line. § Alec an iron line.
Intensity and
Intensity and
Wave-length
Character
Oscillation
Frequency
Wave-length
Character
Oscillation
Frequency
Spark
Arc
Spark
Arc
3997-3
1
10
25009
3656-1
1
3
27343
■\ 3994- 7
10
8
25026
3654-0
1
27359
3991-4
3
25046
36^-8
1
27398
3990-3
3
25054
3642-7
3
3
27444
3987-1
1
25073
3641-1
1
1
27456
t3978-7
8
8
25126
3638-9
1
3
27472
3974-1
3
25155
3636-1
1
1
27494
396S-S
1
25189
3634-2
4
1
27508
3957-7
1
4
25259
36322
1
1
27523
3955-7
1
1
25272
■f3627-3
6
10
27560
3952-4
1
1
25293
3614-8
1
1
27655
3944 9
1
1
25341
3611-3
1
1
27682
■\394O-9
1
6
25367
p605-0
6
8
27731
f3935-5
6
3
25402
3601-6
6
10
27757
3916-2
1
1
25527
X3594-4
6
10
27812
•t3909-0
1
4
25574
3586-7
10
8
27872
3905-2
1
4
25599
^3584-7
6
8
27888
3S94-3
3
25671
3577-4
1
3
27945
f3B93-4
10
10
25677
t5574-9\
\3574-5]
10
10
27964 1
27967/
3884
1
25739
56?6iV-0
6
10
25759
f 3568- 9
10
10
28011
3S76-1
1
3
25791
p564-5
6
10
28046
f3S73-2
n
10
25810
3562-3
1
28063
i3872-4
8/
25816
p560-5
8
6
28077
3860-5
4
25895
3552-4
1
1
28141 ■
f3844-S
10
8
26001
3550-1
4
6
28159
^3841-4
8
4
26024
3548-0
1
1
28176
3830-3
1
26099
3544-7
1
1
28202
%38l5-7
1
26200
3542-8
4
3
28217
\3815-1
1
26204
■\35328
4
6
28297
3807-3
1
3
26258
t35S9-3
6
10
28325
3777-0
1
3
26468
}3528-4
1
4
28333
3774-0
1
3
26489
3526-3
4
6
28349
3769-7
1
26520
f3522-9
6
6
28377
3753-9
1
26631
%3520-9
6
8
28393
^3745-8
10
2G689
3519-5
3
6
28404
S735-2
1
26764
3517-7
6
8
28419
3732-8
1
3
26782
i3512-0
4
6
28465
3731-8
4
3
26789
%3509-7
n
6
284831
28487/
".129-8
3
3
26803
f3509-3
4/
3711-6
1
26935
\3505.9
10
8
28517
\3703-5
8
10
26993
3503-4
1
28535
^70 1- 7
6
1
27007
3502-0
10 .
285-16
3692-8\
3692- 4 j
6
6
27072
f 3501 -6
10
28549
27075
3501-0
4j
28554
3690-2
1
1
27091
3496-0
3
6
28595
3682-3
6
8
27147
P495-1
6
10
28602
3680-8
1
27160
3490-6
3
4
28639
3661-6
6
*4
27303
^3488-8
10
10
28654
1890.
Liveing and Dewar, Phil. Trans, clxsix. 231 (1888).
226
REPORT — 1890.
Cobalt — continued.
Intensity and
Intensity and
Wave-length
Character
Oscillation
Frequency
Wave-length
Character
Oscillation
Frequency
Spark
Arc
Spark
Arc
34S4-7
4
4
28688
3319-0
6
4
30120
t34?2-7
6
10
28704
3313-6
4
3
30169
34780
1
3
28743
t3311-7
3
3
30187
3476-0
1
8
28760
3309-1
3
30211
i3473-4
10
10
28781
3308-2
1
1
30219
tt§S465-2
8
10
28849
3306-5
1
1
30234
^3462-2
8
8
28874
3303-2
1
1
30264
3460-6
3
4
28882
3294-2
1
30347
3454-6
4
C
28938
3286-6
3
3
30417
\^3432-9
8
8
28953
3284-2
1
30439
344S-9
"^1-
10
28986
3282-9
8
6
30452
f344S-6
6/
28989
3278-5
3
1
30492
ti3443-7
4
6
29013
3277-2
1
4
30504
J3443-O
6
6
29036
32760
1
1
30516
3442-3
1
6
29047
3271-3
2
1
30560
3438-2
1
29076
3264-4
*3
3
30624
'.
:3436-8
*3
4
29088
3262-7
1
30640
'■
.3432-9
1}
10
29121
3261-7
1
3
30649
'
3432-4
29126
3260-1
4
3
30664
3431-3
P430-9
1}
8
29135
29138
3253-7
3249-6
4
1
4
3
30725
30764
X3423-2
*4
6
29204
%3246-7
6
30791
j34'l6-3
4
8
29261
%3243-4
4
3
30822
3415-2
1
29272
3236-7
3
4
30886
3414-2
8
29281
3235-2
3
3
30900
34120
I]
10
29300
3232-4
3
4
30927
\34li-7
29302
3226-5
1
1
30984
^ 340s- 6
6
10
29329
3218-7
3
4
31059
34061
1
29350
3210-1
1
1
31142
X]3404-5
8
10
29364
3188-0
3
3
31358
3394s
6
10
29448
3181-7
3
3
31420
3394-2
6
29453
3176-6
4
3
31470
3387-6
6
10
29511
3174-8
1
4
31488
3387-1
6
10
29515
3169-5
3
3
31541
3384-7
4
8
29536
3164-3
1
1
31593
t338o-0
1
10
29577
3161-3
1
1
31622
337S-O
2
1
29594
3159-2
3
3
31644
3376-6
1
2d
29607
3158-2
6
6
31654
3370-4
4
4
29661
3154-2
8
6
31694
3366-6
6
10
29695
31623
1
1
31713
3362-3
1
1
29733
3148-9
3
4
31747
X3360-S
1
6
29746
5^46-6
6
6
31770
3353-9
8
10
29807
3139-5
6
6
31842
3352-3
4
29821
3136-8
6
8
31869
3348-9
1
3
29852
3130-4
4
1
31935
3347-7
3
3
29862
3126-7
1
1
31972
3346-4
3
3
29874
3121-1
8
8
32030
3342-2
3
3
29911
3113-0
3
3
32113
3340-8
1}
3
29924
3109-5
1
1
32149
33402
29929
3109-0
1
1
32154
3339-3
3
3
29937
3103-3
3
3
32213
3333-6
8
10
29989
3101-8
1
32228
33290
1
1
30030
3097-6
4
6
32273
3326-4
3
3
30053
30890
4
4
32363
3324-8
3
3
30068
3086-3
8
8
32392
X3321-7
4
4
30096
3082-1
6
6
32436
ON WAVE-LENQTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 227
Cobalt — continued.
Intensi
tv and
Intensit}' and
Wave-length
Character
Oscillation
Frequency
Wave-length
Character
Oscillation
Frequency
Spark
Arc
Spark
Arc
3078-9
1
1
32470
§2506-7
4
35618
3073-4
1
1
32528
§2803-3
1
2
35661
30720 \
3071-8/
8
rs
32542
2S0/-7
*3
35681
\i
32545
2798-4
1
1
35723
3064-0
1
4
32627
2796-6
1
35746
30630
1
3
32638
2796-3
1
35750
3061-4
8
6
32655
2795-8
1
35756
3059-6
1
1
32674
2793-4
6
35787
3050-6
4
6
32771
§2789-1
1
35842
3048-G
6
6
32792
27S6-9
*3
35871
3043-(;
6
6
32846
2785-7
*3
35886
30422
1
3
32861
2785-2
*3
35892
3034-0 \
3033-8/
8
{I
32950
2778-5
1
1
35979
32952
2773-7
8
86015
3017-0
6
33136
$2774-8
*3
1
36027
3015-2
1
1
33155
276B-6
4
1
36108
3013-2
4
4
33177
2766-3
3
36135
3010-3
1
3
33209
2766-0
3
4
36141
3008-5
♦1
1
33229
2763-9
3
4
36169
30001
1
2
33332
2761-0
1
3
36207
2994-7
1
33382
2757-1
1
1
36258
2989-1
6
6
33445
2744-7
3
3
36422
2986-5
6
6
33474
2738-6
1
36503
2983-3
1
1
33510
2734-3
*3
36560
2971-2
*1
33646
2732-6
1
36583
2934-1
*10
33841
2730-7
1
1
36609
2942-3
*8
8
33974
2728-8
*4
3G635
29300
*8
34119
2727-5
*4
36653
29290
1
1
34131
2720-6
•4
36746 •
2927-2
1
1
34152
2715-3
3
6
36817
2918-1
*6
34258
2714-5
1
36828
2906-5
1
3
34395
2713-9
6
36836
2899-3
1
6
34480
%370%-6
1
1
36908
2897-5
*3
34502
2707-4
*3
36925
28900
8
1
34591
S,2:06-9
*1
36932
28860
3
4
34639
'^2706-2
♦4
36941
2883-1
»1
34674
2701-9
4
37000
2SS1-3
1
6
34696
2696-4
1
37075
2879-9
*1
34713
2696-0
1
37081
2S70-4
8
34827
2G95-9
1
37082
J2865-1
1
34892
2693-3
1
6
37091
2862-2
1
3
34927
2694-1
8
1
37107
28498
1
3
35079
2692-3
3
37129
. §2847-9
*3
35102
26S9-2
3
37175
2845-2
1
35136
P6S4-O
»6
37247
2836-7
1
1
35241
2681-5
1
37281
2S34-3
6
35271
2679-8
3
37305
2f!24-5
8
8
35393
2679-0
1
4
37316
2S23-2
1
35409
2677-4
3
37338
2822-7
*3
35416
2675-4
*6
4
37366
2821-1
*1
3
35436
+26701
1
37441
2819-4
1
1
35457
2669-7
3
1
37446
2818-3
1
1
35471
2662-7
8
1
37545
2815-8
♦1
35502
2653-3
6
37677
2S/3-2
4
6
35510
2648-4
8
10
37747
2810-3
6
35572
2646-1
3
6
37780
228
KEPOET 1890.
Cobalt — continued.
Intensity and
Intensity and
Wave-length
Character
Oscillation
Frequency
Wave-length
Character
Oscillation-
Frequency
Spark
Arc
Spark
Arc
264i-4
1
1
37804
2524-2
1
10
39C04
2642-7
*1
1
37829
2522-5
4
39681
2634-5
3
37946
2520-7
3
10
39659
2631-9
6
1
37984
2519-3
10
39681
^2628-4
*1(?)
38034
2517-3
3
8
39712
2627-3
1
6
38050
2516-9
4
34719
2626-6
*1
1
38060
2511-7
1
1
39801
2621-7
*1
4
38131
2511-4
1
39806
2619-3
4
1
38166
X2510-5
10
10
39820
2618-5
4
8
38178
2509-4
1
39837
2613-8
6
1
38247
2507-5
4
4
89868
2613-0
4
38258
2505-8
10
10
39895
2605-3
1
2
38371
2504-1
1
6
39922
2605-2
4
4
38373
2501-7
*3
1
39960
2603-9
3
3
38392
2500-2
3
6
■39984
2600-3
1
3
38445
2498-2
4
40016
§2598-8
1
1
39467
2497-1
6
6
40034
2592-9
1
1
38555
2496-3
8
40046
J2586-8
8
1
38646
2495-1
4
40066
2584-8
1
3
38676
2494-4
3
40077
^55^2-6
3
38709
2490-4
6
40141
2581-7
6
1
88722
2489-8
6
40151
X2379-S
10
8
38751
2486-9
40198
2374-4
6
8
38832
2486-7
40201
2573-1
1
4
38851
%2485-9
40214
2571-9
1
4
38870
2484-8
40232
2569-3
6
38909
2484-4
40238
2567-0
1
6
38944
2484-1
40243
25650
1
38974
2483-2
4
40258
256S-6
10
1
38995
2478-6
40332
2561-7
1
10
39024
2477-8
40345
2559-6
6
1
39056
%U77-1
40357
255S-9
8
1
38067
2476-9
40360
2556-9
4
4
39098
2476-2
6
40371
2556-3
6
39107
2476-0
40375
2553-1
1
4
38156
2474-9
*1
40393
t2552-7
1
4
39162
2473-5
*1
40415
2552-2
4
39170
2472-5
8
40432
§2550-1
4
39202
2469-7
6
40478
§2549-7
*1
4
39208
2469-0
1
40489 1
2548-9
1
4
39220
2466-5
40530 '
2546-3
8
39260
2463-7
10
4
40576
2545-7
1
3
39270
2460-8
40624 1
2544-6
3
4
39286
2460-3
6
40632 '
2544-2
n
6
39293
2459-0
40654
2543-9
1/
39297
2455-7
8
40708
254-1-5
1}
8
39334
2453-6
40743
2540-2
39355
2453-3
8
40748
2537-0
3
1
39404
2452-7
40758
2536-1
1
4
39418
2452-0
1
40770
2535-3
3
4
39427
2449-4
8
40813
2533-4
8
39460
244S-7
4
40825
2531-7
1
10
39487
%2447-3
8
3
40848
2529-6
6
6
39519
2445-6
6
1
40876
2528-i
8
8
39543
2443-3
6
3
40915
2524-5
8
89599
2442-0
8
40937 1
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTBA OF THE
ELEMENTS. 229
Cobalt—
■continued.
Intensity and
Intensity and
Wave-length
Character
Oscillation
Frequency
Wave-length
Char
acter
Oscillation
Frequency
Spark
Arc
Spark
Arc
2441-2
3
4
40950
^2374-S
4
1
42095
2440-6
1
4
40960
2372-6
3
3
42134
2439-7
*1
40975
2371-8
3
4
42148
2438-5
3
6
40995
2371-3
6
4
42153
2437-9
*1
41005
2370-1
3
4
42178
2436-3
1}
8
41029
2366-6
1
3
42219
2436-2
41034
2363-3
10
6
42299
2435-8
1
3
41041
2361-2
1
1
42339
2434-6
8
8
41061
2360-8
1
1
42346
24320
10
10
41105
2360-3
4
42355
2430-0
1
41139
2360-2
3
1
42357
2429-6
3
3
41145
23600
4
1
42360
2427-S
6
4U76
2357-7
4
4
42402
2423-7
3
1
41212
2353-0
10
6
42486
2424-3
4
*10
41232
2352-1
1
6
42502
2423-2
6
1
41254
2351-5
1
3
42513
2422-1
1
4
41273
§$2350-6
3
3
42530
2421-6
1
1
41281
2348-1
1
42575
2420-3
10
1
41303
2347-4
3
42588
241 S-1
6
4
41341
2347-0
6
3
42595
2417-2
6
6
41356
2346-7
1
3
42600
2416-5
6
3
41368
$2346-2
4
1
42609
2413-7
4
41382
2345-2
3
3
42628
2415-5
6
41386
2344-3
4
42644
2414-8
3
8
41397
%2344-0
6
42649
2414-1
3
8
41409
X234O-8
8
42708
2413-7
6
4
41416
2338-8
3
4
42744
X2412-2
I
6
41442
2338-4
1
4
42751
2411-2
8
10
41494
2337-6
8
4
42766
2408-3
6
4
41509
$2336-6
3
1
42784
2407-8
6
41518
2335-9
6
4
42797
2407-1
6
*10
41530
2333-7
1
1
42838
2406-9
1
41533
X2330-0
6
8
42905
i405-1
4
1
41561
2328-7
1
1
42929
2404-0
4
1
41583
2327-3
8
42955
2403-8
6
4
41587
%2326-1
6
4
42977
2403-3
1
1
41596
2323-9
6
3
42981
2402-4
1
1
41611
12324-0
6
4
43016
$2401-6
11
8
41625
$2321-0
1
3
43085
24013
1/
41630
2319-6
1
4
43098
2397-8
4
3
41691
2318-2
1
43105
2396-9
10
3
41707
$2316-8
6
3
43150
2395-1
4
4
41738
$2315-5
1
4
43174
2393-4
4
1
41768
2314-5
8
3
43193
J2392-1
4
4
41787
%2313-5
8
6
43211
2391-5
1
4
41801
2313-1
4
43219
2389-1
6
4
41843
2312-1
3
3
43238
2388-4
10
1
41855
X2311-1
10
6
43256
2388-3
3
4
41857
2310-4
1
1
43269
3386-1
6
1
41895
2307-4
«10
8
43326
2383-9
8
4
41899
2306-4
1
43344
2382-9
8
4
41952
$2305-6
1
43359
$2381-7
3
41973
2303-8
1
43393
S381-3
8
4
41980
2300-8
3
4
43450
2380-3
1
1
41997
2800-3
3
3
43459
S37S-1
10
8
42036
2299-3
4
1
43478
230
KEPOKT — 1890.
C B ALT — continued.
Intensity and
Intensity and
■ Wave-length
Character
Oscillation
Frequency
Wave-length
Character
Oscillation
Frequency
Spark
Arc
Spark
Arc
2298-3
1
1
43497
2272-0
1
44000
2296-9
3
8
43524
2270-5
1
44030
2295-5
3
4
43550
$2266-2
8
44113
2293-0
6
8
43598
2259-7
8
44240
229-1-5
6
4
43626
2256-4
8
44305
2290-9
1
1
43638
2253-2
1
44367
2289-9
1
1
43657
2244-8
6
44533
2287-8
1
3
43697
2234-4
1
44741
22S5-7
*8
8
43737
2231-5
1
44799
2283-1
3
43787
2229-5
1
44839
2281-9
1
43810
2219-6
1
45039
2281-5
4
43817
2215-9
1
45114
2280-1
3
43844
2214-1
1
45151
2278-1
1
43883
2205-7
1
45323
2275-9
1
43925
2298-2
1
45477
2275-1
1
43941
2293-1
1
45583
$2274-2
1
1
43958
2291-9
1
45608
J2273-3
3
43975
2290-2
]
45643
Nickel.*
• Double. t Also In oxyhydrogen flame. % Also a cobalt line. § Also an Iron line.
Intensity and
Intensity and
Wave-length
Character
Oscillation
Frequency
Wave-length
Character
Oscillation
Frequency
Spark
Arc
Spark
Arc
3S5~-S
8
8
25913
3624- -J
1
3
27585
3S'4S-9
3
25973
f36-f8-S
10
10
27625
3S37-3
3
26050
■\3612-1
6
6
27676
3831-7
1
26090
3609-S
8
8
27694
f3S'06-6
8
6
26263
360S-6
1
1
27703
p~S30
6
4
26426
360-1-4
3
27758
■f3773-o
6
6
26482
p597-0
10
10
27792
376S-9
8
26525
35S7-2
*3
3
27868
3736-1
8
8
26758
3576-1
8
27955
3724-2
1
26843
%\3571-2
8
8
27993
§.972^-6
6
26862
p565-7
10
6
28036
3710-9
1
26940
3561-1
1
28072
3697-2
1
27039
3552-S
1
28138
3694-6
1
27058
3550-8
1
28154
36S7-6
1
27110
3547-5
6
6
28180
3673-4
3
4
27215
3529-9
1
1
28321
3671-5
1
27229
X3529-2
1
3
28.326
3669-7
1
8
27242
3527-1
3
1
28343
■ 3666-9
1
27263
3526-0
3
28352
3663-4
3
27289
^3523-9
10
10
28369
3659-3
3
27319
3519-1
6
6
28407
3657-5
1
273.33
3518-0
1
28416
365.5-2
1
27350
p514-4
10
10
28445
3653-0
6
27366
%3513-3
8
28454
3634-9
4
27.503
{X3509-7
10
10
28483
• Liveing and De-war, PMl. Trans, clxxix. 231 (1888).
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 231
Nickel — continued.
Intensi
ty and
Intensity and
Wave-length
Character
Oscillation
Frequency
Wave-length
Character
Oscillation
Frequency
Spark
Arc
Spark
Arc
3507-3
1
1
28503
3250-1
4
3
30760
3505-9
1
3
28514
3247-8
1
1
30781
3501-8
3
4
28548
3242-6
6
6
30830
3300-0
8
8
28562
3234-2
6
6
30910
^349'J-3
10
10
28625
^3232-6
8
10
30925
34S5-2
3
3
28684
3226-3
1
1
30986
3433-1
8
8
28707
3224-6
4
4
31002
3471-9
8
8
28793
3221-1
3
3
31036
3470-S
*3
1
28803
3217-4
3
31071
346S-9
8
4
28818
3216-6
1
1
31079
3466-8
3
3
28836
3216-0
1
31081
13465- i
6
8
28850
^3213-7
3
31107
}3461-1
10
10
28883
"321 2-3
1
31121
3457-9
10
10
28911
3201-5
1
31226
t3457-7
*3
8
28913
%3196-6
6
6
31273
3453-5
4
4
28948
3194-9
1
4
31290
J3452-9
3
4
28953
3183-8
1
6
31399
i\3452-3
10
4
28958
%3l82-6
1
1
31411
3443-7
10
10
29013
3181-2
1
31425
3441-6
1
29048
3179-2
*6
6
31445
13436-7
8
8
29089
3158-9
*3
3
31656
P433-0
10
10
29121
3143-5
3
4
31781
X3423-1
10
8
29205
3134-0
1
1
31898
3420-6
1
1
29224
p133-6
10
10
31902
3413-S
10
8
29284
3113-7
3
4
32106
■\34i3-4
4
10
29288
%3105-0
3
6
32196
3412-9
8
8
29292
3101-4
8
8
32233
3409-0
1
3
29325
3101-1
6
6
32236
3406-6
6
6
29346
3098-6
4
32262
%3404-5
3
1
28364
3096-6
4
32283
3402-8
1
29379
3086-6
8
32389
3400-5
1
3
29399
3080-3
6
6
32455
3392-4
8
8
29469
3064-2
6
6
32625
3390-4
8
8
29486
^3057-2
8
32700
13380-0
10
10
29577
3053-9
8
6
32735
3374-0
4
4
29630
3050-4
8
8
32773
3373-6
1
4
29633
%3044-3
4
4
32836
3373-3
6
6
29636
3037-5
8
8
32912
3371-3
6
4
29653
3031-4
4
4
32978
^3368-9
8
6
29674
3018-8
6
33116
}3367-2
1
8
29689
3011-5
10
10
33196
3365-5
4
4
29704
3003-2
8
8
33288
3365-1
4
4
29708
3002-1
8
8
33300
3361-0
3
6
29744
^2994-1
6
6
33389
X3360-9
6
8
29745
2992-2
6
8
33410
3358-1
1
3
29770
2988-0
1
33457
3349-8
3
29844
2987-7
*3
33460
X3321-6
6
4
30097
2983-6
4
6
33506
3319-7
6
6
30114
^2981-2
6
6
33533
3315-1
6
6
30156
2968-7
*3
33674
3312-4
1
30180
2957-8
1
33799
X3311-8
3
1
30186
2954-5
*3
33836
3290-1
1
30385
2947-1
4
33921
3282-2
3
4
30458
2943-5
8
10
33963
3274-4
1
30531
§2938-7
1
1
34018
%3S70-6
1
I
30566
II %2936-3
•
B
34046
232
EEPOET — 1890.
Nickel — continued.
Intensity and
Intensity and
Wave-length
Character
Oscillation
Frequency
Wave-length
Character
Oscillation
Frequency
Spark
Arc
Spark
Arc
2934-3
1
34069
2557-5
1
39088
§2925^-4
*6
34138
2554-7
4
39131
2918-8
*1
34250
%2552-6
*1
4
39163
29^3-2
8
8
34316
2549-1
1
1
39217
2906-9
3
6
34390
2545-4
6
6
39274
2900-6
1
34465
12543-2
3
39308
2898-8
1
34486
2539-5
1
6
39365
2889-1
1
34602
2524-1
1
39605
2882-2
*1
34685
2520-0
1
1
39670
2880-9
*1
34700
X2510-6
10
8
39818
$2865-1
6
34892
2509-6
1
39834
2S63-3
8
34914
X2505-9
6
39893
2823-9
1
35401
2496-9
1
1
40037
2820-8
6
10
35440
2483-6
*6
6
40251
2807-8
1
35604
2476-6
1
1
40365
2806-0
*1
35626
%2472-8
8
6
40427
2S05-0
8
6
35639
§2471-8
1
8
40443
P774-7
*4
36028
2455-4
4
1
40713
2760-4
1
36215
2453-7
1
8
40741
275^7
4
36237
2448-1
3
40835
2708-3
4
4
36913
§2441-5
1
10
40945
^2701-2
3
1
37010
2437-5
*10
6
41012
2700-4
1
1
37021
§2433-9
1
6
41073
2690-2
1
37161
§2433-2
4
41085
$2684-0
8
37247
2431-2
1
41118
2678-8
6
37319
2426-8
1
41193
2674-4
1
37380
2423-4
1
6
41251
2672-1
1
37412
2420-8
1
8
41295
§26700
3
37442
2419-0
1
6
41326
2664-9
1
37513
2416-O
*10
8
41377
2639-5
3
3
37590
2412-8
3
6
41432
2655-6
6
1
37645
%2412-1
1
6
41444
2648-6
1
1
37744
2404-8
1
1
41570
2646-S
6
6
37770
$2401-7
1
6
41623 .
2643-4
1
37819
\24OO-l
1
41648
26410
1
37853
2397-2
1
41741
^2639-5
6
37874
§2394-7
1
6
41745
2636-8
1
37913
2394-3
8
8
41752
2632-4
1
37971
%2394-0
8
8
41757
2628-4
1
38034
2392-6
4
6
41701
2626-3
1
38065
$2392-0
1
1
41792
^26149
6
38231
I 2388-7
1
1
41850
2609-6
6
38308
i ^2388-5
4
1
41853
§2606-7
1
38351
2387-5
6
4
41871
I26O6-I
1
38360
2386-3
1
6
41892
2600-8
1
38438
t§2381-8
8
3
41971
§2593-1
3
38552
j 2378-6
1
1
42027
$2586-7
1
1
38647
2375-6
1
6
42080
2584-4
3
38682
i 2375-0
8
4
42091
2583-5
4
38695
! 2370-9
1
1
42164
$2579-9
1
1
38749
2369-5
4
42189
2575-7
4
4
38812
2368-9
3
1
42199
2571-7
1
1
38873
2367-0
4
3
42233
2568-2
1
1
38926
%2366--f
4
1
42249
2565-7
*4
38964
2358-5
1
6
42337
2559-8
4
3
39053
1 2355-9
6
6
42434
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 233
Nickel — continued.
Intensity ami
Intensity and
Wave-length
Character
Oscillation
Frequency
Wave-length
Character
Oscillation
Frequency
Spark
Arc
Spark
Arc
^2350-5
1
1
42531
2277-8
6
4
43888
§2349-8
*1
1
42544
2277-0
6
1
43904
2347-6
I
4
42584
2276-3
3
43917
t2346-2
1
4
42C09
%227'o-7
3
4
43929
2345-0
1
42631
$!j2275-0
4
3
43942
§2-34^7
8
6
42637
$2274-1
6
6
439G0
2343-5
1
42658
$2273-2
1
1
43977
23430
4
1
42668
2272-3
1
43995
X2340-7
8
42709
2271-1
1
6
44018
2337-1
1
3
42775
2270-3
1
44033
^2336-6
1
6
42784
2269-9
*10
10
44041
2336-2
*6
1
42792
2269-1
1
6
44057
2334- i
8
1
42830
$2266-1
1
3
44115
J23301
1
42904
§2264-8
3
44140
2329-6
4
8
42913
^2264-1
8
10
44154
X2326-0
8
6
42979
§2263-1
4
44173
2325-5
4
8
42989
2262-6
1
1
44183
$2324-0
*1
43016
2261-1
1
4
44213
2323-3
"1
43029
§2260-3
1
44228
2322-3
1
6
43048
2259-4
1
6
44246
2321-6
1
3
43061
2258-9
3
44256
%2321-0
4
8
43072
2257-6
4
6
44281
2319-3
6
6
43103
2255-7
6
3
44318
231S-0
6
43128
2254-7
6
6
44338
$2310-8
1
6
43150
2263-9
1
44354
X2315-6
no
6
43172
2253-5
*10
8
44362
P3/3-6
3
6
43210
2252-6
1
44379
2313-4
1
6
43213
2251-4
1
4
44403
2312-5
6
43230
§2251-1
1
1
44409
2311-8
4
6
43243
§2250-5
I
1
44421
$2311-2
1
43254
2250-2
1
44427
2310-6
*3
6
43266
2249-2
1
44446
230S-1
6
1
43312
§2248-8
1
4
44454
$2305-7
1
43358
2247-4
1
44482
2304-8
6
43374
2246-6
3
44498
2303-3
6
4
43403
2245-9
*1
44512
2302-3
8
43418
2244-4
*1
8
44541
230-2-0
8
43427
%2242-2
1
3
44585
2301-5
1
43437
2241-2
1
44605
2299-8
6
43469
2239-8
*1
44633
2299-2
6
43480
2238-2
*1
44665
2298-0
*6
1
43503
2237-6
*1
44677
229T1 \
6
1
43520
2235-5
1
44719
2206-7 J
43527
2233-5
3
44759
2296-2
8
43537
2231-2
1
44805
2295-3
1
43554
$^2229-6
*4
6
44837
2292-7
1
1
43603
§2227-2
1
8
44885
2290-7
1
43641
2226-7
1
44895
2289-6
4
4
43662
2225-8
6
6
44914
2287-4
8
1
43704
§2225-3
1
44924
2286-8
8
6
43716
2224-3
6
8
44944
2284-8
1
43754
2223-8
6
44954
2283-7
1
1
43775
2222-3
6
8
44984
2280-6
*1
43835
2221-7
1
44996
2279-2
1
43862
2221-3
1
3
45004
221 8- 4
•8
6
43877
2220-6
3
45019
234
BEPORT 1890.
Nickel — continued.
Intensity and
Intensity aud
Wave-length
Character
Oscillation
Frequency
Wave-length
Character
Oscillation
Frequency
Spark
Arc
Spark
Arc
2219S
6
1
45035
2197-2
♦1
6
45498
22190
1
45051
2193-2
1
45581
2217%
3
3
43084
2190-6
1
4
45G35
2216-0
6
3
45112
2190-0
]
4
45647
X2215-8
8
10
45116
2188-2
3
1
45685
2212-5
4
3
45183
2185-0
6
1
45752
§2211-4
1
3
45206
2184-2
6
6
45769
§2210-5
4
4
45224
2182-8
1
6
45798
2209-8
*8
6
45239
2179-9
4
45859
2206-1
8
8
45314
2179-4
1
45869
2205-2
*6
6
45333
2176-7
3
45926
22030
*1
45378
21760
3
45941
2200-8
8
4
45424
2174-4
4
6
45975
2198-4
3
4
45473
2173-8
4
6
45988
2198-0
*1
45481
• Double.
Iodine (Absorption).'
t Triple. © Coincident with a solar line.
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
length
Character
Frequency
length
Character
Frequency
6316-51
4
15826-8
6301- 16t1
3
15865-3
6314-66
2
15831-4
6300-51t/
15866-9
6314-26
2
15832-4
6300-22
3
13867-7
6313-90
2
15833-3
6300-00
3
15868-2
6313-53
3
15834-2
6299-58*
50
15869-3
6313-18
3
15835-1
6298-94*
50
15870-9
6312-76
3
16836-2
6298-29
6
15872-5
6312-23*
3
15837-5
6297-76*
5
15873-9
6311-59*
3
15839-1
6297-15*
3
15875-4
6311-11
3
15840-3
6296-82
3
15876-2
6310-74
4
15841-2
6296-31
50
15877-5
6310-36
3
15842-2
6295-91
3
15878-5
6310-08
4
15842-9
6295-31
5
15880-0
6309-38
4
158446
6294-75
6
15881-5
6308-67t
4
15846-4
6294-25
6
15882-7
6308-05
4
15848-0
6293-72*
4
15884-1
6307-73
2
15848-8
6293-29
30
15885-1
6307-38
3
15849-7
6292-91*
4
15886-1
6307-00
3
15850-6
6292-45*
5
15887-3
6306-64
3s
15851-5
6291-94
6
15888-6
6306-13*
3
15852-8
6291-46
6
15889-8
6305-69
3
15853-9
6290-98*
4
15891-0
6305-38
3
15854-7
6290-62
30
15891-9
6304-83
3
15856-1
6290-23*
3
15892-9
630421
4
15857-6
6289-83
6
15893-9
630.3-57
3
15859-2
6289-34
4
15895-1
6302-34
3©
15862-3
6288-90*
4
15896-2
6301-50
2
15864-4
6288-63
2
15896-9
> Hasselberg, Memoires de V Academic des Sciences de St. Peterslourg, vii" sgrie,
vol. xxxvi. (1888).
ON WAYE-LBNGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OP THE ELEMENTS. 235
Iodine (Absorption) — continued.
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
length
Character
Frequency
length
Character
Frequency
6288-21*
4
15898-0
6263-94
3
15959-6
6287-82
3
158990
6263-58
2
15960-5
6287-36
4
159001
6263-23
3
15961-4
6286-83*
4
15901-4
6262-91
2
15962-2
6286-37
3
15902-6
6262-59
4
15963-0
6285-98
4
15903-6
6261-95
3
15964-6
6285-61
3
15904-6
6261-42*
5
159660
6285-40
3
15905-1
6260-73*
4
15967-8
6285-08
4
15905-9
6260-37
3
15968-7
6284-68
4
15906-9
6260-10
5
15969-4
6284 19
4
15908-2
6259-42
3
15971-1
6283-86
3
159090
6258-80
4
15972-7
6283-45
8
159100
6258-22
4
15971-2
6282-98
4s
15911-2
6257-68
4
15975-5
6282-59
3
15912-2
6257-08
3
15977-1
6282-28
3©
159130
6256-42
4
15978-8
6281-90*
4
159140
6255-86
4
15980-2
6281-14
5
15915-9
6255-35
4
15981-5
6280-41
l}o
15917-7
6254-74*
5
15983-1
6280-01
15918-7
6254-26
4
15984-3
6279-75
5
15919-4
6253-89
3
15985-2
6279-46
50
15920-1
6253-61
3
15986-0
6279 13
3
15921-0
6253-07
6
15987-3
6278-79
5
15921-8
6252-96*
6
15987-6
6278-25
2
15923-2
6252-59
4
15988-6
6277-88
50
15924-1
6252-12
5
15989-8
6277-36
>
15925-5
6251-85
3
15990-5
6277-00
15926-4
6251-58
3
15991-1
6276-36
4
15928-0
6251-33
2
15991-8
6275-56*
4
159300
6251-00
4
15992-5
6275-11*
2
15931-2
6250-62
3
15993-6
6274-73
3
15932-1
6250-12*
5
15994-9
6274-35
2
15933-1
6249-63
3
15996-1
6274-01
5
159340
6249-15
5
15997-4
6273-67
2
15934-8
6248-66
3
15998-6
6273-24
4
15935-9
6248-19
5
15999-8
6272-85
3
15936-9
6247-60
2
16001-3
6272-42
4
15938-0
6247-27
3
16002-2
6240-94
3
16003-0
Group 6272
-6234
6240-41
624605
3
4
16004-4
16005-3
6272-42
4
15938-0
6245-59
4
16006-5
6271-75
4
15939-7
6245-21
4 y band
16007-4
6271-06*
3
15941-5
6244-78
16008-5
6270-22
2
15943-6
6244-48
^ > band
16009-3
6269-8]
2
15944-6
6243-96
16010-7
6269-54
4
15945-3
6243-62
4
16011-5
626907
2
15946-5
6243-24
4
16012-5
6268-78
4
15947-3
6242-89
2
16013-4
6268-38
2
15948-3
6242-57
4
16014-2
6268-06
4
15949-1
6242-23
3
16015-1
6267-64
2
15950-2
6241-88
4
16016-0
6267-30
4
15951-0
6241-55
3
16016-8
6266-69*
3
15952-6
6241-12
5
16017-9
6266-04
4
15954-2
6240-89
40
16018-5
6265-28
6
15956-2
6240-60
4
16019-3
6264-60
3
15957-9
6240-26
3
16020-1
6264-30
2
15958-7
6239-89
3
16021-1
236
REPORT 1890.
Iodine (Absorption) — continued.
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
length
Character
Frequency
length
Character
Frequency
6239-41
3
16022-3
6219-36
2
16074-0
6239-09
2
16023-1
6219-15
2
16074-5
6238-56
3
16024-5
6218-81
3
16075-4
6238-24
3
16025-3
6218-50
4
16076-2
6237-72*
6
16026-7
6218-21
4
16077-1
6237-28*
2
16027-8
6217-86
3
16077-9
6236-95
4s
16028-6
6217-58
3
16078-6
6236-56
2
16029-6
6217-12*
5
16079-8
623621
4
16030-5
6216-83
2
16080-3
6235-88
4
16031-4
6216-57
4
16081-2
6235-46
4
16032-5
6216-23
2
16082-1
6235-03
4
16033-6
6215-93*
5
16082-9
6234-77
3
16034-2
6215-27
4
16084-6
6234-43
4
16035-1
6214-92
4
16085-5
6234-23
4
16035-6
6214-64
4
16086-2
6233-93
4
16036-4
6214-26*
3
16087-2
6213-83
4
16088-3
6213-40
4
16089-4
Group 6234
-6191
6212-95*
5
16090-6
6212-41
6
16092-0
6233-93
4
16036-4
6212-11
2
16092-7
6233-69
2
16037-0
6211-87
5
16093-4
6233-38
2
16037-8
6211-29*
5
16094-9
6232-58
3
16039-9
6210-86*
4
16095-9
6232-14
3
16041-0
6210-53
2
16096-8
623179
3
16041-9
6210-18*
6
16097-7
6231-41
2
16042-9
6209-64
4
16099-1
6230-81
2
16044-4
6209-40
2
16099-8
6230-51
4
16045-2
6209-17
5s
16100-4
6230-20
4
16046-0
6208-81
3-1
16101-3
6229-68
6
16047-3
6208-55
3 K band
16102-0
6229-31
2
16048-3
620806
4J
16103-2
6228-95
4
16049-2
6207-56
4
16104-5
6228-55
2
16050-2
6207-13*
5
16105-6
6228-24 \
6227-95/
5
16051-0
6206-69
4
16106-8
16051-8
1 6206-16t
5
16108-2
6227-43*
3
16053-1
6205-66
4
16109-5
6226-85
3
16054-6
6205-24
5
16110-5
6226-51
2
16055-5
6204-79*
l\ band
16111-7
6226-21*
2
16056-3
6204-28*
161130
6225-76
3
16057-4
6203-88
4
16114-1
6225-28
2
16058-7
6203-48*
4
16115-1
6224-98
3
16059-5
6203-08
3
16116-2
6224-58*
2
16060-5
6202-88
3
16116-7
6224-31
3
16061-2
6202-59
4
16117-4
6223-94
3
16062-1
6202-21
gj band
16118-4
6223-64
4
16062-9
i 6201-74
16119-6
6223-17 \
4
16064-1
6201-44
4
16120-4
6222-93J
16064-7
6201-03
4
16121-5
6222-73
2
16065-3
6200-28*
4
16123-4
6222-41*
4
16066-1
6199-89
3
16124-4
6222-04
2
16067-0
6199-48
4
16125-5
6221-71
4
16067-9
6199-13
2
16126-4
6221-101
6220-89/
4
16069-5
6198-86
4
16127-1
16070-0
6198-52
2
16128-0
6220-54
4
16070-9
6198-19
4
16128-9
6220-27
8
16071-6
6197-86
3
16129-7
6219-97
3
16072-4
1 6197-57
4
16130-5
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 2S7
Iodine (Absorption) — continued.
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation '
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
length
Character
Frequency |
length
Character
frequency
6197-28\
6196-62/
4
16131-2
6177-94
4
16181-7
16133-0
6177-60\
6176-93/
4
16182-6
6196-32
4
16133-7
16184-4
6196-05
2
16134-4
6176-62
2
16185-2
6195-79
4
16135-1 '
6176-81
3
16186-0
6195-53
3
16135-8
6175-98
2
16186-9
6195-28
3
16136-4
6175-65
4sO
16187-7
6195-Oi
2
16137-1
6175-37
3
16188-5
6191-75
4
16137-8
6175-02
3
16189-4
619-1-57
4
16138-3
6174-67
2
16190-3
6191-26*
4
161391
6174-40
2
16191-0
6103-8i
4
16140-2
6174-09
4
16191-8
6193-46
4
16141-2
6173-60*
5
16193-1
6192-18
4
16143-7
6173 00*
5
16194-7
C192-18
2
16144-5
6172-58
3
16195-8
6191-87
6
16145-3
6172-34
3
16196-4
6191-16
4
16146-4
6172-00
4
16197-3
6191-21
2.
161470
6171-74
4
16198-0
6190-97*
5
16147-7
6171-39
2
16198-9
6171-17
2
16199-5
Group 6191
-6149
6170-60
6170-17»
2
3
16201-0
16202-1
6190-97
5
16147-7
6168-93
3
16205-4
6190-60
2
16148-6
6168-66
3
16206-1
6190-21
3
16149-7
i 6168-36
3
16206-9
6189-79
2
16150-8
6167-94*
4
16208-0
6189-46
4
16151-6
6167-44*
4
16209-3
6188-97
3
16152-9
6167-03
4
16210-4
6188-64
3
16153-7
6166-45
3
16211-9
6188-25
4
16154-8
6166-03*
2
16213-0
6187-86
4
16155-8
6165-63»
3
16214-0
6187-47
3
16156-8
6165-31
4
16214-9
6187-09
3
16157-8
6164-92*
4
16215-9
6186-68
4
16158-9
6164-45*
4
162171
6186-32
3
16159-8
6163-61
4
16219-4
6185-98
3
16160-7
6162-92
3
16221-2
6185-62
2
16161-7
6162-13
4
16223-3
6185-23
4
16162-7
6161-59t
4
16224-7
6184-88
2
16163-7
6160-79
3
16226-8
6184-50
4
16164-6
6160-41
3
16227-8
6184-13
H band
1G165-6
6160-11
3
16228-6
6183-79
16166-4
6159-78
2
16229-4
6183-45
ij band
16167-3
6159-42
3
16230-4
6183-05
16168-4
6159-20
2
16231-0
6182-70
2
16169-3
6158-92
3
16231-7
6182-33
3
16170-3
6158-58
3
16232-6
6181-90
3
16171-2
6158-32
2
16233-3
6181-60
2
16172-2
6158-05
50
16234-0
6181-22
4
16173-2
6157-71
5
16234-9
6180-89
3
16174-0
6157-16*
5
16236-3
6180-59
4s0
16174-8
6156-77
3
16237-4
6180-23
3
16175-7
6156-44
4
16238-2
6179-92
4
16176-6
6156-12
2
16239-1
6179-52
4
16177-6
6155-85
2
16239-8
6179-24
4
16178-3
6155-47
40
16240-8
6178-86
4
16179-3
6155-16
3
16241-6
6178-57
4
16180-1
6154-80
2
16242-G
6178-21
4
161810
615453
4
16243-3
238
REPORT — 1890.
Iodine (Absokption) — continued.
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
Wave-
Intensity and
OscilJation
length
Character
Frequency
length
Character
Frequency
6154-33
3
16243-8
6133-09
2
16300-1
6154-06
3
16244-5
6132-79
3
16300-9
6153-76
5
16245-3
6132-48
2
16301-7
6153-49
5
16246-0
6132-20
3
16302-4
6153-08*
6
16247-1
6131-89
3
16303-3
6152-57
3
16248-4
6131-63
3
16304-0
6152-18
4s
16249-5
6131-35
3
16304-7
6151-44
4
16251-5
6131-05
2
16305-5
6151-01*
5
16252-6
6130-75
2
16306-3
6150-58
6
16253-7
6130-45
2
16307-1
6150-20*
4
16254-7
6130-10
4
16308-0
6149-83
4
16255-7
6129-85
2
16308-7
6149-48
6
16256-6
6129-60
2
16309-4
6149-08
4
16257-T
6129-34
2
16310-0
6129-07
4
16310-8
6128-77
2
16311-6
Group 6149
-6111
6128-52
2
16312-2
6128-21\
6127-98/
4
16313-0
6149-08
4
16257-7
16313-7
6148-75
3
16258-6
6127-65 1
6127-46 r
3
16314-5
6148-10*
4
16260-3
16315-0
6147-61*
3
16261-6
6127-17i
6126-95/
4
16315-8
614719
8
16262-7
16316-4
6146-94
2
16263-4
6126-63
3
16317-3
6146-70
2
16264-0
6126-17*
4
16318-5
6146-46
3
16264-6
6125-74*
3
16319-6
6146-20
2
16265-3
6125-26*
5
16320-9
6145-96
2
16265-9
6124-81*
4
16322-1
6145-65
3
16266-8
6124-3511
3s
16323-3
6145-24
3
16267-9
6123-791]"
16324-8
6144-92*
3
16268-7
6123-42
3s
16325-8
6144-49
3
16269-8
6123-14
3
16326-6
6144-15
3
16270-7
6122-89
3
16327-2
6143-80
2
16271-7
6122-27
3
16328-9
6143-46
4
16272-6
6122-00
3
16329-6
6142-77
4
16274-4
6121-76
3
16330-2
6142-34
3
16275-3
6121-51*
5
16330-9
6141-63
3
16277-4
6121-07*
4
16332-1
6141-30
3
16278-3
6120-73\
1 6120-30/
4 band
16333-0
6140-96
3
16279-2
16334-1
6140-64
3
16280-0
6119-90
4
16335-2
6140-27
3
16281-0
6119-51*
4
16336-2
6139-93
2
16281-9
6119-30
2
16336-8
6139-55
3
16282-9
6119-02
5
16337-5
6139-08
3
16284-2
6118-63
4
16338-6
6138-77
3
16285-0
6118-24*
4
16339-6
6137-53
3
16288-3
611800
3
16340-3
6136-57
3
16290-8
6117-63
3
16341-3
6136-21
3
16291-8
6117-34
3
16342-0
6135-861
4
16292-7
611700
3
16342-9
6135-62/
16293-3
6116 75
2
16343-6
6135-29
3
16294-2
6116-50
40
16344-3
6134-98
3
16295-0
6116-02*
4
16345-6
6134-64
3
16296-0
6115-56
3
16346-5
6134-35
2
16296-7
6115-29*
5
16347-5
6134-00
3
16297-7
6114-93\
6114-40/
4
16348-5
6133-70
3
16298-5
16349-9
6133-33
3
16299-4
6114-00
3
16351-0
ON WAYE-LENQTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 239
Iodine (Absobption) —continued.
Wave-
length
6113-61
6113-311
6112-81/
6112-41
6112-04
6111-67
6111-25*
Intensity and
Character
Oscillation
Frequency-
Group Gil 1-6069
6111-25*
6
6110-85
2
6110-49
4
611013
2
6109-70*
5
6109-30
2
6108-87
6
6108-20*
3
6107-80
2
6107-45
3
6107-08
2
6106-71
4
6106-35
3n
6106-00
3
6105-60
3
6105-20
3
6104-92
3
6104-56
5
6104-25
5
6103-86
4
6102-78
4
6102-12
4
6101-76
3
6101-44
4s
6101-17
2
6101-00
2
6100-72
2
6100-43
1}
6100-10
6099-43
3
6099-02
3
6098-74
3
6098-44
2
6098-08
3
6097-81
2
6097-48
4
6096-86
4©
6096-52
2
6096-24
4
6096-00
4
6095-62
3
6095-35
3
6095-00
4
6094-74
2
6094-43
3
609414
3
6093-81
3
6093-62
3
• band
16352-0
16352-8
16354-1
16355-2
16356-2
16357-2
16358-3
16358-3
16359-4
16360-4
16361-3
16362-5
16363-6
16364-7
16366-5
16367-6
16368-5
16369-5
16370-5
16371-5
16372-4
16373*5
16374-5
16375-3
16376-3
16377-1
16378-1
16381-0
16382-8
16383-8
16384-6
16385-3
16385-8
16386-6
16387-3
16388-2
16390-0
16391-1
16391-9
16392-7
16393-6
16394-4
16395-3
16396-9
16397-8
16398-6
16399-2
16400-3
164010
16401-9
16402-6
16403-5
16404-2
164051
16405-9
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
length
Character
Frequency
6093-13 \
6092-97/
4
16407-0
16407-4
6092-70
2
164081
6092-39
4
16409-0
6092-03
4
16409-9
6091-79
2
16410-6
6091-52
3
16411-3
6091-16
3
16412-3
6090-80
2
16413-2
6090-48
2©
16414-1
609013
3
16415-0
6089-61
3
16416-4
6089-36
2
164171
6089-14
2
16417-7
6088-89
2
16418-4
6088-61
5
16419-1
6088-35
5
16419-8
6087-95*
3
16420-9
6087-44*
5
16422-3
6086-91*
3
16423-7
6086-48*
5
16424-9
6085-93*
3
16426-4
6085-52
6©
16427-5
6085-00
4
16428-9
6084-51
5
16430-2
6084-06
3
16431-4
6083-85
3
16432-0
6083-55*
5
16432-8
6083-16
3
16433-8
6082-64
4
16435-2
6082-39
4
16435-9
6081-70
4
16437-8
6081-33*
g Iband
16438-8
6080-92
16439-9
6080-46
4
16441-2
6080-03
4
16442-3
6079-67
4
16443-3
6079-35
3©
16444-2
6078-87*
5
16445-5
6078-51
3
16446-4
6078-14
3
16447-4
6077-75 \
6077-39/
4 band
16448-5
16449-5
6077-10
4
16450-3
6076-69
4
16461-4
6076-40
4
16452-2
6076-12
3
16452-9
6075-79
4
16453-8
6075-49
4
16454-6
6075-18
4
16455-2
6074-80
3
16456-5
6074-22*
5
16458-1
6073-71
4
16459-4
6073-34
4
16460-4
6073-01
3
16461-3
6072-66*
3
16462-3
6072-27 \.
6071-69/ T
5
16463-3
6
16464-9
240
EEPOET — 1890.
Iodine (Absorption) — continued.
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
length
Character
Frequency
length
Character
Frequency
6071-46
3
16465-5
6052-11
4
16518-2
607108
6 J. band
3j
16466-6
6051-52
6
16519-8
6070-71
16467-6
6050-98
4
16521-3
6070-43
16468-3
6050-48
5
16533-6
6069-95
4
16469-6
6050-29
2
16523-1
6069-67
3
16470-4
6050-00
1}
16533-9
6069-31
5
16471-4
6049-30*
16535-8
6048-93
4
16526-8
Group 6069
-6031
6048-75
4
16537-3
6069-31
5
16471-4
6048-42
3
16528-2
6068-95
3
16473-3
6048-23
3
16538-8
6068-60*
3
16473-3
6047-82*
6
16539-9
6068-19
2
16474-4
6047-33*
4
16531-2
6067-80
3
16475-5
6046-87*
6
16533-5
6067-49
2
16476-3
6046-39*
4
16533-8
6067-11*
3
16477-3
6045-94*
6
16535-0
6066-71
3
16478-4
6045-45*
4
16536-4
6066-31*
4
16479-5
6045-00*
5
16537-6
6065-61
5
16481-4
6044-53*
4
16538-9
6065-28
2
16482-4
6044-13*
5
16540-0
6064-92*
3
16483-3
6043-66*
4
16541-3
6064-56
3
16484-3
6043-25*
5
16542-4
6064-20*
3
16485-2
6042-81
6
16543-6
6063-87
2
16486-1
6042-43
40
16544-6
6063-49
6
16487-2
6042-00
3
16545-8
6063-16
2
16488-1
6041-61
4
16546-9
6062-77*
3
164891
6041-17
3
16548-1
6062-46
43
16490-0
6040-79
4
16549-1
6062-11
4s
16490-9
6040-40
3
16550-2
6061-44
4
16493-7
6040-07
4
16551-1
6061-11
2
16493-6
6039-74
4
16552-0
6060-75
4
16494-6
6039-39
3
16553-0
6060-45
2
16495-4
6039-02
5
16554-0
6060-11
4
16496-4
6038-63
4
16555-1
6059-80
2
16497-2
6038-33
5
16555-9
6059-42
5
16498-2
6038-02
5
16556-7
6059-15
2
16499-0
6037-73
3
16557-5
6058-81
3
16499-9
6037-39
5
16558-4
6058-50
3
16500-7
6036-98
3
16559-6
6058-17
4
16501-6
6036-79
3
16560-1
6057-83
2
16502-6
6036-48
5
16560-9
6057-48
5
16503-5
6036-19
3
16561-7
6057-23
4
16504-2
6035-82*
6
16562-8
6056-85
4
16505-3
6035-36*
3
16564-0
6056-57
2
16506-0
6034-83*
6
16565-5
6056-29
6©
16506-8
6034-45
3
16566-5
6055-95
2
16507-7
6034-13
5
16567-4
6055-62
4
16508-6
6033-89
3
16568-1
6055-38
3
16509-2
6033-61
3
16568-8
6055-05
3
16510-1
6033-40
^jband
16569-4
6054-77
2
16510-9
6033-05
16570-4
6054-41
5
16511-9
6032-87
2
16570-9
6054-21
2
16512-4
6032-57
5
16571-7
6053-89
4
16513-3
6032-34
4
16572-3
6053-61
3
16514-1
6031-921
6 band
16573-5
6053-28
5
16515-0
6031-58/
16574-4
6052-71 \
6052-50J
4
16516-5
6031-33
2
16575-1
16517-1
6030-99
6
16576-0
ON WAVE-LENGTU TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 241
Iodine (Absorption) — continued.
Wave-
Intcnsit}- and
Oscillation
Wave-
Intensity ami
Oscillation
length
Character
Frequency
length
Character
Frequency
16637-9
16639-6
Group 6031
-5992
6008-55
6007-94
Hband
603099
6
16576-0
6007-52
4©
16640-8
6030-60
2
16577-1
6007-04
5
166421
603020*
3
16578-2
6006-58
4
16643-4
6029-47
4
16580-2
6006-14
5
16644-6
6028-68
4
16582-4
6005-74
4
16645-7
6028-00
4
16584-2
6005-28
5
166470
6027-64
2
16585-2
6004-86
4
16648-2
6027-31
40
16586-1
6004-42
5
16649-4
6026-54
4
16588-3
6004-03
4
16650-5
6025-85
3
16590-2
6003-62
5
16651-6
6025-67
2
16590-6
6003-26
40
16652-5
6025-46
2
16591-2
6002-81*
4
16653-8
6025-16
3
16592-0
6002-44
4
16654-9
6024-38*
60
16594-2
6002 06 )
6001-61 \
5
16655-9
6023-78
4
16595-9
16657-2
6023-44
2
16596-8
6001-28
2
16658-1
6023-11
3
16597-7
6000-96
4
16659-0
6022-85
2
16598-4
6000-57
3
16660-1
6022-44
4
16599-5
6000-25
4
16660-9
6021-80
3
16601-3
5999-93
3
16661-8
6021-56
3
166020
5999-61
3
16662-7
6021-12
4s
16603-2
6999-31
4
16663-6
6020-85
2
16603-9
5998-97
3
16664-5
6020-38*
60
16605-2
5998-63
4
16665-4
6019-86
4
16606-7
5998-38
4
166661
6019-62
3
16607-3
5997-77
4
16667-8
6019-28
4
16608-5
5997-47
2
16668-7
6019-00
3
16609-0
5997-23
2
16669-3
6018-62
4
16610-1
599700
4
16669-9
6018-37
8
16610-8
5996-74
3
16670-7
601804
4
16611-7
5996-52
2
16671-3
6017-77
4
16612-4
5996-12*
5
16672-4
6017-34
4b'
16613-6
5995-77
2
16673-4
601 6-59
31
3 J-band
3j
16615-7
5995-40
5
16674-4
6016-28
16616-5
599500
3
16675'o
6015-99
16617-3
5994-65 'J
6
16676-5
6015-70
2
16618-1
5994-42/
16677-1
6015-45
4
16618-8
5993-89
6a
16678-6
60] 5-05 \
6014-83 r
3
166199
5993-03
6
16681-0
16620-5
5992-60
2
16682-2
6014-47 \
6014-20/
4
16621-5
5992-30
4
16683-0
16622-3
6014-04
2
16622-7
6013-48
2
16624-3
Group 5992
-5955
601309
2
16625-3
5992-30
4
166830
6012-56
4
16626-8
699200
2
16683-9
6012-00*
2
16628-4
5991-67
4
16684-8
6011-59
33
16629-5
5990-98
4
16686-7
6011-34
2
16630-2
5990-58
2
16687-8
6010-93
2
16631-3
5990-21
4
166S8-9
6010-69
3
16632-0
5989-87
2
16689-8
6010-50
2
16632-5
5989-50
5
16690-8
6010-28
2
16633-1
5988-80
5
16692-8
6009-88
4
16634-3
5988-12
4
16694-7
6009-40*
3
16635-6
5987-76
2
16695-7
6008-85*
6
166371
5987-42
40
16696-6
1890.
242
KEPORT — 1890.
Iodine (Absorption) —continued.
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
length
Character
Frequency
length
Character
Frequency
5986-73
5
16697-6
5961-14
4
16770-2
6986-01
4
16700-6
5960-92
2
16770-9
5985-70
2
16701-4 1
5960-63
4
16771-7
5985-34*
5
16702-4
5960-33
4
1G772-5
5984-71*
4
16704-2
5959-90
4
16773-7
5984-07
40
16706-0
5959-56
4
16774-7
5983-71
2
16707-0
5959-40
2
16775-1
5983-38
4
16707-9
6959-17
8
16775-8
5982-74*
5
16709-7
5958-80
n
16776-8
5982-08*
4
16711-5
5958-37
5i
16778-0
5981-65 \
4
16712-7
5958-00
4
16779-1
5981-40/
16713-4
5957-63
2
16780-1
598M3
2
16714-2
5957-26
4
16781-2
6980-81
4
16715-1
5956-55*
5
16783-2
5980-24
4
16716-7 1
6956-11
2
16784-4
5979-64*
4
16718-3
5955-78
5s
16785-3
5979-29
2
16719-3
5955-43
4
16786-3
5979-00
4
16720-1
5954-98
4
16787-6
5978-73
2
16720-9
5978-41
5977-87
4
5
16721-8
16723-3
Group 5955
-5917
5977-24
5
16725-1
5954-98
4
16787-6
5976-75*
5
16726-5
5954-32*
4
16789-4
5976-11
5
16728-2
5953-52
30
16791-7
5975-60
6
16729-7
5952-79
3
16793-8
6975-05
5
16731-2
5952-40
2
16794-9
5974-53
5
16732-7
595209
4
16795-7
5974-00
5
16734-2
5951-41
4
16797-7
5973-49
4
16735-6
5950-73
4
16799-6
5973-00*
4
16737-0
5950-07
5
16801-4
5972-46
5
16738-5
5949-36
5
16802-4
5971-95
4
16739-9
5948-83\
5948-62/
6
16804-8
5971-45
5
16741-3
16805-5
6970-97
4
16742-6
5948-14 \
5947-94/
6
16806-9
6970-49
5
16744-0
16807-4
5970-00
4
16745-4
5947-35
4
16809-1
5969-58
5
16746-5
5946-75
4
16810-8
5969-U
4
16747-9
594608
5
16812-7
5968-71
5
16749-0
5945-42
4
16814-6
6968-22
4
16750-4
5946-14
2
16815-4
5967-83
5
16751-5
5944-79
4
16816-4
5967-37
4
16752-7
6944-18
5
16818-1
5966-97
5
16753-9
6943-87
2
16819-0
5966-52
4
16755-1
6943-57
4
16819-8
5966-16
50
16756-1
5943-29
2
16820-6
5965-71
4
16757-4
5942-92
5
16821-6
5965-35
5
16758-4
5942-32
4
16823-3
5964-96
4
16759-5
5942-04
2
16824-1
5964-54
4
16760-7
5941-75
4
168250
5964-17
2
16761-7
5941-21*
5
16826-5
5963-78
4
16762-8
5940-60
4
16828-2
5963-49
3
16763-6
5940-36
2
16828-9
5963-17
3
16764-5
5940-05
4
16829-8
5962-82
4
16765-5
5939-44
5
16831-5
5962-47
3
] 6766-5
5938-89
4
16833-1
696210
5
16767-6
5938-36
5
16834-6
6961 88
5
16768-2
5937-84
3
16836-1
5961-58
3
16769-0
5937-61
3
16836-7
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTKA OF THE ELEMENTS. 24S
Iodine (Absorption) — continued.
Wave-
Intensity and 1
Oscillation
Wave- ;
Intensity and
Oscillation
lengtli i
Character 1
Frequenc-y
lenii-th
Character
Frequency
5937-29
4
16837-6
5917-17
2
16894-9
593(;-79
3
108390
5910-S7
2
16895-7
593G-5'.)
3
16839-(;
5916-50
3
16890-8
5030-23
3
10810-0
5910-13
2
10897-8
5935-72
4
168421
5915-78
3
10898-8
5935-30
3
10843-3
5915-42
3
10899-9
5934-82*
4
16844-0
5915-05
3
16900-9
5934-55
2
16845-4
5914-00
3
10902-2
5934-30
2
168461
5914-30
3
10903-0
5934-07
2
10846-8
5914-04 :
2
10903-8
5933-90
4
16847-2
5913-71
2
16904-Y
5933-35
2
16848-8
5913-30
4
10905-9
5933-00
5
10849-8
5913-11
2
1690(i-5
5932-53
4
16851-0
5912-001
4
10907-9
5932-11
5
10852-3
5912-31 ("
16908-7
5931-45
4
10853-6
5911-95
3
16909-8
5931-24
5
16854-8
5911-70
3
16910-5
5930-80
4
10856-0 1
5911-48
4
10911-1
5930-40*
5
16857-2 1
5911-22
2
16911-9
5929-95
40
16858-5
5910-57 1
5
10913-7
5929-56
5
16859-6 1
5910-32 /
10914-4
5929-12
3
16860-8
5909-89
4
10915-7
5928-72
4
16862-0
59()9-62
2
1691(;-4
5928-35
3
16863-0
6909-31
5
10917-3
5927-90*
4
10864-1
5908-65
4
16919-2
5927-03
2
16865-1
5908-33
2
10920-1
5927-25
4
ii;s(;o-i
5908-03
4
16921-0
5927-00
4
16860-8
5907-42
5
10922-7
592007
3
16867-8
5906-87
4
10924-3
5!)20-27
4
16868-9
5906-22*
5
16926-2
5925-98
3
16869-7
5905-62
5
16927-9
5925-C8
4
16870-6
5905-05
4
16929-6
5925-35
4
16871-5
5904-50*
5
10931-1
5925-03
3
10872-4
5904-02
3
16932-5
, 5924-59*
6
16873-7
5903-97
3
16932-7
5923-98
5
10875-4
5903-45
3
16934-1
5923-67
5
16870-3
5903-24
3
16934-7
5923-40
3
16877-1
59()-'-90
4
16935-5
5923-08
43
16878-0
5902-71
4
16936-3
5922-86
4s
16878-6
5902-44
3
16937-0
5922-53 1
5922-04 /
16879-6
5902-17
3
10937-8
band
16881-0
5901-84
4
16938-8
5921-771
10881-7
5901-56
3
10939-6
5921-24/
7 band
16883-2
5901-31
3
16940-3
5921 -00 \
5920-58/
10883-9
5900-91*
5
16941-4
7 band
16885-1
5900-42
5
10942-8
5920-34
3
16885-8
5899-95
5
16944-2
5920-00
6
16886-8
5899-41
5
16945-7
1 5919-75
6
16887-5
5898-98
5
16947-0
5919-36
7
16888-0
5898-46
5
10948-5
5919-11
7
10889-3
5898-00
5
16949-8
5918-64
5
16890-7
5897-50
5
16951-2
5918-31
5
l(!891-6
5897-05*
5
16952-5
5917-92
6
16892-7
5890-71
2
16953-5
6917-65
5
16893-8
5896-02
2
16955-5
5895-76
2
16956-2
Group 591
1 -5881
5895-50
4
169570
5917-55
5
16893-8
5895-07
4
16958-2
n 2
244
EEPOllT — 1890.
Iodine (Absoeption) — cotUmued,
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
length
Character
Frequency
length
1
Character
Frequency
5894-65
4
16959-4
5875-24
2
17015-4
5894-22
4
16960-6
6874-86
4
17016-5
5893-83
4
16961-8
5874-47
2
17017-6
5893-43
4
16962-9
6874-22
4
17018-3
5893-07
3
16964-0
5873-61
5
170201
5892-77
3
16964-8
5873-28
2
17021-1
5892-40
3
16965-9
5872-94
6
17022-1
5892-08
4
16966-8
5872-39
4
17023-7
5891-72
3
16967-8
6872-02
2
17024-7
5891-35
4
16968-9
6871-74
5
17025-6
5890-97
4
16970-0
5871-35
2
17026-7
5890-15
3
16972-4
6871-16
4
17027-2
5889-86
3
16973-2
5870-57
5
17029-0
5889-54
3
169741
5870-14
4
17030-2
5889-23
3
16975-0
5869-88
4
17031-0
5888-84*
4
16976-1
5869-58
3
17031-8
5888-48
3
16977-2
5869-23
3
17032-9
5888-13
4
16978-2
5868-95
2
17033-7
5887-83
4
16979-0
5868-67
3s
17034-5
5887-57
2
16979-8
6868-38
2
17035-3
5887-28
4s
16980-6
6868-05
4
17036-3
58SG-95
3
16981-6
5867-77
2
17037-1
5886-75
2
16982-2
6867-49
3
17037-9
5886-45
4
16983
5867-23
2
17038-7
5886-13
2
169840
5866-91*
6
17039-6
5885-86
5
16984-7
6866-42
5
170410
5885-60
5
16985-5
5865-93
5
17042-4
5885-35
2
16986-2
5865-36
4
17044-1
5885-00
6
16987-2
5865-04
3
17045-0
5884-74
6
16988-0
5864-81
4
17045-7
5884 10
6
16989-8
5864-32
4,
17047-1
5883-83
2
16990-6
5864-00
2
17048-1
5883-43
4
16991-7
6863-70
3 } band
17048-9
5882-77
5
16993-6
5863-44
2
17049-7
5882-23
3
16995-2
6863-22
4
17050-3
5881-91
4
16996-1
5862-69
4
17051-9
5881-71
2
16996-7
6862-26
4
17053-1
5881-42
2
16997-5
5861-76
4
17054-6
5881-17
5
16998-3
5861-33
5
17055-8
6860-87
i^
17057-2
Group 5881
-5846
6860-54
5860-27
3
3^
17058-1
17058-9
5881-17
5
16998-3
5859-85
ej
17060-1
5880-53
5
17000-1
5859-40
3
17061-4
6880-02
2
17001-6
6859-00
5
17062-6
5879-73*
4
17002-4
6858-60
4
17063-8
5879-09
3
17004-3
6858-28
2
17064-7
5878-75
2
17005-3
5858-08
7
17065-3
5878-54
2
17005-9
5857-63
7
17066-6
5878-18
3
17006-9
5857-30
5
17067-6
5877-68
3
17008-4
6856-91
5
17068-7
5877-48
4
17008-9
5856-49*
6
17069-9
5876-91
3
17010-6
6856-04
4
17071-2
5876-69
3
17011-2
5855-69
43
17072-2
5876-50
3
17011-8
5855-29*
4
17073-4
5876-18*
3
17012-7
5854-90
4
17074-5
6875-84
2
17013-7
5854-55
3
17075-6
5875-54
4
17014-5
6854-11
5
17076-8
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 245
Iodine (Absorption) — cmitimied.
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscill;ition
length
Character
Frequency
length
Character
Frcqusncy
5853-78
3
17077-8
5834-79
2
17133-4
6853-53
4
17078-5
5834-49
4
17134-3
5853-13
4
17079-7
5834-24
4
17135-0
5852-02
3
170803
5833-87
4
17136-3
5852-17
3
17082-5
5833-32*
5
171377
5851-83
4
17083-5
5832-82*
5
17139-2
5851-561
5851-30/
5
17084-3
5832-28
4
17140-8
17085-0
5831-59*
4
17142-8
585100
5
17085-9
5831-11
4s
171442
5850-76
5
17086-6
5830-56
4s
17145-8
5850-51-1
5850-22 ).
5849-93J
17087-3
5830-07
5
17147-3
6
17088-2
5829-52*
5
17148-9
17089-0
5828-97
^}band
17150-5
5849-71
2
17089-7
5828-44
17152-1
5849-37
3
17090-7
5827-93*
5
17153-6
5849-00
2
17091-8
5827-51
4
17154-8
5848-57
7©
170930
5827-05
4
17156-2
5848-27
2
17093-9
5826-70
3
17157-2
5847-981
5 band
17094-7
5826-51
3
17157-7
5847-50 J
17096-1
582613
5
17158-9
5847-08
6
17097-4
5825-90
2
17159-5
5846-54
6
17098-9
5825-67
4
171C0-2
5846-22
6
17099-9
5825-20
5
17161-6
5845-66*
4
17101-5
5824-68
Jl band
17163-1
5824-25
17164-4
5823-83
4
17165-6
Group 5846
-5811
5823-40*
5
17166-9
5845-66*
4
17101-5
5823-00
\\ band
17168-1
5844-90
5
17103-7
5822-63
17169-2
5844-52
2
17104-9
5822-23
3
171701
5844-14
4
171060
5821-83
4
17171-5
5843-79
2
17107-0
5821-46
3
17172-6
5843-50
5s
17107-8
5821-07
4
17173-8
5842-74t
4
17110-1
5820-81
3
17174-5
5842-17
4
17111-7
5820-31
4
17176-0
5841-94
4
17112-4
5819-98
4
17177-0
5841-62
3
17113-4
5819-62
4
171781
5841-35
4s
17114-1
5819-28
4
17179-1
5841-00
3
17115-2
5818-95
3
17180-0
5840-65
4
17116-2
6818-54
4
17181-2
5840-40
2
17116-9
6818-33
2
17181-9
5840-06
5
17117-9
5817-91
4
17183-1
5839-83
4
17118-6
5817-69
4
17183-7
5839-48
5
17119-6
5817-40
4
17184-0
5839-24
4
17120-3
5817-05
4
17185-6
5838-86
4
17121-4
5816-78
3
17186-4
5838-66
5
17122-0
5816-47
3
171874
6838-24
5
171233
5816-23
3
17188-1
5838-00
4
171240
5816-02
3
17188-7
5837-52
4
17125-4
5815-76
3
171895
6837-23
2
17126-2
6815-40
6
17190-5
5836-89
4
17127-2
6815-03
4
17191-6
6836-62
2
17128-0
6814-70*
4
17192-6
6836-29
3
17129-0
6814-24*
4
17193-9
5836-04
3
17129-7
6813-90
5
17194-9
6835-66*
4
17130-7
5813-32
5
17196-7
6835-35
2
17131-8
5813-00
3
17197-6
683504
43
17132-7
5812-66
1 c
17198-6
246
EEPOBT 1890.
Iodine (Absorption) — contimted.
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
length
Character
Frequency
length
Character
Frequency
5812-36
2
17199-5
5793-96*
4
17254-1
5811-91
4
17200-8
5793-47
6
17255-6
5811-65
6
17201-6
5793-00
5
17257-0
5792-52*
4
17258-4
5792-02*
4
17259-9
Group 5811
-5778
5791-58
4
17261-2
5811-65
6
17201-6
5790-65
3
17264-0
5811-33
2
17202-5
! 5790-33
3
17264-9
5811-03
3
17208-5
5789-85
4
17266-4
5810-77
3
17204-2
5789-41
4
17267-7
5810-30
4
17205-6
5789-00
4
17268-9
5809-63
4
17207-6
5788-62*
3
17270-0
5809-24
4
17208-7
5787-78
2
17272-6
5808-89
2
17209-8
5787-44
4
17273-6
6808-51
4
17210-9
5787-17
4
17274-4
5808-26
4
17211-6
5786-78
4
17275-5
5807-92
4
17212-6
5786-44
4
17276-6
5807-66
4
17213-4
5786-03
5
17277-8
5807-32
3
17214-4
5785-71
4
17278-7
5807-05
40
17215-2
5785-36
4
17279-8
5806-69
2
17216-3
1 5785-06
5
17280-7
5806-50
4
17216-9
1 5784-75
3
17281-6
5806-24
3
17217-6
5784-46
3
17282-5
5805-86 \
5805-63/
6©
17218-8
5784-24
3
17283-1
17219-4
5783-85
3
17284-3
5805-27 \
5805-05/
4
17220-5
5783-42
4
17285-6
17221-2
5783-00
3
17286-8
5804-78
2
17222-0
5782-43
4
17288-5
5804-531
5
17222-7
5781-93*
4
17290-0
5804-31/
17223-3
5781-45*
4
17291-5
5803-981
4s
17224-3
5781-02*
3
17292-7
5803-77/
17225-0
5780-65
5
17293-8
5803-42
4
17226-0
5780-42*
4
17294-5
5803-12
4s
17226-9
6780-09
5-
g ^ band
5,
17295-5
5802-72
3
17228-1
5779-79
17296-4
5802-45
3
17228-9
5779-47
17297-4
5802-08 \
5801-88 /
6s
17230-0
5779-18
17298-3
17230-6
5778-87
6
17299-2
5801-47*
3
17231-8
5778-62
6
17299-9
5801-02
3
17233-1
5778-28
6
17300-9
5800-77
3
17233-9
5800-38
5800-11
4
3
17235-0
17235-8
Group 5778
-5746
5799-83
3
17236-7
6778-28
6
17300-9
5799-63
4
17237-3
5777-93
2
17302-0
5799-22
5
17238-5
5777-61*
4
17302-9
5798-69"
5798-45
6
17240-1
5777-21
2
17304-1
17240-8
5776-89*
5
17305-1
5798-141
6
17241-7
5776-54
2
17306-2
5797-93/
17242-3
5776-19
3
17307-2
5797-49*
5
17243-6
5775-85
3
17308-2
5796-97*
5
17245-2
6775-42
4
17309-5
5796-42
3
17246-8
5775-16
2
17310-3
5796-04
3
17247-9
5774-85
2
17311-3
5795-72
3
17248-9
5774-49
5
17312-3
5795-37
^1 band
17249-9
5774-17
2
17313-3
5794-87*
17251-4
5773-80
3
17314-4
5794-41*
4
17252-8
5773-52
2
17315-2 ,
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 247
Iodine (Absorption) — cmitimted.
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
length
Character
Frequency
length
Character
Fretiuenoy
5773-14
3
17316-3
6753-75
5
17374-7
5772-84
2
17317-2
5763-36
^ band
173750
5772-52
4
17318-2
6752-72
17377-8
5772-20
4
17319-0
5752-51
2
17378-4
5771-93
4
17320-0
5752-21
4©
17379-4
5771-63
3
17320-9
5751-87
4
17380-4
5771-24
3
17322-0
5751-49
3
17381-5
5771-02
4
17322-7
5751-11
3
17382-7
5770-67
4
17323-8
5750-68
5
17384-0
5770-34
2
17324-7
5750-33
4
173850
5770-04
2
17325-6
6749-97*
4
17380-1
5769-75
J^}band
17320-5
5749-01
3
17387-2
5769-18
17328-2
5749-20
3
17388-5
5768-85
3
17329-2
5748-86
4
17389-5
5768-59
3
17330-0
5748-53
40
17390-5
5768-25
4s
173310
5748-13
i©
17391-7
5767-90
2
17332-1
5747-75
5
17392-8
5767-63
2
173329
5747-42
5
17393-8
5767-38
4
17333-6
5747-14
2
17394-7
5767-12
4
17334-4
5746-83
6
17395-0
5766-81
2
17335-3
5746-52
2
17396-6
5766-48 \
5766- 30 J
4
17336-3
5746-21
C
17397-5
17336-9
5745-92
6
17398-4
5765-96
4
17337-9
5765-74
5765-47 )
5765-19 J
2
5
17338-6
17339-4
Group 5746
-5715
17340-2
5745-92
6
17398-4
6764-85
3
17341-3
5745-65
2
17399-2
5764-63
4
17341-9
5745-39
2
17400-0
5764-35
2
17342-8
j 5745-04
3
17401-0
5764-08
3
17343-6
5744-66
4
17402-2
5763-68
4
17344-8
5744-41
3
17402-9
5763-07
4s
17346-0
1 5744-02*
3
17404 1
5762-80
3
17347-4
5743-69
3
17405-1
5762-53
3©
17348-2
5743-36
4
17406-1
5762-33
2
17348-8
5743-00
4
17407-2
5762-00
3
17349-8
5742-04
3
17408-3
5761-69
5
17350-8
5742-28 \
'5742-10/
5©
17409-4
5761-18*
5
17352-3
17410
6760-72*
5
17353-7
"6741-75
3
174110
5760-26*
4
17355-1
5741-41
2
17412-0
5759-88
4
17356-2
5741-07
5
17413-1
6759-66
2
17356-9
5740-79
^^
17413-9
5759-41
3
17357-6
5740-43
2 V band
174150
575918
3
17358-3
5740-14
3/
17415-9
5758-90
4
17359-2
5739-78
4
17417-0
5758-57
3
17360-2
5739-55
2
17417-7
5758-28
3
17361-0
5739-18
3
17418-8
5757-96*
3
17362-0
5738-94
2
17419-5
5757-65*
4
17363-2
5738-64
3
17420-5
5757-29
2
17364-0
5738-30
3
17421-5
5766-94
3s
17365-1
573800
2
17422-4
5756-53
3n
17366-3
5737-71
3
17423-3
6755-98»
4
17368-0
5737-33
4
17424-4
5765-51
3
17369-4
5737-09
4
17425-2
5755-09
5} band
17370-7
6736-76
3
17426 2
5754-47
17372-5
5736-45
2
174271
5764-13
4
17373-6
5736-26
4
17427-7
248
REPORT — 1890.
Iodine (Absorption) — contimied.
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
length
Character
Frequency
length
Character
Frequency
5735-88
5735-64
2
3
17428-8
17429-6
Group 6715
-5684
5735-43
3
17430-2
5714-92
6
17492-8
5735-05
4
17431-3
5714-42
3
17494-3
5734-78
4
17432-2
5714-11
4
17495-2
5734-50
2
17433-0
5713-73
3
17496-4
5734-24
2
17433-8
5713-45
3
17497-3
5734-00
2
17434-5
6713-17
3
17498-1
5733-71
2
17435-4
5712-89
3
17499-0
6733-42
3
17436-3
6712-24
6
17501-0
5733-21
3
17436-9
5711-84
2
17502-2
5732-95
3
17437-7
5711-09
4
17504-5
5732-64
2
17438-7
5710-75
3
17505-5
6732-27
3
17439-8
5710-29*
5
17506-9
5731-95
5s O
17440-8
5709-25
4
17510-1
5731-66
5s
17441-6
5708-38*
6
17512-8
5731-40
2
17442-4
5707-92
3
17514-2
5731-13
4
17443-3
5707-33t
5
17516-0
5730-75*
4
17444-4
5706-52
4
17518-5
5730-27*
4
17445-9
5706-17
3
17519-6
5729-92
2
17447-0
5705-85
3
17520-6
•5729-67
3
17447-8
5705-52
3
17521-6
5729-46
2
17448-4
5705-24
2
17522-4
5729-24
2
174490
5704-87
5
17523-6
5728-84*
3
17450-3
5704-57
2
17524-5
6728-44*
5
17451-5
5704-23
2
17525-5
5727-90*
5
17453-1
5703-89
5s
17526-6
5727-46
1}
17454-5
5703-60
2
17527-5
5727-24
17455-1
5703-27
4
17528-5
5726-97
3
174560
6702-79
5
17530-0
5726-70
3
17456-8
5702-57
3
17530-6
5726-25*
5
17458-2
5702-26
=^1
3 > band
17531-6
5725-81*
3
17459-5
5702-04
17532-3
5725-29*
5
17461-1
5701-19
4j
17534-9
5724-64
5-1
17463-1
6700-61*
6
17536-7
5724-30
2
2 > band
17464-1
5700-16
2
175380
5724-10
17464-7
5699-60
5
17639-8
5723-75
5
17465-8
5699-19
2
17541-0
6723-17*
4
17467-4
5698-97
2
17541-7
5722-77
4
17468-8
5698-70
60
17542-5
5722-37
1} b-'^-i
17470-0
5698-28*
2
17543-8
5721-91
17471-4
5697-84
6s
17545-2
5721-47
3
17472-7
5697-33*
2
17546-7
5721-09*
4
17473-9
5696-92*
4
17548-0
5720-60*
6
17475-4
6696-43
4
17549-5
5719-96
6
17477-3
5696-07*
5
17550-6
67]9-40\
5
17479-1
5695-61
4
17552-0
5718-98J
17480-3
5695-26*
5
17553-1
5718-56
5
17481-7
5694-82
3
17554-5
5718-18
60
17482-8
6694-57
3
17555-3
6717-76
6n
17484-1
5694-29
3
17556-1
5717-46
4n
17485-0
5694-00
4® (band
17557-0
5717-04
5
17486-3
5693-59
17558-3
6716-67
3
17487-4
6693-05t
6
17560-0
5716-31*
5
17488-5
5692-53
3
17561-6
6715-85
4
17489-9
6692-21
5
17562-6
6716-46*
6
17491-1
5691-50
B
17564-7
6714-92*
6
17492-8
5691-14
2
17565-0
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 24{>
Iodine (ABSOB.vnos)— continued.
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
I Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
length
Character
Frequency
length
Character
Frequency
5690-81
5s O
17566-9
5665-02
5
17646-9
5690-51
3
17567-8
5664-74
3
17647-7
5690-09*
5
175691
5664-38
5
17648-8
5689-67
3
17570-4
5063-94
3
17650-2
5689-20*
5
17571-8
5663-61
3
17651-2
5688-88
2
17572-8
5663-38
5
17651-9
5688-09
3
17575-3
5662-58
3
17654-4
5687-85
3
17576-0
5662-22
3s
17655-6
5687-58
3
17576-8
5661-89
4s
17656-6
5687-12*
5
17578-3
5661-54
3
17657-7
5686-41*
4
17580-5
6661-16\
5660-91/
5
17658-8
5686-02
4
17581-7
17659-6
5685-63
5
17582-9
5660-66
2
17660-4
5685-09t
6
17584-5
5660-38
4
17601-3
5684-54
6s
17586-2
5660-04
3
17662-3
5659-76
4
17663-2
Group 5684
-5655
5659-46
5658-98
2
60
17664-2
17665-7
5684-54
6
17586-2
5658-17*
5
17668-2
5684-25
3
17587-1
5657-82
2
17669-3
5683-76
4
17588-7
5657-48
4
17670-3
5683-08*
6
17590-8
5656-71
4
17672-8
5682-35
4
175930
5656-42
3
17673-7
5681-80
4
17594 7
5656-10
5
17674-7
5681-18*
3
17596-6
5655-05
4
17678-0
6680-52
5
17598-7
5054-71
4
17679-0
5680-10
3
17600-0
5679-78
5679-39\
5679-16/
4
50
17601-0
17602-2
Group 5655
-5626
17602-9
5654-71
4
17679-0
5678-59
6n
17604-7
5654-14
4
17680-8
5678-02
5
17606-4
5653-77
2
176820
5677-62
3
17607-7
5653-43
5
176830
5677-30
3
17608-7
5653-15
2
17683-9
5676-82*
6
17610-2
5652-74
5
17685-2
5676-22
3
17612-0
6652-15
5
176870
5675-77*
5
17613-4
5651-79
2
17688-1
5675-04*
4
17615-7
5651-41*
4
17689-3
5674-58
3
17617-1
5650-86
40
17691-1
5674-00
4
17618-9
5650-35*
5
17692-7
6678-57
8
17620-2
5649-94
2
17693-9
5673-23
3s
17621-3
5649-61*
6s
176950
5672-96
3s
17622-1
5649-02
5
17696-8
5672-42
5s
17623-8
5648-44
5
17698-6
5671-95
3
17625-3
5648-15
3
17699-5
6671-43
5s
17626-9
5647-68*
7
17701-0
5670-44
4
17630-0
! 5647-21
3s
17702-5
5669-87
4
17631-7
1 5646-72
6
17704-0
5669-45*
5
176330
5646-43
2
17704-9
5069-00
4s
17634-4
5046-14
6-|
17705-8
5608-47
4n
176361
5645-82
3 y band
17706-9
5668-11
4s
17637-2
6645-50
4j
17707-9
6667-61
4
17638-8
5645-01
5
17709-4
6667-22
4
17640-0
5644-77
2
17710-1
5066-63*
5
17641-8
5644-49
3
17711-0
5666-34
8
17642-7
5644-14
3
17712-1
6665-90
5
17644-1 1
5643-83
3
177131
5665-50
3
17645-3 1
5643-63
2
17713-7
250
REPORT 1890.
Iodine (Absoeption) — contimied.
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
length
Character
Frequency
length
Character
Frequency
5643-41
4
17714-4
6622-56
2
17780-1
5642-90
5s
177160
6622-23
4
17781-1
5642-40
5s
17717-6
6621-94
3
17782-1
5642-15
2
17718-4
5621-68
3
17782-9
6641-91
4
17719-1
6621-36
4
17783-9
5641-33
2
17720-9
5621-00
3
177850
5640-90
6
17722-3
6620-591
7
17786-3
5640-48
4
17723-6
5620-33/
17787-2
5640-00
6
17725-1
5619-84
5
17788-7
5639-53
2
17726-6
5619-59
2
17789-5
5639-15
6
17727-8
5619-32*
41
17790-4
5638-64
g| band
17729-4
5618-76*
4 I
17792-1
5638-23
17730-7
5618-38
4
17793-3
5637-79
2
17732-1
5618-17
2j
17794-0
5637 36*
6©
17733-4
5617-811
5617-54/
5
17795-1
5636-87
4
17735-0
17796-0
5636-51
4
177361
5617-36
2
17796-6
5636-19
4 - band
4]
17737-1
561706
5
17797-5
5635-97
17737-8
5616-50
6
17799-3
5635-71
17738-6
6616-20
2
17800-2
5635-35
3
17739-7
5615-05*
5©
17803-9
5634-94
3
17741-0
6614-53
6
17805-5
5634-66
4
17741-9
5614-04
4
17807-1
5634-29
. j- band
17743-1
5613-77
4
17807-9
5633-62
17745-2
5613-50
4
17808-8
5633-26
2
17746-3
6613-23
4
17809-7
5632-95
5
17747-3
6613-03
4
178103
5632-63
4
17748-3
5612-79
4
17811-1
5632-24 "(
5
17749-5
6612-58
5
17811-7
5632-00/
17750-3
5612-11
4
17813-2
6631-70*
5
17751-2
6611-91
4
17813-8
6631-39
5
17752-2
5611-64
3
17814-7
5631-11
5
17753-1
5611-28
5
17816-8
5630-63*
5
17754-6
5610-81
5
17817-3
6630-34
2
17755-5
5610-41
3
17818-6
5630-04
4
17756-5
5610-19
4
17819-3
5629-82
2
17757-2
5609-93
4
17820-1
5629-64
4
17757-7
5609-57
4
17821-3
5629-31
5
17758-8
5609-07*
5
17822-9
5628-901 \
5628-35tJ
6
17760-1
5608-74
3
17823-9
17761-8
5608-36
5
17825-1
5627-97
6
177630
6607-94
5
17826-4
5627-59
2
17764-2
5607-67
4
17827-3
5627-19
6
17765-5
5607-35*
5
17828-3
5626-50*
6
17767-6
5606-82
5
17830-0
5606-56
4
17830-8
Group 5626
-5599
6606-21
6605-75*
4
5
17832-0
17833-4
5626-50
6
17767-6
5605-50
3
17834-2
5626-00
4
17769-2
5605-20
4
17835-2
5625-67
2
17770-3
6604-93
4
178360
5625-30
4
17771-4
5604-65
4
17836-9
5624-95
3
17772-5
6604-31
4
17838-0
5624-18
5
177750
5604-00
4
17839-0
5623-84
2
17776-0
5603-79
5
17839-6
5623-50
5
17777-1
6603-47
2
17840-7
5623-15
3
17778-2
5602-98
6
17842-2
5622-85
3
17779-2
5602-73
4
17843-0
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTEA OF THE ELEMENTS. 261
lODiNK (^ABSO'RVTio'iS)— continued.
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
length
Character
Frequency
length
Character
Frequency
5602-44
4
17843-9 1
5584-18
3
17902-3
5602-24
5
17844-6
5583-84
4
17903-4
5602-06
2
17845-2
5583-59
2
17904-2
5601-81
6
17846-0
5583-36
3
17904-9
5601-30
3
17847-6
5583-16
2
17905-6
5600-95 \
5600-72/
5600-37*
17848-7
5582-91
2
17906-4
5
17849-4
5582-64
5
17907-2
4
17850-5
5582-06
4
17909-1
5599-97
4s
17851-8
5581-81
4
17909-9
5599-61*
4
17853-0
5581-42
4
17911-2
5599-14
6
17854-5
5581-07
5
17912-3
5580-90
5
17912-8
Group 5599
-5587
5580-60
2
17913-8
■\^ jr
5580-30
4s
17914-8
5599-14
G
17854-5
5579-64
5
17916-9
5598-37
5
17856-9
5579-21
5
17918-3
5597-94
3
17858-3
5578-59
3
17920-2
5597-61*
5
17859-3
5578-29
5
17921-2
5597-14
4
17860-8
5578-01
5
17922-1
5596-79
4
17862-0
5577-63 \
5577-42/
5577-12
17923-3
5596-40
3
17863-2
6
17924-0
6596-05
5
17864-3
4
17925-0
5595-71
3
17865-4
6576-79
2
17926-0
5595-34
5594-98
4
4
17866-6
17867-7
5576-29
6576-03
2
4
17927-6
17928-5
5594-32
2
17869-9
5575-80
2
17929-2
5594-00
5
17870-9
5575-58
4
17929-9
5593-70
2
17871-8
6575'35
2
17930-7
5593-40
4
17872-8
657504
5
17931-7
5593-12
4
17873-7
5574-60
4
17933-1
5592-82
4
17874-6
5574-11
6
17934-6
5592-29
5
17876-3
5573-64
4
17936-2
5592-00
2
17877-3
5573-41
5
17936-9
5591-75
5s
17878-0
5572-71
6
179391
5591-51
2
17878-8
5572-28
4
17940-5
5591-23
4
17879-7
5571-87
4
17941-9
5591-04
6
17880-3
5571-44
4
17943-2
5590-82
2
17881-0
5571-01
4
17944-6
5590-56
2
17881-9
5570-61
4
17945-9
5590-03
5
17883-5
5570-21
4
17947-2
5589-57
4
17885-0
5569-82*
5
17948-5
5589-26
4
17886-0
5569-46
5
17949-6
5588-98
6©
17886-9
5569-06
4
17950-9
5588-49
8
17888-5
5568-74
4
17951-9
5588-19
4
17889-4
5568-32
4
17953-3
5587-91
4
17890-4
5567-97
5
17954-4
5587-56
5
16891-5
6567-66
50
17955-4
5567-27
4
17956-7
Group 5587
-5560
6566-93
2
17957-8
5587-56
6
17891-5
5566-57
4
17958-9
5586-55
3
17894-7
6566-29
3
17959-8
5586-31
4
17895-5
5565-69
4
17961-8
558602
4
17896-4
6565-38
3
17962-8
5585-64
5
17897-6
5565-10
5
17963-7
5585-35
2
17898-6
5564-81
4
17964-6
558510
i 6
17899-4
5564-521
5564-29/
5
17965-5
G584-74
1 2
17900-5
! 17966-3
5584-45
i 4
17801-4
5563 75
5
I 17968-0
252
REPORT 1890.
Iodine (Absohption)— c«ii?/««e<f.
Wave-
IntenEity and
Oscillation
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
length
Charactei-
Frequency
length
Character
Frequency
5563-50
4
17968-8
5544-33
t}
18031-0
5563-30
3
17969-5
5543-92
18032-3
5563-06 "1
6©
17970-3
554314
5
18034-8
5562-85 J
179709
5542-72
3
18036-2
5562-61
2
17971-7
5542-37
6
18037-4
5562-33*
5s
17972-6
5542-00
2
18038-6
5561-92
3
17973-9
5541-61
2
18039-8
5561-58
4x
17975-0
5541-29
4
18040-9
5561-20
2
17976-3
5540-91
6
18042-1
6560-96
4
17977-0
5540-54
3
18043-3
6560-70
2
17977-9
5540-22
4s
18044-3
5560-41
6-
17978-7
5539-90
3
18045-4
5500-25
6
17979-3
5539-57
5
18046-5
6559-95
5
17980-3
5539-27
4
18047-4
5559-57
4/
17981-5
5538-96
5
18048-4
5538-65
4
18049-5
Group 5560
-5533
6538-39
5538-07
3
4s
18050-3
18051-3
5559-57
4
17981-5
5537-79
3
180523
5559-03
5
17983-3
5537-55
3
18053-0
6558-61
3
17984-6
5537-26
3
18054-0
5558-34
5
17985-5
5537-01
3
18054-8
5557-77
4
17987-4
5536-80
5
18055-5
5557-17*
6
17989-3
5536-59
5
18056-2
5556-87
2
17990-3
5536-34
2
18057-0
5o56-54
4
17991-3
553609
5
18057-8
5556-04*
5
17992-9
5535-69
2
18059-1
5555-72
2
17994-0
5535-41 )
5535-15 \
5©
18060-0
5555-05
2
17996-2
18060-9
5554-82
4
17996-9
5534-79*
4>
180620
5554-57
4
17997-7
5534-33
2
18063-5
5554-22
4©
17998-8
5533-93
4
18064-9
5553-89 \
5553-61 /
3
17999-9
5533-68
2
h
18065-7
6
18000-8
5533-37
6
18066-7
5553-07t
4
18002-6
5533-20 \
5532-85/
4
18007-2
5552-60
5
18004-1
18008-4
6552-28
2
18005-2
6551-98
5551-72
5
2
18006-1
18007-0
Group 5533
-6507
6551-45
4
18007-9
5532-85
4
13068-4
6551-22
2
18008-6
5532-40
4
18069-8
6550-91
5
18009-6
5532-10
3
18070-8
5550-36
5
18011-4
5531-75
g\ band
18072-0
6550-11
2
18012-2
5531-10
18074-1
6549-83
4
18013-1
5530-56
5
18075-9
6549-40
6
18014-5
5530-22
4
18077-0
6548-98
5} ^^^^
18015-9
5529-88
5
18078-1
5548-36
18017-9
5529-39
5
18079-7
5547-92
5
18019-3
5529-23
2
18080-2
5547-68
2
18020-1
5528-37
2
18083-0
5547-41
4s
- band
18021-0
5528-14
4
18083-8
6546-96
6
18022-4
5527-58*
6
18085-6
6546-50
5
'
18023-9
5526-97*
5
18087-6
5546-07
4
18025-3
5526-64
2
18088-7
5545-57
6
18026-9
5526-38*
6
18089-5
5545-35
2
18027-7
6525-98
4
18090-8
5546-11
3
18028-4
5525-38\
B
18092-8
6544-76
5
18029-6
5525-18/
18093-5
ON ■WAVE-LEKGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 253
Iodine (Absotlptio^)— continued.
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
Wave-
Intensity and
Oscillation
length
Character
Frequency
length
Character
Frequency
5524-86
5524-57
3
2
18094-5
18095-4
Group 5507
-5482
5524-28
5
18096-4
5506-84
4
18153-7
552402
2
18097-2
5506-49
4
18154-9
5523-75
5
18098-1
1 5506-28
5
18155-6
5523-49
2
18099-0
5505-70
5
18157-5
5523-22
5
18099-9
5505-19
6
18159-2
5522-96
2
18100-7
5504-95
6
18160-0
5522-25
e} b^'^'i
18103-0
5504-51
3 \ band
5j
18161-4
5521-79*
18104-6
5504-26
18162-2
5521-34
6
18106-0
5503-86
18163-6
552108
2
18106-9
5503-42
2 K band
181650
5520-81
3
18107-8
5503-00
18166-4
5520-33*
6
18109-3
550272*
4]
18167-3
5519-86
4
18110-9
5502-43
2
18168-3
5519-46
5
18112-2
5502-13*
3
18169-3
5519-00
4
18113-7
5501-66
3
18170-8
5518-62
5
18114-9
5501-44
3
18171-5
5518-37
2
18115-8
6501-22
3
18172-3
5518-14
^^1 band
18116-5
5501-06
3
18172-8
5517-73
18117-9
5500-78
3
18173-7
5517-30*
4
18119-3
5500-43*
6
18174-9
5516-93
4
18120-5
5499-94*
4
18176-5
6616-55
5a
18121-8
6499-68
2
18177-3
551615
4
18123-1
5499-40*
3
18178-3
5515-81*
5
18124-2
5499-14
2
18179-1
5515-44
4
18125-4
5498-80
4
18180-3
5515-03
4
18126-8
6498-32
7
18181-8
5514-35*
4
181290
5497-81*
7
18183-5
551401
3
181301
5497-51t\
5497-15t/
6
18184-5
6513-67
8
18131-2
18185-7
5513-35
4
18132-3
5496-88
2
18186-6
551308
3
18133-2
5496-67
3
18187-3
6512-76
4©
18134-2
5496-36
6
18188-3
5512-45
30
18135-2
5495-88
4
18189-9
5512-12
3
18136-3
6495-60
2
18190-8
6511-86
2
18137-2
5495-34*
4
18191-7
6511-61
3} ''^^
1 
TVNews
OpenLibrary